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CHAMBERS’S
ENCYCLOPADIA
A DICTIONARY
OF
UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE
NEW EDITION
‘VOL VII
MALTEBRUN To PEARY
|
;
WILLIAM & ROBERT CHAMBERS, LIMITED
LONDON AND EDINBURGH
J. B, LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA
1902
All Rights reserved
The following Articles in this Volume, originally Copyrighted in 1891, as now revised
are Copyrighted by J. B. Liprrncorr Company, in 1897 and 1900, in the United
States of America:
MARYLAND.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Micniaan,
MINNESOTA.
Misstssipri-Missovrr Rrver.
Mississtrrr (State),
Missovrt (State).
MonrTana.
Mormons.
NRURASKA. 4
Neanors. **
\
_ Nevapa.
New Hampsuire.
New Jersey.
New Mexico.
New Orveans.
New York Crry,
New York (State).
Norra Caro.ina.
Onto,
OKLAHOMA.
OREGON,
Copyright as above epecified, 1897, by J. B. Liprtxcorr Company,
Copyright a» above specified, 1900, by J. B. Lrpprycorr Company.
a y
2 ————
Among the more important articles in this Volume are the following:
Ma.ruus; MaRx........ Toomas Kirxup.
MamMMALs; MAN......... J. ARTHUR THOMSON.
. Rev. T. E. Brown.
MANURBE.................... JouN Hunter, F.C.8.
MakLowE; MarsTon.. A. H. BuLLEN.
MARBIAGE............0-... D. MaCLENNAN,
.. Water WHYTE.
. Professor M. A. Nuwm,
. Horace G, WaDtry,
Rey. M. W. Wywxe.
Professor P. G. Tarr.
. Rev. Joun SuTHERLAND BLack.
. THomas HuGues.
« Dr Lpnvie.
«- Srancey Lane-Pooe.
.. JAMES Paton,
.. Dr J. P. Sreere.
Sir Joun Morray.
J. F. Hooax, M.P.
. H. Warrengap.
. Rev. Jonny 8. Brack.
Dr Bucnan.
«. Rev, T. T. LAMBERT,
. W. Dunpas WALKER.
. CHaRtes WHIBLEY.
.. Dr Rosert Brown.
.. THomas W. Top.
. Professor Sor.ey.
Joun M. Gray.
. Ropert Cocurane.
. Ricnarp Garyett, LL.D.
Epwarp B, Povutton.
MINIATURE PAINTING...
MINING; ORE-DEPOSITS Bennett H. Brovon.
Mmaseav; Musser... ¥
MISSIONS ..scsscsssnessce
Mississipi (State).....
Rev. Prof. Tuomas Surrn, D.D.
J. R, Preston.
Professor J. P. LAMBERTON.
. IMG
James MacDownacp, LL.D.
. Emu. Devrscu and Rey. Joun MILne,
. W. Ramsay Sairu.
Professor SAINTSBURY.
Professor A. H. Krave,
woopD.
MONEY.................02-. Professor J. 8. Nicnoxsoy.
MonrTaicne; Mork..... P. Humz Brows, LL.D.
MONTESQUIEU............. Professor Hastie.
MonTREAL; Orrawa.. Martin J. Grim,
MonTrose, "Marquis of, F. Huspes Groome,
Moon; Mereors........ Rev. E. B. Kirk.
Rey. WentwortH WEBSTER.
.. Sir Epwarp Grey, Bart., M.P.
. F. D. Ricuarps, Historiographer.
.. Dr Rosertr Brown.
. Professor 0. G. Kyorr.
MortLey .. F. H. Unperwoop, LL.D.
Moontarns. .. Professor James Grrkre.
Music; Mozakv......... Franks Peterson.
Mysteries.. .. Rev. 8. Baninc-Goutp.
' MyrHo.oeyv............... F. B. Jevons.
Canon Isaac TAYLOR.
.. Lieut.-Colonel Cuayton, R.A.
. F. F. Roger.
. E, P. MarHers.
.. Professor J. 8. NicHoLson.
. Captain Garserr, R.N.
Dr D. G. Brryton.
Professor J. K. LAvGHTON,
Dr ALEXANDER BRUCE.
W. W. Tomutnson.
NEWFOUNDLAND......... J. G. Coumer, C.M.G.
Professor A. H. KEANE.
Ricnarp Horr Huron.
Norman WALKER, Times Democrat.
.. JAMES BonwiIck.
JAMES BURNLEY.
-- Professor Frank B. GREENE.
. D, Perris and J. Histor, LL.D.
.. Prince Perer KRoporKinE.
«» Dr Leonarp Dossin.
NITRO-GLYCERINE....... E. G. Carey.
NorFoik ; Norwich... J. C. Groome.
Nort Canouixa Brrr Professor N. B. WEBSTER.
+ J.T. BEALBY.
... Professor Haycrarr.
.. J. G. Cotmer, C.M.G.
. Joun OrmsBy.
Dr B. V. Heap, British Museum,
Lucy J. Giesoy.
« J. M, Irvine.
Dr R. Mitye Murray.
O'CONNELL; PARNELL.: THomas Davipson.
.. Professor Ruys.
A. A. GRAHAM.
P. L. Suumonps.
FRANKLIN PETERSON.
-. Dr AtrrRep DaNIELL.
Grand-Chaplain G. R. BapENocH,
QMORAMD, 2, siiseccsccuees R. D. BLackmore.
OrperS, KNIGHTLY..... J. R. Parrman.
ORDNANCE SURVEY..... Captain 8. C. N. Grant, R.E.
J. F. RowBoTHam.
. Rey. A. P. Davipson.
Professor D. MacKinnon.
Dr J. P. STEELE,
OXFORD .. A. CLarK.
PAciric. + Sir Jonn Murray.
PAINTING P. G. Hamerrton,
PALHOGRAPHY +» Canon Isaac Taytor.
PALZONTOLOGY + Professor JAMES GEIKIE.
PALESTINE Sir Watrer Besant and Prof. Hutt
PALMISTRY . Ametia HutcHison StrR.ine,
PANAMA......... .. WoLFreD NELson, M.D.
PARAFFIN ; NaPuTua. Wi.1aM Love.
PAaRAuar.... . A F. Battie, Consul-general,
PARASITES ; PASTEUR... J. AnTHuR THomson,
Paris... sseeeeeeseese GEORGE BARCLAY.
PARLIAMENT... ..s0s 00 Tuomas RALEIGH. \
Parsons, FATHER....... T. G. Law.
PABOAL.........006 «. THomas Davipson.
PATENTS............00...... A, W. RENTON.
Patrick, St Professor @. T. Stokes, D.D,
Pav, St . Dean Farrar.
Preach; PEAR R. D. Biackmore.
PEARL.....4..-0000 000 a daoe Epwin W. Srreerer.
The Publishers beg to tender their thanks, for revising or correcting articles in this Volume, to the
Eart oF SovurHesk ;
Miter; the Head-master of MARLBOROUGH COLLEGE;
the Very Rev. the Dean or NorwicH; the President of MAyNooTH; Professor Max-
E; the town-clerks of
2; Mr Jonn Murray,
the Registrar of OWENS
a
tte a pe
CHAMBERS'’S
ENCYCLOPAEDIA
A DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE
a
ieee saltebrun, Konrap (properly
"ea MALTHE CONRAD RUUN),
geographer, born 12th August
: 775, at Thisted, in Jutland,
\ studied in Copenhagen, but was
ra pS re banished in 1800 because of his
iS eg ae 4 having openly shown his sym-
Ch Le thy with the French Revo-
: ution. He sought refuge in
Paris, where he supported himself by teaching
aud literary labours. With Mentelle and Herbin
he compiled a Géographie Mathématique du Monde
(16 vols. 1803-7); and in 1808 he an Annales
des Voyages, de la Géographie, et de U Histoire (24
vols.), in 1818 Nouvelles Annales. His principal
work is a Précis de la Géographie Universelle (8
vols. 1810-29; latest ed, 6 vols. 1872). He also
contributed to the Dictionnaire de la Géographie
Universelle (8 vols. 1821), and took an active part
in founding the Geographical Society of Paris.
He died 14th December 1826.—His son, Vicror
ADOLPHE MALTEBRUN (1816-89), was professor
of History and Geography at the college of Pamiers |
and moe arragd at Paris (1848-60); and from
1860 onwards he was secretary of the Geographical
Society of Paris. He was the author of numerous
Forgraphical works, as La France Illustré (new ed.
87: ), LT’ Allen ne Illustré (1884-86), Histoire
Géographique et Historique de U Allemagne (1866-
68), &e.
Maltese Cross. See Cross.
Maltese Dog, a small kind of spaniel, with
roundish muzzle, and long, silky, generally white
hair. It is fit only for a lapdog.
Malthus, Tuomas Ropert, the expounder of
the theory o| pulation, was born 17th February
1766, at the kery, near Dorking, in Surrey,
where his father owned a small estate. He was
ninth wrangler at Cambridge in 1788, was elected
Fellow of is college (Jesus), took orders, and
Was appointed to a parish in his native county.
In 1798 = brought out his Essay on the Principle
Sf amt
of Population, which attracted great attention
and met with no little criticism. During the
following years Malthus extended his ,knowledge
of the subject both by travel and by reading, and
in 1803 published a greatly enlarged edition of
his essay. In 1804 he married happily, and next
year was appointed professor of Political Economy
and Modern History in the East India Company's
college at Haileybury, a post which he occupied
till his death at Bath on 2d December 1834.
Personally Malthus was a kindly and accom-
plished man, who followed what he believed to be
the truth, and who endured without a complaint
the abuse and misunderstanding to which his
writings exposed him. The aim of the Essay was
to supply a reasoned corrective to the theories
regarding the perfectibility of society, which had
been diffused by Rousseau and his school, and
| which had been advocated in England by Godwin.
Malthus maintained that such optimistic hopes
| are rendered baseless by the natural tendency of
|g rere to increase faster than the means of
su
ysistence. He —— out that both in the
animal and vegetable kingdoms life was so prolific
that if allowed free room to multiply it would fill
millions of worlds in the course of a few thousand
years. The only limit to its increase is the want
of room and food. With regard to man, the
question is complicated by the fact that the instinct
of propagation is controlled by reason ; but even in
his case the ultimate check to population is the
want of food, only it seldom operates directly, but
takes a variety of forms in accordance with the
complexity of human society. The more im-
mediate checks are either preventive or positive.
The former appear as moral restraint or vice. The
positive chess are exceedingly various, including
‘all unwholesome occupations, severe labour and
exposure to the seasons, extreme poverty, bad
nursing of children, large towns, excesses of all
kinds, the whole train of common diseases and
epidemics, w: plague, and famine.’ Malthus
goes 0} ~ Seetion, of his principle by
oc —
>.
fe ,
— Sia:
.
» of emeenter. and 120 WNW. of Lond
ce the Malvern Hill
_ =
3 MALTON
MAMELUKES
a review of the history of the different nations and
showing what are the actual checks that
have limited lation —celibacy, wars, infanticide,
plagues, oe my joes—and pro that the
popalation difficulty has affected the development
of society from the ning e
It cannot be said althus was original in
his exposition of the tly of population. It is a
theme of both Plato and Aristotle. Shortly before
the time of Malthus the problem had been handled
jamin Franklin, Hume, and
and modern industrial development has only for a
time ros the population difficulty for the
world at large, while its pressure is still felt in the
more thickly peopled centres both of Earope and of
the East. At the present time the most interest-
ing feature of Malthus is his relation to Darwin.
Darwin saw ‘on reading Malthus On Population
oo — a the Nag ee ep “
Increase 0! organic beings,’ for suc
rap Increre necessarily leads to the struggle for
e . To prevent a should
be added that Malthas gives no sanction to the
theories and eurrently known as Malthasi-
In this reference Malthus approved only
of the ; << et chest gel ‘do not
ou have a fair prospect of supporting a
family.’ Benides his Buey oa, the Principle of
~ : i —o eae pte are bays
” iry into the Nature a rogress of Rent
and Principles of Political Economy. See Memoir
Dr Otter, of Chichester (prefixed to 2d
» 1836, af the Principles of Political Economy) ;
also Bonar's Malthus and hia Work (1885).
Malton, « town in the North and East Ridings
of Yorkshire, on the Derwent, 22 miles NE. of
York. It consista of New Malton, Norton, and
Old Malton. The Derventio probably of the
Romans, it has the Norman church of a Gilbertine
& Norman castle, Iron and brass
founding, tanning, brewing, &e. are carried on;
and Norton ix famous for its training stables. Till
1808 Malton returned two members, and then till
1885 one. Pop, (1881) 8754; (1891) 4910.
Malvacem, a natural order of exogenous plants,
of which about 1000 «pecies are known, chiefly
tropical and most abundant in America, although
the most important species belong to the Old
World. They are oe so = - :
voagey AY ad and a free grammar-school, founded |
1 ly Archbishop Hol ; but no trace)
remains
demaleent in medicine. The seeds contain a con-
siderable quantity of bland fixed oil. The inner
hark of stem often yields a useful fibre, for
which os Of Hibisens and Sida are partien-
larly valued ; and to this order belong the cotton
in—See Corrox, Hinscus, foray uoox,
ALLOW, MAnsi-MALLOW, &c.
Malvern, Great. one of the most fashionable
in England, i« sitnated 9 miles
ion, on
the foot
of the Worcestershire Beacon, from the summit of
which (1444 feet above the sea-level) extensive
views are obtained. It is irregularly ont, and
has ‘a fine cruciform church, with a square em-
battled tower 124 feet if rg from the centre.
rebuilt in the reign of IL, and restored
in 1860-1, In the centre of the town are large
Assembly Rooms (1884) with winter promenade and
jens, and on the outskirts is Malvern College, a
loteome building in the pg of the early
Decorated j, erected in 1 : the present
number of boys is nearly 250, and there are several
entrance scholarships, tenable during residence, of
from £87 to £30 a year, and a leaving scholarship
of £50 for three years, tenable at Oxford or
Cambridge. Madame Goldschmidt (Jenny Lind)
resided near Malvern for many years previous to
her death. Pop. (1801) 819; (1881) ; (1891)
6107. See woods Magazine for August 1884,
Malwa, a former kingdom of India. See
CENTRAL INDIA.
+» Mamelukes, properly MAMLOKs, an Arabic
word signifying white slaves captured in war or
purchased in the market, and especially applied to
the slave-kings in Egypt. These had their o:
in the importation of a | number of Turkish
slaves, from the regions of the Caucasus and Asia
Minor, by Es-Salih gh apts of Saladin,
and sultan of Egypt, in the middle of the 13th
century. They were intended to act as a bodyguard
and to defend their master against his numer-
ous rivals as well as against the Crusaders, and
they fulfilled their duty well, as is shown by the
success of their Ise of the French invasion and
the capture of St Louis in 1249. In the absence of
successors to Es-Silih, his Mamelukes set.
up one of their own number as sultan of Egypt in
1250, and from that year to the Ottoman conquest.
in 1517 that country and Syria were ruled exelu-
sively ie agen se sultans. They were forty-ei
in number, often retaining the throne but a few
—_ or even months, in consequence of the
ntrigues of rival emirs; and they fell into two
dynasties, the Bahri or Turkish Mamelukes (1250-
1390) and the Burji or Circassian (1390-1517).
The sultan was chosen out of the military oligarchy,
and owed his throne to personal prowess and the
support of the biggest battalions, rarely to heredi-
tary title, The Mamelukes did not readily propa-
te their race in a foreign country, and fresh
importations were eer to keep up the stock.
As a rule the most powerful lord of the day became
king, and kept his oeng bee so long as he retained
= a Violent = were om the
sultan's guard was the most essential part.
of the conatitation, and held a large portion of
the land of Egypt on a species of fendal tenure.
Each of the great lords was a Mameluke sultan in
miniature, kept a bodyguar|, lived in much state,
and was generally prepared to fight his way to the
throne should occasion favour the attempt. The
streeta of Cairo were frequently the scenes. of
sanguinary conflicts, and its citadel is full of the
memories of treacherous assassinations. With all
their excesses, however, it may be doubted whether
Egypt ever since the days of the Pharaohs pos-
sessed a more swe pee series of rulers than the
Mamelukes. Their system of law and police, their
military organisation and naval enterprise, their
postal service, their irrigation-works and engineerin,
operations were far in advance of their time ; and,
rough soldiers as they appear, they were munificent
»vtrons of art and literature. Nearly all the exquis-
te — that still adorn Cairo, essentially the
Mameluke city, are of their building, educational
institutions met with their unfailing su and
they carried their taste for refinement into the
~
Se ee,
MAMERS
MAMMALS 3
smallest details of house furniture and decoration.
The museums of Europe and Cairo are full of their
delicate inlaid and engraved brass-work, wood
carvings, ivory reliefs, enamelled glass, tiles and
stone a eae work, mosaic pavements, and
silk embroideries. Their court ceremonies were
with the pomp of heraldry and armour
ud dazzling robes; their luxury at home was
stupendous. Turks as a rule, they had _ tastes
beyond the ken of the Ottoman Turks who dis-
possessed them in 1517, and Egypt has not yet
recovered from their loss. After the Turkish
conquest the government was placed in the hands
of an pasha assisted by a council ; whilst
twenty-four Mameluke beys were allowed to admin-
ister the provinces. The beys retained most of the
wer, however, and the pasha became a cipher.
eir last brilliant achievements were on the
occasion of Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt in 1798,
when they fought the disastrous battle of the
Pyramids airo ; but after the retirement of
the French and British armies Egypt became a prey
to disorder, rival Mamelukes a and intri i
and order was not restored until Mohammed Ali
| established his authority as pasha under the
' Porte, and by two treacherous massacres, in 1805
and 1811, exterminated the Mameluke princes, save
a small remnant who took refuge in the Sfidan,
whére their medieval armour was recently seen by
}
}
the British forces employed against the di.
See Weil, Geschichte der Khalifen; tremére,
Makrizi’s Histoire des Sultans Mandouks ; 8. e-Poole,
Art of the Saracens in
- luke or Slave Dynasty (
ers, a town in the French dep. of Sarthe,
on the Dive, 43 miles NNE. of Le Mans. Pop. 6288.
della Rovere, Count TERENZIO,
took a ager jf so in
the accession of Gregory
XVIL., and was compelled to flee to Paris, whence he
to Rome in 1848 after the unconditional
amnesty of Pius LX., and actually held office for
three months in the papal ministry. He next with-
og Re aia bag he og a Gioberti,
society for “| ian unity. On
the flight of Pius LX. from cine to Gaeta he
Sk bn the political a = was for a —
oreign minister in the revolutionary cabinet
of Galetti. On the fall of Rome he retired to
Genoa ; in 1856 he was returned member of the
Sardinian parliament, and in 1860 entered Cavour’s
ministry as minister of Instruction. He was
inted ambassador to Greece in 1861, to Swit-
zer’ in 1865, and died at Rome, 21st May 1885.
Among his writings are Del Rinnovamento della
; antica Italiana (1836), Poeti dell? Eta media
, ( Del Papato (1851), Confessioni d'un Metafisico
ar Teorica della Relisione e dello Stato (1868),
Relivione dell’ Avenir (1879), besides books on
! social and phi ical probl and treati
ous subjects. See his Life by Gaspari (1887).
Mammals (Mammalia, Lat. mamma, ‘a teat’)
form what is usually considered the highest class
of backboned animals, including numerous orders, of
which horse, elephant, and whale, dog, beaver, and
bat, an ent = man himsel — differ-
ent wa nt illustrative types. mpared
with birds, mammals are most Bel dhatscter-
aay? Sir W. Muir, The Mame-
special
on vari-
ised by the r development of their brains,
and by the ¢ connection between mother and
offspring; but in both these respects there are
of excellence. Thus, the Monotremes (see
; RHYNCHUS, and EcHIDNA) have simple
brains and lay CRS the Marsnpials (q.v.) have
also lagged behind in cerebral development and
| bring their young precocionsly after a short
gestation; while in the higher orders there are
Many steps in the perfecting of brains and wits,
and in the evolution of the organic connection
between the unborn young and the mother. The
habitats are also very varied, for though the great
majority are terrestriul—burrowers, runners, leapers,
and climbers, a thoroughly aguatic habit is exhib-
ited by the cetaceans, the sea-cows, the seals and
walruses, and many genera here and there, while
the bats have the power of true flight, and many
swooping forms, such as the flying opossums,
squirrels, and lemurs are more or less aérial (see
FLYING ANIMALS). Similarly as regards food
there is great variety, for fruit and insects, fish
and herbs, roots and flesh, are all utilised, and the
diversity of diet is associated with marked differ-
ences in Dentition (q.v.). About 2300 living
pig have been recorded, varying in size from
the smallest harvest-mouse, which is scarcely the
weight of a halfpenny, to the giant whales, which
approach 100 feet in ies h.
General Characters.—It will be useful to refer to
the article Brrp, where the three highest classes
of vertebrates are contrasted ; but a more detailed
summary is now necessary. Female mammals
always nourish their young for some time after
birth with the milk produced by the mammary
glands. Except in the oviparous Monotremes, the
young are born viviparously ; and in all mammals
above Marsupials the embryo in the womb is
organically connected with the mother by means
of a Placenta (q.v.). The skin always bears at
least some hairs, and these usually cover the
whole body, so that most mammals may be justly
called furred quadrupeds. ‘In body-temperature,
which is some index to the pitch of the life,
mammals, though inferior to birds, are emphatically
warm-blooded; and in this connection we may
notice that a complete muscular partition (midriff
or diaphragm ) separates the breast from the abdom-
inal cavity. The lungs lie freely and are invested
by (pleural) sacs; the heart is four-chambered and
gives off a single aortic arch to the /eft side (to the
right in birds); the red blood-corpuscles are non-
nucleated when fully formed. e parts of the
adult brain show a greater curvature than in lower
forms, while the cerebral hemispheres predominate,
become more and more convoluted, and are united
Yd an important bridge called the corpus callosum.
xcept in Monotremes, the rectal and the urino-
genital apertures are separate ; and, with the same
| exception, the ova are small and poor in yolk, and
undergo total segmentation. The skeletal charac-
teristics are necessarily more technical, but it is
important to notice that the skull moves not on
one condyle as in birds and reptiles, but on two as
in amphibians ; the lower jaw is a single bone on .
each side, and articulates not with the quadrate as
in Sauropsida but with the squamosal ; a chain of
three ear-ossicles (malleus, ineus, and stapes, prob-
ably equivalent to the articular, quadrate, and
pe or hyo-mandibular of lower forms) con-
nects the drum with the internal ear; the teeth,
rarely quite absent, are set in distinct sockets ; the
vertebree of the neck are (with three exceptions)
seven in number; the coracoid bone (except in
Monotremes ) is a mere process of the scapula ; and
so on. As the various systems are dealt with in
special articles (see BRAIN, CIRCULATION, Harr,
KULL, &c.), it seems unnecessary to expand the
above summary.
The Sub-classes of Mammals.—Tn 1816 De Blain-
ville divided mammals into three sub-classes, which
snbsequent investigation has firmly established.
The two orders of Monotremes (duckmole and
Echidna) and of Marsupials (kangaroo, opossum,
&e.) he raised to the rank of sub-classes under
the titles ee (lit. ‘ bird-wombed ’) and
Didelphia (lit. ‘double-wombed’), in contrast to all
the other mammals, which he termed Monodelphia.
ft
rs)
&
|
i
i
.
=
i
:
Me
it
:
HEEES
it
(
i
3
ih
i
i
te
FE
raf
fe
g
if
A
Scrotum, ff ps
a slight cloaca. Ureters . usually one
scro-| lies behind the penis.
dactyle forms—horse, tapir,
Proboscideans or elephants, (c) the unique
Hyrax, and (d) the Even-toed or Artiodaetyle
—sheep cattle, chevrotains, cam }
potamus, and pigs. But with the Ungulates
are many reasons for connecting two other or
the CeTacea (9)—whales and dolphin:
RODENTIA (10)—rats, hares, squirrels, &c. Fit
along a third branch, which probably had its
in a stock common to the Ungulates on t }
hand, to the Carnivores and Insectivores on the
other, we have to place the LEMUROIDEA (11)
lemurs—and the PRIMATES (12), the latter in
ing the marmosets, the New-World monkey
Old- World monkeys, and man himself,
Extinct Mammals,—(a) The oldest mam
remains date from the Upper Trias—i,
.| near the ning of the Mesozoic or Se
system. 18, ents of a small ani
known as Dromatherinm anggest a primitive
oO
une J ancestral to the notremes.
orders along three definite lines, One of these is | rewarded the unwearying researches of
especially marked by the Canxtvona (5)—cate, | Marsh. (d) In the beginnin ertiary
and seale—to which the INseCTIVORA | period, however, most of the modern orders of mam- .
(6 moles, shrews —are tly | mals have put in an appearance, and,asone would
these in turn lead to the divergent expect, there are remains of many types which
TF
(7) or bate, and to an aberrant | form the common base of branch ni ’
genus—the flying lewur or Galeopithecus, for | divergent. Thus, the Orecdonta (cs Hynowien :
; an
—
MAMMALS 5
and Proviverra) are primitive Carnivora, which
show skeletal affinities with Marsupials and Insec-
tivores. Not = a pmaees _ the
Condylarthra e.g. Phe us and Periptychus),
rimitive Ungulates showing affinities Wh Asti.
les and Perissodactyles, with Hyracoidea and
ese the Creodonta) with Carnivores, and
( ig to Cope) even with the Lemurs. In the
same way the paleontologists find transitions
between Insectivorous, Lemuroid, and Creodont
en Perissodactyles and Proboscidea
( ta and aro ), between Rodents
and Ungulates (Mesotherium and Toxodon). So,
too, a common base has been found for dogs and
bears, for pigs and sheep, for deer and chevrotains ;
but it is enough for our purpose to emphasise the
fact, which rapidly progressive research continually
corroborates, that in early Tertiary times there
persisted numerous generalised mammals which
= many of the e risties of our extant
ers. ,
Distribution in —Referring to the article
on GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION for the general
results reached by the labours of Murray, Wallace,
Sclater, and others, we shall content ourselves with
a few illustrations showing the importance of the
inquiry in aol tomammals. Perhaps the most
striking of tl concerns the great insular region
of Australasia, where, with the exception of some
bats and marine mammals which transcend the usual
limits, of some rats and mice, and of forms intro-
duced man, the whole mammalian fauna con-
sists of pials and Monotremes. As all extant
Marsupials, with the exception of the American
opossums, are now Aust! ian, and as fossil
remains of the sub-class are found as far away
as we have here one of the most remark-
vont ep of grad ry Sorenoggt omy of A saving
resu geologi or, whatever the
precise details may be, there seems no doubt that
geological insulation saved the Marsupial immi-
grants to Australia from the jaws of their pursuers.
In the Lemuroid group, again, we find ‘one of
the most r phenomena in geographical dis-
tribution.’ For out of a total of fifty species
thirty are contined to the one island of Mada-
guncar, the remainder occurring through tropical
and in restricted portions of India and the
Malay Islands—facts from which it is fairly con-
eluded that in the insulated Madagascar ‘the
lowly ip greeny Lemuroids diverged into specialised
forms of their own peculiar type, while on the
continents they have to a great extent become
» or have maintained their existence
in « few cases in islands or in mountain-ranges.’
The Edentata (sloths and ant-eaters) have also
@ very restricted distribution in modern times, for,
with the exception of the scaly ant-eaters or Manide
(Ethiopian and oriental in range) and the African
aardvark, the home of the order is in South
America, where, moreover, in Pliocene times there
flourished a giant race ‘rivalling in bulk the
rhinoceros and 2 gig ome
Just as naturally as terrestrial mammals are
absent from Oceanic islands, so the aquatic
Cetaceans have a world-wide distribution, and
the Sirenians almost as wide as required conditions
of temperature will admit. But it must be clearly
noted that when we follow in detail the distribu-
tion even of bats, whose great powers of flight free
them from the limitations im on terrestrial
mammals, we find that the inhabitants of special
regions are usually marked off with perfect de-
finiteness, The same local definiteness holds true
of the world-wide (Australia always excepted )
distribution of Ungulates, Rodents, and Carni-
vores, and is signally illustrated, for instance, in
the complete absence of Insectivora from South
America alone, or in the striking differences
between Old and New World monkeys.
Development.—The ova, which are small and
poor in yolk except in Monotremes, burst from the
ovaries into the upper ends of the oviducts, may be
fertilised by ascending spermatozoa, and with the
above exception develop in the lower portion of the
female duct known as the uterus. In the ovi-
ote Monotremes the entation is partial,
ike that of birds and reptiles; in all the others
the segments completely. The development
roceeds in a fashion somewhat different in detail
m that of the other vertebrates, but it is more
important to notice that in the Placentals a close
vascular connection is speedily established between
the embryo and the wall of the uterus. In the
hedgehog, which is a remarkably central type, this
connection is first of all maintained neg RY) by the
outermost layer of the developing egg; but this is
soon abetted by a union between the yolk-sac and
the maternal wall, which in turn gives place to
the true a mainly due to the Allantois
(q.v.). The final result is an interlocking of the
maternal tissue with that of the foetal membranes,
and the whole life of the embryo depends on the
intimacy of this interlocking, by which the blood
of the mother is vitally though not directly united
with that of the offspring. At birth the union is
severed, and the embryonic part of the placenta,
with more or less of the associated lining of the
uterus, is discharged. The form and structure of
the placenta vary considerably in different orders,
and have furnished important aid in determining
relationship. Of mammals as of other animals it
is true that the individual development recapitu-
lates, in general outline, the history of the race,
for the life begins at the beginning again in a
single cell, divides into a ball of cells, acquires a
layered body, and passes from stage to stage pre-
senting successively the general features of a verte
brate, of a reptilian (?), of a simple mammal, of
an insectivore, and finally of a young hedgehog. °
Nursing remains somewhat crude in the oviparous
Monotremes, which are destitute of teats, but the
embryos have a considerable store of yolk which
serves as preliminary capital. The eggs of the
duckmole are laid in a nest, those of the Echidna
seem to be borne in a temporary pouch suggesting
that of Marsupials. In both cases the young lic
the bare patch of skin on which the mammary
lands open. The non-placental Marsupials are,
in a sense, as Professor Flower says, ‘the most
mammalian of mammals,’ since most of them car
their prematurely-born young in an external pouch
surrounding the teats, whence the milk is forced into
their passive mouths. In the placental mammals
the young are born in a more advanced state,
though still requiring much care. They are able
MAMMALS
i
E
E iT
ie
io Es
tiled
rebeeiie
PEE
etl
:
E
UEP
i ‘la
a
|
if
general truth in
mammals not so much new acquisitions as
reconstructions and elaborations of what ix old,
important mammary glands
ta is chiefly
all young
calloeum, which forms a bridge
cerebral pe net is already repre-
and amphibians. So, too, there is
evidence of the very gradual evolution of
are and structures—witness the long
* ta the E Eohi a five-
three. toed magelate, about the size of a
the modern wae (9,¥-1 see also Foor);
of brains from the small casts
skulls of some of the early giants
ard to
i?
Fit
:
i
F
FE
te
rj
is
FF
HH
ai
fF
E
F
- | Mars
, dak of Antlers (q.¥.)
- | distribution, in eliminat-
of | tion of mammals has to
| to euch t as are exhibited by Monotreme
pial, and from these upwards to
in man; or the ual
Miocene times on-
wards, a history aerey
recapitulated in the life Recewr,
of modern stags. But Equus.
| after realising the gradual
development of types and
structures, and appreciat-
ing the influence of natural
selection in determining
PLIocENE,
| Pliohippus.
in iants, in fostering
sw ig and —_—
and in justifying _ bi
brains, many naturalists
still find the problem of
the evolution of mammals
incompletely solved. It
seems b to follow M
the school “3 a Be
recognising the inheritable
effects of yr and effort,
and the influence of a
changeful environment on
the progressive growth ‘of
the organism in definite
directions. Furthermore,
an account of the evolu-
re
take account of one of
the most prominent char-
acteristics, the —
sacrifice expressed in the
placental union, in the
prolonged gestation (em- Fig. 2.—Fore and Hind Feet
hasi many years ago of the Hose and its ex-
“= Robert Chambers), and _ tinct Ancestors.
in the lacteal nutrition
after birth, a sacrifice which must have been one
of the most important factors in the progress of
mammals, After a while the encanndalaal mater-
nity toutes pathological at first and always
v
: x
fof
SSS SS SS oS OS SOE
~ or justified itself ;
mut its
ition as
‘a subordination of xelf-
preserving to species-
maintaining, of nutritive
struggle to reprodnetive
sacrifice,’ is a necessary
corrective to the preva-
lent theory which tends
to emphasise too exclu-
sively the competitive
struggle for ividual
ex
Intelligence and
General Life.—Through
| the mammalian series,
from the * frog-witted
duckmole to the highest
of the Primates, there is
“a gradual increase in
complexity of brains
and quickness of wits,
i Bmcaciger 9 A aed
ntelligence of the dog,
the cleverness the
rage Rb ory
the ingenuity the social beavers, and the
‘humanness’ of the higher apes are crowning illus-
trations which become all the more remarkable
when we recall the minute brains of early mammals.
A contrast between those types which excel and
those which lag behind will also illustrate Spencer's
: i {
Se on a tt
a
MAMMARY GLAND
MAMMOTH CAVE i
conclusion that the rate of reproduction varies
inversely with the de; of individuation, for in
the more highly-developed forms the number of
pam em | tends to diminish, while the parental
care love proportionally increase. The adapta-
tions to diverse habits and diets, the varying length
of life and the means of avoiding death, the migra-
tions of some and the hibernations of others, the
struggle for mates as well as for food, the evolution
of family-life and even of social. sympathies are
subjects of inquiry which will well repay observa-
tion and further study of mammals.
.._ For general works on mammals, see British Museum
Quadrupeds (2d ed.
)
Lond. 1874); Vi and Specht, Mammals (trans.
Edin. 1887); 's Nat. Hist., vols. i.-iii., ed. by P.
Martin Duncan; The Riverside or Standard Natural
History, vol. v., ed. by J. 8. Kingsley (Lond. and New
York, 1888). The last mentioned has a general biblio-
graphy. A treasury both of information and illustra-
tion is to be found in Brehm’s Thierleben (new ed.
H
Hatchett Ji and Flower’s Osteology of the Mam-
madlia (3d ed., along with Gadow, Lond. 1885). For his-
tory and evolution of mammals, see W. K. Parker, Mam-
malian Descent ( Lond. 1884); O. Schmidt, Mammalia in
relation to Primeval Times ( Inter. Sc. Series, Lond. 1885) ;
the rs of Cope and Marsh in the Re of the U.S.
Geol. Survey; Nicholson and Lydekker, Manual of
Paleontology ( Edin. 1889); the relevant works of Dar-
win, Wallace, Haeckel, &c.; Huxley, Proc. Zool. Soc.
(Lond. 1880); Cope’s Origin of the Fittest (New York,
1887). For distribution, see A. Murray, Geogr. Dist. of
Mammals ( Lond. 1866); A. RK. Wallace, Geogr. Dist. of
is) (Lond. 1876); Heilprin (Inter. Se. Series, Lond.
Mammary Glands. See Breasts.
Mammee Apple (Mammea americana), a
highly-esteemed fruit of the West Indies (where it
is sometimes called the Wild Apricot) and tropical
America, It is produced by a beautiful tree of the
natural order Guttifers, to 70 feet high. The
fruit is roundish, from the size of a hen’s to
that of a small melon, with a thick, leathery rind,
a very delicate inner rind adhering closely to
the pulp, which must be carefully removed on
account of its bitter taste. The pulp is firm and
bright yellow, with a peculiar sweet and very agree-
able taste, and a pleasant aromatic odour.—A
similar fruit is produced by Mammea africana, an
African species.
Mammoth, thename (originally Tartar, through
the Russian ) for an extinct elephant ( Zlephas primi-
genius), whose remains are sufficiently common in
the recent deposits of northern Europe and Asia
to afford a valuable supply of fossil ivory. In geo-
logical time, it is only as it were yesterday that the
mammoth ceased to live, for its remains are often
found along with those of man, and it seems to have
Sega in Britain until after the Glacial Period.
he cave-dwellers made use of its tusks, and on
these too the historic artists—the literal old
masters—eut with no tyro hand the outlines of
reindeer and various animals, including the mam-
moth itself. But the comparatively recent decease
of this monster elephant has been repeatedly evi-
denced in a startling way by the discovery in
Siberia of almost intact specimens, standing up-
right in the ice and frozen soil, with hair and skin,
muscles and vi as well as bones, all well
preserved. The first fairly complete mammoth
recorded was disinterred from the ice near the
mouth of the Lena in 1806; the fisherman who
discovered it had overcome his awe to the extent
of cutting off the tusks, wild animals had gnawed
the muscles, but the hair was still on the uninjured
parts of the skin, the brain in the skull, and the
eyes still stared from their sockets. Others have
since been disinterred, or washed out in great
thaws, notably one in 1846 which was so marvel-
lously preserved that the stomach still showed
young shoots of fir and pine, and a quantity of
chewed cones. Great numbers that we know
nothing of must have been similarly thawed out,
and their frozen coi swept seaward to swell
the accumulations of their remains found in the
Arctic seas. Their disinterment after thaws ex-
plains the old Siberian opinion that the mammoths
were monster burrowers, which died when they
came to the surface, while the upright position in
which the intact forms have been found suggests
that they had been smothered where they were
buried by sinking heavily into the tundra marsh.
Though mammoths in complete preservation are
rare, their tusks, teeth, and other bones have been
found in great abundance from almost every county
in England to Behring Strait, and thence into
North America.
‘The whole appearance of the animal,’ one of
the discoverers writes, ‘was fearfully wild and
strange. Our elephant is an awkward animal, but
compared with this mammoth it is as an Arabian
8 to a coarse ugly dray-horse.’ It stood 13
feet high, 15 feet in length, with tusks 8 feet long ;
but some other specimens seem to have been
larger. The dark skin was covered with yellowish
to reddish soft wool about an inch long, with inter-
spersed brownish hairs of 4 inches, and much sparser
and longer black bristles. ‘The giant was thus
well protected against the cold.’ The mammoth
was liker the Indian than the African survivor, but
it is only one of a crowd of fossil Proboscidea dis-
tributed in Tertiary deposits over all the great
continents. Mammoth, Mastodon, and Dinothe-
rium are the three most prominent types. Most
of them were giant animals, but there seem also to
have been pigmies no larger than sheep, Once
numerous and widespread, the elephants are now
represented only by the two modern species of
restricted distribution. To this result many factors,
such as, the voracity of Carnivores, the deforesting
of countries, the changes of climate, and the expen-
siveness of great bulk, have contributed. he
ivory exported in large quantities from Siberia is in
great part collected from the islands, some of which
are almost literally heaps of mammoth bones.
See ELEPHANT; also, for facts, not inferences, H. H.
Howorth’s Mammoth and the Flood (1887); Norden-
skiéld’s Voyage of the Vega; Boyd Dawkins, in Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. XX XV. (1879).
Mammoth Caye, in Kentucky, is 85 miles by
rail SSW. of Louisville. The cave is about 10
miles long ; but it is said to require upwards of 150
miles of travelling to explore its mu)titudinous
— 1 ~~ — 7a a
— —
MAN
ate ey covered oe contina-
incrustation of tuost beau orystals ;
stalactites and stalagmites abound. There are
several lakes or rivers connected with Green River
with the river, hays es
slowly, so that are ge mpassable
fae re the year. ‘the nat
is Echo River, three-fourths of a mile Jong, and in
some places 200 feet wide. The air of the cave is
pare; the temperature is constant at about 54°.
There is an elaborate work on The Mammoth Cave of
Kentucky by H. C. Howey and R. BE. Call (1897); for
= woo works cited at Cave; A. S. Packard,
itente of the Mammoth Cave (1872); and a
memoir on “The Cave Fauna of North America’ (1588).
As the races of mankind, the structure
and of the human body, and the higher
activities most distinctive of man are discussed in |
articles, it is enough here to restrict atten-
to three problema; (1) the human charac-
teristics, (3) the origin or descent of man, and (3)
the antiquity of the race.
(1) istice,-Considered like any other
» man ie strictly the highest of the
from the anthropoid only
in degree. In adult life he is anique in his erect
ee ee of his hands from any
share in His body is unusuall
canine
neighbours, his thumle are larger and more oppos-
able than those of monkeys, and his feet are dis-
tinguished by the horizontal sole which resta flatly
on the ground, by the projecting heel, and by the
great toe which normally lies quite
to the others. His face is notably more
vertical bre that of apes, lying below rather than
the
the orbits, and the ridges above them are relatively
ler; the nose-bones project more beyond the
upper jaw; and the chin ix more prominent than
in other Primgtes, A — _ Lag yon
characteristic, however, is involved in the fact that
normal brain of an adult man is more than
f
twiee as heavy as that of the nearest monkeys,
for this structural advance ix an index to that
intellectual and emotional development which
talses even the _. many degrees above the
brute, and which in ite highest realisation is still |
fall of Therefore, while all naturalists
allow, with Professor Owen, that there is ‘an all-
t that in intelligence, emotions,
conduct man is pre-eminent.
Bat, apart from these zoological considerations,
d in on yr son to eo seelalls Brita, results
to haman ( om ¥ British) charac-
eee dete from the Report (1890) of the
Ant Committee of the British Associa-
tion, mm, the average height of man is 5 ft.
St in., the Polynesians leading the way with an
nna 1d 5 ft, 9°33 in., the English professional
tla: following with 5 ft. 9°14 in., and #0 on, down
Fpcheang <3 similitude of structure’ between the
man body and that of the anthropoid apes, there
ie equal
con
© the Baslinen, who average 4 ft. 478 in. | As to |
the adalt population of Hritain, in height the
Sevteh stand first (68%) in,), the Irish second
is in,), the Englieh third (67-26 in.), and the
leh leet (00°06 in), the avernye being 67°66 in,
The Seoteh are also first in weight (165-3 Ih.), the
Welsh second (1585 Ib.) the Bngliah third (155
Irish fourth (154°1 1b.), the average being
a typical adult Englishman |
5 ft. 7h in, a chest girth of 4161 in, a
rE
ele 20 eeu 18 1b., and is able to draw, as
in drw a bow, a weight of 774 lb. As to the
sexes (in ), the average male stature and
weight is 67°36 in. and 155 Ib., as against 62°65 in.
and 122°8 1b. for the women. Moreover, the men are
about twice as strong. For further results, many
of which are of profound practical suggestiveness,
the rt should be consulted.
(2) Origin or Descent of Man.—Even when we
confine our attention to the opinions of those who
accept the theory of evolution as a modal explana-
tion of nature, we are in fairness bound to
some diversity of opinion in regard to the origin of
man. (a) So unique does he appear to some that
his descent from a humbler organism seems in-
credible—a position in favour of which some arga-
ments will be found in the cited works of A. de
Quatref; (4) Alfred Russel Wallace and others.
‘reject the idea of ‘special creation” for man, as
being entirely nnsupported by facts, as well as in
the highest degree improbable,’ yet believe that.
his progress from the brute was due to introduction
of new causes, or ‘spiritual influxes,’ to which the
higher human characteristics owe their origin.
(ec) The majority of naturalists deem this h
thesis of special spiritual inflax inconsistent with
the continuity of evolution, which they regard as
a ‘natural’ process, self-sufficient throughout, for
the origin of man as for other grand results,
The ments which go to show that man is
descended from a simpler animal are, of cou
the same as those which substantiate the gene
theory. Thus, his structure and functions are not
demonstrably different in kind from those of the
nearest Primates; he develops from a fertilised
egg-cell, and passes through successively higher
grades of organisation in a manner which seems.
only interpretable as the recapitulation of ancestral
history ; he varies as other animals do, is subject to.
similar diseases, and exhibits numerous reversions
and rudimentary structures which are enigmas,
except on the theory that he had his origin from
an ape-like stock. How his evolution was brought
about is a problem requiring much elucidation, but
among the special factors which conduced to evolve
his higher characteristics of wisdom and gentleness
it seems reasonable to attach much importance to
the necessity for cunning in the struggle with
longed weakness of ay to the influences of
| family life and of the indispensable combination
| into larger aggregates. As to the future, if we dis-
1 minor changes—e.g. in hair and teeth, for
which fashion and ‘civilisation’ are responsible—
it seems almost certain, as Herbert Spencer has
emphasised, that the progressive evolution of man
must be restricted to intellectual and emotional
qualities,
(3) Antiquity of the Race.—From the human
remains, and far more frequently from the play
| tools, and other vestiges of human activity, fou
in the more recent deposits on the earth’s surface,
it is obviously legitimate, after due caution, to
infer the presence of man at. the time—certalnl
system—when these beds were formed. Cuvier
and others tried, indeed, to avoid this conelusion—
for instance, by exaggerating the power of floods
in mixing up recent deposits; while Boncher de
Perthes, who in 1836 discovered flint axes alon
with mammoth bones in undisturbed strata 20-30
feet below the surface, had to wait almost twenty
years for a fair hearing, and yet longer for decisive
corroboration, Both were gained, however, and
| the conversion of naturalists may be dated from
1863, when Lyell summarised the existing evidence
in his Antiquity of Man. Since then the problem
has been worked at with ever-increasing energy
stronger mammals, to the consequences of the pro-
not estimable in the years of any chronological !
. and
that man was alive during the
|
|
|
|
|
:
MAN 9
and there is now ee agreement
ter stages of the
glacial while there are indications of his
presence in e and, according to a few, even
in Miocene ages (see GEOLOGY).
Older, er, than any indications of his
Pliocene presence man must surely be, for zoolo-
refer his origin not to any of the existing
apes, as is sometimes popularly sup-
to the common stock which included
and his, and which had apparently
to diverge in Upper Miocene times. In a
way, our impression of the antiquity of
increased when we remember that the most
t human remains, such as the Neanderthal
1, do not take us appreciably nearer any low
of man as the ancestral forms presum-
exhibited. Moreover, the oldest distinct im-
ts and artistic products suggest not the
of beginners, but the work of men
behind whom there already lay a long history.
See ANTHROPOID ApEs, STONE AGE, Bronze AGE, IRON
3
|
4
4
3S
Acs, Earrs, Fur Imp STOCENE, SKELE-
TON, SKULL; the articles on the various continents,
coun and races ; also the following articles :
Adam. Creation. Longevity.
‘Animal Evolution. No
Anthro; Family. Philology.
Folklore. Religion.
Art. Government. Sex.
Biology. fe. Totem.
(1881); Haeckel,
trans. 1879), Hartmann, Anthropoid of oo (Inter.
Humaines (1887); J. Ranke, Der Mensch (1886);
T ‘ments ahoneghy con) ie Générale (1885);
A. R. Wallace, Darwinism ys Wiedersheim,
Man, Ise orf, is situated in the Irish Sea, 16
miles 8. of Burrow Head in Wigtownshire, 27 miles
SW. of St Bees Head, and 27 E. of Strangford
The length of the island is 33} miles,
124 miles, and area 145,325 acres (227
), of which nearly 100,000 are cultivated,
south-western extremity is an islet called
f of Man, containing 800 acres, a large
of which is under cultivation. A chain of
ns extends from north-east to south-west,
t of which is Snaefell (2024 feet). In
streams trout abound, hong in many
ve been destroyed by the washings from
-mines. The coast-scenery from Maughold
on the east, passing south to Peel on the
west, is bold and picturesque, especially in the
D
le
25
ct
Pre
5
tons of lead are extracted annually, considerable
quantities of zinc, and smaller quantities of bel
and iron ; the lead ore is very rich in quality. The
mines are at Laxey on the east coast, and
ox near the west. Great Laxey Mine is
one of the most important in the United Kingdom.
The climate is remarkable for the limited ran
of temperature, both annual and diurnal ; westerly
and south-westerly winds greatly predominate,
easterly and north-easter’y winds occurring chiefl
in the autumn quarter. Myrtles, fuchsias, an
other tender exotics flourish throughout the year.
The flora of the island is almost identical with
that of Cumberland. The Manx cat is tailless
(see CAT),
The fisheries afford employment to nearly 4000
men and boys. More than 700 boats are employed
in the herring and cod fisheries, the average annual
agen being above £60,000. Large numbers of
at cattle are shipped to the English markets, as
well as about 20,000 quarters of wheat annually.
The manufactures are inconsiderable. The revenue
derived from the island amounts to about £50,000
r annum; of this the ter part is received
rom customs duties, and the whole, except £10,000
a year payable to the imperial treasury, is used for
insular purposes.
The Isle of Man possesses nich to interest the
antiquary. Castle Rushen (see CASTLETOWN),
probably the most perfect building of its date
extant, was founded by Guthred, son of King
Orry, in 947. The ruins of Rushen Abbey (1154
are picturesquely situated at Ballasalla. Pee
Castle, with the cathedral of St German, is a very
beautiful rnin, dating from the 12th century (see
PEEL). There are numerous so-called Druidical
remains and Runic monuments throughout the
island; the Runic crosses, of which there are some
fort in all, are especially numerous at Kirk
Michael. The Tynwald Hill at St John’s, near the
centre of the island, is a perfect relic of Scandi-
navian antiquity. Once a year new Acts of Tyn-
wald are here proclaimed. The hill is artificial,
circular, and arranged in four platforms. Both
institution and use should be compared with the
Icelandic Tingvalla. The island is divided into six
sheadings ; these into seventeen parishes; these,
again, were divided into treens (now obsolete), and,
lastly, into quarter-lands. The towns, noticed
separately, are Castletown, Douglas, the modern
capital, Peel, and Ramsey.
he principal line of communication with the
United Kingdom is between Douglas and Liver-
1, by means of a fine fleet of swift steamers.
here is a submarine telegraphic cable between
Maughold Head and St Bees Head. In 1873 a line
of railway was opened between Douglas and Peel ;
in 1874 to Castletown and the south; and in 1879
to Ramsey—all on the single narrow-gauge system.
Extensive improvements in the way of harbour-
works, piers, and promenades have been carried
out at Douglas, Ramsey, and Peel. Pop. (1821)
40,081 ; (1841) 47,986 ; (1871) 54,042 ; (1881) 54,089 ;
(1891) 55,598 ; the smallness of the increase being
attributable to emigration. Visitors number about
130,000.annually.
The Roman Mona was not Man, but Anglesey.
Previous to the 6th century the history of the
Isle of Man is involved in obscurity ; from that
period it was ruled by a line of Welsh kings, until
near the end of the 9th century, when the Nor-
wegian, Harald Haarfager, invaded and took pos-
session of the island. A line of Scandinavian
kings succeeded, until Magnus, king of Norway,
ceded his right in the island and the Hebrides to
Alexander III. of Scotland (1266); this trans-
ference of claim being the direct result of the
disastrous failure of the expedition of Haco of
Norway against the Scots in 1263. On Alex-
ander’s death the Manx placed themselves under
the protection of Edward I. of England by a
formal instrument dated 1290; on the strength
of this document the kings of England granted
the island to various royal favourites from time
SS Se. re 4 a i
410 MAN MANASSEH
time until 1406, when it was ted to, Down to the middle of the 19th cen the |
Bir John Stanley in perpesaity, to be held of the | inland wan almost exempt from taxation, and con-
crown of England, by rendering to the king, his | sequently looked upon as a cheap place of resi-
heirs, and successors, a cast of falcons at their | dence, while its laws were available for the protec-
coronation. The Stanley family continued to rale | tion of English debtors. All this has long ceased.
the island under the title of Kings of Man, until | Taxation, ly imposed, has been introduced for
165 In the | i and, there is no poor
island to Lord Fairfax ;
the Derby family were
On the death of James,
a x Man having oe
period t weat an extensive smaggling
rom 8 the detriment of the imperial revenue,
y of it was purchased by the British
in 1765, for £70,000
ehureh age, &e.
remaining interest of the Athol family in the island
transferred to the British crown in 1829; the
for the island
independent convocation. i i
attached to the province of York; the
Gictop sits the House of Lords, but does not
of Man has a constitution and govern-
own, to a certain extent independent
the imperial jament, It has its own laws,
law-officer, courts of law, yislative
body is styled the Court of Tynwald, consisting of
“ greeny poe and Council—the latter
ng com posed bishop, attorney-general,
two deemsters (or judges), clerk of the rolls,
water bailiff, arehdeacon, and vicar-general—and
House of twenty-four Keys, or representa-
tives A bill is so ly considered by both
ng passed by them is trans-
royal assent; it does not, however,
become law antil it is promulgated in the English
Manx on the Tynwald Hil. The
House of Keys waa formerly self-elective; but in
1866 an act was passed establishing an election by
the people every seven years; and a bill passed in
1889 to amend this act abolished the property
qualification for members, granted household suff-
rage in towns, £4 owner and £6 tenant franchise |
| born at Lisbon in 1604, fled with his father from.
Scandinavian. The language belongs to the Goidelic
group of the Celtic languages («ee Cevts). It is
now bat litth spoken, Church service in the Manx
e has been discontinued since the middle of
the 19th century. There is no literature beyond a
few songs and carole, The Prayer-book was trans-
lated into Manx in 1765, the Bible in 1772 A
dictionary was compiled in 1835. Some account
of the native superstitions will be found in the
notes to Peveril of the Perak.
ing in the
condition has been much modified.
See The Isleof Man, by the Rev. J.G. Cumming ; History
of the Isle of ma Rearsaghde vet ligt o
Guide; Chronica Regum Mannia, edited by
( Christiania, 1860); Surnames and Place ve’ a
A. W. Moore, lace by Prof. Rhys (1890) ;
Ginn, The Little Manx Nation (1891 ); and the publica-
tions of the Manx Society (19 vols. 1858-68),
Manaar’, Gur or, lies between Ceylon and
the Madras coast, and is closed on the north by a low
reef of rocks and islands called Adam’s
Its extreme width is nearly 200 miles. The is
famous for its pear]-fisheries.
Manacor’, « town of Majorca, in a fertile
plain, 30 miles E. of Palma by rail. Pop. 14,929.
Mana’gua, the capital of Nica , lies ina
fertile district, on the teats shore of Lake Managua,
53 miles by rail SE. of Leon, and has perhaps 10,000
inhabitants. For the lake, see LEON.
Manakin, 4 name applied to various birds of
the South American group of Chatterers (see CHAT-
TERER), amongst others to the Cock of the Rock.
See also COTINGA.
Manaos, capital of the state of Amazonas, in
the republic of Brazil, is on the Rio Negro, 12
miles above its confluence with the Amazon. An
ugly, whitewashed cathedral rises in the centre of
the town, which also boasts a custom-house, a tiny
fort, and a military hospital. It is a steamboat
| station, and has a considerable trade in various
forest-products, but principally in india-rubber.
| The population, though often stated at 25,000
| to’ 30,000, is under 12,000.
| Manassas, formerly MANASSAS JUNCTION, a
| village close to Bull Run (q.v.). The Confederates
| called their two victories here the first-and second
battles of Manassas,
| Manasseh, the name of the eldest son of
| Joseph. The tribe of Manasseh received land on
| both sides of the Jordan (see PALESTINE),—MAN-
| ASSEH was also the name of one of the kings of
| Judah (the fourteenth), who succeeded his father
|
Hezekiah, 697 or 699 B.C., at the age of twelve,
and reigned, according to the narrative, for fifty-
five years, He rubel headlong into all manner
of idolatry, and seduced the people to follow his
example. Carried prisoner to Babylon, he re-
pented, and his prayer was heard (2 Chron. xxxiii.).
~The apocryphal composition called the Prayer o
Manasses, found in some MSS. of the Septuagint,
was never positively received as canonical.
Manassch ben Israel, Jewish scholar, was
| the Inquisition, and settling at Amsterdam became
chief rabbi of the synagogue there. In 1656 he
| Visited England, seeking to secure (see Jews, Vol.
| VL. p. 328) from Cromwell the readmission of the
Jews. He died at Middelburg in 1657. He pub-
lished texts of various parts of the Old Testament,
with notes; De Creatione Problemata XXX. (1635);
| De la Resurreccion de los Muertes (1636); De Ter-
mino Viter (1639); Experanca de Israel (1650); Vin-
_ dicie Judaworum, or a Letter in Answer to i
propounded (Lond. 1656); and Humble Address to
aoe Protector on behalf of the Jewish Nation
(1656).
MANATEE
MANCHESTER 11
Manatee (Manatus), one of the ‘sea-cows’ or
Sirenia, allied to the Dugong (q.v.) and to the
extinct Rhytina. Two species, very like one
another in structure and habit, are distinguished,
M. australis, in the rivers and estuaries of the
Atlantic side of tropical South America, and M.
senegalensis, in the Senegal and other rivers of
West Africa. ag are gregarious, inoffensive,
sluggish mammals, browsing on alge, fresh-water
weeds, and even shore-plants. In regard to their
breeding and parturition information is still re-
qui t we know that the mothers show much
affection for the young, and protect them in danger.
In h the manatee measures from 10 to 12 feet;
the colour of the thick, wrinkled, hairless hide is
dark bluish gray, lighter as usual on the ventral
surface. The upper lip bears a rounded knob, and
there are yellow bristles about the mouth; the
eyes are small and deeply sunk, and the nostrils
are valved slits at the end of the snout. From the
dugongs they differ in having a thicker body and
a st ter head, with the jaws but slightly
eurved, in the rounded or shovel-like shape a the
tail, and in the presence of rudimentary nails on
the fore-limbs, to the hand-like form of which the
word Manatee refers. They differ also in more
technical characters—e.g. in the very exceptional
occurrence of six instead of seven neck vertebrie,
and in the Dentition (q.v.), which in the adult
manatee is represented by horny pads replacin
molars, of which, however, only § are in use at a
time. The manatee, though ming searcer, is
still harpooned or otherwise caught, being valued
on account of its palatable flesh, its abundant fat,
and its strong skin. Gentle and affectionate, it
readily admits of being tamed, and living speci-
mens have been successfully transported to the
Zoo in London.
See Ducone; and also the memoirs by Murie and
Garrod in the T'rans. Zool. Soc., vols. viii. x. xi.
Manbhum, a district forming the eastern part
of Chota Nagpore (q.v.).
Manby, Georce WILLIAM, inventor of life-
saving or for shipwrecked persons, was
born in 1765, at Hilgay, near Downham Market
in Norfolk, served in the militia, and became
barrack-master at Yarmouth in 1803. In 1808 he
sueceeded, with apparatus designed by him, in sav-
ing the lives of crew of the brig Elizabeth. A
career of usefulness was thus commenced, which he
followed for the remaining forty-six years of his
life. He repeatedly received grants of money from
parliament. He died November 18, 1854. It was
estimated that, the time of his death, nearly
1000 persons had been rescued from stranded ships
means of his apparatus. See LiFE-SAVING
ARATUS.
Mancha, LA, a district of Spain, the southern-
most part of the old kingdom of New Castile, com-
prising most of the present province of Ciudad
; With parts of , Toledo, and Cuenca
(see CASTILE).
It is the country of the ever-memor-
able Don Quixote, his squire Sancho Panza, and
of the peerless Dulcinea del Toboso.
Manche (‘sleeve’), a maritime department in
the north-west of France, formed from the old pro-
vince of Normandy, derives its name from La
Manche (the English Channel), which washes its
rocky coasts. Greatest length, 81 miles; average
breadth, 28 miles; area, 9 sq.m. Pop. (1886)
520,865 ; (1891) 513,815. The climate is mild but
humid. Cereals, flax, hemp, beetroot, and fruits
are extensively cultivated. Immense quantities
of apples are grown, from which 28,000,000
gallons of cider are made annuelly. Horses of
the true Norman breed are reared, and excellent
cattle and sheep are fed on the extensive pastures.
There are valuable granite quarries. The depart-
ment is divided into the six arrondissements of 8+
L6, Coutances, Valognes, Cherbourg, Avranchies,
and Mortain. Capital, St L6. The port of Cher-
bourg and the rock of St Michel ( with its celebrated
abbey ) belong to this department.
Manchester (Sax. Mameestre), a corporate
and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, was
elevated to the dignity of a city in 1847, by bein
made the see of a bishop, and confirmed by roya
charter in 1853. It is situated in the hundred of
Salford, on the east bank of the Irwell. Salford is on
the opposite bank; and the two boroughs, connected
by sixteen bridges (besides railway viaducts), may
be considered one city. Manchester is the acknow-
ledged centre of the most extensive manufacturing
district in the world, and is remarkable from being
surrounded by a ring of populous suburban town-
ships formed from the overflow of its population.
Within a few miles there is a second circle of
towns, with populations ranging from 10,000 to
50,000. Ata radius of 30 miles is another cluster
of towns, nearly all of them manufacturing, and
to all of which there is easy and frequent access
by tramways, canals, and railways. anchester is
187 miles NNW. of London, 31 E. of Liverpool, 51}
SE. of Lancaster, 84 N. of Birmingham, 685 NW.
of York, 48} SW. of Leeds, 414 NW. of Sheffield,
and 40 NE. of Chester. The growth of the popula-
bea of the two boroughs is shown in the following
table :
Salford, Total.
14,477 89,752
102,449 405,831
124,801 475,990
176,235 600,036
198,136 703,479
By the City Extension Act ot 1885 the Babes
mentary boundaries were greatly extended, and
later an agitation was begun in various suburban
townships for incorporation. Five of these were
already incorporated with Manchester in 1890,
and others were expected to become incorporated.
The city was made a county borough under the Act
of 1888, he area of the parliamentary borough
(comprising eleven townships and parts of two
others) is 20 sq. m., and that of Salford 8 sq. m.
Both boroughs were enfranchised by the Reform
Bill of 1832, Manchester returning two members
and Salford one member to parliament. The
Reform Bill of 1867 gave Manchester three and
Salford two members. Since 1885 Manchester
returns six and Salford three members to parlia-
ment.
At present Manchester and Salford, and a large
portion of the suburban population, are supplied
with water collected on the slopes of Blackstone
Edge, distant about 20 miles. The water-works
possess a total og rg of 3,828,000,000 gallons,
and the average daily supply is about 25,000,000
gallons. In view of the rapid increase of the
population the city council purchased Thirlmere
(q.v.), in Cumberland, giving a further supply of
50,000,000 gallons daily. The water is conveyed
by aqueduct and tunnels (completed in 1894; see
AQuEDUCT) to Bolton, and most of the remaining 60
—_— a — .. =
MANCHESTER
iron pipes t
roads, The first contract of 6 m
ger 1h mile of open cutting was let in
The egpenetnd ry Pig a with = o~,
t propert: he »
sw Saree claims to have been first local
authority to obtain powers to supply poidic light.
te average £105,480, oat of whicli £25,000
is paid over for ci
tinery of manor courts, boron —— con-
stables, and unpai istrates, tax oll were
on all adin ght into the markets.
During that year (1845) these manorial privileges
ue. bonehé for £200,000, In 1845-46 a public
subscription founded three parks of about 30 acres
each, and shortly after a fourth of 60 acres was
mided. There are now in Manchester and Salford
eleven *, giving seven for the former and four
for the latter, with eight recreation grounds, cover-
ing al her 300 acres. Manchester was also
the first to take advantage in 1852 of the
churehes, a Greek Chureh (q.v.), and an Armenian
church. See ARMENIA, Vol. L, page 425.
The principal buildings for secular are,
first, the sige Se 6 A) hiss ag = com
pleted in 1 original es' or -
Ce was £750,000 ; it has, however, cost £1,053,000,
and occupies an area of 8648 — yards, It is a
Gothic structure and triangular in form, built of
brick, faced with freestone, and at some parts with
xranite ; and is, it is claimed, the finest building in
the world devoted to purely municipal pu
The great hall is decorated with remarkable
ictures illustrating the history of Manchester, by
Madox Brown (q.v.). The clock-tower, 286 feet
high, contains a tine of twenty-one bells. In
the Royal Infirmary, first used in 1755, as many as
32,000 patients are treated annually, and there is
an average of 25 accident cases admitted daily.
The Royal Institution is a noble Doric edifice by
Barry, built at a cost of £30,000, and contains a
gallery of paintings, a school of design, and a lecture
theatre, it was erected in 1825-30, its object
being to diffuse a taste for the fine arts by exhibit-
ing works of art of the highest
den)
class, and to encourage literary
and scientific pursuits by means
of popular courses of lectures,
The walls of the entrance-hall
are decorated with casts of the
Elgin Marbles, presented by
George IV. A fine statue of
Dalton by Chantrey is placed in
the hall. The Royal Exchange
(1864-74), an wea building
in the Italian style, has a meet-
ing-hall said to be the largest in
the United Kingdom—area, 5170
uare yards, It is 120 feet wide
without intermediate supports.
Tuesdays and Fridays are the
chief days for business, and on
these days its immense area is
densely covered. The Free-trade
Free Libraries Act. Perhaps none of the great
towns in Britain is better furnished with jood
libraries and reading-rooms than Manchester, all
ided within a few years, There are six branch
libraries with reading-rooma, and also additional
roome for boys,
The Free Reference Library in
King Street has 198,000 volumes. Salford has four | 100 feet
branch |i
, With reading-rooms and a museum ; |
while Manchester in 1800 received a park, library,
and museam from the Whitworth tees, to be
incorporated with the Technical Sc and-School
of Art. There are besides eighteen private libraries,
some connected with other institutions. The
Chetham Library, founded by Humphrey Chetham
sb ld ha 1653, contains 30,000 volumes, with many
rare ks and manuscripts, and was the first free
library in England. The John Ryland’s Library
comprises famous Althorp collection, pre-
sented to the town in 1892 by the widow of a Man-
chester millionaire. Mention may be made also of
the Athenwum, al Exchange, Portico, and Law
i . &e. The two boroughs have
about 162 churches belonging to the Establishment,
The Cathedral, formerly known as the Collegiate
Chareh, but now ealled the * Old Church ' (built. in
1422), is ‘a fine Gothie stractare, and between
1845 and 1808 underwent complete restoration in
ite style. It comprises a perfect stalled
choir of exquisite beauty, a retrochoir, lady chapel,
lateral chapels, chapter-house, and a tower 139 fect
high, with ten belle. There are 2% Roman Catholic
398 dimenting chapels, some of which are
very fine specimens of modern Gothic architec.
ture, There are 5 Jewish synagogues, 5 German
Hall (1856) holds 5000 le
and is a memorial of the agitation which seated
in the repeal of the corn laws. The ‘Peterloo —
Massacre” took place on its site. The Assize
Courts (1864), by Waterhouse, are a splendid
——— of Gothic architecture, and cost £100,000.
he t hall is a magnificent apartment, bein
long, 484 broad, and 75 feet high. A
the arrangements of the court are padbor, sa as
nearly perfect as possible.
The Literary and Philosophical oe rer),
in George Street, has a valuable scientific ibrary
and a chemical laboratory, and publishes memoirs,
On its roll are many distinguished names, i eluding
Drs Henry and Percival, Benjamin Franklin,
Thomas de Quincey, John Dalton, Eaton Hodgkin-
son, Sir W. Fairbairn, Sir James Whitworth,
James Nasmyth, and Dr Joule. There are about
seventy other societies and institutions of various
kinds in Manchester, many of them of very high
standing.
The statues and monuments in Manchester are |
numerous, and vary considerably in order of merit.
On the Infirmary Esplanade are four statues—the
Duke of deg oes Sir R. Peel, Watt, and
Dalton. The Al Memorial stands in Albert
Square, where are also statues of ne Fraser, of
Dr Joule (1891), and of John Bright (also in 1891).
In front of the town-hall is one of Oliver Heywood
(1894) ; there is one of Cobden in St Anne’s Square,
Ham Chetham in the Cathedral, and of
Cromwell near the entrance of Victoria Street,
The facilities for education in Manchester have
been eroetly extended and improved within recent
years. The Grammar-school is the most ancient, and
1880 a al charter was
of Victoria University,
- the colleges,
: MANCHESTER 15
was founded
1515. Its
but the possession of certain mills on the Irk—a
vent Ang the Irwell—soon gave the school a
substan revenue. In 1825 the report of the
Charity Commissioners showed that the total
income of the Grammar-school Trust had reached
@ sum ex ing £4000 per annum. In 1868 the
igi plan the founder was altered, and
the new scheme, as sanctioned by the Court of
Chancery, is the admission of 100 boys at twelve
guineas a year each, the remainder being on
the foundation, and the school is enlar, to
accommodate 350 boys, In Brasenose College,
Oxford, there are four scholarships belonging to
this school, and eighteen others of which it has
every third turn. In St John’s College, Cam-
bridge, it has, in turn with two other schools, a
sc
bridge, it
S eaints twenty-two scholarships. There is also
a ital
Chetham,
Hugh Oldham, Bishop of Exeter, in
endowment was £39 per annum,
hool, founded in 1651 by Humphrey
mae ‘for oon meg mo eens: bringing
up, apprenticing forty thy an r
’ By 1845 the revenue had increased euff-
ciently to justify the feoffers in increasing the
number of boys to 100. In 1851 was opened Owens
College (q.v.). It is due to the liberality of John
Owens, who died in 1846, leaving by will £100,000
to be e ed in foun an educational institu-
tion of highest class. In 1870 a further sum of
£90,000 was expended on new buildings, &c. In
ted for the foundin
which Owens is one o'
* and ig erway» charter the uni-
versity was entitled to confer degrees in su
and medicine. As an educational institution it hes
already earned a very high character, and has grown
steadily in usefulness and resources. The university
contains an excellent li and museum of natural
The Technical School, with which in 1883
was incorporated the Mechanics’ Institute, and
in 1890 the Manchester Whitworth Institute, has
ed very completely how a school can be organ-
Bed Gantigh technical training inthe
iples and processes of great and complicated
Prawat i The course of studies is acey con-
fined to subjects of commercial and mechanical
interest—theoretical practical engineering, de-
ings spinning and weaving, printing, dyeing,
ing, metallurgy and chemistry. It has
lecture-rooms, Every facility is
afforded the scholars for acquiring thorough know-
jedge, theoretical and practical, of the various
and the expert use of tools. The
_ con pom of the Manchester Exhibition (1887)
save contributed their surplus of £42,000, and the
city council has adopted the Technical Instruction
Act, and has from 1890 allotted the school the sum
of £2000 per annum. In 1889-90 there were 50
schools, with an
attendance of 72,167 scholars. There are evenin
classes in connection with the board and technica
c at a moderate rate. As regards the educa-
tion of the poorer children, the persevering en-
deavours of the wealthy and benevolent in this
direction have been very noteworthy.
The revolution in the industrial life of
Eng! began here about the middle of the 18th
ury—the substitution of the factory system,
where numbers of men work together, for the
older method of each working in their homes.
New —- were also opened up by a series of
remarkable inventions which increased production
of manufactured goods at a far cheaper and incon-
ceivably more rapid rate, combined with the new
of mechanical power to the service of
man in ha steam-engine. erga ar _
pioneer in opening up new means nternal
communication, and to moet the rapid increase of
trade and commerce many efforts were made in early
times to substitute some better means for the pack-
horse mode of carriage and conveyance. In 1720 the
Irwell was made navigable. In 1756 the Bridge-
water Canal was constructed, which put Man-
chester in communication with the coalfields of
Lancashire and the salt-mines of Cheshire, and
made an outlet to the sea. Later it became a high-
way for passengers as well as s. In 1830 Man-
chester had the first perfect railway in full operation.
It has been proved that conveyance by water is only
one-tenth of the cost of the same distance by land,
and, in order to avoid transhipment of goods, and
to render Manchester an inland seaport, the
gigantic engineering work of making a ship-canal
ata costof about £15,000,000 sterling was carried out
in 1887-93 (see CANAL, Vol. IL. p. 700). A perfect
network of railways and canals radiates from Man-
chester as a centre in all directions. In conse-
uence of all these gradual changes Manchester is
osing its character as merely a manufacturing
town. A change is gradually developing in the
locale of the various large industries, and the city
may be rded now as the general market for the
whole ale. The principal cotton-mills and other
industries are being removed to the suburbs north
and east of the city, and in and around Manchester
and Salford two-thirds of the entire cotton-manu-
factures of the United Kingdom are located. There
are about 700 different industries in the district.
Manchester was the first place to secure the privi-
lege of inland bonding for articles charged with
customs duties, and now ‘produces a large and
increasing revenue from that source.
The sanitary condition of Manchester is not a
satisfactory one, and in consequence the death-rate,
averaging 35 per 1000, is abnormally high; but it
must be remembered that the corporation had
long arrears of neglect and indifference to make up,
while a rapid increase of population was going
on. Down to 1838 Manchester and Salford were
governed by a borough-reeve and constables, and
from their abolition only could the real work of
improvement begin. s instances of the im-
mense works accomplished by the corporations
may be mentioned the gas and water supplies,
municipal buildings, widening and draining of the
streets, removal of unhealthy courts and dwellings.
The sewage main drains made since 1838 are 95
miles in length, cross drains and eyes 148 miles,
whilst the area of streets paved equals a million
square yards, The smoke nuisance is perha
more difficult to remove now than when thie
factories were within the city. The disease and
death dealing river, the Irwell, flowing through a
dense population, has yet to be dealt with. Besides
the pollution from public works of all kinds it is
the receptacle of the sewage from more than one
million of a population distributed over the water-
shed of the Irwell, seas es area of 300 sq. m.
Great efforts are constantly being made to remedy
this unfortunate state of matters.
Manchester is undoubtedly an ancient city. It
is mentioned as a Roman station (Mancunium ;
in A.S. Manigceaster ), and spoken of at the time
of the Norman Conquest in connection with
Salford and Rochdale, er the uncertainty of all
trustworthy information, especially as regards its
origin, renders any account of its early history a
matter of doubtful value. We cannot determine
when Manchester became a gansta: / district,
but it is probable that the introduction of Flemish
artificers in the reign of Edward III. is the real
starting-point. In the 13th century there was a
fulling-mill, and dyeing yarns or cloth was pravtised.
The 14th and 15th centuries are mentioned as periods
of great progress, Camden, who visited Manchester
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, describes it as
—emCUCUCC ee
4 MANCHESTER
MANCHURIA :
‘ oeighwaring towns in
forateannen lore,’ he says, * is a woollen manu-
church, market, and college. In the last
stuf called Manchester cottons and the privilege
of
VILL. removed to Chester.’ :
describes it as ‘the oe most rich,
and basy vil in En . Here are about 2400
families, and r trade, which is incredibly large,
consists of fustians, tickings, girth-webbs, and ss
which are dispensed all over the kingdom to
{reign parts They have looms which work 24
laces at a time, stolen from the Dutch, and on the
same river for the of 3 miles there are 60
water-mills" Another authority of near the same
‘ate says ‘the inhabitants are not only thrifty and
inventive bat very industrious and saving —always
and inventing something new.
In the politica! world Manchester has taken a
. The Anti-corn-law League, which
after a seven years’ struggle caused the repeal of
ied to a party of
English Radicals, which he origin in dhe Anti-
corn-law League. It identified itself with the
development of free-trade principles, utilitarian-
iam, the resistance to government interference (as
with factory labour), su ing a policy of /aissez
ire, and in foreign rs was a peace party,
strongly on non-interference. See articles
on Corn Laws, Free Trade, Bright, Colden,
Gibson ( Milner).
See Whittaker’s History of Manchester (1771); Pren-
thoe's History and Sketches of Manchester (18-53);
Reilly's History of Manchester ( 1861); Baine’s History
dre (1870); Proctor’s Memorials of Man-
(1880); Axon’s Annals of Manchester (1886);
ee Manchester (1887); and M'Culloch’s Dic-
tionary of Commerce ( 1887).
Manchester, the largest city of New Hamp-
shire, stands mostly on the east bank of the Merri-
mac River, 16 miles 8. of Concord, 59 miles NNW.
of Boston by rail. Its principal streets are wide
and shaded with elms, and it has several public
ae The river here falls 54 feet, and affords
o paired to numerous factories. manufac-
cottons and woollens is the chief industry ;
Roman Catholic bishop, and has a Catholic orphan-
and a convent, besides a state reform-school.
( 1870) 23,526 ; (1890) 44,126 ; (1900) 56,987.
Manchester, Eowarp Mowracv, second
BAR or, English eral and statesman, was the
eon of the first earl, and was born in 1602. After
leaving Cambridge—lis college was Sidney Sussex
—he accompanied Prince Charles to Spain, and
afterwards wat in the House of Lords as Baron
Kimbolton, Bat siding with the popular party,
and page Be acknowledged leader of the Pari-
tans in the Upper House, he was charged by the
king (44 January 1642) with entertaining traitorous
along with the five independent members
of the House of Commons. He succeeded his father
ae carlin the same year. On the outbreak of hos-
tilities he of course fought for the parliament, He
eorved ander Exeex at Edgehill, then held the asso-
ciated (eastern) counties avainst Newcastle, took
Lincoln (1644), and routed Prince Rupert at Marston
Moor—that is to may, he nominally commanded ;
the real fighting was done by Cromwell and his
He then marched to oppose the royaliata
in the south-west, and defeated them at Newbury
(the second battle), But after this battle he ayain
showed elackness in following up the victory, the
same fault that had
here; and the Man- |
been noticed after Marston | ginseng.
aineery pHs ia ths Homes Commons hf
H ouse
and the two had a downright quarrel. The -
denying Ordinance deprived Manchester of his
command, and this did not allay his bitterness
inst Cromwell, He opposed the trial of the
king, and protested against the Commonwealth.
Afterwards, having been active in promo the
Restoration, be was made Lord Cham ae
step des to conciliate the Presbyterians.
died 5th May 1671.
His grandson, CHARLES MONTAGU, fourth EARL,
supported William of Orange in Ireland, was sent
as ambassador extraordinary to Venice (1696), Paris
(1699) and Vienna (1707), and was made Duke of
Manchester in 1719 for having favoured the Han-
overian succession. He died 20th January 1722.
Manchineel (Hippomane mancinella), a tropi-
man et te naar rae ape
biaces, cele or the nous ,
its acrid milky juice. A of this, burns like
ire if i kin, and the sore which
diuretic ; and
well suited for cabinet-making.
Manchuria, long the north-easternmost por-
tion of the Chinese Empire, is since the events
of 1898 so completely controlled by Russia as to
be practically the south-eastern corner of Asiatic
Russia, ‘The Country of the Manchus’ (see
Asia, Cutna) lies between the Yellow Sea and
the Amur, egret be just beyond the limits of
China proper, on Corea and the Russian
Maritime Province. The first step in the Russian
cecupation was the concession by China “hee
the deviation of the Siberian railway
Northern Manchuria ; then the events connected
with the Russification of Port Arthur (q.v.) and
Talienwan. Finally it was that_the
Siberian railway should be connected with Kirin
and Mukden, with Peking on the one hand and
Port Arthur on the other, and that Cossack
——— and settlements of Russians along the
ine should be sanctioned. The area of Manchuria
is said to be 280,000 sq. m. ; total pop. 21,000,000.
— Mere res “ecg agence Py
he centre, Fe: nm or Liao-Tung in the sou
and Hei-lun bag in the north. The eastern
nthe Be the central ew te eovetet Tae
eur regu. Tan ie
Mountains, which the White Mountain itself
reach 8000 feet, whilst the northern province is
erossed by the Chingan Mountains. e central
parts of the country are watered by the S i
which rises in the crater-lake of the
White Mountains, and after a course of
miles joins the Amur in the north of Kirin
province. The hills are rich in timber, pines
predominating; in minerals, chiefly gold, silver,
coal, and iron, of all which little has been ex-
tracted ; and in fur-bearing and other animals, as”
the sable, foxes, lynx, squirrel, tiger, , wolf,
deer, &e, The Manchurian lark, a clever ;
is exported rons numbers to China. rivers
swarm with salmon, and trout are plentiful. The
climate is temperate in summer, especially whilst
the rains last (May to September), but very severe
in winter, the season of traffic, when the
and extensive marshy tracts are frost-bound ; the
thermometer frequently falls as low as ~ 25° F, in the
northern province in the depth of winter. The
soil is extremely fertile, and produces in abundan
millet (with vegetables the chief food of the
maize, aaner Por y, beans, rice, v
ild sil
ple)
tables, an
is produced, The industry is
MANCINI
MANDAMUS 18
confined to the making of furniture, coffins (sent
to China), and carts, the tanning of leather, the
of furs, and the distilling of spirits.
amount of trade is carried on at the towns
and furs, &c. are exported
to the annual value of 14 million sterling, and
cottons, woollens, metals, sugar, silk, paper, medi-
eines, , &e. imported to 1} million sterling.
The ve opium is rapidly supplanting the Indian,
the of which from 327,087 Jb. in 1879
to ae Ib. in 1889. Excessive floods in 1888
a severe famine. The population does not
embrace more than one million Manchus, and most
of these dress and speak like Chinese. Yet they
are the gay iar yak the country, furnishing its
magistrates and iers, its police, and its hunters,
ion aor cultivate their own land. Ever since
es ehus en epee China A cae ) ape Seeaae
present imperial dynasty Manchuria has been
the favourite recruiting-ground for the Chinese
army ; there are stated to be 80,000 drilled men in
the country. The rest of the population consists
almost entirely of Chinese immigrants, as enter-
prising, industrions, coreg ibrar as any aw os
the empire. Sh ee towns are Moukden
(q.v.), the capital ; in (q.v.); Tsitsihar, a con-
vict settlement for the empire; Ying-tzu, commonly
called New-chwang (q.v.), the chi ; and some
others with populations of about 20, All Man-
churian towns are indescribably filthy, worse than
English towns in the 15th century, and most of
them are walled. The religions current are those
found in China (q.v.), though the original creed of
the Manchus was Shamanism. Early in the 11th
century B.C. there existed a native kingdom in the
southern of the three provinces, and this was suc-
eseded by other states, until in the paesing of
the 17th century Nurhachu, a Manchu chief,
founded a powerful sovereignty; in 1644 his
ascended the throne of China, —_ thus
con-
of wearing the pigtail, shaving the forehead, and
dressing in narrow-sleeved instead of wide-sleeved
coats. Brigandage and gambling are exceedingly
rife in the country. The Manchu language is a
branch of the Mongol stem, as the le them-
— are of the same division of the Ural-Altaic
family.
Mancini, Lavra. See Mazarin.
Mand:eans, an oriental religious sect of great
antiquity, formed ont of heterogeneous Christian
Jewish, and heathen elements, and _ still found
oran.
formerly called Christians of St John the Baptist
from their habit of baptism or ablution. In their
religious system the supreme is Pird rabbd (‘the
great glory’), with which is connectel the Mand
which, after calling forth the first life,
into an obscurity that can be penetrated
the most holy after death, and that but
The first life (Chayé Kadmdyé) is the active
revealed, and which alone can be wor-
From it, besides the ‘second life,’
emanated the Mandd d’hayyé (‘spirit of life’), the
mediator and saviour of the Mandzeans, from whom
they derive their name. He reveals himself to man
in his three sons, Hibil, Sitil, and Anis ; of these
Hilil is the most important. From the second life
emanated the Uthré (‘angels’), the greatest of
whom is Abatir, whose son Gabriel built the earth
and formed man, save that his spirit was infused
into him by Mand rabbd. There is an elaborate
gh ged extending to the kingdoms of darkness,
of hell, the mountains of the blessed, and the
planets. The succession of false prophets from Na
were Abrahim, Misha ( Moses), Shlimtin (Solomon),
and Yishu M’shiha (Jesus), who had been baptised
through deceit by the only true prophet, Yahya.
The last of the false prophets is M’hamad.
The Mandeans had three degrees in the priest-
hood, with a supreme official (Rish amma) as the
source of both civil and ecclesiastical authority.
The priests officiate in white robes, barefooted, and
women may be admitted to their order. Their
principal rite is the masbatha or baptism. Their
sacred ianguage is an Aramaic dialect close to the
Babylonian Talmud. They have five important
sacred books: Sidrd rabba (‘the great bok:
called also ginza, ‘treasure;’ Sidra d’ Yahya
(‘book of John’); the Qolasta, a collection of
hymns; Diwdn, a ritual; and Asfar Malwasé, a
manual of astrology.
Brandt traces this system of religion back to the
period of amalgamation of the Assyro-Babylonian
religion with Greek speculation.
See Chwolsohn, Die Sabier u. der Sabismus (1856);
Siouffi, Les Sabéens (1880); Babelon, Les Menddites
(1882); Brandt, Die Mandéische Religion (1889).
Mandal, the southernmost port of Norway, 17
miles east of the Naze. Pop. 4000.
Mandalay, the capital of Upper Burma, stands
2 miles from the left bank of the Irawadi, a little
N. of Amarapura (q.v.), the former capital, and
410 miles by rail (1888) N. of Rangoon. Founded
in 1860, it was the capital of independent Burma
until its capture by the British in the end of 1885,
and since the treaty by which (1886) the king lost
his throne it has been the capital of Upper Burma,
The city forms a square, Bre: 9 side a mile long, and
is surrounded by a wide moat, a crenelated brick
wall 26 feet high, and an inner earthen parapet.
In the centre of the city stand the royal palaces,
constructed principally of teak-wood, and enclosed
by three stone walls and a teak-wood stockade.
here is little of real interest or beanty in them
beyond some rich wood-carving. The most famous
building in Mandalay is, however, the Aracan .
P. a; it contains a brazen’image of Buddha,
12 feet high, an object of veneration to thousands
of pilgrims. Outside these enclosures was, until
the British conquest, a crowded, dirty native town,
now cleared away to make room for a British
cantonment. The present native quarters lie out-
side the fortified city. Beyond them, again, on the
slopes of the hills that border the valley of the
Irawadi, are numerous fine monasteries. Silk-
weaving is the most important of the industries ; the
others are gold and silver work, he # and wood
carving, bell and gong casting, and knife and sword
making. In 1886 (as again in March 1892) much
damage was done by fire and by an inundation of
the river. In 1886 a meteorological observatory
was built. Pop. (1891) 187,910.
Manda’‘mus is a writ, not of right but of pre-
rogative, which issues from the Court of Queen’s
Bench, commanding some public body, or inferior
court, or justices of the , to do something which
it is their legal duty to do, In the United States
the power to issue writs of mandamus is vested in
16 MANDARIN
MANDIBLE
Supreme Court, and is also al to the cir-
ctr abt mt ttn
general tern to nese
eitantarin, © exiern) farcigtees, derived from
the Portaguese mandar, ‘to command.’ For the
Chinese governmental authorities, their rank and
distinctive buttons, see Curxa, Vol, ILL p. 191.
He, Rexxanp pe, English satirical
writer, — lawn of Dutch parent« at Dordrecht
in Holland in 1670. a pe ae in medicine at
Leyden, after six years of study, in 1691, and im-
mediately afterwards settled in London to practise
; he died in that city las me
wi An pod bes glee grog: and Search into
wae a fulminant, levelled against the
ethical of Shaftesbary, who set up as the
standard of virtae the ultra-refined tastes of an
idealistic wathete. Mandeville, writing in a vein
5 y ibengh f whee —" va we a ape
its frankness, nen ng acute-
oan, alice that ‘ private view ane public benefits,’
Hy
E
ii
i
Fs <.
ti
fi
ai
=
:
Tl
Be
+
‘i
E
if
<;
i
J
:
. by
nonjuror, by Berkeley, Brown, War-
Hutcheson, and others. Mandeville in his
that he wrote in irony for the diver-
of discernment and knowledge, and
i
if
his were not to be taken in literal earnest,
ae if meant for general readers, Nevertheless, his
other rage we ae i Ae Pare te
Thoughts on Religion, &., detract y from the
sincerity of this plea. It in w while observ-
ing that his realistic habits of thought bring him
in some respects curiously into touch with the
exponents of modern scientific methods of inquiry.
Bee’ Leslie Euaye on Prevthinking (878),
or the briefer summary in vol. ii of the same writers
Baglish Thought in the 18th Contury (1876).
Mandeville, Jeux pe, the name assumed by
a hook of travels, written
pablished between 1357 and 1371.
Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Walloon,
German, Yoherian, Danish, and Irish are found,
aml the number of MSS, amounts to at least 300.
Many hare maintained the priority of the Latin
text, which exiete in as many as tive independent
Versions, bat it seems much more probable that
the French was the earlier. The earliest edition
of the French text was printed at Lyons in 1480.
Iadeed, it ie moet lable that book was
statement of ry was merely an ingeni-
we alone was the author of
the book. Bot « statement has been discovered
revealed on his death- bed his real
png stat to Jean a Ontremenss, ex-
that be had had to flee from his native
for a homicide. We are told further that
this » who died in 1372, had practised
ie eeeleuion’ cs Lids since 1343. And it is
apparently quite certain that in the 16th and 17th
> race rit tomb was shown at Liége, with a-
Latin inscription stating that Mandeville died
there in November 1372. An English version
was made oes a or French he ;
at least as early as the beginning o ho
century, and rd extant independent revisions of
this followed within a quarter of a century. .
original defective form was printed by Pynson
Wynkyn de Worde (1499); the editions of 1
and the well-known reprints by Halliwell (1839
1866) represent one of these later revisions; that
first printed for the Roxburghe Club in 1889 is a
admirable edition of the other. But the glari
errors of translation render it impossible th it
of these forms of the English version can be from
the hand which wrote the original ae pite-
of the statement in the preface, which been —
too easily believed, that it was made by Mandeville
himself. None the less it remains an le
monument of pos po but the name of Sir John
Mandeville should now berg oe from *
of literature as the ‘ father of
In the preface the French com
ri er describes
himself as a knight born at St Albans, who left
his native country in 1322, travelled by of B'
Syria, Arabia, ;
nglish
Turkey, Armenia, Tartary, Persia,
Egypt, Libya, Athiopia, Amazonia, and India, often
visited Jerusalem, and who wrote in Romance as _
better understood than Latin. In the course of —
the book we are told further that he had do
the sultan of Egypt against the Bedouins, and the
em rof China against the king of ;
he ed geen the glory of Prester John and d ;
of the Fountain of Youth at Palombe (Quilon on~
the Malabar coast), and returned home unwillingly
owing to arthritic gout in 1357. .
By far the greater part of the book has now
been proved to be borrowed, with interpolations,
usually extravagant, from the narrative of Friar
Odoric (written about 1330); from Hayton, an
Armenian who became a P. A
monk, and dictated at Poitiers in 1307 a book ;
the East in the French tongue ; from the work of
the Franciscan Carpini; from the well-known
Epistle of Prester John, widely known in the 13th —
century; from Albert of Aix, Brunetto :
Peter Comestor, Jacques de Vitry, Vincent de -
vais (Speculum Historiale and Speculum WN 9
rale); from the 12th-century Latin itinerai
Palestine, and from the work of the German ki
William of Boldensele, written in 1336. A
— - the wat Born! Pree represent bs
travels and person: owledge, ti
part relating to the Holy Land; petra Fe)
re-establish the honesty of the writer, who clai
himself to have travelled in the remotest
described, and to have seen with his own @}
wonders enumerated, while he never
Odoric, from whom he conveyed by far the 4
part of his book. Among these wonders we find
stories of fabulous monsters, such as anth
and men whose heads grew beneath their %
the phanix, the vegetable lamb, the wee! croco-
dile, the garden of transmigrated souls at sn
LBsre-chee S00), and the Valley Perilous, Of =
errestrial Paradise, however, the writer is
enough to say that he had not been there.
See the article by Colonel Yule and E. B. Nichol¥on
in vol. xv, (1883) of the Encyclopedia Prien
the latter's letter in the Academy for April 12, |
Dr Albert Bovenschen, Quellen fir die
des Johann von Mandeville ( Berlin, 1888); and the In-
treduetion by G. F. Warner to his edition for the Rox-
Sy ee { ee Se — the views of Dr Vogels and
Mandible, » name applied to various -
organs —e.g. the third pair of appendages in
MANDINGOES MANFRED 17
taceans, the first pair of true appendages in Insects, | to their possessors, who accordingly dressed and
the lower jaw in Vertebrates. — ey — dolls, “ kept —_ reverentially
Bantu le ; enshrined in caskets, and thus obtained their services
‘wee in Reeaatda.(0;¥.). den. P poF eg Vol. for the healing of obstinate diseases of man and
I. p. 85. ‘ beast, for the divination of the future, or the ensur-
Mand or MANDU’, arnined city of India,
formerly capital of the Mohammedan kingdom of
Malwa, stands 15 miles N. of the Nerbudda and
38 SW. of Indore. The ruins stretch for 8
miles along the crest of the Vindhya Mountains,
have a cireumference of 37 miles. A deep,
narrow oan ———e them from the adjoinin
tableland. The least injured of the ruined build-
ings is the great mosque, which is reached by a
handsome flight of stairs; it is said to be ‘the
finest and a 5 tae of Afghan architecture
extant in India.’ There are also a massive royal
ya and the white marble mausoleum of the
ing who raised the city to the acme of its splen-
dour (early 15th century). Acecrding to Malcolm,
Mand was founded 313 a.p.
Mandoline, a musical instrument of the lute
species. The body of the mandoline is formed of
# number of narrow pieces of different kinds of
wood, bent into the shape, and glued together.
On the open portion of the body is fixed the
sounding-board, with a finger-board and neck like
@ guitar. The Neapolitan mandoline, which is
the most perfect, has four double strings, tuned
{beginning with the lowest) G, D, A, E. The
ilanese mandoline has five double strings, tuned
G, C, A, D, E. The sound is produced by a
plectrum in the right hand, while the left hand
ee the notes on the finger-board. The man-
oline is chiefly used for accompaniment.
Mandrake (Mandragora officinalis), a Solan-
aceous plant closely allied to Belladonna (q.v.).
There are two varieties, the vernal and the autum-
nal; both are natives of the Mediterranean region
and the East, and especially abound in Greece.
The whole plant has a very fetid nareotie smell ;
and all parts have
poisonous _ proper-
ties like those of
belladonna, but
more narcotic, for
which reason a
dose of the root
was formerly some-
times given to
patients about to
endure surgical
operations. The
ancients were well
acquainted with
the nareotie and
stupefying proper-
ties of mandrake,
and it was a com-
mon saying of a
man that he had
eaten mandrake.
The large taproot
grows somewhat
irregularly, and
often seems divided
into two, throngh
the development of a branch which attains more
or less equal size. Hence arises a rude resem-
blance to a human figure; and this is easily
by a little judicious pruning or carv-
and by trimming the covering of fine hair-
Mandrake (Mandragora officinalis).
roots. Hence Pyth speaks of the man-
drake as ac. To such mannikin-
figures many virtues were ascribed: by the
magical
__ ancient Germans they were supposed to bring luck
E
<
314
sleepy or indolent |
ing of ped ni of money. From the most ancient
times aphrodisiac virtues have been ascribed to
mandrake, which was therefore supposed to cure
barrenness (see Gen. xxx. 14-16); such repute is
hardly borne out by the actual properties of the
root (which would, however, relax the womb), but
probably more commonly depended on its magical
associations as a phallic figure. The extremely
narcotic and poisonous properties of the plant
could not but invest these figures with a more
grim significance, of which the medieval imagina-
tion *made the most. So large, deep, and well
fixed a root needs some labour to dig out, and,
if torn up by main force, breaks with more or less
noise, hence the ancient legend that the mandrake
shrieks when torn out of the ground. The subse-
quent possibilities of accident (not to speak of
misuse) can easily be imagined, not only from the
sweet and attractive berries, but the leaves, root,
or even juice. On the base of caution there arose
a whole fantastic ritual: the P exat could only be
safely dug up at midnight, and when Wowenet by
careful digging should be dragged out of the ground
by a black dog, which served as a vicarious sub-
stitute for the herbalist, in dread of the mandrake’s
vengeance.
Mandrill. See BAsoon. .
Mandorie, a town of Southern Italy, 22 miles
E. by S. of Taranto, near the ancient town of
Manduria, of which some important relies are still
extant. Pop. 8865. In 1790 it exchanged its name
of Casalnuovo for Manduria.
—— the chief seaport of the principality of
Cutch, in India, on the north shore of the Gulf
of Cutch, 36 miles SW. of Bhuj, the capital.
It has a good roadstead and a breakwater, but
the harbour is choked with sand. The pilots are
in request all through the state. Pop. (1881)
35,980 ; (1891) 38,159.
Manes. See LAREs.
Manet, Epovarp (1832-82), a French painter,
the founder of Impressionism (q.v.). See his Life
by Bazire (Paris, 1884).
Manetho, a celebrated Egyptian historian,
native of Sebennytus, a priest who flourished in the
3d century B.c. See Eaypt, Vol. IV. p. 238.
Manfred, regent and king of Sicily, was a
| natural son (afterwards legitimised ) of the Emperor
| Frederick II. by Bianea, the daughter of Count
Lancia, and was born in 123). n his father’s
death in 1250 he received the principality of
| Tarentum, and in the absence of his half-brother,
| Conrad IV., acted as regent in Italy. He bravely
| defended his sovereign’s interests against the
aggression of Pope Innocent IV.; and after Con-
ite death he was acknowledged as regent of
| Apulia, in name of his nephew Conradin (q.v.).
The pope, however, renewed his pretensions to
Apulia, and compelled Manfred to flee for shelter
to the Saracens, by whose aid he defeated the papal
troops, and became, in 1257, master of the whole
kingdom of Naples and Sicily. On the rumour of
Conradin’s death he was crowned king at Palermo,
llth August 1258, and immediately afterwards was
excommunicated by Pope Alexander IV. along
with his adherents ; but Manfred invaded the papal
dominions, and made himself master of the whole
of Tuscany. His power now seemed secure, and
his government was at once mild and vigorous.
But this tranquillity was not of long duration.
Pope Urban 1V. renewed the excommunication
18 MANFREDONIA MANGE
against him and his fri and bestowed his | minemlogists as pyrolusite, and in commerce as
dominions as a Sef on Charles of Anjou, the | black manganese or ae simply. _ When
brother of Lowis of France. Manfred, heated alone uric acid it gives off
widow
ter was fined for
twenty-two years. His history has been made
the subj of drama and opera. See Cesare,
Storia di Manfredi (1837); Schirrmacher, Geschichte
der letzten Hohenstaufen (1871).
Manfredonia, « walled of Italy, on
the Galf of Manfredonia, a es | the Adriatic, 23
miles by rail NE. of Foggia. Founded’ by Mahfred
in 126] from the rains of ancient Sipontum, it
has an old castle and a cathedral. Pop. 8324.
Mangalo a and military station,
and chief coma in the district of South Kanara,
in the presid
- is also the head-
uarters in India of the 1 Lutheran Mission,
members of which teach their people to weave
eloth, print and bind books, and make roof tiles.
The town, which was three times sacked by the
ese in the 16th century, was taken by
Hyder Ali in 1763, and made the headquarters
of his navy. In 1784 its English garrison yielded
to Tippoo Sultan after a nine months’ siege. It
became British in 1799, and was burned by the
Coorg rebels in 1837.
James CLARENCE, a gifted but hap-
leas Irish poet, who was born in 1803, and employed
for many years in the dradgery of copying in an
attorney's office. His heart was framed for suffer-
ing, and his whole life was a tragedy of hapless
love, poverty, and intemperance, until he found
in death at Meath Hospital, Dublin, 20th
June 1849. There is fine quality in his original
verse, as well as in his translations from the Ger-
man, bat more especially from the old Irish, as in
impassioned ballad of Dark Rosaleen.
were poblished at New York in 1859 and
a Life by John Mitchel; Miss Guiney, in her
and study (1897), affirmed Poe's indebtedness
‘s recurrent refrains; the Life is
Oo onophae’s (1808). .
i
Manganese (syn. Mn; atomic weight, 55) is |
one of iron group of heavy metals, It is darker
than wrou, of
fetes. is #0 hard as to scratch glass and steel,
t is only feebly attracted by the magnet, and
oxidines readily on exposure to the air, The metal
iron, is capable of a high d
occurs in nature in «mall quantity along with iron |
in meteoric stones, but may be obtained in large
amount by the reduction of its sesquioxide or car-
bonate by charcoal at an extreme heat.
With oxygen it forms six compounds : mangan-
ous oxide, MnO; manganic oxide, Mn,O,; man-
ere oxide, Mn,O,; manganese dioxide,
n0,; manganic anhydride, MnO,; and perman-
ganic anhydride, Mn.O,, Like iron it forms proto-
salte, Matl, and persalte, MnCl, It also forms
salta derived from an ow rape such as
potesiam manganate, K,MnO,, and from an
acid, HMn0O,, n« jum perman anate, KMnO,,
The binoxide Mno,, is the chief form in which
manganese is found in nature, and is the general
source of the other compounds. It ix known to
or with sul
oxygen, and when heated with hydrochloric acid
stbeins is evolved. It is largely used in the manu-
facture of glass, to which it imparts a parpte colour.
It z also su’ poe th Ce, a Lop —_ yst.
‘anganous oxide, MnO, is an olive-green pow-
der. it, alts are —— = -- pale “5
lour, e sulphate, ” pin crystals,
my | used by the calico-printer for the produc-
tion of black and brown colours, kf decomposing it
with bleaching powder or an alkali.
Manganic oxide, Mn,O,, in octahedral tel =n
forms the mineral braunite, and in the hydra
form, Mn,O,,H,0, the mineral manganite.
Red oxule of manganese, Mn,0,, is formed when
any of the other oxides are heated in the air. It is
found in nature as the mineral hausmannite.
Manganic anhydride, MnOs, is not known in the
free state, It forms a hydrated acid, H,MnO,,
which forms salts. Manganate of po um,
K,Mn0O,, is the best known of these. Tt is in green’
crystals, and on allowing its solution to stand
exposed to the air it rapidly becomes blue, violet,
purple, and finally red, by the gradual conversion
of the manganate into the permanganate of
potash; on this account it is sometimes called
chameleon mineral.
Permanganic anhydride, Mn,O;, is only known
in solution or in a state of combination. Its
solution is of a splendid red colour, but appears of
a dark violet tint when seen by transmitted light.
Permanganate of potash, KMnQ,, which crystallises.
in reddish-purple prisins, is the most important of
its salts. It is largely employed in analytical
oy. and is the basis of Condy’s Disinfectant.
uid,
anganese is a constituent of many mineral
waters, and is found in small quantity in the ash
of most vegetable and animal substances. It is
almost always associated with iron. Various pre-
parations of manganese have been employed in
medicine. The binoxide has been used as a sub-
stitute for bismuth in dyspeptic affections, while
various preparations have been tried as substitutes
for iron in anemia, but with disappointing results.
The m nate and permanganate o h
poedily Baty with their oxygen, and in weak solution
are used as disinfecting and astringent lotions.
M e, a contagious disease in horses, dogs,
and pores is, like scab in sheep, very similar to teh
in the human subject, resulting from the attacks
of minute mites or acari. Some of these burrow
in the skin, others move about upon the skin,
especially if it be dirty or scurfy, and cause much
irritation, heat, and itching, and the eruption of
| minute pimples, with dryness, scurfiness, baldness,
| and bleaching of the skin, The treatment consists
in destroying the acari, and insuring the cleanli-
ness and health of the skin, both of which objects
are effected by washing the parts thoroughly every
second day with soft » and water, and dressing
| daily with sulphar or mild mercurial ointments, or
with a solution containing four grains either of
| corrosive sublimate or arsenic to the ounce of water,
|
}
| Castor-oil seeds, bruised and steeped for twelve
hours in buttermilk, are very successfully used by
the native Indian farriers. Where the heat and
itching are great, as is often the case in dogs, a few
drops of tincture of belladonna may used to
| the usual dressing, or applied along with a little
| glycerine. Where the general health is indifferent,
| as in chronic cases, the patient should be liberally
| fed, — clean and comfortable, have an occa-
| sional alterative dose of any simple saline medicin
such as nitre or common salt, and a course of
‘such tonics as iron or arsenic, Cleanliness and
MANGNALL
MANGOSTEEN 19
occasional washing and brushing maintain the skin
in a healthy state, and thus prevent its becoming a
suitable nidus for the acari.—The pooner mange,
due to a burrowing mite, besides bein ighly con-
tagious, is often fatal, and is specially legislated
for in the Shetland Islands, where it is very pre-
valent, under the Contagious Diseases Acts.
ope ag RiIcHMAL, of Irish extraction, but
born probably in Manchester, 7th March 1769, was
the head-mistress of a ladies’ school at Crofton Hall,
near Wakefield, and died there lst May 1820. Few
of her history have been pre-
served ; she survives only in her redoubtable Ques-
tions, the pride and terror of several generations
of school-girls. She was an amiable and excellent
— rita a Podcrnd ~ Log been ont Coane?
‘the very high-priestess of the great ram.’
Of the popularity of her schoolroom encyclopedia,
compi entirely by herself, there can, how-
ever, be no doubt: an impression, printed in 1857
in America, was taken from the 84th London
edition. It has been reprinted in England (ed. by
Wright and Hodder) as recently as 1892.
Mango (Mangifera indica, natural order* Ana-
dy ae ot the most esteemed fruits of
,India. The tree grows from 40 to 50 feet high,
with cicirmeage top and numerous branches, at the
extremities of which are the densely-crowded long
lanceolate leaves. When in flower it bears some
resemblance to the Sweet Chestnut. The fruit,
Common Mango ( Mangifera indica).
which is a fleshy drupe, when fully ripe is some-
what kidney-shaped or oval, varying in size from
that of a small hen’s egg to a la ’s
oe: in colour yellow or reddish, spec led with
k, and containing a large flattened stone,
the kernel of which is nutritious. There are
several varieties of mango. Some have the flesh
of the fruit full of fibres, and are on that account
considered inferior ; those that cut like an apple,
and have few or no fibres, are the most hachly
esteemed. The fruit is eaten without a Lo
ellies,
Mangold-wurzel, or Manco.p, a German
name in general use in Britain and America to
designate the varieties of the common beet (see
BEET) cultivated in fields for feeding cattle—
Beta is of the natural order Chenopodiacez.
The field beets differ from the garden beets chiefly in
being larger in all their parts, and coarser. They
have large roots, which in some of the varieties are
red, in others greenish or whitish, in some carrot-
shaped, and in others nearly globular. The cultiva-
tion of mangold as a field-crop was introduced from
France into England in 1786. At first, so little
was its value known, that the leaves alone were
used as food for cattle. Its importance, however,
Was soon appreciated, and it rapidly gained favour.
It ismuch more patient of a high temperature than
the turnip, liable to fewer diseases, and vastly more
productive under favourable conditions. In highly-
manured grounds in the south of England as much
as from 60 to 70 tons to the acre have been raised;
throughout the south of England it is generally
admitted that it is as easy to grow 30 tons of
mangold to the acre as 20 tons of Swedish turnips.
The lower temperature of Scotland, however, does
not admit of the crop being raised there to advan-
i The mode of culture does not vary materi-
ally from that followed in raising turni The
land in which the crop is to be planted receives
a deep furrow in autumn; and, if it is quite free
from perennial weeds, it is often previously well
manured. Mangolds are sown both in rows on the
flat ground and in drills raised by the preter
former from 18 to 25 inches apart, and the latter
from 25 to 28 inches wide. From 12 to 16 tons of
dung with from 2 to 34 ewt. of superphosphate,
2 to 3 ewt. common salt, and 2 to 3 ewt. nitrate of
soda per acre are common dressings for mangolds.
Indeed, this crop can hardly be over-manured. It
requires 6 or 7 lb. of seed to the acre; and, as the
grains are enclosed in a hard and rough coat, they
are steeped in water for two days previous to their
being planted, for the purpose of promoting a
quick and regular ‘braird.” The long red, the
round red, and the orange and yellow globes are all
favourite varieties in vane: As soon as the
plants are about 3 inches above ground, they are
singled out by the hand, and their cultivation is
afterwards the same in all respects as in the case
of Swedish turni The crop should always be
stored by the end of October, and should not be
consumed till the following spring, by which time
the roots have lost their tendency to produce scour
in animals, and have greatly improved in feeding
value. Care has to taken not to injure the
leaves or bulbs, as they are liable to suffer from
‘bleeding.’ The roots are stored in pits or ‘ clamps,’
covered with straw and a little earth, as a pro-
tection in severe weather.
Mangonel. See BALListTa.
Mangosteen, produced by Garcinia mangos-
tana (natural order Clusiacew), is considered the
most delicious and wholesome of all fruits. The
tree, which is a native of the Moluccas, grows
about 20 feet high in very regular symmetrical
form. The leaves are large, oval, entire, deep dark
reen above with a dull lustre, olive-green below.
he open flowers resemble those of a red rose, but
have only four petals. The fruit, in size and shape,
resembles a middling-sized orange; it is dark
brown, spotted with yellow or gray, has a thick
rind, and is divided internally by thin partitions
into cells. The pulp is soft and juicy, of a rose
colour, refrigerant and slightly laxative, with a
mixture of sweetness and acidity, and has an
extremely delicate flavour. It may be eaten very
freely with perfect safety, and is esteemed very
beneficial in fevers. It is cultivated in Java and
20 MANGROVE
in the south-east of Asia; it has recently become
common in Ceylon, and has been successfully intro-
daced into other tropical countries,
Mangrove ( Rhizophora), « genus of calycifloral
dicotyledons, {retain about fifty species, of
which the indistinct atlinities have constituted a
separate order (Rhizophoracew). They are trees
and shrubs, all tropical (especially South Ameri-
can), and natives of coasts, particularly about the
mouths of rivers, where they grow in the mud, and
form a close thicket down to and within the margin
of the sea, even to low-water mark, forming the
characteristic mangrove-swamps so often described
A Mangrov.-swamp,
by travellers and naturalists. Most species send
down roots from their branches, and rs rapidly
extend over large spaces, forming secure retreats
for multitudes of aquatic birds, whilst crabs and
shell-fish are also to be found in them in vast
numbers. Their interlacing roots retain mud, sea-
weed, &c., and thus rapidly form soil and encroach
upon the shallow sea; on the north coast of Java
and elsewhere their geological importance is speci-
ally marked. The seeds have the peculiarity of
germinating before the fruit has fallen, a long thick
radicle proceeding from the seed, piercing its cover-
ing, and extending rapidly downwards, When the
fruit drops, the stout heavy radicle pierces the
mud, and the young tree is thus planted in the
proper position forthwith. The fruit of the com
mon mangrove (2. Mangle) is sweet, eatable ; and
its juice, when fermented, yields a light wine
The bark is sometimes imported for the sake of
its tannin, in which all the species are rich. Man.
we wood is also imported from the West Indies,
The Chinese and East Indian species (2. qTymno
rhica, &e.) are of similar habit and properties ;
some of the latter are separated as a distinct genus,
Braguiera.—The so-called White Mangrove is
Avicennia (q.v.).
Manhattan Island, the island on which the
great part of New York city stands.
Mania. See INsanrry.
Manica, 4 gold-field long worked by the Portn- |
guess, 190 miles NW. of the port of Sofala, and
now mostly included it. che British sphere of influ-
ence a4 an eastern section of Mashonaland (q.v. ).
It is intersected by the railway from the Pungwe
River (near Beira) to Fort Salisbury.
Manichius, or MAN, the founder of the sect
of the Manichmans, who, according to the Moham-
medan and most trustworthy tradition, was born
at Ecbatana about 215 A.p., and educated at
Otesiphon under his father Futak, who joined the
MANICH2ZUS
seet of the Moghtasilah ( Baptists) in which his son
was brought up. This sect was connected with the
Mandeans (q.v.), and most probably also with the
Elkesaites and Hemerobaptists, and may also have
borrowed something from Christianity. At about
the age of thirty Mani began to proclaim his new
religion at the court of the Persian king, Sapor L,
and then undertook long nbsionary eae ys, re-
turning to the court about 270. rsued by the
enmity of the Magians he was obliged to flee, was
wrotected by the next king, Hormuzd, but under
iis successor, Bahram L., was abandoned to the
hatred of his enemies, who crucified him in 276
and flayed his lifeless body. His numerous
epistles and writings are lost, and we know of
them only from the Arabic catalogue, the Fihrist,
and from allusions in Epiphanius, Augustine,
and Photius.
MANICHAISM was a t religious system that
sprung up in western Asia about the close of the
3d century, and which, although it utterly dis-
claimed being denominated Christian, yet was
reckoned among the heretical bodies of the Church.
It was not an offshoot from Christianity, but was
based on the ancient Babylonian religion, and was
thus really a Semitic religion of nature modified by
Christian and Persian elements, systematised and,
elevated into a gnosis, and made applicable to
human life by a deduced system of ethion But,
while it borrowed nothing from Christianity proper,
it derived part of its terminology and some of i
conceptions from Christianity as developed among
the sects of the Basilidians, Marcionites, and Bar-
desanites, The Western Manichwans adopted
many Christian elements which were not present
in the original system of its founder nor in its
purer Eastern development. It is possible, al-
though it has not yet been satisfactorily roved,
that it borrowed some elements from Buddhism
Baur was the first to work out the theory
of a Buddhist element, and was followed b
Neander, Hilgenfeld, and other scholars; but his
argument has been assailed by Le Page Renouf,
Zeller, Lightfoot, and Harnack. Manichwism was
essentially a complete dualism, materialistic in
so far as the physical and ethical were con-
founded, and its success, says Harnack, was due
to the fact that it united an ancient mytholo
and a thorough-going materialistic dualism with
an exceedingly simple spiritual worship and a
strict morality. As has been said, it assumed two
chief principles, whence had sprung all visible and
invisible creation, and which—totally antagonistic
in their natures—were respectively styled the
Light, the Good, or God, and the Darkness, the
Bad, Matter, or Archon. They each inhabited a
region akin to their natures, and exclading each
other to such a degree that the region of Darkness
and its leader never knew of the existence of that
of the Light. Twelve wons—corresponding to the
twelve signs of the zodiac and the twelve s'
of the world--had emanated from the Primeval
Light; while Darkness, filled with the eternal
fire, which burned but shone not, was peopled by
demons, who were constantly fighting among
themselves, In one of these contests, pressing
towards the outer edge, as it were, of their region,
they became aware of the neighbouring region,
and forthwith united, attacked it, and succeeded
in carrying captive the Ray of Light that was sent
against them at the head of the hosts of Li ht,
and which was the embodiment of the Ideal or
Primal Man. The God of Light himself now
hastened to the rescue, and with the help of new
wons defeated Darkness and set free the primal
man in his greater and better part. The smaller
and fainter portion, however—the Jesus patibilis
of the Western Manichwans—remained- in the
MANICHAUS
hands of the powers of Darkness, and out of this
they formed, after the ideal of the Man of Light,
mortal man. Bat even the small fraction of light
left in him, broken in two souls, would have pre-
vailed against them, had they not found means to
further divide and subdivide it by the propagation
of this man. Thus man was originally formed in
the image of Satan, but contained within him a
Parte of the heavenly light, which awaits its final
eliverance by separation from the enveloping dark-
ness. The demons sought to obscure it further b
sensuality and dark forms of belief and faith, suc
as Paganism and Judaism; but the spirits of Light
are constantly en in drawing out the dimmed
and buried light hidden in the world, by opening
up to men the true gnosis of nature, and weaning
them away from sensuality and error. Thus there
ap in the world a succession of teachers, as
A Noah, Abraham, and probably Zoroaster
and Buddha. Jesus also was such a teacher, but
he was neither the historical Christ of Christianity,
nor the Messiah of the Jews, but a phantasmal
Jesus (Jesus impatibilis), who did not actually
suffer, as he seemed, on the cross, but only allowed
himself to become an example of endurance and
passive pain for his own, the souls of light. Since
even his immediate adherents, the apostles, were
not strong enough to suffer as he had commanded
them, he promised them a Paraclete, who should
complete his own work. This Paraclete was Mani,
who surrounded himself, like Christ, with twelve
apostles, and sent them into the world to teach
and to preach his doctrine of salvation. The end
of the world will be fire, in which the region of
Darkness will be consumed.
To attain to the region of eternal light, it
is necessary that Passion, or rather the Body,
should be utterly subdued ; hence rigorous absti-
nence from all sensual pleasures—asceticism, in
fact, to the utmost degree—is to be exercised. The
believers are divided into two classes—the Electi
oe ipeed ) and the Catechumeni ( Auditores). The
ect have to take the oath of abstinence from evil
rofane speech (including ‘religious terms such
as Christians use respecting the Godhead and
religion’), and from flesh, milk, fish, wine, and
all intoxicating drinks; from the ion of
riches, or, indeed, any property whatsoever ; from
hurting any —animal or vegetable; from
he their own family, or showing any pity to
a Ag a is not of end preserves Eaaperd and
, from breaking their chastity by marriage
or pikorvio, The Cinditore were comparatively
free to partake of the good things of this world,
lmt they had to provide for the subsistence of the
Llect, and their highest aim also was the attain-
ment of the state of their superior brethren. In
this Mani worship, the Visible Representa-
tives of the Light (sun and moon) were revered,
but only as representatives of the Ideal, of the
Good or supreme God. Neither altar nor sacrifice
was to be found in their places of religious assem-
blies, nor did they erect sumptuous temples. Fasts,
prayers, occasional readings in the supposed writ-
on of Mani, were all their outer worship. The
Old Testament they rejected unconditionally ; of
the New Testament they ee certain = -
tions, as revised and redacted by the Paraclete.
Sunday, as the day on which the visible universe
was to be consumed, the day consecrated to the
sun, was kept as a great festival; and the most
solemn day in their year was the anniversary of
the death of Mani. “The later Manichzeans cele-
brated a analogous to the Christian sacra-
ments Baptism and the Lord’s Supper. St
ine belonged to the sect for about nine years,
is our chief authority on this subject.
The outward history of the sect is one of almost
MANILA 21
continuous persecution. Yet it spread rapidly from
Persia and Mesopotamia to Syria, northern Africa,
and even Constantinople and Rome, drawing ad-
herents from the remnants of the old Gnostic sects,
especially from the Marcionites, and on the other
hand from men of a rationalistic temperament who
were repelled by such dogmas as that of the Incar-
nation. Both the Roman and Byzantine emperors
enacted stringent laws against the Manichzans,
the most severe being Valentinian III. and Jus-
tinian. Pope Leo the Great persecuted them in
Rome, and in northern Africa they were exter-
minated by the Vandals. But their peculiar doc-
trines lingered on into the middle ages, and
influenced many sects, as the Priscillianists, Pauli-
cians, Bogomiles, Catharists, and Albigenses.
See Beausobre, Hist. critique de Manichée et du Mani-
chéisme (1734); Baur, Das Manich. Religionssystem
(1831); Flugel, Mani (1862); Kessler’s Untersuchung
zur Genesis des Manich. Relivionssystem (1876), and his
excellent articles, ‘Mani’ and ‘Manichiier, in vol. ix. of
Herzog-Plitt’s Real-Encyclopddie; Geyler, Das Syste:
des Manicheismus (1875); also Harnack’s admirabio
article in the Encyclopedia Brit i
Manihiki Islands, a group of low, wooded
atolls, scattered over the central Pacific, between
the Marquesas and Union groups ; total area, 55
sq. M. ; ng ». 1600. Most of them (Caroline, Malden,
Starbuck, Penrhyn, &c.) belong to Britain.
Manila (by English people often spelt Manilla),
chief town of the Philippine Islands (q.v.) and,
till the blockade by a United States fleet in May
1898 and the subsequent. American occupation of
the Philippines, capital of the Spanish possessions
in eastern Asia, stands on the east side of a wide bay
on the SW. coast of Luzon, 650 miles SE. of Hong-
kong, with which it is connected by telegraph (1881).
It is divided into two portions by the little river
Pasig. On the south bank stands the pene old
town (founded in 1571 by Legazpi), surrounded by
crumbling walls, with tolerably wide straight streets
crossing each other at right angles. Here are the
archbishop’s palace, numerous churches and monas-
teries, the cathedral, mint (closed in 1889), univer-
sity, Jesuit observatory, arsenal, and the barracks
of the Spanish garrison. On the north bank are
the modern suburbs, Binondo, &c., the commercial
and native quarters, with the palaces of the governor-
eneral and the admiral of the station. The city is
lable to visitations of earthquakes, typhoons, and
thunderstorms of exceptional violence : for instance,
a violent earthquake did great damage in 1880,
whilst a hurricane in 1882 ruined half the city.
For this reason many of the old stone houses and
churches are in ruins, and most of the newer houses
are built of wood above the ground floor. The native
houses are generally constructed of bamboo and
thatched with the leaves of the nipa palm. Glassis
not used in the windows, but the flat shell of a large
oyster, and the window-frames all slide horizontally.
is is to exclude the great heat, the mean for the
year being 82° F. ; but during the rainy season (May
to November) it ranges from 65° to 68°. Since 1893
the city and suburbs have been lighted by elec-
tricity. The total population is estimated at about
300,000, for the most part native Tagals, though
there are some 25,000 Chinese, large numbers
descended from these two races, and about 5000
Spaniards. The people are fond of dancing and
music ; but the predominant passions of the native
population are cock-fighting, carried on in licensed
cockpits, which yield a large revenue to the govern-
ment, and betting and gambling. Almost the only
inductry is the manufacture of cigars, which employs
21,000 women and 1500 men. The harbour is not
very safe during south-west and north-east winds,
although shelter is afforded by a small breakwater,
and improvement works were in operation for ten
MANIN
MANITOBA
in 1889, me ocean:
naval station of Cavite,
gn Papa anchor at
to the south-west. A railway waa com-
menoed from Manila to Dagupan, a distance of 120
to
in 1887, and was A in November 1892.
Them the Philippines, Manila has an
of
export wale veel approximately at £3,400,000
import trade that falls but little
re,
, hemp, and
lee account three-fou of the
cotton goods, rice, wine, silk, and
nently the imports.
¢ is carried on under the
one-fourth under the Spanish, and one-
the Uni Ree. _ The
were very jealous of foreigners
Manila, Iyot Chinese. The city
from a = in 1893, shared in the
Heth
is
;
Ff
f
!
;
i
that in 1896, and saw in its
harbour the destruction of the Spanish fleet by the
American commodore Dewey in May 1898. For
Manilla Hemp, seo ABACA.
i
F
y starch
separated in the ordinary manner from
: known - commerce as Brazilian
rom it oca is made, heating
plates, ced elite with By Be rod ;
rains burst, some of the starch
a
into dextrine, and the whole =
jomerates Nicg
Tapioca of the oe
*
Cassava or Seer ei Aipi, said to bea native
of Africa as well as of America), has the root of
longer shape than the common or bitter cassava, s
and smaller —The manioc is easily propageece by.
cuttings of the stem, and is of rapid growth, attain.
ing maturity in six months. The produce is at iv
least six times that of wheat. _
har. From 183] he became a ised leader of mountain- Bur
liberal in Venice. Previous to the outbreak | 4, Assam, Weng inp ia Cachar ; 221,000,
of 1848 Manin was imprisoned for presenting a | Collected most thickly in one valley, &q. m.,
somewhat outspoken petition to the authorities ; | Situated 2500 feet above sea-level. men are
but on the promulgation of the news that P. lazy, but very fond of Polo (q.v.). The Manipuris
N Tuscany were in revolution he was | Combine Mongolian and Aryan ch es, and
Nee in triumph * the populace, and was at | “re mainly Hindus, A British political agent was
once in with su power. From the | established at the rajah's court in the town of Mani-
his election to the presidency of the
enetian republic Manin's energies were devoted
isation of the inhabitants for self-
annexation of Lombardy to
he laid down his Lasgenge f bat on
ov.
| ger aame of Venice during the
heroic defence of the city for five months against
ng Austrian army. On the 24th of
enice capitulated ; but Manin, with forty
ipal citizens, being excluded from the
» quitted the city. ¢ retired to Paris,
where t Italian, and where he died of
heart-disease, September 1857. The bones of
this truly great and noble man were bronght to free
Venice in 1868, and a statue of him was erocted
in 1875, See Lives by Henri Martin (Paris, 1859),
Finzi (1872), and Errera (1875).
Manioc, MAxptoc, or Cassava (Manihot
utiliesima), a plant of the natural order Euphor-
biacem, a native of America, and much cul.
tivated there, in Africa, and in other tropical
countries, Manioe, or Mandioca, is the Brazilian
name, Caserea the West Indian ~ and in Peru and
some other parts of South America the name is
Juca or Yucca. The viant is shrubby, with brittle
store 6 to 8 feet hi and crooked branches, at the
extremities of which are the palmate leaves
and green flowers. ‘The root is taberous, of immense
size, weighing often as much as 30 Ib. The milky,
acrid juice which tes every part of the plant
is a ly poiso.. in ite frech state, owing to the
presence of hydrocyanic acid, which is quickly dis-
sipated by heat. @ juice, inspixeated by boiling,
forms the excellent sauce called Casareap (q.v.),
and fermented with molasses yields an intoxi-
cating beverage called Onyconw ; whilet the root,
oe = ge on hot metal pote, Ba roughly
wee an article of food, In: zely
used in Soath America, and there very generally
as (Port., ‘meal'). It is made into
thin like the oatmeal-cakes of Scotland,
are er, not by mixing it with
pur or gone (pop. 40,000) in 1835. In March
1891 Mr Quinton, chief-commissioner of Assam, j
accompanied by an escort of Ghoorkas, mh
hither in March on a mission; and he and Mr
Grimwood, the resident, were overpowered and
killed. A British mili expedition reached the
capital before the end of April; and after trial, the =
Regent and a prince were transported for life, and =
the ‘Senaputty’ and chief-general executed. See —
Mrs Grimwood, My Three Years in Manipur (1891).
Manis. See PANGouiy.
Manissa, Asia Minor. See MAGNESIA.
Manistee’, capital of Manistee county, Michi-
ge is on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the ;
anistee River, 135 miles NW. of Lansing. It has
several foundries, ten salt-works, and a num-
ber of lumber-mills. Pop. (1900) 14,260,
Manito’ba, a province of Canada, bounded
on the W. by the district of Assiniboia, on the
NW. and N. by the districts of Saskatchewan
and Keewatin, on the E. by the province of On-
tario and the unorganised territory east of Kee.
watin, and on the S. by Minnesota and North Da.
kota, The province is traversed by several rivers, ;
among others the Assiniboine, with its many tribu-
taries, the chief of which are the Souris, the Pem- .,
bina, and the Red River, The Winnipeg River
flows for 60 or 70 miles through the eastern portion
of the province into Lake prin-
to
cipal la!
good deal Seta
PASIG RIVER, MANILA, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
Vol, VIL., page 22
a
MANITOBA
z 2
MANITOULIN ISLANDS 23
the prairies, the average depth being about 18 to 24
inches; the native Species, nee out of doors all
the winter. Ploughing generally i ape,
April. The harvest takes place in August an
ber. Trees are found along the rivers and
streams, and in abundance in the eastern
and northern parts of the province; but Manitoba
is not well wooded.
The ion in 1891 was 154,442—Presby-
terians, 39,001 ; Church of England, 30,852 ; Metho-
dists, 28,437; Roman Catholics, 20,571 ; Baptists,
16,112. in 1886, 108,640, classified as fol-
lows: of ish origin, 25,949; Irish, 21,180;
; Indians, 5575; half-breeds, 7985;
Scotch, 25,67
French, 6821; Germans, 11,082; Icelanders, 2468.
Among the principal cities and towns are Winni-
(1891), 25,642; P. la-Prairie, 3363 ; Bran-
3778; and Selkirk, 1 The chief industry is
ture; the soil is of remarkable depth and
fertility, and in favourable seasons the crops are
large, considering the imperfect methods of eculti-
ractised. Manitoba wheat and flour are
an as the finest in the continent. Much of
it is bought up by American millers, the product
being mixed with flours made from grain produced
in the United States. Other grains succeed admir-
ably, and an endeavour is being made to encourage
pore weg of flax. Vegetables and roots are un-
ly prolific and of great size. Wheat-growing
was for some few years the staple industry ; but
the farmers are now en more in mixed farm-
ing, including dairy-farming and the raising of
cattle and sheep. Frnit-growing is not carried on
to any extent, although many of the smaller
varieties—such as the strawberry, black and red
currant, berry, gooseberry, and cranberry—
appear to be indigenous. In minerals the province
is not very rich, but coal is found in southern
Manitoba, although it is not yet worked to any
extent. Manufactures of various kinds are increas-
ing; and Winnipeg is to a large extent the distrib-
uting centre for the western part of the Dominion.
Big game is still found in the less accessible rae
of t ge ng te bear, and some kinds of
deer, Small game is | yee pe hemes 2 prairie
chicken and wild duck. Close times are provided
for the protection of all the principal wild animals
and birds. A considerable fishing industry is
ne on in the a lakes, er white-fish
kerel are caught in uantities.
Of the imports a Sr ror ines: nearly half
comes from the United States. The exports,
animals and their produce, are sent to Britain
and the United States.
The government is administered by a lieutenant-
ler so appointed by the governor-in-council. He
assisted by an Executive Council and a Legislative
Assembly of forty members elected by the people.
There is only one House of Parliament in Mani-
toba. The province is represented by four members
in the Dominion Senate and by seven in the House
of Commons. Serious difficulty arose between the
government and the provincial adminis-
tration in rd to education. The Catholics of
Manitoba had till 1890 separate schools, but in that
ear denominational schools were abolished by the
1 Act, which established free non-sectarian
schools supported by rates. Agitation for their res-
toration was vi, ly carried on; the Dominion
ernment interfered to protect the privileges of
Catholie minority, and ultimately in 1896 a
compromise was arrived at.
In Manitoba the Dominion government offers
free grants of land—i60 acres—to every male
settler above eighteen years of age, and to every
female who is the head of a family. There is still
a considerable quantity of government land undis-
posed of in the north-western and north-eastern
parts-of the province. The Canadian Pacific Rail-
way Company, the Canada North-west Land Com-
pany, the Manitoba and North-western Railway
mpany, and the Hudson Bay Company have a con-
siderable quantity of land for sale in different parts
of the province, the price ranging from $2.50
up to $7 or $8 per acre, according to locality and
contiguity to railways and settlements. A large
land t has also recently been promised to
the Hudson Bay Railway Company. Improved
farms are to be had on reasonable terms at moder-
ate prices. The Dominion Lauds Commissioner
is established in Winnipeg, and there are land
and immigration agents in different parts of the
province.
Manitoba is in communication by rail with the
Atlantic seaboard and the Pacific, and with all
parts of Canada and the United States. The
construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway—
completed in 1885—has naturally been of immense
advantage to the province. The first railway to
Manitoba was a continuation of the United
States system from Pembina to Winnipeg, and
was ~~ in 1879. The Northern Pacifie Rail-
way direct connection with Winnipeg and
Brandon ; and a railway is projected from Winni-
to Hudson Bay.
Jntil 1868 what is now known as Manitoba
formed a portion of the territory under the control
of the Hudson Bay Company. The first agricul-
tural settlement in the country was formed in 1812,
under the auspices of the Earl of Selkirk, who
took out a party of Highlanders in that year.
They were located at Kildonan and Selkirk, on
the Red River, about 20 miles north of the site
of the present city of Winnipeg. In 1868 the
company gave up their exclusive rights to the
vernment of the territory, on certain con-
tions—among others a money yoreeet of
£300,000 and a considerable grant of land. The
province of Manitoba was constituted by an
Act passed in 1870. One of the first events of
importance that happened in Manitoba was the
Riel rebellion in 1 70. It arose out of a feelin:
of some of the inhabitants that their position an
rights had not been sufficiently considered in the
transfer already mentioned. The rebellion col-
lapsed in 1870 on the arrival at Fort Garry, the
site of the present city of Winnipeg, of the expe-
dition under Colonel (afterwards Lord) Wolseley.
Most of the leaders in the rebellion were subse-
uently amnestied. The progress of Manitoba
rom an agricultural point of view has been some-
what remarkable, but its political history has been
comparatively uneventful, excepting for the exist-
ence of occasional friction between the provincial
and Federal authorities since 1880, in connection
with railway extension in the province, After pro-
tracted negotiations these differences have, how-
ever, been disposed of.
References may be made to the following works:
Bryce’s Manitoba: Its Infancy, Growth, and Present
Condition (1882) ; Christie’s Manitoba Deseribed (1885) ;
Macoun’s Manitoba and the Great North-west (Lond.
1883); Grant’s Ocean to Ocean (1873); Fream’s Cana-
dian Agriculture (1885); ial Handbook to Canada
(Lond. 1890); Haydon and Selwyn’s North America
(1883); A Canadian Tour (1886); The Statistical Year-
book of Canada (Ottawa, 1890).
Manitou. See ANIMAL-worsutP, Vol. I. p.
Manitou, a summer-resort at the base of Pike’s
Peak, Colorado, 6296 feet above the level of the
sea. It is the Saratoga of the west, with soda
springs and several large summer hotels. Pop. 1303.
Manitoulin Islands, 2 chain of islands in
ke Huron, separating it from Georgian Bay.
The principal are Grand Manitoulin (0 miles long
24 MANITOWOC
MANNING
and 28 wide), Cockburn Isle, and Drummond
Isle ; the last to the state of apeniees, the
reat to Ontario. "All are irregular and striking in
their natural featares, and Grand Manitoulin and
Cockburn are covered with large forests of pine.
Pop. about 2000,
ital of Manitow
mouth of the
county,
jitowoe
ing is actively carried on. Li
niture, machinery, casti and leather are manu-
factured. Pop. (1890) 7710; (1900) 11,786.
‘to, capital of Blue Earth county, Min-
nesota, on the t bank of the Minnesota River,
86 miles SW. of St Panl. Three lines of railway
pass, and small steamboats can ascend as far as
i The town contains a state normal
, Roman Catholic college, &c., and has varied
manufactures, Pop. (1890) ; (1900) 10,599,
M Horace, American educationist, was born
at Franklin, Massachusetts, 4th May 1796, gradu-
ated at Brown University in 1819, and commenced
the stady of law. He was elected to the legislature
of Massachusetts in 1827, and succeeded in found-
he became president. After editing the revised
the state, he was for eleven years
secretary of the Board of Education. He gave up
business and politics, and devoted his whole time
to the cause of education, working usually fifteen
hours aoe In 1843 he made a visit to educa
. in Euro — ma Bape
was reprinted both in England and America.
1848 he was elected to conyress, as the successor of
John Quincy Adams, whose example he followed
in energetic opposition to the extension of slavery.
In 1853 he accepted the presidency of Antioch
College, at Yellow Springs, Ohio, where he laboured
until his death, Auyust 2, 1859. See his Life and
Works (5 vols, 1898), and Hindale's Horace Mann
and the Common School System (1898).
a concrete saccharine exudation ob-
tained by making transverse incisions into the
stems of cultiv trees of Fraxinus Ornus. The
manna ash is cultivated chiefly in Sicily and Cala-
men, ben tee pappesn of obtaining manna. In July
August collectors make deep cuts throug’
k to the wood near the base of the tree;
the weather be warm and favourable, the
begins to ooze out of the cuts slowly, and
in lumps or flakes, which are from time to
the collectors. Manna is a light
usually in stalactiform pieces,
long, érptallio friable, yellowish in
ey-like odour and a sweetish,
It is used in medicine as a
_—- for young children. It consiate of
to 80 per cent. of mannite, about 10 per
it. moistare, a bitter substance, and other leas
portant constituents, There are several other
manna- yielding plants besides the ash, expecially the
er Eucalyptus of Australia ( Eucalyptus
mannifera), which non-purgative, and in a
te aweetmeat with ‘he children of that
country. Small quantities are found on the com-
mon larch in some districta; thia kind is known
under the name of manna of Briangon.
The manna of the Israelites, which they ate
. was
duce! in that — ashrab, Tamariz manni-
Sera, a species of me ein from the branches
nd, It does not, how-
ever, contain any mannite, but consists wholly of
EFS
ie
£
et
i
i
es
Fe
E
iH
mueilayvinous sugar. The exudation which con-
cretes into this manna is caused by the punctures
made in the bark by insects of the genus Coceus
te manniparus), Which sometimes cover tho
ranches. It is a kind of reddish syrup, and is
eaten by the Arabs and by the monks of Mount
Sinai like honey with their bread. Others have
supposed that the manna of the Jews was pro-
duced by a species of Camel’s Thorn (q.v.).
Manners, « noble family of Northumbrian
extraction, their ancestor, Henry de Maners,
having in 1178 been lord of the manor of Ethale,
or Etal, in that county. His descendant, Sir
Robert de Manners, was governor of Norham
Castle in 1327. In 1454 another Sir Robert de
Manners was sheriff of Northumberland ; in 1525
his grandson was raised to the earldom of Rutland ;
and in 1703 the tenth earl was raised to the duke-
dom. The eldest son of the third duke was the
celebrated Marquis of Granby (q.v.). The chief
seat of the family is Belvoir Castle, 7 miles W. by
S. of Grantham, a | castellated
structed by Wyatt, and commanding
view. Crabbe was chaplain here. See
Eller (1841) and Allen (1874).
Mannhe the capital formerly of the Rhenish
Palatinate, and now the chief trading-town in
Baden, lies low in a fertile plain on the right bank
of the Rhine, here 400 yards wide and joined
the Neckar, 53 miles S. of Frankfort and 38 N.
of Carlsruhe. The fortifications have been converted
into ens, and the town is remarkable for its
cleanliness and regularity, the whole of it pers 3
laid out in quadrangular blocks. The
in 1720-29 ‘ the Elector-Palatine Charles Philip,
is one of the largest in Germany, covering 15 acres,
with a facade 580 yards long, and 1500 windows,
The Schillerplatz is adorned with colossal statues
of Schiller, Dalberg, and the actor and dramatist
Iffland (1759-1814). A great and increasing river-
trade is carried on, the harbour having been opened
in 1875, The manufactures also are important, of
iron, cigars, ts, india-rubber, &e. Bop. : 1875)
46,453 ; (1885) 61,273 (26,904 Catholics, 4: ews) >
(1890) 79,058. Mannheim is heard of as early as
705, but remained a mere village till 1606, when
a castle was built by the elector-palatine, around
which a town grew up, peopled chiefly by Protes-
tant refugees from the Low Countries. It was
several times taken and retaken during the wars of
the 17th century, totally destroyed by the French
in 1689, rebuilt and strongly fortified, and in 1795-
severely bombarded by the Austrians. See works.
by Fecht (1864) and Feder (1875-77).
Manning, Henry Epwarp, a cardinal of the
Catholie Church, was born 15th July 1808, at Totte-
_— in Hertfordshire, was educated at Harrow
and Balliol College, Oxford, and, after taking a
double first in 1830, was made a Fellow of Merton.
He soon came to the front as an eloquent preacher
and as a leader of the Tractarian party. In 1834
he was appointed to a country rectory in Sussex,
and married a lady whose sisters were the wives.
of Samuel and Henry Wilberforce, ing
died after afew months of married life. In 1
her husband became Archdeacon of Chichester. But
in 1851, deeply moved by the final decision in the
*Gorham Case’ ( ot ), he left the Church of England
and joined the Church of Rome. His advancement:
in that communion was rapid from the first;
having been ordained priest, he studied for some
years in Rome, and in 1857 he founded the con-
tion of the Oblates of St Charles Borromeo
at Bayswater, London. He was made provost
of Westminster, and in 1865, on the death of
Cardinal Wiseman, was promoted to be Archbisho
of Westminster. At the Gicumenical Council
pile, recon- —
a splendid
works by
repre
MANNING
MANSEL 25
- 1870, Manning was one of the most zealous sup-
porters and promoters of the infallibility dogma;
and, named cardinal in 1875, he continued an
influential leader of the Ultramontane section of
the church. Besides being the foremost spirit in
most Catholic movements in England, he took
in many non-sectarian good works designed
better the social life of the people, such as the
tem movement; and he was a member of
the Royal Commissions on the Housing of the Poor
(1885) and on Education (1886). Before his
secession to Rome, he published several volumes
of powerful sermons ; his subsequent writings were
mainly polemical. He revised a number of articles
in this work. A devont prelate, a churchly states-
man, and a practical reformer, he died 14th Jan
1892. The Life nee 8. Purcell (2 vols. 1896) was
considered hardly fair to his seg te provoked
controversy. A short Life by A. W. Hutton had
are in 1892. Manning wrote on infallibility,
Vatican Council, Ultramontanism, the Four
Great Evils of the Day (2d ed. 1871), Internal Mis-
coo Sire oly Ghost (1875), The Catholic Church
and Se ee eras athood (1208),
Characteristics (ed. by W. 8. Lilly, 1885), &e.
Manning, Rozerr. See BruNNE( RoseERT OF).
Mannite, C,H,(OH),, is a peculiar saccharine
matter wine, forms the ciineipa! constituent of
Manna (q.v.); it is also found in several kinds of
in asparagus, celery, onions, &e. It is most
readily obtained by digesting manna in hot alcohol.
Manoa. See Et Dorapo.
Man-of-war. See Navy.
Man-of-war Bird. See Fricate Birp.
Manometer (Gr. manos, ‘thin,’ ‘ rare’) is pro-
perly an instrument for measuring the rarity of
the air or of other gases; but the name is most
frequently applied to instruments for indicating
the elastic pressure of gases, which is always, for
each kind of inversely proportional to its
rarity, or directly proportional to its density. The
several kinds of Hes le, (q.¥.) are really mano-
steam-gauge of a Steam-
to legal theory, the lord derives
or from some superior lord.
lly-organised manor the local customs are
by three courts: a Court Baron for the
free tenants, who are op, rama the barones or
men of the manor; a Customary Court for the
copyholders, who hold by base or customary tenure;
and a Court Leet, in which officers are elected and
minor offences punished. The lord’s demesne
includes lands oceupied by himself and by his
tenants-at-will, including customary tenants. Free-
hold lands do not form part of the lord’s demesne ;
but free tenants are essential to the existence of
a manor. Where the services of free tenants have
been allowed to pass into desuetude, the manor
survives as a ‘manor by reputation,’ but the Cus-
Court is kept alive for the purpose of
ang acts and events which affect the title to
copyhold lands, and of collecting the quitrents,
fines, &e., which are payable to the lord. No new
free tenure can be created in England since the
statute Quia Emptores, passed in 1290 ; all existing
manors, therefore, ust trace their origin from before
time. The king himself was lord of many
Manors in right of his crown; and these are called
manors of ancient demesne, to distinguish them
from lands which fell casually into the king’s hands
by forfeiture or otherwise. Manors closely resemble
the feudal estates known to the law of Scotland.
In the United States there is no institution corre-
sponding to the manor. See FEUDALISM.
Manrent (or properly, MANRED), Bonps or,
ments which used to be entered into in the
Highlands of Scotland between the greater and
lesser magnates, where protection on the one hand
was stipulated in return for allegiance on the other.
Manresa, a town of Spain, on the Cardoner,
41 miles by rail NW. of Barcelona. It has a fine
ehurch (1020-15th century), the cave of Ignatius
Loyola, and manufactures of cotton, broadcloths,
barr &c. In 1811 it was fired by Marshal Mac-
donald—an outrage avenged by the Catalan knives
uary| of the townsfolk. Pop. 16,526.
Mans, Le, a Pitacoas city of France, the
capital formerly of the province of Maine, and now
of the department of Sarthe, on the left bank of
the river Sarthe, 132 miles SW. of Paris by rail.
The cathedral, 390 feet long, has a Romanesque
nave of the 11th and 12th centuries, and a match-
less Pointed-Gothic choir of the 13th century, 104
feet high, with splendid stained glass. In the right
transept is the monument of Berengaria, Coeur-de-
Lion’s queen. There are two other interesting
churches, and both préfecture and seminary occupy
old conventual buildings, the former comprising
also a.museum and a Yibrary of 55,000 volumes.
Le Mans does a large trade in poultry and clover-
seed, and manufactures candles, woollens, lace,
soap, &c. Pop. (1872) 42,654; (1891) 57,412. The
Cenomanum of the Romans, and the birthplace of
Bont IL. of England, Le Mans witnessed in. 1793
the dispersion and massacre of more than 10,000
Vendéans ; and in January 1871 the defeat, after a
stubborn resistance, of 100,000 Frenchmen under
Chanzy by Prince Frederick-Charles. A statue of
Chanzy was erected in 1885, and one of Belon (q.v.)
in 1887. See Hublin, Le Mans Pittoresque (1885).
Mansard Roof, a form of roof invented by
Francois Mansart (1598-1666), a distinguished
French architect. It is
constructed with a break
in the slope of the roof, so
that each side has two
planes, the lower being
steeper than the upper.
The fiainewock ou ht oes
be arranged so that its
parts are in equilibrium.
This kind of roof has the
advantage over the common form of giving more
space in the roof for living-rooms.
Manse, in Scotch law, is the designation of a
dwelling-house of the minister of the Established
Church, and in popular use the term is often
applied generally to the dwelling-house of any
minister of a dissenting congregation, though no
legal right exists in the latter ease. In the Estab-
lished Chureh every first minister of a rural parish
is entitled to a manse, which the heritors or landed
proprietors in the parish are bound to build and
uphold; and he is also entitled, as part of the
manse or dwelling-house, to a stable, barn, and
byre. The manse must, by statute, be near to the
church, When a manse has been built or repaired
by the heritors it becomes a free manse, and all
ordinary repairs have to be done at the charges of
the minister. Decree to the effect that a manse is
‘free’ may be given by the sheriff ; and such decree
stands | for fifteen years, or until the appoint-
ment aa new minister. It has been judicially
decided that a minister has a right to let his manse
at a rent for two months in summer,
Mansel, Henry LONGUEVILLE, Dean of St
Paul’s, was born at Cosgrove rectory, Northamp-
Mansard Roof.
MANSFIELD
from
in immediate cogni-
tion of the conscions ego ; and he went beyond his
master in emphasising the relativity of knowledge
of theology—alleging that we have
i einer of God
ve conception of the
see CONDITION). The agnostic tend of this
eins poked violent controversy. His pub-
lished works are Aldrich’s Logic, with Notes
(1849); na Logica (1851); article ‘ Meta-
physics’ in edition of the Encyclopedia Brit-
annica (1857), afterwards published separately ;
The Limite of Religious Thought (Bampton Lec-
tures, 1858); The Philosophy of the Conditioned
in to Mill's Recteo of Hamilton's
a
&
z
i rely lectures on The Gnostic Heresi:
Lightfoot in 1874, with Life of Manse
of Carnarvon. He was co-editor, with
Veitch, of Sir William Hamilton's Lec-
tures. See Dean Bargon's Lives of Twelve Good
Men (1888).
z
Counts or, an old German noble
he was made by the cg vernor
of the d of Laxembarg. But in 1552, whilst
raiding in Champagne, he was taken prisoner b
the French, not ransomed until 1557. He
t net them os at St Quentin. On the
pin aod er the revolt in the Low Countries he
of the cleverest generals in
testants, he covered himself with glory at Mon-
contour oh, a1 ages sea age - in
man military operations in the Nether-
pe em for a while as governor of the
Low Countries. In 15097 he retired to
Laxembarg, where he had ered a valuable
of antique art, died there on 22d
ae
illegitimate son, Peren Enwest I1., usually
called Count Ernest von Mansfeld, waa one of
the most prominent wilitary leaders during the
Thirty Years’ War (q.v.). Born at Luxemburg
in 1580, he served his apprenticeship to war in the
— artis mrt af yoo ole 1 Se the nes a
rew, was promise
of father's A ~ — it ane to
pinch, t were teed to him. is con.
verted Stanutoll into an implacable enemy, and
over to the side of the Protestant
He assisted the Duke of Savoy against
jards (1613-17), and in 1618 waa de.
to Bohemia, to aid the Count-Palatine
and captured Pilsen and other strong.
t the dienater of the Weissenberg
him to retreat to the Palatinate, from
eartied on for nearly two years a semi.
war on the imperialists, defeating Tilly
(April 16022), When Frederick aban-
stroggle, Mansfeld, with his chosen ally
of newick, a swashbuckling adven-
himeelf, fought his way through the
F
tty
i
i
‘
FSF
Spanish-Austtian forces to take service for the
nited Netherlands, beating Cordova at Fleurus — a
29th August). At the bidding of his new masters
ansfeld chastised the Count of East
and then, dismissing his army, retired into private —
life at The Hague. But in 1624 he resumed active
work again at the solicitation of Richelieu,
an army of 12,000 men, raised mostly in Eng-
land, he renewed the struggle on the Lowe
till on 25th April 1626 he was crushingly q
by Wallenstein at the bridge at Dessau.
more raising a force of 12
with these and 5000 Danes he marched by way
Silesia to join hands in Moravia and Hw with
Bethlen Gabor of Transylvania. But the
for
Venice with a few officers to raise
when he fell sick and died, standing, clad in full
oply and supported by two attendants, at
ees Ag near Serajevo in Bosnia, on 29th
November 1626. Count Ernest, a soldier of for-
tune, was the idol of his lawless perce whom —
id to their
he frequently allowed to plunder and
heart's content, so that they were a terror to
friends as well as foes,
Mansfield, a market-town of Nottinghamshire,
in Sherwood Forest, 17 miles N. of Nottingham.
Its grammar-school Heroes has been rebuilt at a
cost of £10,000; and there are a memorial cross
(1850) to Lord George Bentinck, a town-hall
(1836), an interesting parish church, &e, Mans-
field stands in the centre of a manufactu and
mining district, and has manufactures of lace
psec PR: iron. Pop. (1881) 13,651 ; (1891) 15,925.
See Harred’s History of Mansfield (1801),
Mansfield, capital of Richland county, Ohio,
stands on an elevated site, 179 miles by rail NE. of
Cincinnati, and contains iron-foundries and manau-
factories of flour, a implements, stoves,
tiles, &c. Pop. (1880) 9859 ; (1900) 17,640.
Mansfield, Witt1AmM Murray, Eart or,
Lord-chief-justice of the King’s Bench, was the —
fourth son of Andrew, Viscount Stormont, and was’
born at Perth, 24 March 1704. From Westminster
he P opane- to Christ Church, Oxford, uated
M.A. in 1730, and was called to the bar the follow-
ing year. He soon acquired an extensive practice
—mainly, it would seem, on account of his facility
and force as a speaker, for neither then nor at any
subsequent period of his career was he reckoned a
very erudite lawyer—and was often employed on
appeal cases before the House of Lords. 1743
he was — Solicitor-general, entered the
Honse of Commons as member for Boroughbridge,
and at once took a high position. In 1746 he acted,
ex officio, as counsel against the rebel lords, Lo
Balmerino, and Kilmarnock; was appoin
Attorney-general in 1754; and at this time stood
so high that, had not the keenness of his ambition
been mitigated by a well-founded distrust of his
fitness for leading the House, he might have aspired
to the highest political honours. He became Chief:
justice of the King’s Bench in 1756, and, contrary
to usage, also a member of the cabinet ; and entered
the House of Lords under the title of Baron Mans-
field of Mansfield, in the county of Nottingham,
Although he was impartial and tolerant as a judge,
his opinions were not those of the popular side, and
accordingly he was expos to much abuse and
party hatred. Junius bitterly attacked him, and
during the Gordon riots of 1780 his house, with
all his books and papers, was burned. The
judge declined with much dignity to be indemnified
vy parliament. In 1776 Murray was made Earl
of Mansfield. Age and ill-health forced him to
resign the Chief-justiceshin in 1788. He died,
With —
in Brandenburg, _
rench —
and English subsidies failing, on which he relied —
pay for his men, he was perry way to |
a ‘Sa m1 —- = s
MANSION HOUSE
MANTELL 27
20th March 1793, when the title devolved upon his
nephew, Viscount Stormont.
Mansion House, the official residence of the
Lord Mayor of London, was built on the site of the
Old Stocks Market in 1739, at a cost of £42,638. It
is an obl building, and at its farthest end is the
tian _ Four hundred a ne Sine be
grand ueting-room, which was desi
by the Earl of Darlington from the duatiplina of
an tian chamber given by Vitruvius. All the
frat mets, public and private, given by the
Mayor take place
fine ball and reception rooms. At the close of
the exhibition of 1851 the Corporation of London
voted £10,000 to be expended on statuary for the
} adornment of the Mansion House; and there is
also a fine gallery of portraits and other pictures.
| Among its curiosities may be mentioned a state
; bed, w eost 3000 guineas, and a kitchen and
) cgay Mh meg extraordinary for their vast
size. Lord Mayor's jewelled collar of gold
| and diamonds, his silver-gilt mace, his sword, and
. his seal are described, together with his coach and
; ancient barge, in Thornbury’s O/d and New London,
1
here, and there are also
vol i. pp. 436, 443. The establishment and expenses
connected with the office cost an ann sum
of £25,000; and it is said that only one Lord
Mayor ever saved anything out of his salary. The
; Mansion House is too modern to possess much
historical interest; but the Wilkes riots fre-
ged took place in its neighbourhood during
mayoralty of Wilkes’ friend, Brass Crosby.
The Mansion House is often a centre of benevolent
enterprise in the collection of money for sufferers
by war, famine, flood, pestilence, and earthquake
a , or by colliery explosions, shipwrecks, and
lack of employment at home ; and Mansion House
ie are also raised for memorials to heroic
Manslaughter is the crime of unlawful
homicide without malice aforethought. Homicide,
| or the infliction of death, is not a crime when it is
, done in self-defence against unlawful violence, or
when it is done in the execution of the sentence of
) a@ court of justice. Thus one whose life is en-
dangered by the violent attack of a madman, and
kills the madman, commits homicide, but is inno-
cent of manslaughter. So, too, is the executioner
who hangs a convicted murderer. Homicide is
unlawful, and amounts to manslaughter when,
without being justified in any such manner as has
been exemplified above, it is committed with the
intention to cause physical injury ; or is the result
of culpable negligence or omission to perform some
legal duty; or is the result of an accident occa-
j sioned by some unlawful act. Thus, if one man
strike another without intending to kill him, and
the blow prove fatal, the striker is guilty of man-
q slaughter ; or if, where it is the duty of the master
of a ship to keep a lookout for small boats in the
ship’s way, a boat is run down and its occupants
q drowned in consequence of the absence of a look-
out upon the ship, the master of the vessel is guilty
of manslaughter; or if a man is engaged in an
unlicensed manufacture of dynamite, and by an
accidental explosion of the dynamite another is
killed, the manufacturer is guilty of manslaughter.
When manslaughter is accompanied by malice
aforethought, it becomes murder. See Sir James
Stephen's Digest of the Criminal Law.
Manson, Grorce, a Scottish water-colour
— was born in Edinburgh on 3d December
850. He served five years as a wood-engraver in
the establishment of Messrs W. & R. Chambers,
readying art in his spare hours morning and even-
by
> be first picture which attracted attention,
ke % Time,’ was painted at Craigmillar Castle
CE —————
near Edinburgh, between four and eight o'clock of
the mornings of a whole summer. In 1871 he de-
voted himself to painting altogether, but his youth-
ful hard study had permanently injured his health,
and he died at Lympstone, Devonshire, 27th Febru-
ary 1876. His pictures, which have increased largely
in value since his death, are mostly from humble
life ; beauty and refinement of drawing and colour
are their t charm. A memoir of him, with
hotographs of his principal pictures, was pub-
ished in 1880. See P. G. Hamerton’s Graphic
Arts, p. 311.
Mansourah, a town of Lower Egypt, on the
Damietta branch of the Nile, 30 miles SW. of
Damietta by rail. Pop. (1897) 34,997. The place
was founded in 1220, and here St Louis of France
was iniprisoned in 1250.
Mant, RicHArD (1776-1848), divine, was born
in Southampton, educated at Oxford, and after
holding cures in England, became successively
Bishop of Killaloe (1820) and of Down and Connor
(1823), with Dromore attached (1842). He wrote
with D’Oyly a famous annotated Bible (1814), an
annotatec of Common fk (1825), and a
History of the Church of Ireland (1841). See his
Memoirs by Berens (1849) and W. Mant (1857).
Mantchuria. See MANCHURIA.
Man ANDREA, Italian painter, born in
or near Padua in 1431, was the favourite pupil and
adopted son of that tailor Mecends of painters,
Squarcione. By studying the antique collections
gathered together by his patron, especially from
the study of the sculpture, Mantegna became
imbued with the spirit of ancient art, and all his
works bear the impress of the severe dignity and
precision of his models. Grace and beauty were
not the ideals that he aimed at ; some of his pictures
are positively ugly. A precocious genius, Mantegna
set up an independent atelier when only seventeen
years of age. Amongst his earliest works, done at
Padua, are frescoes of saints in the chureh of St
Antony, an altarpiece for St Justina, and most of
the frescoes of St Christopher, and some of those
of St James, in the church of the Hermits.
Having married the sister of Giovanni and Gentile
Bellini, he seems to have become estranged from
Squarcione, and left Padua (1459). He painted
an altarpiece, the ‘Madonna and Angels,’ for St
Zeno’s church at Verona, and was induced by
Lodovico Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, to settle in
his city. There he remained, with the exception
of a visit to Rome (1488-90) to paint a series of
frescoes (now destroyed) for Pope Innocent VIII.,
until his death on 13th September 1506. His
greatest works at Mantua were nine tempera
pictures representing the ‘ Triumph of Cesar’ (his
masterpiece). ‘The Madonna of Victory with
Gonzaga,’ ‘Parnassus,’ ‘Defeat of the Vices,’
‘Triumph of Scipio,’ and ‘Madonna between St
John the Baptist and St Magdalene.’ Like Leonardo
da Vinci, Masterns was something of a universal
genius. He was an engraver and an architect, as
well as a painter, and is said to have written
ms and wielded the sculptor’s chisel. He
introduced into North Italy, though he can hardly
have invented, the art of engraving with the burin
on copper. His best plates bear the titles ‘A
Bacchanal Feast,’ ‘Descent from the Cross,’ ‘ En-
tombment,’ ‘ Resurrection,’ ‘ Battle of the Titans,’
and ‘Roman Triumphs.’ Mantegna’s technical
excellencies, his skilful foreshortening, masterly
rspective, and austerity of form exercised a great
influence upon subsequent Italian art.
Mantell, GIDEON ALGERNON, an eminent
British paleontologist and geologist, was born at
Lewes, in Sussex, in 1790; studied medicine, and
practised successively at Lewes, Brighton, and
38 MANTES MANTUA
Clapham, London ied be gees the long prothorax and the
saffering beedeeeen, ‘i cy “ng en nt lige which are Atted for grasping.
note of an accident, he pursued his stadies with | They are entirel carnivorous in habit, but do not
unabated zeal. He dra actively pursue their prey; the insect waits patiently
weathed his geological draw-
ings to Yale College. Mts collections be sold to the
ie gee ar ec apae Dagatiy ony Append
He was a very voluminous writer, no less t sixty-
seven works and memoirs of his being enumerated
in Agassiz and Strickland’s Bibliotheca Zoologia et
care ngal His claims to a acragen yt ge hDhan
history seience rest mainly on his rious
inv: ions into the fossils of the Wealden beds.
To him we owe the discovery and description of
the four great Dinosaurian reptiles, the Jguanodon,
Hyleosaurus, Pelorosaurus, and Regnosaurus.
Man 4 town in the French department of
Seineer One on the left bank of the Seine, 36
miles rail WNW. of Paris. It has a striki
tower (1344) and a beautiful church, a red
of Notre Dame at Paris. The ancient
4 town of the Celts, Mantes in 1083 was
sacked William the ueror, who here
received the injury that death ; and
here too og V. was converted from Protestant-
ism. Pop. 4
Manteuffel, Eowix Hays Karu, Fremerr
Vor, and admini
bureau at Berlin, a which he held
pom Ay Having been appetite commander of
the wick, he protested
'y
i icane 7, 1866),
On the outbreak of hostilities Manteuffel com.
manded a division of the army of the Main, which
th German
in the battle of
(27th June), w brought about the
Hanoverian
Main army, and by winning the batt
berbischofsheim, Helmstiidt, and
over the Bavarians and others he brought
He eeait of the campai to @ successful issue,
He entered the war 1870 as commander of the
bat was soon oted to the command
army, which fonght successfully at
Amiens and other places. Transferred in
appointed im viceroy of the newly-organised
provinces, Alsace-Lorraine. His administration
wae not a ¥ one: his endeavours to help on
the process Germanisation by direct efforts
and upper classes, both
¢ died at Carlsbad, 17th
June 1885. See Life by Keck (Bielef, 1889).
an ancient city of Arcadia, in the
midst of a broad plain, Here Epaminondas fell in
moment of a great victory over the Spartans,
Berea a rt
ta
of the insect order Orthoptera. They are chiefly to
tuated on the river Ophis, in the designs
until a fly comes within reach, and then
seizes it with its fore-limbs (see the illustration),
come within reach has given to one species, plenti-
ful in the south of pth the name of praying
tly
th fol I i esl ek the
uietly among foli t is su
ae lance to an erehid-like Pent may delude
smaller insects into roaching near enough for
the mantis to take advantage of its ‘alluring’
colours and shape.
Mantling. See Heraupry.
Man-traps, engines for the terrifying of tres-
eget and poachers (formerly —_ ty
e warning notice ‘ man-traps an ring-guns
here’), resembled gigantic rat-trape four fest 5
They may be seen in museums; it is, since ]
illegal to set them save indoors between sunset and
sunrise, as a defence against burglars,
Mantua (Ital. Man’tova), a fortified | of
Northern Italy, formerly capital of the duchy of the
same name, 38 miles by rail N. of Modena and 25 8,
by W. of Verona, oceupies two islands formed by the
Mincio, and stands in the midst of a district,
which, combined with its artificial fo: fications,
make it perhaps t fortress in Italy.
But at the same time its situation makes it liable
| to malaria. It forms one of the four fortresses of
| the Quadrilateral (q.v.).
| the squares numerous, and the population compara-
The streets are spacious,
tively small, 28,048 in 1881 ; so that for this
an use of the numerous massive meaiaral:
buildings, the town has a lifeless and gloomy
appearance. Chief amongst the buildings are the
fortress of the Gon erected in 1393-1 and
adorned with paintings by pogo st! close the
dueal palace, begun in 1302, which contains 500
rooms, rp has them ornamented with paintings and
of Giulio Romano; the Palazzo Te, outside
the city walls on the south, the greatest monument
to the skill of Giulio Romano as architect, painter
and sculptor ; the cathedral of San Pietro, restored
from designs by G. Romano; and the church of San
Andrea, one of the finest Renaissance churches in
Italy, containing the tomb of Mantegna, whose pupils
MANU
MANURE 29
adorned the walls with frescoes. The public institu-
tions include an academy of arts and sciences, a
library with 80,000 vols. and 1000 MSS., a museum
of antiquities, an observatory, archives, a botanical
a large military hospital, &e. Virgil was
at Pietole (anc. Andes), now a suburb of
Mantua. The industries include weaving, tanning,
and saltpetre-refining. Some 3000 Jews live in
‘oma ts. an a groigey ue foan, bs nee
vely in ion of the Romans, Ostrogoths,
sit ork before falling into the hands of the
emperors, who gave it to the Marquis of Canossa.
From him it passed to the Countess Matilda of
Tuscany in 1052. After her death it was a free
jeipertal city and joined the Lombard leagues against
the H. enemperors. The Buonacolsis made
themselves masters of the city in 1247, but were
ousted from power by the head of the Gonzaga
(q.v.) family in 1328. This dynasty, the head of
which was created duke by Charles V. in 1530, not
only maintained themselves against their great
rivals, the Visconti of Milan, but raised the city to
the height of its splendour and renown. The last
duke died childless in 1708, and his duchy was con-
fiseated by Austria, who kept her hold of it down
to 1866, except for two short periods (1797-99 and
1801-14), when it was in the ion of France.
Mantua has endured at least three ost Soe, b
the Emperor Ferdinand II. in 1630, by the Frene
in 1797, and by the Austrians in 1799. During the
years 1830-59 it was the headquarters of much
age persecution by the Austrian government.
Arco’s History, in Italian (7 vols. 1871-74).
The ince has an area of 911 sq. m., and a ‘
(1880) of 321,872. ¥ “se
Manu (from the Sanskrit man, ‘to think,’ lit.
‘the thinking being’) is the ted author of the
most renowned law-book of the ancient Hindus,
and likewise of an ancient Kalpa work on Vedic
rites. It is matter, however, of considerable doubt
whether both works belong to the same individual,
and whether the name Manu, especially in the case
= ae ——, of wn petonin 7 intended hes
te an historical personage; for, in seve’
— of the Vedas (q.v.), as well as the Maha-
irata (q.v.), Manu is mentioned as the progenitor
of the human race; and, in the first chapter of the
law-book ascribed to him, he declares himself to
have been produced bn Page an ~—- of the
, and to have created all this universe.
knows, moreover, a succession of
whom created, in his own od,
the world anew after it had perished at the end
of a mundane age. The word Manu—akin to our
‘man’—belongs therefore, properly speaking, to
ancient Hindu mythology, and it was connected
with the reno law-book in order to impart to
the latter the sanctity on which its authority rests.
This work is not merely a law-book in the Euro-
pean sense of the word, it is likewise a system of
y; it propounds roe ti fgnere octrines,
the art of government, and, amongst other
treats of the state of the soul after death.
chief topics of its twelve books are the follow-
1) creation ; (2) education and the duties of
1, or the first order; (3) marriage and the
householder, or the second order; (4)
bsistence and private morals; (5) diet,
, and the duties of women; (6) the
an anchorite and an ascetic, or the duties
and fourth orders; (7) government
of a king and the military caste; (8)
— and law, private and criminal ; (9) con-
ion of the former and the duties of the com-
servile castes ; (10) mixed castes and
the duties of the castes in time of distress; (11
—- and expiation; (12) transmigration an
beatitude. Biihler has proved that Max
d
te
sea
ai
i
F
Miiller was right in regarding the extant work as a
versified recast of an ancient law-book, the manual
of a particular Vedic school, the Manavas; and
holds that the work, the date of which used to be
given at 1200 B.c., was certainly extant in the 2d
century A.D., and seems to have been composed
between that date and the 2d century B.c. There
are many remarkable correspondences between this
work and the Mahabharata, suggesting the use in
both of common materials.
The laws of Manu were translated by Sir William
Jones (1794). See also The Ordinances of Manu, trans-
lated from the Sanskrit, with introduction by Burnell,
completed by Hopkins (1886); The Laws of Manu, trans-
lated with extracts from seven commentaries by G. Biihler
(in ‘Sacred Books of the East,’ 1888).
Manure, Any material, whether of animal,
vegetable, or mineral origin, which adds to the
fertility of the soil has been generally regarded as
manure. The application of stable and farmyard
manure, as also the ashes of plants, &c., to the
soil has been practised probably in all ; but the
scientific principles involved in this ancient practice
were but little understood until more recent times,
when chemists, botanists, and physiologists set
themselves the task of explaining to the agricul-
turist the changes which are ever taking place in
the soil and in the plant itself. On virgin soils
crops may be grown for years without much
evident diminution in quantity or quality ; but a
period must come when there will be an exhaustion
of one or more of the constituents of plants, and
the soil can then be no longer regarded as fertile.
That_is to say, soils contain certain proportions of
certain in ients ; and when these are abstracted
by the plant and carried away in the form of
crops, the soil must in time become exhausted. It
then becomes necessary to add to the soil in the
form of manure such constituents as the crops have
removed in order that the land may regain fertility.
When we consider that Soils (q.v.) are formed
mainly from the weathering of rocks, it will at once
be understood how it is generally unnecessary that
manures should contain such things as magnesia,
iron, alumina, &c. eo jar peal the con-
stituents which are removed by plants from soils,
the loss of which brings about that condition of
‘exhaustion,’ are compounds of nitrogen, phosphoric
acid, and potash ; oad hence it is, in part at least,
that farmyard manure is so universally regarded as
the ‘stand-by’ of the agriculturist, for that material
contains all those ingredients, and in a form easily
assimilated by plants. It must not be overlooked,
however, that ibly the chief advantages derived
from the use of fennpata manure are that it makes
the soil porous, and that the conditions which
result from the decomposition of the organic
matter are favourable to the development of
those micro-organisms which bacteriologists are en-
deavouring to prove are of as much importance as
the manure itself (see NITRIFICATION). Manures
containing large proportions of organic matter, such
as stable manure, wrack or seaweed, fish offal, &c.,
have value as plant-food; but the heat ryan ae
during their decomposition, or rotting, and the fact
that the carbonic acid resulting from that change
acts as a solvent on the mineral constituents of
the soil and otherwise, are of still greater moment.
The first artificial manure systematically used
was probably bones, applied in the earlier periods,
either in an unground condition or simply bruised.
About the beginning of the 19th century, however,
it was proved that fineness of division rendered bone
more easily assimilated by plants ; and further pro-
still was made when Liebig introduced the
treatment of bone with sulphuric acid, whereby
chemical division was realised. There are about
50,000 tons of bone imported into Britain annually,
MANURE
MANZONI
3%
while of home-collected done not less than 60,000
tons are employed in the manufacture of manure,
and of this quantity London alone produces
fully 23,000 tons annually. om Nig
‘Mano. — vian was at one time im-
ported from the Ch Islands in enormous
quantities; bat the old deposits are_ practicall
exhausted, and
the quality of the now available
fe eeneee sss a ee
( south-west still im '
in somewhat limited quantity; but it is
much the richest available guano.
these guanos lies in the percentages of nitrogenous
ic matter, ammonia salts, phosphates of the
alkalies and of lime, and the potash salts which
they contain. Some of the islands in the South
Pacific yield supplies of guano, but these are
almost purely phosphatic, owing to the abundant
rainfall of region having washed out all
the ammoniacal salts, Liebig's Guano and Liebig's
Meat Meal are by-products from the preparation
of Liebig’s extract of meat. They are in a fine
state ope geo enang division, and are Sapam}
sources of nitrogen phosphates. -guano
is largely produced in Norway and the north of
Scotland from fish offal (see GUANO). The process
ora is essentially steaming to remove the oil,
wi is run off with the water; the solid residue
is soo and dried. The manurial constituents
of material are nitrogen and phosphates.
Dried Blood is another valuable source of nitro-
gen. Horn powder, shoddy and wool waste, leather
saaplngs, &e. are also employed for the same pur-
pose, but they are of much less value.
‘hosphatic Substances.—The coprolites of Cam-
bridge, Norfolk, and Suffolk come under this
classification, as does also the land phosphate from
the Ash Basin of South Carolina, and the
di from the Ashley and Cooper
rivers, In ition to these we have Canadian
te, Sombrero, Navassa, Somme, Belgian,
Spanish, Curacao, numerous other
These are of little value as manure in
their natural and ground state, and are almost
wholly converted into superphosphate by the action
of pa uric acid, whereby the natural or tricalcic
—Wwhich is insoluble in water—is con-
verted into the monocalcic phosphate, which is
soluble, and therefore readily available to plants,
Sul, of Ammonia is principally derived from
the destractive distillation of coal and shale (see
GAS-LIGHTING, Vol. V. p. 98, and PARAFFIN), Its
value depends upon the percentageof ammonia which
it contains, is salt sometimes contains sulpho-
cyanide of ammonium, a substance which is in-
imical to plant-life. Some experimentalists assert
with all confidence that ammonia salts must under-
go nitrification before they can enter the plant ; but
that contention is scarcely now tenable, because
nitrification is possible in some cases within the
plant itself.
Nitrate of Soda or Chili Saltpetre is very exten-
sively imported, and is sold on a basis of 95 per
cont, nitrate, or ‘5 per cent. refraction’—i.e. not
more than 5 per cent. of impurities, It is found
native in several districts of th America in an
impure state, and is rendered marketable by a
process of solution and re-crystallising. Its action
as & manure is comparable to that of nitrate of
lime, nitrate of potash, or sulphate of ammonia.
It» only valuable constituent is nitric acid, while
in the other nitrates mentioned the base
Potash Salts are of the utmost service to
ly contain a sufficiency
Caree or ~~. lands
of potash, while um and light soils require it to
be added. Nitrate, sulphate, and muriate are all
more of lew employed in compounding potash
is also
lanta,
he value of |
salt | iy poe al from Germany
the most gene
only is desired. 5 ;
iquid Manure may be classed with
manure, as it is now very commonly absorbed
the ‘courts’ by the straw, &c, Occasi
used in the liquid form on grass or stubble land, —
Lime is one of the most necessary conten
soils and manures, It is geesey i ‘fresh
burned’ to newly-broken land, or where there is
an excessive amount of or similar m :
Lime is the great carrier into p
lants of er
‘stafls’ which fe to form their organic com s
and during this elaboration organic heahall
formed, many, if not all, of which would
the plants themselves but for the presence
with which these organic acids combine to
insoluble non-poisonous compounds. :
The study of the Prd ine F sie and manuring
—can be most profitably followed in the works ot
Lawes ons an rt. Yet most of Race cmon ages
or cultural—experiments are but gs
gy ; they are ree misleading he inconclu-
icnown Bittle hing of the changes
snown little or nothing of the ¢ on
in the plant itself, or of the variations tn, ae
changes caused by the amount and intensity of light
and heat. Until we know more about the micro-
organisms in the soil, their life-history and fune-
tions, but little progress can be made; and until
we have experimentalists capable of demonstrating
the functions, chemical and physical, of plants,
and the variations in those functions with the ever-
varying climatic conditions, so-called icultural
research must lead to disappointment. AGRI-
CULTURE, ComposTts, ROTATION, and SEWAGE.
Manuscripts. See PaLzocrarny, CopEx,
Papyrus, ILLUMINATION, WRITING.
Manuzio. See ALprve Epitions.
Manx. See MAN (ISLE OF).
Manyplies. See Dicesrion.
Manzanillo, (1) a fine port of Mexico, on the
Pacitic coast, 31 miles by rail WSW. of Colima. It
exports agricultural products and silver ore.
surrounding country is fertile, but unhealthful. Pop.
about 2000.—(2) A port on the south coast of Cuba,
in a fertile but unhealthful locality, 37 miles W. of
Bayamo. Ithasa harbour, and exports sugar,
Yara tobacco, and lumber. Pop, (1899) 14,464.
Manzoni, ALESSANDRO, a great Italian writer,
was born at Milan, March 7, 1785, of noble ts,
and through his mother grandson of the celebrated
Marquis ria. He published his first in
1806, married happily in 1810, and spent the next
few years in the composition of the Jnni Saer?,
sacred lyrics, and a treatise on the religious basis
of morality, by way of reparation for the unbelief
of early youth, In 1819 he BP sxssgroae his first
tragedy, 12 Conte di Carmagnola, a trumpet-blast
of romanticism; the second, Adelchi, followed in
1822, Manzoni’s first tragedy had the honour to
be defended by Goethe, ‘one genius having divined
the other.’ But the work whighe ve Manzoni Euro-
pean fame is his historical cover F Promessi Sposi,
a Milanese story of the 17th century (3 vols. Milan,
1825-6-7). The tale abounds in interesting sketches
- national —¢ — — customs = — of
le, portrayed with unflagging spirit and humour,
while various grave historical’ wae are narrated
with force anc ewan of style,
episode of the yosee in Milan.
ode, Jt Cinque Maggio, was inspired by the death
of the great Napoleon. His last years were dark-
ened by the frequent shadow of death within his
oe
a
lime,
»
L
*
:
)
“
y
2 *
form
a
Be
use the experimentalists have —
MAORIS
MAP 31
“ye 7s himself _ at Milan, ~ May
‘187. ving posteri mem not alone
Garat orie, Bee tuavlady natie ao8 sincere
man.
A complete edition of his works, in 5 vols., was pub-
lished by Nicolé Tommaseo (Florence, 1828-29). His
Letters were collected by Sforza (1875); and a post-
work on the French and Italian revolutions
of 1789 and 1859 was edited by Bonghi (Milan, 1
Bismara’s Bibli Manzoniana (Turin, 1875) will
are Lives (Italian) by Balbiani
be found useful. biani
(1873 ), Bersezio (1873), Prina (1874), and i ( 1876 ).
Ma’‘oris, the native inhabitants of New Zea-
land (q-v.).
Maormor. See EArt.
ofa thereof, exhibiting the lines of latitude
and tude, &e., the forms and relative
positions of the countries, mountain-ranges, rivers,
towns, &c.; or it may be of the starry heavens,
or of stars and constellations. As it is manifestly
impossible correctly to represent a spherical upon a
lane surface, phers are consequently necessi-
tated to resort to expedients in order to minimise
or distribute the unavoidable distortion and dis-
proportion. Hence the use of the various map
projections or arrangements of the lines of latitude
longitude. The only true representation of
the 's surface, it is clear, is to be found on the
terrestrial globe. This is inconvenient in form and
ydrographical map,
ae
east and west, is represented by a curved line,
er Sees Sees | ee
Fig. 2.—Conical Projection of Europe.
-
that on such a map the course of a vessel
almost always be laid down in a curve, w
with the meridian by the point of the con:pass ¢
which the ship was sailing. If the vessel
steer in a direct north-east course by one
vious projections, she would, if land did
intervene, describe a spiral. The mariner,
ever, requires a chart which will enable him to
his course by compass in straight lines .
valuable instrument is supplied by _ ‘
chart, a cylindrical projection in which {
meridians are straight lines perpendicular to
equator, and all the Nels straight lines
to the equator. It is constructed thus (fig. ) ;
Fig. 3.—Mercator’s Projection.
line, AB, is drawn of the required length for the
equator. This line is divided into 36, 24, or 18 equal
parts, for meridians at 10°, 15°, or 20° apart, and
the meridians are then drawn through these ——
| dicular to AB. From a table of meridional parts
| (a table of the number of minutes of a degree of
| longitude at the equator comprised between that
| and every parallel of latitude up to 89°) take
distances of the parallels, tropics, and arctic
from the equator, and mark them off to north and
a of it. Join these points, and the projection
e. ;
|
|
direction either of the north and south, os
hich :
only be described by continually la: off ,
he niiion a line at an angle antes tak te
to
of the
EN ———— — =
MAP
33
This projection, of course, does not give a natural
representation of the earth, its effect being to
exaggerate the polar regions immensely. The dis-
tortion in the form of countries and relative diree-
tion of places is rectified by the degrees of latitude
being made to increase ‘ome farsa to those of
de. There are other cylindrical praeions
of the sphere, but this is the most generally valu-
able and best known. It gives an unbroken view
of the earth’s surface with the exception of the
poles, which are infinitely remote.
Historical.—The ancient Greeks considered
Anaximander (560 B.c.) as the inventor of carto-
graphy; but there is evidence that about 1000
ears earlier some attempts in that direction had
n-made amongst the Egyptians. Necessarily
these efforts were of the ecrudest, and were made
upon the supposition that the earth was a plane.
After Aristotle the spherical theory was adopted,
and the application of astronomical observations to
geography was first made by Pytheas of Massilia
(326 B.C. ), and the first attempts at projections by
Dicearchus of Messana (310 B.c.). | Ptolemy's
(150 A.D.) rational teaching had an ultimate valu-
able influence in the treatment of cartography,
although the Romans made little progress in the
art, which during the middle ages also showed
almost no advance. In the 14th and 15th centuries
a gratifying improvement is observable in Italian
nautical charts. In the 15th century the revivals
of Ptolemy’s teaching produced a revolution in the
construction of maps, and laid the foundation of
modern earhearsnhy: There was great increase in
the number and importance of maps. The first
attempts to improve and increase the methods of
pein known to the Greeks were made by
ermans, viz. Johann Stiffler (1452-1536), and
Peter Apianus (1495-1552), &c. In the same
period that Mercator (Gerhard Kremer, 1512-1594)
made his invaluable contributions, the Italians,
32 2
au [az J es [ge [wT se f 22 | 20 ze | we] se
Map of British Islands, reduced from the Latin Ptolemy of 1478,
Germans, and Dutch were active competitors in
geographical work. Amongst the increasing host of
names connected with the subject are fonnd that
of Sebastian Cabot (1544), who produced his map
of the world. In Germany, Johann Baptist Homann
(1644-1724) and Tobias Mayer (1723-86) occur; in
France, Nicolas Sanson (1600-67), Guillaume de
lIsle (1675-1726), and Jean ag erty Bougignon
d’Anville (1697-1782); and in Italy, P. Vincent
Cornelli ( . 1718). In the 18th century France led
the way in cartography by state survey resulting in
the Carte Géometrique de la France.’ The British
Ordnance Survey was begun in 1784.
recent cartographers are—German: Kiepert, Berghaus,
Petermann, Hassenstein, Habenicht, Justus Perthes,
&e,; Italian: Guido; Coro; British: Arrowsmith,
Hughes (educational), Ravenstein, and the ical
firms “ Wi & A. K. Johnston, E, Stanford, and Bastholo-
mew & Co. See also the articles Contour LINES,
Decree, Eartu, LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE, MERIDIAN,
ORDNANCE SURVEY.
Map (less correctly, MAPES), WALTER, a great
12th-century writer, was born on the Welsh marches,
perhaps in Herefordshire, about 1137. He studied
at the university of Paris, became an_intimate
friend of Becket, was a justice-in-eyre at Gloucester
assize in 1173, ettended the king the same year to
Limoges, and for many years later, probably as
chaplain, and was sent on missions to Paris and to
Rome. He enjoyed the living of Westbury in
Gloucestershire, where he had a long feud for his
rights with the monks of a neighbouring Cistercian
convent, and became canon of St Paul’s and pre-
eentor of Lincoln, but still continued his attend-
ance on the king. In 1197, under Richard L, he
became archdeacon of Oxford, and died before 1210.
Map, who was Welsh, was a frank, open-hearted
man, with a quick wit, bold humour, and an in-
dignant contempt for hypocrisy. All these qualities
MAP
MAPLE
connected (and apparently on good grounds
name. (Of these the chief are the Golias
Apocalypsis Golia, Predicatio, Confessio,
bettas tether Gatien ths fisnoes ‘Mason oct
in taberna mori,’ which is far more a
by self-revelation than a jovial drinking-
In Golias t
creative imagin&tion a type
and upon his head he pours out
wrath and scorn, with humour rich,
eet eee t te ae
io
‘t
f
!
,
=
i!
F
i
-
g
, as we him, with the church-
dislike to see the humorist point
this cloth, denouncing Golias
if
ty
t
Christian spiritualisa-
and gave a meaning to the
romances. He wrote most
west of the Saint
is confines his
Lancelot of the Lake, the
‘ort Artus. M.
opening of Merlin.
eames Wie edited for the Camden Soctiy, Maas
Latin Poems ( se fF poke ae it yin (1 ”),
an interesting kind of note-book cou
fantasticer, inst
sent by Valerius to the philosopher Rufinus.
Maple (Acer), the typical and the principal
genus of ue natural rat iy Aceracew. The epecies
are numerous, all are ae a _ a
the temperate parts e-northern hemisphere,
a numerous in North Asics and
L Common A
nm b See gh Cle ee)
Common (A. cai ), a small tree, is a
native of Britain, and ay vont of Enrope and
Asin. The wood is compact, fine grained, and
takes a polish; hence it is much used by
for carved work, frequently sub-
stituted for the wood of the H y Base Bo
mathematical instrament makers.
America, where it often forms great
wth in woods, is so named
~
ot thane
ae
bark of the two-year-old branches are
beautifully varied with green and white stripes;
its eau” whloh is very white, is used for in-
laying in cabinet-work.—The Greater
Sycamore (A. pseudo-platanus), commonly
Fig. 2.—Greater Maple (Acer pseudo-platanus):
a, fruit.
Plane-tree in Scotland, is a native of various parts
of Europe, but a doubtful native of Britain, in
which, Coeur! it has — been common.
attains a height of 70 to 90 feet, has a spreading
umb us head, and large, palmate, apr
serrated leaves on long stalks. It is of q
growth, and succeeds well near the sea and in
other exposed situations. The wood is white,
compact, and firm, though not hard; it is e
of a fine polish, and is used by wheel ts,
turners, &c. It is not apt to warp. Stair- are
often made of it, and app eco e n> for m
tories, as well as bowls, bread-plates, &e.
is sometimes made from the sap of this tree, as
from that of several other maples ; but the
which yields it most abundantly is the Sugar le
(A. sa inum) of North America, a c
which much resembles the sycamore, and abounds
in the northern parts of the United States and in
the British possessions, where large quan of
sugar are made from it, although only for domestic
use. To obtain the sap, the trees are in
February, March, and April, according to the
locality and the season, and when warm days
frosty nights occur, which favour its flow. An
incision is made in the trunk with an auger or axe,
at first half an inch deep, and is ine
a to twa inches. A spout of sumach or
elder is then inserted, through which the sap flows
into a trough, whence it is conveyed dai
larger receiver; from this, after being strain it
is carried to the boiler. Being liable to ferment,
it cannot be kept long after being collected. The
boiling and refining processes are the same as those
in the manufacture of cane-sugar. A single tree
yields from two to six pounds in a season. Good
vinegar is made from it, and a kind of molasses
much superior to that from the sugar-cane,
much used in America with buckwheat cakes, &e.
The wood of the Sugar Maple has a satiny appear-
ance, and is used for cabinet-making; it is some-
times finely marked with undulations of fibre, and
is then known as Bird's-eye Maple, and is used for
veneers, The Sugar Maple is not so hardy in the
climate of Britain as the sycamore, and seems to
it
lo ae
Maple or
i
a
;.
It
~
toa
MAQUI
MARANHAM 35
Tequire a dry and sheltered situation.—The Nor-
way Maple (A. platanoides), a native of the north
urope, although not of Britain, is also found in
North America; it much resembles the syeamore.—
A Himalayan species (A. villosum), a noble tree,
found with pines and birches at great elevations,
is sometimes grown in Britain. A large number
of interesting and remarkably beautiful forms of
several Japan species of Acer, such as A. dissectum
and A. pata have been introduced within the
last few years; they have prered hardy in many
favoured districts of England and Ireland, but are
unsuited to Scotland generally, though they are
occasionally seen there in conservatories cultivated
in pots.
Maqui (Aristotelia Maqui), the only known
species of the genus, which belongs to the natural
order Tiliacew, and has been made the type of a
proposed order. It is an eve mn or sub-ever-
shrub, of considerable size, a native of Chili.
he Chilians make a wine from its berry, which
= administer in malignant fevers. The wood is
for making musical instruments, and the
tough bark for their strings. The Maqui some-
times ripens fruit against a wall in Eng and, and
is frequently cultivated as an ornamental shrub.
Mar, an ancient district of Scotland between
the Dee and the Don, Spas eer nearly the south
half of Aberdeenshire, and subdivided into Brae-
mar, Midmar, and Cromar. In 1014 a Mormaer of
Mar was present at the battle of Clontarf; and in
1115 another figures in the foundation charter of
Scone priory as ‘comes’ or earl. The male line of
these Celtic Earls of Mar expired in 1377 with
Thomas, thirteenth earl, whose sister Margaret
married William, first Earl of Douglas. heir
daughter, Isabella, in 1404 married Alexander
Stewart, the ‘ Wolfe of Badenoch,’ who, after her
death in 1419, was designated Earl of Mar. The
earldom by right should have gone to Janet Keith,
great-granddaughter of Gratney, eleventh Celtic
earl, and wife to Sir Thomas Erskine; but it was
not till 1565 that it was either restored, or else
granted by anew creation with limitation to heirs
male, to their sixth descendant, John, sixth Lord
Erskine, who at his death in 1572 had been for a
twelvemonth regent of Scotland. John, Earl of Mar
1675-1732), who began life as a Whig, and by his
uent change of sides earned the nickname of
‘Bobbing Joan,’ headed the rebellion of 1715 (see
JACOBITES), and died in. exile at Aix-la-Chapelle.
In 1824 the reversion of his attainder was procured
by his grandson, John Francis Erskine, but his
grandson dying without issue in 1866, the question
arose whether the earldom of Mar could pass
Lage his sister to her son, John Francis Good-
eve-Erskine (né Goodeve), or must: go to his first
cousin, Walter Coningsby Erskine, Earl of Kellie.
And the strange solution of that question has been
that in 1875 Walter Henry Erskine, thirteenth Earl
of Kellie, was declared by the Committee of Privi-
- also eleventh Earl of Mar, and that in 1885
the Earldom of Mar Restitution Bill declared Mr
Goodeve-Erskine twenty-sixth Earl of Mar, claim-
‘ing creation before 1014, but allowed precedence
1 See the Earl of Crawford’s Zarl of Mar
in Sunshine and Shade (2 vols, Edin. 1882).
Marabou Feathers. See ApsuTant.
_Marabouts, a name derived from the Arabic
word morabit, and used to Caan a religious
, or ascetic. They have always been found
chiefly in north Africa, and have at times exercised
ble political influence, as in encouragin,
‘ ition to the French conquests in Algeria an
in the 19th 2 pe and in former centuries
as the a and mainstay of the Almoravid
dynasty, which held Morocco and Spain for a
long period. These devotees are held in great
veneration by the Berbers; they frequently officiate
at mosques and chapels, and are believed to possess
the power to prophesy and work miracles. The
dignity is general deanery The name is also
applied to the tombs of the devotees, ;
Maracaybo, a fortified city of Venezuela, is
situated on the west shore of the strait which
connects the lake and gulf of Maracaybo. It is a
handsome town, with many gardens and squares,
a college, hospitals, a theatre, a German club-
house, the usual government buildings, a custom-
house, wharves, and a number of manufactories.
The climate is hot, the soil sandy, and the place
unhealthy, owing mainly to the unsanitary domestic
arrangements, The trade is chiefly in the hands
of Germans, Danes, and North Americans. The
staple export is coffee (£1,367,291 in 1889); box-
wood, ligunm vitae, cedar, and other woods, besides
divi-divi, hides and skins, and some cocoa, gums,
and fish sounds, are the other exports, the value of
which (including coffee) in 1889 reached about
£1,500,000. Fully seven-eighths of these go to the
United States, although most of the merchandise
imported comes from Great Britain, Germany, and
France. Pop. (1888) 34,284.
The Gulf of Maracaybo is a wide inlet of the
Caribbean .Sea, extending from the peninsulas of
Paraguana and Guajira to the strait by which it
is connected with the lake. The latter forms the
floor of a great valley, shut in by lofty mountains.
Its waters are sweet, and deep enough for the
largest vessels; but the bar at the mouth, where
a swift current runs, makes entrance difficult:
The gulf and lake were discovered in 1499 by
Ojeda, who found here houses built on piles, and
so gave the district the name Venezuela (‘Little
Venice’), which was afterwards extended to the
entire country.
Maragha, a town of western Persia, 55 miles
S. of Tabriz and 20 miles E. of Lake Urmia. It
is celebrated as the capital of Hulagu Khan, grand- ‘
son of Genghis ‘Khan, and as the site of the
observatory which Hulagu built for the astronomer
Nasr ed-Din. Pop. 13,260.
Maraj, an island situated between the estu-
aries of the Amazon and Para, with an area of
nearly 18,000 sq. m. It is for the most part low
and covered with grass and bush, but in the east
and south with dense forest. The soil is fertile, and
large herds of cattle are reared in the north-east.
Maranham’, or MARANHAO, a maritime state
of Brazil, bounded on the north by the Atlantic
Ocean, with, an area of 177,566 sq. m. and a é
(1888) of 488,443. The surface is uneven, but there
is, no range of mountains. There are numerous
rivers falling into the Atlantic, large forests, ex-
tensive plains where cattle are reared ; the climate
is fine, the soil fertile. Agriculture, however, has
not prospered here, and the emancipation of the
slaves, on whose labour it had depended, was
followed by a period of great depression. Cotton
and sugar are the principal products.—The chief
city is y 7 re or San Luiz de Maranham, on
an island between the mouths of the Mearim and
the Itapicurti. It is a well-built town, clean, gay,
hospitable, and has a pop. of 35,000. It contains a
cathedral and bishop's palace, a hospital, a techni-
cal school, some sugar and spinning and weaving
factories, and docks that admit ships drawing 14
feet. The chief exports (varying from £250,000 to
near £500,000 in some years) are cotton and sugar ;
then come hides and goat and deer, skins, gum,
balsam, cotton-seed, india-rubber, &c. Portugal is
the largest customer, followed by Britain, which
sends Three-fourths of the total imports (about
£520,000 annually ).
MARANON
MARBLE
Maraiion. See Amazon.
Maraschi'no. See Liqueur.
Marat, Jean PAUL, one of the most prominent
in the French Revolution, was born at
Jean Paul Mara, a
married
recommendation of certain Edinburgh Beirne
M.D. of St Andrews University; and i
admits of doubt that he was not the John Peter
Maitre, alias Maire, alias Mara, who got tive years
at Oxford assizes in March 1777 for stealing coins
and medals. For in June 1777 his character and
vsician and oculist stood so high
e brevet-physician to his guards
the Comte d’Artois, afterwards King Charles X.—
an office which he held till 1786. Meantime he con-
tinued his scientific work in optics and electricity,
the attention of Franklin and Goethe,
but the émie des Sciences refused him admis-
sion on acconnt of his attack on Newton. Further
were his anonymous Plan de Législation
Criminelle (1780), a translation of Newton's Optics
1787), Mémoires Académiques, ou Nouvelles
wertes sur la Lumiére (1788).
Bat all Paris was now infected with the fever of
revolation, and Marat flung himself with charac-
teristic ardour into the war of pamphlets, and at
in September 1788 established his famous
paper, L'Ami du Peuple. Through-
ont he fought ever for his own hand, with blear-
honesty and indomitable raistence, con-
+ deo onkin Mi
of treachery in high places, and
neing with feverish ousness in turn
Necker, Bailly, Lafayette, the king, Dumouriez,
and the Girondins, His virulence provoked the
most vehement hatred, and covered his own head
with calumnies which survived for generations ;
but it made him the darling of the scum of Paris,
and placed great power in his hands at some of the
Scere ee se
nting-prens to be cunningly con rom
ette's police, twice at least ie had to flee to
pes ey was foreed to hide for a time
et was tended with affec-
imonne Evrard, whom he
formal accusation of Marat failed before the tribunal.
Bat it was the tribune’s last triumph. He was
dying fast of the disease he had contracted in the
sewers, and could only write sitting in his bath.
There his destiny reached him through the knife
of Charlotte Corday (.v-) in the evening of the
33th July 1703. His body was committed to the
Panthéon with the greatest public honours, to be
oT
aed but fifteen months later amid popular
Paul Marat, esprit politique, ac umé de
scientifique, politique, et privée (2 vols. ‘1881).
Marathi. See Manratras, INDIA. pa
Marathon, « village on the east 4
ancient Attica, 22 miles NE. of Athens, long
su to be the modern Marathona. It stood
in a plain 6 miles long and from 3 to 14 miles
broad, with a background of mountains in the
west, and a marsh both on the north and south;
eastward it reached the sea—‘The mountains look
on Marathon, and Marathon looks on the
Recent investigations b:
Prussian officers tify
the historic village with that of Brana, pera :
plain between the mountain Stavrokoraki and the =
miles to the south, and locate the battle
sea, nearly 3 miles north-east of Brana. The name
of Marathon is gloriously memorable as the scene
of the great defeat of the Persian hordes of 1
by the Greeks under Miltiades (490 B.c.)—one of
the decisive battles of the world, ;
Marave'di, an old Spanish copper coin in use
from 1474 to 1848, was worth “ahoak vath of a
penny. There were also, at an earlier period,
maravedis of gold and of silver.
Marbeck, or Mersecke, JOHN, nist of St
George's Chapel, Windsor, was pry to the
stake about 1544 for favouring the Re
coast of —
¢
lut pardoned by favour of Bishop Gardiner. In
1550 he published his famous Booke of
Praier Noted, an adaptation of the plain —s
the earlier rituals to the first litargy of Edwar
VL. He wrote several theological
works ; and a hymn for three voices and eo ct
mass by him are extant. He died about 1585,
Marble, in its strict and proper sense, is a
rock crystallised in a saccharoidal manner, ha
the fracture of loaf-sugar, and composed I
ate of lime, either almost pure when the colour
is white, or combined with oxide of iron or other
impurities which give various colours to it.
many other kinds of stone are popularly included
under this title. Indeed any limestone rock suffi-
ciently compact to admit of a polish is called marble,
It is only in this vague sense that the indurated
amorphous rocks used in Britain can receive this
name, Such are the black, red, gray, and variegated
limestones of the Devonian system, which are ve
beautiful from the numbers of ex visite preserved
corals which abound in them; the of the
Carboniferous series from Flintshire, De’ re,
and Yorkshire, so full of encrinites;
marbles from the Oolitic rocks at Stam-
ford, and Yeovil; and the dark Purbeck and Pet-
worth marbles, beautifully ‘figured’ with “Hy
from the Wealden strata, which were so much
by the architects of the middle >
Saccharine or statnary mavihe is a white fine-
grained rock, resembling loaf-sugar in colour and
texture, working freely in every direction, not
liable to splinter, and taking a fine polish. Of the
marbles used by the ancients, the most famons
was Parian marble, a finely granular and very
durable stone, with a waxy appearance
polished. Some of the finest Grecian seulptures
were formed of this marble, among others, the
famons Venus de Medici. The marble of Pen-
telicus was at one time preferred by the Greeks to
Parian, becanse it was whiter and finer ed.
The Parthenon was entirely built of it, many
But
é
of carbon- —
~
MARBLEHEAD
MARCELLUS 37
famous statues still remain which were executed
in this marble, but they are always more or less
weathered, never retai the beautiful finish of
the Parian statues. The quarries at Carrara (q.v.)
were known to the ancients, but they have been
more extensively wrought for modern sculptors,
who use this marble chiefly. It is a fine-grained,
pure white marble, but is so often traversed by
y veins that it is difficult to get large blocks
os from these. Of coloured marbles, the best
known are the Rosso Antico, a deep blood-red,
sprinkled with minute white dots; Verde Antico,
_a clouded produced by a mixture of white
marble 2 Le Minor jase ; Giallo pen a
yellow, wi ack or yellow rings; and Nero
ro a deep black marble.
A true marble is a crystalline ular te
of caleite, the granules being of remarkably uni-
form size. Not infrequently scales of mica or tale
occur seattered through the rock. Such a rock is
of metamorphic origin: it is simply a limestone
which n rendered entirely crystalline from
the effects of heat under pressure, as in the vicinity
» ag erga poe of igneous rock. Marble ma
be of any geo logical age. Many pectirw |
line limestones, which are sometimes entitled to
name of marble, occur associated with gneiss
and mica-schist, and are often rich in such minerals
as garnet, actinolite, zoisite, mica, &c.
Marblehead, a seaport town of Massachusetts,
on a rock ontory, 18 miles NE. of Boston.
Its share the fisheries is no longer important,
and the manufacture of boots and shoes is the chief
industry. Pop. (1890) 8202; (1900) 7582.
Marburg, © quaint old town in the Prussian
vince of Hesse-Nassau, on the Lahn, 59 miles
rail N. of Frankfort and 64 SW. of Cassel.
It is built on a terraced hill, whose summit is
crowned by a stately castle, dating from 1065. In
its Rittersaal (1277-1312) was held in 1529 the con-
ference between the Wittenberg and the Swiss
reformers a pry Pr Lord’s Supper. The fine
Gothie church of Elizabeth with two towers 243
feet high, was built in 1235-83 by the Teutonic
ts over the splendid shrine of St Elizabeth
(q.v.), and was thoroughly restored in 1850-67. The
university occupies new Gothic buildings of 1879.
It was founded in 1527 in the Reformed interest
by Philip the Magnanimous, Landgrave of Hesse ;
and among its earliest students were Patrick
Hamilton and William Tyndale. It has about
80 professors and teachers, 800 to 1000 students in
ceophy medicine, theology, and jurisprudence,
and a library of 120,000 volumes. Pop. (1875)
9600; (1885) 12,668; (1890) 14,520. three
works by Kolbe (Marburg, 1871-84).
Marcantonio, or in fall, M. Ratmonor, an
Italian engraver, born at Bologna late in the 15th
century. A goldsmith by trade, he early turned
to engraving, and received his first great stimulus
from woodcuts of Albrecht Diirer, which he saw
at Venice about 1505. He copied on copper two
sets of plates from the German master's designs
for the ‘Life of the Virgin’ and the ‘Passion of
Christ’ (see DUrer). At Rome, where he worked
from 1510, he was chiefly engaged in engravin
Raphael’s works, as ‘Lucretia,’ the ‘Massacre o'
the Innocents,’ the ‘Three Doctors of the Chureh,’
*Adam and Eve,’ ‘Dido,’ ‘Poetry,’ the ‘Judg-
ment of Paris,’ &c., and subsequently those of
’s pupil, Giulio Romano. On account of
the power of his drawing and the purity of his
a apie paewnspe the nm. amongst ~
engravers great nter. ‘The capture o
Rome by the Constable Bourbon in 1527 drove
Marcantonio back to Bologna, where he probably
Temained until he died, some time before 1534
came to an end. See the essay by Fisher pre-
fixed to the catalogue of his engraved works ex-
hibited in London in 1868, and Delaborde’s mono-
graph (Paris, 1887). ;
ecematt, an iron ore, a variety of Pyrites
q-V-). ;
Marceau, FRANcoIs SEVERIN DESGRAVIERS,
French general, was born at Chartres on 1st
March 1769. On the outbreak of the Revolution
he was appointed inspector of the national guard
in his native town, and in 1792 helped to defend
Verdun with a body of volunteers till its surrender.
His brilliant military career was ended in four
years from this time ; but they were four years of
stirring activity. Sent in the following year to join
the republican army in La Vendée, he was, for his
services in the engagements before Saumur and Le
Mans, promoted to the rank of general of division.
Then, proceeding to the north-east frontier, he
commanded the right wing at Fleurus, and after
the allies retreated occupied Coblenz. During the
campaign of 1796 he was given command of the
first division of Jourdan’s army, and sat down to
invest Mainz, Mannheim, and Coblenz. But
whilst covering the retreat of the French at
Altenkirchen he was shot, on 19th September,
and died four days later. His body was buried in
the entrenched camp at Coblenz, but was trans-
ferred to the Panthéon in Paris in 1889. He ranks
next after Hoche amongst the French generals of
the early years of the Revolution, not only for
military genius, but also on acount of the nobility
and uprightness of his personal character.
Lives by Doublet de Boisthibault (1851), Maze
(1888), and Captain T. G. Johnson (1896).
Marcello, BENEDETTO, musical com r, born
in Venice on Ist August 1686, was a judge of the
republic, and a member of the Council of Forty,
and afterwards held important administrative
offices at Pola and Brescia, where he died on
24th July 1739. He had a passion for music,
and is remembered as the composer of music for
Giustiniani’s version of the Psalms (8 vols. 1724-
27), of numerous concertos, canzoni, cantatas, a
toral, an oratorio, and other pieces, distinguished
or their simple yet elevated style, and as the
author of a satirical work, J/ Teatro alla Moda
(1720).
Marcellus, the name of two popes, of whom
the second deserves special notice, as having, when
Cardinal Marcello Cervini, taken a te 2 eewgnrrs
part in the discussions of the Council of Trent, over
which he was appointed to preside as legate of
Julius III. He was elected pope 10th April 1555,
and survived his elevation but twenty-two days.
He did not follow the usual custom of laying aside
his baptismal name and assuming a new one.
Marcellus, M. CLavupivus, a famous Roman
neral, of one of the most eminent plebeian,
amilies. In his first consulship (222 B.c.) he
defeated the Insubrian Gauls, and slew with his
own hand their king, Britomartus or Viridomarus,
whose spoils he dedicated as spolia ye to Jupiter
—the third and last occasion in man _ history.
In the second Punic war Marcellus took command
after the disaster of Canne, and put a check upon
the victorious Hannibal -at Nola, in Campania
(216 B.c.). Again consul in 214 B.c., he gave a
fresh impulse to the war in Sicily, but all his efforts:
to take Syracuse were rendered unavailing by the
skill of Archimedes, and he was compelled to regu-
larly blockade the city. Famine, pestilence, and
ultimately treachery on the part of the Spanish
auxiliaries of the Syracusans, opened its gates
(212 B.c.), after which the remainder of Sicily was
soon brought under the dominion of the Romans.
MARCET
MAREMMA
In his fifth consu’ 208 n.c., he fell in a skir-
Marcet, JAN, known as Mrs Mancet, the
author of a very popular elementary introduction
enti
as a doctor in the last of the 18th century,
and later in life dev himself to experimental
racer” Besides the book on chemistry, which
reached the 16th ed. in 1853, she wrote Conversations
on Political Economy (1816 ; 7th ed. 1839), which
1 praised by J. B. Say, by M'Culloch,
Lord lay; Conversations on Natural
19; 13th ed. 1858), and similar
(9th ed. 1840), Vegetable Physi-
besides numerous charming Stories for
Children, in the estimation of many her
died in London on 28th June 1858.
Harriet Martineau’s Biographical Sketches
FESET TEE
Tae
etfs
-_
E
_
March (Slav. Morava), the principal river of
Moravia, rises on see eeamnaty beeen hat count
and Prussian Silesia, and flows 214 miles sou
to the Danube, which it joins 6 miles above Pres-
burg. It receives on the right the Thaya. In its
lower course it forms the boundary between Austria
and ming HE It is navigable for small boats from
Géding, 50 miles from its mouth.
a market-town of Cambridgeshire, on
, Pop.
oni; (1881) 6190 ; (1891) 6995.
the first month of the Roman year, and
the third according to our present calendar, consists
of ~ome days. It was considered as the first
ear in England until the cones of
and the legal year was reckoned from
March. Its last three days (old style)
ay i supposed to have been borrowed
rom April, and are proverbially stormy.
March, « musical composition, chiefly for
itary bands, with Wied destramsente, intended
ow Apa marching of os, There are
4q marches, and uliar to
different countries. Marches are also introduced
2 4 Fa:
Fale:
EF
iH
ei
Marchantia. See Liverworts.
Marchena, « town of n, 47 miles by rail
E. by 8. of Seville, with a ducal (Arcos) palace,
and sulphur-baths. Pop. 13,768.
Marches, the border districts that ran contigu-
each side of the boundary line between
and Scotland, and between England and
The Lords of the Marches were the nobles
to whom estates on the borders were given, on
condition that they defended the country against
the aggresions of the people on the other side,
Under the Norman and Plantagenet kings of
England there was almost chronic war between
the English Lords of the Marches and the Welsh.
For the Scottie. English Marches, see Borpers,—
Mortimers, Earle of March, took their title
trom March in Cambridgeshire, —The corresponding
German word Mark was in like manner applied to
the border ome or Soviets of the German
empire, conquered from neighbouring nations—the
marks of Austria, of Brandenburg, Altmark, Steier-
mark, &e. The governors entrusted with the charge
of these marks were called mark-grafs or margraves,
ding to the English and Scottish Wardens — iy.
of the Marches (see MARQUIS). The ancient Ger- "j a
man tribe of Marcomanni were ‘Marchmen.” In
Italy The Marches include the march of Ancona =
(q.¥.) and three other provinces (see ITALY). i iw
Marchetti, Frirro, an operatic composer,
born at Rome’ in 1835, became in 1881 president <-
of a musical college in Rome. His best- a
operas are Romeo ¢ Giulietta (1865) and Ruy
las (1869). : iain as
Marcianisi, an icultural town of Italy,
situated in a marshy district, 12 miles by rail N. of ie
Naples. Pop. 11,083. : ee
Marcion, the fotinder of the Marcionites, a
rigorously ascetic sect which attained a greaj-
importance between the years 150 and 250 A.D,
He was a native of Sinope in Pontus, became
wealthy as a shipowner, and about 140 repaired to
Rome. There he laboured to correct the p Ye
views of Christianity, which he considered to tee.
a corruption of Jewish errors with the gospel of
Christ as expounded by Paul, its best interpreter. —
The opposition which he encountered drove to
found a new community about 144, and he laboured
earnestly propagating his theology until his death —
about 165. Marcion was hardly a Gnostic, al
he had been intimate with Cerdo, and
8 snag nerenies iniyenter = ioe
the Marcionite theology. Failing Hg crs
the New Testament God of love in the Old Testa-
ment, and profoundly influenced by the :
Pauline antithesis of law and gospel, he con-
structed an ethico-dualistic philosophy of reli m
and proceeded to cosmological speculations w
are not free from contradictions. He set aside as
spurious all the gospels save Luke, and it, as well
as the Pauline epistles, he purged of Judaising
interpolations. He was thus the earliest to make
a canonical collection of New Testament .
From about the beginning of the 4th century the
Marcionites began to be absorbed in the Mani-
cheans. Marcion’s doctrines can be discovered
from the controversial writings of Fathers, as Ter-
tullian, Hippolytus, Epiphanius, &. See works
of Baur, Méller, Lipsius, and Harnack quoted
under GNOSTICISM. ‘ f
Marco Polo. See PoLo. |
Mardi Gras, See SHRovE-TIDE.
Mardin, a town of Asiatic Turkey, is i
situated on the southern slopes of the Manta Hae,
60 miles SE. of Diarbekir. Pop. 12,000, of whom
half are Moslem Kurds,
Maree’, Locn, a beautiful lake of Ross-shire,
40 miles W. of Dingwall. Lying 32 feet above
sea-level, it is 124 miles long, 3 furlongs to 2}
miles broad, 360 feet deep, a 11 sq. a area.
It is overhung by mountains, 3000 feet high; sends
off the Ewe, 3 miles long, to the sea; and contains
twenty-seven islets, one with remains of an ancient
chapel and a graveyard. Queen Victoria’s residence _
at Loch Maree in 1877 is described in her More
Leaves (1884). :
Maremma (corrupted from Marittima, ‘situ-
ated on the sea’), a marshy region of Italy, extend-
ing along the sea-coast of Tuscany from the river
Cecina to Orbitello, and embracing an area of about
1000 #q. m. The Pontine Marshes and the Cam-
pagna of Rome are similar districts, In Roman
times and earlier the Maremma was a fruitfal and
populous plain; but the decay of lture, con-
sequent upon unsettled political history, fostered
the encroachments of malaria, which now reigns
supreme in great part of these stricken districts.
Leopold IL. of Tuscany directed especial attention
ieee) to the drainage and amelioration of the
aremma, and his efforts and subsequent measures
MARENGO
MARGARET 33
have been attended with considerable success.
_ Crops are now grown in the summer on the fertile
soil of the infected area by the inhabitants of the
adjoining hill-country, who go down only to sow
and to reap their cro During winter the Mar-
emma is healthier and yields good pasture.
Marengo, 2 vill of Northern Italy, in a
marshy district gar the Bormida, 3 miles SE. of
Alessandria. Here on 14th June 1800 Napoleon,
with 33,000 French, defeated 30,500 Austrians
under Melas. It was the cavalry charge of the
younger Kellermann that turned what looked like
certain defeat into a decisive victory, though the
French lost 7000 in killed and wounded, the
Austrians only 6400 (besides 3000 prisoners).
a etage, or MARETA, LAKE, the modern El
Mariét, a salt lake or marsh in the north of
Egypt, extends southward from Alexandria, and
is separated from the Mediterranean, on its north-
west side, by a narrow isthmus of sand. In the
15th _and 16th centuries it was a navigable lake ;
in 1798 it was found by the French to be a dry
sandy plain; but in 180i the English army cnt the
dikes of the canal that separated the Lake of
Aboukir from Mareotis, to cut off the water-supply
of the French, and Mareotis became once more a
marsh. The like happened again in 1803, in 1807,
and in 1882, when the sea was let in by a cutting
15 feet wide and half a mile long; but ‘ Marifit
been partly drained again.
Mare’s Milk. See Koumiss.
Mare’s Tail (Hippuris vulgaris), a tall erect
marsh-plant, with vs of narrow leaves and
inconspicuous flowers,
Margaret, St, Scottish queen, was born about
1047 in , and from 1057 was brought up at
the court of her great-uncle, Edward the Canines
with Lanfrane for her spiritual instructor. In 1068,
with her mother and sister and her boy brother,
a ede Atheling (q.v.), she fled from Northum-
ber’ to Scotland. Young, lovely, learned, and
_ she won the heart of the rude Scottish king,
leol who next year wedded
* says Skene, ‘ there
recorded in history
For purity of motives, for
an earnest desire to benefit the people among whom
her lot was cast, ue yard so Fo align and
great personal piety, unse ormance
Sehr lteter, ead fr ete
a 8 unsu ie e did mue'
to civilise the northern realm, and still more to
assimilate the old Celtic church to the rest of
Christendom on such points as the due commence-
ment A Lent, pod poem Maer aT A the hem ab
ance of Sunday, and marriage within the prohibi
degrees. She built, too, a stately chu at Dun-
fermline, and re-founded Iona, She bore her hus-
six sons and two daughters, and died three
after in tare Castle, on 16th
Innocent IV. canonised her in
1250. Her head, which had found its way from
J
line to Douay, was lost in the French
Revolution; but her remaining relics are said to
have been enshrined by Philip Il. in the Escorial.
See the Latin Life by her confessor Turgot, Bisho
St Andrews (Eng. trans. by Fr. Forbes-Leith, 1884) ;
Celtie Scotland | vol. ii. 1877); and Bellesheim’s
ed of the Catholic Church of Scotland (Eng. trans,
t, the ‘Semiramis of the North,’
— of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, was
second daughter of Waldemar IV. of Den-
and wife of Hacon VIII. of Norway, and was
1353. On the death of her father without
male heirs in 1375, the Danish nobles offered her
the erown in trust for her infant son Olaf. By the
death of Hacon in 1380 Margaret became ruler of
Norway as well as of Denmark. When Olaf died
in 1387 Margaret nominated her grvand-nephew,
Eric of Pomerania, as her successor. The Swedish
king, Albert of Mecklenburg, having so thoroughly
alienated the affections of his subjects that the
nobles, declaring the throne vacant, offered in 1388
to acknowledge Margaret as their ruler, she sent
an army into Sweden, which defeated the king's
German troops, near Falképing, and took Albert
and his son ear pgs Albert remained in prison
seven years, during which time Margaret, in spite
of the efforts of the Hanseatic pangue and its allies,
wholly subjugated Sweden. In the following year
(1396) Eric of Pomerania was crowned king of the
three Scandinavian kingdoms, and though he was
proclaimed king de facto next year, the power still
remained in the hands of Margaret. In May 1397
was signed the celebrated Union of Calmar, by
which it was stipulated that the three kingdoms
should remain for ever at under one king,
though each should retain its own laws and cus.
toms. Before her death at Flensborg, on 28th
October 1412, Margaret had enlarged the territories
she held for her grand-nephew by the acquisition of
Lapland and part of Finland. ‘She was a woman
of masculine energy and strong will, and ruled her
subjects with a firm hand.
Margaret of Anjou, the queen of Henry VI.
of England, was daughter of René of Anjou, the
titular king of Sicily, and of Isabella of Lorraine,
and was born at Pont-i-Mousson, in Lorraine, 24th
March 1429. She was married to Henry VI. of
England in 1445; and her husband being a person
whose naturally weak intellect was sometimes
darkened by complete imbecility, she exercised an
almost unlimited authority over him, and was the
virtual sovereign of the realm. A secret contract
at her marriage, by which Maine and Anjou were
relinquished to the French, excited great dissatis-
faction in England, and the war with the French
which broke out anew in 1449, in the course of
which all Normandy was lost, was laid by the
English to the charge of the already unpopular
neen. In 1450 occurred the insurrection of Jack
ade, and soon after the country was plunged in
the horrors of that bloody civil war known as the
Wars of the Roses. Margaret took an active part
in the contest, braving disaster and defeat with
the most heroic courage. At length, after a struggle
of nearly twenty years, Margaret was finally de-
feated at Tewkesbury, and hong into the Tower,
where she remained four years, till Louis XI,
redeemed her for fifty thousand crowns. She
then retired to France, and died at the chateau
of Dampierre, near Saumur, in Anjou, 25th August
1482. Mrs Hookham’s Life (1872) is not altogether
satisfactory as history.
Margaret of Navarre, in her youth known
as Marguerite d’Angouléme, sister of Francis I.
of France, and daughter of Charles of Orleans,
Comte d’Angouléme, was born at Angouléme, 11th
April 1492. She was carefully educated, and early
showed remarkable sweetness and charm added
to unusual strength of mind. In 1509 she was
married to Charles, Duke of Alencon, who died in
1525; and in 1527’ she was married to Henri
d’Albret, titular king of Navarre, to whom she
bore Jeanne d’Albret, mother of the great French
monarch, Henry IV. She encouraged agriculture,
the arts, and learning, and sheltered with a cour-
ageous generosity such advocates of freer thought
in religion as Marot and Bonaventure des Périers.
Accusations entirely unfounded have been brought
by interested bigotry against her morals. She died
2ist December 1549. Her writings include a series
of remarkably interesting Letters (ed. by Génin,
>
MARGARIC ACID
MARGINAL CREDITS
_
1842-43), a miscellaneons collection of
entitled Les Marguerites de la
by Frank, 4 vols, 1873), and
Heptaméron des Nouvelles
Leroux de Lincy, 3 vols. 1855),
Decameron of Boccaccio, but bn
out in an original manner. A com Oo ies
returning from Deorets are
by bad weather, and beguile the time by
weber | -two in number, which are
by interl introducing the persons.
subjects of the stories are similar to those
Decameron, bat the manners delineated are
refined ; and they reflect closely the strange
combination of religious fervour with religious free-
and refined voluptuousness so character-
of the time. Most critics believe the work to
be partly by Des Périers {9.¥-) Her Derniéres
Poésies, discovered in the Bibliothtque Nationale
in 1895, were pablished in 1896. See Lives by
Durand (1848), Miss Freer (1854), and Lotheisen
(Berlin, 1885); and Saintsbury’s introduction to
the new translation of the Heptaméron (1894).
Margaric Acid is now known to be a mixture
of palmitic and stearic acids. See Fats.
Margarine, or OLEO-MARGARINE. See the
paragraph on Butterine in the article BurTEr.
I pn an mason i the Banas Fate
ng to Venezuela. sq.m. Dis-
covered by Columbus in 1498, Ma. ta was lon
famous for its pearl-fisheries, but now its chie
export is salted fish, The island forms the great
part (the smal) Blanquilla, Los Hermanos, &c. nake
the rest) of the Nueva Esparta section of Guzman
Blanco state, of which the pop. in 1886 was 41,893.
Margary, Avovstus Raymonp, traveller,
was born 26th May 1846, at Belgaum, in the presi-
dency of Bombay, the son of an English officer.
Educated in England at Brighton College and
University College, London, he qualified for a
student-interpretership in China, and went out in
1867. During the next six years he served at
Peking, in Formosa, at Chefoo, and at Shanghai.
In August 1874 he was ordered to cross south-west
China to Burma to meet a British mission under
Colonel Browne, the object of which was to open
the overland route between Burma and China.
Margary was to act as interpreter and guide to the
m He successfully accomplished the perilous
» and set out k again with Colonel
bat was murdered by the Chinese at a
called Manwyne on 2ist February 1875. The
lournals and Letters of his journey, together with
a biographical face, and a concloding chapter
by Sir Tuthertced Alesck, were pablished in 1876.
& seaport and municipal borough of
En in the Isle of Thanet, hens miles Ww.
of the North Foreland and 74 E. by 8. of London,
has for many years been the favourite seaside resort
of cockney holiday-makers, who, during the season,
rail and by steamer, pour into the town in their
da, fF lof many natural advantages
in ite bracing air, good bathing, and excellent firm
sands, Margate offers besides all the customary
attractions of a watering-place, with its pier (900
feet long), jetty (upwards of a quarter of a mile in
length), theatre, assembly-rooms, baths, zoological
&. It contains also two interestin
areches—ane exhibiting traces of Norman an
Early English work, and the other with a tower of
135 feet, forming a conspicuous landmark; the
— Sea-bathing Infirmary, founded 1792 and
en 1882; a town-hall (1820); and an exten-
sive deaf and dumb asylam (1875-80-86). For-
merly the port was the scene of the embarkation or
landing of many tg and other persons, amongst
the latter being wounded brought back from
the field of Waterloo. Queen Victoria visited the
town in 1835, where too for a short time Turner
the painter (one of whose earliest known sketches:
is a view of Margate church) was at school.
(1801 ) 4766 ; (1881) 18,226 ; (1891) 18,419.
Margaux, a village 15 miles by rail
Bordeaux, near the left
a number of white villas, half-hidden
trellised vines. The chiteau (a handsome Italian
Poa,
villa) and its celebrated vineyards are a mile
distant. Pop. 1619. |
Margay (Felis tigrina), a species of cat or
deernek 4 native of the forests of Brazil and
Guiana, smaller and less handsome than the ocelot,
which in general appearance it_much resembles,
bank of the Gironde, with —
4:
nf
NNW. of | ‘ty
though its spots are smaller. It is lige
than the domestic cat. It is capable of d c
tion, and of being made very useful in rat-killing.
Marghilan, capital of Ferghana (q.v.).
Marginal Credits, a term applied to business
joo in which bankers | : the credit of
their names, as it were, to their customers,
thus enable them to carry out important com-
mercial transactions which otherwise could not be
so conveniently undertaken. A merchant in a
land, for instance, desires to import tea or sil
but his name is not so well known on the Chinese
Exchanges that bills drawn upon him by a mer-
chant in China can be sold there at a reasonable
rate of exchange. The tea or silk cannot be pur-
chased without the money being on the spot to buy
it with, and were the merchant to send out s)
for that purpose he would involve himself in heavy
charges for freight and insurance, and lose the
interest of his money while on the voyage. More-
over, before the remittance (silver proba’ iy) could
arrive, the market prices of tea and sil
have so altered that a purchase might not be
—h
‘
ie:
4
re
et
7 t
able, and the money would Raptr tos where it
was not wanted. But, while ts by the mer-
chant in China on the merchant in England would
not sell, or only at a heavy sacrifice, the drafts by
the merchant in China on a banker in En
will sell at the best price. The merchant in this
country therefore pe ee with his banker cash or
securities equal to the amount to which he desires
to use the ker’s name, and receives from him
Marginal Credits for the amount. These are bill-
forms drawn > age the banker, but neither dated
nor signed, with a margin containing the banker’s
obligation to accept the bills when presented. The
bills are dated, drawn, and endorsed by the mer-
chant abroad before being sold, so that the obliga-
tion runs from the date on which the money was
actually paid ; and the tea or silk is most pean
the merchant's warehouse before the bill is payable.
For the transaction, the banker charges the mer-
chant a commission to remunerate himself for the —
risk involved. In recent years the use of ——_ ,
bills has largely fallen off in consequence of the
development of electrical communication. Mer-
chants now prefer to arrange with their bankers
for a ‘telegraphic transfer,’ by which an immediate
cash payment is effected throngh a foreign bank.
Many transactions between merchants abroad
and in England can only be carried bers |
the acceptances of a London banker being tendered
in payment, but the transactions are intrinsicall
the same as when Marginal Credits are wet
Bankers in the country obtain the acceptance of
London banker for bills to be drawn against
their customers are importing. Bankers—usually
in London—also accept bills to a great amount for
the exchange operations of fore’ banks. A
banker in, say Canton, buys from his customers
bills drawn upon merchants in —— for
a given amount, and sends them to corre-
5
7
&
MARGRAVE
MARIA THERESA 41
spondent in London, who holds them for him and
ts a credit in his favour on the security of
The Canton banker operates upon this
eredit by drawing upon the London banker, and
sells his drafts at the most favourable rege
With the money received he purchases other bills,
and remits them also, to be again drawn against.
When these operations are made with caution and
' sound judgment they are beneficial to all con-
cerned; but when en; in without sufficient
knowledge or recklessly they involve most disas-
trous consequences.
Margrave. See Marcues, Marquis.
Marguerite. See MArcareT.
Marguerite. See CHrYSANTHEMUM,
Marheineke, Puttiere Conran, Protestant
theologian, born at Hildesheim on Ist May 1780,
began to teach at Gittingen in 1804, was appointed
at ical professor and university preacher at
in 1805, and subsequently held theological
chairs at Heidelberg (from 1807) and Berlin (from
rtd He died on 3lst May 1846. After Hegel’s
d Marheineke was the chief figure among the
ight of that philosopher's disciples. His
egelian views found expression in Grundlehren
der ik (2d ed. 1827) and Vorlesungen iiber
die Christliche Moral, Dogmutik, &e. (4 vols.
1847-49). He also wrote Geschichte der deutschen
Reformation (4 vols. 2d ed. 1831-34), Institutiones
Symbolice (3d ed. 1830), System des Katholizismus
in seiner i ntwickelung (3 vols.
1810-13), other works,
Maria Christina, queen of Spain, born at
oa Ce 27th April 1806, was a daughter of Francis
1., king of the Two Sicilies. In 1829 she became
the fourth wife of Ferdinand VIL of Spain, and
in October of that year gave birth to a daughter,
Isabella IL. Ferdinand died 29th September 1833,
and by his testament his widow was appointed
guardian of her children—the young Queen Isabella
and the Infanta Maria Louisa, Duchess de Mont-
pensier—and also regent, A civil war broke out
(see CARLISTS); but the queen-mother seemed
indifferent to everything except the comely of
Don Fernando Mniioz, whom she made her chamber-
lain, and with whom she was united, in December
1833, in a morganatic marriage. She had ten
children by him, A conspiracy, which broke out
on the night of the 13th August 1836, led the
ee: to e a constitution to Spain.
n 1840 a popular commotion ensued, and she gave
to the new prime-minister, Espartero, a renuncia-
tion of the regency and retired to France, whence
she returned in 1843. Her participation in the
schemes of Louis-Philippe as to the marriage of her
ters in 1846, and the continual exercise of
her influence in a manner unfavourable to consti-
tutional liberty, made her hateful to the patriotic
in Spain. At length, in July 1854, a revolu-
expelled her from country, and she again
took refuge in France, but returned to Spain in
1864, only to retire again in 1868. She died at Le
Havre, Augnst 1878. See CARLISTS, and SPAIN.
Maria Louisa, the second wife of Napoleon
L, born 12th December 1791, was the daughter of
Emperor Francis I. of Austria. She was
married to Napoleon after the divorce of Josephine,
2d April 1810. On 20th March following she bore
a son, who was called King of Rome. At the be-
pinning of the cam of 1813 Napoleon appointed
on pany in absence, but under many
limitations. On the abdication of Napoleon, not
tted to follow him into exile, she went
with son to Schénbrunn, where she remained
till 1816, when she received the duchies of Parma,
Piacenza, and Guastalla. In 1822 she contracted
a morganatiec marriage with Count von Neipperg.
She died at Vienna, 17th December 1847. - it
See Lives by Helfert (1873) and Imbert de Saint-
Amand (Eng. trans. 1886), her Correspondance (1887),
fs35). Memoires of Mme. Durand, her maid of honour
Mariana, JUAN, a Spanish historian, was born
at Talavera in 1536, entered at eighteen the then
rising order of the Jesuits, and afterwards taught
in the Jesuit colle; at Rome (where Bellarmine
was one of his scholars), in Sicily, and finally in
Paris. After seven years of labour in Paris he was
driven by ill-health to Toledo, and there he lived
in unbroken literary labours till his death, at an
extreme old age, in 1624. His Historie de Rebus
Hispania: first ea Penge in 20 books in 1592, and
was supplemented by 10 additional books, carrying
the narrative down to the accession of Charles V.,
in 1605. Its admirable Latinity and undoubted
historical merits give it an abiding value. Mariana
himself publish a Spanish translation (1601-9),
which still remains one of the classics of the lan-
His Tractatus VII. Theologici et Historict
(1609) roused the suspicion of the Inquisition.
But the most celebrated of the works of Mariana
is his well-known treatise De Rege et Regis Institu-
tione (1599), which raises the question whether it
be lawful to overthrow a tyrant, and answers it
in the affirmative, even where the tyrant is not a
usurper but a lawful king. This tyrannicide doc-
trine drew much odium upon the entire order of
Jesuits, especially after the murder of Henry IV.
of France VB Soneee in 1610; but it is only just
to observe that, while, upon the one hand, precisely
the same doctrines were taught in almost the same
words by several of the Protestant contemporaries
of Mariana, on the other, Mariana’s book itself was
formally condemned by the general Acquaviva, and
the doctrine forbidden to be taught by members of
the order.
Mariana Islands. See LADRONEs.
Marianna, an episcopal city of Brazil, 3 miles
E. of Ouro Preto. The neighbouring gold-mines
are exhausted. Pop. 5000.
Marianus Scotus (1028-82), an early Irish
chronicler, who, quitting his country in 1052, he-
came a Benedictine at Cologne in 1058, and settled
in the monastery at Fulda. Ten years later he
removed to Mainz, where he taught mathematics
and theology. He left a Chronicon Universale,
which began at the creation and came down to 1082.
It was published at Basel in 1559, and by Waitz
in ‘Monumenta Germaniz.’—Another Marianus
Scotus, famous as a copyist and calligrapher, was
abbot of St Peter’s at Ratisbon in 1088. ‘
Maria Theresa, empress, the daughter of
the Emperor Charles VI., was born at Vienna,
13th May 1717. By the Pr. atic Sanction (q.v.),
for the fulfilment of which the principal Euro-
powers became sureties, her father appoin
er heir to his hereditary thrones. In 1736 she
married Francis of Lorraine, afterwards Grand-
duke of Tuscany, to whom she gave an equal
share in the government when, on the death of her
father, 2lst October 1740, she became queen of
Hungary and of Bohemia, and Archduchess of
Austria. At her accession the monarchy was
exhausted, the finances embarrassed, the people
discontented, and the army weak ; whilst Prussia,
Bavaria, Saxony, and Sardinia, abetted by France,
ut forward claims to the whole or to portions of
her dominions. Frederick II. of Prussia claimed
Silesia, and poured his armies into it; Spain laid
hands on the Austrian dominions in Italy ; and
the Bavarians, assisted by the French, invaded
Bohemia, and, passing on into the archduchy of
Austria, threatened Vienna, the Elector of Bavaria
MARIE ANTOINETTE
series begun by Due de Broglie in 1882 ( Eng. trans,
1883), and races parte.
Mariazell, the most famous place of pilgrim-
age in Austria, is situated in the extreme north of
Styria, 25 miles N. of Bruck and 60 SW. of
Vienna. It is visited by thousands of pilgrims
annually, besides numerous visitors a ’
its romantic scenery. The image of the
(brought here in 1157), the object of the
‘ -
| ages, is enshrined in a magnificent ahem it in
| 1644 on the site of an older one. Pop. 1065. Four
| miles from the village are important ironworks,
42 MARIA THERESA
} = ow Bo eenma and emperor as
VIL. (1742). neen Was 8a
by the 2 hn fidelity of the Hungarians, to
loyalty she . with her infant son in
her arms, in a stirring speech at the diet held in |
Presburg, and she was supported by the assistance
of Brita’ but most of by her own resolute
> mg The war of the Austrian succession,
seed by ti pease of Aixle-Chapelle in 1768.
peace -la- e ,
The ss ueen lost Silesia and Glatz to
Prussia, the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and
Guastalla to Fae , and some Milanese districts
to Sardinia. n the other hand, her titles were
fully , as well as that of her husband,
who had nominated emperor (1745), Charles
of Bavaria having in the meantime died. During
peace that Maria Theresa
portant financial reforms, did her
utmost to foster agriculture, manufactures, and
commerce, and improved and nearly doubled the
national revenues, whilst the burdens were dimin-
ished. At the same time she charged Marshal
Daun to reorganise and rediscipline her armies.
In Kaunitz (q.v.) she had a minister possessed of
isdom and energy, and in his hands she left for
the most part the management of the foreign rela-
tions of the em But the loss of Silesia, espe-
cially the conduct of Frederick the Great, which
had t — her that loss, rankled deeply in
her mind; and, France having been gained as an
ally through the address of Kaunitz, she renewed
the with the Prassian king. But the issue
Years’ War (q.v.) was to confirm
the ae of Silesia. On the
hostilities the empress renewed her
the national prosperity, amelior-
ition of the peasantry, mitigating
, founding schools, organising Sn
societies, in short promoting the welfare
bj all the wise arts of peaceful
Joseph, elected king of the
associated, after the death of
with herself in the government
states, but in reality committed
only of military affairs. She
Prussia in the first i-
Poland (1772), whereby Galicia and 0-
to her dominions. She also
Porte Bukowina (1777). On
childless Elector of Bavaria
her claim to the
Inn’ and one or two other dis-
Theresa died 20th November 1780.
Personally a woman of majestic and winning
she was animated by truly | sen-
ta an undaunted spirit; and by this rare
union of feminine tact with masculine energy and
restless activity, she not only won the affection
and even enthusiastic admiration of her subjects,
bat she raised Anstria from a most wretched con-
dition to a tion of assured power, Her reign
marks the transition of Austria from a medieval
to a modern state; and by her efforts the beginning
was successfully made of fusing into one sovereignty
the heterogeneous lands ruled over by the House of
ae see a zealous Roman Catholic,
Maria maintained the rights of her own
crown against the court of Rome, and endeavoured
to correct some of the worst abuses in the church.
her ten surviving children, the eldest son, Joseph
IL, succeeded her; Leopold, Grand-duke of Tus-
cany, followed his brother on the imperial throne as
IL. ; Ferdinand became Duke of Modena;
Antoinette was married to Lonis XVI.
See History by Arneth (10 vols. 1863-
79, an Austrian version), other works by the same
writer, by Duller, Ramshorn, and A. Wolf, the
ui
Z
F
:
g
z
z
ah
Fi
Ht
Guide by Frahwirth (1882).
Marie Amelie, queen of Louis-Philippe (q.v.).
Marie Antoinette, Joseruze JEANNE, the’
most ill-fated among the queens of Hranee: ee
born on the day of the great earthquake at Lisbon,
2d November 1755, the fourth daughter of Maria
Theresa and the Emperor Francis I. From her
cradle she was destined by her ambitious mother
to be queen of France, and to that end was edu-
cated, although but indifferently, by the Abbé de
Vermond. e marriage was ne; by the
Due de Choiseul early in 1770, and took place on
May 16, but was darkened a fortnight later by an
ill-omened panic during the great féte of fireworks
given in its honour by the city of Paris, in which
some hundreds of people perished, The beautiful
young dauphiness soon found her poses of
difficulties, and the stiff and stately etiquette of
the old French court wearied her to death, A
mere child in bey married to a dull, decorous,
and heavy husband, who was, moreover, for some
years indifferent to her person, she found relief in
a capricious recklessness of conduct and a dis-
regard for conventions, and so from the commence-
ment laid herself open to serious scandals for
which there never was any real ground but her
own indiscretion. Her night drives to Paris, her
appearance at masked balls, her extray: ce
undisguised love for the card-table, and her open
favour to handsome and profligate young men,
were misread into shameless immoralities, and she
had lost her reputation long before she awoke to
a sense of her responsibilities. In May 1774 the
death of Louis XV. made her actual queen of
France, and she soon deepened the distrust and
dislike of her a by her undisguised devotion
to the interests of Austria, as well as her thought-
less opposition to all the measures devised
Turgot and Necker for relieving the financial dis-
tress of the country. The miseries of France be-
came in the popular imagination identified with
the extravagant pleasures of the queen, the
miserable affair of the Diamond Necklace her
nilt was at once taken for granted, not only vy.
‘aris but the whole country, and ‘the Austrian
came the object of the frenzied hatred of a starving
pore The act of accusation against Calonne was
n the eyes of the mob that of the court and of the
queen. Showers of virulent pamphlets rained from
all sides, and ‘ Madame Déficit’ and ‘ Madame Veto’
were some of the names in which a maddened ©
people shrieked their hatred against their sovereign,
eantime the joyous frivolity of the girl had
changed into the cou and obstinacy of the
woman who made herself a centre of opposition
to all new ideas, and prompted the poor vacil-
lating king into a retrograde policy to his own
undoing. She was capable of strength rising to
the heroic—as Mirabean once said, the only man
the king had about him was his wife. And she
possensed the power of inspiring enthusiasm in all
noble souls with whom she came into contact, as is
evidenced by the personal influence she exercised
over Fersen, Mirabeau, and Barnave. Amid the
horrors of the march of women to Versailles (Octo-
under FREDERICK IL
MARIE ANTOINETTE
MARIE DE’ MEDICI 43
ber 5-6, 1789) she alone maintained her courage,
and she showed herself on the balcony to the raging
mob with a serene heroism that for a moment over-
awed the fiercest into respect. That same day the
royal family and the Assembly left Versailles for
Paris amid the oeupeta of all the rascaldom of both
sexes within the city. But Marie Antoinette
lacked consi even in the part she essayed
to play, and to the last she failed to understand
the nature of the troublous times into which she
had been flung. She had an instinctive abhorrence
of the liberal nobles like Lafayette and Mirabeau,
and, if she professed to consult them, she also con-
sulted with other men, and refused to trust them
altogether. Again the indecision of Louis and his
dread of civil war hampered her plans, and the
intrigues of the emigrés did her cause more harm
than all her domestic enemies together.
he queen was at length prevailed on by Count
de Merey-Argenteau, at the instigation of Count
de la Marck, to make terms with Mirabean, and
she gave the great tribune an interview at Saint-
Cloud, July 3, 1790. But she was too self-willed
and “ana frankly to follow his advice,
for she abhorred his dream of a constitutional
monarchy based on the free consent of an en-
franchised = His death in April 1791 re-
moved the last hope of saving the monarchy, and
less than three months later occurred the fatal
flight to Bouillé at the frontier, intercepted at
Varennes, against which Mirabeau had ever pleaded
as a fatal step. The storming of the Tuileries and
slaughter of the brave Swiss guards (10th August
1792), the transference to the Temple, the trial and
execution of the king (2lst January 1793), quickly
followed, and ere long her son was torn from her
arms, and she herself sent to the Conciergerie
like a common criminal (2d August 1793). fter
eight weeks more of sickening insult and brutality,
the ‘Widow Capet’ was herself arraigned in her
ragged dress and gray hair before the Revolu-
a Tribunal. nder the torture of her
trial she bore herself with the calm dignity and
resignation of the martyr: one truthful ‘touch
stands out with infinite pathos across the centnry
between—‘she was sometimes observed moving
her fingers, as when one plays on the piano.
Her answers were short with the simplicity of
truth : ‘You persist, then, in denial ?’—‘ My plan
is not denial: it is the truth I have said, and I
ist in that.’ One charge unspeakable in its
my was tendered by Hébert, which he had got
wrete son eight years to sign. ‘A
mother can make no answer to such questions; I
appeal to every mother: here present,’ was her only
Tents deep murmur ran through the court—
. ble fool,’ said Robespierre, ‘he will make
our enemies objects of compassion.’ After two
days and nights of questioning came the inevitable
sentence, and on the same day, October 16, 1793,
she left the world and all its madness behind her,
under the axe of the guillotine. It was just three-
and-twenty years since she had left Vienna amid
universal grief, in all the brightness of beauty and
See the Histories of the French Revolution by Thiers,
Mignet, Michelet, Louis Blanc, Carlyle, Von Sybel, and
Morse a passim ; also Madame Campan’s
Mémoires sur la Vie privée d+ Marie Antoinette (1 23) ;
De _Lescure’s La vraie Marie Antoinette (1863):
in’s Correspond. inédit Marie An-
toinette (1864) ; Feuillet des Conches’ Louis XVI., Marie
Antoi et di Eli: Lettres et Docwments
ette, et Mi U ,
inédites (1865); Arneth and Geffroy, Marie Antoinette :
mM Argenteau (1874) hace tpl pod reek M. e
fe, UL ; e re’ 8' jes ~<=.
de Nolhac (1800 ; trans. 1808) and 'M. de la Rochoteric
(1890 ; trans. 1893 vee by emae Bieksell (2508) and
Clara Tschudi ( ); M. C, Bishop, The Prison Life
=
of Marie Antoinette (1893); and for the affair of the
Diamond N. G. C. D’Est Ange’s Marie Antoinette
et le Procés du Collier (1889). For an account of her
portraits, about'500 in number, see Lurd Ronald Gower’s
Leonographie de Marie Antoinette (Paris, 1883); and for
the closing scenes in her life, Campardon’s Tribunal Révo-
lutionnaire (vol. i.) and Marie Antoinette a lu Concier-
gerie (1863), Lord Ronald Gower’s Last Days of Marie
Antoinette (1885), and L. de Saint-Amand, Les derniers
Annies de Marie Antoinette (1889).
Marie de France, a poetess of whom but
little is known with any degree of certainty, save
that she lived in England under Henry III., and
translated into French from an English’ version of
a Latin translation of the Greek the Ysopet, a
collection of 103 moralised fables, in octosyllabice
couplets, ‘for the love of Count William’ (sup
to William Longsword of Salisbury). hese
fables are natural and happy, as well as graceful
in versificatior’, and give their authoress a place in
that line of descent which ended with La Fontaine.
But her greatest work was the twelve (or fourteen)
Lais, delightful and genuinely poetic narrative
poems, mostly amatory in character, in octosyllabic
verse, the longest nearly twelve hundred lines, the
shortest just over a hundred. The word Lai is of
Breton origin, and most probably referred originally
to the style of music with which the harper accom-
panied his verse. The titles of Marie’s lais are
Guigemar, Equitan, Le Fraisne, Bisclavret, Lan-
val, Les Dous Amanz, Yonec, Laustic, Milun,
Chaitivel, beat Eliduc ; and to these most
add Graalent and L’Espine.. Of the lais the best
edition is that of Karl Warnke (Halle, 1885),
forming vol. iii. of Suchier’s Bibliotheca Norman-
nica, enriched with invaluable comparative notes
tt eee Kéhler. They were paraphrased rather
than translated by the late Mr O'Shaughnessy as
Lays of France (1872). A third work sometimes
ascribed to Marie is a m of 2300 verses on
the purgatory of St Patrick. The best edition of
the lays and fables together is that of Roquefort
(2 vols. 1820).
Marie de’ Medici, wife of Henry IV. of
France, was the daughter of Francis I., Grand-
duke of gag and was born at Florence, 26th
April 1573. She was married to Henry, 16th
December 1600, and in the following September
gave birth to a son, afterwards Louis XIII. The
union, however, did not prove happy. Marie was
an obstinate and ionate woman, and her
uarrels with the king soon became the talk of
aris. She was wholly under the influence of her
favourites, Leonore Galigai and her husband Con-
cini, and was by them encouraged in her dislike
to her husband, The murder of Henry (May 14,
1610) did net greatly grieve her, although it is not
true that she was privy to the plot. For the next
seven years she governed as regent, but proved as
worthless a ruler,as she had nm a wife, After
the murder of Concini (24th April 1617), whom she
had created Marquis d’Ancre, a domestic revolution
took place, and the young Louis XIII. assumed
royal power. The queen was confined to her own
house, and her son refused to see her. Her ar-
tisans tried to bring about a civil war, but their
attempts proved futile; and by the advice of
Richelien, then Bishop of Lucon, she made her
submission to her son in 1619, and took her place
at court. Marie hoped to win over Richelieu to
her party, but she soon found out that he had no
eel y to be ruled by her, whereupon she tried to
undermine his influence with the king, Her in-
trigues for this purpose failed ; she was imprisoned
in Compiégne, whence she escaped and fled to
Brussels in 1631. Her last years were spent in
ufter destitution, and she is said to have died in
a hayloft at Cologne, 3d July 1642. She loved the
MARIE GALANTE
MARINES
and Paris owes to her the Luxembourg.
the by Miss Pardoe (2d ed. 3 vols, 1852).
Marie Galante, a French island in the West
Indies, icerend ee Columbus in 1493, lies 17
miles SE. of Gu pe. Area, 58 sq.m. It is
covered for the most part with wood, and surrounded
by coral reefs. Sugar, coffee, cocoa, and cotton are
Soy the Pop. 15,000. Chief town, Grandbourg,
or Marigot, on the south-west coast.
Marienbad, one of the most f
Bohemian spas, 47 miles rail NW, of Pilsen, at
an elevation of 2057 root above sea-level. The
oping ae - been used by the people of the
nity, but it
become
nented of the
only since 1807-5 that it has
__— of resort for persons from distant
parts of world. The springs are numerous,
varying in temperature from to 4° F. They
are saline, containing sulphate of soda and various
alkaline ingredients, but differing considerably in
their composition and ee They are used
both internally and in the form of baths. Great
quantities of the waters of some of the springs are
ex to distant places. Marien is sur-
rounded by wooded heights, has a population of
2009, is visited every season by upwards of
14,000 patients, See Fraser Rae's Austrian Health
Resorts (1888).
Marienberg, 4 mining town of Saxony, 38
miles SW. of Dresden. Pop. 6139.
Marienburg, a» old town of Prussia, on the
Nogat, 30 miles by rail SSE. of Danziz. It was
re A the seat of the Grand Masters of the Teutonic
Order (q.v.), who removed from Venice hither in
1309. fortress of the Knights, however, was
founded here about 1274. Marienbuarg remained in
their hands till 1457, when it was taken by the
Poles, and by them it was held till 1772. The
castle, in which seventeen Grand Masters resided,
a noble edifice in a style of Gothic peculiar to the
vicinity of the Baltic, was st | ly restored in
1817 Pop. (1875) 8538; (1893) 10,7; See
works by Witt (1854) and Bergan ( 1871 ).
werder, a town of West Prussia, is
ee yg gd situated 3 miles E. of the Vistula
and 55 by rail 8S. of Danzig. It was founded in
1233 by the Teutonic Knights, and has an old
castle and a domkirche (1384). Pop. (1890) 8552.
Marietta, capital of Washington county, Ohio,
on the Ohio River, 115 miles SE. of Columbus.
Founded in 1788, it is the oldest town in the state,
* is the seat of Marietta Coll (1835), and has
varied manufactures and a t in the petroleum
found near ie Remarkable traces of the earth-
builders are visible here. Pop, (1900) 13,348.
Mariette Pasha, Fx,xcors Avousre Frror-
NAND, explorer, was at Boulogne,
lith Febraary 182], and was educated at the
municipal college of the town, He became French
master at a ac at Stratford-on-Avon in 1839,
and in 1840 «4 pattern-designer at Coventry. But
he soon returned to Boulogne, and after taking his
degree at Douay (1841) was appointed professor at
his native col His connection with Nestor
T' Hote, the companion of Champollion, directed
Mariette's attention to the hieroglyphic monn-
ments; in 1849 he entered the Egyptian depart-
ment of the Louvre, and in 1850 was despatched
to Egypt in search of Coptic MSS. Whilst there
he a his famous peprng | of the Serapenm, the
-baried cemetery of the Apis bulls, and brought
to ta host of in t monuments and inserip-
tions in Memphis, kara, Gizeh, and the neigh-
bourhood. In 1858 he was appointed Keeper of
Monuments to the Egyptian governmont, and
thenceforwari his life was devoted to archwological
exploration in the Nile valley. With indefatigable
industry he dug out the Sphinx and the temples os —
Dendera and fa ane
fu, rev the marvellous sculp-:
tures of Meydm and Gizeh, and the courts and-
inscriptions of Medinet Habu, Deyr-el-Bahvi,
Karnak, and Abydos, and ig the excavation
of Tanis, since pursued by the Egypt Explora-
tion Fund. Nor was he less active with pen and
pencil. In 1856-57 ap) his Serapéum et
‘emphis (also ed. Maspeéro, 1882); four editions:
of his Apercu de U'Histoire d’Egypt came out
between 1864 and 1874, and six of the
du Musée de Boulak (which he founded
and which is full of the results of his labours) from_
1864 to 1876; he published sumptuous descriptions
in many volumes, with folio plates of the chief
temples-—Dendérah (1870-75), A (1869-80),
‘arnak (1875), Deir-el-Bahart (1877), Monuments
Divers (1872, ff.) ; while his Itinéraire de la Haute
" has been translated by his brother (Monu-
ments of U; Egypt, 1877), and his Mastabas
edited by Maspéro (1882). Besides the Boulak
(now Gizeh) Museum, which owes its existence to
its first director, Mariette founded the French
School of Egyptology and the Egyptian Institute.
He was raised to the rank of a in 1879;
he died at Cairo, 19th Jannary 1881, and was:
buried in the garden of his museum.
See E. Deseille, Aug. Mariette (1882); H. A. Wallon,
Notice, Inst. de France (1883); A. B, Edwards, Academy
(January 1881).
Marignano, See MELEGNANO.
Marigold, a name given to certain plants of
the natural order Composite, chiefly of the genera
Calendula and Tagetes. Pot Marigold (Calendula
officinalis) is an annual, a native of France and
the more southern
stem, 1 to 2 feet high, the lower leaves obovate on
long stalks, and large, deep yellow flowers. It
has long been very common in British ens 5
there are varieties with double flowers. The whole
plant has a slight aromatic odour and a bitter
taste. It was formerly in great repute as a car-
minative, and was regarded also as an aperient and
sudorific. The florets were the part used, and
they were dried in autumn to be Povccreaht for use,
They are often employed to adulterate saffron,
and sometimes for colouring cheese. They were
formerly a frequent ingredient in soups, and are
still so used in some parts of England. The genus
Tagetes consists of annual and perennial herbaceous
plants, Boe i: of the —, parts of cee
thoug . erecta, one of those most uen
cultivated in Britain, bears the name beg ener
Marigold; and 7. patula, another annual well
known in British flower-borders, is called French
Marigold. Both species are Mexican. They have
been Jong in cultivation, are much admired, and
require the assistance of a hotbed in spring in the
colder parts of Britain. Corn Marigold is a Chrys-
anthemuim (q.v.). Marsh Marigold ( .v.) has no
botanical aflinity with the true marigolds, ’
Marine Engine. See SreAM-ENGINE.
Marines, or the Royal Marine Forces, are that
body of the military forces of the crown which is
under the control of the Admiralty, for service in
the navy. They were first raised in 1664, the orig-
inal aim, since modified, being to form a nursery
whence to obtain seamen to man the fleet. The
commerce of England was then too limited to pro-
cure from out of the merchant fleet sufficient sea-
men for the public service ; and, as those obtained
by the system of impress were not easily amenable
to discipline, the presence of some marines as dis-
ciplined troops had to be relied on to check or sup-
ye the frequent tendency to mutiny. The force
* now composed of two branches, with separate
lists for the promotion of officers, styled respec-
er
arts of Europe, with an erect |
MARINES
MARION 45
tively the Royal Marine Artillery and the Royal
Marine Light Infantry. The artillery consists of
one division quartered at Eastney, near Ports-
mouth ; the uniform, blue with red facings, is almost
identical with that of the land artillery. The in-
fantry consists of three divisions, quartered at
Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Chatham; their uni-
form, scarlet with blue facings, is much the same
as that of the line regiments. The officers rank
according to seniority with officers of like rank in
the army, and are promoted by seniority up to the
rank of major, beyond which S speopgcae is governed
by selection. The strength of the marine forces is
now about 14,000. When serving on board ship
they are employed as sentries, and keep regular
watch like the blue-jackets when not on guard,
ing in all the duties of the ship, except going
aloft; in action both the men of the marine
artillery and of the light infantry are now stationed
at the guns conjointly with the blue-jackets, those
not eure at the guns being used as a rifle
on deck ; they always form part of all naval
igades landed for service on shore. With a view
to their efficient training in gunnery, batteries with
heavy guns mounted as on board ship have been
constructed at all the marine barracks, where the
men are regularly drilled by qualified officers and
instructors, All the marine artillery officers have
to undergo a special course of training, and_since
1887 probationary lieutenants for the light infantry
have to pass through a course at Greenwich similar
to those for the marine artillery, and after joining
headquarters undergo a course of instruction in
orrongy. Combining the handiness of the sailor
with training of the soldier, the marines
are justly regarded as a most valuable body of
ser es ir officers - co here u :
nm courts-martial and to perform genera
i duties, such as field-officer of the day,
ie but they ab es des oer Seats, cess
pone Sey se upon by the genera
in command take part in field-days and reviews,
yet, being entirely under the Admiralty, they
occupy a position quite distinct from the re;
troops in ison with them. Marines, like blue-
jackets, have the privilege, which the army does
not enjoy, of wearing their beards, in barracks as
well as when afloat; and, like the blue-jackets,
but again unlike the army, they remain a long-
service corps. Under the short-service system,
which obtains in the army, it would be impossible
to give marines the necessary training; they are
the opti to serve im — years, with
0 nm re-engagin ‘or another seven years,
they obtain a Genaion. One result of this
is that the Admiralty can always obtain an un-
limited supply of recruits; they are thus able to
carefully pick their men, and their standard is
much than that of the line. For physique,
ly training, and efficiency no regiment in
the army, not even the Guards, can approach the
Marine Light Infantry. The marine artillery are
oo — ol picked a than Tt ene of
, and the uire a higher educa-
deanfotendend? it is admitted that no other army
in the world can put on parade so magnificent a
body of men as the Marine Artillery Division.
One of their battalions in line covers a third more
oar than a corresponding line battalion. The
mds of the Marine Artillery and Infantry
Divisions a among the oo military bands - =
; * ng only, rhaps, ae FEC the
omens the Goards. The Marine ight inohtey
takes precedence in the army immediately after the
50th regiment of foot.
The original number of marines was 1200. The
third regiment of the line was called the Maritime
Regiment, also the Admiral’s Regiment. In 1702
nm to sit on’
the force of marines had increased to six regiments ;
from 1714 to 1739 no marine force existed ; in the
latter year it was reconstituted in six regiments,
and in 1741 numbered ten. Once more disbanded
in 1748, it was in 1755 placed wholly under the
Admiralty. Su uently, however, on the sudden
expansion of the fleet for the wars with France,
several line regiments were at times called upon to
serve as marines. The land artillery was also re-
resented in the bomb-vessels, and were so serving
in 1804, when their duties were taken over by the
Royal Marine Artillery, then first formed. This
branch, more than once disbanded since then,
according to the views of the Admiralty of the
time, and even since 1870 again threatened with
disbandment, is now recognised as a cheap, reliable,
and most valuable reserve of apecially-teaihed
gunners. In the United States the marines serve
five years, receiving $13 a month; if they serve
beyond the five ape they are paid $18 a month,
See Nicolas’s book (1845); and Edge, The Historical
Records of the Royal Marines (vol. i. 1893).
Marini, GiAmBarrista, an Italian poet, born
at Naples in 1569, Abandoning jurisprudence for
seg against his father’s will, he was befriended
xy various noble patrons, and was carried by
‘ardinal Pietro Aldobrandini to Turin, where a
poem, J/ Ritratto, procured him the office of ducal
secretary. At Paris he enjoyed the patronage
of Catharine of Valois, and after her death of
Marie de’ Medici. Here he wrote his best work,
the Adone (1622), and after its publication revisited
Italy, and died at Naples in 1625. The licentious-
ness that mars his verse was but an echo of his
life. His imitators form the so-called Marinist
school, of which the essential features are florid
hyperbole and false overstrained imagery. See
GonGora, and LYLy.
Marino, a town on the Alban Hills, 12 miles
SE. of Rome, has a castle belonging to the
Colonnas, who took it from their rivals, the Orsinis,
in 1424, and a cathedral and churches with pictures
by Guido, Domenichino, and Guerecino. It grows
lar. wine and manufactures soap, leather, &c. Pop. 6071.
Mario, Givusrrre, the famous tenor, was b;
birth the Cavaliere di Candia and son of General di
Candia. He was born at Cagliari in 1808 (not at
Genoa or Turin in 1812), and served in the army for
some years. But a youthful escapade led to his
forsaking Italy for Paris, where he quickly won his
way into the most exclusive circles both by the
charm of his manners and his exquisite voice.
Having contracted debts, however, he accepted
the appointment of first tenor of the Opera, with a
salary of 1500 francs per month, changing his name
at the same time from De Candia to Mario. After
two years’ study at the Conservatoire Mario made
his début, on the 2d December 1838, as Robert
in Robert le Diable, and achieved the first of a long
series of operatic triumphs in Paris, London, St
Petersburg, and America. His i ret aeae embraced
all the great works of Rossini, llini, Donizetti,
and Verdi. By the famous singer Giulia Grisi
(q.v.) he was the father of six daughters. In
rivate he was esteemed for his large-handed
iberality and for his noble assistance to struggling
artists. In his later years after his retirement from
the stage he lost his fortune through disastrous
speculations. In May 1878 a benefit concert in
London yielded him as much as £1000. He died
at Rome, llth December 1883. See Engel’s
Musical Celebrities (1886).
Mariolatry. See Mary.
Marion, capital of Marion county, Ohio, 46
miles by rail N. of Columbus, with manufactures
of machinery, farming implements, and wooden
wares, Pop. (1900) 11,862.
46 MARIONETTES
MARIUS
little jointed of wood
eeeenaites: soe jointed puppets of wood or
ngs by a con-
In modern times it has chiefly prevailed in Italy,
where it was known yee 2h pe has there
reached a res legree of artistic per.
fection. is was onorien to France under Charles
1X. by an Italian named Marion, whence it passed
quickly to England, where it became known as a
motion, or motion of puppets, or puppets only. The
favourite resort uppet-plays in London seems
to have been mew Fair, and in Elizabethan
times appear to have played set pieces. We
find allusions so frequent-as to prove wide popu-
larity in Shak Ben Jonson, Pepys's Diary,
Swift, the Essayists. Marionettes are
exhibited occasionally, but the only ve
familiar marionette-play we have is the Punch
A marionette Faust
gestion of his greatest st
pe are very frequently HY (avwssd and it is a
“ ing fact —_ ae stil wate pe gogeoead
Germany, an y are en of as actors
in Scotland in the 16th “+ a igi
Mariotte, Eve, a French physicist, born in
Burgundy during the first half of the 17th century
—the is not known—was = St Martin-
sous- ne, and died at Paris, 12th May 1684. He
was one of the earliest members of the Academy of
Sciences at Paris, and wrote original papers on
percussion, the nature of air and its pressure, the
movements of fluid bodies and of pendulams, on
colours, &. What is on the Continent called
Mariotte’s Law is rather Boyle’s Law, and is an
empirical law stated by Boyle (q.v.) in his ence
of the Doctrine touching the Spring and Weight
of the Air (1662), and by Mariotte in his Discours
sur la Nature del Air (1676). See GAS AND GASES.
Mariotte’s collected works were Published at Ley-
den in 1717, and at The Hague (2 vols.) in 1740.
Mariposa, a central county of California,
oes c~ ley ary eles It ae the
osemite (q.¥.), es a grove of giant trees
(see SEQUOIA). ison, 1510 aq. 1. ; pop. 4720.
Mart, JAKOB (1837-09), born at the Hague,
stadied in F was one of the > on]
modern Duteh painters of landscape and genre.
Only less famous is his brother Matthijs (born 1835 ;
1 in London), a genre-painter; and a younger
brother Willem is a landscapist,
Marischal. See MAgsuar, Kerrn.
Marista, a modern French Catholic Con
tion {9-¥.) The Marist Fathers date from 1815;
the Marist Brothers from 1817; and the Marist
Sisters from 1834,
enormous area of 730,000 aq. m. eri 34
, The v ¥ of climate
productions is of course great. See AMUR,
goon | Sogo te ape we The Mari-
mur inces are under one governor-
general, whose headquarters are at Khabarovka,
tza (anc. Hebrus), a river of European
», ties in the Balkans, and flows E. by S.
past is to Adrianople, where it bends
and flows 8S. by W. to the Gulf of En
AZgean. It is 270 miles long, and is na
small boats to Adrianople.
Mariupol, or MariAmpot, the seaport
south iacien coalfield, stands on the Sea of
65 se a! “ Le prac the Cri
1779 by Greek emi ts from the Crimea, ant
ext ie oak. Wheat. Mansel, &e. to the annual
value of £425,000. Fish-curing, soap-boiling, and
tanning are carried on. Pop. 18,607.
Marius, Caius, a famous Roman general who
was seven times es Pes born of an pba
family at the vi of Cereate, near
157 mc. He served with great distinction at the
siege of Numantia (134) under the younger
Africanus, who is said to have hinted that in
the Romans would find a successor to himself.
119 he was elected tribune of the plebs, and al
he had made himself a esc pular leader by
vigorous opposition to the nobles. In 114 he went
Azov,
In
to Spain as propretor, and cleared the country of
i
the robbers who infested it. He now
Julia, the sister of the father of the t Ceesar.
He served’ in Africa as legate to Ceecilius
Metellus during the war against Shay re and
was elected consul two years after. He took for
his province Numidia, and closed the Jugurthine war
in the beginning of 106. The honour of
the beaten king fell to his questor L, Su
from this period dates the birth of that jealousy out
and fifth time in the even years, 103-101, for
it was felt that he alone could save the republie.
The war against the Teutones in Transalpine
occupied him for more than two years; but
final ny Ancibheies them in a terrible battle
two days’ duration at Aque Sextiw, now Aix,
Provence, where 200, ee to others,
100,000—Teutones were slain. ter this he
turned to the Cimbri in the north of Italy, and
them he also overthrew at — Randii near
Vercella, with a like destruction (101), The
of Rome knew no bounds to their joy. us
was declared the saviour of the state, the third
founder of Rome, and was made consul for the
sixth time in 100. It has often been remarked
that, had he died at this period, he would have left
behind him one of the greatest reputa in
Roman history. But to perpetuate his power he
Sones to the basest arts of the unprincipled
em ne,
When Sulla as consul was entrusted with the
conduct of thé Mithridatic war, Marius, who had
long manifested an insane jealousy of his patrician
rival, attempted to deprive him of the command,
and a civil war began (88). Marius was soon
forced to flee, and, after the most frightful hard-
ships, and numerous hairbreadth escapes,
made his way to Africa. Two romantic incidents
stand out among these days of peril. His place
of hiding in the marshes of Lists 1 had been dis-
covered, and he had been flung into prison at
Minturne, when a Cimbrian shve was sent to
despatch him, ‘Wretch, darest thou slay Caius
Marius?’ said the old hero as he g upon
him out of the gloom. Tile slave fled in terror
saying, ‘I cannot kill Marius,’ and the citizens
ereanng the omen allowed the exile to escape.
ne ogg A he reached the shore of
when the Roman governor sent him a summons
to leave the country. Said Marius, ‘Go, tell
the pretor that you have seen Caius Marius a
'
os in the —
ble for
for the
r:
It was founded in
ie
MARIVAUX
MARK 47
fugitive, sitting on the ruins of Carthage.’ Here
he remained until a rising of his friends took place
under Cinna. He then hurried back to Italy, and,
along with Cinna, marched against Rome, which
was obliged to * meat Marius was delirious in his
revenge upon the aristocracy ; a band of 4000 slaves
earried on the work of murder for five days and
nights. Marius and Cinna were elected consuls
together for the year 86, but the former died after
he had held the office seventeen days. On the
triumph of Sulla his body, which had been buried,
not burned, was torn from its grave on the banks of
the Anio, and cast into the stream. Lucan tells us
how the troubled ghost haunted the spot and
seared the peasants from the plough on the eve of
impending revolutions.
Marivaux, Prerre CARLET DE CHAMBLAIN
DE, was -born at Paris, February 4, 1688. He
belonged to a good Norman family and devoted
himself to letters. He received but a slight educa-
tion and in his early writings affected a disdain of
the Greek and Latin authors, declaring, for example,
that he preferred Gregory of Tours to Tacitus and
Vincent Ferrier to Demosthenes. He published
L’Homére Travesti, a burlesque of the Iliad, in‘
1716, and brought out his best comedy, Le Jeu
de ' Amour et du Hasard in 1730. He received.
a pension from Helvétius, and another, of 1000
crowns a year, from Madame de Pompadour. His
romance of Marianne came out in 11 parts between
1731 and 1741, but was never concluded by him,
the twelfth part being added by Madame Riccom-
boni. He followed up his first dramatic success b:
numerous comedies: L’Lprenve, Les Fausses Conf.
dences, Le Legs, Les .Sincéres, La Méprise, Le
Triomphe de V Amour, &c, They are the work of a
clever analyst rather than a dramatist; the dialogue,
says Sainte-Beuve, is a perpetual ‘ moral skirmish ;’
the writer sacrifices character and situation to
an ingenious playing with words. Marivaux, said
Voltaire, knew all the bypaths in the human heart,
but he did not know the highway. He died at
Paris, February 12, 1763. His title to fame rests
on Marianne, one of the best novels of the 18th
et Its interest does not lie in exciting adven-
tures, but in the subtle analysis of character and
the delicate pic-
turing of contem-
pe manners.
‘rom the peculi-
arities of Mari-
vaux’s finicking
7 the term
arivaudage was
at one time cur-
rent as @ syn-
onym for affected
or ‘precious’
writing. His
other romances,
Pharamond and
Le Paysan hes
venu, are t
inferior reer:
anne. See Sainte-
Beuve’s Causeries
du Lundi 1X.,
and Arséne Hous-
saye’s Galerie de
yy ) Mr Portraits du diz-
1 oo huitiéme Siecle.
Common Marjoram
locaeuawcers| (Origanum), «a
genus of plants of
the natural order Labiate. Several of the specics
are familiar as pot and sweet herbs in gardens.
0. vulgare is the Common Marjoram, a native of
Britain, and is aromatic with a bitter and slightly
acrid taste. The dry leaves have been used
instead of tea, and they are also used in fomenta-
tions. The tops of the plant have been used to dye
woollen cloth purple; and, by a process of macer-
ating the material first in alum water and then ina
decoction of crab-tree bark, they also dye cotton
cloth a reddish brown. Oil of Marjoram is obtained
from this and other species by distillation, The
oil of marjoram is so caustic as to be used b
farriers as a stimulating liniment. A little cotton
moistened with it pl in the hollow of an aching
tooth relieves pain. 0. heracleoticum is the Winter
Sweet Marjoram of gardeners ; 0. onites is the Pot
Marjoram ; and the Knotted Marjoram is 0. Mar-
ee The dittany of Crete, a plant with round
eaves clothed with thick white down and purple
trailing stems, which is frequently cultivated as a
window-plant in Britain, is é. Dictamnus.
Mark, the standard weight of the money system
in yarious countries of Europe, especially in Ger-
many, where in the middle of the 11th century the
Cologne mark = kalf a Cologne pound, or 283812
grammes, was adopted as the standard, and as
such continued in use till 1857. The mark gradu-
y acquired a monetary value as well ; as such it
has been since 1875 the standard of currency in the
German empire, being equivalent to 7.45, of a pound
(500 grammes) of fine gold, and equal to 113d. English
and 24 cents United States currency. But there are
only 5, 10, and 20 mark pieces in gold. The silver
mark (= } thaler) is divided into 100 pfennigs. The
Liibeck mark or mark current, a coin formerly in
use at Hamburg, was worth Is. 2d.; the mark banco
there, a money of account, was worth Is. 6d. In
England -marks are first heard of in the treaty
between Alfred and Guthrum the Dane, and are
supposed to have been then a Danish reckoning.
But these marks were not coins, only money of
account, or rather a weight. In 1194 the coined
mark had the nominal value it ever after retained,
160 pennies or 13s. 4d., two-thirds of the nominal
‘pound.’ The gold noble, first struck by Edward
IIL, was worth half a mark—6s. 8d. As late as
1703 Defoe was fined 200 marks. In Scotland the
mark or merk was a weight for gold and silver, or
common money reckoning, and also a coin. The
coin, like the other Scotch coins, had only one-
twelfth of the English value: nominally 13s. 4d., it
was worth Is. 1}d. English. There were two-merk,
one-merk (44 to the oz.), half, and quarter merk
ieces. The French standard weight mark weighed
‘75 grammes and the Dutch mark 246-08
grammes,
Mark, a signature. See DEED, ILLITERATES.
Mark. See Marcues.
Mark, also called Joun (Acts, xiii. 5, 13), or,
more fully, ‘ John, whose surname was Mark’ ( Acts,
xii. 12, 25), is named by unvarying tradition from
the close of the 2d century as the author of the
second canonical gospel. Of Mary, his mother,
nothing is known except that her house in Jeru-
salem was visited by Peter and the other disciples.
Barnabas the Levite was his cousin (Col. iv. 10, R.V.).
By some Mark has been supposed to be the young
man mentioned in Mark, xiv. 51, 52, and it has also
been conjectured that Mary’s house may have been
the place where the Lord’s Supper was instituted.
»Mark accompanied Paul and Barnabas on their
first missionary journey from Antioch in Syria as
far as to Perga in Pamphylia ( Acts, xii. 25; xiii. 13);
here he quitted them on grounds which, whatever
they may have been, did not approve themselves to
Paul, who at a later date peremptorily declined to
have him as a companion on his second journey,
even though this involved his parting company with
Barnabas also, That a reconciliation afterwards
48
MARK
took place from Col. iv. 10; Phil. 24; 2
Tim. iv. 11, where Mark is referred to by the
apostle as a useful fellow-worker. Another chapter
in Mark’s life is indicated in 1 Peter, v. 13, where he
is mentioned as a companion of the apostle Peter in
Babylon, unless indeed, as has been done by some
interpreters, we take ‘Marcus my son’ in a literal
sense, in which case, of course, a diffenent person is
referred to. We should not naturally think of
petepesting Babylon here as meaning Rome, were
it not for subsequent ecclesiastical tradition which
usually speaks of Mark as the ‘disciple and inter-
ter’ of Peter, and mentions Rome as the scene of
Their labours till the martyrdom of the latter about
Sous a tradition, a —_ is not a
t into agreement with the very generally
accepted statement of Eusebius, that “Mark from
Rome went to Alexandria, where, after proclaiming
the gospel he had written, he was succeeded in the
toral office by Ammianus in the eighth year of
ero (62A.D.). This last date is given as his death
year in the Roman breviary. A further tradition
a. of Mark as having preached in other parts
Italy besides Rome, and especially at Aquileia.
On the strength of this ition the Emperor
Heraclius in A.D. sent the patriarchal chair
from Alexandria to Grado, whither the Aquileian
triarchate had previously been remov The
Venetian legend of the translation of the relics of
St Mark from Alexandria to Venice (q.v.) in the 9th
century is denied by Tillemont, and rests on very
inadequate evidence. He is sometimes spoken of
as having suffered martyrdom, but by none of the
older authorities nor by the Roman brevi His
feast day is April 25. In medieval art Mark is
symbolised by the lion. Various New Testament
books have been attributed to him by individual
modern critics (Epistle to Hebrews, Epistle of
Jude, and, more recently, the Apocalypse, in whole
or in part). For the traditions, both earlier and
later, regarding Mark, see Molinus, De Vita et
ners S. Marci Evangelista: (Rome, 1864).
HE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO MARK,—T wo distinct
accounts of the origin of this gospel, both of them
developments from earlier tradition, were formulated
ao tag te i | Augustine and by Jerome; both
— general currency throughout the Western
hurch, and no difficulty with regard to either of
them was expressed for many centuries. Augus-
tine’s view {ie GosPELs) was that Mark merely
followed and abridged Matthew, Jerome’s that he
wrote at the direct dictation of Peter. Modern
criticism accepts neither. (1) The germs of Augus-
tine’s account are found in Irenzus (end of 2d cen-
tury), who says that Matthew had already written
his ken ore Mark began his, and in Clement
of Alexandria (circa 210 A.D.), who has it that the
two gospels containing the genealogies were com-
first, and implies that Mark seen them
th. Mark's dependence on Matthew was first
controverted towards the end of the 18th century
(Koppe, Storr), and his priority to both Matthew
and Luke was argued for and illustrated with
much cogent detail by Wilke and Weisse in two
independent works in 1838. Baur and his school
continued to defend the traditional view so far at
least as to maintain that the second gospel was
a late conciliatory combination of Matthew and
Luke, with the Ebionitism of the one and the
Paulinism of the other left out. But Ewald again
claimed ey for Mark, and his view, supported
at the time by Ritechl and by many others since,
a now be ed as, subject to certain qualifi-
ca eee y accepted on all hands, Among
the —_- —_ —— to this conclusion
are certain peculiarities o! and phrase-
ology in which Mark is confessediy Lane refined and
classical than Luke or even Matthew. It is held
to be unlikely that in course of borrowing the more
the more polite. Again, the graphic, vivid,
vulgar style of expression should be substituted bn
abrupt style of Mark (characterised by use of the
historical present and by other features) is not that
of a mere abbreviator or ong Farther, the pe.
of the narrative, which materially differs
rom that in Matthew and in Luke, is now held to
represent, probably, the actual order of the facts
more eae The natural course of a oe
development in the life and work of Jesus, in’
own self-consciousness, and in the estimation of
others, can be traced more clearly in Mark than in
any of the other gospels. The manner and di ;
in which the supernatural element is presen
also held to segs a — pram at ‘
expressions too, which might be supposed stumbling
to faith, are present in Mark, but absent from the
others, having either been struck out altogether or
modified so as to bring them more into accordance
with accepted views. (Compare, e.g., Mark, vi. 5
with Matt. xiii. 58; also Mark, i, 32-34 with Matt.
viii. 16 and Luke, iv. 40, 41.) In short, its naiveté,
directness, and simplicity prove the compan
originality of Mark. (2) Jerome’s account can be
traced back in its beginnings to Papias (circa
140 A.D.), who we learn from Eusebius was once
told by John ‘ the presbyter ’ (not the apostle John),
perhaps about 90 A.D., that ‘Mark, having become
the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately
everything he remembered of the things that were
either said or done by Christ, not, however, in order,
For neither did he hear the Lord, nor did he follow
Him; but afterwards, as I said, [followed] Peter,
who adapted his instructions to the needs [of his
hearers}, but had no design of giving a connected
account of the oracles of the * *So then,’
adds Papias, ‘Mark made no mistake, while he
thus wrote down some things as he remembered
them ; for he made it his one care not to omit any-
thing he had heard, or to set down any false state-
ment therein.’ It is here clearly implied that Mark
had only his memory to rely on at the time of
his bshraes 9 Peter being no longer within
Clement of Alexandria ag by Eusebius) is the
first who knows that Mark wrote before
death, but also informs us that he wrote without
teat knowledge. Eusebius in another place,
ro
Plemen say that Peter afterwards gave the work
his sanction. Origen states that Mark wrote, ‘ Peter
showing him the way,’ but the phrase does not
necessarily imply dictation.
Modern critics readily ise a certain basis of
truth in the ecclesiastical tradition as to Peter’s con-
nection with Mark’s gospel. Clearly all that makes
for its first-hand character makes for its Petrine
origin. Much of what it contains, both in sub-
stance and in manner, betokens the eye-witness, and
such an eye-witness as Peter, or at least one of the
three most intimate disciples. The earlier part of
the narrative centres mainly round Capernaum and
Peter's house there. Among the most in
turning-points in it are Peter's call and Peter's
confession. But the gospel is not all equally pre:
ary. A large portion of what seems in it to be
secondary might indeed be explained in some
degree were it permissible to hold that Peter’s own
recollections had been modified in the course of
thirty years’ brooding reflection on the real signifi-
cance of the great personality he had followed
during those brief months of earthly discipleship,
and (as he would in later years feel) had at first so
imperfectly understood. The history when looked
back upon might well assume to him a different
mo in memory and imagination from that which
it had worn while he was actually passing mos
the scenes with mind and heart only half-opened
‘
‘o
are!
by a lapse of memory, seems to make
AA
MARK ANTONY
MARLBOROUGH 49
its ideal and figurative elements and its deepest
religious meanin That such was the case with
his early companion John at least is a theory that
has found considerable acceptance with Christian
apologists. See JOHN (GOSPEL ACCORDING TO).
But even so, there are passages in Mark in which
the narrative is so brief and vague as to make it
difficult to believe that they rest on the authority
of an eye-witness only once removed. This is con-
ly the case with Mark, xvi. 9-20, and partly
also with the history of the closing days in Jeru-
salem, thongh even this abounds with many pictur-
esque touches, such as that in xi. 4. Instances are
frequent in which the exegete feels constrained to
suppose some dislocation or derangement of a con-
text, or misunderstanding, perhaps mistranslation,
of asaying. See, in particular, chap. xiii.
The general conclusion of the critical discussion
is that in the second gospel on the whole we hear
the language of a reporter who had often listened
to one who claimed to have been present at the
scenes he described. The weight of traditional as
well as of internal evidence goes to shew that it
was produced in Rome about 70 A.D., perhaps
rather after than before that date. Apart from
what he had heard in Petrine circles, the author
doubtless felt himself at liberty to make use of
whatever he may have gleaned elsewhere from wiat
he deemed trustworthy sources for the Galilean and
Jerusalem tradition. It is even a question whether
he may not actually have seen or heard read, in
whole or in part, the ‘logia’ of Matthew. That
the second Mpeg was by the authors both of
the first and of the third may be regarded as now
made out. On the assumption that the ‘logia’ of
Matthew contained absolutely no narrative mate-
rial, it used to be argued that the second page
must originally have been somewhat fuller than it
now is (‘ original’ Mark, ‘Ur-Mareus’). But this
is now very generally given up. A more
likely supposition is that the original form was
shorter than the present. Mark, xvi. 9-20, is con-
fessedly late. It is not improbable that the preface,
i, 1-3, was at one time absent. Some have thought
that vii. 24-viii. 26 did not occur in the copy of
Mark used by Luke. Reuss has long held that
the original Mark consisted only of i. 21-vi. 48 and
viii. 27-xiii. 37. It is not unlikely that editorial
ions and alterations have been made through-
ont. Critical investigation into the genesis of the
“4 gee gospels, though far advanced, cannot be
said to have reached completion, and there is good
reason to hope that scholarship may yet succeed in
reaching still more definite results.
Mark is printed, and its relations to Matthew and
graphically exhibited, in Abbott and Rushbrooke’s
Common Tradition of the Synoptic Gospels (1884). A
ve reconstruction of the supposed first redaction
of is given in Solger’s Urevangelium (1890).
Mark Antony. See ANnTonrvs (Marcus).
’ Market-Drayton, or Drayron-1x-HAtEs, a
wn of Shropshire, on the Tern, 18 miles NE. of
habe It has a mmar-school (1554) and
@ church dating from the 12th century, up whose
Clive (q.v.) clambered as a hoy. At Blore-
, 3 miles to the east, the Yorkists won a
j 1459. Pop. of parish, 5188. See two
> ori J. R. Lee (1861) and T. P. Marshall
Market-Harborough, «a market-town of
hire, on the river Welland and the Union
Canal, 16 miles SE. of Leicester, 18 N. of North-
ese 84 NNW. of London. It has traces of
a Roman camp; a fine Perpendicular church, built
by John of Gaunt as an atonement for his intrigue
with Catharine Swynford, with a broach spire 154
feet high ; a corn exchange (1858); and agrammar-
school (1614; restored 1869). Charles I. slept here
before Naseby. Situated in a rich grazing country,
it is a famous hunting-centre, and gives title to one
of Whyte-Melville’s novels. Pop. (1851) 2325;
(1881) 5351; (1891) 5876. See works by John H.
Hill (Leicester, 1875) and J. E. Stocks (Lond. 1890).
Markets. See Farrs.
Markham, Sir CLEMENTs ROBERT, F.R.S., and
since 1896 K.C.B., poe her, is a son of the Rey. D.
Markham, canon of Windsor. He was born 1830 at
Stillingfleet, near York, educated at Westminster,
from which school he entered the navy in 1844.
Immediately on passing as lieutenant in 1851 he left
the navy, and in 1855 became a clerk in the Board
of Control. In 1863 he was elected secretary to the
Royal Geographical Society, and in 1867 me
assistant-secretary in the India Office. In 1868 he
was placed in charge of the geographical depart-
ment in that office. He served in the Arctie
expedition (1850-51 ) in search of Sir John Franklin.
He explored (1852-54) Peru and the forests of the
Eastern Andes ; he introduced (1860) the cultiva-
tion of the cinchona plant from South America
into India; served as geographer (1867-68) in the
Abyssinian expedition, and was present at the storm-
ing of Magdala. Of his numerous publications,
which include many translations from the Spanish,
and several antiquarian and genealogical works,
mention can only here be made of his Grammar
and Dictionary of the Ynca Language (1863-64) :
The Threshold of the Unknown ih jon (1874;
4eds.); Zhe War between Chili and Peru (1879;
3 eds.); Missions to Thibet (1877; 2 eds.); his
Reports on the Moral and National Progress of
India for 1871-73 ; and his Life of John Davis,
in the ‘Explorers’ series (1889). He edited the
Geographical Magazine from 1872 to 1878.
Marking Ink. See Inx.
Markireh (Fr. Ste-Marie-aux-Mines), a town
of Upper Alsace, on the Leber, 40 miles SW.
of Strasburg by rail, with important cotton and
woollen mills, Pop. (1890) 11,870. ’
Marl, a mixture, naturally existing, of clay
and carbonate of lime. Marls are found in very
different geological formations, but everywhere
seem to owe their origin to deposition by water.
The name is sometimes applied to friable clays,
or mixtures of clay and sand, in which there
is almost no trace of lime; but the presence of a
notable proportion of carbonate of lime is essential
to marls, properly so called. This proportion varies
from 6 to 20 per cent. Marly soils are in general
of great natural fertility. Mar! is ve aa ney
ously used as a manure, acting both chemically
and mechanically ; but different kinds of marl are
of very different value in this respect. The use of
marl as a manure has been practised from ancient
times. An English statute of 1225 (10 Henry III.)
gave every man a right to sink a marl-pit on his
own ground, and there is other evidence that the
application of marl to land was common in
ngland in the 13th century. The quicker action
and greater efficiency of lime have led to its use
in many cases instead of marl, although some
kinds of marl are extremely useful in some soils.
The bulkiness of marl confines its use to the neigh-
bourhood in which it is found. Marl is some-
times indurated into a rock; a slaty variety,
containing much bitumen, is found in Germany.
See also LAs.
Marlborough, an old and interesting market-
town of Wiltshire, pleasantly situated in the valley
MARLBOROUGH
Kennet, near Savernake Forest, 75 miles
London and 11 SSE. of Swindon. Its broad
Street contains some picturesque houses, and
east end is St Mary’s Church with the town-
1790); at the west St Peter's with the college.
latter is a British mound, on which earl
12th century Bishop Roger of Salisbury built
castle. This afterwards became a royal residence ;
and here in 1267 Henry III. held the parliament
enacted the ‘Statutes of Marleberge’ for re-
storing good government after the Barons’ wars. An
i ipal borough, Marlborough, till 1867,
returned two members liament, and till 1885
one. Pop. (1851) 3460; (1891) 3012.—Marlborough
was incorporated in 1845, and obtained an
addi charter in 1853; the number of pupils
is between 500 and 600, of whom about 70, sons of
clergymen, are on the foundation. There are some
scholarships worth from £15 to £80 annually,
and fourteen leaving exhibitions for Oxford, Cam-
, and Woolwich, The nucleus of the college
was cree bt famous coaching-house ;
and their special ¥
2x22) 2
fier
ge
Waylen (1854) and Hulme (1881).
Marlborough, « provincial district of New
in the north-east corner of the South
Island, 130 miles long by 30 broad ; area, 3,000,000
acres, of which 200,000 are agricultural land and
1,300,000 suitable for pastoral occupation. Amongst
the minerals are gold, antimony, copper, and coal.
See NEw ZEALAND.
Marlboro Joun Cuurcui.y, DUKE oF,
the ablest veneral and diplomatist of his time, was
born on the 24th June 1650, at Ashe, in Devon-
shire, an old manor-house, which can still be seen
between Axminster and Seaton. His father, Sir
Winston Churchill, had been an enthusiastic
adherent of the Stuarts, and on the accession of
Cromwell to power his estates had been consequently
sequestrated. At the Restoration, however, Winston
recovered possession of his lands, but his poverty
ted him from giving his children an educa-
heayeon Sayer position, so that young Churchill
and his George had to face the world with
little Latin and less Greek, and a knowledge of
English history gathered from the plays of Shake-
ane During his engagement as a page to the
ot York, John was fortunate enough to secure
a commission as ensign in the Guards, and at the
age of sixteen, in the your 1667, he was sent to Tan-
Es then | ny the Moors. It is said that
was sent to Tangiers on account of the king's
y of his favour with the Duchess of Cleve-
; and the eet Ay | told that on one occasion,
being nearly surprised by the king, he leapt out
of a window and was presented by the duchess with
£5000, £4500 of which he invested in an annuity of
£0ayear. The a7 with regard to the annuity
transaction are «till in existence. At Tangiers
Churchill had little ceprventiy of distinguishing
himself. Recalled to England by the Duke of York,
he was promoted to a captaincy, and in command
of a grenadier com at he was despatched to join
Turenne, to assist Lonie XIV. in the reduction of
the fortresses on the Dutch frontier. Here his brill-
fant courage and ability at once gained him a
coloneley, although his promotion would not have
been so he not called into requisition the
influence of his sister, Arabella, mistress of the
Dake of York. His prosperity was further ad-
vanced by his marriage with Sarah Jennings, a
lady as remarkable for her talents and imperious
disposition as for her beanty. In 1682 he was
created Baron Churchill of Eyemouth, in Scotland.
On the accession of the Duke of York to the throne
as James II., the services of Colonel Churchill to—
his master were not forgotten, as he was
the English rage under the title of Baron
Churehill of Sendridge, in Hertfordshire, Promoted
to be general, Churchill took an active part in—
quelling the rebellion of Monmouth; but, on the
landing of the Prince of Orange, he stole away to
the side of the invader, leaving a letter in which he
endeavoured to explain = nis treachery by say-
ing that only the inviolable -
and a ry
James's daughter, the Princess Anne, accom’
by Lady Churchill, also fled to join the rebels in
the north. William, on his accession,
his gratitude for the assistance given him by
Churchill by creating him Earl of Marlborough.
Notwithstanding the conspicuous service rendered
by Marlborough
and as commander of the troops
employed ge
the French in the Netherlands, in 1689-91, m
III. could not rid himself of a certain not a
1692 he
ungrounded suspicion of his new earl, till in
fell into disfavour, and was dismissed from all his
offices. As the result of the discovery of a plot
with which a clever forger named Young associated
the name of Marlborough, the earl was arrested
and lodged in the Tower. In ten days he was
released, however, but for five years he was with-
out sgh caning employment, till the death of Mary,
when he was restored to the favour of the king,
and he retained it till the death of William in 1
At the accession of he was
entrusted with the command of the British army
in the Netherlands on the declaration of
war of the Spanish succession, in which
was to show his unrivalled st ical genius
during one of the test series of military opera-
tions in which England has ever been e
Anne showered honours on the head of the
tunate earl and his wife, her closest friend.
Marlborongh was made a knight of the bie a
Commander-in-chief, and Master General of
Ordnance, while his lady was appointed Groom
of the Stole, Mistress of the Robes, and Keeper
of the Privy Purse. Marlborough, in fact, became
regent in all but name. His wife gov: the
— and he himself directed Godolphin, the
ord High Treasurer, whose son had married his
daughter. At the opening of the campaign, Marl-
borough, on his arrival at The Hague, was named
commander-in-chief of the combined En and
Dutch forces, with a salary of £10, The
campaign was one long series of triumphs for
the allies. In 1702, for driving the French out of
Spanish Guelders, the reward was a dukedom and
£5000 per annum ‘from the post-office.’ The year
1703 was made memorable to the duke by the death
of his only surviving son, the Marquis of
who succumbed to an attack of smallpox. Marl-
borough had little time to grieve over his loss,
as le was summoned at once to the cam in
the Low Countries, in which he was so much dis-
gusted with the Dutch that he returned to England,
seriously thinking of bagpehis up his command.
Next year, however, we see him supporting the
Emperor of Germany, and joining Prince Eugene
of Savoy, in July of that year storming suecess-
fully the French and Bavarian lines at Donau-
worth, and on the 13th August gaining a
but bloody victory over the enemy at Blenheim,
Of 56,000 men, the French and Bavarians lost
40,000, and the victors’ killed and wounded
numbered fully 12,000. The result of this decisive
battle stamped Marlborough as the first’ general
in Europe. Parliament bestowed upon him the
estate of Woodstock, the queen caused Blenheim
Park (q.v.) to be built for him, and the emperor
raised to
n for his religion
could have induced him to desert his master, —
in reducing Ireland to subjection, —
MARLBOROUGH
MARLOWE 51
ereated him a prince of the Holy Roman Empire.
Diplomatic tiations occupied the principal part
of 1 ’s time and attention in 1705, but in
1706 he resumed that career of victory which broke
the force of the spell surrounding the great power
of France under Louis XIV., who gloried in calli
himself the ‘Invincible.’ On the 23d May 17
the battle of Ramillies was fought, when the French
were obliged to desert the line of the Scheldt and
evacuate the whole of Spanish Flanders. The
campaign of 1707 was an almost wholly inactive
one; but in 1708 the ee by the French under
Vendéme to recover Flanders led to the battle
of Oudenarde—the et battle of Marlborough’s
engaged in front of a fortified town—fought on
July 11, and resulting in the total defeat of
the French forces. riborough then laid siege
to Lille and Ghent, and the surrender of these
two towns ended tle long and, arduous cain-
poign. The year 1709 was distinguished by the
ttle of plaquet—in Marlborough’s words,
‘a very murdering battle.’ The numbers were
practically equal, t the French had an infinite
superiority o! ition. There are few battles in
history of which it can so certainly be said that the
best men won. The carnage was tremendous—
20,000 on the side of the allies and 8000 on that of
the French. The blood of Malplaquet—the last
of the four engagements which gave lborough’s
name a unique pain in the roll of generals—
did not bring about peace; and in 1711 he was
afield again, taking town after town from the
French. This eventually led to the treaty of
——— which gave thirt y years of peace to
_ Meanwhile important events were taking place
in Britain. The queen, tired of the tyrann
exercised by the Duchess of Marlborough, shoo
off the yoke, dismissed her ministers, olphin
and Sunderland, mide. the way for the elevation
to power of the 1 of Oxford and the Tories.
nm a was preferred against Marl-
of having embezzled public money, and
he was deprived of his offices, till the accession
of George 1, when, in a day, he was restored
to A coop in which he stood after the battle
of eim. A stroke of apoplexy on 28th May
he although it impaired his h, did not
preclude his attendance in parliament till within
six months of his death, which occurred on
16th June 1722. His funeral obsequies in West-
minster Abbey were celebrated wit t magni-
ficence, and all ranks and all parties in the state
joined in doing him honour, Charges of avarice and
peculation have been brought a Marlborough
—among others, Hallam, Mahon, Macaulay,
and Thackeray. ite this, and the certainty
that he t t more of his own interest than the
cause in w’ he was en , his character had
many elements of excellence. He was generous
in action, gentle in temper, a devoted husband,
and a man of religious fervour.
His wife, SARAH JENNINGS, was born on 29th
May 1660, and when about twelve years of age
entered the service of the Duchess of York, and be-
came the chosen and most intimate friend of her step-
danghter the Princess Anne. Like Marlborough
himself, Sarah came of an ancient but ruined
royalist family. On the accession of Anne to the
var the duchess exercised over the young queen
the influence due to a superior and singularly active
—oliboped wer was # almost eran J the Whi,
upon support, and she di
of or and offices at her pleasure, and is
to have accumulated money by the trans-
actions. Her fair fame, however, apart from this,
Was never, even in those days of scurrilous lampoon,
tarnished the breath of scandal. Her rule,
which lasted for a considerable time, at last became
unbearable, and she was supplanted in the favour
of the queen by her own cousin, Mrs Masham,
whom she herself had introduced to court. She
retired from the queen’s service in January 1711;
and for nearly a quarter of a century she survived
her husband, living in complete retirement. She
was of a very pugnacious disposition, only happy
when quarrelling with her friends or eng: in
lawsuits, such as those arising out of the comple-
tion of Blenheim. She died on 29th October 1744,
leaving a fortune of three millions sterling, of which
she bequeathed £10,000 to William Pitt. As the
beay 8 of Blandford, the only son of the Duke
and hess of Marlborough, died young, the title
was inherited by the descendants of one of their
daughters, the Countess of Sunderland.
See the Memoirs by Coxe (1819), the short Life, b;
Sain (1885), Leslie Stephen in Dict. Nat. Biog. (vo
x.), and the early life by Lord Wolseley (2 vols. 1894).
Marlinespike, an iron pin, with a large head
and taper point, used on shipboard for separating
the strands of rope preparatory to splicing or
marling ; also employed as a lever in tightening
rigging, &c. See KNOTS AND SPLICES.
Marlitt, EvGEeNntE£, the pseudonym of E. Jonn,
a German novelist, born at Arnstadt in Thuringia,
on 5th December 1825. Her beautiful voice and
musical talent gained her the favour of the Princess
of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, who sent her to
Vienna, where, after three years of study, she
appeared on the s But a successfully-begun
career was cut short by an affection of the ear, and
Friiulein John acted as reader to her patroness till
1863. Retiring in that year into private life, she
spent her time in st romances, interestin
enough, but with strong didactic tendencies an
somewhat unreal. Of these the most successful
was Goldelse (1866; 18th ed. 1885); others, such
as The Old Maid’s Secret (1867), Princess of the
Moor (1871), Second Wife (1873), Countess Gisela
(1869), and Thuringian Stories Bod a except
the last translated into English, 1870 to 1873—
have also passed through many editions. She
died at Arnstadt on June 1887. A collected
edition of her Romanzen und Novellen was issued in
5 vols. in 1889.
Marlow, GREAT, a town of Buckinghamshire,
on the Thames, 29 miles W. of London by rail, has
manufactures of lace and paper, an iron suspension
bridge, a house where Shelley lived in 1817, and a
grammar-school (formerly a blue-coat school). It
sent two members to parliament down to 1867, and
one till 1885. Pop. oF parish (1891) 5283. :
Marlowe, CurisTorHer, Shakespeare’s great-
est predecessor in the English drama, a shoemaker’s
son, was baptised at Canterbury, 26th February
1563-64. From the King’s School, Canterbury, he
was sent to Benet College (now Corpus Christi),
Cambridge ; proceeded B.A., 1583, and commenced
M.A., 1587. How he employed himself after tak-
ing his bachelor’s degree is not known. A ballad
printed from MS. by J. P. Collier asserts that he
was an actor at the Curtain Theatre, and ‘brake
his leg in one lewd scene when in his early age ;’
but the ballad is evidently spurious. Colonel
Cunningham suggests that he may have served as
a soldier in the ie Countries. ;
The earliest of Marlowe's extant plays is Tam-
burlaine the Great, in two f pri first rinted in
1590, and probably produced in 1587. In spite of
its bombast and violence it is infinitely superior to
any tragedy that had yet appeared on the English
stage. By his energy and fervour, his aspirin
imagination and majestic utterance, he confounde
his rivals and won immediate supremacy. Very
52 MARLOWE :
noticeable proud self-confidence displayed The Tragedy of Dido is stated on the title-page
- senaensionbing gtepie mag puis of the fret edition (1504) to have boon wrlttent y
ssa 5 ‘Christopher Marlow and Thomas Nash, Gent,’
astounding terms.
Earlier dramatists had employed blank verse, but
it had been stiff and ungainly: Marlowe was the
rst to discover its strength and variety. The
of Tamburlaine was extraordi Fe A
line in the thian conqueror's address
ve ee he has harnessed to
red jades of Asia !'—
to the capti
his chariot—*‘ Holla, ye
was constantly or ood “4 a a ane pag 1G
less the extravaganza y contributed to i
success, The of Manbatcies was original
y
taken by the famous actor, Edward Alleyn, who
Diirg of Dr Porcine won protall
The r Faustus was probably
yt free Wemburlates The. earliest
but it also appears to preserve some genuine pass-
some of these scenes are evidently not by Marlowe.
Ses eye after another was employed to
additions.” But the nobler scenes are
marvellously impressive; nowhere is Marlowe's
shown more vividly than in Faustus’s
— description of Helen’s beauty and in the
ible soliloquies that prepare us for the catas-
trophe. Faustus held the and was revived
at the Kestoration. Edw: Phillips, Milton’s
nephew, quaintly remarks that ‘Of all that Mar-
made the arr tien his devils and such
like ical sport.’ A man version was acted
phy players at Gratz iy ee carnival in
1 and at Dresden in 1626. the expressed
admiration for Marlowe's work.
The Jew of Malta, uced after December
1 was first publ in 1633, with a prologue
wy Mawel Hag weed. It is ane d unequal play.
first two acts are condu with masterly
skill and vigour; but the last three are absurdly
extra t, degenerating into vulgar caricature.
if we's hand had not fal , if the later
had been equal to the earlier, Barabas would
ve been worthy to stand alongside of Shylock.
Edward I1., uced about 1590, is the
matorest ‘of Marlowe's plays. It has not the
magnificent that we find in Faustus and
in the first two acts of The Jew of Malta, but it
lanned and executed with more firmness and
solidity—in a more temperate and —— spirit.
The various characters are skilfully discriminated,
the action is never allowed to flag. Many
critics have preferred it to Shakespeare's Richard
JI. ; it is certainly no whit inferior. Charles
Lamb declared that ‘the reluctant pangs of
abdicating royalty in Edward furnished hints
which Shak scarce improved in his Richard
II. ; and the death-scene of Marlowe's king moves
pity and terror 4 any scene, ancient or
modern, with which I am acquainted.’
The Massacre at Paris is the weakest of Mar-
Fe
=
E
lowe's *, and has descended in a mutilated
state. It was written after the assassination of
Henry IIL of France (2d Angust 1589), and was
ly one of the latest plays. An early MS.,
a fragment of an original playhouse transcript,
preserves part of scene xix.; and a com
of the MS. text with the text of the printed copy
that the play was mangled in passing
the presa,
Probably it was left in a fragmentary Freee
Marlowe and was finished by Nash. It is
slight value; but contains some
(and extraordinary bombast), There can be
doubt that Marlowe had a hand in the three parts: _
VI. ; and it is probable that he was con-—
cerned in the authorship of 7itus Andronicus, Ay
of Henry
wild, shapeless tragedy, Lust’s Dominion, was A
lished in 1657 as the work of Marlowe. It delat
with historical events that happened after Mar-
lowe's death, but may nevertheless have been
adapted from one of Marlowe's lost plays.
he unfinished poem, Hero and Leander,
in heroic couplets of consummate :
was first published in 1598 ; a second edition, with’
Chapman's continuation, followed in the same year,
Ben Jonson is reported
parallel. From a in the Third Sestiad it.
the task of finishing the poem ; but neither :
man nor any other poet could have taken u
story with any hope of success, Hero and Leander
1 through numerous editions, and won univer-
sal applause. Shakespeare wh cess in As You Like
It = line, i ihe oe] lov: a not ae first
sight?’ and feelingly apostrophi as
Dead Shepherd.’ Nash, in Lentil Stuffe, speaks»
of ‘divine Museus, and a diviner poet than him,
Kit Marlowe.’ The watermen couplets from
it as they plied their sculls on the Thames, Henry
Petowe, a poor versilier but enthusiastic admirer
of Marlowe, tells how
Men would shun their sleep in still dark night re:
To meditate upon his golden lines. -
Marlowe's translations of Ovid’s Amores and of.
the first book of Lucan’s Pharsalia add nothing to”
his fame. The pastoral ditty * Come, live with me —
and be my love,’ to which Sir Walter Ral
an Answer, was imitated, but not = led, by
Herrick, Donne, and others. Izaak Walton pro-—
nounced it to be roca | good.’ It was F
printed in 7he Passionate a er (1599), without
the fourth and sixth stanzas, In England's Helicon
(1600) it are complete, with the author's
name, ‘oN arlowe,’ oubenthed,
that Marlowe had enjoined upon My :
P
Another anth-.
ology, Allot’s Hngland’s Parnassus (1600),
serves a fragment by Marlowe, beginning ‘I wall
along @ stream for pureness rare.’
In May 1593, at the age of twenty-nine, Marlowe
met a violent death in a quarrel (about a courtesan,
it is stated) with one Francis Archer, a serving-
man, The burial-register of the parish church of
St Nicholas, Deptford, has the entry : ‘ Christopher
Marlow, slain ri
oo clear in tl
e register), the 1 of June 1593.’
ighly-coloured accounts of his death were given —
by Puritanical writers. Thomas F i
Theatre of God's Judgement, declares that ‘ hee even:
cursed and blasphemed to his last gaspe, and to-
gether with his breath an oath flew out of his
mouth.’ There can be no doubt that Marlowe had
led an irregular life. In Harleian MS. is.
a note ‘contayninge the opinion of one Cristofer
Marlye concernyng his damnable opinions and
judgment of Relygion and scorne of Gods worde,’”
drawn ep (shortly before Marlowe's death) by a
certain Richard Baine, who was hanged at Tyburn,.
6th December 1594, This scandalous document,
which in parts is — unfit for publication, was,
ng in full by Ritson. There is evidence that
sir Walter Raleigh and Thomas Kyd the drama-
tist were accused of sharing Marlowe’s views.
Had his life been lengthened, Marlowe would
doubtless have written more perfect tragedies, but
to have said that Marlowe's _
verses were examples fitter for admiration than for —
b wrniet
i*
nd pAP
wt
rst
francis Archer {the name pen
MARMALADE
MARMORA 53
he could hardly have left a better poem than Hero
and Leander. Comedy he would never have
attempted; he had no humour. In tragedy he
the way for Shakespeare, on whose early
work his influence is firmly stamped.
_ Dyce’s scholarly edition of Marlowe’s works has not
been superseded. It was issued in 1850, 3 vols. by
Pickering ; revised edition, 1 vol. 1858. Cunningham's
edition (1 vol.) is useful but inaccurate. In 1885 the
me writer b: ¢ out an edition (3 vols.). Marlowe’s
lays are included in the ‘Mermaid’ series, ably
edi by Mr Havelock Ellis. Dr Faustus has been
elaborately edited by Professor A. W. Ward. In Ger-
many Messrs Hermann, Breymann, and Albrecht Wagner
at in roducing the old texts, with the
origi orthography and exhaustive lists of varie
lectiones, In 1 it was resolved to erect a monument
to Marlowe’s memory on the Dane John, Canterbury.
No authentic portrait is extant.
Marmalade (Port. marmelada, from mar-
melo, ‘a quinee;’ which, again, is from Mid. Lat.
malomellum, Gr. melimélon, ‘honey-apple’ or ‘sweet
ae) is a semi-liquid preserve, made by boiling
pulp of thick-rinded fruits, such as oranges,
cacig dm quinces, &c., with portions of the
rind. The most common kind of marmalade is
made from the bitter or Seville oranges, the com-
mon or sweet sorts being. stanidlered. inferior for
this purpose, though also occasionally used. The
woolly coating on the interior being removed, the
rind is cut up into thin ry and boiled along
with the expressed juice of the pulp and a quan-
tity of sugar equal in weight to the other in-
gredients. The preserve is now made on a com-
mercial scale in factories at London, Dundee,
Paisley, and elsewhere.
Marmion, SHACKERLEY, minor dramatist, was
born in Northamptonshire, January 1602, studied
at Wadham College, Oxford, and took the degree
‘of M.A. in 1624. He squandered his fortune,
et in the Low Countries, and joined Sir John
Suckling’s troop for the expedition against the
Scots, but fell sick at York and returned to
London, where he died early in 1639. He left
behind an epic, = Psyche (reprinted
by Singer 1820), and three comedies, Holland's
_ Leaguer, A Fine Companion, and The Antiquary.
The last form a volume (1875) in Maidment and
: ’s Dramatists of the Restoration. The ancient
family of the Marmions of Scrivelsby were the
former hereditary champions at English corona-
tions. They came in with the Conqueror and
settled at Tamworth, but became extinct with
the fifth-baron under Edward I. Scott says of the
hero of his poem, ‘I have not created a new family,
but only revived the titles of an old one in an
personage.’ ;
Marmont, Avcuste Frépéric Lovts Viesse
for eighteen months governor of the
provinces ; and in 1811 succeeded Massena
in the chief command in Portugal, where he showed
skilful strategy in the presence of Wellington. A
severe wound, received at the defeat of Salamanca,
compelled him to retire to France. In 1813 he
commanded a corps d’armée, fought at Liitzen,
Bautzen, and Dresden, and maintained the con-
test with “ spirit in France in the beginning
of 1814, till further resistance was hopeless, when
he concluded a truce with Barelay de Tolly, which
compelled Napoleon to abdicate, and earned him-
self from the Bonapartists the title of the traitor.
The Bourbons loaded Marmont with honours. On
the return of Napoleon from Elba he was obliged
to flee. After the second restoration he lived in
retirement till the revolution of 1830, when, at the
head of a body of troops, he endeavoured to reduce
Paris to submission, and finally retreating with
6000 Swiss, and a few battalions that had continued
faithful to Charles X., conducted him across the
frontier. From that time he travelled much and
resided chiefly in Vienna and Venice, where he died,
2d March 1852. He was the last survivor of the
marshals of the first French Empire. His chief
work is his Esprit des Institutions Militaires (1845).
His Mémoires fill nine volumes (1856-57). See
Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du Lundi, vol. vi.
Marmontel, Jean Francois, a famous but
hardly a great French writer, was born of an
obscure family at Bort, in the Limousin, 11th July
1723. He made his studies in a Jesuit college, and
found employment in a seminary at’ Toulouse, but
early turned to literature, and went to Paris in
1745 by advice of Voltaire. Here he wrote suc-
cessful tragedies and operas, and was fortunate
enough in 1753 to get a secretaryship at Versailles
through the influence of Madame Pompadour.
Soon after he received a more lucrative appoint-
ment, the official journal, Le Mercure, jr
entrusted to his charge. In its columns he com-
menced the publication of his finished and oft-
translated Contes Moraux (1761). Marmontel was
elected to the Academy in 1763, and became its
secretary in 1783, as well as Historiographer of
France. After the Revolution he retired to the
vill of Abbeville, near Evreux, where he died,
31st ember 1799. His most celebrated work
was the well-known Bélisaire, a dull and wordy
political romance, containing a chapter on tolera-
tion which excited the most furious hostility on
the es of the theologians of the Sorbonne, to
which Marmontel replied in Les Incas by ascrib-
ing the cruelties in Spanish America to religious
fanaticism. In 1787 appeared his interesting and
valuable, but completely uncritical, Eléments de
Littérature, consisting of his contributions to the
Encyclopédie, His Mémoires is an_ interestin,
survey of his whole life, pis, decry by glimpses o
all the great figures he had seen cross the stage
from Massillon to Mirabeau.
His own edition of his complete works fills 17 volumes
(1786-87), to which must be added 14 volumes published
thumously. Good editions are those of Villeneuve
1819-20) and Saint-Surin (1824-27). See Sainte-Beuve’s
Causeries du Lundi, vol. iv.
Marmora, La. See LA MARMoRA.
Mar’mora, S£A or, the Propontis of the an-
cients, separating European from Asiatic Turkey,
and connecting the AZgean Sea by the Dardanelles
(anc. Hellespont) with the Black Sea by the
Strait of Constantinople (anc. Bosporus). It
is of an oval form, is 175 miles in length by 50 in
breadth, has an area of 4499 sq. m., and a maxi-
mum depth of 4250 feet. The Gulf of Ismid
extends about 30 miles eastwards into Asia. The
sea contains several islands, the largest of which
is Marmora or Marmara (area, 50 sq. m.), famous
for its quarries of marble and alabaster.
54 MARMOSET
MAROCHETTI
Marmose n
American monkeys which are always of small
size, and which differ in various particulars from
other American monkeys (see Monkey). The
popular name of Ouistiti has been given to these
monkeys on account of the sharp whistling sound
which they make when frightened \or irritated.
a name given to a group of
ater ~ ~' as
Marmoset ( Hapale jacchus).
There are a good many species of marmosets which
are placed in two genera, Midas and Hapale, both
confined to Central and South America. These
creatures are easily kept in captivity, and are
usually of an affectionate disposition.
Marmot ( Arctomys), a genus of rodents, belong-
ing to the family Sciuridw, resemble squirrels in
their dentition, although in form and habits they
more closely resemble rats and mice. They have two
incisors and two premolars in each jaw, four molars
on each side above, and three below.—The Common
Marmot, or Alpine Marmot (A. marmotta), is a
native of the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the more
northern mountains of Europe, up to the limits of
tual snow, and is found also in Asia. It
ba bout the size of a rabbit, grayish yellow, brown
The Alpine Marmot ( Arctomys marmotta),
towards the head; feeds on roots, leaves, insecta,
&e. ; and is gregarious, often living in large societies,
Marmots spend the winter in their burrows, in
one chamber of which is a store of dried grass;
but the greater part of the winter is passed in a
torpid condition. The Alpine Marmot is easily
tamed. There are three kinds of marmots in
North America, all popularly termed ‘ Wood-
chucks.’ The ‘Prairie Marmot’ (see Prairie
Doe) is nearly allied, but does not belong to the
same genus.
Marne, a river of France, the most consider-
able tributary of the Seine, rises in the platean of
Langres, flows north-west past Chalons to Epernay,
and thence west, joining the Seine at Charenton, a
few miles above Paris. Its length is 326 miles, and
it is navigable for 126 miles up to St Dizier. Its
stream is rather rapid, and in most places has a
wide bed. It is connected by canals with the
Rhine, the Aisne, and the Seine.
Marne, a department in the north-east of
France, formed out of the old province of Cham-
e, is traversed by the river Marne, and to
a less extent by the Seine and the Aisne, Area,
3159 sq. m. ; pop. (1891) 434,692. It is in the dry
and chalky soil of the north that the best varieties
of Champagne Wine (q.v.) are grown, of which
two-fifths are exported. The rearing of — is
an important industry, and extensive woollen
manufactures are carried on. Cereals, beetroot,
and potatoes are grown; honey and wax are pro-
Sasol building stone is quarried; and metal
works, tanneries, &c., are in operation. Marne
is divided into the five arrondissements of Chalons-
sur-Marne (the capital ), Epernay, Rheims, Sainte-
Ménéhould, and Vitry-le-Frangois.
Marne, Havre, a department in the north-
east of France, formed chiefly out of the old
rovince of Champagne, and embracing the land
in the upper basins of the Marne and the Meuse.
It rises in the south into the plateau of Langres
and the Monts Faucilles (1500 to 1600 feet). =
2402 sq. m.; pop. (1891) 243,533, a decrease
_11,343 since 1881, Cereals, wine (12 million gallons
annually), frnits, and potatoes are the principal
»roducts, The department yields 200,000 tons of
iron ore annually, and there are numerous furnaces,
The cutlery is in high repute. There are three
arrondissements of Chaumont, Langres, and Vassy ;
capital, Chaumont.
Marnix, Puiiie VAN, Lord of St Aldegonde,
Dutch writer and patriot, was born at Brussels in
1538, A pupil of Calvin and Beza at Geneva, on
his return home he took an active part in promot-
ing the Reformation, and in 1566 a no less active
part in the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain.
An intimate friend of William of Orange, he was
appointed by this great man to be his representa-
tive at the first meeting of the Estates of the
United Provinces, held at Dort in 1572, and on
subsequent occasions was sent on special missions
to the courts of France and England. After help-
ing to cement the Union of Utrecht and visitin
the diet at Worms, he was nominated in 1
burgomaster of Antwerp. This city he defended
thirteen months against the Spaniards; but, hay-
ing then capitulated, he incurred so much ill-will
that he retired from public life. The leisure of his
retirement he utilised for literary work, besides
taking an active interest in the newly-founded
university of Leyden. From his pen came the
Withelmus song, the hymn of Dutch liberty and
Protestantism ; the epoch-making prose satire on
the Roman Catholic Church, entitled The Roman
Bee-hive (1569); a metrical translation of the
Psalms from the Hebrew (1580); and the begin-
ning of a prose translation of the Bible. Marnix
died at Leyden, 15th December 1598. His works
were edited in 7 vols. (Brussels, 1855-59); his
religions works in 2 vols, (1871-73). See Lives in
Dutch by Broes (1840) and Frédérieq (1882), and
the French monograph by Juste (1858).
Marocco. See Morocco.
Marochetti, Carto, Baron, an Italian
sculptor of respectable talent, was born at Turin
in 1805, and trained in Bosio’s studio. Settling
. MARONITES
MARPRELATE 55
at Paris in 1827, he produced ‘Young Girl sport-
ing with a Dog,’ ‘Fallen Angel,’ relief on the
Are d’Etoile, an altarpiece for the Madeleine, a
memorial work for Bellini’s tomb, a statue of
d'Auvergne, &c. On the outbreak of the
revolution in 1848 he repaired
figures Philibert and
Charles Albert of Savoy were chiselled by him for
— Italy. He died at Paris on 4th January
Maronites, a Christian sect of Syria, generally
regarded as the descendants of a remnant of the
Monothelite sect (see MONOTHELISM), who settled
on the slopes of Lebanon in the 7th century. They
take their name from a monk Maro, who lived in
the 5th century, or more cbeggeerd from their first
patriarch Moro (701). These ple maintained
their independence against the followers of Islam;
but in the 12th century, on the establishment of
the Latin kingdom of Jernsalem, they abandoned
their distinctive monothelite opinions, and -
nised the authority of the Roman Church. In 1445
they entered inte a formal act of union with the
Roman Chareh; in 1584 a college was founded in
Rome by Pope Gregory XILL for the education of
the Maronite clergy; and in 1736 they formally
subseribed the decrees of the Council of Trent.
Nevertheless, they retain their distinctive national
rites and , and use the ancient Syriac lan-
in their liturgy; their clergy, if married
ordination, are permitted to keep their
wives; and they have many festivals and saints
not recognised in the calendar. The
Maronites, a sturdy, warlike race of mountaineers
(see LEBANON), number about 250,000. Their
patriarch, who is elected by their bishops, subject
to the approval of Rome, resides in the convent of
Kanobin on Lebanon. Many convents for both
sexes are spread over the country, especially in the
neighbourhood of Bsherreh, above gy te the in-
mates follow the rule of St Anthony. The relations
of the Maronites with their implacable foes, the
Druses, have been already detailed under Druses
and LEBANON. See Baedeker’s Palestine, by Socin
(2d ed. 1880).
_Maroons, the name (derived from the Span.
cimarron, from cima, ‘a mountain top’) given in
Jamaica and Guiana to fugitive negro slaves,
When the British conquered Jamaica from the
Spaniards in 1655, numbers of slaves took refuge
in the uplands. They and their descendants, called
Maroons, saiabeined aconstant warfare with the
colonists for 140 years ; but in 1795 they were sub-
ned, and a portion of them removed to Nova
Scotia, and afterwards to Sierra Leone. The rem-
nant fraternised with their manumitted brethren
in 1834-35. The Maroons of Guiana, who are
generally called Bush Negroes, about 4000 alto-
gether, orm a number of independent communities.
Dallas, History of the Maroons (1803).
Maros-Vasarhely, capital of the Szekler
districts in Transylvania, stands on the Maros, 28
miles SE. of Klausenburg. It contains a fortified
castle, an old Gothic church ( Reformed), a library
of 70,000 volumes, and a collection of minerals and
antiquities, and has a trade in timber, tobacco,
wine, corn, and fruits (particularly melons). Pop.
(1881) 12,883 ; (1890) 14,212, 3
Marot, CLément, a distinguished French poet
of the time of Francis I., oe at Cabow in
1496 (7). pareely owing to the influence of his
father, who was both poet and courtier, he began
at an early to write verses, and, abandoning
his legal studies, entered the service of Margaret,
Duchess of Alencon, afterwards Queen of Navarre,
to whom many of his poems are addressed. He
was wounded at the battle of Pavia in 1525, and
at the end of the year was imprisoned on a
charge of heresy, but was liberated in the spring of
1526. Having a witty pen and a satiric turn, and
not being particularly prudent either in wie or
conduct, he made many enemies and gave his royal
paces considerable trouble. During his absence
rom Paris in 1535 his house was searched, and
compromising literature was found in his library.
His claim that a poet should be permitted to read
everything being disallowed, he fled, first to the
court of the Queen of Navarre, and later found
refuge with the Duchess of Ferrara. He returned
to Paris in 1536, and in 1538 began to translate the
Psalms, which in their French dress became very
popular, especially at the court, where they were
sung to favourite secular airs, and helped to make
the new views fashionable at least. He was
encouraged by the king to continue his translation,
but the published in 1541 having been con-
demned by the Sorbonne, he had again to flee in
1543. He made his way to Geneva, but, finding
Calvin’s company uncongenial, he went to Turin,
where he died in 1544. His poems consist of elegies,
epistles, rondeaus, ballads, songs, sonnets, madri-
gals, epigrams, nonsense verses, and longer pieces
of a general character ; and, though he himself tells
us that love was above all his master, his special
gift lay in the direction of badinage and graceful
satire. Marot has a singularly light touch, and a
great power of simple natural expression, and in
all his poems—if we except some early rhetorical
exercises—there is the distinctive style Marotique
which has had an important influence on French
literary langu: Though he was persecuted for
his religious views, he expressly declares that he
was not a Lutheran, and probably like many of his
friends—Dolet for instance—he had no very
definite theological beliefs.
See uvres Completes (4 vols. Paris, 1873-75) ; Quvres
Choisies, an admirable selection (Paris, 1826); Life by
Vitet (1868); Douen, Clément Marot et le Psautier
Huguenot (2 vols, 1879 ). Of Guiffrey’s costly edition
only two volumes had appeared in 1890.
Marozia, a Roman lady of noble birth, but of
infamous reputation in the scandalous chronicles of
her age, daughter of the equally notorious Theo-
dora, was born in the close of the 9th century. As
the mistress of Pope Sergius III., and mother and
grandmother of three popes (John XI., John XII.,
and Leo VII.), she exercised the greatest influence
on the political affairs of her time in Italy. She
was married three times, and, if we may credit
the narrative of Luitprand, had skill and address
enough to procure the deposition and death of
Pope John X., and subsequently the elevation of
her son as John XI. Marozia’s later years
brought on her the punishment of her crimes. She
died in prison at Rome in 938.
Marprelate Controversy, a bitter war of
vigorous and often homely pamphlets, waged
against official Episcopacy by the Elizabethan
Puritans. Many of these were written by de-
prived ministers, but were published under the
comprehensive name of Martin Marprelate. The
time of greatest activity was about 1589, and the
books were printed in spite of severe government
repression, successively at Moulsey near Kingston-
on-Thames, Fawsley in Northamptonshire, Norton,
Coventry, Welstone in Warwickshire, and in or
near Manchester. The names of the chief writers
were John Penry (hanged), John Udall (left to
rot in jail), Fenner, John Field, and Job Throck-
morton who wrote Hae ye any Work for Cooper?
One of the best attempts to answer the Marprelate
writers was Bishop Cooper of Winchester’s Admoni-
MARQUE
MARRIAGE os 4 :
th
touching the Con-
Church of England, an admirable
moderation and mutual concession in
Pit
i
ir
lately entertained,
the style the rey aah
uded a reprint of the Mar-
his * English Scholar’s Library.’
- Maskell’s History of the Marpre-
it
:
4
E
Marque, Lerrer or. See Lerrer oF
MARQUE. -
Marquesas or MENDASAS, are a
group in Polynesia, N. of Tuamotu or Low Archi-
a between 8" and 11° 8. lat. and 138° and 141°
° . The name strictly applies to four or five
islands discovered by Mendafia in 1595, but usually
includes now the Washington group of seven
islands, to the north-west, which were discovered
the American I in 1797, Total area,
is volcanic,
islands.
Nearly all are shaped into several narrow valleys,
in which the bulk of the population, 5216 in 1885,
live. In Cook's time there were 100,000 inhabit-
ants, but in 1838 they had decreased to 20,000.
They are the finest race of the brown Poly-
nesian stock, and, though courteous, are cruel and
Prangetel. Since 1842 the islands have been a
F protectorate. A little cotton is grown by
Chinese immigrants.
Marquetry. See INLayina.
Marquette, capital of Marquette county,
Mich is on the southern shore of Lake
Su + 430 miles by rail N. of Chicago. It has
blast-furnaces, Xc., besides sawmills
and machine-shops, and a slate-quarry. Iron ore
in very large quantities is mined in the county and
shipped from here. aronmeetes is the seat of a
Roman Catholic bishop. Pop. (1900) 10,053,
Marquis, or Marquess, the degree of nobility
which in the England ranks next to
duke. Marquises were originally commanders on
the borders or frontiers countries, or on the
sea-coast, which they were bound janpol In
there were uises or lords-marchers
oie borders of Scotland ‘and Wales in the reign
of Henry IIL, and the forei equivalent Mark-
was common on the Continent; but the
English — in the modern sense was
Robert Vere, of Oxford, who was created
Marquis of Dublin by Richard Il. in 1385. The
tithe was first introduced into Scotland in 1599,
when the Marquises of Huntly and ‘Hamilton
were created. For the coronet of a marquis, sce
Conoxsr. The mantle ix scarlet, with three and
a half doublings of ermine. A marquis is styled
* The Most Honourable ;’ his wife isa marchioness ;
his eldest son takes by courtesy the next lower title
in the except where that is identical with
the title of marquisate, in which case he must
next lower still, The younger sons of a
are styled ‘Lord,’ and daughters * Lady,’
addition of Christian name and surname.
See Mar. :
Marriage denotes the union of man and woman
in the legal relation of husband and wife on te
may be defined by local Jaw or custom. The
h
properly applied to connections be-
sexes which to civilised Ye eo seem
t and loose, provided that they
are founded on contract, are intended to
and are approved of, or at least permitted, by
or p opinion ; but these are conditions
tial to marriage. It is not strictly applicable
eases in which the wife is
essen-
= |
=
t by capture ;
relations or consequences that can be
can arise out of an act of violence which
resentment and provokes to retaliation ;
captor's tribe approve, there may be. hy |
marti in such cases, and true hy
addition, the tribe of the woman
the capture when effected, in wh case an
approach is made to marri with the form of
capture—i.e. marriage proceeding upon a contract,
but carried out through a form or pretence of eap-
turing the bride. ia
Many nations have had traditions of a time when
marriage was unknown among their own Ks
cessors, and of some lawgiver to whom its institu: —
tion was ascribed, who was, for example, ome: ;
the Egyptians, Menes ; among the Chinese, Fo-hi;
among the Greeks, papel vel am the Hindus,
Svetaketu. And (if man had to wor!
institutions) it is plain that societies ev
would need time for arriving at those ative
customs, in the absence of which there would be no —
marriage, and neither right nor wrong in matters
of sex; much time, indeed, wherever there pre-
vailed that law of incest (exogamy) which ent off
men from marrying all women of their own kin-
dred, however remote the relationship, the women
among whom their connections must have been
made at first. Darwin, founding upon 0
of the higher animals, was of opinion that, before
the springing up of marriage custom, the jealous
rage of the male would determine that there would
be no general promiscuity of the women, and that
there would at first be a prevalence of polygyny.
It should, however, be remembered that
early peoples and backward peoples, with y
fully defined, jealousy has often been practi:
unknown. Observation of men, savage and ci ‘
would perhaps suggest that, before some notion of
right in matters of sex had sprung up, there would
be no uniform behaviour in those matters, that men
would do as they could, as passion prom
opportunity offered, and that they wo
ifthe
i
and
bea
over-scrupulous in their connections—i.e. that they ig
might be polygamists, polyandrists, or mon }
according to circumstances, and that there would
os as much promiscuity as there was opportunity
or.
An atnees to show in outline the history of
marriage and of kinship has necessarily been made
under the head of Family (q.v.), and to that refer- ise
hone must re be made. In that ge the
veginnings of marri are traced to predom-
inance of a modificabon of promiscuity, to Nair —
polyandry, or something equivalent to it, which —
could yield a system o} cage through females
only—a limitation of kinship which can onl 2
become established when there was ly no
father in the household, and fatherhood was un-
curtain, Ba, thoughs % - not eae ake 5
mately, in advanced societies everywhere, c
came to be regarded as not to be duly constituted
without a religious sanction.
While the law of exogamy forbids a man to marry
any woman of his own kindred, a law which has
been named endogamy forbids a man (where it
prevails) to marry any woman who is not of his
indred. Endogamy ‘has been widely prevalent,
and not among rather advanced ulations only,
Imt among many which are decile, ]
back
but there are indications, often conclusive, of ita
having been preceded by exogamy, and it may
be taken to have been preceded by it at least in
most cases, Exogamy, if this be conceded, has
%
7
a
.
have
-
~~. -
MARRIAGE
57
eet at one time or arother nearly everywhere.
known cases in which peoples have depended
for their wives upon capture, or have, after a con-
tract for marriage, gone a the form of cap-
turing the bride (which undoubtedly is a relic of
capture), are a most extensive class; and exogamy
gives the explanation of allsuch cases. Exogamous
men having unfriend] ay eter might have to
without wives if they id not capture women
their neighbours ; and when these also were
rs, a we may believe that in time captures
be easy—that reciprocal captures
would be more or less arranged, until at length
there were contracts made for exchange or pur-
chase of women, and the capture became a form
only. Asa form re has in fact lingered on,
more or distinct, in the marriage
—_ modern ee Some For an
attempt to show origin the law, which
he remarkable effect of interdicting marriage
between all men and women of the same blood or
kindred, see The English Historical Review, No. 9,
Jan 1888; and The Origin of Exogamy, by
J. F. M‘Lennan.
This account of ex y takes it to have been
in the first instance an interdict upon wiving only ;
but the difficulty is rather to see how men came
to abstain from marrying their own women than
how, that point reached, they afterwards went on
to abstaining from them altogether. Of course, it
had to be kept in view that the law of exogamy
must have been, in fact, a practice which became
prevalent and then obligatory, and that, while it
was growing up, the practice must have been
the same that it was after it had got the force
of law, so that, if exogamy at first necessitated
@ practice of capturing wives, it must have been
@ practice of capturing wives that became con-
solidated as exogamy. Groups composed of a
single totem kindred, when exogamous (see
FAMILY), could only get wives by capture. And
thus it was a practice (1) of capturing women of
Stranger groups for wives, and (2) of taking for
wives only stranger or foreign—i.e. captured—
women that had to be accounted for. A long-con-
tinued a women (which infanticide es on
account for) is suggested as the explanation of a
tic practice of capture, and the position
men relatively to captured women on the one
hand, and their own women (these being scarce)
on the other, as the explanation of marriage being
ultimately confined to captured or foreign women.
What is searee is of importance, and the position
of women their own kinsmen must have
to become the type of marriage
of the captive, nnd of the kinswoman. ‘To subject
the la to it would have been an ontrage, an
offence against her and the kin, indeed, even at
first what we call a sin; and the practice which at
first exempted her, when it became consolidated as
eustom, excluded her from the condition of wife to
po of her kinsmen, with the feeling remaining,
tel wide intense, that it would be a shocking and
thing for them to have her in that condition.
The from this to the disuse of the Nair or
-Nair connections between men and their own
women which would nae —. Ley marriage
was growing u ly until after con-
venience aude eaphene easy, i.e. more or less
_ of aform, when there would be practically exchange
of women—and then to the interdiction of such
connections, time being given, does not appear to
present much difficulty. Moreover there are a few
eases known in which all marriage between rela-
tives yen forbidden, other connections seem not
to be excluded. This account of exogamy is, at
anyrate, founded at every point upon human
nature and its observed tendencies. The scarcity
of women which is the basis of it is also the basis
of the history of marriage which traces that institu-
tion back to polyandrous beginnings.
See works cited at FaMmILy, and in addition, Darwin,
Descent of Man (1870); Fison and Howitt, Kamilarot
and Kurnai (1880); A. Lang, Custom and Myth (1884) ;
Max. Kovalevsky, De l’Oriyine de la Famille et de la
Propriété (1890).
The solemn and binding nature of marriage is
recognised by all civilised peoples ; and, although in
various countries there is vast difference in details,
both as to legal obligetions and public ceremonies,
there is much substantial agreement. Thus the
restrictions as to age, consanguinity, &e. which
prevail in England and other modern countries
were nearly the same in the Roman law, where,
however, the consent of the paterfamilias was an
essential. The canon law regards marriage as a
sacrament and not as a contract; but it recognises
the validity of marriage by mere consent, and with-
out ecclesiastical sanction, in countries where such
marriages are treated as valid.
England.—A promise of marriage, given in ex-
change for the promise of the other party, is bind-
ing in English law. Performance is not enforced,
but damages may be recovered for breach of promise.
It is not necessary that the promise should be proved
by writing. The parties may give evidence, but the
intiff cannot recover unless his or her testimony
1s corroborated by some other material evidence.
If either party discovers that the other has been
guilty of misconduct, or of serious misrepre-
sentation in regard to his or her circumstances and
revious life, breach of promise may be justified.
t has been held that a lily infirmity, rendering
it dangerous for the defendant to marry, is no
defence to an action.
Males of fourteen and females of twelve, not
subject to any physical or mental incapacity, are
permitted to contract marriage; but for the marriage
of a minor the consent of parents or guardians ought
previously to be obtained (see INFANT). Persons
already married are, of course, incapable of marry-
ing again, unless set free by death or by Divorce
(q.v.). A man may not marry his mother or other
ascendant, his daughter or other descendant, or any
woman within the third degree of consanguinity.
He is also precluded, by reason of affinity, from
marrying any woman related as ascendant, descend-
ant, or blood-relation within the third degree toa
d wife. Since 1835 marriages within tlie
prohibited degrees are wholly void ; it is not neces-
sary that proceedings should be taken to annul any
such union. The policy of the law which forbids a
man to marry his eased Wife's Sister (q.v.) has
been much questioned ; and bills for legalising such
marriages have several times been passed by the
House of Commons. : ;
Persons intending to marry are required to give
notice of their intention; the forms commonly
used for this pu are banns, and the certificate
of a superintendent-registrar. Banns (q.v.) are
the subject of a separate article. Instead of
giving notice to the parish minister, the parties
may apply to a registrar or superintendent-
registrar of the district in which they have
resided seven days: if they reside in different
districts application must be made in both. After
twenty-one days the Co erage, heh issues
a certificate for the marriage; one shilling is paid
MARRIAGE
entry of notice, and one shilling for certificate.
Parties desiring to be married without delay must
g with the ordinary forms.
The Archbishop of Canterbury may grant a ial
is issued by his vicar-general) for
License for a
ned from a surrogate
at time or
in church is ob
an affidavit as to residence, absenve of lawful
pediment, and (if either party be a minor) con-
sent of nts or guardians. A license may also
be obtalned on giving one mas notice to the
, and making a declaration
&e, The fees payable for licenses
ly higher than those paid for banns
and for the ordinary certificate. It is to be observed
that the registrar cannot give a license for ma)
in church. His ordinary certificate is usually
accepted in lieu of banns; but a clergyman may
insist on banns or episcopal license when the
marriage is in church,
In the actual celebration of marriage the law
requires that the ceremony take place between
8 A.M. and 3 P.M. (12 A.M. until 1886), that the
iment
Deed ag ef le ggg pr Sheet v8
the marri u ristered. e marriage
is in one the i k service is used, and
registrar and two other witnesses. Persons so
may afterwards go through a religious
y, but such ceremony is not a mamlags,
in the legal sense of the word, and therefore must
not be registered. In 1868 a Royal Commission
moperted on the merrage laws of the United
ngdom, pointing out the grave inconveniences
resulting from the maintenance of different laws
in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and from the
uncertainty of the English law. The excessive
formality of the statute law is in some degree
neutralised by the rule that a marriage is not
avoided unless for some frand or irregularity of
which both parties are cognisant. Thus, a man
who is m in a false name is duly married,
unless the wife is a party to the deception ; and it
has been held that a in church, without
banns or license, is valid, if the wife is under the
belief mes Foe nang - St gona ola ~
necessary lorms. For further particulars
regard to forms, see Hammick's Martinps Law of
England ; and for the legal effects of marriage, see
the article HusBAND AND WIFE.
A celebrated in church by a person pro-
fessing to be in holy orders, and not known by both
to be an impostor, is valid. If both parties
tuiiesce in the celebration of marriage by a pre-
tended clergyman, the mar is void. M
by proxy is not known to English law, and if it
were thought desirable to permit such a marriage
in the case of a sovereign or other person of exalted
4 p special act of eens would Pebaliy be
lor purpose. When one party is a Pro-
testant and the other a Roman Catholic, it was
formerly not unusual to arenas for two religious
ceremonies; but the Roman Catholic clergy now
decline to officiate in such cases, unless the parties
ise that 7 —_ no ples eo ceremony.
Anglican clergy being no lon the sole
authoritative registrars, the repetition of the
Catholic coer in an oe church ai not
now tolerated. For pa nsations to
Catholics, see DisPExsation. es
In regard to marriages celebrated abroad, and
il
marriages in England where the parties, or one of
them, may be of torelan nationality, it is im t
to observe that the law of the parties’ domicile
governs the essentials of the marriage (capacity of — '
the part:
ies to contract marriage, &ec.), and that the
law of the place of celebration governs the forms
with which the marriage must be solemnised, except —
in the case of a coms celebrated in an ambassa-
dor’s house, or other place enjoying the privilege of
ex-territoriality. It is not always | say what
are the essentials of a marriage, what rules
and ceremonies are to be considered merely formal,
French law, for example, requires persons about to
marry to obtain, or at least to apply for, the con-
sent of their parents, A Frenchman is » in
England without asking his parents’ consent, It
may be said that he has only omitted a formality
not required by English law ; but the French courts
hold in such cases that an essential requisite of valid
marriage is wanting. It is obviously most incon-
venient that persons deemed to be married in one
country eat oe considered unmarried in another ;
the ‘conflict of laws’ as to marriage and divorce is
the cause of much hardship and injustice.
Scotland.—The law of Scotland regards uge
as a contract constituted by the consent of
parties alone. In its effects it differs from other —
contracts in respect that it confers upon the parties
> certain — status, and i —— as et
uration anc consequences cannot be chan
at the will of the parties. This is what is referred
to when marriage is said to be an institute or some-
~ more than a contract. As the free consent
of the parties is necessary, marriage is impossi/
when ada elements are present which the law
rds as involving incapacity to give consent.
Thus idiots and mad persons cannot marry, and a
marriage to which the assent of one or other of
the parties has been gained by fraud, force, or fear,
or error as to some essential matter, will. be void.
Intoxication, if the person is so drunk as not to
know what is Le, done, also invalidates a mar-
riage. Pupils—i.e. females under twelve and males
under fourteen—cannot marry ; but, if the parties
are of marriageable age, the consent of their parents
or guardians is not necessary. Besides these in-
capacities, specially affecting the nature of
consent given, and attaching to marriage in com-
mon with all other contracts, there are others
peculiar to marriage only. Thus, impotency renders
a marriage void, and a previous marriage, while it
subsists, prevents either of the parties from lawfully
contracting another; marriage between adulterers.
is forbidden by an old statute ( ing which,
however, doubts have been exp
its force is not ~— by desuetude), and relationship
within cones > mal ie
marrying. ne forbidden degrees, as in land,
are drawn from the Jewish law as set ath in
the Book of Leviticus (see above).
liminary requisite to a valid marri th
or other of the parties shall have resided in Scot-
land for a term immediately preceding the mar-
riage. This term varies according to the form which
the marriage takes. An irregular marriage is not
good unless one of the parties either had his or her
usual residence in Scotland, or lived there for
twenty-one days before the marriage. In the case
of a marriage after proclamation of Banns fae?
the session-clerk cannot proclaim banns until the
portion have resided in his parish for six weeks,
Vhere publication of notice by the takes
the place of banns parties must reside for fifteen
days in the district before intimating to the be
trar their intention to marry, and seven fu
days must elapse before the marriage takes place.
regards the manner of contracting m
the law of Scotland is peculiar among those of
revents the relations from _
A further pre-
is that one
MARRIAGE
59
other nations for the freedom which it allows to
the contracting parties. If their present consent
to marry is proved, the law requires no special
form of Geoo, imposes no restrictions as to time
and place, and enjoins no meet! mode of cele-
bration. The blessing of the church is not required
1 Rested the land to make a marriage good ;
though all marriages celebrated without the
assistance of a clergyman are called irregular
marri It is enough that the parties give
their free consent to marry each other. If a man
and woman have lived together as husband and
wife, and have had the reputation among their
neighbours of being cemeien to one another, and
this reputation is general in the neighbourhood,
uncontradicted by any one and of considerable
duration in point of time, these parties will be
held to have exchanged
by nte la, Cases of
marriage by it and repute or by promise sub.
cop. are very rare. In the general case, the fact of
the interchange of consent to marry is not left to
be presumed law, but is proved in the most
unequivocal way either by writing or witnesses.
These cases are distinguished as marriages by
words of present consent per de presenti.
According to this form persons may marry by
declaring, with or without witnesses, that they
then consent to m and do marry, or by mak-
ing a written declaration to that effect, and acting
= their declaration. This method of inter-
ge of words of present consent was the one
followed in the Gretna Green (q.v.) or ‘over the
border’ runaways from England. They
were checked by Lord Brougham’s Act of 1856, re-
quiring residence in Scot} for twenty-one days
as a pre-requisite to the validity of an irregular
m nt if this condition be fulfilled they
are still possible. Persons who marry in this way
may be convicted before a magistrate or justice
of the peace of having contracted an irregular
marriage; and, as the conviction is recorded in
the books of the court and stands as evidence of
the marriage, this way of getting married—by
declaration and a police-court conviction—has
been thought to be the cheapest known way of
securely tying the bonds of wedlock, since it
eutails no necessary fees to any functionary. But
persons convicted of an irregular marriage are
required to register their marriage, and the
i nee is =n Ba a fee of twenty eget
‘arties to an marriage may a) within
three months after its date to rae sheriff for a
warrant to register their aera ze, The _—
grants warrant upon proof of the marriage by
written dielaresion.; oad a certified copy of the
entry in the register is declared by statnte to be
evidence of the marriage. The proceeding of
applying to the sheriff for warrant to register is
< believed by b ge — « he a civil cy ag
marriage, an ular language s a)
couples having pea ge matzo 4 the sheriff, By
a mistaken notion and confusion with the English
forms of i this ‘ by the sheriff’
is sometimes referred to as ‘marriage by special
license,’ sometimes as ag ag, before the
registrar,’ while the truth is that the parties have
married themselves, and only apply to the public
functionaries to make their marriage a matter of
public record.
Cases of irregular marriage by interchange of
words of consent, though much more common
than those of marriage by habit and repute or by
promise and pores. are rare in comparison with
marriages celebrated by clergymen. These are
forms of marriage by the interchange of words of
consent; the law not regarding the presence of
a clergyman or the sanction of the church as
necessary to marriage. If a clergyman officiates
at a marriage he may do so only after the publi-
cation of Banns (q.v.) or publication of notice by a
registrar as in England. WF he do so without these
preliminaries the marriage becomes a clandestine
marriage, and the clergyman and the parties are
subject to penalties. 1en notice to the registrar
of an intention to marry takes the place of banns,
the notice is entered in a Marriage Notice Book,
and publicly posted on the registrar's office for seven
days, after which time, if no objections are taken,
the registrar issues a certificate of publication of
notice which authorises a clergyman to marry the
pers producing it. There is now no provision of
aw restraining clergymen of other churehes than
the Established Church of Scotland from celebrating
regular casera While regular marriages are
always treated in Jaw as marriages ‘in the face of
the church,’ it is not the practice to solemnise
Presbyterian marriages in church, nor is such
a solemnisation necessary to make a marriage
regular and lawful. The ceremony is usually con-
ducted by a clergyman at the house of the bride’s
father; although of late years there have been
signs that Presbyterians may come to adopt the
custom of marrying within the church walls. The
proceedings ought to include, and usually do in-
clude, an express inquiry whether the parties con-
sent to marry; a declaration by them, given
generally by a nod or a curtsy, that they do
consent; a solemn admonition by the clergy-
man; a declaration by him that the parties are
married ; and the nuptial benediction. The cere-
mony should take place in the presence of wit-
nesses who know the parties, and who are capable
of giving evidence. After the marriage is solem-
nised (which may take place any hour of the
day), a schedule, which is given out to the choy
along with the certificate of publication of banns,
or of publication of notice by a registrar, has to
be presented, filled up, to the ikl rege He signed
by the parties, the clergyman, and at least two
witnesses, and delivered to the parties, who must
transmit it within three days, under penalties, to
the registrar of the parish in which the marriage is
solemnised. See HUSBAND AND WIFE, DIVORCE.
Ireland.—The law of Ireland as to the constitu-
tion of marriage is substantially the same as that
of England. The form of celebration may. differ
according as the marriage is solemnised in the
Disestablished Church of Ireland, the Roman
Catholic, or the Presbyterian Church ; or between
rsons of different religious persuasions ; but the
lewal rights and duties of the several churches with
reyard to marriages are now practically the same
—to provide for publication of a marriage and for
its solemnisation between certain hours in a build-
ing set a) for divine service.
ni States.—In the United States the general
rule in almost all the states is that no specific form
is necessary to the constitution of marriage if the
consent of the spouses is proved. But marriage
differs from contract in that it cannot be modified
or dissolved by consent, nor rescinded on proof of
fraud. The law in some states requires that mar-
riages be authorised by taking out a license, and
solemnised before a magistrate or a clergyman.
Pennsylvania provides that marriages must
60 MARROW
MARRYAT
solemnised before twelve witnesses. But a mar-
riage good at common law is good notwithstanding
statute on the subject, unless the statute con-
ex words of nullity. The original law of
the ibited degrees has modified ; and the
cmap of marriage with a deceased wife's sister
all but unknown.
See the articles
Adultery, Concu! Jodieial Sepa
on aires. ’ timation.
Hosbaod ant Wife. | Settlement
Sanezy. ' Illegitimacy ing Ceremonies,
vity
mam-
There are two varieties, which are known
red or watery marrow and yellow or oily marrow.
some of the short bones, as the bodies of the
vertebre and the sternum, the marrow has a
reddish colour, due to the presence of cells which
have this colour and are supposed to be transition
forms between r marrow cells and red
blood On analysis it is found to
contain 75 cent. of water, the remainder con-
ibuminons and fibrinous matter, with
salts and a trace of oil. In the long bones of a
healthy adult mammal the marrow occurs as a
yellow, oily fluid, contained in vesicles like those
of common fat, which are imbedded in the inter-
spaces of the medullary membrane—i.e. a highly
vascular membrane lining the interior of the bones.
This marrow consists of 96 per cent. of oil and 4 of
water, connective tissue, and vessels,
Marrow Controversy, one of the most
strenuous and memorable struggles in the religious
history of Scotland, took its name from a book en-
titled the Marrow of Modern Divinity, written by
a Puritan soldier in the time of the Commonwealth.
The highly evangelical character of this work, and
ly its doctrine of the free grace of God in
the deposi of Ebenezer Erskine, and
gination of the ‘Secession’ body.
Marrum, See Reep.
Marryat, Frepenick, was born in West-
minster on July 10, 1792. He was the second son
of — Marryat, M.P. for Sandwich and colonial
agent for the island of Grenada, In 1806 he went
to sea a4 & midshipman under Captain Lord Coch-
rane board the Jinpériewse frigate. He spent
some years of active and dangerous service under
his famous captain on the north-west coasts of
on the north coast of Spain, and in the
iterranean, poking pers in many of the inci-
ta which he afterwards described in Frank Mild-
and Mr Midshipman . ‘The cruises of
mptricuse,’ he wrote in his private log, ‘ were
of continued excitement from the hour in
she hove up her anchor till she dropped it
in ; the day that passed without a shot
anger was with us a blank day; the
ly secured on the booms than they
and out again.’ After visiting
in the £olus and Spartan
ny
5
i
cit
He
i
he received a lieutenant’s commission
1812, and was soon after inted to the
Eepiagte, in which he ass on the north sak
of South America. He was twice invalided
but was appointed commander at the age of twenty-
three, in 1815, at the close of the great war,
1819 he married Miss mone the daughter
Scotch gentleman, and was then appoin'
Beaver sloop, whieh bys kept = SE
Helena to guard against the escape apoleon,
After doing good work in suppressing the ciaabilk
smugglers in the Rosario he was sent out in com-
man
rewarded by the Companionshi :
the command of the Ariadne, of twenty t guns.
He resigned in 1830 and never afte 8 applied
for a ship, but settled in Sussex House, Hammer-
smith, and thenceforth led the life of a man of
letters. Frank Mildmay, his first novel, a) oor
in 1829, and the King’s Own in 1830. In 1832 he
became editor of the Metropolitan Magazine, to
which he contributed Newton Forster (1832), Peter
Simple ged 6 Jacob Faithful, Japhet in Search of
a Father, and Mr Midshipman Easy (1834). After
living for some time abroad he severed his connee-
tion with the Met: itan Magazine, and wrote
for the New Monthly at the rate of £20 a sheet.
Snarley Yow and The Pasha of Many Tales came
out in 1836, and in 1837 Marryat set out for a tour
through the United States, where he remained for
two years, and where he wrote Zhe Phantom Ship
(1839) and a drama, The Ocean Waif, which was
produced at a New York theatre. His literary
work was fairly remunerative : he received £1200
for Mr Midshipman Easy, £1600 for his Diary in
re bee and similar —_ = ~~ _ books,
ut he was extravagant and unlucky in his
tions, and he lost heavily through his Pe ar
Langham in Norfolk. During his later years his
means were tly narrowed, and his life seems to
have been shortened by overwork. His Diary in
America was issued in 1839, and was followed
before the close of 1842 yd Poor Jack, Masterman
Ready, The Poacher, and Percival Keene. In 1843
he settled on his Norfolk property, where he spent
his days in farming and in writing stories for chil-
dren. He published Settlers in Canada in 1844,
The Mission in 1846, The Privateer’s Man in 1846,
and the Children of the New Forest in 1847.
Valerie was only part ny Marryat's ; and Rattlin the
Reefer, though included in the list of his novels,
was written by E. Howard, his sub-editor on the
Metropolitan Magazine. His health broke down
in 1847, and, after rupturing several blood-vessels,
he died at Langham on August 9, 1848. He was
an_ excellent officer and a generous man, though
quick-tempered, extravagant, and over-eager in
pursuit of enjoyment.
As a writer of sea-stories Marryat has no re te
He cannot, it may be, bring fully home his
readers the beauty and the terror of the deep, But
for invention, narrative skill, and grasp of character,
and es lly for richness of humour, he stands first
of all those who have dealt with the sea and sailors
in prose fiction. No doubt his fun often descends
to farce; still, setting Dickens aside, there is no
English novelist who has awakened heartier and
honester laughter. His happiest creations, Mr
Chucks, for example, and Terence O’Brien, and
Mr Easy and Mesty and Equality Jack would
not ene fill place in the gallery of the
greatest novelist. His best books are thoroughly
sound in workmanship. They betray no sign of
straining after effect ; the prose is direct, clear, and
vigorons, an ideal, in its way, of the narrative of
venture. Nothing, for example, could well be
MARS
MARSEILLES 61
more vivid, yet nothing conld well be simpler and
more reserved in style, than such a passage as the
ee ening of the Diomede (in Peter Simple), where
—as is in Marryat—the excitement and peril
of the moment are brought home to you in the
tersest phrase, by dramatic flashes and apt touches
of dialogue. His sea-fights, his chases and cutting-
out expeditions, are told with irresistible gusto,
The aot ag as unpretentious as it is spirited
You have only to com the
‘e and the three
schooners (in Peter Simple), or the fight between the
Aurora and the Trident (in Midshipman Easy),
with Fenimore Cooper’s attempts in the same line
to be convinced of at’s immense superiority as
an artist. His books have been the delight of boy-
hood since they first appeared; and you can turn
to them in after years confident of a renewal of past
enjoyment. The sailors of the Great War live in
his pages as vividly as certain ranks and classes of
Londoners live in pages of Dickens.
See Life and Letters of Captain Mai 1872),
his iter Florence Mac ryatt be pyar A mle LP
ife of Captain Marryat, by David Hannay
(‘Great W: ’ series, 1889).
Mars (archaic and tic Mavors ; in the song
of the Arval Brothers, Marmar ; the Oscan form is
Mamers), an ancient Italian divinity of war and of
hus! , identified by the Grecising Romans
with Ares (q.v.). As the father of Romulus he
was specially the progenitor of the Roman race, and
he shared with Jupiter the honour of being styled
Pater, the forms Marspiter and Maspiter being
common for Mars Pater. Other titles were Mars
Gradivus, as the warlike god; Silvanus, as the
Tustic ; and Quirinus, from his relation to the
state, and his especial care for Roman citizens in
their civil capacity as Quirites. His priests, the
Salii, danced in complete armour. The wolf and
the woodpecker were sacred to him. He had many
temples at Rome, the most celebrated of which was
that outside the Porta Capena, on the Appian
Road, and that of Mars Ultor built by Augustus
in the forum. The us Martius, where the
Romans practised athletic and military exercises,
was named in honour of Mars; so was the month
of March (Martius), the first month of the Roman
year. The Ludi Martiales were celebrated every
year in the cireus on Ist August. See PLANETS.
Mars, MADEMOISELLE. Anne Francoise Boutet-
Mouvel, a great favourite at the Théitre Francais
ee first forty years of the 19th century,
was in Paris on 5th February 1779, the
illegitimate ter, of an actor Moutet and an
actress Mars. She began to act before she was
thirteen, joined the Théatre Frangais in 1799, and
died at Paris on 20th March 1847. She was equally
mistress of naive parts as of those of the coquette,
and was especially successful in Molitre’s master-
i Her Mémoires were published in 2 vols. in
849, and her Confidences in 3 vols. in 1855.
Marsala, a seaport on the westernmost point
of Sicily, 102 miles by rail and 55 as the crow flies
SW. of Palermo. Pop. of town (1881) 19,750; of
commune, 40,250 (45, in 1893). It is defended
by a citadel, has a cathedral and an academy of
sciences, and carries on a large trade in wine, the
well-known Marsala, which me popular from
having been supplied to the British fleet in 1802.
It resembles sherry, and is exported principally to
and the West Indies. ‘The town occupies
site of Lilybwum, the ancient capital of the
Carthaginian settlements in Sicily, and was selected
by Garibaldi as his landing-point for the Sicilian
' campaign of 1860, It obtained its present name
from the Saracens, who oceupied it in the 9th cen-
tury, but were driven out by the Normans in the
llth. The harbour was filled up by Charles V. in
1567 to prevent a Turkish attack; it was recon-
structed during the 19th century. On an average
some 1960 vessels of 165,300 tons burden (one-fifth
British) enter every year, bringing chiefly staves,
in, and spirits to the annual value of £58,960.
he total exports reach an annual value of £434,750,
of which £431,720 is for wine.
Marseillaise, the stirring song or hymn of the
French republicans, was com ; 8ix-sevenths of
it, in 1792, by a young officer, Rouget de Lisle
(q.v.), then stationed at Strasburg. e composed
both words and music under one inspiration one
night in April after dining with the mayor of the
city ; Chant de V Armée du Rhin was the name he
gave it. The song was speedily carried by enthusi-
astic revolutionists to the chief cities of France. It
was brought to Paris by the volunteers of Mar-
seilles, who sang it as they entered the capital
(30th July ) and when they marched to the storming
of the Tuileries. Hence the Parisians called it La
Marseillaise, and as such it has become the official
hymn of the republicans of France. More than one
writer has called in question Rouget de Lisle’s
claim to have com the music ; but his origin-
ality seems to have been proved. Interdicted under
the Restoration and the Second Empire, the Mar-
seillaise became again the national song on the
outbreak of the Franco-German war. See Le Roy
de Sainte-Croix’s monograph (1880) and Loth’s
inquiry into its real author ( Paris, 1886).
Marseilles, in point of* population the third
city of France, ang su 8 by Paris and
Lyons only, is the chief town of the depart-
ment Bouches-du-Rhéne, and is situated on the
south coast, about 27 miles E. of the mouth of the
Rhone, The principal commercial port of France,
if not of the entire Mediterranean, Marseilles is
entered annually by 7500 vessels (average for the
period 1885-95) of 4,500,000 tons burden ; of this
commerce nearly three-fourths is French, the British
being more than one-seventh. The total tonnage
of Spain, Italy, Greece, and Holland together is
only a little more than the British. The imports
and exports ther reach an annual value of
65 to 70 millions sterling, three-fifths being for im-
ports. Wheat, oil-seeds, coal (300,000 to 345,000
tons), wine, spirits, and beer, sugar, maize, oats,
barley, coffee, olive, palm, and cotton oils, pepper,
flour, and tallow figure most ee: in the
order named, —— the imports; whilst the
exports consist chiefly of clay tiles, wheat, oil-
cakes, flour, sugar, oil, wine and spirits, soap, and
candles. Marseilles is the headquarters of the
M ries Maritimes, Générale Transatlantique,
Mareellaina, and other great French commercial
companies, An ave of 29,790 emigrants, of
whom only 1500 are French, embark from this port
every year. The harbour accommodation consists
of the old harbour, a natural basin of nearly 70
acres, running into the heart of the city; a series
of new docks, quays, and warehouses (La Joliette,
&c.) extending fully a mile along the shore to the
west of the old harbour, and covering about a hun-
dred acres;.and an outer roadstead between the
dams to these docks and a breakwater constructed
in deeper water; besides dry-docks, wet-docks, slips,
&e. The industry of the place is very considerable,
the first place being taken by soap, vegetable oils,
and oil-eake; soda, sugar, macaroni, iron, lead, zinc,
tiles, and leather are manufactured. Several hun-
dreds of men are employed in the flour-mills and in
the wine-vanlts. There isa poppercns fishing fleet.
The city of Marseilles is built on the slopes that
overlook the old harbour, and at the foot, and has
of late years extended to the south-east. Although
greatly improved since 1853, the sanitary condition
-
62 MARSH
MARSHALL
still leaves something to be desired. Its memor-
able buildings include the new Byzantine basilica,
which serves as a cathedral ; the pilgrimage chureh,
Notre Dame de la Garde, with an in of the
ly venerated by sailors and fishermen,
with innumerable ex-voto offerings, built in 1864
on the site of an old of 1214; the church of
St Victor (1200), with subterranean cliapeél and cata-
combs of the 11th century ; the health office of the
port, with fine tings by Vernet, David, Gérard,
and Guérin ; museum of antiquities, in the
ChAteau Borély ; the ae a very fine
Renaissance buildin (1870), which shelters in one
wing the Eavb-qniiory, and in the other the
natural h museum ; the public library, with
95,000 volumes and 1530 MSS. The public institu-
tions embrace a botanical and a zoological garden,
4 marine and an astronomical observatory, a faculty
of sciences, and schools of medicine, fine arts,
Oriental languages, music, commerce, hydrog-
raphy. Pop. (1861) 260,910 ; (1881) 360,099 ; { 1886)
376,143 (including a colony of 40,000 Italians);
(1891) 403,749. illes was the birthplace of
Petronius, Thiers, and Puget.
One of the oldest towns in France, Marseilles was
founded by Phoceans from Asia Minor six hundred
—— before Christ. It was for many centuries,
lown to 300 A.D., a centre of Greek civilisation.
Greeks called it Massalia, the Romans
Rome. It su or 4 against Cesar, but
was taken by the latter in 49 B.c., after an obstinate
defence, During subsequent ages it fel! into the
hands of the Saracens (9th century), Charles of
?
devastations of the plague in the port, when nearly
half the lation of 100,000 perished, and for the
id of Bishop Be and the Chev-
ier Kose, It was the scene of stirring events in
1792 and 1 and sent. bands of cut-throats
to Paris, keeping sufficient at home to carry
has grown rapidly since the conquest of Algiers
and the opening of the Suez Canal.
Sontiny ead of Mashioe (209 mad Sar ternal
»
account of Saurel (1884), eee
Marsh, Grorok Perkins, an American philo-
logist, was born at Woodstock, Vermont, March
15, 1801; graduated at Dartmouth College, New
Hampehire, in 1820; «tadied law in Bur ington,
Vermont; was elected to the Supreme Executive
Council of the state in 1835, and to congress in
1842 to 1849. Whilst United States minister at
Constantinople from 1849 to 1853 he was charged
with a special mission to Greece (1852); in 1861 he
was ted the first United States minister to
died at Vallombrosa in Italy, July 23, 1882, Marsh
English philology, and
his chief works are valued equally on both ‘sides
- the ree my a ~ Lectures + the
nglish Language | ) ¢ Origin and His.
of the English Language (1862). Other works
are The Come! his Orpemincee Habits, and Uses
(1856), and Man and Nature (1864; largely re-
written, 1874 aes Life and Letters by his widow
}
Marsh, Mrs ( Ȣe Anne Caldwell), was bornin _ 2.
1791 = Lindley Wood, eo —— in! >
1817 the junior er of the forger Fauntleroy;
and between 1 and 1857 produced a score of
novels, of which the best were /wo Old Men’s Tales,
Emilia YA gad (1846; new ed. 1888), and Nor-
man’s Bridge. In 1858 she came into the Lindley
Wood property, where she died 5th October 1874,
Marsh, OTHNIEL CHARLEs, paleontologist,
was ohne Lockport, New York, 29th October = __
1831, graduated at Yale in 1860, and studied r
zoology, geology, and mineralogy for two years
further at New Haven, and for other three years
in Germany. He became the first professor of
Palwontology at Yale in 1866, and thenceforward
devoted himself to the investigation of extinet
American vertebrates, of which in various expedi-
vmaliad, the Rocky Mountains he rescuing Se
thoi new species, some representi ©
new orders, They include a new sub clas of odon-
tornithes, a new order o’ rodactyles (pterano-
dontia), the tillodontia cal dinocerata, fossil mon-.
keys from the Eocene of Wyoming, and several
new families of Dinosauria (q.v.). Professor Marsh
described many of his discoveries in the American —
Journal of Science, and issued a series of valuable
monographs ( published by government) on Odontor-
nithes (1880), Dinocerata (1884), erties: 1888),
&c. He was LL.D. of Harvard, PhD. of Heidel, ‘
berg, and in 1877 received the Bigeby medal of the
—_ logical Society, London. ied 18th March
1899.
Marshal (Fr. maréchal ; Old High Ger. marah,
‘a battle-horse,’ and schalh, ‘a servant’), a term
meaning originally a groom. or psers of the
horse, though eventually the king’s marshal beeame
one of the principal officers of state. The
farrier rose in dignity with the increasing im
ance of the chevalerie, till he became, conj ly
with the Constable (q.v.), the judge in courts of
chivalry, When the king headed his army in
feudal times, the assembled troops were inspected
by the constable and marshal, who fixed the spot
for the encampment of each noble, and examined
the number, arms, and condition of his retainers,
With these duties was naturally combined. the
regulation of all matters connected with armorial’
bearings, standards, and ensigns, In England the
earl-marshal is now head of the Heralds —
(see HERALD), and the dignity is hereditary in
family of the Duke of Norfolk. In Scotland the
office of marischal was hereditary in the family of
Keith (q.v.). In 1716 George, tenth Earl Marischal,
was attainted in consequence of his share in the
rebellion of the previous year, and the office has
since been in abeyance. ‘In France the highest
military officer is called a marshal, a ity
which originated early in the 13th century.
was at first only one Maréchal de France, and there
were but two till the time of Francis I. Their
number afterwards became unlimited. Napoleon’s
marshals are celebrated. From the title of this
class of general otticers the Germans have borrowed
their Feld-marschall, and the British (since 1736)
their Field-marshal (q.v.). cn
Marshall, capital of Harrison county, Texas,
stands at the junction of three railways, 40 miles
W. of Shreveport, Louisiana. It contains a ladies”
college, and has railway machine-shops, foundries,
anda trade in cotton. “Pop, (1900 ) 7855.
Marshall, Joun, chief-justice of the United
tates, was born in Fauquier county, Virginia,
24th September 1755, and was studying law when
the Revolution hegan. He served as an officer—
for a time under his father, Colonel Thomas
Marshall (1730-1802 )—from 1775 te 1779; in 1780 he
received, while in Richmond, @ license to practise.
MARSHALL
MARSTON 63
faw; and in 1781, after a final campaign,. he
settled down to his profession. He quickly gained
distinction, and eventually rose to be head of the
Virginia bar. From 1782 he sat in the Virginia
House of Bu , the state council, the legis-
lature; in 1788 he was elected to the state con-
vention, which ultimately—mainly owing to his
and Madison’s (q.v.) arguments—adopted the new
eee ergmang Aa, & 797 = Geny
jin joint envoy, with Pinckney an
(a) to France, where he and Pinckney, as
‘ederalists, were ordered to leave the ye
after the envoys had indignantly declined Talley-
rand’s overtures for a personal and a public loan.
His conduct in this matter only made Marshall
more respected and popular at home, and in 1799
he was elected’ to congress; on 12th May 1800
he was inted secre’ of state, which office
he held March 1801. In January 180] he was
inted chief-justice of the United States, and
t 8) sere he oecupied until his death, at
Philadelphia, 6th July 1835. Chief-justice Mar-
f series of im t decisions are
recognised as standard authority on questions of
constitutional law; a selection was published at
Boston in 1839. He prepared a Life of Washing-
| thi vols. ee ie clisposal “b es 1832)
papers p' at his di y the presi-
dent’s family. See John Marshall, by B.
a (‘American Statesmen’ series, Boston,
Marshalling of Arms. See Heratpry.
Marshall Islands, a group in the western
Pacific, bisected 10° N. lat., and having the
Caroline p to the west, consists of two parallel
chains of low coral-reefs—one, the Ratak group,
consisting of fifteen islands, and measuring in all
48 sq. m.; the other, the Ralik group, eighteen
islands, with a total area of 107 sq. m. The cocoa-
nut and us palms and the bread-fruit tree
are the pal sources of food, besides fish.
Co is the only export (2800 tons annually).
prah
The inhabitants, 11,600 in number, belong to the
Micronesian division, and are an ngly but good-
natured and hospitable race, fond of song and
dance, and skilful weavers of bast mats. The
Boston (U.S.) Mission Society have a branch
here. These islands were annexed by Germany
“ <6) See Hager, Die Marshallinseln (Leip.
Marshalltown, ital of Marshall county,
Towa, near the Iowa River, 50 miles NE. of Des
Moines, at the crossing of two railways. It has
a large trade in wheat,.&c., has foundries and
mach , and manufactures flour, oil, soap,
and fencing-wire. Pop.(1890) 8914; (1900) 11,544.
Marshalsea, the jail attached to the Marshal-
sea Court, originally established under the earl-
marshal of England for the trial of servants of the
al household. Later on it came to be used as a
“prison for debtors and defaulters, as well as persons
convicted of piracy or other offences on the high
seas. It stood near the church of St George,
Southwark, and existed in the reign of Edward
Til. It was abolished as the Palace Court in 1849.
Bishop Bonner was confined here for nearly ten
rs, till his death in 1569, and George Wither in
613; he obtained his release by his Satyre to the
ori most excellent Majesty. But the Marshalsea
will be longest remembered as the home of Dickens's
Little Dorrit.
Marsh-gas. See CARBURETTED HYDROGEN.
Marsh-mallow (A/tiza), a genus of plants
of the natural order Malvacew. The species,
which are not numerous, are annual and perennial
plants, with showy flowers, natives of Europe and
Asia.» Only: one, the: Common Marsh-mallew (A.
officinalis), is an undoubted native of Britain, and
is common only in
the south, grow-
ing in meadows
and marshes, espe-
cially near the
sea. The whole
plant is whole-
some, abounding
in fibre, mucilage,
starch, and sac-
charine matter.
It is in the roots
chiefly that the
mucilage_ a-
bounds, The
emollient and de-
mulcent qualities
of marsh-mallow
are well known in
medicine, and in
seasons of scarcity
the inhabitants
of some eastern
countries often
have recourse to
it as a principal
article of food.
Lozenges made
from it (Pédtes de
Guimauve) are in use. It is said to be palatable
when boiled, and afterwards fried with onions and
butter. The Hollyhock (q.v.) is commonly referred
to this genus.
Marsh-marigold (Caltha), a genus of plants
of the natural order Ranunculacew, having about
five petal-like ot but no petals; the fruit
spreading, compressed, many-
C. palustris is a very common
Common Marsh-mallow
( Althea officinalis):
a, a flower; b, fruit.
consists of seve:
seeded follicles,
Marsh-marigold ( Caltha palustris ).
British plant, with kidney-shaped, shining leaves,
and large yellow flowers, a principal ornament of
wet meadows and the sides of streams in spring.
It partakes of the acridity common in the order ;
but the flower-buds, preserved in vinegar and salt,
are said to be a substitute for capers. It is
often called Cowslip in the United States.
Marsilio. See Fictno.
Marsivan’, a town of Asia Minor, in the
vilayet of Sivas, 23 miles NW. of Amasia, with a
silver-mine and a pop. of 11,000.
Marston, JAmMEs WEsTLAND, LL.D., dramatic
t, was born at Boston, Lincolnshire, on 30th
Dianary 1820. He was articled to his uncle, a
London solicitor, but soon gave up law for litera-
ture; and in 1842 his Patrician’s Daughter, a,
64
MARSTON
blank -verse of the day, was brought out
oq ivaey Laws ty Mawenty. Kew the first, and
also the most successful, more than a dozen
lays (Strathmore, Philip of France, &c.), all
Bieridan-Knowlesian, and all forge , though a
collective edition of them and his poetic works
appeared in 2 volumes in 1876. Besides these, he
wrote a novel (1860), a good book on Yur Recent
Actors (1888), and a mass of poetic criticism.
Alth his house had once been the gathering-
place of several of the most prominent literary
men in London, Marston died in that city alone
(wife, children, grandchildren, all dead before
him) on Sth January 1890.—His son, Paruie
Bourke Marston, the blind poet, was born
in London, 13th August 1850, and died there on
14th February 1887. His life was a series of
losses—of eyesight at three, and afterwards of
his sister, his ae egg bride, and his two dear
friends, Oliver Madox Brown and Rossetti. His
memory will survive through his friendships—with
the last and with Watts and Swinburne—rather
than through his sonnets and lyrics. They are
exquisite some of them, but too sad for a world
that sees. Sougtide, AU in AU, and Wind Voices
were the three volumes of poetry that he pub-
lished in his lifetime, between 1870 and 1883; to
a posthumous collection of his stories is prefixed
a memoir by Mr W. Sharp.
Marston, Joun, dramatist and satirist, a son
of John Marston, of Gayton (or Heyton), County
mea by his wife Maria, daughter of Andrew
, an Italian surgeon, who had settled in
London, was born about 1575, egy = at Coventry.
He matriculated at Brasenose College, Oxford,
4th Febru: 1591-92, and was admitted B.A. 6th
February | From the elder Marston's will
(dated 24th October 1599) it may be gathered that,
after adopting the profession of the law, he aban-
doned it t his father’s wish. He married
but the date of marriage cannot be fixed)
Mary, daughter of Rev. William Wilkes, chaplain
to James Land rector of St Martin's, County
jilts, Ben Jonson wittily observed to Drummond
of Hawthornden that ‘ Marston wrote his father-
in-law's preachings, and his father-in-law his
jes,” contrasting the asperity of Marston's
comedies with the blandness of ‘the chaplain’'s
sermons. With the exception of The Insatiate
Countess (which is of doubtful authorship), all
Marston's plays were published between 1602 and
1607. He gave up play-writing about 1607, but
the date at which he entered the church has not
been ascertained. In 1616 he was peseented to the
living of Christ Church, Hampshire, which he
ed in 1631. He died 25th Jane 1634 in
Aldermanbury parish, London, and was buried
beside his father in the Temple Church, ‘under
‘s first work was The Metamorphosis of
Pyqmalion’s Image: and Certain Satires (1598).
Another series of satires, The Scourge of Villany,
ry gn later in the same year, a second edition
(with an additional tenth satire) following in 1599.
Pyqmation, « somewhat licen poem, may have
owed its inspiration to Shakes 's Venus and
Adonis, Marston renee that it was written
with the object of bringing discredit on amatory
ey: but the apology cannot be accepted. Arch-
hop Whitgift condemned it to the flames with
other works of a similar tendency. The satires,
which agg) ne mp under the nom de plume of
* William Kinsayder,’ are uncouth and’ obscure,
There was a fend between Marston and the satirist
Joseph Hall (the future bishop of Norwich), and
many hard knocks were dealt on either side. A
Cambridge man, one ‘W. J.’, intervened with his
Whapping of the Satire, in which he handled,
Marston ro . )
effectively, Og of Marston's friends in the
anonymous Whipper of the Satire. The con-
troversy raged hotly and excited lively interest, —
4 4
but the allusions in these various satirical
are not very intelligible to-day.
In September 1
that he advanced forty shillings to ‘Mr
the new poete (Mr Mastone),’ in
an unnamed play. This ‘new poete’ was ;
but there is no other mention of him in the
ae
Two gloomy and ill-constructed tragedies, Antonio —
and Mellida and Antonio's Revenge, were entered
in the Stationers’ Register, 24th October 1601,~
and were published in the following year. H
contain passages of striking power, and a
of intolerable fustian. In 1604 was pu ,
The Malcontent, a second edition, augmented by —
Webster, appearing in the same year. It is more
skilfully constructed than the two parts of Antonio —
— ellida, Marston's comioenm ae — and
vivid imagery is offectively displayed in the de-
scription of ‘the hermit’s cell, iv. 2. He “cliente.
The Mailcontent in very cordial terms to Ben Jon-
son, and in 1605 prefixed some constneae
ve
verses to Sejanus. There seem to
many quarrels and reconciliations between Jonson.
and Marston. Jonson told Drummond that ‘he
had many quarrels with Marston, beat him and
took his pistol from him, wrote his Poetaster on —
him; the beginning of them were that Marston
represented him on the stage in his youth given to
Mn or The original quarrel began in or about
598, ;
The Dutch Courtezan (1605) is full of life and
spirit, the character of the vengeful courtesan
ranceschina being drawn with masterly a
Eastward Ho (1605), from which Hogarth is said
to have taken the plan of his prints ‘The Indus
trious and Idle Prentices,’ was written in conjune-
tion with Chapman and Jonson. It is far more
genial than any comedy which Marston wrote
single-handed, Some satirical reflections on the
Scots were introduced, for which offence the
authors were committed to prison at the instance
of Sir James Murray, and the report went that
their ears were to
ome seis of Boies nol attractive pa ee
the tragedy of Sophonisba (1606) a us
its horrors, the description of the witeh Erichtho
and her cave being gruesome to the last degree.
What You Will, published in 1607, but probably
written some years earlier, has many flings at '
Jonson, The Insatiate Countess was published in
1613 with Marston’s name on the title-page, but in
a copy (belonging to the Duke of Devonshire) of
the 1631 edition the author’s name is given as
William Barksteed, a poet of some ability and an’
actor.
that we find in Marston's undoubted works. Prob-_
ably Marston left the play unfinished when he
entered the church, and Barksteed took it in
hand. An indifferent anonymous comedy, Jack
Drum's Entertainment, written about 1 may
be safely assigned to Marston from internal pax
dence ; and he appears to have had some share in
another poor play, Histriomastiz. Tn 1633 William
Sheares, the publisher, issued 1 vol. sm. 8vo, The
Works of Mr John Marston, comprising the two
rts of Antonio and Mellida, Sophonisha,
ou Will, The Fawn, and The Dutch Courtezan.
Marston's works were edited by the late Mr Halli-.
well-Phillipps (then Mr Halliwell) in 1856, 3 vols,
and by the present writer in 1887, 3 vols.
hly ; and he was answered, not very
p the
io
of
Henslow records in his Diary _
bn Bod
?
cut and their noses slit.
Parasitaster, or the Fawn (1606), in spite of occa-—
The rich and ful try scattered
through The Insatiate Coundens iefunlike any ine
i
z
i
;
LA ee
=
a
MARSTON MOOR
MARTEN 65
Marston Moor, in the West Riding of York-
shire, 7 miles W. of York, the scene of a great
One reemangiert victory, 2d July 1644. The royal-
army, about 22,000 strong, was led by Prince
Rupert ; the parliamentary troops numbered 15,000
foot and 9000 horse, consisting of a Scotch army
under the Earl of Leven, a Yorkshire army under
Fairfax, and one from the eastern counties under
the Earl of Manchester, with Cromwell and Craw-
ford. The battle began about seven o’clock in the
evening. On the king’s left flank the horse under
Goring scattered the forces of Fairfax ; on his right
the troopers of the fiery Rupert were broken for
the first time by Cromwell's ‘ Ironsides.’ Hastily
recalling his men from the chase, Cromwell saved
the day by supporting Manchester and the Scotch
infantry against the king’s foot under Newcastle,
and routing Goring’s horse flushed with their vic-
er Before nightfall the suecess was complete,
and the king’s army fled in utter rout to York,
leaving 4000 men dead on the field ; among them
all Newcastle’s ‘Whitecoats.’ This victory gave
the whole north to the Parliament, and first brought
into prominence Cromwell’s military genius. See
8S. R. Gardiner's History © the Civil War (1886),
and Edward Lamplough’s Yorkshire Battles (1891).
wae enpials, lit. ‘ponched animals’ (Mar-
supialia, Didelphia, or Metatheria), a sub-class
of mammals, the members of which, with the
exception of the American opossums, are now
restricted to the Australian and Austro-Malayan
ions. They are in many ways simpler than the
higher mammals, notably in the structure of the
brain and in the absence of a close connection
between the unborn young and the womb of the
mother. The young are born very helpless, after
a short gestation, and are usually stowed away in
an external pouch or marsupium, where they are
fed from the enclosed teats. From the wide oceur-
rence of fragmentary marsupial remains in Triassic.
and Jurassic strata both in the Old and the New
World, it seems that the pouch-hearers have been
once widely distributed. Before the stronger mam-
mals which rose up after them they have, however,
sucenmbed, except in the case of the above-men-
tioned refugees in neo-tropical forests, and those
saved by the insulation of the Australasian regions
before any higher mammals gained a foothold. In
the retreat thus afforded the marsupials have de-
veloped along numerous lines, as it were prophesy-
ing the carnivores, insectivores, rodents, and herbi-
vores among the placental mammalia. Thus, apart
from the carnivorous and insectivorous American
( wenegrd (Didelphyide), of which one is strictly
orth American and the rest neo-tropical, there
are five Australasian fatnilies: the Dasyuride or
‘native cats,’ carnivorous and insectivorous mar-
supials as large as wolves and as small as mice, of
which = pronounced types are the Tasmanian
‘tiger’ (Thylacinus) and the native ant-eater
nlf ae ei ; the rodent-like Peramelide or
dicoots; the herbivorous kangaroos and kan-
garoo-rats (Macropodide); the very varied family
of arboreal Phalangers (Phalangistide), including
the flying opossums (Petaurista, &c.), the native
sloth or koala, the honey-sucking Tarsipes, and
other curions forms ; and finally the Phascolomyide
or wombats, rodent-like root-eating forms about the
size of badgers.
See Mamas; also the well-known works of Owen,
Huxley, and others on Vertebrates; the relevant parts of
"s and the Standard Natural History ; Chisholm’s
trans. of Vogt and Specht’s Mammals (1887); Water-
house, Natural History of Mammalia, i. (1846); and
Gould’s Mammals of Australia (3 vols. 1845-63).
Marsyas, a Phrygian satyr, who, having found
a flute that played of itself, which Athena had
oxadr ow was rash enough to challenge Apollo
1
to a musical contest, subject to the condition that
the victor should do what he liked to the van-
quished. Apollo played upon the cithara, Marsyas
upon the flute, and the Muses decided in favour of
the god, who punished his rival’s temerity by bind-
ing him to a tree and flaying him alive. From
his blood sprung the river Marsyas ; his statue
stood in many ancient cities, a monument of the
folly of presumption.
Martaban, a town in Burma, on the right
bank of the Salween, opposite to Maulmain (Moul-
mein). It is reputed to have been built in 576 by
the first king of Pegu, and was down to the end of
the first quarter of the 14th century the capital of
the kingdom. It was taken by the king of Siam
two centuries and a half later, and has been twice -
captured by the British, in 1824 and in 1852. Pop.
1781. The Bay of Martaban receives the rivers
Irawadi and Salween.
Martel, Cuaries. See CHARLES MARTEL.
Martello Towers are round towers for coast
defence, about 40 feet high, built most solidly, and
situated on the beach. They were so called
because at Mortella Point in Corsica a small round
tower stood admirably an immense cannonade from
an English fleet under Lord Hood in 1794. They
were mostly erected at the end of the 18th century
as a defence against French invasion, and are now
regarded as obsolete.
Marten (Mustela), a genus of digitigrade car-
nivorous quadrupeds of the family Mustelide, dif-
fering from weasels in having an additional false
molar on each side above and below, a small
tubercle on the inner side of the lower carnivorous
cheek-teeth, and the tongue not rough—characters
which are regarded as indicating a somewhat less
extreme carnivorous propensity. The body is elon-
gated and supple, as in weasels, the legs short, and
the toes separate, with sharp long claws ; the palms
and soles are generally, but not always, furry. The
ears are larger than in weasels, and the tail is
bushy. The martens exhibit great agility and
gracefulness in their movements, and are very
expert in climbing trees, among which they gener-
ally live. There are nine or ten species in this
genus, which are distributed over Europe, Asia,
Malaya, and North America. The American
‘Pekan’ (M. pennanti) is the largest species,
measuring as much as 46 inches from the snout to
the tip of the tail. The most valuable species of
marten is the European Sable (/. zibellina). Two
species of marten, closely resembling one another,
oecur in Great Britain—the Common or Beech
Marten (M. foina) and the Pine Marten (©.
martes). They are often hunted with foxhounds ;
for this and other reasons they are getting much
less plentiful, though still to be frequently met
with in certain localities,
66 MARTENSEN
MARTIAL -
Martensen, HANs LASSEN, metropolitan bishop
of Denmark her most prominent theologian in
the 19th century, was born at Flensborg on 19th
August 1808, and studied at the university of
After shaking off the influence of
» by which he was dominated in
teers Ragertland in 1848 aided to
Phil at , and in to
these da those of court preacher. In 1840 he
published a valuable monograph on Meister Eckhart,
the German mystic, and nine years later laid the
foundation of a European fame by a masterly
work, from the conservative Lutheran standpoint,
istian Dogmatics (Eng. trans. 1866). This
gained him in 1854 the primacy of Denmark
again was the cause of a powerful satirical
attack upon him by Kierkegaard, which started a
i Martensen suffered severely.
from the blow, so that, after the ‘
another great work, in 3 vols., on Christian Ethics
(1871-78; Eng. trans. 1881-82), his influence in
the country was more dominant than ever. With
a mind wonderfully acute and powerful, he was
deficient in intellectual sympathy. Nevertheless
he stood for many years a bulwark of defence to
conservative theology. He died on 3d Februa
1884. See his care ey in Danish (1883),
London Quarterly (1883), and Brit, and Foreign
Evang. jew, vol. Xxxv.
Martha's Vineyard, an island on the south
const of Massachusetts, 21 miles long, 6 miles in
average width. It is noted as a summer health-
resort,
Martial. Marcus Valerius Martialis, one of
the finest among the few original Latin poets, and
still the first of epigrammatists in verse, was born
Ist March 38 or 41 A.D., in Celtiberian Spain, at
Bilbilis, famed as a steel factory, for which its iron-
mines and ice-cold Salo torrent specially fitted it—
a centre, too, of Roman culture, which afforded
him the good education he got under the eye of
oe ts, Fronto _ x ene ES ror —
gift vincials, he repai to me,
where (84 ab.) he became a client of the influen-
tial Spanish house of the Senecas, through which
he found other patrons, among them L. Calpurnius
Piso, the lead man of his day. The ee
failure of the ian plot lost Martial his
warmest friends—Lucan, and still more Sen
from whose heirs, however, he doubtless deriv
the small wine-growing estate at Nomentum. Of
his life till Domitian me emperor we know
little, except that he never maintained himself by
the steady professional work to which his com-
a pea Quintilian seems to have exhorted him,
t rather courted imperial and senatorial patron-
by his rare social gifts and his genius for vers
circonstance. When (80 a.p.) Titus, by a series
at intorial spectacles, dedicated the Colosseum
to amusement of Rome, Martial signalised the
by epigrams which brought him the jus
trium liberorum and the equestrian rank—probably
eer by Titus, and afterwards confirmed by
itian. Substantial independence, however, he
did not obtain from either emperor, though his
venal flattery of Domitian of that despot’s
corrupt retinue was grows enough to leave a stain
on his memory. In request as a diner-out, he
divided his 4 A between the baths, the theatres,
the recitation-halls, and the composition of epi-
grams, and so far saw his ambition gratified as to
count the most distinguished senators of the time
among his friends, and all the /iterati in city or
ince among his readers. Of envy and detrac-
oa he had, of course, his share; bat what he
His life, indeed, was not a happy one—
continually shadowed by that ‘ignoble me
which arises from —_
that we find him ag eke a patron even a
toga ora mantle. From 86 to 90 he had a lodgin
three stories high, at the sign of the ‘ Pear’ on the
Quirinal, and in 94 a house of his own in the same
quarter; while his Nomentan fi -a-terre, W i
under better husbandry, might have yielded
living, was prized by him mainly as a retreat from
the bores (or duns) of the city. During his thirty.
four years of Roman life he seems to have made an
excarsion from it only once (in 87)—to Forum
Corneli and other resorts in the Amilia. But, by
degrees, the capital, its cares and its pleasures,
became irksome to him; bad poe years bereft
him of Domitian and his friends of the palace ; and
the austere Nerva and Trajan had to be coneiliated
by other and less congenial arts than the adulatory
his admirer, the younger Pliny, the means of revisit-
ing those haunts of childhood he had never for-
the headlong Salo, the snowy peaks of the Sierras,
the golden Tagus, the rich orchards, the awe-
inspiring oak-forests—his home, with its frugal ;
y¥
meals and simple joys. Here again his good
found him patrons—among them the highly-cul-
tured Marcella, who presented him with an
on which, with its grove, its fountain, its vin
and rosary, its kitchen-garden, its fish-pond and
dovecot, he led an idyllic life. But the vta muni-
cipalis palled on him once more, and.even in such
surroundings we find him fretting for the vita urbana
and angling for patrons in that distant world of
theatres and libraries, cultured connoisseurs, and
social dissipation he was never again to see.
Baulked of his wish to attain his seventy-fifth
year, he died, at latest, in 104, aged sixty-three or
sixty-six. ;
artial possessed, for and evil, the artistic
temperament, its lack of steady purpose, its love
of hand-to-mouth independence. This latter he —
enjoyed by humouring the contemporary vices he
could not reform, though, conscience-stricken, he
excuses himself on the ground that if his apage
were wanton, his life was honest.’ Much of hi
best work, unfortunately, is his least pure, and this
has pera an exaggerated impression of his
moral turpitude. If, however, we excise 150
epigrams from the 1172 of the first twelve books,
his collective writings (including his early ‘spee-
tacular’ epigrams and his Xenia and A a)
are free from licentiousness. On the other hand,
his genius and skill in verse it were hard to over-
estimate. An improvisatore in readiness, he could
attain to the most fastidious finish; with his love
of antithetic shocks and electric surprises, h
e
the true poet's eye for nature; he could alternate
the organ-note of a masterful eloquence with minor
tones of the most tremulous pathos—witness his
epigrams on ‘ Arria and Petus,’ on ‘Pompeii,’ on
his little slave-girl ‘Erotion,’ and on ‘ Formis’
with its lovely seaboard, But it is as an epigram-
matist, even in its modern and reseeiaiel sense,
that he remains without a peer, wielding a weapon
uliarly his own, bright and pointed as a rapier
rom the anvils of his native Bilbilis, chastened in
the rushing Salo. Unequal, of course, he often is,
bat never vulgar—rarely (it has been well observed )
with all his sense of the ridiculous degenera
into caricature. He lifts the veil from the Rome
of Domitian and exposes it mainly on its seamy
e *
MARTIAL LAW
MARTIN 67
side, with « Hogarthian vividness not outdone b
Juvenal himself. f
Martial has had to wait long for an adequate commenta-
tor, and has found him in the author of the Stittengeschichte
Roms, Ludwig Friedlinder, who alone combined the criti-
cal power the es knowledge necessary for
the task. The same writer's M. Valerii Martialis Kpiyram-
maton Libri mit erkldrenden Anmerkungen (2 v ae
1886) furnishes the student of Martial with nse P
aaa beth of hie seotecomears aed cntecnin dae
con I H
‘the illustrious i scholar, net, to whom the
edition appropriately is dedicated.
Martial Law is the exercise of arbitrary
power by the supreme authority in a district or
country where the ordinary administration has
ceased to be ive, either on account of civil
disturbance or of the presence therein of a
hostile force, though, in the latter case, the country
would be more correetly described as being grreae
by the ‘Laws of War.’ Martial law was former
synonymous with military law, and is often still
confounded with it, perhaps because in the above-
mentioned circumstances the supreme authority
often avails himself of courts-martial and of the
under his command to maintain order.
yg 4 Law (q.v.) is the law contained in the
Army Act of 1881, which governs the soldier at
all times, but affects civilians only when accom-
panying a force on active service; while martial
w has been defined as ‘no law,’ but simply the
will of the supreme authority. It is not recognised
hy British jurisprudence, and no rules are Jaid
down for its application. It is assumed that, when
the ordi civil tribunals fail, the supreme
authority will do his best to maintain order. He
may therefore, if he thinks right, announce his
intention of treating the civil population as though
under military law, or in any other way that com-
mends itself to him; but if they are British sub-
jects he will have afterwards to justify his action by
showing that it was absolutely necessary, and so
obtain an indemnity from parliament for conduct
which is in itself illegal. Military tribunals have
several times been oF tips power by Act of Parlia-
ment to try offe t the public peace in
Treland, as in 1798, but the proclamations on these
occasions merely justitied the use of arms inst
rebellious subjects, not against ble citizens,
They were announcements of the existence of a
state of things in which force would be used against
wrong-doers for the protection of the public i
and were always followed by Acts of Indemnity.
On the Continent the tice is different, and
when ni a ‘state of siege’ is proclaimed i
the disturbed ai sled sinstbery, und tua
istrict or oecupied territory, and the
inhabitants are thereby brought to a certain extent
under military law. ,
Martigny, or MArTINACH (the Octodurus of
the Sommes); three united hamlets in the Swiss
canton of V; , is situated on the Simplon rail-
way, 24 miles SE. of the Lake of Geneva. Two
noted routes, one to the vale of Chamouni by the
Téte Noire or the Col de Balme, the other over the
eens St Bernard to Aosta, branch off here. Pop.
Martigucs, « town in the French department
of Bouches-du-Rhone, is situated on several islands,
eng | bridges, at the entrance to the Etang de
miles NW. of Marseilles. From its posi-
tion, it has been called the Provengal Venice. Pop.
4783, ore in catching and curing fish
and in ship
Martin. See SwALLow.
_ Martin, the name of five popes, of whom the
fourth and fifth deserve a brief notice.—MARTIN
IV., a native of Brie in Touraine, was born about
- returned to his native
1210, made cardinal in 1261, and elected pope in
1281. He was a mere tool of Charles of Anjou, and
degraded himself even by employing the weapons
of spiritual censure in his behalf. But all his
efforts to buttress the French power in Sicily
proved futile, and three years after the atrocity of
the Sicilian Vespers he died, 1285.—MARTIN V.
must be noticed as the pontiff in whose election
was finally extinguished the t Western Schism
(see ANTIPOPE, CHURCH History). He was
originally named Otto di Colonna, of the great
Roman family of that name. On the deposition of
John XXIII, and the two rival popes Gregory XII.
and Benedict XIIL, in the Council of Constance,
Cardinal Colonna was elected (1417). He presided
in all the subsequent sessions of the council,
and the fathers having separated without discuss-
ing the questions of reform, at that period earnest]
ed for in the church, Martin undertook to éall
a new council for the purpose. It was summoned
to meet at Siena, and ultimately assembled at Basel
in 1431, but the pope died suddenly just after its
opening.
Martin, St, Bishop of Tours, was born at
Sabaria in Pannonia about the year 316. He was
educated at Pavia, and at the desire of his father,
who was a military tribune, entered the army, first
under Constantine, and afterwards under Julian
the Apostate. The virtues of his life as a soldier
are the theme of more than one interesting legend.
On obtaining his discharge from military service,
Martin became a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers. He
‘annonia, and converted his
mother to Christianity, but he himself endured
much persecution from the Arian party, who were
at that time dominant; and in consequence of the
firmness of his orthodoxy, he is the first con-
fessor, rather than martyr, honoured in the Latin
Church with an office and a feast. On his return
to Ganl abont 360 he founded a convent of
monks near Poitiers, where he himself led a life
of great austerity and seclusion; but in 371 he
was drawn by force from his retreat, and made
Bishop of Tours. The fame of his sanctity, and his
repute as a worker of miracles, attracted crowds of
visitants from all parts of Gaul; and in order to
avoid the distraction of their iniportunity, he estab-
lished the monastery of Marmoutier near Tours,
in which he himself resided. He died between
397 and 401, and St Ninian, who had visited him at
Tours and ever preserved the greatest veneration
for him, dedicated to his memory the church he
was then building at Whithorn in Galloway. His
life by his contemporary, Sulpicius Severus, is a very
curious specimen of the Christian literature of the
,and in the profusion of miraculous legends with
whieh it abounds might take its place among the
lives of the medieval or modern Roman Church.
The only extant literary relic of Martin is a short
Confession of Faith on the Holy Trinity, which is
blished by Galland, vol. vii. 559. In the Roman
Jatholie Church the festival of his birth is celebrated
on the 1lth November. In Scotland this day still
marks the winter-term, which is called Martinmas.
Formerly people used to begin St Martin’s Day with
feasting and drinking; hence the French expres-
sions martiner and faire la St Martin, ‘ to feast,’
and the fact that St Martin is the patron of drink-
ing and of reformed drunkards. .
See the books by Reinkens (Gera, 3d ed. 1876), Cha-
mard (Poitiers, 1873), Cazenove’s St Hilary and St
Martin (1883), and Scullard’s Martin of Towrs (1891).
Martin, Bon Louis HeEnrI, a great French
historian, was born at St-Quentin, 20th February
1810, and educated for a notary, but already at
twenty had determined for a literary career. His
first book was an historical romance, Wolfthurm
MARTIN
MARTINEAU
~
1830), followed by three others treating of the
De page He rege ed Paul —<—
7 2 ~ acob,' vast project for a
of France in 48 volumes, ting of
from histories and chronicles from the
— to 1830. He published the first
he wee and ges aig pe“ ae at
ertaking, which was com ona
le in 1836. He now set himself to a still
t Histoire de France
rd and much improved
vols, 1837-54) earned the Gobert prize ;
edition (17 vols. 1855-60) was awarded
titute in 1869 the t prize of 20,000
magnificent work comes down only
continuation to the author's own time
less admirable Histoire de France
ed. 5 vols, 1878-85). Martin acted for
of one of the arrondissements of
chosen deputy for Aisne in 1871,
in 1876. He was elected a member of the
French Academy in 1878. He wrote several minor
such as the Histoire de Soissons (1837),
Manin (1859), Jeanne d’ Are (1872); and
Paris, l4th nber 1883. Martin was
last of the giants of French history influenced
An Thierry,
peenenpegttre
a fu
s
iH
rt 43
:
~ the - god value. The — eee mek
ialit insight, is excellently arranged,
sey cieirch written—the work of a ies patriot,
and if a Chauvinist, a Chanvinist of genius. It is
beyond doubt the best work dealing in detail with
the history of France as a whole.
Martin, Joun, painter, was born at Haydon
near Hexham, Northumberland, 19th July
1789. In 1806 he went up to London, in 1808
married, and, after a struggling youth as an
heraldic and enamel painter, in 1812 exhibited
*Sadak in search of the Waters of Oblivion’ at
the Royal Academy, with which body he soon
afterwards quarrelled. It was the first of his
sixteen ‘sublime’. works, whose ‘immeasurable
innumerable multitudes, and gorgeous
prodigies of architecture and landscape’ divided
the suffi of the many between Martin and
Turner ; lwer-Lytton indeed pronounced him
*more original, more self-dependent’ than Raphael
and Michael Angelo! Even yet their memory is
kept lurid by the coloured engravings of the ‘ Fall
of lon” (1819), ‘Belshazzar’s Feast’ (1821),
‘ luge ’ (1826), &c. For twenty-seven years
Martin also been busied with projects for the
improvement of London, and for four had been
working on four pictures illustrative of the ‘ Last
Judgment,’ when he died at Douglas, in the Isle of
Man, 17th Febraary 1854,
Martin, Sim THeopone, born in Edinburgh
in 1816, was educated there at the High School
and university, and in 1846 settling in London,
¢ & prosperous parliamentary solicitor.
Among his earliest writings were the well-known
‘Bon Ganitier’ ballads, written in conjunction
with Profesor Aytoun. This was followed by
translations of Goethe's Poems and Ballads, Haat *
schligers Corregio and Aladdin or the Wonderful
schiiiger’s Corregio an ‘in or '
Lamp. Further metrical translations
Horace’s Odes (1860), of his whole works (1
Catallus (1861), the Vita Nuova of Dante (1
Faust (i. and ii. 1865-86), Heine (1878), d
the Aneid (ivi. 1896). In 1863 he issued a
volume of original and translated poems,
1870 an admirable little book on Horace
‘Ancient Classics for English Readers.’ In}
he was made C.B., in 1880 K.C.B., and in Nov.
ber of that year was elected Lord Rector of
Andrews University. He has written a series
ve , the Prince ;
(5 vols, 1874-80), Lord Lyndhurst (1883), and the
rincess Alice (1885).
Lapy MARTIN, well known as an Sih dt
maiden name, Helen Faucit, was born 11th st
1820, and made her professional début as Julia in’
the Hunchback at Covent Garden in January 1836, —
She was at once successful, took a | b
in Macready’s Shakespearian revivals Se the first
L
zee
ak
26
biographies of Aytoun
in 1851 she left the stage, oreeee only at
ublic or charitable pores. as.
espeare
Portia, Desdemona, Juliet, Imogen, , and
Martina, a town of Southern Italy. half-way
between Taranto and Monopoli. Pop. 14,454.
Martineau, Harriet, born at Norwich, 12th
June 1802, was the daughter of Thomas M an,
a Norwich manufacturer. She received a
classical education, and worked diligently and
conscientiously, but did not in her school-days show
promise of anything remarkable. Increasing deaf-_
ness and constant ill-health made her often anxious
and cake? as a girl, uncertain in temper, and
silent in habit. Her first appearance in it was
in 1821, when = wrote an Siete we! Mo Me ;
Repository, a religious periodical. In the next fe
years she wrote Devotsonal Exercises, cles for
the Monthly Repository, and short stories about
machinery and wages. In 1829 the failure of the |
house in which she, and her mother and sisters, had
laced their money obliged her to earn her living,
n 1830 she wrote Traditions of Palestine, and
gained three prizes for three Theological Essays for
the Unitarian Association. In 1831 she resolved
to bring out a series of stories as Jil i f
Political Economy, knowing that the work be
wanted. Notwithstanding repeated refusals
discouragements from publishers, she persevered in
her plan, and in 1832 the first number ap
A fortnight after publication the demand for this
number reached five thousand, and from that da
the way was open to her for life, and she never
any other anxiety about employment than A
to choose, nor any real care about money. He
popularity was extraordinary during the appearance
of I/lustrations of Political Economy. She removed
to London in 1832, the better to carry on her work,
In 1834 she went to America for two years, and soon
after her return piblnet Society in America and &
novel, Deerbrook, in 1839. She went abroad the
samme year, returned ill, and settled at Tynemouth,
where she remained, a complete invalid, till 1844
During her illness she wrote The Hour and the
. =
=
=e
iw
a re
Marx is natnrally associated his _
° “6
MARY
MARY TI. 73
Fathers,
tions from
of the first centuries, and
or modern legendaries. The
genealogy of our Lord in St Matthew is traced
X oseph (q.v.); and, as it is plainly assumed
was of the same family with her husband
ie evidence of the descent of the latter
from David is equivalently an evidence of the
origin of Mary from the same royal house. But
the ge of Christ as t in St Luke is
commonly held to be the proper genealogy of his
mother in the flesh, Mary. The incidents in her
eee recorded in Scripture are few in
number, and almost entirely refer to her relations
with our Lord. They will be found in Matt. i.,
ii, xii. ; Luke i., ii; John ii., xix.; and Acts, i.,
where the last notice of her is of her ‘persevering
in nee with the disciples and the holy women
at Jerusalem after our Lord’s ascension ( Acts, i. 14).
The gospels entitled ‘ The Gospel of the
Nativity of Mary,’ and the ‘ Protevangelion of the
Birth of Christ,’ contain some additional, but, of
course, unauthentic particulars as to the lineage,
birth, and early years of Mary, among which is
the miraculous story of her betrothal with Joseph,
immortalised by the pencil of hael. As to her
history after the ascension of her Son the traditions
— widely, ig magl aaa ge nee —_ of
pliesus speaks of her as having lived with John at
that city, where she died, and was buried. Another
epistle, nearly contemporaneous, tells that she died
and was buried at Jerusalem at the foot of the
Mount of Olives. Connected with this tradition is
the incident which lias so often formed a subject of
‘sacred art, of the apostles coming to her tomb on
the third day after her interment, and finding the
tomb empty, but exhaling an ‘exceeding sweet
f * On this tradition is founded the belief
of her having been assumed into heaven, which is
celebrated in the festival of the Assumption (q.v.).
The date of her death is commonly fixed at the
“year of our Lord 63, or, according to another
account, the year 48. Another tradition makes
wre retest, Beech yp fa yobs ‘lege avi
1 questions ing the -M.
(Beata Virgo Maria), one is treated at Immacu-
LATE Conception. The ral sag virginity of
Mary is not explicitly attested in Scripture, and
there are even certain ambiguous plirases which
at first sight seem to imply that children were
born of her after the birth of Jesus, as that of
his being called (Matt. i. 25; Luke, ii. 7) her
‘first-born son,’ and that of James and others
being more than once called ‘ brothers of tle Lord ;’
for which see JoserH. The perpetual virginity of
a is held on a firm article of belief in the Roman
chu
Catholic worship of the Virgin is the supreme
worship of latreia or adoration, which Catholics
disclaim, although, from her relation to
our they hold her worship, which they style
ulia, to be higher than that of all other
ts. Many examples of prayers addressed to
Mary (such as the ‘ Litany of the Sacred Heart of
Mary i of acts of worship done in her honour, and
pening her, are alleged
the
of
0 of showin
(ate Chureh is
in effect ‘adoration.’ To these and similar allega-
undoubtedly liable to misinter-
pretation; but they further insist that all such
prayers, however worded, are to be understood,
and are, in fact, understood by all Roman Catholics,
even ordinarily acquainted with the principles of
their faith, solely as petitions for the intercession
of Mary, and as expressions of reliance, not on her
ae power, but on the efficacy of her prayers to her
n.
Although no trace is found in the New Testa-
ment of any actual worship of the Virgin Mary,
yet Roman Catholic interpreters regard the lan-
guage of the angel Gabriel, who saluted her as
‘fall of grace,’ or ‘highly favoured,’ and as ‘blessed
among women,’ ae her own prediction in the
canticle of the Magnificat, that ‘all nations should
call her blessed’ (Luke, i. 48), as a foreshadowing
of the practice of their church; and they rely
equally on the language employed by the early
Fathers, as, for instance, Irenzeus, regarding the
Virgin, although Protestants consider it as having
reference to the Incarnation. But it seems quite
certain that during the first ages the invocation of
the Virgin and the other saints must have held a_—
subordinate place in Christian worship ;-the-reason
for which, according to Roman Catholics, was
peenik the fear which was entertained of reintro-
ucing among the recent converts from paganism
the polytheistic notions, of their former creed.
But from the time of the triumph of Christianity
in the 4th century, the traces of it become more
apaetens St Gregory Nazianzen, in his panegyric
of the virgin martyr Justina, tells that in her hour
of peril she ‘implored Mary the Virgin to come to
the aid of a virgin in her danger.’ But it was only
after the heresy of Nestorius that the worship of
Mary seems to have obtained its full development.
His denial to her of the cliaracter of mother of God,
and the solemn affirmation of that character by the
ecumenical council of Ephesus (430 A.D.), had the
effect at once of quickening the devotion of the
ple and of drawing forth a more marked mani-
estation on the part of the church of the belief
which had been called into question. The 5th and
6th centuries, both in the t and in the West,
exhibit clear evidence of the practice; and the
writers of each succeeding age till the Reformation
speak with ually increasing enthusiasm of the
privileges of the Virgin Mary, and of the efficacy
of her functions as a mediator with her Son. St
Bernard, and, still more, St Bonaventura, carried
this devotional enthusiasm to its greatest height.
The institution of the * Rosary of the Virgin Mary,’
the appointment of a special office in her honour,
and, more than all, the fame of many of the
sanctuaries which were held to be especially sacred
to her worship gave a prominence to the devotion
which Protestants find it difficult to reconcile with
the honour which they hold due to God alone.
The chief festivals of the Virgin, common to the
Western and Eastern churches, are the Concep-
tion, the Nativity, the Purification, the Annuncia-
tion, the Visitation, and the Assumption. The
Roman Church has several other special festivals,
with appropriate offices—all, however, of minor
solemnity. For accounts of representations of
Mary in Art, see MADONNA, PrieTA.
Mary I., queen of England, daughter of Henry
VIIL. by his first wife, Catharine of Aragon, was
born at Greenwich on 18th February 1516. She
was in her youth a great favourite with her
father, and at the age of seven was betrothed to the
Emperor Charles V. In her tenth year she was
sent with certain commissioners and a species of
viceregal court to the marches of Wales to carry
out measures for the better government of the
country. She was well educated, a good linguist,
and fond of music. She was virtuous and pious,
devoted to her mother, and devoted to her church,
™~
i 4
74 MARY I. MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS 4
With the divorce of her mother her troubles bezan. | lessness, and with disappointment at her childless- em ‘
Henry treated her with great harshness, and even
forced her to sign a declaration that he was supreme
head of the church, and that her mother's marriage
hid been * by God's laws and man’s law incestuous
and unlawful.’ During the reign of her half-
brother Edward she lived in retirement, and no
threats could induce her to conform to the new
religion. On the death of Edward (6th July 1553),
she became entitled to the crown by her father's
testament and the parliamentary settlement. The
Duke of Northumberland had, however, induced
Edward and his council to set Henry's will aside in
favour of Lady Jane Grey, to whom the duke had
married his son Guildford Dudley. Lady Jane was
proclaimed on 10th July, but the whole country
suspected Northumberland and favoured Mary, who,
supported by her friends, was able without blood-
to enter London on 3d Angust in triumph.
The queen now showed remarkable leniency towards
her opponents. Northumberland and two others
were executed as traitors, but Lady Jane and her
liuxhand were, for the present, spared. She had
promised the mayor of London that she would not
strain consciences, and she proceeded very ually
and cautiously to bring back the old religion. She
reinstated the Catholie bishops and imprisoned
some of the leading Reformers, but dared not restore
pope’s supremacy, and she herself retained,
under the advice of Gardiner, the title of supreme
head of the church. Cardinal Pole was immedi-
ately on her accession designated papal legate,
but prudence and the counsel of the em pre-
vented his entering England. The question of the
hour upon which all turned was the queen's mar-
riage. Some thought of Courtenay, Earl of Devon ;
s, of *Cardinal Pole, then. only in deacon’s
orders ; but the queen, in the face of the fears and
protests of the nation, obstinately and morbidly
set her heart on Philip of Spain. The unpopularity
of the proposal brought abont the rebellion of
Wyatt and an attack upon London. The rebellion
was quelled mainly through the courage and cool-
ness of the queen, but the consequences of her easy
trinmph were fatal to her. The hapless Lady Jane,
who had seemingly been detained as a for
the good-behaviour of her friends, was with her
husband and father brought to the block. The
Princess Elizabeth was suspected, but without proof,
of complicity in the treason, and was committed to
the Tower. Injunctions were sent to the bishops
to restore ecclesiastical laws to their state under
Henry VIIL In July 1554, twelve months after
her accession, Philip landed and was married to
at Winchester. In the November follow-
ing Pole entered Enyland, and parliament, havin
made it sure that restitation woul! not be exac
from the owners of the confiseated church property,
consented to petition for reconciliation to the holy
see, and the realm was solemnly absolved from the
censures. Soon after, the savage persecution
which _ to the queen the name of * Bloody
Mary’ began. In 1 Ridley, Latimer, and other
martyrs were brought to the stake. Cranmer was
burned in March 1556, and Pole was consecrated
Archbishop of Canterbury in his place. In Angust
1555 Philip had left England, to return only once
mare ork few weeks, and Gardiner died in Novem-
ver
cation raged ; 7 the last three years of her
‘tims perished in the flames.
How ¥ ag M aay Sea! res maine for the
cruel penstioel oulytfal, uring this period
ered almost helpless with ill-health,
tantly deluded with the belief that
to amother. Broken down
with sickness, with grief at her husband's heart-
ness, she became a prey to the deepest melancholy,
Finally the evils whieh the nation predicted from
the Spanish alliance came about. ueen was ]
induced by Philip to enter upon war with France,
The consequence was the loss of Calais to England.
Mary died 17th November 1558, 7
See the histories of Linvard and Froude; England under
the reigns of Edward VI. and Mary, by P. F, Bo hse :
Privy Purse of the Princess Mary, 4
memoir by Sir F. Madden; and other books cited at
Henuy VIL, Evizaperu, Gaey (Lavy Jang), wy, Toes
ary I (1662-94), wife from 1677 of William
« (q.¥.).
Mary Queen of Scots was the daughter of
James V, of Seotland by his second wife, Mary
of Lorraine, daughter of Claude, Duke of Guise
(q.v.), and widow of is of Orleans, Duke of
Longueville. She was born at Linlithgow on the
8th of December 1542. Her misfortunes “itogs ‘
A
1%
a
said to have begun with her birth. The a
reached her father on his death-bed at Falkland,
but brought him no consolation. ‘The deil go
with it!’ he muttered, as his thoughts wandered
back to the marriage with Bruce’s daughter, which
brought the crown of Scotland to the Stewarts—‘it
cam With ane Jass, and it will pass with ane lass?
Mary became a queen before she was a week old.
Within a year the Regent Arran had promised her
in marriage to Prince Edward of England, and the —
Scottish acorn had declared the B ssi null.
War with England followed, and at Pinkie Cleuch
the Scots met a defeat only Jess disastrous than _
Flodden. But their aversion to an English match —
was unconquerable; they hastened to place the
young queen beyond the reach of En arms,
on the island of Inchmahome, in the Lake of Men-
teith, and to offer her in marriage to the eldest
son of Henry IL. of France and Catharine de’
Medici. The offer was accepted ; and in July 1548
a French fleet carried Mary from Dumbarton, on,
the Clyde, to Roscoff, in Brittany, whence she
was at once conveyed to St Germain-en-Laye, and
there affianced to the Dauphin. 3
Her next ten years were passed at the French
court, where she was carefully educated along with
the king’s family, receiving instruction in art
of making verses from the famous Ronsard. On —
the 24th of April 1558 she was married to the
Dauphin, who was six weeks younger than her-
self. It was , on the of Scotland
that her husband should have the title of King of
Scots; but Mary was further betrayed into the
sgnasers of a secret deed, by which, if she died
childless, both her Scottish realm and her right
of succession to the English crown (she was
the A ies, cranddaughter of Henry VII.) were con-
veyed to France, On the 10th of July 1559 the
death of the French king called her lusband to the’
throne by the title of Francis II. The government
missed into the hands of the queen’s kinsfolks, the
Juke of Guise and the Cardinal of Lorraine; but
their rule was short-lived, The feeble and sickly
king died on the 5th of December 1560, when the :
reins of power were grasped by the queen-mother,
Catharine de’ Medici, as regent for her next son,
Charles IX. Mary must have been prepared, under
almost any circumstances, to quit a court which was
now swayed by one whom, during her brief reign, she
had taunted with being ‘a merchant’s daughter,’
But there were other reasons for her departure
from France. Her presence was urgently needed
in Scotland, which the death of her mother, a few
months before, had left without a government, at
& moment when it was convulsed by the throes
of the Reformation, Her kinsmen of Guise had
ambitious projects for her marriage ; great schemes
4
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS
75
were based on her nearness of succession to the
English crown; and both these, it was thought,
might be more successfully followed out when she
was seated on her native throne.
She sailed from Calais on the 15th, and arrived
against the law of God. She is said to have re-
nape the violent counsels of the Roman Catholics ;
t is certain that she surrourided herself with
Protestant advisers, her chief minister being her
illegitimate brother, James Stuart, wliom she soon
afterwards created Earl of Moray. Under his
guidance, in the autumn of 1562, she made a pro-
gress to the north, which, whatever was his design,
ended in the defeat and death of the Earl of
Huntly, the powerful chief of the Roman Catholic
party in Scotland, For the Chastelard episode,
see CHASTELARD.
Meanwhile the courts of Europe were lusy
with schemes for Mary’s_marri The kin
of Sweden, the king of Denmark, the king of
France, the Archduke Charles of Austria, mn
Carlos of Spain, the Duke of Ferrara, the Duke
of Nemours, the Duke of Anjou, the Scottish
Earl of Arran, and the English Earl of Leicester
were proposed as candidates for her hand.
Her own preference was for Don Carlos, the
heir of what was+then the greatest monarchy in
Christendom; and it was not until all hopes of
obtaining him were quenched that she thought
seriously of any other. Her choice fell, somewhat
suddenly, on cousin, Henry Stewart, Lord
Darnley, son of the Earl of Lennox, by his mar-
lle a daughter of King Henry VII.
of England. He was thus among the nearest heirs
to the English crown, and his claims to the sue-
cession were believed to have the support of the
great body of English Roman Catholics. But
except this and his good looks he had no other
recommendation. He was weak, needy, insolent,
and vicious; his religion, such as it was, was
Roman Catholic; his house had few friends and
many enemies yee xa io he was frie
younger s er t friends,
eth Homan Catholic Dae Viekatnatl cornea her
against him, but in vain. The marriage was cele-
brated at Holyrood on the 29th July 1565. It was
the for an insurrection by Moray and the
Hamiltons, who hoped to be joined by the whole
t party. But their hope was disappointed ;
and the queen, taking the field in person, at once
peop des revolt, and chased the rebels beyond
weed.
Her triumph was scarcely over when mis-
understandings to arise between her and
her husband. Darnley’s worthlessness and folly
became only too apparent; she was disgusted by
his , and alarmed by his arrogance and
ambition. She had given him the title of king,
but he now demanded that the crown should be
secured to him for life, and that, if the queen died
without issue, it should descend to his heirs. Mary
hesitated to comply with a demand which would
have set aside the settled order of succession ; and
what she refused to grant by favour the king pre-
pared to extort by force.
Mary’s chief minister, since Moray’s rebellion,
had been David Rizzio, a manan jacking Italian, of
great astuteness and many accomplishments, but
generally hated beyond the palace walls as a base-
rn foreigner, a court favourite, and a Roman
Catholic. The king and Rizzio had been sworn
friends, ae the same table, and even sleepin
in the same ; but the king was now persuaded
that it was Rizzio who was the real obstacle to his
designs upon the crown. In this belief, he entered
into a formal compact with Moray, Ruthven,
Morton, and other chiefs of the Protestant party,
undertaking, on his part, to prevent their attainder,
or procure their on, and to support and advance
the Protestant religion; while they, on the other
part, bound themselves to procure the settlement
of the crown upon him and his heirs, and to take
and slay, if need were, even in the queen’s palace
and presence, every one who opposed it. The
result of this sen ip was*the murder of Rizzio
on the 9th of March 1566, the king leading the way
into rs! Sey herrea — rola her Rais
, while the murderers dragged the r Italian
nto ‘ait ante-chamber, and, mangling his body with
more than fifty wounds, completed what they
deemed a justifiable act. When Mary learned
what had been done she broke out in reproaches
against the king as being the chief cause of the
deed. ‘TI shall your wife no longer,’ she told
him, ‘and shall never like well till I cause you
have as sorrowful a heart as I have at this present.’
As had been beforehand among the con-
spirators, Mary was kept prisoner in Holyrood ;
while the king, of his own authority, dismissed
the parliament which was about to forfeit Moray
and his associates in the late insurrection. The
plot was thus far successful ; but Mary no sooner
perceived its objects than she set herself at work
to defeat them. Dissembling her indignation at her
husband’s treachery and the savage outrage of
which he had been the ringleader, she succeeded by
her blandishments in detaching him from the con-
spirators, and in persuading him not only to escape
with her from their power by a midnight flight to
Dunbar, but to issue a papkteination in which he
denied all complicity in their designs. The con-
spiracy was now at an end; Ruthven and Morton
fled to England, while Moray was received by the
queen ; and the king, hated by both sides, because
he had betrayed both sides, became an object of
mingled abhorrence and contempt.
It was an aggravation of the murder of Rizzio
that it was committed, if not in the queen’s presence,
at least within a few yards of her person, onl
three months before she gave birth (on the 19th
June 1566) to the prince who became James VI.
As that event drew near, the queen's affection
for her husband seemed to revive ; but the change
was only momentary ; and before the boy’s baptism,
in December, her estrangement from’the king was
ater than ever. Divorce was openly discussed
in her presence, and darker designs were not
obscurely hinted at among her friends. The king,
on his part, spoke of leaving the country; but
before his preparations were completed he fell ill
of the smallpox at Glasgow. Tlis was about the
9th of January 1567. On the 25th Mary went to
see him, and, travelling by easy stages, brought
him to Edinburgh on the 3lst. He was lodged in
a small mansion beside the Kirk of the Field, nearly
on the spot where the south-east corner of the
university now stands, There Mary visited him
daily, and slept for two nights in a room below his
bedchamber. She passed the evening of Sunday
the 9th of February by his bedside, ta king cheer-
fully and affectionately with him, although she is
said to have dropped one remark which gave him
uneasy forebodings—that it was much about that
time twelvemonth that Rizzio was murdered. She
left him between ten and eleven o'clock to take
part in a masque at Holyrood, at the marriage of
76
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS
a favourite valet. The festivities had not long
ceased in the palace, when, about two hours after
midnight, the house in which the king slept was
blown up by gunpowder ; and his lifeless body was
found in the neighbouring garden.
The chief actor in this tragedy was undoubtedly
James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell (q.v.), an un-
scrupulous noble, who, since Moray’s revolt, and
still more since Rizzio’s murder, had enjoyed a large
share of the queen's favour. But there were suspi-
cions that the queen herself was not wholly ignorant
of the plot, and these suspicions could not but
be strengthened by what followed. On the 12th
of April Bothwell was brought to a mock-trial,
and acquitted; on the 24th he intercepted the
queen on her way from Linlithgow to Edinburgh,
and carried her, with scarcely a show of resistance,
to Dunbar. On the 7th of May he was divorced
from the young and comely wife whom he had
reg reg roe weed =e a che ye age betste ) 68
el Mary icly oned his seizure of her
person, and pe Bre Mar luke of Orkney ; and on
the I15th—only three months after her husbani's
murder—she married the man whom every one
nied as his murderer.
is fatal step at once arrayed her nobles in arms
nst her, She was able to lead an army against
, but it melted away without striking a blow
on the field of Carberry (15th June), when nothin
was left to her but to abandon Bothwell an
surrender herself to the confederate lords, They
lel her to Edinburgh, where the insults of the
rabble and grief at parting with Bothwell threw
her into a frenzy that she refused all nourish-
ment, and, rushing to the window of the room in
which she was ay prisoner, called for help, and
showed herself to the people half-naked.
From Edinburgh she was hurried to Lochleven,
where, on the th of July, she was prevailed yee
to sign an act of alxlication in favour of her
son, who, five days afterwards, was crowned at
Stirling. Escaping from her island-prison (where
she was confined of still-born twins) on the 2d of May
1568, she found herself in a few days at the head of
an army of 6000 men. On the 12th it was met and
defeated by the Regent Moray at Langside, near
Glasgow. Four days afterwards, in spite of the
entreaties of her best friends, Mary crossed the Sol-
way, and threw herself on the protection of Queen
EI , only to find herself a prisoner for
life. From Carlisle, her first place of captivity,
she was taken, in Jaly, to Bolton; from Bolton
she was carried, in February 1569, to Tuthbury;
from Tuthury she L in succession to Wing-
field, Coventry, Chatsworth, Sheffield, Buxton,
Chartley, and last of all to Fotheringhay. The
presence of Mary in England was 4 constant source
of uneasiness to Elizabeth and her advisers. A
minority in the country were still Catholic,
naturally looked to Mary as the likely restorer
of the old faith. Plot followed plot, therefore, to
effect her deliverance, and to place her on the throne
of Elizabeth. Of these plots the most famous is
that of Antony Babington, which had for its object
assassination of Elizabeth and the deliverance
of Mary. The conspiracy was discovered; cer-
tain letters of Mary approving the death of
Elizabeth fell into the hands of Walsingham;
and, mainly on the evidence of copies of these
letters, Mary was bronght to trial * September
1586. Sentence of death was pronounced against
‘her on the 25th of October; but it was not until
the lat of February 1587 that Elizabeth took
—_- to sign the warrant of execution, It was
into effect on the Sth, when Mary laid her
head upon the block with the dignity of a queen
and the constancy and resignation of a martyr,
evineing to the last her devotion to the church of
her fathers. Five months afterwards her
buried with great pomp at Poser Sonne
in 1612, it was removed to King ee a +
Chapel at Westminster, where it still ina
sumptuous tomb erected by James VI. es,
The character of Mary was long one of the n
fiercely-vexed questions of history, and is
in debate, although the great pr
authority seems now to be on the side of those wl
ayers i pe eelnel tos for Bothwell and
her guilty know of his conspiracy against
her heeds life. Her beauty and aeccomplish- —
ments have never been disputed. She was con-
by every one to be the most ing
princess of her time. Her large sharp ares
might perhaps have been thought handsome rath
than beautiinul, but for the winning ine :
high joyous spirit which animated them. i
been questioned whether her eyes were haze)
dark gray, but there is no question as to their star- —
like brightness. Her complexion, al fresh
and clear, would seem to have been t
brilliance so common mg our island beauties.
ce
anged with her years
gray long
time. Her bust was full and oats shaped,
carried her large stately figure with ma;
grace. She showed to advantage on horse
still more in the dance. The charm of her
voice is described as irresistible ;
accompanying herself on the harp,
and still oftener on the lute, which set
leauty of her long,
consciousness how ti
have made it more diligent in knittin
embroidery, in both of which she excelled. H
manner was cg: , affable, kindly, frank te es
nae to excess, if judged by the somewhat Brg
rule already begi P
1
inning to prevail among
Scottish subjects, She spoke three or four
gu was well and variously informed, talked —
admirably, and wrote both in prose and in verse, —
always with ease, and sometimes with .
vigour, In the ring of which she was the centre
were statesmen like Moray and Lethington, sol-—
diers like Kirkaldy of Grange, men of letters like
Buchanan, Leslie, Sir Richard Maitland, and Sir
James Melville. The first poet of France published —
verses deploring his absence from her brilliant
court; Damville, the flower of French chivalry,
repined at the fate which called him awe ee
it sp soon; Brantéme and the younger i
delighted to’ speak, in old age, of the days wi 5
ey passed beneath its roof. ;
Mary's prose-writings have been collected by the
enthusiastic devotion of Prince Alexander Labanoff,
in his Lecueil des Lettres de Marie Stuart (7 vols.
1844). Setting aside the twelve so-called ‘sonnets’
which she is said to have written to Bothwell, and
which survive only in a French version of an English
translation, no more than six pieces of her ry
containing in all less than 300 lines, are now known.
They have no remarkable merit. The best is_
eet of eleven stanzas on the death of her
vasband, Francis IL, printed by Brantéme. —
longest is a Meditation of a hundred lines, wri
in 1572, and published two years afterwrarae er
ever faithful follower, Bishop Leslie of Ross. All are
in French, except one sonnet, which is in Italian,
The sweetly simple lines beginning ‘ Adieu, plaisant
pays de France,’ so often ascribed to her, are
pee the work of A. G. Meusnier de Querlon, a
rench journalist, who died in 1780. A volume of
French verse on the Institution of a Prince, which
she wrote for the use of her son, has been lost since
1627, along with a Latin speech in vindication of
learned women, which, when no more than thirteen,
2 :
——
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o K*e Ae ''S
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she delivered in the hall of the Louvre, in presence
of the French court.
To enumerate all that has been written on Mary would
the chief works are Jebb's De
favice Scotorum Regine (1725); J.
's Collections Relating to the History of Mary,
Queen of Scotland (1727-23); Bishop Keith’s History of
the Affairs of Church and State in Scotland (1734; new ed.
1814-50); W. Goodall’s Examination of the Letters said
to be written by Mary, Queen of Scots, to James, Earl of
Bothwell (1754); Principal Robertson’s History of Scot-
land; W. Tytler’s Inquiry into the kvidence ayainst
of Seots (1759, 1790); M. Laing’s History of
; G. mers’s Life of Mary, Queen of
prc 1822); P. F. Tytler’s History of Scotland ; Prince
banoff's Recueil des Lettres de Marie Stuart (1844);
David Laing’s edition of John Knox's History of the
Reformation (1846-64); the Life by Miss Strickland in
her Lives of the Queens of Scotland (1850-59; new ed.
1873); A.de Montaiglon’s Latin Themes of Mary Stuart
ee ; Prince Labanvif's Notice sur la Collection des
riraits de Marie Stuart (1356); Mignet’s Histoire de
Marie Stuart (1852); Teulet’s Letires de Marie Stuart
{Ta58 ; Cheruel’s Marie Stuart et Catherine de Medicis
M at,
teresting document a! Nau, her secretary
Father Stevenson, 1883); Leader, Mary Stuart
(1881); Baron Alphonse de Ruble, La
de Marie Stuart ae ; Baron
Kervyn de Lettenhove, Marie Stuart (2 vols. 1889),
dealing with only the last Ligh oy of her life ; Hender-
son’s Casket Letters (Edin. 1890), giving for the first
time Morton’s Declaration regarding the manner in
which the Casket is said to have fallen into his hands ;
Phi 's Histoire du Régne de Marie Stuart (3
vols. 1891-92) ; Skelton’s sumptuous Mary Stuart (1893
and D. Hay 's Mary Queen of Scots (1897 ).
The best ntations of Mary are the contemporary
portraits by the French paimtor, Francis Clouet, more
commonly called Jehannet or Janet, and the statue, b
an unknown sculptor, on her tomb at Wes minster. A
portraits which canuot be reconciled with these types
inay safely be rejected as spurious.
Maryeoreugh, a port of Queensland, on the
Mary River (here spanned by a wooden bridge),
25 miles from its mouth and 180 N. of Brisbane,
with which there is communication by steamer and
coach, The wharves admit vessels drawing 174 feet.
Gold from Gympie (61 miles by rail) and copper
from Mount Parry and other mines, with sugar anid
timber, form the chief exports. There are two
dozen sugar-mills at work in the neighbourhood,
and three iron-fonndries, and brewing, tanning, and
shipbuilding are carried on. Pop. (1891) 9700.
Maryland, « state of the American Union,
lying letween 37° 53’ and 39° 44’ N. lat., and 75° 4’
and 79° 33’ W. long. It contains | copyrigue 101, 1897, and
12,210 sq. m.—very nearly thie | 1900 in the U.S. by J.B.
size of Holland—of whieh about ! “rr'vee't Company
one-fifth is water. The length from east to west
is 196 miles, and the breadth 128 miles. On the
north and east it is se from Pennsylvania
and Delaware by ‘Mason and Dixon’s Line’ (q.v.) ;
the south-western border follows the course of the
Potomac River, the whole of which, with the excep-
tion of about 12 miles in the District of Columbia
(q-¥.), is ander the jurisdiction of Maryland, down
to the low-water mark on the Virginia side.
The surface elevation varies greatly, from sea-
level to an altitude of 3500 feet. In the west it is
mountainous (see BLUE RipGe); in the middle
hilly and rolling; in the east and south-east low
undulating. A line drawn from the month of
the Susquehanna to the city of Washington will
cut the state into two nearly equal parts, and
divide the mountain and hill country from the low
lands on both sides of the Chesapeake Bay. The
roductions and occupations are largely determined
y the physical features—in the west coal and
lumber; in the middle corn and wheat; in the
east fish, fruit, and vegetables. The climate is
generally regarded as unusually healthful. The
mean summer temperature is 75°, the mean winter
temperature 34°. The annual rainfall varies from
38 inches in the mountains to 46 inches near the
Atlantic coast. The mountain air is regarded as a
ific for hay-fever. The prevalent diseases on
the shores of the Atlantic and the Chesapeake Bay
were formerly bilious and intermittent loves of a
mild form, and they still exist to some extent in
these districts.
The geological formations vary with the surface
elevations. The southern section of both the
eastern and western shores is alluvial; north of
the alluvial deposit is a tertiary formation; north-
west of this come metamorphic rocks; west
of them a wide belt of Silurian and Devonian
formation; and still farther west Carboniferous
strata beginning at Cumberland. In the Tertiary
we find marl in abundance; in the metamorphic
rocks gneiss, granite, limestone, and iron; in
the Carboniferous extensive veins of bituminous
coal of the best quality. One remarkable vein in
the George’s Creek district is 14 feet thick. Over
200 kinds of marble have been found in the state,
some of them equal to the Italian marbles. Copper-
mines are extensively worked in the middle dis-
trict ; and almost all the chrome used in the United
States comes from the same location. Near
Baltimore are large beds of clay, from which
bricks of peculiar excellence and beauty are manu-
factured; and in an scale 9 g county valuable
quarries of soapstone are worked with profit.
The soil is well adapted to cultivation, with the
exception of the mountain tops in the west, and a
small proportion of marsh land in the east, which
might, however, be easily and profitably reclaimed.
The forest-trees are principally pine, chestnut, and
oak; hickory and walnut are becoming scarce.
The staple it-tree is the peach, which covers
many thousands of acres: Maryland peaches, pre-
served in air-tight cans, are exported to all quarters
of the world. Tobacco is the principal crop in the
peninsula between the Chesapeake and the Poto-
mac, as it was the main reliance of the early
settlers, constituting even their ordinary medium
of exchange. Tomatoes, melons, small fruits, and
all kinds of vegetables are cultivated on the
eastern shore and sent to the markets of Baltimore
and Philadelphia. The mountains still contain
many deer; and wild geese, swans, and turkeys are
found in considerable numbers at the proper season,
as ‘vell as woodcock, grouse, and quail (locally
called tridge). Immense flocks of wild ducks
of various species throng the estuaries of the
Chesapeake on the approach of cold weather: the
*canvas-back’ is found nowhere else in perfection.
The Chesapeake Bay (q.v.) divides Maryland into
two unequal portions, the Eastern and the Western
Shore. ith its estuaries it gives the state a coast-
line of more than 500 miles, and almost that number
of steamboat landings: on the Eastern Shore there
is scarcely a farm more than 5 miles distant from a
navigable river, accessible to steamboats of light
draught. Shad and herring are caught in large
numbers, and the average annual supply of oysters
reaches 20 millions of bushels, giving employment
to more than 30,000 persons. For the leading manu-
factures, see BALTIMORE, where most are located.
Baltimore is also the principal port and great com-
mercial centre of the state. aryland has about
1300 miles of railway, and two canals (from Cum-
berland, in the west, to Washington, 1844 miles,
and between the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays,
124 miles).
78 MARYPORT
MASAT
Maryland has a well-developed system of free
blicsehools. In 1895-06 there were in attendance
19,362 pupils, with 4616 teachers (salaries $1,790,-
740.82), the total expenses for public school rl cre
being for the year $2,650,265.59. There is in Balti-
more a state normal school, and in every county a
high school or academy. The colleges oe in
whole or in — by the state are Sd John’s Col-
lege, Annapolis (originally King William's School) ;
Washi College, Chestertown, Kent county,
to the foundation of which George Washington
contributed £100 sterling; the Agricultural Col-
lege, near Bladensburg; and the Western Mary-
land Coll Westminster. There are also several
denominational coll The foremost of the edu-
cational institations of Maryland is the Johns Hop-
kins University, in Baltimore. There is a school
for the feeble-minded at Pikesville; a school for
the deaf and dumb at Frederick ; and in Baltimore
a school for the blind, and a school for coloured
blind children and deaf-mutes, all supported by the
state at an annual expense of about $60,000. The
asylum for the insane at Catonsville is admirably
managerl,
Maryland returns six members to congress. The
Legislature is styled the General Assembly, and
consists of two houses—the Senate and the House
of Delegates. The Senate is com of one
member from each of the twenty-three counties
and three from the city of Baltimore, elected by
the people. The House of Delegates has ninety-
one members, eighteen from. Baltimore city, and
the remainder from the counties in proportion to
their respective population. The seat of govern-
ment is at Annapolis. Baltimore had in 1900 a
pop. of 508,957. The other peeeeel towns are
Sumberland, wn, Frederick, Westminster,
on the western shore ; Salisbury, Easton, and Cam-
ge, on the eastern. i" (1830) 447,030 ; (1860)
687,049 ; (1830) 934,943 ; (1900) 1,188,044.
History.—In 1632 Charles 1. of England issued a
— to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, granting
im all the land ‘from Watkins Point on the Bay,
northward to the 40th rg of latitude, and from
the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay on the east
to the Potomac River on the west.’ This grant
included not only the present Maryland, but also
parts of Pennsylvania and Delaware, which led to
many vexatious disputes, some of which were settled
only in 1890. The district was named in honour of
Henrietta Maria, Charles's queen. In March 1634
Sey of English gentlemen and their servants
retainers, under the command of Leonard
Calvert, a brother of Lord Baltimore, landed on
the shore of a river now called St Mary’s, a branch
of the Potomac, and bought from ‘the Indians
@ tract of land. The friendly relations thus com-
meneed with the Indians, and but rarely inter-
rupted, together with the toleration and protection
—- - — ape renee beliet, Led to the
rapid and peaceful growth of the new colony. Mary-
sand was one of the first of the colonies to take i
active partin the Revolution. During the civil war
popular sentiment was divided, but the state held
to the Union; the battle of Sh msburg (or An-
tietam ) was fought (1862)in Maryland. See J. T.
lee History of Maryland (3 vols. Baltimore,
Maryport, a seaport of Cumberland, at th
mouth the Ellen, 28 miles SW. of Carlisle
railway (1837).
The town gets its name. from
fact that Mary Queen of Scots landed here in
her flight from Scotland, though it was called
Ellenfoot down to 1750, when its harbour was con-
structed. A new dock was openel in 1884. Ship-
Wuilding and ite kindred employments are carried
on, and there are iron-foundries and iron-furnaces,
sawmills, flour-mills, tanneries, breweries, &e,
The annual value of the total ex H chiefy coal,
and iron, varies from £70,000 to 000 ; im-
rts of foreign and colonial merchandise range
rom £70,000 to £150,000. The ave:
of vessels entering the harbour is about 1550 fie.
annum, of some 220,000 tons burden. Pop, (1851)
5698 ; (1891) 8784,
Marysville, capital of Yuba county, California,
on the Yuba Bice as the head of navigation, 52
miles by rail N. of Sacramento, It is a great resort
of gold-miners, and though somewhat declining,
has an extensive trade, and contains flour-mills, a
foundry, woollen factory, &c. Pop. (1900) 3497.
Masaccio, a Florentine painter, whose proper
name was ‘lomMMASO GuUIDI, was born in 1401 or
1402 in the Arno valley, probably at Castel San
Giovanni. He was aeneneee mpc eno 5
Tommy’) because of his ungainly appearance ;
phe manners. A reputed pupil of Masolino,
he was enrolled in the Florentine guild of painters —
in 1424. Whilst still a young man he seems to
have executed a fresco of the Crucifixion and scenes
illustrating the lives of some of the later saints
in the church of St Clement. But his greatest
achievements were wrought on the walls of the
Carmine church, especially in the Brancacci
chapel.
It has been matter of controversy as to which
ictures precisely were from the brush of Masaccio ;
asolino worked at the same walls before him
and Filippino Lippi after him. Those whieh are
assigned to him beyond doubt or question are
‘Expulsion from Paradise’ (greatly admired by
Raphael, who repeated the design in the loggie of
the Vatican), ‘Peter and the Tahoe eae
‘Temptation of Adam and Eve,’ ‘Peter Preach-
ing,’ and the same saint ‘Baptising,’ ‘ Healing the
Sick,’ ‘Giving Alms,’ and (in part) * Restoring
the Young Man to Life.’ These works mark an
advance in Italian painting, in that they exhibit
®& more vigorous and correct represen
tation of
nature, with improved perspective and harmony
of —_—— between the figures and the back-
ground,
painters of Italy were greatly influenced by the
study of them. Towards the end of 1428 Masaccio
suddenly left Florence, and is reported to have
gone to Rome and to have died there before the
year 1429 ran out.
Masai, a le of East Equatorial
dwelling in a istrict that stretches from 1° N. to
5° S. lat., and from 34° to 38° E. long., and includes
Kilimanjaro, Kenia, and Lake ngo.
southern half of the district is low an barren,
with no rivers and little rain, whilst in the north
it rises into a plateau-region (5000 to 9000 feet), rich
in running streams, forests, and grass-land. The
Masai are not a Negro or Bantu race ; they resemble
the Gallas, being men of magnificent stature and
Apollo-like forms, though their faces are ugly and
ferocious in expression. This is due to the warlike
habits of their youth, when, for nearly a score of
years, they live in military kraals, spending their
time in alternate idleness and on the se » eat-
ing nothing but beef, drinking nothing but milk,
and having indiscriminate intercourse with
married girls of the tribe. After hea ba 2 which
takes place when. they lay aside the habits of the
warrior, they settle down as cattle-breeders. The
arms of the warriors consist of an ox-hide shield, a
spear with a blade 2 to 24 feet long and 3 inches
broad, affixed to a shaft of 15 inches, a sword,
a knobkerry. They are an aristocratic race,
clever public speakers. The work is done by
slaves and by the women and boys.
a Hamitic language. See Joseph Thomson,
Through Masai Land (1885), and com
Johnston, Kilimanjaro Expedition (1886).
number
Many of the subsequent 15th-century
i
}
MASK
MASANIELLO 79
Masaniello Lpmaenty TOMMASO ANIELLO), a | and mode of life as the Mashona. The Banyai
fisherman of Amalfi, born in 1623, was the leader | tribes—likewise refu from the Matabele—live
of the revolt poeple
1647 inst the Spanis
Arcos. The people had been exasperated by
oppression, great excitement had been pro-
duced by a new tax upon fruit. Masaniello him-
self was ieved by the harsh treatment which
his wife had received after being detected in an
attempt to smuggle a little flour. Taking advan-
tage of a quarrel between the fruit-sellers and the
tax-collectors on 7th July 1647, Masaniello stirred
up the multitude to a revolt. Their triumph
was piarlete! palaces and public buildings were
plundered, mostly for arms, a bloody popular
Justice was executed, and the viceroy was forced
into a jar treaty with Masaniello in the church
of the Carmelites on 13th July. But success and
the weight of his responsibilities turned the fisher-
man’s head ; he gave himself up to excess, and his
capricious despotism immediately became terrible
to his own associates. He was assassinated by
agents of the viceroy on 16th July.
Mascagni, Pierro, composer, born 7th Decem-
ber 1863, at Leghorn, produced, after a somewhat
lar musical education, the brilliantly success-
ful one-act o Cavalleria Rusticana in 1890, in
competition for a prize, the plot being taken from a
story by as ah y.). Later operas were L’ Amico
Fritz (1891, on Erekmann-Chatrian), J Rant-
zau (1892), Nerone, besides songs and ballads.
Maseara’, «a town of Algeria, 50 miles SE.
of Oran, on a slope of Atlas. Pop. 14,76?
Mascarenes, See MAvRIrTIvs.
Masham, Mrs. See MARLBOROUGH.
Mashonaland, or MAsHUNALAND, is the name
of the region lying north-east of Matabeleland,
between 16° 30’ and 19° 10’ S. lat. and 30° and 32° E.
long. It embraces the peas (4000-4600 feet ) whose
backbone is formed by the Umvukwe Mountains,
and in which some of the chief feeders of the Zam-
besi, Limpopo, Sabi, and Mazoe have their origins.
It is reported to be the healthiest part of South
Africa, with rich soil, grass all the year round,
an abundance of rnnning streams. A constant
cold sonth-east wind tempers the heat, and renders
the air strong and bracing. When their land was
invaded by the Matabele, those of the Mashona
who massacre took refuge in the mountain-
ous districts, and there they have ever since main-
tained themselves, building their vill on almost
ble crags. A peaceful and industrious
people, of Bantu race, they live in perpetual fear
their fierce neighbours. They are the best
husbandmen in South Africa, and before being
dis of their country owned large herds of
cattle. They now grow rice, Katflir corn, maize,
ground-nuts, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and cotton;
this last they weave into blankets. They are also
good iron-wor Iron, copper, and gold (in
quartz and river sand) exist in immense quantities
in_the country. Mauch, a German traveller, in
1871 discovered many old mines that had at one
time been worked with some d of scientific
skill, especially at a place called Zimbabye, which
the identified with the Ophir (q.v.) of the Bible,
thus gave some support to Milton’s identifica-
tion of region with Sofala. Mashonaland
was put under British protection on 11th February
1 and was taken actual ion of by the
British South Africa Company in August 1890.
The MAKALAKA are a people closely allied to
the Mashona, and have had nearly the same his-
. Those who escape the Matabele live chiefly
_ in the monntain fastnesses in the southern part of
Matabeleland, and follow the same occupations
lace in Naples in July
viceroy, the Duke of
south-east of the Makalaka, along the middle
course of the Limpopo. See books quoted under
MATABELELAND.
Masinissa, king of the Eastern Numidians,
was born about 238 B.c., and brought up at Car-
th Having helped the Carthaginians to subdue
Syphax, king of the Massylii or Western Numi-
dians, he accompanied his allies to Spain and
fought valiantly and successfully against the
Romans. But about 210 the Carthaginians gave
his promised bride to Syphax; and for this and
other reasons he became henceforward the bitter
foe of Carthage, and zealously backed up the
Romans in their struggle against their African
rival. He received as his reward the kingdom of
Syphax, together with large portions of the territory
0! h . But before he died, in 149 B.c., he saw
that he had fostered a most dangerous enemy for
his own people, the Massylii, and the kingdom he
left to his sons, and slackened his zeal for Rome.
Mask (through the medium of Fr. and Span.
from the Arabic maskharat, ‘a sete) is an arti-
ficial covering for the face, worn by many different
peoples for different purposes. Masks are common
amongst the inhabitants of New Britain, New
Ireland, New Guinea, and the adjoining islands,
amongst the North American Indians and the
Eskimo, the Chinese, the aborigines of Australia,
and some Negro tribes. The masks these peoples
use are generally very hideous and repellent in
aspect, being designed expressly to inspire terror in
the mind of the beholder. The primary object
is to scare away the demons and spirits who bring
misfortunes, diseases, national calamities, or other
evils upon the tribe; the exorcism is usually prac-
tised by processions of masked men, who dance
and utter loud’ cries calenlated to frighten the
enemy away. Where totemistic beliefs prevail,
it is customary for the people to celebrate dances
clad in the skins of wild animals, and on such
occasions masks are worn sha to resemble the
animals represented in the dance. It is highly
probable that practices of a similar nature were
current amongst the primitive Greeks, Egyp-
tians, and other peoples. The myth of the snaky-
haired Gorgon is traced back to this origin;
so too is the practice of covering the faces of the
dead with a mask, intended to keep the demons
away from them whilst they were on their journey
to the abode of shades, a practice common to the
ancient Greeks and Egyptians, and the ancient
Pernvians and Mexicans. Death-masks of gold
have been found in tombs of Mycenz and Kertch ;
those of the Peruvians were made of silver and
wood; some found at Carthage were of clay,
painted in divers colours; and copper and wood
were used in Mexico. Masks, besides being worn
by living men, were sometimes attributed to their
gas, as in ancient Egypt and Greece, and in
ndia, or were put on over the faces of the gods’
images, as in ancient Mexico. The Greeks, more-
over, in their theatrical performances, employed
masks shaped to represent the expression of a
particular emotion or passion, as rage, grief, sly
ennning, &e. These, made of linen, tree-bark,
leather, or even wood, had large funnel-shaped
mouth-openings, for the purpose of giving the
voice of the actor a penetrating sound (whence
Lat. per-sona = ‘a mask’), so that it might be heard
all over the vast theatres in which he had to act.
Passing on to the Romans, the custom of putting
masked actors on the stage was transmitted by
them to the Italian theatres of the middle ages;
nearly all the actors in the Commedia dell’ Arte
wore masks, The custom was also practised in the
80 MASEELYNE
MASONRY
English Masque (q.v.) of Elizabethan and subse-
quent times, The Masquerade (q.¥.) or masked ball
is a survival of the same observance ; but in them
the mask is worn for the purpose of disguising the
identity of the wearer, as it was in the case of the
Man with the Iron Mask (see InoON MASK).
Reo Del, Masia, Labres, and Certain Aboriginal
Customs ( Washington, 1555); Sand, Af ab
1860); Ficoroni, De is Secnicia (1
eyer, Masken con Neu-Guinca (1889).
Maskelyne, Nevin, D.D., F.R.S., astronomer
and physicist, inventor of the prismatic micrometer,
was in London, 6th October 1732. From West-
minster School he to Catharine Hall, and
subsequently to Trinity College, Cambridge, where
he obtained a fellowship in 1756, In 1758 he was
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and resolved
to devote himself to astronomy. In 1763 he went
to Barbadoes for the Board of Longitude to test
the newly-invented Harrison clironometers, and
after his return was (1765) appointed astronomer-
roval. During the forty-six years that he held this
othice he acqu universal respect by his diligence
and the accuracy of his investizations, made several
improvements the arrangements and employ-
ment of the instruments, and was the first to mark
the time to tenths of a second. In 1774 he visited
Schiehallion, Perthshire, to make observations
determining the density of the earth in connection
with that hill (see Earru). The first of his ve
numerous publications was the British Mariner's
Guide (1763). In 1767 he commenced the Nautical
Almanac. His Tables for computing the Places of
the Fixed Stars, &c. were published by the Royal
Society in 1774. In 1776 he produced the first
volume of the Astronomical Observations made at
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, — 1665—an
invaluable work still continued. He was rector
from 1775 of Shrawanline, Salop, and from 1782 of
North Rancton, Norfolk, and died 9th February
sil.
Mason, George Hemaina, A.R.A., was born
in Staffordshire in 1818. He studied for the
medical profession, but in 1844 abandoned it and
travelled on the Continent studying art till 1858,
His best works were ‘The Evening Hymn’ (1868),
*Girls Dancing by the Sea’ (1869), and ‘The
Harvest Moon’ (1872). He died from heart disease
on 22d October 1872. His pictures show great
and rich effects of colour. margin f after his
a collection of his pictures was exhibited by
the Burlington Club.
Mason, Sim Jostan, manufacturer and philan-
thropist, born at Kidderminster, 231 Febraary
1795, began life by selling cakes on the street, and
after turning his hand to various employments
(1822) at oy age He began to make pens in
1o., and his business increased till
he became the | t pen-maker in the world.
Partner with Elkington in the electro-plating
trade (1842-65), he vave Dr (afterwards Bir) Cc,
W. Siemens his first start in life by paying him
£1600 for a patent; and he paid Krupp, founder of
the works at Ewen, £10,000 for the patent for
machinery to roll the metal ‘blanks’ from which
and forks are made. Mason erected and
endowed almshouses, and an orphanage at Erding-
ton, at a cost of £260,000, and was the founder of
the Josiah Mason College at Birmingham. He died
at Erdington, June 16, 1881. See the Memoir by
J. T. Bance (1890),
Mason, WILttAM, minor poet, but more famous
aa the literary executor of Gray, was born son of a
Yorkshire clergyman in 1725, studied at St John's
College, Cambridge, nated B.A. in 1745, and
was soon after elected Fellow of Pembroke College
throngh the influence of Gray, who had been
attracted to him by his Museus (1747), @
lament for the death of Pope (1744), in im
of Lycidas. He published later two absurd but
ainbitious tragedies, E/frida and Caractacus; the
English Garden (1772-82), a long and tedions
in blank verse ; and the Memoirs of Gray in 1775,
the serious defects of which have at length been
demonstrated to all readers through the painstak-
ing and honest labours of Mr Gosse. Mason took
pa tes in 1754, and became vicar of Aston, in York-
shire, and later also precentor and canon of York,
where he died 7th April 1797.
Mason and Dixon's Line is nepeaay sup:
to have been a line dividing the slave'
rom the non-slaveholding states, and to have run
due east and west. In reality it ran for more than
one-third of its length between two slave states,
Maryland and Delaware, and a small ipe it isan
arcof acircle. It was run by two English engineers,
Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, between the
years 1764 and 1767, for the purpose of settling the
disputed boundaries between Maryland on the one
side and Pennsylvania and Delaware on the other,
Their instructions were to begin at the most easterly
point on the Atlantic Ocean, and run due west to a
point midway between the Atlantic and the Chesa-
peake Bay; thence northward, so that the line
should become a tangent to the north-western
boundary of Delaware, which was a circle described
from New Castle Court-house as centre, with a
radius of 12 miles. The line was then to follow
the curve in a westerly direction until it
a point due north of the point of tangency ; thence
due north until it intersected a line run due west
from a ae 15 miles south of Philadelphia; and
thence due west until it inversected a line i
dune north from the most western source of bed
Potomac River. The work was done with su
skill and accuracy that a revision in 1849, with
instruments of much greater precision, disclosed no
error of importance,
Masonry, the art of construction in stone.
The earliest existing examples are among the
most magnificent specimens of the art. No nation
has excelled the ancient Egyptians, who did not
use mortar in their important structures, such as
the pyramids, the joints being all carefully polished
and fitted, Cyclopean masonry, of which remains
exist in many parts of Greece and Italy, also ex-
hibits stones of great size and with carefully-
adjusted joints. 1e walls of Mycenm are amon,
the earliest examples. These are built wit
luge irregular blocks, the spaces between being
filled up with smaller stones, The Etruscan speci.
mens are more carefully executed ; the stones are
not squared, but they are all carefully fitted to-
yether. The masonry of the Greeks and ans
very closely resembled that of the present day:
Rubble-work (opus incertum), in which the stones
are not regularly coursed ; Conrsed-work, where
the joints are all level, and the stones of equal
height; Ashlar, resembling the latter, but built
with larger stones carefully dressed on the joints.
The early medieval masonry was of very
construction, being, in fact, little better than com:
mon rubble, with an occasional use of Herring-bone
Work. The Normans improved upon this kind of
work, but their masonry was also so bad that m
of the towers built by them either fell or had to be
taken down. The art gradually improved with the
advance of Gothic architecture, and ashlar was re-
introduced for all important works. The ashlar-
work so constantly used in Renaissance buildings
has given place to the hammer-dressed and squared
masonry. Special materials sometimes produce
special kinds of work ; thus, in Norfolk and vuttalle,
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Ay.
others are as solid as a treatise on political philo-
sophy. His versification is peculiar. He seems to
have taken the metrical style of Shakespeare’s
latest plays.as his model; but his verse, though it
is fluent and flexible, lacks the music and magic of
Shakespeare’s. _No writer repeats himself more
frequently than Massinger ; he had a set of favour-
ite phrases that he constantly introduces. This
trick of repetition, joined to his metrical manner-
isms, helps us panirialiy 34 distinguish his work
from Fletcher's. Mr Robert Boyle (in papers con-
tributed to Englische Studien) and Mr i G. Fleay
have discussed the difficult question how far Mas-
singer was concerned in the authorship of plays
that pass under the name of ‘Beaumont and
Fletcher.’
Massinger’s Psy were edited by William Gifford in
1808, 4 vols.; 2d ed. 1816. There is also an edition in.the
volume (from the text of Gifford) by the late Lieutenant-
colonel Cunningham. - Two volumes of selected plays,
edited by Mr Arthur Symons, are included in the ‘ Mer-
maid’ series. See S. Gardiner, ‘The Political Ele-
ment in Massinger’ in Cont. Rev. 1876.
Masson, Davin, an eminent Scottish author,
born at Aberdeen, 2d December 1822, educated at
Marischal College in that city, and at the univer-
sity of Edinburgh. At nineteen he became editor
of a Scotch provincial paper, and later joined the
literary staff of W. & R. Chambers. In 1847 he
settled in London, writing for the reviews, the
Encyclopedia Britannica, and the English Encyclo-
pedia. In 1852 he succeeded Clongit in the chair
of English Literature in University College; in
1865 he became professor of English Literature
in the University of Edinburgh, a t he re-
por in 1895. Masson edited ‘acmillan’s
azine from 1859 to 1868. His first published
work was his Essays, Biographical and Critical
(1856), reprinted with later essays in 3 vols. (1874-
76) entitled respectively Wordsworth, Shelley, and
Keats; The Three Devils—Luther’s, Milton’s, and
Goethe's ; and Chatterton, a St of the Year 1770.
His great work is his ponderous Life of John Milton,
narrated in connection with the Political, Ecclesias-
tical, and Literary Hi: of his Time (6 vols.
1859-80), the most complete biography of any
Englishman, and of great value for the contempor-
ary history. Other works are British Novelists
and their Styles (1859); Recent British Philosophy
(1865); Drummond of Hawthornden: the Story of
his Life and Writings (1873); the ‘Cambridge
edition of Milton, with introductions, notes, and an
essay on Milton’s English (3 vols. 1874; new ed.
1890), the ‘Golden Treasury’ edition (2 vols. 1874),
and the ‘Globe’ edition (1877). Later works are
De Quincey (1878) in the ‘Men of Letters’ series,
and his edition of De Quincey’s works (14
vols. 1889-91), besides some volumes of Sketches
and Essays (1892 and 1894). He was Rhind
lecturer in 1885, after 1879 he edited the Register
of the Privy-council of Scotland, and in 1893
became Historiographer Royal for Scotland.
Masso’'rah, or MaAsora (‘tradition’), a
collection of critical notes on the text of the
Old Testament, its divisions, accents, vowels,
mmatical forms, and letters (see HEBREW
UANGUAGE, Vol. V. p. 614). The Massorah, like
the Halacha and Haggada, was the work of many
and centuries, as, indeed, we find in ancient
authorities mention made of different systems of
accentuation used in Tiberias, Babylon (Assyria),
and Palestine. It was in Tiberias also that the
Massorah was first committed to writing between the
6th and 9th century A.D. Monographs, memorial
verses, and glosses on the margins of the text
seem to have been the earliest forms of the written
Massorah, which gradually expanded into one of the
most elaborate and minute systems, laid down in the
86 MASSOWAH
MASTER AND SERVANT
* Great Massorah ‘(about the 11th century), whence
an extract was made known under the name of the
*Small Massorah.' The final arrangement of the
Massorah, which was first oeogra in Bom 's
Rabbinical Bible (Venice, 1525), is due to Jacob-
ben-Chayim of Tunis, and to Felix Pratensis. The
of the Massoretic writers is Chaldee, and
the obscure abbreviations, contractions, symbolical
signs, &c., with which the work aboun render
its study exceedingly hard. Nor are all its dicta of
the same sterling value; they are not only some-
times utterly superfluous, but downright erroneous.
See Dr Ginsburg’s t work on the Massorah
(4 vols. folio, 1 )
Massow: or MASSAUA, a town built on a
coral island the west coast of the Red Sea, in
15° 36° N. lat., 39° 28’ E. long. It was seized by
Turkey in 1557, but in 1866 given by her to Egypt ;
and in 1885 it was occupied by Italy. The island is
only about 1} mile in circumference, and is con-
th the mainland by a causeway, 1610
ards in length, resting on an intervening island.
The pop. number 16,350, of whom 15,000 are
natives, 500 Italians, 700 Greeks, and 100 Ban-
yans, Fishing for pearls and mother-of-pearl is
the principal industry, but there is also a little
erred and weaving of palm-fibres. Next after
Sufikin, Massowah is the most important harbour
and trading-port on the African coast of the Red
Sea. Its ;
Istria. After the ~
MAURY
MAXIMILIAN 99
dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, he with-
drew from public life, and even from France. The
pope, ing his devotion to Louis XVL, sum-
moned him to Rome, made him Archbishop of
Nicwa in partibus, then cardinal (1794), and,
besides bestowing upon him a valuable living,
sent him as his nuncio to witness the coronation
of the Emperor Francis II. In spite of his zeal for
the Bourbons, Maury made his submission to
Napoleon in 1804, and Napoleon in return appointed
him grand almoner to his brother Jerome, and in
1810 chose him to be Archbishop of Paris. This
step cost Maury the favour of the pope; that of
the eo serch a ar 4 course gyre He
consequently died in disgrace on 111 ay 1817.
Maury wrote Essai sur (Eloquence de la Chaire
(2 vols. 1810), ‘one of the best books in the lan-
;’ his @uvres Choisies were published in
5 vols. in 1827. See Lives by his nephew, L. S.
Manry (1827), Ponjoulat (1835), and Ricard (1887);
also ite-Beuve, Causeries de Lundi, vol. iv.
» MATTHEW FONTAINE, an American
naval r, astronomer, and hydrographer, was
born near Fredericksburg, Virginia, January 14,
1806. In 1825 he was pm midshipman in
the United States navy, and during a voyage round
the world in the Vincennes commen is well-
known = greg (1834), which was adopted
as a text-book in the navy. After thirteen years’
service he became lieutenant in 1837, but an acci-
dent two years later lamed him for life. He
devoted himself to study and the promotion of
naval reform, and in 1842 was i, oonigaes super-
intendent of the Hyd hical Office at Wash-
ington, and two years later of the observatory.
Here he carried out a system of observations on
Phyeeat t currents, vr he enabled him te his
i a9 g the 0, Sea (1856), and to pro-
duce in 1844 gn EA on the Gulf Stream, Oeena
Currents, and Great Circle Sailing. In 1855 he
was promoted to the rank of commander, but
ed his commission on the secession of Vir-
an officer of the Confederate navy,
and as such was sent as commissioner to Europe.
After the war he lived some time in Mexico, but
finally accepted the chair of Physics in the Vir-
ginis Military Institute at Lexington, where he
ied February 1, 1873. He was a member of the
scientitic ties of Paris, Berlin, Brussels, St
Soaheaal 2 and may be considered almost as the
founder of a new and im nt science. There is
: aay by his daughter (New York and Lond.
_Mausoleum, « sepulchral monument of large
size, containing a chamber in which urns or coffins
are deposited. The name is derived from the tomb
at Halicarnassus to Mausolus, king of
Caria, by his widow, Artemisia, in 353 B.c. It
was esteemed one of the seven wonders of the
world. Although apparently in good condition
as late as the 12th century, it fell into decay
during the following two centuries. The ruins
were ransacked for building materials by the
Knights of St John in the 16th century. The site
was rediscovered in 1857 by Newton, who was
instrumental in getting the remains carried to the
British Musenm (q.v., Fol. IL. p. 463). The mauso-
leum consisted on
1 a basement 65 feet high,
which stood an Ionic colonnade 234 feet high, sur-
mounted by a pyramid, rising in steps to a similar
height, and on the apex of that stood a colossal
gow, arr 14 feet in —. of Mausolus =
ein the quadriga; these statues are suppose:
to have been the work of the celebrated Sanne.
Later instances of large and magnificent mauso-
leums are Metella’s tomb, Hadrian’s (Castle of
San Angelo), and that of Augustus at Rome, the
mausoleum of Frederick-William III. and Queen
Louisa at Charlottenburg near Berlin, that of the
House of Hanover at Herrenhausen, of the Prince
Consort at Frogmore in Windsor Park, of Napoleon
III, at Farnborough, and of A. T. Stewart at
Garden City (q.v.), in the United States. The
neighbourhood of San Francisco is studded with
the mausoleums of American millionaires, one
instance being the Lick (q.v.) Observatory ; while
magnificent structures mark the burial-places of
such prominent men as Lincoln, Grant, and
gine g See BURIAL, and other articles referred
to t 3
Mauvaises Terres, or Bap LANps. See
Dakota (NORTH AND SOUTH), WYOMING.
Mauve. See Dyerna.
Maw-seed, a name by which -seed is
sold as food for cage-birds when il 456
Maxim Gun. See MAcuInE Guns.
Maximilian I., German emperor, the son of
Frederick IIl., was born at Vienna-Neustadt,
22d March 1459. In his nineteenth year he
married Mary, the heiress of Charles the Bold,
Duke of Burgundy, whereby he acquired Burgund
and Flanders. But this involved him in war with
Louis XI. of France, the French kings having for
many years had covetous longings towards Flanders.
After the early death of his wife (1482) Maximilian
was forced to give Artois and the duchy of Bur-
gundy to Louis. Nevertheless he continued to
war against his enemy, in spite of the disaffection
of his Flemish subjects. In 1486 he was elected
king of the Romans. In 1490 he drove out the
Hungarians, who, under Matthias Corvinus had
sei (1487) great part of the Austrian territories
on the Danube; and at Villach in 1492 he routed
the Turks, who had been raiding in Carinthia, Car-
niola, and Styria. Charles VIII. of France having
rejected Maximilian’s danghter for Anne of Brit-
tany, whose great possessions the emperor hoped to
secure by marrying Anne himself, war was only
averted by Charles ceding to his exasperated rival
the county of Artois and Franche-Comté. On the
death of his father in 1493, Maximilian became
emperor. He subsequently married Bianca Sforza,
daughter of the Duke of Milan, and turned his
ambition towards Italy. But his schemes failed :
after various changes of fortune, and years of war,
he was compelled (1515) to give up Milan to France
and Verona to the Venetians. Nor was he more suc-
cessful inst the Swiss, who in 1499 completely
separa’ themselves from the German empire.
The hereditary dominions of his house, however,
were increased during his reign by several peaceful
additions, chief amongst these being Tyrol ; and
the marriage of his son Philip with the Infanta
Joanna united the houses of Spain and Hapsburg ;
whilst the marriage in 1521 of his grandson Ferdi-
nand with the daughter of Ladislaus of Hungary
and Bohemia, brought both these kingdoms to
Austria. Two years after his accession the new
emperor put an end to the intestine feuds of his
nobles by proclaiming at Worms the Eternal
Peace. le also improved the administration of
justice by establishing the Imperial Tribunal and
the Imperial Aulic Council, and by admirable
police regulations. The empire was divided into
six (afterwards ten) circles, each ruled by a separ-
ate governor. Maximilian greatly encouraged the
arts and learning, and especially favoured the
universities of Vienna and Ingolstadt, and caused
at least two works to be written under his own
rsonal direction, Theuerdank in verse and Weiss-
pe in prose, of both of which he himself is the
hero. He died at Wels, in Upper Austria, 12th
January 1519, Besides being excellently schooled
in mental and artistic accomplishments, Maxi-
100 MAXIMILIAN
MAXWELL
milian was well versed in all magne, acne yp
and these advantages were further enhanced by a
kingly presence, a chivalrous disposition, and a
manner, so that he has been called ‘the
fret knight of his age.’ Like Henry VIII. of
England, he loved to take part in yee
games of archery, &c. See Lives by Kliipfel (1864)
and Ulmann (1884), and a history of his reign by
Hegewisch (1782).
Maximilian, Emperor or Mexico. Ferdi-
nand Maximilian Joseph, Archduke of Austria,
was born on July 6, 1832, and was the son of
the Archduke Francis-Charles, and the younger
brother of Francis-Joseph I. He became an
admiral of the Austrian navy, and in 1857-59 he
was popular as governor of the Lombardo-Venetian
territory. In 1862 the French were induced to
interfere in the affairs of Mexico, and in 1863
called together an Assembly of Notables, which
offered the crown of Mexico to Maximilian. After
deliberation he solemnly accepted it; and in June
1864 he entered Mexico. For a time all went well;
but he vainly tried to reconcile the Mexican parties.
Juarez (q.v.) again raised the standard of inde-
dence ; and soon after 1188) Louis Napoleon
to contemplate the withdrawal of his troops. In
vain the Empress Charlotte, a daughter of Leopold I.
of Belgium, went to Europe to enlist support for her
husband; her reason gave way under the continued
grief and excitement brought on by disappoint-
ment. The French were most anxious that Maxi-
milian should leave with their troops; but he felt
bound as a man of honour to remain, and share the
fate of his followers. At the head of 8000 men
he made a brave defence of Queretaro against a
Liberal army under Escobedo, In May 1867 he
was betrayed and tried by court-martial, and on
June 19 he was shot. His body was conveyed to
Europe in an Austrian frigate. His death was
directly due to his own fatal edict of October 3,
1865, that all Mexicans taken in arms against the
empire should be shot without trial. After the death
of Maximilian, his writings were published under the
title of Aus Meinem Leben ; Reiseskizzen, Aphoris-
men, Marinebilder (7 vols. 1867). See MEXIco.
Max-Miiller, Friepricn, philologist, was born
at Dessau, in the duchy of Anhalt-Dessau, 6th
December 1823. His father, Wilhelm Miller, dis-
tinguished not only for his worth as a man and his
extensive and thorough scholarship, but as one of
the first German lyric poets, was librarian of the
ducal library, but died prematurely, October 1827.
Max-Miiller received the elements of his education
at Dessau, and then went to Leipzig, where he
studied Greek and Latin under Hermann and
Haupt, and took his degree in 1843. He began the
study of Sanskrit under Professor H. Brockhaus,
and soon chose it as his special pursuit. The first
fruits of his labours appeared in a translation of
the Hito padesa ( se 1844). In 1844 he went to
Berlin to study under Bopp and Schelling, and
consult the Sanskrit MSS. to be found there. In
Paris, whither he repaired in 1845, he began, at the
instigation of Burnouf, to prepare for an edition
of the Rig-Veda, with the commentary of Sayan4-
cirya. With this view he came to England, June
1846, to examine the MSS. in the East India
House, London, and the Bodleian Library at
Oxford; and, on the recommendation of Professor
H. H. Wilson, the East India Company com-
missioned him (1847) to edit the Rig-Veda at
their expense (6 vols, 1849-74; new ed. 1890). In
1850 Max-Miiller was appointed Deputy Taylorian
fessor of Modern Languages at Oxford; in 1854
succeeded to the professorship; in 1858 he was
elected a Fellow of All Souls; and in 1866 was
sande professor of Comparative Philology. Max-
Miiller has published treatises on a variety of philo
] topics, which have done more than the
la of any other single scholar to awaken in
England a taste for the science of in its
modern sense. Inheriting the poetic
and fire of his father, Max-Miiller has at command
such a felicity of illustration that subjects
under ordinary treatment become in his
attractive. He has published a translation into
German of KaAlidasa’s sag (1847); The
Languages of the Seat of War in the East (1854);
Comparative Mythology (1856); History of Sanskrit
Literature (1859) ; tures on The Science of
Language (1861-63); Lectures on The Scierice of
Religion (1870). Other works were Chips P ibe a
ee es Ohags vols. i grote the 5 meres
tures on The Origin and Growth ©, igi
(1878), Selected Essays (1881), and Blogeaphocat
Essays (1883). A novel written in German,
Deutsche Liebe, which has gone thro’ many
editions, is attributed to him. He edited the im-
portent series of 7hs feet Det te
n 1888-92 he delivered at Glasgow the Gifford
Lectures published as Natural Religion, Physical
Religion, Anthropological Religion, Psychical Re-
ligion. He was one of the eight foreign members
of the Institute of France ; D. of Cambri
Edinburgh, and Bologna; a Commander of
ion of Honour (1896); and a Member of the
Privy Council (1896). He died at Oxford, 28th
October 1900. See his Auld Lang Syne (1898-99).
Maxwell, James CLERK-, one of the greatest
of modern natural philosophers, was the only son
of John Clerk-Maxwell of Middlebie, in Dunifries-
shire, and was born at Edinburgh, June 13, 1831.
He was educated in boyhood at the Edinburgh
Academy. His first published scientific paper was
read for him by Professor Forbes to the a
Society of Edinburgh before he was fifteen. He
spent three years at the university of Edinburgh;
and during this dees he wrote two valuable
papers, ‘On the gag of Rolling Curves,’ and
‘On the Equilibrium of Elastic Solids.’’ He went to
Cambridge in¢1850, obtained in 1854 the position of
second w ler, and was declared equal with the
senior wrangler in the higher ordeal of the Smith’s
prize. In 1856 he became a professor in Marischal
College, Aberdeen, and in 1860 in King’s College;
London. He had been successively Scholar an
Fellow of Trinity, and was elected an Hono
Fellow of Trinity when he finally became in 187
professor of Experimental Physics in the university
of Cambridge. He died November 5, 1879.
The great work of his life is his treatise on Elec-
tricity and Magnetism (2 vols. 1873). His great
object was to construct a theory of electricity in
which ‘action at a distance’ should have no place ;
and his success was truly wonderful. €
be little donbt that he succeeded in laying the
basis of a physical theory of electric and magnetic
phenomena, quite as securely founded as is the
undulatory theory of light (see Nature, vol. vii. p.
478). Another subject to which he devoted much
attention was the perception of colour, the three
Forel colour-sensations, and the cause of colour-
blindness. He was the first to make colour-sensation
the subject of actual measurement. He obtained
the Adams prize for his splendid discussion of the
a conditions of stability of the ring-system
of Saturn. But he was perhaps best known to the
public by his investigations on the kinetic theory
of gases. His Bradford ‘Discourse on Molecules’
is a classic in science. Besides a great number of
sapers on various subjects, mathematical, optical,
« fang oe! he published an extraordinary text-book
of the Theory of Heat and an exceedingly tive
little treatise on Matter and Motion. 1879
he edited, with copious and very valuable origina)
There can —
2
MAXWELL
.
‘ MAYAGUEZ 101
notes, The Electrical Researches of the Hon. Henry
Cavendish. He took a prominent part in the con-
struction of the British Association Unit of Electri-
eal Resistance, and in the writing of its admirable
reports on the subject ; and he discovered that vis-
cous fluids, while yielding to stress, possess double
refraction. He iy by me ihe Bre, me rotten
tration, especially by means of diagrams, an
sessed a singular power of epigrammatic versihes-
tion. Some of his last and very best scientific work
adorns and enriches the ninth edition of the Ency-
clopedia Britannica. He was, in the full sense
of the word, a Christian. His Seientific Papers
were edited ha D. Niven (8 vols. Camb. 1800 );
and his Life been written by Lewis Campbell
and William Garnett (1882).
Maxwell, Sir Wit.1Am Srreuinc., the son of
Archibald Stirling of Keir, in Perthshire, was born
at Kenmure House, near G w, in 1818. Hav-
4 el wegmui from Trinity Co , Cambridge, in
1839, he spent some time travelling in Italy and
sa one onteome of which was Annals of the
rtists of Spain (3 vols. 1848). He always retained
his interest in Spanish subjects : in 1852 was pub-
lished from his pen Cloister Life of the Emperor
Charles V., in 1 Velazquez and his Works, in
1856 Notices of the Emperor Charles V. in 1555 and
1556, and in 1883 the sumptuous Don John of
Austria ( previously printed for private circulation).
He also issued privately several other books, got
up in a very sumptuous style, some dealing with
les V. and two with the anatomist Vesalius.
In 1866 he succeeded to the baronetcy and estates
of his uncle, Sir John Maxwell of Pollok, adding
the name of Maxwell to his own patronymic. Sir
William’s second wife (1877) was the Hon. Mrs
Norton (q.v.). Besides representing Perthshire as a
Conservative from 1852 to 1867, and again in 1872,
he was a trustee of the British Museum and the
National Portrait Gallery, and was chosen Lord
Rector of St Andrews in 1863, of Edinburgh in 1871,
and in 1875 Chancellor of Glasgow University. He
died at Venice on 15th January 1878. A new edition
of his Works was published in 6 vols. in 1891.
May. From a primitive period the revival of
vegetation, which marks nature at this period, has
been celebrated with various ceremonies. Hence
the first of ea Aon from time immemorial been a
ere day in Britain, although like most of the
estivals of the calendar it Nes suffered from the
hand of time. It is no doubt a survival of the
Floralia of Romans, who in their turn, it
has been suggested, derived their festival from
India. The anniversary. is still kept up by the
Italians under the title of ‘Calendi di aggio;
bey people sallying forth at daybreak to collect
with which to decorate the doors of their
relatives and friends. A remnant of the May
festival, as observed by the Druids, survives in the
fires formerly ted on this occasion—the day
having been led by the Irish and the Scotch
Highlanders Bealtine or Beltane (q.v.). In
England, as we learn from Chaucer and Shake-
8 = and other writers, it was customary during
e middle for all, both high and low—even
the court itself—to go out on the first May morning
at an early hour ‘to fetch the flowers fresh.’
Hawthorn (q.v.) branches were also gathered ;
these nt home about sunrise, with
accompaniments of horn and tabor and all possible
signs of joy and merriment. The people then aoe
ceeded to te the doors and windows of their
houses with the — By a natural transition of
ideas they gave hawthora bloom the name of
‘May ;’ they called the ceremony ‘the bringing
home the May ;’ they spoke of the expedition to
the woods as ‘going a-Maying.’ The fairest maid
z
of the vill was crowned with flowers as the
‘Queen of the May,’ and placed in a little bower
or arbour, where she sat in state, receiving the
homage and admiration of the youthful revellers,
who danced and sang around her. How thoroughly
recognised, too, the May-day games, with the accom-
panying morris-dance, became in England may be
illustrated by the fact that in the reign of Henry
VIII. the heads of the corporation of London went
out into the high grounds of Kent to gather the
May—the king and his queen, Catharine of Aragon,
coming from their palace of Greenwich, and meet-
ing these respected dignitaries on Shooter’s Hill.
Another conspicuous feature of these festive pro-
ceedings was the erection in every town and village
of a fixed pole—called the Maypole—as high as the
mast of a vessel of 100 tons, on which each May
morning they suspended wreaths of flowers, and
round which the people danced in rings pretty
nearly the whole day; the earliest representation of
an English Maypole heing that reproduced in the
Variorum Shakespeare, as depicted on a window
at Betley, in Staffordshire. A severe blow was
given to these merry customs by the Puritans, who
caused Maypoles to be uprooted, and a stop put to
all their jollities. They were, however, fevivel after
the Restoration, and held their ground for a long
time; but they have now almost disappeared. In
France and Germany too, Maypoles were common,
and in some places are still to seen, and festive
sports are even yet observed. See Chambers’s
‘ook of Days, vol. i. pp. 569-582. With Catholics,
since 1815, the month of May has been speciall
celebrated as the Virgin’s month ; and in Scotland,
from some time at least before Mary’s marriage to
Bothwell (1567), as long before with the Romans,
it has been deemed an unlucky month to marry in.
May, IsLe or. See Forru.
May, THomas, dramatist and historiographer,
was the son of Sir Thomas May of Mayfield in
Sussex, and was born in 1594. Educated at Cam-
bridge, he became a member of Gray’s Inn and a
courtier. He produced several dramas ( Antigone,
Cleopatra, Agrippina, &c.) and comedies, ms,
and translations of the Georgics and Lucan’s
Pharsalia. During the Civil War he was made
secretary and esathe Jeng to the Parliament, and
in that iy east produced a History of the Parlia-
ment o ngland, 1640-1643 (1650; several times
republished), and a Breviary of the same history
(1650). He died 13th November 1650.
May, Sir THomAs ErskINE, Baron Farn-
borough, born in 1815, was educated at Bedford
School, became assistant-librarian of the House of
Commons in 1831, clerk-assistant in 1856, and clerk
of the House in 1871. He was called to the bar in
1838, was made in 1860 Companion, in 1866 Knight
Commander of the Bath, and shortly after his
retirement from office in 1886 was raised to the
rage as Baron Farnborough, but died on 18th
Na y of that year. His most important works are
A Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings,
and Usage of Parliament (1844), which, acknow-
ledged as the parliamentary text-book, had ke
through six editions before his death and n
translated into German and Hungarian; Con-
stitutional History of England since the Accession
of George III., 1760-1860 (1861-63; 3d ed., with
supplementary chapter, 3 vols. 1871), a continuation
of Hallam’s work to our own times, and of which
French and German translations have apoenret?
and Democracy in Europe: a History (2 vols. 1877),
a work of great learning and impartiality.
Mayaguez, a city and seaport of Porto Rico, on
the cate aes 70 eat SW. Me San Juan. It ex-
ports sugar, molasses, coffee, hides, fruit, and turtle-
shell. Pop. (1899) 15,187,
102 MAYAS .
MAYNOOTH
Mayas. See American INDIANS.
bole, a town of Ayrshire, 3} miles inland,
and 9 by rail 8S. by W. of ie. In feudal times it
was the capital of Carrick, and has been a h of
barony since 1516. It has several baronial mansions,
a town-hall,.and a fine Roman Catholic church.
Shoemaking is the staple industry. Nearby is the
el(q.v.)abbey. Pop. (1891) 5470.
Mayence. See MAINz.
Mayenne (Lat. Meduana), a French depart-
ingah feonned out of the old provinces of Maine and
Anjou, now containing the arrondissements of
Laval, Chateau-Gontier, and Mayenne, has an area
of 1996 sq. mm. and a pop. of (1886) 340,063 ; (1891)
332,387. The valleys of the Mayenne, Vilaine,
and Sarthe are fairly fertile, and yield wheat,
barley, flax, potatoes, hemp, and fruit (especially
apples for p Rg ). Cattle-breeding, coal and slate
mining, and cotton spinning and weaving are the
other chief industries. Chief-town, Laval.—The
river Mayenne, after a course of 127 miles in a
southerly direction, joins the Sarthe at Angers to
form the Maine, a tributary of the Loire. It 1s
navigable up to Laval.—The town of Mayenne, on
the river Mayenne, 78 miles by rail S. by W. of
Caen, has a picturesque ruined castle (taken by the
English in 1424), steep narrow streets, and manu-
factures of calico and linen. Pop. (1872) 8790;
(1886) 9940 ; (1891) 10,428.
Mayer, Jutivs Ropert von, physicist, was
born at Heilbronn, 25th November 1814, studied
medicine at Tiibingen, Munich, and Paris,
life as a ship’s surgeon, and settled in his native
town to practise his profession in 1841. Whilst at
Batavia in 1840 his attention was first attracted to
the studies he afterwards pursued in every interval
of leisure. In 1842 he published in Liebig’s Annalen
a prelimi statement of the mechanical theo
of heat, in which he clearly determined the numen-
cal relation between heat and work. Three years
later he restated his views with admirable clearness
and with a great wealth of illustration, and at the
same time gave a forecast of his theory of the
meteoric origin of the sun’s heat, elaborated in
1848. case 7 ocergea with Mayer the mechani- |
eat was worked out independently |
cal theory of
by Joule (q.v.) in England.
troversy arose as to the priority of discovery.
The Royal Society gave him the seg 9a medal
1871, and he was ennobled by the king of Wiir-
temberg two years before his death, on 20th March
1878. ayer's papers were collected under the
title Mechanik
Correspondence appeared in 1889.
See Tyndall in Nature (vol. v.; of. vol. xvii.), and
monographs by Dithring (1879) and Weyrauch (1889),
Mayflower, May-fly, May Laws, See
Pivorim Faruers, EPHEMERA, FALK.
Mayhem, See Assavtr.
Mayhew, Aveustus (1826-75), author, wrote
in conjunction with his brother Henry (‘the Brothers
Mayhew’) several notable works of humorous fie-
tion, the best of which are named in the article
below. In addition to this, the better-known part
of his work, he wrote several stories which were
ener at the time—Paved with Gold (1857), The
inest Girl in Bloomsbury (1861), Faces for Fortunes
(1865), &e.
Mayhew, Henry, journalist and littérateur, was
in London in November 1812. He ran away
from Westminster School in consequence of unjust
treatment, was sent on a voyage to Calcutta, and
on returning was articled to his father, a solicitor.
Mayhew's first adventure in literature was the
starting, in conjunction with Gilbert & Beckett,
of The Cerberus, the production of which was
Nevertheless a con-
ler Warme (2d ed. 1874), and his)
sto by A Beckett’s father, The two youths
in d t left their homes, and with but fifteen
shillings between them walked to Edinburgh,
hoping to make fortunes there as actors and authors
at the theatre of which Mayhew’s brother Edward
was lessee ; this failed, for they were at once sent
back. In 1831 they started Figaro in i
proto-
Good
that turned Everything to Gold (1847), The Greatest
Plague of Life (1847), The Image of His Father
(1848), Whom to Marry (1848), 7! Be ff coc
ness (1849), mange fr Appearances (1855). One of
the originators and first
London. The work by which Mayhew will perhaps
be best remembered is his t London Labour
and the London Poor (1851, Ke). Henry Mayhew,
who had married in 1844 the elder daughter of
Douglas Jerrold, died on July 25, 1887.—Horace
MAYHEW (1816-72), brother of the two foregoing,
also made some mark in literature, more especially
of a humorous and ephemeral kind. He was a
constant contributor to Punch, of which he was
at one time sub-editor.
Maynooth’, a village of Co Kildare, Tre-
land. 1p miles NW. of Dublin by rail; p. (1881),
including the college, 1174. It is o torical
interest as the seat of the Geraldines, of whose
castle striking ruins still remain; and as the scene
of more than one struggle with the English power,
especially the * Rebellion of Silken Thomas,” in the
reign of Henry VIII., and in the war of the Con-
federates (1641-50). But its chief modern interest
arises from its Roman Catholic college, established
(1795) by an act of the Irish parliament during
Pitt’s ministry, to meet a necessity created by
the destruction, through the French Revolution, of
the places of education in France, upon which the
Irish Catholic clergy, excluded by the penal laws
from the opportunity of domestic education, had
been driven to a The original endowment, an
annual vote of , was continued, although not
without controversy and keen opposition on the
part of zealous Protestants, by the imperial parlia-
ment after the act of union. In the year 1846 Sir
Robert Peel carried a bill for a permanent endow-
ment of £26,000 a year, to which was added a
grant of £30,000 for building tad icon The build-
ing erected under the original endowment is a plain
quadrangle. The new college is a very sti
iothie quadrangle by Pugin, containing roftaioe
and students’ apartments, lecture- , and a
singularly fine lib and refectory.
Under the Act of 1845 the college was to receive
500 students, all destined for the priesthood. The
patronage of the 500 a was divided in
the ratio of population among the bishops of the
several sees of Ireland; the candidates were sub-
jected, before matriculation, to a comprehensive
entrance examination. The full collegiate course
was of eight years, two of which were given to
classics, two to philosophy, and the remaining four
to divinity, scripture, church history, canon law,
and the Hebrew and Irish lan The divini
students, 250 in number, received a money stipen
of £20 annually ; and at the close of the ordina’
course, 20 ‘Dunboyne Scholarships’ were assign
MAYO
MAYOR 103
by competition to the most distinguished students,
and might be held for three years. The legislative
authority was vested in a board of seventeen
trustees, and the internal administration in an
a body, —— of a pene a spe
ice-president, together with a numerous yo
——— and deans. Of a board of eight visitors,
ve were named by the crown, and t elected
by the trustees.
In 1869, by the Irish Church Act, the Maynooth
endowment was withdrawn—a capital sum, four-
teen times ifs amount, being granted to the trustees
for the dise of existing interests. The college,
however, is still maintained on the same footing ;
and although the number of pupils, owing to
co joe of free studentships and exhibitions,
off somewhat for the few years immediately
ing the disendowment, the diminution was
only tem’ . In recent years the ave num-
ber of ents in residence has been The
visitorial powers created under the act of parlia-
ment are now exercised by visitors appointed b
the trustees, and all state connection is at an end.
The college also possesses some landed and funded
property, the result of donations and bequests, the
most considerable of which is that of Lord Dun-
Roman Catholic Bishop of Cork. The new
igi included in the design supplied by
Pugin in 1846 the new college, was (with the
exception of a tower and Sues 275 feet high) com-
_— at the cost of ,000, and dedicated in
890. i by the late J. J. M‘Carthy in the
Decorated Gothic style, it consists of a great nave,
choir, and sancti , ending in a five-sided apse,
from which radiate five chapels. The entire length
is 220 feet, the width 40 feet, the height from floor
to groined ceiling 70 feet. The sides of the chapel
are flanked by cloisters which exteriorly present
the appearance of aisles. The interior is richl
See Maynooth : a Centenary History, by the Most Rev.
Father Healy (1895). :i
Mayo, « maritime county of the province of
Connaught, Ireland, is bounded on the N. and W.
by the Atlantic Ocean, E. by Sligo and Roscommon,
and 8. by Galway. The greatest length north and
south is 68 miles; the test th, 57 miles.
Area, 1,360,731 acres, of which nearly 26 per cent.
is bog and 18 per cent. barren. Of the remainder
about 170,000 acres are cropped, cereals covering
50,000 to 60,000, — and other green
somewhat more, the rest being in ture.
(1841) 388 887 ; (1861) 254,769 ; (1881) 245,212,
of whom 238,262 were
The chief towns are
Castlebar (3885), Westport (4469), Ballina (5760,
including 1442 in County Sligo), and Ballinrobe
(2286), The coast-line o' Mayo is about 250 miles,
and is gg indented, Killala, Blacksod, and
Clew Bays, Killary Harbour, and Broad Haven
re | on this coast. Off Mayo, too, lie the islands
Ac (35,283 acres), Clare (3959), and others.
Loughs Mask and Corrib lie on the southern border,
and Loughs Conn, Castlebar, Cullen, Carragh,
Corramore within pees A valuable salmon-
exists in the river , and Lough Mask
is the home of the ‘gillaroo’ trout. Irish
language was in 1881 spoken by 8808 persons who
did not know English, and ee 138,930 who did.
Four members are returned to the House of Com-
mons.
Mayo formed. part of the extensive territory
. by King John to Hubert de Burgh; but
illiam, the third earl, seizing Galway and Mayo,
threw off the English allegiance and adopted the
‘customs of the Irish,’ together with the Celtic
name of Mac-William. The district was not sub-
dued until 1586. The antiquities of Mayo are
chiefly ecclesiastical, there being many ruins of
monasteries. Four round towers exist, and at
Cong the remains of a splendid abbey of the 12th
century. The celebra ‘Cross of Cong,’ now in
the museum of the Royal Irish Academy, was
made at Roscommon in 1120.
Mayo, RicHARD SOUTHWELL BouRKE, EARL
or, Indian statesman, was born in Dublin on 2lst
February 1822, and educated at Trinity College,
Dublin. He entered the House of Commons as a
Conservative in 1847, and was appointed Chief-
secretary of Ireland by Lord Derby in 1852, 1858,
and 1866. In 1868 he was sent out to succeed
Lord Lawrence as Viceroy of India. He discharged
the duties of his office with earnest zeal and uniform
courtesy, maintained friendly relations with the
por girs states, treated the fendatory princes
and the native ie with impartial justice tem-
red by great ness, and effected considerable
improvements in the economic management of the
Indian government, in gaol discipline, in irrigation
works, and in providing educational facilities for
the native Mohammedan population. Whilst in-
specting the convict settlement at Port Blair on
e Andaman Islands, on 8th February 1872, he
was fatally stabbed by a Punjab fanatic. See
Life by Sir W. W. Hunter (2 vols. 1875).
Mayonnaise, « thick cold sauce for salads,
cold meat, poultry, fish, vegetables, &c., made of
the yolk of eggs, salad-oil, and vinegar, with a
little salt, cayenne pepper, and meat-jelly ; it is
sometimes coloured with powdered lobster
coral, or green with spinach or parsley.
Mayor (Fr. maire, Lat. major; see MAJOR),
originally a steward, bailiff, or overseer, thence the
chief-magistrate of a city or corporate town in
England or Ireland. The mayor is the head of the
local judicature, and the executive officer of the
municipality ; he is elected by the council from the
aldermen or councillors, and holds office for a year
only. His duties include those of returning officer
in all boroughs except those cities and towns which,
being counties of themselves, have sheriffs of their
own. The first Mayor of London was appointed
in 1189, the first Mayor of Dublin in 1409. The
mayors of London, York, and Dublin, and since
1890-95, of Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield,
and Birmingham, are called ‘Lord Mayor.’ The
Lord Mayor of London (q.v.)—since 1354 ‘ Right
Honourable ’—is the representative of royalty in the
civil government of the city, the chief-commis-
sioner of lieutenancy, the conservator of the river
Thames, and on the demise of a sovereign is sum.
moned to attend the Privy-council. o sustain
the hospitality of the city he receives an allow-
ance of £8000 a year, with the use of the Mansion
House (q.v.), furniture, carriages, Ke. He is
chosen by the Livery (q.v.) on the 29th September,
being commonly the senior alderman who has not
already ‘ the chair.’ Although the office is
still one of dignity, it is only in the eyes of
foreigners that the Lord Mayor of London is one
of the most important public functionaries of the
realm. The Mayor of Dublin was first styled Lord
Mayor by Charles II. in 1665. The title of Mayor
is used to denote the chief officer of a city in the
104 MAYOTTE
United States and the British colonies, In France
the Maire is first officer of a town, commune, or
district. For the Mayor of the Palace, see PEPIN.
See also Provost.
Mayotte, one of the Comoro Isles (q.v.).
Maysvill ital of Mason county, Kentucky,
on the Ohio River 69 miles by rail NE. of Lexing-
ton. It is the river-port of a rich territory, and
contains many mills, distilleries, &c. Pop, 6423.
Mayweed, or Stinking Camomile (q.v.).
Mazamet, a town in the French department
of Tarn, on the Arnette, 43 miles ESE. of Toulouse,
and 12 by rail SSE. of Castres. It has extensive
woollen manufactures. Pop. (1891) 14,151.
Mazanderan, a province of northern Persia,
fringing the oan for some 200 miles and
lying between the provinces of Ghilan and Astra-
bad, consists of a belt of low marshy coast-land,
10 to 20 miles wide, backed by the well-wooded
northern slopes of the Elburz. The climate is very
changeable, in summer both rainy and unhealthy,
but on the uplands fairly salubrious. Owing to
the fertility of the soil, which is watered by numer-
ous small rivers, the Persians call the province the
‘Garden of Iran.’ Rice, wheat, and other cereals,
cotton, mulberry-trees, and a variety of fruits are
produced. Horses, asses, and camels are exten-
sively bred. Area of province, 10.400 sq. m.; pop.
300,000. The chief town is Sari, though Barfurush
see BALFRUSH) is the seat of the trade with Russia,
ron ores and mineral oils are very abundant.
Jutes (Giulio Mazarini), cardinal
and chief-minister of France during the minority
of Louis XIV., was born l4th July 1602, at Piscina
in the Abruzzi. He studied under the Jesuits at
Rome, and later at Alcala in Spain, where he
relieved the tedium of study with love-making.
He next entered the military service of the pope,
but his ability for diplomacy was early recognised.
Having accompanied a papal legate to the court of
France, he became known about 1628 to Richelieu,
who divined his promise and en him to main-
tain French interests in Italy, which he did while
still aoe by the pope as vice-legate to Avignon
1632), and nuncio to the French court ( 1634-36),
n 1639 he openly entered the service of Louis XII.
and was naturalised a Frenchman; and two years
later he received a cardinal’s hat through the influ-
ence of Richelieu, who before his death (4th Decem-
ber 1642) recommended Mazarin to the king as his
successor. His position was one of t difficulty
amid the intrigues and jealousies of the time, and
the first necessity was that he should make himself
eo sae ae to the qneen, who became regent on
her husband's death in May 1643. But Mazarin
was one of the most supple courtiers that ever
bowed the knee before a throne, and moreover he
knew how to touch a woman's heart by his romantic
devotion. So he kept his place as minister, and it
is certain, from his famous carnets and many of
the Brihl letters, that the queen gave him her
love, if it cannot with certainty be proved that
there was a private marriage between them. It
should be remembered that this was perfectly pos-
sible, for M. Chéruel has discovered that the car-
dinal had never taken more than the minor orders,
of which a man could easily divest himself. Mazarin
possessed admirable faculty for affairs and so much
personal charm that he raled with greater smooth-
ness than Richelieu, although with almost as
unlimited a sway. The airliament, thinking to
—_ Spm power, i the istration of
— — ; Les a oe the leaders
ion to be arrested ( August 1648), upon
which the d rome | *
isturbances of the Fronde (q.v.) began.
The court retired to St Germain, but at length tri-
MAZARIN
umn by the aid of Condé, and the truce of Ruel,
while it removed the obnoxious taxes, left Mazarin
and his subordinates in office. The hatred
him, however, blazed out anew in the pro’
when at his instigation the queen-regent
Condé, Conti, and Longueville in January 1650.
Mazarin triumphed at Réthel, but soon had to
succumb to the strength of the combination against
him and arr se —_ = rayne Meantime As
ress teemed wit ets and satires against
a famous Macoriundien few of which, however,
attained the dignity of literature. The cardinal
now perceived the fatal consequences of his policy
of ieclating himself and the queen from every party
in the state, and bent all his masterly powers of
intrigue to form a new royal party. renne was
gained over, and his military genius proved more
than adequate as a counterpoise to the 0}
of Condé. After one year's absence Mazarin re-
turned to court in January 1652, but eight months
later again retired to an to admit of a recon-
ciliation with the parlement of Paris. At length
in February 1653 he returned in triumph to Paris,
and thereafter his power remained secure, while he
quickly regained all his popularity. Under his
rule the influence of France abroad was greatly
increased. He gained the alliance of Cromwell at
the price of Dunkirk; secured the preponderance
of French influence in southern Germany by the
treaty of Rebne army (1648), and the league of the
Rhine, formed in 1659; and by the treaty of
the Pyrenees (November 7, 1659), and the marriage
of Louis XIV. with the Infanta Maria Theresa,
brought the succession to the throne of Spaim
within the range of French ambition. Mazarin
died at Vincennes, 9th March 1661, leaving an
immense fortune, variously stated at from 18 to 40
million livres. His magnificent library, which had
long been placed freely at the disposal of the public,
was bequeathed to the Collége Mazarin. His
name survives characteristically in the ‘Mazarin
Bible,’ one of the most priceless treasures of
Bibliomania (q.v.).
is cele nieces whom he brought from
Italy to the French court present all the ible
contrasts of character and destiny. The
the seven, the virtuous Laura Mancini, married the
Due de Mereeur, son of Henry IV. and Gabrielle,
and died young. Anne-Marie Martinozzi, her
cousin, married the Prince de Conti, an austere
and gloomy hunchback, and also died young.
Laura Martinozzi mounted a throne by apr did
the Duke of Modena, and became mother of the
second queen of James II. of England. Olympe
Mancini, who became Comtesse de » was
a woman formed for great crimes, whose true
would have been in the palace of the Cresars or
the Vatican of the Borgias. She plunged dee
into a series of discreditable intrigues, and foun
herself obliged to flee from France to escape the
penises: of a poisoner, After flitting awhile
ike an evil genius over the face of Europe, she
died poor and obscure at Brussels, Hortense Man-
cini, the most beautiful of the seven, and her uncle’s
favourite, inherited his fortune, and was sought in
marriage by the Duke of Savoy, the Prince of
Portugal, and the King of England. The cardinal
married her to the Due de la Meilleraie, who took
the name and arms of Mazarin. He was a gloomy
bigot, who mutilated with the fury of a Byzantine
iconoclast the magnificent antique statues which
Mazarin had collected with all an Italian’s love for
art, shut up his wife, and treated her with a jealous
severity which afforded in the morality of the time
ample justification for her misconduct. She found
at once a refuge from his pursuit in England, and
a characteristic recreation in an in e with
Charles II, Marie-Anne Mancini became Duchesse
L, vip)
arity of the rhythm, wh
MAZARRON
MAZZINI 105
de Bouillon, and was the
Lafontaine and other men
See the Mémoires of such contemporaries a3 De Retz,
Madame Motteville, La Rochefoucauld, Turenne, Gram-
Bazin’s Hist, de France sous Louis XIII. et
‘azarin (4 vols. 1846); but especially the
works which have superseded all others:
ist. de France pendant la Minorité de Louis
XIV. (4 vols. 1879-80), and its sequel, Hist. de France
sous le Ministdre de Card, Mazarin (2 vols. 1881-82),
also Chéruel’s edition of the Lettres du Card. Mazarin
pendant son Ministre (4 vols, 1879-87).
asson’s Mazarin (1886) in the ‘Home Library’
series. The Mazarinades were enumerated by Moreau
in his hoy nee ps des Mazarinades (3 vols. 1850-51;
containing a list of no fewer than 4082), and collected in
Choix de Mazarinades (2 vols. 1853).
Mazarron, or ALMAZARRON, a seaport town
of Spain, 27 miles WSW. of Cartagena. Pop. 11,002.
Mazatlan’, a fortified seaport of Mexico, at
the entrance of the river Mazatlan, which falls into
the Gulf of California, 230 miles SE. of Sinaloa.
It is a well-built and picturesque town, the houses
nearly all of one story, and possesses a cathedral,
custom-house, barracks, a cotton factory, foundries,
&c. The chief exports are gold and silver, archil,
and mother-of-pearl. Pop. (1890) 17,495.
IVAN STEPHANOVICH, hetman of
the Cossacks, was born in 1644, descended of a
poor but noble family of Podolia. He became a
at the court of John Casimir, king of Poland.
A Polish nobleman, having surprised him in an
intrigue with his wife, cansed him to be stripped
naked, and bound upon his own horse, lying upon
pa and ee Le to its ge a to
an joose, vin azeppa to his fate. e
horse carried him enpelsad from exhaustion, to
its native wilds of the Ukraine, according to the
usual account. A more credible story is that his
horse carried him through woods and thickets and
brought him back torn and bleeding to his own
home. eg now joined the Cossacks, became
secretary to their hetman, Samoilovich, and in 1687
was elected his successor. He won the confidence
of Peter the Great, who loaded him with honours,
and made him Prince of the Ukraine ; but, on the
curtailment of the freedom of the Cossacks by
Russia, Mazeppa conceived the idea of throwing
olf the sovereignty of the czar, and for this pu
entered into negotiations with Charles XII. of
Sweden. His treason was revealed to Peter the
Great, who long refused to credit it, but after
Pultowa ordered his effigy to be hanged upon the
lows, and his capital, cand to Ag po
ground. ’s ho perished in the
disaster of Pultowa if T709 ), and he tled with Charles
to , where he died miserably the same year.
His story is the subject of a famous poem by
Byron, of a novel by Bulgarin, and a drama by
Gottschall, of two paintings by Vernet, and of a
masterly historical work by Kostomaroff (1882).
Mazur’ a lively Polish round dance, the
music of which is generally in 2 time. The peculi-
ich has a pleasing effect, is
what characterises the music of the Mazurka. Itis
danced by four or eight couples, and is much prac-
tised in the north of Germany, as well as in Po d,
from whose province Masovia it gets its name.
Mazzara, a walled cathedral city of Sicily, 32
miles by rail S. of Trapani, stands in a fine plain
on the seashore. Pop. 13,074.
Mazzarino, a town of Sicily, 15 miles SE. of
Caltanisetta. Pop. 12,964.
Mazzini, GiusEpre (English; JoserH), Italian
— and republican, was born at Genoa, 22d
une 1805. A clever, precocious boy, he began to
study at the university of his native town when
only thirteen, and before he was nineteen was
practising as an advocate. In April 1821 his heart’
was deeply stirred and his imagination fired through
seeing any ere from the unsuccessful oo in Pied-
mont, and from that moment he conceived the idea
of the liberation of his country. At first he assailed
the domination of the classical school of literature,
and its ‘monarchical ’ tyranny of rule and prescrip-
tion. But the earnestness of his nature soon pushed
him on to make ‘the first great sacrifice of his life,’
by renouncing ‘ the career of literature for the more
direct path of political action.’ In 1829 he joined
the Carbonari (q.v.), although he mistrusted their
aims, their methods, and the character of their
organisation. He was betrayed in July 1830 to
the Sardinian police, and imprisoned in Savona.
In his prison cell he matured those thoughts which
became the ruling principles of his life and work,
and shortly after his release, early in the follow-
ing year, organised at Marseilles the Young Italy
Association. The first and last duty of its mem-
bers was to labour to create a free, independent,
and united nation of Italians. The great mass of
the people were to be educated to understand their
rights, and taught to obtain them, if need were,
through insurrection. But Italy must first be freed
from the yoke of the foreigner. Nothing but a
republic could serve her political needs in the future.
Once Italy were regenerated, she ‘was destined to
arise the initiatrix of a new life, and of a new and
powerful unity to all the nations of Europe’—the
selfsame rdle that Heine and Youn Cennaite
assigned to regenerated Germany. The ultimate
goal was the governance of the world by the
mo. sf , through the effective
ncies of association, man with man and nation
with nation, ‘The labour to be undertaken was
not merely political, but above all a moral work ;
not negative, but religious.’ It was essentially the
preckios of a faith, the living of a creed, a religion.
t was in this spirit that Mazzini laboured to his
life's end—unwaveringly, disinterestedly, through
the bitterest humiliations of exile, and at the cost
of the greatest personal sacrifices.
Shortly after Charles Albert ascended the throne
of Piedmont ( April 1831) Mazzini addressed to him
a manly appeal, urging him to put himself at the
head mr the struggle for Italian independence, and
to grant needful concessions to his people’s ery for
liberty. His answer was a sentence of perpet
banishment, Metternich having forced the new
king to take a commission in the dragonnades of
reaction. Further, in August 1832 the French
authorities expelled him from the country. _But
he outwitted them, and lay hidden at Marseilles.
From this time he led for more than twenty years
‘a life of voluntary imprisonment within the four
walls of a little room.’ But no confinement could
uell his spirit or restrain his activity. Hence-
orward he was the most untiring fies tg agitator
in Europe, the man most dreaded by its absolute
governments ; with Lassalle he was one of the most
conspicuously successful of the century. He wrote
incessantly, in a strain of such fervid eloquence,
106
MAZZINI
and with such an intensity of conviction, that his
words kindled in the hearts of those that read
them the enthusiasm to do and dare all things.
Though by nature frank, open, and bold, no man
perhaps learned to understand better the tortuous
arts of secret conspiracy. He was driven to adopt
this underground method of warfare ly the power
and vigilance and unscrupulous charaéter of the
enemies he contended against, and the close and
united front they presented to every revolutionary
assault. In } he organised an invasion of
Savoy, which failed ignominiously, chiefly through
lukewarmness, if not treachery, of the soldier
placed at its head. The next two years Mazzini
tin Switzerland, incessantly active, extending
his organisation throughout Italy, instigating his
countrymen to insurrection, and scattering broad-
east th Europe the bursting seeds of repub-
lican revolt. In the year of the Savoy fiasco he
drew up, at Bern, for Young Europe—i.e. Youn
Italy, Young Germany, and Young Poland uni
—the Pact of Fraternity, a code of abstract doc-
trines dictating to humanity a faith and rules of
life. Being in the last days of 1836 banished
from Switzerland, he found a refuge in London.
Although for some years (1841-48) he struggled
hard against poverty, he nevertheless contrived
to help his rer, ignorant countrvmen, the
organ-boys of London, by gathering them round
him in night-classes and teaching them and
civilising them. In 1844 he ch the English
government with opening his letters, and com-
municating their contents to the rulers in Italy,
and made good his accusation. This raised a
great storm of indignation throughout the country,
and drew from Carlyle a spirited testimonial to
os in The hese Sir ronal ip apsam the
ome Secretary, even felt constrained to a ogise
in the House of Commons for having vablicly
repeated the calumnies of his enemies.
On the outbreak of the Lombard revolt in 1848
Mazzini hastened to throw himself into the thick
of the struggle. The king of Sardinia sought to
win him over by the promise to make him first
minister in the new Piedmontese-Lombard state,
and to grant him as large a share as he might desire
in the framing of a constitution for it. But Mazzini’s
aims were not of personal ambition, and he would be
no party to the agyrandisement of the dynasty of
Savoy at the expense, or to the detriment, of a
united Italy. After Milan capitulated, he tried
with Garibaldi to keep the war alive in the valleys
of the Alps; but, when he saw that all was over in
corey A he made his way to Tuscany. horn
received him with wild enthusiasm on 8th February
1849, the day before the republic was proclaimed at
Rome, and elected him her deputy to the republican
assembly in the papal city. On 29th March Mazzini,
Salli, and Armellini were appointed a triumvirate
with dictatorial powers ; they chose as their motto
‘God and the People.’ But on 25th April the
French arrived before the city to reinstate the pope,
and after a tough struggle were admitted within
the walls. The republic fell, and the triumvirs
indignantly resigned on the last day of June.
Mazzini made his way back to London. Not how-
ever to rest: he planned the attempted risings at
Mantua (1852), Milan (1853), Genoa (1857), and
Leghorn (1857). Meanwhile in London he had
founded, along with Kossnth and Ledrn-Rollin, the
European Association, and with them issued in
September 1855 its republican manifesto. The
Society of the Friends of Italy was organised about
this time in England. In 1859 Mazzini condemned
the alliance Piedmont had made with Napoleon IIL;
and the cession of Savoy and Nice to France not only
ustified his ——- warning, but filled him (and
baldi) with the patriot's sorrowful indignation.
He supported Garibaldi in his expedition against
Sicily a Naples with all his influence and all
his resources; and when Piedmont step in to
reap the fruits of the soldier's heroic ex and
even scattered his followers and took oe
at Aspromonte (1862), Mazzini broke ly with
the —— : party. . The. king — rons
his fulminant by again passing sentence
upon him—the third time. But this did not deter
him from stigmatising the Convention of September
(see ITALY) as a base compromise. In 1866-67
Messina in protest elected him its deputy to the
Italian parliament four times in su n. Two
ears later he was in expelled from Switzer-
and, and in the following year (1870) was
arrested ‘at sea, whilst on his way to Sicily, and
carried prisoner to Gaeta. After being detained
two months he was set at liberty. He settled at
Lugano, but died at Pisa, 10th March 1 and was
buried in his native city, mourned by entire
nation he had done so much to create.
Although from one point of view a ult 2
idealist and political dreamer, the apostle of the
new democratic evangel, and from another point of
view a restless demagogue, a dark consp , and
disturber of the peace of Europe, Mazzini must be
acknowledged by both parties alike to have been
a man of immense energy resouree, and of
great organising power, who unquestionably had
the full courage of his convictions, and was con-
sistent and thoroughly sincere and disinterested in
his aims. His temperament and the constitution
of his mind made him feel impatience and scorn of
the moderates, the calm, cautious watchers and
waiters for opportunities. He was averse to nib-
bling advantage after advantage, and had no sym-
pathy for the comyeonner and half-measures of
statesmen and diplomatists. His was the spirit
that burns the bridges behind it, stakes all on one
critical throw, and puts forth all its energy to
bring about a decisive and final result, Cavour
was of an opposite tem ent: he was essen-
tially the cautious, calculating statesman. Hence
the fundamental antagonism between the two
men. Cavour was a man of aristocratic birth and
training, and the levelling doctrines of the new
republicanism were in the highest rg reps:
oe to rapes bina — rr pews
azzini, the ardent apostle of equality,
and humanity, the cnoonprontise See of
action. And no wonder too that Mazzini failed
to sympathise with the methods of Cavour: he saw
in them no ruling principle beyond advan
the House of Savoy, no desire to labour for the
peopls, no plan, no promise for their ress, and
nothing like faith in their future. le
on more than one critical occasion he abstained
from embarrassing the Sardinian go
when he did not approve of its
own ability to govern is best evid
cessful organisation of the diffieu
insurrection ; his brief tenure of ¢
mettle.
Italian unity, Garibaldi its knigh
Cavour the riveter of the bolts that fi 5
the disjecta membra of the nation togethe
haps it would be more correct to say that
prepared the soil, sowed the seed, and foste :
xrowing plants, that Garibaldi did the work
gathering in the ripe fruit, but it was Cavour who
gained the final advantage of the harvest.
All Mazzini’s writings are, like Heine's, desultory
in character, some few literary and critical, but
most of them renee germane to the questions
of the hour. is longest productions are On the
Duties of Man, « noble outline of ethical theory,
MEAD
MEAN 107
rominent schools of economics and
ialism. part from his eloquence, the features
of his writing that most forcibly arrest attention
are his manly, outspoken tone, his candid fairness
—except sometimes when he is speaking of the
moderates—his sterling love of justice and of free-
dom, but above all things else his keen and accurate
insight into the historical tendencies of modern
Europe.
and hts upon Democracy in Europe, a discus-
socialism
for the press by
t (1877-89 Aureli
5 Ny A
vols. of the Scritti. See alsu Memoir by
(2d ed. 1877); Marriott, Makers of
3; and Clarke, Selected Essays of
The Latin name is Hydromel.
Meade, Greorce Gorpon, an American general,
was born 3lst December 1815, at Cadiz, in Spain,
where his father was a merchant and United States
neve SS gps till 1816. He graduated at West Point
in 1835, served for a time against the Seminoles
and in the Mexican war, but was mostly employed
on survey duty and in the construction of light-
houses until the civil war, becoming captain of
engineers in 1856, and major in 1862. In 1861 he
obtained a brigade of volunteers, and during the
peninsular cam received a severe gunshot
wound. He distinguished himself at Antietam
and at Fredericksburg, and was promoted major-
general in November 1862. In June 1863 he was
placed in command of the Army of the Potomac,
superseding Hooker (q.v.) on the night of the 27th.
A week later Gettysburg had been fought, and
Lee’s effort to carry the war into the country north
of the Potomac ha er aco eg sponge os e
ier-general in regular army on uly,
major-general in 1864. After the war he com-
manded various military departments, until his
death, which oceurred at Philadelphia, 6th Novem-
ber 1872. There is an equestrian statue of him
(1887) in Fairmount Park there.
Meadow Saffron, See Coicuicum.
Meadows-Taylor. See TAaytor (PHILiP M.).
peeavilie, eapital of Crawford county, Penn-
sylvania, on French Creek, 113 miles by rail N.
of Pitts . It manufactures woollens, paper,
fis.. machinery, agricultural implements, Xe.,
ias oil-refineries railway-shops, and is
the seat of Alleghany College (Methodist, founded
1815), and of a Unitarian theological school. Pop.
(1900) 10,291.
M r, THOMAS FRANCIS, Irish patriot, was
born in Waterford, 3d August 1823, son of a wealthy
merchant who represented Waterford for several
years. He had education at the Jesuit college
of Clon Wood in Kildare, and at Stonyhurst,
and early devoted himself to root pat cause as a
prominent and fearless member of the Young Ireland
party. In 1848 he was sentenced to death under the
‘'Treason-felony’ Act, but was sent for life to Van
Diemen’s instead. He made his escape in
1852, studied law in the United States, but on the
outbreak of the war volunteered into the national
army. In 1861 he paenaee the ‘Irish brigade’
for the Federals, and distinguished himself by his
courage in the seven days’ battles around Rich-
mond, at the second battle of Bull Run, Fredericks-
burg, and Antietam. After the war he became
secretary of Montana territory, and while taking
measures as temporary governor to keep the hostile
Indians in check, fell from the deck of a steamboat
into the Missouri, near Fort Benton, and was
drowned, 1st July 1867.
Meal. See BREAD.
Meal-tub Plot, a conspiracy fabricated in 1679
by Thomas apr aang to gain credit as an informer
ual to that of Titus Oates and Bedloe. The son
of a Roundhead farmer, he was born abont 1650 at
Waltham in Essex, and he had first started with
the baseless assertion that the Presbyterians were
conspiring to destroy the government and set up a
republic. When this was discovered to be a lie he
was flung into Newgate, whereupon he rounded at
once — the Roman Catholies, declaring that the
pretended Presbyterian plot was only a cover for
their own design upon the king’s life, and that the
papers would be found concealed at the bottom of
a meal-tub in the house of one Mrs Cellier, who,
together with Lady Powis, was actually tried and
acquitted for the plot. Dangertield himself was
a and pilloried in June 1685, and on his way
back from Tyburn was killed by a blow in the eye
from the cane of a barrister, Robert Frances, who
was executed for the murder.
Meal-worm, tlie larva of a small black beetle,
Tenebrio molitor, allied to the common Blaps (q.v.).
Both adults and larve are too common about
bakeries, granaries, and stores, for the eggs are
laid in meal, flour, and similar food-stuffs, on which
the emerging larve feed voraciously. The adult
resembles Blaps, and is about half an inch long;
the larva is decidedly longer, thin and round,
yellowish in colour. An American species, 7.
obseurus, has also become common in_ Britain.
The preventive is thorough cleanliness. The meal-
worms are often used as food for cage-birds.
Mealy Bug (Coccus adonidum or Dactylopius
longispinus ; see Us), an insect naturalised in
our hothouses, and very commonly found on such
plants as Stephanotis and Camellia, orchids and
peneenpies he young appear like small reddish-
rown moving specks on the leaves and small
branches, to which they afterwards affix themselves
by the beak. As they grow older they become
darker in colour, and are covered over with a white
powdery-looking substance. After fertilisation,
which usually takes place in spring, the female,
remaining in the position described, lays her eggs
between her body and the surface of the plant,
after which her body shrivels up until it forms a
covering for the mass of eggs, rendered more effec-
tual by the large amount of cottony material
formed over it. The young can be seen covets
in scores in the midst of this material, from which
they afterwards free themselves, and run about on
the plant. The Mealy Bug is disliked by gardeners
chiefly on account of the amount of dirt that
collects round it on the leaves and branches, and
the injury it does to the flowers and fruit. Lightly
syringing the plants with soft soap and quassia
solutions with a little paraffin oil in addition is
roa sufficient to check the ravages of this
ittle pest, especially if put on before the larve
acquire their mealy coats. On valuable plants this
may be painted with brushes. Tobacco smoke
proves useful in the early stages.
Mean, in Mathematics, is a term interpolated
between two terms of a series, and consequently
intermediate in magnitude. The Geometrical
Mean (q.v.) of two numbers is always less than
108 MEANEE
MEATH
their Arithmetical Mean (q.v.) and greater than
their ic Mean, and the geometric mean is
itself a geometric mean between the two others,
Meanee, See MEEANEE.
Mearns. See KINCARDINESHIRE.
Measles (known also as Rupeota and Mor-
BILLI) is one of the group of blood diseases termed
Ezxanthemata (q.v.), although, from the eruption
which appears on the surface of the body, it is
sometimes classed with the skin diseases. It is
communicable from person to person, not least so
in the early s' when it is indistinguishable from
an cold ; and it seldom occurs more than
once in the same individual. Its period of incuba-
tion—i.e. the time that elapses between exposure
to the contagion and the first appearance of the
febrile symptoms which precede the eruption—is
usually about a fortnight; then come lassitude
and shivering, which are soon followed by heat of
skin, increased rapidity of the pulse, loss of appetite,
and thirst. The respiratory mucous membrane is
also affected, and the symptoms are very much the
same as those of a severe cold in the head, accom-
panied by a dry cough, a slight sore throat, redness
and watering of the eyes, and sometimes tightness
of the chest.
The eruption which is characteristic of the dis-
ease usually appears upon the fourth day from the
commencement of the febrile symptoms and the
catarrh—seldom earlier, but occasionally some days
later. It is a rash, consisting at first of red penaics
of various sizes, which, as they multiply, coalesce
into crescentic patches. It is two or three days in
coming out, inning on the face and neck, and
ually travelling downwards. The rash fades
in the same order as it appears ; and, as it begins to
decline three days after its sage its whole
duration is about a week. xe red colour gives
way to a somewhat yellowish tint, and the cuticle
crumbles away in a fine bran-like powder, the
process being often attended with itching.
There are two important points in which it differs
from Smallpox (q.v.), with which in its early s
it may be confounded; these are: (1) that the
fever does not cease or even abate when the erup-
tion ney lt sometimes increases in intensity ;
and (2) that the disease is not more severe or more
dangerous because the eruption is plentiful or early.
The character of the eruption, after the first day,
will serve to remove all doubt regarding these two
diseases ; and the comparative prevalence of either
disease in the neighbourhood will materially assist
in ba J the diagnosis. It is distinguished from
Searlet Fever (q.v.) or scarlatina (1) by the pres-
ence at the outset of catarrhal symptoms, which
do not occur in the latter disease, at anyrate
prior to the eruption; (2) by the absence of the
characteristic throat-affection, which always accom-
panies well-marked cases of scarlet fever ; (3) by
the character of the rash, which in measles is
said to present somewhat the tint of the raspberry,
and in scarlet fever that of a boiled lobster;
which in measles appears in crescentic patches,
and in scarlet fever is universally diffused over the
parts affected ; which in measles usually appears
on the fourth day, and in scarlet fever on the second
day of the disease.
n ordinary uncomplicated measles, the prognosis
is almost always favourable. The chief danger is
from inflammation of some of the textures that
com the lungs; and in scrofulous children it
often leaves chronic pulmonary mischief behind it,
No age is exempt from the disease, but it is much
more common in childhood than subsequently.
The reason probably is that most persons have it in
early life, and are thus protected from an attack at
a later period.
In mild forms of the disease, nothing more is
requisite than to keep the patient on a low diet,
attend to the state of the bowels, and prevent
exposure to cold, which is best accomp! by
keeping him in bed with the ordinary warmth to
which he is accustomed in health. While the eyes
ny — —< a 44 be is bar — he should
8! rom the nt. chest-sym toms
become urgent, they must be treated prs be io to
their nature. Bronchitis (q.v.), sometimes extend-
ing into Pneumonia (q.v.), is most to be feared.
If the eruption disappear ponenne ye it may some-
times be brought back by placing the patient in a
warm bath. In such eases stimulants are often
required, but must, of course, only be given by
the advice of the physician. The patient must be~
carefully protected from exposure to cold for a
week or two after the disease has apparently
disappeared, as the lungs and mucous coat of the
bowels are for some time very susceptible to in-
flammatory attacks. In some cases considerable
debility remains for a long time after the attack ;
and both the eyes and ears are vi liable to
injury from inflammations accompanying or suc-
ceeding it.
German Measles is a name somewhat loosely used
of a disease, or possibly several diseases, resemb!
measles, but for the most less prolon, an
severe. The cases grou under this title, how-
ever, require further elucidation, as descrip
given by different authors differ very widely from
each other.
Measures. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Meat. For the dietetic value of meat, and the
amount of meat imports, see Foop. For extract
of meat, see EXTRACTS, and see also PRESERVED
Provisions. The sale of unsound meat is pro-
hibited under heavy penalties by the Public Health
Act of 1875, which regulates the powers of medical
officers and inspectors of nuisances to examine
game, flesh, milk, &e., and to have such meat or
other food, if unfit for human food, destroyed by
order of a justice. See PTOMAINES, PY 2MIA.
Meath, a maritime ag A of Leinster, Ireland,
hounded on the east a rish Sea, for 10 miles,
and the counties of blin and Louth; area, 906
sq. m., or 579,861 acres, of which 34,300 are waste,
bog, &e. Maximum length, north to south, 40 miles;
maximum breadth, east to west, 47 miles, Pop.
(1841) 183,116; (1861) 110,373; (1891) 76,616, of
whom 71,389 were Roman Catholics and 4772
Protestant Episcopalians. The soil is a rich loam,
and extremely fertile ; but close upon 67 per cent.
of it is devoted to pasture, the extent under ¢
(chiefly oats and potatoes) being about one-fou
of the total. The surface is for the most part un-
dulating, being the eastern part of the great lime-
stone plain of Ireland. The chief rivers are the
Boyne and Blackwater; the Royal Canal passes
along the southern border of the county, The prin-
elpat’ towns are Trim, Navan, and Kells. A little
linen and coarse woollen ismanufactured. Anciently
Meath, which included West Meath, Longford, an
rts of the adjoining counties, formed one of the
ingdoms into which Ireland was divided, the royal
seat being Tara (q.v.), Where ancient earthworks
still remain. After the English invasion it was
occupied by Strongbow, and was erected into a
county — by Henry I1., who conferred it on
Hugh de Lacy. In the end of the reign of Henry
VIIL it was separated into East and West Meath.
Celtic remains abound along the Boyne and Black-
water. John’s Castle at Trim is one of the most
extensive monuments of English rule in Ireland.
There are a round tower and sculptured crosses at
Kells, and a round tower at Donoughmore.
Monastic ruins survive at Bective, Clonard, and
MEAUX
MECCA 109
Duleek. Meath returns two members to parlia-
ment.
Meaux, 4 town in the French department of
Seine-et-Marne, on a height above the river Marne,
28 miles NE. of Paris. It is a bishop’s see, and in
its noble Gothie cathedral (12-16th century, but
still unfinished ) is the grave of Bossuet (q.v.), who
was bishop for twenty-three years. There isa large
trade with Paris in corn, flour, cream-cheeses, &e.
Meaux was besieged by the serfs of La Jacquerie
(1358), and captured from the Leagne (1594).
Pop. (1872) 11, ; (1886) 12,201; (1891) 12,704,
See Carro, Histoire de Meauzx (1865).
Mecca (also anciently called Becca), the Mako-
raba of Ptolemy, is one of the oldest cities of Arabia
and the capital of the Hedjaz, and as a holy city and |
focus of pilgrimage it may be called the metro-
polis of Islam. It is situated in 21° 30’ N. lat. and
40° 8’ E. long., 245 miles S. of Medina and 65 E. of
Jiddah, its port on the Red Sea, in a narrow barren
valley, surrounded by bare hills penetrated by
two passes, and so secluded from observation that
it is not visible until
closely approached, The
satisfy the natives, who fleece them without
remorse, and are too idle to supplement their ex-
tortions by any industry more vigorous than the
manufacture of sacred relics. The temple of
Mecea, or the Great Mosque, stands in the
broadest part of the valley, and consists of a
large quadrangle, capable of holding 35,000
persons, surrounded by arcades or cloisters,
with pillars of marble and granite, &c., and
entered by nineteen gates surmounted by seven
minarets. In the centre is the Kaéaba (i.e. cube),
which was the temple of Mecca ages before the
time of Mohammed, and then attracted pagan
dogs just as now it draws thousands of Moslems.
t has been twice rebuilt in historical times, but
the old form has been preserved. It is not quite
square, nor properly orientated ; and it measures
about 18 paces by 14, and 35 or 40 feet high. When
Mohammed converted the heathen shrine into a
Mohammedan focus, the original notion of an idol
temple with a miraculous fetish was abandoned,
and the legend was invented that the Kaaba was
built by Abraham on the occasior of the outcasting
barrenness of the soil
compelled the inhabit-
ants to go outside for
provisions, and the com-
mand of the principal
caravan roads, both from
north to south and from
the coast to the high-
lands, gave the Meceans |
unusua yer ae ra com-
merce, and thus from a
very early period the city Ronee
was a notable trading
centre, But the chie
cause of its prosperity
was its reputation as a
holy place, possessin
sacred objects, which wel
repaid a pilgrimage ;
thongh whether the
original attraction was
the Black Stone or fetish
of the Kaaba, or the
medicinal spring Zemzem,
is a matter of dispute.
The city itself, which is
mainly modern owing to
the ven pyr devastations
eaused by the winter tor-
rents from the hills around, is about 1500 paces long
and 650 broad, and is divided into more than twenty
chief Se Along and beyond it runs the cele-
brated sacred course, a broad road extending from
Safa to Marwa, which is run over by all pilarians,
and also forms a frequented bazaar. The streets
_are broad and airy, but unpaved and filthy, and
the houses, climbing the hills on either side, are
of stone, and well Imilt, sometimes three or four
stories high, with flat roofs and overhanging lattice-
windows. The interiors are well kept, since the
greater part of Mecca is devoted to the annual
“a
=
_ LAAN )
‘mt |
pilgrimage which is the main support of a multi- |
£ Pr
tude of lodging-house keepers, guides, and the other
attendants of a fashionable sanctuary. There are
charitable lodgings for the poorer pilgrims, and
also public baths, and a hospital. Drainage there is
none, though there is plenty of water. Provisions,
meat, fruit, &ec. are readily procured from neighhour-
ing partsof Arabia, The population, which is noto-
rious for its vice and corruption of every sort, is
probably under 60,000; but these are annually
reinforced by at least an equal number of pilgrims.
The latter, however, are not numerous enough to
of Ishmael. The celebrated fetish, or Black Stone,
is apparently a meteorite, about a span long, built
into the south-east corner at the proper height for
kissing. There is also a ‘Southern Stone,’ of only
inferior sanctity. The pilgrim cirecumambulates
the Kdéaba seven times, kisses the Black and
touches the Southern Stone, and also goes round the
Hijr or semicircular enclosure containing the so-
called graves of Hagar and Ishmael. The Kéaba
has always been richly decorated, and has long been
annually re-covered (leaving only apertures for the
two stones) with handsome brocaded hangings
presented by the Sultan of Turkey, and brought
with much state, along with the traditional
Mahmal or Holy Carpet, by the Egyptian Hajj
(q.v.), or caravan of pilgrims. The other chief
decorations are the silver-gilt door, seldom opened,
the marble inlay and silver-gilt plating and silk
hangings of the interior, which contains little of
interest. Hard by, and also within the court, is
the celebrated well of Zemzem, a deep shaft covered
by a cupola; the tepid water of which may once
have been mineral, and is still regarded as miracu-
lous, although the largest item in its present
110 MECHANICS
MECKLENBURG
analysis consists of sewage matter. This important
attraction for pilgrims was long lost, but was re-
diseovered by ictammed's (father. Another
object of veneration is ‘A ‘s Stand,’ the
stone of which, with the imprint of his foot, is
concealed from view, Outside the Kdaba are
no sacred or antiquarian buildings of importance,
though several houses are pointed omt by the
guides as dwellings of b sagen famous in the
early days of Islam. In the time before Moham-
med Mecca was under the control of the Kosaites,
and then of the Koreish, from whom the Pro-
»het reconquered it in 627, five years after his
‘light or ‘Tage (q.v.) therefrom. It long re-
mained under the rule of the califs, who spent
large sums in its adornment. In 930 it was sacked
by the Karmathians, who carried off the Black
Stone, and kept it for twenty-two years, Mecca
afterwards fell under the iniluence of whatever
dynasty—Fatimite, Ayydbite, or Mameluke—
happened to rule in pt; and thus finally it
came into the ion of the Ottoman sultans,
whose power, however, is nominal, whilst the real
vernor is the sherif, or reputed head of the
Seacondents of the Prophet, who has long held the
chief authority in the Hedjaz, and has the snpport
of a large following of retainers. Burckhardt, the
first Christian to visit Mecca, has, owing to native
fanaticism, found but few successors,
See Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka, mit Bilder-Atlas
1888); W. Robertson Smith in . Brit. (1883);
tistenfeld, Chroniken d. Stadt ekka (1857-59);
Sir Richard Burton's Pilgrimage (1855; new ed. 1880);
Burckhardt’s 7ravels in Arabia (1829).
echanies is the science which treats of the
nature of forees and of their action on bodies, either
directly or by the agency of machinery. See Force,
Enercy, Dynamics. The action of forces on
bodies may be in the form of pressure or of impulse,
and may or may not produce motion. When the
forces are so balan as to preserve the bod
affected by them in a state of equilibrium, their
actions are investigated in that branch of mechanics
called Statics ; when motion is produced, they are
considered under the head of Kinetics (q.v.). See
also the articles on Kinematics, Hydrostatics,
Hydrodynamics, and Pneumatics.
achines are instruments interposed between the
moving power and the resistance, with a view of
changing the direction of the force, or otherwise
modifying it. Machines are of various degrees of
complexity ; but the simple parts, or elements of
which they are all com » are reducible to a
very few. These tary machines are called
the Mechanical Powers, and are usually reckoned as
six in number, three being primary—viz. the lever,
inclined plane, and pulley ; and three secondary, or
derived from the others—viz. the wheel-and-azle
(derived from the lever), the wedge, and the screw
(both derived from the inclined plane). What is
special to each machine will be found under its
name.
Mechanics’ Institutes are voluntary un-
chartered associations of mechanics or working-
men for the purpose of providing themselves, at
small individual cost, with instruction in element-
ary and technical branches of knowledge, by means
of a library, reading-rooms, classes, and lectures.
The management is wholly or in great part in the
hands of a committee or committees elected by the
members of the association. The earliest germ of
the Mechanics’ Institute was a class for journeyman
mechanics formed by Dr Birkbeck (q.v.) at Glas-
gow in 1800; but the first Mechanics’ Institute,
fe mow A so called, was o ised by the same
phi ropist in London in 1824. The original
aim of the first institutes was to teach mechanics
the correct knowledge of the principles of their
respective trades. Subsequently the basis was en-
rm and the teaching of the elements and prin-
ciples of a general education aimed at, Out of
these organisations have grown, through the intro-
duction of means of recreation and tem - =
joyment, the Working-men’s Social
ucational Institutes. ‘
Mechitar'‘ists, a congregation of Armenian
Christians who entered into communion with the
Church of Rome, when Clement XI. was pope, in
1712. They derive their name from Mechitar (i.e.
the Comforter) da Petro (1676-1749), who in 1701
founded at Constantinople a religious society for
raising the intellectual and spiritual condition of
his countrymen, and for the purpose of
a knowledge of the old Armenian language
literature. Two years later, however, the sectarian
ae | of the Armenian patriarch in Constantin-
ople led to their removal to the Morea, and thence,
on the conquest of that portion of Greece by the
Turks in 1715, to Venice, which in 1717 granted
them the island of San Lazzaro. Their most use-
ful occupation is printing the classic writings of
Armenian literatire, as well as valuable transla-
tions of works by Ephraem Syrus, Philo, Eusebius,
and other writers, the originals being lost. At San
Lazzaro they possess a arge and valuable library
of oriental works, and at Vienna (since 1810) an
academy, with a printing-office, &c., to which non-
Armenians are admitted, See Langlois, Le Convent
Arménien de Saint-Lazare de Venise (1863).
Mechlin. See MALINEs.
Mecklen® my the boyy rs a, of two
grand-duchies y, distinguis respec-
tively as MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN and MECKLEN-
BURG-STRELITZ, and situated between the Baltic
on the N. and Brandenburg on the §., whilst
Pomerania lies on the E. and Sleswick-Holstein
and Liibeck on the W. The former is a compact
territory, abutting on the Baltic for 65 miles, its
area being 5197 ee (much less than Yorkshire).
Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1144 sq. m.) consists of two
detached portions, the d-duchy of Strelitz,
lying SE. of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and the
rincipality of Ratzeburg, wedged in between
hwerin and Liibeck. The region indicated forms
rt of the t North German plain, but is crossed
»y a low ridge from the south-east to the north-
west, the water-parting between numerous small
rivers that drain to the Elbe and to the Baltic.
Along the line of this ridge there are more than 500
lakes, some of fairly large size. Canals too connect
many of the lakes and navigable rivers, especially
towards the Elbe. Except for sandy tracts and
turfy moors the soil is fertile; agriculture is the
chief occupation. The merino sheep are the finest
in Germany. There is some iron-founding, making
of agricultural implements and tiles, manufacturing
of beet-root sugar, distilling, brewing, and tanning.
Amber is found on the coast and some of the lakes,
aud turf is dug. The chief ports are Wismar
and Rostock (Warnemiinde). The population of
Schwerin was 578,342 in 1890, 1287 more than in
1880; of Strelitz (1890) 97,987, against 100,269 in
1880, its diminution being chiefly due to ar, pion
The rural population are almost entirely an~
ised Slavs, the nobility and the inhabitants of the
towns for the most part of Lower Saxon stock.
The popular dialect is Platt-Deutsch or Low Ger-
man; the religious confession Lutheran. Rostock
(q.v.), the largest town in Schwerin, has a univer-
sity. The capital of each pe is a town
of the same name as itself. Society in Meck-
lenburg is still organised on a feudal , and in
the early part of the 19th century was not so
advanced as England in the 13th century; serf-
dom was abolished only in 1824. At the head of
eae
:
OO
MECONIUM
MEDAL 111
each grand-duchy stands a d-duke ; but both
-duchies are represented in one and the same
national assembly, which meets every autumn at
Sternberg and Malchin alternately. This body
poamconys bead os areal eine vanaf — also nz
resent the peasantry and agricultural labourers, an
x resentatives of forty-eight towns. The princi-
ity of Ratzeburg, and the towns of Wismar and
eustrelitz, have each an independent administra-
tion. A ent college of nine members, repre-
sentin, assembly, sits all the year round at
Rostock. The executive is in the hands of four
tation in the ein assemblies, see GERMANY,
Vol. V. p. 179. the evils under which
the eng 6 workmen suffered fifty years ago,
of which Fritz Reuter, the great Platt-Deutsch
writer, gives a mpen deseription in his poem Kein
Hiisung, have greatly mitigated, still the fact
that large numbers emigrate because they cannot
find houses to live in, and the relatively high pro-
portion of illegitimate children, owing to the
restraints imposed upon marriage by the land-
owners, prove that they have not been altogether
abolished yet. Fritz Reuter’s great novel Stromtid
(Eng. trans. My Old Farming Days, 1878-80) and
other works give admirable pictures of the semi-
patriarchal, semi-feudal life of his native country.
In the 6th century Slavie races settled in the
districts now called Mecklenburg, which had just
been left vacant by the Vandals. From the 9th to the
12th century the German emperors and the Saxon
dukes attempted at different times to convert the
inhabitants to Christianity. The country was only
definitely i in the German empire in
1170. It was divided over and over again, from 1229
onwards for more than five hundred years, amongst
different branches of the descendants of the original
Slavic princes. Of these dukes (dukes after 1348)
the only one deserving special mention is Albert
IIL, who, called to ascend the throne of Sweden
in 1363, was kept a prisoner for many years
by Margaret, queen of Denmark, Norway, and
Sweden, The Thirty Years’ War ruined the in-
dependent peasant proprietors. Wallenstein cast-
covetous eyes og the duchies, they were sold
(1628) to him by the emperor, but were restored
to their rightful rulers in 1635. The two lines of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz
date only from 1701; in 1755 they that the
line which survived longest should inherit the terri-
tories of the other, and when both became extinct
Prussia should be heir. The title of grand-duke
was assumed by both reigning dukes in 1815. The
ear 1848 t disturbances and tumults in
ecklenburg ; @ representative assembly was called
together, and other reforins initiated ; but the re-
action of 1850 and following years restored things
to their original condition. The two states were
again agitated by reform questions in 1871-78; but
nothing came of the agitation.
See books by Geinitz on the geology, soil, lakes, &c. of
Mecklenburg (1884-86); Boll, Geschichte Mecklenburys
(1855-56); and various works on the hi and social
condition of the people by Wiggers (1840 to 1865).
Meconium (Gr. méén, ‘a poppy’), the inspis-
“sated jnice of the poppy; and Meconic Acid is an
.
acid present in poe to the extent of about 4 per
cent. in combination with the alkaloids (see OpruM ),
Meconium is also the name given to the matter
first soeeerund from the bowels of a new-born
Medal (the same word as metal, through a
Low Latin medalia), a piece of metal in the
form of a coin, not issued or circulated as money,
but struck to preserve the portrait of some eminent
person or the een A of some illustrious action or
event. Large medals are termed medallions; and
works rectangular in form are known as plaques or
plaquettes according to their size. The study of
Fite: which forms a branch of the science of
numismatics, is interesting in a historical and anti-
uarian point of view, and important as illustrating
the contempo' state of art. Like coins, medals
are made in gold, silver, and copper, and some also
consist of lead and alloys of other base metals. As
they are generally produced in very limited num-
bers only as compared with coins, other methods
of preparing them than by striking are available;
and while all classical medals, and the bulk of
those of modern times, are made in the same way
as panvemeerery coinage, many of the most import-
ant and valuable of the medieval medals were cast
by the cire perdue process. Important medals have
also been made by striking-up or répoussé work,
and highly esteemed works are also made simply
by engraving. The earliest medals are medallions
of ancient me, existing examples of which are
principally in bronze, though some are in silver
and in gold. They vary in size, being mostly about
14 inch in diameter, but in weight they are so
diverse as to exclude the notion that they were
ever circulated as money. Medallions, prior to the
time of Hadrian, are rare and of great value, one
of the most beautiful and most famous being a gold
medallion of Caesar Augustus; from Hadrian to
the close of the empire they are comparatively
numerous, In some of them a ring or rim of
lighter-coloured metal (brass or orichalchum) sur-
rounds the centre of bronze, and the inscription
extends over both metals. ;
From the fall of the Roman empire till the end
of the 14th century there is a blank in the produce-
tion of medals. The revival of the medallic art
was one of thie first fruits of the Renaissance move-
ment, and practically its earliest, as for all times
its greatest exponent was Vittore Pisano (c. 1380-
1456), the painter of Verona. His medallions, gener-
ally marked Pisani Pictoris, and those of his
numerous followers, including Matteo de Pasti,
Guacialotti, ie psa Sangallo, and many others,
are distinguished by their vividness of sculptur-
esque portraiture, and their singular breadth and
simplicity of treatment. Figures 1 and 2 show to
a scale of one-half the original size the obverse and
reverse of one of the most famous medals of Pisano.
It celebrates the visit of the Eastern emperor, John
VILL. Palzologus, to the Council of Florence in
1439; the legend on the obverse being in Greek,
and the reverse inscription, Opus, Pisani, Pictoris,
being also repeated in Greek. Generally speaking,
it may be said that all medieval medals, previous to
the 16th century, were made by —F in the cire
perdue process; and it was not till the beginning
of the 16th century that medals struck from
engraved dies, like coins, were issued, the first so
roduced being the medal of Pope Julius II., by
rancia, struck about 1506. The larger medals of
the 16th century, however, continued to be cast.
The most elaborate and beautiful of the struck
medals of the 16th century were the work of Ben-
venuto Cellini; and it may be remarked that with
the introduction of dies for medal-striking the’ work
passed into the hands of gem-engravers and
jewellers, whose methods and excellences lie in
quite a different direction from those of the 15th-
century artist-medallists. Next to Italy, Germany
was the country in which the medallic art flourished
in medieval times, Nuremberg having been a centre
from which many important works were issued.
112 MEDAL
MEDELLIN
Of the German school, Albert Diirer was the most
famous of the early exponents. In Holland a
remarkable series of jettons or medalets were issued
in the 16th and early ps of the 17th centuries,
which give a record of the important events of
which that country was then the theatre, In the
16th century the most important medals of French
origin were produced by Jacques Priniavera and
Germain Pilon, and in the succeeding century
Briot and Dupré were the great medallic portrayers
of contemporary personages and events. English
medals begin only with Henry VIIL, and from
Edward VI. onwards there is an unbroken succes-
sion of coronation medals. The earlier medals are
cast in a very inferior manner, and are certainly
not the work of native artists ; indeed, it is not till
the period of Elizabeth that we find native talent
developed in the direction of medal-working, and
even thereafter it was largely to Dutch, French,
and Italian artists that the principal English
medals were due. The Scotch coronation medal
of Charles L. is the first medal struck in Britain
with a legend on the edge. The medal is the work
of Briot, and around the edge it reads, Ex Auro ut
in Scotia reperitur. ‘Che medals of the Common-
wealth and Charles IL. are principally by Rawlins
and the brothers Simon, and under Charles IL the
three brothers Rottier did important medallic work
in England. In the I8th century J. A. Dassier, a
native of Geneva, executed a series of medals of
English monarchs from the time of William I., and
other important works were the production of
Croker, Richard Yeo, and Thomas Pingo. Of
19th-century English medals the best are due to
the Italian Pistrucci and to Thomas and William
Wyon and their successors.
Official medals at the present day are prin-
cipally issued for naval or military services.
The first war medal given in England was the
‘Ark in flood medal’ bestowed by Queen Eliza-
beth in 1588 on naval heroes. The first Eng-
lish military medal was granted by Charles 3
in 1643, and in 1650 an oval medal was executed by
order of parliament for distribution amongst Crom-
well's officers and soldiers engaged in the battle of
Dunbar. Medals have been distributed to the
troops in every victorious engagement and cam-
paign since 1793 till the present time, but previous
to the reign of Queen Victoria the Waterloo medal
was the only one of this series struck. It was
issned by order of the Prince Regent in 1816, and
conferred on every officer and soldier present at the
battle. The medal is of silver, with the head of
the Prince Regent on the obverse, and on the
reverse a figure of Victory seated on a pedestal,
inscribed ‘ Waterloo,’ with, beneath, the date June
18, 1815, and above, ‘ Wellington.’ The Penin-
sular medal, for military services between 1793
and 1814, was issued only by the Queen in 1847.
and conferred upon every surviving officer an
private present at any battle or siege during these
years. It carries no fewer than Moti Ss, ht
clasps for as many separate engagements, t! rst
of which is Egypt, 1801. Long-service and good-
| conduct medals of silver were instituted in 1830
and 1831, and rules then formed for their distri-
bution among meritorious soldiers, sailors, and
marines. On the edge of each of these medals is
engraved the name, rank, and regiment or ship of
its recipient. The Victoria Cross (q.v.) was insti-
| tuted in 1856. Similar medals for military and
| naval services are issued by foreign powers.
. See A, Heiss, Les Médail-
leurs de la Renaissance
(vol. viii. 1890); Grueber’s
Guide tothe English Medals
in King’s Library, British
Museum (1881); Cochran-
Patrick's Catalogue of the
Medals of Scotland (1884);
Lonbat’s Medallic History
of the United States (2 vols.
1878); D. Hastings Irwin’s
British War Medals and
Decorations (1890); T.
Carter’s British War
Medals (new ed. 1890);
and a two-page illustra-
tion of medals of the
preceding fifty years in
apts en for l4th June
Mede’a, in Greek
legend, a famous soree-
ress, the daughter of
Aétes, king of Colchis,
and of the Oceanid Idyia, or of Hecate. When
Jason, the leader of the Argonauts, came to
Colchis in search of the Golden Fleece, she fell
in love with the young hero, helped him to obtain
the Fleece, and fled with him. She prevented
her father from pursuing by killing her brother
Absyrtus and strewing the sea with his limbs,
She avenged her husband upon the aged Pelias
by persuading his daughters to cut him in pieces
and boil him in order to make him young again.
Being deserted by Jason for Glauce or Creu
daughter of Creon, king of Corinth, she revenged
her wrongs by sending to her rival a poisoned
robe or diadem which destroyed both her and her
father. Medea then slew the children she had
borne to Jason, and fled to Athens in a chariot
drawn by dragons, which she obtained from Helios.
There she was received by Adgeus, to whom she
bore Medos; but, afterwards being compelled to
flee from Athens, she took Medos to Aria, the
inhabitants of which were thenceforth called
Medes. She finally became immortal, and the
spouse of Achilles in the Elysian Fields. The
story of Medea was a favourite theme of the
tragedians, but only the masterpiece of Euripides
has come down to us. It was treated by Corneille
and Grillparzer, and gave Cherubini the theme for
an opera,
Medellin, (1) a town (pop. 1250) of Spain, on
the Guadiana, 66 miles by rail E. of Badajoz. It
is worth mention as the birthplace of Cortes.—
(2) The second city of Colombia, capital of the
ji age so of Antioquia, lies in a lovely mountain-
valley, 4850 feet above the sea, and 150 miles NW. -
| of Bogota. It is a handsome town, and garency
a cathedral, college, seminary, technical school,
four printing establishments, and manufactures of
pottery, tote ware, and jewellery. It has a
| considerable trade, exporting gold and silver. Pop.
| 40,000,
MEDIA
MEDICI 113
Media, in ancient times, the name of the north-
western of Iran or Persia, was bounded by the
Caspian and Parthia on the E., and by Assyria
and Armenia on the W. It corresponded approxi-
mately to the modern Persian provinces of Azer-
bijan, Ghilan, and Irak-Ajemi, and the eastern
part of Kurdistan. The Medes were an Aryan
le like the Persians; their state religion was
roastrianism, and the Magi (q.v.) its priests.
They were at first a bold and warlike race, very
skilful with the bow, and noted horsemen. The
Median tribes who seem to have been in part
subject to the king of Assyria, began towards 700
B.C. to be cemented together under a chief named
Deioces (Dajaukku), who chose as his capital
Eecbatana (q.v.), identified with the modern
Hamadan. Their power grew stronger under his
son Phraortes, who subdued the Persians, but
perished in war with the Assyrians. Cyaxares, the
son of Phraortes, renewed the war against Assyria,
but it was mar gy Spa by an invasion of Media by
the jians. oving treacherously murdered
their chiefs, he expelled their warriors. Then, in
alliance with Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, he
overthrew the Assyrian empire by capturing
Nineveh about 607 B.c. Having annexed the north-
ern provinces of the Assyrian empire, he be
a War against Lydia; but the eclipse of 28th May
585, the same which had been foretold by Thales,
terrified both parties into peace. Cyaxares was
succeeded by his son Astyages. Against him the
Persians, under their prince Cyrus, revolted about
550 B.c., and, being joined by a partion of the
Median army under a chief named Harpagus, they
took Ecbatana and deposed the Median king.
From this time the two nations are spoken of as
one ape pe Ecbatana became the summer resi-
dence of the Persian kings. After the death of
Alexander the Great (324 B.c.), the north-western
oer ( Atropatene ) of Media became a separate
ingdom, which existed till the time of Augustus.
The other portion, under the name of Great Media,
formed a of the Syrian monarchy. In 147 B.c.
Mithridates I. took Great Media from the king of
—— and annexed it to the Parthian empire.
About 36 B.c. it had a king of its own, named
Artavasdes, against whom and his ally, Phraates
IV. of Parthia, Mark Antony engaged in a disas-
trous or Under the Sassanian dynasty
the whole of Media was united to Persia (q.v.).
See G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies of the
Ancient Eastern World (3 vols. 1879); Duncker, History
ye Atienity (6 vols, ; Eng. trans. 1877-83) ; Lenormant,
Sur la Monarchie des Médes (1871); Oppert, La Peuple
et la Langue des Médes (1879); A. von Gutschmid,
Neue Beitriige zur Geschichte dex alten Orients (1876);
and the lar Media, Babylon, and Persia, by Miss
Ragozin (1889; ‘ Stories of tle Nation’ series ).
Mediatisation. See Germany, Vol. V. p. 177.
Medical Jurisprudence, also called
Forensic Medicine, is the branch of medicine which
ie medical science to bear on legal questions,
in determining criminal and civil responsibility.
It has regard mainly either to civil rights or to
injuries to the Among subjects in its
province are those connected with birth, pregnancy,
murder, natural death, rape, insanity, monstrosity,
accidental or intentional injuries, the action of
drugs, &e., all of which are dealt with in their
several places. As specially belonging to this
subject may be noted the articles on BLOOD-STAINS
Potsontnc. Good general handbooks are Dr
Taylor's Manual and Principles and Practice, and
Dr C. M. Tidy’s Legal Medicine (2 vols. 1882-83).
Medical Staff Corps. See Army, I. 438.
Medici, a distinguished Florentine family which
= to sovereign power in the 15th century,
owed its earliest distinction to the success with
which its members pursued various branches of com-
merce, and the liberality which they showed in
devoting their wealth to the public good. Their
well-known arms, representing six balls (from
whence their war-cry of ‘ Palle’), were popularly
but without reason believed to represent pills, as
their name to show that they had been original]
apothecaries. In 1465 Louis XI. f France honoure:
the Medici by conferring on them the right to wear
the French fleur-de-lis on one of the balls. From
the beginning of the 13th century the Medici took
in the government of their native republic,
and from the period (1378) when Salvestro de’
Medici was elected gonfaloniere the family rose
rapidly in greatness. It was, however, Giovanni
(born 1360) who amassed the immense fortune, and
a his generosity and affability gained the position
of influence hitherto unparalleled in the republic,
to which his sons Cosimo and Lorenzo succeeded.
With Cosimo (1389-1464), surnamed I] Vecchio
(‘the Ancient’) and ‘Pater Patrie,’ began the
lorious epoch of the family; while from his
»rother Lorenzo was descended the collateral branch
of the Medici which in the 16th century obtained
absolute rule over y:
Cosimo’s life, except during the brief period when
the Albizzi and other rival families succeeded in
successfully = the Medici influence in the
government and exiling him from Florence, was
one uninterrupted course of prosperity. He was
successful in his political alliances, and procured
for Florence security abroad and e from civil
dissensions within her walls. e employed his
t wealth in areca ty art and literature.
e made Florence the most brilliant centre of the
revival of classic oe which distinguishes the
15th century, he enriched her with splendid build-
ings, and gave unrivalled treasures to the great
libraries which he founded. Although his all-
powerful influence was not explicitly recognised in
the state, and the form of government remained
republican, Cosimo in reality was entirely master
of the town, and filled the public offices with his
partisans. He was succeeded by his son Pietro I.,
surnamed II Gottoso (‘ Gouty *), who, feeble in health
and in character, was assisted in the government
by the precocious talents of his son Lorenzo (1448-
92), afterwards famous in history as Lorenzo il
Magnifico.
On his father’s death (1469) Lorenzo and _ his
brother Ginliano were recognised as ‘ principi dello
stato.’ The growing power of the Medici had
roused much envy amongst other great Florentine
families ; and in 1478 these malcontents, headed b
the Pazzi and in league with the J , Sixtus IV.
(Della Rovere), who saw in the Medici a powerful
obstacle to his schemes of temporal aggrandise-
ment, formed a plot to overthrow their power,
known as the conspiracy of the Pazzi. Only
Giuliano was victim of the assassins who were to
have killed both brothers during service in the
cathedral, and the popularity of Lorenzo was in-
creased by the courage and judgment shown b
him in this crisis. Lorenzo was a worthy descend-
ant of his famous grandfather, just in his govern-
ment, magnanimous to his enemies, and not only a
munificent patron of art and literature, but himself
a man of wide culture and a distinguished lyric poet.
To enlarge on the institutions, universities, and
schools founded by him, and on the famous names
of painters, sculptors, architects, philosophers, and
ts who surrounded him would be to write the
istory of the Renaissance. He was one of the
most zealous promoters of the art of printing,
and established under Cennini a printing-press
in Florence. Although he used his power in
the state well, yet he sapped the existing forms
114 MEDICIL
MEDICINE
of government; and, in seeking only the advance-
ment of his family to more absolute power,
left Florence at his death weakened and ready to
be the prey of her enemies during the troublous
times which began with the 16th century.
Lorenzo left three sons, Pietro, Giuliano, and
Giovanni. His eldest son, Pietro IL. (born 1471),
neither capacity nor prudence, and showed
imself treacherous alike to friend and foe. He allied
himself with the king of Naples against Lodovico
Sforza of Milan, and the latter in 1492 called to his
aid Charles VIL of France and his army (see
Iraty). Pietro, terrified at the advance of the
powerful invader, hastened to meet the French
troops on their entrance into the Florentine domin-
ions, and surrendered to them Pisa and Leghorn.
The magistrates and people, incensed at his coward-
ice and treachery, drove him from Florence and
declared the Medici traitors and rebels, and soeet
them from participation in the government. Pietro
was drowned (1503) in the Garigliano, near Gaeta
having joined the French army in their attempted
conquest of the kingdom of Naples. All etforts of
the Medici to regain their power in Florence were
yain until in 1512 the pope, Julius IT., consented to
send the Spanish a to invade beer | Prato,
near Florence, was taken and sacked, and the Flor-
entines, helpless and terrified, drove out their gon-
faloniere, Piero Soderini, and recalled the Medici,
headed by Giuliano II. (born 1478). In 1513 the
elevation of Giovanni de’ Medici to pace 1 chair
under the name of Leo X. (q.v.) completed the restor-
ation of the family to all their former splendour
and reduced Florence to a papal dependency. Giuli-
ano II. at the pope’s desire surrendered the govern-
ment to Lorenzo II., son of his elder brother Pietro
IL. Giuliano, created Duke of Nemours on his
marriage with a relative of Francis I. of France,
died in 1516. The young Lorenzo IL, born 1492,
and the last legitimate male descendant of Cosimo
‘Pater Patri,’ on whom the pope had also conferred
the duchy of Urbino, was feeble, ar t, and
licentions. He died in 1519 leaving only one legit-
imate child, a daughter, Catharine (q.v.), afterwards
wifeof Henry II. of France, who played a conspicuous
role as regent during her son’s minority. An ille-
mad son, Alexander, born 1510, was afterwards
uke,
The power now passed into the hands of the
Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici, a natural son of the
elder Giuliano, assassinated in the conspiracy of
the Pazzi; and Giulio was created pope in 1523
under the name of Clement VII. During the
invasion of Italy by the Emperor Charles V.
in 1527, and the consequent weakening of the
papal power, Florence rebelled against the regents
mposed on her by the pope, and expelled them
along with the young Prince Alexander. The
pope and emperor, however, soon made peace,
and their united forces were directed against
Florence, which, during the famous siege lasting
ten months, made her last desperate and un-
successful stand for liberty. After the surrender
of the town, August 1530, Alexander de’ Medici
was proclaimed hereditary Duke of Florence.
His was one of unparalleled license and
tyranny. He was assassinated in 1537 by his
cousin Lorenzino, a descendant of the collateral
branch which had its origin in Lorenzo, brother of
Cosimo ‘Pater Patrie.’ To this younger branch
belonged also the next ruler of Florence, Cosimo I.
(born 1519). He waa son of the famous captain of
free-lances, Giovanni delle Bande Nere( ‘of the Black
Bands’). Cosimo, sometimes called the Great, pos-
sessed the astuteness of character, the love of art
and literature, but not the frank and generous
spirit of his ter predecessors, He was cruel
and relentless in his enmities, but a just ruler. He
extended his territories, and in 1570 was created
Grand-duke of Tuscany, and crowned by P
Pius V. He died in 1574, and was succeeded
his son Francesco [. (born 1541). This duke
sessed few of his father's abilities and many of his
faults. He became a tool in the hands of his
mistress, the unscrupulous Bianca yf whom
he married in 1578. The almost ultaneous
death of Francesco and Bianca (October 1587)
raised suspicions that they had been poi 7.
the duke’s brother and heir, the Ferd
nando. Maria, daughter of Francesco L, became
the second wife of Henry IV. of France. Ferdi-
nando I, and his son imo IL, were popular,
and contributed to the ppc of their country.
But at the beginning of the 17th century the race
rapidly degenerated ; and, after several of its repre-
sentatives had suffered themselves to become mere
puppets in the hands of Austria or Spain, the
amily became extinct in 1737 at the death of its
last male representative, Gian Gastone, the seventh
nd-duke. His only sister, the Electress Palatine,
e last of all the Medici, expired in 1743.
See, besides the works cited at FLorENcE, Roscoe’s two
works on Lorenzo and Leo X.; Reumont’s monograph
(trans, 1876); and a work by E, Armstrong (1896). -
Medicine. Lucretius imagines for us the first
ro attempts of prehistoric man to repair
juries received in conflict with wild beasts ; and,
according to Celsus, the most backward tribes have
never been withont their remedies for wounds and
generalailments. The healing art, indeed, iscoeval ~
and co-extensive with humanity; but of its two
great divisions—surgery and metiokans tie former,
as will be shown in its paar place, was incom-
parably the earlier, and, in practice, the more
effective.
t furnishes the earliest indications of medical
art. The Papyrus-Ebers was written 3500 B.c., and
is entitled Book of the Preparation of Medicines for
all the Corporeal Parts of Individuals. In it
formal invocations of a blessing on those medicines
are followed by prescriptions and the names of the
maladies they cure—disordered evacuation, intes-
tinal worms, &c., while pone is given to an
obseure wasting-fever called ‘uchet.’ Anatomy, in
its strict sense, was unknown to the Egyptians ;
and their medicine, while empirical, was highly
specialised. Every physician belonged to a sacer-
dotal college, and the. sick had recourse to the
nearest temple, whence they procured the practi-
tioner best suited to their case. The fees took the
form of gifts to the temple, from the revenue of
which its medical staff was maintained, Till
Hippocrates appeared the physicians of tf were
the most famous; but with her subjection by
Alexander the Great, and the sway of tle Ptolemies,
her medicine gradually succumbed to the Greek,
which for centuries had one of its chief schools at
Alexandria.
The Israelites were in medical practice followers
of the Egyptians, and, as with them, the priesthood
attend the sick. Cleanliness was the distinctive
note of their medicine, till like the Egyptian it
became merged in the Greek, and, later, in the
Arabian.
The sacred books of the Indians containing their
oldest records of the healing art—the Vedas—date
from about 1500 B.c. In them sickness appears
as the work of hostile, recovery of friendly deities
—the remedial nts being propitiation, prayer,
and the sacrificial drink Soma (q.v.). The next or
Brahmanie period is very prolific in medical litera-
ture, its most celebrated authors being Charaka and
Susruta. To what age their works belong is much
debated, some orientalists placing Susruta’s ol
Veda long before Christ, others as late as the 8th or
TY
rs
—
MEDICINE
115
9th centuries A.D. Just as difficult is the question
whether the Indian medicine is an aboriginal pro-
duct or an im i But its earliest position
was an exalted one, and its young votaries were
drawn from the higher castes. Their curriculum
lasted from the twelfth to the eighteenth year;
decorum, piety, benevolence, unselfishness were
ene on them = duties 3 and the a7 aa
practice they took an oath significantly resem-
bling the Hippoeratic. Dietetics and bodily clean-
liness play an eat part in Indian medicine.
From the v , mineral, and animal rae
it draws remedial ts innumerable, including
many antidotes to poisoning, snake-bite especially.
The old Persian medicine, as revealed in Zoro-
aster’s Zend-Avesta, stood in the closest connection
with religion. But Greece made her medical supe-
riority felt in Persia, as in ype and India, and in
later times the schools foun by the Nestorians
were i centres whence Greek medicine was
diffused th t the East.
Chinese icine meets us historically only in
the 5th century B.c. Elaborate rules for noting
the pulse and a portegtous array of vegetable,
mineral, and animal remedies are its chief char-
ae Old Japanese medicine was borrowed
rom it.
Greece is the mother-land of rational medicine.
lemigods—Aésculapius and his daughter
ieia; but these were abou and outside the
ical art, while the sick who repaired to their
temples were healed, not by treatment, but by
such i exercises as the ‘temple-sleep,’ in
which dreamt the dreams from which the
priests di their malady and prescribed the
rene sacrifice. The service of Aisculapius
nothing to do with medicine or its practi-
tioners, and was in the time of Hippocrates resorted
ba | by the superstitious among the lower orders.
Early in the Greek mainland and islands medi-
cine had rounded itself off as a distinct science
became
eluded two classes—the qualified and the amateur.
Its votaries in boyhood with the study of re-
medial plants, t tion of unguents, draughts,
and plasters, the practice of blood-letting and minor
a a he and finally treatment at the bedside.
Duly qualified, the physician took the celebrated
‘oath ’—and thereafter received patients in a house
of his own (iatreion), or visited them under their
own roofs, or went on circuit. The fee included the
cost of prescriptions when made up—the humbler
practitioners receiving it in advance; but many
towns kept a physician for the public service; and
in some cases physicians of eminence became at-
tached to foreign courts. Such was the position of
the medical profession when Hippocrates (460 B.c.)
| sere up all that was sound in the floating
octrine and practice, and not only ee it,
but gave it a character and direction of
In medicine
his method was threefold: to ascertain
’ the —_ to examine the present, and to forecast
the future of the patient. After carefully noting
tient’s
hysician’s faculties and senses were at their best,
included the general nutrition, the bodily, particu-
larly the facial, complexion, the temperature, the
respiration, and the state of the digestion and genito-
urinary systems. The pulse received quite second-
ary consideration. The Hippocratic diagnosis was
seen to special advantage in thoracic and abdominal
diseases. Percussion was not neglected; and suc-
cussion (i.e. shaking the patient to induce internal
movements which were carefully listened to) was
also among the aids to diagnosis. Prognosis,
the third and last step in dealing with a patient,
was likewise based on minute examination, and
grew naturally out of the peculiarly Hippocratic
doctrine of ‘critical days.’ Among the favour-
able signs were tranquil sleep, the setting in of
perspiration, ease of ily movement ; while of
eae import were the facies Hippocratica
(still the classie description of approaching dis-
solution ), sinister revelations of the eye, the breath,
the sputum, and the abdomen, with those of the
excretions, particularly the urine. Dietetics hold
the first place in the Hippocratic treatment. In
acute cases the sustenance was the barley-ptisane,
the drinks water mixed with honey, with acid, or
with wine. External agents were oil, water, bay-
salt in acid solution, wine, and acidulated lotions ;
in chronic cases diet and Leeparering with vocal
exercise in singing and declamation, sometimes
the artificial production of obesity were employed.
Venesection was sparingly employed— cupping more
frequently. Drugs of indigenous and Egyptian,
even of Indian origin, mostly in solution, were used
with discrimination. See also SURGERY.
‘or at least a century after Hippocrates medicine
advanced but little. is Greek successors, Diocles,
Praxagoras, and Chrysippus, supplemented him by
theorising and in a less degree by independent
observation, and were for the former characteristic
called Dogmatics by Galen,
The break-up of the Macedonian empire into
kingdoms gave rise to so many foci of medical
culture. The Alexandrian school, purely Greek
in personnel and character, was represented by
Herophilus and Erasistratus, both of them great
anatomists. The former took account of the
immediate causes of disease and such symptoms
as the pulse and anatomical changes, while in
treatment he relied mainly on drugs and_vene-
section. The latter, much less loyal to the Hippo-
cratic name, found in excess of nutrition with its
results, dyspepsia and plethora, the chief causes of
inflammation and fever. Herophilus and Erasis-
tratus each headed a school, both called Dogmatic
from their tendency to supersede their sound
anatomical traditions by premature generalisation.
Out of the conflict of Herophilite and Erasistratean
sprang the Empirics, whose professional ‘tripod’
was clinical observation, previous history of the
tient (anamnésis), and ‘transition from like to
ike’ (analogical inference).
Rational medicine entered Rome with the
Grecising wave that followed the expulsion’ of
the learned from Alexandria and the subjection of
the Hellenic world, and received a great impetus
from the dictator Julins Cwsar, who extended
the Roman citizenship to all in the city who pro-
fessed the healing art. Among these was Ascle-
iades of Bithynia, recommended to the Romans
y his philosophy, rhetoric, and reliance on the
gymnastic already in favour with them. Regarding
the human body as composed of countless atoms
divided from each other by invisible interspaces
(pores), he made health consist in the normal
behaviour of these atoms, by which the pores
retained their proper calibre, and illness in their
derangement, whereby the pores were widened or
narrowed. He enjoined observance of the Stoic
116
MEDICINE
maxim, to live conformably to nature, bodily exer-
cises, including the manipulations of the bath-
attendant (‘ *), and dietetics a his
chief remedies, His immediate follower, Themi-
son, simplified his etiology, and, ignoring the
atoms, insisted on the abnormal condition of the
pores as the one cause of disease, finding health in
the methodus or ‘middle ’ (as) Hiiser ex-
plains it) of these channels, and the loss of health
in their constriction or relaxation, or in the partial
co-existence of both conditions, His therapeutics
aimed at inducing a state opposite to that in which
the patient was found, and so relaxation was
treated with astringents, constipation with laxa-
tives. The Methodies had the merit of ignoring
mere authority, even the Hippocratic ‘humor-
alism’ still dominant, and studied the patient’s
general condition as the safest ground of diag-
nosis, Despising etiology, even in local affec-
tions, their therapeutics me an unreflecting
routine. But their skill in dietetics amply ex-
plains their acceptance with the Roman world,
ensuring the patient fresh air, and a pure and
healthy skin, while rejecting all drastic or lowering
medicines.
Aulus Cornelius Celsus, an adherent of no
school and perhaps not a professional man at all,
is yet the highest name in the Roman healing art,
for his treatise De Medicina, which formed
of his encyclopedia—a sort of ‘ Whole Duty of the
Roman Patrician.’ Himself one of the order, he
had doubtless to interest himself in the ampla
valetudinaria, or infirmaries for slaves attached
to every country-seat or urban palace. His
experience of such hospitals enabled him to test
the practice of the profession, and from the
knowledge thus acquired, we te in dietetics,
vy, and surgery, he compiled his elegantly
written book. Historically its value is priceless,
as the source from which we have distinct know-
ledge of the Alexandrian period. He bases medi-
cine, with Hippocrates, on anatomy, physiolo; y
and the scientific investigation of the causes of ae.
ease, while, without excluding the hypothetical, he
allows no hypothesis to influence practice. The
whole work forms a compendium which, since its
Scasns to light in the 15th century, has held
the first place in Latin medical literature. In the
next generation to Celsus, Pliny the Elder deserves
notice for his valuable, though incidental, allusions
to medical authors. But to return to the Methodics,
In the reign of Nero, Thessalus of Tralles was their
most popular representative ; half a century later
Soranus of Ephesus took his place in Rome as the
most distinguished of the school. His masterwork,
written in Greek, is on obstetrics, while in medi-
cine proper his treatise on acute and chronic dis-
eases (lost in its Greek original, but preserved to
us in the African Latinity of Coelius Aurelianus,
who lived about the end of the 4th or beginning of
the 5th century) exhibits the Methodic practice
in its most favourable light. This, though with
diminishing strength, resisted even the influence
of Galen, till in the middle ages it took a fresh
start.
An offshoot from the Methodic school had already
appeared in the Ist century—viz. the Pnenmatie,
which sought to reconcile it with the Hippocratic
humoralism. Its originator, Athenwus, derived its
central doctrine from a hypothetic pneuma or soul
wiling the universe; but in practice he com-
ned the empirie and methodic therapeutics.
About the same time arose the Eclectics, whose
chief representatives were Rufas of Ephesus and
the much abler Areteus of Cappadocia, who, for
culture, moral worth, and professional
skill, to say nothing of the purity of his Ionic
Greek, comes next to Hippocrates.
We have now reached the epoch-making
born at Pergamus in 131 A.D., who, pe
studies in the Hellenic schools of the Levant, =
ring
and physiology the value withheld from them by
Empiries and
other words, to make diagnosis scientific by basing
it on anatomy and physiology, and to reconstruct
therapeutics by an unprejudiced clinical experience.
His guide was Hippoerates—the treatise on Prog-
nostics in particular ; but unhappily he abandoned
the sound Hippocratic method, and tried to unite
professional to scientifie medicine with a philo-
sophie link, This he found in a hyper-idealistic
Platonism, from which he evolved a teleological
system which provided qvery question with an
answer and every riddle with a solution. Hence
arose a plausible ap ce of infallibility, which
kept medicine in chains till the 17th and 18th
centuries. Adopting the Hippocratic view of the
corporeal elements as consisting of the solid,
liquid, the warm, and the cold, he found them
blended Peete in the blood, while in the bile the
warm predominated, in the phlegm the cold. His
vivifying principle, the pnewma, reaches in man its
highest development as the ‘ psychical,’ the ‘ vital,”
and the ‘natural’ spirit, and manifests itself in
‘spiritual,’ ‘ pulsating,’ and ‘natural’ force. The
processes lating nutrition and structure he
explained by attractive, secretive, pone and
expulsive powers. Recognising, however, that
these do not cover all physiological processes, he
added to them the occult powers of the ‘whole.
substance,’ the ‘specific qualities’ of his later
followers; thus opening the sluice-gates to every
kind of superstition.
Disease he ascribed, first, to immediate causes
(such as plethora and corruption of the juices) ;
next, to the disturbance thence arising; next, to
the abnormal structural processes started by
such disturbance; and finally, to the symptoms,
Maladies he distributed according to their ana-
tomical substratum ; (1) those of the elementary
substances (blood, phlegm, yellow and black bile) ;
(2) irregularities of homogeneous substances
(tissues), which, in, fall into anomalies of
the physical condition (strain and atony), and
of the primal — (warm, cold, &¢.); (3)
ailments of special organs. For the Hip tie
‘ erudity,’ * coction,’ and ‘crisis,’ manifested only in
acute disease, he substituted the ‘beginning,’ the
‘progress,’ the ‘culmination,’ and the ‘decline ;’
but retained the doctrine of erises and critical
days; and he agreed with Hippocrates that the
recuperative principle is nature, working necessarily
through the attractive, transforming, and expulsive
powers. He originated the doctrine of ‘indications’
in ne bearing on the prevention of peer ps on
its character, stage, type, symptoms; on the idiosyn-
crasy of the patient poss the aap of the affected
organs—even on his dreams. Diet, ——
baths, friction, and blood-letting formed his main
therapeutics. Consistently, with his theories he
classitied medicines, according to the prevalence of
one or more elements, into simple, compound, and
those operating through their ‘whole substance’
(emetics, for instance, purgatives, poisons and
their antidotes). In his own practice he preferred
simples, and set peculiar value on opium, introduced
by the Alexandrian school. . It was not till after
MEDICINE 117
his death that his influence to prevail. | on ‘health and the means of maintaining it,’ which
and
into Latin, ae studied in the West, till
in the 6th and 7th centuries they were much in
vogue. But it was the oo of the Nesto-
rian creed, led from Byzantium, who became
his true aj Revering him for his teleology
ears.
After Galen may be noticed the Byzantine
school—viz. the compilers Oribasius (physician to
Julian the Apostate), Aetius, the abler Alexander
of Tralles, and the yet more independent Paul of
i In the West Celius Aurelianus, above
deterioration it had reached in the hands of her-
balists and receipt-mongers.
Arabian medicine arose out of the Greek in those
Hellenic cities which had under Moslem
sway. Its im ce ns with the Persian
Rhazes Na b a ae of Galen, though mn
unacquainted wi ippocrates, practising in -
dad. After him was ake min Mesua the
ounger, of Damascus, w materia medica,
g from the 11th century, was much in vogue
and was used by the London College of Physicians
in framing their imrews sees in the reign of
L, and Abnieasis, author of a medical
cyclopiedia. , compiler of the ‘ Royal Book,’
was the stand. Arabian writer till Avicenna,
who, famed also as a philoso; her, is the highest
— as scenes oe His . Aisa peed — in
style and method, is an encyclopedia of the healin
art, based on Aristotle, Galen, and his suphaesn J
Greek as well as Arabian, but evincing no clinical
experience or research. His 0} ents were Aven-
zoar and the latter's pupil Averrhoes, compilers
mainly, as was also the great Rabbi Maimonides,
the last noteworthy writer on Arabian medicine.
No advance was made by this school on the
Greek, a in the description of smallpox and
measles ; more distinctly, in see and
the virtues of drugs. The Arabs owed this
su ity to their chemical skill, which origi-
afterwards circulated so widely through Europe.
The Salernitan school had many students, and, pro-
portionately, a considerable staff of teachers, some
of whom were women, their wives and daughters ;
the best known of them is Trotula (11th century ),
wife of Joannes Platearius, first of a medical
family bearing that name, and author of Practica,
a manual of medicine which long held its ground.
But none of the Salernitan writers are other than
compilers, chiefly from Hippocrates, Galen, and
their successors. Diet was their sheet-anchor,
though their pharmacy improved on the previous
Euro) standard, and their clinical teaching
was also favourable to rational medicine. But the
Arabian wave swept over the school, and, after the
13th century, almost obliterated it. It survived,
however, though but the shadow of a name, till its
suppression in 1811 by Napoleon.
tin renderings of the Arabian compilers were
— _ the main channel through which Europe recovered
erred to, alone redeems medicine from the |
its knowledge of the classical medical writers—
Constantine Africanus (1050) being the earliest of
_ these translators. Transmitted through the Arabic,
new or modified old remedies, and also to |
their more familiar relations with the East, im-
perfectly gleaned by thei ecessors. Apothe-
caries’ , and even -the pharmacopeia, are
among the innovations medicine owes to them.
—- medicine, however, manifests no real
break from its rise under Hippocrates. In the
early middle ages the religions orders were the
custodians of the degenerate knowledge and
tice of the healing art transmitted from the
Roman authors till the curious mixture
of ancient science with the black art, characteristic
of monastic medicine, was superseded by the Bene-
dictines, whose house at Monte-Cassino in Cam-
pania was the seat of the Hippocratico-Galenic
revival, afterwards extended by the school of
Salerno. This latter was a non-religious establish-
ment, in which law as well as philosophy was
taught, while the preponderance it gave to medi-
cine as early as the 9th century earned for it the
name of ‘Civitas Hippoeratica.’ It attracted pro-
minent men of the time in quest of health, among
them the Norman invaders of Southern Italy.
William the Conqueror was one of the visitors, and
his con Robert is supposed to have been the king
of England for whom was written the famous
_ Regimen Sanitatis Salerni, the rhyming Latin poem
the Greek medicine wore an eastern dress, and in
such guise it found its way to Montpellier, a school
which developed as that of Salerno waned.
Bologna and Padua, too, derived their medical
teaching from this oriental travesty of the Greek ;
but no great independent authority arose in any
of these seats of learning. Hiiser points out that
the practical tenor of the treatises they put forth
—notably the Montpellier school—was due _ to
British authors, who, like Gilbert the English-
man, and Gordon the Scot, had graduated there.
But the fall of Constantinople and the immigration
of Greek scholars into Europe reopened the foun-
tains of ancient learning. Hippocrates and Galen
now became known in the original, and the master-
work of Celsus, till then a forgotten book, was once
more read with profit. Rational medicine had
returned to its parents.
To the writings of Galen was due the revived study
of anatomy, and with it physiology ; to Dioscorides
the resuscitation of medical botany. The discovery
of America, followed up by inland exploration, led
to the introduction of new medicines, vegetable
and mineral. The reaction against the Arabian
masters was completed by ‘authorised versions’
of the Greek originals—versions chiefly the work
of physicians who were also Hellenists, and by
the middle of the 16th century Galen was re-
enthroned in the schools. The downfall of
Arabian medicine was of earlier date in Italy
and — than in France, while Germany
was under the temporary sway of Paracelsus, a
meteorie genius who follow no school, but
vitiated his independence of judgment and great
acuteness by the haughtiest arrogance. He had
a positive as well as a mystical side, and, while
regarding disease as ‘spiritual,’ with which, un-
assisted, nature herself could often cope, he also
relied on chemical agencies for its cure. These
owed their virtue to their secret power over dis-
ease, whence he called them ‘arcana.’ Opium,
in the form of tincture, and antimony were among
these. Beyond compelling a closer study of
chemistry and showing an example of independ-
ence amid the universal belief in Galen, Paracelsus
did no good to medicine, and indeed, outside Ger-
many, was held in little account.
Meanwhile, the outbreak of disease on an
aet seale, in forms unknown to the Greeks,
threw the medical art on its own resources, and
started that revolt against authority to which it
owed its next advance. The sweating sickness
was minutely described hy Kaye (Latinised, Caius)
in England, and syphilis by physicians on the
118 MEDICINE
Continent. Hospitals, moreover, the special contri- | text-book, but now, like his Aphorisms, super-
bation of Chris’ ty to the relief of the sick or | seded by the juster Speers of which he was
physically injured, now became seats of clinical | the pioneer. Among his pupils was Van 8
study, Italy leading the way in her celebrated
school of ua, which then began to attract
students from all countries. i ser which re-
ceived a fresh impulse at the Renaissance, had
also its effect on biology and medicine—Galileo
and Cesalpinus representing in Italy what Bacon
and Harvey represented in England—a sounder
scientific method on the one hand and a more
etrating physiological research on the other,
ike to the discovery by Harvey of what
Cesalpinus and others had dimly adumbrated,
the circulation of the blood. Concurrently with
the mechanical contribution to biological and
medical study, that of natural history was equally
important, pharmacy in icular receiving new
accessions, notably cinchona bark, which found a
lace in the dispensatories or pharmacopwias now
bagtanin to multiply. Love of system, however,
a perennial hindrance to medical progress, was no
less prolific than inductive research, and so, con-
temporaneously with Harvey, we have mystics
such as Van Helmont, who, like Paracelsus, left
no enduring mark on sound medicine beyond en-
couraging independence of authority and innova-
tions in treatment. The Iatro-mechanical school
was another development in the theorising direc-
tion, its most prominent names being the Nea-
litan Borelli, the Roman Baglivi, and the Scottish
teairne. Physiology is more indebted to these
quasi-scientitic systematisers than therapeutics,
which, however, is under distinct obligations to
another school, the Iatro-chemical, whose Dutch
founder, Sylvius, applied to treatment the results
of the improved biology and chemistry. He had
many followers in Germany as well as Holland ;
bat his ablest disciple was the ane Willis,
who worked anent good in the examina-
tion of secretions, to say nothing of his still
classic account of diabetes and of nervous maladies,
Reaction against the theorising tendency was led
by Sydenham, whose guide in practice was Hip-
rates, with his ‘natural history of di f
ature he held to have a self-restoring power,
which it was the physician’s duty to watch and
assist. As a practitioner Sydenham was especially
great, while his descripti of di gout, for
example--are those of an artist in medicine. But
it was in his rejection of theory and as an observer
and utiliser of facts that his influence was soundest,
Coming as it did after the anatomical, physiological,
and chemical work of the previous generation, it
gave practical direction to so much of it as had
stood the clinical test.
Theory, however, is too attractive for ingenious
minds to be long idle, and again we find medicine
turning into ‘the high priori road.’ The Jatro-
mecnanical school underwent something like a re-
vival, thanks to the brilliant astronomy of Newton
and the able advocacy of Pitcairne and his pupil
Cheyne. Sydenham's example, however, was still
powerful enough vo curb the theorising tendency,
#0 that enthusiastic mathematicians like Mead did
not allow their love of hypothetical symmetry to
vitiate their practice. The next great name in
medicine is that of Boerhaave of Leyden, a disciple
of Hippocrates aud Sydenham, familiar with all
that was valuable in other schools, but strenuous
in his pursnit of anatomical and physiological fact,
in which he worked assiduously with the micro-
scope. Asa clinical lecturer he was the forerunner
of the most refined teaching of the modern day,
and his clinique was resorted to by aspiring students
of every country. The love of system which
he shared with so many of the master-minds
of medicine is seen in his Jnstitutiones, long a
founder of the Vienna school, while contempo-
rary with him were Hoffmann and § beth of
them professors at Halle, in advance of time
as chemists, and enthusiastic systematisers, the
former r to reconcile the ‘spiritual’ with the
‘materialistic’ view of nature, the latter bent on
eliminating the ‘material’ from man and
the * psychical’ the essence of his being.
Physiology and rational medicine made a new
start under the all-accomplished Swiss Von
Haller, whose teaching prevailed for good in —
spite of recurrent outbreaks of the 8
tising tendency. Muscular irritability, to the
exclusion of the hypothetical anima, and as dis-
tinguished from nervous sensibility, was a dis-
covery of his which threw fresh light on living
movements, while medicine proper owes to him a
series of experiments, better appreciated by later
science, on the influence of drugs on the healthy
sen Morgagni of Bologna laid practic
medicine under yet more lasting obligations Ae
his elaborate work in morbid anatomy, of wh
he may almost be “a as the creator. His
De Sedibus et Causis Morborum may still be con-
sulted with advantage, followed up as it was and
its results extended by other aa na the
feuling. of Von. Hall and Morgagn a. pati
ing of Von Haller 0 a
deflection was made by Cullen of Edinburgh, an
expositor of rare ability. His Lines of the Practice
of Physic and his larger Nosology were a skilful
adaptation of the new physiology and yeas to
classifieation and therapeutics, and from their
attractive clearness were long in favour with
teacher and student alike. A more brillian
though far less judicious systematiser was his pupi
John Brown, father of the Brunonian system, of
which the keynote is the part played by ‘excit-
ability’ in health and disease. To maintain this
property at its normal strength was the object of
the physician, who, indeed, in 97 cent. of the
diseases brought before him, had to make his
treatment a ‘stimulating’ one. The superficial
simplicity of the system explains its wide accept-
ance and tenacious vitality, hone its popularity
was always greater in Italy and any than in
Great Britain. Another exemplar of the systema-
tising spirit in the same century was Hahnemann,
the creator of the Hommopathic school. Dwelli
chiefly on the symptoms of disease, he constru
an elaborate scheme of therapeutics (see Homao-
PATHY), and benefited practical medicine, even as
Brown did, by favouring a milder than the so-called
heroic treatment.
Before Re the 18th century, its contribu- —
tions to special departments of medicine must be
noticed. In Italy Valsalva and Lancisi did
service, the latter by his observations on the causes
of sudden death, including cardiae and aneurismal
lesions, while Albertini was also meritorious in
the same walk. Germany produced Auenbrugger
of Vienna, author of direct ‘percussion,’ In
Britain state-medicine owes its start to Baker,
followed up by Jenner, whose discovery of vaccina-
tion is memorable not only for its prevention of
smallpox, but for its influence on the study of in-
fectious disease. Pringle, ably preceded by Hux-
ham, enlightened the profession on fevers, especial
as occurring in prisons and camps; and Fothergi
on putrid sore throat (‘diphtheria’) and tie-
doulonrenx, and Heberden in therapeutics did
honour to the English school.
The 19th century opened with a sound preference
for inductive research over premature generalisa-
tion, and France, in the background for many
MEDICINE
MEDINA 119
ears, now cane to the front with Bichat and
the former a great anatomist and physi-
ist, the latter 2 a pmo in pathology.
i anatomy had contribu much to
localise disease, and diagnosis was made still more
precise Corvisart and Piorry in perfecting the
cs ns of Auenbrugger. By | eae. ad-
‘vance w this—auscultation to wit—the move-
ments of the lungs and heart are heard through the
thoracic walls by the steth Concurrently
with this ‘mediate auscultation,’ morbid anatomy
yonnected the lesions of the intra-thoracie viscera
with the sounds so transmitted—a twin-source of
nedical know! rich in results on diagnosis and
treatment. Bayle, Chomel, Louis, Cruveilhier,
and Andral, poe 6 in his own way, did memorable
work in scientific and practical medicine, founding
the great clinical school which, ¢ontinued under
Bretonneau, Rostan, D’Alibert, Rayer, and Trous-
seau, made Paris the resort of aspiring young
ysicians from both hemispheres. In Great
ritain medical education was steadily improved
hy sonnder chemical and physical, as well as
anatomical and physiological knowledge, while
the preference of rati observation to theory
was admirably illustrated by Willan on the
skin, Bright on the kidney, and Addison on the
supra-renal capsules. The Paris school found
” pupils in the British Islands—the Scottish
‘orbes and the Irish Stokes, with the English
Hope, Latham, and Watson, doing much to diffuse
a sounder di is and treatment of chest diseases ;
while , in particular, maintained the tradi-
tional celebrity of her clinique by Gregory, Aber-
crombie, and Alison in Edinburgh, to whom worthy
Seokes Paiva were produced in Dublin by Graves,
Stokes (already mentioned ), and Corri In the
northern capital Christison, the Beg ies, father
and son, Hughes Bennett, and Laycock upheld the
fame of the school, and south of the Tw Parkes,
Murchison, Hilton F , and Jenner have be-
queathed a rich harvest of practical doctrine to their
successors. Italy, with Galvani, Volta, Nobili, and
Matteucci, is the parent of electro-therapeutics ;
but it is to Germany that recent medicine owes
its greatest and most productive achievements.
Vienna, under Van Swieten and Auenbrugger, had
already won a European name for clinical research
when a enhanced it by improving on Laennec’s
discovery, and Rokitansky and, quite recently,
Bam earried Viennese teaching to the highest
pitch of academic effici Romberg is another
representative name ; but Schénlein, by the unani-
mous voice of Germany, has placed her in the van
of medical progress. Founder of the modern
‘natural history school,’ his teaching has led u
to bacteriology, which already in the hands of sue
men as Pasteur and Koch has for cholera, malaria,
lupus, and tuberenlosis (see TUBERCLE) become
one of most powerful instruments of which
medicine, in diagnosis and even in practice, has
been able to The marvellous advances
cerebral physiology, from Broca to Hitzig and
Ferrier, have had t results in practice, surgi-
cal as well as medical; and the Americans have
done splendid work, especially in therapeutics.
Hiiser’s Grundriss der Geschichte der Medicin (Jena,
1884) and Puschmann’s Geschichte des medicinischen
Unterrichts (Leip. 1889) have been closely followed
in the foregoing article. The student who wishes
to pursue the history of medicine into minuter detail
should consult the larger work of Hiiser, in 3 vols.
(Jena, 1875-79); Daremberg’s Histoire des Seiences
Médicales (2 vols. Paris, 1870); and Puccinnotti’s Storia
della Medicina (3 vols. Pisa, 1359). Fora key to the very
numerous articles on diseases, see Disease, and the list
to ANATOMY. See also Suncery, Hyatene,
acterta, Geam THeory, and the notices of Hippo-
RATES, GALEN, and other great physicians.
Medick (Medicago ), a genus of plants of the
natural order Leguminosee, sabconion apilionaceze,
nearly allied to Clover (q.v.), but distinguished
from that and kindred genera by the rsecrstgey
or, in most ies, spirally-twisted legume. he
species, which are very numerous, are mostly
annual and perennial katiicces plants, with leaves
of three leafiets like those of clover, and are natives
of temperate and warm climates. A number of
them are found in Britain, and many more in the
south of Euro’ They generally afford good green
food for cattle, and some of them are cultivated
like the clovers for this use, amongst which the
most important is the Purple Medick, or Lucerne
(9.¥-s . sativa). Besides this, the Black Medick,
onsuch, or Lupuline (M. lupulina), is one of the
most generally cultivated. It is a common native
of Britain, where it is very generally sown mixed
with Red Clover and Rye-grass, and is useful where
a close turf is desired.
Medi’na, Eu- (Arabic for ‘The City’), or,
more fully, Medinat en-Nebi (‘City of the Pro-
phet’), or Medinat Rasuli-elah (‘City of the
tle of God’), because it was there that
ohammed took refuge after his Hegira or Flight
from Mecca in 622, and there that he lived till
his death. Formerly called Yathzib, and mentioned
y Ptolemy as Iai rippa, the holiest city of the
ohammedan world after Mecca, and the second
capital of the Hedjiz in western Arabia, it is situ-
ated about 270 miles N. of Mecea, and 132 N. by
E. of the port of Yanbu’ on the Red Sea, and con-
tains about 16,000 inhabitarits (Burton), chiefly
engaged in agriculture. It consists of three prin-
cipal parts—a town, a fort, and suburbs of about
the same extent as the town itself, from which
they are separated by a wide pone (the Munakha).
It is about half the size of Mecca, and forms an
irregular oval within a walled enclosure, 35 to 40
feet high, flanked by thirty towers, and enclosing
the castle where the Turkish garrison is lodged—
a fortification which renders it the chief stronghold
of the Hedjaz. Two of its four gates are massive
buildings with double towers. The streets are
narrow but partly paved, The houses are flat-
roofed and double-storied, and are built of stone,
brick, and palm-wood. The principal eee is
the Prophet’s Mosque El-Haram (‘the Sacred’),
supposed to be erected on the spot where Moham-
med died, and to enclose his tomb. It is of smaller
dimensions than that of Mecca, being a parallel-
ogram, 420 feet long and 340 feet broad, with a
spacious central area, surrounded by a peristyle
with numerous rows of pillars. The present build-
ing is, however, “Cray last of many reconstruc-
tions, of which the best was that of Kait Bey, the
Mameluke sultan, in 1481, whose dome and pulpit
still stand. The Mausoleum, or Hujrah, is an
irregular doorless chamber, 50 to 55 feet in extent,
situated in the south-east corner of the building.
It is surmounted by a large gilt crescent above the
‘Green Dome,’ springing from a series of globes,
and hedged in with a closely-latticed brass railing,
in which are small apertures for prayer. The in-
terior is hung with costly curtains embroidered
with large gold letters, stating that behind them
lie the bodies of the Prophet of God and of the
first two califs—which curtains, changed whenever
worn out, or when a new sultan ascends the throne,
cover a square edifice of black marble, in the midst
of which is Mobammed’s tomb. Its exact place is
indicated by a long pearly rosary—-still seen in 1855
—suspended from the curtain. The Prophet’s body
is believed to lie undecayed at full length on the
right side, with the right palm sup pare the right
cheek, the face directed towards Mecca. Close
behind him is placed, in the same position, Alm-
bekr, and behind him Omar; and. Fatimeh’s house
120 MEDINA SIDONIA
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
is represented by a modern erection hard by, There
comes ie teehee On beet. Aas: the het was
buried in the space (originally Ayeshah’s hut) now
enclosed in the mosque; nor is it likely that the
grave was ever That his coffin, said to be
eovered with a marble slab, and cased with silver
(no European has ever seen it), rests suspended in
the air is of course an idle Christian fable. Of the
treasures which this sanctuary once contained,
little now remains. It is a meritorious act to
form the pilgrimage to Medina, though there
no fixed season for it. As in Mecca, a great
number of ecclesiastical officials are attached in
some capacity or other to the Great Mosque; and
not only they, but many of the towns-people
live toa t extent on the pilgrims’ alms and
custom. There are few other noteworthy spots in
Medina, save the minor ae of Abn-bekr, *Ali,
‘Omar, Bilal, &e. Thirty Medressehs, or public
endowed schools, represent what learning there is
left in the city, once famed for its scholars and
theologi n the 7th century Medina was the
capi of Islam; but since then it has
under the rule of emirs, sherifs, Turkish pashas,
and Wahabis, though the internal government of
the city is still Arabian.
Medina Sidonia, « city of Spain, 25 miles
SSE. of Cadiz, stands on an isolated hill overlook-
ing a wide plain, and has the ruins of a castle, the
ancestral seat of the dukes of Medina Sidonia,
descendants of Guzman the Good, conqneror of
Tarifa (1292). It was a member of this house
who commanded the ‘invincible Armada’ (q.v.).
Pop. 12,397, who make pottery.
Medinet-el-Fayyum, See Fayy0M.
Meditatio Fugie. See Dest, Vol. IIL. p. 717.
Mediterranean Sea, so named from lying
in the midst between the continents of Europe,
Asia, and Africa. It is the largest enclosed sea
in the world, and is connec with the open
ocean only by the narrow Strait of Gibraltar, 9
miles in width at the Pillars of Hercules. Since
1869, however, it has been artificially connected
with the Red Sea and Indian Ocean by means
of the Suez Canal (q.v.). From its great size the
Mediterranean might be ranked with the oceans,
but from being so completely cut off it presents
distinctly local characters when compared with the
reat ocean-basins, and is consequently of special
interest to the student of physical science. The
Mediterranean, in a nearly east and west direction,
is abont 2200 miles in length from the Strait of
Gibraltar to the Syrian coast; its width varies
from 500 or 600 miles in some places to less than
100 miles between Sicily and Cape Bon, where it
is divided by relatively shallow banks into two
distinct hydrographic basins, the eastern one being
the larger. It is connected with the Black Sea
through the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, and
the Hoaphorna, The African and Syrian coasts
are comparatively even and unindented, the wide
gulfs of Gabes and Sidra scarcely presenting an
exception ; on the other hand, the shores of Europe
and Asia Minor a.e cut up into numerous galfs
and bays, the largest of which is the Adriatic Sea.
Various parts of the Mediterranean have been
known by special names, such as the Tyrrhenian
and Iberian Seas in the western, and the Levant,
Aigean, and Ionian Seas in the eastern basin. The
principal islands in the western part are Sardinia
and Corsica, the Balearic and Lipari Islands, the
two latter groups being of volcanic origin. The
continental islands of Sicily and Malta are situated
on the banks dividing the two basins; Pantellaria,
Limosa, and Graham Island (now reduced to a
shoal) are, however, volcanic though situated on
the same banks. In the eastern regions there are
thettacge inlanda of rus and Crete, with the
Ionian Islands and ths Plans of the
The Mediterranean is uently subject to 5
quakes, and Vesuvius, Stromboli, and Etna are
among the most famous of its active volcanoes.
The scenery of the shores of this inland sea
is varied, mountain-ranges and file tablelands
racer Although there is considerable
iversity between the climates of Northern Italy and
the desert shores of North Africa, still the terrestrial
fauna and flora are not markedly distinet in the
different regions of the Mediterranean basin, many
of the plants and animals being identical on the
northern and southern shores, and there is abundant
evidence that this similarity was much more pro-
nounced in recent geological times. The countries
bordering the Mediterranean have been the cradle
of civilisation, Phoenicia, Greece, and Italy having
been successively the homes of knees pro-
gress, and at the present time this inland sea is
pr tiga the most important waterway of the
world.
The area of the Mediterranean is estimated at
about 900,000 sq. m., or, including the Black Sea
and Sea of Azov, at 1,053,000 sq. m. The area of
land draining into the Mediterranean is estimated
at 2,969,350 sq. m., or nearly 3,000,000 sq. m. of
the richest country on the earth’s surface. The
annual amount of rain that falls on this land is
estimated by the writer at 1598 cubic miles, and of
this amount about 226 cubic miles reach the Medi-
terranean through the annual dischar
ae principal of eye = the Rhone,
ieper, nm, and the Nile.
The bas
about 50 miles to the west of Gibraltar, where
there is a ridge with a maximum depth of about
200 fathoms. There is a similar depth on the
ridge between Sicily and Africa which yy Fo
the Mediterranean into two basins; 2040 fathoms
is the greatest depth recorded in the western, and
2187 fathoms the greatest in the eastern basin ;
the mean depth of the whole sea is 768 fathoms.
The area of the sea-bottom with a less depth than
100 fathoms is estimated at about one-fourth of the
whole area ; the area with a depth of from 100 to 1000
fathoms is estimated at 300,000 sq. m., and with a
depth of from 1000 to 2000 fathoms at 15,000 sq. m.
The bulk of water is estimated at 709,800 cubie
miles. The greatest depth in the Black Sea is
1070 fathoms, the average depth being 412 fathoms.
On the whole seers! winds prevail over the
Mediterranean, due chietly to the influence of the
anticyclonic region of the North Atlantic, although
in the eastern portions the alternate cyclonic
anticyclonic area of northern Asia has a d
of rivers,
‘0, Danube,
influence on the direction of the winds. The —
Mediterranean lies wholly between the annual
isotherms of 60° F. in the north and 70° in the
south. The temperature of the surface waters
may Laogemreso | reach 90°, but is usually much
less, the mean of the winter months being between
53° and 57°. Generally the temperature of the sea
is higher than that of the air, especially in winter,
but in some of the summer months the reverse is
the case. Whatever the temperature of the surface
water may be, at a depth between 100 and 200
fathoms a temperature of 54° to 56° is met with,
and this persists without sensible variation to the
greatest depth. The temperature of the bottom
water in the western basin is about 54°°5, and in
the eastern basin a little warmer, 56°°0, these
temperatures being fully 20° higher than the
temperature of the bottom water of the Atlantic
at corresponding depths. From recent observa-
tions it would appear that the deep water of the
Mediterranean is subject to slight annual varia-
tions, dependent on the temperature of the previous.
in of the Mediterranean commences”
MEDJIDIE
MEERSCHAUM 121
winter. The evaporation from the surface of the
Mediterranean exceeds both the precipitation and
the annual of the rivers flowing into it
a shoot surrounding catchment basin, for we find
ifie gravity of its waters (1°02800 to 1°0300)
to be than that of the Atlantic on the west
(1-026 to 1°027), or that of the Black Sea on the
east (1012 to 1-014). There is even an outflow of
warm dense Mediterranean water into the Atlantic
beneath the lighter Atlantic water which flows in
at the surface through the Strait of Gibraltar.
There is a similar state of things at the entrance
of the Black Sea, where there is an inflow of fresh
water from the Black Sea at the surface, and an
outflow in the opposite direction of salter Mediter-
ranean water by an undercurrent. Were it not for
the inflow of Atlantic water the Mediterranean
would slowly become salter, and shrink till reduced
to two salt like the Dead Sea. The Mediter-
ranean is usually called a tideless sea. At Algiers
there is a rise of 34 inches at springs and half that
amount at neaps ; at other places the rise and fall
is about 18 inches, and in the Gulf of Gabes the
range reaches 5 feet, but the solilunar tides are
as a rule completely masked by the rise of level
and the surface currents produced by the action
of the winds. The deposits now forming in the
Mediterranean in deep water are all blue muds,
with a yellowish upper layer, containing usual]
from 10 to 30 per cent. of carbonate of lime, which
principally consists of the shells of pelagic Fora-
minifera. The mineral icles and clayey matter
are derived from the disintegration of the neigh-
bourin, In some of the shallower depths
~ there are glauconitic and more caleareous deposits.
The deep-sea dredgings show that life, though
present, is much less a t in deep water than
at similar depths in the open ocean, in which
respect the Mediterranean agrees with enclosed
seas in general. There is an extensive red coral
fishery and tunny fishery on some parts of the
coasts. The Mediterranean region appears to have
been covered by the sea from early geological
times, and during Tertiary times must have had
much wider communication with the open ocean.
Medjidie, an Ottoman decoration, instituted
in 1852 by the Sultan Abd-ul-Medjid as a reward
of merit either civil or military. It was conferred
after the Crimean campaign, to a considerable
extent, on British officers. The order consists of
five classes, and the decoration is a silver sun of
seven triple rays, with the device of the crescent
and star alternating with the rays.
Medlar ( Mespilus), a genus of trees or shrubs
of the natural order . , sub-order Pome,
having a 5-cleft calyx with leafy segments, nearly
round petals, a large honey-secreting dise, and 2-5
styles, united ther in the flower, but widely
on the fruit, the upper ends of the bony
cells of which are exposed. The Common Medlar
of
(M. germanica), a small tree, spiny in a wild
state, but destitute of spines in cultivation, is a
native of the south of Europe and of the temperate
parts of Asia, but is a doubtful native of Britain,
although it is to be seen in hedges and thickets in
the southern parts of England. It has lanceolate,
undivided leaves, solitary large white flowers at
the end of small spurs, and globular or pear-shaped
frnit. The medlar is much cultivated in some
of Europe, and is common in gardens in
ngland, but it does not generally ripen well in
Scotland without a wall. It is very austere, but
when biletted, or its tough pulp has become soft
and vinous by incipient decay, it is relished by
many.
Medmenham, « vill
of ae oma sh
near the Thames, 3 miles
W. of Marlow. Here
stood a Cistercian abbey (1204); and here, soon
after the middle of the 18th century, Sir Francis
Dashwood, afterwards Lord le Despencer (1708-81),
founded his mock brotherhood of ‘ Franciscans,’
whose motto was the familiar inscription on
Rabelais’ abbey of Thelema, ‘ Fay ce que voudras,’
and two of whose twelve members were John
Wilkes and Paul Whitehead the t. Pop. of
aya 336. See W. Fraser Rae’s Wilkes, Sheridan,
‘ow (1874).
Médoe, a district in the French department of
Gironde, famed for the by oer and excellence of
the wine it yields, some of the most famous growths
of Bordeaux (q.v.), such as Chiteau-Margaux,
Chiteau-Lafite, and Chateau-Latour. The district
lies on the left bank of the estuary of the Gironde,
being se) ted from the Landes by low hills, and
is 40 miles long by from 5 to 10 wide. See Cham-
bers’s Journal ( 1890).
Medulla Oblongata. See Bram.
Medusze. See JELLY-FISH.
Medway, a river of Kent, Being in three head-
streams in Sussex and Surrey, and flowing 70 miles
north-eastward (including 12 miles of estuary),
past Tunbridge, Maidstone, Rochester, Chatham,
and Sheerness, until it joins the estuary of the
Thames. It is tidal and navigable to Maidstone,
but large vessels do not ascend above Rochester
bridge. See CHATHAM.
Meeanee, or MIANI, a village in Sind, India,
on the Indus, 6 miles N. of: Hyderabad, was the
scene of a battle between Sir Charles Napier with
2800 men and a Baluch army, 22,000 strong, on
February 17, 1843. The latter were totally routed,
losing 5000 men; the British loss was 256. The
result of this victory was the conquest and annexa-
tion cf Sind.
Meerane, a prosperous manufacturing town of
Saxony, 43 miles by rail 8. of Leipzig. From an
unimportant, small country town, it has increased
zaphiily in size and importance through the de-
velopment of its woollen manufactures and the
large export trade which it carries on with England,
France, and America. Pop. (1849) 7345; (1890)
22,446. See Leopold’s Chronik: von Meerane (1863).
Meereat ( Cynictis), a South African carnivore
akin to the Ichneumon (q.v.).
Meerschaumi (Sepiolite), a mineral existing in
many parts of the world. In pels it is found
chiel at Hrubsehitz in Moravia, and at Sebastopol
and Raffa in the Crimea ; and in Turkey in Asia
it oceurs abundantly just below the soil in the
alluvial beds of several districts—especially at
Eski-shehr. It is also found in Spain and South
Carolina. Meerschaum, from its having been
found on the seashore in some places, in peculiarly
rounded snow-white lumps, was ignorantly imagined
to be the petrified froth of the sea, which is the
meaning of its German name. Its composition is
silica, 60°9; magnesia, 26°1; water, 12°0.. Almost
all the meerschaum found is made into tobacco-
ipes, in which manufacture the Austrians have
n for a long time pre-eminent. Vienna contains
many manufactories, in which some very artistic
productions are made; and pipes worth 100
guineas, from the beauty of their design, are by
no means uncommon. The French pipe-makers
have lately used meerschaum, and have displayed
great taste in their works. When first dug from
the earth, meerschaum is quite soft and soap-like
to the touch, and as it Jathers with water, and
removes grease, it is employed by the Turks as a
substitute for soap in washing. Similarly in
Algeria it is sometimes used in place of soap at the
Moorish baths. The waste in entting and turning
the pipes was formerly thrown away, but it is now
122 MEERUT
MEGRIMS
reduced to powder, mixed into a paste, and com-
into hard masses, which are carved into
inferior pipes.
Meerut, or more correctly MERATH, a town,
district, and division in the North-western Pro-
vinces of British India. The town lies 40 miles
NE. of Delhi, about half-way between the —
and the Jumna. Its most important edifice is the
English church, with a fine spire and an excellent
organ. There are also several ruins of native
edifices, Here in 1857 the great mutiny broke out
(see INDIA, in Vol. VL. p. 119). Pop. (1881) 99,565 ;
(1891) 119,390, of whom 40,000 were in the canton-
ment. The district has an area of 2370 sq. m., pop.
1,391,458; the division, 11,326 sq. m., pop. 4,834,064.
Megaceros. See ELK.
Megalichthys (Gr., ‘ t fish’), a genus of
extinct Ganoid fishes. heir remains found in
Carboniferous strata testify to fishes of large size,
completely bucklered by big strong smooth scales,
The jaws bear large conical teeth suggestive of
predacious carnivorous habits.
Megalithic Monuments. See DoLMEn,
STANDING STONES, STONE CIRCLEs, &c.
M onyx, “ large fossil edentate of the
United States, smaller than the Megatherium (q.v. ).
Megalopolis, founded by Epaminondas after
the battle a Leuctra (371 B.c.), and made the
capital of Arcadia, stood in the valley of the
Helisson. Plundered and mostly destroyed by the
Spartans in 222 B.c., it was the birthplace of
Philopcemen and Polybius. Here the British school
at Athens conducted excavations in 1892-93.
Megalosaurus (Gr., ‘great lizard’) a gigantic
axtinct reptile, whose remains are found in urassic
and Cretaceous strata. The huge sg seems to
have measured about 30 to 50 feet in length, and
the formidable teeth suggest a carnivorous diet.
See REPTILEs.
Megapodidz. See Mounp-nirbs.
Megaris, « small mountainous region of Hellas,
or Greece proper, lying between Attica and the
Isthmus of Corinth. The people were excellent
sailors, and founded several colonies, of which the
most famous were Byzantium (667 B.c.), Chalcedon,
and Megara (Hyblea) in Sicily. They were
generally regarded as guilty of deception and dis-
simulation, hence the phrase ‘ Megarian tears.’
The capital was Megara, long an important com-
mercial city, and famous for its white shell marble,
and for a white kind of clay, of which pottery was
made,—From Euclid (q.v.) the philosopher, who,
as well as Theognis the poet, was born at Megara,
the Megarie school took its name.
Megas'thenes, « Greek ambassador stationed
by Selencus Nicator (306-298 B.c.) at the court of
Sandrocottnus (q.v.), or Chandra Gupta, in the
valley of the Ganges. Here he gathered materials
for his work Jndica, from whieh Arrian, Strabo,
and others borrowed. The fragments that remain
have been edited by Schwanebeck (1846) and
Miiller ( 1848).
Megatherium (Gr., ‘ great beast’), a gigantic
extinct quadruped of the order Edentata, nearly
allied to the sloth, found in the Pleistocene deposits
of South and North America, but more particularly
in those of the South American pampas. In
structure it is very near its modern representative,
except that the whole skeleton is modified to suit
the re of an immense heavy-boned and
heavy-bodied animal, fully equal in bulk to the
largest species of rhinoceros. The appellation
tardigrade, which Cuvier applied to the sloth,
cannot be given to the Megatherium: its limbs
were comparatively short and very strong, and the
feet adapted for walking on the ground, approach-
ing in this respect nearer to the allied ant-eaters,
but with this peculiarity, that the first toe of each
of the hind-feet was furnished with a and
werful claw, which was probably as a
cleser to loosen roots from the soil, and enable the
creature the more easily to overturn the trees on
Skeleton of the Megatherium.
the foliage of which it browsed. The enormous
development of the bones of the pelvis, the hind-
legs, and the tail, gave the animal great power
when, seated on its hind-legs and tail, as on a
tripod, it raised its fore-legs against the trunk, and
applied its force a, eared a tree that had already
been weakened by having its roots dug up. The
structure of the lower jaw seems to indicate that
the snout was prolonged and more or less flexible,
and it seems probable that the Megatherium was
furnished with a prehensile tongue like that of the
giraffe, with which it stripped the foli from the
trees, The remains of several allied genera of
huge Edentata are associated with the Megatherium
in the deposits on the pampas. They form the family
Megatheriide of Owen, which includes Mylodon,
Megalonyx, Scelidotherium, &c.—genera which are
separa’ from Megatherium chiefly from uli-
arities in the dentition. The modern sloth is a
native of South America, and the fossil remains of
these immense creatures, which represented it in
the newer Tertiaries, are found only in the
American continent.
Meghna, the estuary of the Ganges (q.v.) and
Brahmaputra (q.v.). See Map at CALCUTTA.
Megiddo, an ancient city of Palestine, the site
of which is somewhat uncertain, in the plain of
Esdraelon. In the battle there Josiah (q.v.) was
slain in 609 B.C.
Megilp. See Mair.
Megrim. See HEADACHE.
Megrims and Vertigo are the terms usually
applied when a horse at work reels, and then either
stands for a minute dull and stupid, or falls to the
sround, lying for a time rtially insensible.
hese attacks come on suddenly, are often pene -
eal, and are most frequent during hot weather and
when the animal is drawing up a hill, or exposed
a heavy work to the full rays of a hot sun,
Liability to megrims constitutes unsoundness, and
usually depends upon the circulation through the
brain being temporarily disturbed by the presence
of tumours, or by weakness of the heart's action.
Horses subject to megrims are always dangerous ;
if driven at all, they should be used with a heenst:
MEHEMET ALI
MELA 123
plate or pipe-collar, so as to prevent, as much as
pressure on the veins carrying the blood
the head; they should be moderately and
carefully fed, and during hot weather have an
occasional laxative.
Mehemet Ali, better Monammep ’ALI,
Viceroy of Egypt (1805-49), was born in Albania
in 1769, and was sent to Fevpt with a Turkish force
in 1799. See Eeypt, Vol. IV. p. 242.
Méhaul, Ettenne NIco.as, operatic composer,
was born at Givet, 22d June 1763, studied in Paris,
and in 1795 became professor at the Conservatoire.
He died 18th October 1817. Among his best-known
works are the operas Une Folie (1801), Les Aveugles
de Toléde (1806), and Joseph (1807); and the
patriotic sag thong du Depart, Chant de Victoire,
Chanson de nd. See Life by Pougin (1889).
Meilhac, French playwright, born in 1832 in
Paris, was trained as an artist and published his
first dramatic work in 1855. He has subsequently
produced a long series of light comedies—some in
conjunction with Halévy. Some are well known
through Offenbach’s music. His chef-d’euvre is
Frou- Frou (1869).
Meinam. See SiAm.
Meinhold, JouHann W1LHELM (1797-1851), a
native of the island of Usedom, and Lutheran pastor
at Usedom, Krummin, and Rehwinkel, published
ag and dramas, but is best known as author of
Amber Witch (trans. by Lady Duff Gordon,
1844) and Sidonia the Sorceress (trans. 1893).
Meiningen, the capital of the German duchy
of Saxe-Meiningen, lies in a narrow valley on the
banks of the Werra, 43 miles by rail NW. oft Coburg.
The ducal castle (1682), the most prominent build.
ing in the town, contains libraries, a picture-gallery,
lection of coins, &e. There is a fine ‘English
garden’ here. The town has been in great part
rebuilt since 1874, when a tire destroyed the old
streets. It was an pe of the see of Wiirz-
conn hg 1008 to 1 and in 1583 came into the
of the Saxon ducal family. Pop. (1875)
9521 ; (1890) 12,029.
The Meiningen Court Company of Actors gained
the highest reputation in Germany about 1874,
ap at Lane, London, in 1881, but
was dissolved in 1
Meissen, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, is
situated in a beautiful district on the left bank of
the Elbe, 14 miles by rail NW. of Dresden. Its chief
building is the cathedral (c. 1266-1479), one of the
finest Gothie churches in any, surmounted by
an exquisite spire (263 feet) of open work, and con-
taining many fine The castle was built in
1471-83, and in 1710 was converted into the porce-
lain factory over which Béttger presided (see
PorTery). In 1863 the castle was restored, its
walls being adorned with frescoes by modern
painters, porcelain factory having been re-
moved in 1860 to other premises ; 800 men are em-
ployed. Other mannfactures are iron, machinery,
inte, and cigars. Here is the celebrated school of
ti where Gellert and Lessing were educated.
Tt was founded by Duke Maurice in 1543, and until
1879 occupied the former Afra monastery (built in
1205). issen was founded in 928 by Henry I.
of Germany, as a stronghold against the Slavonians,
and was long the capital of the margraviate and
burgraviate of Meissen, which was subsequently
merged in the duchy of Saxony. The town was
burned down by the Swedes under Banér in 1637.
Pop. (1875) 13,002 ; (1885) 15,474 ; (1890) 17,875.
Meissonier, Jean Lovis Ernest, figure-
nter, was born at Lyons, 2ist February 1813.
he was still a child his father established
as a druggist in Paris; and the son,
having resolved upon art as a profession, studied
under Jules Potier and Léon Cogniet. His draw-
ings were praised Hs & Johannot, and about 1833-34
he was employed Curmer the publisher on
desi for the Sivvrananenst Bible and other
works. He first made a distinct mark in 1838,
by his illustrations to Paul and Virginia and
t Chaumiére Indienne; many other volumes
were enriched by his pencil, and his career as a
book-illustrator closes with his spirited designs to
the Contes Rémois of the Comte de Chevigné.
Meanwhile, he had been steadily practising paint-
ing. In 1834 he began to contribute to the Salon
with a water-colour and an oil-picture, the latter
strongly suggestive of the work of the figure-
inters of Holland, who powerfully influenced
eissonier during his whole career. Two years
later he exhibited the first of his various groups of
‘Chess-players,’ and here his accurate precision
of draughtsmanship and quietly dramatic truth of
attitude and expression first became clearly visible.
It was followed by a long series of elaborate and
successful genre-pictures, in whieh, with the most
careful and finished—if sometimes rather hard and
unsympathetie—execution, and with the most per-
fect verisimilitude of costume and local colouring,
the artist depicted the civil and military life of the
17th and 18th centuries, passing—in such works as
the ‘Napoleon L,’ a small single-figure picture
which Mr Ruskin sold in 1882 for £6090 ; the
‘Campaigne de France, 1814’ (1864); ‘Solferino’
(1866), now in the Luxembourg Gallery ; ‘ Cuiras-
siers or 1805’ (1871); and ‘Friedland or 1807,’
bought by M. Sécrétan in 1878 for 400,000 franes—
to subjects of genre or history taken from the 19th
century. Among the most celebrated of his other
military scenes may be named ‘La Rixe’ (1854),
purchased by Queen Victoria; and not less fasci-
nating are his simpler ups of students, artists,
collectors, &c., such as ‘La ture chez Diderot’
(1859), ‘ Les Amateurs de Peinture’ (1860), and ‘ La
Lecture du Manuscrit’ (1867). He also executed
some striking portraits, including ‘Dumas fils’
(1877) and ‘ Victor Lefrane’ (1883). The car-
toons of his design for the decoration of the Pan-
théon—‘ the apotheosis of France’—were exhibited
in 1889. He etched some dozen plates ; and on
of his pictures are familiar from engravings. He
e a Commander of the Legion of Honour in
1867, Grand Cross 1889, and a member of the Insti-
tute in 1861; and he was an honorary member of
the Royal Academy. He died 31st January 1891.
See works on him by Clarette (1881) and Larroumet
(1893), and the Art Annual for 1893. An exhibi-
tion of his works was held at Paris in 1884. His
son Jean Charles (born 1848) paints in his father’s
manner.
Meistersanger. See GeRMANY, Vol. V. p. 197.
Mekhong, or Mekon (also called Cambodia),
the test river of the Siam peninsula, since 1894
mainly controlled by the French (see SIAM), is
usually identified with the Lan-tsan, which rises
in the neighbourhood of Chiamdo in Tibet—its
exact sources are not known. It pursues a gener-
ally southerly direction to the China Sea, which
it enters by several mouths in Cochin-China.
This country indeed is formed by its deltaic depo-
sits. The river has a total length of 2800 miles ;
but is not navigated higher than 14° N, lat. owing
to rapids and cliffs which beset its bed in the
mountainous regions.
Meklong, a town of Siam, near where the
Meklong River runs into the Gulf of Siam. Among
its 10,000 inhabitants many are Chinese.
Mela, Pompontvs, the first Latin writer who
com 1 a strictly geographical work, was born
at Tingentera in the south of Spain, and lived in
124 MELALEUCA
MELBOURNE
the time of the Emperor Claudius; nothing else is
wn concerning him, His work, an unsystematic
compendium, is in three books, and is entitled De
Situ Orbis. The text is tly corrupted, The
editio prin peared at Milan in 1471; the best
aden edition & that by Parthey (Berlin, 1867).
Melaleuca, See Caserur.
Melancholia. See INsANrry.
Melanchthon, Puitir, Luther's _fellow-
labonrer in the Reformation, was born, February 16,
1497, at Bretten, in the Palatinate of the Rhine,
now in the grand-duchy of Baden. His name was
originally Schwarzerd (* black earth’), of which Mel-
anchthon is a Greek translation. He was educated
at the university of Heidelberg, where he took the
degree of Bachelor of Philosophy in 1512. In the
same year he went to Tiibingen, studied theology,
took the degree of Doctor, fos. §75 1514 gave lectures
on the Aristotelian philosophy and the classics.
About this time he published a Greek grammar.
On his relative Reuchlin’s recommendation he was
appointed in 1518 professor of Greek in Witten-
berg. Brought into contact with Luther in that
town, he at once became his fellow-worker in
the great religious revolution with which Luther's
name is identified. Melanchthon brought to his
aid an extent of learning that made Riss to be
led as another Erasmus, and a gift of Incid
exposition and purity of Latin style unrivalled
among his contemporaries. The natural sweet-
ness of his temper and the habitual modera-
tion of his views also advan usly tempered
Luther's vehemence. In 1521 he published his
Loci Communes Rerum Theologicarum, the first
great Protestant work on dogmatic theology. It
passed through more than fifty editions in the
course of the author's life. In 1530 he made a
most important contribution to the cause of Pro-
testantism, in the Augsburg Confession (q.v.). In
1541 he went to Worms, and soon after to Ratisbon,
to conduct the cause of the Protestants in the
conferences there. But the influence of the papal
legate counteracted all his efforts for a peaceful
accommodation, and his own party were much
dissatisfied on account of the concessions which he
male. After Luther's death, Melanchthon lost in
some measure the confidence of some of the Pro-
testants by those concessions to the Catholics
which his anxiety for peace led him to make;
whilst the zealous edarnae were no less dis-
pleased because of his approximation to the doc-
trine of Calvin on the Lord's Supper. His consent,
conditionally given, to the introduction of the
Augsburg Interim (q.v.) in Saxony, in, 1549, led to
painful controversies, which filled the latter years
of his life with disquietude. He died at Witten-
berg, 19th April 1560. By his calm wisdom and
the reputation of his genius, Melanchthon did
much to save the Reformation from those e
schneider al Bintvelt haat pt Ps Perk
an n in ‘
torum (28 vols. 1834-60).
See Lives of Melanchthon by his friend
1566 ) ; by Cox, Matthes ( Altenb. 1841), Nitzsch, Schmidt
Elberf. 1861), Meurer ( 2d ed. Leip. 1869), Schaff ( Lond.
1887 ), Hartfelder ( Berlin, 1889), Bailey Saunders (1897),
George Wilson (1898), and A. Harnack ( 1898).
Melanesia (Gr. melas, ‘black’) is a name
given to those Pacific islands near New Guinea
which are inhabited by the Papuan race. See
POLYNESIA,
Melaphyre. See Basar.
Melbourn, in Derbyshire, 7 miles SE. of
Derby by rail; pop. 3123. It is noted for its
market-gardens, and has some manu
Melbourn Hall, formerly seat of Lord Melbourne,
belongs to Earl Cowper.
Melbourne, the metropolis of the Australian
colony of Victoria, and the most important city of
Australasia, stands at the northern extremity
of Port Phillip Bay, and is bisected by the river
Yarra; it is in 37° 49'S. lat. and 144° 58’ E. long.
To facilitate navigation and enable large v is
to discharge their cargoes almost at the doors of the
warehouses, a canal was cnt from a point near
the mouth of the river to the Melbourne quays
and opened in 1888. Williamstown and Port
Melbourne, built on the shores of the bay, give
extensive pier accommodation, and are thriving
ports. Melbourne is a chessboard city, built on
strict. mathematical lines, its streets intersecting
at right angles, the principal oe being
of sniogeipcys f
necessary or
greater width (99 feet) than is
esirable in such a warm climate.
that would have made its progress impossible, In
the performance of this task he ineurred much
ve per from Luther himself, and still more from
the enthusiasts who came to the front after Luther's
death ; but the subsequent religious history of Ger-
many is conclusive proof of the wisdom of ‘his
action. By his labours as a scholar and public
teacher, Melanchthon ranks with the very highest
names in the history of learning and education.
Alike by his ext and intellectual interests, he is
to be regarded as blending in the happiest proportion
the humanist and the reformer. ‘The most complete
edition of his works (which comprise a Greek and
Latin Grammar, editions of and commentaries on
several classics and the Septuagint, biblical com-
mentaries, doctrinal and ethical works, official
documents, declarations, dissertations, responses,
and a very extensive correspondence with friends
Collins Street is architecturally imposing, being
lined on either side by tall, massive, aan ornate
buildings, chiefly banks, offices, warehouses, and
hotels. Bourke Street corresponds to the London
Strand; but it is three times as wide and four
times as long. Here most of the theatres, music-
halls, and retail shops are situated. An extensive
system of eable tramway locomotion was inaugur-
ated in 1886.
Melbourne has a flourishing university, founded
in 1853 largely through the instrumentality of Mr
Childers, its first vice-chancellor. There are three
affiliated colleges in its immediate vicinity—
Trinity (Episcopalian), Queen's (Wesleyan), and
Ormond (Presbyterian). The Jast—one of the
finest educational structures in the sonthern hemi-
sphere—was built at the expense of the Hon.
MELBOURNE
125
Francis Ormond, to whom Melbourne is indebted
also for its working-men’s college, which is doin
noble work in technical education, and its endow
chair of music in the university. The Wilson
Hall, the gift of Sir Samuel Wilson, M.P., is also
a noteworthy adjunct of the university. The
Exhibition building in the Carlton Gardens and the
General Post-office are two of the most conspicuous
and ornamental of Melbourne’s public buildings.
The Houses of Parliament, completed in 1891,
have cost nearly a million of money. They form
a magnificent pile of buildings, the western f. e
being poses decd striking and effective. he
Trades Hall, a quadrangular structure founded in
1857, stands on the northern boundary of the city
! r. Melbourne an excellent and
well-appointed public library of about 200,000 vols.,
and associated with it on the same reserve are a
national art gallery and a technological museum.
The three institutions are ipa by a ne of
trustees, and are supported by a large state endow-
ment. The town-hall has an immense assembly-
room, largely used for concerts and public meet-
ings, and also an organ of fine tone and colossal
size. Crowning the summit of the western hill of
Melbourne are iad cried ggg as an
extensive square, to a lofty and grace-
ful dome. Close by Pees aileoarne branch of
the Royal Mint, established in 1872. Other not-
able public institutions are the Melbourne and
Al jitals, the Benevolent Asylum, the
Immigrants) Home, the Orphan Asylums, thie
Custom-house, the Treasury, and the Public
Offices, the last-named being a vast and labyrin-
thine pile in which most of the government depart-
ments are . St Patrick’s Roman Catholic
cathedral, close to the Houses of Parliament, is a
towering Gothic structure and the most conspicu-
ous esiastical edifice in Melbourne. The
Anglican cathedral of St Paul suffers in appear-
ance by its depressed site and by the fact that it
is hemmed in clustering warehouses, The
Seots Church is the architectural gem of Collins
Street. Its soaring spire, of more than 200 feet, is
peculiarly graceful and harmonious in design.
Melbourne supports three morning and two
evening journals, besides a host of weeklies and
monthlies. Railways have been pushed on with
energy in Victoria (whose railway-system connects
with those of South Australia, New South Wales,
and Queensland ), and, as Melbourne is the converg-
ing point of all the systems, the western end of the
city, where the railway department is quartered
and the central station has been built, is a scene
of incessant activity. Melbourne has grown with
remarkable ne gia In 1841 its at ome was
11,000 ; in 1851, the year of the gold discoveries, it
was less than 25,000; in 1861, 191,000; in 1871,
with suburbs, 206,780; in 1881, 282,907 (of whom
65,800 were in ‘the city’); at the census of
1891, 490,986 (of whom 73,361 were in the city
proper), This estimate includes all the suburbs with-
a radius of 10 miles from the General Post-office.
During the commercial crisis of 1894-95 the city
suffered severely, and its population was reduced
by 60,000 or more. Protection to native industry
licy of the colony, and Melbourne
into a considerable centre of manu-
facturing ong ope Foundries, flour-mills, boot
and rage ries, &c, are numerous in the
suburbs, Royal Park, the Carlton, Fitzroy,
Botanical, and Flagstaff Gardens are the principal
Kopeler recreation reserves. The water-supply of
elbourne, which is abundant, comes from the
Yan-Yean reservoir in the Plenty Valley, and had
cost up till 1876 about 14 million sterling. The
tary condition of Melbourne is not so good
as might have been expected from the general
mildness of its climate and the high average of
are Sed of the inhabitants. phoid fever
notably has been excessively prevalent, and of late
years there has been increase rather than the steady
diminution which has been the rule in the cities
and towns of Europe and America. It is recognised
that this is mainly due to defective drainage, and
an unsatisfactory method of night soil disposal.
An eminent London engineer reported in 1890 on
the subject, suggesting a scheme for a complete
apr of underground drainage at a cost of over
,000, 000.
Port Phillip Bay, the maritime approach to
Melbourne, is a spacious land-locked inlet of the
South Pacific covering 800 sq. m., and mostly
available for anchorage. The entrance, known as
‘The Heads,’ is very narrow, and strong fortifi-
cations were begun by the Victorian government
in 1875. A well-equipped pilot station is main-
tained here.
Melbourne was first oceupied by white men in
1835, and the infant settlement was originally
known as Doutta-Galla, that being the name of
the tribe of blacks who inhabited the neighbour-
hood. In 1837 it was christened after the reigning
premier, Lord Melbourne, in 1842 it was incor-
porated, and in 1851 it was advanced to the dignity
of a capital when the Port Phillip province was
separated from New South Wales and erected into
the autonomous colony of Victoria. Simultane-
ously with this latter event the Victorian goldfields
were opened up, and the history of Melbourne
has since mainly been one of marvellous strides in
material progress and prea: On the centenary
of the colonisation of Australia, an International
Exhibition was held in Melbourne in 1888. It
cost the colony a quarter of a million. A great
conflict between labour and capital took place in
1890, and a strike by the labour-unionists took
place on a very extensive scale both in Victoria
and New South Wales. In 1892-93 Melbourne
suffered severely from commercial depression,
financial crises, and banking disasters. Wool
and gold bulk most largely amongst the exports.
See Victoria and its Metropolis, Past and Present
(Melbourne, 2 vols. 1889).
Melbourne, WititAm Lamps, VISCOUNT,
statesman, was second son of Penistone Lamb,
first Viseonnt Melbourne, and was born in
London, 15th March 1779. His education he
received at Eton, at Trinity College, Cambridge,
and at Glasgow. He entered the House of Com-
mons for Leominster in 1805 as a Whig, a follower
of Charles James Fox. But, having become a
convert to Canning’s views, he accepted in 1827
the chief-secretaryship of Ireland in his govern-
ment, and continued to hold the post under Lord
Goderich and the Duke of Wellington. In 1828
the death of his father transferred him to the
Upper House. Returning to his allegiance to the
igs, in 1830 he took the seals of ‘the Home
Office in the government of Earl Grey, and in
July 1834 succeeded his chief as prime-minister,
but only remained at the head of affairs until the
following November. Peel, however, gave way to
Melbourne again in 1835; and he continued in
office when Victoria ascended the throne (1837).
He succeeded by his uncommon tact in introduc-
ing her pleasantly to the various duties of a
constitutional monarch. In 1841 he once more
passed the seals of office to Sir Robert Peel, and
thenceforward took little part in stig affairs.
He was ineffective as a speaker, but uspleves
aptitude for affairs and common sense in the order
ing of them. His easy cheerful temper and cordial
frankness of manner gained him many friends.
Sydney Smith, in his second letter to Archdeacon
Singleton, has described his character with an
126 MELCHITES
MELON
exquisite mixture of sarcasm and compliment.
Melboarne died November 24, 1848. He married
(1805) a daughter of the Earl of smrag per who,
under the title of Lady Caroline Lamb (1785-
1828), attained some celebrity as a novel-writer
besides notoriety from her relations with Lo
Byron. The charge brought against him by the
lusband in 1836 of seducing the famous Mrs
Norton was thrown out by the jury without leav-
ing the box. ;
See Memoirs by Torrens (2 vols, 1878); Lord Mel-
bourne’s Papers, edited by L. C. Sanders (1889); The
Greville Memoirs (parts i. and ii. 1875-85); and Life
by Dunckley (1890).
Melchites, the name given to a body of Chris-
tians in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, who acknow-
lodge the authority of the popes and accept the
doctrines of the Church of Rome, but use the
liturgy and ceremonies of the Greek Church. They
conduct divine service in the vernacular tongue,
receive the Lord's Supper in both kinds, and follow
the Eastern Calendar. Their priests need not be
celibate, but must not marry after ordination.
They number close upon 80,000, and are ruled by a
patriarch at Damascus, and twelve bishops. The
name Melchites (lit. Royalists, from Syriac melcha,
‘a king’) dates from the 5th century, and was
ven to those members of the orthodox Eastern
hurch who supported the emperors against the
Monophysites (q.v.) and Nestorians (q.v.).
Melchizedek (‘ king of rightéousness’), in the
story of Genesis, king of Salem and priest of
‘Supreme El." He met Abram on his return from
the” victorious expedition against Chedorlaomer,
ve him his blessing, and received tithes from
fim. The ante-legal Tin -priest stands in Psalm
ex. as a figure typical of the vicegerent of Jehovah,
and in Hebrews, vii. 3, of the kingly priesthood of
Jesus. The chapter in Genesis containing his
story stands alone in character in the Pentateuch,
and according to Wellhausen is one of its latest
additions. As to his being ‘without father and
without mother,’ it may be noted that Abd-Kiba,
king of Jerusalem, in the Tell-el-Amarna tablets
says of himself : ‘ Neither my father nor my mother
appointed me in this place’—i.e. he was elective,
not hereditary king.
Melcombe Regis. See Weymouru.
Mel os $0 erly MARIGNANO, a town 12
miles SE. of Milan. Pop. 5438. Here Francis I.
of France defeated the Swiss in 1515, and the
French routed the Austrian rear-guard in 1859.
Melfi, a town of Southern Italy, 30 miles N. of
Potenza. The once magnificent cathedral (1155)
was ruined by earthquake in 1851. Melfi was the
Norman capital of Apulia. Pop. 11,765.
Melford, Lone, a pictu ue village of Suf-
folk, 13 miles 8S. of Bury St Edmunds by rail. It
has a very fine Perpendicular church 260 feet long.
Pop. of parish, 3253. See two works by Sir Ww.
Parker (1873) and E. L. Conder (1888),
Melilla, « Spanish ‘Presidio’ (q.v.) and convict
station on the coast of Morocco, 8 miles SE. of
Cape Trea Foreas, defended not without mishap
and difficulty against the Berbers of the Riff in
1893. It has been held by Spain since 1496.
Melilot (Melilotus), a genus of clover-like
lants of the natural order Leguminose. The
mmon Melilot, a yellow-flowered annual, com-
mon in Britain, has when in flower a peculiar
sweet odour like Tonka Bean, which increases in
dryin The flowers and sceds are the chief
ingredient in flavouring Gruytre cheese.—The
Blue Melilot (M. carnlea), a native of the north
of Africa, with short racemes of blue flowers, is
cultivated in many parts of Europe, particularly |
in gene igre Ga epee
melilot odour in a high degree. The name
Clover has been given to one or more species,
Melinite, an explosive obtained from Picrie
Acid (q.v.), itself a powerful explosive, by the
admixture of some other substance. The fabulous
pores attributed - ae ae laste ee for
artillery purposes (for shells) enera’
in 1886 have not been ventiaad ¢ it was found to be
neither stable nor reliable, and caused some bal
accidents. Lyddite (q.v.) is similar, but safer.
Meliphagidz. See Honry-E£aTEr,
Melissic Acid, See Wax.
FE a i Abbey, a ruin standing 4 miles”
W. of Drogheda, was the first Cistercian founda-
tion in Ireland, founded by St Malachy (q.v.) in
1142. In 1539, when it surrendered to Henry
VIII.’s commissioners, it had 140 monks, Its
remains were excavated during 1884-85. See
Mellifont Abbey, by K. F. B. (1886).
Melo, a town of Cerro Largo in Uruguay, on
the Tacuari, here crossed by a stone ind
‘built in 1865 " a Frenchman who was murd
for collecting toll’ (Mulhall). Pop. 5000.
Melodeon, an instrument of the type of the
Harmonium igs): on poneae by the American
organ. In 1859 over 20,000 melodeons were made
in the United States. The name is also applied to
an improved variety of the Accordion (q.v.).
Melodrama (Gr. melos, ‘a song,’ and drama
strictly denotes a half-musical drama, or that ki
of dramatic performance in which declamation
is interrupted from time to time by instrumental
music. he name, however, which was first
applied to the opera by its inventor, Ottavio
inuecini, has come to designate a romantic play.
depending mainly on sensational incidents, -
ling situations, and an effective dénouement. Great
sums are spent in the staging of such pieces, and
the costumes. scenery, and mechanical effects are
often very striking. The expression ‘ transpontine
drama’ refers to a time when such plays were
identified with houses on the Surrey side of the
Thames; nowadays the home of melodrama in
London is to be found in such theatres as Drury
Lane and the Adelphi.
Melon (Cucumis melo), a plant of the same
yer with the Cucumber (q.v.), much cultivated
‘or its fruit, which is sweet, with a delicions though
peculiar flavour and smell. The melon is an annual,
with trailing or climbing stems, lateral tendrils,
rounded angular leaves, small, yellow, monecious
flowers, and large round or somewhat ovate fruit.
It is supposed to be a native of the subtropical
parts of Asia, although it has never been discovered
ina wild state. Its English name was originally
Musk Melon. The varieties in cultivation are
very numerous, some of them distinguished by a -
thick and warty rind, some by a rind crac’
in a net-like manner, some by ribs and furrows,
some by a perfectly smooth and thin rind; they
differ also in the colour of the F ag of the fruit,
which is green, red, yellow, &c.; and in the
size of the fruit, which varies from 3 or 4 inches
to a foot or more in diameter. The melon is
eaten either by itself or with sugar, and some-
times with Dag eae? or ginger. Its cultivation in
hotbeds and in specially constructed hothouses
is extensively carried on in all parts of Britain,
and very great care is bestowed on it. A loamy
soil is best suited to it. The setting of the fruit by
dusting the female flower with the pollen of the
male flower is constantly practised rdeners,
Warmth and bright sunshine are requisite to the
oSeketgea of fruit of good quality.—The Water
felon or Citrul (C. citrullus), although rarely
—-_ =
7
-
’ Egypt and Arabia.—The Kaukoor
MELOS
MELTON-MOWBRAY 127
cultivated in Britain, is highly esteemed and much
cultivated in almost all warm countries. It is a
native of the warm parts of the Old World. It has
deeply lobed and gashed leaves, and a large round
fruit with smooth dark-green spotted
rind, and pink or white flesh, less
sweet than the melon, but much
more juicy or watery, and therefore
much prized in many warmcountries.
In America it is only the water
melon that is ever called simply
melon; for the other the old Eng-
lish name is retained where ‘ canta-
loupe’ is not used. In South Caro-
lina the water melon has reached
45 lb.—South Africa has another
species of Water Melon (C. Caffer), |
very valuable to the inhabitants.—
The Chate (C. Chate) is a native of
(C. utilissimus) is a native of India,
and much cultivated in some parts }
of that country; it has oval fruit,
smooth, variegated with different |
shades of yellow, and abont 6 inches
long, with much the flavour of the
melon. The fruit will keep for
several months, and is much used
both raw and in curries. The half-
grown frnit is pickled. The seeds
contain much farina and oil, and are ground into
meal; the oil is also expressed, and used both for
food and in lamps. ne seeds of others of this
genus may be used in the same way ; and they are
said to be useful as a diuretic medicine.
Melos (Ital. Milo), a Greek island, the most
south-westerly of the Cyclades, 13 miles long by 8
broad, with 4200 inhabitants. The island is volcanic,
and produces sulphur, salt, pumice-stone, stucco,
millstones, and a little oil and wine. Amongst
the ruins of the ancient city of Melos, and near its
theatre, was found the priceless antique, the
Venus de Milo, now one es the chiefest treasures
of the Louvre. See VENUS.
micipomicne (‘the singing one’), one of the
nine Muses, the representative of Tragedy.
Melrose, a pleasant little town of Roxburgh-
shire, on the south bank of the Tweed, and at the
north base of the triple Eildons (q.v.), 37 miles SSE.
of Edinburgh by rail. At Old Melrose, 24 miles
farther east, was founded about 635 the Columban
monastery, of which St Cuthbert (q.v.) became
a monk. It was burned by Kenneth MacAlpine
in $39, and had been quite deserted for upwards of
fifty years, when in 1136 the great Cistercian abbey
ef Melrose itself was founded by David I. Twice
burned by the English, this was slowly rebuilt on a
seale of increased magnificence between 1322 and
1505, only forty years after which date two fresh
English invasions commenced the destruction that
was speedily completed by the Reformers. The
abbey was in the nd Pointed style, with
approaches to Third Pointed, and was beyond
doubt the most beautiful structure of which Seot-
land could boast in the middle ages. What now
remains is the ruined conventual church, 215 feet
long by 116 across the transepts, with some frag-
ments of the eloister, which seems to have been
a square of 150 feet. The carvings and traceries,
hewn in a stone of singular excellence, are scarcely
surpassed by any in Reciaed, Melrose shines in
Scott's pages with a splendour its meagre histo
fails to sustain. The second abbot, St Waltheof,
the royal founder’s stepson; Alexander II. and
Johanna, his queen; the heart of Robert Bruce ;
the good Sir James, the Knight of Liddesdale, the:
hero of Otterburn, and others of the Douglas line ;
the ‘wondrous Michael Seott;’ and Sir David
Brewster—all these are buried here; else, the
annals of Melrose have little to record. A burgh
of barony since 1609, the town possesses a market-
Melrose Abbey.
cross (1642), a suspension foot-bridge over the
Tweed (1826), a hydropathic, (1871), and half a
dozen hotels, it being a great tourist centre, as
well for its abbey as from the vicinity of Abbots-
ford, Dryburgh, &c. Pop. (1841) 893; (1891) 1432.
See the Chronica de Mailros, 731-1275, ed. by Joseph
Stevenson (Bannatyne Club, 1835); the Liber S. Marie
de Melros, ed. by Cosmo Innes (Bannatyne Club, 1837);
Seott’s Abbot and Lay of the Last Minstrel ; and works
by Wade (1861) and Pinches (1879).
Melting-point, The following are some of the
most important melting-points, which may also be
regarded as the freezing-points of the corresponding
liquids :
Cent. Fah. Cent. Fah.
Alcohol,pure —130 —202 Sulphur. ....... 115 239
Hydrobro- | Lithium........ 180 356
mic acid, -120 -—184 Solder....about 180 356
Strongest |Tin 228 442
sulphuric | Bismuth 267 513
Ce ee -116 -177 | Lea .. 884 633
Sulphuretted | Antimony -. 430 806
hydrogen.. — 85 -—121 | Zine 450 842
Ammonia....— 75 —103 | Magnesium
Ralphareee. 8 Gi. 04 Wh wernbesn about 750 1882
acid.. .... — 7 —103 Bronze » 900 1652
Chlorine....— 75 -—103 | Silver » 1000 1832
Carbonic ac..—~ 70 — 94 | Brass...... 1015 1860
Chloroform..— 70 — 94 Copper.... » 1100 2012
Mercury.. .. — 39-88 — 88-88 Iron, white
Olive and cast..... » 1100 2012
linseed oil. — 20 -— 4 Iron, gray
Bromine....— 7-3 + 19-86) cast..... » 1225 2287
166. i 56dse 0 82 | Gold, pure. » 1250 2282
Glacial acetic | Steel...... n 1350 2462
ES 17 62-6 |Softiron.. » 1550 2822
Phosphorus, 44-2 111 Manganese, » 1600 2912
Potassium. . 62-5 144-5 | Platinum.. » 1800 3272
Sodium..... 95-6 204 Iridium.... » 1950 3542
Todine...... 113 235 Osmium... « 2500 4582
Melting-points beyond about 900° or 1000° F.
are merely approximate and relative.
Melton-Mowbray, « town of Leicestershire,
in the centre of a great hunting district, is seated
on the river Eye near its junction with the Wreak,
15 miles NE. of Leicester, and 104 NNW. of
London. It has a fine cruciform church, mainly
Early English, and is famous for its manufac-
tures of pork pies and Stilton cheese, chiefly for
retail in the London, Manchester, and Leeds
markets. Near the town in February 1644 a severe
engagement took place between parties of royalist
128 MELUN
MELVILLE
and parliamentary troops, resulting in the defeat
of the latter; and amongst its natives have been
Archbishop de Melton, who lies buried in the
church, and ‘Orator’ Henley. Pop. (1801) 1766;
(1881) 5820 ; (1891) 6392,
Melun, the capital of the French department of
Seine-et-Marne, on the Seine, near the Forest of
Fontainebleau, 28 miles SE. of Paris. It has two
interesting churches, and manufactures of leather,
ttery, Ke. Melun, the Melodunum of Cesar,
ell into the hands of the English after a six
months’ ings. in 1420, and was held by them for
ten years. Pop. (1872) 11,098; (1891) 12,792.
Melusine, or MELUSINA, the name of a fairy
lady who figures prominently in the celebrated
medieval French romance so called, the motif of
which is similar to that of the legend of Eros
(Cupid) and Psyche, is of far-reaching antiquity,
and has many parallels and analogues in the legen
and popular fictions of most countries, Asiatic as
well as European. Briefly stated, Melusine con-
sents to marry a knight called Raymondin, or
Raymond, on the condition that he should never
see her on a certain day every week, to which he
binds himself by solemn oaths. She bears him
eight sons, the warlike exploits of seven of whom
occupy the greater portion of this entertaining
romance. At length Raymond is induced by his
brother to break his promise, and on the usual day
of Melusine’s seclusion he discovers her in a bath,
the lower of her body being like a t
t. m after this ymond, en at
the cruelty of one of his sons, upbraids the inno-
cent Melusine as ‘a false serpent,’ whose offspring
could never come to any permanent Melusine
forgives him, but her doom cannot be averted, and,
after a touching scene, she takes her flight through
the window in the likeness of a monstrous dragon;
and in this form she afterwards appeared hovering
near the castle of Lusignan—erected by her own
fairy power for her beloved lord Kaymond—when-
ever one of her descendants was about to die, thus
acting the part of the Irish Banshee.
In the myth of Cupid and Psyche the mortal
maiden is not to behold her celestial spouse ; but,
incited by her envious sisters, she takes a lighted
lamp to look upon him one night as he lies asleep,
and, in her agitation at beholding his marvellous
beanty, a drop of oil from the lamp falls on him,
whereupon he and the splendid palace vanish, and
Psyche finds herself on a desolate heath. She is
reunited to him, however, after performing a
number of seemingly impossible tasks by order of
her vindictive mother-in-law, Venus. This myth
has ee penetrated European folklore. In a
Sicilian tale a girl is married to a green bird, who
changes to a handsome young man on bathing in
a pan of milk. She is not to ask his name, In a
Norse tale a prince is bewitched by his step-
mother, so that he is a white bear by day and a
man by night; in a Danish tale, a well in a
Chilian tale (of European origin doubtless), a
hideous black man; anc in all three, and many
other analogues and variants, the bride loses her
enchanted spouse for a time in the same manner as
in the Greco-Roman myth, which several learned
scholars have endeavoured to interpret as typifying
the natural phenomenon of the Dawn.
One of the oldest legends of this class is the
Hindu myth of Urvasi and Purtiravas, the con-
dition which the celestial nymph im on her
husband being that she is not to see him naked—
which Mr Andrew Lang (Custom and Myth) con-
siders, with good reason, as signifying ‘a custom
of women.’ Pressine, the mother of Melusine,
imposes on her husband, the king of Albany, the
condition that he should never see her in child-
bed. He forgets his promise and loses his fairy
spouse. Fuad ope po sboatg Fas 52> nd of the
princely family of Haro, a lord of » While
chasing the wild boar, meets with a fairy, who
consents to wed him if he promise never to
nounce a holy name in her presence.—In
Hindu legend, Bheki, the , isa en who
consents to marry a king on the condition that he
never shows her a drop of water: being faint one
day, she asked her husband for water, which he
gave her, forgetting his promise, and she dis-
a F
Lee strikin
is found in a
water, with the lower part of her body like that of
a fish, the result being that he finds himself near
his native village, where nobody knows him, for he
is now an old man, and all his relatives are dead.
Undine is also a daughter of the stream, and she
makes her husband promise that he will never
k angrily to her when on or near any water,
Be. toa, in the Persian tale of King Ruz ah and
the Turkish tale of the king of Yemen, both of
whom espouse Snare of the genii; the condition
is that the husband must not question or complain
of anything his wife should do, however strange it
might appear. Such conditions occur so frequently
in the fairy tales of almost every people (see also
LOHENGRIN ); and it may be added that tales of
Forbidden Chambers, familiar to readers of the
Arabian Nights, of which many examples are
current in Europe, are closely allied to legends
of the Urvasi and Purtravas, Eros and Psyche,
and Melusina cycle.
See Max-Miiller’s Chips from a German Wi
vol. ii.; Baring-Gould’s Curious Myths of the Mid
Ages; Cox's Mythology of the Aryan Nations (1870);
Grinum’s Teutonic Mythology (trans. Stalybrass); Clous-
ton’s P. Tales and Fictions (1887 ; Clouston’s
Group of Eastern Romances and Stories (1889); and the
lish version of the romance of Melusine, from
the French of John of Arras (1387), printed for the Early
English ‘Text Society (1891), from a unique MS. of the
1 century, with full appendix notes = the present
writer on the Cupid and che and Melusina cycle of
legends.
Melville, the name of an island, a sound, and
a age rery in the polar regions of North America.
The island is crossed by 75° N. lat. and 110° W.
long., and is separated on the west by Fitzwilliam
Strait from Prince Patrick Island. Greatest ge
200 miles; greatest breadth, 130 miles. In 1819
Parry, who yave the island its name, passed the
winter here with his crews. The sound, about 250
tiles long by 200 broad, extends south-east of the
island, and communicates with the Arctic Ocean
on the west by Banks Strait, and with Baffin Ba;
on the east by Barrow Strait and Lancaster Soun
The peninsula projects from the continent at its
north-eastern corner, and has on the N. the ia
and Hecla Strait, and on the E. Fox Channel. It
is 250 miles in length by about 100 in ave
breadth,—Another Melville Island lies across t}
entrance to Van Diemen Gulf off the shore of the
northern territory of South Australia.
. m. It is hilly and covered with vegetation.
1¢ earliest British settlement on this coast was
made here in 1824.
Melville, ANDREW, a champion of Scottish
Presbyterianism, was born Ist August 1545, at
~*~
7 =
4
lit i i i i
MELVILLE
MEMLING 129
Baldovy, near Montrose. He was educated at the
agrees Herne of Montrose, whence he removed in
is fourteenth year to the university of St Andrews.
Here he ed four a, and left it with the
reputation of being ‘the best philosopher, poet, and
Grecian of any young master in tlie land.’ -He then
gga aed ‘aris, Where he continued his studies
two years. His reputation must have been
already considerable, for in his twenty-first year he
was ¢ regent in the college of St Marceon,
Poitiers. Some time afterw: he proceeded to
Geneva, where through the influence of Beza, with
whose opinions in religion and politics he already
- Senearnae he was, appoin to the chair of
umanity in the Academy. On his return to Scot-
land Fal hvbe: say Principal of the college
of G , Where did the highest service to
the cause of learning throughout the country. He
had a | important share in drawing up that
charter the Presbyterian polity, the Second
Book of Discipline (see DiscipLiNe). In 1580
Melville was chosen Principal of St Mary’s College,
St Andrews. Here, ‘besides giving lectures on
theo , he ry the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac,
and Rabbinical pgn wo In 1582 he preached
the opening sermon before the General Assembly,
and boldly ‘inveighed against the bloody knife of
absolute authority, whereby men intended to pull
the crown off Christ’s head and to wring the sceptre
out of his hand.’ Two years later Melville was
summoned before the Privy-council on account of
a sermon preached at St Andrews; and to escape
imprisonment he removed to London. Here he re-
mained till the downfall of Arran in the following
year, and then after an absence of twenty months
returned and resumed his oflice at St Andrews. He
was tedly elected moderator of the General
Assembly and rector of the university. At Cupar
in 1596. Melville headed a deputation to ‘remon-
strate’ with the king ; and when James reminded
the zealous remonstrant that he was //s vassal,
‘Sirrah !’ retorted Melville, ‘ye are God's silly
vassal ; there are two kings and two kingdoms in
Scotland : there is King James, the head of this
commonwealth, and there is Christ Jesus, the King
of the chureh, whose subject James the Sixth is,
and of whose kingdom he is not a —- nor a lord,
nor a head, but a member.’ In 1606 Melville, with
seven other ministers, was called to England to
confer with the king. Having ridiculed the service
in the Chapel Royal in a Latin epigram, he was
summoned re the English Privy-council, when
he broke out into a torrent of invective against the
Archbishop of Canterbury for encouraging popery
and superstition, profaning the Sabbath, ae The
king, violating ev: rinciple of justice, imme-
diately sent him to the Tower, where le remained
for more than four years. In 1611 he was rel
on the solicitation of the Duke of Bouillon, who
wanted his services as a Saya in his university
at Sedan in France. elville, now in his sixty-
sixth year, would fain have returned to Scotland,
but James would not listen to his request. Melville
died about 1622, but neither the date of his death
nor the events of his last years are ascertained.
See M‘Crie’s Life of Melville (2 vols. 1819).
JAMES MELVILLE, nephew of Andrew Melville,
was born near Montrose in 1556. After receiving
the best education that Scotland could then offer, he
me regent or tutor in the college of Glasgow,
and afterwards professor of Oriental Languages in
the university of St Andrews. In 1586 he settled
as minister in Kilrenny, Fife, taking an active
t h not a commanding part in the affairs of the
church at large. He is mainly remembered, how-
ever, for his so-called Diary, extending from 1556
to 1601. Ejected in 1606, he died in 1614 at
sos “ae weed, Melville sees all the persons
and events of his day from his own point of view as
a Presbyterian minister. Nevertheless his record is
of real interest and importance for students of the
riod which it covers. There are editions in the
natyne Club (1829) and Wodrow Society (1842).
Melville, Herman, an American author, was
born in New York city, August 1, 1819. He be-
came a sailor, but in 1842 he deserted from a whal-
ing-ship, owing to the captain’s harsh treetment,
at the Marquesas Islands. There he was kept four
months as the prisoner of a savage tribe in the
Typee Valley, whence he was rescued by an
Australian whaler. Returning to the United
States in 1846, he published Typee, a spirited
account of his residence in the Marquesas, in 1847
Omoo, a continuation of his adventures in Oceania, -
and a number of tales and three volumes of poetry.
Died in New York 28th September 1891.
Melville, Sir James, of Halhill, born in 1535,
was sent as page of honour to the young Queen
Mary in France, and subsequently undertook
numerous missions to the court of England and of
the Elector Palatine. He died Ist November 1607,
leaving interesting Memoirs, of which the standard
edition is that of the Bannatyne Club (1827). ‘
Melville, Viscount. See DuNpDAs.
Melville, Wuyte-. See WHyTE-MELVILLE.
Membrane, in Anatomy. This term is applied
to designate those textures of the animal y
which are arranged in the form of lamin, and
cover organs, or line the interior of cavities, or
take part in the formation of the walls of canals or
tubes. The structure and special uses of some of
the most important of the animal membranes are
noticed in separate articles, such as Mucous Mem-
brane (see DIGESTION), Serous Membrane (q.v.),
&e.; and the membranes in which the foetus is
enclosed are described in the article Placenta.
Memel, a Prussian seaport, defended by a
citadel and two forts on the sea side, lies at the
northern eran ay MT the Kurisches Haff, at its
opening into the Baltic, 70 miles NNE. of Danzig.
It has a large harbour, and exports from Lithuania
and Russia timber, flax and linseed, coal, manure,
grain, and herrings to the annual value of £900,000
to £1,000,000, timber constituting half the value;
Great Britain takes one-third of the total. The
imports, which generally exceed a million sterling,
include the exports in transit, and textiles, colonial
produce, and wine and spirits for local use. The
town possesses manufactories of brandy, soap and
chemicals, saw-mills, iron-foundries, breweries, and
shipbuilding-yards. There is a good school of
navigation, Pop. (1875) 19,796; (1890) 19,282. ©
Memel was founded in 1252 by the Livonian order,
who gave it to the Teutonic Knights, by whom it
was fortified in 1404. It suffered severely in the
Lithuanian wars (13th to 15th centuries), Here
in 1807 Frederick-William III. of Prussia took
refuge, and a treaty with England was signed.
Having been almost wholly destroyed by fire
in 1854, it was rebuilt in modern style. For the
river Memel, see NIEMEN.
Memling, or more correctly MEMLING, HANs,
Flemish painter, was born at Mainz in the first
half of the 15th century, of Dutch parents, and
died at Bruges, where most of his life was spent,
on llth Angust 1494, His painting gained him
a wide reputation, extending even to England and
Italy. is principal works are sacred py be
such as ‘The Last Judgment’ (at Danzig), ‘Seven
Sorrows and Seven Joys of the Virgin,’ ‘ Marriage
of St Catharine,’ ‘ Adoration,’ several Madonnas,
and the fourteen small paintings that adorn the
shrine containing St Ursula’s relics at Cologne;
and portraits, as of Sir John Donne, of Burgo-
MEMPHIS
130 MEMMINGEN
master Moreel, and of Moreel’s daughter. See
Lives by Weale (in Dutch, 1871) and Michiels (in
French, 1883); also Art Journal (1885, p. 318).
Memmingen, an old town of Bavaria, 33 miles
SSE. of Ulm, played a prominent tt in the
religious wars of the 16th century. Here Moreau
defeated the Austrians under Kray, 9th and 10th
May 1800. Linen, cloth, &c. are manufactured.
Pop. 8688.
Memno
a hero of Greek mythology, son of
Tithonus an
Es (the Dawn), who led to Troy a
host of Ethiopians to aid his step-uncle Priam after
the death of Hector, slew Antilochus, Nestor's son,
in single combat, and was himself slain by Achilles.
Various legends are told of his supposed rule at
Susa, where he was said to have built the acropolis,
and of his vassalage to the Assyrian Tentamus.
His corpse was removed from the battlefield b
Eds, whose early tears for her son are by mortals
called dewdrops, and his followers the Memnonides
were turned into birds. Memnon is chiefly a post-
Homeric hero, and attained his test celebrity
in very late times, when the Greeks discovered the
two famous colossal statues of Amenoph IIT. stand-
ing in front of his now vanished temple on the left
bank of the Nile at Thebes, and regardless of history
dubbed the eastern one Memnon. It is an imposin
throned figure, aeeeehy about 60 feet high, carv
in breccia, but broken in ancient times and repaired
with sandstone blocks. Its special uliarity,
which procured it the name of the ‘ Vocal Memnon’
and the honour of forming one of the seven wonders
of the world, was the property of emitting a metal-
lic sound, like the snapping of a chord, especially
about sunrise, whence the imaginative Greeks con-
eluded that it was the voice of Memnon hailing his
newly-risen mother the Dawn. Considerable differ-
ence of opinion has “vii as to the real cause of
this phenomenon, which has been variously ascribed
to the artifice of the priests, who struck the sonorous
stone of which the statue is composed, to the pass-
age of light draughts of air through the eracks, and
to the sudden expansion of aqueous particles under
the influence of the sun's rays. This remarkable
quality of the statue is first mentioned by Strabo,
who visited it in company of ALlius Gallus about
18 B.c. ; and up of a hundred inscriptions of
Greek and Roman visitors incised upon its legs
record the visits of ancient travellers to hearken
to Memnon when he
Softly sings beneath the Libyan hills,
Where aprending fle parts pantie gated Thebes,
from the ninth year of Nero, 63 A.D., to the reign
of the Emperor Severus, when it became silent.
Amongst visitors whose names are recorded are
the Emperor Hadrian and his wife Sabina. Sep-
timius Severus also visited the statue, and is
believed to have restored it in its present shape ;
for Juvenal mentions it as broken in half (dinudio
magice resonant ubi Memnone chorde), and no
notice of it occurs under the Pharaohs or Ptolemies
see Edinburgh Review, July 1886).—The name of
emnoneum was given to the sepuichral quarter
of Thebes, and there were Memnonea at Abydos. —
Besides the mythical Memnon two historical per-
sonages of this name are known—one a Rhodian
commander of the mercenaries of Artabazus in the
war against Artaxerxes-Oclius, who subsequently
fled to Macedon, and afterwards entering the
Persian service defended Persia against Alexander
(336 B.C.), and finally died at the siege of Mitylene
(333 B.c.): the other a Greek historian, who wrote
a history of Heracleia Pontica in 16 books, which
have been epitomised by Photius.
Memoirs, See Brocrarny.
Memory. See Myemonics, Psycnovocy.
Memory,
» DISEASES OF. Memory, or bea i
of reproducing mental or sensory impressions, is im-
nds, or injuries to the head or
paired by age, wou
nervous system, fevers, intemperance, and various
physical conditions, It is affected in most kinds —
of mental derangement, but is in a most si
manner obliterated or enfeebled in Dementia. T
are, however, examples of memory surviving all
other faculties, and preserving a clear and exten-
sive notion of long and complicated series of events
amid general darkness and ruin of mind. Inco-
herence owes some of its features to defective or
irregular memory. Cases of so marvellous an ex-
altation of this faculty as where a whole parlia-
mentary debate could be recalled, or a whole play
of Shakespeare’s recited by a man at one time,
which would be ordinarily ——— for him, are
common in the beginning of attacks of mania,
and always should suggest disease. There are,
however, special affections of the faculty. It may
be suspended while the intelligence remains intact.
Periods of personal or general his may elude
the p, and even thit continuit; impressions
which goes far to constitute the feeling of pa
identity is broken up, and a duality or multiplicity
of experiences may appear to be conjoined. The
converse of this may happen, and impressions that —
had completely faded away may, under excitement
or cerebral disease, return, There are, ides,
states in which this power is partially affected, as
in the instances where the numbers 5 and 7 were
lost, and where a highly-educated man could not
retain any conception of the letter F; secondly,
where it is perverted, recalling images inappro-
priately and in an erroneous sequence of order or
time, and different from what are desired; and
thirdly, where, while the written or printed signs
of ideas can be used, the oral or articulate signs
are forgotten. Such examples of diseased memory
are now classified as amnesia, simple loss of mem-
ory ; amnesic aphasia, loss of memory of spoken
words (see APHASIA); and amnesic agraphia, loss
of memory of written words. Most of these special
deviations from health depend upon morbid chan
in a very limited portion— Broca’s convolution ’—
of the left side of the brain. The discovery of
this fact by Broca was the first of the brilliant
discoveries as to the localisation of function in the
brain cortex. See Feuehtersleben, Medical Psy-
chology 5 and Ribot, Les Maladies de la Mémoire
(1881).
Memphis, a celebrated Egyptian city, situated
at the Soa of the Delta, or Lower t, the
ancient capital of the country, call y the
Egyptians Men nefer, or ‘the Good Station,’ by
the Hebrews M and by the Arabs a
It was founded by Menes, the first monarch of the
Ist dynasty, who, according to Herodotus, ch
the bed of the Nile, and made an embankment 100
stadia above Memphis to protect the new city
— inundations, the remains of which still exist
about 14 miles above Mitrahenny, the centre of old
Memphis, and the site of the temple of Ptah.
Menes fortified the city, and laid the foundations
of the temple. The site was well chosen; pro-
tected alike by the Libyan and Arabian chains
of mountains against the river and the incursions
of the sand, defending the approach of the country
from the incursions of Asiatie nomads, and com-
municating with the Red Sea and the Mediter-
ranean. The city, which at one time had a cir-
cumference of 150 stadia, was composed of two por-
tions—one built of crude bricks, the other, on which
was the citadel, of caleareous stone, The —
built by Menes, was enlarged by his son Athothis,
and was always inhabited either by a monarch or
by his viceroy. After the 6th dynasty the city de-
clined in importance, and was apparently held by
*
MEMPHIS
MENCIUS 131
the Hyksos after the 13th and before the 18th
1500 B.c.). At this period Memphis was ruled
a viceroy, a prince of the blood, and still re-
mained a religious capital. It rose again to great
importance under the Saite monarclis, about 600
B.C., who restored it ; and it was conquered by Sen-
nacherib. Its temples were magnificent, and com-
Sure the Iseum, a large temple of Isis, completed
y Amasis II. just prior to Cambyses (525 B.c.);
a temple dedicated to Proteus, in the foreign
quarter; the temple of the Apis, having a peri-
style and court ornamented with figures, opposite
the south prety earn of the temple of Ptah, where
the sacred resided ; the Serapeum, or temple
of Serapis, discovered by M. Mariette ; the Nilo-
meter; a temple of Ra; and the shrine of the
Cabiri. Here were the statues of Rameses IIL., one
of which is known as ‘the fallen colossus,’ at
Mitrahenny. Still more remarkable was the great
necropolis of the city, in the centre of which
towered the pyramids (see PyRAMips). During
the attempts of the native rulers to throw off the
Persian rule, Memphis was an important strategic
om Ochus inflicted severe injury on this town,
ving plundered the temples and thrown down
the walls after he had driven out Nectanebes.
Alexander the Great here worshipped the Apis,
his corpse was brought to this city by Ptolemy
before it was finally transferred to Alexandria.
The first Ptolemies were ‘crowned in the Serapeum.
Ptolemy VIIL destroyed the city, and it fell with
the rest of Egypt under the Roman rule, and after-
wards was conquered by ’Amr ibn el-Asi (640
A.D.). Its ruins, which served as quarries for
later buildings, were large and important in the
13th century, when they were seen by Abd-ul-
Latif; but little is now to be seen beyond deeply-
buried walls. See works cited at Ecypr.
jis, a city and of entry of Tennes-
see, on ali Bluffton the att bank of the
: ppi River, 826 miles above New Orleans,
and 230 miles by rail WSW. of Nashville. The
river to this point is navigable for the largest sea-
poing vessels, and — lines of railway terminate
; the trade of Memphis is accordingly very
large. It is a handsome town, with wide, regular
streets, and great warehouses bordering the esplan-
ade that extends along the bluff. The public build-
ings include a custom- cotton exchange, a large
ital, a Roman Catholic college, and numerous
churches. Mem is one of the first cotton marts
in the United States, and has numerous manufac-
tories. The city was visited by fearful epidemics
of yellow fever in 1878 and 1879, since when its
d has been reconstructed. A great steel
cantilever iit bridge across the Mississippi
was opened in 1892; it = five spans, and a total
of 1886 feet. Pop. (1850) 8841; (1870)
40,226 ; (1880) 33,592; (1900) 102,320.
Menado. See Cetezes.
Ménage, Gives, a French writer, born at
Angers in 1613, gave up the bar for the church,
but chiefly spent his time in literary pursuits. He
founded, position to the Academy, a salon,
the M les, which gained him a European
reputation, and the ridicule of Molitre as Vadius in
Femmes Savantes. His Dictionnaire Etymologique
de la po ge Francaise (1650; best ed. by Jault,
2 vols. 1750), and his Origini della Lingua Italiana
{iv0), are erudite works, but contain many fanci-
1 etymologies. He died in 1692. See Life by
Baret (Paris, 1859).
Menai Strait, a channel between Carnarvon-
shire and the island of Anglesey, running east-
north-east from its southern extremity to Bangor,
a distance of 14 miles, where it ens ont into
Bay. Its width varies from about 200
yards to 2 miles, whilst the scenery on both sides
is very picturesque. The navigation is hazardous,
but for the sake of expedition vessels under 100
tons, and occasionally some of larger size, pass
through the strait. At its entrance the tides some-
times rise to a height of 30 feet; ordinary neap-
tides, however, do not rise more than from 12 to
154 feet. Communication between the mainland
and Anglesey was formerly solely maintained by
radi dong at different points, but since 1825 access
has been afforded by a suspension bridge, and since
1850 by the Britannia Bridge. See BRIDGE.
Menam. See Sram.
Menander, the most famous Greek poet of
the New Comedy, was born at Athens in 342 B.c.,
and was drowned at the Pireus in 291. He was
the friend, if not the pupil, of Theophrastus, him-
self a disciple of Plato and Aristotle ; and he was
the intimate of Epicurus, and the favourite of
Demetrius Phalereus and Ptolemy the son of
us. His comedies seem to have been more suc-
cessful with cultured than with popular audiences,
for we are told that only eight out of a hundred
comedies gained the prize. nhappily we possess
but fragments of his work, but we may safely take
our estimate of the ‘mundus Menander’ from his
close yp and imitator, Terence, and from the
words of such writers as Ovid, Propertius, and
Pliny. The Attie New Comedy was essentially
domestic rather than political in character, and its
chief figures are conveniently summed up in the
lines of Ovid ;
Dum fallax servus, durus pater. improba lena
Vivet, dum meretrix blanda, Menandros erit.
His most famous comedy seems to have been the
Thais, and it is interesting that of the five lines
preserved one is quoted by St Paul (1 Cor. xv. 33).
Of the Georgos, hitherto known but by five small
fragments, Professor Nicole published 87 lines, newly
recovered, in 1897. See the edition of the Georgos by
Granfell and Hunt (1898).
Menchikoy. See MeNscuixkorr.
Mencius, the Latin form of MENG-TsE, the
name of a Chinese sage, a contemporary of Plato
and Aristotle, who was born in the province of
Shan-tung in 372 B.c. He was brought up by his
mother—the pattern of all mothers ever since in
the eyes of the Chinese—and founded a school on
the model of that of his great predecessor Con-
fucius, for whom Mencius entertained a feeling of
reverent admiration. When forty years of age he
led out his disciples and travelled from one princely
court to another during more than twenty years,
seeking a ruler who would ye into pence his
system of social and political order. But, findin
none, he again withdrew into retirement, and di
in 289 B.c. After his death his disciples collected
his conversations and exhortations, and published
them as the Book of Meng-tse. The aim of
Mencius’ teaching was essentially ecg how
men, especially the rulers of men, shall best regu-
late their conduct, both public and private. The
philosophic root of his system is belief in the
ethical goodness of man’s nature, which quality
he takes to be the essential characteristic of the
humanity of men. From this root grow the
cardinal virtues of benevolence, righteousness,
moral wisdom, and propriety of conduct. It
should be the aim es the individual to perfect
himself by practising these virtues in all the
relations of his social and political life. The
flowering of this goodly plant which Mencius
lanted for the ordering of the lives of men, both
dividual and collective, assumed the form of a
liberal and enlightened system of political economy.
Amongst other things he advocated freedom of
132 MENDE
-
i
MENDELSSOHN
trade, the deposition of unworthy rulers, division
of labour, inspection of work by the government,
encouragement of markets, maintenance of good
roads and bridges, &e:, condemnation of war, care
for the poor and neglected, but above all the pro-
motion of education—the summary of the whole
being that the welfare of the people should be the
chief. consideration of the state. There is also an
aristocratic element in his teaching. The highest
types of individual character are exhibited by the
rg the great man, the superior man or sage,
and the holy or ideal man ; their personal example
is the best educator the people can have. The
fruits of Mencius’ teaching have always been
highly valued by his countrymen from his own
times to the present. ‘The chief dicta of modern
Chinese ethics and politics are mostly taken
literally from Mencius, or adhere closely to his
teaching.’
See Legge, Life and Works of Me (1875 ; ‘Chi
Classics’ ae and Peer” iMbadd of Mencius (kng.
trans. 1882).
Mende, capital of the French department of
Lozére, on the Lot, in a valley surrounded by high
hills, 66 miles NW. of Nimes, has a cathedral, and
manufactures serges and coarse cloths. Pop. 6740.
Mendeans, See MAND#ANS.
Mendeleéff, Darrer Ivanovitcn, chemist,
was born at Tobolsk, 7th February 1834, studied
at St Petersburg, and, after having taught at
Simferopol, Odessa, and St Petersburg, ame
rofessor of Chemistry in the university of St
Putersband in 1866. He has enriched every section
of chemical science, but is especially distinguished
for his contributions to physical chemistry and
chemical philosophy. See Aromic THEory; and
Nature (vol xl. 1889).
Mendelssohn, Moses, philosopher, was born
6th September 1729, at Dessau. From his father,
whose name was Mendel, a Jewish schoolmaster
and seribe, he received his first education; and in
his thirteenth year he proceeded to Berlin, where,
amid very indigent circumstances, he contrived to
learn Latin and modern languages, and to apply
himself to the study of philosophy, into which early
readings, chiefly of Maimonides’ Moreh Nebochim,
had initiated him already. After many years of
com tive poverty he became the partner of a
rich silk-manufacturer, whose children he had edu-
cated. The intimate friend of men like Lessing,
Sulzer, Nicolai, he, directly and indirectly, con-
tributed in a vast yon to the abolition of the
disgraceful laws and bratal prejudices against the
Jews. On the other hand, be acted in the most
beneficial manner on his own co-religionists, by
rousing them from the mental ~y ores with which
they regarded in his day all that had not a distinct
reference to religion, and by waging fierce war
net their own religions and other prejudices,
e died 4th January 1786, and Ramler wrote the
following epitaph on him : * True to the religion of
his forefathers, wise as Socrates, teaching immor-
tality, and becoming immortal like Socrates.’ He
was the eres of Lessing's Nathan, and was
called a ‘second Moses.’ He was a diligent student
of Locke, Shaftesbury, and Pope: a zealous defender
of enlightened Monotheiam, and, in spite of Lessing,
strongly anti-Spinozist. His principal works are a
volume on Pope as a philosopher, along with Lessing
(i786), on the Sensations (1755), on Evidence in
etaphysies (1763); Phaedon (1767), a dialogue on
the immortality of the soul in the manner of Plato;
Jerusalem (1783), a defence of Judaism as a reli-
gions Morgenstunden, esanys in refutation of Pan-
m Spinoziem. His works were edited in
1845 (8 vols.), and rire in 1880 (2 vols.). See the
Life by Kayserling (2d ed. 1887).
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, FeLrx, composer,
was born at Hamburg on chester 3, 1808 ~The
family name was already remarkable by the fame
of his grandfather, Moses Mendelssohn. Abraham
the second son of Moses Mendelssohn, had entered
a banking business in Paris, but subsequently,
on his marriage with Lea Salomon in 1804,
settled in Hamburg. The French Seip we
in 1811 forced him to with his family
to Berlin, where he founded the eminent firm of
bankers known by his name. He resolved about
this time to bring up his children as Protestant
Christians, and added the name of Bartholdy to
that of Mendelssohn in order to distinguish his
own from the Jewish branch of the family.
The education he bestowed on Felix appears to
have been as liberal as it was systematic. In his
eighth year we find the child studying com :
um
under Zelter and the pianoforte under
Berger, besides receiving lessons in drawing
the violin. Two years later he made his first
public appearance, playing the pianoforte part in
a trio at a concert in Berlin. ith 1820
that period of prolific production which lasted
almost till his death. At the same time he
entered upon a ceaseless round of gaiety and
activity which largely determined his character.
The home-life of the Mendelssohn family was
eminently suited to the musical tendencies of the
boy. A concert was given at the house on alter-
nate Sunday mornings, when some of Felix's com-
re generally found a place in the p me,
ithin the next few years he formed the acquaint-
ance of such men as Goethe, Weber, and Moschel
and had composed his Bymeony in C minor an
the B minor Quartet. short visit to Paris with
his father in March 1825 did not impress him favour-
ably with the French musicians.
he following A t saw the completion of his
opera, Camacho’s Wedding, which was destined to
be the beginning of his unpleasant relations with
the Berliners; and his well-known Octet for strings
was finished in October. With the composition of
the Midsummer Night’s Dream overture, in A t
1826, Mendelssohn may be said to have attained his
musical majority, and his lessons with Zelter ceased.
On April 29, 1827, the opera Camacho's bbe. 4
was produced in Berlin, Though received wi
vehement applause it never reached a second per-
formance, owing, among other reasons, to
illness of one of the principal singers, and the per-
sonal criticisms on the work in the press.
after this Mendelssohn commenced the formation
of a small choir of sixteen voices, which met at his -
house for the purpose of studying Bach’s Passion
Music ; and, in spite of the difficulties of the work
and the determined opposition of Zelter, the scheme
culminated in the famous performance by the Sing-
akademie on March 11, 1829, the first since Bach's
death. For some reason, however, his suecess did
not improve his relations with Berlin musicians.
Accordingly, being now twenty years old, he
resolved to leave home and to visit the different
countries of Europe. England, afterwards the
land of his most pleasant associations, was his
first destination. Ke arrived in London on April
21, 1829, and was warmly welcomed by the -
harmonic Society. He made his first appearance
at one of their concerts, when he conducted his
Symphony in C minor. A tour through Scotland
in the summer inspired him with the Hebrides
overture and the Scotch Symphony.
During the next year he visited Munich and
Vienna. By October he had reached Venice, and
the ae winter he spent in Rome. Returning
to Munich he proceeded thence to Paris, paying
his second visit to London in April 183%, He
shortly afterwards returned to Berlin, having been
am
MENDES
MENDIP HILLS 133
absent three years. In the spring of 1833 he was
invited to conduct the Lower Rhine festival at
Diisseldorf, where his success led to his being
offered the entire direction of the music for three
years. He at once accepted the post and com-
menced his new duties in September. His work
at the theatre, however, proved uncongenial, and
was accordingly relinquished. His stay at Diissel-
dorf was full of responsibilities and worries, and
he ultimately left the town in October 1835 to
conduct the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipzig. A
su nent visit to Frankfort bronght him in con-
taet with Rossini, and was also the occasion of his
first meeting with Cecile Jeanrenaud, who after-
wards became his wife. The marriage took place
in 1837, and was followed by a visit to Birming-
ham, where he conducted his S¢ Paul, which had
been first heard at Diisseldorf the previous year.
His attention was now chiefly devoted to Leipzig,
but September 1840 found him again at Birming-
ham conducting the Lobgesang. About this time
Mendelssohn was uisitioned by the king of
Prussia to go to Berlin to assist in the foundation
of an Academy of Arts; and, though loth to leave
a poe where he was so much appreciated and
beloved as in Leipzig, he removed to Berlin in
May 1841, on the understanding that his stay there
should not exceed one year. The king’s idea of
yh, the ancient Greek tragedies Jed to the
composition by Mendelssohn of the music to the
Antigone and Edi
In 1843 he had the satisfaction of seeing his
favourite scheme carried into_effect by the opening
of the new musie-school at Leipzig, with Schu-
mann and David among his associates. He was
in London the vets | year to conduct the last
five concerts of the Philliarmonic season ; and in
1846 he paid his ninth visit to England for the
uction of Elijah, which took place at Birming-
on August But his hard work was now
beginning to tell on him, for, although his Berlin
duties and his position as chief of the Leipzig Con-
servatorium entailed constant labour and anxiety,
he persisted in g out all his engagements.
He had scarcely returned from his tenth and Inst
visit to a aaa in May 1847, when the news of
his sister Fanny’s death reached him. Periods of
illness and. de; rapidly followed; and on
November 4, 1847, he expired at his house in
Leipzig. The body was conveyed to Berlin, and
was interred in the family burial-place in the Old
Trinity Churchyard.
In stature Mendelssohn was short, and his hand-
some countenance was of.a decidedly Jewish cast.
He was eminent both as pianist and organist,
lly in his rendering of the works of Bach,
nd Beethoven. He moreover comneaien
is gifts
a
a remarkable facility of improvisation.
also included a talent for landscape-drawing ; and
he has left behind him a whole series of sketches
illustrating his different journeys. His music
dwells almost exclusively on the sunny and gay
side of life. Rarely, if ever, does he touch the
innermostdepths of passion and feeling. But hewas,
like Handel, one of the few composers who appealed
to English audiences; for eal years his Elif
_ has been almost as popular as the Messiah itself.
See two collections of Mendelssohn’s Letters (1861
and 1863; trans. by Lady Wallace, 1862-63), those to the
Moscheles (1888), and ‘the selection edited by W. F.
Alexander and Grove (1894); the Lives b
Benedict (1850), Moscheles (1873; trans. ee Coleridge
” Reissmann (3d ed. 1892); Remi-
Devrient (1869; trans. by Mrs Macfarren ),
4); and Die Familie Mendelssohn
trans. 1882),
Mendés, Carutte, born at Bordeaux of Jewish
parentage 22d May 1841, has since 1859 written a
long series of poems, romances, dramas, and libretti,
as well as journalistic articles and criticisms on
bE ath &e. Mert novels may be are Le Rot
ierge ( 1880), istophela (1890), and La Maison
de la Vieille (1894).
Mendicancy. In spite of the stringency
of the laws against vagrancy and. begging,
and the numerous aid societies in every town
in Britain for the relief of the poor and un-
br og quite an army of men, women, and
children wander from place to place, and pick
bs a living from the thoughtless benevolence
of their better-off and more industrious neighbours.
This class is largely recruited from the lazy,
idle, drunken, and vicious, though there is
always a certain percentage who are really the
victims of misfortune. Though the law is against
begging—English statutes for the repression of
men«icaney date from the 14th century—there is
no law against giving to be: But indis-
criminate charity only feeds the evil it seeks to
remove, and the weak-willed, shiftless poveleScn
continues to be a problem to the benevolent. The
trnest charity consists in helping people to help
themselves, and those societies and individuals are
most useful that aid the fallen to gain work and
self-respect, and so rise in the social scale. There
are no fewer than 83 societies in Great Britain for
improving the condition of the poor, 42 of which are
in London and 11 in Scotland. The relief given
may consist in supplying immediate necessities,
helping the poor into hospitals and convalescent
homes, to emigrate, or to secure temporary work.
Tickets are in some cases supplied to subscribers,
which entitle the party to whom they are given to
one meal. Tickets for a night’s shelter can also be
had, to be given instead of money. The Mendicity
Society in London (established for the suppression
of public be; ging in 1818), whose work hes been
much aided fo the Charity Organisation Society
(see CHARITIES), has pee | some 25,000 vagrants
to be convicted as impostors, and relieves some
13,000 or 14,000 cases in a year. » was
king of Lacedemon, the younger brother of A,
memmon, and husband of the famous Helen (q.v.
Menes. See Ecyrr (Chronology and History).
Menevian, one of the subdivisions of the
Cambrian System (q.v.).
Mengs, ANTON RAPHAEL, artist and writer on
art, was born at Aussig, in Bohemia, March 12,
1728. His father, Israel Mengs, was himself a
inter, and from him young Raphael received his
rst instructions in art. At the age of thirteen he
went to Rome, where he remained three years. On
his return to Dresden, in 1744, he was appointed
court-painter to the king of Poland and Saxony, but
was not prevented from ch at Rome, where he
became a Catholic and married. In 1754 he became
director of the school of painting of the Capitol.
After three years he visited Spain. To this
period belongs his most celebrated effort ; it repre-
sents the Apotheosis of the Emperor Trajan, and is
executed on the dome of the grand saloon in the
royal palace at Madrid. He returned again to
Rome in 1776, where he died 29th June 1779. He
was a learned and scholarly painter, but his works,
though lofty in their subjects, seldom exhibit more
than a correct and cultivated taste. His writings
were edited in 1780.
Meng-tse. See MENcIUs.
Menhaden (Clupea menhaden), the name,
especially in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, of a
species of herring or shad, abundant off the eastern
coast of the United States. Other local names are
Whitefish and Hardhead (in Maine), Bony Fish
and Mossbunker (in New York). It is much used
for bait and is very rich in oil, while the refuse
furnishes valuable manure. Economically it is one
of the most important North American fishes.
G. B. Goode’s Natural History of the Menhaden
(Washington, 1879).
Menhir. See STANDING STONEs.
Ménier, EwiLe Justin, French manufacturer
and writer, was born at Paris on 18th May 1826,
and died at Noisiel-sur-Marne, 17th February 1881.
He established at Noisiel the celebrated chocolate
factory, with a branchin London, chemical works at
St Denis, and a sugar manufactory at Roye, besides
a caoutchouc factory, and in Ni a & cocoa
plantation. A warm advocate of free trade, he
expounded his views in Keonomie Rurale (1875),
L’ Avenir Economique (2 vols. 1875-79), &e.
Menin, a town of West Flanders, Belginm, 7
miles by rail SW. of Courtrai, stands on the left
bank of the Lys, which separates it from France.
It was fortified by Vanban, but its works have been
demolished, Pop. (1890) 14,116.
MENINGITIS
MENNONITES 135
Meningi tis (Gr. méninz, ‘a membrane’) is the
term employed in medicine to designate inflamma-
tion of the membranes investing the brain and spinal
cord, of which in this relation the innermost—the
ja-mater—is the most important. Far the most
uent form of meningitis in Britain is the
tubereular, already described under Hydrocephalus
(q.v.); and, as the main symptoms o' eee
are similar, it is unnecessary to repeat them here.
Epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis, or Cerebro-
inal fever.—Outbreaks have occurred from time
to time during the 19th century in the northern
hemisphere, less frequently in the British Islands
than in most of the other countries where qualified
observers are found, of an epidemic disease affecting
ae the membranes of the brain and cord. It
usually begins suddenly with fever and violent
; vomiting, giddiness, stupor, delirium,
and other nervous symptoms succeed, the most
distinctive of which is a peculiar rigidity of the
muscles of the neck and back. The disease is
extremely variable in severity; sometimes it is
fatal in less than twenty-four hours ; sometimes so
slight as only to confine the patient to bed for a few
days. The majority lie between these extremes,
improvement in favourable cases beginning after a
week or two. Convalescence is often very slow.
It oceurs chiefly in children and young adults. It
is not clearly distinguishable from other forms of
meningitis except by its mode of occurrence, gener-
ally in somewhat localised and timited outbreaks.
If contagious, it is only feebly so. ‘Treatment
must be conducted on general principles, as no
specilic is yet known.
Simple meningitis (i.e. not traceable to tubercle
or to the epidemic form) is most often caused Ww
injury, but may result from disease of the skull,
pywmia, and other diseases, and has even been
by excessive ee of the head to the sun.
Tt usually begins, unlike the tubercular form, quite
suddenly ; and it too is an extremely fatal disease.
But the outlook is not quite so hopeless in simple
meningitis ; and even cases which appear desperate
do sometimes recover. The essentials of treatment
are rest and quiet in a darkened room, and little
food of the lightest kind. Ice to the head, blister-
ing, blood-letting, local or general, and free pur-
gation sometimes seem beneficial.
Meningocele, See ENcCEPHALOCELE.
Menippus, a satirist who lived in the first half
of the 3d century B.c., was born a Pheenician slave,
and became a Cynic philosopher. His works in
Greek have perished, and he is known only through
the imitations of Marcus Terentius Varro (q.v.),
whose own fragments bear the title of Menippean
Satires.—The name was adopted as title for a
famous French collection of political satires in prose
and verse, the Satire Ménippée, which appeared in
1594 at the erucial period of the League.
Mennonites, a Protestant sect, combining
some of the distinctive characteristics of the
Baptists and the Quakers. Their principal
tenet is the administration of baptism only
upon confession of faith; consequently they do
not baptise infants. They attach more import-
ance to the ordering of the Christian life than to
doctrinal | xan ranking discipline and rectitude
of life before learning and the scientific elabora-
tion of dogmas. They refuse to take oaths, to
bear arms, condemn every kind of revenge and
divorce (except for adultery), and object to fill
civie and state offices, holding all kinds of magis-
ig Pag be necessary for the present, but foreign
to the kingdom of Christ. The church is the com-
munity of the saints, which must be kept pure by
‘strict discipline. Grace they hold to be designed
for all, and their views of the Lord's Supper fall in
with those of Zwingli; in its celebration the rite
of feet-washing is retained in most congregations.
They have bishops, preachers, and deacons. © The
first Spay aes to profess these principles was
formed at Zurich in 1525 by three men, Grebel,
Manz, and Blaurock. Thence the sect spread
rapidly through Switzerland and the south of
Germany and Austria, establishing itself in
——— strength at St Gall, Augsburg, and
trasburg. But a bitter persecution, in which
3000 persons perished, caused many to move into
Moravia and into Holland. _Contemporaneously
with the formation of the Zurich congregation and
its first years of propagandism was the appear-
ance in Westphalia of the Anabaptists (q.v.), a
sect professing some similar views, but guilty of
most reprehensible fanatical excesses, in which
the Swiss y had no share and with which
they showed no sympathy. After the fanatical
party had been suppressed, with much sheddin
of blood, in Minster, there arose a man of soun
piety and great moderation, Menno Simons (1492-
559), who denounced the blasphemous zealots
of Westphalia, and organised the scattered members
and congregations of the more sober-minded
throughout Holland and north Germany. His
influence became so paramount that his name has
been used ever since to designate the sect as a
religious body. Dissentions broke out amongst
them at a later time both in Switzerland and
Holland, chiefly as to the degree of strictness
of discipline to be enforced.» In 1620 the stricter
Ammanite or Upland Mennonites separated from
the more tolerant Lowland Mennonites in Switzer-
land. In Holland the first disruption occurred in
1554; the more liberal section in North Holland
were called Waterlanders, though they exchanged
the name of Mennonites for Baptist Com-
munities. The advocates for ter strictness
showed much want of cohesion, the various parties
being known by such titles as Old Flemings,
Ukewallists, Dompelers, Jan Jacob Christians,
Apostoolites, Galenists, &ec. All the Dutch
Mennonites were, however, reunited in 1801. At
the present time they number about 32,000, divided
among more than 100 congregations. The German
and Swiss Mennonites probably number nearly
25,000, In 1783 Catharine of Ticiguta introduced
colonies of German Mennonites into south Russia ;
others joined them after 1867. But in 1871—at
which time they numbered close upon 40,000—the
Russian emperor decreed that they should be liable
to conscription for the army, and should he deprived
of certain others of their privileges. This caused
many of them to emigrate to the United States,
where they settled principally in Minnesota and
Kansas; others have proceeded of late years to
Brazil. But Mennonite refugees from Alsace,
the Palatinate, and Holland had already reached
America as early as 1683, in which year the first
Mennonite church in the States was organised at
Germantown in Pennsylvania. At the present
time there are about 100,000 professing this form.
of religious life in the United States and Canada.
The most important groups into which they are
divided are known as Old Mennonites, Reformed
Mennonites or Herr’s People, New Mennonites,
Evangelical Mennonites, and Amish or Omish
Mennonites, also known as Hookers and as Button-
ites. Nearly all Mennonites throughout the world
are farmers; for culture, integrity, and philan-
thropie enlightenment they stand everywhere high
in the regards of their neighbours.
See Bloupet ten Cate, Geschiedenis der Doopsgezinden
(5 vols, 1839-47); J. A. Starck, Geschichte der Taufe und
der Taufgesinnten (1789); N. Browne’s Life of Menno
(Phila. 1853); [Mrs Brons] Ursprung, Entwickelung, und
Schicksale der Taufycsinnten (1884); aud Hoop Scheffer
136 MENOPOME MENTANA
in H -Plitt's Real-Encyklopddie (new ed.), who gives | his death on 2d May 1869 one of the most prominent
a full bibliography. members of the old Russian party.
Menopome (Protonopsis horrida), a large
North Maen amphibian in the Malema er
order, It is widely distributed in the rivers of the
Mississippi basin, and is well known as the *hell-
bender,” ‘ allizator,’ ‘ water-dog,’ &c., names which
suggest its fierce characteristics. It resembles the
Menopome or Hell-bender ( Protonopsis horrida),
salamander in form, has four well-developed limbs,
and a persistent gill-aperture. It attains a length
of 18 inches to 2 feet, and has extraordinary powers
of voracity and vitality.
Menschikoff, ALEXANDER DANILOviTCH, a
Russian field-marshal and minister of state, was
born at Moscow, 16th November 1672. Lefort, the
favourite of Peter the Great, saw him selling tarts
in the street, took him into his own service, and
introduced him to the notice of his imperial master.
Rising rapidly in the Czar’s favour, he distinguished
himself at the siege of Azov, and afterwards
accompanied Peter in his travels to Holland and
England. On the death of Lefort (1699) he was
a chief favourite. During the years (1702-13)
of the war with Sweden he played important parts
at the siege of Schliisselburg, the battles of Kalisch
and Pultowa—on the field of Pultowa Peter made
him field-marshal—the capture of Riga, in the
occupation of Courland and Pomerania, and at the
capture of Stettin. At the capture of Marienburg
the woman who afterwards became the wife of Peter,
Catharine L., fell into Menschikoff’s hands, an
was th h him introduced to the ezar. ‘Towards
the end Peter's reign Menschikoff lost favour
owing to his extortions and suspected duplicities,
But when Peter died he secured the succession of
Catharine, and during her reign and that of her
successor, her youthful grandson, Peter IL, he
verned Russia with almost absolute authority,
is ambitious schemes—he was about to marry
his daughter to the young czar—and the dislike
of the old nobility led to his overthrow by the
Dolgoroukis, who banished him to Siberia (Septem-
ber 1727) and confiscated his immense estates and
treasures. He died 2d November 1729.—His great-
ndson, ALEXANDER SERGEIEVITCH, was born
n 1789. He served in the campaigns of 1812-15,
and rose to the rank of general. In the Turkish
cam of 1828 he took Anapa after a short
siege, but before Varna received so severe a
wound as compelled his retirement. After his
recovery he was made head of the Russian navy,
which he raised to a high state of efficiency. In
March 1853 he was sent as ambassador to Con-
stantinople, where his overbearing behaviour pro-
duced a speedy rupture between the Porte and the
ezar, and brought about the Crimean war. In this
war he commanded at the battles of Alma and
Inkermann, and displayed great energy in defend-
ing Sebastopol ; lut in 1855 he was recalled because
ot a severe attack of illness. Menschikoff was till
Menstruation is the term applied to the dis-
charge of blood which issues every month
the generative organs of the human female during
the period in which she is capable of p i
The first appearance of this discharge, to which
the terms menses and catamenia (each —
reference to the monthly period) are ind
nately applied, is a decided indication of the arrival
of the period of commencing womanhood, and is
usually accompanied by an enlargement of the
mammary glands and other less
chan: mong Teutonic races menstruation
usually commences between the fourteenth and
the sixteenth years, and terminates between the
forty-eighth and fifty-second years. The inter-
val which most commonly ela between the
successive appearances of the discharge is about
four weeks, although it is often shorter; and the
duration of the flow is usually three or four
days, but is er ie - bp ape on a -The
first appearance of the discharge is usually pre-
led rae panied by pain in the loins and
general disturbance of the system, and in many
women these symptoms invariably accompany the
disch As a general rule there is no m
flow during pregnancy and lactation, and its
cessation is one of the first signs that conception
has taken place. Anomalies and disturbances
(retention, suppression, undue copiousness, &c.)
of the menstrual discharge are a frequent cause or
symptom of illness.
Mensuration, the name of that branch of the
application of arithmetic to geometry which teaches,
from the actual measurement of certain lines of a
re, how to find, by calculation, the length of
other lines, the area of si and the volume of
solids. The determination of lines is, however,
generally treated of under Trigonometry (q.¥.),
and surfaces and solids are now understood to form
the sole subjects of mensuration. To find the
length of a line (except in cases where the length
may be calculated from other known lines, as in
trigonometry ) we have to apply the unit of length
(in the my of a footrule, a yard measure, a
chain ), and discover by actual trial how many units
the line contains. But in measuring a surface or a
solid we do not require to apply an actual square
board, or a cubic block, or even to divide it into
such squares or blocks; we have only to measure
certain of its boundary lines or dimensions; and
from them we can calculate or infer the contents.
For example, to find the area of a rectangle it is
sufficient to measure two adjacent sides and find
the product of these in terms of the unit of length
chosen ; 7 feet x 3 feet = 21 square feet.
The areas of other figures are found from
by the aid of certain relations or properties
those figures demonstrated by pure geometry ; for
instance, the area of a paralle’ m is the same as
the area of a rectangle having the same base and
altitude, and is therefore equal to the base
multiplied by the height. Asa triangle is half of
a parallelogram, the rule for its area can be at once
deduced. Irregular quadrilaterals and polygons
are measured by dividing them into t les, the -
area of each of which is separately calculated.” For
the area of the circle, see CircLE. The volume of
a rectangular parallelopiped is found in enbic
inches by multiplying together the length, breadth,
and depth in inches ; and the oblique paralielopiped,
wrism, or cylinder, by multiplying the area of the
by the height.
Mentana, «© small village 12 miles NE. of
Rome, where, 8d November 1867, the Garibaldians
were defeated by the papal and French troops,
MENTEITH
MERCADANTE 137
Menteith, Lake or, a beautiful sheet of water
in south-west Perthshire, 17 miles W. by N. of
Stirling. Lying 55 feet above sea-level, it has
an utmost length and breadth of 14 and 1 mile, and
a depth in places of 80 feet. It sends off Goodie
Water 9 miles east-south-eastward to the Forth,
and contains three islets—Inchmahome, Inchtalla,
and Dog Isle. Inchmahome has remains of an
Augustinian priory (1238), the refuge in 1547-48
of the child-queen Mary Stuart before her removal
to France; whilst on Inchtalla is the ruined tower
1427) of the Earls of Menteith. That title was
e by a Celtic line in the 12th century, and
afterwards by a Comyn, Stewarts, and Grahams
(1427-1694). See Dr John Brown’s Hore Sub-
secive (1858), and Sir W. Fraser’s Red Book of
Menteith (2 vols. Edin. 1880).
Menthol is a camphor obtained from oil of
———— by cooling. It has been used by the
for 200 years and is known by them as
Hakka-no-Hari; indeed, native gentlemen always
went about till recently with a medicine-box con-
taining this drug. The chief source is the Mentha
arvensis purpurescens, the oil of which yields more
menthol than that of peppermint. In many nervous
affections, such as neuralgia, toothache, headache,
&e., menthol in. the form of cones often -gives
instant relief. When the cone is rubbed on the
skin a twofold action results. The menthol rapidly
evaporates, giving a sensation of cold ; but if evapo-
ration be Spear it acts as a rubefacient, pro-
ducing a ing of warmth. Menthol has also
antiseptic oe and is used with success. in
solution in dip theria, &e. It has an odour resem-
bling but differing from that of oil of peppermint.
It is liable to be adulterated with thymol, euca-
lyptol, &c., and then is often irritating to the skin.
Mentone (Fr. Menton), a town in the depart-
ment of Alpes Maritimes, France, is pleasantly
situated on the Mediterranean, 14 mile from the
Italian frontier and 14 miles by rail NE. of Nice.
Owing to its southern exposure, and the fact that
spurs of the Alps shelter it on the north and west,
it enjoys a beautiful climate—average for the year
61°—and so has become a favourite winter-resort
of invalids and health-seekers from England,
Germany, and other countries. The town stands
on a promontory that divides its bay into two
portions ; the native town clings to the mountain
side, whilst the hotels and villas for the visitors
extend along the water’s edge. The harbour is
rotected on the south and west by a sea-wall
1889). There is a trade chiefly in olive-oil, wine,
mons, skins, which finctuates between £75,000
and £211,000 a year. Great damage was done to
od ges by an earthquake in February 1887. Pop.
8433. In the 14th century it was purchased. by the
lords of Monaco, and, except during the period of
the revolution and down to 1815, when France
seized it, the princes of Monaco kept possession till
1848. In that year the inhabitants voluntarily
ie themselves under the protection of Sardinia,
t that power yielded the town to France twelve
years later. See Dr Bennet, Winter and Spring
on the Shores of the Mediterranean (5th ed. 1874)
and Maritime Alps and their Seaboard (1888).
Mentor, the son of Alcimns, and trusted friend
of U , who, on setting out for Troy, left him
the ec! of his household. By him the young
Telemachus was educated, and his name has become
a synonym for an instructor and guide.
Mentz, See MAINz.
Menu, See MANU.
Menura, See Lyre-prep.
M ‘Teh, LAKE, a const lagoon of Egypt,
yg east from the Damietta branch of the
Nile, is separated from the Mediterranean by a
narrow strip of land, with several openings. Its
surface, 460 sq. m. in extent, is studded with
islands, the most interesting of which is Tennees,
the ancient Tennesus, with Roman, remains of
baths, tombs, &c. Its waters are full of fish, and
its shores abound in wild-fowl. The Suez Canal
passes through the eastern portion. The lake has
an average depth of not more than 3 feet, except
when the Nile, mouths of whose delta reach it, is
in flood ; and it is being gradually drained.
Menzel, Avotr, painter, lithographer, illus-
trator, and engraver, was born 8th mber 1815,
at Breslau, and is best known for his drawings and
oil-paintings illustrative of the times of Frederick
the Great and William I., emperor—pictures char-
acterised by historical fidelity, strong realistic con-
ception, originality, and humour. His ‘Adam
and Eve,’ ‘Christ among the Doctors,’ and ‘ Christ
expelling the Money-changers’ are also notable
pictures. See Life by Wessely (1873), and the
critical work of Jordan and Dohme (1885 e¢ seq.)
Menzel, WoLFGANG, an eminent German
author, was the son of a medical practitioner, and
was born at Waldenburg, in Silesia, 2Ilst June
1798. He studied at Jena and Bonn, was for four
ears schoolmaster at Aarau in Switzerland, and in
825 returned to Germany. He first made himself
known in the literary world by his witty Streck-
verse (1823). He subsequently lived mainly in
Stuttgart, where he died 23d April 1873. He edited
and contributed to literary magazines, and wrote
a very large number of works—poems, romances,
histories, literary criticism, political polemics, and
Christian theology. The most important were a
history of Germany (1825; Eng. trans. 1848), of
German literature (1827; Eng. trans. 1840), of
German poetry (1858), of Enrope (1853-57), and
of the world (Ad/gemeine Welt eschichte, 16 vols.
1862-72), on Prussia’s place in Germany (1866 and
1870), mythological researches (1842), the pre-
Christian doctrine of immortality (1869), and auto-
biographical Denkwiirdigkeiten (1876). He was
almost constantly involved in controversy, attack-
ing with equal zeal theological rationalists and
po itical icals, all whose tendencies seemed
dangerous’ to the Christian religion or the German
monarchies, such as ‘the Young Germany party’
after 1830. Borne (q.v.) retaliated in the Franz-
osenfresser (‘ Frenchman-eater’ ).
Mephistopheles, the name of one of the best-
known personifications of the principle of evil.
The word has been very variously explained, but
is probably of Hebrew origin, like most names of
devils in the history of magic, confounded with,
and approximated in form to, the Greek unpworopidns,
‘one* who loves not light.’ Mephistopheles owes
all his modern vitality to Goethe's Faust (q.v.).
Meppel, a town in the Netherlands province
of Drenthe, 18 miles N. by E. of Zwolle, has
a trade in butter and linen manufactures. Pop.
8418.
Me’quinez. See MiKnas.
Meran, a town of Austria, in Tyrol, at the
south side of the Alps, 100 miles by rail S. by W.
of Innsbruck, is a celebrated winter-resort, especi-
ally for sufferers from chest diseases, has an old
15th-century castle, a 14th-century Gothic church,
an English girls’ school, &c. Pop. 7334, more than
doubled in the season. See Fraser Rae’s Austrian
Health-resorts (1888).
Mercadante, SAVERIO, musical composer, was
born at Altamura in Southern Italy, 26th June
1797, studied music at Naples, and began his
eareer as a violinist and flutist. In 1818 he pro-
duced the first of some sixty operas, of which the
138 MERCANTILE LAW
ane
MERCHANT
more noteworthy are L'Apoteosi d'Ercole (1819),
Auacreonte (1820), Elisa e Clawdio (1821), Donna
Caritea (1826), I Briganti (1836), [1 Giuramento
(1837), and La Vestale (1842). From 1827 to
1831 he was in Spain; in 1833 he was appointed
musical director in the cathedral at Novara, and
in 1840 of the conservatory of music at Naples.
He died in that city, 17th December 1870—blind
since 1861.
Mercantile Law, the branch of municipal law
which is similar, and in many respects identical,
in all the trading countries of the world. An
understanding was earliest established in the
department of maritime law, the history of which
ins with such codes as the Consolato del Mare,
published at Barcelona in 1494, and includes such a
series of regulations as the English Merchant Ship-
ping Acts (1854 to 1888), which consolidate and
amend the law as to seamen and their contracts
with employers, desertion, provisions, unseaworthy
ships, sistas, signals, deck cargoes, the load-line,
life-saving apparatus, &c. Mercantile and mavi-
time law is dealt with in this work under a large
number of heads, as
Apprentice. Debt. Master and Servant.
Bankruptcy. Employers’ Liability. | Partnership.
Bill. Insurance, Plimsoll.
Company. International Law. Weights and Measures.
Mercantile System, that system in political
economy which regards it as a government's chief
end to secure a favourable balance of trade—to get
the country to import as little as possible of the
produce of other countries, and export as much as
possible of its own, so that more money is received
than is am away. ‘The policy of the Emperor
Charles V. was regulated by this aim, as was that of
Henty VIIL. and Queen Elizabeth ; and the Navi-
gation Laws (q.v.) of Cromwell founded the English
empire of the seas. Colbert (q.v.) was regarded as
the most systematic mercantilist. Among English
exponents of the system were Sir Josiah Child and
Sir William Temple. See BALANCE OF TRADE,
Po.iricaL Economy.
Mercator (the Latinised form of KREMER), a
Flemish mathematician and geographer of German
extraction, 1512-92. See Map,
Mercedes, in Argentina, (1) a city 61 miles by
rail W. of Buenos Ayres, with a free library and
hospital, soap-factories and steam-mills, and 8000
inhabitants (many Irish); and (2) a town 55 miles
by rail ESE. of San Luis city, with 6000 inhabit-
ants. (3) Mercedes is also he name of the capital
(4000) of Soriano province, in Uruguay.
Mercenaries, or StrreNnDIARIES, men who re-
ceived pay for their services as soldiers, especially
as distinguished from the feudal and general levies
owing military service to the crown. Such men
were often foreigners, and the name has come to
mean only foreign auxiliaries. Hired professional
soldiers appear very early in the history of military
organisation (see ARMY). Foreign mercenaries
sprees in the armies of Alexander the Great and
the Romans. They were common in all armies,
hat generally engaged for a single campaign only.
In England, Harold had a body of Danes in his
army when he defeated the Norwegian king—
the Ausearle, a body originally established by
Canute. William If. had for some time a body
of Dateh troops in his pay after he became king of
ere ; and thronghout the 18th century Hessian
and Hanoverian regiments were constantly in the
pay of the British government for temporary pur-
poses. Hessians fought for great Britain in the first
American war; and the Landgrave of Hesse, who
sold his at so munch a head, received upwards
of half a million for soldiers lost in that campaign.
During the Irish rebellion, again, in 1798, many
Hessian troops were employed.
On the outbreak of the continental war in 1793
it was determined to increase the British ee
the addition of a large body of foreigners ;
accordingly in 1794 an act was passed for the em-
bodiment of the * King’s German Legion,’ consist-
ing of 15,000 men. These troops, who were in-
creased in the course of the war to nearly double
that number, distinguished themselves in various
engagements, and formed some of the most reliable
regiments. It was common during the Peninsular
war to enlist deserters and prisoners of war into
the British army, but such recruits were not reli-
able when opposed to their fellow-countrymen.
Corps of French émigrés, as the Chasseurs -
niques, which served through the Peninsular war
and in America, the York Cl in which
some Turks were enrolled when at ta, and
others, were also organised. The whole of the
foreign legions were disbanded in 1815, the officers
being placed on half-pay.
During the Russian war in 1854 the British
government again had recourse to the enlistment
of foreigners. The numbers authorised were
10,000 German, 5000 Swiss, and 5000 Italians,
with the same pay as British troops, About h
were enrolled, and had become very efficient, when
hostilities ceased, and they were disbanded at a
great cost for gratuities, &c. Foreigners may
enlist into the British army, but the Army Act of
1881 provides that the proportion of aliens in any
corps at one time shall not exceed one to every
ey British subjects, except in the case of ne
and persons of colour, and that no alien shall be
eligible to hold a commission as an officer, British-
born soldiers have often served abroad. There was
a famous Scots Guards (q.v.) in France from the
days of Charles VI. down to 1759; many Scotsmen
fought for Gustavus Adolphus; and lishmen,,
Scotsmen, and Irishmen, singly and in ies, have
served during troublous times in most European
countries ; see GORDON ( PATRICK ), KEITH, HOBART
PasHa. A British legion was raised in 1836 by
Sir De Lacy Evans to support the queen of Spain
against the Curlists (see EVANS),
The Swiss auxiliaries used to form a regular con-
tingent in many of the armies of Europe, especially
of France and Italy, Over 1,000,000 served in France
from the time of Louis XI. to that of Louis XIV.
(1465-1715). The Swiss usually served only on
condition of being commanded by their own officers,
and occasionally these officers obtained distinction
and fame. But the privates returned home poor
and often demoralised; and the cantons which
supplied most mercenaries suffered severely by
their absence. After the French Revolution the
cantons ceased publicly to hire out their subjects ;
and after 1830 most of the cantons forbade foreign
enlistment. In 1859 the Confederacy a
severe law grad recruitment for service abroad.
There is still, however, a large contingent of Swiss
mercenaries in the Dutch t Indian Colonies,
The Papal Swiss troops have shrunk to a body-
guard of about 100 men, See CONDOTTIERI, FREE-
LANCES.
Merchandise Marks, See TRADE MARKS.
Merchant Taylors’ School, This great
London day-school, with 500 boys in 1890, was
founded, and is still governed, solely by the master,
wardens, and company of Merchant Taylors. The
first school-house was built in 1561 in Suffolk Lane.
This building was destroyed in the great fire of
1666, but it was in 1671-74 rebuilt on the same
site. When the Charterhonse School was removed
into the country, the Merchant Taylors bonght
land from the governors of the Charterhouse for
a
‘
MERCIA
MERCURY 139
£90,000, and in 1873-74 erected, at a cost of
£30,000, their * eye school-house on the site of
the old gown boys’ quarters of the Charterhouse.
Richard Mulcaster was the first master of the
school, and corey a scholars have been Edmund
§) , Bi rewes, James Shirley, Arch-
4 Juxon, Titus Oates, Lord Clive, Charles
Mathews, and Sir Henry Ellis. See the Rev. C.
J. Robinson’s ister of the Scholars admitted to
Merchant Taylors’, 1562-1874 (2 vols. 1882-83).
Mercia, the great Anglian kingdom of central
England. ie name, originally limited to the dis-
trict around Tamworth and Liciifield and the Upp
Trent valley, refers to a ‘march’ or frontier that
had to be defended against hostile Welshmen.
The first settlements were most probably made
in the second half of the 6th century, but Mercia
first rose into real importance, and indeed grew
into Middle England, under the vigorous rule of
Penda (626-655). His nephew, Wulfhere (659-675),
pushed back the Northumbrians, and extended
the southward to the Thames, and Ethel-
bald (716-755) spread his uests round all the
neigh states. But the mightiest kings of
Mercia were Offa (757-795) and Cenwulf (796-819),
and after their time its power rapidly declined
before the invasions of the Danes on the one side,
and the spread of the West Saxon hase res on the
other. t length it beeame one of the great
earldoms, and Elfgar, Leofric, Edwin, and Morcar
retained at least the shadow of past power. See
ENGLAND ( History); also DIALECT.
Mercury. See Hermes, PLANETS.
Mercury, or QUICKSILVER (sym. Hg; atomic
t= 206 ; sp. gr. 13°6), one of the so-called
noble metals, wh a. as being the only metal
that is fluid at ordinary temperatures. It is of a
silvery white colour, with a striking metallic lustre.
Whien pure it runs in small spherical drops over
smooth surfaces ; but when oan only pure the
drops assume an elongated or tailed form, and often
leave a gray stain on the surface of glass or porce-
lain. - Moreover, the pure metal, when shaken with
air, presents no change upon its surface; while if
impure it coy. It is
sli gitly
All mercurial compounds are either volatilised or
decomposed by heat; and when heated with car-
bonate of soda they yield metallic mereury. Native
or in quicksilver only oceurs in panes: uantity,
usually in cavities of mercurial ores. Of these
as, for example, with slaked lime or iron filings.
mercury as imported is usually almost chemi-
cally pure. If the presence of other metals is sus-
pected, it may be pressed through leather, redis-
led, and then digested for a few days in dilute
nitrie acid, w exerts little action on the
mereury if more oxidisable metals are present; or
better, in a solution of mercuric nitrate, which de-
posits mereury and takes up the more oxidisable
metals. The mercury, after being washed with
water, is chemically pure.
Mercury is first spoken of by Theophrastus (3d
century B.C.); the name hydrar, Ys ( whence comes
the symbol Hg) dates from Dioscorides. Greeks
and nicians procured cinnabar from Almaden
in Spain. After the discovery of the New World,
the mercury of Peru was famous. California now
produces the great bulk of the mereury of com-
merce, and most of it comes from the New Almaden
mine. The total produce of California was 60,851
flasks (of 764 Ib. each) in 1881; in 1888 it had
sunk to 33,250 flasks (value $1,413,125).
There are two oxides of mereury, the black sub-
oxide, HgsO, and the red oxide, HgO. Both of
these lose all their oxygen when heated, and form
salts with acids. The black subowide, althongh a
powerful base, is very unstable when isolated, being
readily converted Ww gentle warmth, or even by
mere ex re to light, into red oxide and the
metal : Hg,O = HgO + Hg. The most important
of its salts is the nitrate, Hg.(NO,), + 2Aq, from
whose watery solution ammonia throws down a
black precipitate known in pharmacy as Mercurius
solubilis Hahnemanni, from its discoverer, and con-
sisting essentially of the black suboxide with some
ammonia and nitric acid, which are apparently in
combination. Of the red owide the most important
salts are the nitrate, Hg(NO,), + 8Aq; the sul-
phate, HgSO,, which is employed in the manufac-
ture of corrosive sublimate ; and the basic sulphate,
HgSO,,2Hg0, which is of a yellow colour, and is
known as Turpeth Mineral.
The haloid salts, of mereury correspond in their
composition to the oxides. Of the most important
of these—the chlorides—there are the subchloride,
Hg.Cl,, well known as Calomel (q.v.), and the
chloride, HgCl,, or corrosive sublimate.
The chloride, HgCl,, when crystallised from a
watery solution occurs in oe white glistening
prisms; but when obtained by sublimation it
occurs in white transparent heavy masses, which
have a crystalline fracture, and chink with a
Seton metallic sound against the sides of the
ttle in which they are contained. This salt
melts at 509° F., and volatilises unchanged at about
570°. It has an acrid metallic taste. It is sol-
uble in sixteen parts of cold, and in less than three
parts of boiling water, and dissolves very freely in
alcohol and in ether. Corrosive sublimate enters
into combination with the alkaline chlorides, form-
ing numerous distinct compounds. (A double
chloride of ammonium and mercury, represented
by the formula CH,NCI,HgCl, + Aq, has been long
known as sal alembroth.) It combines with oxide
of mercury in various proportions, forming a class
of compounds of great interest in theoretical
chemistry, termed oxychlorides of mercury. On
adding a solution of corrosive sublimate to a solu-
tion of ammonia in excess, a compound, which
from its physical characters is termed white preci-
itate, is thrown down, the composition of which
HgN,H,Cl. Chloride of mercury coagulates
albumen, and combines with the albuminous
tissues generally, forming sparingly soluble com-
pontiin tiesion, in cases of isoning with the
salt, the white of raw eggs is the best antidote ;
and for the same reason corrosive sublimate is a
powerful antiseptic, and is employed to preserve
anatomical or era ;
Amongst the most important tests for this sub-
stance, which is not unfrequently used as a poison,
may be mentioned (1) iodide of potassium, which,
when added to a crystal or to a watery solution of
chloride of mercury, gives rise to the formation of
140 MERCURY
MEREDITH
a bright scarlet iodide of mercury. (2) The galvanic
test, which may be applied in various ways,
which the simplest is the ‘guinea and key test,’
devised by Wollaston. He placed a drop of the
fluid suspected to contain corrosive sublimate on a
guinea, and simultaneously touched it and the sur-
face of the guinea with an iron key ; metallic mer-
cury was deposited on the gold in a bright silvery
stain. (3) Precipitation on copper, and reduction.
To apply this test we acidulate the suspected fluid
with a ee drops of hydrochloric acid, and intro-
duce a little fine copper gauze, which soon becomes
coated with mercury. On heating the gauze in a
reduction tube the mercury is obtained in well-
defined globules.
With iodine and bromine mercury forms two
iodides and bromides, corresponding in composition
to the chlorides. Both the iodides are used in,
medicine ; the bromides are of no practical import-
ance. The subiodide, Hy, is a green powder
formed by triturating 5 parts of iodine with 8
of mereury, and is of far less interest than the
todide, Hgl, which is most simply obtained by pre-
eens a solution of corrosive sublimate by a
solution of iodide of potassium. The precipitate
is at first salmon-coloured, but soon changes into a
brilliant scarlet crystalline deposit.
Salphur forms two compounds with mereury—
viz. a subsulphide, Hg.S, a black powder of little
importance, and a sulphide, Hes which oceurs
naturally as Cinnabar (q.v.). Sulphide of mercury
is thrown down as a back precipitate by ing
sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of a per-
salt of mereury (corrosive sublimate, for example).
When dried and sublimed in vessels from which
the air is excluded, it assumes its ordinary red
colour. The well-known pigment vermilion is sul-
phide of mercury, and is sometimes obtained from
pure cinnabar, but is more frequently an artificial
prodnet,
Mercury unites with most metals to form Amal-
gams (q.v.), several of which are employed in the
arts. Of the numerous organic compounds of
mereury it is unnecessary to mention more than
the Fulminates (q.v.) and the cyanide, HgCy,
which may be prepared by dissolving the red
oxide of mercury in hydrocyanic acid, and is the
best source from which to obtain cyanogen.
The uses of mercury are so numerous that a very
brief allusion to the most important of these must
suffice. It is Fe extensively in the extrac-
tion of gold and silver from their ores by the process
of amalgamation. Its amalgams have been largely
nt ot oe in the processes of silvering and gilding,
and some (as those of copper and cadmium) are
employed by the dentist for stopping teeth. It is
indispensable in the construction of philosophical
instruments, and in the laboratory in the form of
the mercurial bath, &c. It is the source of the
valuable pigment vermilion. The use of its
chloride in anatomical preparations has been
already noticed ; it is similarly found that wood,
cordage, and canvas, if soaked in a solution of this
salt (1 part to 60 or 80 of water), are better able to
resist decay when exposed to the combined destrue-
tive influence of air and moisture.
MEDICINAL Uses oF MercuRY AND MERCURIALS.
—Metallic mercury is used in medicine in a state of
very fine division in the form of gray powder, blue
y , mercurial ointment, and other preparations.
t is also used as mercurous and mercuric oxides
and salts. As with other metals, the mercurial
preparations have a local action and an action
after absorption into the blood. The intensity of
the loéal action varies, however, with the indi-
vidual preparation; the persalts being soluble in
water, and hence capable of precipitating allumen
at once, are very irritating, while the mercurous
salts and uncombined mercury, being insoluble in
water, exert an effect only in so far as they are dis-
solved in the secretious. These differences in local
action have a very great influence in de
their applications in medicine. :
Local y, the various ointments, liniments, and
plasters are used as stimulants, astringents, anti-
septics, and parasiticides, the persalts are used as
antiseptic lotions, while the protosalts are little
ge (seo ree except Calomel (q.v.) in powder.
bsorption of mercurial preparations from _the
intestinal canal or skin takes place very readily,
and in an hour or Jess the mereury may be detected
in most of the secretions. After absorption into
the blood all the preparations have the same action.
In minute doses they act as alteratives, improvi
nutrition. In. larger doses, such as are inarily
used, they also exert profound alterative effects;
but care must be exercixed in their administration,
otherwise symptoms of chronic poisoning are apt
to ensue. These consist in excessive salivation,
inflammation of the mouth and gums, and dys-
pepsia, while in severer cases caries of
nervous symptoms, a watery condition of the
blood, albuminuria, cachexia, and other serious
complications may occur, The mercurial p
tions are given internally in syphilis, in serous
inflammations, and in dropsy as diuretics. Certain
of them, such as gray powder, blue pill, and
calomel, are used as purgatives and as intestinal
antiseptics,
The doses of the different Prepaesane
greatly, those of the persalts being very muc
smaller than in the case of the other preparations.
Some persons are peculiarly susceptible to the
action of mercurials, and show symptoms of chrorie
poisoning after very small amounts.
With regard to acute mercurial poisoning, this is
due to irritation of the intestinal canal, and is only
seen with the soluble salts when taken in over-
doses. The perchloride (corrosive sublimate) has
been most uently employed for the purpose of
poisoning. The symptoms come on immediately,
with a burning pain in the throat and violent ons
in the abdomen, with severe vomiting and purging.
There is always a good deal of collapse. Albumen,
in the form of white of egg, is the best antidote.
Mercury, Doe's (Mercurialis), a genus of
lants of the natural order Euphorbiacee. The
Jommon ’s Mercury (M1. perennis) is very com-
mon in woods and shady places in Britain. It
has a perfectly simple stem, about a foot hi
with rough ovate leaves, and axillary loose spikes
of greenish flowers. It turns a glaucous black
colour in drying, and the root contains two colour:
ing substances, one blue and the other carmine:
Its very poisonous, The mereury which some old
writers mention as a potherb is not this plant,
but — Mercury, or Wild Spinach (Chenoz
podium bonus-Henricus). Annual ’s ef
(M. annua) is a much rarer a ee an
less poisonous. The leaves are ind eaten in
Germany as spinach. A half-shrubby species (J/.
tomentosa), found in the countries near the Medi-
terranean, has enjoyed an extraordinary reputation
from ancient times; the absurd belief mentioned
by Pliny being still retained, that if a woman after
conception drink the juice of the male plant she
will give birth to a boy, and if of the female plant
her offspring will be a girl.
Mercy, Sisters or, See SisrerHoops,
Mer de Glace, See ALps, GLACTERS,
Meredith, GreorcE, novelist and poet, was born
in Hampshire, 12th February 1828, and made his
first appearance as a poet with ‘Chillianwallah’
in Chambers's Journal for July 1849. This was fol-
lowed in 1851 by a little volume of Poems, and in
MEREDITH
MERIDA 141
1855 by The Ere of Sh : an Arabian
Entertainment, a highly original tale, in burlesque
imitation of the manner of the Eastern story-teller.
Tt shows a rich and brilliant imagination, and
abounds in of tender feeling as well as of
boisterous humour, but the incidents are involved
and the machinery complicated, and reading is
also made diflicult by soaeleing suggestions
of hidden meanings which constantly elude one’s
p- In 1857 appeared Farina: a Legend of
a short mo, reflecting the influence of
German romance, which it partly imitates and
partly parodies. The series of Mr Meredith’s
greater and more characteristic works 7 in
1859 with The Ordeal-of Richard Feverel: A Hist
ofa Father and a Son,a tragic romance, dealing with
larger problems of education, especially in its
ethical aspects. The novel of Evan Harrington,
an ponies ceaiy of social ambitions, followed in
1861. M Love, and Poems of the English
Roadside, with Poems and Ballads, was published
in 1862, ‘ Modern Love’ being the title of a sequence
of fifty sonnet-like poems which tell their story in
a somewhat dark and fragmentary manner, but
with great truth of observation and strength of
pathos. Emilia in England (1864), now known as
Sandra Belloni, has for its subject one of Meredith’s
most fascinating and original characters ; it is con-
tinned in Vittoria (1866), the scene of which is laid
in Italy at the time of the political risings of 1848.
In 1865 had appeared Rhoda Fleming, like Richard
Feverel a tragedy; the romantic Adventures o,
Harry Richmond followed in 1871. Beauchamp’s
Career (1875) is perhaps the most ‘ectly con-
structed of all the series. Zhe Eqoist (1879) is a
searching and remorseless study of a angie aspect
of refined selfishness. The Tragic Comedians
(1881), originally published in the Fortnightly
Review, is a somewhat close rendering of the well-
known painful story of Lassalle’s tragic end,
founded upon the reminiscences ‘of the Countess
Racowitza. Diana of the Crossways (1885) is also
based on actual history. Other novels are One
of our (1891), Lord Ormont and his
Aminta (1894), and The Amazing Marriage (1895).
Mr Meredith, who was literary reader for Chapman
& Hall for over thirty years, began to issue a
revised edition of his novels in 1896. He is LL.D.
ay, and one of the most
invigorating and stimulative thinkers of his genera-
tion, it can by no means be said that he is the
most widely read. This distinction he has, that
‘among the crowd of persons of taste and under-
pons ay who agree to crown Meredith a royal
writer, his most resolute partisans are those of his
own household—journalists, poets, and novelists,
students of the art of fiction and practitioners of
the noble English e.’ Among the elements
his power may be enumerated his wide, accu-
rate, and pathetic observation both of nature
and of life, his inventive resource, his analytic
and synthetic power, and his mastery of words.
His descriptions of scenery are varied, vivid, and
Il of ry, his delineations of phases of feel-
especially of tender feeling, those of a
r. Few writers have created so many char-
acters of ideal beauty, who are at the same time
80 thoroughly human and marked by the strong-
est individuality—real, breathing, talking person-
tite, whom the reader feels ita joy to have
: . Among the ‘defects of his qualities’
may be mentioned a certain intricacy of plot, or
. rather perhaps want of clearness in working it out,
arising from an exaggerated reticence ; also a fre-
quent over-elaboration of style and strainedness of
wit that fatigues rather than exhilarates. And,
though he is never ‘sensational,’ there is often a
certain disregard of probability in the situations he
invents. It is believed that Mr Meredith is, for the
present at least, more extensively read by men
than by women; and this, if a fact, may perha;
be soa accounted for by the purpose which he
has so deliberately expressed, and so consistently
eartied out, of bringing philosophy into the domain
of fiction. Much of his writing deals more or less
directly, in a serious manner, with the most import-
ant problems of aegyey sociology, and ethics. It
is in his poetry that his deepest views of life really
find their directest and most elementary expres-
sion. ‘There is a study by Le Gallienne, George
Meredith: some Characteristics, with a biblio-
graphy by John Lane (1890),
Merganser (Mergus), a genus of birds of the
family Anatide, having a long, rather slender,
straight bill hooked at the tip and notched at the
The genus embraces six species, nearly all
inhabitants of the seas and coasts, and distributed
over the northern regions of the Old and New
World, and in Brazil and the Auckland Islands.
The Goosander (q.v.) is the largest and best-known
British species. The Red-breasted Merganser (J.
serrator) is resident in Scotland, where it breeds
not only on the coasts of Ross, Sutherland, and
the Hebrides, where it is abundant, but also on
inland lochs and rivers. Its migrations extend
southward to the lakes of Algeria and to Egypt.
The Hooded Merganser (M. cucullatus), a smaller
species, is a very rare visitor of Britain. It is
found in North America, from the St Lawrence to
Alaska, where it migrates as far south as Mexico,
Cuba, Bermudas, and the Carolinas. The Nun or
Smew (M. albellus) is a smaller species, passin
the summer in the northern parts of the Old an
New World, and ranging in winter as far south as
India. Another species (M. australis) has as yet
been found only in the Auckland Islands.
Mergui, a seaport of Burma, on an island in
the Tenasserim River, 2 miles from its mouth, with
a harbour admitting vessels drawing 18 feet of
water. Its trade is worth altogether close upon
£100,000 a year. Exports, rice, timber, dried fish ;
imports, cotton s, silk, and tea. Pop. 9737.
—The district of Mergui, 200 miles long by 40
wide, is the southernmost in Burma. Area, 7810
sq. m.; pop. about 60,000.
Me Archipelago, a group of islands in
the Gulf of Bengal, lying off the southern pro-
vinces of Burma; they are mountainous, some
rising to 3000 feet, of picturesque beauty, and
sparsely inhabited by a race called the Selungs,
who barter edible birds’-nests with the Burmese
and Malays for rice and spirits. Caoutchone
abounds. Snakes and tigers, rhinoceros, deer, &c.
are plentiful.
Merida (anc. Augusta Emerita), a decayed
town of Spain, on the right bank of the Guadiana,
36 miles by rail E. of Badajoz. It is remarkable
for its Roman remains, which include a bridge of
81 arches, 2575 feet long and 26 feet broad, erected
by Trajan; the ruins of half a dozen temples, of
an aqueduct, a circus, a theatre, a naumachia, a
castle, and the Arch of Santiago, 44 feet high,
built by Trajan. There is also an old Moorish
lace. Merida was built in 23 B.c., and flourished
in great splendour as the capital of Lusitania. In
713 it was taken by the Moors, who lost it to the
Spaniards in 1229. Pop. 7390.
Merida, (1) capital of the Mexican state of
Yucatan, is situated on a barren plain, 25 miles
8. of Progreso, on the Gulf of Mexieo, and 95 miles
142 MERIDEN
MERIMEE
NE. of Campeachy. It occupies the site of a
former native city, and was founded by the
Spaniards in 1542. Merida has a cathedral and
thirteen churches, a university, seminary, girls’
high school, and conservatory of music, an anti-
quarian museum, a public library, hospital, alms-
house, and foundling asylum. Its trade is not
extensive. Pop. 32,000.—(2) A town of Venezuela,
capital of Los Andes state, lies 5290 feet above
sea-level, at the foot of the Sierra Nevada de
Merida, and 70 miles S. of the lake of Maracaybo,
Founded in 1558, it was almost wholly destroyed
by earthquake in 1812 and 1894. It is the seat of
a bishop, contains a university and several higher
schools, and has manufactures of carpets and
woollen and cotton stuffs. Pop. 10,7
Meriden, « city of Connecticut, 19 miles by
rail N. by of New Haven, with a number of
mannufactories of metal wares, cutlery, firearms,
woollens, &c. Meriden contains the state reform
school. Pop. (1880) 15,540; (1900) 24,296.
Meridian ( Lat. mridies, ‘ mid-day’), the name
given to the t circle of the celestial sphere
which passes through both poles of the heavens,
and also through the zenith and nadir of any place
on the earth’s surface. Every place on the earth's
surface has co uently its own meridian. The
meridian is divided by the polar axis into two equal
portions, which stretch from pole to pole, one on
each side of the earth. It is mid-day at any place
on the earth’s surface when the centre of the sun
comes upon the meridian of that place ; at the same
instant it is mid-day at all places under the same
half of that meridian, and midnight at all places
under the opposite half. All places under the same
meridian have therefore the same longitude (see
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE, where the question of
the First Meridian is discussed), Stars attain their
—— altitude when they come upon the meri-
dian ; the same thing is true approximately of the
sun and planets; and as at this point the effect
of refraction upon these bodies is at a minimum,
and their apparent motion is also more uniform,
astronomers prefer to make their observations when
the body is on the meridian, The instruments
used for this purpose are called meridian circles.
See MURAL CIRCLE,
Meridian Measurement.—Two stations, havin
nearly the same longitude, are chosen; their
latitude and longitude are accurately determined
(the error of a second in latitude introduces a con-
siderable error into the result), and the direction
of the meridian to be measured ascertained ; then
a base line is measured with the greatest accuracy,
as an error here generally becomes increased at
every subsequent step; and then, by Triangulation
(see references at TRIANGLE), the length of the
are of the meridian contained between the parallels
of latitude of the two stations is ascertained. As
the previously found latitudes of its two extremi-
ties give the number of degrees it contains, the
average length of a degree of this are can be at
onee determined. This operation of meridian
measurement has been performed at different
times on a great many ares lying between 68°
N. lat. and 38° S. lat., and the results show a
steady though irregular increase in the length of
the degree of latitude as the latitude increases,
On the supposition that this law of increase holds
to the poles, the length of every tenth degree
of latitude in English feet is as follows :
of wf of
oe dl
v 302.7 50° 864,862
wv 262 848 60" 365,454
20" 363,158 7 965.937
oe 3,041 a 866,252
“ 364,253 w 366,361
This result shows that the earth is not spherical,
as in that case the length of at pee latitude
would be alike, but of spheroidal form—its curva-
ture becomes less as we go from the extremity of
- greater or equatorial diameter to the pole. See
ARTH.
Meridian, Mt of Lauderdale county,
Mississippi, 135 miles by rail N. by W. of M
contains a foundry and machine-shop, a cotton
factory, and manufactories of blinds and sashes,
furniture, &c. Pop. (1900) 14,050.
Mérimée, Prosper, a great French writer, was
born at Paris, 28th September 1803, the son of a
well-known painter. He was educated at the
Collége Charlemagne, and tried law, but soon aban-
doned it. He was in Spain during the revolution
of 1830, and after his return became ai ed to
the government, and held office successively in the
ministry of Marine, of Commerce, and of the
Interior, becoming finally Inspector of Historical
Documents, in which capacity he visited the south
and west of France, Auvergne, and Corsica. He
had been i an intimate triend of Countess
Montijo, mother of the Empress Eugénie, and con-
sequently enjoyed the closest intimacy with the
imperial family at the Tuileries, Compitgne, and
Biarritz, yet without surrendering his independence
of spirit and frankness of speech. Admitted to the
Academy in 1844, he became a senator in 1853, and
in 1858 president of the committee for is-
ing the Bibliotheque Impériale. His last years
were clouded by ill-health and melancholy, and
the misfortunes of his country and the downfall of
the imperial house hastened on his death, at
Cannes, 23d September 1870.
Mérimée began his career as a writer at twenty-
two by an audacious literary espiéglerie, entitled
Thédtre de Clara Gazul, a collection of Spanish
lays of singular maturity, represented as trans-
ated by Joseph L’Estrange, with his own portrait
in female dress as frontispiece. A volume of pre-
tended translations of Illyrian folk- an
imaginary Hyacinthe Maglanoviteh, followed in
1827, under the title Guzla. His more important.
works embrace novels and short stories,
logical and historical dissertations, and travels, all
of which display wide and exact learning, keen
observation, strong intellectual grasp, grave irony
and real humour, and withal a style t attains
an exquisiteness of perfection rare even among the
best French writers. Ever the refined and elegant
scholar, he wrote, rather than affected to write,
as a dilettante—‘le gentleman auteur’ as he was
styled by his own countrymen. Of his more
erudite works it may here be enough to name his
Histoire de Don Pédre 1., Roi de Castille (1848;
Eng. trans. 1849); Etudes sur 0 Histoire Romaine
(1844); Les fava Démétrius (1852); Monuments
historiques (1843); and Mélanges historiques et
littéraires (1855). But his greatest work is his
tales, about twenty in number, some of which are
among the rarest ree gs of the story-teller’s
art: Colomba, Mateo Falcone, 3 Venus
@Ille, Lokis, Arséne Guillot, La Chambre Bleue,
and L'Abbé Aubain, One of the most remarkable
merits of some of these stories, as La Venus d’/lle
and Lokis, is the dexterous manner in which an
uncanny superstition is turned to artistic use.
Mérimée’s character remains somewhat of an
enigma, with its outward mask of cynicism, its
inward capacity for the most tender and devoted
friendship, its longing for the love of little children.
In his constant struggle against impulse and
enthusiasm he succeeded, but, as he himself says
of Saint-Clair in the Vase Btrusque, the vietory -
cost him dear. Few lives have been more solitary
and unhappy than Mérimée’s, at once from a-
MERINO MERLIN 143
paralysing distrust of himself and of others, and | cells. Meristem forms the tissue of embryo plants,
the constitutional melancholy of the sceptic | and of apexes of stems and roots,
to whom the world is only a series of incompre- | Werivale JOHN HERMAN, an English scholar
rigger) 7 sage ane who a and translator, was born at ‘Exeter in 1779, the
se eat alike. He was one of the few ndson of Samuel Merivale (1715-71) a worthy
men who have drawn their unbelief from mother Erestytevian minister at Tavistock. He was sent
and father alike. No great writer has left a| to gt John’s College, Cambridge, and was called
more remarkable monument than the famous | ¢, the bar in 1805.’ He contributed largely to
b @ une Inconnue vent Eng. trans., edited | Bland’s Collections Jrom the Greek Anthology
y RH. Stoddard in Scribner's ‘ Bric-a-Brac (1813), and brought’ ont a second edition him-
ccpantaten ce yelation of a heart throughout an | self iy lea, ee 1831 to his death in 1844 he
acquaintance, first of love, then of friendship, held the office of Commissioner of Bankruptcy.
extending over thirty years, Here we find no Works of no little merit were his Poems, Orig-
selfish cynic, but a man gracious, affectionate, inal and Translated (1841), and Minor Poems
delicate, tonched with poetry despite his scepti- of Schiller (1844).—CHARLES, son of the ett
cism, faithful and loyal unto death—his last words ing (b. 1808, d. 1893), was educated at aera:
were written but two hours before the end. The Haileybury, and St John’s College, Cambridge,
unknown lady’s actual existence has been ques- | where he took his degree in 1830, and became in
tion and she has been doubtfully identified due course fellow and tutor. He wie succesaivel
with the Countess Lise Przedrzerska, sister of the select preacher at Cambridge (1838-40) and m4
Marquis de Noailles. What, professed to he her | Writebit (1839-41), Hulsean lecturer (1861), and
letters in reply were published in 1888, but without Boyle lecturer (1864-65). From 1848 to 1869
atk explanation ae offered ; ty ar das trans- | rector of Lawford in Essex, he was chaplain to the
ation of these followed in a volumes in 1889. | Speaker from 1863 to 1869. He was dean of Ely from
Fe eoratin Space tpe R and the rene | 1869 ) till his death, 26th December 1803. His Fall
ee A ; of the Roman Republic (1853) is a brilliant sketch,
to rye (edited by pe Fagan, 2 vols, 1881), marred by its over-indulgence to imperialism, the
full of lively gossip and clever criticism. sole fault of his admirably learned and eloquent
See the Studies by Tamisier (Mars. 1875) and Haus- | History of the Romans under the Empire (7 vols.
sonville (1888); also Tourneaux, Prosper Mérimée, ses | 1959 66 ). Later books are a serviceable General
Portraits, ses Dessins, &e. (1879). History of Rome (1875), Early Church History
Merino (Span.), an important breed of Sheep | (1879), and The Contrast between Pagan and
(q-v.). See also Woon, Christian Society (1880).—Another son, HERMAN,
’ r, born in 1806, was educated at Harrow and Trinity
0 ’,
with mat lng and eu of 9 College, Oslo elected Yeliow of Bali called
4 e ov 385 219 Bathe mond rep the N mes — Political Economy at Oxford in 1837, and, later,
counties of Carnarvon and Denhi h, E. and 8, by | Permanent Under-secretary of State first for the
Cardigan Bay. Bop (1801 Se Soy TSA oy | Cae tienen, India Tn 1850 he waa made
(1891) 49. on. Clie ilesfashing Juin Leeigthe HERMAN CHARLES, born in 1839, has written @
sands akirt the coast, which at some distance out | Dumber of successful lays, including Forget-Me-
to sea is by dangerous sandbanks. Inland, | “ot, The Butler and The Don, and The Master of
the surface, although nowhere attaining such an | Zavenswood. Besides a novel, Faucit of Balliol
altitude as that of Carnarvonshire, is rugged and | (1882; in its stage form, The Cynic), he has pub-
monntainous in the extreme interspersed in places | lished The White Pilgrim and other Poems (1883),
with picturesque valleys, lakes, and waterfalls, | 2nd other works, _ See the privately rinted Family
Aran Mowdidy (2970 feet), Cader Idris (q.v., 2914), Memorials, compiled by Anna W. Merivale (1884),
and Aran erseen & (2902) are the highest peaks;| Merle D’Aubigné, See D’Aupicne.
Bala the largest lake; whilst of rivers the principal Merlin, the name of an ancient British prophet
are the Dee, which flows north-east, and the and magician, who is supposed to have flourished
Dovey and Mawddach, which reach the sea after a during the decline of the native British power in
south-west course. The soil generally 1s poor, and | its contest with the Saxon invaders. The prophetic
tracts are unfit for profitable cultivation, the | child Ambrosius first mentioned by Nennius in his
total extent of land in ‘op in 1889 only amounting | Fstyria Britonum was confounded with Ambrosius
to 160,817 acres, of which 128,021 acres were ™ | Aurelianus, the conqueror of Vortigern, and subse-
| — ture. Great numbers of sheep are quently the resulting Merlin Emerys or Ambrosius
| ‘fi regnnels and woollens to some extent | dae etree ey ine the Merlin called Silvestris
_ manufactured, but the principal wealth of the or Caledonius. It is as the snbject of one of the
;
finest arises from its oe oe eg Slate and cycle of Arthurian romances that Merlin’s name
Limestone are largely quarried, much manganese | {c'°, of Arthurian Cambrian Merlin is said by
ore is Peodeod, and from mines in the vicinity of | Geoffrey of Monmouth, in his Historia Britonum and
Dolgelly and Bala 3890 oz. of old of the value | Pirq erlini, to have lived in the 5th century, to
Of £13,227 were in 1889 obtained. Merioneth, have sprung from the intercourse of a demon with
_ Which contains no municipal boroughs, is divided | , Welsh princess, to have been rescued from his
_ into five hundreds, and thirty-three civil parishes, | malignant destiny by baptism, and to have dis-
Partly in the diocese of Bangor, and partly in that played the ssion of miraculous powers from
Of St Asaph. For jadicial purposes it is in the infancy. The adventures of Merlin were taken,
; North Wales circuit, Dolgelly being the assize with additions from Armorican and other sources,
town, and it sends one representative to the Honse | from. the Latin of Geoffrey, and made popular in
_ of Commons. The County Council numbers fifty- the French language by Robert Wace aeds Robert
_ Six members, and the principal towns, other than | de Borron. Henry Lonelich’s English verse trans-
| oe foregoing: are la, Barmouth, Corwen, lation is in the library of Corpus Christi College,
estiniog, Harlech, and Towyn. Cambridge. The analysis of the romance of Mer-
Meristem, the formative tissue of plants, is | lin in Ellis’s Specimens of Early English Metrical
distinguished from the permanent tissues by the | Romances was made from the MS. in Lincoln’s Inn
; Power its cells have of dividing and forming new | Library. There is a MS. in the Advocates’ Library,
144 MERLIN
MERSEY
Edinburgh, and one in Bishop Perey’s folio MS,
(printed in 1867). The prose romance is longer
and more important than the metrical one. Merlin,
en Prose du XIII" Siécle, was cgay f
the Société des Anciens Textes Francais in 1886,
and the Early English Text Society published
under the editorship of the present writer in
1865-69 Merlin, or the Early History of King
Arthur about 1450-60, printed from the MS. in
the Cambridge University Library. Merlin is
frequently alluded to by our older poets, especially
by Spenser, and his gg? occupies a prominent
position in Tennyson's /dylls of the King. A
collection of prophecies attributed to Merlin ap-
in French (Paris, 1498), in English (Lond.
529 and 1533), and in Latin ( Venice, 1554); and
their existence is traceable at least as far back as
the middle of the 14th century. The Strathelyde,
or—if we may be allowed an_ expression which
anticipates history—the Scottish Merlin, called
Merlin the Wyllt, or Merlin Caledonius, is placed
in the 6th century, and “as as a contemporary
of St Kentigern, Bishop of Glasgow. His grave is
still shown at Drummelzier on the Tweed, where,
in attempting to escape across the river from a
hand of hostile rustics, he was impaled on a hidden
stake. A metrical life of him in Latin, extending
to more than 1500 lines, professedly on
Armoric materials, and incorrectly ascribed to
Geoffrey of Monmouth, was published by the
Roxburghe Club in 1833. His prophecies—pub-
lished at Edinburgh in 1615—contain those aseribed
to the Welsh Merlin.
Merlin, See FAvcon.
Mermaids and Mermen, in the popular
folklore of Europe, a class of beings more or less
like men, living in the sea, but in some cireum-
stances capable of social relationships with men
and women, The typical mermaid has the head
and body of a lovely woman to the waist, ending
in the tail of a fish with fins and scales. She has
long and beautiful hair, and is often seen above
the surface of the water, combing it with one hand
while in the other she holds a mirror. She
often discloses what is abont to happen, and not
sellom gives supernatural knowledge and powers
toa favoured mortal—a thing in perfect keeping
with primitive notions of sorcery, which easily
attributed exceptional Fede to beautiful women,
as Lilith and Circe. Again, she sometimes exer-
cises a special guardianship over an individual, and
avenges his wrongs; but her relation to man most
often brings with it disaster. There are man
stories of mermaids who have fallen in love with
men, or been detained through the possession of
the skin which they had stripped to dance on
the shore, and who have been faithful wives and
mothers until they found an opportunity to return
to the sea. And there are examples of the converse
ease of a mermaid falling in love with a man and
enticing him to go and live with her under the sea,
as well as of a merman bewitching and carrying off
a mortal maiden.
Such are the principal forms of mermaid stories
found everywhere, with more or less artistic elabo-
ration. The Danish Hafmand or Maremind, the
Irish merrow or merruach, the Breton Marie-
Morgan, the Russian rusalka ov stream-fairy and
vodyany or age i rte some forms of the
Teutonic nizxies, and the enchanting Sirens of
classical mythology have all close affinities with
each other in the dangers they bring to men, the
beauty and joyousness of their lives, and yet the
gloom of sadness that overhangs them. In their
malignant aspect they touch the general doctrine
of Demonology (q.v.), and may be explained on an
animistic theory of its origin. To the beauty of
the conception and the elaborations of which it is
ble in the popular imagination we owe some
of the loveliest of our folk-tales as well as such
delightful artistic tales as Undine and many fine |
poems of the ages of literary culture. One of the
most detailed stories of this class is that of Melusine
(q.v.). The mermaid had a firm hold of the imagi-
nation of our fathers, and, besides the witness of
heraldry, we have stories supported by excellent
evidence of their appearance and capture. One
caught at Edam in 1403 was carried to Haarlem
and kept there many years, She learned to spin
and showed a becoming reverence for the cross.
See Baring-Gould’s Popular Myths of the Middle
Ages, and Sébillot’s Contes des Marins (1882).
Mermaid’s Purse, the popular name of the
egy-case of the skate (or of Phe other cartilag-
inous fish), which is often cast up empty on the
shore.—Mermaid’s Gloves is a very common British
sponge, Chalina oculata.
Merodach. See Bany.onta, Vol. I. p. 687.
Meroé. See Erniopta.
Meropidie. See BEE-EATER.
Merovin or MERWINGS, the first d
of Frankish’kings in Gaul. The name is deri
from Merwig or Merovesk, king of the western or
Salian Franks from 448 to 457. His n
Clovis (q.v.) established the fortunes of the vie
which gave way to the Carlovingians (q.v.) in 7
See FRANCE, FRANKS.
Merrimac, a river rising among the White
Mountains of New we flowing south into
Massachusetts, and falling into the Atlantic
near Newburyport, after a course of 150
miles. It has numerous falls, affording immense
water-power. The principal manufacturing towns
on its ks are Manchester, Nashua, and Concord
in New Hampshire, and Lowell and Lawrence
in Massachusetts. It is navigable to Haverhill.
Merseburg, 2 town of Prussian Saxony, on
the Saale, 8 miles 8. of Halle. Its Domkirche is
a four-towered pile, with Romanesque choir (1042),
transept (circa 1274), and 16th-century nave—the
whole restored in 1884-86. The organ (1666) has
4000 pipes; and there is a very early bronze efligy
in low relief of Rudolph of Swabia, who here was
defeated and slain by Henry IV. in 1080. The castle,
a picturesque edifice, mostly of the 15th century, was
once the bishop's palace, and afterwards (1656-
1738) the residence of the dukes of a
Merseburg. _ Beer, iron, per, &c. are manu-
factured. Pop. (1875) 13,664; (1890) 17,669.
Henry the Fowler in 934 gained his victory
over the Hungarians near Merseburg, which suffered
much in the Peasants’ War and in the Thirty
Years’ War.
Mersenne, MArrn, a constant friend of Des-
cartes, was born in 1588, and died at Paris in 1648.
He was a fellow-student of Descartes at the Jesuit
college of La Fléche, and took the habit of a
Minim Friar in 1611; his life thereafter was spent
in study, teaching in convent-schools, and travel.
He did valiant battle with numerous clerical con.
troversialists on behalf of the orthodoxy of the
philosophy of Descartes, and wrote rously
against atheists and other unbelievers. His pro-
found knowledge of mathematics is seen in a
number of books, and in his Harmonie Universelle
( cin an invaluable contribution to the science of
music,
Mersey, an important river of England, separ-
ates, in ie lower erat the soecitian of Chester
and Lancaster, and has its origin in the junction of
the Etherow and Goyt, on the borders of Derby-
shire, east of Stockport. It flows in a west-
south-west direction, and is joined on the right
MERTHYR-TYDVIL
MESEMBRYACEZ 145
the Irwell 6 miles below Manchester, from
w it was made navigable to Liverpool for
1 vessels in the year 1720, and has had great
influence on the subsequent pr of the two
towns. Besides the Irwell the chief affluents are
the Bollin and the Weaver from Cheshire. At its
—. with the Weaver the Mersey expands
to a wide estuary which forms the Liverpool
channel. The estuary is about 16 miles lon
and from 1 to 3 miles broad ; opposite glen ose
it is a mile and a quarter in width, with a
considerable depth at low-water. In this estuary
on the Cheshire side is the entrance to tle Man-
chester Ship-canal. The estuary is much obstructed
by sandbanks, but the excellent system of pilo
in practice, combined with the skilful and admirable
tonstruction of the sea-walls, renders the naviga-
tion comparatively secure. Entire length, with
the es . 70 miles. A tunnel connecting Liver-
pool and Birkenhead by railway carried beneath
the estuary has been in successful operation since
January 20, 1886. The alluvial meadows on the
banks of the Mersey are famous for their fertility,
and in recent years, by embanking the river at
ts where it overflowed after heavy rains, many
uds of acres of the most valuable land in
the two counties have been reclaimed. The
basin of the Mersey extends over an area of 1706
sq. m., which includes the larger portion of Lan-
eashire Cheshire.
Merthyr-Tydvil or Tydfil (so called from
the martyrdom here of a Welsh princess of that
name), a parliamentary borough and market-town
of South Wales, on the confines of the counties of
Glamorgan and Brecknock, 24 miles N. by W. of
Cardiff, its port, and 178 W. of London. Pop.
(1801) 7705 ; (1891) 58,080, Surrounded by lofty
and bleak hills, the town stands on the banks of
the river Taff, and is partly built on slag founda-
tions, the refuse of mines in the vicinity. Its
streets are for the most part narrow and irregu-
larly built, and the public buildings of little archi-
tectural interest, but of late years—since the
formation of a Local Board of Health in 1850—
great improvements have been effected in the
widening of thoroughfares, the supply of pure
water, and the construction of effective sewage-
works : previously all sanitary arrangements were
entirely sk hte 8 and as a result epidemics of
great severity were of uent occurrence, The
civil government of the town (which extends over
the ay districts of Dowlais and Penydarran )
is vested in a high constable, who is elected annu-
ally. The sole industries, upon which the whole
Eeeetion is more or less directly dependent,
from the numerous collieries and iron anc
steel works in the vicinity; Merthyr being the
centre of the Glamorganshire coalfield, and as such
having excellent railway communication with all
With Aberdare it is noted for the excellence
of its steam coal, and the quantity of iron and
steel annually turned out from the great works of
Dowlais, rthfa, and Plymouth is enormous,
In 1816, and again in 1831, the town was thie scene
of severe riots, on the latter occasion the disturb-
ance not being quelled by the military without
a loss of twenty-three lives. For the parlia-
mentary borough (1867), which embraces Aberdare
and two other outlying districts, and in 1891 had a
ation of 104,008, two members are returned.
erton, Lower, a vill of Surrey, 10 miles
ow of London by rail, stands on the Wandle, and
has several factories. Only a fragment remains of
the Augustinian priory (1115) in which the parlia-
ment met which passed, in 1235, the Statute of
(see LeGITIMATION). Here were educated
pene, Becket and Walter de Merton, Bishop of
Rochester and Chancellor, who in 1264 founded
Merton College, at Oxford. The church is mainly
of the same date as the priory. Pop. of parish,
Meru, in Hindu Mythology, a fabulous moun-
tain in the centre of the world, 80,000 leagues high,
It is the most sacred of all mythical mountains, and
the abode of Vishnu.
Mery, an oasis of Turkestan, lying between
Bokhara and the north-eastern corner of Persia,
512 miles by rail (opened in July 1886) from the
Caspian and 118 from the Oxus. The oasis con-
sists of a district 60 miles long by 40 broad,
watered by the river Murghab, grows wheat, sugar
grass, cotton, and silk, has a hot, oxy ciueste; and
is inhabited by half a million (O'Donovan; the
Russians say less than a quarter million) Tekke
Turkomans. The le live scattered over the
country. But there is an old citadel, Kaushid
Khan Kala, and adjoining it a new Russian fort
rrisoned by nearly 3000 men; on the opposite
sank of the Murghab a new Russian town is grow-
ing up, several Armenian merchants having settled
on the spot and monopolised the trade, worth about
£150, a year. The men are clever workers in
silver, and breed horses, camels, and sheep; the
women weave silk and make carpets. Merv or
Mourn is mentioned in the Zend Avesta. There
Alexander the Great built a town. The oasis
was held successively by the Parthians and the
Arabs, who made the city of Merv capital of
Khorassan. It was the seat of a Nestorian
archbishop in the 5th century, and of a Greek
archbishop in the 14th; and in the 8th it was
the headquarters of Mokanna (q.v.), the ‘ Veiled
Prophet of Khorassan.’ Under the Seljuk Turks
Merv enjoyed its period of greatest splendour,
especially under Sultan ae Arslan. It began to
fall into ruin after being taken and sacked by the
Mongols in 1221. From the Uzbegs it passed: in
1510 to the Persians, who lost it in 1787 to the
emir of Bokhara. In 1856 the Turkomans made
themselves masters of the oasis ; but they in turn
submitted to the Russians in 1883, who Yuilt the
railway from the Caspian to the Oxus, passing
through the oasis. ery occupies an important
strategic position at the intersection of the routes
Bokliara-Meshhed and Khiva-Herat.
See Marvin, Merv (1880); O'Donovan, Merv Oasis
(2 vols. 18"2); Lansdell, Russian Central Asia (1885),
and Russians at Merv and Herat (1883).
Méryon, CHARLES, etcher, was born at Paris,
the son of an English physician, in 1821, and died
insane at Charenton Asylum, 13th February 1868.
His sombre and imaginative etchings of streets
and buildings in Paris are highly esteemed by con-
noisseurs, oneal the ‘Abside de Notre Dame,’
‘Rue des Mauvais Garcons,’ and ‘Stryge.’ See
Wedmore in Nineteenth Century (1878) and Art
Journal (1881), and Burty’s monograph (1879).
M a, a town in Southern Italy, 12 miles
SW. of Brindisi, grows good olive-oil. Pop. 9601.
Mesembryacew, or Ficomex, a natural
order of calycifloral dicotyledonous plants, com-
prising succulent shrubs, herbaceous perennials,
and annuals with opposite leaves, Im many species
the latter are of curious and fantastic shape,
especially in those of the typical genus Mesembry-
anthemum. The order contains sixteen genera
and over 400 species, the larger number of the
latter belonging to Mesembryanthemum. They
are inhabitants of warm regions chiefly, most of
them being found at the Cape of Good Hope and
in the South Sea Islands. The typical genus is
also the most important in regard to utility and
beanty. It furnishes the Ice Plant (q.v.) of ovr
gardens, and many other beautiful and curiovs
146 MESENTERY
MESOPOTAMIA
species are to be met with in our greenhouses. Jf.
nodifiorum is employed in the manufacture of
Morocco leather, and furnishes abundance of
alkali. The Kou of the Hottentots is M. emar-
cidum, the roots, stems, and leaves of which they
oe er none and sitgg las ther, and cme
erment, for the purpose of chewing to allay
thirst. If chewed Docctiatshs after fermentation
it ix narcotic and intoxicating. It is the Canna
Root of the Cape colonists. The Hottentot’s Fig
(M. edule) is abundant on the sandy plains of the
Cape of Good Hope, and the fruit is eaten when
ripe. The leaves are eaten also when young and
fresh, and when somewhat older are pickled in
vinegar. The juice of the plant has some reputa-
tion as a cure for dysentery and thrush in children,
and as an external application for burns. The
fruit of M. eguilaterale is named Pigs’-faces in
Australia, and is eaten by the natives; that of J/.
genicultiflorum is ground into flour in Africa and
made into bread, as is that of the Ice Plant. The
Flower of Crete is the seed-vessel of M. tripolium,
which in the rainy season expands in the form of
a star, allowing the seeds to escape. The name
should be spelled Mesembriacese, as it is from the
Gr. mesémbria, ‘ mid-day,’ because the flowers bloom
usually at mid-day.
Mesentery (Gr. meson, ‘middle;’ enteron,
‘the intestine’) is the broad fold of peritoneum
(the great serous membrane of the ne
which attaches the intestines (strictly the smal
intestine; for special names have given to
the corresponding structure in connection with the
different parts of the large intestine) posteriorly to
the vertebral column. It serves to retain the
intestines in their place, while it at the same time
allows the necessary amount of movement, and it
contains between its layers the blood-vessels anil
nerves which pass to them, the lacteal vessels, and
mesenteric glands. These glands are 100 to 150 in
number, and are about the size of an almond,
They exert an organising action on the contents of
the lacteals, the chyle being more abundant in
fibrine and in corpuscles after it has passed through
them. The only disease of any importance affect-
ing these glands is Tubercle (q.v.), which, when
extensively developed in them, is sometimes called
tahes mesenterica,
Meshhed (‘the place of martyrdom,’ also
re Meshed and Mashhad), the princi city
north-eastern Persia, the capital of Khor-
assan, and the centre of important trade routes.
The city stands on a tributary of the Hari-
Rud, miles E. by N. from Teheran and
200 NW. of Herat, and has a beautiful appear-
ance when seen from a distance. Above the
walls, which are of great circuit, shine the gilded
dome and minarets of one of the most splen-
did mosques of the East, that built above the
tomb of Imam Riza, a follower of Ali, and the
eighth imam of the Shiite sect. Meshhed is the
sacred city of the Shiites, and is held in as much
veneration by them as Mecea is by the Sunnite
Moslems ; it is visited every year by nearly 100,000
pilgrims. The city is bisected by a wide tree-
shaded street, down the middle of which flows a
muddy current between low stone walls, There
is another handsome mosque, and several colleges
and caravanserais, The people make excellent
felt-rugs, carpets, swords, turquoise jewellery,
velvet, and cotton and silk goods. Opium (£37,200),
woollens and cottons, dried fruits, turquoises
(£17,200) are exported to Russia, India, and
Afghanistan, to the total value of £169,000. The
imports consist of textiles, sugar, &c. from Russia
(£110,400), textiles, &c. from Britain (£84,300), tea
(£142,850), &c. from India (total, £184,600), and
miscellaneous cong from Afghanistan (£17,300)
and from Turke rauscaspian
Railway vid Merv is giving Russia the
dominance in trade wit! xed
population is about 50,000. Owing to its elevated
situation (3055 feet), the city has a cold climate in
winter; the summer temperature ranges from 76°
to 92° F. Close by are the ruins of Tus, the old
capital of Khorassan, where celebrated
Firdansi, Haroun-al-Raschid, and the Imam
were buried. See O'Donovan, Merv Oasis (1882),
and J. Bassett, Persia (1886).
Meskoutin, or HAMMAM MeEskouTIN (‘the
Accursed Baths’), a place in Algeria, 48 miles (77
by rail) E. by N. of Constantine, with remark-
able hot baths (203° F.), known to the Romans as,
Aque Tibilitine. They and the adic ferrugin-
ous and sulphureous springs (170°) are still used
medicinally. The incrustations of carbonate of
lime and clouds of steam, &e. give the region a
very singular appearance.
Mesmer, FRrreprich ANTON or FRANZ, the
founder of the doctrine of Animal Magnetism
(9-v-), was born near Constance, 23d May 1734.
e was bred for the priesthood at Dillingen and
Ingolstadt, but took up the study of medicine at
Vienna, and took his doctor’s degree in 1766 with —
a treatise De planetarum influxu. About 1772 he
began with a Jesuit, Hell, to investigate the cura-
tive powers of the magnet, and was led to adopt
the opinion that there exists a power, similar
magnetism, which exercises an extraordinary influ-
ence on the human body. This he called animal
magnetism, and published an account of his dis-
covery, and of its medicinal value, in 1775. In
1778 he went to Paris, where he created a great
sensation. His system obtained the mes of
members of the medical profession, as well as of
others ; but he refused an offer of an annual pension
of 20,000 livres (about £800) to reveal his secret; and
this, combined with other circumstances, gave rise
to suspicion, and induced the government in 1785
to appoint a commission, com of physicians
and scientists (Bailly, Franklin, Lavoisier, &e.),
whose report was unfavourable to him. He now
fell into disrepute, and, after a visit to England,
retired to Meersburg, in Switzerland, where he
_— the rest_of his life in complete obscurity.
e died 5th March 1815. See his Life by J.
Kerner (Frankf. 1856), and P. Anderson Graham's
Mesmer the Magnetiser (1890).
Mesoderm, See Empryovocy.
Mesolongion, See MissoLoncut.
Mesopotamia (‘between the rivers’), the
district between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates,
extending from the foot of the Armenian motn-
tains south-eastwards to near the neighbourhood
of Bagdad. The name is the Greek equivalent
of the old Aramaic (Syrian) Aram-Naharaim, and
became current after Alexander's Asiatic con-
quests ; the Arabs call the district El-Jezira (‘the
island’). It has an area of about 55,000 sq. m. ;
the surface is level and falls from an altitude of
1100 feet in the north-west to 160 feet in the south-
east, where the alluvial region of Babylonia (Irak
ins. The soil is sandy, but, when well wate:
or, as it was in ancient times, well irrigated,
it develops extraordinary fertility. Yet since the
Turks (Seljuks) made themselves masters of the
region (1515) it has fallen more and more a prey
to barrenness and neglect. Having been in the
possession successively of the Assyrians, Baby-
onians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and
Turks, and many a time and oft the battle-ground
between the armies of these mighty empires,
its records are full of stirring events and
changes and vicissitudes. Amongst the cities of
MESOZOA
MESSAGERIES MARITIMES 147
historie fame may be quoted Harran, Serug
(Sernj), Apamea, Edessa, Nisibis, Nicephorium
( ) it (Is), Mardin, Mosul (Nineveh),
Amid (Diarbekr), and Thapsacus. In_ biblical
times this ion was inhabited by prosperous
Aramzean ulturists. At the present time
the population consists chiefly of semi-nomad
Arabs and Kurds, who keep herds of camels, sheep,
and goats, and grow wheat, barley, rice, millet,
sesamum, besides cotton, tobacco, safflower, hemp,
cucumbers, melons, and other fruits. There is
little timber on the plains. Wild hogs, jackals,
hyenas, foxes, and cheetahs, antelopes and gazelles,
are common ; but lions and wild asses, so numerous
in antiquity, are now scarce. In summer excessive
heat (up to 122° F.) prevails, whilst the winter is
com vely cool—the thermometer may go down
tol’ F. A hie f summary of the work of explor-
ing ancient sites, and of sites still to be excavated,
is given in the Academy, 12th June 1886. See art-
icles on empires and towns mentioned above;
also TiGRIS, EUPHRATES, and works quoted there.
Mesozoa, a term applied by Van Beneden to
a number of extremely simple animal parasites,
found in enuttle-fishes, brittle-stars, and some
worms. Their cells are in two layers, the inner
forming reproductive elements; they have no
mouth or gut, and are sometimes — like the
larval forms (planula) of some jelly-tish and other
stinging animals. The name refers to their
ps median position between the single-
Protozoa and the many-celled Metazoa.
See DicYEMID.
Mesozoic (Gr., ‘middle-life’), a term introduced
by Professor Phillips to designate the group of
sectogienl systems, the fossil remains of which
iffer equally from those of the Palwozoic (‘ancient-
life’) and Cainozoic (‘newer-life’) eras. It is syn-
onynious with the term Secondary, and includes the
T ic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous systems.
Mess (Fr. mets, Old Fr. mes, Ital. messo, ‘a dish,’
missum, ‘sent,’ or ‘served up’) original]
signified a dish or portion of food. In the British
army and navy the men are divided into ‘ messes’
of whatever number is most convenient for taking
ir meals together. Officers and sergeants also
have their ‘ messes,’ which, in addition to being
‘common rooms’ in which they take their meals,
are much of the nature of clubs, having smoking,
billiard, and reading rooms attached to them, and
often libraries.
In the army each man, unless married, or for
other reasons allowed to live out of mess, pays
a daily rate of 5d. a day to his mess, which is
managed by a non-commissioned officer under the
su paper of an officer. oe — is —
v w groceries, vegetables, puddings, an
plates and mugs. A knife, fork, and spoon is
rb of his kit which he must always have with
im. His rations (? lb. of meat, including bone,
and 1 Jb. of bread per day) are given him free, but
are drawn in bulk for the whole mess, the meat
rations being cooked together and only distributed
at dinner, which is eaten in the barrack-room where
ae Mae members of the mess live. Tea and
breakfast are similarly served. The men’s wash-
ing is also managed by messes, and charged in the
monthly mess accounts. One of the mess is told
off as cook each day. He cleans the room, sets
the table, and carries up and divides the dinner,
but the actual cooking is done by trained cooks.
Messes are by one of them-
selves under a committee of se ts supervised
by an officer, the adjutant if possible. There is a
small entrance fee (usually three days’ pay) and a
monthly subscription for newspapers, &c. Some
furniture is provided by government, but kitchen
and table requisites, carpets, pictures, &c. are
purchased out of the mess funds,
oii Messes ave very similar, but on a larger
seale. Every officer on joining is charged an
entrance fee of thirty days’ pay towards the main-
tenance of the mess, and thirty days’ difference of
pay on promotion. Unless married or ially
exempt, he must be a ‘ dining’ member of the mess
of his regiment—i.e. he pays the regulated price for
his dinner whether he eats it or not; other meals,
as well as wine, cigars, &c., are only charged if
taken. All officers also pe, a monthly subserip-
tion of two-thirds of a day’s pay for single, and
half that amount for Aas EA 9 officers, towards
keeping up the mess establishment, such as furni-
ture, liveries, wages of servants, table-linen, &c.
The only assistance received from government is
£25 a year for each troop, battery, or company
connected with the mess; but this 1s only at home
and in some colonies. This sum was originally
intended to allow each officer a glass of wine a day,
but may be applied towards reducing the general
expenses of the mess. The affairs of the mess are
managed by a committee of officers presided over
by the senior member. The usual cost of the meals
is 2s. 4d. for dinner, without wine, 1s. for lunch,
and Is. for breakfast. The bills are paid monthly,
and will generally amount to some £7 or £8, without
wine, for each officer.
In the British navy there are in all ships as
a rule, except in the smaller ones, four messes
for officers: the ward-room, the gun-room, the
engineers’ mess, and the warrant-oflicers’ mess.
The ward-room includes all officers, below the
captain (who messes by himself), who are above
the rank of sub-lieutenant. The gun-room com-
prises the sub-lieutenants, midshipmen, cadets,
junior assistant-paymasters, and clerks; the
engineers’ mess, all engineers not entitled to mess
in the ward-room ; the warrant-officers’ mess, the
gunner, boatswain, and carpenter. In troopships
there is one general mess for all officers, naval
and military, ineluding the captain of the ship.
The system of having one general mess has been
tried in other ships, but it has been found
impossible so far to seraogt for a mess-place suf-
ficiently large to allow of all the officers sitting
down to their meals together. The separate
mess-place for the engineer officers is, however,
being gradually done away with, those engineers
not entitled to mess in the ward-room messing
in the gun-room, Among the ship’s companies
the chief petty-officers, first-class petty-officers,
and the engine-room artificers have respectively
their own mess-places, while the rest of the crew
are divided off into messes, according to their
numbers, the marines and stokers forming messes
by themselves, Flag-oflicers and officers in com-
mand of ships can draw all their plate, glass, china,
and linen from the dockyard, paying the Admiralty
a poroe for the use of it. The officers of the
other messes are supplied on os with
a complete set of mess-traps, linen, &c. free of
charge, which they have afterwards to keep up at
their own expense. All officers and men, admiral
and second-class boy alike, are entitled to the same
daily rations. Officers, however, are not com-
pelled to take up their rations, but can take up as
much or as little of it as they please, receiving
instead a money allowance, which is paid into the
mess-fund. Tle men, however, must take up two-
thirds of their rations, but they can receive money
in lieu of the remaining third. Rum is no longer
served out to the officers, but the men still con-
tinue to receive their half-gill.
Messageries Maritimes, or in full, ‘La
Compagnie des Services Maritimes des Messag-
eries,’ a great French shipping company of Mar-
148 MESSALINA
METALLURGY
seilles, its headquarters, trading with the Levant
and Black Sea, with eastern Asia and Australia,
by way of the Suez Canal, and with Spain and
Algiers,
Messalina, VALERIA, the danghter of Marcus
Valerius Messala Barbatus, and wife of the Roman
emperor Claudius, a woman infamous for her
avarice, her lust, and her atrocious cruelty. Taking
advantage of the weakness and stupidity of the
emperor, she played the harlot without restraint,
penderel | who murmured at her gilded
shame, The best blood of Rome flowed at her
pleasure: among her victims were the daughters
of Germanicus and Drusus, Justus Catonius, M.
Vinicius, Valerius Asiaticus, and her confederate
Polybius. During a temporary absence of the
emperor she went so far in open shamelessness as
icly to marry C. Silius, one of her favourites.
The blinded emperor's eyes were at last opened by
his freedman Narcissus, and he was persuaded to
ry orders for her execution. She was put to
leath by Euodus, a tribune of the guards, in the
gardens of Lucullus, 48 A.D.
Messapians. See Aputa, INSCRIPTIONS.
Messengers, Ktnxo’s (QUEEN’s), officers em-
ployed by secretaries of state to convey valuable
cad confidential despatches at home and abroad.
Messenia, in ancient Greece, the western of the
three peninsulas that project southwards from the
Peloponnesus, was bounded on the E. by Laconia,
and on the N. by Arcadia and Elis. It was com-
posed chiefly of fertile plains, separated by moun-
tain-chains and watered by the Pamisus and other
streams, and yielded abundant corn and wine. The
original Pelasgic inhabitants were conquered by
the Dorians, but soon absorbed their conquerers
and rose to great prosperity. This excited the
envy of the Spartans, who waged two long wars
(743-724 and 685-668) on ag the brave Mes-
senians, Most of those who survived the second
war em to Sicily, where they took possession
of Zancle, and chan its name to Messana, the
present Messina. Those who submitted to Sparta
were made helots ; but they revolted and waged a
third war of ten years’ duration (from 464). The
survivors settled in Naupaktos. After the battle of
Leuctra 1S) Epaminondas invited the descend-
ants of the Messenians back to Greece, and they
joyfully responded to his invitation, Their inde-
pendence continned till the Roman conquest in 146
B.C. Messenia is the name of a nomarchy of the
modern kingdom of Greece.
Messiah (Heb. Mashiach, equivalent to the
Greek Christos, ‘the Anointed’) designates, in the
Old Testament, the great Deliverer and Saviour,
whom the Jews expected to be sent by God, not
only to restore their country to the power and
splendour which it exhibited in the days of David,
bat even, by compelling the Gentiles to acknow-
ledge the supremacy of the theocratic people, to
taise it to the summit of universal dominion. See
Bieter, Vol. LL p. 118; and for the New Testament
Messiah, see articles BipLe (p. 123), Curist, and
Jesus Curist. See also Jews, and MAHDI.
Messina, the second city of Sicily, stands on
the western shore of the straits of the same name,
110 miles E. by N. of Palermo and 195 SSE. of
Naples. The city occupies a narrow strip of coast
between the harbour and the hills behind; the
opposite or eastern side of the harbour is formed
by a sickle-shaped tongue of rock, that only leaves
& narrow entrance on the north. Although a ve
ancient city, Messina few antique bnild-
ings or remains. ‘The destructive hands of enemies,
and the still more destructive ney of earth-
quakes, are zesponsible for this, The greater part
of the city was laid out, regularly, with handsome
houses, pfter the earthquake vf 1783. The cathe-
dral was begun by Count Roger the Norman in
1098, but has been almost wholly rebuilt since then,
This and the churches of St Gregory and St Niecolo
are adorned with magnificent mosaics. The cathe-
dral has alsoa high-altar and baldacchino,
anda venersibel Mieatane in a reputed letter of the
Virgin to the townsmen. The citadel was built
by Charles IL. of Spain im 1680, the anes Castle
in 1540, and another castle in 1547-57. hand-
some theatre, the palaces, and official buildings
are for the most modern. There are here
a university, founded in 1549, with fifty teachers
and two hundred students, a college of the fine
arts, an academy of the sciences and arts, scientific
collections, and technical schools. Messina is an
archbishop’s see. The industry is confined chiefly
to muslin, linen, and silk goods, the working of
coral, and the preparation of fruit essences,
harbour, which is very deep and well protected, is
— emeey hy some 3370 bao: of 1,277,000
tons burden, bringing imports (wheat, cottons,
flour, hides, coals, ‘ined fish, woollens, iron, &e.)
to the annual value of £1,094,280. The pool i
embracing principally fruits and their manufactu
roduets, such as wine, essences, olive-oil, seed
re,, average £1,264,720 annually. More than
the shipping is Italian, and about one-third British.
Pop. (1881) of the city 78,438, and of the com-
mune, 126,497 (1896, 146,400).
Founded in 732 B.c. by the people of Cum, the
place was first called cle (i.e. a sickle), and
throngh the commercial enterprise of its ple
rapidly grew in prosperity. In 495 Anaxilas of
1egium seized the town and changed its name
to Messana isons The Carthaginians con-
nered it an asap rs it in 396, and in 288 it
ell into the hands of the Mamertines, who
changed its name to Mamertina. The in al
quarrels of these people gave occasion to the out-
break of the Punic war between Carthage and
Rome, on the conclusion of which (241 B.C.) the
city became Roman, and in due time 1 to the
Eastern Empire. The Saracens took the city in
the 9th century, and were only expelled in the
llth century by the Normans. Here the Sicilian
Vespers’ massacre raged in 1282, and from that
year down to 1713 Messina belonged to Spain.
he ple revolted in 1671 and were backed up
by resem but were reduced to submission in
1678, and at the same time deprived of their
privileges of self-government. Then in 1743 the
plague, and forty years later an earthquake, came ©
to complete the ruin of the city. It was, more-
over, bombarded by the Neapolitans in 1848, and
in 1861 it was the last place in Sicily to yield to
the Sardinian (Italian) troo The province of
Messina has an area of 1 Sq. m., and a pop.
(1881) of 460,924 and (1894) 518,430.
Messina, Strait or (Lat. Mamertinum
tum, or Fretum Siculum), separates Italy im.
Sicily, is 24 miles in length, and varies from 23 to
14 miles in breadth. Since 1879 a scheme for
making a railway tunnel under the strait has been
under discussion, but as yet it has come to no
practical result. See ScyLLA AND CHARYBDIS.
Metabolism, a general term for the chemical
changes of living matter. See FuNcTION, PHysI-
OLOGY, PROTOPLASM,
Metacentre, See Hyprostatics.
Metallurgy. A brief account will be given
here of ancient metallurgy and of that department
of modern metallurgy relating to the mechanical
treatment of ores, For the specific treatment of
the ores of copper, gold, iron, silver, tin, zine, &e.,
see the articles on ase metals, :
METALLURGY 149
Ancient Metallurgy.—From an ethnological point
of view one of the most interesting questions con-
nected with the origin of the industrial arts is when,
and under what circumstances, man first began to
work metals by softening or melting them by means
of a high heat. The art of my rege” ores was prob-
ably discovered by observing the effect of a big fire
on some rich ore that happened to be in the way.
Gold is always found native, and silver and mel ep
sometimes. ient Egyptians worked in gold,
silver, and bronze with a degree of skill that could
only have been reached by gradual steps extending
over thousands of years. the notes to his edition
of Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, Dr Birch says
that it is uncertain whether metallic tin was known
to them, as Bronze (q.v.) may have been made by
the use of tin ore along with copper. He also states
that the question of the use of iron among them has
been red doubtful by the few specimens of that
metal found in the monuments and sepulchres.
— examples, however, have — — with,
though only in one case apparently is the approx-
imate age of the object poopy It is iron 54 in
a bronze statue of the time of the Ramesids. In
India and some other parts of Asia malleable iron
is made directly from rich ores in furnaces scarcely
bigger than chimney-cans, by a process in use from
time immemorial ; and by a similar process savages
in ty Lagpi of Africa : anes iron. It is _—
posed some archeologists that most parts 0
Africa directly from the stone to the iron
but there seems to be evidence that in some
articles of the copper of the country has been long
practised yo army tribes.
popes fe remains found in the lake-dwellin:
of cen - Europe an sae for melting metals,
ingots tin, n one crucible traces
of raioige. Bronze implements are abund-
ant, but the considerable number of copper hatchets
which have now been discovered has raised the
question as to whether in prehistoric times a copper
age has not ed those of bronze and iron. Copper
is more ly smelted than iron; and bronze, being
an alloy of copper and tin, must somewhere have
in its application to hatchets or other
by unalloyed copper, although this may not
have been the case in Europe. Some copper
and other implements of this metal, are
the only evidence we have that the ancient
Mexicans made any use of metal tools; though
their artilicers were skilled in casting gold and
silver, and in hammered work and chasing, and tin
as well as sopecr ore was mined, and the two
combined as ze. The early tribes inhabiting
ments of the by hammering it cold, in some
it is believed, with stone implements. Small
chisels, rings, idols, and other objects made of
gold and of ancient date, some of which are of thin,
beaten plates, have been obtained in the re-
publie-d Galonshin, Bouth America. Silver articles
of a rude archaic character to be rare. It
is at that the stg ed these native metals in
in n
w
the certaii ited areas preceded the
art of aonenieins any metal by heake
See Lubbock’s Prehistoric Times, Munro’s Lake-dwell-
ings of Europe, Nadaillac’s Prehistoric America, and
in the volumes of Contributions to Know-
ledge by the Smithsonian Institution.
Modern Metalkurgy.—As now understood this is
aaa of ———s — oom Pet ct ‘land
ons are partly, mechanica partly chem-
ical. Those which depend principally on
eal. teasticees Soe taee retaies Lave ratartece
chiefly to the roasting and smelting of ores, and
are described under the heads of the different metals.
But there are certain preliminary operations of a
mechanical kind which metallic ores undergo, such
as crushing, jigging, washing, &c., which we shall
deseribe here, as they are essentially the same for
the ores of lead, copper, tin, zinc, and indeed most
of the metals. Until comparatively recent times
ore, or rather ore-gangue, as it came from the mine
was in the first instance broken by hammers before
being on to crushing-rollers or stamps to be
red to smaller pieces or grains. In the year
1858 Mr E. W. Blake of New Haven, Connecticut,
invented a stone or ore crusher which has become
so extensively used that it has, except in special
cases, superseded hand-labour for breaking up large
pieces of ore. Fig. 1 shows in section a modifica-
tion of Blake’s ore-crusher, made by Marsden of
Fig. 1.
Leeds. The shaded portion shows the fixed jaw,
A, and the movable jaw, B, between which the
ore or stone is crushed. To the movable jaw a
rapid biting movement (reaching 250 strokes per
minute) is given by means of an eccentric lever
and togule, jennie. C is the rod connecting the
eccentric with the toggle-plates, DD. The machine
is driven by a shaft and pulley, and has a. balance-
wheel. A spring or lever near the base of the
machine aids the return movement of the jaw, B.
The vein-stuff or impure ore is next taken either
to the crushing-rollers or to the stamping-mill.
Fig. 2 shows a section of a crushing-mill of German
Fig. 2.—Ore-crushing Mill:
End view of the crushing-rollers, sieves, and bucket-wheel.
design, but nearly resembling that in use in Corn-
wall for treating copper, lead, and zine ores. The
ore, already reduced by the Blake jaw-crusher to
150 METALLURGY
METALS
ieces roughly 1} inch in diameter, is raised to the
joor or platform, 6, b, and by means of an opening
ate down to the crushing-rollers, r, r. These
are usually from 10 to 30 inches in diameter and at
least 10 inches long, made of chilled cast-iron or
steel, and with a lever at d to keep them in posi-
tion. Below the rollers a shoot conveys the crushed
ore to a series of sieves increasing in finehess from
the top to the bottom, and what is separated by
each sieve falls into a separate pit. Such pieces
of ore-stuff as are too ee et laa tp the top
sieve or riddle fall into the -wheel or bucket-
wheel, and are by it raised again to the floor to be
recrushed. In Cornwall a sieve or riddle cylin-
drical in shape is used, and it slopes so that stuff
too large to go through its meshes is by the
raff-wheel to get a second crushing. Only about
13 per cent. of the ore-stuff crushed in the Cornish
mill exceeds 74 millimetres in size.
For pulverising some ores—tinstone and anrifer-
ous quartz, for example—a stamping-mill is used.
It consists of a series of upright shafts with a
weighty piece of iron at the bottom of each. They
are rai y means of an axle with projecting
cams, and then falling by their own weight act like
hammers. Except in chlorination and amalgama-
tion works (see GOLD), the wet process of stampin,
is generally adopted—that is, the cast-iron or stee
shoes of the stamps work upon cast-iron or quartz
bottoms placed in stamp-troughs filled with water.
raoon a us or sorting machines are em-
ployed for dividing the crushed ore-stuff into grains
of several sizes. A common hand-riddle is the
simplest form of sizing implement. One kind of
apparatus in use consists of a series of flat-hottomed
sieves with graduated meshes placed on different
levels and mechanically — so as to the
stuff across the perforated bottoms. The first sieve
separates the largest grains, the second the next in
size, and soon. A rotating dram-sieve or trommel
is, however, more frequently employed. It is placed
horizontally, and is to some extent conical in shape.
Sometimes it is one long continuous trommel in
sections, in which case the finest stuff passes throngh
the first section, the next larger through the second,
and so on through, say, five or six divisions to the
largest grains. In other cases a system of separate
conical trommels, in which the sizing takes place
from large to small grains, is employed. With the
trommel water is used, and, although its axis may
be quite level, the falling angle of its shell together
with its motion impels the ore-stuff from the smaller
to the larger end. Trommels are used for clearing
off earthy matter and for draining off water from
ore as well as for oe
After the ore-stulf has been sorted according to
the size of the grains, the next step is to separate
by specific gravity the pure ore from the gangne or
non-metallic minerals associated with it. If the
reduced particles be those of vein-stuff containin
— oe ny tpt oe these _ abe se ate
iy gravity. equal-sized grains of galena, blende,
anednatte whose respective densities are 7°5, 4, and
2-7, are allowed to fall freely in some depth of water,
the three substances will separate into layers at the
hottom, in which case the lead ore (galena) will
form the lowest, the zine ore (blende) the middle,
and the quartz the top layer. But in hydraulic
jiggers (some are pneumatic) the column of water,
at most under 3 inches, is too shallow to ad-
mit of separation by simply dropping the grains.
oe eae these are placed in a sieve im-
me in water, and subjected to a repeated up-
and-down motion, in which the ascent of the jigging
stuff takes place by jerk4, but in the descent it falls
freely. In this way the pure ore, or at least the
best ore, accumulates at the bottom, and is usually
sufficiently rich for smelting. The gangue on the
surface is skimmed off or otherwise removed. In
hand-jigging the sieve is vigorously jerked in a tub
of water; in the brake-jigger the jerking motion is
produced by a hand-lever and connecting rod; and
in continuous jiggers mechanical contrivances are
used to carry into different receptacles the mineral
ins separated upon the sieve in layers without
interrupting the jigging process.
The dressing of fine sandy, mealy, or cape! ore-
stuff, which is not suitable for jigging, is effected
on buddles or sloping tables. Buddles are inclined
planes, often circular, or rather conical in
over which the fine stuff suspended in water de-
scends. In doing so the heavier metallic particles
fall at the top of the table or cone while the lighter
waste is carried down to the foot.
Fordetailed descriptions and illustrations of ore-dressing
es, see Hunt’s British Mining (1884) ; an exhaus-
tive report by E. F. Althaus in the of the Phila-
delphia Exhibition, 1876 ; and works on Metallurgy by
rts-Austen (1891) and A, J. Hiorns (1896).
Metal Mountains. See ErzGEesirce.
Metals. Although each metal is considered in
a separate article, there are various points -
ing the general physical and chemical characters
of these bodies, and the method of classi
them, which require notice. A metal, from the
chemical point of view, is an element which can
replace hydrogen in an acid and thus form a salt.
Hydrogen itself is, chemically, considered to be
a metal. Those elements which are non-metallic
in this sense are called metalloids,
Amongst the chief chemical properties of metals
we notice their strong affinities to certain of the
non-metallic elements. All the metals, withéut ex-
ception, combine with oxygen, sulphur, and chlorine,
and often in several proportions, forming oxides,
sulphides (formerly termed sulphurets), and chlor-
ides. Many of them combine with bromine, iodine,
and fluorine. The other compounds of this nature,
excepting carbide (formerly carburet) of iron, or
steel, and the hydrides of arsenic and antimony
(commonly known as arseniuretted and antimoniu-
retted hydrogen), which are of importance in toxi-
cology, may be passed over without notice, The
metallic oxides are, without exception, solid bodies,
white or coloured, and usually present an earthy
appearance. Hence the ol name of metallic
applied to these oxides. Those oxides which are
termed basic the property of directly
uniting with the so-called a (such as
sulphuric, nitric, carbonic, and silicic acid), and of
forming new chemical compounds of the second
order, termed Salts (q.v.). The compounds of
the metals with chlorine, iodine, bromine, and
fluorine—such, for instance, as chloride of sodium,
or common salt, ClNa—are termed haloid salts,
The same metal may often combine both with
chlorine and with oxygen in more than one pro-
portion. For example, we have subchloride of
mercury, Hg,Cl,; suboxide of mercury, Hg,0 ;
chloride of mercury, HgCl,; oxide of mereury,
H For the compounds of the metals wi
su H Cobar see SULPHUR.
he following are the most important of the
physical properties of the metals: (1) All metals,
unless when they are in a finely-pulverised form,
exhibit more or less of the characteristic lustre
termed metallic. Two of the non-metallic ele-
ments, iodine and carbon, in some forms also pre-
sent a metallic lustre. (2) All metals are er
conductors of heat and electricity, although in
very unequal degrees. (3) With the exceptiats of
mereury, all the metals are solid at ordinary
temperatures. With the exception of gold, copper,
calcium, and strontium, the metals are, when Tone
is only once reflected from them, more or less white,
METALS
METAL-WORK 151
with a tendency to blue or gray. Most’ of them
have been obtained in crystals, and probably all of
them are capable of crystallising under certain
conditions. (4) homer are emer terete —_
opacity, except when they are chemically reduced to
Seenaly thin films. (5) All the metals are fusible,
although the temperatures at which they assume
the fluid form are very different (see MELTING-
POINT); and some of them, as mercury, arsenic,
everest aiigh &e., pri also volatile. (6) —
weight, or a high specific gravity, is popularly but
qroneouily regarded as olasncneeintes of a metal ;
while platinum, osmium, and iridium (the heaviest
bedies known in nature) are more than twenty
times as heavy as water, lithium, potassium, and
sodium are actually lighter than that fluid.
(7) Great differences are observable in the hard-
ness, brittleness, and tenacity of metals. While
—— and sodium may kneaded with the
nger, and lead may be marked by the finger-nail,
most of them possess a considerable degree of hard-
ness, Antimony, arsenic, and bismuth are so
brittle that they may be easily pulverised in a
mortar; while others, as iron, gold, silver, and
copper, require great force for their disintezration.
Taking iron and | as representing the two
extremes of tenacity, it is found that an iron wire
will bear a weight twenty-six times as heavy as a
leaden wire of the same diameter. See DucTILiry,
MALLEABILITY.
Metals enter into combination with one another
when they are fused together, and such combina-
tion is termed an Alloy (q.v.), unless when mer-
cury is one of the combining metals, in which case
the resulting compound is termed an Amalgam
It is doubtful whether all alloys are true
(q.¥-)
abonicdl compounds, Definite compounds of the
metals with each other do, however, certainly
exist, and are sometimes found native, as, for
inden the erystallised silver and mercury com-
pound represented be the formula AgHg.
In consequence of their strong affinities for the
metalloids the metals are seldom found in a free or
uncombined state, even in the inorganic kingdom,
and never in animals or plants. Tlie more common
metals, in eens of their strong affinity for
oxygen and sulphur, are very rarely met with in
tle uncombined state ; but some of those which are
less abundant, such as gold, silver, and platinum,
are found uncombined, in which case the terms
native and virgin are applied to them; and other
metals, as mereury and copper, occur both in a free
and in a com state. y native alloys are
found, but the ordinary sources of the metals are
oxides, re yeoree chlorides, and carbonates, sul-
phates, other salts. These are termed the ores
of the metals. The methods of obtaining the
metals from their various ores fall under the head
of METALLURGY.
Various classifications of the metals have been
—— by different chemists, The following is
probably one of the most convenient :
(1.) The Light Metals, subdivided into—
(1) The metals of the alkalies—viz. potassium,
sodium, csesiuin, rubidium, lithium.
(2) The metals of the alkaline earths—viz.
barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium.
(3) The metals of the true earths—viz. alumi-
nium, glucinum, zirconium, yttrium, erbium, ter-
m, thorinum, cerium, lanthanum, didymium.,
(IL) The Heavy Metals, subdivided into—
(1) Metals whose oxides form powerful bases—
iron, manganese, chromium, nickel, cobalt,
_ cadmium, lead, bismuth, copper, uranium,
thalliam.
2) Metals whose oxides form weak bases or
Is—viz. arsenic, antimony, titanium, tantalum,
niobium (or columbium), tungsten, molybdenum,
tin, vanadium, osmium.
(3) Metals whose oxides are reduced by heat—
noble metals—viz. mercury, silver, gold, platinum,
palladium, iridium, ruthenium, rhodium, osmium.
(Several of the rare metals are here omitted. )
Another classification is that by which the metals
are arranged in six groups, each group being named
after a metal which es the common charac-
ters in a well-marked degree: viz. (1) the sodium
group, (2) the calcium, (3) the iron, (4) the
copper, (5) the platinum, and (6) the antimony
groups.
Metal-work, Artistic. Leaving celebrated
statues and groups cast in bronze to be described
under the head SCULPTURE, we shall briefly notice
here a few important pa as of artistic work in
metal which are rather classed as specimens of
decorative art than of pure sculpture. Of early
gold and silver work one of the most renowned
objects is the altar made of these two metals in the
church of St Ambrose at Milan. It was executed
by Wolvinus in the 9th century, and contains
figures in relief of Christ and the Apostles with
ornamental borders in enamel. Another very fine
example of work in gold and enamel is the Pala
@ Oro (altar front) of St Mark’s, Venice, by Byzan- °
tine artists of the 10th or 11th century. Some
specimens of Celtic art, partly in precious metal,
such as the Tara Brooch and the Ardagh Chalice—
the latter ay sr to be of the 10th century—are
of exquisite uty (see BroocH). The shrine of
the Magi in Cologne Cathedral is a magniticent
reliquary of the 12th century, in which the figures
are of gold and the architectural decorations covered
with enamels and precious stones. A considerable
number of specimens of ecclesiastical gold and silver
work of the 13th century remain, including a few of
great interest. Of 14th-century examples—a time
when the goldsmith’s art ceased to be employed
exclusively in the service of the chureh—the
splendid silver reliquary in the church of Orvieto,
by Ugolino of Siena, is very remarkable. Perhaps
the two most important monuments of the gold-
smith’s art made in the middle ages are the altar of
St James, Pistoia, and that of the Baptistery of St
John at Florence. They were begun in the Ith
century, and a number of the most famous Italian
artists were in succession engaged upon them for a
rier of 150 years. Both are of silver, one of them
ing decorated with subjects from the life of St
James, and the other with scenes from the life of St
John. Giglio of Pisa, Pietro Tedesco, Ricciardi,
Cipriano, and Filippo were among the artists en-
gaged on the St James’ altar; and Cioni, Ghiberti,
enni, Verrocchio, and Pollainolo worked at that
of St John. Some of the greatest artists in Italy in
the 14th and 15th centuries practised to some extent
the goldsmith’s art, including Lucea della Robbia,
Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, Donatello, and Jacopo della
Quercia. In the 16th century Cellini’s is the
test name, although well-authenticated works
»y him in the precious metals are few in number.
here are some very artistic productions in pewter
W the French artist Frangois Briot, who lived in
the 16th century.
Bronze is a metal in which many fine works have
been executed, and these are often of large size,
Few early examples exist of which the artists are
known. ‘Stanracius of Constantinople cast in the
11th century the bronze gates of St Paul’s-without-
the-Walls at Rome, destroyed in 1823, but of which
drawings exist. A century later an artist named
Barisanus made the fine bronze door of the cathe-
dral of Monreale in Sicily. One of the most
artistic productions in this metal of the 13th century
is the candelabrum in Milan Cathedral, 15 feet
high. The east door of the Baptistery at Florence,
152 METAMORPHOSIS
METAPHYSICS
upon which Ghiberti was engaged from 1425 to
1452, is considered a marvellous work of art.
Another door in this building, by A. Pisano, com-
pleted in 1430, after being in progress for twenty
years, is also an admirable production. P. Vischer's
shrine of St Sebald at Nuremberg is a beautiful
monument which, though quite different in form
from the objects named above, resemblés them in
the design being an intimate combination of small
works in sculpture and architectural ornament.
A fountain in the Maximilian-strasse, Augsburg,
executed by H. Gerhard in 1593, has been much
admired, For want of s we can only name
two more bronzists—B. Morel, who did the great
candelabrum in Seville Cathedral, and L. Bernini,
who in the 17th century executed many clever
works in Italy. :
There is a no class of metal objects in
which artistic skill is more marvellously displayed
than in some of the rich suits of armour made in
the end of the 15th, but chiefly in the 16th century.
These are for the most part of iron or steel, with
ornament in repoussé or engraved ; sometimes with
both combined, and occasionally with damascenin
in gold and silver. Among those who practi
the armourer's art in Italy the most famous names
. are Michelangelo, Filippo Negrolo, Romero, and
some members of the Piccinini family. In Germany
Kollman of Augaburg, and in France Antoine
Jacquard stood high. Some of the finest suits of
armour made at this period are in the Museum of
Arms at en, and in the Louvre and Musée
d'Artillerie, Paris,
Wrought-iron work, rude but effective, appears on
the wooden doors of some Romanesque churches of
the 12th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries
the work in this metal became more refined, and
among admirable examples of the latter period may
be mentioned the screens round the tombs of the
Scala family at Verona, and a screen in the church
of Santa Croce, Florence. Screens, grilles, and
other objects with open wrought-iron ornament,
beautifully designed, and ranging over a peri
from the 13th to the 16th century, but especiall
those e during the 15th and 16th, are foun
in ame, churches in Germany, Spain, France, and
England. In the latter country the early grille
over Queen Eleanor's tomb, Westminster, and
the later screen to Edward IV.’s at Windsor are
fine examples; so also are the still later (18th
century) railing-panels made for Hampton Court
Palace by Huntington Shaw. The canopy of a
draw-well at Antwerp by Quentin Matsys is one of
the best works of its kind in hammered iron.
Many of the elaborately chiselled iron locks and
hinges made at Nuremberg and Augsburg in the
15th and 16th centuries are wonderfully beautiful.
The National Museum at Munich is especially rich
in specimens of these.
m See eee TB Metal-work ( persll the jews ng
ngton Museum [Descriptive] Catalogue of Bronzes,
Fortnum, and of Gold nod yey ork, by J. rd
Pollen; Hefner-Alteneck, Serrurtrie (1870) ;
Atbildungen Deutscher Schmiedewer:
tle Richard de Lalonde; E. Plon, B. Cellini, Recherches
mur sa Vie et sur son Giuere (1883); G. W. Yapp, Metal-
work (chiefly modern).
Metamorphosis, « term applied in ancient
mythology to the frequent transformation of human
beings into beasts, stones, trees, and even into fire,
water, or the like, whith are essential parts of
arp folklore everywhere, These metamorphoses
‘orded a subject to Greek poets and writers of the
Alexandrine period, and to Ovid among the Romans.
See BEAST-FABLES and FoLKLore.—In Zoology
the term Metamorphosis is applied to such marked
changes as those from caterpillar to insect, or from
tadpole to frog, where the young form or larva
is seienaly different from the adult. See the
articles on Amphibia, og Crustacea, Echin-
odermata, Frog, Insects, ; and for Metamor-
a in Botany, see MORPHOLOGY, FLowER.—In
seology the term roa ay yd is applied to the
alteration undergone by rocks under heat, pressure,
and other influences, so that they assume a
line or semi-crystalline structure, See GEOLOGY,
Vol. V. p. 151.
Metaphor (Gr. metaphora, ‘a roger
a figure of speech by means of which one thing
vut for another which it only resembles. Thus, the
salmist speaks of God’s law as being ‘a light to
his feet and a lamp to his path.’ e racic
is therefore a kind of comparison implied but not
formally expressed, in which the s er or writer,
easting aside the circumlocution of the ord
similitude, seeks to attain his end at once, by
boldly identifying his illustration with the hing
illustrated. It is thus of necessity, when
conceived and expressed, graphic and striking in
the highest d , and has been a favourite figure
with poets and orators, atid the makers of proverbs,
in all ages, Even in ordinary language the mean-
ings of words are in great part metaphors ; a3 when
we speak of an acute intellect, or a-bo/d promontory.
The metaphor is false if the simile involved cannot
be intelligibly evolved from it; and, to avoid what
are often called mixed metaphors, it is well that
the implicit simile should be conceived psa
asina picture. Such cases of confusion as Cromwell’s
‘God has kindled a seed in this nation’ are obvious.
enough, but most often the mixed metaphor is
wrapped up in a cloud of rhetoric, as in De Quincey’s
sentence : ‘The very recognition of these or any of
them by the jurisprudence of a nation is a mortal
wound to the very keystone upon which the whole
vast arch of morality re * Ruskin in his Pre-
terita, describing rs's cold reception of him asa
boy, says: ‘The cultivation of germinating see
was never held by Mr Rogers to be an industry
altogether delectable to genius in tts zenith.’
Metaphysical Poets, a term first applied
Dr ictaphys his life af Duadey to the feet
which Donne is the most outstanding example.
They were men of learning, and to show their
learning was their whole endeavour; they neither
copied nature nor life, hence their thoughts are
often new but seldom natural; the most hetero-
geneous ideas are yoled by violence together, nature
and art being ransacked for ‘illustrations, com-
soksgece and allusions ; they failed, as might have
n expected, in moving the affections or attain-
ing the sublime, but what they wanted they en-
deavoured to supply by rf wg e—their amplifica-
tions had no limits, they left not only reason but
fancy behind them, and produced combinations of
confused magnificence that not only could not be
credited but could not be imagined. Yet, if they
frequently threw away their wit upon false conceits
they likewise sometimes struck out unexpected
truth: if their conceits were far-fetched, they were
often worth the carriage. Such is Jolinson’s ex-
planation of the phrase and its meaning, and it
must be admit that the name is to a cei
extent appropriate enongh, for the philosophising
and analytic spirit pervades the works of the whole
school, and intellect rather than emotion is ever
the stuff out of which their phantasies are fram
Their constant weakness is the tendency towards
conceits and similes that are merely fantastic and
ingenious, Which mars a modern reader’s pleasure*
in almost every poem of Donne and Cowley.
Metaphysics, a word first applied to a certain
group of the philosophical dissertations of Aristotle,
containing what Aristotle (q.v.) called ‘first philo-
sophy,’ and Plato ‘dialectics,’ The phrase meta
q
METAPHYTA
METEOROLOGY 153
ta physika means probably ‘the books after the
Rg but has Suen interpreted ‘the matters
above or beyond pliysics.’ e branch of philo-
sophy so called is the highest department, and deals
with ss ones questions as to the nature and
limit of human consciousness and the possibility of
establishing truths beyond empirical consciousness.
The term been sometimes used, as by Mansel,
to comprise Psychology along with metaphysics
proper or Ontology. See PHILOSOPHY.
Metaphy many-celled plants, in contrast
to the single-celled Protophytes.
Metastasio, the Greek form of the surname of
Pierro TRAPASSI, an Italian poet, who was born
of humble parents at Rome, on 6th January 1698.
A precocious boy, hie improvised verses and recited
them to crowds on the street. This gift gained him
a patron in his ninth year, one thatien a cele-
brated Roman lawyer, who educated him, and on
his death (1718) him his fortune. In 1722
Metastasio wrote his first libretto at Naples, which
so charmed the t Roman singer Bulgarini,
called La Romanina, that she took him into her
house, and launched him on his successful career
as a writer of opera-libretti—libretti which
some real cette, qualities. These dramas, all
with classical subjects, were set to musie by some
of the greatest composers then living, as Pergolese,
Scarlatti, Durante, Hasse, Paesiello, Marcello, and
others, and su by some of the greatest singers
who have ever ved, Farinelli and Caffariello. In
* 1729 Metastasio was appointed court-poet to the
theatre at Vienna, for which he wrote several of
his best pieces. His reputation spread rapidly and
stood high throughout Europe, but from 1825 to
1865 his name was ana’ in Italy. He died in
Vienna on 12th April 1782, having for nearly forty
qeere suffered from ‘mental and moral ennui.’
collected editions of his dramas were pub-
lished at Genoa (1802) and at Padua (1811); and
his Letters were edited by Cardueci (Bol. 1883).
See Vernon Lee’s Studies of 18th Century in Italy
(1880), and Lives by Burney (1796), Mussatia
1882), and Falconi (1883), the first in English, the
t two in Italian.
Metaurus, a river of Central Italy, still
called the Metauro or Metro, emptying into the
Adriatic near Fano. On its ake the Romans
defeated the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal in
207 B.C.
Metayer 8
Laws, Vol. VI. p. 505.
Metaxen, many-celled animals, in contrast to
the single-celled Protozoa (q.v.).
Metellus, the name of a Roman family of the
‘am
or. METAIRIE. See LAND
plebeian Fc Cecilia, which rose to be one of
the first ilies of the Roman nobility.—One of
the most distinguished members of the family
was Quintus Cwecilins Metellus Macedonicus, who
received his surname from his victory over Andris-
cus, an aspirant to the throne of Macedonia (148
B.C.). His life was considered by ancient writers
an example of the test felicity: before his
death in 115 three of his sons had been consuls,
one censor, and one was a candidate for the con-
sulship. Another was Quintns Cvcilius Metel-
Ins Numidicus, who twice defeated Jugurtha in
Numidia (109 B.c.), and was celebrated for his
integrity of character, but was superseded in his
command by Marius. His son, Quintus Cecilius
Metellus, surnamed Pins, joined Sulla in 83 B.c.,
but sought to moderate the severity of his pro-
seriptions. Quintus Cecilius Metellus Creticus
conquered Crete, and reduced it to a Roman pro-
vince (67 B.c.). Quintus Ccilius Metellus Pius
Scipio, sometimes called Quintus Scipio, and some-
times Scipio Metellus, was a son of Scipio Nasica,
who was adopted by one of the Metelli, and be-
came the father-in-law of Pompey, and his zealous
partisan. He commanded the centre at Pharsalia,
maintained war on his behalf for some time in
Africa, and, after the battle of Thapsus (46 B.c.),
died by his own hand.
Metempsychosis. See TRANSMIGRATION.
Meteorology (Gr. metedra, ‘meteors, or atmo-
spheric phenomena’) was originally applied to the
consideration of all appearances in the sky, both
astronomical and atmospherical; but the term is
now confined to that department of physics which
treats of the phenomena of the atmosphere as
regards weather and climate. Owing to the com-
plosty of the Encte, meteorology is the most
ifficult and involved of the sciences, and may
seem, at first sight, Se = of being
reduced to a science at all. this account, the
only procedure admissible in the first place is a
faithful recording of facts by long and patient
observation.
From the nature of the subjects which make u
the science, it may be inferred that they occupi
men’s minds from a remote antiquity. From the
time dee in the open air in the early ages, and
from the imperfect protection afforded against the
inclemency of the seasons, those appearances which
experience proved to precede a change of weather
would be eagerly recorded and handed down. In
this way many valuable facts were ascertained and
passed current from hand to hand; and perhaps
there is no science of which more of the leading
facts and inferences have been from so early a
period incorporated into a pe language. Aris-
totle was the first wlio collected, in his work On
Meteors, the current ct a of the weather.
Some of these were derived from the ptians,
while a considerable number were tlie result of his
own observation. Theophrastus, one of Aristotle's
pupils, classified the opinions commonly received
regarding the weather under four heads—viz.
the prognostics of rain, of wind, of storm, and
of fine weather. The subject was discussed only
in its popular and practical bearings, and no
attempt was made to explain plenomena whose
occurrence appeared so irregular and capricious ;
but still the treatise of Theophrastus contains
about all that was known down to comparativel
recent times. No real progress was made till
instruments were invented for making observations
with regard to the temperature, the pressure, the
humidity, the purity, and the electricity of the air.
The discovery of the weight or pressure of the
atmosphere made by Torricelli in 1643 was un-
doubtedly the first step in the progress of meteor-
ology to the rank of a science. As this memorable
discovery discloses what sin the more elevated
regions of the atmosphere, it follows that the eleva-
tions and depressions of the barometric column
largely extend our knowledge of the subject. In-
deed, nearly all of the more important of the dis-
coveries of modern meteorology lave been made
through the barometric observations,
The invention and gradual perfecting of the
thermometer in the same century formed another
capital advance; as without it nothing beyond
vague impressions could be obtained regarding
temperature, the most important of all the ele-
ments of climate. Fahrenheit constructed small
and portable thermometers, which, being carried by
medical men and travellers over every part of the
world, furnished observations of the most valuable
description. By such observations alone the com-
eoeers temperature of different countries became
nown, and the exaggerated accounts of travellers
with regard to extreme heat and cold were reduced
154
ieee
METEOROLOGY
to their proper significance. Searcely less import-
ant was the introduction of the liygrometer, first
systematically used by De Saussure (died 1799),
and subsequently improved by Dalton, Daniell,
August, and Regnault. From the period of the
invention of these instruments the number of
meteorological observers greatly increased, and a
large body of well-authenticated facts of real value
was collected. The climates of particular parts of
the earth were approximately determined, and the
science made t and rapid advances by the in-
vestigations into the laws which regulate the
changes of atmospheric ph
The theory of the tradewinds was first pro-
ompnae by George Hadley in the Philosophical
ransactions for 1735; and it may be mentioned as
a remarkable fact that for about half a centur
it remained unnoticed, and then was independ-
ently arrived at by Dalton. The publication of
Dalton’s Meteorological Essays, in 1793, marks an
epoch in meteorology. It is the first instance of
te principles of science being brought to bear on
the explanation of the intricate phenomena of the
atmosphere. The idea that vapour is an inde-
pendent elastic fluid, and that all elastic fluids,
whether alone or mixed, exist independently ; the
great principles of motion of the atmosphere; the
theory of winds, their effect on the barometer, and
their relation to temperature and rain ; observations
on the height of clouds, on thunder, and on meteors ;
and the relations of magnetism and the aurora
horealis—these are some of the important questions
discnssed in these remarkable essays, with singular
acnteness, fullness, and breadth of view.
One of the most interesting and fruitful subjects
of inquiry that engaged the attention of meteor-
ologists was dew. The olservations on this subject
were first collected and reduced by Dr Wells, and
the theory he advanced, Sag pe gmgo hy the
recent researches of Mr John Aitken, gives a com-
plete explanation of the phenomenon (see DEw).
In 1823 Daniell published his pel mabe: (503
Essays and Observations, which, while adding
largely to our knowledge in almost every depart-
ment of the subject, are chiefly valuable as bearin
on the hygrometry of the atmosphere, Though
the practical advantages which he anticipated to
flow from it have not been realised, yet this diffi-
cult department of meteorology still stands in-
debted to him perhaps more than to any other
physicist. The law of the diffusion of vapour
through the air, its influence on the barometric
pressure, and its relations to the other constituents
of the atmosphere are among the least satisfac-
torily determined questions in meteorology. Since
this element is so important in originating changes
of weather and as an indicator of storms, and since
so much remains still to be achieved, it is to be
hoped that it will soon be more thoroughly investi-
gated, particularly in its relations to solar and
terrestrial radiation. As the humidity to some
extent obstructs solar and terrestrial radiation, it
follows that if the air were quite drained of its
aqueous vapour the extremes of heat and cold
would be so intense and insufferable that all life
would perish, as there would be no screen shield-
ing the earth from the scorching heat of the sun
hy day, and from the equally seorching and blight-
mee ects of its own radiation by night.
lectrical observations have been, of all meteor-
ological observations, perhaps the least productive
of results advancing the science, partly owing to
their scantiness, and from the expense and trouble
attending them.
Humboldt’s treatise on Isothermal Lines (1817)
constitutes a notable epoch in practical meteor-
ology. Dové and, more recently, the present writer
have continued the investigation, and given charts
of the world, showing the temperature for each
month and for the year. In 1868 another series
of important charts were published ly the writer,
showing, by isobaric lines, the distribution of the
mass off the earth's atmosphere, and by arrows the
prevailing winds over the globe for the months and
the year. These charts, since revised by him, and
published in one of the Challenger reports, show
the movements of the atmosphere and their imme-
diate cause. It is thus seen that the prevailing
winds are the simple result of the relative distri-
bution of the mass of the earth’s atmosphere; or
that the direction and force of the poorailine winds
are simply the flow of the air from a region of
higher towards a region of lower pressure, or from
where there is surplus to where there is a deficiency
of air. On this bread and vital principle meteor-
ology rests, and it is of universal ication
throughout the science in explanation not only
of prevailing winds, but of all winds, and of
weather and weather chan gene: Further,
it supplies the key to the clhuasonnee of the
globe; for climate is determined by the tem)
ture and moisture of the air, and these in ir
turn by the prevailing winds, In 1882. Loomis
published a map representing in colours the mean —
rainfall of the globe. This map and others that
have been construeted for separate countries show
that the rainfall is everywhere determined by the
prevailing winds, considered with respect to the
regions from which they have immediately come,
and the physical configuration and temperature.
of the part of the earth's surface over which they
blow. The highest rainfalls are precipitated )
winds which, having traversed a large breadt'
of ocean, come up against and blow over a high
ridge lying across their path; and the amount is
still further increased if the winds pass at the
same time into regions the temperature of which
constantly becomes‘colder. Of this the winter
rains of north-western Europe and the summer
rains of Japan are good examples. On the other
hand, the rainfall is very small, or ni/, where the
prevailing winds have not previously traversed
some extent of ocean, but have cro: a high
ridge and now advance into lower latitudes, or
into regions the temperature of which is markedly
higher. Good examples of this are the summer
rains of California and adjoining regions, and those
of the Indus valley.
The establishment of meteorological societies
rg the last half of the 19th century must
also be commemorated as contributing in a high
d to the solid advancement of the science
which, more than any other, must depend on ex-
tensive and carefully conducted observation. A
special oy of meteorological societies is to
ascertain the degrees of temperature and moisture
in various localities, and the usual periods of their
occurrence, together with their effects on the health
of the people and upon the different agricultural
products; so that, by a knowledge of the laws
which the growth of such products is regulated, it
may be ascertained with some degree of certain
whether any given article can be profitably enlti-
vated. But perhaps none of the arts have benefited
to so large an extent by the results arrived at by
roaster tion. The knowledge thus
acquired of the prevailing winds over the different
parts of the earth during the different seasons of
the year, the oy ote of storms and calms, and the
laws of storms has both saved innumerable lives,
and, by pointing out the most expeditious routes to
be followed, shortened voyages to a remarkable
degree. In this department the name of Maury
(q.v.) deserves special commendation.
Another fruit of the multiplication of meteor-
ological stations is the prediction of storms and
METEOROLOGY
155
‘forecasts’ of weather, first oii in the
United States about the middle of the 19th
century. As s the British Islands these
‘forecasts’ are on telegrams which are
received every morning from about sixty selected
stations in Great Britain and Ireland, and on
the Continent, which give the exact state of
the barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, and
rain- with the direction and force of the
wind, nee of the sky, at each of these
stations at eight in the morning. In the event of
there being any storm or other atmospheric dis-
turbance at one or more of these places, a full
and_aceurate description of it is thus conveyed
to London; and it is the duty of the officials
there to consider the direction in which the storm
is moving and is likely to move, so as to enable
them to give warning of its approach at different
se by special signals But in addition to warn-
ngs of storms, dai Bede ak of the weather likely
to oceur in the different districts of Great Britain
for the following two days are also issued. As
regards storms the problem to be ccncyinat worked
out is this: Given telegrams showing the exact
meteorological conditions prevailing over the area
embraced by the stations, with indications of a
storm approaching in a certain direction, to deter-
mine, not the probable area over which the tempest
will sweep, but the precise localities which will
altogether escape, the places where the storm will
rage, its continnance, its violence, and the particular
directions from which the wind will blow at places
visited by the storm. Weather-registers extend-
ing over long periods give no countenance to the
notion that there are arly recurring cycles of
weather on which prediction sufficiently precise
and particular to be of service to agriculture and
na ion may The manner in which
and bad seasons occur in different places with
res to each other shows clearly that they have
little direct immediate dependence on any of the
ane Bcpaee but that they depend directly on
causes, Owing to its proximity to the
Atlantic, Great Britain is not so favourably situ-
ated for the issue of warnings as the countries of
Enrope to the eastward. Since 1870 this branch
of science has been prosecuted with remarkable
energy and success by General Myer (familiarly
known as ‘Old Probability’) and his successor in
charge of the signal ice of the United States
War Department. American meteorologists were
the first to undertake the representation of
isothermals over the ocean; and to the United
States science is also indebted for magnificent
eteorology has of late benefited
largely by the establishment of high-level meteor-
i in the United States, France, Italy,
Switzerland, Austria, India, Australia, Scotland,
and many other countries. The nine arctic expedi-
tions in 1882-83 devoted themselves largely to
meteorological observations. Many first-class mete-
orological observatories are now established in all
Loita ray countries at which hourly observations are
e.
On the diurnal phenomena the more important
principles of the science are based. Of the sun's
vo arrive at the earth’s surface, those
w fall on the land are wholly absorbed by the
thin surface layer, the temperature of which conse-
uently rises. A wave of heat is thence propagated
nward through the soil, the intensity of which
rapidly lessens with the depth at a rate dependin,
on the conductivity of the soil, till at a depth a
about 4 feet it ceases to be measurable. Part of
the heat of this surface layer is conveyed upwards
into the atmosphere by convection currents. But
as regards the surface of the ocean the case is
totally different. Here comparatively little of the
heat is arrested at the surface, but it penetrates,
as shown by the observations of the Challenger
expedition, to a depth of about 500 feet. Hence in
Le waters the temperature of the surface is but
little heated by the direct rays of the sun, though
in shallow waters, owing to the heating of the
bottom, the water has a considerable daily ran
of temperature. Thus, in mid-ocean, from 30° N.
lat. to 30° S. lat., the temperature of the surface
of the sea does not vary during the day quite so
mucli as one d Fahrenheit. Off the coast of
Scotland the daily variation is only 0°3°, and in
higher latitudes still less. On the other hand, the
daily variation of the upper layer of the surface of
the land is frequently 50°, and in many cases very
much greater. Hence the enormously different
results which large masses of land and sea respec-
tively exercise on climate. The temperature of the .
air over the ocean is about three times greater than
that of the surface of the open sea over which it
lies; but on nearing land it is nearly five times
ter. The least daily variation on land is in
insular situations, being at Rothesay about 5°; and
the test in the Sahara regions of tropical and
subtropical countries, where it is in many places 30°,
rising on occasions to 40° and upwards. The daily
minimum temperature occurs some time before
dawn; and as regards the maximum, it occurs
from 1 to 4 P.M., according to season and geo-
i pie situation, the earlier hour obtaining in
arid climates and at true high-level observatories,
and the later in climates characteristically humid.
The absolute humidity of the air, or, as it is
usually termed, the elastic force of vapour, is seen
in its simplest form on the open sea, as disclosed by
the Challenger observations. The minimum occurs
at 4 A.M. and the maximum at 2 p.M., thus approxi-
mating closely to the diurnal march of the tem-
perature ; on nearing Jand a secondary minimum
prevails from 10 A.M. to 4 P.M., due ‘Gonbtless to
the drier deseénding aérial currents which take the
place of the currents that ascend from the heated
surfaces of the land. The relative humidity is
widely different from the vapour pressure, and
presents features of the simplest character. The
maximum occurs from midnight to 4 A.M. ; or when
the temperature is lowest the air is nearest to
saturation. On the other hand, the minimum is
about 2 P.M.; or when temperature is highest the
air is furthest from saturation. This feature of the
humidity characterises all climates. When the air
is by terrestrial radiation cooled below the dew-
point dew is deposited, and when the temperature
1s below 32° hoar-frost is the result.
The diurnal oscillations of the barometer show
two maxima and minima—the maxima oceurring
about 9 to 10 A.M. and 9 to 10 P.M., and the minima
from 3 to 4A4.M. and 3 to4 P.M. Since the tem-
perature of the surface of the sea does not vary
quite one degree during the day, and since these
oscillations occur equally over the open sea as on
land, it conclusively follows that hey are independ-
ent of the temperature of the part of the surface of
the globe on which the air rests. Generally speak-
ing, the amount of the oscillations decreases with
latitude. Taking latitude with latitude, the
amounts are test over land surfaces which are
greatly heated during the day and cooled during
the night, and least over the anticyclonic regions
of the great oceans lying to the westward of the
continents from about 20° to 40° N. and §, lat.
The characteristics of these anticyclonic regions is
a vast descending current down their central
spaces. This air necessarily increases in tem-
rature with its descent, and consequently is
her removed from saturation; and it is prob-
156 METEOROLOGY
METEORS
ably due to this circumstance that the amount
of the barometric oscillation is here reduced to
the minimum for the latitude over all anticyclonic
ions.
t has been further shown from the Challenger
cbservations that the force of the winds on the
open sea is subject to no distinct and uniform diur-
nal variation, but that on nearing larid the force
of the wind gives a curve as pronouncedly marked
as the orlinary curve of temperature ; the minimum
occurring from 2 to 4 A.M. and the maximum from
noon to4 P.M. Each of the five great oceans gives
the same result—the differences between the hours
of least and greatest force being Southern Ocean,
G4 miles ; South Pacific, 4} miles ; South Atlantic,
24 miles ; and North Atlantic and North Pacific, 3
miles. This diurnal peculiarity of the wind’s force
is even still more pronoun over all tolerably
open and extended surfaces of the land. But at
true high-level observatories, situated on ks,
such as Ben Nevis, the reverse everywhere holds, so
that the daily minimum velocity occurs during the
warmest hours of the day, and the maximum at
ight during the coldest hours.
hunderstorms have well-marked periods of
diurnal variation over land and over the open sea
respectively. In climates where rain falls equally
et all seasons they are of most frequent occnr-
rence during the hottest portions of the day and of
the year, so far as concerns the land surfaces of the
globe. Taki Ekaterinburg in the Urals as repre-
senting inland climates, observations show that there,
during the twelve hours from 9 A.M. to 9 P.M. when
temperature is above the daily mean, 717 occurred,
but only 139 during the other twelve hours when
temperature is under the mean. Thus the great
majority oecur during the time of the day when
the ascensional movement of the air from the heated
ground takes place, and attain the absolute maxi-
mum when the temperature and this upward move-
ment are also at the maximum. On the other
hand, the Challenger observations on the open sea
show that the maximum occurrence is from 10 P.M.
to 8 A.M., 22 having been observed during these ten
hours pay 10 during the other fourteen hours
of the day. This remarkable result suggests that
over the ocean terrestrial radiation is more power-
ful than solar radiation in causing those vertical
disturbances in the equilibrium of the atmosphere
which give the thunderstorm.
Atmospheric vapour and ascending currents, and
the descending currents which necessarily accom-
pany them, play an important part in the develop-
ment, course, and termination of thunderstorms.
Where the climate is dry and rainless, like that of
Jerusalem in summer, thunder is altogether un-
known ; and where an anticyclone with its descend-
currents rests over a region, as happens over
the centre of the Europeo-Asiatic continent in
winter, thunder is equally unknown during that
‘season. The diurnal periods of hail, whirlwinds,
waterspouts, dust-storms, and tornados have their
origin in substantially the same atmospheric con-
ditions as the thunderstorm, and occur approxi-
mately at the same hours of the day.
See Kaemtz’s Meteorology (trans. 1845); Drew's Mete-
orolagy (24 od. 5 Herschel’s Meteorology 1861) 5
Buchan’s Handy of Meteorology (1868); mi’
Trentise on ays (1868) ; R. H. Scott’s Elementary
Meteorology (1883); Mohn’s Elements of Meteoroloyy ;
Hann's Climatological Atlas, and Climatology ; Buchan’s
At Cireulation (‘ Challenger’ ition ) ;
Blandford's Meteoroloyy of India, &e. The leading points
of this wide subject will be found under such heads as
Atmosphere. | Dust, Hail. Rain.
Aurora. rth, Halos. Snow
Marometer, Electricit Hygrometer, | Storma,
Climate. Evaporation. | Lightning. Temperature,
Clouds, ‘OG Magnetiam, Thermometer,
Dew. Frost Juservatory. | Wind,
Meteors cre small bodies travelling in vast
numbers, and in various directions, through space.
Our earth continually encounters them in its
orbital path, and they are then revealed to our
observation as aérolites, fireballs, and alcoting se
falling stars, Every night, if the sky be >
some may observed, on the average five to
seven every hour, while on certain occasions they
are sO numerous as to present the s of a
perfect rain of fire. Besides those visible to the
eye, there are numbers unseen, some of which are
ionally noted in the conrse of telescopi
observation. The total number encounbaa tae
the earth in one day has been estimated by Pro-
fessor Newton, of Yale College, United States, at
7,500,000. Their total mass, however, he estimates
at only 100 tons, so that individually they must in
eral be exceedingly minute. y dissipate,
1owever, & quantity of dust in the upper regions
of the air, which in its slow descent and fall uw
the earth is easily detected by proper means.
air in this case acts as a shield, so that, instead of
frequent showers of stones descending with dead
force, we have this quiet falling of impalpable du
pe conclusions regarding oe -“" reached
y @ proper interpretation of various phenomena,
long Saidired ns having no mutual connection,
but now pace coherently under one sim
explanation. In order to appreciate the reaso
which has led to this result, it will be convenien
to consider first the observed facts regarding (1)
aérolites, (2) fireballs, and (3) shooting-stars.
The first group, aérolites, includes all stony er
metallic masses actually falling to the earth from
the sky. They have classed as (1) aéro-
siderites, or siderites, chiefly consisting of meteoric
iron ; (2) aérosiderolites, or siderolites, conglomer-
ates of stone and iron; ($3) aérolites, almost en-
tirely consisting of stone, The common title
aérolites embraces, however, all kinds. The
descent of such bodies, though rare, has occurred
with ter frequency than would be imagined.
The British Museum alone has specimens of more
than three hundred, of which nearly two hundred
were seen to fall. Some sacred stones, as the
black stone worshipped at Emesa in Syria, the
holy Kaaba of Mecca, and the great stone of the
pyramid of Cholula in Mexico, owed their sanctity
to a report, probably true, that they had fallen
from heaven, It has been suggested that the
earliest image of Diana of the aaa, which
‘fell down from Jupiter,’ had taken the place of an
actual meteorite. Livy mentions the falling of a
shower of stones on the Alban Mount near 2,
about 654 B.c. A Chinese catalogue records the
fall of an aé#rolite on January 14, 616 B.c., which
broke several chariots and killed ten men, Plutarch
and Pliny mention a great stone, as pa as &
wagon, the latter says, and of a burnt eolour, the —
fall of which, at ae og on the Hell ty)
about 467 B.C., is recorded in the Parian Chronicle,
In 1492 A.D., ‘on Wednesday, November 7,’ a stone
bie ap 260 Ib. was seen to fall near Ensisheim
in Alsace ; part of it is still preserved in the vi
chureh there. In 1510 about 1200 stones, one weigh-
ing 120 1b., another 60 1b., fell near Padua in Italy.
We are told that the Emperor Jehangir caused a
sword to be — from a mass of meteorie iron
which fell at Jullunder in the Punjab in 1620. On
November 27, 1627, the astronomer Gassendi wit-
nessed the fall of a stone weighing 59 Ib. at Mount
Vasier in Provence. At Wold Cottage, Yorkshi
December 13, 1795, a ploughman saw a stone
56 lb. weight fall near him in a field. But the
most interesting of such modern observations
was made on April 26, 1803, near L’Aigle, in
Normandy. About 1 P.M. a brilliant fireball was
seen traversing the air ata great speed. Violent
METEORS
157
s
explosions followed, apparently proceeding from
a small and lofty et, foDowsd by a Showee
of thousands of stones, one 8 lb. in weight.
A large meteorite exploded with prodigious
noise over Madrid on 10th February 1896. On
April 20, 1876, a mass of meteoric iron more
than 7 Ib. weight fell at Rowton in Shropshire,
pa = ey be by an explosion. On September
4, , @ large aérolite fell at Krasnoslobodsk, in
the government of Penza. It was accompanied by
a loud explosion, and in it (as in some others) were
found crystals having all the chemical properties
of the diamond. In nearly every one of these and
other cases are noticed the following features—(1)
a noise, often an explosion ; (2) cloud or smoke; (3)
fusion of the mass or masses, especially on
surface. These indicate that the aérolite by
some means is brought to a very high temperature,
at least above the melting-point of iron, which often
causes it to burst into ents. Pieces of one
which fell in India in 1861, though pened up miles
apart, were found by Maskelyne to fit together into
one whole, the fractures coinciding. This high
jer os weg on the surface of the mass, would
iy be produced by the compression and friction
of the in the case of a body moving with
sufficient velocity. There is no observed connection
between aérolites and volcanoes, nor can voleanic
agency account for their velocity, and so this simple
exp’ ion of aérial friction is now universal!
accepted. A sufficient velocity is at once guaran
when we consider a#rolites as simply fireballs whose
mass and course are such as to bring them entirely
through our atmosphere into contact with the earth.
Meteoric iron is se alloyed with ae ges
manganese, magnesium, copper, carbon, and tin,
in a manner in which it is hot yet found alloyed
in terrestrial minerals ; and this also points to its
cosmical ge ine Altogether twenty-four of the
terrestrial chemical elements have been found in
aérolites—viz. oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, sulphur,
phosphorus, carbon, silicon, iron, nickel, cobalt,
esinin, povcen Pes manganese, copper, tin,
antimony, aluminium, calcium, orange sodium,
lithium, titanium, arsenic, and vanadium. No
new element not found on earth has been found in
The second class of meteors form fireballs, which
Fe ip as brilliantly luminous bodies, traversing
sky, often with noise, and always with great
velocity. Aérolites before their fall have often
been seen as fireballs, and the substantial unity of
the two classes is now almost pesrorsalty accepted.
Fire then, are regarded as aétrolites whose
mass course are such that they escape actual
contact with the earth. They are much more
numerous than aérolites, and are of great variety
in velocity, size, and brilliance. On August 18,
1783, one of size traversed the air over
En from Shetland to Rome, at a height of
50 and with a speed of 30 miles per second,
iving off a greater light than the full moon.
Store recently, on November 17, 1887, a splendid
, seen first over the Irish Sea, crossed
westwards over Ireland, at a height of probably
about 20 miles, and disappeared above the Atlantic.
Many hundreds of such, though usuaily less
brilliant, have been observed. Arago enumerates
813. More are constantly being seen. Their
height is obtained by comparison of observations
at stations widely separated, and from it and their
observed speed the actual velocity is computed.
From a careful comparison of many observations
pe by yoy pad se! a British see
appears that in general they a rata height
of between 20 and 130 miles, an faire a velocity
of between 17 and 80 miles per second, with an
average of 34°4 miles per second. Their actual
size has been enormously overestimated, at 12,000
to 100 feet in diameter. The effects of irradiation
and the luminous gases discharged during their
course no doubt give them an apparent diameter
enormously greater than the ity. It is prob-
able that in most cases they are much smaller than
aérolites. They generally leave behind them in
their track a luminous train or ‘tail’ which some-
times disap at once, and at other times persists
for some minutes after the fireball itself disappears.
These ‘ tails’ are variously coloured, according prob-
ably to the different chemical constitution of tho
‘heads,’
That these bodies originate altogether beyond
our earth is evident from several considerations.
First, no sufficient terrestrial cause has been
assigned. It has never been shown that volcanic
explosions can communicate to ejected masses the
n velocity. No proof has been advanced
of the theory that aérolites and fireballs are con-
densed in the atmosphere itself. There is no vcl-
canic activity on the moon, which might project
such masses beyond the influence of her feebler
gravity so as to enable them to fall upon our earth.
ven if there were such activity in our satellite,
the velocity of projection required is so great as to
place such a cause outside consideration. Secondly,
no good reason can be advanced against the theory
of cosinical origin. That numerous masses, of
various sizes, are in motion through hed bere
space is not in itself ca at tapes and is establish
by the investigation of the paths and velocities of
shooting-stars. Thirdly, the velocity of fireballs,
averaging 34°4 miles per second, is only comparable
with such velocities as that of the earth in its
orbit, which is 18-2 miles per second, or of Sirius
(see STARS) in its orbit, and those of other planets
and stars. It is a velocity not on the terrestrial
but on the cosmical scale. Fourthly, there is no
special line to be drawn between fireballs and
nreteors, luminous bodies of all degrees of size be-
tween the smallest meteor and the fireball havin,
been observed. It is in fact sometimes a matter o'
doubt to the observer to which class. he should
relegate an observed example. To regard all as of
common extra-terrestrial origin is then reasonable,
and this view is now adopted almost universally.
We are then led onwards to the consideration of
shooting-stars, as both the most numerous class of
these appearances, and that class by observing
which a satisfactory explanation of them all has
ultimately been reached. On any fine night a
watcher who is careful and patient for a sutficient
time will see some of these, but occasionally they
are much more numerous, On these occasions
they are noted as esiginaine all in one or more
distinetly marked parts of the sky. From their
point of origin they appear to radiate, and if it be
overhead, and the meteors very numerous, the
appearance is like an ‘umbrella of fire’ above the
earth, But this point may not be overhead. It
may even be below the horizon. In the latter case
the meteors appear to come up over the horizon
like rockets and ascend into the sky. ‘This
‘radiant,’ as it is technically called, remains fixed
among the stars, so that if at the beginning of an
observation it be overhead, it will perhaps be below
the horizon before the observer ceases his work.
It is either named from the constellation in which
it is placed, or indicated by its north polar dis-
tance and declination on the sphere of the heavens.
Meteors from more than one radiant are frequently
passing at the same time, but usually each radiant
sends forth a particular kind. Leonids (i.e. the
meteors whose radiant is in Leo), or the famous
November meteors, are bright and swift, leaving
very durable tracks of light. The Taurids (from
constellation Taurus) give us many fireballs. Other
158 METEORS
. a
t¢
om
METHODISTS
radiants give meteors of special tints, or more or
less disposed to giving off sparks in their course, so
that each radiant is evidently the source of a family
of meteors, whose characteristics are recognised at
each period of activity.
Such a radiating motion implies that the meteors
from one radiant move all in llel courses, the
curvature and radiation of their tracks being due
to perspective and to projection on the sphere
which the eye naturally assumes as the background
of all celestial appearances. On the occasion of a
meteoric shower the earth, therefore, is ing
throngh a crowd of small bodies, themselves in
motion, meeting or passing it on a definite track.
We have then to ask what is the form of this
meteor track—whence come and whither go the
meteors we encounter in such numbers. Usually
there is a tolerably definite time, recurring annually,
during which a radiant is active. “This was
first broad fact impressed upon observers, Al-
thongh at such yearly periods the number of
meteors may be very large or very small, there are
at least a few almost always seen, From this it
was early seen that certain parts of space, through
which the earth passed every year, were come
at the date of such passage, by meteors travelling
past with planetary velocities. That the meteors,
as well as the earth, were in orbital movement
round the sun, was soon noted (in 1834) by Pro-
fessor Olmsted of Yale. He considered that
the November meteors (or Leonids) revolved
in a narrow ellipse in a period of about 182
days, and that each November the earth in its
orbit i across the outer end of this —
encountering there what meteors might be in tha’
part of their path. This theory, however, though
ible in perhaps one case, could hardly be ——
$0 the great number of meteor tracks which the
earth crosses, as it is exceedingly improbable that
so many meteor orbits would just touch the earth’s
orbit at their aphelion.
It was proposed, then, to regard the meteors as
travelling in a ring round the sun, which ring the
earth crossed in two parts of its annual track in
August and November. Both these theories re-
garded the meteors as gathered into a cloud or
swarm at one particular part of their orbit. When
the earth chauced to cross the place of intersection
at the same time as the main swarm of meteors,
then a vivid display was produced, but a difference
in period between the earth and main swarm caused
such meetings to take place only at long intervals,
Meteors, however, being distributed all along the
meteor track, the earth encountered some at least
in August and November every year.
This investigation received its impetus from
the great display of Leonids in 1833, chiefly
noted in America, and for some time remained
the ‘text-book explanation.’ Professor H. A.
Newton of Yale, showed, however, in 1864 that
other great Leonid displays had taken place on
twelve occasions between 902 A.D. and 1833, separ-
ated by periods of either 33°24 years or multiples
of that number. He therefore predicted a grand
display on November 13-14, 1866, which was duly
observed. But the date of the earliest display in
902 A.D. was October 13 (0.8.), so that it was
evident that the earth encountered the main swarm
of Leonids about three days later in each century.
From these facts Professor Newton deduced for the
meteors an elliptic orbit, with a period of 354°57
days. Other explanations were possible, and that
ven by Schiaparelli of Milan in 1866 finally satis-
all the conditions. He treated the Leonids as
revolving round the sun in a period of 33} years,
the earth passing their orbit every year, but only
encountering the main swarm when it also was
passing the point of intersection. He also noted a
remarkable coincidence between this orbit and that
of Tempel’s comet seen in 1866. In fact, they were
identical, within the errors of calculation. Other
similar cases were soon discovered. The Lyraids
of April 20 move in the track of a comet of 1861;
Biela’s comet agrees with the Andromeda meteors
of November 28; the August Perseids agree with
the bright comet of 1862; and now more than
seventy such cases of agroemens are known,
which led Professor Tait of Edinburgh to publish
the theory now pemeelly accepted which regards
comets as consisting of meteoric swarms (see
Comet). Lockyer in 1887 showed by experiment
that the fragments of fallen meteors, glo
in a very rare atmosphere gives off by ves
when heated, give spectra closely resembling those
= ee lt vei also been sows ae mong
observer that what are ti
nebulz can be obtained ny the pie. Begs So
that he regards the feeble meteors of our nights as
the material of nebule and stars—as the earliest
known form of matter (see Srars). This assumes
that our meteoric swarms are either remnants of
the a ager of the tag Beer (q.v.), or
ortions of the greater swarms of whi space
a full, which have been drawn within our solar
system by planetary influence. Leverrier has shown
that this latter explanation probably applies to the
aagest and November meteors already referred to,
and that ae Uranus has most likely ecap-
tured these bodies and added them to our system.
The action of gravity would tend to draw out a
meteor swarm so that it would gradually spread
backwards and forwards until finally it would be
distributed all along its track and form a closed
ne Ee ring. As, then, the August meteors form
such a ring, while the November Leonids are
a marked swarm, Leverrier concluded that the
former had entered our system through the action
of Uranus much earlier than the latter.
Some hundreds of ‘radiants’ are now known, a
few of which we name, and the dates on which they
are active: (1) The Lyraids, April 19-20; (2) the
Pegasids, August 10; (3) the Perseids, August 9-
11; (4) the Aurigids, September and October ; (5)
the Orionids, October and November ; (6) the
Taurids, November 1-15; (7) the Leonids, ovem-
ber 13-14,
For further information readers may consult ae
‘8
Pop. Astronomy ( French edition only), The of the
Brit, Assoc. Committee on Meteors, Che paikaraie Descriptive
Astronomy, or Herschel’s Outlines of Astronomy. x
Meter, GAs. See GAs-LIGHTING.
Methane. See Dyer, Vol. IV., page 140.
Methodists, the name originally given, about
the yor 1729, by a student of Christ Chureh to the
brothers Wesley and several other young men of
a serious turn of mind, then members of different
colleges of Oxford, who used to assemble ther
on particular nights of the week chiefly for religious
conversation. The term was selected, it is believed,
in allusion to the exact and methodical manner in
which they performed the various engagements
which a sense of Christian duty induced them to
undertake, such as meeting together for the pur-
pose of studying Scripture, visiting the poor, and
prisoners in Oxford gaol, at regular intervals. Sub-
sequently it came to be applied to the followers of
Wesley and his coadjutors, when these had acquired
the magnitude of a new sect; and though their
founder himself wished that ‘the very name,’ to
use his own words, ‘might never be mentioned
more, but be buried in eternal oblivion,’ yet it has
finally come to be accepted by most, if not all of
the various denominations who trace their origin
mediately or immediately to the great religious
movement commenced by John Wesley. For an
METHODISTS
159
account of the origin and earlier development of
Methodism, see articles on the brothers WESLEY
and on WHITEFIELD; we confine ourselves here
to a brief notice of its organisation, doctrine, and
present condition.
(1) Organisation.—This appears to have been
partly improvised by Wesley to suit the exigencies
of his position. It was not a theoretical and premedi-
tated, but a practical and extempore system. In the
Rules of the Society of the People called Methodists,
drawn up by himself, he says : ‘In the latter end of
the tg 1739 eight or ten persons came to me in
London, who appeared to be deeply convinced of
sin, and earnestly groaning for redemption. They
desired (as did two or three more the next day)
that I would spend some time with them in prayer,
and advise them how co flee from the wrath to
come, which they saw continually hanging over
their heads. That we might have more time for
this great work, [ appoin hag when they might
all come together, which from thenceforward they
did every week—viz. on Thursday, in the evening.’
This he calls ‘the first Methodist Society.’ Its
numbers rapidly increased, and similar ‘societies’
were soon formed in different pokes of England
where the evangelistic labours of the Wesleys had
awakened in many minds ‘a desire to flee from
the wrath to come, and be saved from their sins ’—
the only condition required of any for admission
into these societies. In order to ascertain more
minutely how the work of salvation was progress-
ing in individual cases, Wesley sulxlivided the
societies into ‘classes,’ according to their respec-
tive places of abode, each class containing about
a dozen persons, under the superintendence of a
‘leader,’ whose cuties are partly religious and partly
financial. He has (1) to see each person in his
class once a week, ‘to inquire how their souls
prosper,’ and to encourage, comfort, or censure, as
the case may require ; and (2) to collect the volun-
tary contributions of his class, and pay them over
to the ‘stewards’ of the society. Each society has
its stewards, who take charge of the moneys con-
tributed in the classes and congregation, and who
see to their pee distribution. The leaders and
stewards are the local echurch-council, which is
invested with disciplinary fanetions. A circuit is
an aggregate of the societies for a particular neigh-
bour ; and, according to its size, having from
one to five ministers appointed for a period of not
less than one or more than three years. The senior
minister is superintendent of the cirenit. The
administration of the spiritual affairs of each society
is vested in the leaders’ meeting, and that of the
general business of the circnit in the quarterly
ineeting, composed of the ministers, stewards, local
oe, leaders, and trustees. These bodies
vite the ministers, fix their stipends, approve or
reject candidates for the ministry, review all the
interests of the circuit, send memorials to the
district meeting or Conference, have the right to
appoint a court of appeal from the findings and
verdicts of a leaders’ meeting in certain cases of
discipline, and to suspend for one year the operation
of any new Conference law intended to be binding
on the cirenit or societies, until it shall have been re-
considered by the Conference. The annual assembly
which governs the whole Connection is called the
erence. Down to 1784 it consisted of such of
Wesley’s preachers as he chose to call together
to counsel with himself; but in that year
he gave it a legal constitution defining its rights
over the
cbape 8, the disciplinary control of the
ministers, and their appointments. Until 1877 the
Conference was composed of ministers only ; but in
that year a scheme of lay representation was
, and was eee into operation the year
So now Conference is in part an
assembly of co-pastors, exercising mutual discipline
and taking mutual counsel on all subjects specilic-
ally pastoral, and in part an assembly of 240
ministers and 240 laymen convened to satiberahe
on the general interests of the Connection. The
pastoral session extends over a fortnight, while the
mixed session finishes its business in a week. ‘The
legal Conference’ is a body of one hundred min-
isters constituted and perpetuated by Wesley’s
Deed of Declaration, which as a matter of neces-
sary legal form adopts and endorses all that has
been done in the general Conference.
Intermediate between the Conference and the
circuit are the district meetings, which are in effect
rovincial synods. Like the Conference itself,
uring the transaction of pastoral business they are
composed of ministers only, while for all other
business they are mixed assemblies, the ministers
being joined by the cirenit stewards and the lay-
men who have charge of foreign missions, home
missions, education, chapel, and temperance affairs.
In the district meeting a searching inquiry is made
by the pastors into the character and administra-
tion of each, candidates for the ministry and pro-
bationers are examined, the spiritual and financial
condition of the cireuits is considered, and sug-
gestions or recommendations on the points which
come under review are sent up to Conference. All
new legislation is sent down by the Conference to
the district meetings, nor can it become law for the
Connection till it has been ratified by a majority of
the district meetin The district meetings are
also courts of appeal from the circuits.
(2) Doctrine and Worship.—Under this head not
mueh uires to be said. Methodism is regarded
by its friends as a revival of primitive Christian
doctrine, fellowship, and discipline. In the begin-
ning it set itself to combat Calvinism on the one
hand, and tne doctrine of baptismal regeneration
on the other. Its founders held that the predes-
tinarian element in Calvinistie divinity is opposed
to the experimental theology of primitive Christi-
anity. The Methodist preachers taught a full,
free, and present salvation as the glorious privilege
of every man—a theology at once experimental
aud evangelical, quite unlike the theology of the
decrees. They taught, moreover, this conscious
renewal and sanctification through faith alone in
Jesus Christ. The Methodist doctrine of regenera-
tion is through ‘repentance towards God and faith
towards our Lord Jesus Christ’ (not through
baptism); sanctification is through the saving
truth spiritually received and applied by faith
and obedience. The Wesleyan Methodists are
evangelical Arminians. Holding the freedom of
the human will, and the responsibility of man,
they also maintain his total fall in Adam, and his
utter inability to recover himself. They believe in
the universality of the atonement, and ‘that a
dispensation of the Spirit is given to enlighten
every man that cometh into the world. hey
insist on the necessity of men who profess to
be Christians feeling a personal interest in the
blessings of salvation—i.e. the assurance of forgive-
ness of sins and adoption into the family of God.
This, however, is not to be confounded with a
certainty of final salvation. They believe the
Spirit of gives no assurance to any man of
that, but only of present pardon. In harmony
with this view, they reject the doctrine of the
necessary perseverance of the saints, and hold that
it is fearfully possible to fall from a state of grace,
and even to perish at last after having ‘tasted of
the heavenly gift,’ and having been ‘made par-
takers of the Holy Ghost.” They also maintain
the perfectibility of Christians, or rather the possi-
bility of their entire sanctification as a privilege to
be enjoyed in this life. But Wesley ‘explains
160
METHODISTS
that ‘Christian perfection does not imply an
exemption from ignorance or mistake, infirmities
or temptations ; but it implies the Ley, Segre
with Christ as to be able to testify, ‘1 live not, but
Christ liveth in me.”" He 8 the sins of a
* perfect’ Christian as ‘involuntary tran sions,
and does not think they should be called ‘sins’ at
all, thongh he admits that they need the atoning
blood of Christ. The mode of worship is elastic,
ranging from the full and stately liturgical service
of the Church of England, and Wesley's abridgment,
to the free, spontaneous utterance of extempore
rayer, the singing of four hymns, and a sermon.
Tis more elaborate services are found Xora oi
in the large cities, the more simple in the country
towns and villages. The ‘love-feast’ is for members
only, and is held in each society once a quarter ;
it is a narration of vivid and oe experience,
mingled with praise and prayer. The Covenant
Service is held on the first Sabbath of the New
Year. In this service the members of the church
solemnly reconsecrate themselves to God, ‘ heartily
contented that He appoint them their work and
station ;" covenanting to endeavour to order and
vern their whole Tlife according to the divine
irection, and not to allow themselves in the
neglect of anything they know to be their duty.
The service eoheldies with the Lord’s Supper.
(3) History.—The history of Methodism is for
many years the history of Christian effort to evan-
lise the neglected ‘masses’ of England. The
) aed of Wesley, and of those whom he inspired
to imitate his example, were of the noblest deserip-
tion, and met with remarkable success. The refor-
mation of life which his preaching produced, for
example, among the Kingswood colliers and the
Cornwall wreckers, is a testimony to the power of
religion which cannot be too highly estimated. The
which has inspired the body in regard to forei
missions, although in the highest degree honourable,
is only the logical development of their efforts at
home—for they originally regarded their society in
England as simply a vast ‘home mission,’ and
neither Wesley rtor his followers desired to consider
themselves a ‘sect,’ a new church, in the common
of the term, but were warnily attached to the
old national church, and considered themselves
among her true children. When Wesley died
ee his ‘societies’ had spread over the United
Cingdom, the continent of Europe, the States of
America, and the West Indies, and numbered
80,000 members. Since then they have largely
increased (see below ).
The Wesleyan Methodists have four theological
colleges for the training of ministers—at Kichmond
Hill, Surrey ; Didsbury, South Lancashire ; Head-
ingley, in Yorkshire; and Handsworth, Birmingham,
They have, besides, numerous secondary schools,
and also (in 1889) 841 day-schools, with 179,578
scholars; the total income of the schools bein
£246,478. The Methodist Book-room is situa
in the City Road, London, and issues hundreds of
thousands of religions publications (tracts, &c.)
monthly. The newspapers and other periodicals
professedly in connection with the body include four
quarterlies, and about 150 journals in English and
other langnages, Among the more eminent Metho-
dist authors may be named the two Wesleys,
Fletcher, Benson, Clarke, Moore, Watson, Drew,
- Sr gen — Tse vs ei 5 Rule,
Vichols, Smith, Etheridge, Rigg, Pope, G
Sete. ana Paton. gs eg pe, Gregory,
THe Mernopist Episcopa. Crurcn is the
society of Wesleyan Methodists in the United
States of America, where the first members-of that
body—immigrants from Ireland—established them-
selves as a religious society in New York in the
year 1766. In the course of a year or two their | South.
numbers had considerably increased, and they wrote
to John Wesley to send them out some competent
preachers. Two immediately offered themselves for
the work, Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmoor,
who were followed in 1771 by Francis Asbury and
Richard Wright, The agitations preceding the war
of independence, which soon afterwards broke ont,
interrupted the labours of the English Methodist
preachers in America, all of whom, with the excep-
tion of Asbury, returned home before the close of
the year 1777 ; but their place appears to have been
supplied by others of native origin, and they con-
tinued to prosper, so that at the termination of the
revolutionary struggle they numbered 43 preachers
and 13,740 members. Up to this time the American
Wesleyan Methodists had laid no claim to being a
distinct religions organisation. Like Wesley -
self, they regarded themselves as members of the
English Episcopal Church, or rather that branch of
it then existing in America, and their ‘ preachers’ as
a body of irregular auxiliaries to the ordained clergy.
* Episcopal Shanclen” we are informed, ‘are s
standing in New York and elsewhere, at whose
altars Embury, Pilmoor, Boardman, gis
Asbury, and Rankin, the earliest Methodist
preachers, received the holy communion.’ But the
recognition of the United States as an independent
country, and the difference of feelings and interests
that necessarily sprang up between the con
tions at home and those in America, rendered the
formation of an independent society inevitable.
Wesley became conscious of this, and met the emer-
cy in a manner as bold as it was unexpected,
25 himself was only a presbyter of the Church of
England, but having convinced himself that in the
primitive church a presbyter and a bishop were one
and the same order, differing only as to their official
functions, he assumed the office of the latter, and,
in September 1784, with the assistance of some other
presbyters who had joined his movement, he set
a and ordained the Rey. Thomas Coke (q.v.),
of Oxford University, bishop of the infant church.
Coke immediately sailed for America, and appeared
with his credentials at the Conference held at
Baltimore in December of the same year. He
was unanimously a a by the assembly of
preachers, appointed Asbury coadjutor bishop, and
ordained several preachers to the offices of deacon
and elder, Wesley also granted the preachers per-
mission (which shows the extensive ecclesiastical
wer he wielded) to organise a separate and
independent church under the Episcopal form of
government. Nevertheless, there were not a few
who were dissatisfied with the Episcopal form
of government, This feeling grew stronger and
stronger, until in 1830 a secession took place,
and a new eccl tical organisation was formed,
called the ‘Methodist Protestant Chureh.’ In
1842 a second ion took place, chiefly on
the question of slavery—the seceders pronounc-
in 1 slave-holding sinful, and exclu slave-
holders from chure membership and ristian
eal and in 1843 a meeting was held at
Utica, New York, where a new society was con-
stituted and named the ‘Wesleyan Methodist
Connection of America.’ It has continued up to
the present a small and unimportant body. But in
1844 a far larger and more important secession took
lace on the same question, when the whole of the
ethodist societies in the then slave-holding states,
conceiving themselves aggrieved by the Potee
instituted at the general Conference of New Yo
(1844) inst the Rey. James O. Andrew, D.D.,
one of the bishops, and a citizen of G who
ad married a lady px of slaves, resolved to
break off connection with their northern brethren.
Hence originated the Methodist Episcopal Church,
In 1869 a movement (unsuccessful) began
METHODISTS
METHYL 161
in favour of the re-union of the northern and south-
ern Methodist
main finally
in the way, having been
abolished. There are now 10 theological schools,
by a
ar above
200,000,000 of ks and tracts in a year;
its ign missions more than 3000 Ameri-
can missionaries are omerere.
Returning to the Engli Viesleres Methodists,
we mention the various secessions from the parent
same, the only diffi
and spiritual. These laymen
by the circuits or by ‘guardian
tatives’ elected for life by the Conference.
(2) Primitive Methodists, vulgarly designated
, were first formed into a society in 1810,
though the founders had separated from the old
society some years before. The immediate cause of
this separation was a disagreement as to the pro-
priety of camp-meetings for religious purposes ; and
of women being permitted
They are chiefly distin-
i by their rejection of a paid ministry. (4)
ible Christians, also called Bryanites, were formed
by a local preacher named an, who seceded
from the Wesleyans in 1815. The only distinction
between them and the original body appears to be
that the former receive the eucharistic elements in
a sitting wectng a (5) United Free Church Method-
ists have formed by the amalgamation of two
sects of nearly equal numerical strength. The
older of these, called the Wesleyan Association,
Fined in 1836 in the removal of one or two
influential ministers from the original Connection.
Points of difference subsequently a with
regard to the constitution of the Conference.—The
younger sect, called the Wesleyan Reform Associa-
tion, took its rise in 1849 through the expulsion of
several ministers from the nt body on a char,
of insubordination, and, being founded on the
same principles as the last-mentioned community,
arrangements were entered into for their union,
which was eae effected in 1857. Church
independency an frectona of representation in the
annual assembly are two of the most prominent
distinctive traits in the organisation of the United
Methodist Free Church.
The WELSH CALVINISTIC METHODISTS are not a
ee Vga followers o Sipe ba be sin-
ated partly in Beers re fend en ellow-
evangelist, Whitelield and. partly in that of Howel
Harris. Whitefield was a Calvinist; Wesley, as
we have seen, was on some points decidedly
Arminian. A difference arose between them on
the subject of election. Henceforward their paths
at in different directions. Whitefield, however,
did not form a religious sect; and after his death
(1770) his followers, being left without any dis-
tinct or organisation, either followed the
leading of the Countess of Huntingdon.(q.v.), or
became distributed among other denominations, a
large portion, especially in Wales, becoming
absorbed in the new society ually formin
itself through the hing of Howel Harris an
his — They became a separate body in
1810, have now about 130,000 communicants.
The total number of members and adherents of
Methodist churches is estimated at 25,000,000; the
following table shows the distribution of ministers
and members in 1889-91 :
Great -
Treland,........ 2384 25,960
Foreign Mission 875 37,778
Conference........ 30 1,541
South African Conferences 173 86,876
West Indian Conferences.... 89 48,082
Australasian Conferences... .. ++. 605 78,060
Methodist New Connection—
WGN Sc, So saticaaseccisectsvesvasecss) - SOL 33,439
BROINGA yi s a des ued duce vawets conmeseyse 8 1,013
Mies: . 6... 5 acc beds teen venwsoceeveen 7 1,495
179
89
033
340
69
4
Methodist Lome oo Church, South, .,.. 4.530 1,102,926
African Methodist Episcopal Church .... 2,550 405,000
African Methodist Epis. Chureh.... 2,110 314,000
Coloured Meth. Epis. Church of America... 1,729 165,000
Evangelical Association.........++s00+0« 1,121 137,697
United Brethren Church.............+++ 1,566 195,278
Union American Meth, Epis. Church..... 40 3,660
United States, Non-Episcopal Churches—
Methodist Protestant: Church..........+. 1,570 129,268
Other non-Episcopal Churches.......... 2,502 61,314
Canada, Methodist Church of....... enue sy 1,558 212,770
BOOM: vo0ss cacnseonsvacess 88,817 5,926,863
See, besides the works and the Lives of the Wesleys
and of Whitefield, George Smith’s History of Methodism
(1862); Abel Stevens’ History of the Religious Movement
called Methodism (New York, 1861); Daniel’s Short
History of the Methodists (1882); and works on the
lity, constitution, and economy of Methodism by
ierce, Williams, and Rigg. For Methodist missions,
see MISSIONS.
Methodius. See CyriL.
Methuen Treaty, a commercial treaty nego-
tiated in 1703 by Paul Methuen, the English am-
bassador in Portugal, with that country, to admit
Portuguese wines to England at a duty one-third
less than that on French wines, the Portuguese
undertaking in return to admit English wool, im-
posing on it, however, the old duty of 23 per cent.
ad st, Sat It was annulled in 1835,
Methyl is an organic radical homologous with
Ethyl (q.v.). Its formula is CH, but, as it cannot
exist in the free state, two such froups of atoms
unite together to form ethane, CH,—CH;. As in
the case of ethyl, methyl is the centre of a whole
up of substances known as the methyl-group.
hus, the hydride of methyl, CH,H, known as
light carburetted by drogen marsh-gas, or fire-
damp, is well known as the cause of explosions in
coal-mines. It is a light, inodorous gas, half as
heavy as air; non-poisonous and very inflammable,
forming an explosive mixture with seven volumes of
air. ethyl alcohol, CH,OH, is obtained as a by-
product in the manufacture of beet-root sugar, and
also by the dry distillation of wood. It is a colour-
less, mobile liquid, resembling ordinary alcohol in
many of its properties. Methyl oxide or methyl
ether, (CH;),0, corresponding to ethyl ether or
common ether, is a gas at ordinary temperatures,
very soluble in water and alcohol, and capable of
being condensed to a liquid by pera and cold.
It is largely prepared for use in freezing-machines,
owing to the intense cold which results when the
liquefied gas is allowed to evaporate. It is pre-
pared by the action of sulphuric acid on wood
spirit.
162 METHYLATED SPIRIT
METRE
Besides the above, methyl enters into the con-
stitution of many ethereal ‘salts and amines, such
as methyl chloride, acetate, and salicylate, as
well as methyl amine, dimethyl amine, &c. (see
Amines). The salicylate, CH,C;H,0,, is interesting
as being the eth oil of Gaultheria procumbens,
from which pure methyl alcohol and pure salicylic
acid can both be e. For Methyl] Violet, see
DYkING ; and for Methylene, see ANASTHESIA.
Methylated Spirit consists of a mixture of
9 parts of alcohol, of specific gravity 0°920, with
1 of Pyroxylic (q.v.) or wood-spirit. This
addition of ea ap renders it unfit for drinking,
although it scarcely interferes with its power as a
solvent. It is allowed by the excise to be sold
duty-free for manufacturing purposes, and for pre-
serving specimens in museums.
Metonic Cycle, See CuronoLocy, GOLDEN
NuMBER.
Metope. See ENTABLATURE.
Metre is that regulated succession of certain
groups of syllables in which Poetry (q.v.) is usually
written. greater or less number of groups forms
a line or verse, and in modern languages the verses
usually rhyme with one another; but this is not
at all essential to the notion of metre. In the
classic | ages metre depended upon the way
in which long and short syllables were made to
succeed one another. English metre depends, not
upon the distinction of long and short, but upon
of accented and unaccented syllables. Thus, in
the lines,
The cur’ |few tolls’ | the knell’ | of part’| ing day’—
War'riors and | chiefs’, should the | shaft’ or the | sword’—
the accents occur at regular intervals; and the
groups of syllables thus formed constitute each a
metre or measure. The groups of long and short
syllables composing the metres of classic verse
were called feet, each foot having a distinctive
name. The same names are sometimes applied to
English measures, an accented syllable in fen lish
being held to be equivalent to a long syllable in
Latin or Greek, and an unaccented syllable to a
short. Every metre in English contains one accented
lable and either one or two unaccented syllables.
s the accent may be on the first, second, or third
syllable of the group. there thus arrive five distinct
measures, two dissyllabic and three trisyllabic, as
seen in the words—l, com’fort (corresponding to
the classic Trochee); 2, agree’ (Iambus); 3,
murmuring ( Dactyl); 4, confu’sion (Amphibrach) ;
5, colonnade’ (Anapmest). These measures are
arranged in dines or verses, varying in length in
different pieces, and often in the same piece. The
ending measure of a line is ee oped ncomplete,
or has a supernumerary ny Ram e; and sometimes
one measure is substituted for another. All that
is necessary is that some one measure be so pre-
dominant as to give a character to the verse,
Constant recurrence of the same measure produces
monotony. The following lines exemplify the five
measures :
qa) Rich’ the | treas‘ure,
Bet’ter | six’ty| years’of | Eu’rope | than’a | cy’cle | of’ Cajthay’.
(2) Aloft’ | in aw’ \ful state’,
The prop’ \er stud’) y of | mankind’ | is man’,
Bird’ of the | wilderness,
Bright’est and | best’ of the | sons’ of the | morning.
The dew’ of | the morn'ing.
O young’ Loch;invar has | come out’ of | the west’.
As they roar’ | on the shore’.
The Aasyr’ jinn came down’ | like a wolf’ | on the fold’,
It is instinctively felt that some of these measures
are better suited for particular subjects than others,
(3)
(4)
(5)
Thus, the first has a brisk, abrupt, energetic char-
acter, agreeing well with lively and subjects,
—, with the intensity of och pieces on leshd
wha é.
langusge, It is smooth,
ily adapting itself to easy narrative, and
expression of the gentler feelings, or to the treat-
ment of severe and sublime subjects. The trisyl-
labic metres, owing to the number of unaccented
syllables in them, are eo! in their movement,
with a tripping lightness that suggests the
of music in triple time. They are all less
and monotonous than the dissyllabie metres.
of them is frequently substituted for another, as in
the opening of Byron’s Bride of Abydos:
Know’ ye the | land’ where the | ¢ and | myr’tle
refi nth of deeds’ that | ph grt in | their clime’ ;
Where the rage’ | of the vul’!ture, the love’ | of the tur’) tle—
where each of the three lines is in a different metre,
the first dactylic, the second am hibrachic, the
third anapestic. In addition to irregularity,
one of the unaccented syllables is often wanting ;
as in Mrs Hemans’ poem, The Voice of Spring:
T come’, | I come’! | ye have called’ | me long’ ;
1 come | o'er the moun’ |tains with light’ | and song’—
the first line has only one measure of three 4
lables, although the general character of
versification is trisylabic.
z
In a kind of verse introduced by Coleri and
oceasionally by Byron and others, un-
accented syllables are al ther left out of account,
and the versification is made to depend upon having
a regular number of accents in the line ;
There is’ not wind’ enough’ to twirl’
The one’ red leaf’, the last’ of its clan’,
That danc’es as oft’en as dance’ it can’
On the top’most twig’ that looks up’ at the sky’.
Here there are four accents in each line, but the
number of syllables varies from eight to eleven.
The variety of combinations of metres and a
that may be formed is endless; but a few of the
more usual forms of English versification have
received special names, and these we may briefly
notice.
Octosyllabics are verses made up each of four
measures of the second kind of metre, and therefore
containing eight syllables :
With fruit’ |less la’ | bour, Cla’) ra bound’
And strove’ | to stanch’ { the gush’|ing wound’.
Scott’s and Byron’s romantic poems lone Lara and
the Corsair) are mostly in octosyllabics, and so
are Hudibras, Lalla Rookh, and many other pieces.
Heroic is a term applied to verses containing jive
metres of the second kind, or tensyllables. Heroics
either rhyme in couplets, or are without cigdee= |
constituting blank verse. Many of the
narrative and didactic poems in the English
language are in 2 i Wang wai ye S eS :
—
“st NFLaGE gy. Pe =e
Ae
OLINYN oY
} Ne hak _ - —— Roth t oy
lai ace WM iz geese t as 2 ," 1S \ “44a
ial (a Se) = ennany ior ae As Sis ep ; ot’ & *\ 3 \
3 df le 4 os } Seba
BS
MBeaNxV us ey
eae ow yeipd
ay ~
as et masta 4s '
“NVOIHOIW
NOLLWOd XUAMLUO
| Michigan. ]
\ jhopao\y
: \ Nh
a\\ BReSe cy)
. mbsoynw yf
on " oF ae on j \\
a» . = = “ )
ved ye’ >} AGS _— /
~~ Fi , yy . /i*
Aonuy) yi
tysous yy
AY /////) “on molarity
ouppry
ae { | {( (
q \\\\\ \ wet foqoqs
{i {\} i @
j, 2
x
st
yo
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Somonntigd rs conh
- aot
1
—-— se. OL
ae & fa :
MICHELET
MICHIGAN 177
i
and Leclere, he became at twenty-three a professor
of History in the Collége Rollin. Later he lectured
at the Collége Sainte-Barbe and the Ecole Normale,
and after the revolution of 1830 was given an im-
¢ post at the Archives, became assistant to
uizot at the Sorbonne, and tutor to the Princess
Clémentine. In 1838 he was elected to thie
Academy, and at the same time became professor
of History at the Collége de France. Already he
had made his name known by admirable hand-
books on French and on modern history, and com-
menced the monumental work which was to give
him an illustrious place among great historians,
his Histoire de France (18 vols. 1833-67; new ed.
19 vols. 1879), the labour of about forty years.
Other works were Origines du Droit Francais
cherchées dans les boles et Formules du Droit
Universel (1837), Mémoires de Luther (1845), and
Procés de Ti iers (1841-51). Michelet had a
t dislike for priests, but especially for the
esuits, and he now plunged into controversy with
all the impetuosity of his nature and eloquence,
bringing to bear upon the enemy at once all his
powers of sarcasm and all his unrivalled knowledge
of history. Three books were the fruits of his
lemic : Des Jésuits, written in conjunction with
_ Quinet (1843); Le Prétre, la Femme,
et Famille (1845); and Le Peuple (1846).
Next followed his famous Histoire de la Révolu-
tion (7 vols. 1847-53; centenary ed. 5 vols.
1889), which is not a good history with all its
eloquence and enthusiasm. Before its conclusion
Michelet had lost his oftice Ld refusing to take the
oath of allegiance to Louis Napoleon. Henceforth
he lived mostly in Brittany and in the Riviera,
buried in his gigantic literary labours. A series of
books of a novel kind, full of rhapsodic eloquence
and more valuable as literature than as science,
were L’Oiseau (1856), L’Insecte (1857), La Mer
(1861), and La M (1868). Other books of
unusual interest were L’ Amour (1858), La Femme
1860), La Soreiére (1862), and La Bible de
'Humanité (1864). The little book, Nos Fils
1869), was a ex for compulsory education.
ichelet’s t ey brings down the story of
France to the outb of the great Revolution.
The second instalment continues it to the close of
the Revolution. In the last years of his life he
set himself to complete his task, and thus es ere
a great continuous history to France, but he did
not live to carry it bey Waterloo (3 vols. 1872-
75). He died at Hyéres, 9th February 1874.
Michelet ever treats history from a personal point
of view, and his imagination is prone to bring into
undue relief striking figures and dramatic scenes
and incidents. Thus his work is a series of tab-
aren as —_ oo a ~ the eyes of a pre!
genius, fu prejudices for and against his
puppets, and destitute of the sense for historical
pe ve. Yet the whole stands out a master-
piece of genius, instinct with life, and the wide
range of historical literature must be ransacked for
Dae ner red nypeens bors treatment of Joan of Are or
the Templars, or the luminous geographical survey
of France with which the work opens. See the
books by G. Monod (1875), Noél (1878), Corréard
(1886), and Jules Simon (1889).
Michigan (Chippewa-Indian Mitchi Sawgye-
qn ‘Great Lake,’ originally — to both Takes
uron and te ), the third in size of the five
great fresh-water lakes of North America, and the
only one lying wholly in the United States, having
Mich on the N. and E., and Wisconsin on the
W. It is about 335 miles long, and from 50 to 88
broad ; the mean depth is 325 feet, the maximum
870. It has the same elevation as Lake Huron
with which it is connected by the Strait of
hata feet above the sea-level ; this
is 20} feet lower than Lake Superior, and 8, feet
above Lake Erie. Its surface area is 22,450 sq. m.,
or 1350 less than that of Lake Huron; but its
drainage area—37,700 sq. m.—is 6000 sq. m. greater
than its neighbour's. There is a neap-tide of 13
inch, and_a spring-tide of about 3 inches. The
shores of Lake Michigan, which are guarded by a
number of lighthouses, are for the most part low;
the annual erosion amounts to about 5 feet.
Its principal harbours are those of Chicago,
Milwaukee, and Racine. See Crosman’s Chart of
the Great Lakes (Milwaukee, 1888).
Michigan, a state of the American Union, the
pare eer aitheh and ninth in population, and
aving a pop. of 36 per sq. m., is
in 41° 42 to 48° 20"'N. lat., and | 900i ibe 3. oy 3 Be
82° 25’ to 90° 32’ W. long. It has | MPPiveott Company.
an area of 58,915 sq. m., or more than thatof England
and Wales; 1114 sq. m. are occupied by 5173 small
lakes, while the surface of 179 islands and islets,
from one acre upwards, measures about 633. ‘The
coast-line in navigable lake waters is 1624 miles.
The state is bounded on the S. by Indiana and
Ohio; on the E. by Lake Erie, Detroit River
(properly Strait), Lake St Clair, St Clair River,
Lake Huron, and St Mary’s River, beyond all
which lies the province of Ontario, Canada ; on the
N. by Lake Superior, on the SW. (upper peninsula)
ry Wisconsin, and on the W. by Lake Michigan.
rom its north-western point at the mouth of Mon-
treal River to the extreme south-east on Maumee
Bay is about 500 miles. It is sometimes called the
Peninsular State, from its formation in two great
peninsulas, the upper and lower, or northern and
southern. The upper has an extreme length of
318 and width of 164 miles, the lower of 277 and
197 miles; the latter includes the Huron Peninsula,
or the ‘thumb’ of the ‘mitten,’ in eastern Michi-
gan, and the small Leelanaw Peninsula in the
north-west. The eastern part of the other, looking
toward St Mary’s River, is sometimes called St
Mary's Peninsula. Keweenaw Peninsula, bearing
the great copper-mines, stretches far north into
the waters of Lake Superior; and on the south,
near Mackinac Island, is the little but picturesque
St Ignace Peninsula. The upper region is mostly
rugged, broken, rocky, and comparatively barren,
though teeming with mineral wealth ; but hopeful
beginnings of agriculture have been made in the
eastern half of it. In the north-west, near Lake
Superior, is the highest land in the state, among
the hills known as the Poreupine Mountains (1830
feet above the sea). The famous Mineral range
passes scuth of this, from Keweenaw Point south-
westward into Wisconsin ; but it is merely a gentle
swell from both sides, nowhere really mountainous.
No part of the lower peninsula is more than 1780
feet above sea-level ; and the mean height is only
160 feet above the environing waters of the lakes.
The highest part of Detroit is but 73 feet above the
river at this point, and the uplift of a few feet in
the adjacent river and lake beds would flood a
thousand square miles of Michigan soil. This soil
is mainly formed by the glacial drift, in alternated
clay, sand, and gravel beds, supplying all the
chemical constituents of a good soil, and enabling
the growth of all crops adapted to this climate.
The mean annual temperature of the state is 46°1°
F. (summer, 68°5° ; winter, 23°8°) ; the annual rain-
fall is 35°8 inches. Both peninsulas, with occa-
sional exceptions of swamps or small prairies, were
originally covered with dense forests, the products
of which have proved exceedingly valuable. The
geology of the state is highly interesting ; it repre-
sents every rock series known, from the oldest
strata to the top of the Carboniferous. In the
west of the upper peninsula, on the Wisconsin
border, are the Lesisntinn, and on either side and
178 MICHIGAN
MICKIEWICZ
eastward the Huronian formations, in which are the
great deposits of iron ore. The Mineral range is
of eruptive or volcanic rock, with older strata tilted
upon its sides. Farther eastward are the long belts
the Lower Silurian, curving from Green Bay
through the St Mary’s Peninsula. The lower
peninsula is com , geologically, to.a nest of
wooden dishes, Its centre is a coal-bearing area of
about 5000 sq. m., carrying, however, comparatively
little coal of economic value in workable place and
shape ; though 58,099 tons were raised in 1889. In
succession beyond, and in mighty sweeps around
the central tract, are the upturned edges of other
Carboniferous strata, then the Devonian formations,
and finally the Lower Helderberg group of the
Silurian. In the Michigan salt group are the rich
brine wells of the Saginaw valley ; in the Marshall
or Waverley are the Huron grindstones, quarried
on the shore of Lake Huron; and other groups
yield valuable mineral products.
The output of salt for 1889 was 5,950,000 barrels,
the number of wells 254. In salt and timber
Michigan leads the United States, and in iron and
copper the world. The great Calumet and Hecla
copper-mines, the largest acne with perhaps
one exception, are on the Keweenaw Peninsula,
The annual copper output in 1890-95 averaged over
45,000 tons, of a quality nowhere surpassed, and for
some purposes unequalled. In 1896, 5,856,169 long
tons of iron ore were mined, mainly in Marquette
county. Some gold is found in the upper penin-
sula, and silver and lead in small amounts. OP:
sum appears in immense deposits at Grand Rapids,
in the lower peninsula, where 19,823 tons of land-
plaster and 206,380 barrels of stucco were produced
in 1889. Building-stones abound in both penin-
sulas, and in the upper there are also statuary and
other marbles, and such ornamental stones as
agates, ee chalcedony, chlorastolites, and
others. Glass sand is found in the extreme south-
east of the state; and lime, brick, tiles, and the
like are made easily and cheaply in many parts.
Of the many mineral springs nineteen have become
popular resorts, and the waters of four have a com-
mercial value.
Lumbering is the second t industrial interest
of the state. The forests of northern Michigan are
mostly pine, much of it, as the cork pine, of superior
quality and tly in demand; and for many
ears the lumber product has been enormous. In
890-95 it was: lumber, 5,500,000 feet; shingles,
3,000,000,000 a year. In places this industry
is beginning to decline, from the extensive destruc-
tion of the forests. Other leading manufactories,
in order, are t-mills, foundries. and machine-
shops, iron and steel works, and those of agricul-
tural implements and of furniture. But agricul-
ture remains the chief industry, employing about
half the population. This is one on the greatest
wheat states, its average yield per acre 194 bushels,
The next most important crops are maize, oats,
and barley; and in the ‘ fruit belt,’ a narrow strip
of about 200 miles in length on the shore of Lake
Michigan, peaches, plums, grapes, and other fruits
are grown in great quantity. It ranks among the
chief states in the production of wool; the yield of
scoured wool in 1898 was 4,162,377 lb.
The commerce of the state is very great, and is
promoted by three ship-canals—one among the
shallows at the head of Lake St Clair, another
near the head of St Mary's River, at the Sault de
Ste Marie, and another on the Keweenaw Penin-
sula, known as the Po Lake Canal. For the
year ending June 30, 1896, the imports at Detroit
amounted to $3,383,163; domestic exports, about
66,000,000 ; foreign exports, $50,000. ° There are
three other ports of entry, at Port Huron, Grand
Haven, and Marquette. The railways in the state
have about 8000 miles of track, and reach nearly
every one of the eighty-three counties. Popular and
higher education has been liberally developed, and
the illiterates form only 4 per cent. of the popula-
tion. Besides the state university at Ann Arbor,
there are nine denominational colleges, a state
normal school at Ypsilanti, a mining-school at
Marquette; the agricultural, the school for the
blind, and reform school for boys at Lansing; the
deaf and dumb institute at Flint, an industrial
home for girls at Adrian, and a school for neglected
and dependent children at Coldwater. Other prin-
cipal state charities are four asylums for the
an asylum for insane criminals, and the Soldiers’
Home at Grand Rapids. There are state prisons
at Jackson and Marquette, and houses of correction
at Detroit, Marquette, and Ionia,
History.—The Michigan country was probabl
visited by Jean Nicolet in 1634, at the t
Ste Marie, where the first permanent white settle-
ment was made by Father Marquette in 1668 for a
Jesuit mission, Detroit was founded in 1701 by a
French colony under Cadillac. The country passed
to the English in 1760, and to the United States in
1796; it was again oceupied by Great Britain in
1812, but was recovered by the Americans the next
year. It formed a pares the North-west territory,
erected in 1787; ea of the Indiana
territory in 1802, was organised as Michigan terri-
tory in 1805, and admitted as a state in 1837.
Pop. (1800) 551 ; (1840) 212,267 ; (1880) 1,636,937,
including 7249 Indians ; (1890) 2,093,889; (1900)
2,420, Detroit (285,704) has always been the
chief city; Grand cm age (87,565) is second, and
Saginaw (42,345) third. Other cities are Sault Ste.
Marie, Marquette, Bay City, Muskegon, Jackson,
siess, Soest tec
(the capital), West Bay City, Manistee, Is' ng,
Muccostane Flint, Ann Arbor, Adrian, he. See
J. M. Cooley, Michigan (Boston, 1885).
Michigan City, a city of Indiana, on Lake
Michigan, 38 Fa eg Be water (57 by rail) ESE. of
Chicago. It has a harbour, contains a coll
a state prison, and railway-shops, and man
tures cars, refrigerators, furniture, boots, &e, Pop.
(1890) 10,776 ; (1900) 14,850.
Mickiewicz, ApAm, the greatest of Polish
poets, was born near Novogrodek in Lithuania
ne ), on 24th December 1798, and educated at
ilna. In 1822, whilst teaching Polish literature
at Kovno, he published his first collection of poems,
full of the inspirations of Polish national life.
Two years later he was banished to the interior of
Russia for being concerned in the formation of a
students’ secret society. In 1825 he paid a visit
to the Crimea, whose beauties he celebrated in
a series of exquisite sonnets. Before quitting
Russia in 1829 he published three epic poems,
Dziady (1823-27), on the religious commemora-
tions of their ancestors by the Slav races, and
Konrad Wallenrod (1828; Eng. trans, 1841) and
Grazyna (1827), the last two drawn from the
struggle between the Lithuanians and the Knights
of the Teutonic Order, and both glowing with
patriotic feeling. From Russia Mickiewiez passed
through Germany (where he visited Goethe and
awakened the old Olympian’s warm admiration)
and France to Italy and Rome. In 1834
his masterpiece, the epic poem Pan Tadeusz ( Master
Thaddeus; Eng. trans. 1886)—a most admirable
delineation of Lithuanian customs and manners,
traditions, ideas, and beliefs, and Lithuanian
character, including fine poetical. descriptions of
the gloomy primeval forests and of the scenery
of the country. After teaching for a while at
Lausanne, Mickiewicz was appointed professor of
the Slavonic Literatures at Paris in 1840; but three
MICKLE
MICROPHONE 179
years later he was deprived of his chair, having
given offence to the government of the day by
political utterances in his lectures. For some
ears he lived a hard and unsettled life—in 1848
was in Italy, helpin to organise the Polish
legion that fought side side with the Italian
republicans at Rome—until in 1852 Louis Napoleon
appointed him a librarian in the Arsenal Library
at Paris. He died 28th November 1855 at Con-
stantinople, whither the French government had
sent him to o ise a Polish legion to fight against
Russia. His body was taken to France and buried
at Montmorency; but in 1890 his bones were trans-
ported to his native country and laid beside those
of Kosciusko in the cathedral of Cracow. Mickie-
wicz is pre-eminently the national poet of the
Poles, and next after Pushkin the greatest of all
the poets of the Slavs. His collected works were
issued at Paris in 11 vols. (1860-61), at Leipzig
in 5 vols. (1862-69), and at Lemberg, a popular
edition, in 4 vols. (1885 et seg.). See Life by his
son Ladislas Mickiewicz (1888), Fontille (Mainard )
(1862), both in French, and an anonymous one in
German (1857); also the Memoirs of Herzen.
Mickle, WILLIAM JvLius, translator of the
Lusiad, was born in Langholm manse, Dumfries-
shire, in 1734. He was educated at Edinburgh
High School, failed in business as a brewer, and
next went to London to make a living by writing.
In 1765 he published his would-be Spenserian poem,
The ine (in its next edition entitled Syr
Martyn), and so prepared the way for his version
rather than translation of the Lusiad of Camoens
(1771-75), which he completed during four years’
seclusion in a farmhouse. In 1779 he went to
Lisbon as secretary to Commodore Johnstone, but
his last years were spent in London, where -he died
in 1788. Of his other works none are now of
im His ballad of Cumnor Hall, which
suggested to Scott the romance of Kenilworth, is
poor stuff, but the delightful song, ‘There’s nae luck
about the house,’ is long since safely assured of its
immortality. An attempt has been made to ascribe
this song to the ill-fated Greenock poetess, Jean
Adam (1710-65), but her claim will not bear serious
examination. See A for January 27,
1877. The best edition of Mickle’s poems is that
edited, with a Life, by the Rev. John Sim (1806).
Micmaes, 4 tribe of Algonquin Indians, the
first with whom the English pa in contact; they
remained hostile to the English and their colonies
till 1760. They now number from 3000 to 4000,
and are mostly in Nova Scotia, Newfoundland,
and New Brunswick, There is an English-Micmac
ae (Halifax, 1888), compiled by the late
Microbe, Micrococcus. See BAcTERIA, GERM.
Microcline. See Fe.spar.
Microcosm and Macrocosm. The belief
of the ancients that the world or cosmos was
animated, or had a soul (see ANIMA MuNnp1), led
to the notion that the parts and members of organic
bones must have their counterparts in the members
of the cosmos, Thus, in a hymn ascribed to
Orpheus, the sun and moon are looked upon as the
eyes of the animating godhead, the earth and its
mountains as his y, the ether as his intellect,
sky as his wings. The natural philosophers of
the 16th century—Paracelsus at their head—took
up this notion anew in a somewhat modified shape,
considered the world as a human organism’ om
the large scale, and man as a world, or cosmos, in
miniature; hence they called man a microcosm
(Gr., ‘little world’) and the universe itself the
macrocosm |‘ world’). With this was associ-
ated the belief that the vital movements of the
microcosm exactly corresponded to those of the
macrocosm, and represented them as it were in
copy. From this it was an easy transition to the
further assumption, that the movements of the
stars exercise an influence on the temperament and
fortunes of men (see ASTROLOGY). Heylin gave
the title Microcosmus to a work on cosmograph
in 1621, and Lotze entitled his great work delini-
tive of man’s position in the universe Mikrokosmus
(1856-64 ).
Microcosmie Salt is used in blowpipe an-
piers and may be prepared by mixing concentrated
solutions of phosphate of soda and chloride of am-
monium. It has the composition NaNH,HPO,,4H,0.
Microlestes, the name given to the earliest
known mammalian form—a marsupial; it is dis-
covered in the Trias of England and of Wiirtemberg.
Only the teeth, which are of small size, have been
met with,
Micrometer (Gr. mikros, ‘little;’ metron,
‘measure ’) is an instrument used for the measure-
ment of minute distances and angles. Its different
forms, depending on different principles, may be
divided into two sections, according as they are
applied to physics or astronomy. Of the former
section are the Vernier (q.v.) and the Micrometer
Screw, the latter instrument being merely a screw
with a very regular thread, and a large round head,
which is carefully graduated, generally to sixtieths,
and furnished with an index. It is easily seen that
if a complete turn of the screw advance its point
Fu of an inch, a turn sufficient to pass the index
rom one graduation to another will only advance
it ys0 Of an inch, &e. This is the micrometer
used in the construction and graduation of instru-
ments. Of those applied to astronomical purposes
the most simple is a short tube, across the openin
of which are stretched two parallel threads, which
are moved to or from each other by screws. These
threads are crossed by a third perpendicularly, and
the whole apparatus is placed in the focus of a lens.
The distance of two stars is found by adjusting the
two parallel threads, one to pass through the centre
of each star, taking care that the threads are placed
pope snes to the line joining the stars, and
inding how many turns and parts of a turn of the
screw are required to bring the wires to coincide.
The angle of position of two stars is also obtained
by turning round the instrument till the third wire,
which is normally horizontal, bisects both stars, and
reading off on the circumference the are passed
over. Fraunhofer’s suspended annular micrometer
consists merely of a steel ring surrounded by a flat
rim of glass, and the position of the star is deduced
from. the time when it crosses the ring and its path
while within it. The Abbé Rochon substituted
for the wire micrometer one made of two prisms of
rock-crystal or Iceland spar, capable of double
refraction. .
Microphone. This instrument, invented in
1878 by Professor Hughes, does for faint sounds
what the microscope does for matter too small
for sight ; the fall of a bit of tissue-paper or the
tread of a fly being rendered audible at many miles’
distance. One of the most sensitive substances for
microphonic action is willow-charcoal, plunged in
a state of white heat into mercury. The theory is
that in a homogeneous conductor of electricity the
compressions and dilatations of the molecules
balance each other, and no variation of current
ensues; while, with a state of fine grained non-
homogeneity of the conductor, variations of pres-
sure in the conductor produce variations in its
conducting power, and thus induce variations in
the strength of the electric current traversing it;
and these variations of current, when the current
passes through a second similar conductor, induce
corresponding variations in its molecular stresses,
180 MICROPHONE
MICROSCOPE
which may act upon the surrounding air and
ive rise to sonorous waves; or the variations
the current may be detected by the Telephone
(q-v.). One form of microphone consists of a
piece of mercury-tempered carbon, an inch long,
nro vertically between two carbon-blocks hol-
wed to receive its ends ; wires connectthe blocks
with the battery and with the receiver by which
the sounds are to be heard. ‘A piece of willow-
,’ says the inventor, ‘the size of a pin’s
head is sufficient to reproduce articulate speech.’
Two nails laid parallel, with wire connections, and
a third nail laid across them, make a simple form
of microphone. A few cells of any form of battery
may be used. Many useful applications of the
microphone have been made or suggested.
Microscope (Gr. mikros, ‘small ;’ and skopeo,
*I see’) is an instrument for enabling us to
examine objects which are so small as to be
almost or quite undiscernible by the unaided
eye. Its early history is obscure; but, as it is
quite evident that the property of magnifying pos-
by the lens must have been noticed as soort
as it was made, we are quite safe in attributi
its existence in its simplest form to a peri
considerably anterior to the time of Christ. It is
generally believed that the first compound micro-
scope was made by Zacharias Jansen, a Dutchman,
in the year 1590, and was exhibited to James I.
in London by his astronomer, Cornelius Drebbel,
in 1619. It was then a very imperfect instrument,
colouring and distorting all objects. For many
years it was more a toy than a useful instrument,
and it was not until the invention of the achromatic
lens by Chestermoor Hall (1729) and John Dollond
tel ), and its lication to the microscope by
ter and others, that it reached the advanced
position it now occupies among scientific instru-
van t to be ified i imply that
n objec magni uires sim a
it be brought nearer to the ae than hea first
examined ; but as the focal distance of the eye
ranges from 6 inches to 14 inches—10 inches being
the ave: focal distance—it follows that a limit to
the magnifying power of the eye is attained when-
ever the object to be examined is brought too near.
If, however, we blacken a card, and pierce a hole in
it with a fine needle, and then examine a minute
object, as, for instance, the wing of an insect held
about an inch from the card, we shall see it dis-
tinctly, and that, too, = gets about ten times its
size. This is explained by the fact that the pin-
hole limits the divergence of the pencil of rays from
each point of the object, so that the eye can con-
verge it sufliciently on the retina to produce a
distinct impression, which is faint; and did not
the blackened card exclude all other light it would
be lost. If we now remove the blackened card
without either moving our eye or the object under
examination, it will be found that the insect’s wing
is almost invisible, the unassisted eye being un-
able to see clearly an object so near as one inch;
thus demonstrating the blackened card with the
needle-hole in it to be as decided a magnifying
instrument as any set of lenses.
In fig. 1 AB is a double convex lens, in front of
which, between it and its focus, K, but near that
focus, we have drawn an arrow, EF, to represent
the object under inspection. The cones drawn from
its extreme points are representative rays of light,
diverging from these points and falling on the lens.
These rays, if not interrupted in their course by the
Jens, AB, would be too aeons for the eye to
bring them to a foeus upon the retina (see Eye).
But after traversing the lens, AB, they travel, if the
object be sufficiently near the focus, K, in lines
which are nearly parallel, or which apparently
diverge from points, such as C, D, not nearer to the
eye than the least distance of distinct vision, which
is, for most individuals, about ten inches. Sup-
pose the lens is as close as may be to the eye, and
that the object, EF, is brought up to it to sucha
distance that the virtual image, CD, is at 10 inches’
distance from the eye; and let us further suppose
that the focal length of the lens is such (see LENS)
that the image, CD, is ten times, linearly, as great
as EF; then the eye, instead of vainly striving to
see the small object, EF, near K, will seem to per-
ceive distinctly an image ten times as
linearly, and situated at the convenient distance,
H. The magnification of the lens is independent
of the eye, and is the relation between the size of
the image and that of the object. When one of
these is at an infinite distance and the other at a
principal focus, the magnifying power depends on
the position of the eye, and is the ratio between
the apparent size of the object at any given dis-
tance and that of the virtual image as seen with
the aid of the lens; this may be seen to increase as
the eye is withdrawn to a greater distance, especi-
ally when the one eye is used to look at the object,
say a page of print, and the other to look through
the lens; but the gap: retinal image is formed
when the lens is close to the eye.
We have supposed the whole of the light to enter
the eye through the lens, AB (fig. 1); but so la
a pencil of light passing ee a single lens would
be so much distorted by its spherical figure, and by
the chromatic dispersion of the glass, as to produce
a very indistinct and imperfect image, his is
partly rectified eA applying a stop to the lens, so
as to allow only the central portion of the pencil to
pass. But, while such a limited pencil would repre-
sent correctly the form and colour of the ohio so
small a pencil of light is generally unable to illu-
minate the whole of the magnified picture with any
adequate degree of brilliancy, and is therefore in-
capable of displaying those organic markings on
animals or plants which are often of so much im-
portance in ¢ on ewe one class of objects from
another, Dr Wollaston was the first to overcome
pg Korat Lara citer by constructing
a doublet (fig. 2), which consists o
two plano-convex lenses, having their <—\
f a3 yes in the proportion of 1 === som
to 3, and placed at a distance best <=.
ascertained by experiment. Their <-@
plane sides are placed towards the Fig. 2
Keser and = — of — focal Pe
ength next the object. By this arrangement
distortion caused by the first lens is corrected
the second, and a well-defined and illam
image is seen. Dr Wollaston’s doublet was further
improved by Mr Holland, who substituted two
lenses for the first in Dr Wolla-
ston’s doublet, and retained the ~~
stop between them and the third. .
This combination, though generally
called a triplet, is virtually a
doublet, inasmuch as the two lenses Fig. 3.
only accomplish what the anterior
lens did, although with less precision, in Dr Wolla-
ston’s doublet. In this combination (fig. 3) of
MICROSCOPE
181
lenses the errors are still further reduced the
close approximation of the lenses to the object,
which causes the refraction to take place near the
axis, and thus we have a still larger pencil of light
transmitted, and have also a more distinct and
vivid image presented to the eye.
Simple Microscope-—By this term we mean an
instrument by means of which we view the object
through the lens directly. These instruments may
be divided into two classes—those simply used in
the hand, and those provided with a stand or frame,
so arranged as to be a og of being adjusted by
means of a screw to the exact focal distance, and
of being moved over different parts of the object.
The single lens used may be either a bi-convex or
a plano-convex. When a at power is wanted
a doublet, such as we have already described, may
be employed, or a Coddington lens,
which consists (fig. 4) of a sphere in
which a groove is cut and filled up
with opaque matter. This is perhaps
the most convenient hand lens, as it
Page little, from its s) 2 ne =
in what position it is held. In the
Hig. 4 simple A sacs single or combined
lenses may be employed, varying from a quarter to
two inches. There are many different kinds of
stands for simple microscopes made, but, as they
are principally used for dissection, the most import-
ant point next to good glasses is to secure a firm,
stage for supporting the objects under exam-
ination. When low powers alone are used the
stage-movements may be dispensed with; but
when the doublet or triplet is employed some
more delicate adjustment than that of the hand is
necessary.
Compound Microscope.—In the compound micro-
scope in its simplest form the observer does not
view the object directly, but an inverted real image
or picture of the object is formed by one lens or set
of lenses, and that image is looked at through
another lens. The compound microscope consists
of two lenses, an object and an eye lens; but each
of these may be compounded of several lenses play-
ing the part of one, as in the rie microscope.
ne eye-lens, or ocular, is that placed next the
eye, and the object-lens, or objective, that next
ie object. The objective is generally made of
two or three achromatic lenses, while the eye-piece
geray consists of two plano-convex lenses, with
heir flat faces next the eye, and separated at half
the sum of their focal lengths, with a diaphragm
or stop between them. Lenses of high power are
so small as to admit only a very small beam of
light, and consequently what is gained in magnify-
ing power is often worthless from deficient illumina-
tion. Various devices have been employed to over-
come this difficulty. The light may be concentrated
by achromatic condensers Sloaed beneath the stage,
or the curvature of the lens may be such as to allow
as large a number of divergent rays as possible to
-impinge upon it. Such a lens is said to have a
‘angle of aperture,’ the angle of aperture
being that made by two lines converging from the
margins of the lens to its focal point. Recently
lenses, termed ‘immersion lenses,’ have been con-
structed, of such a curvature that when immersed
in a drop of a placed over the object light is
admit Hong Loe With an permaen lens
is hi ifyin, wer with sufficient
Ghiminetion.°
The accompanying diagram (fig. 5) explains the
manner in which the complete compound micro-
scope acts. We have here represented the triple
achromatic objective, consisting of three achro-
matie lenses combined in one tube, in connection
with the eye-piece, which now consists of the field-
glass, FF, in addition to the eye-glass, EE. The
function of the field-glass, FF, is that the rays of
light from the object tend, after traversing the objec-
tive, to form an image at AA; but coming in contact
with the field-glass, FF, they are
bent, and made to converge at BB,
where a real image is formed, at
which place a stop or diaphragm is
placed to intercept all light, except
what is required to form a distinct
image. From BB the rays proceed
to the eye-glass, EE, exactly as they
do in the simple microscope. The
real image formed at BB is there-
fore viewed as an original object
waa the eye-glass, EE. The
lens, FF, is not essential to a com-
pound microscope; but as it is
quite evident that the rays pro-
ceeding to AA would fall exterior
to the eye-lens, EE, if it were
removed, and only a part of the
object would thus be brought under
view, it is always made use of in
the compound microscope.
A mirror is placed under the sage
for reflecting the light through the
object under observation. This
method of illumination by trans-
mitted light is used when the
object is transparent. When
ore light is reflected on the
object by a bull’s-eye lens, called
a condenser. The best instru-
ments are supplied with six or
seven object-glasses, varying in
magnifying power from 20 to 2500
diameters, The eye-pieces supplied Fig. 5.
are three in number, each of which
consists of two plano-convex lenses, between which
a stop or diaphragm is placed, half-way between
the two lenses. As the magnifying power of a
compound microscope depends on the product of
the magnifying powers of the object-glass and the
eye-piece, it follows that its power may be in-
creased or diminished by a change in either or
both of these
glasses. In the
mechanical ar-
rangements it
is of import-
ance to have
the instrument
so constructed
that, while
eve facility
is afforded for
observation
and easy ad-
justment, there
should also be
great steadi-
ness, These
ends are
achieved in
various ways,
of which fig. 6
is one of the
simplest: a,
brass stand,
Fig. 6.
three feet; 0, i
mirror supported on trunnions; ¢, diaphragm,
ierced with circular holes of various sizes, to regu-
fate the admission to the object of reflected light
from the mirror; d@, stage-plate, on which the object
is placed ;. e, serew, with milled head for fine ad-
justment ; f, the object-glass or objective ; g, brass
tube in which the body of the instrument is moved,
182 MICROTOME
MIDDLESEX
so as to effect the coarse adjustment; A, the eye-
piece, or ocular.
ED x lekeeoypheay lete account of the — ae of
croscopes, the various to whi are
applied, pee Quakes On the a (1885) ;- Car-
penter, The Mier (1802 ; 6th ed. 1880); works on
the microscope by Hogg and Beale; The Microscopist,
by Wythe ( 3d ed. 1877).
Microtome, an instrument for cutting thin
sections of portions of plants and animals prelimin-
ary to their microscopic examination. The objects
to be cut are imbedded in some material such as
paraffin or celloidin, or frozen in gum, which makes
the slicing of minute or delicate objects readily
feasible. The cutting used to be done by holding
the prepared object in one hand and wielding a
razor in the other, but this method, apt to yield
sections of unequal or insufficient thinness, has
given place to the use of some form of microtome,
which is at once quicker and more effective. These
instruments are quite simple devices by which a
sliding razor slices a fixed but adjustable object,
or by which the object is made to move up and
down across the edge of a razor. As typical forms
may be noted the freezing microtomes of Ruther-
ford and others ; the sliding microtomes common on
the Continent; the ingenious ‘Rocker’ of the Cam-
bridge Instrament Company—a favourite instru-
ment in British laboratories; and more elaborate
and automatic machines manufactured by the same
company.
Midas, a common name of the ancient Phrygian
kings, most famous of whom is Midas, son of
Gordius and Cybele, and pupil of Orpheus. For
his kindness to Silenus he was promised by Dionysus
whatever he should ask, and in his folly he asked
that everything he touched should become gold ;
but, as the very food he tonched was at once changed
into gold, he was soon fain to implore the god to
take back his fatal gift. He was told to bathe in
the sources of the Pactolus, and from that day to
this its sands have yielded grains of gold. Once,
when Apollo and Pan were en; in a musical
competition on the lyre and the flute, Midas was
called in to decide between them. He gave the
palm to Pan, whereupon Apollo changed his ears
to. those of an ass. e concealed the deformity
under his Phrygian cap, but could not hide it from
his barber, who felt so heavy the burden of a secret
he dared not reveal that he dug a hole in the
ground and whispered into it, ‘ King Midas has
ass’s ears.’ He then filled up the hole, and his
heart was lightened ; but out of the ground sprung
up a reed which ever whispered the shameful secret
to the breeze.
Middelburg, capital of the Dutch province of
land, in the island of Walcheren, and 44 miles
by rail NE. of Flushing. In former times it was
one of the leading mercantile cities of the United
Provinces, sending many ships to the East and
West Indies, and the Levant (Thomas Cromwell
was one of its merchants); but its commercial
importance has tly declined, except for an
active inland trade in corn, potatoes, and madder.
Cotton-factories represent its only industry of note.
The town-house, founded by Charles the Bold in
1468, is adorned with twenty-five statues of counts |:
and countesses of Holland and Zealand. sixteen and nineteen.
On production of satisfactory certificates and
references, a youth's name se eee by the
commander-in-chief to be placed on the list of
candidates for the entrance examination. These
examinations were held half-yearly, and the list of
subjects included English composition, modern
_ and temper.
MILITARY SCHOOLS
MILITIA 191
languages, mathematics, history, geography, na-
tural and experimental. sciences, and drawing.
The examination was competitive, and those who
had the most marks were admitted as cadets as
soon as vacancies occurred in the college. The
course of study lasted two years, and embraced a
variety of subjects connected with military science.
The friends supplied clothing, books, and instru-
ments, and annually for education, board,
and lodging from £20 to £100. The highest sum
was paid for ‘the sons of private gentlemen,’ the
lowest for ‘the sons of officers of the army or navy
who had died in the service, and whose families
were proved to be left in pecuniary distress.’
Twenty were ‘Queen's cadets,’ sons of officers
‘who fallen in action, or had died from the
effects of active service, and had left their families
in reduced ney arene These ven ed
on passing a qualifying examination, an uca
gratuitously \ In 1870 different system was tried,
t, the results not being satisfactory, it was very
nickly condemned and old system reverted to.
The 1 of the course of study has, however,
been uced to one year, and the cadets have
much more freedom than formerly, when they were
in all respects like soldiers in barracks.
See CADET.
Admission to the Royal Military College, Sand-
hurst, is obtained by open competition at ex-
aminations held each half-year under the direc-
tion of the Civil Service Commission. Candidates
must first have the same ‘preliminary’
examination as for the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, or one recognised as equivalent to it,
and the medical examination, hey must be
between the ages of seventeen and twenty, un-
less uates of the universities, when they
may as old as twenty-two. The number of
trials is three for ordinary candidates, but only
two for university graduates. The ‘further’ ex-
amination includes mathematics, classics, modern
English history and composition, experi-
men , geology, and drawing—divided
into twelve subjects, of which seven may be taken
ve Suecessful candidates for the Royal Military
liege remain there for one year, and, subject to
passing the — examinations in fortilica-
tion, tactics, military administration, law, and
pie becoming proficient in drills and
exercise (including riding, gymnastics, and mus-
ketry), are then given commissions as_ second-
lientenants in the cavalry or infantry. They are
liable, however, to removal for grave misconduct
or oe BF
At the Army Medical School, Netley, South-
ampton, medical candidates already professionally
qualified are further instructed in pathology, milt-
surgery, medicine, and hygiene. All invalid
soldiers from abroad are sent to the hospital at
Netley, to which the Army Medical School is
contiguous. After passing the prescribed course
and examinations, the candidates are commissioned
as surgeons in the medical staff of the army.
Entrance to the Staff College, at Camberley, near
Sandhurst, is obtained by competitive examination.
The first twenty-eight officers who qualify at the
aunual examination are admitted, with certain
limitations. These officers must all qualify at
the examination, held every summer, in simple
mathematics, one modern language, fortification,
- omar topography, and tactics, A service of at
least five years is also required, and candidates
must be under thirty-seven years of age, be cap-
tains or have Paco 4 the qualifying examination
for that rank, and have been selected by their
commanding officers as fit for the staff in physical
qualifications, military knowledge, conduct, habits,
he college course commences in
February of each year, and includes the study of
modern languages, military history and geography,
fortification and artillery, tactics, staff duties, mili-
tary administration, topogra hy,andlaw. Thereis
an examination at the en ir eack year, and officers
must also pass in military equitation. If success-
ful, they leave the college at the end of the second
year, and, after being attached for a month to each
of those branches of the service with which they
have not hitherto served, rejoin their iy, ong
until Se jacmeegctan oceur for appointing them to
the statt.
At the School of Gunnery, Shoeburyness, officers
and men of the Royal Artillery are put through a
course of gunnery and artillery exercises, and ex-
periments with new guns, shells, fuses, armour-
plates, &c. are carried out in connection with the
ordnance committee ; while at the Artillery College,
Woolwich, officers are instructed in the manufacture
of ordnance, laboratory work, chemistry, metallurgy,
electricity, &c.
The School of Military Engineering, Chatham,
is for the instruction of engineer officers and men
in construction and estimating, practical fortifica-
tion, surveying, submarine and military mining,
bridging, ballooning, electricity, chemistry, photo-
graphy, &c. Young officers on appointment from
the Royal Military Academy remain under instruc-
tion and ‘on probation’ at this school for two
years. For officers of other branches of the service
there are classes for instruction in ‘field-works’
and surveying; for cavalry soldiers, a ‘cavalry-
jioneers’’ course (hasty demolitions, obstructions,
ve.) ; and a class for infantry pioneer-sergeants.
The School of Musketry at Hythe (q.v.) is for
the other arms what the School of Gunnery is for
the artillery. For the Royal Military School of
Music, Kneller Hall, see BAND.
At the School of Gymnastic Instruction, Alder-
shot, officers qualify for the appointment of super-
intendent of gymnasiums, and non-commissioned
officers or men for that of gymnastic-instructor.
The course includes fencing with foil, sword, or
bayonet. Recruits are put through a three months’
course of gymnastics here and in every garrison
where there is a gymnasium.
Army Schools (q.v.) are provided for the general
education of soldiers and their children; and ‘ gar-
rison classes’ under specially qualified staff-officers,
generally uates of the Staff College, for the
technical instruction of officers studying for the
examinations which they must pass before promo-
tion to the ranks of captain and major.
For the United States Military Academy, see
West Point. Other military schools in the
United States include the Virginia Military Insti-
tute at Lexington (founded in 1839), the Kentucky
pee y Institute (1846) at Farmdale, and the
school for subalterns of artillery at Fortress Monroe,
in Virginia, for infantry and cavalry officers at
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and for engineers at
Willet’s Point. Moreover, there are forty com-
missioned officers detailed to act as professors of
eit ri science and tactics at certain colleges
which have received from the United States grants
of land.—In Canada there is a Royal Military
College at Kingston (1876).
Militello, a town of Sicily, 21 miles SW. of
Catania. Pop. 10,505.
Militia (Lat. miles, ‘a soldier’) is the name
sometimes given to the troops of the second line of
a national army. Thu’, an Italian or Russian
soldier, after serving in the active army and its
reserve, passes into the militia available as garrison
troops or to form a field army. The corresponding
troops in Germany and Austria are called dandwehr
and dandsturm, and in France the territorial army.
192
MILITIA
Though at first intended for home defence only,
those troops are freely used to reinforce the regular
army if the ex es of the cam ign require it.
In several respects the militia of Great Britain
differs from that of other European nations. It
can only be sent out of the country if it volunteers
and with the consent of parliament, and. with a few
individual exceptions the men composihg it have
never served in the regular army.
It is a constitutional force raised under the
sanction of parliament for the defence of the
country against invasion. Organised by counties
and cities, it is essentially a local force. Under
the Anglo-Saxons all men were required to bear
arms as a sort of body-rent for the land they
held, but there was no special organisation until
Alfred's reign. That great king organised the
militia or fyrd, making land the basis of num-
bers, but the family system that of discipline :
so many familiés were a tything, ten tythings
a hundred, and hundreds were united into county
wers, each under its Aeretoga, dux, or duke.
Fach section of the community had not only to
furnish its quota in time of war, but also to /pro-
vide arms, keep them in repair, and train its men
for so many days every year. This arrangement
subsisted in more or less vigour until the Conquest ;
then the feudal troops rendered the militia unneces-
sary ; but it never ceased wholly to exist, and when
the crown to contend with the Norman
barons it naturally found its most powerful instru-
ment in the Saxon militia. Henry II. established
‘an assize of arms,’ at which every holder of land
was bound to produce one or more men fully
equipped, and capable of fishting in the national
defence, This annual assembly of the fyrd or militia
is first recorded after the Conquest in 1181. Further
alterations to suit the advances in the art of war
took place in 1558. In 1604 James I. abolished the
fyrd, and substituted ‘Trained (commonly called
rain) Bands,’ to the number of 160,000 men—a
force partaking of the nature of both the militia and
volunteers, but deficient in discipline and drill.
toate | the Civil War the train bands for the most
part sided with the Parliament. Up to that time the
command had never by any law been definitely
assigned to the crown, but after the Restoration the
loyal parliament of Charles IL. declared ‘the sole
supreme government, command, and disposition of
the militia to be the undoubted right of his majesty
and his royal predecessors.’ As, however, the crown
from this time began to depend for its support upon
a mercenary army, the militia was much neglected
until 1757, when, a large portion of the regular army
being absent in the Seven Years’ War, it was care-
fully organised for the defence of the kingdom,
Several militia acts have been subsequently passed.
In 1871 the control of the militia was transferred
to the War Office from the lords-lieutenant, who
may, however, still recommend ntlemen for
commissions. Various laws for the consolida-
tion of the national defences by bringing the army,
militia, and other military forces into closer con-
nection were completed in 1876, and the United
Kingdom was divided into 69 infantry regimental
districts. To each belongs a territorial regiment,
consisting generally of two line battalions, and two
to nine militia battalions, besides the regimental
dept, volunteer battalions, and the men in the
Army Reserve and Militia Reserve. The latter
are militiamen who by taking a double bounty
ise at the end of each training render themselves
iable in time of emergency to be drafted into
the ee army. The Militia Reserve numbers
about 30,000.
The number of militiamen to be provided by each
territorial district—known as its ‘quota ’—is fixed
by government in proportion to the number of
battalions in each such district. These numbers.
are raised by voluntary recruitment, serve six
and may re-enlist for six more; but should volun-
teering fail, a levy by ballot would be made upon
all the inhabitants of the locality between the ages:
of eighteen and thirty to serve five years. The power
of making this ballot always exists, and wench have
by law to be enforced, but for the annual Militia
Ballot Suspension Act. Many classes are exempt
from the ballot, as peers, soldiers, volunteers, yeo-
manry, resident members of universities, clergymen,
parish schoolmasters, articled clerks, apprenti
seafaring men, crown employés, free watermen
the Thames; in England any poor man with more
than one child born in wedlock; in Scotland any
man with more than two lawful children and not
possessed of property to the value of £50; in Ireland
any poor man not worth £10, or who does not pay
£5 “ annum for rent, and has more than three
lawful children under the age of fourteen.
Large barracks have been built at the head-
quarters of regimental districts where there were
none silage so that militia when pay need
no longer be billeted. Camps are constantly formed
for their occupation. The officers are often employed
with regular troops, both infantry and artillery.
Militia recruits are if possible trained at the head-
quarters of the regimental district, and everything
possible done to increase the efficiency of the force
and assimilate it to the regular army. Young
officers, after serving two trainings in the militia
and passing an examination in tactics, fortification,
military topography, and law, as well as a literary
examination similar to that for cadetships at the
Royal Military College (see MILITARY SCHOOLS)
are given commissions in the line and cavalry, or, if
they pass the entrance examination for the Royal
Military seer! at Woolwich, in the artillery.
ener in 1890 it was decided that the militia
should no longer be styled part of the ‘auxiliary’
forces of the empire.
The militia assembles annually for not more than
fifty-six days’ training (recruits for not more than six
months’), and the government can embody the
whole or of the foree at any national crisis.
In November 1813 a brigade of three militia bat-
talions was formed, and embarked for France in
March 1814, serving in the Marquis of Dalhousie’s
division till the By 1815 the militia had
been embodied for nearly twenty years; ogain,
during the Russian war of 1854-56 several battalions
served in garrison at Gibraltar and Malta; and
many were embodied during the Indian Mutiny,
1857-59. The quota of the United Kingdom
(including the Channel Islands) is 143,459 men, of
which number 121,000 may be considered as effec-
tive, costing the country about 14 millions.
A militiaman receives a bounty of £1 (£1 10s. if
re-enlisted) after each training. When out for
training or embodied, the officers and men receive
the same pay as regular troops of corresponding
arms of the service, and are then all under the
Army Act of 1881. The officers rank with, but
junior to, those of the regular army, and are at all
times subject to hegroey| law. The only distine-
tion in uniform is the letter M on the shoulder-
strap.
The celebrated Local Militia is the old eral
levy ; it was instituted in 1808, and suspended but
not abolished in 1816. It consisted of a force for
each county six times as numerous as the regular
militia quota, The men were drawn by ballot from
those between the ages of eighteen and og served
four years, and were not paid bounties or allowed to
find substitutes. The counties were liable to a fine
of £15 for every man short of the quota. These
troops could only be marched beyond their res
tive counties in the event of invasion, but
MILITIA
MILK 193
were liable to be called out in case of rebellion.
Their numbers reached in 1811 to 213,000 men.
The militia of Scotland was not organised until
1797, eee before that year corps of fencibles had
been embodied. It was to be raised by ballot among
men between the of nineteen and thirty. In 1802
it was brought under the same rules as the English
militia. The Irish militia dates from 1715, when all
Protestants from sixteen to sixty were bound to serve
or find substitutes. Several subsequent acts of parlia-
ment altered the conditions of service, introduced
the ballot, &e., and finally in 1809 it was organised
in asimilar manner to the English force. Besides the
infantry and artillery militia there are in England
four companies of engineer militia, fortress troops,
in Monmouthshire, and three in Angiesey ; also six
divisions of submarine miners (dating from about
1884) at Portsmouth, Plymouth, Chatham, Har-
wich, Milford Haven, and the Severn month.
The Channel Islands Militia, dating from 1201,
consists of four of garrison artillery and six
battalions of infantry (in all about 4000 men), and
is recruited by conscription. All youths between
the ages of sixteen and eighteen are liable to drill
to being enrolied in the ranks of a regi-
ment. Each man to serve ten complete train-
ings, and then passes into the reserve, in which he
remains up to the of sixty years. A sum of
£6570 is voted by parliament in aid of this force.
In Canada there are artillery and infantry militia
for home defence, and similar troops in all important
British colonies. The Royal Malta Fencible Artil-
lery is declared by the Army Act of 1881 to be part
of the ar army, thongh not liable to serve out
of Malta except with their own consent. For the
militia of the United States, see Army, Vol. L
p. 437, and UNITED STATES; see also LANDWEHR,
- and the articles on the several countries.
Milk is an ue white fluid secreted by the
mammary glands of the females of the class Mam-
malia, after they have brought forth their young,
and during the period in which their offspring are
too immature oy live upon ordinary ‘i. it is
devoid of odour, except for a short time after its
extraction ; is of @ slightly sweet taste, most com-
monly of a pane, rare reaction (except in the
Carnivora, in which it is acid); and its average
specific gravity (in the case of human milk) is 1032.
When examined under the microscope milk is
found to consist of numberless transparent globules,
very minute size, floating in a clear colourless
fluid, the milk plasma. These globules are com-
posed of fat, they are each apa a thin
envelope of an albuminous material termed casein,
When milk has stood for some time, the larger
globules rise to the surface and form a layer of
cream, which is therefore rich in fat and poor in
other nutritive substances ( presently to be described )
that are found in the milk plasma. When the
cream is removed skimmed milk remains. If this,
or better still the unskimmed milk, be agitated in
a churn, the envelopes which surround the fat
_ are broken, the fat runs together, and we
ve milk fat or butter. The albuminous casein,
which to some encloses the fat glolules,
but according to other observers exists in solution
in the plasma, is an albuminous substance combined
with calcium phosphate. This calcium phosphate
is necessary for its solution, and if its union with
the albumen be interfered with, as by the addition
of an acid, the casein separates out in microscopic
filaments which interlace, enclosing the milk
glolmles, and forming a more or less solid clot. If
milk be allowed to remain in an open vessel and in
warm weather, a few hours will produce this result ;
the casein clots in little masses, and we say ‘the
milk has turned.’ It is acid or sour to the taste,
and —— micro-organisms (bacterium lacticum),
by whose agency these changes are brought about.
ese little microbes have the power of converting
the milk sugar into lactic acid, which in its turn
lates the casein. These microbes do not exist
in milk 7, = from the mammary glands ;
they must find their way into the milk, awe they
rapidly analtioly 3; and, as their germs are very freely
distributed, this occurs sooner or later. The dairy-
keeper, by efficient ventilation and scrupulous clean-
liness, endeavours to keep his couch and his milk as
free from these organisms as possible, and the care-
ful nurse scalds out the infant’s bottle in order that
they may not nape as they will readily do, in
any stale milk, rapidly infecting the fresh milk
each time the bottle is used. The casein is not
only clotted by acids, but a secretion of the stomach
called rennet has a similar action. A teaspoonful
of a commercial infusion of rennet will cause half a
rece of milk, at a summer temperature, to form a
veautiful white clot, which subsequently contracts,
expressing the whey.. This occurs in the stomach
when we drink milk, and this is one reason why
milk may di : in order to render it more
digestible it may be ‘sipped’ or it may be taken
with lime-water, for in this way the formation of
large clots within the stomach may be avoided.
The curds which form after the addition of rennet
can be made into cheese. In cheese, therefore, we
have a rich supply of nitrogenous matter (casein)
together with fatty matter derived from the milk
globules held fast in the curd.
Milk contains a sugar—imilk sugar—in solution,
and in addition a rather large proportion of inorganic
salts. It contains all that a child requires for the
wth and nourishment of its soe and is manu-
actured at great oo eine of the mother’s
strength. The first milk that flows from the breast
at the beginning of a lactation period is termed the
colostrum, and is rich in fat but poor in casein.
After a few days, during which time the child feeds
chiefly on its own tissues and loses weight, the
secretion becomes thoroughly established. In a
healthy, well-fed woman this continues for some
months, after which time the drain upon the energy
of the mother’s body renders the milk rer and
less nutritious. The milk contains the salts, chiefly
of lime, from which the infant builds its skeleton.
Where the children are ill nourished and cage
doctors often recommend the dilution of the milk
with lime-water, ignorant of the fact that milk con-
tains a considerably 1 r quantity of lime than
the lime-water itself. “The ime-water diminishes
prim and renders the milk digestible, but hardly
adds lime; rickets is generally due not to lack of
lime-salts in the food, but to want in the child’s
system of the power to assimilate them. It is well
known that many medicines taken by the mother
are excreted in the milk, and this point must be
borne in mind by mothers suckling their infants ;
much nonsense is, however, believed in regarding
the fatal and sudden injury done to children as a
result of severe mental excitement on the part of
the wet-nurse. Owing to inability of the mother
either to nourish her o cada hevens or to provide
it with a wet-nurse, it may necessary to bring
it up on the milk of an animal; see INFANT ( FEED-
ING OF), BREASTS.
The following table, which is based on researches
of Vernois an uerel, show the density and
composition of 1000 parts of milk :
mae Sugar. Fat. Salts,
Density.
194 MILK-FEVER
MILKWORTS
It is preferable to use the milk of one animal and
not the mixed milk of a dairy, as in that way we
minimise the chances of infection, It should be
diluted with about one-third of water, and perh
a pinch of sugar added. It then forms a good su
stitute for the mother’s milk. But disease is very
frequently transmitted by milk, not << from usin;
contaminated water for washing the milk cans an
for adulterating it, but also from the cow itself (see
TypHorp Fever, SCARLATINA). It is not improb-
able that many obscure tubercular conditions are
thus acquired by children.
Condensed milk is 2 grag prepared from that
of the cow, sweetened by the addition of ordinary
cane sugar, and evaporated to about jth of its
bulk. While hot it is poured into tins and
sealed up. When used for food the milk may be
diluted with six or seven times its volume of
water, but in the case of infants the dilution must
be more liberal. During the first month it may
be diluted with twelve or fourteen volumes, and
later on with ten volumes of water. It is often
found to with children better than cow's
milk, but it is a fatal mistake to rear an infant
on condensed milk entirely, as the diet will suffer
from too great uniformity. It is a safe rule when
a child has to be bronght up on animal milk, and
when the household milk does not , to change
the dairy. If this does not succeed, the ordinary
cow's milk may be tried, say for the morning or after-
noon feeding, with condensed milk at night. In all
cases it is better to err in freely diluting milk, for
nothing is so apt to disagree with a child as a surfeit
of rich milk ; dilution will do no particular harm.
Milk is frequently adulterated, chiefly with water
(see ADULTERATION). In this case a given volume
of milk will contain an abnormally small number
of milk globules. As these milk globules are the
cause of the Capac of milk, a thin layer of the
adulterated milk will be less opaque than a similar
layer of unadulterated milk. Many forms of lacto-
scopes have been invented for testing the opacity
and consequent dilution of milk (see LACTOMETER).
Unskimmed milk should yield in standing 12 to 24
parts per cent. of cream, and its specific gravity
should be 1028 to 1034. Skimmed milk is
heavier—1 032 to 1°040 (see also Dairy),—Milk-
weed is a local name for the genus Asclepias ; for
Milk-tree, see COW-TREE.
Milk-fever. The establishment of the secretion
of milk about two days after delivery is occasion-
ally the cause of considerable constitutional dis-
turbance, with all the symptoms of the feverish
State. This oceurs especially when the infant is
not ay lied soon enough to the breast, and
especially when the mother is kept on too low a
diet; a fact which probably explains the much
greater frequency of the condition in former times,
when such treatment was considered 'y.
The disturbance of health is not serious, and passes
off when the breasts are emptied.
In the lower animals, also, milk-fever comes on
within a few days after parturition. One variety,
common to most animals, consists in inflammation
of the membranes of the womb and bowels, and
is produced by exposure to cold, overdriving, or
injury during labour; it is best treated with oil and
laudanum, tincture of aconite, fomentations to the
belly, and antiseptics such as carbolic acid (largely
diluted ) injected into the womb itself. The other
variety to which alone the term ‘milk-fever’
should be applied, is almost peculiar to the cow.
It attacks animals in high condition, that are good
milkers, and have already borne several calves, and
consists in congestion of the brain and large nerv-
ous centres, and impairs all the vital functions,
leading to dullness, loss of sensation, stupor, and
complete unconsciousness. Blood must be drawn
cari phils fon wn ia _ vie pres
ter it only hastens death, re dose sic,
such as a pound each of salts and treacle, ‘rae
of calomel, an ounce of gamboge, and two ounces
of ginger, should at once be given, solid food
withheld, clysters of soap, salt, and water thrown
up every hour, cloths wrang out of hot water
applied along the spine, the teats drawn several
times daily, and the animal frequently turned.
Although treatment is uncertain, prevention may
be ensured by milking the cow larly for ten
days before calving feeding sparing My on laxative,
unstimulating food, giving several doses of physic
before and one immediately after calving, and
when the animal is in very high condition and
srone to milk-fever, bleeding her a day or two
fore calving.
Milkworts (so called from the milky juice
are various species of pees belong 68 the natu
order Polygalese or Polygalacese, The order com-
prises about 20 genera and 500 species which are
widely distributed over the tropical and subtropical
oe of the world ; several species are natives of
orth America and of Europe. They are herbace-
ous plants or shrubby, occasionally in the latter case
being of climbing habit. The leaves are usually
prea. and destitute of stipules; the flowers are
oe Sg Their qualities are generally tonie and
slightly acrid ; and some, as
rameria, are ve
astringent.—The Common Milkwort ( Polygala
vulgaris) is a small perennial plant, growing in
dry hilly pastures,
with an ascending
stem, linear-lance- ‘
olate leaves, and al
a terminal raceme
of small but very
beautiful flowers,
having a 4
cres' keel. It
varies _ consider- ~
ably in size, in the
size and even ie
shape of the 1
leaves, and in the =) LN
size and colour of “SS
the flowers, which
are sometimes of }
a most brilliant Ven A
blue, sometimes RS of AY
purple, pink, or . DAN
Vhite.—P. Senega 4 % \ 7 ‘““
is a North Ameri- \f ese
can species, with Nv i
erect simple tufted Vy a>
stems, about one A/ SYN or
foot ‘high, and SYA
terminal racemes — SK :
of small white as
flowers. The root, Common Milkwort
which is woody, ( Pelygala vulgaris).
branched, con-
torted, and about half an inch in diameter, is
the Senega Root, Seneka Root, or Snake Root of
the United States, famous as an imaginary cure
for snake-bites, but really possessing im t
medicinal virtues—stimulating, diuretic, hor-
etic, emmen — in la —— emetic and
murgative—employ 8, onary affec-
tons recite ie Bolygal “fevers bd ran
active principle yaaliec > a1 1e
root of P. Seniee has been eateret ee eure for
snake-bites by the American Indians from time
immemorial, and it is a curious fact that P. crota-
larioides is employed in the same way in the
Himalayas. P. vulgaris is tonic, stimulant, and
diaphoretic ; and P. amara, a very similar Euro-
pean species, possesses the same properties in a
MILKY-WAY
MILL 195
higher degree, as does P. rubella, a small North
American species. The root of P. poaya, a
Brazilian species, with leathery leaves, is an active
emetic, and in a fresh state is employed in bilious
fevers. P. tinctoria, a native of Arabia, furnishes
a blue dye like indigo. P. venensoa is by the
natives of Java dreaded on account of its noxious
heavy odour, which they say causes severe head-
ache and violent sneezing. Another medicinal
are of the order is Rattany (q.v.) Root. The
k of the roots of Monnina polystachia and M.
salicifolia is used in Peru as a substitute for soap ;
and Mundia spinosa, a South African shrub, pro-
duces an eatable fruit.
Milky-way. See Gataxy.
Mill. This word is now used in a general way
as a name for almost all kinds of manufactories,
as well as for machines used for grinding; but in
this article we shall describe only a floar-mill.
For other mills, see SPINNING, WEAVING, CoTTON,
Fiax, Woo., ce.
From time immemorial, until quite recent times,
wheat has alway’ been ground between two stones,
At first land-mills were used such as are so often
mentioned in the Bible, and are still met with
amongst uncivilised peoples (see QUERN); but the
mill subsequently through many mechanical
developments up to the large merchant mills now
found in every civilised country, some of which
recently contained upwards of 100 pairs of large
millstones. These were made of ‘buhr,’ a very
hard silicate, the best stones coming from the
valley of the Seine. The millstones were circular,
usually about four feet in diameter, formed of
wedge-sha pieces strongly cemented together,
and bound by iron hoops. The surfaces were
ent into a series of radiating ridges and furrows,
by which means the wheat was pushed from the
centre to the cireumference of the stones, as well as
broken between the edges of the ridges. Great
care had to be taken that the surfaces of the
two stones were a level and perfectly
parallel to each other. Only the ve ra stone or
runner’ revolved, the lower or ‘ bedstone’ being
fixed. The first successful steam flour-mill was
erected in London in 1784.
Tron rollers in place of millstones were first
ractically tried at the roller mill in Pest,
founded in 1840 by the patriot Count Szechenyi.
This new system, called ‘the high grinding or
gradual reduction roller system,’ rN spread
throughout Hungary, and made Budapest for man
ears the greatest flour-milling centre in the world.
+4 1875 this system had been adopted by the
millers of the north-western states of America, and
has enabled them to outstrip their teachers : Min-
neapolis is now the largest flour-milling centre in
the world, and its mills send a great quantity of
flour to England. Since 1880 this system has been
universally ce by large mills, and is being
gradually introduced into small mills also. The
great vantage of rollers over millstones is found
be that the former avoid the rasping of the out-
side of the wheat berry which was inseparable from
millstones, and produced a small quantity of very
dark powder which necessarily mixed with the flour
and greatly deteriorated its colour.
following is a description of the different
processes which together form the ‘ high-grinding’
or ‘ ual reduction’ system of flour-milling.
(1) wheat is cleaned or ‘smutted,’ as it is
termed, by means of sifting, winnowing, and
being put through a cylinder of wire-cloth, with
raplly revolving arms inside, which combines
the actions of sifting and polishing the wheat. A
furnished with hard brushes is often
employed to scrub the wheat. (2) The cleaned
wheat is sent to grooved chilled-iron rollers (see
fig. 1), and slightly broken between them; the
product is sifted by means of cylinders covered
with wire-cloth or silk-gauze, by which means a
proportion of flour is separated, mixed with a sub-
stance composed of small pieces of the floury part
of the wheat berry, and called usually ‘ middlings,’
sometimes ‘semolina.’ The pieces of broken wheat
are sent to other rollers to be again broken, and the
— sifted as before. This process is repeated
rom four to seven times, according to the ideas of
the miller and the nature of the wheat, until, as
far as possible, all the floury part has been sera
from the husk or ‘bran,’ which is sold for fodder.
Fig. 1.—Roller Mill.
We are thus left with the mixture of flour and
‘middlings’ from the four to seven breaking pro-
cesses. The products from the different breaking
processes are generally mixed together and then
sifted as before described, in order to separate
the flour which is then ready for use from the
‘middlings,’ which are then put through the pro-
cess called ‘ purification.’ It may here be mentioned
that the making of a large quantity of ‘ middlings’
is the princi difference between the former
‘low-grinding’ and the present ‘h A es
system, and is the chief advantage of the latter.
y the former process it was sought to reduce
the wheat at one grinding as far as possible
into flour and bran: it was, however, found to be
impossible to keep the two separate, a portion of
finely-powdered bran being inevitably mixed with
the flour, atly to the detriment of the latter.
By high-grinding, the floury part is reduced in the
first instance pansy to a granular state, and,
though bran particles are mixed with the flour
granules, they may be almost entirely separated,
owing to the difference in their specific gravity, by
means of this process of purification, (3) The size
of the granules of the middlings varies from that of
fine sand to that of a pin’s head. The middlings
are therefore first separated by sifting into as many
sizes as may be thought desirable, and each size
is sent to one or more machines called ‘middlings’
purifiers.’ These are of two types, called ‘gravity’
and ‘sieve’ purifiers. In the first type, which is
om used for the large sizes of middlings, the
material is direetly acted on by a draught of air.
The machine usually takes the form of a series of
sloping boards, or of revolving discs, by either of
which devices the middlings are caused to fall
repeatedly in a thin even stream through a current
of air produced by a revolving fan. As the specific
gravity of the flour granules is greater than that of
the bran particles, it is obvious that the current of
air may be so regulated as to carry away the par-
ticles of bran, leaving the flour granules to fall to
the bottom of the machine.
The sieve purifier generally takes the form of an
oblong box, or case, of wood ; occupying the centre
196
MILL
plane of this case a sieve formed of silk-gauze is
suspended by springs from the top of the case, and
is made to oscillate by means of a crank. A re-
volving fan is placed at the top of the machine,
which draws air through the meshes of the sieve,
the current of air being so regulated that the branny
particles are either carried away by the. draught to
a suitable receptacle, or are kept suspended on the
top of the sieve until they are carried over the end
of it, while the heavier flour ules fall through
the sieve. This type of machine is we used
for the smaller sizes of middlin, It is the dust
drawn from these machines by the fans that, when
mixed in a certain proportion with air and acci-
dentally ignited, has caused several very serious
explosions in flonr-mills, In consequence of this,
whereas it was formerly usual to send this dust-
laden air to a large chamber where the dust was
allowed to settle by its own weight, and where the
explosions generally occurred, within recent years
many ingenious contrivances called ‘dust collectors’
have been invented for separating the dust in small
quantities, and thus minimising the danger. These
are now generally used. The ren o after
being thoroughly cleaned (by repetition of the pro-
cess when necessary), are ground between smooth
chilled-iron rollers and the product sifted; the flour
thus produced is of fine quality, and is usually
called ‘patent’ flour. Miullstones may still be
profitably employed to grind the finest sizes of
middlings, but this is the only use to which they
are put in a modern mill.
Fig. 2 represents one type of cylinder used for
sifting (technically, ‘dressing’) the products in
flour manufacture, to which we have several times
had to refer. These cylinders are of two kinds,
Fig. 2.— Centrifugal Dressing Reel,
the ordinary ‘reel’ or cylinder being a framework
covered round with wire-cloth or silk-gauze, and
made to rotate, thus setting in motion the en-
closed material. The other type is called a ‘ centri-
fugal dressing’ machine (see fig. 2). In this
machine, in addition to the rotating cylinder,
there is a frame with long pieces of wood or iron
attached, made to revolve independently inside the
cylinder. By this means the material is thrown
against the circumference of the cylinder, so that
a much smaller surface is required than in the
ordin: reel to do the same amount of work.
The* sichter,’ introduced in Budapest in 1888,
which, as its name implies, is a horizontal sieve,
has a ial contrivance for keeping the material
in aoetion, and the meshes clear. This machine
has made considerable progress in Hungary, but it
is as yet too early to predict that it will supersede
the cylindrical ‘dressing’ machines. Almost all
modern mills are constructed on what is termed the
automatic system, which means that all the convey-
ance of the material from one point in the mill to
another .is done by mechanical means; so that of
the great bulk of the flour it may be said that it is
never stopped or touched on its journey from the
time it leaves the wheat sack until it reaches the
flour sack. The conveyer generally used to move
material in a horizontal direction is a helical serew
(sometimes called an Archimedean screw); and to
lift to a higher level Elevators (q.v.) are used.
See Fairbairn, Mills and Mill-work (1878) ; Kick, Flour-
manufacture (trans. 1878) ; Voller, Modern Flour Milli
(1889) ; Bennett and Elton, History of Corn Milling (1898).
Mill (Lat. mille, ‘a thousand’), in the United
States, is the tenth part of a cent, the thousandth
part of a dollar, As a coin it has no existence.
Mill, JAmMEs, was the son of a shoemaker, and
was born in Logie-Pert Facies near Montrose, Seot-
land, 6th April 1773. He studied, with a view to the
church, at the university of Edinburgh, where he
in tr himself in Greek and in Moral and
Metaphysical Philosophy. He was licensed to preach
in 1798 ; but instead of following out the solnbaley: he
went to London in 1802, where he settled as a lit
man. He became editor of the Li Journa
which after a time was discontinued ; and wrote for
various periodicals, including the Kelectic and the
Edinburgh Review. In 1 he commenced his
History of British India, which he carried on along
with other literary work, and published in the
winter of 1817-18. The impression produced by
this masterly history on the Indian authorities was
such, that, in 1819, the Court of Directors of the
Company appointed him to the high post of Assist-
ant-exanfiner of Indian Correspondence, notwith-
standing the then unpopularity of his well-known
radical opinions, The business —— to his care
was the revenue department, which he continued to
superintend till four years before his death, when
inted head of the examiner's office,
ad the control of all the departments
of Indian administration—political, judicial, and
financial—managed by the Secret Committee of the
Court of Directors. Shortly after his appointment
to the India House, he contributed the articles on
Government, Edueation, Jurisprudence, Law of
Nations, Liberty of the Press, Colonies, and Prison -
Discipline to the Encyclopedia Britannica, These
essays were reprinted in a separate form, and
became widely known. The powers of analysis, of
clear statement, and of the thorough-going appli-
cation of principles, exhibited in these articles, had
probabl never betoke been brought to bear on that
— o 87 he saree his
li ts 0 Litii , a work prepared
primarily with a view to the education of wis eldest
son, John Stuart Mill. In 1829 his Analysis of
the Human Mind appeared. His last published ~
book was the Fragment on Mackintosh, brought ont ,
in 1835. He was also a contributor to the West-
minster Review and to the London Review, which
merged in the London and Westminster. j
Not long after he settled in London, he made the
acquaintance of Jeremy Bentham, and for a number
of years lived during the summer in Bentham’s
country-honse, Although he must have derived
much benefit from his intercourse with the eg
law-reformer, he was not a mere disciple of Bentham
but a man of profound and original thought, as well
as of great reading, in all the departments of moral,
mental, and political philosophy. His conversation
was impressive to a remarkable degree, and he gave
a powerful intellectual stimulus to a number of
young men, some of whom (including his own son,
and Grote, the historian of Greece) have since
risen to eminence. He took a leading part in the
founding of University College, London, He died
at Kensington, 23d June 1836.
See the Autobiography of J. 8. Mill; and Professor
Bain's James Mill Cissay
he was ap
where he
In 1821-22
LE
' MILL
197
Mill, Joun Stuart, the eldest son of James
Mill, was born in London on 20th May 1806. He
was educated by his father, by whom he was sub-
jected from his earliest years to a careful and
systematic training, which was to fit him to cai
on the work and champion the opinions with which
the elder Mill was identified. Almost from infancy
his intellect was on the strain. He is said to
have n Greek at the of three, and before
he was fourteen he had extensively in Greek,
Latin, mathematics, and English, had begun logic
and political economy, and already the
intellectual nirements of a well-educated man.
But he was secluded from companions of his own
ge. As he himself says, he ‘never was a boy.’
is nearest approach to recreation was the long
walks—in reality peripatetic oral examinations—for
which he was ey “ond taken by his father. In
1820 he went to France on a visit to the family of
Sir S. Bentham (Jeremy Bentham's brother), and
was thus removed for more than a year from his
father’s immediate influence. His studies were
never intermitted. His residence in France not
x | gave him a keen interest in French politics
social conditions, but stimulated his botanical
enthusiasm, and the love for scenery and travel,
which became the chief relaxations of his arduous
life. After his return home he worked at history
and law, and read the English and French philo-
sophers. His first published writings appeared in
the Traveller newspaper in 1822. In the following
year a career was secured for him by an appoint-
ment under his father at the India Office, from
which he retired as head of his department in 1858,
on the transfer of the Company’s government to
the crown. At the same time he declined a seat in
the new India Council offered to him by Lord
Derby. During the years 1823-26 he was a member
of a small Utilitarian society which met for the
epee of disenssion at Jeremy Bentham’s house.
e name ‘Utilitarian’ was suggested by an
expression in one of Galt’s novels, and seized upon
by him ‘with a boy’s fondness for a name and a
banner,’ to describe himself and others of like
opinions. In the Speculative Society, which was
founded in 1825, and of which lhe remained a
member till 1829, he met men of a ter variet
of creeds, and formed an intimate friendship with
Maurice and Sterling, Liberals of a different type
from those he had met at his father’s house, and
influenced by Coleridge, not by Bentham.
Before he was ia Teg was recognised as the
champion and future er of what may be called
the Utilitarian School in. philosophy and _politics,
and had become the most frequent contributor to
the newly-established organ of the party, the
Westminster Review. But the ‘mental crisis’
through which he passed at this time (1826-27)
led to a modification of his attitude. Bentham’s
Treatise on islation, which he had read four or
five years ore, formed the keystone of his
revious position. It gave him ‘a creed, a
Srotring, a philosophy; in one among the best
senses of the word, a religion; the inculcation and
diffusion of which could be made the principal out-
ward purpose of a life.’ The crisis under which his
enthusiasm for his old creed and opinions broke
down was attributed by himself not merely to a
dull state of nerves, but to the purely intellectual
education which weakened his sympathies at the
same time as it taught him to analyse and trace
to their origin. He ultimately emerged from
the state of depression by discovering that feeling
was not dead within him. The experiences of this
pe left, he tells us, two very marked effects on
i and character. In the first place, the
Jed him to a new theory of life in relation to Suppl.
ness- The conviction was forced upon him that
happiness—although the test of all rules of conduct
and the end of life—was only to be obtained by not
making it the direct end, but by having one’s mind
fixed on some such ideal end as the improvement of
mankind, or even some art or pursuit. His ‘mental
crisis’ further led him to see the necessity for human
well-being of the internal culture of the individual.
He ee to attach almost exclusive importance to
the ordering of outward circumstances, and to the
forced eshacpg: oA the human being for thought
and action. d soon after this time he pa in
Wordsworth’s poems ‘the very culture of the feel-
ings’ he was in quest of.
e wider appreciation of speculation and litera-
ture brought about 4 this new attitude may be
seen in his reviews of Tennyson’s poems (1835), and
of Carlyle’s French Revolution (1837), as well as in
his article on Coleridge (1840). His article on
Bentham (1838) made clear the extent of his diverg-
ence from his inherited creed, and gave rise to the
‘admiration mixed with fear’ with which Grote
and others of the school regarded him. In this
article can be traced the lines along which, in his
subsequent writings, he modified the traditional
creed of Bentham and James Mill. Perhaps the
reaction from Benthamism would have gone further
had it not been for the friendship with Mrs John
Taylor (whom he first met in 1830, and whom he
married in 1851), which formed the romance of his
life. It is indeed veri ries to estimate her
influence so highly as Mill did himself. All his
leading opinions were formed before he made her
acquaintance, and some of his most important works
were completed without her assistance. But she
did exert great influence on the expression of his
views, and apparently had a steadying effect on his
philosophical position.
Mill never forsook, though he modified, the lead-
ing principles of the philosophy in which he was
educated. He held that knowledge could be
analysed into impressions of sense, and that the
principle of association was the great construc-
tive foree which combined these sensations and
their copies, or ideas, into systems of thought,
modes of feeling, and habits of acting. is
System of Logic (1843)—perhaps the most original
and important of his works—traces, and gives a
rationale of, the way in which the real, disjointedly
iven in sensation, is combined into scientific
nowledge. Its treatment of the methods of
inductive science—in which it owes much to Her-
schel, Whewell, and Comte—has become classical.
His Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's Philosophy
(1865), and edition of James Mill’s Analysis of the
Phenomena of the Human Mind (1869), contain a
polemical defence and exposition of the association-
psychology, notable for their clear recognition of
the mental elements which that psychology assumes
without explanation. His essay on Utilitarianism
(1861) defends the greatest-happiness theory, but
suggests modifications inconsistent with it (see
Eruics, p. 435 6.). He held that government was
to be purified and made into a utilitarian instru-
ment by means of representative institutions; but
he had less confidence than Bentham and his father
had in the effect of reason and argument upon men,
disapproved of an equal suffrage, distrusted the
ballot, and argued eloquently for individual liberty
of thought and action against the tyranny of the
majority (Considerations on Representative Govern-
ment, 1861; Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform,
1859; On Liberty, 1859). His Principles of Politi-
eal Economy (1848) is a systematic treatise, which
does not depart in its main teaching from the
theory laid down in abstract fashion by Ricardo ;
but it recognises more clearly the hypothetical
character of this theory, and it discusses the social
applications of economic doctrines. Mill was M.P.
198 MILL
MILLBOARD
for Westminster from 1865 to 1868, In parliament
he voted with the advanced Radical party; and
his advocacy of women’s suffrage in the debates on
the Reform Bill of 1867 led to an active movement
for placing the legal and political rights of women
on an equality with those of men. Mill died at
Avignon, 8th May 1873, and was busied in the
cemetery there.
In addition to the works =< mentioned, Mill was
the author of Essays on some unsettled Questions of Politi-
eal Economy (1844), Aususte Comte and Positivism (1865),
England and Ireland (1868), Subjection of Women (1869).
After his death were published Autobiography (1873), and
Three Essays on igion (1874). His more important
occasional writings are collected in four volumes of Lis-
sertations and D ions (1859-75). For his life and
pater! see biographies by A. Bain (1882) and W. L.
rtney (1889), and a study by C. M. Douglas (1895).
Mill, Joun, a New Testament critic, was born
about 1645, at Shap in Westmorland, entered
Queen’s College, Oxford, as servitor in 1661, and
was successively fellow and tutor of his college,
rector of Blechingdon in Oxfordshire (1681), prin-
cipal of St Edmund's Hall (1685), and prebendary of
oometaage | (1704). He died 23d June 1707, just
fourteen days after the publication of his great
Novum Testamentum Grecum, with its thirty thou-
sand various readings, the labour of thirty years.
Millais, Six Joun Everett, P.R.A., painter,
was born at Southampton, 8th June 1829, the
descendant of an ancient Jersey family. In the
winter of 1838-39 Millais began to attend the
drawing academy of Henry Sass, ing, two years
later, into the schools of the Royal Academy. At
the age of seventeen he exhibited at the Royal
Academy his ‘ Pizarro seizing the Inca of Peru,’
ranked by competent crities of the day as on a
level with the best historical subjects then shown.
Till now his work had been upon the lines of
art generally current in England at the time;
but there followed a phase of revolt from accepted
standards, a period of search for new paths. He
became associated with the knot of young artists
known as the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, of
whom the other chiefs were Dante Gabriel Rossetti
and Holman Hunt; and undoubtedly he was
markedly influenced by the powerful personalities
of both of these men, and by Mr Ruskin their
literary ally. From them, in particular, his art
received an impetus towards imagination and
symbolism, which—as has been proved by the
curious absence of such qualities from his later
and more independent productions—were to a
great extent foreign to his native genius. His
marvellous technical skill enabled him to embody
in visible artistic form conceptions that were essen-
tially those of others with far greater adequacy
than their own less trained hands could possibly
have done. His first Pre-Raphaelite picture, a
scene from the Isabella of Keats, strongly recall-
ing the manner of the early Flemish and Italian
masters, figured in the Academy in 1849, where it
was followed in 1850 by the striking ‘Christ in
the House of his Parents,’ known as ‘The Car-
ter's Shop,’ in 1851 by ‘The Woodman’s
ghter,’ in 1852 by ‘The Huguenot’ and
Op elia,’ and in 1853 by ‘The Order of Release’
and ‘ The Proscribed Royalist.’
In_ 1856 he was elected an Associate of the Royal
Academy, and soon afterwards he exhibited three
of the richest and most poetic of the productions of
his Pre-Raphaelite period —the ‘ Autnmn Leaves’ in
1856, the ‘Sir Ixumbras at the Ford’ in 1857, and
* The Vale of Rest’ in 1859. In the finer of the works
which followed, such as ‘Charlie is my Darling’
1864)—the year in which the painter received
tall academic honours—‘The Minuet’ (1866).
and *‘ Rosalind and Celia’ (1868), the precision and
clear definition of Pre-Raphaelite methods still
survive; but in the exquisite ‘Gambler's Wife
(1869) there became visible a and
method of handling, which is yet more fully estab-
lished in ‘ The Boyhood of Raleyh * (1870), a picture
which, retaining a measure of the imaginative charm
of his earlier su Ujects, marks the transition of his art
into its final and, technically, most masterly phase,
displaying all the brilliant and effective ou >
the effortless power of brush-work, and the d
of flesh-painting. The interest and value of his
later works lay mainly in their splendid technical
qualities. In great part they are actual or
portraits, varied by a few important landscapes, of
which in many ways the finest is ‘ Chill October’
at and by such an occasii re-piece as
* The North-west Passage’ (1873) and ‘ Effie Deans’
(1877). Millais executed a few etchings, and his
innumerable illustrations, dating from about 1857
to 1864, and most of them published in Good W
Once a Week, and the Cornhill M ine, pl
him in the first rank of woodeut designers. He
was D.C.L. of Oxford; in 1885 he was created a
Baronet; he was elected P.R.A. in February 1896,
and died 13th August of the same year. A collec+
tion of nearly twenty of his works was brought
together by the Fine Arts Society, London, in
1881, and 159 examples of his art formed the
Grosvenor Gallery Winter Exhibition in 1886.
See Ruskin’s Notes on that exhibition; Armstrong’s
Life and Work of Millais (1885); Sir W. Richmond,
Leighton, Millais, and William Morris (1898); M. H.
Spielmann, Millais and his Work (1898).
Millau, a town of Aveyron, France, on the Tarn,
52 miles NW. of Montpellier. During the 16th
and 17th centuries it was a Calvinist stronghold.
Leather and gloves are manufactured, and in wool
there isa trade. Pop. (1872) 13,879 ; (1886)
14,705 ; (1891) 15,871.
Millbank Prison, or The Penitentiary, de-
molished in 1891, was situated in the parish of St
John’s, Westminster, facing the Thames. It was
erected at an enormons cost to bk out the plans
of the philanthropists Howard and Bentham; the
latter’s contract with the Treasury was signed in
1794, but the building was not actually commenced
till 1812, and not completed till 1821. It had
accommodation for 1100 prisoners, and was so con-
structed that, from a room in the centre, the
vernor was able to view every one of the cells,
in which solitary confinement was rigid enforced.
Convicts condenined to penal servitude used to
undergo first a term of soli confinement in
Millbank; but the prison to be a convict
establishment in May 1886, and was finally closed
in November 1890, See Griffiths, Memorials of
Millbank (2d ed, 1884). ;
Millboard is the name given to ‘ board’ made
of paper material, and varying in thickness from
Math to }th of an inch. It is of a gray colour, as the
various kinds of waste substances—viz. old ro
old sacking, scraps of paper and of cardboard—
which it is usually made are not bleached either
separately or when mixed and reduced to a polp as
in the manufacture of white paper (see PAPER).
best millboard, such as that employed for binding
ledgers, is made on moulds by hand ; but by far the
larger quantity of millboard put on the market is
machine made, In the machine commonly used
a revolving wire-cloth cylinder dips into a cistern
containing the pulp, and takes on a layer of it
about the thickness of stout brown paper. This
pulpy layer is by pressure taken continuously off
the wire cylinder by a felt blanket gg over a
wood roller. The felt carries the single layer, in
the wet state, to a pair of rollers 7 feet eis from —
upon
the wire cylinder, Here the layer is woun
- doctors—such as Pa
MILLBURY
MILLENNIUM 199
the upper or wooden roller till the required thick-
ness is made ee The lower or iron roller presses
by means of a lever and weights against the upper
one with sufficient force to consolidate the layers of
pulp. The hollow cylinder of millboard on the
wood roller is then cut longitudinally with a knife,
and opened out into a flat sheet. It is afterwards
dried by steam heat or otherwise, calendered by
chilled iron rolls, and cut to size by strong circular
cutters.
Millboard is used for bookbinding and for making
boxes, but has been largely superseded by Straw-
board (q.v.). It is still employed for jointing
flanged pipes and other engineering work ; but for
this pu asbestos millboard (see ASBESTOS) is
now preferred. Millboard or thick cardboard made
from straw or wood is used for many miscellaneous
rposes. Mounting board consists of several
ers of paper pasted together. A few years ago
a mill on a large scale was in operation near
London for the manufacture of millboard from
stable manure, but the process was not a success
com ly.
Millbury, Massachusetts, on the Blackstone
River, is 39 miles by rail W. of Boston, and has
several cotton and woollen factories. Pop. 4460.
Milledgeville, the former capital of og
(q.v.), 32 miles ENE. of Macon. Pop. (1900) 4219.
Millenary Petition. See Hampron Court.
Millennium (Lat., ‘a thousand years’), a long
indefinite — during which the kingdom of the
Messiah l, ing to the belief of many
Christians, be visibly established on the earth. The
idea originated proximately in the Messianic ex-
er of the Jews; and the Christians’ belief
the Parousia, or Second Coming of Christ, was
developed by the oppression and persecutions to
which they were long subjected. The chief basis
of the millenarian idea, in Judaism as well as in
Christianity, is the ardent hope for a visible divine
rule upon earth, and the identification of the church
with that of which it is merely asymbol. In the
Ist century of the church, chiliasm (the Greek
equivalent ‘of millenarianism, from chilioi, ‘a
tl *) was a widespread belief, to which
the books of Daniel and the Ppoealy pee (chaps.
xx. and xxi.) gave authority; while various
hy writings, com at the end of the
st and the inning the 2d century—sueh
as the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, the
Christian Sibylline , the Epistle of Barnabas
—lent it a more vivid colouring and imagery.
Not only the heretic Cerinthus, but even orthodox
pias of Hierapolis, Irenzus,
and Justin Martyr—delighted themselves with
dreams of the Fog and magnificence of the millen-
nial kingdom, Sibylline Books, for instance,
hold that the earth will be cultivated throughout
its length and breadth, that there will be no more
seas, no more winters, no more nights; everlasting
wells will run honey, milk, and wine. Papias in-
dulges in monstrous re} ntations of the rebuild-
ing of Jerusalem, and of the colossal vine and
grapes of the millennial reign.
According to the general opinion, which was as
—_ pear deer as a the ga = to
preced y great calamities. @ personifica-
tion of evil Sevres in Antichrist tar, the pre-
eursor of Christ (identified during the Ist century
with Nero), who would provoke a frightful war in
the land of Magog (Ezek. xxxviii. and xxxix.)
against the si! ae (og, after which the Messiah
would a r, heralded by Elias, or Moses, or
Melehizedek, or Isaiah, or Jeremiah, and would
bind Satan for a thousand years, annihilate the
less heathen, or make them slaves of the
, and overturn the empire. From
its ruins a new order of things would spring
forth, in which the ‘dead in Christ’ would arise,
and along with the surviving saints enjoy an incom-
parable felicity in the city of the ‘New Jerusalem,’
which was expected to descend literally from
heaven. With the innocence which was the state
of man in Paradise there was associated, in the
prevalent notions of the millennium, great physical
and intellectual pleasures.
The lapse of time, chilling the ardour of the
rimitive Christian belief in the nearness of the
arousia, had without doubt also the tendency to
give a more shadowy, and therefore a more spiritual
aspect to the kingdom over which the expected
Messiah was to reign. The influence of the Alex-
andrian philosophy contributed to produce the
same result. rigen, for example, started the
idea that, instead of a final and desperate conflict
between Paganism and Christianity, the real
presen and victory of Christianity would consist
in the gradual spread of the truth throughout the
world, and in the voluntary hom id to it by
all secular powers. Yet even in the Ee to-Alex-
andrian Church millenarianism, in its most literal
form, was widely diffused. The Montanists (q.v.)
generally were extreme millenarians or chiliasts,
and, being considered a heretical sect, contributed
largely to bring chiliasm into discredit, or, at all
events, their own carnal form of chiliasm, which
Tertullian himself attacked. Lactantius, in the
beginning of the 4th century, was the last im-
rtant Chureh Father who indul in chiliastic
reams. In the 5th century, St Jerome and St
Angustine expressly combated certain fanatics
who still hoped for the advent of a millennial
kingdom whose pleasures included those of the
flesh. From this time the Church formally rejected
millenarianism in its sensuous ‘ visible form,’ al-
though the doctrine every now and then made its
reappearance, especially as a general popular belief,
in the most sudden and obstinate manner. Thus,
the expectation of the Last Day in the year 1000
A.D. reinvested the doctrine with a transitory im-
portance,
At the period of the Reformation, millenari-
anism once more experienced a partial revival,
because it was not a difficult matter to apply some
of its symbolism to the bn ge the pope, for ex-
ample, was Antichrist. Yet the doctrine was not
adopted by the great body of the Reformers, but by
some fanatical sects, such as the Anabaptists, as
also by various theosophists in the next century.
During the civil and religious wars in France and
England it was also prominent; the Fifth Monarchy
Men (q.v.) of Cromwell’s time were millenarians of
the most exaggerated “iy The extravagances of
the French Mystics and Quietists culminated in
chiliastic views. During the Thirty Years’ War en-
thusiastic and learned chiliasts flourished. Among
the foremost chiliastic teachers of modern centuries
are to be mentioned Ezechiel Meth and Bishop
Comenius in Germany ; Professor Jurieu of Sedan,
and Poiret ; Serarius in Holland ; and in England
Joseph Mede (Clav. Apocal. 1627), while Thomas
Burnet and William Whiston endeavoured to give
chiliasm a geological foundation. Most of the chief
divines of the Westminster Assembly were millen-
arians; so were Sir Isaac Newton and Bishop
Horsley. Bengel revived an earnest interest in the
subject among orthodox Protestants. Spener and
Joachim Lange held chiliastie views ; and Sweden-
borg employed apocalyptic images to set forth the
eunmrared world of the senses. Bengel’s millen-
arianism was adopted by the Swabian theosophist
Oetinger (died 1782), and widely spread through.
out Germany by Jung Stilling, Lavater, and Hess,
Charles Wesley and Toplady were millenarians.
Modern miilenarians or pre-millennialists (as
200 MILLEPEDE
MILLER
believing in the pre-millennial advent of Christ)
differ in many minor points from one another, but
in holding that the millennial age will be
heralded by the personal return of the Lord Jes
to establish a theocratic kingdom of unive
righteousness, during which time sin will remain
on earth but be greatly diminished. Immediately
on Christ's appearing will take place the resurrection
of the righteous dead and the translation of living
Christians, who will be rewarded according to
their works. The judgment work of Christ will
occupy the whole millennial period. The Jews,
restored to their own land, will repent and be
converted. All the hosts of Antichrist will be
destroyed, Satan bound, and the Holy Ghost poured
out. At the end of the millennial age Satan
released will make a last vain attempt to regain
his power, but he and the wicked, who now have
their resurrection, will he finally judged and cast
into the lake of fire. The earth will be renewed
by fire, and be the scene of the everlasting kingdom
of Christ over all sanctified mankind. Attempts
to fix the date of the advent are aged is-
approved. Dates that have been fixed for the
beginning of the millennium have been 1785 by
Stilling, 1836 by Bengel, 1843 by Miller in America,
1866, 1867, and 1868 by Dr Cumming, and 1890 by
the Mormon Church. Some adventists teach the
doctrine of A tastasis (q.v.), others the final
annihilation of the impenitent. See ADVENTISTS
(Seconp), and HELL.
Many of the greatest modern German theologi
have been more or less pronouncedly pre-millen-
nialists; such as Rothe, Hofmann, Nitzsch, Ebrard,
Lange, Delitzsch, Christlieb, Luthardt, as also
Oosterzee, Gaussen, and Godet. The Free Church
of Italy and the Plymouth Brethren collectively
hold these views. The Irvingites expect the speedy
appearance of Christ. Pre-millennial views appear
in the works of many eminent Anglicans—such
as Archbishop Trench, Bishops Ellicott and Ryle,
Canons Fremantle and oare, Dean Alford,
Amongst Presbyterians Dr John Cumming and Dr
Horatius Bonar are conspicuous names, Great
conferences of pre-millennialists were held in
London and New York in 1878.
the Pre-millennial Essays of the Prophetic Conference
(Chicago, 1879); and, against Millenarianism, David
Brown, Christ's Second Cominy (1846).
Millepede, a popular name for the members of
one of the orders of Myriapods, of which Julus is a
good type. See CENTIPEDE, MyRiopopa.
Millepore,. See Corat.
Miller, Hucn, a Ghtingeished self-taught geo-
logist and journalist, was born at Cromarty, in the
north of Scotland, October 10, 1802. He was
descended from a family of sailors, and lost his
own father by a storm at sea when he was only
five years o} In consequence of this mis-
fortune he was brought up chiefly under the eare
of two of his mother's uncles, one of whom (" Uncle
Sandy ') imbued him with a taste for natural history,
and the other (* Uncle James’) for traditional lore.
He acquired a good knowledge of English (the
only language he knew) at the Dronerty mar-
school. Before his eleventh year he had read the
usnal romances of childhood, besides other works
of higher literary pretensions. As he grew older
he became extremely fond of the great English
poets and prose-writers. From his seventeenth to
his thirty-fourth year he worked as a common
stone-mason, devoting the enforced leisure of the
winter months to writing and reading, to inde-
pendent researches in natural history, and to the
extension of his literary knowled: In 1824-25
he worked at Niddrie, near Edinburgh. In 1829
he gained the friendship of Robert Carruthers, editor
of the Inverness Courter, and published a volume
entitled Poems written in the Lei: Hours of a
Journeyman Mason (1829), which was followed
by Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland
(1835). His attention was soon drawn to the
ecclesiastical controversies which were agitating
Scotland, and his famous Letter to Lord Brougham
on the ‘Auchterarder Case,’ brought him i-
nently into notice. In 1834-39 he acted as bank-
accountant; in 1839 he was invited to Edinburgh
by Dr Candlish and Robert Paul, who had read
his famous letter, as editor of the Witness, a news-
paper started in the interest of the Non-intru-
sion party in the Church of Scotland ; and in 1840
he published in its columns a series of geological
articles, which were afterwards collected under the
title of The Old Red Sandstone, or New Walks in an
Old Field (1841). These articles were very remark-
able, from both a scientific and a literary pole
of view. They contained a minute account of the
author’s agra ing of fossils in a formation believed,
until then, to be destitute of them, and were written
in a style which was a harmonious combination of
wg kn beauty, and polish. At the ing of
the British Association in the same year (1 »
he was warmly praised by Murchison, Agassiz, an
Buckland. Agassiz pro’ that one of the fossils
should be named Pterichthys Milleri, and said that
‘he would give his left hand to such powers
of description as this man.’ Miller’s editorial labours
during the heat of the Disruption struggle were
immense, and educated the people for the climax
in 1943. He used the term ‘Free Church’ before
the Disruption. In 1847 he had to vindicate his
position as editor in a private pamphlet against
clerical interference, and may be said to have come
off triumphant. But, after years of hard, earnest,
fagging toil, his brain gave way, and, in a moment
of aberration, he shot himself at Portobello, near
bree on the night of the 23d December
1856. iller contributed several tales to the
series known as Wilson’s Zales of the Borders
(1835), and was also a contributor to Chambers’s
Journal. He was not a ready writer; Chalmers
said of him that when he di & off he was a
reat gun, bnt he required a deal of time to load,
Yet he contributed at least a thousand articles to
the Witness; Peter Bayne terms them ‘complete
journalistic essays, symmetrical in plan, finished
in execution, and of sustained and splendid ability.’
Miller’s works, besides those already mentioned,
are First Impressions of England and its’ People
1847), the record of a journey to England in 1845;
ootprints the Creator, or the Asterolepis
of Stromness, in which he combated the evolu-
tion theory (1850) ; 5 freee and Schoolmasters,
or the Story VA my uoation (1854); and Testi-
mony of the Rocks (1857), an attempt to reconcile
the cosmogony of Genesis with the geol of
nature, by the hypothesis that the days mentioned
in the first chapter of Genesis do not represent the
actual duration of the successive periods of creation,
but only the time occupied by in unrolling a
panoramic vision of these periods before the eyes
of Moses, To the above list was afterwards added
the following posthumous volumes ; Cruise of the
Bet. (1858), bei logical investigations
stots A the islands o Scotland ; Sketch ‘Book: of
Popular Geology, with preface by Mrs Miller
1859); Headship of ist, ‘wi reface by
yne (1861); Essays, Historical and Biog
|
|
MILLER
MILLET 201
(1862); Tales and Sketches (1863); Edinburgh and
ats Neighbourhood (1863); Leading Articles, with
by Rey. John Davidson (1870).
Miller's services to science have undoubtedly
been great, but he is even more distinguished as
@ man than as a savant. Honest, high-minded,
earnest, and hugely industrious, he was a true Scot,
a hearty but not a sour Presbyterian (for he loved
Burns as much as lie revered Knox); and there are
few of whom Scotland has better reason to be proud
than ‘the stone-mason of Cromarty.’ Miller was
married to Lydia Mackenzie Fraser in 1837. She
assisted him in literary work, and ed good
taste and ability. She wrote on Cuts and Dogs
—_— , and her eldest daughter, Harriet Miller
vidson, —avee several — tales. Besides his
autobiography, see the Life by Peter Bayne (2 vols.
1871), ana sees one by W. K. Leask (1896).
Miller, Joaqury, the pen-name of Cincinnatus
Hiner Miller, an American poet, born in Indiana,
in 1841. Removing with his parents to Oregon in
1854, he became a miner in California, was with
Walker in Nicaragua, and afterwards lived with
the Indians till 1860. He then studied law in
Oregon, and set up in practice in 1863, after a
Democratic paper that he edited had been sup-
for dis ge He was a county jud
1866 to 1870, and then visited pact nd in
England his first volume of verse was published.
He afterwards settled as a journalist in Washing-
ton, and in 1887 in California. In 1890 he revisited
England.
His poems include Songs of the Sierras (1871), of the
Sunlands (1873), of the Desert (1875), of Italy (1878),
and of the Mexicun Seas (1887); his prose works, The
Danites in the Sierras (1881). Shadows of Shasta (1881),
and 49, or the Gold-seekers of the Sierras (1884). He also
wrote The Danites, a successful play, and My Life amony
the Modoes (1873).
Miller, Jor. See Jest-sooxs.
Miller, Witu1Am. See ADVENTISTS.
Miller, Wii11am Hatows (1801-80), professor
of Mineralogy at Cambridge, is especially dis-
tinguished for his system of Crystallography (q.v.).
Miller’s Thumb. See BuLiuean.
Millet, a grain, of which there are several kinds,
the produce of species of Panicum, Setaria, and
allied genera. The genus Panicum contains many
species, natives of oer and warm temperate
countries, and some of which, as Guinea Grass
-v.), are amongst the largest fodder grasses.
ie flowers are in spikes, racemes, or panicles;
the glumes very unequal, one of them often very
minute ; each spikelet containing two florets, one of
which is often barren. The genus Setaria has a
spe ube panicle, with two or more bristles under
glumes of each spikelet—Common Millet ( Pani-
cum miliaceum) is an annual grass, three or four
feet high, remarkably covered with long hairs, which
stand out at right angles. It has a much-branched
nodding panicle ; the spikelets are oval, and contain
only one seed. It is a native of the East Indies, but
is extensively cultivated in the warmer parts of
Europe and other quarters of the world. The grain,
which is very nutritious, is only about one-eighth
of an inch in length. It is used in the form of
groats, or in flour mixed with wheat-flour, which
makes a good kind of bread; but bread made of
millet alone is brittle and full of cracks, Poultry
are extremely fond of millet.—Other species, P.
miliare, P. mentaceum, and P. pilosum, are
enltivated in different parte of India, chiefly on
light and rather dry soils, yielding very abundant
ero) Millet of various species is the staple food-
n of India as a whole, and not rice, as is often
t.—German Millet, or Mohar (Setaria ger-
manica), and Italian Millet (S. italica)—regarded
by ar as varieties of one species, and probably
originally from the East, although now naturalised
in the south of Europe—are cultivated in many of
the warmer parts of Europe, in India, and other
countries, Italian millet is three or four feet in
— ; German
millet is much
a and its
spike com -
neh 2 ne
compact, and
erect; it is less
valuable as a
corn-plant, The
grains of both
are very small,
only about half
as long as that
of Common Mil-
let; but they
are extremely
prolific, one root
producing many
stalks, and one
spike of Italian
millet - often
yielding two
ounces of grain.
The produce is
estimated as
five times that @, Common Millet (Panicum milia-
of wheat. The ceum); 6, German Millet (Setaria
grain of these germanica).
millets is im-
ported into Britain for feeding cage-birds. It is
used for soup in the south of Europe. To the
same tribe o belong the genera Paspalum,
Pennisetum, Ponicillaria, igitaria, and Milium
pea ey: exile is common in Africa; and P,
zculatum is cultivated on poor soils in India.
Penicillaria spicata or Pennisetum typhoideum,
often called Egyptian Millet and Guinea Corn, is
cultivated in Africa and India, and the south of
Europe.—Pennisetum distichum causes much incon-
venience to the traveller in Central Africa, the
little bristles which are attached to its seeds
making them stick to the clothes and pierce the
skin.—Digitaria sanguinalis, or Polish Millet, is
cultivated in Poland, where the grain is used
like rice. It is a common grass in tropical
and warm countries, and in many parts of
Europe; in Britain it occurs in the south of
England, where it is probably only an_ intro-
duced weed of cultivation. The spikes in this
genus are compound, and from their appearance
ive it the names Digitaria and Finger-grass.—
he Millet Grass (Milium effusum) of Britain,
oceasionally found in shady woods, is a very
beautiful grass, three or four feet high, with a
spreading pale panicle of small flowers. Another
species of the same genus (JM. nigricans) is the
‘aize de Guinea of Peru, where its Ss are con-
verted into a very white flour.—The name Indian
Millet is sometimes given to Durra (q.v.).
Millet, Jean Francois, painter, was born in °
the village of Gruchy, near Gréville, on the 4th of
October 1814, The son of a farmer, he owed much
in his childhood to his grandmother, a woman of
great piety and individuality, and to her brother,
who had been a priest ; and he was taught enough
Latin to enjoy the Vulgate and Virgil. For a time
he aided his father as a farm-labourer ; but, having
manifested great taste for drawing, he was at
length, in 1832, placed under Monchel, a painter in
Cherbourg, whom he assisted in the execution of
two sacred subjects now in the church of the
Trinity there, and who induced the municipality
202 MILLIARD
MILNE-EDWARDS
of Cherbourg to t an annuity to aid his pupil
in his studies, the sum being afterwards supple-
mented by the council of La Manche. In_ 1837
Millet came to Paris, and worked in the studio of
Paul Delaroche, learning, however, more from his
study of the works of ) ichelangelo, Poussin, Cor-
reggio, and the Venetians. Next he painted and
drew in pastels little subjects in the popular style of
Boucher and Watteau, selling them to the dealers
for a few francs; and in 1840 a portrait which he
sent to the salon was accep and hung. In
the same year he returned to Normandy, where
he painted portraits and even signboards. In
1841 he was again in Paris; and he struggled
hard amid the revolutionary troubles that fol-
lowed to maintain himself and his family by his
art. In 1848 he fought at the barricades of the
Quartier Roche-chouart; and in the following
year he settled in Barbizon, near the Forest
of Fontainebleau, along with Charles Jacque,
and there made the acquaintance of Theodore
Rousseau. At Barbizon, where he remained for
the rest of his days, living much like the peasants
around him, he began in good earnest to paint the
life of rustic France, entering on his task with a
sympathetic power such as no other painter has
chown. Here the famous ‘ Sower’ was: completed
in 1850, mainly, however, from recollections of
Normandy. In 1855 his ‘ Peasants Grafting’ won
Gautier’s praise, and was bought by an American
for 4000 franes. It was followed by ‘ The Gleaners’
in 1857, ‘ The Angelus’ (1859), ‘ Waiting’ and ‘The
Sheep-shearers’ (1861), ‘The Man with the Hoe’
and ‘Women Carding’ (1863), ‘Shepherdess and
Flock’ (1864), works in which, without any depar-
ture from the most absolute truth, he im a
lar; and a, pathetic dignity to his res of
the men and women who labour in the fields, and
to their environments of ordinary nature. In
addition to paintings, he produced many charcoal
drawings of a very high quality, and he etched a
few plates. All his life long he struggled against
the pressure of poverty, though he was awarded
medals at the salons of 1853 and 1864, and a first-
class medal at the Paris International Exhibition
of 1867, when he also received the ribbon of the
Legion of Honour. He died at Barbizon, 20th
January 1875. Since his death he has been fully
recognised as one of the greatest of French ters ;
and the productions of his brush have realised very
large prices. At the Sécrétan sale in Paris, in
1889, his most, celebrated picture, ‘The Angelus,’
sold—along with the government commission of
5 per cent.—for £23,226; it was afterwards ex-
hibited for a year in the United States.
See works on Millet by Piedagnel (1876), Sensier
(Eng. trans. 1881), Yriarte (1884), Ménard (1890), s
Milés (1895); D. C. Thomson, The Barbizon School (1890);
and his Life and Letters by Julia Cartwright (1896).
Milli the French collective name for a
thousand millions ; familiar in connection with the
five milliards of france (5000 millions of franes, or
£200,000,000) paid by France as war indemnity to
Germany in 1871-73 (see France, Vol. LV. p. 783).
2 Millom, a town of Cumberland, on the west
side of the Duddon estuary, 30 miles SSE. of
Whitehaven. It has mines and ironworks. Pop.
(1851) 1070; (1881) 6228 ; (1891) 8895,
Millport, See Cumprag.
Millstone Grit. See CAarponirerous Sys-
TEM, and MILL.
Milman, Henry Hart, dean of St Paul's,
poet and ecclesiastical historian, was the youngest
son of Sir Francis Milman (1746-1821), physician
to George IIL, and was born in codee 10th
February 1791. He was educated at Greenwich
under Burney, at Eton, and at Brasenose
College, Oxford, where in 1812 he won the Newdi-
te with his Belvidere A ¥ best of all
wy ag ms, In — he — elected rhe
fellow ; in was ordained priest, and appoin'
vicar of St Mary's, Readin 4 from 1821 to 1831
was professor of Poetry at Oxford, where in 1827
he delivered the Bampton Lectures, on The Char-
acter and Conduct of the Apostles considered as an
Evidence of Christianity ; in 1835 became rector of
St Mary's, Westminster, and a canon of West-
minster ; and in 1849 was promoted to the deanery
of St Paul's. He died at Sunninghill, near Ascot,
24th September 1868, and was buried in St Paul's.
The collected edition of Dr Milman’s Poems and
Dramatic Works (3 vols. 1839) comprises Fazio, a
ragedy (1815), which, without his consent, was
acted first at Bath, and then in 1818 at Covent Gar-
den, with Charles Kemble and Miss O’Neil in the
leading parts; Samor, Lord of the Bright City, an
heroic poem (1818); The Fail of Jerusalem (1820
a beautiful dramatic poem, with some fine
lyrics interspersed ; three other dramas, The Martyr
4 Antioch (1822), Belshazzar (1822), and Anne
yn (1826); and Nala and ge | with
other Poems translated from the Sa it (1834
Forgotten as a whole, the poems live, and w
live, through three or four much p hymns—
“When our heads are bowed with woe,’ ‘ Brother,
thou art gone before us,’ and ‘ Ride on, ride on in
Majesty.’ The complete edition of Dean Milman’s
Historical Works (15 vols. 1866-67) includes his
History of the Jews (1829), History of Christianity
to the Abolition of Paganism in the n Empire
1840), and History of Latin Christianity to the
ontificate of Nicholas V. (1854-56). The last—‘a
complete epic and philosophy of medicval Christen-
dom ’—is Milman’s masterpiece ; it is really a great
work, great in all the essentials of history—sub-
ject, style, and research. But, though vastly in-
erior, the History of the Jews was in a way more
important. For ‘it was,’ in Dean Stanley’s words,
‘the first decisive inroad of German theology into
England; the first = ble indication that the
Bible ‘‘could be studied like another book ;” that
the characters and events of the sacred his
could be treated at once critically and reverently.’
Milman also edited Gibbon and Horace, and wrote
much for the casey, Review. After his death
epneered the delightful Annals of St Paul’s Cathe-
ral (1868), and Savonarola, Erasmus, and other
Essays (1870), See an article by Dean Stanley in
Maemillan’s Magazine for January 1869.
Milne-Edwards, Henn, naturalist, was born
at Bruges, 23d October 1800. His father was an
Englishman, Milne-Edwards studied medicine at
Paris, where he took his degree of M.D. in 1823,
but devoted himself to natural mt After
having for many years taught natural history at
the Collége de Henri IV., he was elected in 1838
meniber of the Académie des Sciences in the place
of Cuvier. In 1841 he filled the chair of Ento-
mology at the Jardin des Plantes, and in 1844
became also professor of Zoology and Physiology.
He was a member of the Académie de Médecine
and of most of the learned academies of Europe and
America, and held several orders—amongst others,
since 1861, that of Commander of the ion of
Honour. He published numerous original memoirs
of importance in the Annales des Sciences Natur-
elles, a journal he himself assisted in editing for
fifty years. His Eléments de Zoologie (1834), when
reissued in 1851 as Cours Elémentaire de Zoo-
logie, ad an enormous circulation at home and
abroad, and long formed the basis of most minor
manuals of zoology published in Europe. His
Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés (1834-40) and
Histoire Naturelle des Coralliaires ate were
almost equally noteworthy. The ures on
ees ii ti ei
MILNER
MILTON 203
Pi 'y and Comparative Anatomy of Man and
the Animals (14 vols. 1857-81) have a great per-
manent value for their immense mass of details,
and copious references to scattered sources of
information. He also had an important share in
a splendid quarto of Anatomical and Zoological
Researches on the Coasts of Sicily. Other works
were researches on the natural history of the
French coasts (1832-45) and on the natural history
of the mammalia (1871). In some of his later
works he was assisted by his distinguished son
Alphonse. Milne-Edwards must always hold high
rank amongst the naturalists of the 19th century.
is researches in the distribution of the lower
invertebrates led him to the theory of centres of
creation ; and to this he adhered throughout life,
in spite of the acceptance of the newer
and Jom! ge views of Darwin by his fellow-scientists.
He died on the 29th July 1885. His elder brother,
Frederick William, was almost equally celebrated.
He founded the Ethnological Society in Paris, and
is considered the father of ethnology in France.
Milner, Josern, an ecclesiastical historian, was
born near Leeds in 1744. He studied at Catharine
Hall, Soe ahim 5 and afterwards became well
known as head-master of Hull grammar-school.
He was vicar of North Ferriby, 7 miles from
Hull, and lecturer in the principal church of the
town, and in 1797 became vicar of Holy Trinity
ee meet a i ahaa of the we
year. ilner’s work is his History of t
Church of Christ, at which he lived to complete
three volumes, reaching to the 13th century; a
fourth volume coming down to the 16th century,
was edited from his MSS. by his younger brother,
Dr Isaac Milner, dean of Carlisle, who also_pub-
lished a complete edition of his brother’s works in
8 vols. 1810. The principles on which the history
is written are of the narrowest kind; the scholar-
ship, literary style, and critical insight are alike
poor.
Milnes, Richarp Monckton. See Hovcuron.
Milngavie (pron. Mil/quy), a town of Stirling-
shire, 7 miles NNW. of Ghawow. Pop. 2636. :
Milo. See MELos.
Milo, of Crotona, in Magna Grecia, an athlete
famous for his great strength. He was six times
victor for wrestling at the Olympic games, and as
often at the RD gr my and commanded the army
which defea the Sybarites in 511. On one
oceasion he is said tp have carried a live ox upon
his shoulders through the stadium of Olympia, and
yards to have eaten the whole of it in one
day ; and on another, to have upheld the poe of
a house in which Pythagoras and his scholars were
assembled, so as to give them time to make their
sore when the house was falling. In old age he
lost his life through too great confidence in his own
strength, in attempting to split up a tree, which
el upon his hands, and held him fast until he
was devoured by wolves.
Milrei, or Mitrea, a Portuguese silver coin
and money of account, contains 1000 rees, and is
valued at 4s, 5d. sterling. The coin is commonly
wn in Portugal as the corda, or ‘crown,’ and
is (since 24th April 1835) the unit of the money-
system in that country. It is also used in Brazil.
of the values of a half-corda, or half-milrei,
as well as the one-fifth, one-tenth, and one-twen-
» are current in both countries as money of
account.
Milt. See Fisues, Vol. IV. p. 654.
Miltiades, a celebrated Athenian general, who
was tyrant of a colony in the Thracian Chersonesns,
took part with Darius Hystaspes against the
Seythians, and, when Attica was threatened by
the great Persian invasion, was chosen one of the
ten generals. He prevailed upon the polemarch
Callimachus to give his casting vote in favour of
risking a battle, and when his turn came to com-
mand drew up his army on the famous field of
Marathon. The victory of the Athenians and one
thousand Plateans over the Persian host of Datis
and Artaphernes is justly counted one of the
decisive battles of the world. Miltiaces, being
entrusted anew with the command of an arma-
ment, made an attack on the island of Paros in
order to gratify a private enmity, but, failing in
the attempt, was on his return to Athens con-
demned to pay a fine of fifty talents as an indem-
nity for the expenses of the expedition. Being
unable to do this, he was thrown into prison, where
he died of a wound received at Paros. The fine
was exacted after his death from his son Cimon.
Milton, Jonny, after ny ask the greatest
English poet, was born in Bread Street, Cheapside,
on December 9, 1608. His father, John Milton,
was a prosperous scrivener, a Puritan but a
musician, and composer of several pieces much
admired by his contemporaries. He was descended
from a family of yeomen settled in Oxfordshire,
and had come to town npon being disinherited
for his religious convictions by his father, a
Catholic recusant. He appears to have from the
first discerned the promise of his son, and to have
determined to give him the best education he
could. After sted under private tutors, young
Milton was admitted about 1620 into St Paul's
School, where he distinguished himself not only as
a scholar, but as a poet. In February 1625 he
entered Christ’s College, Cambridge. His academi-
cal course was not wholly smooth; he seems to
have been chastised—not, as the legend says
flogged—by his tutor, and was certainly rusticated
for a short time in 1626. After his return, how-
ever, he went through the university course with
credit, graduating as Bachelor at the proper time,
and proceeding Master of Arts in July 1632. The
condition of the church, over which Laud then ruled
supreme, deterred the young Puritan from taking
orders ; he felt no vocation towards any other pro-
fession; and at Horton, in Buckinghamshire, where
his father had retired upon the fortune he had
acquired in business, he settled rod down with
the distinct purpose of making himself a poet by
study and self-discipline. His poetical genius had
already been attested by two noble productions,
the ‘Hymn on the Nativity,’ and ‘At a Solemn
Music,’ as well as much Latin verse of the highest
quality ; but it is remarkable how little stimulus
he seems to have felt to occasional composition.
During his six years’ residence at Horton he pro-
duced, so far as known, only two English poems
of importance which can aseri to direct
tical impulse from within, the Ad/e and the
enseroso. Comus was written at the instance
of his friend, the musician Henry Lawes, to cele-
brate Lord Bridgewater’s assumption of the
wardenship of the Welsh marches, and was per-
formed at Ludlow before a select assemblage in
September 1634. Lycidas was evoked by the
death of his friend, ward King, shipwrecked
on his passage to Ireland in 1637. There is, per-
haps, not another instance in literature of a great
t so entirely dependent upon circumstances for
inspiration, and, while meditating the highest
things, so content to bide his time in calm reliance
upon his ability to do what he pleased when he
i a The four productions of this Horton
period were indeed of theniselves sufficient to
place him in the first rank of English poets. Their
most individual characteristic is perhaps chastened
exuberance—boundless poetical wealth severely
controlled, and splendidly displayed without lavish-
204
MILTON
ness or ostentation. Comus and Lycidas tell us
much of the man ; in the former we see the scholar’s
disdain, perhaps slightly tinged with moroseness,
for all save intellectual pleasures; in the latter
the pencees and the Puritan speaks his bitter scorn
of the ruling faction in the church. Perhaps he
had spoken too freely ; at all events very shortly
after the publication of his elegy, about the begin-
ning of 1638, as of an obituary collection in
memory of Edward King, he left England for a
tour in Italy.
Milton’s visit to Italy is one of the most
agreeable chapters of his life. He was cordially
received by the Italian literati, 5 oncom 5 at
Florence, where he made not only pleasant ac-
naintanceships, but permanent friendships. At
me, notwithstanding his undaunted profession
of Protestantism, he was treated with especial
attention, and at Naples the venerable Marquis
Manso, half a century earlier the protector of Tasso,
gave him hospitality and presents, which Milton
requited with an elegant Latin poem. The impres-
sion which Milton tone produced upon foreigners is
a proof of something imposing and attractive in
his personality, for all his solid claims to fame were
of course a sealed book to the Italians, His
journey home was hastened by news of the out-
reak of hostilities between Charles I. and the Scots,
and his return was saddened by tidings of the
death of his friend Diodati, whom he celebrated in
his elegy ‘Damon,’ the finest and the last of his
Latin poems. He settled in St Bride’s Churehyard,
afterwards in Aldersgate Street, and devoted him-
self to the education of his widowed sister’s children,
the two young Phillipses. Unconscious of the long
farewell he was about to bid to poetry, he oceu-
pied his leisure with schemes for ms mostly
dramatic and scriptural, of which numerous
skeleton outlines are preserved. The conception
of Puradise Lost as a mystery or miracle pla
gradually dawned upon his mind, and Satan’s
address to the Sun was actually written about this
time. But the Civil War came, and for lon
silenced Milton’s muse, except for an occasio
sonnet,
It has been mueh debated whether the world
has lost or pra more by Milton's absorption in
eg mr The question is somewhat idle: to wish
‘or Milton other than he was is to wish for a
succession of Comuses rather than a Paradise Lost.
No man capable of conceiving such a work as
Milton’s epic could be unaffected by the situation
of his country at that tremendous crisis, and with
Milton’s poetical temperament lively interest in any-
thing signified total occupation by it for the time.
The tracts which he now poured forth are as truly
lyrical inspirations as any of his poems; by no
means masterpieces of reasoning, but dithyrambic
eestasies of love or hate. Three appeared in 1641,
two in 1642. All five relate to church government :
never was diction so magnificent called forth by a
theme so unpromising. In fact, however, the
writer’s thoughts are much higher and deeper than
his subject, and, stripped of what is temporar:
and accidental in the latter, they appear magni-
ficent idealisations of the possibilities of a far-off
future, which to Milton seemed ever at the door.
The great drawback to their enjoyment at the
present day is the scurrility of their invective,
which passed comparatively unperceived anid the
excitement of revolution.
In 1643 Milton's activity as a public writer was
diverted into a new channel by private affairs,
which, however, he so handled as to render of
universal concern. In June of this year, after a
very short goarsehip, he married a young lady,
pec! Powell, danghter of an Oxfordshire squire,
previously known to him as a debtor to his father
for money advanced on m The bride's
family were cavaliers, and she would seem to have
been as little suited to her husband in every other
respect as by her education and connections,
The idealising imagination of the must in all
probability have been at work, the thoughtless
presipliency of ee whole transaction would a
show how tly in many respects the
estimate of Milton's ceseiine needs sovielents Phe
poor girl was naturally shocked at the sudden
transfer from a jovial country household to the
apartments of an austere scholar, whose intellect
and character she was utterly unable to appreciate,
and whose principles ran counter to all an prejn-
dices, After a few weeks’ trial of matrimony she
went back to her friends, under a pro Milton's
nephew says, to return at Michaelmas; but doubt-
is cast upon this statement by the fact, discovered
ly Professor Masson, that Milton’s first tract on
divorce was written and printed at the very time of
the separation, She certainly did not return, and
early in the following year Milton put forth another
edition of his Doctrine and Discipline of Di
greatly extended, and enriched with erudition
argument. It brought many attacks upon him,
mainly from the Presbyterians, from whose views
on church and state he had been more and more
dissociating himself. He replied to his opponents
in three supplementary pamplilets, and a threat of
prosecution by a parliamentary committee, which
came to nothing, occasioned the production (Novem-
ye’ 1644) of t! eo Pagrag tens 53 3
reopagitica, a Spe or the li 7) i
Printing, which has come to be teparial as almost
the gospel of freedom of speech, and, if less elo-
quent than his tracts on church gevernmen
nevertheless contains the best known
his prose-writings. It must be remembered that
even here Milton does not contend against the
prosecution of published ari deemed _perni-
cious, but merely against the right to forbid publi-
cation through the instrumentality of a licenser.
A few months previously he had com and
ublished, at the instance of his friend Samuel
artlib, a Tractate of Education, of little practical
agogic value, but full of inspiration and
sugyvestion.
ilton was not the man to permit his opinions to
remain enipty speculations, and in the course of
1645 he was taking serious steps towards carrying
the most obnoxious of them into — by paying
his addresses to ‘a very handsome and witt;
gentlewoman,’ when the absent wife thought
time to return. Her repentance may probably have
been further stimulated by the overthrow of the
_ cause, which had occasioned the total rhin
of her family. Conscious, probably, of his own
failings in temper and considerateness, Milton did
not prove obdurate; and by September his house-
hold was re-established in the Barbican. She
further induced him to receive her mother and
other members of her impoverished family, persons
whom he had little reason to love, and of whose
incompatibility he complains in a letter to an
Italian friend. Little else can be said of her,
except that she brought him three daughters, and
died in 1652. He lost the father to whom he owed
so much in 1647, a year after the fruits of his
education and the partial accomplishment of the
purpose of his life had been manifested in a collected
edition of his poetical works, English and Latin,
During all this time Milton’s calling, apart from
his studies and polemics, had been educational ;
other epee mostly sons of friends, had been
gradua ly added to his nephews, and he seemed to
the world a schoolmaster. He was now to enter
ublic life. The execution of Charles L., January
50, 1649, was followed within a fortnight by his
al
Pro P
MILTON
205
defence of the deed, The Tenure of Kings and
Magistrates. Having thus definitively cast in his
lot with the ruling paity, he was appointed on
Marelh 15 to a post which no other man in England
was so competent to fill, that of ‘Secretary of
Foreign Tongues,’ whose duty it was to draft
diplomatic correspondence with foreign powers,
then carried on in Latin. Milton had few equals
in that age as a Latinist, whether in prose or verse,
and his public letters were an honour to himself and
his country, but there is no reason to suppose that
he was ever much more than the mouthpiece of the
vernment. His services were more conspicuous
in another department, his justification of the
king’s execution in his reply to Salmasius’s Regii
uinis Clamor ad um, a pamphlet whose
ion had been a European event. Milton’s
ulo Anglicano Defensio (1651) was pro-
nou , even by those who condemned it, a great
controversial victory. In erudition, Latinity,
and, it must be added, seurrility, the combatants
were well matched, but Milton spoke from the
heart, and Salmasius from a brief. This work,
now so little read, made Milton famous all over
, and is memorable as the immediate
occasion of the loss of his eyesight, deliberately
ielded up by him in the canse of his country. By
652 the impaired vision had wholly failed, and it
was necessary to provide him with an assistant in
his official duties. His domestic life at this period
was tranqnil, distinguished chiefly by his second
marriage and the loss of his wife (1656-58), and the
pleasing intimacy of fous friends, reeorded in his
sonnets. The magnificent sonnet on the massacre
of the Vandois was written in 1655. Several contro-
versial pamphlets with Alexander Morus followed
his contest with Salmasius, chiefly remarkable for
the fortitude and dignity of his references to his
affliction, and for his flattering portraits of the great
men of the Commonwealth, especially Cromwell.
Always leaning to the more raical side, he had
supported Cromwell in all his extra-legal measures,
th the disappointment of his early republican
ideal must have cost him many pangs. He re-
tained his secretaryship until the abdication of
Richard Cromwell, when the condition of public
affairs again made hima phleteer. His writings
of this period, greatly inferior in splendour of diction
to his a productions of the kind, are = mer
interes’ as passionate protests, conclusive o
his entire lack of tical statesmanship and his
essentially poetical temperament. The Restoration
drove him into concealment. Few more
bitterly exasperated the Royalist party; but the
new government was not bloodthirsty, and about
the inning of 1661 he found himself settled in
Jewin Street (afterwards in Artillery Walk, Bunhill
Fields), honourably released from politics with the
ying consciousness of having done his duty
and his best, and free to devote himself entirely to
the permanent purpose of his life.
Paradise Lost was probably commenced some
time before the Restoration, and completed about
1663—a striking instance of rapid composition, con-
sidering the magnitude and perfection of the work,
the interru by political revolution, and the
fact that Milton’s poetical vein only flowed freel
between the autumnal equinox and the vernal. It
was chiefly composed at night, and necessarily
dietated to some amannensis, usually one of his
ters. e and fire for a time warred
nst the publication, which at length, after
some difficulty on the licenser’s part had been
surmounted, took place in August 1667. Every one
knows that the copyright was sold for five pounds :
it is not always remembered that that sum repre-
sented three times its value at the promos day. and
that there were contingencies which, had Milton
lived to benefit by them, would have raised his
emolument to about £70 of our money. The sale
of thirteen hundred copies within twenty months is
certainly no discredit to the taste of the age.
Milton’s claim to a place among the great poets of
his country seems to have been admitted from the
first, though in the absence of reviews his fame
travelled slowly. The year 1671 witnessed the pub-
lication of Paradise Regained, probably written in
1665-66, and of Samson Agonistes, written later still.
The former was com at the suggestion of the
Quaker Ellwood, working on the suspicion Milton
could not but entertain that he had after all made
Satan the hero of Paradise Lost. Samson
Agonistes, dramatic in form, is lyrical in substance,
a are lament over the author’s forlorn old age,
and the apostasy, as he deemed it, of his nation.
Both pieces evince the continued tendency of his
style towards simplicity, which sometimes de-
generates into baldness, They are noble pendants
to Paradise Lost, but the more their relation to
this mary work is studied the more one feels
that it and it alone places him among the supreme
poets of the world.
Milton’s domestic life during this period had not
been fortunate. The great cause of sorrow was the
undutifulness of his danghters—very ordinary
young women, it would seem, who felt no sympathy
or admiration to counterbalance their natural
impatience of their heavy task as his readers and
amanuenses. The blind poet on his part was no
doubt often stern and exacting; and on the whole
the history of his household is one of sordid sadness
up to his marriage (1663) with Elizabeth Minshull,
a pretty and domestic woman of twenty-five, the
daughter of a Cheshire yeoman. She restored
comfort to his house, but failed to conciliate his
daughters, who, after being taught embroidery at
their father's expense, left to set up for themselves.
The accounts we have of him in his later years
convey a generally ger picture of a not un-
cheerful retirement solaced hy music and the atten-
tion of friends. When the tie impulse had
departed he addressed himself vigorously to other
unfulfilled bmp. br of his youth, writing the early
history of England and endeavouring to amend
men’s conceptions of grammar and logic. These
writings are indeed of little value; but his Latin
Treatise of Christian Doctrines, though devoid of
all pretensions to eloquence, is a memorable work.
His theology had become profoundly modified in
the course of his life; he is now an Arian as
pe yee the person of Christ ; he is indifferent to
all rites and ceremonies ; he is as anti-Sabbatarian
as Luther ; he would even tolerate polygamy. The
charm of the treatise consists in its dignified
candour, and the absence of all polemic viru-
lence. The tranquillity of evening was indeed
closing around him as he penned this last legacy,
the . of which, confiscated and mislaid, was not
to see the light for a hundred and fifty years.
Reduced still further in means by losses through
the great fire of 1666, but still above want; exe-
crated as a regicide by the re pig of his country-
men, but already acclaimed by the discerning as the
first poet of his age; worn by attacks of gout, but
cheerful and even joyous in the intervals of pain,
he closed his chequered life on November 8, 1674.
He was interred in St Giles’s, Cripplegate.
Milton is one of the poets respecting whose place
in literature there has been least question, whether
as regards the literature of their own country or
that of the world. He stands at the head of those
epic whose themes have not, like Homer's or
irgil’s, been national, or have not, like Dante’s,
condensed the essence of the belief of ages. He is
indebted for this superiority partly to his felicitous
choice of the finest subject which yet remained for
206 MILLVILLE
epical treatment, ae to his exceptional qualifi-
cations for treating it, but most of all to the actual
superiority of his genius, After Homer there is no
t to whom the sublime is so much a native
element, who rises into it with so little apparent
effort, and remains in it for so long ther.
Another cireamstance which would alone make him
a poet for the world is that im him and in him
alone the Hebraic and the Hellenic spirit appear
thoroughly at one. His theme and his c con-
nect him with the Scriptures, but his literary tastes
and models are the tastes and models of the Renais-
sance. As an English poet he fills up the great
gap which would otherwise yawn between the age
of Shakespeare and the age of Dryden, and, like
Wren in architecture, proves that the classical
style need not necessarily be synonymous with
peey or inanity. In the artful harmony of
lank verse he surpasses every English poet, though
he may not have caught the ‘ wood-notes wild’ of
Shakespeare and his contemporaries. His magna-
nimity as a man matched his sublimity as a poet ;
but he had perhaps more than a usual share of the
failings attendant upon the magnanimous character,
and at first sight appears t and unamiable.
It is not until we consider that the circumstances of
his life forced these characteristics into prominence,
and that biographers have too commonly thought
the softer and more familiar traits unworthy of
record; until we remember that the company of
this austere idealist was frequented by the young,
and that the pleasures of the social hour have been
exquisitely sung by him; above all, until we note
his almost entire dependence for composition upon
external impulse, the rashness of some of his actions
and the chivalry of others, that we perceive him to
have is full share of the emotional tem-
perament common to poets.
The principal contemporary authority for Milton’s life
is his nephew, Edward Phillips. Toland has added some
interesting noti S , Mitfurd, Todd, and others
wrought usefully in their day in collecting and investi-
gating culars, but tueir labours have been entirely
superseded by Professor Masson (6 vols. 1876-79), who
has left nothing unexplored, and whose verdict is in most
cases decisive. Johnson's short biography, however, must
always be read for its literary merit, and as a remarkable
inst of insuperable antipathy striving to be just.
Milton’s Life has been written on a small scale by
Mark Pattison (‘Men of Letters,’ 1880) and by Richard
Garnett (‘Great Writers,’ 1889, with full bibliography ),
‘there is an excellent and comprehensive German bio-
graphy by Alfred Stern (2 vols. Leip. 1877-79). Addison,
Johnson, Channing, and Macaulay are especially dis-
tinguished among Milton's critics.
Millville, a city of New Jersey, on the Maurice
River, 41 miles by rail 8. by E. of Philadelphia.
It has manufactures of cottons and glass. Pop.
(1890) 10,002 ; (1900) 10,583.
Miiwaukee, county seat of Milwaukee county,
Wisconsin, and the largest city in the state, is
healthfully situated on the west shore of Lake
Michigan, 85 miles north of Chicago, It stands at
the mouth of the Milwaukee River, which, with its
confluents and a number of channels, furnishes 25
miles of dockage. The eastern division of the city
ocenpies high bluffs along the shore of Milwaukee
Bay, an arm of Lake Michigan having a width of
seven miles, and constituting a capacious harbor of
refuge for the largest lake vessels, Milwaukee's
residence streets are wide and well shaded, and her
residences comprise many palatial homes, The pub-
lic parks, eight in number, have an aggregate area
of over 400 acres. ‘The street railway system em-
braces sixteen electric lines with 158 miles of track,
and ro the city with electric light. It is
connected with an electric line running to Wauke-
sha, twenty miles westward, and another to Keno-
sha, thirty-five miles southward, to be eventually
MIMICRY
extended to Chicago. The water supply is drawn
from Lake Michigan through a tunnel and a series
of pipes extending out two miles into cool and un-
disturbed water. The city is well drained by an
extensive sewe system, and Milwaukee River is
flushed with lake water forced into it two miles from
its mouth, through a tunnel, by a serew-wheel pump
having a capacity of 450,000,000 gallons per day.
The public institutions of Milwaukee include a
National Soldiers’ Home, 20 asylums and eleemosy-
nary establishments, 11 hospitals, 3 convents and a
Capuchin apreace 152 churches, 51 parochial
schools with about 20,000 pe 52 public schools
with an te enrolment of 34,000 pupils, a
public library containing 80,000 volumes, a public
museum, an art gallery, 11 banks, including five
national banks, and life and fire insurance compa-
nies. Eight daily newspapers are published here,
and there are many weeklies printed in various lan-
guages. Milwaukee is essentially a manufactu
city, although the i and lake shipping interests
are quite large. ides the lake lines which pro-
vide connections for the trunk rai there are
eleven lines of passenger and freight steamers run-
ning to various ports on the lakes, and a car
plying across Lake Michigan. Eleven railroad lines
radiate from the city. ilwaukee’s shipments of
— during 1897 egated 19,591,000 bushels.
he coal received during the same year amounted
to 1,492,000 tons. The value of Milwaukee’s manu-
factured products during 1897 was $126,676,112, in-
eluding $30,467,283 in the metal-working industries,
$15,797,250 in brewery products, and $15,419,333 in
xttgimcrens ates | “synch Beer badah dan is
the largest industry, the output in 1897 ‘in
2,271,448 barrels. Population of the city (18905
204,468 ; (1900) 285,315,
MimAansA (from the Sanskrit mén, ‘to investi-
gate ;’ hence, literally, nehenge cel is the collec-
tive name of two of the six divisions of orthodox
Hindu philosophy. It is distinguished as Pirva-
and Uttara-mimédnsdé, the latter being more com-
monly called Vedanta, while the former is briefl
styled Mimdansd. Though the Miménsé is ranked,
by all native writers, with the five other philoso-
phical systems, the term philosophy can scarcely be
ss to it in the same sense as to them; its
object is merely to lay down a correct gg
tion of such Vedie as refer to the -
manic ritual, to solve doubts wherever they may
exist on matters concerning sacrificial acts, and to
reconcile discrepancies—according to the Mimfnsa,
always apparent only—of Vedic texts. See SANs-
KRIT, VEDAS.
Mimes, the name given by the ancients to
certain dramatic performances, in which, with little
attempt at art, scenes of actual life were a
sented, sometimes in improvised dialogue. The
Greek mimes ap to have been invented by the
Greeks of Sicily and Southern Italy. They were a
favourite amusement of convivial ies, the guests
themselves being generally the performers. Sophron
of Syracuse (about 420 B.C.) com many in the
Dorie dialect, which were much admired, and which
Plato was accustomed to read.—The Roman mimes
were not borrowed from the Greek, but were of
native Italic growth. They were not only far ruder
and coarser, but in some respects they were essenti-
ally different—the dialogue occupying a smaller
lace, and mere gesture and mimicry predominating.
The humour and satire, however, were often genuine,
though rough and even indecent, and they were
fly relished by all classes; even the patrician
ulla was fond of them. Their most famous mimic
poets were Decimus Laberius and Pub. Syrus.
Mimicry. The fact that insects belonging
to very different groups often bear an extremeiy
MIMICRY 207
close superficial resemblance to each other has
been known for a long period of time. The names
given to various species of British motlis are suffi-
cient proofs of this. Such names as Bombyli-
formis, Apiformis, Bembeciformis, &c. imply a
recognition of the resemblance between these
species and others belonging to an entirely differ-
ent order. The meaning of such likenesses was,
however, unknown until the appearance of H.
W. Bates’s classical paper in 1862. In this essay
the author shows that the species which has coperses
from the normal type of its group (the mimicker) is
far rarer than the form which it resembles, while
the latter (the mimicked) is abundant and well
defended by some special protection, such as the
ion of an unpleasant taste or smell or the
paves of stinging. Bates’s observations were con-
ucted in tropical America, where abundant, con-
spicuous, slow-flying, nauseous buttertlies (Heli-
conidee and Danaidse) are closely mimicked by
Pieridz (the family containing our common garden
white butterflies ) and other butterflies, and in many
cases by day-flying moths. Subsequent observation
has confirmed Bates’s suggestion. Wallace found
numerous instances of mimicry a the Lepi-
doptera of India and the Malay Archipelago,
and Trimen directed attention to similar facts
amo South African butterflies. The latter
include the most remarkable instance of mimicry
yet discovered. The male of a South African
swallow-tailed buttertly pene cenea) is typical
in a) and possesses the characteristic ‘tails’
on the hind-wings : the female is utterly unlike the
male in the colouring and form of, the wings, the
‘tails’ being entirely absent. While the female is
so different from the male of its own species it
appears in three well-marked varieties mimicking
three different species of the nauseous genus Danais
brown-spotted D.
—viz. the bl
cheria, the
black and white D. niavius, and the black reddish-
brown and white D. chrysippus (see fig. 2A).
In West Africa a closely related swallow-tail
(P. merope) has a very similar male, and females
mimicking D. or us and the West African form
of D. niavius. tile such remarkable changes
have occurred on the mainland of Africa, the an-
cestral form from which these mimetic species have
been developed has been preserved comparatively
unchanged in the island of Madagascar, as the
ooey related Papilio meriones in which the
female much resembles the male and is non-mimetic.
Similar species with sexes almost alike have been
found in the Comoro Islands (P. humbloti) and in
Abyssinia (P. antinorii). This example strongly
enforces a conclusion also arrived at by Bates and
Wallace—viz. that the females are far more fre-
quently mimetic than the males. Wallace has
explained this because of the especial dangers
incurred by the female during her slow flight when
laden with eggs, and her exposure to aitack during
oviposition.
‘he examples selected for illustration were
lent by Colonel Swinhoe; the figures are about
half the natural size. Fig. 1 represents the male
of the Indian and African Hypolimnas misippus :
it is non-mimetic and very unlike the female,
being distinctly marked with a large iridescent
blue spot on each of the four wings. The
iridescent spots on the right wings appear to
be larger than those on the left, , en they
are seen at a different angle. The male remains
unchanged in the localities where its female alters
in correspondence with the form it mimics.
Fig. 2 is the commonest form of female, which
mimics the above-mentioned Danais chrysippus
(fig. 2A), oceurring nearly all over the Old World.
In Aden and some parts of Africa the latter butter- -
fly is represented by a variety or sub-species with
white hind-wings (Danais alcippus); see fig. 3A.
In the same localities there is a similar variety of
the female Hypolimnas (the aleippoides form),
shown in fig. 3. Finally, in Aden and certain
African localities there is another variety or sub-
— of the Danais (D. dorippus) without the
black and white marks at the tip of the fore-wing,
shown in fig. 44; while the Hypolimnas follows
with a similar form of female, seen in fig. 4. This
latter is also common in the south-west of India,
where it has been stated that the mimicked form
(D. dorippus) does not oecur, Colonel Swinhoe,
however, felt sure that the existence of the
mimicker implied the former presence of the
mimicked —— He tested this hypothesis by
examining large numbers of the Danais, and he
found that the dorippus form does exist in that
part of India, although it is extremely rare: he
came across about a dozen in four or five years,
It is probable that dorippus has been nearly sup-
planted by the dominant form chrysippus, the
resemblance between the two being sufficiently
close for the mimic of the former to be mistaken
for the latter. The case forms a most interesting
exception to Wallace’s third law quoted below.
The butterflies which afford models for mimic
chietly belong to the two families Danaide (includ-
ing Sapln: anais, and Hestia) and Acreide, in
addition to the Heliconide of tropical America.
There is some direct and much indirect evidence to
show that all mimicked species are specially pro-
tected by an unpleasant taste or smell. Wallace
has concisely stated the conditions under which
mimicry occurs, as follows; ‘(1) That the imitative
species occur in the same area and occupy the same
station as the imitated. (2) That the imitators
are always the more defenceless. (3) That the
imitators are always less numerous in individuals.
(4) That the imitators differ from the bulk of their
allies. (5) That the imitation, however minute, is
external and visible only, never extending to internal
characters or to such as do not affect the external
appearance,’
xamples of mimicry are also well known in
other orders of insects. The formidable Hymen-
optera (including the hornets, wasps, bees, and
ants) are frequently resembled by defenceless
insects belonging to other orders, such as moths
(Lepidoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), flies (Diptera),
&e. The most remarkable example yet described
was discovered by W. L. Sclater in tropical America.
The leaf-cutting ants (Cicodoma) are extremely
abundant in this part of the world, and present a
208 MIMICRY
MIMULUS
very characteristic appearance, each homeward-
hound ant carrying a piece of leaf vertically in its
jaws. Sclater found a homopterous insect which
aithfully resembled an ant together with its piece
of leaf. The latter was suggested by the thin com-
pressed n body of the insect, and its profile was
precisely like that of the jae red edge of the frag-
ment of leaf held over the < of the amt.
The mimicking may be separated from the
mimicked species by a still wider interval. Spiders
in many parts of the world are defended by resem-
bling the pegrensive and justly respec ants.
Again, many caterpillars intimidate their foes
by resemblance to snakes. The extraordinary pre-
valence of mimiery among insects is probably to be
explained by their usual defenceless condition, and
by their immense fertility and the rate at which
the generations succeed each other—conditions
which strongly favour the rapid action of natural
selection. Hones it is that other forms of protective
resemblance are also especially characteristic of
insects (see articles BUTTERFLY and CATERPILLAR
in this work). Mimicry is, however, by no means
unknown in other animals. Thus, the gaud
colours of the deadly coral snakes ( Elaps) of tropical j
America are mimicked by harmless snakes; and
the powerful friar-birds are resembled by defence-
less orioles in various Malayan islands, All the
instances cited above illustrate protective mimiery
—a resemblance which serves to defend the imitator
from attack. But there are other although far rarer
examples of aggressive mimicry, in which the resem-
lance favours the attack of the imitator upon the
mimicked species or upon species which accompany
the latter. Thus, the larvie of certain flies ( Volu-
cella) feed upon the larve of humble-bees and
wasps. The parent fly resembles the humble-bee
or wasp, and is thus less likely to arouse suspicion
when engaged in laying its eggs in or near the
nest.
Mimetie appearances are often combined with
other methods of defence; thus, many large cater-
pillars are well concealed by protective resemblance,
and only assume the terrifying snake-like appearance
environment, or to mimic the appearance of some
species (ApaTEtic CoLouRs ).
I, Colours which cause an animal to resemble some part of its
A. Colours which conceal an
animal by causing it to
resemble some
normal surroundings (pro-
tective and aggressive resem-
blance ; Cryptic CoLours).
colours ;
CoLours).
B. False warning and signal-
ling colours deceptively sug-
mrt of its eening cee See
bape - gear sents to
prey ( protective and aggrea-
sive mimicry and alluring
PsEuDOsEMATIC
Il, Warning and signalling | III. Colours dis-
er colours which 3 in court-
something unpleasant to ship (Eprcamic
an enemy, or aid in the CoLours).
escape of other individuals | Ex.—Bright colours
of the same species (Sema- | of male birds,
Tic CoLouRs).
.
1. Concealment as a defence
|. against enemies (protec-
tive resemblance: Pro-
1. Colours which deceptively
suguest something unpleas-
ant or dangerous to an
1. Colours which warn an
enemy off by denoting some-
thing unpleasant or danger-
cryptic CoLours ).
Ex.—Colours by which palatable
insects are concealed (see arts.
Butterfly and Caterpillar ).
enemy (protective mimicry:
PSEUDAPOSEMATIC CoLouRS).
Ex.—Hornet-like moth, snake-
like caterpillar.
ous (warning coluurs:
Aposematic CoLouRs).
Ex.—Gaudy colours of nauseous
or dangerous insects,
2. Concealment enabling an
enemy to catch its prey
(aggressive resemblance ;
* Anricryrtic CoLours).
Ex.—Colours of tiger, lion, &c.
Ex.— Mantis
2. Colours which deceptively
suggest something attractive
to prey, or enable an enemy
to approach without exciting
suspicion (alluring colours
and aggressive mimicry :
pat mag a CoLours).
( Hymenopus),
which attracts the other oak
on which it feeds by resembling
2. Colours which enable indi-
viduals of the same species
uickly to recognise and
‘ollow each other (recog-
nition marks: Episematic
CoLours
).
Ex.—White tail of radbit,
a pink flower, Volucella,
when alarmed. It is of
the relation of mimicry to the other uses of colour
in animals, This relationship is shown in the
above table. The difference between mimicry and
rotective resemblance (with which it is often con-
sed) will be seen when A is compared with B.
The term mimicry has been criticised as seeming
to Pay conscious volition on the part of the imita-
tor. Such a misapprehension is unlikely to arise in
any one who has read the literature of the subject.
Authorities are agreed that the resemblance has
been ually produced by the operation of natural
selection which has ensured the persistence of all
variations tending in the direction of some well-
defended insect avoided by foes,
See H. W. Bates, ‘ Butterflies of the Amazon’ ( Trans.
Linn. Soc., xxiii.); A. R. Wallace, ‘Malayan Butterflies’
om Linn, Soc., xxv.), Essays on Natural Selection,
ical Nature, Darwinism ; K. Trimen, ‘South African
Butterflies’ ( Trans. Linn, Soc., xxvi.); Belt, ‘ Naturalist
in Nicaragua ;’ Poulton, ‘Colours and Markings of Insects’
sn ga Soc., 1887), Colours of Animals (Inter, Se.
es
Mimosew, a sub-order of Leguminose, distin-
guished by regular flowers and petals valvate in
bud. Over 1500 ies are known, all natives of
warm climates, a few only extending beyond snb-
tropical regions in the southern hemisphere. The
t interest to trace
nera Acacia (q.v.) and Mimosa are the best
nown, To the latter
nus belong the
sensitive Plants
(q.v.), also a great
variety of trees
usually of beautiful
foliage (though their
leaves, as in i
may be
phyllodia) and often
also of valuable
timber. The fruits
are often esteemed
but the roots and
s not unfre-
quently possess dras-
tic or even poisonous
properties. They are
also rich in tannin
and gums,
Mim‘ulu & a
genus of plants of the
natural order Scro-
phulariacee, havin
a prismatic 5-tooth
Mimulus maculosus—var,
Arlequin.
yx, a somewhat bell-shaped corolla, of which the
~ which close ther upon irritation.
“ae, waned
MINA
MINERALOGY 209
lip is bifid and the lower lip trifid, two long
two short stamens, and a stigma of two lamella,
The species
s plants, natives of America,
are very uent in flower-gardens,
and many fine varieties have resulted from cultiva-
tion. They sometimes receive the name of Monkey-
flower. One species, M. luteus, a native of Peru
and Chili, and there used as a omae’ has become
naturalised in many parts of Britain. The little
yellow-flowered Musk Plant, now so common in
gardens and on window-sills in Britain, is M. mos-
chatus, a native of and other north-western
parts of America.
Mina, a Greek weight and money of account,
the sixtieth part of a Talent (q.v.), containing
100 Drachme (q.v.).
Mina Bird, See Myna.
Minzans. See SAbxans.
Minaret, Minar, a tall turret used in Sara-
cenic architecture. It contains a staircase, and is
divided into several stories, with balconies from
which the muezzins summon the Mohammedans to
prayer—bells not being nitted in their religion
—and is terminated with a spire or ornamental
finial. The minarets are amongst the most beauti-
ful features of Mohammedan architecture, and are
an invariable accompaniment of the Mosques (q.v.).
For an illustration, see ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE.
In India Minars, or pillars of victory, are fre-
quently erected in connection with mosques ; some
of these are lofty and splendid monuments, that
of Kutab, at Old Delhi (q.v.), being 47 feet in
diameter at the base and 238 feet high. The
form of the minaret was derived from the Pharos
(q.v.), the ancient lighthouse of Alexandria; and
ee name is from the Arabic mandrat, ‘a light-
nse.’
Minas, capital of a wild, mountainous province
area, 4844 sq. m.; pop. 23,000) of the same name
southern Uruguay, 75 miles by rail NE. of
Montevideo. Pop. 7000.
Minas the most nlons state of
Bracih lies iinet fons Eapitito Kanto and south
of Bahia, and has an area of 222,160 sq. m. Pop.
grad, 3,018,807. Lying wholly in the tableland,
its su is ocenpied with and bush-covered
campos, rising, however, in the Serra do Espinhaco
to 5900 feet. ‘The principal rivers include the navi-
gable Sao Francisco and the Rio Grande, which
unites with the Paranahyba to form the Parana.
= ay peta and stock-raising are the chief indus-
Some gold is still obtained, and diamonds,
iron, and lead are mined. The inhabitants include
very few whites ; among the Indians the Botocudos
(q.v.) are met with.
Mince-pies, an important item of English
Christmas fare, com of very numerous in-
gredients (suet, raisins, apples, lemons, currants,
figs, almonds, flavoured with nutmeg, cinnamon,
nger, &c.) variously compounded and baked in
pastry. Formerly mutton or neat’s-tongue was an
essential ingredient. The shape of the crust was
not originally round, but is said to have been
intended to represent the manger in which the
Holy Child was laid.
Minch, the channel separating the island of
Lewes from the mainland of Scotland. It is 24 to 40
miles wide, and has a rapid current. The Little
Minch, rating asye from North Uist and the
neighbouring islands in the Outer Hebrides, is 14
to 20 miles wide.
Minchinhampton, a market-town of Glouces-
re, 34 miles SSE. of Stroud. James Bradley
is aa the churchyard. Pop. of parish, 4561.
Mincio, a river of Italy, rises as the Sarca in
South Tyrol, flows 80 miles to and through Lake
Garda, and thence as the Mincio through a southerly
course of 93 miles past tua, joining the Po from
the left. It is part of the Quadrilateral ( q.v.) forti-
fication of North Italy; several great battles have
been ee nearby, as Castiglione (1796), Solferino
(1859), tozza (1849 and 1866).
Mind, See Psycnooey.
Mindanao, the southernmostand second largest
island of the Philippines (q.v.). Area, about 34,000
sq.m. Itis very in outline, and the coasts
have many bays and headlands. It has high and
well-wooded mountains, and numerous rivers, some
of t volume. The soil is fertile ; the vegetable
and mineral products are those of the archipelago.
Zamboanga, in the south-western part, is the chief
town. Pop. 611,300, less than one-third Christians.
Minden, a Prussian town in Westphalia, on
the Weser, 40 miles W. of Hanover. ‘Till 1873 a
fortress of the second class, it was already a town
in Charlemagne’s day, and suffered much in the
Thirty Years’ War, and again in the Seven Years’
War, when, on Ist August 1759, the French were
defeated here by an Anglo-Hanoverian army under
Ferdinand of Brunswick and Lord George Sack-
ville. It has a fine new bridge (1874), a Gothie
town-hall, a Catholic church (till 1811 cathedral),
built between the 11th century and 1379, and
restored in 1864-85, manufactures of tobacco, beer,
brandy, glass, &c., and a considerable trade. Pop.
(1885) 18,592 ; (1890) 20,223. See also MUNDEN.
Mindere’rus Spirit, or Soturion or AcE-
TATE OF AMMONIA, 1s a valuable diaphoretic, much
used in febrile d It is prepared by hobs |
ammonia or the carbonate of ammonia to acetic aci
till a neutral liquid is obtained. It is sometimes
applied hot on flannel in cases of mumps, and has
been used as an eyewash in chronic ophthalmia.
Mindoro, an island of the in seem (q.v.),
south of Luzon. , 3087 sq.m. The coasts are
rugged and dangerous ; the interior has dense forests,
anti but little known. Capital, Calapan. Pop.
106,170.
Mine. See Mrntna, Mrves ( MILITARY).
Mineral Kingdom, the inorganic portion of
nature, not indlidtog: laaaven) shes innvgease prod-
ucts of organic beings, as sugar, resins, &c., although
substances more remotely of vegetable or even ani-
mal origin are reckoned aes, | minerals, as naph-
tha, bitumen, asphalt, &e. iquid and gaseous
substances, such as water, atmospheric air, &c. are
included, as well as solids. All the chemical ele-
ments are found in the mineral = from which
vegetable and animal organisms derive them.
Mineralogy, the science which treats of mine-
rals, does not embrace all that relates to the mine-
ral kingdom, but simple minerals alone, or homo-
geneous mineral substances ; rocks formed by the
aggregation of simple minerals, and their rela-
tions to each other, are the subjects of Geology
(q.v.). This limitation of the term mineralogy
is comparatively.recent. Geology or geognosy was
formerly included in it. The arrangement and
description of simple minerals according to their
external characters has been called by Werner
and others Oryctognosy, but the term has for-
tunately fallen into disuse. Nor is the study of
mere external characters sufficient in mineralogy.
The chemical composition of minerals equally de-
mands attention. In the classification of minerals
some mineralogists, as Mohs and Jameson, have
regarded only the external characters, and some,
as Berzelius, only the chemical composition ; but
the results have been unsatisfactory, and the pres-
ent tendency is in favour of a system which seeks
210 MINERALOGY
— a
-
MINERAL WATERS
- Smid natural groups by having regard to
th.
Some minerals any of great use, and others
highly valued for their beauty, have received much
attention from the earliest agés. But the ancient
naturalists describe few minerals, The first attempt
at scientific srreraigea was by George Agricola in
the 16th century. he systems of the Swedes
Wallerius and Cronstedt, in the later half of the
1sth century, were the first worthy of the name.
That of Werner followed, and was extensively
adopted. The discoveries of Hauy in crystallo-
graphy, and the progress of chemistry, gave miner-
alogy a new character; and then sprang up two
schools of mineralogists, one resting chielly on
external characters, and the other on chemical
composition.
The chemical classification of minerals is rendered
difficult by the endless variety of combination and
proportion in the elements of which they are com-
posed, the presence of substances not essential to
the mineral, and yet more or less affecting its
characters, and the frequent impossibility of deter-
mining what is to be deemed essential and what
accidental. Chemical purity is almost never found
innature, Even the purest diamond, when burned,
leaves some traces of ash; and the various colours
of diamond, quartz, and other minerals are due to
the presence of substances which are often in so
small quantity as not to affect their crystalline
forms or other physical properties. Again, some
minerals of identical chemical composition differ
in their crystallisation, so that an arrangement
founded upon it would separate them too widely.
There are also aay minerals which are often
found in an uncrystallised state, and others which
are always so. In the arrangement of minerals
into natural groups, their chemical composition,
although not alone to be regarded, is of the first
importance, so that the place of a new mineral in
the system can never be determined without
analysis; and in determining the nature of a
mineral chemical tests, such as the ae
of acids, are continually resorted to. It is also
necessary to know its specific gravity, and how it
is acted upon both by a moderate heat and by the
blowpipe. An examination of the crystalline forms,
with measurement of the angles of the crystals, is
often sufficient to distinguish minerals which have
otherwise much resemblance. The cli of erys-
tals is also important—a readiness to = in planes
parallel to certain of their faces only, by which the
rimitive form of the erystal may be ascertained.
inerals not crystallised exhibit important varieties
of structure, as laminated, fibrous, ular, &e.
Certain peculiarities of form are also freq ently
characteristic of uncrystallised minerals, as mamiel-
lary, botryoidal, &c. Minerals exhibit, when
broken, very different kinds of fracture, as even,
conchoidal, splintery, &e, Opaqueness, translucency,
and transparency are more or less characteristic of
different kinds : electric and magnetic properties
demand attention ; and very important characters
are derived from /ustre, which in some minerals is
metallic, in others semi-metallic, in others pearly,
vitreous, &e. Colour is not generally of much im-
»rtance, but in some minerals it is very character-
tic. The colour of the powder formed when a
inineral is scratched often differs from that of the
solid mass. This is the strea of the mineral, and
is frequently very characteristic. Hardness and
tenacity are very important, and are of all various
degrees. Unctuosity and other peculiarities to be
ascertained by the touch are very characteristic of
some minerals, and peculiarities of taste and smell
belong to others.
Mineral has very important relations with
geology, which cannot be studied without regard
to the mineral constituents of rocks. The mineral
composition of soils greatly affects v: and
culture. The economical uses of minerals are
so very important and various. It is enongh
merely to allude to salt, sulphur, borax, alum,
sraphite, cryolite, native metals, metallic ores, Ke,
aphtha, petroleum, bitumen, asphalt, are of
well-known utility; and a high value has always
been aiaenes to gems ane Baxi canna
stones, vere are special han ”y erman,
Dana, Wéhler, Brush, and Erni. See GEOLOGY,
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
Mineral Oil. See Baku, Napnrua, Par-
AFFIN, PETROLEUM,
Mineral Tallow, or HATcHETTINE, a remark-
able substance found in several places in Britain,
Germany, Siberia, &c., soft and flexible, yellowish
white, yellow, or En yellow, resembling wax
or tallow, often flaky like spermaceti, inodorons,
melting at 115° to 170° F., and composed of about
86 per cent. carbon and 14 per cent. hydrogen. The
salnernl is closely related 8 if it be not identical
with, ozokerite or native paraffin. Like other
hydrocarbons, such as naphtha, petroleum, asphalt,
&c., Hatchettine appears to have resulted from the
chemical alteration of organic matter.
Mineral Waters, spring waters which
ualities in relation to the animal body different
rom those of ordinary water, have been used as
remedial agents from a very early period. The
oldest Greek physicians had great faith in their
curative power, and the temples erected to Aéseu-
lapius were usually in close proximity to mineral
springs; the warm baths of Calirrhoe, near the
Dead Sea, are mentioned by Josephus as having
been tried by Herod in his sickness. We are
indebted to the Romans for the discovery not only
of the mineral thermic springs in Italy, but of
some of the most beam in other parts of
Europe, amongst which may be named Aix-la-
Chapelle, Baden-Baden, Bath, ee in Belgium,
and many others; and Pliny (Natural History)
mentions a very large number of mineral springs
in almost all parts of Europe (see BATH, Hypro-
PATHY), The therapeutic action of mineral waters
or spas depends chiefly upon their chemical composi-
tion and their temperature, though other ciream-
stances, as situation, elevation, climate, geological
formation, mean temperature, &ec., have an import-
ant bearing upon the success of the treatment.
The best time for undergoing a course of mine!
waters is, in the majority of cases, the months of
June, July, August, and September, There are,
however, exceptions depending upon climate ; for
example, at Gastein, celebrated for its thermal
springs, the weather is changeable and stormy in
une and July, but pleasant in May, Augnst, and
September. Early rising is usually advisable dur-
ing a course of mineral waters, and, as a general
rule, the water should be drunk before breakfast,
at intervals of about a quarter of an hour between
each tumbler, moderate exercise being taken in
the intervals, In many cases bathing is of even
ter importance as a remedial agent than drink-
Baths are generally taken between breakfast
and dinner, and should never be taken soon after
a full meal. The time daring which the patient
should remain in the bath varies very much at
different spas, and the directions of the local
physician should be strictly attended to on this
point. As a general rule, the treatment should
not be protracted beyond the space of six weeks
or two months, but on this point the patient must
be solely guided by the piyeiciae resident at the
spa. Indulgence in the pleasures of the table, and
excesses of any kind, uently counteract the
salutary effects of the waters, while perfect mental
MINERAL
WATERS 211
relaxation is an important auxiliary to the treat-
ment. Spas are only suitable for patients suffering
from chronic disorders.
No classification of mineral waters based upon
their chemical composition can be strictly exact,
because many springs are, as it were, intermediate
between tolerably well characterised rt The
following classification, adopted by Althans, is
ans the most convenient : (1) Alkaline Waters ;
Po) itter Waters; (3) Muriated Waters; (4)
Earthy Waters ; (5) Indifferent Thermal Waters ;
(6) Chalybeates ; (7) Sulphurous Waters.
(1) The Alkaline Waters are divisible into (a)
i Alkaline Acidulous Waters, of which the
chief contents are carbonic acid and bicarbonate of
soda. The most important spas of this class are
the thermal springs of Vichy and the cold springs
of Fachingen, Geilnau, and Bilin. These waters
are useful in certain forms of indigestion, in jaun-
dice arising from catarrh of the hepatic ducts, in
gallstones, in renal calculi and gravel, in gout, in
chronic catarrh of the respiratory organs, and in
abdominal plethora. Vichy (q.v.) may be taken
as the representative of this class of sprin (b)
Muriated Alkaline Acidulous Waters, which difter
from the preceding sub-group in additionally con-
taining a considerable quantity of chloride of
sodium. The most important spas of this kind are
the thermal springs of Ems, and the cold springs
of Selters and zbrunn, They are useful in
chronic catarrhal affections of the bronchial tubes,
the stomach and intestines, and the larynx ; while
the Ems waters possess a high reputation in certain
chronic diseases of the womb and adjacent organs.
(c) Alkaline Saline Waters, of which the chief
eontents are sulphate and bicarbonate of soda,
such as the warm springs of Carlsbad and the
cold ca os of Marienbad, serviceable to patients
suffering from abdominal plethora, if unconnected
with diseases of the heart or lun These waters,
especially those of Carlsbad, afford an excellent
remedy for the habitual constipation which so
er Ko arises from sedentary occupations.
(2) The chief contents of the Bitter Waters are
the sulphates of magnesia and soda; and the best-
known spas of this class are those of Sedlitz,
Friedrichshall, and Kissingen ; although two valu-
able English examples are the bitter water of
Ch k, near Kingswood, in Gloucestershire,
and the Purton Spa, near Swindon, in Wiltshire.
These waters act both as purgatives and diuretics.
(3) The Muriated Waters are divisible into (a)
Simple Muriated Waters, of which the chief con-
tents are a moderate quantity of chloride of sodium
or common salt. The chief spas of this class are
Wiesbaden and Baden-Baden, which are hot ; those
of Soden (in Nassan), of Mondorf (near Luxem-
bourg), and of Canstatt (near Stuttgart), which
are tepid; and those of Kissingen, Homburg, and
Cheltenham, which are cold. The muriated saline
springs of Saratoga in the United States are some
of them chalybeate, others sulphurous or iodinons ;
all of them being rich in carbonic acid gas. The
Ballston saline spring near peeing has a very
high proportion of carbonic acid. They are
chiefly employed in cases of gout, rheumatism,
scrofula, and abdominal plethora. (b) Muriated
Lithia Waters, of which the chief contents are the
chlorides of sodium and lithium. In gout they
first aggravate the pain, mt then give relief; and
in he they have been found service-
able. (c) Brines, whose chief contents are a large
amount of chloride of sodium, such as the spas
of Rehme in Westphalia and Nauheim in Hesse,
are mostly employed for bathing, and are
often of much service in scrofula, anemia, rheu-
matism, certain forms of bay an and catarrh of
mucous membranes. (d) lodo-bromated Muri-
ated Waters, in which, besides a moderate quantity
of chloride of sodium, the iodides and bromides of
sodium and magnesium are contained in an appreci-
able quantity. The Kreuznach waters are used
both for drinking and besbing: and are of service
in scrofulous infiltrations of the glands, in scrofu-
lous uleers, in chronic inflammation of the uterus
and ovaries, &e. The waters of Hall, in Austria
Proper, have a high reputation in cases of broncho-
cele or A hanhe
(4) Earthy Waters, of which the chief contents
are sulphate and carbonate of lime, as at Wil-
dungen, Leuk, Bath, Lucca, and Pisa. The Wil- .
dungen water is ‘a capital diuretic, and not only
promotes the elimination of gravel and renal
caleuli, but, 4 its tonic action on the mucous
membrane of the urinary passages, serves to pre-
vent the formation of fresh concretions. It is
also much used for chronie catarrh of the bladder,
neuralgia of the urethra and neck of the bladder,
dysuria, and incontinence of urine.’ The baths of
Leuk, in which many patients remain nine hours
daily (viz. from 4 A.M. to 10 A.M., and from 2 P.M.
to 5 P.M.), until an eruption appears, are chiefly
used in chronic skin diseases. The waters of Bath,
Pisa, and Lucea, which are thermal, are useful in
chronic skin diseases, gout, rheumatism, &c.
(5) Indifferent Thermal Waters, which usually
contain a small amount of saline constituents. Of
the s of this class the most important are
Gastein (95° to 118°), Teplitz (120°), Wildbad
(96°), Warmbrunn (100°), Clifton (86°), and Bux-
ton (82°). Their most striking effects are to
stimulate the skin and excite the nervous system.
‘They are especially used in chronic rheumatism
and atonie gout; in diseases of the skin, such as
prurigo, psoriasis, lichen ; in neuralgia and paraly-
sis due to rheumatic and gouty exudations, to
rturition, or to severe diseases, such as typhoid
ever and diphtheria ; in hysteria; and in general
weakness and marasmus.’
(6) Chalybeate Waters, which are divisible into
(a) Simple Acidulous Chalybeates, whose chief con-
tents are carbonic acid and bicarbonate of protoxide
of iron; and (b) Saline Acidulous Chalybeates,
whose chief contents are sulphate of soda and bi-
carbonate of protoxide of iron, The quantity of
iron present is very small—from ‘08 to ‘15 in 1000
rts. Many of the chalybeate springs, especially
in Germany, contain also much carbonic acid ;
carbonate, sulphate, and chloride of sodium is
frequently present, and may help in the cure.
Ha. te, TRippoldsan, Homburg, and the Put-
nam Spring at Saratoga are examples of ve
beate wells which are very seldom thermal. Strath-
nn has both chalybeate and sulphurous springs.
halybeate waters are valuable in anemia, enlarge-
ment of the spleen, and many female disorders.
(7) Sulphurous Waters, which contain sulphu-
retted hydrogen or metallic sulphides (sulphurets),
or both. The most important sulphurous thermals
are those of Aix-la-Chapelle, Baden (near Vienna),
Baréges, Eaux-Chaudes, and Bagnéres de Luchon ;
whilst amongst the cold sulphurous springs those
of Nenndorf (in Hesse-Nassau) and Harrogate are
of great importance. They are extensively used
in chronic diseases of the skin, and are of service
in many cases in which exudations require to be
absorbed, as in swellings of the joints, in old gun-
shot wounds, and in chronic gout and rheumatism.
In chronic laryngeal and bronchial catarrh they
frequently give relief, and in chronic Le eepape | by
lead or mereury they favour the elimination of the
poison, although to a far less degree than iodide of
potassium taken internally. The ofc) Ste waters
are employed paca and internally, and mineral
mud-baths are believed by many physicians to form
a valuable auxiliary to this treatment.
212 MINERVA
MINES
See Althans, Spas of Europe (1862); Glover, Mineral
Waters (1857); Tichbourne and Prosser James, Mineral
Waters Europe (1883); Bradshaw's Dictionary of
Mineral Waters (new ed. 1886); Walton, The Mineral
Waters of the United States and Canada (1875); Ger-
man works by Herschfeld and Pichler (1875-76), Lehmann
(1877), Flechsig (1882) ; and the works cited at HEALTH-
RESORTS. .
Minerva, the name of a Roman goddess,
identified by the later Grecising Romans with
the Greek Athena (q.v.). Her name is thought to
spring from the same root as mens (‘mind’);
and the ancient Latin scholar and critic, Varro,
ed her as the impersonation of divine thought
—the plan of the material universe of which Jupiter
was the creator and Juno the representative.
Hence all that goes on among men, all that con-
stitutes the development of human destiny—itself
but the expression of the divine idea or intention
—is under her care. She is the patroness of arts
and trades, and was invoked alike by poe
painters, teachers, physicians, and all kinds of
craftsmen. She also guides heroes in war; and,
in fact, every wise idea, every bold act, and every
useful design owes something to the high inspira-
tion of this virgin goddess. Her oldest temple
at Rome was that on the Capitol, but she had
another on the Aventine. Her festival was held
in March, and lasted five days, from the 19th to
the 23d inclusive.
Minerva-press, the name of a printing-office
in Leadenhall Street, London, from which issued
in the later part of the 18th and the earlier part
of the 19th century a long series of highly senti-
mental novels, with remarkabl intricate plots and
an ample measure of tribulation and tears before
the happy denouement was reached. These were
ually laughed out of existence as a_ taste
‘or more humane and healthy fiction spread over | gal
England.
Minervino, an agricultural town of Southern
Italy, 44 miles W. of Bari. Pop. 14,972.
Mines, MILirary, are underground passages by
means of which explosives are lodged in such a
position as to destroy the enemy’s works or to gain
cover for lodgments from which the besieger may
continue his advance, They are generally but a
few feet below the surface, never driven through
rock for any distance, and require lining with
wooden cases.
Before the invention of gunpowder, mines were
constantly used to effect an entrance into a besieged
place or to breach its walls by underpinning them
with timber, which was then set on fire. By means
of them Alexander the Great breached the walls of
Gaza. Cwsar found the Gauls skilled in their use,
and even able to arrest the progress of his own
miners. Powder mines began to be largely used
early in the 16th century. At the siege of Padua
in 1509 the breaches were ruined and the mines
exploded under the feet of the storming parties.
Countermines, too, behind the walls near their base,
and then long galleries from them under the diteh
with transversals and listeners were added to the
es fortifications of the 17th century,
hese enabled the besieged to ascertain the
direction of the besiegers’ mining approach and to
destroy his galleries by timely expicaion. Thus
at the siege of Candia by the Turks, which lasted
two years and a half (1667-69), more than 1300
mines were exploded by one side or the other.
Systems of countermines became very elaborate
during the 18th century, radiating from the salients
sometimes in several tiers; the length of the galleries
for a single front in some cases amounted to 3
miles or more. Modern systems are perhaps less
elaborate, but their importance is fully recognised.
When the can no longer advance by
surface approaches he has recourse to mining, sink-
ing a vertical shaft (4’ x 2’ inside measurement) or
an inclined gallery (6' 8” x 6' 6" or 4’ 10” x 2’),
generally from the third el, and from it
working his way forw Branch - galleries
(3’ 6” x 2') are broken out wherever n
, and
speciall
constructed frames fitted throughout as
the work progresses. In such a confined space only
very small tools can be used, and only one man
can work at the head of a gallery at one time
doing about 12 inches an hour, Small tracks and
bellows, or other ventilating appliances, are also
necessary. At the head of the gallery a clamber
is constructed to hold the charge, which is then
eo gate is to say, the gallery in rear is filled
with earth, for a distance greater than the |
of the dine of least resistance, or distance to
nearest surface, and fired by electricity, powder
hose, or Beckford’s fuse. If the circular opening
made by the explosion has a diameter equal to the
line of least resistance it is called a one-lined
crater ; if double that line, a two-lined crater, and
so on. Mines producing two-lined craters are
called common mines ; those so lightly charged as
to produce no craters are called ets. The
latter are used by the defender to destroy the
assailant’s mines without forming craters which
he might utilise as lodgments. Gunpowder is
preferred to other explosives if the gallery is to be
used again, as the fumes are not so noxious.
Mining tactics require very t coolness,
judgment, and resolution, especially on the part
of the besieged. He must from his es
galleries estimate the distance of the enemy an
avoid exploding his countermines too soon or he
will only injure his own galleries. If he ceases to
hear the miner’s truck running in the enemy’s
lery he will know that tamping has commenced
and that, if within ve, the time has come to
explode his acon he defender is restricted
to small charges for fear of making craters, unless
his countermine galleries are very deep, while the
besieger can advantageously use ag large ones,
Thus the former may be said to fight with a
short-range weapon against an adversary using one
which is effective at a greater distance. The chief
int in his favour is that he can prepare before-
and a network of galleries, and by using boring
tools he can place charges some distance in
advance of their heads; but the besieger will
ascertain their disposition and extent by means
of plans or spies, and will place heavily ch
mines on a line as nearly as possible parallel to
the ends of the countermines, but not nearer than
14 yards, the distance at which work is audible
to the enemy. These are fired and lodgments
formed in craters from which the same tactics
are phi mere as peetarsainge eer: phages
are occu , and thus ground is ually
and the Nielender driven back step by step unti
the counte is reached. This wall is broken
through by a mine, the ditch crossed, the breach
reached and occupied. Under the breach the
defender will have placed mines which he will
spring at the moment of assault,
Somewhat akin to these latter are the ground
torpedoes placed in front of a work close under
the surface of the ground over which the enemy
must pass to the assault, and fired by the pressure
of his weight upon them. These are chiefly of use
against sav: and were largely employed by
General Gordon in the defence of Khartoum.
Another similar form of defence called a fou-
gasse is an excavation in the form of the frustrum
of a cone with its axis inclined at about 40° with
the horizon. The a is placed in a recess
at the bottom, covered with a strong wooden’
MINGHETTI
MINIATURE-PAINTING 213
platform on which rough stones, bricks, or shells
are placed. .On being fired these are projected
forward and cover a large surface of the ground
in front. Eighty — of powder would throw 5
tons of bricks and stones over a space 160 yards
long and 120 broad. A shell fougasse is simply a
box buried in the ground, the lower part filled with
powder and the upper with shells. It is generally
self-exploding, like the ground torpedo.
Ss ine mines are char; of explosive
material (usually gun-cotton or dynamite) sunk in
roadsteads to prevent the
They are either observa-
tion mines, fired by electricity from an observing
station; controlled electro-contact mines, fired by
the defender when a vessel striking them gives
notice of its being over them ; uncontrolled mines,
mechanical, electro-mechaniecal, or chemical, which
are exploded when struck with adequate force by
friend or foe; or mt mines, which, sunk at
yrs can at any time be caused to rise and obstruct
e
Submarine mines are usually Lwrres chequerwise
in several rows and groups and often at varying
depths. Observation mines cannot be relied upon
at greater distances than one sea mile in fog;
weather, and at night must be watched by electric
search-lights. With contact mines there is the
of friendly ships mistaking the channel.
All mine fields must be defended by heavy guns
placed in batteries secure against landing parties,
otherwise the enemy’s boats will creep for the
mines or clear a through them by explod-
ing countermines. It is so difficult to arrange a
system of mines which will not interfere with the
of friendly ships and yet can be relied
to sere that of an enemy’s vessels at all
and in all weathers, however disguised, that
they are only unobjectionable when used for the
absolute cl of comparatively narrow channels
ye forts ha rped sages f hich
e sea-forts have torpedo rom whic
Whitehead fish oes eaiiretentiar ee
can be discharged ; but these can hardly be classed
as submarine mines.
rivers, estuaries, or
of hostile shi
M rine Marco, Cavour’s most distin-
fs disciple and successor as leader of the
talian ht, was born 8th September 1818 of a
comm: family in Bologna, and supplemented a
brilliant course at its university Bel prolonged
tour in France, , and Great Britain. Free
trade as vindicated by Richard Cobden found him
prepared for its acceptance, by familiarity with
the teaching of its Tuscan anticipator Bandini.
With the election in 1846 of Pope Pius IX.
young Italy’s aspirations for national unity and
constitutional a seemed nearing their
fruition, and Minghetti started a journal in aid
of his country’s neration. He enjoyed Pio
Nono’s favour, and was made member of the
‘Consulta della Finanze’ and minister of Public
Works. But under the pressure of Austria, backed
Radetsky’s forces, the pope’s reforming zeal was
ort-lived, and Minghetti, like others of his school,
abjured the papal government and enrolled in the
Sardinia army to fight for his country’s cause
under King Charles Albert. He served with dis-
tinction in the Lombard campaign ; was promoted
, then major; and on the field of Custoza
earned the cross of the Knights of St Maurizio.
After the fatal defeat at Novara he settled at
Turin, an ardent student of economics and devoted
friend of Cavour, whose confidences he shared
during the diplomatic meetings at Paris which pre-
ceded the Crimean war, the war of 1859, and the
si of Austria from Lombardy. In the event-
ears 1859-60 he was Cavour’s secretary for
foreign affairs, till he resigned with his chief over
the treaty of Villafranca, His next post was that
of minister of the Interior, and on Cavour’s death
in June 1861 he was regarded as his ablest repre-
sentative in the Italian chamber. In 1863 he be-
came prime-minister, in 1864 he coneluded with the
oo bt Napoleon the ‘September Convention.’ In
1868 he was Italian minister in London, and there-
after minister of Agriculture. In 1870 the colla
of the Second Empire brought with it the dissolu-
tion of the September Convention, and Rome be-
came the capital of Italy and seat of government.
From 1873 to 1876 Minghetti was prime-minister
for the second time, and among many useful
measures earned his country’s gratitude by effect-
ing the ‘ paraggio’ or financial equilibrium between
ler outlay and income. For the next ten years
pr “ep was still the most prominent member of
the Italian parliament. His lectures and essays on
Raphael and Dante illustrate on the «esthetic side a
eatholicity of culture which in the sphere of practical
lities can point to his treatises on Economia
ublica (1859) and La Chiesa e lo Stato (1878).
He died in Rome, 10th December 1886. See his
Miei Ricordi (Turin, 1888).
Mingrelia, See GroraiA, Caucasus.
Minho (Span. Mifo, anc. Minius), a river of
in and Portugal, rises in the north-east of
alicia, flows south-west through the Spanish
provinces of Lugo and Orense, and, after forming
the boundary between Portugal and Spain, falls
into the Atlantic Ocean. Its total length is 174
miles, and it is navigable for small craft 25 miles
above its mouth; a bar at the entrance prevents
the passage of large vessels, Area of basin, 157,000
sq.m. Its chief tributary is the Sil, which joins it
from the left.
Miniature palatine. or the painting of por-
traits on a small seale, originated in the practice
of embellishing manuscript books (see ILLUMINA-
TION OF MANuscripTs). As the initial letters
were written with red lead (Lat. minium), the art
of illumination was expressed by the Low Latin
verb miniare, and the term miniatura was applied
to the small pictures introduced. After the inven-
tion of printing and engraving this delicate art
entered on a new phase ; copies in small dimensions
of celebrated pictures came to be in considerable
request, and, in particular, there arose such a de-
mand for miniature-portraits that a miniature in
popular Janguage came to signify ‘a very small
portrait.’ Soon after their introduction miniature-
ade were executed with very great skill in
Sugland. Holbein (c. 1495-1543) painted exquisite
miniatures, and having settled in London, his works
had great influence in calling forth native talent.
The works of Nicholas Hilliard (born at Exeter
1547, died 1619) are justly held in high estimation.
Isaac Oliver (1556-1617) was Repl be ba by Queen
Elizabeth and most of the distinguished characters
of the time; his works are remarkable for careful
and elaborate execution ; and his son, Peter Oliver
1601-47), achieved even a higher reputation.
homas Flatman (1637-88) painted good minia-
tures. Samuel Cooper (born at London 1609, died
1672), who was with his brother Alexander a pupil
of his uncle, John Hoskins, an artist of reputation
(died 1664), carried miniature-painting to mF
excellence. Cromwell and Milton sat to him; he
was employed by Charles II., and obtained the
highest patronage at the courts of France and in
Holland. Jean Petitot (1607-91) was the first to
bring to perfection the art of enamelling as ap-
plied to portraiture. There are as many as fifty-
eight examples of this at artist in the Jones
Collection at the South Kensington Museum.
Richard Cosway (1740-1821) was one of the
most famous miniaturists of the 18th century.
214 MINIE
MINING
Robert Thorburn (1818-85) first made _ his
name ‘as a miniaturist, and many others might
be mentioned; but the last famous miniature-
inter was Sir William Ross (1794-1860), who
fived to see his art superseded by photography.
The number of his miniatures in existence is said
to number over 2200. Of late years public interest
in the work of the miniaturist has revived, and
several exhibitions of miniatures have been held.
Prices have advaneed, and it is parks es difficult
to obtain examples. The works of Cosway
are especially sought after. Photography may be
said to have killed the art, although miniatures
have continued to be painted; but enthusiasts hope
from the interest now taken in historical specimens
that the art may yet be revived. As to technical
details, the early artists painted on vellum and
used body-colours—i.e. colours mixed with white
or other opaque pigments, and this practice was
continued till a comparatively late period, when
thin leaves of ivory fixed on card-board with gum
were substituted. Many of the old miniature-
painters worked with oil-colours on small plates
of copper or silver. After ivory was substituted
for vellum transparent colours were employed on
faces, hands, and other delicate portions of the
icture, the opaque colours being only used in
raperies and the like; but during the 19th
century, in which the art has been brought to
the highest excellence, the practice has been to
execute thé entire work except the high lights in
white drapery with transparent colours,
See Walpole’s Anecdotes ; G. C. Williamson, Portrait
Miniatures from Holbein to Ross (1898); J. J. Foster,
British Miniature Painters and their Work (1898);
Russell, Art of Miniature (4th ed. 1878); er,
Miniature Painting ( Philadelphia, 1876) ; Foster, ‘Some
Miniature Painters,’ in Antiquary (vols. xiii.-xiv.) J. W.
Bradley, Dictionary of Miniaturists (3 vols. 1888-89) ;
and J. L. Propert, History of Miniature Art (1889).
Minié, CLAvbE ETIENNE, inventor of the Minié
rifle, was born in Paris in 1814, enlisted in the army
as a private soldier, and quitted it as colonel in
1858. He devoted his principal thought to the per-
fecting of firearms, and in 1849 invented the Minié
rifle (see RirLes). In 1858 the khedive of Egypt
appointed him director of a small-arms factory and
musketry school in Cairo. He died in 1879.
Minims (/ratres Minimi, ‘ Least Brethren’—
so called, in token of still greater humility, by
contrast with the Jratres Minores or Lesser
Brethren of St Francis of Assisi), an order of the
Roman Catholic Church, founded by another St
Francis, a native of Paula, a small town of Cala-
bria, about the middle of the 15th century. See
FRANCESCO DI PAULA.
Mining. The art of mining comprehends all
the processes whereby the useful minerals are
obtained from their natural localities beneath the
surface of the earth, and the subsequent operations
by which many of them must be prepared for the
purposes of the metallurgist. The art has been
practised from the remotest times. It is referred
to in the 28th chapter of the Book of Job; and
an Egyptian papyrus, drawn in 1400 B.c., pre-
served in the museum at Turin, depicts the work-
ings of a gold-mine. The first writer who treated
mining systematically was Georgius Agricola. In
1556 he published in Latin an exhaustive treatise
on the subject. The introduction of gunpowder
as a blasting-agent in 1620 completely changed the
conditions under which mining had up to that time
been carried on, and the enlarged scale on which
mining operations are now conducted has led to
the invention of new methods of working, and to
the introduction of machines of greater precision
and power,
mineral deposits are divided into two very
broad divisions, The first includes the beds or
seams of iron ore, coal, and salt. These are
deposits laid out more or less horizontally and
parallel to the stratification of the surrounding
rocks, The second class includes mineral veins or
lodes (see ORE-DEPOSITS). Various names havé
been given to these deposits. In the British
colonies, for example, they are termed reefs (seé
GoLp), a somewhat misleading name. A lode
may be defined as a repository of mineral matter
which fills more or less completely a former fissure
in the earth's surface.
The mining a employed are very differ-
ent in the two classes of deposits. In the first class,
it is desirable to make a hole of the shortest pos-
sible depth from the surface of the ground to the
bed of mineral. A shaft is therefore sunk throu
valueless beds until the mineral is reached, Machin-
“7 of the best class is then used to extract the
whole of the mineral, due precautions being taken
to avoid danger from falls of roof and from noxious
In the second class of deposits, the inclina-
tion of the mineral vein has to be taken into
account, as the deposit varies considerably in in-
clination and in size. The vein must therefore be
studied foot by foot, downwards from the top.
The miner does not look favourably on vertical
veins. Certainly in most cases it would appear
that the chance of vertical lodes being productive
is much less than in inclined ones. In some cases
a vertical shaft is sunk, and A eet known as
cross-cuts, are driven from this to the vein at
a 4 A vertical = ro
vantages of greater ease in sinking, hauling,
and pumping. At the Comstock odes te Nevada,
thousands of pounds were wasted in sinking a per-
pendicular shaft, the advan of which were
urged with considerable plausibility. A deep shaft
may cost from £10,000 to £50,000. In the case
of an inclined shaft the ore obtained from the
shaft itself enables some of the charges to be
recouped. In a well-known Cornish copper-mine,
Tresevean, after an inclined shaft had n used
for many years, a new shaft, 1800 feet in depth, was
sunk at a cost of £20,000; but success had already
been assured before this great outlay was contem-
plated. The best arrangement for an extensive
mine is to have a main vertical shaft and several
secondary inclined ones, With inclined shafts it is
out of the question to put in the highly-perfected
engines at collieries, the object being not the
removal as quickly as possible of large quantities
of material, but the exploration of the vein b
slow and careful degrees at many points and wi
a moderate number of men.
In searching or prospecting for mineral deposits
large sums of money are spent, sometimes in vain,
The surface of the rock is usually covered by
deposits of sand and gravel, vegetable matter, vege-
tation, and, in some cases, peat bogs. In conse-
quence, many notable mines have been discovered
by accident. Thus, the observation of the pellets
picked up by birds led to the discovery of veins of
gold ore in Lower Hungary. The famous silver-
mines of Potosi are said to have been discovered
by an Indian who, taking hold of a bush to pre-
vent his falling, pulled it up by the roots and
thereby discl ittering masses of native silver.
in, gold was etove in California by James
. Marshall, in 1848, while cutting a small
mill-race. In ancient times the search for
mineral deposits was based on the indications given
by the Divining-rod (q.v.); and there still exist
intelligent miners who believe in this curious myth.
In the search for mineral deposits, the best evi-
dence is obtained by putting down bore-holes.
These are made by various methods, and are put
down to a depth of a few feet when required for
MINING
215
testing the charactér of the foundation subsoil, or.
in other cases, to thousands of feet when requi
in seeking for or estimating the valne of deposits
of coal, salt, and ironstone. Ages ago bore-holes
were put down by the Chinese to a depth of 3000
feet. Recently, in Europe and America, depths of
2000 feet have not unfrequently been attained.
At Schladebach, near Merseburg, the deepest bore-
hole in the world has been put down by the
Prussian government in search of coal. The sink-
ing oecupied several years (1880-86), and the depth
attained amounted to 5834 feet.
Bore-holes may be made by a circular borer
moved by a lever. The rods are of iron, with
square , and are turned by a cross-head
worked by a couple of men. In this way an anger-
like cutting action is effected. With harder rock
it is usnal to advance by means of percussion: A
chisel-headed tool is employed, which cuts holes of
3 to 4 inches in diameter. At each stroke the
bore-master causes the tool to turn slightly. When
sufficient debris has accumulated the rods are
withdrawn, and an instrument put down to extract
the powdered material and water. With a length
of rods amounting to 400 to 500 feet the weight is
enormous, and, in consequence of the concussion,
difficulties arise. Men are not sufficient to raise
the load. In some cases a lever is used to raise
the rods a few inches or feet, and to let them fall
suddenly. In other cases the rods are replaced
by a rope. This, however, from being wet and
dry alternately, is apt to snap suddenly, and the
ons remaining in the hole are difficult to recover.
The rods, too, may get twisted or the nature of
the iron itself be altered by the vibration. In
putting down a bore-hole, a tower or shears is
Saas | over the hole. By making this 60 to 70
feet high, the rods may be extracted in lengths of
60 feet, and thus the 6 to 8 hours a day usnally
spent in unscrewing the rods are saved. In some
cases it is necessary to tube or line the whole bore-
hole. See Bortne.
The Chinese method of horing with ropes has been
imitated in Europe with great economy, but with
t liability to fracture and consequent loss.
his has been done by Messrs Mather & Platt
of Salford, who employ a chisel-bit with circular
sides so as to keep the bore-hole true. This is
raised and allowed to fall a few inches or feet,
according to the nature of the ground. It is
attached to a weighty mass of iron with rings
sk Mg guides. The whole mass is suspended
by a hempen rope. This rope passes over a
pulley to a drum on which a mass of rope can be
accumulated. The pulley is attached to the piston-
rod of a steam- e. The action of the steam
behind the piston lifts the pulley, and consequently
the tool, the rope being clamped. The steam then
causes the tool to fall, and on falling it automati-
eally turns, A cylindrical tool can easily be inserted,
and a core obtained that shows the nature of the
rock and its inclination. At the Paris Exhibition
of 1862 ecrsen was made to drill with a tube
in which diamonds were fixed. This was merely
intended for use on a sinall scale; but it was soon
applied to deep bore-holes. For this drill black
diamond is employed, a substance with the full
ness of the ordinary diamond and a certain
amount of toughness. Though very expensive,
this method of boring is found advantageous when
£ speed is required, The fall of rock in bore-
oles is apt to cause serious interruption on account
of the jamming of the rods. The sudden strain
o to release them is liable to cause fracture,
es which the full work is not done by the rods.
' This difficulty is obviated in several ways, notably
acing the iron rods by wooden ones, 30 to 32
feet , With iron connections. The free-falling
cutter proposed by Kind and the hollow rods of
Von Oeynhausen may be instanced as having
rendered good service in the execution of great
works.
In order to open up a mine, tunnels or adit-levels
are driven on the lode or to cut it whenever the
contour of the mgt allows it. Shaft-sinking
involves a larger outlay of capital and greater
working costs. In the ordinary method of sinking
shafts, the workmen standing upon the bottom of
the pit blast out the rock, and send the excavated
material to the surface by means of an engine,
rope, and bucket. The sides of the shaft are
supported by timbering or walling. In water-
bearing strata many difficulties are encountered.
Brunel, the father of the t engineer, pro ad
to obviate these by employing a circular frame
with a cutting ring. On this, with hydraulic
mortar, a wall was built and held firmly together
by ties. In a second method, largely used in
modern collieries, beams of cast-iron are employed,
and 10,000 to 20,000 wooden wedges driven in, a
succession of cast-iron ents or rings, known as
tubbing, being built in. The shaft is thus sunk
and the water pumped out. Tubbing a shaft is a
very difficult operation, and the method has fre-
quently been known to fail after £20,000 to £30,000
has been spent. In order to get over the difficulties
and dangers, Kind, a German engineer, thought of
sinking a bore-hole with sufficiently large tools
consisting of solid masses of iron with sharp steel
teeth. The shaft having been bored, rings of east-
iron could, he thought, be fixed in and the water
air out. This was tried in 1840 in a very
ifficult case and was found impracticable, and not
until 1860, when Chaudron, an eminent Belgian,
took the matter in hand, was the method successful.
A watertight bottom was made, half a dozen work-
men at the surface doing all the work. The method
has been —— in the United cimry S in a few
instances. One remarkable case may be mentioned.
At the mouth of the Tyne are coal-measures of
great value, and at South Shields attempts were
made to work the coal under the sea. Difficulty,
however, was caused by a band of magnesian lime-
stone highly charged with water. The enterprise
promised to be very costly. Tubbing was totally
unsuccessful, notwithstanding the fact that enor-
mous pumps were employed raising as much as
11,000 gallons of water per minute. The shaft was
14 feet in diameter, and if the pumping ceased the
water rose in the shaft 12 feet in two minutes.
Recourse was then had to the Kind-Chaudron
method, which had previously been successfully
tried on the Continent. The t¢répan or cutter of
the boring tool was 3 or 4 feet in diameter, and the
hole was bored to a certain depth. A larger cutter
was then used. In this way the sides were formed
into inclined planes, so that the fragments rolled
into a suspended bucket in the smaller hole, the
bucket being raised from time to time. When a
lace was reached where a watertight joint could
made, Chaudron’s tubbing was applied and the
shaft successfully completed. In this tubbing the
bottom ring has a sliding case in which is placed a
quantity of moss, which, when the whole length of
tubbing comes to rest on the watertight bed cut
for it under water by the borer, packs together and
forms a tight joint. This method of sinking shafts
is practically self-acting. It is economical and
simple, and eliminates risk to human life. In
ordinary shaft-sinking accidents are frequent, as a
serew or a hammer falling down the yawning gulf
is likely to produce a fatal injury.
An ingenious device for overcoming the difficulties
of shaft-sinking was invented by a French engineer,
Triger. This consists in damming back the water
by employing a constant resisting force; that is to
216
MINING
say, in pumping into the iron cylinder that forms
the shaft such an amount of air that the pressure
on the bottom from within should be equal to that
from without. By means of a flooring in the
cylinder, a lower air-tight compartment is formed,
in which it is found t men can work under a
pressure of 3 atmospheres. In order that the men
may enter or leave their working-plaee without
disturbing the equilibrium of the forces, the prin-
ciple of the eanal-lock is applied, a second chamber
being formed above the working one with trap-
doors communicating with the shaft above and
with the chamber below. One of these doors sr,
always closed while the other is open, the excava'
material can be drawn up without any appreciable
loss of compressed air, This method has been
successfully applied at a number of shafts on the
Continent.
Another ingenious process of sinking through
quicksand is that devised by H. Poetsch. This
consists in freezing the water contained in that
portion of the water-bearing ground which oceupies
the position of the intended shaft into a solid mass
of ice, and then sinking through it by hand without
having to pump any water. This method has
proved successful at several Continental collieries
and at the em mine in Michigan.
The average depth of coal-mines before the intro-
duction of the steam-engine did not exceed 100
yards, whilst a near approximation for the present
time would be 400 yards. The deepest shaft in
Great Britain is that of the Ashton Moss Colliery,
near Manchester, which has attained a depth of
2850 feet. The seams dip at the rate of 9 inches
ad yard, so that parts of the workings are 3000
eet deep. The deepest shaft in the world was
until recently that of a silver-lead mine in Bohemia,
at Przibram, where the Adalbert shaft is 3432 feet
in depth. This depth has, however, been exceeded
in the Lake Superior copper-mining district, where
= 1890 the Caluniet shaft attained a depth of 3900
eet.
The cutting of a path through the harder rocks,
as carried on by the ancient miners, was particu-
larly laborious. The work was executed in con-
fined spaces, and a large amount of dust was
produced. The miners’ vocation was excessively
unhealthy, inasmuch as they were obliged to inhale
large quantities of dust; they thus became subject
to disorders of the lungs to which they fell victims
at an vag: | age. Previous to the introduction of
blasting the implements used were of the nature
of wedges and hammers, Bit by bit pieces of rock
were broken away, the operation being aided by
natural fissures in the rock and by the brittleness
of the hard material. In this way the ancient
miners cut coffin-shaped galleries 5 feet in height.
At the present time the galleries or levels are
usually 74 feet high and 5 feet wide, thus affording
freat facility for travelling and for ventilation.
he ene of gunpowder is of mnch greater
antiquity than its application to mining pu
In the 14th century it wes largely used for Smakotey
and cannon, and even for blowing down defences ;
but, curiously rr it was not applied to mining
purposes until the beginning of the 17th century,
and even then made its way so slowly that it was
not largely employed until the 18th century. In
the operation of blasting use is made of a borer or
drill of iron, or, as is more usual, of cast-steel.
This is struck with a hammer. A borer of larger
diameter may be used, held by one man and struck
by another, Of late years mechanical rock-drills
driven by steam or by compressed air have eome
jexmely. Sato use; see BorinG, with illustration.
The bore-hole, when finished, is then ch %
The gunpowder is enclosed in a little bag of cloth
lipped in pitch and provided with a fuse. Instead
of using a cartridge of this kind,
foreed down the hole by a clayin Isa to lt
eed
off feeders of water, and the hole will
enough to receive a ¢ of powder. A needle of
iron or steel is placed in the midst of the
with the ring at its end protruding, and enue
is introduced. For this purpose it is best to pu’
up.
is compressed, and the temperature augmented
sufficiently to explode the powder. These dis-
van are set aside by Messrs Bickford &
und it is covered with a waterproof composition,
nsiderable attention has been paid to the whee
of consolidating the ch Excellent work
been done with comp powder ; dynamite has
become quite indispensable; and R siyrinsscee is
also employed, the best form being the compressed
variety invented by Abel. Nitrated gun-cotton or
tonite has also given admirable results. The
fullest benefit of these modern explosives can Fe |
be obtained by the use of strong detonators fi
by electricity, by which it is possible to place a
number of bore-holes in such a manner that when
fired simultaneously they shall help each other. —
For removing coal these ne explosives are too
quick in their action, and blasting-powder con-
tinues to be used. Millions of tons of coal are still
obtained by its aid. In order to obviate the danger
of explosions in fiery collieries, many i ious
substitutes for blasting have been pro . For
example, a hole is bored, and wedges inserted to
foree down the coal which has previously been
under-cut with the pick. Another plan of great
promise is that devised by Smith and Moore, in
which cartrid, of caustic lime are employed,
water being forced into mere a force-pump.
The pressure of steam generated by the usual
charge of seven cartridges is 2850 Ib., the car-
tridges themselves expanding to about five times
their original size. he efficiency of these car-
tridges varies with the nature of the coal, the best
pas, having been obtained in the Derbyshire
collieries,
The work of the miner engaged in under-cutti
the coal-seam is very arduous, and various -
cutting machines have been invented with a view
to lessen the labour and expense, They work with
compressed air or electricity, and have the cutters
arranged on the periphery of a rotate dise, or on
a travelling pitch-chain. Though largely employed
in America, they have not_yet come into extensive
use in Great Britain, The coal, when broken
down, is placed in wagons, and drawn by horses or
en, +4 e-power to the bottom of the shaft and raised
to the si
The actual ago of gr the con, at
varyin tly in every district, ma; I
divided Fito () the t-and-stall, ve bord-and-
pillar, or (in Scotland) stoop-and-room, method
where the first stage of excavation is accompli
with the roof sustained by coal; (2) the long-wall
method, where the whole of the coal is allowed to
settle behind the miners, no sustaining pillars of coal
being left. The latter method, when well planned,
is the safer both as facility of ventila-
tion and less liability to accidents from falls. Ata
Durham colliery, working the Harvey seam, which
is 34 feet in thickness, 5185 tons of coal were
obtained when working by the long-wall system
and 5052 tons when working by the post-and-stall
— are cay
MINING
»
217
system. In thick and highly-inclined beds it is
usual to remove the coal by horizontal slices, and
to fill the excavation with waste material. In
some instances blast-furnace slag is used for the
1
y es wena of working metalliferous veins differs
greatly from that followed in the case of the more
or less horizontal coal-beds. Horizontal galleries,
termed Jevels, are driven a the lode usually 10
fathoms (60 feet) apart. . They are rarely perpen-
dicularly above one another, as they follow the
inclination of the vein. The levels are connected
by means of small shafts, termed winzes. Re-
presented on a vertical plane, the vein will thus be
seen to be cut up into pillars which are worked by
the method of stoping. Of this there are two
varieties—underhand and overhand stoping. In
the former the ore is gradually worked away
downwards from the floor of one level, the ore and
worthless mineral being taken out through the
level next below. In most districts underhand
stoping has been superseded by the more econo-
mical overhand method, in which the miners
stand on timber platforms and break down the
mineral above them,
The great depth and size of modern collieries
necessitate the raising of greater quantities of coal
through a single shaft than was ever contemplated
in former times. The winding-engines of modern
erection are consequently of extraordinary power.
Thus, at Harris’ Navigation Colliery the engines
have cylinders with a diameter of 54 inches, and
le of raising 6 tons of coal, or, with ropes
and the cages containing the coal-trucks, a total
load of 154 tons, at a speed of 32 feet per second.
The quantities which can thus be raised are
enormous. It is by no means uncommon for 900 to
1400 tons to be raised from one pit in the day.
In collieries both coal and men are raised in the
cages, but in the metalliferous mines the man-
engine is largely used. This consists of a reciprocat-
rod or pair of rods fitted with steps, by which
the miner is raised 8 to 14 feet at a stroke. Al-
though this method obviates the tax on the energies
of the men entailed by the climbing of ladders, it
is by no means free from danger. Prussian stat-
isties show that where man-engines are employed
there are four times as many accidents as where
se and ropes or where ladders are used.
t the Epinac collieries in France a remarkable
pneumatic system of raising coal and men is em-
yee An air-tight wrought-iron tube, 5 feet
nr ectig diameter, is placed in ba ae and
a piston-cage carrying nine -wagons,
The air being exhausted ‘above the piston, a load
of 3 tons of coal is raised at a rate of 19 inches per
second. The great cost of the installation has pre-
vented the method from being generally adopted.
In almost all mines the surrounding rock contains
water which rapidly accumulates in the workings.
Where the contour of the district is suitable, the
best method of ening the mine is by means of an
adit-level—i.e, a tunnel driven iu the hillside. In
some cases extensive areas are drained by adits,
Thus, the great Gwennap adit in Cornwall, which
is with its branches 40 miles in length, drains
30 sq. m. As further examples of long adits
may be cited the Ernst-August adit in the
Harz Mountains, which has a total length of
14 miles and cost £85,500, and the Rothschin-
berger adit at Freiberg in Saxony, which is 25
miles long. In cases where adits are unavail-
able, recourse must be had to pumps either of the
ing or forcing type. The principal type of
engines is that known as the Cornish pumping-
engine, which is a single-acting condensing beaim-
engine working expansively. Some of these engines
are of enormous size, the cylinders in some cases
being as much as 100 inches in diameter. Their
t cost and ponderous character have led to the
introduction of cheaper direct-acting engines which
placed underground force columns of water to
vertical heights of as much as 1000 feet. At a
silver-mine at Klausthal, in the Harz Mountains, a
pair of direct-acting rotary engines have been
erected, driven by hydraulic power, with a head of
1959 feet. At twelve revolutions per minute these
pumps force 330 gallons of water up 750 feet.
The ventilation of subterranean workings is a
problem of the greatest importance. The air is
contaminated by the respiration of men and horses,
by the combustion of lights, by the smoke of
explosives, and by deleterious dust. Added to
which, in the case of collieries, the insidious fire-
damp or carburetted hydrogen exudes from the
coal. Mingled with air this gas forms the
explosive mixture to whieh so many miners
owe their death (see FrrREDAMP, CHOKE-DAMP,
SAFETY-LAMP). It is obvious that the venti-
lating current must be sufficient to dilute this
mixture below the firing-point and to sweep it
away. The general mode of ventilating a colliery
is to have two-shafts, a downcast and an upcast.
The pure air entering by the downcast shaft
traverses the roadways of the colliery. By means
of doors and stoppings, the current is caused to
travel in the required direction so as to reach the
innermost workings of the mine. It then passes to
the upeast shaft and returns to the surface. The
motion of the air-eurrent is caused by furnaces or
by mechanical ventilators. In the former case, a
large furnace is kept burning at the bottom of the
upeast shaft, the air in which it heats and causes
to expand. In this way a volume of air is obtained
suitable for very extensive workings, as much as
120,000 to 250,000 cubic feet of air being passed
through the shafts per minute. In the case of
mechanical ventilators, the vitiated air is with-
drawn from the colliery by the exhausting action
of centrifugal fans, which may be made either of
large diameter to run at low velocity, or of small
diameter to run at high velocity. At several
important collieries these fans attain enormous
dimensions, in some cases as much as 45 feet in
diameter and 14 feet in width.
Almost as important as ventilation in relation to
the safety of human life is the accurate construe-
tion and the preservation of mine-plans. In many
cases the plans are laid down without any reference
to the phenomenon of the variation of the magnetic
needle. Trusting to old plans constructed in this
way, the miner may drive straight into old work-
ings filled with water, the tapping of which would
be death to all employed in the colliery.
The progressive legislation in connection with
mines (e.g. the Coal-mines Regulation Act of
1872, amended 1886, which prescribes for the inspec-
tion of mines by duly appointed inspectors, Xe.)
has proved beneficial in diminishing the pro-
portion borne by the accidents to the number of
miners employed ; for whereas in 1850, when the
output of coal in the United Kingdom did not
exceed 50,000,000 tons, the number of miners em-
ployed being about 200,000, the deaths slightly
exceeded 1000 in the year, in 1877, when the out-
put of coal was 134,000,000 tons and the number of
miners double that in 1850, the deaths were only
1200 in number. The deaths from explosions of
firedamp during the eleven years 1875-1885 formed
but 23°57 per cent. of the total deaths, the re-
mainder being due to falls of roof and other causes.
For statistics of mineral production, see GREAT
BrITAIN, UNITED STATEs, Ke.
In England and Ireland the crown has the right
to all mines of gold and silver; but where these
metals are 7 Rate y in mines of tin, copper, iron, or
218 MINISTER
MINNESINGER
other baser metal, then the crown has only the right
to take the ore at a price fixed by statute. In
Scotland gold-mines belong to the crown without
limitation, and silver-mines when three-halfpence
of silver can be extracted from the pound of lead.
As a general rule, in the United States as well as
in Britain, whoever is the owner of freehold land
has a right to all the mines undernéath the sur-
face, for his absolute ownership extends to the
centre of the earth; but under special grants and
contracts it is not uncommon for one person to be
owner of the surface of the land and another to
be owner of the mines beneath ; or several persons
may be owners of different kinds of mines lying
one above the other in the different strata. On the
public lands of the United States, a title or license
may be obtained by any citizen from the general
land office at Washington, at the rate of $5 per
acre of surface pre-empted ; no royalty is paid, but
the claim must be worked in accordance both with
local regulations and with the general mining laws,
which prescribe as one condition the performance
of a certain amount of work annually. If this con-
dition is not falfilled, the mine may be ‘denounced,’
and any other person secure the claim.
Breviograpay.—The literature of mining is very
extensive, but the following may be cited as useful works
of reference: Callon’s Lectures on Mining, translated by
Dr C. Le Neve Foster and W. Galloway; Sir Waring-
ton Smyth, Covd-mining (7th ed. Lond. 1890); J. J.
Atkinson, Practical Treatise on the Gases met with in
Coal-mines ( Lond. 1879); R. Hunt, British Mining (1884);
H. M. Chance, Report on Coal-mining (Philadelphia,
1885); B. H. Brough, Mine Surveying (2d ed. Lond,
1889); Arundel Rogers, Mining Law (Lond. 1876);
Report of the Accidents in Mines Commission (1886).
The principal sources of information on mining matters
are the Transactions of the Mining Institutes, the tech-
nical journals, and the annual reports of H.M. Inspectors
of Mines. See also articles CoaL, Copper, Gop, Inon,
Leap, Dtamonp, &e.
Minister, « public functionary who has the
chief direction of any department in a state, the
ministry being the body of ministers to whom the
sovereign or chief-magistrate commits the execu-
tive government (see CABINET, PARLIAMENT,
TREASURY). Minister is also a term for a delegate
or representative of a sovereign at a foreign court
(see AMBASSADOR). Christian preachers and priests
are ministers of the word of God or of Jesus Christ
in Catholic ; minister, a name, was adopted
hy French-speaking Protestants for their clergy,
and was formerly so used by Anglicans, as it still is
by Presbyterians and many Nonconformists.
Minium, or Rep Leap. See Leap, Vol. VI.
Miniver. See Furs.
Mink (/Pwtorius), a name applied to several
carnivores in the same genus as weasel, polecat,
ferret, and ermine, and with essentially similar
characteristics, The body measures from 12 to 18
inches im length, not including the bushy tail. The
colour of the valuable fur is chestnut-brown, The
Siberian Vison (P. sibericus), the European Vison
(P. lutreola), and the American Mink r (P.
vison) are very nearly related, if iadeet they are
not wer, varieties of one cireumpolar species,
They all live by rivers and lakes, in which they
swim and dive, feeding chiefly on fishes, frogs,
mussels, and the like; though not refusing any
small mammals which come in their way. They
are keen-scented, bold and persistent, but are
readily tamed when caught young. See Furs.
Minneapolis, the largest city of Minnesota,
ns the capital, St Paul, and is situated on
both sides of the Mississippi, which is here crossed
by twelve bridges. The Falls of St Anthony, with
4 perpendicular descent of 16 feet, afford a water-
Pp
ye
power which has been a chief source of the city’s
prosperity. The streets are wide and handsome,
and there are beautiful public parks. ak the “
most notable buildings are the masonic hall, the
t-oftice, the Exposition Building, and the
iuarantee Loan edifice. This last is twelve stories
high, built of ite and sandstone; it contains
400 offices, and on the roof is a garden
concerts are given. The churches number over
150, and the public schools had in 1897 more than
750 teachers and 34,462 pupils; while the state
university here has five departments and about
2500 students, of both sexes. There is a public
library of over 40,000 volumes. The lumber and
flour mills of Minneapolis are among the largest in
the country. In the latter, stones Sane been dis-
earded, and the Hungarian or ‘ roller’
MILL) is employed. The total dail of
the mills is 35,000 barrels. The rallwa facilities
of Minneapolis are very great, and the growth of
the city has been remarkably rapid. Pop. (1870)
13,066 ; (1880) 46,887; (1890) 164,738; (1900)
202,718.—Five miles by rail SE. of Minneapolis
are the Falls of Minnehaha (‘Laughing Water’),
celebrated in Longfellow’s Hiawatha.
Minnesinger, the collective name given to
the lyric poets of Germany who flourished during
a period marked approximately by the years 1170
and 1250. For the most part the singers were of
knightly birth and belonged to the inferior nobility,
thongh men of the very highest rank, reigning
princes and even emperors, wrote these lyric
effusions, and a few were of burgher birth. They
get their name from the principal theme that
inspired them, minne = ‘love,’ the love of fair
women. Thus they were so far akin to the
troubadours of Provence and France. The move-
ment, however, though it certainly received sug-
gestions from the singers beyond the Rhine, was
essentially of native origin. The difference be-
tween the two schools is most clearly seen in the
spirit of their work. The German singers wrote
of love in a more refined and delicate spirit, and
with a greater reverence for woman, than the
troubadours. The best of them treated of the
inner life of the soul, the feelings and emotions of
the heart, rather than of the gallantries and adven-
tures of a sensual love; they move in the world of
imagination and idealism, shunning the real world
and its leasures ; the shy, speechless, rever-
ent attitude of ingenuous youth that characterised —
them was closely akin to the reverent homage In
a!
to the purest and holiest of women, the V
Mother of Christ. Yet they did not altogether
lose touch of the world. They loved to sing the
raises of nature, especially of spring, the perennial
inspirer of poets’ hearts and tongues. Often, too,
there is a decided strain of sadness and melancholy, —
prin, touches of true naiveté, and frequently of
arch humour, and on occasion the sterner note of
moral indignation and contempt of the follies and
vices of the time. Thus, the best of the minne-
singer, like Walther von der Vo; velweide, the most
illustrious of them all, Heinrich von Ofterd i.
Wolfram von Eschenbach, Hartmann von Aue, a
fried von Strasburg, Heinrich von Veldeke(theearli-
est), and others, were distinguished on the one hand —
J
‘a
from the poets of the monasteries, who cele
the deeds of martyr and saint, and on the other
hand from the wandering gleemen, whose subjects
were suited to the coarse and ignorant x
who formed their usual audiences. But it is not
in subject only, and their spirit of treating it, that —
the minnesinger differ from all their contemporaries;
they also paid great attention to poetical form,
striving after melodious and sonorous langu a4
regularity of verse-structure, and smoothness and
correctness of versification, in all which they
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MINNESOTA
MINNOW 219
attained a high degree of skill. Their art was,
however, wider than the poet’s at the present
day : they not only wrote the text but com
the air to which the text was to be sung, for
‘all their lyrics were written with the express
gd of being sung to the accompaniment of viol
or One class alone was exempted from
musical accompaniment—viz. short didactic or sen-
tentious poems called spriiche = ‘sayings,’ which
were recited. As it was incumbent upon a ‘singer’
to invent his own combination of text and melody,
and was considered dishonourable for him to appro-
priate those of his predecessors or contemporaries,
their poems are remarkable for a great variety of
forms, tic and musical. This in course of
time, when the fresh inspiration of the movement
to wane, was the fruitful cause of much
artificial writing, and eventually of the decay of
the art. But there were still deeper causes of decay
inherent in it. The less refined of the ‘singers’
were unable to keep the levels of exalted sentiment
of their superiors, and degenerated into false
sentimentality, lifeless conventionality, and above
all a gross and vulgar sensualism. The minne-
r wrote principally in the Swabian dialect of
Middle High German. Their use of this language
was due to the great encouragement they received
from the Hohenstaufen emperors. Next to these
rulers their chief patrons were the dukes
of Austria, and especially Hermann of Thuringia,
at whose court of Eisenach the semi-mythical
Wartburgkrieg occurred (c. 1207). This was a
poetical contest between the chief minnesinger as
to the merits of the patrons of the art: Heinrich
of Ofterdingen was outsung by Walther von der
Vogelweide, and Heinrich's ally, the magician
bar wd of Hu , by Wolfram von Eschenbach.
When men of knightly birth began to neglect
the writing of lyric poetry, and the minnesinger
were no longer held in hononr in the halls of the
great, the art took refuge-with the burghers and
craftsmen of the cities. -But with the exception of
Hans Sachs of Nuremberg, those meistersinger or
meistersinger, as they called themselves, .
little real poetic feeling. They formed themselves
into guilds and wrote poems as they plied their
trade, by purely mechanical rules, and bound them-
selves by a multitude of puerile restrictions and
tie regulations. Their subjects were pain-
‘ully commonplace, and their treatment destitute
of all artistic feeling. Yet these singers’ guilds
flourished from the 13th to the 16th century; the
last was not dissolved until 1839, at Ulm.
- Wagner's opera, Die Meistersinger zu Niirnberg,
perpetuates their memory.
The lyrics of the 160 Minnesinger, of whom alone
Gesten survive, were published by Von der Hagen in
1838 (4 vols.). Modern versions have been made by Tieck
(1803), Simrock (1857), and others. See A. Schultz,
Das hifische Leben zur Zeit des Minnesangs (2 vols.
zd ed. 1889); Uhland in Schriften zur Geschichte der
Dichtung und Sage (vol, v. 1870); and Lyon, Minne-
und Meister-sang (1882).
Minnesota (Indian, ‘sky-tinted water’), the
nineteenth in pop. and tenth in area of the states
of the American Union, and | copyright 1991, 1897, and
the northernmost in the Mis- | 1900 in the U5. by’. B.
seine valley, extends froin | “i?Piveott Company
43° 30/ to 49° N. lat., and from 91° to 97° W. long.
It is bounded on the N. by Manitoba and Ontario,
E. Lake Superior and Wisconsin, 8. by Lowa,
and W. by North and South Dakota. Its area
- is 83,530 sq. m., or nearly as large as Great Britain.
In Minnesota are the remote sources of the great
rivers Mississippi, Red River of the North, and
St Lawrence, whose waters, flowing in different
directions, reach respectively the Gulf of Mexico,
Hudson Bay, and the Atlantic Ocean. Within
the state the Minnesota River is the largest tribu-
tary of the Mississippi. Between the St Croix
River and Red River of the North are hundreds of
clear lakes, the largest of which are Red Lake
(580 sq. m.), Mille , and Leech Lake. About
two-thirds of the state is prairie, but in the northern
portion there are extensive pine-forests, and in the
north-east t marshes, bearing a scanty growth
of tanareuke and fir. The minerals include iron
(which is profitably worked), slate, granite, and
other rocks, and the red pipestone. The climate is
bracing in winter, very dry and equable; the mean
for the year 1889 was 45°. The rainfall is sufficient
and well distributed throughout the year.
Minnesota is an agricultural and especially a
wheat-produeing state ; its manufactures as yet are
principally flour and lumber. The reiacigad crops
are: wheat, averaging about 50,000,000 bushels;
oats, 55,000,000 bushels ; corn, 25,000,000 bushels ;
potatoes, 7,000,000 bushels. The facilities for com-
merce are t. The Mississippi is navigable as
high as St Paul ; the lakes, with Duluth for a port,
open a waterway to the Atlantic ; and in 1897 there
were 6198 miles of railway in the state.
The permanent school fund exceeded $11,000,000
in 1896, during which year over 354,000 pupils were
on the roll. A system of free-school libraries is
in operation. There are four state normal schools,
and*a state university at Minneapolis, besides
Macalester College (Presbyterian) and Hamline
University (Methodist) at St Paul, Carleton Col-
lege (Congregationalist) at Northfield, Episcopal
schools at Faribault, and a Presbyterian college
for women at Albert Lea.
History.—Minnesota was visited by French ex-
plorers in 1659-60, and the portion west of the
ississippi was part of the province of Louisiana
ourchanan wy the United States from France in
1803. Fort Snelling, at the mouth of the Minnesota
River, was built and oceupied in 1821, In 1837
the Chippeway Indians surrendered all the land
east of the Mississippi; immigration then began,
and Minnesota became a territory in 1849, a state
in 1858. It claims the distinction of having,
through its governor, offered the first regiment for
the defence of the Union; and during the civil
war, out of 40,000 citizens able to bear arms, it
sent 24,000 into the army. In August 1862 occurred
a terrible massacre, by the Indians, who attacked
the frontier settlements and in ten days killed some
800 men, women, and children. As a consequence,
the Sioux and Winnebagoes were removed from the
state, and their hunting-grounds are now occupied
by farms and prosperous towns. The principal
cities are St Paul, the Lge (163,065), Minne-
eT ier and Duluth (52,969). Pop. (1860)
172,023 ; (1890) 1,301,826, including « large propor-
tion of Seandinaviansand Germans ; (1900) 1,751,394.
Minnow (Lewciscus phoscinus), a small fish of
the same genus as the roach, dace, chub, &c. It is
widely distributed in Europe, from Norway to
Italy. It is usually 3 or 4 inches long, but it ocea-
sionally in favourable localities may attain to as
much as 7 inches. The minnow varies its colour ;
it is more brilliant when taking food, and brighter
during the day than at night. The colours are
most brilliant at spawning time, particularly in the
males, The back is olive-brown in colour, becom-
ing lighter at the sides with a metallic lustre. The
fins are silvery gray, often rose tinted at the base.
The colours become paler after spawning. The
minnow is an active little fish found in large
swarms, generally in shallows in summer or near
the surface; in winter it conceals itself under
stones and muddy banks. It is a voracious feeder,
living on aquatic plants, worms, insects, small
snails and fresh-water molluscs, and even its own
kind; and in turn it is preyed upon by nearly
220 MINOR
MINT
every fish in the stream. Minnows have the
peculiar habit of arranging themselves like the
spokes of a wheel or the petals of a flower, with
their heads towards the centre and their tails at
nearly equal distances from one another when any-
thing that can serve as food is thrown into the
water. They may be caught by small hand-net
or by hook and line, baited with worm or paste.
They are very prolific ; they breed in June, and the
eggs hatch in a few days. As food they are much
esteemed, cooked in various ways or dressed as
‘white bait.’ They are used as bait for eels, or as
spinning bait for trout, perch, pike, or chub. Some
fish-breeders advocate stocking rivers with minnows
to feed the young salmon, but the wisdom of this
proceeding has been questioned on various grounds.
Minor ‘is, in Scotch law, the term describing a
person who, if a male, is between the of 14
and 21; and if a female, is between 12 and 21. In
England the technical term is an Infant (q.v.).
Minor. See ScaLe.
Minor Barons. See Baron.
Mino the second largest of the Balearic
Isles (q.v.), lies 25 miles NE. of Majorca. It is
28 miles long, by an average of 10 wide, and has
an area of 284 sq. m. Pop. 34,173. Its coast is
rocky and inaccessible, but broken by numerous
inlets, and its surface low, undulating, and stony.
Its productions and climate are similar to those of
Majorea, though the soil is less fertile. The chief
towns are Port Mahon (4-¥) and Ciudadela (8000).
The island is remarkable for its great number of
ancient megalithic remains (called talayots) and its
stalactite caves (at Prella). See BYNG (JOHN);
Pegged Balearic Isles (1876), and Sir R. L. Play-
air.
book series )
Minorites, See FRANCISCANS.
Minority. See REPRESENTATION.
Minos, the name of two mythological kings of
Crete. The first is said to have been the son of
Zeus and Europa, the brother of Rhadamanthus,
the father of Deucalion and Ariadne, and, after his
death, a judge of the shades in Hades.—The second
of the same name was a of the former, and
son of Lycastus and Ida. To him the celebrated
Laws of Minos are ascribed, in which he is said
to have received instruction from Zeus himself.
Homer and Hesiod know of only one Minos, the
king of Cnossus, and son and friend of Zeus.
Minotaur, one of the most repulsive conceptions
of Greek Mythology, the offspring of Pasiphaé and a
bull, for which she had conceived a passion, grati-
fied through the contrivance of Poseidon. The queen
placed herself in an artificial cow made by Deedalus,
and so became the mother of the monster, half-man
half-bull, a man with a bull’s head. Minos, the
husband of Pasiphaé, shut him up in the Cnossian
Labyrinth, and there fed him with the seven
youths and seven maidens, whom Athens was
obliged to supply at fixed periods as a tribute,
till Theseus, with the help of Ariadne (q.v.), slew
the monster.
Minquiers, See CHANNEL ISLANDS, JERSEY.
Minsk, chief town of a Russian government,
stands on an affluent of the Beresina, 531 miles by
rail ENE. of Warsaw. Pop. (1893) 80,070, man
of whom are Jews. The town existed in the 11th
century ; was Lithnanian in the 13th and Polish in
the 15tly; and was annexed by Russia in 1793.
The government of Minsk has an area of 35,282
sq. m., and a pop. (1895) of 1,993,475, embracin
White Russians (67 per cent.), Lithuanians (4
per cent,), Poles (11 per cent.), and Jews (10 per
cent.), with Tartars and Germans. Seventy per
cent. of the soil is covered with marshes, swamps,
Mediterranean (3d ed. 1890, Murray’s Guide-~
moors, lakes, and forests; less than 24 per cents
of the total area is actually cultivated.
Minster (Lat. monasterium, ‘a monastery’),
the church of an abbey or priory; but often
applied, like the German Miinster, to cathedral
churches without any monastic connection, as
especially to York Minster.
Mint ( Mentha), a genus of plants, of the natural
order Labiate, with small, funnel-shaped, quadrifid,
penely red corolla, and four straight stamens.
he species are perennial herbaceous plants, vary-
ing considerably in appearance, but all with
ing root-stocks. The flowers are whorled, t
whorls often grouped in spikes or heads,
species are widely distributed over the world.
me of them are very common in Britain, as
Water Mint (M. aquatica), which ws in wet
grounds and ditches, and Corn-mint (M. arvensis),
which abounds as a weed in cornfields and gardens.
All the species contain an aromatic essential oil, in
virtue of which they are more or less medicinal.
The most important Ba are Spearmint, Pi
mint, and Pennyroyal.—Spearmint or Green Mint
(M. viridis) is a native of almost all the temperate
of the globe;
it has erect smooth
stems, from one foot
to two feet high,
with the whorls of
flowers in loose cylin-
drical or oblong
—_ at the top;
the leaves lanceo-
late, acute, smooth,
serrated, destitute
equally wide distri-
bution in the tem-
perate parts of the
world, is very similar
to spearmint, but
has the eaves
stalked, and the
flowers in short
spikes, the lower spearmint (Mentha viridis).
whorls — somewhat
distant from the rest. It is very readily recog-
nised by the peculiar pungency of its odour and
of its taste.—Pennyroyal (M/. pulegium), also
very cosmopolitan, has a much-branched prostrate
stem, which sends down new roots as it extends
in length; the leaves ovate, stalked; the flowers
in distant globose whorls. Its smell resembles that
of the other mints.—All these species, in a wild
state, grow in ditches or wet places. All of them
are cultivated in gardens; and peppermint largely
for medicinal use and for flavouring lozenges.
They are naturalised in America, where, however,
the common species is M. canadensis, the Wild
or Horse-mint. Mint Sauce is generally made
of spearmint, which is also used for flav
soups, &c. Poy i l the more brightly by reason
of —_ of the darkness which it had to pene-
trate. the Scottish Patrick might fitly be called
the apostle of Ireland, and the Irish Columba in
some sort the apostle of Scotland, Aidan, one of
the Iona ‘family,’ is entitled in like sort to be
ed as the apostle of Northumbria; and St
Cuthbert was a spiritual descendant of Aidan.
Moreover, as Se yee enge Tpe “fc the
great evangelists of a large part of the European
Scatiemat “Keeard has shown the magnitude and
the im ice of the work undertaken and accom-
plished by Columbanus and Gallus and a host of
others, ‘numerous as swarms of bees,’ who, in the
midst of innumerable difficulties, introduced agri-
eulture and civilisation, learning and religion, into
France and Switzerland and Italy and Germany,
of which last country the English Boniface became
the ‘apostle.’ Not that the externals of Christianity
were non-existent at an earlier time. In France, for
example, these noble missionaries had to do with
the So a introduced by the Romans; but the
pure faith was now represented by a corrupt clergy
ministering to dissolute nobles and neglecting an
enslaved people. Then they had to do with the
recent invaders, who were partly heathen and
partly Arian. Sad to sa , the missionaries seem to
ve suffered less from the heathens than from the
Arians, less from the Arians than from the ortho-
dox, and, among the orthodox, less from the
arcae enh than from the nobles, and most of all
the clergy, or from others at their instigation.
What the Irish and Scots did for Europe in the
earlier middle ages the Nestorians about the same
time attempted, with no less zeal, though with
less success, for Asia. Condemned as a heretic
by a council held at Ephesus in the 5th vervaeet h
estorius (q.v.) was banished from Constantinople
to Egypt. rom that time onwards, for five cen-
turies the Nestorians carried on extensive and not
unsuccessful missionary operations in central Asia,
and founded churches, some of which exist in a lan-
guishing condition to this day, whilst others recog-
nised papal authority in the later medieval cen-
turies. The Nestorian Tartar Church seems to have
subsisted under a succession of ecclesiastics (see
PRESTER JOHN) until the country was devastated
is Khan. The Nestorians either intro-
Boca eae c rea res =
ous ed, i by the apostle
Thomas. There can be Ga teameable doubt that
in the 7th century they through Tartary
into China, that founded churches there, that
they were at least tolerated and probably subsidised
by successive emperors till the end of the 9th cen-
tury, when, with a revolution or change of dynasty,
the system of intolerance was introduced.
In the later medieval centuries the missionary
work was mainly in the hands of the great Roman
orders, the Dominicans (q.v.) and the Franciscans
a , especially the latter. Their work was
sly among the Mussulmans of Spain, North
and western Asia, Las Casas (q.v.)
earned the title of ‘apostle of the Indians.’
(ce) Modern Missions.—The Jesuit order was
immediately after the Reformation,
avowedly for the purpose of retrieving the disaster
which great event had caused to the Church
of Rome. By far the most distinguished of the
early Jesuit missionaries was Francis Xavier (q.v.).
Unquestionably Xavier was no ordinary man; it
is, however, evident even from the eulogies passed
on him by his admirers that he did not make any
spiritual impression on the minds of the people of
India and Japan, though he consolida the
Portuguese mission in India and helped to open
China and Ja to missionary effort. After the
labours of Ricci and Schall there are said to
have been in China 300,000 Catholics in 1663.
For the Jesuit 18th-century missions in Paraguay,
see JESUITS, PARAGUAY. Notes on the Catholic
missions in Japan and Corea will be found in the
articles on these countries. There is a separate
article on the Propaganda (q.v.). The Missiones
Catholice states that the number of European
missionaries belonging to the Roman Catholic
Church in 1886 was 2800, of mission adherents
nearly 2,800,000; in India there being 1,180,000,
in Indo-China over 500,000, nearly 500,000 in
China, 210,000 in Africa, and over 100,000 in
Oceania.
The Reformation was a great preparation for
evangelistic work, but the Reformation period
was not distinctively a missionary period. This
was not merely, though it might be in part, be-
cause the hands of the Reformers were full of
the work which they had to do at home. It is
to be remembered that the nations which had
foreign relations, foreign traffic, and foreign pos-
sessions were Spain and Portugal, in which the
Reformation got no firm hold. But it must be
admitted that the Reformers did not rightly appre-
hend the commission to preach the gospel to every
creature. When Luther, therefore, has occasion to
refer to that text, he tacitly assumes that its re-
quirement is fulfilled when the gospel, as distin-
guished from Romanism, is preached to the nations
of Europe. In the 16th and 17th centuries, there-
fore, we find no more than sporadic and ill-sustained
efforts after mission-work among Jews or heathens.
Leibnitz, indeed, anticipated the conception of a
later age, and may welts regarded as the har-
binger of modern missions, even as, along with
Newton, he is honoured as the harbinger of modern
science. It was natural that the needs of the
English colonies should first attract the interest of
Englishmen to foreign parts; the life labours of Jolin
Eliot, ‘the Indian apostle’ (1604-90), were carried
ont under the auspices of the Corporation for the
Sea of the Gospel in New England. The
on. Robert Boyle, first governor of that society,
contributed to the translation of the gospels into
Malay, and left a bequest for foreign missions.
Bishop Berkeley laboured for the foundation of a
missionary —— in Bermuda; and it was mainly
for the spiritual wants of the American colonies
that the Roeiety for the Pro tion of the Gospel
in Foreign Parts was founded in 1701; its first
missionary to India sailed in 1818.
Early in the 18th century the first Protestant
mission was sent to India. It was projected
by the king of Denmark, having probably been
suggested to him by his chaplain, Dr Liitkens.
At first, and for a long time, Germany supplied
the missionaries; but the pecuniary support of
the mission soon devolved upon England, Prince
George of Denmark, the husband of Queen Anne,
having recommended the object to the Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge. Among many
noble men who have been engaged in this mission
the most notable is Schwartz, who probably ob-
tained an influence over all classes of the people of
India such as no other European ever possessed.
While all the Protestant churches of Europe and
America are now engaged in missionary work,
there is one chureh which is distinguished from all
232
MISSIONS
the rest by this, that it is simply a missionary
institute. Other churches make their missionary
work subordinate to their pastoral functions; the
Moravians or Unitas Fratrum have lon
the conduct of missions as the end of their being.
There is not in the history of human enterprise a
more interesting chapter than that which relates
the missionary works of the Moravians from their
first beginnings in St Thomas and in Greenland to
their latest undertaking in the Tibetan Hima-
layas.
To William Carey belongs the high distinction
of having been the first to inculcate effectually
“upon British Protestants the duty and the privi-
lege of missions, and the first English Protes-
tant to engage personally in the work. He and
his coadjutors were noble men, and had to contend
not only with heathen prejudices, but also with
the timid policy of the rulers of India. The battle
which fell to them to fight had to be fought once
for all; and it is due to their singular discretion
and their inflexible determination that it was
fought so well. These men made Serampore a
classic spot, and amid all the henge material
and spiritual, which have come over India in these
t years, and the greater changes which a near
future will certainly effect, the names of Carey
and Marshman and Ward will be held in ever-
Frowing, veneration. Carey went to India in 1793;
enry Martyn’s labours lay between 1805 and
1812. In 1795 the London Missionary Societ;
was formed, and began its work by the despatch
to the South Seas of the ship Duff with a large
body of missionaries, For a long time the mission
was not successful; but after a time it met with
t success, and now there are many of the islands
in which heathenism has long been extinct. The
London society cordially welcomed numerous fellow-
labourers from England, Scotland, Germany, and
America, and most presets f consented to a division
of the islands which they could not have been much
blamed if they had claimed as their own. It may
be noted in passing that these small islands have
contributed to a disproportional extent to the
enrichment of mission literature. It is t
of the common creed of mankind that truth i is
stranger than fiction, but is not generally so
attractive. Yet in our day there have not ap
more fascinating books than Williams's Missionary
Ley awe Miss Yonge’s life of Bishop Patteson,
and Mr Paton’s narrative of his own work and that
of his brethren in the New Hebrides.
The societies of the Church of England are the
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, High
Church (1701), and the Church Missionary Society
(1799). The English Nonconformists are repre-
sen in the mission-field all over the world by
agents of the London (1795), the Baptist (1792),
and the Wesleyan Missionary Societies (1817).
The Americans are not behind in the good work.
The American Board of Missions (1810) and the
‘American Presbyterian Board are great organisa-
tions, whose agents are doing most effective work
in many fields; while the Baptists have good reason
to rejoice in their Burmese Mission (1813), The
Methodist er al Church came more recentl
into the field (1819), but set about its work wit
characteristic energy. Zenana missions are a special
department of Indian missions. The efforts of the
Salvation Army (q.v.) in the foreign field deserve
mention. Missions to the Jews have a’ peculiar
interest for many Christians; and home missions
are an integral part of church work at home,
The Evangelical body in Germany is, in propor-
tion to its strength, most creditably evangelistic.
By means of many institutions they have trained
and sent forth a large number of missionaries, some
of whom have been men of extensive scholar-
ship, but the ter proportion men of earnest
piety, able and willing to endure hardness, as
yood soldiers of Jesus Christ. The Rationalisti
party in Germany have not shown much zeal in
the mission cause.
The Scottish missions differ from the others in
this, that they are conducted by the churches as
such, without the intervention of societies. The
Established, the Free, and the United Presbyterian
Churches have extensive missions in India, Afri
China, the South Seas, and Japan.
Presbyterian Church has an extensive and suc-
cessful mission in China. The Presbyterian bodies
cherish the memories of Duff and Wilson and
Anderson in India, and of William Burns and
Carstairs Douglas in China.
The following table, based on the calculations
of the American Board, will give an idea of the
extent of Christian missions (other than Roman
Catholic) in 1890.
« or Mi Chri Income in
Churches, r £ Sterling.
Great Pritain........ 23 2053 1,361,028 £932,156
Ss ae 3u 2127 742,832 781,393
Switzerland f-=""-37 bas sures: UT
Countries. Fv 8 9% 25,427
tal os ote. 78 5440 2,448,629 £1,879,399
The Chureh Missionary Society’s income is more
than twice that of any other English society.
The mode of carrying on missionary operations
by the various bodies is essentially one, though, of
course, modified by circumstances. f recent
years ‘medical missions’ have been found to be a
valuable, and in some cases an_indispensab
adjunct to the other agencies. The missions o
the Scottish churches have employed education as
an evangelistic power to a greater extent than the
other bodies. Such institutions as the Christian
College at Madras, the mission station at Blantyre,
and the Free Church Institution at Lovedale in
South Africa are producing a great effect on the
minds of the people.
The success of missionary work in our day is not
such as either to elate or to discourage the friends
of missions. : The actual 8 aa of the world
may be taken as fifteen hundred millions, of whom
about four hundred millions are _professedly
Christians. Thus, not so much as a third part of
the world is evangelised. But then it should be
considered that an immense amount of preparatory
work has been accomplished ; and also that great
national movements often reverse in a few years
the aspect of affairs. In our own time we have
seen such reversals in Madagascar and the Fiji
Islands and Japan. In China we have seen a
change, in the freedom with which the gospel can
be preached, which our fathers, and indeed onr-
selves at one time, would have considered simply
impossible. All are convinced that in India there
must come ere long a mighty change; and the
friends of the gospel earnestly hope that that
change will be favourable to the cause of Christ.
Some account of mission operations are given in the
articles on the countries where missions have had con-
spicuous success (Fist, JAPAN, &c.); there are also bio-
graphical notices of the most eminent missionaries
reat Carey, Livinestone, Durr, Hannineron, &e.).
works on missions by Marslall (1863), Rufus
Anderson (Yew York, 1869), R. Grundemann’s Afissions-
atlas (Gotha, 1867-70; and Calw, 1884), Christlieb (2.1 ed.
1880), Young (1881), P. sowie Seer York, 1883), H.
Gundert (2d ed. Calw, 1886), Warneck (Eng. trans. by
T. Smith, 1884), George Smith (1884; new ed. 1890);
on Catholic missions, Henrion’s Histoire des Missions
Catholiques, and Durand’s Missions Catholiques Fran-
¢aises ; works on special missions ; the numerous mission-
ary journals and year-books ; and the lives of the notable
English —
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MISSISSIPPI
MISSISSIPPI-MISSOURI 233
missionaries. Buddhism (q.v.), especially in its earliest
wera, ose Mohammedanism (q.v.) have been grouped
with Christianity as missionary religions, in contradistine-
tion to Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and Brahmanism. See
Max-Miiller’s papers on missions in Chips from a German
Workshop, vol. iv.
Mississippi, a state of the American Union
sham on = re a Mexico, lies west of Ala-
a south of Tennessee,
and is bounded W. by the Missis- | 1900 tn the 0.3. oy 3: bs
sippi. Length N. toS.,335 miles; | MPrineott Company.
width, 150 miles. Area, 46,810sq.m. The surface,
except in the Yazoo delta, is generally hilly, though
now mountainous, the highest hills being only
800 feet above the sea-level. There are three distinct
watersheds; the eastern counties are drained by
the eaitence and its tributaries ; the Pearl, Pasea-
goula, Escatawpa with their affluents drain
central and south-eastern portion; and the
Homochitto, Big Black, and Yazoo carry the water
of the western and northern counties into the Missis-
— The Orange-sand formation ( Post-Tertiary,
to 60 and even 200 feet thick) characterises the
| sere portion of the surface of the state, and
i the main body of the hills and ridges. It is
“oa ihaigeeo aay with hydrated peroxide of iron,
or yellow ochre, and presents an endless variety of
tints. Ferruginous sandstones, capping the tops
of hills and thereby preventing denudation, are
found in all sections covered by the Orange-sand
formation. Gravel beds also abound, as’ well as
beds of pipeclay, and of ochreous elays used for
paints; and there are also vast beds of lignite of
excellent quality, and marls which are used as
ingredients of commercial fertilisers. There are
inineral springs in different portions of the state.
eee is essentially an agricultural state.
The north-eastern prairie region, 70 miles long
and from 15 to 20 wide, with its fertile, black,
caleareous soil, contains much of the best farming
and grazing land in the state. There are no
springs here, but cisterns dug in the rotten lime-
stone, bored wells, and artesian wells furnish
ample water. In the north the bottom lands lee
numerous creeks and rivers especially are wel
adapted to agriculture; while in the central
portion stock-raising is carried on, and in the
“pkg pe region large herds of sheep are raised.
ellow pine ranks first among the forest trees
of Mississippi; it extends northward from the
coast for 150 miles. The Yazoo Delta, em-
bracing the elliptical area of alluvial bottoms
between the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers, extend-
ing from Vicksburg to the state line on the north,
has until within recent years been subject to
inundations ; but levees now protect the lands, and
the rise in the Mississippi in 1890—the highest and
most prolonged ever known—left the levees un-
broken except in four places which together were
less than a mile in extent. Less than 15 per cent.
of the delta was overflowed. The delta’s drainage
flows into lakes, small but numerous, which form
the head-waters of other bayous, and through them
after miles of meandering find outlets into the
Yazoo and other streams. The delta contains 44
millions of acres of alluvial land, only 500,000 acres
of which are under cultivation. Virgin forests of
hardwoods cover the rest. For the state, the an-
nual production of cotton is about 1,150,000 bales,
of corn 28,000,000 bushels, and of oats 4,000,000 -
bushels. The fruits and vegetables shipped in 1890
were valued at $1,000,000. This industry flourishes
in the central and southern portions.
The winters in Mississippi are short and mild, the
mean temperature 45° F. ; the summers are devoid
of intense heat, the mean 81°, seldom reaching
100°, Ice from one to two inches thick forms in
the part of the state. The elevation of
the surface and the Gulf breezes render the climate
oo eae most of the year. The annual
rainfall ran, rom 48 to 58 inches. The death-
rate is very low—12°9 in 1000.
Mississippi sends eight representatives to con-
gress. The state legislature is composed of 145
representatives and 45 senators, elected quadren-
nially. There are three supreme judges, ap-
pointed for nine years by the governor, and cirenit
and chancery judges, appointed for four years.
The public schools are maintained four months
annually by the state, but forty towns and cities
maintain graded schools for ten months a year.
Separate schools are maintained for the coloured
race. There are enrolled 148,435 white and 173,552
coloured children: average daily attendance—
white, 90,716; coloured, 101,710. The state supports
the university at Oxford (1844), agricultural and
mechanical coll at Starkville (1878), industrial
institute and college at Columbus (1884; for white
girls), a college for coloured youth at Rodney,
and anormal school at Holly Springs, for training
coloured teachers. There are also private uni-
versities and colleges, for both white and coloured
youth, besides 155 high schools and academies.
Institutions for the deaf and dumb (100) and the
blind (50) are at Jackson, the capital; there also
are the state penitentiary (500) and the lunatic
asylum (550). 3
History.—Mississippi was first settled by the
French, and constituted a part of Louisiana. ° Iber-
ville planted the first colony at Biloxi in 1699.
It was ceded to Great Britain in 1763; was ad-
mitted into the Union as a state, December 10,
1817; seceded January 9, 1861 (principal battles
during the civil war, Corinth, Baker’s Creek,
Holly Spring, Iuka, siege of Vicksburg); was re-
admitted into the Union, 1869. In 1897 there were
2595 miles of railway in the state. Vicksburg,
Greenville, and Natchez are principal ports on the
pag oo River, and Pascagoula and Biloxi on
the Gulf. Cotton-factories are located at Wesson
(value 3 millions), Columbus, Natehez, Enterprise,
Meridian, Water Valley, Carrollton, and Corinth;
wood-factories at Jackson and Meridian. Pop.
(1820) 75,448 ; (1880) 1,131,597 ; (1890) 1,289,600,
over one-half of African blood ; (1900) 1,551,270.
Mississ i-Missouri. The Mississippi River
(Algonkin, Missi Sipi, — ing ‘Great River’)
is the largest river of North | copvrignt 1901, 1897, and
America, and is wholly within | 1900 in the .'s. bys. 8.
the boundaries of the United | “Prizcett Company.
States. It drains most of the territory between
the Rocky and Alleghany Mountains, embracing
an area of 1,257,545 sq. m., or more than two-fifths
of the area of the United States. This basin in-
cludes the minor basins : Lower Mississippi, 65,646
. m.; Red River, 92,721; Arkansas, 184,742;
issonri, 527,690; Upper Mississippi, 179,635 ;
Ohio, 207,111. There are 41 other navigable tribu-
taries, and 200 more of moderate size. The total
length of the Mississippi is 2960 miles, of which 2161
are navigable ; but the Missouri afiluent is longer
than the Upper Mississippi, and with the lower
river aggregates 4200 miles, the longest river in the
world, and in commercial facilities the greatest.
The total navigable waters amount to 16,090 miles.
The source of the Mississippi is Lake Itasca in
the north-west central part of Minnesota, about 7
miles long by 1 to 3 wide, which has, however,
several feeders, the principal being Elk or Glazier,
Lake. The remotest springs of Itasea rise in 47°
34’ N. lat. and 95° 20’ W. long., and are 1680 feet
above sea-level. As it issues from this lake the
Mississippi is about 12 feet wide and 18 inches
deep. Through pine-forests and swamps for hun-
Seeds of miles it winds from lake to lake, with
frequent rapids and picturesque falls, until, 1200
234 MISSISSIPPI-MISSOURI
MISSISSIPPI SCHEME
feet wide, at the city of Minneapolis it plunges
over the Falls of St Anthony. This point is the
head of river-navigation, though in various reaches
above small steamboats ply. After receiving the
St Croix, the Mississippi mes the boundary
between the states of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri,
Arkansas, and Louisiana on the right, and Wis-
consin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missis-
sippi on the left. Its frequent rapids within
Minnesote are due to the granite bed, but sand-
stone prevails farther down, to Rock Island,
Illinois. On the Wisconsin boundary the river
expands into Lake Pepin, and thereafter, fully a
mile wide, flows between bluffs 200 and 300 feet
high, and sometimes through dense forests. At
Roek Island there are rapids with 22 feet of fall,
and 125 miles farther down are the Des Moines
rapids with 24 feet of fall. Around these obstruc-
tions to navigation the United States government
has constructed ship-canals, The entrance of the
turbid Missouri produces a marked change in the
character of the river; for several miles the diverse
waters refuse to mingle, the Missouri's muddy
tribute taking the mght bank and the Upper
Mississippi’s clear stream the left. When the
union is complete, the whole river has henceforth
a light yellowish colour, modified somewhat by the
Ohio's nish water and more by the reddish
water of the Arkansas and Red. From the mouth
of the Ohio the trongh of the Mississippi is about
4470 feet wide, but as it approaches the Red it is
narrowed to 3000 feet, and at New Orleans is 2500
feet. The usual depth of the channel southward
from the Ohio is from 75 to 100 feet, and its surface
is sometimes higher than the country beyond its
banks. In fact, from the Missouri to the Gulf the
Mississippi rolls in serpentine course through vast
alluvial tracts or ‘bottoms,’ whose width varies
from 30 to 150 miles. Their total area, including
those along tributary streams, is variously esti-
mated from 29,790 to 41,193 sq. m. Though of
unsurpassed fertility, scarcely one-tenth of these
lands are cultivated owing to the dangers of the
annual overflow. The melting of the ice and snow
in the upper basin swells the lower current from
Mareh to June. Levees or embankments, largely
built by the government, now extend for more than
1600 miles. Between the Ohio and the Red rivers
extraordinary floods, rising from 47 to 51 feet,
occur about once in ten years, making ‘ crevasses’
in the levees, and doing immense damage. In these
great floods the river has been known to spread over
a tract of 150 miles. Below the Red River the
waters are discharged through numerons ‘ bayous’
into the Gulf of Mexico, 1e main channel runs
south-eastward, and finally divides into five or six
passes, the power a being the south, the north-
east, and the south-west; the last is in 28° 58°5’ N.
lat. and 89° 10’ W. long.
The mean velocity of the Lower Mississippi is 24
miles per hour. The yearly discharge into the
Gulf is — 145 cubic miles; the sedimentary
‘matter carried with this would form a prism 1 mile
nare and 263 feet high, while the amount pushed
long the bottom of the channel would make
another 1 mile square and 27 feet high. These vast
deposits and the constant changes caused by floods
tend to embarrass the entrance to the great river.
To keep an open channel, at least 20 feet deep
Captain Eads (q.v.) contracted with the United
States government to erect and maintain a system
of jetties at the South Pass, The construction was
begun in 1875, and has proved highly successful, a
depth moray J 30 feet having been maintained,
The month of the Mississippi is essentially tideless.
The principal cities on the great river are Minne-
lis, St Paul, La Crosse, Dubuque, Keoknk,
Saieey, Hannibal, St Louis, Memphis, and New
Orleans, at several of which the river is crossed by
railway nodes Two of these have been con-
structed (1867-74 and 1889-90) at St. Louis, and
one was opened at Memphis in 1892.
See Humphreys & Abbot’s Physics and Hydraulics
of the Mississippi River ( Phila. 1861), and Commerce and
‘avigation of the Mississippi (Washington, 1888).
Missourt River (‘ Big Muddy’), the ne
branch of the Missiscipnt River is formort ne
confluence of the Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison
rivers, at Gallatin City, Montana, 4132 feet above
the sea-level. These rivers rise in the Rocky
Mountains, close to the sources of the Columbia
and Colorado rivers, and to the Continental Divide.
The Madison has the remotest source in a small
lake of the same name in Yellowstone National
Park in Wyoming, 44° 19’ N. lat. and 110° 50’ W.
long., at an elevation of 7632 feet. This river
flows north-west and north to the junction of the
Three Forks. The Missouri then flows northward,
skirting the main range of the Rocky Mountains,
and, after passing through a gorge called ‘ The Gate
of the Mountains,’ turns to the north-east and
reaches Fort Benton, the head of navigation, 225
miles from Gallatin City. About 40 miles above
Fort Benton are the Great Falls, where the river
descends 327 feet in 15 miles by a series of cata-
racts, the highest having a perpendicular fall of
87 feet. From Fort Benton the course is easterly,
the river being flanked by bluffs about a mile —
until it passes the rapids 400 miles below, when
the valley opens to a width of 10 miles. The Milk
River is its first large tributary, but at the
boundary of North Dakota the still larger Yellow-
stone joins it. The Yellowstone also rises in the
National Park, and flows at first over cataracts and
through cafions until it emerges in a more level
country. It is 1152 miles long, and has the general
characteristics of the Missou From its junction,
which is the head of navigation in the low-water
season, the Missouri flows through North Dakota,
east and then south-east to Bismarck (1610 feet
above sea-level), where it is crossed by the splendid
bridge of the Northern Pacific Railroad, irough
South Dakota the south-easterly course continues
to Sioux City, whence flowing south the river
lecomes the boundary between Nebraska and
Kansas on the right and Iowa and Missouri on
the left. On receiving the tributary Kansas the
stream turns to the east, and flowing across the
state of Missouri pours its muddy waters into the
channel of the Mississippi, 20 miles above St Louis.
The Missouri is 3047 miles long, of which 2682
are called navigable, but owing to its tortuous,
treacherous, and obstructed channel navigation is
attended with t risks. The growing cities on
its banks forsake the use of the river for commer-
cial purposes and depend on the railways. In 1866
there were seventy-one steamers in active service
in that part within the state of Missouri, but
twenty years later the number had diminished to
seven steamers and three tow-boats. The chief
towns on the banks are Bismarck, Yankton, Sioux
City, Omaha, Council Bluffs, Nebraska City, St
Joseph, Atchison, Leavenworth, and Kansas City.
Mississippi Scheme, projected in France by
John Law (q.v.) of Lauriston in 1717, pores to
develop the resources of the province of Louisiana
and the country bordering on the a The
company, incorporated as Com, ie des Indes
Occidentales, started with a capital of 200,000
shares, of 500 livres each, Shares were eagerly
bought ; and when, in 1719, the company obtained
the monopoly of trading to the East Indies, China,
the Sout fees, and all the ions of the
French East India Company, the brilliant vision
opened up to the public gaze was irresistible. The
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MISSIVE
MISSOURI 235
Compagnie des Indes, as it was now called, created
50,000 additional shares, but a rage for speculation
had seized all classes, and there were at least
300,000 applicants for the new shares, which con-
uently went up to an enormous premium. The
public enthusiasm now rose to absolute frenzy, and
w’s house and the street in front of it were
daily crowded with applicants of both sexes and of
all ranks ; and while confidence lasted a factitious
impulse was given to trade in Paris. But the
regent had meanwhile caused the paper circulation
of the national bank to be increased as the
Mississippi stock rose in value, and many wary
tors, obese a crisis, had secretly con-
verted their paper and shares into gold, which they
transmitted to England or Belgium for security.
The increasing scarcity of gold and silver becoming
felt, a general run was made on the bank. The
Mississippi stock now fell considerably, and despite
sundry pana: efforts, which were attended with
momentary su to keep up its credit, it con-
tinued to fall steadily and rapidly. In February
1720 the National Bank and the Compagnie des
Indes were amalgamated, but, though this gave an
oes turn to the share-market, it failed to put
the public credit on a sound basis. Several useless
attempts were made by Law, now controller-
neral of the finances, to mend matters; and
ose ny arg of having more than a limited
amount (fixed by a law passed at the time) of gold
and silver in their possession, or of having removed
it from the country, were punished with the utmost
rigour. The crisis came at last. In July 1720 the
bank stopped payment, and Law was compelled
to flee the country. A share in the Mississippi
Scheme now with difficulty brought twenty-four
livres. An examination into the state of tue
accounts of the company was ordered by govern-
ment; much of the paper in circulation was
cancelled ; and the rest was converted into ‘ rentes’
at an enormous sacrifice. See LAw (JOHN), and
books there cited.
Missive, in Scotch law, is a memorandum.
Missolonghi ( Mesolongion), a seaport town of
Greece, in the nomarchy of #tolia, on the northern
shore of the Gulf of Patras, 24 miles W. of Lepanto.
A modern place, built on a swampy flat, it is
suffering, its garrison, reduced from 5000 to
through the
ranks them a great
number of the women and children. The Turks
then entered the town, which was all but totally
destroyed. There is a statue (1835) over the grave
of Bozzaris, and another (1881) of Lord Byron, on
the spot where his heart is interred. Pop. 6324.
Missouri, a central state of the American
Union, which for three decades has ranked fifth in
| pd population, lies between
and 30’ N. lat., and 89° | 1900 in the v.'s. by J.B.
2’ and 95° 51’ W. Jong., and oc- ! Lippincott Company.
en a commanding position in the Mississippi
eater. It is 280 salles long from N., to §., cad
gradually increases in width from 208 miles in the
north to 312 miles in the south. Area, 69,415
sq. m., or nearly that of Scotland, Ireland,
and Wales. The Missouri River divides the state
into two unequal sections, designated ‘North
Missouri’ and ‘South Missouri’ respectively.
That part of the state lying north of the Missouri
River is epeeaey level or mcs wh undulating, con-
sisting of rolling prairies and level bottom lands,
Copyright 1891, 1897, and
diversified with a luxuriant growth of timber along
the streams. The southern section has a more
diversitied surface, deriving its distinctive features
from the Ozark Mountains, which cover about one-
half of this division. These mountains enter the
state from north-western Arkansas, and extend
across the state to the Mississippi River; through-
out the greater part of their length they may very
propery be classed as tablelands, reaching their
ighest altitude (1500 feet) in Greene and Webster
counties, and gradually breaking up into narrow
ridges, spurs, knobs, and peaks farther east. The
entire eastern limit of the state is washed by the
Mississippi River, with a water front of 560 miles,
while the Missonri River forms the boundary from ,
the extreme north-west corner to Kansas City, and
thence across the state to the Mississippi, with
which it unites just above St Louis. Many smaller
tributaries flow into these two majestic rivers—
into the Mississippi the Fabius, Salt, Cuivre,
Meramec, St Francis, Current, and Black; and
into the Missouri the Nodaway, Platte, Grand
and Chariton on the north, and the Osage an
Gasconade on the south. The general drainage
of the surface is indicated by long gentle slopes
toward the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, except
in the extreme south-west, where the streams flow
into the Arkansas. The climate is genial, agree-
able, and healthful. All the extremes of heat and
cold peculiar to this latitude are experienced ; but
the mean annual temperature is about 54°, and
the mean average rainfall is 41 inches.
Missouri is pre-eminently an agricultural state.
Of the 44,000,000 acres of her land surface more
than 42,000,000 are me to agricultural and
horticultural purposes. The soils are rich, deep,
and unsurpassed in variety and productiveness.
The principal crops are Indian corn (200,000,000
bushels), oats (30,000,000 bushels ), wheat (28,000,000
bushels), potatoes, rye, barley, hemp, flax, cotton,
sorghum, buckwheat, and hay (1,600,000 tons).
Of tobacco a fair crop is 15,000,000 Ib. ; and orchard
pro are grown in great abundance. In the
ecade 1880-90 there was a great increase in the
number of grazing animals, though sheep are not
largely raised. ie immense quantities of dressed
beef and pork shipped annually to home and foreign
markets are constantly increasing.
The mineral resources of Missouri are exceedingly
rich, eee hye extensive coalfields, that cover
more than 20,000 sq. m. ; also vast deposits of iron
ore, lead, and zinc; while copper, cobalt, nickel,
fireclays, fine marble, granite, and limestone of
excellent quality abound in different localities.
The coalfields are capable of yielding 100,000 tons
of bituminous coal a day for several thousand
years ; the actual product for the decade 1887-97
ave about 2,420,000 long tons. The supply of
excellent iron ore is inexhaustible. The iron belt
south of the Missouri River and extending from the
Mississippi River on the east to the Osage River
on the west has an area of 25,000 sq. m. ; but the
richest deposits worked are those in Iron and St
Frangois counties in the south-east. In 1897 23,883
long tons were raised. The Mississippi River on
the eastern border and the Missouri across the state
afford excellent transportation facilities; the rail-
roads aggregated 6649 miles in 1897,
Missouri returns two senators and 16 representa.
tives to ose ey The general assembly (34 state
senators and 140 representatives) meets every two
years. The public-school system is very complete
and very efficient, embracing the state university,
the school of mines, four state normal schools,
and city, town, village, and country schools. All
public schools are supported by state appropria-
tions, local taxation, and interest on the state,
county, and township school funds. Missouri has
236 MISSOURI RIVER MISTRAL
a larger permanent school fund than any other state | plants. The berries are about the size of currants,
of the American Union. The corps of teachers | white, translucent, and full of a very viscid juice,
number 15,000. In addition to the state system
of education there are 30 private academies, semin-
aries, denominational coll and universities,
several of which are of a high order of excellence.
The metropolis of Missouri is St Louis (pop.-
1900, 575,238), One of the greatest railroad, manu-
pace | and commercial centres in the country ;
Kansas City (163,752), St Joseph, S ringfield, Joplin,
Hannibal, alia, Chillicothe, Seine, Moberly,
Boonville, Nevada, Marshall, Kirksville, Carroll-
ton, Lexington, &e., are all thriving cities. Pop.
(1820) 20,845; (1840) 140,455; (1860) 1,182,012;
(1880 ) 2,168,380 ; (1890) 2,679, 184 ; aed] 3,106,665.
History.—Missouri was first explored by De Soto
in 1541-42, and in 1673 Marquette and his followers
visited its eastern border. It formed part of the
‘ Louisiana Purchase’ (see LOUISIANA ), the northern
portion of which in 1805 was organised as the
‘ District of Louisiana.’ It was not till 1812 that
a part of this territory took the name of Missouri.
Tn 1821 Missouri was admitted into the Union,
but the —— limits of the state were not estab-
lished till 1836. Its admission was preceded by a
long and bitter political controversy between the
representatives of the North and South, the former
resisting its entrance as a slave-state. The dis-
cussion resulted in the famous ‘Missouri Com-
promise,’ under which compact it was agreed that
slavery should be for ever excluded from all that
art of Louisiana north of 36° 30’ lat., except
issouri. During the four years of the great civil
war the citizens of Missouri suffered terribly. The
people were nearly equally divided in sentiment,
and both sides prepared for the conflict. The
state furnished 109,111 men for the Union army,
and about three-fourths as many for the other
side: Death and the destruction of property
everywhere prevailed. But when the war ended
the people commenced to build up the waste
places; improvements were extended in all direc-
tions, bitter feelings soon died away, and the
state entered upon an era of singular prosperity.
Missouri River. See Mississippi.
Mist. See Foa.
Mistassini, LAKE, in Labrador, some 300 miles
N. by W. of Quebec, is strictly speaking an expan-
sion of the river Rupert, which flows into the
southern extremity of Hudson Bay. It is 100 miles
long from north-east to south-west by 12 in average
breadth.
Mistletoe. This mystic plant, with its thick,
succulent, yellow-hued foliage, and white, viscous
berries, was ee | a puzzle to botanists, its peculiar
mode of growth having given rise to the most
curious fancies, Its name is most probably from
the Anglo-Saxon mist-el, from mist, ‘ mist,’ ‘ gloom’
(Ger., ‘dung’), and tan, ‘twig.’ The only British
species of this genus of parasitical shrubs is the
‘ommon Mistletoe (Viseum album), a native also
of the greater part of Europe (not of north
England, Scotland, or Ireland), growing on many
kinds of trees, particularly on the apple, and others
botanically allied to it, as the pear, service, and
hawthorn ; sometimes, also, on sycamores, limes,
ge locust-trees, and firs, but very rarely on
oaks (contrary to the common belief), In the
Himalayas the mistletoe grows abundantly on the
apricot-tree, on the vine and loranthns in Italy, on
spruce-firs in France and Switzerland. The ever-
en leaves of the V. album of English woods, with
their yellowish hue, make a wr py newer. appear-
ance in winter among the naked branches of the
trees. The flowers are insignificant, and grow in
small heads at the ends and in the divisions of the
branches, the male and female blossoms on separate
which serves to attach the seeds to branches, where
they take root when they germinate, the radicle
always turning towards the branch, whether on its
Mistletoe (Viscum album).
upper or under side. It may be easily made to
won suitable trees even where not native—as
in Seotland, for example.
The mistletoe was intimately connected with
many of the superstitions of the ancient Ger-
mans and of the British Druids. In the northern
mythology, Balder (q.v.) is said to have been
slain with a spear of mistletoe; and in Holstein
* opts P agianas gy or be of s) ro 4
whieh confers upon its r the power to see
ghosts. ap the Eclts the mistletoe which
grew on the oak was in peculiar esteem for magical
virtues. According to an old tradition the mistletoe
supplied the w for the cross, which until the
time of the crucifixion had been a forest tree, but
was henceforth condemned to exist only as a mere
parasite. Traces of the ancient regard for the
mistletoe still remain in some old English Christ-
mas customs, as kissing under the mistletoe.
The mysterious surrounding of the mistletoe in-
vested it with a widespread importance in old
folklore remedies, the Druids having styled it
Yost as — an ee ~: all eg =
u rs s of it as ‘good for the grief of the
ig Teh, Arann and toothache, the biting of mad
dogs and venomous beasts;’ while Sir Thomas
Browne alludes to its virtues in the cure of epilepsy.
In Sweden a finger-ring made of the mistletoe is an
antidote against sickness, and in France amulets
made of its wood were formerly much worn (see
H. Friend, Flower-lore).—Loranthus Europeus, a
shrub very similar to the mistletoe, but with
flowers in racemes, is plentiful in some parts of
the south of Europe, and very frequently grows
on oaks.—L. odoratus, 2 Nepalese species, has
very f t flowers.—The American mistletoe,
of which there are some half-dozen species, is
similar in general ap ce and habit to the
Euro; » yet differs in so many points as to
justify its being called by a different name, Phora-
dendron. The commonest species is P. flavescens,
found from New Jersey to Mexico.
Mistral (also Mistraou and Maestral), a north-
west wind which at certain seasons of the year
revails on the south coast of France. Its approach
i heralded by a sudden change of the temperature,
from the most genial warmth to piercing cold; the
air is felt to be purer, and more easily inhaled, the
azure of the sky is undimmed by cloud, and the
stars shine by night with extraordinary and spark-
ling brightness. The mistral then comes in sudden
sts, struggling with the local aérial currents, but
its fast-increasing violence soon overcomes all
opposition. Ina Few hours it has dried up the soil,
dispersed the vapours of the atmosphere, and raised
MISTRAL
MITFORD 237
a dangerous tumult among the waters of the
Mediterranean. The mistral blows, at intervals,
with its greatest force from the end of autumn to
the beginning of spring.
Mistral, Freperick, Provengal t, was born
a peasant’s son near Maillaune (dept. Bouches-
du-Rhone), on 8th September 1830, and studied
law at Avignon; but for law he had no liking and
went home to work on the land and write poetry,
as Burns did before him. In 1859 he published the
epic Miréio (7th ed. 1884; Eng. trans. 1890), written
in his native Provencal dialect. This charming
representation of life in southern France made
tral’s name famous throughout the country,
Pet omg for him the poet’s prize of the French
Academy and the cross of the Legion of Honour.
It also led to the formation of the society called
Lou Felibrige, which set itself to create a modern
Provencal literature. In 1867 Mistral published a
second epic, Calendou, and in 1876 a volume of
poems entitled Lis Iselo d’Or (‘Golden Islands’),
songs steeped in the golden sunshine of the Mediter-
ranean and its vine-clad shores. Since then he has
written a novel, Nerto (2d ed. 1884), and issued a
dictionary of the Provencal dialect fe vols, 1878-86),
the preparation of which occupied him many years.
See an article by A. Daudet in the Century (1885).
Mistretta, a town of Sicily, near the north
coast, half-way between Palermo and Messina,
Pop. 12,235.
Mitau, the capital of the Russian government
of Courland, on right bank of the Aa, 27 miles
by rail SW. of Rife. Founded in 1271 by the
grand-master of the Teutonic Knights, and annexed
to Russia in 1795, it has a castle, begun by Biron
in 1738, and now the seat of the governor of the
province, six churches, a museum, &c., with some
very important manufactures, and a trade in
grain and timber. From 1798 to 1807 Mitau
offered an asylum to Louis XVIII. Pop. 29,615,
of whom more than one-half are Germans, and
nearly a fourth Jews.
Mitcham, a village of Surrey, 84 miles by rail
SW. of Victoria Station, London, and callwne
between Wimbledon and Croydon (3 miles from
each), lies in the centre of a district in which
flowers and aromatic herbs (roses, lavender, camo-
mile, &c.) are extensively grown. Pop. 8960.
Mitchel, Joun, an Irish patriot, was born the
son of a Presbyterian minister at Dungiven in
County Derry, 34 November 1815. He studied at
Trinity College, Dublin, and practised several years
as an attorney at Banbridge. Soon after the for-
mation of the Young Ireland party, and the start-
ing of the Nation in 1842, Mitchel began to con-
te, and after the death of Thomas Davis in
1845 he became assistant-editor. But his language
was too violent for the r, and three years later
he started the United Irishman, for his articles in
which he was tried on a charge of ‘treason-felony’
and sentenced to fourteen years’ transportation.
He was sent to Bermnda, and next to Van Diemen’s
Land, whence he made his escape to the United
States in the summer of 1853. In New York he
blished his Jail Journal, or Five Years in British
risons (1854). Next followed a series of short-
lived newspapers, the Citizen, the Southern Citizen,
the Richmond Inquirer, and the Irish Citizen, which
eost him the confidence of many of his American
friends ee hare rgr ee defence of slavery and
the Sou In 1874 he returned unmolested to
Treland, and was elected to parliament for Tip-
Berary, but declared ineligible. Again elected, he
ied at Cork, 20th March 1875.
Of his books may be mentioned a Life of Hugh
ONeill, Prince of Ulster (1845); and History of Ireland
from the Treaty of Limerick (1868); besides editions of
the poems of Thomas Davis (1856) and James C, Mangan
ot See the Life of him by William Dillon (2 vols.
).
Mitchell, capital of Davison county, South
Dakota, 70 miles by rail W. of Sioux Falls, has a
foundry and machine-shop, flour-mills, packing-
house, &e. Pop. 4055.
Mitchell, Donatp Grant, an American
author, many of whose works have appeared under
the pen-name of ‘Ik Marvel,’ was born in Norwich,
Connecticut, 12th April 1822, was in 1853 appointed
consul at Venice, in 1868-69 editor of the Atlantic
Monthly, but is better known as the proprietor of
a farm—Edgewood—near New Haven, about which
he has written several: delightful books. Amon
his other works are Revertes of a Bachelor an
Dream Life (1850-51 ; new eds, 1889) ; a novel, Dr
Johns (1866); and English Lands, Letters, and
Kings, from Celt to Tudor (1889).
Mitchelstown, a market-town of County Cork,
Ireland, 11 miles N. of Fermoy, became for a time a
familiar name in the political war-cry ‘ Remember
Mitchelstown.’ On 9th September 1887, at a
Nationalist meeting, the le refused to allow
the government shorthand-writer to approach the
speakers. The police endeavoured to make a way
for him, but were resisted by the crowd. A riot
ensued, on which the police fired, and two men
were shot dead. In the immediate vicinity of
the town is Mitchelstown Castle, the mansion of
the Earls of Kingston, and 74 miles to the north-
east there are extensive stalactite caves, discovered
in 1853. Pop. 2367.
Mite. See AcARINA, CHEESE-MITE.
Mitford, Mary Russet, born at Alresford,
Hants, 16th December 1787, was the only child of
a physician, a selfish, extravagant man, who spent
several fortunes, and was always in debt. A few
years after his marriage he moved to Lyme Regis,
and thence to London. On Mary’s tenth birthday
he took her to a lottery office, and bought her a
ticket. She chose a particular number which drew
a prize of £20,000. hile this money lasted she
was sent to a good school in Chelsea, and Dr
Mitford built himself a large house near Reading.
Here Mary returned when she was fifteen, a clever,
accomplished girl, devoted to her parents, a great
reader, and fond of gardening. Her first volume of
poems Feo in 1810, and was followed in 1811
and 1812 by two other poems. In 1820, as the
family became more and more impoverished, they
were obliged to move to a cottage at Three Mile
Cross, near Reading, and at length the need came
for Miss Mitford to write to earn money. She
wrote for magazines, and ody for the stage. Four
of her t ies, Julian, The Foscari, Rienzi, and
Charles I., were acted; the three first met with
success, but they have not kept the stage. Her
true line was describing what she saw around her
in a series of sketches of country manners, scenery,
and character. These little essays were rejected
by several London editors, but at length found a
ace in the London Magazine, and were published
in a collected form in 1824 under the name of Our
Village, the series of five volumes peng completed
in 1832, Few would think, as they read this ‘ play-
ful prose,’ with what toil and anxiety it was
written. Dr Mitford died in 1842, leaving his affairs
in such a state that a subscription was started to
enable his daughter to pay his debts; which was
soon followed by a pension from the crown. In
1851 Miss Mitford moved to a cottage in Swallow-
field, a vill close by, where she spent the rest
of her life. pn 1852 she published Recollections of
a Literary Life, and in 1854 a novel, Atherton
and other Tales. She died 10th January 1855, and
was buried at Swallowfield. Her sketches are
238 MITFORD
MITHRIDATES
charming ; she describes homely scenes and people
with the skill of an artist, and the humour and
kindliness of a clever, true-hearted woman. See
Life by L’Estrange (3 vols. 1878), and his Friend-
ships of Mary Russell Mitford (1882).
Mitford, WiL.1AM, was born in London, 10th
February 1744, entered Queen’s College, Oxford,
but left without adegree. In 1761 he suceeeded to
the family estate of Exbury near the New Forest,
and in 1769 became a captain in the South Hamp-
shire Militia, of which Gibbon was then major. By
Gibbon’s advice and encow ment he was induced
to undertake his History of Greece (5 vols. 1784-
1818). It is a pugnacious, opinionative, one-sided,
and even fanatical production. The author is an
intense hater of democracy, and can see in Philip
of Macedon nothing but a great statesman, in
Demosthenes nothing but a noisy demagogue.
Yet his zeal, which so often led him astray, also
urged him, for the very purpose of substantiating
his views, to search more minutely and critically
than his predecessors into certain portions of Greek
history, and the result was that Mitford’s work
held the highest place in the ee of scholars
until the appearance of Thirlwall and Grote. He
sat in parliament from 1783 to 1818, and died at
Exbury, 8th February 1827.
See the Memoir prefixed to the 7th edition of his
History (1838), by his brother John Fr Mitford
Ey age — was cert gag ony of Ireland poe
1806, and was raised ie peerage as
Redesdale.
Mithras, or MirHra, a Perso-Iranian divinity
whose worship, after passing through several
changes and transformations, spread itself for a
time far beyond the limits of its native seat. In
the Zendavesta, or sacred writings of the ancient
Persians, Mithras appears as chief of the Izeds or
d genii, the god of the heavenly light and the
ord of all countries. Protector and supporter of
man in this life, he watehes over his soul in the
next, defending it against the spirits of evil. In
the dualism of Zoroaster he fights as an invincible
hero on the side of the principle of good, Ahura-
Mazda or Ormuzd, in his eternal struggle with his
rival BS edigstoes tr or Ahriman. At this —
the qualities attributed to Mithras had probably
only a moral signification. Afterwards, as the
political power of the Persians increased and their
religion grew, by the natural processes of develop-
ment and absorption, more ritualistic and com-
posite, Mithras me the sun-god and was re-
presented by the orb of day, which was wor-
shipped in his name. By degrees his importance
increased till he had scarcely a rival in the Persian
pantheon. Unfortunately, owing to the almost
entire destruction of the early religious literature
of the East by the fanaticism of the followers of
Mohammed, our knowledge of Mithraism as the
dominant religion of its day is indirect and vague.
Too great reliance is not to be placed on the specu-
Jations in which some modern writers such as
— indulge regarding it. But it would seem
to have been, in its ultimate form at least, a system
of secret rites and mysteries. For admission to
these the aspirant was prepared by a series of trials
of a severe description. He then underwent initia-
tion, which, when duly and completely performed,
comprised seven, or according to others twelve,
degrees or successive steps, symbolically marked
by the names of certain birds and animals. Baptism
and the partaking of a mystical liquid, consisting
of flour and water, to be drunk with the utterance
of sacred formulas, are also said to have been among
the inaugurative acts. Most of the ceremonies
through which the devotee had thus to pass were
of an extraordinary and even dangerous character.
In spite, however, of all this rigour, Mithraism must
have had attractions of no ordinary kind. Intro-
duced into Rome in 68 achat | some Cilician pirates
whom Pompey had captured and whose national
religion it was, it rapidly spread gat the
greater part of the empire. The well-known
taurine tablets sculptu in bas-relief are the
most interesting of its monuments that have come
down to our time, There is a fine example in the
British Museum, and others are to be seen in the
principal museums of Europe. Mithras now appears
as a tiful youth, dressed in Bhd mer garb,
kneeling upon a bull, into whose neck he plunges
a dagger, Surrounding the group are various
emblems, a scorpion, a serpent, a dog, a raven, a
crescent, and others, to which an astronomical or
an allegorical meaning has been variously assigned.
Caves in the living rock were often the scene of
this sacrifice of the bull; but it was also per-
formed in small temples or Mithreums, one of the
most perfect of which was discovered in Ostia
by the Cavaliere Lanciani (see Atheneum, Nov,
6, 1886). The floor and walls of this chapel are
lined with mosaics representing the twelve signs
of the zodiac, and the course of the planets, and
containing allusions to the rites of Mithras. Tablets
found at Housesteads in the Roman wall and at
York are proof of the presence of Mithraism in
Britain, to which it had doubtless been brought
by the legionaries. Having come into collision
with Christianity, it was formal] rid zheng by the
prefect Gracclius 378 A> me St Jerome speaks
of it as being still practised in his time.
See Montfancon, L’Antiquité Expliquée (Paris, 1719);
Hammer-Purgstall, Mithriaca ou les Mithri
(1833);
Wellbeloved, Kburacum ( York, 1842); Lajard, Recherches
et les Mystéres de Mithra (atlas
sur le Culte Publi
of plates in 1847, letterpress not till 1867); Windisch-
mann, Mithkra (1857).
Mithridates (more properly MITHRADATES;
Persian, ‘ren by Mithras’), the name of seve’
kings of Pontus, Armenia, and Parthia, all of
whom have sunk into insignificance, with the ex-
ception of Mithridates VI. of Pontus, surnamed
Eupator, but more generally known as Mithridates
the Great, He succeeded his father, probably about
120 B.c., while under thirteen years of and
soon after subdued the tribes who bordered on the
Euxine as far as the Chersonesus Taurica (Crimea),
The jealous behaviour of the Romans, and the
romptings of his own ambitious spirit, now incited
fim to invade oF ef gens and Bithynia, but a
wholesome fear of the power of the great republic
induced him to restore his conquests. The First
Mithridatic War was commenced by the king of
Bithynia (88 B.c.), who, at the instigation of the
Romans, invaded Pontus. The generals of Mithri-
dates re ly defeated the Asiatic levies of the
Romans, and he himself took possession of Bithynia,
Cappadocia, Phrygia, and the Roman possessions in
Asia Minor, He also sent three powerful armies to
aid the Greeks. He was, however, driven from Per-
gamus (85 B.C.) by Flavius Fimbria, and reduced
to the necessity of making peace with Sulla, re-
linquishing all his conquests in Asia, giving u
70 war-galleys to the Romans, and paying
talents. The wanton aggressions of Murena, the
Roman legate, gave rise to the Second Mithridatic
War ( 1 B.c.), in which Mithridates was wholly
successful, In 74 B.c. he invaded Bithynia, com-
mencing the Third Mithridatic War. He obtained
the services of Roman officers of the Marian party,
and his arms were at first prosperous; but after-
wards the Roman consul Lucullus compelled him
to take refuge with Tigranes of Armenia (72 B.C.)
Lucullus then conquered Pontus, defeated Tigranes
Ny B.C.) at Tigranocerta, and both T es and
ithridates at Artaxata (68 B.C.). ithridates,
however, recovered possession of Pontus. After
MITRAILLEUSE
MNEMONICS 239
the war had lingered for some time, Pomee com-
leted the work of Lucullus (66 B.c.), sleating
ithridates on the Euphrates, and compelling him
to flee to his territories on the Cinmerian Bosporus.
Here his indomitable spirit prompted him to fon a
new scheme of vengeance, which was, however,
frustrated by the rebellion of his son, Pharnaces,
who ae him in Panticapzeum. Deeming his
cause hopeless, Mithridates put an end to his own
life (63 8.c.). Mithridates was a specimen of the
true eastern despot, possessing great ability and
extraordi energy and perseverance. He had
received a Greek education at Sinope, is said
to have ken the twenty-two languages and
dialects of his subject-peoples, and made a great
collection of pictures, statues, and engraved gems.
Mitrailleuse. See Macuine Guns
Mitral Valve. See Hearr.
Mitre (Lat. mitra, also infula), the head-dress
- worn by bishops in solemn church services. The
2 name, as probably the ornament itself, is borrowed
; from the orien’
is, although, in its peas form,
it is not in use in the Greek Church, or in
any other of the churches of the various eastern
rites. The western mitre is a tall, tongue-shaped
cap, terminating in a twofold point, which is sup-
‘ to symbolise the
‘cloven tongues,’ in the
form of which the Holy
Ghost was imparted to
the aponiiee, and is fur-
nished with two flaps,
which fall behind over the
shoulders. Opinion is
much divided as to the
date at which the mitre
first came into use.
Eusebins, Gregory — of
Nazianzus, _ Epiphanius,
k of an ornamented head-dress,
in the church; but the cleft mitre does not
H seem to have heen known till the 12th century.
4
4
a
The material used in the manufacture of the mitre
is very various, often consisting of most costly
stuffs, studded with gold and precious stones.
The mitre of the pope is of quite a different form,
and is called by the name Tiara (q.v.). Although
the mitre properly belongs to bishops only, its use
has been permitted by special privilege to certain
abbots, to provosts of some distinguished cathedral
chapters, and to a few other dignitaries.
In the English Church, since the Reformation,
the mitre was no longer a of the episcopal
costume till 1885, when it was resumed by the
Bishop of Lincoln ; but it:is placed over the shield
of an archbishop or bishop, instead of a crest. The
Bishops of Durham surround their mitre with a
ducal coronet, in consequence of their having been
till 1836 Counts Palatine of Durham.
Mitscherlich, E1mHanrp, chemist, was born at
Neuende, near Jever in Oldenburg, Germany, on
7th January 1794, and died at Schineberg near
Berlin on 28th August 1863. At the university of
Heidelberg (1811-13) he devoted himself to phil-
especially to Persian. At this time of his
life his ambition was to go to Persia, and for this
end he visited Paris and to study medicine
in een after 1814. ut whilst studying
medicine, his deepest interest was arrested by the
sciences of frology and mineralogy, chemistry and
ork in the Berlin laboratory in 1819
him to discover the law of Isomorphism {< a¥e)s
Berzelius invited the young chemist to Stoc boi
(ten). from which city he returned (1822) to fill
the of Chemistry at Berlin. One of his
earliest discoveries after his appointment was that
of the double crystalline form of sulphur, one of
the first observed cases of Dimorphism (q.v.). His
i dy agua regarding the production of artificial
minerals, and his memoirs on benzene and the
formation of ether, must also be noted. His princi-
pal work is Lehrbuch der Chemie (2 vols. 1829-35 ;
4th ed. 1840-48 ; 5th begun in 1855, but not com-
pleted). See Memoir by Rose (Berlin, 1864).
Mittweida, a town of Saxony, 11 miles by rail
. by E. of Chemnitz, has an engineers’ and a
weavers’ school, and manufactures linen, woollen,
and cotton goods. Pop. (1890) 11,298.
Mitylene. See Leszos.
Miv St GrorGe, F.R.S., born 1827, was
educated for the bar, but devoted himself to
the biological sciences. In 1874-84 he acted as
rofessor of Zoology and Biology at the Roman
atholic University College in Kensington, and in
1890 was appointed to the chair of Philosophy of
Natural History at Louvain. He was an able and
zealous opponent of the ‘ Natural Selection’ theory.
Among his works are The Genesis of Species (1871),
Manand Apes(1873), Contemporary Evolution(1874),
Lessons Nature (1876), The Cat (1881), Nature
and Thought (1883), The Origin of Human Reason
(1889), Birds (1892), Types of Animal Life (1893),
Introduction to the Elements of Science (1894). He
died Ist April 1900.
Mixed Marriages. See Marricg, p. 58.
Mizen, the sternmost of the masts in a three-
masted vessel. See SHIPBUILDING.
Mnemonies (Gk. mnémon, ‘ mindful’), the art
of assisting the memory. Even ordinary recollec-
tion, according to Cicero, is not purely spontaneous
or natural, but has some element of artificial sug-
tion, something to prompt the mind. To recall
in the future a fact or fi , We associate it now
with something else which is more to our hand;
and afterwards the mental reproduction or actual
presentation of the latter will give a suggestion of
the former, in accordance with the psychological
‘law of — The number 31415926536
seems to a schoolboy hard of recollection till he is
shown its importance in connection with certain
ratios—when measuring a circle, ellipse, sphere,
or cone, &c,—and then taught the phrase But I
must awhile end tor right the ratios.
Each word in that mnemonic sentence supplies,
by the number of its letters, a corresponding figure
ob the ratio to be remembered. What association
has the date 871 with King Alfred? None what-
ever, directly; but if those digits immediately
appear as ami by a scheme which the pupil has
ready accepted or invented, then a clue or link-
word is furnished to serve for a lifetime: a = 8,
m=7, t=1. Of the surface of our globe 734
thousandths are water, and by the same mnemo-
techny 734 becomes mer, so that the fact is per-
manently registered for ready use. The earth’s
diameter and circumference measure 7926 and
24,900 respectively, which numbers to that mnemo-
technist read mnts and trn, suggesting the phrase
‘minutes turn’ and the association that time is
measured by the earth's rotation. The list
bijou, joujou, chou, genou, caillou, hibou, in
French grammars, gives another familiar instance
where recollection would to many be impossible
without some artificial association. The following
serves that purpose by stringing the words to-
gether—‘ Finding a jewel in the garden, he made a
toy of it, and jumping about he tripped against a
cabbage and hurt his knee on a flint, whilst the owl
overhead hooted derisively.’~ Some rhythmical
mnemotechnic contrivances have been used for
: one, for example, which, notwithstanding the
enormous multiplication of printed calendars, still
survives is—‘ Thirty days hath September,’ &c.
240 MNEMONICS
MOA
The Latin student is thankful for the mnemonic
rhyme
In March, July, October, May,
The ides are on the fifteenth day,
The nones I on the seventh lay ;
The rest thirteenth and fifth alway;
and for centuries no text-book on logic has
omitted the five hexameter lines renin Celar-
ent, &c.) which compress the doctrine of the
syllogism into a marvellous minimum of space.
In these, however, as well as in the case of those
numberless Latin verses over which so much
time was till recently spent in our grammar-
schools, the only help afforded is from the associa-
tion of the sounds of certain barbarous dactyls
and spondees in the ear. The perfection of
mnemotechny is when there is an association by
sense or natural s tiveness. The thought of
A will frequently bring Z to the mind sooner than
B, because there is something not only not similar
but grotesquely dissimilar in the ideas they awaken.
Whoever practises the art of memory with success
always selects unconsciously such associations as
are best suited to the situation from his own point
- reg and thus the art cannot be imparted in
e
The value of mnemotechny under certain aspects
is incontestable, considering that many in every
class of life are constantly applying some method
of storing and then utilising their knowledge. The
art is, however, to be distinguished from the general
faculty—memory, which is the essential and dis-
tinctive faculty of ‘mind.’ As such it depends
not only on attention (as philosophers have ever
taught), but on the healthy action of the nervous
system and general physique, assisted perhaps in
some individuals by a certain plastic and assimi-
lative brain-power. Cicero = pee of the art of
artificial memory, and probably applied the topical
method (to be mentioned presently) in some of his
elaborate speeches; but Quintilian implies (Jnst.
xi. 2, 40) that to remember a subject properly we
must master it in all its details, Practice and
labour, he affirms, constitute the real mnemotechny :
the best method of learning much by heart is i
long, and if possible, daily study. The aim in sue
a case, however, was widely different from that
which is now generally sought by using artificial
memory.
The topical mnemonics (Gr. topos, ‘ place’) of the
ancients is adapted for recalling in order the pk
ments and illustrations of a public s h, or the
succession of ideas in a poem or narrative. Besides
the Roman writers, it is referred to by Plato and
Aristotle, and was attributed to Simonides the
Greek poet, who died 469 B.c. The speaker having
selected, for example, a house with which he is so
familiar as to remember well the position, not only
of each room and passage, but of all the prominent
objects in every room, associates as vividly as pos-
sible the introduction of his discourse with the
entrance-hall, and systematically assigns thought
after thought to the chief points there visible. The
first main division of his ope may then be iden-
tified, as it were, with the dining-room; and every
piece of furniture, every picture, &e., be judiciously
utilised for recalling the succession of arguments
with their illustrations and results, The second
main division may then be associated in like
manner with the drawing-room, and everything in
it if need be; and thus for the rest of his discourse,
till the successive rooms, statues, and windows,
&c. are pressed into service, and all the series of
his thoughts passed under review. The —
is that to recall a series of ideas they can
associated more easily with familiar (and, as it
were, visible) objects or places than with each
other, Another form of topical mnemotechny was
based on imagining the four walls of each room,
and its floor, to be each divided into nine places,
and a distinct object—such as a particular ena
picture, or —to be inseparably
with each place. When these objects are
thoroughly known so as to be promptly and fault-
lessly recalled, then the mnemotechnist who has a
succession of things to be remembered assigns them
to a particular room and compels himself to detect
some association, no matter how incongruous, be-
tween each of them and one of the ‘ hieroglyphs’
which are to serve as memorial links.
Many minor systems for learning dates and
detached numbers have been on that of
Gregor von Feinaigle, a German who lectured in
London, 1811. His scheme was
1 S- 8) 4/28) Ce renee eae
t¢ a m & ¥F 16 -3. 7984S
Forth was founded in 547,
and by Feinaigle’s scheme that date becomes
irk, , inserting vowels we form the mnemonic
words lark, lurk, large, lyric, Alaric, &e., any one
of which the historical student may choose to suit
his notions of King Ida the Flamebearer, so as to
remember the date of his landing in Yorkshire.
Another student, for the same date, might
la race, la rage, &c., or Lat. lorica (* cuirass’
The following system (1730), that of Richard
Grey, D.D. (1 1771), does not require, like
Feinaigle’s, the insertion of arbitrary vowels, and
is therefore not so elastic :
2 Se. Se Oe SE, Be 0
| ee Oe eee oa) “Ee, See Zz
a e i o uu au oi ei ou Yy
A recent mnemotechnist, Dr Pick, has improved
Feinaigle’s method by introducing a principle not
unlike that which we have noted in describing the
topical systems, Given a list of detached words—
e.g. ‘garden, hair, watchman, philosophy,’ &¢.—
they can be recalled in order by inserting between
each pair a connective word which links them or
forms a bridge. Thus, garden, maidenhair fern ;
hair, bonnet ; watchman, wake, study ; philosophy,
&c. Other mnemoteclinists have Schenkel,
1547; Aimé Paris, 1833; Karl Otto, 1840; Gour-
aud, 1845; and Loisette. ms fs — was reall
a modification of that of Winckelmann, whic
attracted the notice of Leibnitz and gave him the
suggestion of a universal alphabet.
Mnemo’'syné, in Greek Mythology, the dangh-
of Uranus, and mother of the nine muses by
Zeus, The principal seat of her worship was at
Eleuthere, in Bootia.
Moa(Dinornis, ‘ monstrous bird’), the name given
by the Maoris to a genus of extinct ostrich-like birds
that inhabited New Zealand and, to a Jess extent,
Anstralia, It is supposed that none has been seen
alive since about the middle of the 18th century,
but the Maoris have many traditions relating to
them, and moa-hunting was a ised sport.
Their bones have been found in t numbers
imbedded in the sands of the shore, and of lakes,
swamps, and river-beds. A few remains of
have also been found, and one nearly complete one
containing a young bird ; the were about 10
inches long and 7 broad. Feathers and a part of
the neck with muscles and skin attached have been
discovered, There were several species of various
size, the smallest about 2 feet, the | t about
14 feet in height. Their chief peculiarity was the
entire absence of wings, not even the smallest
rudiments having been found ; associated with this
MOABITES MOBILE 241
was the great size and weight of the legs, the bones | Moab, mentioned in 2 Kings, iii., referring to his
of which and of the toes were in one species almost | successful revolt against the king of Israel. The
elephantine.
There was an
allied —
Z ealled Palap-
teryx which
the
rudiments of
wings and a
fourth toe,
which was ab-
sent in moa,
They are most
nearly repre-
sented at pres-
ent by the
genus Ap-
teryx, whose
relative size
may be seen
in the figure.
Moabi
a agp
e, who
Pihabited the
bleak and
mountainous
country east of the lower part of the Jordan and
of the Dead divided into two portions by
the deep bed of the Arnon. Their capitals were
Ar-Moab and Kir-Moab, both south of the Arnon,
but their kings often resided in their native
nates as Mesha in Dibon. Their sovereign
| ivinity was Chemosh, and patriotism was an
ry essential part of their oo They were ethno-
ly cognate with the Hebrews, and were com-
to become tribu to David, but about
B.c. shook off their allegiance to the Jewish
kings, and afterwards took part with the Chaldeans
pi against the Jews. Their name no longer exists,
and the remnants of the people have long been
included among the Arabs. The most striking
feature about the country in modern times is the
immense number of rude stone monuments with
which it is covered. Major Conder found no
fewer than a thousand of these of the usual varieties
dolmens, menhirs, circles, and alignments) familiar
the British Isles and Brittany, occurring in dis-
tinct centres, usually with a cairn at the top of the
nearest hill. He rejects the sepulture theory, and
‘ believes the dolmens to have been altars. The
menhirs were anciently objects of worship, anointed
with oil, or smeared with blood, and such a series
of ali ge = Genes — = those = -
may be sup; to be offerings of pil-
grims to this shrine. For the po-natied Moniits
pottery, which Shapira sueceeded in selling to the
government for nearly £3000, see an
account by M. Clermont-Ganneau, who detected
the imposture, in Les Fraudes archéologigues en
Palestine (1885); see also Conder’s Heth and Moab:
E. tions in 1881-82 (1883).
MOABITE STONE, a stone bearing an inscription of
thirty-four lines in Hebrew-Phcenician letters, was
discovered by the Rev. F. Klein in 1868 among the
rains of Dhibén, the ancient Dibon. The stone was
id of black basalt, rounded at the top and bottom, 2
| 5 feet broad, 3 feet 10 inches high, and 144 inches in
___ thiekness, but was unfortunately broken up by the
_ Arabs, whose cupidity had been aroused by the
ad indisereet eagerness to nire it shown by M.
_ Clermont-Gannean. The nents were after-
wards collected and laborionsly fitted into their
rte places by means of imperfect squeezes made
; the stone was broken, and the monument
now stands in the Louvre at Paris. The inseription
was — to be a record of Mesha, king of
ee
ry =
. _ 7
etme me ot i lmeeinae emls) ee
VIDOWVII*
44 boy ly 2ak14792
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The Moabite Stone.
(From Dr Ginsburg’s monograph.)
characters of the inscription are Phcenician (see
ALPHABET), and form a link between those of the
Baal Lebanon inscription (10th century) and those
of the Siloam text.
See Dr Ginsburg’s Moabite Stone (2d ed. 1871);
Héron de Villefosse’s monograph, Notice des Monuments
provenants de la Palestine (1876), contains a biblio-
aphy of books and papers written on this subject.
adings are given by Clermont-Ganneau in the Revue
Critique for 1875, by Profs. RK. Smend and A. Socin of
Tiibingen in their monograph, Die Inschrift des Kinigs
Mesa von Moab fiir Akademische Vorlesunyen (Freiburg,
i. B., 1886), and Dr A. Neubauer in Records of the
Past (new series, vol. ii. 1889).
Moawiya. See Cauir, Vol. II. p. 648.
Moberly, a city of Randolph county, Missouri,
148 miles by rail WNw. of St Lonis, is an im-
portant railway junction, and the dep6t of a rich
coal country. It has large railway-shops, rope-
walks, and foundries. Pop. (1900) 8012,
Mobile, the principal city and only seaport of
Alabama, is situated on the west side of Mobile
River, and at the head of Mobile Bay, which opens
into the Gulf of Mexico, and is defended by Fort
Morgan. It is 141 miles by rail ENE. of New
Orleans, and is built with broad shaded streets on
a sandy plain, rising gradually from the river. It
has a fine custom-house and post-oflice (1859), a city
hall and market-house (1857), a Roman Catholic
cathedral and over thirty other churches, several
asylums and hospitals, a medical college, a Jesuit
college, and a convent and school. Mobile contains
242 MOBILIER
MOCKING-BIRD
a floating dry-dock and several shipyards, foundries,
cotton and cottonseed-oil mills, a tannery, a manu-
factory of chewing-gum, numerous cigar-factories,
&e. Before the war the chief business was the
export of cotton; but since then this trade has
shrunk almost to one-third of its former propor-
tions, while the export of timber has increased.
Mobile was settled by the French in 1702, and was
a Spanish town until 1813, and its population still
shows traces of this Latin origin. In 1879 the
city limits were curtailed somewhat. Pop. (1870)
32,034 ; (1890) 31,076 ; (1900) 38,469.
Mobilier, Créprr. On the 18th November
1852 the French government sanctioned the
statutes of a new bank under the name of the
Société Générale de Crédit Mobilier. The name
was intended as a contrast to the Sociétés de Crédit
Foncier (see Crépir Foncrer), which are of the
nature of land banks, and advance money on the
security of real or immovable property ; while the
Crédit Mobilier proposed to give similar aid to the
owners of movable property. The declared object
of this bank is especially to promote industrial
enterprises of all kinds, such as the construction of
railways, sinking of mines, &e. Various privil
were conferred upon it under its charter; in especial,
it was allowed to acquire shares in public com-
panies, and to pay the calls made upon it in a, 1
of such shares, by its own obligations (or bonds) ;
also to sell or give in security all shares thus
acquired. The operations of the society were con-
ducted =m a very extensive scale, In 1854 it
subscribed largely to the government loan on
account of the Russian war, to the Grand Central
Railway Company, to the General Omnibus Com-
pany of Paris, and to various other important
undertakin The dividend for this year was 12
per cent. in 1855 it lent two sums to the govern-
ment—the one of 250 and the other of 375 millions
of francs. Its operations were vast during this
year, and the dividends declared amounted to 40
per cent. The directors had not hitherto availed
themselves of their privilege of issuing their own
obligations, but this they now resolved on doing.
They proposed to issue two kinds—the one at short
dates, the other at long dates, and redeemable by
instalments. The pro issue was to amount
to 240 millions of frances, but the public became
alarmed at the prospect of so vast an issue of
bonds, so that, in March 1856, the French govern-
ment deemed it necessary to prohibit the carrying
out of the proposed scheme. This was a severe
blow to the institution. In 1856 its dividends did
not exceed 22 per cent. ; in 1857 they were only
5 per cent. Several attempts had been made to
resuscitate its credit, but failed. On 12th Novem-
ber 1871 it was reorganised, the assets of the first
society being reported at 48 million francs. In
1878 the capital was reduced from 80 millions to
32, and in 1879 raised in to 40 millions.
Another reduction of capital was made in 1884—
"30 million franes.—On the model of the Crédit
Mobilier, companies were organised in England,
Holland, America, and elsewhere. The Crédit
Mobilier, Limited, was established in London
on 29th March 1864. It amalgamated on 30th
September of the same year with the Crédit
Foncier as the Crédit Foncier and Mobilier
of England, Limited; and on the reorganisa-
tion of that company in 1866 the words ‘and
Mobilier’ were dropped. The Crédit Mobilier has
undoubtedly been useful, but its operations have
been hazardons, public advantages being gained at
the expense of private losses.
Mobilisation, a word for the act of making
an army ready for taking the field. The process
consists in bringing the various units to war
strength by calling in reserve men, in organising
the staff of bi es, divisions, and army corps,
constituting the commissariat, medical, and trans-
port services, and in accumulating provisions and
munitions. As the work of mo illsing an army
causes great and inevitable expense, it is only
resorted to when hostilities appear imminent,
Moceasin, the shoe of the North American
Indian, made all of soft hide, and often ornamented.
—The Moceasin Snake (Toxicophis piscivorus) of
North America is a brown-coloured poisonous
swamp snake ; the skin is marked with black bars.
Mocha, a seaport, and once the capital of
Yemen in Arabia, is situated on the Red Sea,
130 miles WNW. of Aden. From early in the
16th century until the middle of the 17th Mocha
was the pote from which the coffee of Yemen was
rincipally exported; hence called Mocha coffee.
t is now a decayed place. Pop. 5000.
Mocha Stones are pieces of agate or of
chalcedony, containing dendritic infiltrations, ofter
assuming appearances very like finely ramified con-
fervie, kc. They were first brought to Europe from
Mocha. Of the same nature with Mocha stones are
Moss Agates.
Mocking-bird, or MockinG-THRUSH (Mimus),
a venus of birds of the family Turdide, order Pas-
seres, having a more elongated form than the true
thrushes, a longer tail, shorter wings, and the
a= se =i wens
=
Mocking-bird (Mimus polyglottus).
upper mandible more curved at the be Twenty
species are known, ranging from Canada to Pata-
nia, and from the West Indies to the Galaj
slands, The best-known species, the mocking.
bird of the United States (JM. polyglottus), is
about the size of the song-thrush ; the upper
of a dark brownish ash colour, the wings and tail
nearly black, the under parts brownish white. The
mocking-bird is common in almost all pe of
America, from the south of New England to
Brazil; north of the Delaware it is only a sum-
mer visitant, but in more southern regions it is
found at all seasons. It is one of the most common
birds of the West Indies, and its exquisite son
fills the groves with melody by night, for whic
reason it is there very generally known as the
nightingale. By day the mocking-bird is generally
imitative, excelling all birds in its power of imita-
tion, now taking up the song of one bird, and now
of another, and often deceiving the most practised
ear by its perfect: performance. By night its song
is for the most part natural. It does not confine
itself, however, to musical strains: it seems to take
equal pleasure in repeating the harshest cries of
the feathered tribes, and in domestication readily
adds to its accomplishments the imitation of almost
any sound which it is accustomed to hear, passing
from one to another with great rapidity, so as tc
re
re ae meats)
ns gt
ee Te wen ety Me
re
ee ee
MOCK ORANGE
MCSIA 243
Ce pe an incomparable medley. The mocking-
ird readily learns to whistle a tune, even of con-
siderable length, but there is no well-authenticated
instance of its imitating the human voice. The
barking of a dog, the mewing of a cat, the crowing
of a cock, the cackling of a hen, the creaking of a
wheel-barrow are all within the compass of its
powers. During its performances it spreads its
wings, expands its tail, and throws itself about,
as if full of enthusiasm and enjoyment. The
mocking-bird is vocal at all seasons of the year.
It enjoys almost everywhere the protection of man,
and often makes its nest in a tree or bush close
beside a house. The nest is rudely constructed
of dried sticks, withered leaves an , and
lined internally with fibrous roots. ne eggs are
of a short ovoid form, and of a light-green colour
spotted with amber. For the first brood from four
to six are laid; for the second, four or five; and
when there is a third brood, seldom more than
three. The first brood is hatched about the middle
of April. The male is extremely attentive to his
mate, and manifests extraordinary con in driv-
ing away enemies from the nest. Mocking-birds
often assemble on such occasions, and birds of
prey, far superior to them in size and strength,
are compelled to retreat. Snakes are killed by
reiterated blows on the head, and cats learn to
consider the vicinity of a mocking-bird’s nest un-
safe. The food of the mocking-bird consists chiefly
of berries and insects. The mocking-bird is easily
reared by the hand if removed early from the nest,
but it is said that it never attains in captivity the
same wealth of song as in its free state. Another
pie of mocking-bird is found in the Rocky
untains, and ies of the same genus are
among the finest song-birds of the temperate parts
of South America.
Mock Orange, 4 name applied in England to
the Syringa (4-v. ), and in the United States to the
Prunus caroliniana, a small evergreen resembling
the cherry-laure..
Mode, a name given to the ecclesiastical scales
formulated ly St Ambrose and St Gregory (see
HARMONY, PLAIN-SONG). For Major and Minor
Modes, sec SCALE, DORIAN and LYDIAN, HARMONY.
Modelling. See Clay, Porrery, ScuLPTURE.
Mod’ena (anc. Mutina), capital of the former
duchy of Modena, stands on a broad plain in
Rinthece Italy, 23 miles by rail NW. of Bologna.
FoR (1881) 31,053; of commune (1893), 64,900. It
extensive ramparts, long since converted into
promenades, and has fine streets, many of them
areaded both sides. The ancient Via AZmilia
divides it into the old and new city. The cathe-
dral of St Geminianus, a Romanesque building,
was begun, at the instance of the famous Countess
ti in 1099, and has a fine facade; its cam-
— is one of the great towers of Italy. The
ucal (now royal) palace, a picturesque struc-
ture of the 17th century, has an infinity of
galleries, courts, and marble arches, and contains
the Este library of 90,000 volumes and 3000 MSS.,
the Este archives, collections of coins, and the
sant hg ictures, ineluding works by Guido, the
racci, Guercino, Correggio, and other great
Italian masters. Modena possesses besides a uni-
versity (1678), with 35 teachers and 287 students,
an emy of sciences and arts, an observa-
io, a botanic garden, and military schools. The
manufactured products are silk, leather,
, and cast metals. There is a very lively
trade in agricultural products. Originally an
Etruscan town, Modena was conquered successively
by the Gauls and the Romans, and destroyed
by Constantine the Great, the Goths, and the
Longobards. Charlemagne made it the capital
of a line of counts, The family of Este (q.v.)
became its masters in 1288 ; and in 1452 the reign-
ing marquis was created duke by the Emperor
Frederick HI. During the first half of the 19th
century its dukes pursued a tyrannous reactive
policy against liberalism, and were on more than
one occasion expelled their dominions, finally and
definitively in 1860. The duchy was then incor-
— in the kingdom of Italy, and afterwards
ivided into the provinces of Modena, Reggio, and
Massa-Carrara. Area of province, 994 sq. m.;
pop. (1881) 279,254 ; (1896) 290,446.
Modieca, an inland town of Sicily, 45 miles SW.
of Syracuse, with trade in fruit, oil, wine, and grain.
Pop. 38,390.
Modjeska, HELENA, Polish actress, was born
in Cracow, Toh October 1844, and began to act ina
travelling company in 1861. Four years later she
made a great name at Cracow, and from 1868 to
1876 was the first actress of Warsaw. Then she
settled, with her second husband, near Los Angeles,
California, to try farming; but the enterprise not
succeeding, she returned to the stage, and won a
complete a" 7; as Adrienne Lecouvreur at San
Francisco in 1877, although she acted in English,
of which lenguage she had known nothing seven
months before. She was acknowledged one of the
best of modern emotional actresses, achieving
triumphs, both in the United States and in Great
Britain, in Juliet, Rosalind, Beatrice, and in the
Dame aux Camélias ; but ere long she returned to
farming and bee-keeping in California.
Mod an Indian tribe of Northern Cali-
fornia, which in 1872, after firing on the United
States forces, retreated to the neighbouring lava-
beds, and there defended themselves desperately
till June 1873, killing or wounding 132 of the
troops. Their chief, Captain Jack, and three
others were hanged in October; about a hundred
who had not followed him were permitted to
remain in California, the rest (145) were transferred
to Indian territory.
Modulation, in Music. When in the course ©
of a melody the keynote is changed, and the
original scale altered by the introduction of a new
sharp or flat, such change is called modulation.
Much of the pleasure of music is derived from a
judicious use of modulation. The art of good
modulation from one key to another consists in
the proper choice of intermediate chords. Sudden
transitions, without intermediate chords, should be
employed but sparingly, and in peculiar cireum-
stances.
Moe, JORGEN (1815-82). See AsBJORNSEN.
Mien, a Danish island in the Baltic Sea, at the
south-east end of Zealand. It is 20 miles in length,
and has 13,000 inhabitants.
Meeris, Lake, the ancient Greek name of a
sheet of water in Egypt, now in the province of
Fayyim (q.v.), about 50 miles SW. of Cairo;
extreme length from north-east to south-west, 35
miles. The waters are brackish. In the time of
the Pharaohs the revenue derived from the fisheries
was applied to the maintenance of the queen’s
wardrobe and perfumes.
Moero, or Merv, LAKE, lies SW. of Tanga-
nyika in Central Africa, on 9° 8. lat. and 29° E.
long., and is traversed by the Luapula (see
ConGo). This lake was discovered by Livingstone
in 1868. Its shores yield salt.
Meesia, an ancient Roman province, divided
4 the river Cibrus (Zibritza) into two parts,
the eastern corresponding to the present Bulgaria,
and the western (Mcesia Superior) to Servia.
Its original inhabitants were mostly of Thracian
race. In 75 B.C, the Romans first came into
244 MC&SO-GOTHS
' MOHAMMED
conflict with the Ganlish or Celtic invaders of
the land, who had settled in Western Mesia two
hundred years previously; but they did not con-
uer Western or Upper Mesia until 29 B.c. and
Kastern or Lower Mesia until 15 B.c. To protect
these. provinces from the Dacians and Sarmatians
Bayaud the river, a wall was built and fortified
ts erected — the Danube. The Emperor
Valens permitted the Visigoths to settle in Mesia
in 875 A.D. From the 5th to the 7th century
Western Meesia was colonised by the Slav races
who still occupy it, and Eastern Meesia by the
Bulgarians.
Meeso-Goths, the name given to the Goths
(q.v.) who in the 3d century and in the 5th settled
in Lower Meesia. It was for them that Ulfilas
(q.v.) translated the Scriptures.
Moffat, a pleasant watering-piace and burgh of
barony (1635) in a 3 il Annandale, Dumfriesshire,
51 miles SSW. of pra ee road, and 64 by a
short branch (1883) of the Caledonian Railway. It
lies 370 feet above sea-level, engirt by round grassy
hills (the loftiest, Hartfell, 2651 feet), and in the
midst of delightful scenery, chief features of which
are ‘dark Loch Skene,’ the Grey Mare’s Tail, and
the Devil's Beef-tub. Its mineral springs, the
principal of which, like that of Harrogate, is
saline and sulphurous, have been celebrated since
1653; and its visitors have included Home, Hume,
Carlyle, ‘ Ossian Macpherson,’ Boswell, Blair, Burns,
and William Black. Pop. (1841) 1413; (1881) 2161;
(1891) 2291. See Turnbull’s History of Moffat.
Moffat, Ropert, missionary, was born at
Ormiston, East Lothian, 2lst December 1795.
While following the occupation of a gardener at
High Leigh, Cheshire, in 1815, he offered himself
for the mission-field. His services were accepted
by the London Missionary Society, and he sailed for
South Africa in 1816. He arrived at Capetown in
January 1817, and proceeded northwards beyond the
boundaries of Cape Colony and began his labours
(January 1818) in Great Namaqualand at the kraal
of Afrikaner, a chief who from being a terror to the
neighbouring districts of the colony had embraced
Christianity, and now showed a desire for its pro-
motion. On December 27, 1819, Moffat married
cof Smith (1795-1870), daughter of his former
employer at Dukinfield near Manchester, who proved
a worthy helpmate. He made several journeys
and laboured at various stations before he settled
at Kuruman (1826-70) in Bechuanaland, north of the
Orange River. There he wrought a marvellous work
in reforming the habits of the natives, and Kuru-
man became a centre of Christian light and civil-
isation. Wherever he went he preached the gospel,
and guided the — in the arts of civilised life.
He learned the Sechwana lan , and printed
in it the New Testament (1840), the Old Testament
(1857), and several religious works, Moffat spent
about five years in England (1838-43), where
he had an enthusiastic reception, and published
his Labours and Scenes in South Africa (1842),
which gave a oa description of his missionary
tours and remarkable adventures. In 1843 Moffat
returned to his labours reinforced by other mission-
aries, remaining till 1870, when he finally returned
to England after fifty-four years spent in Africa,
In 1873 he was presented with £5000 in recog-
nition of his great services. He lectured on African
missions in Westminster Abbey in 1875, and in
1881 was entertained at a banquet by the Lord
Mayor of London. He died at the village of
Leigh, Kent, 9th Angust 1883. It may be said
that Moffat’s influence drew Livingstone to Africa ;
it was to Kuruman Livingstone went first, and he
married Mary Moffat. See Lives of Robert and
Mary Moffat, by J. 8. Moffat (1885).
Mofussil (from an Arabic word meaning
€ rate’), a term commonly used by Anglo-
Indians for the rural part of a district as to
the administrative headquarters. Thus in Bengal
the Mofussil means ically the whole province
beyond the city of Caleutta.
Mogador, or Sveira, a seaport 130 miles
WSW. of the city of Morocco. Pop. about 19,000,
of whom 8000 are Jews and 200 Europeans. It
stands on a rocky promontory Sppears a small
island, the channel between which forms the
somewhat indifferent harbour. It is the best
built and most modern town in the empire,
having been laid out in 1760 by Cornut, a French
engineer. On its landward side the place is sur-
rounded by agg sandhills, but the climate is
salubrious, dry, and temperate. In the Kasbah or
Castle, extended in 1865 by the ‘New Kasbah,’
live the governor and other Moorish officials.
nearly all the Christians, the consular corps, and
a number of prover Jews: here also are the
government offices. The Medinah is ae
a Moorish quarter, while the Mellah is allot
to the sorely oppressed Hebrews. M or is
the seat of a considerable trade with the interior,
and next to Tangier is of all the Moroccan ports
the one frequented by most shipping. Caravans
reach it from Timbuktu, and it is the outlet
not only for the cities of Morocco and Demnat,
but for the whole of the Sas country. It ex-
ports almonds, olive-oil, wool, goat-skins, hair,
gum-arabic, beans, lemons (citrons), &e. -
merce is mainly in the Jews’ hands, The chief
ar plas are woollens, cottons, glass, candles, tin
and copper sheets, and hardware generally. Its
manufactures are brass trays, d rs, furniture of
frar wood, woollen cloth, &c. 1e total imports
are on an average worth about £197,000, and the
exports £175,000 per annum, of which — three-
fourths are sent from or taken to Great Britain.
See Brown’s edition of Pellow’s Adventures (1890 ).
Mogileff. See MontLerr.
Moguer, a town and small port of Spain, on the
Rio Tinto, near its mouth, and 8 miles E. of Huelva,
with some trade. Pop. 8322.
Mogul, also spelt Moghul and Mughal, is really
but another form of Mongol. The term ‘great
Mogul’ is the popular designation of the emperor
of Delhi in India. The first Great Mogul was
Baber (q.v.), @ descendant of Timur the Tartar
or Tamerlane (q.v.); he founded the empire in
1526. The dynasty lost its power and territories
to the English in 1765. The last emperor, having
joined the rebels in 1857, died a prisoner in Ran-
goon (1862). See Keene, Moghul Empire (1866).
Mohaces, a market-town of Hungary, on_ the
western arm of the Danube, 37 miles by rail ESE.
of Fiinfkirchen. It is a station for steamboats on
the Danube, and the seat of considerable trade in
wine, coal, timber, and cultural produce, Pop.
14,403. Here, on 29th August 1526, Louis IL. of
Hungary, with 25,000 Hungarians, met the Sultan
Soliman at the head of 200, Turks. The battle
resulted in the disastrous defeat of the Hungarians,
who lost their king, seven bishops, many nobles
and dignitaries, an "tekapes of 22,000 men. Ina
second battle fought ere on August 12, 1687, the
Turks in their turn were defeated by an Austro-
Hungarian army under Charles of Lorraine.
Mohair, the wool of the Angora Goat (q.v.).
Few animals have so beautiful a covering as the
fine, soft, silky, long, and always pure white wool
of this goat. See WooL.
Mohammed (Muhammad, and less correctly
Mahomet ; Arab., * Praised *), the founder of Islam.
He was born about the year 570 A.D., at Mecca,
MOHAMMED
245
and was the son of Abdallah, of the family of the
Hashim, and of Amina, of the family of Zuhra,
both of the powerful tribe of the Koreish, but of
a side-branch only, and therefore of little or
no influence. His father, a poor merchant, died
either before or shortly after Mohammed's birth,
whom his mother is then supposed to have handed
over to a Bedouin woman, to be brought up in the
healthy air of the desert; but in consequence of
the repeated fits of the child, which were ascribed
to demons, the nurse sent him back in his third
ear. When six years old he lost his mother also.
is grandfather, Abd-Al-Muttalib, adopted the
boy; and when, two years later, he too died,
: Mohammed's uncle, Abu Talib, though poor him-
, self, took him into his house, and remained his best
friend and protector throughout his whole life. It
seems that he at first — a scanty livelihood by
tending the flocks of the Meccans. In his twenty-
fifth year he entered the service of a rich widow,
named Khadija, likewise descended from the
Koreish, and accompanied her caravans—in an
inferior capacity, per oe as a camel-driver—thus
p tot
visiting Syria. U at time his cireumstances
were very poor. Suddenly his fortune changed.
The wealthy, but fifteen years older, and twice
widowed Khadija offered him her hand, which he
accepted. She him a son, Al-Kasim—whence
_ Mohammed adopted the name Abn|-Késim—and
four daughters : Zainab, Rukaija, Umm Kulthdm,
and Fatima; and afterwards a second son, whom
he called Abd Manff, after an idol mg
among his tribe. Both his sons died early. Moham-
med continued his merchant’s trade at Mecca, but
long added to the
A black mole between
terwards among the faith-
ful ‘the seal of prophecy.’ In his walk he moved
10 ya body violently, ‘as if descending a moun-
Abont Lees = re eebie cee had pense
trated into the heart rabia, through Syria on the
one hand, and Abyssinia on the other. Jodnines no
less played a prominent in the peninsula, chiefl
in its northern parts, which were dotted over with
Jewish colonies, founded by emigrants after the
destruction of Jerusalem ; and round about Yath-
rib (Medina) remnants of the numerous ancient
sects, dating from the first Christian centuries,
such as Sabi and Mandeans, heightened the
réligious ferment which, shortly before the time of
Mo! med, had begun to move the minds of the
tful. At that time there arose several men
in the Hedjaz who preached the futility of the
ancient creed; with its star-worship, its
OS qr and festive ceremonies, its temples
its fetiches. It had in reality long ceased
to be a living faith; but the great mass of the
perle clung to it as to a sacred inheritance.
y unity of God—the ‘ancient religion of
Abraham “—human ener and judgment
_ t) come were the doctrines porniptes b
these Hanifs (‘converts’), forerunners of Moham-
med; and many, roused by their words, turned
either to Judaisin or to Christianity. The principal
scenes of these missionary labours were Medina,
Taif, and Mecca; this last was then the centre
of pilgrimage to most of the Arabian tribes, and
there, from times immemorial, the KAaba, Mount
Arafat, the Valley of Mina, &c. were held sacred
he Koreish, Mohammed's tribe, having had the
eare of these sanctuaries ever since the 5th century.
It was under these circumstances that Mohammed
felt moved to teach a new faith, which should dis-
pense with idolatry on the one hand, as with
narrow Judaism and corrupt Christianity on the
other. He was forty years of age when he received
the first ‘divine’ communication in the solitude of
the mountain Hiré, near Mecca. Gabriel appeared
to him, and in the name of God commanded him
to preach the true religion. That he was no vulgar
impostor is now generally recognised. What part
his epilepsy, or rather hysteria, had in lis visions
— eee not i to neteoneees — it is-that,
after long an inful soli roodings, some-
thing at times Saoead hin with such fearfully
rapturous vehemence that, during his revelations,
he is said to have roared like a camel, and to have
streamed with perspiration ; his eyes turned red,
and the foam soak on his li The voices ‘he
heard were sometimes those of a bell, sometimes
of a man, sometimes they came in his dreams, or
they were laid in his heart. Waraka, one of his
wife’s relatives, who had embraced Judaism, spoke
to him of the Jewish doctrine, and told him the
story of the patriarchs and Israel, not so much
according to the Bible as to the Midrash; and the
gorgeous hues of the legendary poetry of the latter
seem to have made as deep an impression on
Mohammed’s poetical mind as the doctrine of the
unity of God and the morale of the Old Testa-
ment, together with its civil and religious laws.
Christianity exercised a minor influence upon him.
All his knowledge of the New Testament was con,
fined to a few apocryphal books, and with all his
deep reverence for Jesus, whom he calls the greatest
prophet next to himself, his notions of the Christian
religion and its founder were excessively vague (see
KorAn).
His first revelation he communicated to no
one, it would appear, except to Khadija, to his
Pers hee his stepson Ali, his favourite slave
Zaid, and his friend the prudent and honest Abu
Bekr. His other relatives rejected his teachings
with scorn. Abu Lahab, his uncle, called him a
fool; and Abu Talib, his adoptive father, although
he never ceased, for the honour of his family, to
rae him, yet never professed any belief in
ohammed’s words. In the fourth year of his
mission, however, he had made forty proselytes,
chiefly slaves and people from the lower ranks;
and now first some verses were revealed to him,
commanding him to come forward publicly as a
ee and to defy the scorn of the unbelievers.
e now inveighed against the primeval supersti-
tion of the Meccans, and exhorted them to a pious
and moral life, and to the belief in an all-mighty,
all-wise, everlasting, indivisible, all-just, but
merciful God, who had chosen him as he had
chosen the prophets of the Bible before him, so
to teach mankind that they should escape the
Sheena of hell, and inherit everlasting life.
’s mercy was principally to be obtained by
prayer, fasting, and almsgiving. The belief in the
sacredness of the Kéaba and the ceremonies of the
pilgrimage was too firmly rooted in his and the
people’s minds not to be received into the new
creed ; but certain barbarous habits of the Bedonins,
such as the killing of their new-born daughters,
were unsparingly condemned by Mohammed. The
prohibition of certain kinds of food also belongs
to this first period, when he as yet entirely stood
under the influence of Judaism; the prohibition
of gambling, usury, and wine coming after the
Hegira. Whether he did or did not understand
the art of writing and reading at the commence-
ment of his career is not quite clear; certain it is
that he pretended not to know it, and employed
the services of amanuenses for his Koranic dicta,
246
MOHAMMED
which at first consisted merely of brief, rhymed
sentences in the manner of the ancient Arabic
soothsayers. The Meccans did not object to his
doings ; they considered him a common ‘ poet’ or
‘soothsayer,’ who, moreover, was not in his right
senses, or was simply a liar. Gradually, however,
as the number of his converts increased,they
to more and more attention to his proceedings ;
nik nally, fearing mostly for the sacredness of
Mecca, which the new doctrine ae abolish, they
rose in fierce opposition against the new prophet
and his adherents, who dared ‘to call their ancient
gods idols, and their aneestors fools.’ The Koreish
now demanded that Abu Talib should silence or
surrender his nephew. Abu Talib refused. Many
of the converted slaves and freedmen had to under-
terrible punishments; and others suffered so
much at the hands of their own relatives that
they were fain to revoke their creed. A hundred
believers, on the prophet’s own advice, emigrated
to Abyssinia. Mohammed himself, although pro-
tected by the strong arm of Abu Talib, was yet at
that time so low-spirited and fearful that, before
an assembly of the Koreish, he raised three of the
idols to mediatorial beings between God and man
—a dictum, however, which he next day revoked
as an inspiration of Satan, thereby increasing the
hatred of his adversaries. All the Hashimi family
were now excommunicated, and all except Abu
Lahab retired to Abu Télib’s ravine in the moun-
tains east of Mecca. After two years they were
restored when on the brink of starvation.
A great grief befell Mohammed at this time—his
faithful wife Khadija died, and, shortly afterwards,
his uncle Abu Talib; and, to add to his misery, the
vicissitudes of his career had reduced him by this
time to poverty. An emigration to Taif proved a
failure ; it was with great difficulty that he esca)
with his life. Shortly after his return from Tait he
married Sauda, and he afterwards so increased the
number of his wives that at his death he still left
nine, of whom Ayeshah, the daughter of Abu Bekr,
and Hafsa, the daughter of Omar, are best known.
In the midst of his vain endeavours to find a hear-
ing in his own city, he sueceeded, during a pilgrim-
age, in converting several men from Medina, whose
inhabitants had long been accustomed to hear from
the numerous Jews there the words Revelation,
Prophecy, God’s Word, Messiah. The seed sown
in the minds of these men bore a fruitful harvest.
While he waited for the next pilgrimage he had in
vision his night journey to heaven, the relation of
which caused even his staunchest adherents to smile
at his hallucination. The next pilgrimage brought
twelve, and the third more than seventy adherents
to the new faith from Medina, and with these he
entered into a close alliance. Mohammed now
conceived the plan to seek refuge in the friendly
city of Medina, and about June 622 A.p. he fled
thither. About one hundred families of his faith-
ful flock had preceded him some time before,
accompanied by Abu Bekr, and reached, not with-
out danger, the town, called thence Medinat An-
nabi (‘City of the Prophet’), or Medina (‘City’),
om way of eminence; and irom this flight dates
the Mohammedan Era, the Hegira (q.v.).
Now everything was changed to the advantage of
the prophet and his religion; and if formerly the
incidents of his life are shrouded in comparative
obseurity, they are from this date known often
to their most insignificant details. Formerly a
despised ‘madman or impostor,’ he now assumed
at once the position of highest judge, lawgiver, and
ruler of the city and two most powerful Arabic
tribes. His first care was directed towards the
consolidation of the new worship, and the inner
arrangements in the congregation of his flock ; his
next chief endeavour was to proselytise the numer-
ous Jews who inhabited the city, to whom he made
many im t concessions in the outer ob-
servances of Islam, but he was sorely disappointed
in his hopes to convert them. They ridiculed his
php to be the Messiah, and so enraged him
vy their constant taunts that he soon abrogated his
concessions and became their bitterest adversary up
to the hour of his death. The most important act
in the first year of the Hegira was his permission
to go to war with the enemies of Islam in the name
of —a kind of manifesto chiefly directed pees
the Meccans. Not being able at first to fight his
enemies in open field, he endeavoured to weaken
their — by attacking the caravans of the
Koreish on their way to Syria, Being successful
enough to disturb their trade and to conclude
alliances with the adjoining Bedouin tribes, he at
last dared to break even the peace of the sacred
month of Radjab, and with this the signal to open
warfare was given. A battle, the first, between
314 Moslems and about 600 Meccans was fought
at Badr, in the second year of the Hegira, Decem-
ber 623; the former gained the victory and made
many prisoners. A great number of adventurers
now flocked to Mohammed, and he successfull
continued his expeditions against the Koreish pm
the Jewish tri chiefly the Beni Keinnka, of a
suburb near Medina, whom he sent destitute into
exile; and the Beni Kureidhah of another suburb,
700 of whom he beheaded after the victory, while
the women and children were.sold. In January
625 the Meccans. defeated him at Ohod, where he
was dangerously wounded. The siege of Medina
by the Meccans in 627 was frustrated by Moham-
— ge _ beth pb - 6 —— Be
claimed a public pilgrimage to Mecca. ti
the Meccans did not allow this to be cartialoun
he arr] the still greater advantage that the
concluded a term of peace with him at Hudaibiy
for ten years. He was now allowed to send his
missionaries all over Arabia, and even beyond the
frontiers, without any hindrance; and in the follow-
i ng year he had the satisfaction of celebrating the
pi grimage with 2000 followers for three days un-
istur at Mecca. Short) tg gos durin
his expeditions against the Jews of Chaibar an
Fadak, Mohammed very nearly lost his life: a
Jewess, Zainab by name, a relative of whom had
fallen in the fight inst him, placed a poisoned
piece of roast meat before him, and although he
merely tasted it he yet up to his death suffered
from the effects of the poison. His missionaries
at this time began to his doctrines abroad.
He wrote letters demanding the conversion of
Chosroes II., of Heraclius, of the king.of —s
the Viceroy of Egypt, and the chiefs of seve
Arabic provinces, me received the new gospel,
but Chosroes IL, the king of Persia, and Amru the
Ghassanide rejected his proposals with scorn, and
the latter had the messenger executed in Moab.
This was the cause of the first war between the
Christians and the Moslems, in which the latter
were beaten with great loss by Amru. Some
Meccans having taken part in a war between a
tribe in their alliance and another in Mohammed's
alliance, he marched at the head of 10,000 men
against Mecca before its inhabitants had had time
to prepare for the siege. It surrendered, and Moham-
med was publicly recognised as chief and prophet.
With this the victory of the new religion was
secured in Arabia. While employed in des
all traces of idolatry in the captured city Mohamm
heard of new armies which several warlike Arabic
tribes had concentrated near Taif (630). There
in he was victorious, and now his dominion and
creed extended farther and farther every day. From
all parts flocked the deputations to do h
to him in the name of the various tribes, either as
ee ee” oe ae ee
MOHAMMED
247
the messenger of God or at least as the Prince of
Arabia, the year 8 of the Hegira was therefore
ealled the year of the Deputations. Once more he
made most extensive Ss pene for a war against
the Syrian subjects of Byzantium; but, not being
able to bring together a sufficient army, he had to
be satisfied with the homage of a few minor princes
on his way to the frontiers. Towards the end of
the tenth year of the Hegira he undertook his last
solemn i to Mecca, and there on Mount
Arafat fixed for all time the ceremonies of the
ilgrimage (Hajj); and he again solemnly ex-
Sorted his Laven to righteousness and piety,
and chiefly recommended them to protect the
weak, the poor, and the women, and to abstain
from usury. :
Returned from Mecca, he occupied himself again
with the carrying out of his expedition against
Syria, a necessary aid to religion and patriotism
in keeping his people together, but fell dangerously
ill very soon after his return. One night while
suffering from an attack of fever he went to the
cemetery of Medina and prayed and wept upon the
tombs, ceyperes the dead, and wishing that he him-
self might soon be delivered from the storms of this
world. For a few more days he went about; at
last, too weak further to visit his wives, he chose
the house of Ayeshah, situated near the mosque, as
his abode during his sickness. He continued to
take part in the public prayers as long as he could,
until at last, feeling that his hour had come, he once
more preached to the people recommending Abu
Bekr and Osima the son of Zaid as the generals
whom he had chosen for the army. He then asked
whether he had wronged any one, and read passages
from the Koran preparing the minds of his hearers
for his death and exhorting them to _ among
themselves. A few days afterwards he asked for
writing materials, probably in order to fix his suc-
cessor as chief of the faithful; but Omar, the most
influential of his followers and friends, fearing
he might chose Ali while he himself inclined to
Abu Bekr, would not allow him to be furnished
with them. In his last wanderings he spoke only
of angels and heaven. He died in the a of
bs sg about noon of Monday the 12th (11th)
the third month in the year 11 of the Hegira
(8th June 632). His death caused an immense
excitement and distress among the faithful; and
Omar, who himself would not believe in it, tried
to persuade the people that he was still alive. But
Abu Bekr said to the assembled multitude: ‘Who-
ever on has served Mohammed let him
know that Mohammed is dead; but he who has
served the God of Mohammed let him continue in
service, for He is still alive and never dies.’
While his corpse was yet unburied the quarrels
about his successor, whom he had not detinitely
been able to appoint, commenced; but finally Abu
Bekr received the — of the principal Moslems
at Medina. Moham was then buried in the
night between the 9th and 10th of June, after
long discussions, in the house of Ayeshah, where
he had died, and which afterwards became part of
the eR | mosque,
A man o}
as prephet, preacher, and t also his
—— character, his amiability, his faithfulness
ards friends, his tenderness towards his family,
and the frequent readiness to forgive an enemy must
be taken into consideration, besides the extreme
nee,
simplicity of his domestic life; he lived when
already in full power in a miserable hut, mended
his own clothes, and freed all his slaves. And, to
do him full justice, his melancholic temperament,
his nervousness, which often bordered on frenzy and
brought him to the brink of suicide, and his poetic
temperament must not be forgotten. Altogether
his mind contained the strangest mixture of right
and wrong, of truth and error. Although his self-
chosen mission was the abolition of superstition, he
yet believed in jinns, omens, charms, and dreams—
an additional reason inst the now gescrely
abandoned notion that he was a vulgar designer,
who by no means deceived himself about those
revelations he pretended to have received. And
though the religion of Islam may rightly or wrongly
be considered the bane of eastern states and nations
in our day, it should be remembered that it is not
necessarily Islam that has caused the corruption,
as indeed its ethics are for the most part of a high
order; and in the second place, that Mohammed
is not to be made responsible for all the errors of
his successors. Take him all in all, the history of
humanity has seen few more earnest, noble, and
sincere ‘ prophets,’ men irresistibly impelled by an
inner power to admonish and to teach, and to utter
austere and sublime truths the full purport of which
is often unknown to themselves.
See the Lives in German by Weil (1843), Sprenger
(1861-65), Néldeke (1863), Krehl (vol. i. 1884); in French
by Delaporte (1874); .and Sir W. Muir, Life of Mahomet
4 vols. 1858-61; new ed. 1877), and Mahomet and Islam
1887); also Syed Ameer Ali, C.LE, The Life and Teach-
ings of Mohammed (1890). 2
MoHAMMEDANISM, the religion founded by
Mohammed, or, according to him, the only orthodox
creed existing from the beginning of the world, and
preached by all the prophets ever since Adam. It
is also ed Islam, * Resignation,’ entire Sub-
mission to the will and precepts of God. In its
exclusively dogmatical or theoretical part it is
Iman, ‘¥aith;’ in its practical, Din, ‘ Religion.’
The fundamental principles of the former are con-
tained in the two articles of belief: ‘There is no
God but God; and Mohammed is God's Apostle.’
The Mohammedan doctrine of God's nature and
attributes coincides with the Christian, in so far
as He is by both declared to be the Creator of
all things in heaven and earth, who rules and pre-
serves all things, without beginning, omnipotent,
omniscient, omnipresent, and full of merey. But,
according to the Mohammedan belief, He has no
offspring : ‘ He bo organ. not, nor is He begotten.’
Nor is Jesus called anything but a prophet and
apostle, although His birth is said to have been
due to a miraculous divine operation ; and as the
Koran superseded the Gospel, so Mohammed super-
seded Christ. The crucifixion is said to have been
carried out upon another person, Christ having
been taken up unto God before the decree was put
into execution. Christ will come again upon the
earth to establish everywhere the Moslem religion,
and to be a sign of the coming of the day of judg-
ment. Next to the belief in God, that in angels
forms a prominent dogma. Created of fire, and
endowed with a kind of uncorporeal body, of no
sex, they stand between God and man, adorin. or
waiting upon God, or interceding for and guarding
man, The four chief angels are Gabriel, ‘The Holy
Spirit’ or ‘Angel of Revelations;’ Michael, the
special protector and guardian of the Jews; Raphael
(Azraél, Azrafl), the ‘ Angel of Death ;’ and Uriel
(Israfil), whose office it will be to sound the trumpet
at the Resurrection. Islam borrowed its ideas of the
unseen world from the Persians or from the Jews,
who had borrowed them from the Persians (see
ANGEL). To each human being are appointed two
guardian angels, Besides angels, there are good
and evil genii, the chief of the latter, who are
248
MOHAMMEDANISM
generally called Ifrit, being Tblis (‘ oer, a once
called Azazil, who, refusing to pay homage to
Adam, was rejected by God. These jinn are of a
r fabric than angels, and subject to death.
hey are, in almost every respect, like the Shédim
in the Talmud and Midrash.
264 MOMIEN
a ee
Ye he
MONACHISM
tendency of the action of such a force is to cause
rotation about an‘axis perpendicular to the plane
ing through the point and containing the force.
lus, in the case of a pendulum, the effectiveness
of the force in causing rotation is measured by
the moment W/—where W is the weight of the
pendulum, and / is the distance of the line of action
of the foree W from the centre of rotation C,
or (what comes to the same thing) the distance
of the centre of mass G from the vertical line
through C,
The term moment enters into several other
eae all of which relate either directly or in-
irectly to rotation. Thus, there is the moment of
momentum, or angular momentum, whose rate of
change is the measure of the moment of the force
eaters the change. To obtain it for any given
ody rotating with angular speed w about an axis,
we first imagine the body broken up into a great
many small portions of masses ,77%,%,, &e, at
distances 1,,r2,73, &c. from the axis, multiply the
momentum (mrw) of each mass by its distance,
and then take the sum of all these products. The
angular speed w being the same in every expres-
sion, the moment of momentum takes the sal
w (myr*,+mz*,+ &e.), which it is usual to write
in the symbolic form w2mr*. The quantity 2mr’,
which is the sum of the products of each mass into
the square of its distance from the axis, is called
the Moment of Inertia about that axis. It is the
factor in the moment of momentum, which depends
upon the distribution of matter in the body. It
enters into all questions of mechanics in which
rotation is involved, from the spinning of a top or
the action of an engine governor to the stability of
aship. By an obvious extension, the word moment
is also used in such combinations as moment of a
velocity and moment of an acceleration. Such
phrases correspond to nothing truly dynamic,
unless we regard velocity as meaning the momen-
tum of unit mass, and acceleration as the rate of
change of that momentum. See DyNAMICS, FORCE,
InertIA, Roratron, &e.
MoMENTUM is our modern equivalent of Newton's
uantity of motion (quantitas motus), which in
Definition II. of the Principia is stated to be meas-
ured by the product of the velocity and the mass.
Its dynamic importance is sufliciently discussed
under FORCE.
Momien, a Chinese frontier-town in the ex-
treme west of Yunnan, 135 miles NE. of Bhamo.
See Anderson’s Mandalay to Momien (1876).
Mommsen, THEOpOR, the most learned his-
torian of Rome, was born the son of a pastor at
Garding, in Sleswick, 30th November 1817. He
studied at Kiel, next spent three years traversing
France and Italy in the study of Roman inserip-
tions under commission of the Berlin Academy,
edited awhile the Schleswig-Holsteinische Zeitung,
and in the autumn of 1848 was appointed to a
chair of Jurisprudence at Leipzig, of which two
years later he was deprived for the part he took in
litics. In 1852 he was appointed to the chair of
man Law at Zurich, in 1854 at Breslau, and in
1858 to that of Ancient History at Berlin. Here he
was engaged for many years in editing the monu-
mental Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, projec’
by the Berlin Academy, and commenced in 1863 ;
and in 1873 he was elected perpetual secretary of
the Academy. In 1882 he was tried for slanderin,
Bismarck in an election speech, but was cl
both in the lower court and in that of appeal. His
fine library was burned in 1880, whereupon a
number of English students presented him with a
collection of books to make good at least part of
his loss. Mommsen took a share in the work of
editing the Monumenta Germania Historica, and
has made his name illustrious by a series of works
of vast range and profound erudition, His
work rometeaiiie imische Geschichte, teonghh aaa
to the battle of Thapsus (3 vols. 1854-56; 8th ed,
1889; Eng. trans. by W. P. Dickson, 4 vols, 1862-
7). These three volumes form books i.-v. of
Mommsen’s plan; vol. v., forming book viii., was
issned in 1885( Eng. trans. by Dickson, The Provinces
of the Roman Empire from Casar to Diocletian,
2 vols, 1886). Freeman characterises Mommsen
as ‘the greatest scholar of our times, well-nigh
the greatest scholar of all times...
law, mythology, customs, antiquities, coins, in-
scriptions, every source of knowledge of every kind
= - pani: of pee all.’ veg he rok admitting
ily his wide and sure grasp of histori
the reader finds Mommsen defective in political ond
moral insight, and prone to fall down in worship
before mere force and success.
Other important works of Mommsen’s are
Oskische Studien (1845); Die Unteritalischen Dia-
lekte (1850); Corpus Inscriptionum piping 3
(1851); his monographs on Roman Coins (1850) ;
the edict of Diocletian, De Pretiis Rerum Venalium
(1851); Die Rechtsfrage zwischen Cisar und dem
Senat (1857); Rdémische Forschungen (1864-79);
Res Geste Divi A 4 (1865); Romi. Staats-
recht (1871-76; ed. 1887); and his Digesta
Justiniani Augusti (1866-70).
Of his brothers, two have achieved distinction :
Tycuo, born‘at Garding, 23d May 1819, studied
at Kiel, traversed Italy and Greece, and held
educational appointments at Eisenach, Oldenburg,
and Frankfort-on-Main until his retirement in
1885 ; he died in 1900. He produced a great critical
edition of Pindar in 1864 (an edition of the text
in 1866), Scholia (1861), a translation (1846), and
Parerga Pindarica (1877).
AuGust, born at Oldesloe, 25th July 1821,
studied at Kiel, and tanght in schools at Hamburg,
Parchim, and Sleswick. Most of- his works be-
long to the field of Greek and Roman chronology.
Among them are Rémische Daten (1855), Beitra,
zur Griechischen reper Ay 1856-59), Griechi:
Jahreszeiten (1873), Delphika (1878), and Chrono-
logie Untersuchungen tiber das Kalenderwesen der
Griechen (1883). '
Mompox, or Mompos, a town of Bolivar in
Colombia, on the M rdalena, 110 miles SE. of
Ca ma. Founded in 1538, it contains a good
secondary school and a distillery. Pop. 8000.
Monachism, or Monasticism (Gr. monachos,
‘a monk,’ from monos, ‘alone’), may in general
be described as a state of religious retirement,
more or less complete, accompanied by contempla-
tion, and by various devotional, ascetical, and
nitential practices. It is, in truth, Asceticism
.¥.), with the element of religious solitude super-
added The institution of monachism has, under
different forms, entered into several religious sys-
tems, ancient and modern. That it was known
among the Jews before the coming of our Lord
appears from the example of the proakes Elijah
and from that of the Essenes; and it is probable
that religions seclusion formed part of the practice
of the Nazarites, at least in the later periods
of Jewish history. In the Brahmanical religion it
has had a prominent place; and even to the present
day the damaseries of Tibet may be said to rival in
number and extent the former monasteries of Italy
or Spain. The Christian advocates of monach-
ism find in the exhortations to voluntary poverty
(Matt. xix. 21) and to celibacy (1 Cor, vii. 37)
at once the justification and the origin of the
primitive institution. Its first form appears in
the practice of asceticism, of which we find fre-
quent mention in the early part of the 2d century,
MONACHISM
265
The primitive ascetics, however, lived among the
brethren, and it is only in the following century
that the peculiar characteristic of monachism
begins to appear. The earliest form of Christian
monachism is also the most complete—that of the
Anchorites or Hermits (q.v.)—and is commonly
believed to have in part originated in the persecu-
tions, from which Christians were forced to retire
into deserts and solitary places. The hermits
maintained from choice, after the cessation of the
persecutions, the seclusion to which they had
nes pear resorted as an expedient of security ;
and a later development of same principle is
found in the still more remarkable psychological
lhenomenon of the celebrated ‘ Pillar-saints.’ (See
TYLITES.) After a time, however, the neces-
sities of religious life itself—as the attendance
at public worship, the participation in the sacra-
ments, the desire for mutual instruction and edifica-
tion—led to modifications of the degree and of the
nature of the solitude. First came the simplest
form of common life, which songht to combine the
seclusion of individuals with the common
exercise of all the public duties ; an aggregation
of separate cells into the same district, called b
the name Laura, with a common church, in which
all assembled for prayer and public — From
the union of the common life with personal solitude
is derived the name cenobite (Gr. koinos bios, com-
mon life), by which this class of monks is distin-
guished from the strict solitaries, as the hermits,
and in which is involved, in addition to the obliga-
tions of poverty and chastity which were vowed
by the hermits, a third obligation of obedience to
a superior, which, in conjunction with the two
former, has ever since been held to constitute the
essence of the religious or monastic life. The first
origin of the strictly cnobitical or monastic life
has been detailed under the name of St Antony
-v.), Who may be regarded as its founder in the
either by himself or by his disciples. So
rapid was its os that his first segs e, Pacho-
mius, lived to find himself the superior of 7000, In
the single district of Nitria, the country of the
Natron Lakes (q.v.) in the Egyptian delta, there
were, according to Sozomen, no fewer than fifty
monasteries, and before long the civil authorities
judged it e ient to place restrictions on their
excessive multiplication. It seems to be admitted
that in the East, where asceticism has always been
held in high estimation, the example of Christian
monasticism a powerful influence in forwarding
the of Christianity; although it is also
certain that the admiration which it excited occa-
sionally led to its natural ese among the
members, by eliciting a spirit of pride and osten-
tation, and by provo
sometimes to fanatical
excesses of austerity, sometimes to hypocritical
simulations of rigour. The abuses which arose,
even in the early stages of monachism, are deplored
kd the very Fathers who are most eloquent in
eir praises of the institution itself. These abuses
og chietly in a class of monks ealled Sara-
, Who lived in small communities of three or
four, and sometimes Jed a wandering and irregular
life. On the other hand, a most extraordinary
picture is drawn by Theodoret of the rigour and
mortification practi in some of the greater
monasteries. The monks were commonly zealots
in religion; and much of the bitterness of the
controversies of the East was due to that
unrestrained zeal; and it may be added that the
opinions which led to these controversies origin-
ated for the most part among the theologians of
the eloisters. An order was called Acwmete (Gr.,
‘sleepless’), from their maintaining the public
services of the church day and night without in-
terruption (see GREEK CHURCH).
4
It was in the ecenobitic rather than the eremitic
form that monachism was first introduced into the
West, at Rome and in Northern Italy by Atha-
nasius, in Africa by St Augustine, and afterwards
in Gaul by St Martin of Tours. Here also the
institution spread rapidly under the same general
forms in which it is found in the Eastern Church ;
but considerable relaxations were gradually intro-
duced, and it was not until the thorough reforma-
tion and, as it may be called, religious revival
effected by the celebrated St Benedict (q.v.), in
the beginning of the 6th century, that western
monachism assumed its peculiar and permanent
form. In some of the more isolated cliurches, as,
for instance that of Britain, it would seem that
the reformations of St Benedict were not introduced
until a late period ; and in that church, as well as
in the church of Ireland, they were a subject of
considerable controversy. One of the most import-
ant modifications of monachism in the West
regarded the nature of the occupation in which the
monks were to be engaged during the times not
directly devoted to prayer, meditation, or other
spiritual exercises. Tn the East manual labour
formed the chief, if not the sole external occupa-
tion prescribed to the monks; it being held as a
fundamental principle that for each individual the
main business of life was the sanctification of his
own soul. In the West, besides the labour of the
hands, mental pea ea was also prescribed—not,
it is true, for all, but for those for whom it was
especially calculated. From‘ an early tee there-
fore, the monasteries of the West, an rticularly
those of Ireland or those founded by Irish monks
eee COLUMBA, CULDEES), as Iona and Lindisfarne,
me schools of learning, and training-houses for
the clergy. At a later period most monasteries
somentad a scriptorium, or writing-room, in which
the monks were employed in the transcription of
MSS. ; and, although a arse de rtion of the work
so done was, as might naturally be expected, in the
department of sacred learning, yet it cannot be
doubted that it is to the scholars of the cloister we
owe the preservation of most of the masterpieces
of classic literature which have reached our age.
In the remarkable religious movement which
characterised the church of the 12th century (see
FRANCISCANS) the principle of monachism under-
went a further modilication. The spiritual egoism,
so to speak, of the early monachism, which in some
seuse limited the work of the cloister to the sancti-
fication of the individual, gave place to the more
comprehensive range of spiritual duty, that, in
the institute of the various bodies of Friars (q.v.)
which that age produced, made the spiritual and
even the temporal necessities of one’s neighbour,
ot with, if not more than, one’s own, the
object of the work of the cloister. The progress of
these various bodies, both in the 12th century and
since that age, is detailed under their several titles.
The monastic institutes of the West are almost all
offshoots or modifications of the Benedictines (q.v.);
of these the most remarkable are the Carthusians,
Cistercians, Clugniacs, Premonstratensians, and,
above all, Maurists. In more modern times other
institutes have been founded for the service of the
sick, for the education of the poor, and other similar
works of mercy, whose members are also classed
under the denomination of monks, The most im-
See of these are described under their several
8.
The enclosure within which a community of
monks reside is called a Monastery (q.v.), and some-
times convent. By thé strict law of the church,
called the law of cloister or enclosure, it is forbidden
to all except members of the order to enter a monas-
tery ; and in almost all the orders this prohibition
is rigidly enforced as regards the admission of
266
MONACHISM
females to the monasteries of men. To such a
iength is this carried in the Greek Chureh that in
the celebrated enclosure of Mount Athos not only
women, but all animals of the female sex are
rigorously excluded. The first condition of admis-
sion to a monastic order is the approval of the
superior, after which the candidates remain for a
short time as postulants. After this preliminary
trial, they enter on what is called the novitiate, the
length of which in different orders varies from one
to three years; and at its close they are admitted
to the profession, at which the solemn vows are
taken. The age for profession has varied at differ-
ent times and in different orders; the Council of
Trent, however, has fixed sixteen as the minimum
age. Originally all monks were laymen ; but after
a time the superiors, and by degrees other more
meritorious members, were admitted to holy orders.
Amongst the mendicants, those in priest’s orders
were called ‘father,’ the lay brothers ‘ brother’
only. In either case, where the order is one of
those solemnly approved by the church, the engage-
ment taken at the final profession is life-long and
The iionastery, in its most strict accepta-
| tion, is confined to the residences of monks, pro-
| perly so called, or of nuns of the cognate orders
(as the Benedictine), and as such it comprises two
sreat classes, the Abbey and the Priory. The
ormer name was given only to establishments of
the highest rank, governed by an abbot, who was
commonly assisted by a prior, sub-prior, and other
minor functionaries (see AnBoT). A Priory sup-
l a less extensive and less numerous com-
munity. It was governed by a prior, and was
originally, aichonsb by no means uniformly (at
least in later times), subject to the jurisdiction
an abbey.
y
ally among the Benedictine wens Inthe
military orders the name of Commandery and Pre-
ceptory corresponded with those of abbey and priory
in the monastic orders. The establishments of the
mendicant and, in general, of the modern orders
are sometimes, though less properly, called monas-
teries. Their more characteristic appellation is
Fri or Convent, and they are commonly dis-
tinguished into Professed Houses (called also Resi-
dences), Novitiates, and Colleges or Scholastic
Houses. The names of the superiors of such
houses differ in the different orders. The common
name is Rector, but in some orders the superior is
ealled Guardian (as in the Franciscan), or Master,
Major, Father Superior, &ce. The houses of females
enabling him to suppress certain religious houses
and appropriate their funds for other purposes.
Henry's proceedings were, however, as unworthy as
his motives. He appointed PR pe agents to
visit and report upon the state of all the religious
houses in the kingdom. These men_perfoi
their work in indecent haste, and upon obviously
insufficient evidence brought against the monks
generally ch of gross immorality which were
embodied in the so-called Black Book, now lost.
The king at first acted with considerable craft.
He appealed to the selfishness of the
abbots who had seats in the House of Lords, and
silenced their opposition by declaring that in the
larger monasteries ‘religion was right well kept,’
and proposed the confiscation only of the osontiee
honses (376 in number) with a revenne of less than
£200 a year. This ensured the passing of the Act
the 645 greater monasteries soon came. Certain
abbots implicated in the rising of the ‘ Pilgrimage
of Grace’ were convicted of treason and their houses
seized. Then followed another general visitation,
} and, by bribes, intimidation, and violence; the re-
maining monastic communities were one by one
induced in 1539 to ‘surrender’ their property to the
king. The revenue accruing to the crown by the
confiscation is estimated at over £130,000. ith
this fund six new episcopal sees and certain collegi-
ate churches and grammar-schools were founded,
and a few castles built for the defence of the coast,
But the greater part of the property fell through
purchase or gift into the hands of the nobility and
ntry ; and the policy which thus interested power-
ul laymen in maintaining the new order of things
effectually barred. the way to the restoration of
monasticism in the reactionary reign of aor
Fresh light has been thrown upon this whole su
ject by Canon Dixon in his recent History of the
Church of OY «nee and again more fully by Father
Gasquet, O.8.B., in Henry VIII. and the English
Monasteries (2 vols. 1889; 4th ed. 1890),
In some of the German states the temporalities
of the suppressed monasteries were retained at the
Reformation, and were ponte at pleasure by the
sovereign, to be enjoyed together with the titular
dignity. Some of the German churches, however,
in later times, have revived the institution, especi-
ally for women (see DEACONESSES). In England
there was the religious community of Little Gid-
ding (1625-47), founded by Nicholas Ferrar (q.v.);
aa in 1865 a sort of Anglican mission order, the
Cowley Fathers, was established at Oxford; but
—except in the Benedictine or Cistercian orders—
are called indifferently Convent and Nunnery;
their head is styled Superior or Reve
Mother. 1@ ie ins ; @ very
ime, ineluded women as well as men, The
former were called in Greek by the name nonis or
nonna, and in Latin nonna (from which the English
Nun), as also sanctimonialis. The general char-
acteristics of the monastic institute for females are
substantially identical with those of the male orders.
It was to be expected that the monastic founda-
tions in me pr 8 would not long survive the national
rejection of the papal power which was their main
support. The monasteries had mostly outlived
their days of usefulness, and very inadequatel
fulfilled the objects of their institution. A general,
though not universal decay of religious fervour, and
the revelation from time to time of grave scandals
within their walls disposed many prudent men to
regard them with little favour, But the immediate
cause of their downfall was their accumulated
wealth with which Cromwell tempted the covetons-
ness of Henry VIII. The dissolution of monasteries
was indeed no new idea, for Cardinal Wolsey several
here, too, Sisterhoods (q.v.) are far more numerous,
In all these Protestant revivals of monachism, the
engagement is revocable at the will of the in-
dividual. At the French Revolution the monastie
establishments of France were utterly suppressed
and in most of the other Catholic countries o!
Europe the example has been followed to a er
or less extent. After the Restoration a revival of
many of the orders took place in France. In 1835
Spain supp 900 monasteries, and the rest
soon thereafter ; Portugal dissolved all its religious
houses in 1834, In Belgium, Austria, and Switzer-
land, monasteries are numerous—in Belgium there
are 200 communities, in Austria (without Hungary)
450, in Switzerland 88. In Italy, Sardinia put an
end to the monasteries in 1866, and the same meas-
ure was extended to the whole kingdom after 1870,
‘the orders being expropriated, and their houses made
national property; in all upwards of 2200 houses
were suppressed, In 1875 Prussia dissolved all
orders save those devoted to sick-nursing (at that
date there were in all Germany 2588 monks and
16,846 nuns), but in 1887 readmitted all those orders
engaged in pastoral duty, Christian eharity, or the
years before had obtained bulls from the pope
contemplative life. The French decree of 1880,
of Suppression in February 1536. But the turn of -
aS
MONACO
MONAGHAN 267
breaking up ‘unauthorised orders,’ dealt with 384
houses with 7444 monks, and 602 houses with 14,003
nuns, there were in all at that date some 25,000
monks and nuns in France. In England and
Ireland and America, on the contrary, and largely
as a consequence, monastic institutions have made
rapid pro; of late years. Most of the orders
introdu are active, not contemplative. In the
United States some fifty orders are represented.
The following list gives the name and date of founda-
tion of the chief orders ; reference is made to the articles
on them throughout this work, and to works cited there ;
as also to other articles quoted above, to RomAN CaTHOLIC
Cuurcu, Concrecation, &c.; and to Helyot, Histoire
des Ordres Réligieux (8 vols. 1714-21; new ed. 1860);
Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum (new ed. 1817-30);
Tauner, Notitia Monastica (1744); Mdhler, Geschichte
des Ménchthums (1336); Hill, English Monasticism
(1867); Milman, History of Latin Christianity (1854);
Montalembert, Monks of the West (Eng. trans. 1861-79);
Harnack, Das Minachthum: seine Ideale und seine
Geschichte (1832); and Handbook to the Convents and
Religious Houses in the United Kingdom (1885).
Hieronymites. ....
Brethren of Comm
Monks of Iona (q. Bernardins .......
Canons Oblate Nuns......
Clugniacs.......4.....22++ Minims ..........
Austin Canons., Barnabites........
Carthusians Theatines........
Cisvercians... Capuchins. .......
Hospitallers .. Recollets.........
RDUATE, on ded ncteNbe ov's¢ Feats... cececeses
Premonstratensians ...... 1120 | Ursulines........
Trapp Oratorians........
Jacobins.
Maurists..
Lazarists.
Sisters of Charity.
Passionists....... yc
i Redemptorists ........... 1732
i Ladies of the Sacred Heart.1800
Olivetans ..
Marist Fathers............ 1813
Brigittines...............- 1 Sisters of Mercy..........
363 1827
Observantine Franciscans .1368 | Little Sisters of the Poor. .1840
Mon’‘aco, a small principality on the Mediter-
ranean, 149 miles ENE. of Marseilles, and 9 from
Nice. Area, 8 sq. m.; pop. (1873) 5741; (1890)
“Sboa were in the town of Monaco,
13,304, of whom
to the family of Grimaldi. Originally of Geno-
ese extraction, they first held lands in France,
between ie 3: and Toulon, where the name
of the bay of Grimaud still commemorates their
sway. hey acquired Monaco in 968, Men-
tone and Roquebrune and Castillon about 1230,
and Antibes in 1237. In Enuropean politics
they sided with the Guelph party. Honoré II.
put his country under a. French protectorate in
1644. In 1715 the heiress of the Grimaldi of
Monaco married Matignon, Comte de Thorigny,
and her descendants continued to reign over their
small kingdom. It has, however, suffered at the
hands of its great neighbours. In 1846 Mentone
and Roquebrune were annexed by Sardinia, and
after the war of 1859 the whole territory belonged
for a short time to King Victor Emmanuel. The
protests of its lawful owner were loud, but he was
none the less ready for another arrangement, since
in 1861 he sold Mentone and Roquebrune to
Napoleon III. for 4,000,000 frances. His capital
Monaco is now under French protection. Prince
Albert (born in 1848, succeeded 1889), the present
sovereign, has one son, Louis, by a marriage,
dissolved in 1880, with Lady Mary Hamilton.
About 1000 of the inhabitants are employed in the
rooms and gardens of the celebrated Casino. These
puatiiner built at Monte Carlo on ground
eased (to 1913) from the Prince of Monaco, belon
toa joint-stock company or Société Anonyme, which
pays £50,000 a*year for the concession, and sets
aside about £360,000 a year for working expenses.
Some £200,000 is paid to the army of croupiers,
volice, detectives, theatrical and operatic companies,
arge sums go for the upkeep of the gardens and
houses and management generally ; and the com-
pany is held bound to defray the municipal expendi-
ture as well. In 1895 the clear profit was said to
be 13,000,000 franes: it is quite usual to pay 9 or
10 per cent. on the present value of the shares, and
30 or 40 per cent. on their original value. In 1895
1,160,000 francs were paid for ‘ publicity ’—i.e. as
hush-money, to many newspapers (chiefly Parisian )
to suppress hostile criticisms, unpleasant facts,
suicides, &c. The climate of Monaco is milder
than that of any other place in the Riviera; palms
and aloes grow most luxuriantly,
6218 in Condamine, and 3794 in Monte Carlo. The
territory, which is encircled by the French depart-
ment of Alpes Maritimes and the sea, consists
mainly of the rocky promontory on which the
capital is built, and a small strip of coast. For
more than nine hundred years it has belonged
and rare wild-flowers are found on
its rocky promontory.
See Métivier, Monaco et ses Princes
(2d ed. 1865); Pemberton, Monaco
Past and Present (1867); and Boyer
de Sainte-Suzanne, La Principauté de
Monaco (1884).
Monad. See the articles LEIB-
NITZ, INFUSORIA.
Monaghan, an inland county
of Ulster reland, situated between
Tyrone and Meath; area, 319,741
acres (496 sq. m.), of which 140,000
are under tillage. Pop. (1841)
200,442; (1881) 102,748; (1891)
86,206 (of whom 73 per. cent. were
Catholic). The principal towns
are Monaghan, Carrickmacross,
Clones, and Castle-Blayney. It
returns two members to parlia-
ment. Monaghan, granted by
Henry II. to De Courcey, speedily
fell back into the hands of the
native chiefs of the sept MacMahon,
by whom (with some alternations of re-conquest) it
was held till the reign of Elizabeth, when it was
erected into a shire. The county possesses two
round towers, one, very complete, at Clones, the
other at Inniskeen ; aaa thet are several raths and
Danish forts. The name Monaghan is derived from
268 MONALDESCHI
MONASTERY
the Irish Muinechan, ‘ Monkstown,’ a monastery
having stood here at a very early date. |
MONAGHAN, the county town, is 76 miles NNW.
of Dublin by rail. The town, which returned two
members to the Irish parliament, is still the centre of
some trade in agricultural produce, and can boast
several public buildings of considerable pretensions,
among which are the Catholic coll and church,
the infirmary, and national model school. Pop.
(1861) 3910; (1891) 2938. See Evelyn P. Shirley's
History of the County of Monaghan (1877-80).
Monaldeschi. See CHRISTINA.
Monarchy (Gr. monarchia, from monos, ‘alone,’
and arché, ‘1 govern ;’ literally, the government
of a single individual) is that form of government
in a community by which one person exercises
the sovereign authority ; see GOVERNMENT. For
Monarchianism, see UNITARIANS.
Monastery, a class of structures which arose
in the middle ages to meet the requirements of the
*proved by documents that these buildings were at
first constructed somewhat after the plan of a
villa or country-
Records of abbeys as early
show that the arrangements were similar
then to those of the 12th century. The cloister,
. eee eed
Cistercian Abbey—Model Plan,
which formed the inner court appropriated to the
monks, resembles the peristyle of the Roman
mansion. The latter was the part of the dwelling
communicating with the private apartments of the
family, just as the cloister communicated with the
refectory, dormitory, and other apartments used
by the monks and not entered by the public.
here was also in the monasteries, as in the Roman
villas, an outer courtyard, in which were situated
the various stores, granaries, workshops, and other
places required in connection with both these
edifices.
There was, however, one entirely new element in
the monastery—viz. the church. This was the
largest and most important building, and regu-
lated the position of all the rest. The conventual
buildings of every abbey in Britain, France, and
Germany are so much destroyed that a complete
- we
plan cannot be obtained. The annexed plan
is a model one made by Mr E, Sharpe, and con-
tains the results of his careful investigation of the
Cistercian monasteries throughout Europe (see
Trans. Roy. Inst. of British Architects, 1871). In
northern climates the cloister was usually situated
on the south side of the church, for the sake of the
sunshine and warmth, It was composed of an o}
courtyard, square or oblong in shape, surrounded
by an open arcade, or covered way. The church
formed the north side, and on the east side was
situated the chapter-house, with the monks’ dor-
mitory over it. The latter was thus in immediate
communication with the church, and conveniently
laced for the monks’ attendance at the services
uring the night. The chapter-house in the
Cistercian monasteries was usually divided into
three compartments by the pillars bearing the
arches. The abbot’s seat was opposite the entrance
door, and a stone seat all round accommodated the
monks. The doorway was not closed, and to-
gether with an open arch or window on each side
of it allowed those in the cloister to hear the dis-
cussions in the interior. The sacristy is placed on
the north side of the chapter-house, with a door
from the church. A similar cell or ‘parlour’
occupies the south side; then comes a passage or
‘slype’ leading from the cloister to the fa ens,
&ec. Beyond this is the
fratry or day-room of
the monks, a long
vaulted apartment run-
ning southwards, hav-
ing a row of columns
in the centre and open
windows,
The south side of the
cloisters generally gave
access = the —
tory, a large, rather
ornamental chamber,
usually with an open
wooden roof. It was
sometimes placed par-
allel and sometimes at
right angles to the
cloister. Opposite the
door to the refectory
and in a vaulted recess
stood a fountain or
basin where the monks
might wash. Adjoin-
ing the refectory were
the kitchen and offices.
The former was fre-
quently a detached
building with a large
number of _ hearths,
each having a separate
chimney in the roof,
Along the west side of the cloister, and some-
times extending much farther, lay the hospitium
or guest-house, where all travellers were received,
and the lay-room above, where they were lodged,
A very important room in the monastery was the
scriptorium or library, in which the MSS. were
written and illuminated ; this was situated on the
second floor of the chapter-house, The abbot’s
lodge formed a separate edifice, as also did the
infirmary. The whole establishment was sur-
rounded by a wall, and provided with proper gates
and defences. The outer gate gave access to the
onter court, in which were situated the work-
shops of the various tradesmen connected with the
abbey, and the buildings required in connection
with the agricultural employments of the lay
brethren.
Such were the arrangements of the Cistercian
" ay
BUFFINGTON-CROZIER CARRIAGE.
1. Loading Position. 2. Firing Position.
Vol. VIL, page 269.
MONASTIR
abbey in the 12th and 13th centuries. In later
times the simplicity of the plan was broken in
upon. The monks, desirous of more comfortable
quarters, divided the dormitory and made it into
cells, The o windows were glazed, and even
the arches of the cloisters were sometimes enclosed.
The early simplicity of the architectural style was
also from, and the monastic buildings of
the 15th century are as rich in decoration as the
cathedrals and parish churches, The arrangements
of the monasteries of the other orders were, gener-
ally speaking, similar to those of the Cistercian,
except in the case of the Carthusians. In their
convents, where absolute solitude and silence were
required, each monk had a small house and garden
to himself. These were arranged round the
cloister, which, when the number of monks was
large, were greatly extended in dimensions.
See Viollet le Due, Dicti ire and Architecture
Monastique; De Caumont, Abécédaire d’ Archéologie ;
Monasticon ; and Mackenzie Walcot’s works
on English and Scottish Churches. For Monasticism,
see MONACHISM.
Monastir, called also Brroxra, the second
town in Turkish Macedonia, is situated in a broad
mountain-valley, 90 miles NW. of Salonica. It
manufactures carpets and silver filigree, and trades
in corn and agricultural products. The Turks, re-
cognising its strategic importance, have made it the
uarters of an army corps. Under its ancient
name of Pelagonia it gives title to a Greek arch-
ae Here the Albanian beys were massacred
inl Pop. 45,000.
Monboddo, James Burnett, Lorn, Scottish
lawyer and author, was born at Monboddo House,
in Fordoun parish, Kincardineshire, in 1714, and
was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen,
and Edinburgh eal afterwards studyin
law for three years at Gréningen, in Holland.
In 1737 he was called to the ttish bar, and
soon obtained considerable practice ; but the first
ing that t him prominently into notice
was his connection with the celebrated Douglas
case, in which he acted as counsel for Mr
pike In 1764 he became sheriff of Kin-
card ire, and in 1767 was raised to the bench
the title of Lord Monboddo. He died in
burgh, 26th May 1799. Monboddo’s Origin
and Progress of Language (6 vols. 1773-92) is a
very learned, heretical, and eccentric production ;
yet in the midst of its grotesque crotchets there
occasionally flashes out a wonderfully acute obser-
vation, that makes one regret the distorted and
misapplied talent of the author. Its evolution
theory and its assertion of a close relation between
man and the orang-outang seems less laughable
now than it did to Monboddo’s contemporaries ; and
in his study of man as one of the animals, and of
civilisation by the light of savagery, he certainly
anticipated the modern science of anthropology.
Monboddo published, also anonymously, another
work, Ancient Metaphysics (6 vols. 1779-99).
Monbuttu, a N stock in the basin of the
Upper Nile the Upper Welle. See Arrica.
Moncalieri, a town of Italy, on the Po, 5 miles
§. of Turin, with a royal palace (1470). Pop. 3463.
Moncontour, a village in the French depart-
ment of Vienne, situated 48 miles SW. of Tours,
was the scene of the defeat of the Huguenots under
Coli by the troops of the king of France, 3d
October 1500. .
Moncrieff Pits (named after the inventor, Sir
Alexander Moncrieff) are excavations in which
heavy — Re cpeetal aaa batteries or other
w t is speci n to protect
from hostile artillery fire. The Moncrieff
system of mounting utilises the force of recoil to
MONEY 269
bring the gun down into the loading ition at
the bottom of the pit. It is returned into the
firing position (shown in the figure) either, as in
the early patterns, by means of a heavy counter-
weight in front of the breast of the gun-carriage,
or, as in later designs, by hydro-pneumatic
machinery. When the counterweight is used, the
side brackets of the carriage on which the dis-
appearing movement takes place are made on a
ially designed curve, so that this movement
may be and without any violent shock.
The figure represents a diagrammatic section of
this arrangement. A is the rotating side bracket
revolving on teeth; BC are two inclined planes
keeping the gun horizontal as it descends into the
ition shown by dotted lines. The same result
is obtained in the hydro-pneumatic system of
mounting by means il presses, which also
store up the force of the recoil and enable it to
be to elevate the gun into the firing position.
The invention belongs to the years 1868-72.
Moncton, a town and port of entry of New
Brunswick, on the Petitcodiac River, 89 miles by
rail NE. of St John. It has important railway-
shops, a large sugar-refinery, a cotton-factory, Ke,
Pop. (1881) 5032 ; (1891) 8765.
Mondovi, « cathedral city of Italy, 58 miles
8. of Turin by rail. Pop. 10,302. Here, on 22d
April 1796, the Sardinians were totally defeated
by Napoleon.
Mone'ra, a class of Protozoa (q.v.) proposed
by Haeckel to include the very lowest organisms
supposed to be destitute of a nucleus. As this
structure has been shown to exist in forms where
it was formerly denied, the title is now being
abandoned. See PRoTOzOA.
Money. ‘The term money is used, both in
matters of business and in economic theories, in
such very different ways that it is impossible to
cover them all with a simple definition. Standard
coins, bars of bullion which can at once be con-
verted into standard coins, token coins, convertible
bank-notes, inconvertible notes, are all included
under ‘money,’ although they present essential
differences. In modern societies one of the most
important forms of money is ‘ bank money,’ or the
money of tlhe money-market, which for the most
part consists of neither coin nor notes. The whole
of the banking system of the United Kingdom,
for example, as well explained in Bagehot’s Lom-
bard Street, really rests upon the reserve kept by
the Bank of England, and every bank receives
deposits of ‘money,’ and makes advances of
‘money,’ with the use of a very small proportion of
coins or bank-notes. A brief survey of the develop-
ment of the complex monetary system of modern
societies from its rudimentary forms will give the
best explanation of this uncertainty in the mean-
ing of this familiar word, and also bring out in the
clearest way the principal functions of ‘ money.’
Exchanges first take place by means of barter, but
the difficulties of simple barter are obviously very
270
MONEY
great. A coincidence of mutual wants at the same
time and place is the first condition of any ex-
change, and it is plain that a common medinm -
exchange will obviate one of the principal difticul-
ties of direct barter. If there is some one thing
which every one is willing to take, it follows that
anything else can be bought or sold against this
particular commodity. Accordingly the first func-
tion of ‘money’ is to provide (1) a medium of
exchange, and its first forms consist of things
which ‘are generally desired in simple states of
society. Skins, cattle, shells, corn, pieces of cloth,
mats, salt, and many other commodities have at
different times and places been used as ‘money,’
in the sense of a common medium of exchange.
The commodity chosen, however, will be of little
advantage unless it can be used both in large
and small quantities. This consideration leads to
another primary function of money—viz. (2) as
a measure of value. Not only is it necessary that
things can be exchanged against a common sub-
stance, but the rates of exchange must be measured.
Finally, as society advances, a basis for (3) deferred
ts, and also a method of (4) storing ‘ values’
without deterioration, become of importance. In
order that these four primary functions may be
fulfilled, the substance chosen for money must
have certain properties, of which the principal are
portability or great value in small bulk, durability,
sameness of quality, divisibility, stability of value,
and cognisability. It was soon discovered that
these qualities are possessed in the highest degree
by gold and silver. Other metals have been used
at different times even for standard money, but all
of them fail in one or more of these particulars.
Iron is liable to rust, lead is too soft, tin too brittle,
and copper too heavy. It may be. observed that
the importance of the qualities varies according to
circumstances. Thus, when, as in modern societies,
the greater part of wholesale transactions are
effected without the intervention of material
money, portability is of comparatively small im-
portance, whilst on the other hand stability of
valne is of the greatest importance in all kinds of
deferred payments, It is not prem that all
the primary functions of money should be fulfilled
by the same thing. In Saxon times, for example,
and for long after in England the standard measure
of value was the pound-weight of silver, but the
actual medium of exchange consisted of silver
pennies. At present the actual medium of ex-
change consists to a great extent of bits of paper—
bank-notes, cheques, and various instruments of
credit—whilst the standard measure of value is a
piece of gold.
So long as the attention is directed to material
money, the principal questions that arise are
in connection with coinage. At first, after the
introduction of the precious metals, it was left
to the parties concerned to test their weight and
fineness with caveat emptor for the rule, and the
present unsatisfactory state of the English gold
coinage is mainly due to the survival in lew of the
presumption that it is the duty of the receiver of
money to see that it is of full value. But the
essential object of coinage is that a responsible
authority should affix its stamp to small ingots of
metal, in such a way as to signify their weight and
a. me and important as this duty appears,
1istory is full of examples of the debasement and
deterioration of coins by governments with the
view of making a petty gain. It is worth noting,
however, that from the earliest times (with the
exception of the reign of Henry VIII.) the English
silver was kept of the same fineness. It is true
tliat the weiglit of the coins became gradually less,
but it was probably in most cases the recognition
of an accomplished fact (through ordinary wear
half-sovereigns free of charge; 20
and tear), and was not an attempt to defrand.
The evils which arise from the natural or artificial
debasement of coins have been well described by
Macaulay in‘his account of the recoinage in —
of William III. Since the aber pir geo of -
age was simply to furnish a mar weight and
fineness, all metallic money was at first —
what it professed to be. Thus, the old
silver pound was coined into 240 pennies; and this
fact is preserved in the Troy table—20 penny-
weights = 1 oz., 12 0z.=1 pound. In process of
time the actual weight of the penny became less
than a pennyweight, but the same numbers were
still supposed to go to the pound. Finally, a
certain amount of gold of a certain fineness was
declared to be equal in value to a ‘ pound of silver,’
or rather to 240 nies. This is historically the
answer to Sir Robert Peel's famous question,
‘What is a pound?’ The technical answer to the
uestion is now given by the Coinage Act of 1870
(in substance the same as that of 1816). The act
declares the precise weight of the sovereign in
grains, and the proportion of alloy in standard
gold, Nominally, any one can take standard gold
to the mint and get it coined into sovereigns or
pounds-weight
Troy being coined into 934 sovereigns and one half-
sovereign. Practically the time and trouble in-
volved in going direct to the mint induced people
to sell their gold in preference to the Bank of
England, and at first (within certain narrow
limits) the price varied. Now the bank is com-
pelled to purchase all standard gold at £3, 17s. 9d.
te oz., and, as it obtains from the mint £3, 17s.
l., there is a small en by way of brokerage.’
Allowing for this small difference, it will be seen
that the mint price of weapon £3, 17s. 104d,—
simply refers to the number of standard coins made
out of a certain amount of standard metal. It
follows that this mint price is fixed and invariable
so long as the Jaw remains uncha Thus, if
gold became as plentiful as blackberries, or as
scarce as diamonds, the mint price would remain
unaffected. At the same time, however, the value
of gold in the sense of its purchasing power over
commodities would ecb according to the varia-
tions in the quantity, though the precise nature
and extent of the change would depend upon other
elements. In some cases government makes a
definite charge for coinage—that is to say, practi-
cally the weight of the coins returned is so much
less than the weight of the bullion brought. This
charge is called seigniorage. So long as this ch
is paid, however, there is no restriction on the
quently of metal which may be converted into
ull standard coin,
It is necessary now to notice the distinction
between standard money, in the proper usage
of the term, and token money. The chief charac-
teristics of the former are that, as just explained,
it is coined to an unlimited extent, and further,
that for any money contracts it is unlimited
legal tender. In ‘token’ money these two charae-
teristics are absent. The nature and uses of token
money are also best explained oes In
the middle beet was very scarce, and prices
were extremely low. The silver penny was origin-
ally about the size of the present threepenny-
piece; consequently for the low range of prices
then current it was inconveniently rip and valu-
able. In a petition of the date of 1330 it was
pointed out that ‘beer is one penny for three
gallons,’ and that a penny is the smailest coin,
and the petitioners pray that smaller coins may
be struck to pay for their little purchases, and ‘for
works of charity.’ The great practical difficulty,
however, was to make very small coins of full
standard value. So much was the need of small
MONEY —
MONGOLS 271
change felt, however, that by the time of Eliza-
beth the poe had resorted largely to ‘tokens’ of
lead, tin, and even leather. These ‘tokens’ were
first private issues, and practically were like
very small promissory-notes. It was soon found
that they were forced into circulation by unfair
means, and then the issuers refused to change
them for goods or sterling money. The remedy
adopted in 1613 was to give a monopoly of striking
copper or brass farthings to certain persons for a
cousideration. This privilege, however, was so
much abused, that in many parts of the country,
including London, there was hardly any gold or
silver left—the whole circulation being brass far-
5
thin The patentees tried to force these farthings
on the American colonies, but it is recorded of
Massacliusetts—‘ March 4, 1634, at the General
Court at New Town, brass farthings were for-
bidden, and bullets were made to pass for far-
things.’ These ‘royal’ tokens were no sooner
sup , owing to the abuses which they had
caused, than they were again replaced by private
tokens, and it is said that over 20,000 different
apes were in use Lier rey and oe “saan
Diary speaks of the tokens issu eve
tavern, tome through the nalghbombonds
though seldom reaching farther than the next
street or two.’
From this slight historical sketch the principles
which should late the issues of ‘ token’ money
stand out clearly. The smallest coins cannot
be made of the precious metals of full valune—e.g.
pred one would be less de-gpe eee
the present threepenny-piece—and, accordingly,
baser material must be Lense Here, Riverce,
the danger arises of going to the other extreme
and ing the coins too | But this is
only a minor diffieulty com with the neces-
sary condition that the token coins must bear a
fixed relation to the standard coins in value. Thus
we arrive at the fundamental principles of ‘token’
coins; they should be issned in limited quantities,
be | tender to a limited extent, and their so-
called intrinsie value should be less than the
nominal value. Even those nations which use
both gold and silver as standard money (see B1-
METALLISM) are compelled to use token coins for
small values, whilst nations which have a gold
8 must make all their silver coins ‘ tokens.’
With the hy oy of civilisation ‘representative’
money, as it happily been styled by Jevons,
hecame of more and more importance. The
Romans, for example, had a highly-developed
banking system, which, however, was broken up
on the disruption of the empire. In the early
medieval period bills of exchange were used_ for
foreign payments; and that they were considered
as ‘representative money’ is shown by the fact
that in England, up to the Tudor period, their
value was regulated hy the Royal Exchanger, a
high official connected with the mint. The develop-
ment of banking in the modern sense was very slow.
The earliest banks in Italy were finance companies
which provided governments with loans, but the
great banks of the north of Europe were expressly
designed to rir good money to meet the pay-
ment of bills of ne (see Adam Smith's
account of the origin of the Bank of Amsterdam,
Wealth of Nations, book iv.). The money in the
great t ing centres was drawn from various
eyo Dag was in ee debased and worn.
The banks took this lad money from the mer-
chants and gave them good bank money in return.
The merchants, however, allowed the money to
remain in the bank, and handed one another
transfers. It was soon discovered that a small
amount of actual coin was sufficient to meet all
liabilities, and, accordingly, the remainder was
lent. In this manner ‘ bank money’ has in process
of time come to consist of a large mass of repre-
sentative money supported on a metallic basis.
See BANKING.
Compare, on the difficulty of defining ‘money,’ Sidg-
wick’s Principles of Political Economy, book of cat
iv.; on the history of material money, Ruding’s Annals
of the Coinage, Dana Horton’s Silver Pound, Kenyon’s
Gold Coins of England, Hawkins’ Silver Coins of Eng-
land; on tokens, Boyne’s Tokens in the Seventeenth
Century; on the ‘money market,’ Bagehot’s Lombard
Street ; on the Hosea principles, Jevons’ Money, Pro-
fessor F, A. Walker’s Money, Professor Nicholson’s
Money and Monetary Problems, Ridgeway’s Origin of
Metallic Currency (1892). See also BULLION, CURRENCY,
WEIGHTS AND MEasuRES, CrowN, DoLLaR, GROAT,
Guinea, NuMISMATICS, SHILLING, VALUE, &e,
Money-lending. See Usury.
Money-wort, a name given to various plants—
Dioscorea, Lythracee, Thymus, &e.
Monge, GAsPARD, a French mathematician
and physicist, was born of humble parentage at
Beaune, in the department of Cote d’Or, 10th May
1746. When only fifteen, he went to study natural
philosophy at the Oratorian College of Lyons, and
afterwards obtained admission into the famous
artillery school at Méziéres, where he invented the
method known as ‘ Descriptive Geometry.’ In
1780 he was chosen a member of the French
Academy, and was called to the Paris Lyceum as
professor of Hydrodynamics. During the heat of
the Revolution he became minister of Marine, but
soon took charge of the great manufactories for
supplying republican France with arms and gun-
powder. After he had founded the Ecole Polytech-
nique, he was sent by the Directory to Italy.
Here he formed a close friendship with Bonaparte,
and, following him to Egypt. undertook the manage-
ment of the newly-founded Egyptian Institute. On
his return to- France, he resumed his functions as
— in the Ecole Polytechnique, and, though
iis reverence for Napoleon continued unabated, he
hotly opposed his aristocratic and dynastic views.
The title of Count of Pelusium was conferred on
him by Napoleon. He died 28th July 1818. His
artes works were Traité Llémentaire de
ique (1788), Legons de Géométrie Descriptive
(1795), and Application de lV’Analyse a la Géo-
métrie (1795).
Monghyr, a picturesque city of Bengal in India,
on the right bank of the Ganges, 80 miles E. by 8.
of Patna, consists of the fort, a rocky crag ee
ing into the river, and the native quarters. From
the 12th century onwards it was a place of consider-
able strength ; in the 18th century Mir Kasim made
it his headquarters. He established an arsenal,
and its armourers are still famed. Pop. (1891)
57,077.—The district has an area of 3921 sq. m.,
with a pop. (1891) of 2,036,021.
Mongols, an Asiatic people belonging to the
Ural-Altaic branch of the human family, derive
their name from a word mong, which means ‘brave,’
‘bold.’ ‘Their origin and early history are lost in
a dim antiquity. Chinese annals first speak of
them as dwelling, 6th to 9th century, in what is
now Mongolia north of the desert of Gobi, and in
the regions south of Lake Baikal. The origin of
the royal house is enshrouded in hot the maternal
ancestor being by tradition a she-wolf; probably
the house was descended from a ruling family of
the Turks (Hiung-nu). The cradle of the Mongol
ple seems to have been on the plains between
the river Onon, the Orkhon, and the Kerulon, the
latter a tributary of the Argun. It was in that
region that Genghis Khan was born, and in that
region that he fixed his permanent camp or capital,
at a place called Karakorum. An ancestor of the
great conqueror ruled in the middle of the 12th
272 MONGOLS
MONITEUR
century over a confederation of Mongol tribes
op ul enough to be a serious menace to the
in empire of North China; and at the same time
he was able to carry on a bitter contest against the
Tartars. That the confederation was loose—prob-
ably the only tie was the compelling will of the
energetic chieftain—is indicated by . Temujin’s
(i.e. Genghis Khan’s) early struggies It was
only by dint of hard fighting and tenacious persist-
ency that he was able to maintain undiminished
the power by his father, and his father’s
father before him. But the conqueror’s genius was
in him, and he died supreme monarch of all central
Asia (see GENGHIS KHAN). By his will his con-
quests and territories were divided amongst his
sons; the third, Ogotai, sueceeded him as khakan
or chief khan of all the Mongol people. Batu and
Orda, the sons of the eldest son’ (Juchi), were
invested with Khwarezm, the region watered by the
rivers Ural, Oxus, and Jaxartes; Jagatai, the
second son, received the territories between Bokhara,
the Irtish, and the Gobi; the region between the
Irtish and Lake Baikal was assigned to Ogotai;
and to the youngest son, Tuli, was given the home
country south of the Baikal. The first care of
Ogotai was to complete, in conjunction with his
brother Tuli, the conquest of North China. The
capital of the Kins was taken in 1234, and, the last
emperor of the dynasty having hanged himself, the
Mongol ruler became emperor in his stead. North
China having been thus subdued, Ogotai proceeded
to conquer China south of the Yellow River, then
eter by the Sung dynasty, and to reduce
‘orea. Meanwhile another army, commanded by
Batu, attacked and subdued the principalities of
what is now Russia—Bulgaria on the Volga,
Riazan, Moscow, Vladimir, Kieff. The force then
divided ; one division under Batu entered Hungary
erushed the Hungarians at Mohi near Tokay, and
captured Pesth and Gran (1241); the other division
overwhelmed the Poles near Liegnitz, and pushed
on into Moravia. During the same edocs yet
another Mongol army was assailing Klwarezm,
which the son of the former ruler had recovered.
This army drove Jelal ud-Din out of his kingdom,
overran Azerbijan, and in 1236 Armenia and
Georgia, in all of which campaigns their path was
marked by terrible cruelties and atrocities. Ogotai
died in 1241. Kuyak, his son and snecessor,
reigned seven years, and he was followed by his
cousin Mangu, a son of Tuli. Both princes favoured
Christianity. During Mangu’s reign his brother
Hulagu won great hws as the punisher of the
Assassins ere in Persia, and as the
destroyer of the califate of Bagdad. Moreover, he
subjugated Syria, and captured Alep and
Damascus, and threatened Jerusalem. Invested
with these countries, he founded the kingdom of
the Ilkhans in Persia (q.v.). Mangu’s successor
was his illustrions brother Kublai (q.v.) Khan,
whose descendants ruled over China (q.v.) from
1294 to 1368. This eastern division of the Mongols
was expelled from China, and its power finall
crushed by the Chinese, in the end of the 14th
century. The same people gradually absorbed in
the following centuries the various small bodies of
Mongols scattered over the centre of Asia, from the
Great Wall to the Altai Mountains on the west
and Tibet on the sonth-west. In the west of Asia
and the east of Europe were formed the Kipchak
(q.v.) states—in Russia, the Golden Horde, which
subsequently broke up into the Tartar (q.v.)
khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and the Crimea;
in Turkestan, the Uzbeg (q.v.) principality, out of
which grew the khanates-of Bokhara and Samar-
cand. Towards the end of the l4th century
Toktamish made himself chief of the eastern
Kipchaks, and united thereto the chieftainship
of the Golden Horde; but his power was crushed
by the greater Tamerlane (q.v.). In 1519 Baber
(q.v.), a descendant of Genghis’ son Jagatai, founded
the Mogul empire in India, The Ka wueks (q.v.)
also belong to the western branch of the Mongols.
The total number of Mongols now under Chinese
rule is estimated at two millions, They live for
the most part in the immense plateau of central
Asia called Mongolia (area, ['288,.000 sq. m.),
which is yirdled on all sides by lofty mountain-
chains (Altai, Thian-Shan, Chingan, &c.). Its
southern portion consists of the vast desert of Gobi.
These people are still nomads, as their historic
ancestors before them always were. Their wealth
consists in flocks of sheep, herds of horses (small,
but very enduring), cattle, camels, and
They are mostly Buddhists, though those in the
west are in part followers of 5S ism, as all
Mongols were before the days of the — con-
queror. As a rule they are hospitable, tho
indifferent to personal comfort, addicted to cattle-
stealing and to drink, but when sober good-h
and friendly; on the whole, life being easy and
their wants few and simple, they display a lack of
foresight, and are lazy and dirty. They dwell in
tents, which are their only protection against the
violent sandstorms of summer and the still more
terrible snow-hurricanes of winter. They are fond
of making religious pilgrimages to Urga (q.v.), the
religions capital of the country, and_to various
other shrines in China and Mongolia. Kalgan and
Kiachta are the principal commercial centres. It
is difficult to estimate the numbers of the western
Mongols, as they have in many parts commingled
with their Turkic neighbours ; ‘but see such articles
as Kipchaks, Kirghiz, Russia, Siberia, Tartars,
Turkestan, &c. The Buriats (q.v.), almost entirely
subject to Russia, are a branch of the Mongol
race.
The term Mongolic is used by ethnologists to
describe the group of cognate languages which con-
stitute one division of the Turanian (q.v.) family
of speech, What Mongol literature there is con-
sists for the most part of translations of religious
works from Tibetan and Chinese, historical works
(notably the chronicles of Ssanang Setsen in the
middle of the 17th century), of folk and fairy tales,
and a few poetic productions. Perhaps the best
known of the folk-tales are the collection entitled
Siddhi~Kir (ed. Jiilg, 1868). Others have been
ublished by him (186669), by Bergmann (1804-5),
. J. Schmidt (1839), and Russian savants.
See Turks and Astra, p. 463; Howorth, History 7 Beveg
Mongols (1876-88) ; Gilmour, Among the Mongols (1 »
More about Mongolia, More about the Mongols (1893
and his Diaries (ed. Lovett, 1892).
Mongoose. See IcHNEUMON.
Monica, See AUGUSTINE.
Monier-Williams. See WILLIAMs.
Monism, a eens! theory that all being
may ultimatel, referred to one category, Thus
idealism, pantheism, materialism are monisms, as
op to the Dualisin (q.v.) of matter and
spirit. See PHILOSOPHY.
Moniteur, Le, a French journal, started by
the publisher Panckoucke, 5th May 1789, under
the title of the Gazette Nationale, ou le Moniteur
Universel. During the Revolution its reports,
&c. were of very great importance, and its value
was immensely ine when, in 1800, it was
made the official organ of the government. _ It re-
tained the privilege (without the first title, Gazette
Nationale, which was dropped in 1811) down to
1869, when it was supplanted by the Journal
Offciel. Afterwards it was issued as an Orleanist
or private Conservative paper.
MONITOR
MONKEY 278
Monitor, 2 name given to a genus of Lizards
somewhat isolated from other lizards in structural
characters; in some respects they approach the
Crocodilia, which are the highest of existing reptiles.
They are the largest of existing lizards ; a specimen
acquired by the College of Surgeons in London
measured 6 feet 10 inches. The tail of the greater
number is omens compressed, the better to adapt
them to aquatic habits. They have received the
| name Monitor from a notion that they give warn-
ing by a hissing sound of the approach of a croco-
dile or alligator. There is only one genus, with
many species.—The Monitor or Varan of the Nile
Monitor (Varanus niloticus).
(Varanus niloticus) is of a rather slender form,
and has a long tail. It is olive-gray, mottled with
black. It attains a length of five or six feet.
: Crocodiles’ or young crocodiles form the chief
rt of its food. Tt is a curious superstition in
ndia, that the young of the monitor is more
deadly than the most venomous serpent.
Monitor. See Navy.
Monitorial System, or Mutua. Instruc-
tion. It first oceurred to Dr Andrew Bell (q.v.),
when superintendent of the Orphan Hospital,
Madras, in 1795, to make use of the more advanced
hoys in the school to instruct the younger pupils.
These youthful teachers were called Monitors.
The method was eagerly adopted by Joseph Lan-
easter, who in the first years of the 19th century
did so much for the extension of popular education ;
and, from him and the originator, the system was
called “pang the Madras and the Lancastrian,
as well as the Monitorial or Mutual System. See
Epucation, Vol. IV. p. 210. The monitorial
system is not, as is commonly supposed, a method
of teaching; it is simply a method of organising
schools, and of providing the necessary teachin
power. At a time when the whole question
primary education was in its infancy, the state
refusing to promote it on the ground that it was
dangerous to society, and the public little disposed
to contribute towards its extension, it was of great
- importance that a system should be adopted which
recommended itself as at once effectual and econo-
mical. But its value as an educational agency was
universally overrated, and in the end broke down.
Monk, See Monacuism.
Monk, Grorcr, Duke of Albemarle, soldier
of fortune and restorer of the English monarchy,
was the second son of Sir Thomas Monk of
Potheridge, near Torrington, North Devon, and
vas born either there or at Lancross on 8th
December 1608. He saw service first in the expe-
ditions to Cadiz and Rochelle (1625-27), and then
for nine Ee in Holland, returning to Eng-
land in 1639, in time to take part in the two
gt Aad with the Scots. In 1642-43 he com-
manded a regiment against the Irish rebels, in
1644 was taken prisoner at Nantwich by Fairfax.
He lay two years in the Tower, where he solaced
himself with frail, ugly Nan Ratsford or Clarges
his future duchess), and whence he freed himself
y taking the Covenant—Clarendon hints that he
did so for arog h As major-general in Ulster he
so commended himself to Cromwell, still more by
his brilliant conduct at Dunbar (1650), that next
oe he was left to complete the subjection of
tland. In 1653 he was associated with Blake
and Deane in naval operations against the Dutch,
and won two great sea-fights over Tromp (q.v.) ;
in 1654 Cromwell sent him back to Scotland as
governor, in which difficult office he acquitted him-
self with vigour, moderation, and equity. Even
the Highlands were reduced to order. His home
for five years was Dalkeith, where he ‘was ever
engaged in business or in planting, which he loved
as an amusement and occupation.’ After Crom-
well’s death, seeing everything in confusion, and a
splendid chance open to him who dared seize it, on
ew-year’s Day 1660 he crossed the Border with
6000 men, and five weeks later entered London un-
opposed. So far he had kept his intentions pro-
foundly secret. Still every one felt that the decision
lay with ‘Old George ;’ every party courted him ;
the Republicans even offered him the protectorate.
But, while he offended nobody, he declined to con-
nect himself with any of the sectaries, and waited
patiently the course of events. From the first, his
own wish, dictated by no hight motive, had been to
bring back the Stuarts; and before long he saw
that the nation at large was with him. The freeing
of the Rump parliament from the army, the re-
admission of the excluded members, and the elec-
tion of a new a rae he were his wary
steps towards the Restoration; on 23d May he
welcomed Charles IT. on the beach at Dover. Monk
now was made Duke of Albemarle, and entrusted
with the highest offices in the state. But he soon
retired from political affairs. In 1665, when thie
plague ravaged London, and every one fled that
could, as governor of the City he stuck bravely to
his post, and did his best to allay the panie and
confusion. Next year he was employed as second
in command of the fleet sent under the Duke of
York against the Dutch, and was defeated by De
Ruyter in a sea-fight off Dunkirk, but soon after
ined a bloody victory over him off the North
oreland. He died, sitting in his chair, at New-
hall, his Essex seat, on 3d January 1670, and was
buried in Westminster Abbey. ‘A man,’ says
Guizot, ‘capable of great things, though possessing
no greatness of soul.
See, besides works cited at CHARLES I., CROMWELL, and
Cuarves II., the Lives of Monk by Gumble, his chap-
lain (1671), Skinner (1723), Guizot (Eng. trans. 1851),
and Corbett (1889), the last a eulogy.
Monk, Marta (c. 1817-50), a woman of bad
character who pretended in 1835 to have escaped
from the Hotel Dieu nunnery at Montreal, and
who, coming to New York, found a food many
credulous adherents, and published Awful Dis-
closures and Further Disclosures, which had an
enormous sale.
Monkey, This term may be conveniently re-
stricted only to all the Primates exclusive of the
Anthropoid Apes (q.v.). It has been sometimes
applied to the tailed forms only, the rest being
spoken of as Apes. This use of the words monkey
and ape is ill-judged, inasmuch as it implies that
the non-anthropoid Primates are divisible into
tailed and tailless species. The real distinction is
not to be found in this character. The quadru-
mana as a whole are divisible into three great
grou (1) Anthropoid Apes; (2) Platyrrhini,
the New-World monkeys; (3) Catarrhini, the
274 MONKEY
MONMOUTH
Old-World monkeys. It is the two latter divisions
that are dealt with in the present article.
In the Platyrrhini the nostrils are far apart; the
tail is prehensile, and the number of premolar teeth
is in excess of that of the Catarrhini, the dental
formula being (for the molars and premolars)
p-m. §=$, m. §=3. In the marmosets dhe formula
is p.m. §23, m. $73; this, coupled with some
other peculiarities in their anatomy, led to the
institution of a distinct Pap Aes re-
garded as equivalent to either the Platyrrhini or
Catarrhini. They are now, however, more usu-
ally referred to the Platyrrhini, though placed in
a separate family.
a, Platyrrhine face (Mycetes villosus); b, Catarrhine face
( Macacus leoninus).
In the Old-World monkeys, or Catarrhini, the
nostrils are near together; the number of teeth 32,
and these arranged as in the anthropoid apes and
man; the molars and premolars being p.m. 3_3,
m. §-§—the reverse of the condition seen in the
Marmosets. The tail, when present, is never
prehensile; and three are frequently ischial
callosities developed, which structures are entirely
unknown among the American monkeys.
The two divisions of the monkey tribe based
upon those characters are absolutely distinct in
their geographical distribution. The Platyrrhini
are only found in America, the Catarrhini are
limited to the Old World ; further than this, the
fossil species, which have not been found in strata
earlier than of the Miocene period, show the same
rigid correspondence between structure and distri-
bution. No Platyrrhine has been met with in the
Old World, end no Catarrhine in the New.
Whether this indicates that the monkeys of the
two hemispheres have had an independent origin or
not, is a matter for further inquiry; it must
indicate in any case the remoteness of the period
during which there was a passable land connection
between Asia and America.
In both the Old and New Worlds monkeys are
almost confined to the more tropical districts ; and
yet this is not entirely due to an_ incapacity for
yearing a rigorous climate, for monkeys oceur high
up on the sides of mountains in India. Monkeys
do not occur in the tropical parts of Australia.
During the Miocene and Pliocene periods these
animals inhabited Europe and even England, for
the remains of a Macaque have been described
from the county of Essex. At present the only
trace left in Europe of these inhabitants is the
Macacus inuus or Barbary Ape, which occurs on
the Rock of Gibraltar as all as on the opposite
coast of Africa, But this animal is perhaps not
truly indigenous ; it may have been introduced.
In the New World monkeys are most abundant in
South America. The forests of the Amazon and
the Orinoco may be regarded as their headquarters.
There are only ten species which occur north of the
Isthmus of Panama, and only one of these extends
5 range into Mexico; this is a Spider Monkey.
The West Indian islands contain no indigenous
monkeys. The American monkeys are all arboreal;
and this of course limits their range to forest-cl
districts. The prehensile tail has an obvious
relation to their mode of life. But it is a most
singular fact that the long-tailed monkeys of the
Old World, which might often gain considerable
advantage from being able to use their tail as
a grasping organ, are totally unable to do so,
Some of the more remarkable kinds of monkeys
are noticed in separate articles (BABOON, BARBARY
APE, ENTELLUS, HOWLER, MARMOsET, Xc.).
Monk-fish, another name for the Angel-fish
(q.v.), Was also applied in the 16th century to a
large specimen of the Loligo or Squid family.
Monk’s-hood,. See Aconire.
Menk’s Rhubarb. See Dock.
Monmouth, the county town of Monmouth-
shire, stands, girt by wooded hills, at the influx of
the Monnow to the Wye, 16 miles N. of Chepstow,
18 S. of Hereford, and 26 WSW. of Gloucester.
Its chief features are the ruined castle of John of
Gaunt, in which Henry V. was born; the parish
church, dating from the 14th century, and restored
in 1882 by Street at a cost of £7000, with a
cae spire 200 feet high; the bridge over the
onnow (1272), with its ‘ Welsh gate,’ and near
it, a small Norman chapel ; a fragment of a Bene-
dictine priory, with ‘Geoffrey of Monmouth’s
study ;’ the new town-hall, built in 1888 at a cost
of £10,000; and a grammar-school (1614). In the
neighbourhood are the temple-crowned Kymin (800
feet), commanding a glorious view ; the Buckstone,
a rocking-stone, displaced by tourists in 1885, but
since re-poised ; and, 7 miles SW., the superb ruins
of Raglan Castle, defended for ten weeks in 1646
rainst Fairfax by the old Marquis of Worcester.
irst chartered by Edward VI., Monmouth unites
with Newport and Usk to return a member. Pop.
(1851) 5710; (1881) 6112; (1891) 5470. See Charters
of Monmouth (1826), and works by Heath (1804)
and Greene (1870).
Monmouth, capital of Warren county, Illinois,
is 179 miles by rail WSW. of Chicago. It is the
seat of Monmouth College (United byterian,
1856), with about 400 students, and manufactures
agricultural implements, sewer pipes, and cigars.
Pop. (1900) 7460.
Monmouth, James, Duke or, was born at
Rotterdam, 9th April 1649, the son of ‘browne,
beautiful, bolde, but insipid’ Lucy Walters (1630-
83), by Charles II., she said, but more likely by
Colonel Robert Sidney, to whom and to whose
brother Algernon she had lately been mistress.
When in 1656 she came with her son to London,
she was treated as the king's wife, and by Crom-
well was sent to the Tower, and then back to Paris.
Charles sought out the boy and committed him to
the care of Lord Crofts, who gave him his own
name. In 1662, after the Restoration, ‘Mr James
Crofts’ came to England with the queen-dowager,
and was handsomely lodged at Hampton Court and
Whitehall. In 1663 he was created Duke of Mon-
mouth, and wedded to a rich heiress, Anne, Coun-
tess of Buccleuch (1651-1732) ; in 1670 he succeeded
Monk as captain-general of the forces, and in 1673
received the additional title of Duke of Bucclench.
A poor, weak libertine, he yet became the idol of
the populace, thanks to his beauty and his affa-
bility, to his humanity towards the Covenanters at
Bothwell Bridge (1679), to the agitation of the
Popish Plot and the Exclusion Bill, and to his two
semi-royal progresses in the west and the north of
England (1680-82). There were rumours of his
legitimacy, the proofs in a certain ‘black box ;’
and Shaftesbury knew well how to pit the ‘ Protes-
ee ea eee
x
i
j
;
~ Monmout!
MONMOUTHSHIRE
MONOCOTYLEDONS 275
tant Duke’ against the Popish heir-presumptive to
the throne, how to caine hich in the Rye-house
Plot (1683), on whose discovery Monmouth fled, as
four years before, to the Low Countries. There he
remained until Charles’s death, when, in concert
with ll’s Scotch expedition, with eighty-two
followers he invaded England. On 11th June 1685
he landed at Lyme-Regis, and issued a manifesto
branding James as a murderer and popish usurper,
and asserting his own legitimacy and right to the
crown. He was received with acclamations at
Taunton, where he was himself proclaimed King
James II. ; and on the early morning of 6th June,
after a roundabout march to near Bristol and Bath,
he attempted with 2600 foot and 600 horse ( peasants
mostly and miners), to surprise the king’s forces,
2700 strong, which under the Earl of Feversham
were encamped on Sedgemoor, near Bridgwater.
His men conld not cross a broad drain, and were
wed down by the royal artillery, 300 falling on
field, 1000 more in the pursuit. Monmouth
himself had fled, but on the 8th was taken, dis-
pees as a shepherd, in a ditch near Ringwood,
is pecan Leng bLip roy was dastardly. He wept;
he crawled to his feet; he even offered to turn
Catholic. No: on 15th July he was bunglingly
beheaded upon Tower Hill, and buried in the chapel
of St Peter-ad-Vineula. His duchess had borne
him six children; but his last thoughts were all
with his mistress, Lady Henrietta Wentworth, who
died of sorrow nine months after him. In the
* Bloody Assize’ that followed the rebellion, ge
Jeffreys hanged 331 rebels, transported 849 to the
plantations, and whipped or fined 33 others.
See G. Roberts, Life of Monmouth (2 vols. 1844), with
works cited at CHARLES II. and James II.
Monmouthshire, » county in the west of
England, bounded NE. by Hereford, E. by Glou-
cester, 5. the estuary of the Severn, and W.
and NW. by South Wales. With a maximum
length and breadth of 32 and 28 miles, it contains
Ai i ay 370,350 acres, of which oar — one-
under nt ture, and about one-
twelfth in woods. Pop. (18013 45,582; (1841)
134,368; (1891) 252,260. Its surface is for the
most part hilly, ially in the north and north-
west (the Sugar f is 1954 feet high), but the
Caldicot and Wentloog Levels, which for a distance
of 25 miles skirt the southern coast, are so low as
to require in places the protection of sea-walls and
earthworks. The Wye, with its tributary the
Monnow, the Usk, Ebwy, and Rumney, all flowing
south into the estuary of the Severn, are the
rincipal rivers. In the rich valleys of the three
hee wheat is the principal crop raised, whilst on
the poorer soils on the west side of the county oats
and barley are chiefly grown. There are also ex-
tensive orchards, The great wealth, however, of
Monmouthshire is derived from its minerals, coal
and ironstone abounding in the region of Pontypool
and Rhymney. In 1889 coal weighing 6,751,308 tons
and in 1894 the amount of 8,213,156 tons were
raised; some 400,000 tons of pig-iron are annually
made, and much limestone and other building
stone, as also fireclay, produced. The county com-
Saeed six hundreds, the municipal boroughs of
onmouth and Newport, and 147 civil parishes,
Three members are returned to parliament for
the sooner aud one for the combined borough of
, Newport, and Usk; the County
numbers 64. Towns other than the above
are xy ee arog, 4 Blaenavon, Caerleon, C Ww,
and Tredegar. Monmouthshire, which until 1535
formed part of Wales, is noted for its beautiful
scenery and for the many remains of feudal castles,
&e. seattered throughout it. Of these the finest
examples are the castles of ae Caldicot, and
tow, and the abbeys of Llanthony and
Tintern. See the county histories by Williams
(1796) and Coxe (1801).
Monochlamydez. See CALYx, FLowER.
Monocho an apparatus constructed to
exhibit the mathematical proportions of musical
intervals. It consists of a flat board of 4 or
8 feet long, or better 16 feet, where space can be
spared. The breadth of the board is according
to the number of the strings, which are from
two to six. The hoard is covered with fine white
pore A straight line is drawn from end to end
ow each ear and each line is accurately
divided into the different proportions into which the
full length of the string, as a fundamental sound,
harmonically divides itself (see HARMONICS). The
string is fixed at one end, and rests on a bridge;
while at the other end, where it also rests on a
bridge, it is stretched by a tuning-peg, or by a
weight. The sounds from the strings are produced
by a violin-bow. The monochord is chiefly used in
illustrating acoustical experiments in the proportion
of intervals and temperament.
Monoclina! Strata. See the article GEoLocy
(Vol. V. p. 152), MOUNTAINS.
Monocotyle'dons, The higher phanerogams
are distinguished from the Gymnosperms by their
closed ovary as Angiosperms, and there fall into
two main alliances, recogni by Ray and other
red rs of Linneus as monocotyledons and
dicoty ledons. The former are readily distinguished,
as the name implies, by the single cotyledon of the
embryonic plant, but also by a number of other
important structural characters. Thus, the primary
root (ian it may develop strongly in ger-
mination, as in palms, lilies, maize, &c.) soon ceases
to grow, and is replaced by lateral (adventitious)
roots, The axis of the embryo also often dies
away after producing lateral shoots, which may die
in turn, and so on (e.g. sympodial rhizome of
Solomon’s Seal, tubers of orchids, &c.), but fre-
uently also lengthens into the primary stem of
ull-grown plant (e.g. palms, aloe, maize, &c.);
while young it grows (as in ferns) in the form of
an inve’ cone, each successive section being
longer than the preceding until the adult size is
reached, when the stem becomes cylindrical, taper-
ing off only at the extreme point. There is thus
usually no secondary growth in thickness (see,
however, DRACHNA). The leaves are seldom
whorled, and the ea ge in two alternating
rows is commonest. e leaf-bores are usually
sheathing, and stipules are absent. The lamina is
usually entire, the venation not ridged on the
under side, and usually parallel. The fibro-vascular
bundles of the stem do not anastomose nor form a
ring, but are distributed throughout the whole
stem, which thus does not exhibit the pith nor
separable bark so familiar in many dicotyledons.
The flower consists of alternating and isomerous
whorls, outer and inner perianth, outer and inner
stamens, and usually only one carpellary whorl ;
but from this type many characteristic specialisa-
tions arise, The endosperm is usually large and
persistent, but some orders are exalbuminons.
The systematic study of the monocotyledons is
most easily undertaken by clearly familiarising
one’s self with the Liliacew and their immediate
allies, Amaryllidaces, Iridacesw, &c.; and next by
studying the progress of the floral specialisation,
through Scitaminee to its extreme in Orchidacer.
Starting ayain from the lilies and their scarcely
distinguishable allies, the rushes (Juncacex), we
easily distinguish one series of degenerative (or
more accurately vegetative) types, culminating in
the sedges (Cyperacee) and grasses, commonly
grouped as Glumiflore. Another somewhat analo-
gous line of change gives us the palms and Aroidew,
276 MONOD
MONOPOLY
ya at Spadiciflore, The Helobiwe (including
uncaginer, Alismacerw, Hydrocharidacew) are
also of special interest, as representing in some
respects more primeval forms, and pointing back
to a common ancestry with dicotyledons. See
VEGETABLE KINGDoM, and minor special articles ;
also Goebel’s, Van Tieghem’s, or other text-books
of botany. For systematic details, see Engler’s
Pflanzenfamilien or the Genera Plantarum.
Monod, Abo-PHE, an active theologian of the
Reformed Church, was born in 1802 at Copenhagen,
the son of a preacher, himself a native of Geneva.
He studied at Geneva, and laboured as a preacher
at Naples and Lyons, as a professor at Montauban,
and againas a preacher in Paris until his death,
6th April 1856. He published sermons and many
religious works which were widely popaler ee
brother, FREDERIC, born 17th May 1794 at Monnaz,
in the canton of Vaud, was thirty years a prominent
astor in Paris, and founded in 1849, together with
unt Gasparin, the Free Reformed Church of
France. He edited until his death, 30th December
1863, the Archives du Christianisme. See Adolphe’s
Life and Letters (Eng. trans. 1885).
Monodon, See NARWHAL.
Moneecious (Gr. monos, ‘one,’ and otkion, ‘a
habitation’), a term introduced by Linneus to
describe those plants which have the stamens and
pistil in different flowers, but upon the same plant
—e.g. hop, box, birch, beech, alder, oak, hazel.
Such plants formed one of the classes (Moneecia)
of the Linnean system, but were obviously a
specially artificial alliance, since that partial or
complete separation of the sexes to which we apply
the terms moneecious or dicecious respectively arises
continually among the most unrelated plants or
animals, See FLOWER, Sex.
Monogenists. See ErHno.ocy.
Monogram (Gr.), a character composed of two
or more letters of the alphabet, often interlaced with
other lines, and used as a cipher or abbreviation of
aname. A perfect monogram is one in which all
the letters of the word are to be traced. They are
found on early Greek coins, medals, and seals, and
on the family coins of Rome, but not on the coins
of the earlier Roman emperors. Constantine
placed on his coins one of the earliest of Christian
monograms, composed of the first and second letters
of XPIzTOz (Christos), a monogram which also
appeared on the Labarum (see
Cross, Vol. IIL. p. 582; and
CONSTANTINE) ; we often find
it combined with the first
and last letters of the Greek
alphabet ( Rev. i. 8). Another
well-known monogram is that
of the name of Jesus, IHS,
from the first three letters of
IHz0T2, Popes, emperors,
and kings of France during
Fig. 1. the middle ages were in the
practice of using a monogram
instead of signing their names, Fig, 1 represents
that of Charlemagne, a perfect monogram, in which
all the letters of Karolus can be traced,
Painters and engravers in Germany and
Italy have used monograms to a large
YD)\\ extent as a means of distinguishing their
works, Fig. 2 is the monogram of Albert
Fig-2 Diirer, The first typographers made use
of monograms or ciphers, a series of which,
well known to the bibliographer, fixes the identity
of the ancient editions, German, Italian, and Eng-
lish, from the invention of printing down to the
middle or end of the 16th century. Those of
William Caxton and Gaspard Philippe, an old
Paris printer, will be found at Book, Vol, II. p.
(1894); Duplensiay Dictonmatresies Mercgues Peres
; lessis, Dictionnaire es (
1887). Potters’ marks will be found as PorvEs
Mon Ih (Gr.), a work in which a -
ticular sabjoet in any science is treated by iteelf, and
forms the whole subject of the work—‘an all-sided
and exhaustive study of a special or limited sub-
ject.’ The term is often loosely used for a small
k on miscellaneous topics.
Monolith, See STANDING-STONES.
Monomania, See INsANrry.
Monometallism. See BimeraLusM.
Monomotopa. See Arnica, Vol. L. p. 87.
Monongahe'a, a river which rises in West
Virginia and flows north to Pittsburgh, where it
unites with the Alleghany to form the Ohio.
Mono ’physites, Christians who hold thatChrist
has only one nature (Gr. monos, ‘one ;’ physis,
‘nature’), See GREEK CuuRcH, Vol. V. p. 398.
Monopoli, a town of Southern Italy, on the
Adriatic, 43 miles by rail NW. of Brindisi, with a
cathedral, ancient walls, and a castle built in 1552
by Charles V. Pop. 13,154.
Monopoly is properly definable as the sole or
exclusive right of selling or trading enjoyed by an
individual or group of individuals, In its strict’
sense monopoly belongs to an economic era which
has passed ays 9 During mediwval times and the
period that followed, exclusive rights prevailed
in almost all departments. There were manorial
rights which cireumseribed individual action. The
ae and the guild had their spheres of production
and of trade more or less clearly defined, and more
or less thoroughly recognised in practice. The
central governments which arose on the ruins of the
medieval system continued to recognise such ex-
clusive rights, sometimes conferring on favoured
individuals the sole privilege of selling the most
necessary articles of life, in other cases granting
to great companies the monopoly of trade over
immense regions of the world, It is with these
instances that the name ee is most strictly
associated in history. The last liament of
Elizabeth, held in 1601, pronounced an emphatic
condemnation of the monopolies nted by that
to the storm,
neen, and even she had to yiel
galt and coal were among the articles whose sale
was thus subject to monopoly. One of the mem-
bers made a sensation by asking: ‘Is not bread
among the number?’ Curiously enough, the pre-
vious year saw the foundation by royal charter of
the greatest of the companies which were based on
the exclusive right of trade in an immense foreign
market, the East India Company. The opposition
to monopolies at home continued under the
Stuarts, and their abolition may be regarded as one
of the important results of the great parliamentary
struggle of that time,
The spread of freedom has tended to the abolition
of such monopolies, whether vested in individuals,
in trade corporations, or in great companies en-
gaged in foreign commerce, But, while the mono-
poly of law has so far passed away, new tendencies
towards a monopoly of fact have been setting in.
Under the prevalent system it is still the aim of
the competitor to secure as far as possible the ex-
clusive sale of the commodity in which he deals,
either in the world-market or over a given portion
of it; and when the single competitor is not stron
enough to accomplish this, he seeks to attain his
object by combination with a group of those en-
in the same business, The modern trust
syndicate or union is the onteome of such efforts;
and the t danger attendant on such gigantic
combinations is the establishment of a monopoly
MONOTHEISM
MONROE 277
injurious to society. The trust considered in its
social and economic aspects offers a wide problem
for discussion ; there can be no doubt that it estab-
lishes or seeks to establish a monopoly of fact. As
s the United States it may be maintained
that such a monopoly is favoured by Protection ;
bnt in view of the fact that the same tendency
is observable in England, where free competition
with all the world exists, it should be considered
whether such combinations are not a ‘natural’
outcome of the prevailing economic system. We
have here merely to point ont that in all such com-
binations, whither operating over the whole world-
market or over a portion of it, the tendency towards
a emir § of fact is involved. In conclusion,
reference should be made to monopolies, as in
tobacco, retained by certain governments, but
pavly for revenue pu It was part of the
fiscal policy of Bismarck to establish such
a state m y in spirits. See
GENERAL.
Monotheism, the term usually employed to
denote a belief in the unity of the Godhead,
or belief in and worship of one God. It is thus
the opposite of Polytheism. The doctrine of the
_ Trinity is thought some (e.g. the Unitarians)
to be incompatible with the monotheism taught
by Jesus Christ, and is therefore rejected as no
part of His teaching. Mohammedans and Jews, of
course, reject with vehemence the least approach
to a Trinitarian conception of the Deity.
Monothelism (Gr. monos, ‘single,’ and thelein,
‘to will’), the doctrine that Christ had only one
will. It is a modification of Entychianism.
Evutycues; Greek Cuurcu, Vol. V. p. 398.
Monotrem‘ata (Gr. monos, ‘single ;’ tréma,
‘an opening’), the lowest order of mammalia, in
many of their characteristic points indicate an
| gewoon to reptiles. The skull is smooth;
brain-case very small as compared to the face ;
the snout much prmenees, and the jaws unpro-
vided with soft movable lips, and not furnished
with teeth, except in the young Ornithorhynchus,
where they have been discovered by Poulton and
Thomas. The cranial bones esce, as do a
bird’s, at a very early period, and leave no signs
of sutures, The external ear is altogether absent ;
ih wae the eyes, though small, are perfectly de-
ve .
e bones of the shoulder, forming the scapular
arch, are unlike those of any other mammals, and
resemble those of iles. At the top of the
sternum is a T- bone, formed by the union
of the two clavicles, ing to the furculum
in the bird’s skeleton, and to the clavicles and
interelavicle of the ile. The coracoid bones,
which in other are mere processes of the
scapula, are here extremely large, and assist in
strengthening the r arch ; they are produced
beyond the socket of the humerus (the glenoid
cavity), so as to articulate with the sternum.
The pelvis is provided with marsupial bones.
The ovaries are analogous to those of the Saurop-
sida (reptiles and birds), the right ovary being
comparatively madoveioped; while the left forms
a racemiform mass. e orifices of the urinary
canals, the intestinal canal, and the generative canal
open, as in birds and reptiles, into a common cloaca,
from which circumstance the order Monotremata
derives its name. The ova (as has been shown by
Poulton for Ornithorhynchus, and by Beddard and
Caldwell for Echidna) are of large size, and con-
_ tain an immense amount of yolk, as in the reptile
or bird. Caldwell has discovered also the important
fact that the early stages of development are like
those of a ares has confirmed the earlier
that these mammals lay eggs furnished
FARMERS-
with a thick shell. The Echidna carries its eggs
in its pouch, but the Ornithorhynchus deposits
them in its burrow. The mammary glands, of
which there is only one on each side, are not pro-
vided with ig ape but open by simple slits on °
each side of the abdomen. It has been proved,
moreover, that the mammary glands are altogether
different from those of other mammals, and only
functionally resemble them.
This order includes only two or three species, all
natives of Australia or Van Diemen’s Land, which,
however, form two families—the Ornithorhynchide
(see ORNITHORHYNCHUS) and the Echidnide (see
EcHIDNA). It appears probable from what is now
known of the teeth of Ornithorhynchus that some
of the Mesozoic mammalian remains which were
formerly referred to the Marsupialia are really
those of Monotremata. The literature of the
group is fully referred to in Zhe Catalogue of
‘arsupialia and Monotremata ( British Museum).
Monreale, a city of Sicily, 5 miles SW. of
Palermo. The ‘royal mount,’ from which it gets
its name, is 1231 feet high, and on it stands the
famous cruciform Norman cathedral (1176), which
measures 333 by 132 feet, and within is entirely
covered with mosaics. Pop. 13,898.
Monroe, ALEXLNDEE, founder of the medical
school of Edinburgh, styled primus to distinguish
him from his son and successor, was born in
London, September 8, 1697. His grandfather,
Sir Alexander Monro, a colonel in the army of
Charles IL at the battle of Worcester in 1651,
was alterwards an advocate at the Scottish bar.
Alexander studied at London under Hawksbee,
Whiston, and Cheselden, at Paris under Bou-
quet, and at Leyden under Boerhaave, and after
1719 lectured at Edinburgh on anatomy and surgery.
His lectures, with those of Alston on botany, led
to the foun ling of the medical school, when Monra
was appointed professor of Anatomy in 1721. Hé
was received into the university in 1725. For
forty years he lectured regularly on anatomy and
surgery from October to May, students coming
from all parts of Britain to hear him. Of the
establishment of the Royal Infirm of Edin-
burgh he was one of the two principal promoters,
and he there delivered clinical lectures. In 1759
he resigned the anatomical chair to his youngest
son, Dr Alexander Monro, but continued his
clinical lectures at the rece His _princi-
pal works are Osteology (1726), Essay on Com-
parative Anatomy (1744), Observations Anatomi-
cal and Physiological (1758), and an Account of
the Success of Inoculation of Smallpox in Scotland
(1765). He died July 10, 1767. e was a Fellow
of the Royal Society of London, and of various
foreign societies. A collected edition of his works,
with Life, was issued by his son (1781).
ALEXANDER MONRO, secundus (1733-1817),
ae son of the | shana studied at Edin-
urgh, Berlin, and Leyden, and succeeded his father
in the chair of Anatomy, and as secretary of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh. He published works
on the nervous system (1783), on the physiology of
fishes (1785), and on the brain, the eye, and the
ear (1797).—He again was succeeded by his son,
ALEXANDER Monro, tertius (1773-1859), who
wrote on hernia, and on the stomach, and an
Anatomy of the Human Body (4 vols. 1813).
Monroe, a city of Michigan, on the Raisin
River, 2 miles by a ship-canal from Lake Erie, and
40 miles by rail SSW. of Detroit. It contains a
number of flour-mills, a woollen-mill, and other
manufactories. Pop. (1900) 5043.
Monroe, James, fifth president of the United
States, was born in Westmoreland county, Vir-
ginia, April 28, 1758, the descendant of a family
278 MONROE
MONSOON
of Scottish extraction which had emigrated to
Virginia a century before. He entered William
and Mary Coleg a8 the age of eighteen, but soon
threw aside his books, with a number of his fellow-
students, to join the army under Washington. He
was present at several battles, and was wounded
at Trenton; he afterwards attained the rank of
lieutenant-colonel as an aide-de-camp and military
commissioner, but was disappoin in his efforts
to obtain a commission in a Virginia regiment,
and attached himself to Jefferson, with whom he
studied law. In 1782 he was elected to the
assembly of Virginia and appointed one of the
executive council. Next year he was returned to
congress, where he sat for three years, and in 1785
was chairman of a committee whose report ulti-
mately led to the conventions at Annapolis and
Philadelphia in 1786 and 1787, at which the con-
stitution of the United States was framed. Monroe
himself was a member of the Virginia convention
held to consider the ratification of the proposed
constitution, which, along with Patrick Henry and
other States’ Rights men, he opposed, fearing the
power and encroachment of the Federal govern-
ment. He was a member of the United States
senate from 1790 to 1794, and offered a determined
fate to Washington and the Federalists ; yet
the government appointed him to succeed Gouver-
neur Morris as minister to France, where he made
himself very acs with the revolutionary govern-
ment, until he was recalled in 1796 for displaying
too decided French sympathies. On his return he
published (1797) an attack on the executive for
their treatment of him, and, although Washington
himself, who had then retired, took no notice of
it, the book brought on a bitter controversy and
made Monroe the darling of the Democrats. He
was governor of Virginia from 1799 to 1802, and
then Jefferson sent him as an extra plenipoten-
tiary to France, where in 1803’ he and Robert R
Livingston effected the purchase of Louisiana
(q.v.). The next four years were spent in less
successful diplomacy at London and Madrid; he
failed in his negotiations with Spain for the
cession of Florida, whilst a treaty which he finally
concluded with Great Britain provided neither
against the impressment of American seamen nor
for an indemnity for American losses by seizures
at sea, and Jefferson refused to refer it to the
senate. Monroe promptly returned home and
drew up another defence, and the Virginians
endo his conduct and policy by a third time
electing him to the assembly, In 1811 he was
again chosen governor of Virginia. In the same
year Madison made him secretary of state; this
post he retained till 1817, and during 1814-15 he
acted also as secretary of war.
In 1816 Monroe was elected president of the
United States, and four years later he was re-
elected almost unanimously; the acquisition of
Florida from Spain (1819), and the settlement of
the vexed question respecting the extension of
slavery by the Missouri Compromise, by which,
after the reception of Missouri as a slave-state,
the institution was prohibited above the line of
latitude 36° 30’, he!ped to secure this result. His
most popular acts, perhaps, were the recognition
of the independence of the Spanish American re-
publics, and the »romulgation in a m to
congress (1823) of what has since been called the
‘Monroe Doctrine.’ This utterance embodied the
eueiee. ‘in which the rights and interests of the
nited States are involved, that the American
continents . . . are henceforth not to be considered
as subjects for future colonisation by any European
power, . . . With the existing colonies or de-
eateene of any European power we have not
terfered, and shall not interfere. But with the
ence and inaintained it, and whose inde ence
we have . . . acknowledged, we could not view
any interposition for the purpose of oppressin
bee _ ee in any other -pyonaed th
estiny, by any European power, any other
light than as the mani festesion of an wniclondit
disposition towards the United States.’ In 1825
Monroe retired to his seat at Oak Hill, Loudon
county, Virginia, where he acted as justice of the
peace, a nt of the university of Virginia, and
member of the state convention; but a_ profuse
generosity and hospitality caused him to be over-
whelmed with debt, and he found refuge with his
relations in New York, where he died in 1831—
like his predecessors, Adams and Jefferson, on the
4th of July. In 1858 his remains were removed
to Richmond. Monroe was an upright and con-
sistent statesman, and a faithful servant of his
country, though he had not the brilliant talents of
some of his great contemporaries.
See the Lives by J. Q. Adams (1850) and D. C. Gilman
1883); G. F. Tucker, History of the Monroe Doctrine
{188 | really formulated ree Q. Adams (q.v.); W.
. Reddaway, The Monroc rine (1898).
Monrovia. See Liseria.
Mons (Flem. Bergen), the capital of the Belgian
rovince of Hainault, on the Trouille, 38 miles
W. of Brussels. Its fortifications, renewed and
strengthened since 1818, were demolished in 1862;
but the country around can be laid under water.
The Canal de Condé connects Mons with the
Scheldt. The church of St Waudru (1450-1589)
is a masterpiece of Gothic; and there are a town-
hall (1458), a belfry (1662) 275 feet high, a
library, &e. The manufactures include woollen
and cotton goods, cutlery, and sugar; whilst the
vicinity forms an extensive coalfie Pop. (1875)
24,539 ; (1895) 25,350. Mons, occupying the site
of one of Cwsar’s camps, was made the capital of
Hainault by Charlemagne in 804. France, Spain,
and Austria often contended for its possessior.
See Boussu’s Histoire de Mons (2 vols. 1868).
Monsignore, « title of honour given to pre-
lates of the Roman Catholic Church. Formerly in
France the corresponding title of Monseigneur was
allowed to all high dignitaries of the church, to
the princes of the blood-royal, to the higher nobles,
and to the presidents of the su
But from the time of Louis XIV. Monseigneur
without further addition was appropriated as the
title of the Dauphin.
Monsoon is derived from the Arabic Mausim,
‘a set time,’ ‘season,’ and was for long applied to
those winds prevailing in the Indian
blow from the south-west from April to October,
and from the op ite direction, or north-east, from
October to Ap The monsoons, in common with
all winds whether oa, ger or irregular, depend pri-
marily on an unequal distribution of temperature
and moisture over that portion of the earth's
surface where they occur, which in their turn
give rise to an unequal distribution of atmospheric
pressure. From this unequal distribution of the
mass of the earth's atmosphere winds take their
rise—winds being simply the flow of the air from
a region of higher towards a region of lower be
sure, or from where there is a surplus to where
there is a deficiency of air. The term monsoon
has in recent years come to be used with a wider
significance than formerly; it is now generally
applied to the winds connected with all continents
which are of regular occurrence with the periodical
return of the seasons. The winds of Australia are
thus strictly monsoonal ; over the ter part of
North America the prevailing winds have a well-
marked monsoonal character ; similarly, monsoons
governments who have declared their eehened
rior law-courts, -
cean which
MONSTRANCE
MONTAGU 279
occur on the coasts of Brazil, Peru, North Africa,
and all other regions that happen to lie between
regions whose temperature, and necessarily their
also, differ markedly from each other
at different times of the year. See WIND.
Monstrance (Lat. monstrare, ‘to show’),
ealled also OSTENSORY, the sacred utensil em-
ployed in the Catholic Church for the purpose of
presenting the consecrated host for the adoration of
the people, as well while
it is carried in proces-
sion as when it is ex-
posed upon the altar
on occasions of special
solemnity and prayer.
It consists of two parts,
the foot or stand upon
which it rests, and the
repository or case in
which the host is ex-
hibited. The latter con-
tains a small semi-cir-
cular holder called the
lunula, or crescent, in
oa the host is roe ;
ita) rs ancient!
to larg toms of a pe
drical or tower-shaped
form, in the central
portion of which, con-
sisting of a glass or
erystal cylinder, the
host was placed. At
present it is more com-
monly in the form of a
star or sun with rays,
the central portion of
which is of glass or crystal, and serves to permit
the host to be seen. This portion, or at least the
crescent, is of gold or of silver gilt; the rest is
generally of the precious metals, or at least gilt
or silvered, although the lower portion is occasion-
ally of bronze artistically wrought.
Monstrosity is the term applied in human and
comparative anatomy to an aberrant formation of
the body consequent upon early disturbances in the
developmental processes in the embryo. Teratole
(teras, logos), the special and very interesting branch
of biology which deals with the causes of such
occurrences and with the classification of the
‘monsters’ so Pex rie has been advanced by the
researches of roy Saint-Hilaire, Férster, and
others to the position of a ial science, and one
that throws a valuable sidelight on that of normal
embryology. The malformations to be dealt with
may affect the whole organism or portions only
of its structure. Monsters are, however, usually
classified under three headings: (1) Those with
exaggerated or supernumera rts (monstra per
EXCESSUM ) 5 (2) those lacking” e (monstra oar
defectum); and (3) those with abnormally arranged
(monstra per fabricam alienam). Those of
the first-class, where ey limbs or a
double head or trunk exist, are generally recognised
as due to Kes more or less complete — we or
more embryos, ori y separate, during the pro-
cess of development. Cases of this kind which
have from time to time been carefully described,
figured, or eben in museums show that almost
every possible d of fusion of separate embryos
may oceur, resulting in a correspondingly great
variety in the shapes of the monsters produced.
Two otherwise complete bodies may be attached by
an external bond, as in the case of the Siamese
‘twins; or the one may be wholly or partially en-
‘closed by the tissnes of the other. A case of snch
tomplete inclusion is found in the Hunterian
Museum. Much more frequently, however, but
imperfect relics of the one remain attached to, or
fused with, the fully-develo structures of the
other. Thus arise two-headed monsters, those with
double trunks or double sets of limbs, and those
in which a shapeless mass representing the blighted
embryo remains attached to the fully-formed body
of the twin organism. In this same class of mon-
sters by exaggeration must be placed also cases of
ery or local gigantic development, due not to
usion of bp ag embryos but to general or local
precocity of growth in the tissues of a single
organism. Not less interesting are monsters of the
second class, where entire parts of the body may be
suppressed during development. Here again it is
shown that the non-development may occur in any
region and to any extent: consequently numerous
and widely separated varieties of monster are found
in this class. The suppression of parts varies like-
wise in degree, and in its effect upon the viability
of the organism. For instance, a headless or brain-
less monster is of ity incapable of living ;
whereas one with suppression of a limb is viable,
and might more properly be described as a case of
congenital deformity. In the third class are the
cases of transposition of viscera, malposition of
limbs, congenital dislocations of joints, &e. See
DEFORMITIES, CLUB-FOOT, and, for monstrosity in
plants, TERATOLOGY.
Montagnana, a town of Northern Italy, 32
miles SW. of Padua, Pop. 3200.
Montagnards, or simply MoNnTAGNE, ‘the
Mountain,’ the name given sf the extreme demo-
cratic politicians in the first French Revolution,
because they seated themselves on the highest
benches of the hall in which the National Con-
vention met. The body included both Jacobins
and Cordeliers; its principal members were Danton,
Marat, Robespierre, St Just, and Collot d’Herbois,
the men of ‘the Reign of Terror.’ The antagon-
istic party were ‘the Plain,’ the Girondists (q.v.),
who sat on the lowest benches, on the floor of the
house. After the overthrow of the Girondists this
part of the house was styled ‘the Marsh or Swamp,’
and included all the members whose votes were
under the control of ‘the Mountain.’ In 1848 the
extreme party in the National Assembly, composed
of revolutionary democrats and communists, some-
times flattered itself by assuming the title of ‘the
Mountain.’
Montagu. The illustrious family of Montagu
seeing from D de Montacute, who came from
ormandy with the Conqueror. Sixth in descent
from him was Simon de Montacute, grandfather
of the William de Montacute created Earl of
Salisbury in 1337, many of whose successors have
been great historical personages. The subsequent
family of Mon descended from Simon (younger
brother of the third Earl of Salisbury), who was
the ancestor of Sir Edward Montagu, Speaker of
the House of Commons and afterwards Lord Chief-
as. who died in 1557. His son, Sir Edward
Montagu of Boughton, had six sons; Edward, the
eldest, was made Baron Montagu of Boughton ; and
his grandson Ralph, third baron, was (1689) created
Earl of Montagu, and in 1705 Duke of Montagu.
In his son John the male line of the first Baron
Montagu became extinct. The third son of Edward
of Boughton was Sir Henry Montagu, the famous
lawyer and orator, who was Lord Chief-justice,
and created Lord Montagu of Kimbolton, and after-
wards (temp. Charles I.) Earl of Manchester (q.v.).
His son (second earl) was a general in the pariia-
mentary army, who gained distinction by his victory
over Prince Rupert at Marston Moor, but subse-
quently gave in his adhesion to Charles II, on his
restoration. The fourth Earl of Manchester was
280 MONTAGU
MONTAIGNE
an enthusiastic follower of William IIL, fighting
with him at the battle of the Boyne, and taking
part in the siege of Limerick; he was eventuall
created Duke of Manchester in 1719 by Geo: a
His descendant, the eighth duke, succeeded in
1890. The sixth son of Edward of Boughton was
Sir Sydney Montagu, whose son, Edward, was a
considerable mathematician, and serving first in
the army, then in the navy, became the first sole
commander of the English navy, and was created
by Charles II. Lord Montagu of St Neots, Viscount
Hinchinbroke, and Earl of Sandwich, His descend-
ant, the eighth earl, succeeded in 1884,
Montagu, Lapy Mary Wort .ey, born about
1690 at Thoresby, Nottinghamshire, was the eldest
daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, Earl (afterwards
Duke) of Kingston. She was a clever, attractive
child, the pride and delight of her father, who, hav-
ing lost his wife in 1694, and continuing a widower,
introduced his daughter to society, and made her
preside at his table at a very early age. When she
was only eight years old he introduced her to
the famous Kit-Cat Club, and she was formally ad-
mitted a member, In 1712 she married, without
the consent of her father, Edward Wortley Mon-
tagu, eldest son of the Hon. Sydney Montagu, and
grandson of the first Earl of Sandwich. For more
than three years after her marriage she lived at
Wharncliffe Lodge, near Sheffield, where her son
was born, her husband during this time being kept
principally in London by his parliamentary duties.
On the accession of George I. Mr Montagu obtained
a seat at the Treasury Board, and from this time
Lady Mary lived in London, where she gained a
Lrilliant reputation by her wit and beauty, and was
on terms of intimate friendship with Addison and
Pope, and other literary men of the day. In 1716
Mr Mon was appointed am or to the
Porte, and in August of that year he set out for
Constantinople, accompanied by his wife. They
remained abroad till 1718, and during this time
Lady M wrote the well-known Letters to her
sister, the Countess of Mar, Pope, and other friends.
The Letters give a true description of Eastern
life and manners, and are written in a clear, lively
style, sparkling with wit and humour. While
in Turkey she witnessed Inoculation (4.v.), and
introduced it into England on her return, having so
much faith in its safety that she tried it first on
her own son. The next twenty years of her life she
eps in England, and fixed her abode at Twicken-
am, where she renewed her intimacy with Pope,
and then quarrelled with him, the immediate
cause of the quarrel being the publication by
Lady Mary of six satirical sketches entitled Zown
Ecloques. Yn 1739, for reasons which are not well
known, she left England and her husband, from
whom, however, she parted on very good terms,
though they never met again. She lived in Italy,
first on the shores of the Lake of Iseo, and after-
wards at Venice till 1761, when, at the request of
her danghter, the Countess of Bute, she returned
to England, She died Angust 21, 1762. A col-
lected edition of her works, with Life, was pot
lished by her great-grandson, Lord Whavrneliffe (3
vols. 1837; 3d ed. 1887).
Montague, Cuaries. See HALIFAX (LorD).
Montaigne, Micner Eyquem pe, was the
third son of Pierre Eyqnem, Seigneur de Mon-
taigne. He was born in 1533 on the family estate
in Perigord. His father had ideas of his own on
the subject of education, and his third son was to
have the full benefit of them. The first novel step
was the putting of Michel ont to nurse in a
village on the estate, that he might be early
inured to simple habits of living, and learn to
sympathise with the lot of the poor, Whether or
associat es it is a
ontaigne always spoke
geen neighbours with a respect asc) Kkindli:
tone remarkable in the and class to
not the result of this ag A
fact that in his after life
of his
ness 0
which he a It was the received opinion at
the period of Montaigne’s childhood that no boy
could grow into a creditable citizen without a
severity of discipline which would now be called
brutal terrorism. It was the distinctive feature
of Pierre de Montaigne’s system, however, that
boyhood should be made as happy as pares and
teachers could make it, and in the upbringing of
his famous son he was even whimsically humane.
Every morning he had the boy awaked by the
sound of some musical instrument, because he had
heard ‘ that it disturbs the tender brain of children
to awake them suddenly.’ As he wished to make
his son a scholar, and Latin was, therefore, an
indispensable acquisition, he had the idea of con-
verting a task into a natural pleasure. Till the
age of six the boy was taught to speak no language
but Latin, his tutor (a German), his parents, and
even the domestics addressing him in that language.
The result was that in the conversational command
of Latin Montaigne had from boyhood the advan-
tage of the best scholars of the day. His father
was less successful in a novel method he also
adopted in having him taught Greek.
hen Montaigne reached the age of six his
father ‘allowed himself to be won over to common
opinion,’ and sent him to a school in the neigh-
bouring city of Bordeaux—the Collége de Guienne,
then, he himself tells us, the best in all France.
His father, who as a former mayor had considerable
influence in the city, ‘made several stipulations
against the rules of colleges, thongh, all the same, it
still remained a college.” At this school Montaigne
remained for seven years, boarding in the rooms
of his successive teachers, among whom were two
scholars of European celebrity, George Buchanan
and Mare-Antoine Muret, The course of study in
the college was almost exclusively the reading of
Latin authors, and in after life Montaigne aftirmed
that, so far as he could judge, all these years were
lost.
As a third son he had to choose between law and
the church—only the eldest naring the privilege of
wearing the sword. All his life Montaigne had an
insuperable difficulty in making u
on this occasion his father saved him the trouble
by setting him to the study of law. In what school
he pursued his legal studies has not been discovered,
all that we know of them mere summed up in his
own sentence—‘ While a child I was plunged up
to the ears in law, and it succeeded.’ From the
age of thirteen to twenty-four Montaigne is almost
lost sight of, Casual references in his Zssais ae
that during this period he was frequently in Paris,
that he knew something of court life, and that he
took his full share of its R pyrene His legal
studies received their reward in ‘his appointment
as member of the Court of Aids in the district
of Perigord; and in 1557, by the consolidation of
his mind, and
this court with the Parlement of Bordeaux, Mon- —
e hecame a city counsellor, The office was an
honourable one; but it was little to Montaigne’s
taste, who, in truth, is never weary of telling us
that every form of restraint was against all his
natural inclinations. It was during his tenure of
this office, however, that he formed his famous
friendship with Etienne de la Boétie, a relation
which he always ed as the happiest and
most memorable of his life. To Montaigne La
Bottie seemed in gifts of soul and intellect the
equal of the greatest characters of antiquity.
From the writings La Boétie left behind him (a
series of sonnets, and a political pamphlet advocat-
ing extreme republicanism ), it seems probable that
a
a
res
MONTAIGNE MONTALEMBERT 281
Montaigne ex: ted his friend’s powers. How- | did him the unusual honour of re-election. Of his
ever this may es. the memory of Boétie, who | last years the only circumstance deserving special
died at the age of thirty-two, was the one thought
that never failed to raise Montaigne above him-
self, and that adds the one romantic touch to his
epicurean temper.
Montaigne held the office of counsellor for about
thirteen years; but of this period of his life, also,
no definite history has been recovered. From
ental remarks of his own we gather that he
wes familiar with the court of Francis II., that he
saw and greatly admired Mary Queen of Scots, and
that at some time or other he was ‘gentleman of
the bedechamber in ordinary,’ an office that did
not necessitate residence at court. From Charles
IX. he received the order of St Michel, instituted
by Louis XL, and once a coveted honour, but in
Montaigne’s day somewhat faded in its lustre. At
the age of thirty-four he married Francoise de la
Chassaine, the hter of one of his fellow-coun-
sellors in Bordeaux, though in taking the step he
assures us that he merely yielded to convention, as
of his own inclination ‘he would not have married
Wisdom herself.’ As the times went, Montaigne
was a faithful and considerate husband; but he
makes no secret that his wife held but a sub-
ordi lace in his.thoughts. He lost ‘two or
three’ children (the expression is his own) in their
infancy, and was survived by cne daughter, of
whom, as he speaks little in his writings, it may be
concluded that she was bound to lim by no peculiar
tie of affection. A year after his , at
the request of his father, he translated the Natural
History of Raymond de Sebond, a Spaniard, who
in the preceding century had professed theology,
te y, and medicine at Toulouse. This traus-
ion is noteworthy as being Montaigne’s first
effort in literature, and as having afterwards sup-
the text for one of his most famous essays,
he Apologie de Raymond Sebond, in which he
exhibits in all its bearings the full scope of his
sceptical philosophy. Two years later he published
certain literary remains of his friend La Boétie.
In 1571, his two elder brothers being dead, Mon-
succeeded his father in the family estate,
here till his death in 1592 he lived the life of a
country gentleman, varied only by a few visits to
Paris, and by flee 4-7 months’ travel in Germany,
Switzerland, Ital It was during this period
that he achieved his immortality. Finding on his
— to his 20 ga that some ea ig
was imperatively necessary to save him from
morbid fancies, he those Essais which were
to give him a place among the first names in
literary history. If we know few incidents regard-
ing this period of his life, we have at least the
minutest record of his entire surroundings, of his
daily manner of life, of his tastes, his habits, his
ons and inings. In June 1580, partly
on account of his th, and partly from his strong
natural enri to know strange countries, he set
out on the p course of travel above men-
tioned. His of this journey, dictated to his
secretary, and ly written in his own hand in
French and I , Was discovered in his chAtean,
and first published in 1774. While at the baths of
Lucea, the announcement came to him that he had
been unanimously elected mayor of Bordeaux. In
accordance with his distaste for practical life, he
at first refused the appointment, but at the instance
of his friends and on the command of Henry III.
he withdrew his declinature. The office, which
had been held by his father before him, was of
high vee well as civil rank, his immediate
ving been the Due de Biron, one of
marshals of France. In spite of his natural
indolence and indecision, he must have performed
his duties to the satisfaction of the citizens, as they
record is his relation with Mademoiselle de Gournay,
who won his heart by her enthusiastic admiration
of his essays when she was only nineteen. After a
meeting in Paris a romantic friendship sprang up
between them, which lasted till Montaigne’s death ;
and it is to Mademoiselle de Gournay, his fille
dalliance, as he called her, that we owe a valuable
edition of his Lssais, inscribed by her to Cardinal
Richelieu in 1635. Montaigne in his later years
suffered much from stone and gravel, but at the last
he died of quinsy after a few days’ illness in his
sixtieth year, 13th September 1592. Notwithstand-
ing the expression of scepticism in his writings,
he devoutly received the last offices of the chureh.
The conclusive attestation to Montaigne’s varied
power is the fact that three centuries after his death
the circle of his readers widens every year, and
that he has now almost as large a following of anti-
quaries as Shakespeare himself. Of his admirers
in every generation it has also to be remarked that
they are of all nL of mind and creed, and that
among them are found men like Pascal, who, while
separated from him as by an abyss on all the funda-
mental —- of life, have acknowledged their
debt to his fearless and _all-questioning criticism.
To have thus commanded the attention of the
acutest intellects of every age since his own by
haphazard remarks, devoid of all method, and
seemingly inspired by the mere caprice of the
moment, could be the privilege only of a mind of
the highest originality, of the very broadest sym-
pathies, and of a nature capable of embracing and
realising the largest experience of life. In achiev-
ing this distinction, what are reckoned among his
chief defects have doubtless stood him in as
stead as his merits. His inconclusive philosophy,
his easy opinions on many points of morals, his
imperfectly developed sense of duty, the total
absence of any heroic strain in his nature, were
but the necessary conditions of that general attitude
towards men and things which make him the unique
figure he is in the history of European literature.
There are _— translations of Montaigne by Florio
(q.v. ; new ed. by Saintsbury, 1893), and another by O.
Cotton (q.v.), revised b: itt (1865; new ed. 1893). See
Lives by St John and Lucas Collins ; Emerson, Represen-
tative Men ; Mark Pattison, Essays (1889) ; Dean Church,
Miscellaneous Essays (1888 ); Alphonse Griin, Vie Publique
de Michel Montaigne (1855); Payen, Documents Inédits
(1847-56) ; and monographs by Bonnefon (1893) and Paul
Stapfer (Grands Ecrivains, 1895). There are admirable
editions of the Zssays by Courhet and Royer (5 vols. 1873-—
91), and by Moutheau and Jouaust (7 vols. 1886-88).
Montalcino, a cathedral city of Central Italy,
stands on a hill (1900 feet), 22 miles SSE. of Siena,
Pop. 2353.
Montalembert, Cuares Forbes RENE DE,
born in London, May 15, 1810, was the eldest son
of a noble French émigré and his English wife.
His grandfather, Mr Forbes, a retired Indian
merchant, living at Stanmore, near Harrow, had
charge of him from an early age, as his father went
back to France with the restored Bourbons and
was rewarded for his zeal in their service by being
named a peer of France and minister-plenipoten-
tiary to Stuttgart. When Charles was eight years
old he was sent to school at Fulham, but was
there for a very short time, as the following year
his grandfather died, and he went to his parents in
Paris. He was fourteen when the head of the Col-
lége St Barbe induced them to place him under a
lar course of study. At sixteen he entered the
sates, and left it at nineteen to join his father,
then ambassador at Stockholm. He returned to
Paris in 1829, and during a period of uncertainty as
to his future career occupied himself by writing an
282 MONTALEMBERT
MONTANA
article upon Sweden, which ey ome in the Revue
Francaise. In 1830 he went to Ireland, and, return-
ing full of enthusiasm for religious freedom, at
once eagerly joined himself to the Abbé Lamennais
and Lacordaire in their enterprise of the Avenir,
the well-known High Church Liberal newspaper. In
1831 Montalembert and Lacordaire opened a free
school in Paris, which was immediately closed by
the police, and a prosecution commenced “<—
the schoolmasters. The death of Montalembert’s
father at this time having raised him to the peerage,
he appealed to be tried by his peers, and pleaded
with great eloquence the cause of the church and
the common interests of religious liberty. Though
he was reprimanded and fined 100 francs, this de-
feat had the effect of a victory. In the same year
the Avenir was temporarily suspended, and finally
given up, being condemned by the pope. After
this Montalembert for a time withdrew from France
and lived in Germany, where he was inspired with
the idea of writing the eit of St Elizabeth
which was published in 1836. In 1835 he returned
to Paris, and made his first speech as a member of
the Chamber in defence of the liberty of the press.
He married a daughter of Count Felix de Mérode
in 1836. The winter of 1842 he spent in Madeira
for his wife’s tiealth, and while there wrote a
pamphlet entitled Devoir des eee dans la
Question d Enseignement, in which he protested
inst the monopoly of education by the French
University, and pleaded for free education, or, in
other words, religious education guaran
common liberty. For this cause he fought un-
weariedly in parliament till it was won. His
protests against tyranny, however bane fr came
to a climax ina t speech in January 1848 upon
Switzerland. The Revolution took place a month
later; and in April Montalembert was-elected a
member of the National Assembly. When the
coup détat of December occu he supported
Louis Napoleon till the confiscation of the Orleans
property. Then he at once resigned his post asa
member of the Consultative Gomistinaden, and
lecame from henceforth a determined opponent of
the imperial régime. He was elected to the
Academy on February 5, 1852, and from that time
occupied himself with literary work. After a visit
to England in 1855, he wrote L’Avenir politique de
U Angleterre. Three years later he published an
article in the Correspondant, called ‘Un Debat sur
V'Inde au Parlement Anglais,’ in which he made
such exasperating allusions to the imperial govern-
ment that he was prosecuted and senten to six
months’ imprisonment and a fine of 3000 frances.
The sentence was, however, remitted by the
emperor. He published the two first volumes of
his great work, Les Moines d’Occident, in 1860, and
completed it in 1867. He also wrote Une Nation
en uil: la Pologne (1861), L’Eglise libre dans
U Etat libre (1863), Le Pape et la Pologne (1864),
&e. During the last ten years of his life he suffered
from the malady of which he died in Paris on 13th
March 1870, sixteen days after writing his cele-
brated letter on papal infallibility.
Montalembert was one of the best French orators
of his day, a great statesman and author, an aceom-
plished man of the world, and a devoted, noble-
minded son of the church. He loved freedom more
than all the world, and the Catholic religion more
than freedom; and thus, while he fought all his
life for freedom, in questions of faith he submitted
his will and intelligence to the judgment of Rome.
See the Memoir by Mrs Oliphant (2 vols. 1872),
* Montana, one of the en states of the
merican Union, extends from
104° to 116° W. long., and from 1000 ts the UB oyaee
44° 15 to 49° N. lat., and is | “rplncott Company,
bounded N. by the Canadian districts of Alberta
and Assiniboia, E. by North and South Dakota,
S. by Wyoming and Idaho, and W. by Idaho. In
area—146,080 sq. m., or nearly five times the size
of Scotland—it ranks third among all the states
and territories, but in population on fap tle te ;
the density of the population is but 1.7 persons per
square mile.
The Rocky Mountains, with their subsidiary
ranges, oceupy fully one-fifth of the surface, in the
south and west; the rest of the state is made up
of valleys or high, rolling prairies, treeless, but
yielding nutritious grasses. The head-waters of
two of the largest rivers in North America—the
Columbia and Missouri—have their sources in
Montana. The mean elevation of the state is
about 3000 feet; the average height of the Rocky
Mountains—whose sides are covered with dense
forests of pine, fir, and cedar—is about 6000 feet,
while the highest peaks rise to 10,000 or 12,000
feet. The Yellowstone National Park (q.v.) forms
part of the southern boundary of the state. In the
south-east the Bad Lands extend into the state from
Wyoming (q.v.). The climate of Montana is more
moderate than that of the Dakotas and Minnesota,
since the warm westerly winds prevail more than
the north winds in winter here; there are but few
excessively cold days, and, as there is little moisture
in the air, the winters are less-chilly and more
exhilarating than in the east. The atmosphere is
remarkable for its clearness, and cyclones are
unknown.
The soil of Montana contains all that is needed
for sustaining vegetation, but it is almost value-
less without irrigation; with that, however, the
yield of grains and vegetables is enormous. There
are already hundreds of irrigating ditches within
the’ state, and the federal government is locating
storage reservoirs all along the Rocky Mountain
range, to store water for this purpose from the
melting snows in spring-time. It is calculated
that 20,000,000 acres of land can thus be brought
under cultivation. Placer mining being practi-
cally exhausted, a large part of the population has
turned its attention to stock-raising, for which
Montana is better suited than for agriculture.
The prairies produce several varieties of bunch
grass, which cures on the stalk in August, and re-
tains all its nourishing qualities throughout the
year; stock on the range receive no other feed, sum-
mer or winter, and very little shelter is required,
But the industry of Montana is the mining
and reduction of her gold, silver, lead, and copper
ores. Her minerals first attracted emigration, and
have hitherto been her principal wealth. The
first systematic working of placer mines for gold
commenced in 1862; in 1863 the first gold-quartz
mill was built. A report issued by the state (1898)
ives the total value of gold and silver produced in
ontana from 1862 to 1897 ( both inclusive) at: gold,
$257,533,727 ; silver (coinage value), $273,033,393 ;
total, $530,567,120. The output for 1897 was: gold,
217,515 ounces; silver, 16,307,346 ounces ; copper,
237,158,540 Ib., nearly one-half the total product
for the United States ; lead, 25,794,974 lb. ; with a
total value of $53,954,675.
Hi .—The portion of Montana east of the
Rocky Mountains was part of the Louisiana
Purchase ; that lying to the west formerly com-
— a of Oregon and Washington states.
t was first visited by the French in 1742-43,
and by Lewis and Clarke in 1804-6; these were
followed by fur-traders and trappers, and by
Jesuit missionaries, who established schools for
Indian boys and girls, Gold was discovered in
1861, and minin, mg in earnest the following
year. In 1864 the territory was organised, and on
8th November 1889 Montana became a state of the
Union. Education, for a frontier state, is well
+ i, ie
) renurony wetwees |
m)| BUTTE »*o HELENA. |
© Mues, 22—1 nom, I
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‘corcroft
SCALES.
Statute Miles, 49 —1 Inch.
os 20 bo) 40 1 60
Kilometres, 781 Inch.
6610 2% 3° % 4 70 80 90 100
Band, McNally & Co.'s Now 1) «14 Mop of Montana’
MeNally & Co, Oopyright, 1806, by Rand, McNally & Oo,
<
“ee
'
f
-MONTANISM
MONTCALM 283
ised, there being (1896), besides the district
schools, the State University at Missoula, the Agri-
cultural College at Bozeman, the State Normal at
Dillon, and the State School of Mines at Butte City.
Only three cities have over 10,000 inhabitants,—
Butte (30,470), Great Falls (14,930), and Helena
(10,770), the capital. Pop. (1880) 39,159; (1890)
132,159 ; (1900) 243,329, including 10,746 Indians.
Troubles with the latter have been frequent: in
1876 General Custer (q.v.) and his command were
all killed on the Little Big Horn by the Sioux.
Montanism, 2 heresy which grew up within
the Christian church in the second half of the
2d century ; its founder was Montanus, a religious
enthusiast who ap at Ardaban in Phrygia in
the year 156, with a mission to purify and re-
ise the church. Christianity had now become
opted by men in all classes, and already it had
to a great extent ceased to be what it was origin-
ally—a society of enthusiastic devotees shut off
from the world. At the same time the church
to her use wastage d of value in the social
and political arrangements of the world around her,
and thus fitted herself for the réle of a great world-
religion. Side by side with this growing secularism
there sprung up a natural reaction in favour of the
old discipline and severity, and nowhere was this
so strong as in Phrygia, where it was linked with
a belief in a new and final outpouring of the Spirit.
Here eae yo ora phe Neveeg wes scents of
iri ristians who y hailed the a) r-
ae. of the ‘ Paraclete,’ and were fon
ed to withdraw from the church, branded as
ontanists and Kataphrygians. Montanus selected
the small Phrygian towns of Pepuza and Tymion as
the Jerusalem of the church, and for twenty years
his movement was limited to Phrygia and the sur-
rounding district. He himself enjoyed a continu-
ance of the rophetic gift, as well as the two women
Prisca and Maximilla; his most zealous mission-
aries were Alcibiades and Theodotus. The per-
secution that began after the year 177 spread the
movement wider by deepening the earnestness of
Pusgietey those —_ Id Masco es pene In
rygi were sternly rep y the bishops,
and Srmally éxtommmanioanted but elsewhere ahaa
in Asia Minor did not at once leave the church,
but formed conventicles within it. In Gaul
and Rome it was long held that communion should
be maintained with them. But gradually separa-
tion became necessary, as the Montanists became
stronger in their demand for a return to primitive
discipline, for more fasting, the prohibition of
second marriages, and a severer life generally,
Denunciation and exclusion produced their natural
effect in making them still more narrow, severe in
their judgments, and t in their asceticism.
At Carthage a numerous y of Montanists had
wn up, and from 202 to 207 they strove hard,
t in vain, to remain within the church, but at
length quitted it because it refused to recognise
the new outpouring of the Spirit. It was now that
the great Tertullian joined their ranks, having be-
come profoundly convinced of the necessity te a
return to primitive Christianity in order to heal
the secularism of the chureh. Montanism sur-
vived in the East till the 4th centu ; in the
West it was ever less ive, and did not grow
up until the Catholic Church had firmly estab-
lished its organisation. Therefore it never became
more than a mere sect; and from a genuine desire
for reform and simplicity it degenerated into an
artificial strictness and mere legalism. Yet down
to 400 A.D. there were still Tertullianists at
Carthage.
See Ritschl’s Entstehung der Altkatholischen Kirke
(2d ed. 1857); De Soyres, Montanism and the Primitive
Church (1878, ; Bonwetsch, Die Geschichte des Montanis-
mus (1881); Weizsiicker in Theol. Lit,-Zeitung (1882);
and Harnack, Das Ménchthum, seine Ideale
Geschichte (2d ed. 1882).
Montargis, a town in the French department
of Loiret, 47 miles E. by N. of Orleans, with a fine
church (12th century—1868) and ruins of a vast
castle, once ‘le berceau des Enfans de France.’
Here in 1371 is said to have oceurred the famous:
judicial combat between ‘the dog of Montargis’
and Macaire its master’s murderer. The dog not
only showed the spot in the forest of Bondy where
its dead master was buried, but singled out the
murderer, and, when Charles VI. granted the ordeal
of battle to test his guilt, the dog flew at his
throat and so proved its charge upon his body.
Pop. (1872) 8196 ; (1886) 10,984; (1891) 9789.
Montauban, the capital of the French depart-
ment of Tarn-et-Garonne, on the river Tarn, 31
miles N. of Toulouse. A well-built, handsome
place, it has a modernised brick bridge (1335), 224
yards long; a fine cathedral (1739) in the Italian
style; and a monument (1871) to Ingres, the
painter, a native. Besides considerable woollen
manufactures, it carries on a great trade in wine,
grain, leather, &e. Montauban was founded in
1144 by Count Alphonse of Toulouse, became the
seat of a bishop in 1317, embraced the Reformation
in 1560, and acquired historical celebrity as the
t stronghold of the Huguenots, being vainly
ieged for three months by De Luynes for Louis
XIII. in 1621. It suffered much in the Dragon-
nades; but nearly half the inhabitants still are
Protestants, and maintain a theological college.
Pop. (1872) 18,855 ; (1886) 22,431; (1891) 24,504.
Montbeliard (Ger. Mémpelgard), a town in
the French department of Doubs, 48 miles NE. of
Besancon. It lies in a valley between the Vosges
and Jura Mountains, is surmounted by an old
chateau (now a prison), and carries on manu-
factures of watch-springs, watchmaking tools, and
cotton. A possession of the House of Wiirtemberg
from 1397, it was a Protestant centre from 1525,
was formally ceded to France in 1801, and suffered
much in the Franco-German war. Cuvier was a
native; and there is a statue of him, as also of
Colonel Denfert, the heroic defender of Belfort.
Pop. (1872) 5865; (1891) 8810, mostly Lutherans.
Mont Blane, the highest mountain in Europe
(if we regard the Caucasus, q.v., as Asiatic),
15,782 feet above sea-level, is situated in France,
close to the Italian frontier, 40 miles S. of the
Lake of Geneva. The waters which spring from
its western slopes are drained off to the Rhone,
those which originate on the east side to the Po. It
rises into several sharp peaks (aiguilles) and forms
grent laciers—the Glacier du Géant, Mer de Glace,
cc. In 1760 Saussure offered a prize for the dis-
covery of a practicable route to the summit of
Mont Blane, which was gained, in June 1786, by
Balmat and Paccard, guides. Saussure himself
ascended the mountain the following year; and
since Albert Smith published a description of his
ascent in 1851 the mountain has been ascended by
several hundreds; indeed, more than fifty parties
climb it annually. It has been the most conspicu-
ous for accidents of all Alpine peaks ; twenty-four
— had perished in accidents on it down to
886. There is an observatory (1890) at a height
of 14,470 feet. See ALPs ; and Whymper’s Guide to
Chamouni and the Range of Mont Blane (1896).
Montbrison, a French town in the department
of Loire, 35 miles SW. of Lyons, with mineral wells
and some ribbon manufacture. Pop. (1891) 6226.
Montcalm. Louis Joseph, Marquis de Mont-
calm Gezan de Saint Véran, was born in the
chateau of Candiac, near Nimes, 29th February
1712. At fifteen he entered the army. In 1746
und seine
284 MONT CENIS
MONTECUCULI
he was severely wounded and made prisoner
at the battle of Piacenza. In 1756 he assumed
command of the French troops in Canada, and
soon after his arrival captured the Bite of
Oswego. The succeeding summer he ke
George with about 8000 neh and Indians, and
captured Fort William Henry. After the French
had taken possession of the fort, the deéfenceless
prisoners, comprising men, women, and children,
were massacred by the Indians. Montcalm has
been blamed even by his apologists for not fore-
seeing the danger, and taking effectual measures to
avert it. In 1758 General Abercromby advanced
on Ticonderoga with 15,000 regulars and provin-
cial troops. The place was defended by Montcalm
with a much sinaller force of regular troops. The
British troops displayed heroic daring and courage,
but after repeated attempts to force the defences,
which were in themselves almost impregnable, and
were defended with great gallantry, they withdrew
with a loss of about two thousand men. This
French success was, however, much more than
counterbalanced by the loss of Louisburg and Fort
Duquesne about the same time. Montcalm then
removed to Quebec, and prepared to defend it
against a British attack. Of the 16,000 troops
under his command the egy were militia and
Indians. In 1759 General Wolfe ascended the St
Lawrence with about 8000 troops, and a naval
force under Admiral Saunders, After repeated
attempts to scale the heights of Montmorency,
and a severe repulse about the end of July, he
surprised a French outpost before dawn on 13th
September, scaled the heights with about 5000
men, gained the plateau of Quebec, and formed in
line of battle on the Plains of Abraham. In the
battle that ensned the French ultimately broke in
disorder and retreated on the city. ontcalm
tried in vain to rally his force, and, aris been
borne back by the pressure of the retreat, le was
mortally wounded at the St Louis gate, and died
the following morning, 14th September 1759. See
the article WoLtre; Parkman’s Montcalm and
Wolfe ( Boston, 1884); and Falgairolle’s Montcalm
devant la Posterité ( Paris, 1886). ;
Mont Cenis, or Monte CENIsIO, an Alpine
peak and between Savoy and Piedmont.
eight of the mountain, 11,792 feet; of the pass,
6884 feet. Over the pass a road was constructed
(1802-10) by Fabbroni, under Napoleon's orders,
at an expense of £300,000. Thirteen miles west of
the — a railway tunnel, 74 miles long, was
in 1857 on the Italian side, and in 1863 on the
French, and was finished in 1870 at a cost of
£3,000,000. Through this tunnel passes one of the
main continental overland routes from London vid
Paris to Brindisi, for Asia, Australia, and East
Africa.
Mont-de-Marsan, capital of the French de-
partment of Landes, at the confluence of the Midou
and Douze, 92 miles by rail S. of Bordeaux. It has
a mineral spring and manufactures of chemicals,
iron, &e. Pop. (1872) 7441; (1891) 9790.
Mont de Piété, called in Italy MonTE DI
Prera, a charitable institution the object of which
is to lend money to the poor at a moderate rate of
interest. It was closely modelled on the ‘ Monte,’
a precursor of the modern bank, in which the
creditors, or the parties who supplied the capital,
formed a close corporation, with privileged claims
upon certain sources of income, These conditions
were designed to avoid the laws against usury. But
the Monte di Piet& did not at first levy regular in-
terest, only a small percentage to cover the expenses
of administration. The earliest of these institu-
tions was established at Orvieto in 1463; and
another followed at Perugia, 1467; yet the right
to levy for the expenses of management was only
conceded in 1515. The system was introduced in
Spain, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands,
and Mexico. There exists at Paris a national pawn-
broking establishment, called Mont de Piété, which
charges 9 per cent. on all loans to pay the working
expenses, The a gain is handed over to the
ublic charity fun Blaize, Des Monts de
été (2 vols. 1856), and PAWNBROKING.
Mont-Dore-les-Bains, a village of Auv
in the department of Puy de Dome, 26 miles SSW.
of Clermont-Ferrand. It lies 3412 feet above the
sea-level, in a picturesque valley, through which
the river Dordogne flows, and which is bordered on
both sides by rugged voleaniec hills, and closed to-
wards the south by a semicircle of jagged mountains,
the highest point of which, the Pic de Sancy (6188
feet), is the loftiest mountain in central France,
The Mont Dore mineral springs, which were used
by the Romans, are of — value in affections of
the throat and most diseases of the respiratory
organs, as also in the earlier stages of rheumatism.
There are eight powerful springs in full operation,
seven of these having a temperature which varies
between 102° and 114°, while La Source Sainte
Marguerite is comparatively cold. The water con-
‘ tains bicarbonates of soda, iron, and arsenic. The
ordinary population of the village is about 1400,
but the Pathe, which are every year becoming
better known, are thronged during the short season
(July to September) with visitors from all parts.
Montebello Cast 0, a village of Northern
Italy, 14 miles S. by W. of Pavia, where the
Austrians were defeated by a French army under
General Lannes (afterwards Duke of Montebello),
after a desperate conflict, 9th June 1800. In May
1859 the Austrians were again defeated here by the
united French and Piedmontese army.
Monte Carlo, a small town in the territory
of Monaco (q.v.), 1 mile NE. of the town of Monaco,
notorious on account of its gaming-tables, and the
numerous suicides of ruined gamblers.
Monte-Casino, the monastery built (529) by
St Benedict, founder of the great Benedictine
order, stands on beetling cliffs, in a magnificent
situation, 70 miles by rail NW. of Naples and 92
SE. of Rome. It has been four times destroyed—
in 589 by the Longobards, in 884 by the Saracens,
in 1030 by the Normans, and in 1349 by an earth-
quake. It was dissolved in 1866; but a few monks
still remain. In 1313 the abbot was elevated to
pti ys rank, and from 1504 he was official ‘ head
of all the abbots of the Benedictine order.’ The
existing church, replacing one erected in 1066,
was built in 1727, and possesses an 11th-century
Byzantine bronze portal, mosaics, , cary:
ings, kc. The former monastic buildings contain
valuable archives, a picture-gallery, @ iibears of
40,000 volumes, 30,000 charts, 500 incunabula, and
a seminary. See Tosti, Storia della Badia di
Monte Cassino (1843), Archivio Cassinese (1847),
and Mackey’s Life of Bishop Forbes (1888).
Monte Catini, a watering-place of Italy, by
rail 30 miles NW. of Florence and 19 E. of Lucea,
Its mineral springs are saline, range between 82°
and 86° F., and are eflicacious for abdominal com-
laints, scrofula, and dysentery. The season lasts
rom May to September. Near here the Floren-
tines were defeated by the Pisans in 1315,
Monte Cristo, an uninhabited islet of ite
off the Italian coast, 26 miles 8S. of Elba. For the
novel whose hero bears this name, see DUMAS.
Montecu culi, RAtmonpo, Count, was born at
Modena in 1608, and entered the Austrian service,
distinguishing himself during the Thirty Years’
War (especially at Breitenfeld and Nérdlingen), in
ee
MONTEFIORE
MONTENEGRO 285
a campaign against the Turks (1664), and against
the French under Turenne on the Rhine (1672-75).
He was made a Prince of the Empire and Duke of
Melfi, and died at Linz, 16th October 1681. A
second edition of his e Complete appeared in
1823 ; there is a Life by Campori (1876).
Montefiore, Sir Moses, a Jewish philanthro-
pist, descendant of a wealthy family of bankers,
was born in Leghorn, October 24, 1784, where his
parents peupenes to be sojourning. His grand-
ts emigrated from horn to London in
750. In 1812 he married Judith Cohen (1784—
1862), a lady who went hand in hand-with him in
all his many schemes of philanthropy. As a stock-
broker he soon achieved great success. In 1818 he
was elected president of the Spanish and Portuguese
community. From 1829 onwards he took a promi-
nent part in the struggle for removing the civil dis-
abilities of English Jews (see Jews). In 1835 he
was one of the parties to the contract for the
£15,000,000 given as compensation to the slave-
owners. He was for a time High Sheriff of Kent,
and, after long exclusion and repeated re-election,
was legally admitted as Sheriff of London in 1837.
In that year he was knighted, and in 1846 was
raised to a baronetcy in recognition of his meri-
torious public services. He distinguished himself
by his practical sympathy with his oppressed
countrymen in various parts of the East, chiefly in
Poland, Russia, Roumania, and Damascus. He
made seven eg to the East, the first being
in 1827 and the latest in 1874, chiefly for the
amelioration of the condition of his countrymen.
At Bucharest, during an anti-Jewish ferment, he
boldly faced the mob at the risk of his life. He was
nted with the freedom of the City of London
1873, and an address in 1883. In memory of his
wife he endowed a Jewish college at Ramsgate in
1865. In his hundredth year he was still hale and
well, but died 29th July 1885. See Diaries of
Sir Moses and Lady Montefiore (2 vols. 1890).
Montego Bay, a port on the north coast of
Jamaica (q.v.). eg
Montégut, Enix, a clever French critic, was
rm at , June 24, 1826, and early made a
reputation by a series of brilliant studies on Eng-
lish literature. He contributed to the Revue des
Deux Mondes and other journals, and published
books of travel, a study of Marshal Davott, and
translations of Shak , Macaulay, and Emer-
son, and a work on the Duke and Duchess of New-
castle. He died 18th December 1895. Books of
exceptional value are Poétes et Artistes de U'Italie
(1881); 7 Littéraires, et Fantaisies Esthétiques
(1882); Essais sur la Littérature Anglaise (1883) ;
‘orts contemporains ; Les ivains modernes
Ris err ty (2 vols.) ; Livres oe iniee des Pays
; critiques ; an amaturges et
Romanciers (1896), tg
Montélimar, a town in the French de
ment of me, near the Rhone, 85 miles 8. of
" Lyons by rail, with some manufactures of silk, hats,
and morocco leather, Pop. (1891) 9183.
Montem. See Eron.
Montenegro (the Italian translation of the
native name Czrna , ‘Black Mountain’), an
independent state in the Balkan Peninsula, between
Herzegovina and Albania, about 80 miles long by
70 broad. Its area’ was extended in 1878 by the
addition of a la district on the north, a long
narrow strip right down its east side to Lake
Seutari, and the port and district of Antivari on
the south, on the Adriatic, and again in 1880 by the
addition of the port and district of Dulcigno, also
on the Adriatic. The area, thus extended, is offici-
ully quoted as 3255 sq. m.—a private estimate is
3486 sq. m.—considerably less than half the size of
Wales. Beyond the low coastal fringe, which has
a climate like that of the south of France, comes a
rugged mountain-region ranging up to 6500-8000
feet, not in a series of chains, but in a confusin
maze of peaks and gigantic crags and blocks, wil
ravines and gorges, fissures and natural caves, the
bare gray crystalline rock being everywhere visible.
In this region the streams in some cases have
underground channels, and even pass for miles
beneath the mountains. The centre of the country
is oceupied by the branching valleys of the rivers
Zeta and Moratcha, which flow south into Lake
Seutari. East and north of them the mountains
are well wooded, principally with beech and pine,
and afford good eta 8 to the sheep, goats, and
cattle of the people. e climate in these moun-
tainous regions is characterised by temperate heat
in summer and a rigid winter. Comparatively
little of the surface is cultivated, except in the
coast region; it is too sterile. Yet agriculture is
the principal oceupation of the people; of indust
there is virtually none. All the farms are small,
the fields often patches of soil a few square yards in
extent clinging to the mountain-side. The land in
most cases belongs to the family, not to the indi-
vidual, and woods and tures are common to the
clan. Maize, rye, oats, barley, potatoes, capsicums,
tobacco, with frnits in the south, are the more
important products. Wine for home consumption
is grown on the shores of Lake Scutari; and the
mulberry is cultivated for silkworms. The same
lake, and some of the rivers flowing into it, yield
an abundance of fish, especially of scorantza or
bleak. The exports, consisting chiefly of cattle,
goats, hides, smoked fish and mutton, cheese,
sumach, fruits, and wine, reach the annual value of
£200,000. The imports, for the most part wheat,
gunpowder, hardware, groceries, cloth, and glass,
average in value about one-tenth of the exports.
Nearly all the trade is in the hands of the Austrians,
and passes through their port of Cattaro. Good
roads connect the chief towns or villages in the
south ; bridle-paths and footpaths only exist in the
rest of the country.
The Montenegrins, a race of primitive moun-
taineers, whose principal business in life has for
generations been to fight the Turks, are a brave,
warlike, and simple people, noted for their honesty
and their chastity. The men are stalwart and
handsome, but the women, who until recent years
did all the hard work whilst the men fought,
or idled, or hunted, soon grow old and lose
their good looks. The people live in small stone
houses, in small villages—there is not a town,
strictly so called, in all Montenegro. They belong
to the Servian branch of the Slavs, number (1890)
236,000, and belong, except about 10,000 Moham-
medans and 4000 Roman Catholics, to the Greek
Orthodox Church, the head of which is the emperor
of Russia. The native head of the church is the
Archbishop of Cetinje. The monastery of Ostrog is
visited by large numbers of pilgrims every year.
There is a Roman Catholic archbishop at Antivari.
In the 14th century the country, known as the
principality of Zeta, was tributary to the Servian
empire; but, when the latter was subjugated by
the Turks (1389), Zeta, assisted by fugitive Servians,
successfully maintained its independence, From
that time down to 1880 the Montenegrins have
waged almost incessant war against their hereditary.
foes, the Turks. In 1516, when the last prince of
the second native dynasty abdicated his throne, the
ple elected their bishop to be ruler over them ;
and the little state was governed by ecclesiastical
princes (vladikas) down to 1851, when Danilo I. of
the Nyegush clan, and nephew of the last vladika,
persuaded the people to separate the civil from the
286 MONTENOTTE
MONTESQUIEU
ecclesiastical functions, and to elect him their
secular prince, and declare the throne hereditary in
his family. The prince is an absolute sovereign ;
but he is assisted by a state council and a ministry
of six members. The government both of the
country and of the family is really, however, patri-
archal, the will of the prince deciding all things
only in so far as it does not conflict with the will
of the people. During the last quarter of the 19th
century the little land has progressed greatly in
civilisation ; education has made rapid strides,
the men have taken to cultivating their fields,
and roads have been constructed; while the old
militia has been converted into a standing army
of 30,000 men, though not more than 100 serve
permanently, as a bodyguard to the prince. An
arms-factory has been established at Rieka and
ammunition-factories at Rieka and,,Cetinje. The
last-named village is the capital. The empress of
Russia supports a higher school for girls at Cetinje.
Crime is almost unknown. Podgoritza and Rieka
are the chief trading-places. he state income
amounts to about £60,000 per annum, a portion of
which is a subsidy from Russia (since 1856); the
expenditure is not known. There is a state debt of
£100,000 owing to Austria and £70,000 owing to
Russia. Montenegro has no money of her own;
she uses chiefly Austrian paper and Turkish silver.
The vladika Peter II. (1830-51) is accounted one
of the test poets who have written in Servian,
In their patriotic songs and ballads the Monte-
negrins possess a treasure of great value, and of
at iniluence upon the national temperament.
he first Slavonic books to be printed were issued
from presses at Cetinje and Rieka in the end of the
15th century. In 1895 a daughter of the prince
was married to the crown-prince of Italy.
See Denton, Monteneyro (1877); Freeman in Mac-
millan’s Magazine (1876) ; Gopcevic, Monteneyro (1877) ;
Schwarz, Montenegro (1882); W. Carr, ne
(1884); Coquelle, Montenegro et Servie (1896); and W.
Miller, The Balkans (* Story of the Nations,’ 1896).
Montenotte, a small village of Northern Italy,
miles W. of Genoa, where Napoleon won his
first victory over the Austrians, on 12th April 1796.
Montepulciano, a town of Italy, a bishop's
see, situated on a high hill, 43 miles by rail SE. of
Siena. It was the birthplace of Politian and Bel-
larmine, and is famous for its red wine. Pop. 2952.
Montereau, a town in the French department
of Seine-et-Marne, at the confluence of the Seine
and Yonne, 49 miles SE. of Paris. At the bridge
here, in 1419, Jean-sans-Peur, Duke of Burgundy,
was assassinated in the presence of the young
Dauphin, afterwards Charles VII. ; and in the im-
mediate vicinity Napoleon, on February 18, 1814,
gained his last victory over the allies. Pop. 7519.
Monterey, capital of the Mexican state of
Nuevo Leon, lies in a fertile plateau-valley, b
rail 670 miles N. of Mexico city. It is a well-
built town, with a thriving trade, and contains a
cathedral, seminary, and schools of law and medi-
cine. Pop. 16,000. Founded in 1599, it was taken
by General Taylor in 1846.
Monte Rosa, an Alpine mountain mass with
four principal peaks, in the Pennine ridge which
separates the Swiss canton of Valais from Italy.
The highest peak, the Dufourspitze, 15,217 feet
high, is extremely difficult of ascent, and was first
climbed by Mr Smyth in 1855.
Monte Sant’ Angele, a city of Southern
Italy, 28 miles NE. of Foggia. It stands 2790
feet above sea-level, on one of the Gargano hills,
and is famed for its exquisite honey. Pop. 15,109.
Monte Sarchio, a town of Southern Italy,
13 miles NW. of Avellino. Pop. 5238,
—y
Montespan, Francoise ATHENAIS, MaAr-
QUISE DE, mistress of louis XIV., was born in
1641, the daughter of Gabriel de Rochechouart,
Due de Mortemart, and married in 1663 the Mar-
quis de Montespan, and became attached to the
household of the queen. Her beauty and wit
captivated the h of the king, and about 1668
she became his mistress, without, however, as yet
supplanting La Vallitre. The marquis was flun
into the Bastille, next banished to his estates, an
finally in 1676 his marriage was formally annulled.
Montespan reigned till 1682, and bore the kin
eight children, which were pees, but at las
her influence paled before the rising star of the
astute widow of Scarron, afterwards Madame de
Maintenon, whom she had en; as governess to
her children. Gradually she lost all hold over the
king, and in 1687 left the court, in 1691 Paris itself.
Later, like so many women of her class, she found
relief in devotion, and died 27th May 1707. See
her Mémoires (1829; trans. 1895), and the studies
by A. Houssaye (6th ed. 1864) and Clément (1868),
Montesquieu, CHARLES DE SECONDAT, BARON
DE LA BREDE ET DE, a celebrated French writer on
lities and Jaw, was born 18th January 1689, at
he chateau La Bréde, near Bordeaux. Jacques
de Secondat, the father of the future author, was
second son of the Baron de Montesquieu, president
and chief-justice of the parliament of Guienne.
Charles-Lonis de la. Bréde, as Montesquien was
called, after studying the ancient classics, philo-
sophy, and law, me councillor of the parlia-
ment of Bordeaux in 1714, and its president in
1716, succeeding his uncle, who left him all his
ake gr on condition of his assuming the name
and title of Montesquieu. The young president dis-
charged the duties of his office faithfully, but he
gave himself by preference to the study of nature
under the influence of Newton, In his discourses
before the Academy of Sciences of Bordeaux he
dealt with the causes of echoes and of the weight
and transparency of bodies, and with the use of
the renal glands, and sketched a project of a physi-
eal history of the earth (Discours’ Académiques,
1716-21). But defective vision compelled him to
abandon experimental research. s first great
literary suecess was the publication of his Lettres
Persanesin 1721. These contain a satirical descrip-
tion of the contemporary manners, customs, and
institutions of society in France, and owed much of
their popularity to the ingenuity of their form and
the piquancy of their style. Two Persians, Rica
and Usbek, are represented as coming from Persia
to Paris, and exchanging their impressions by
letters to each other, as well as corresponding
with their friends at home. The idea was bor-
rowed from Dufresny, and it has been frequently
imitated since. The libertinage, the political
decadence, and the irreligious insincerity of the
first years of the regency that followed the death
of Louis XIV. are limned with masterly art.
For his delineations of Persian manners and in-
stitutions he drew from the accounts of Sir John
Chardin and other travellers; but his vivid, and
at times wantonly sensuous, imagination created
most of his situations and characters, Along
with much that is frivolous and ephemeral, the
Persian Letters contain solid reflections on the
nature and relations of social institutions, and an
adumbration of the author's later views on govern-
ment, toleration, and the inflnence of climate on
population, customs, and religion. In 1725 Montes-
quien wrote and published anonymously at Paris
a prose poem entitled Le Temple de Gnide, in the
artificial French style of the time. Returning to
Bordeaux, he read to the wee ee a treatise on duty
from the Stoic standpoint, and delivered an admir-
able discourse on the motives which ought to give
MONTESQUIEU
MONTEVIDEO - 287
encow t in the sciences (1725). er for
darger observation and enjoyment of the life of
society, and weary of the routine of his lia-
mentary duty, he sold his office in 1726, and then
settled in i Thereafter he travelled for
three years in order to observe and study the
litical and social institutions of other countries,
e visited Vienna, where he studied the constitu-
tions of Hungary and Poland; Venice, where he
formed a close friendship with Lord Chesterfield ;
and Rome, where he studied Italian art, and was
favourably received hy the pope. He then passed
by Switzerland and the Rhine to Holland, where
he again met Chesterfield, who took him to Eng-
land. He remained in England from October 1729
to August 1731, mixing with its best society, fre-
quen the Houses of Parliament, studying the
politica’ i of Locke, and analysing the
organisation. working of the English constitu-
tion, whose essential principles he may be said to
have discovered. ter returning to France he
divided his time between Paris and La Bréde,
mingling the pursuit of pleasure and an_un-
ostentatious charity with the preparation of his
t works on the science of politics and law.
His Considérations sur les Causes de la Grandeur
des Romains et de leur Décadence, the ablest, if
not the most important, of his works, appeared
in 1734. In it he surveys the vast political
development of ancient Rome from the rude be-
ginnings of the Eternal City till the Turks
gathered around the walls of Constantinople, and
is elncidation of the causes that determined the
character and detail of the movement may- be
regarded as the first genuine application of the
modern scientific spirit to history, and as an endur-
ing contribution to its philosophy. His char-
acterisations of the great Romans, his analysis of
complex influences, his filiation of events, his
estimates of political and social causation have
been generally accepted and reproduced by sub-
sequent i His great monumental work
on spirit of laws, De l’Esprit des Lois,
cepeetes in 1748 in 2 vols. at Geneva. It was
uet of all the work of his life, and of
eliberate and concentrated effort of twenty
years. Although published anonymously and put
on the Index, the work passed through twenty-
two editions in less than two years; and it soon
vindicated its claim to be the most original and
ripen book ever published on the science of law.
ontesquieu indicated his consciousness of its
originality by iting, Na it the epigraph : Prolem
sine matre creatam. French Jurists of the 16th
century, Cujas and others, had led the way to
the hist treatment of Roman law, and Domat
had written a chapter on ‘the nature and spirit of
laws,’ but the universalisation of the historical and
comparative method in dealing with the reason
eg relations of all nee = one nieu’s mga F aoa
applies it»more lucidly, and also more widely
than Vico did. By the spirit of laws he means
their raison d’étre in time, their historical cansa-
tion, or the natural and social conditions by which
their origination, development, and forms are deter-
mined. The disenssion of the influence of climate
was the most characteristic element of the work ;
it advances beyond the old abstract discussions of
right, and, although pushed in some points too
exclusively, it formed the prelude to all the more
recent work of the positive and ethnological school.
The analysis of the forms and principles of govern-
ment carried the subject farther than had been
done by any one since Aristotle ; and the exposition
of the constitutional government of England, with
its clear distinction of the legislative and executive
povers, made an advance upon Locke, and held u
Nie free English constitution to the admiration ps
imitation of all Europe. The influence of Montes-
— great work upon political and legal thought
irectly, and upon government and laws indirectly,
was immense. It came too late to save France
from the political errors that culminated in the
Revolution, but it inspired and guided its best
thinkers and its greatest men. In 1750 he pub-
lished a clever Défense de l Esprit des Lois, followed
afterwards by Lysimaque (1748), a striking dia-
logue on despotism, Avsace et Isménie, a romance,
and an essay on taste in the Encyclopédie. Severe
study had exhausted his energy and still further
weakened his eyes till he became totally blind.
He died at Paris 10th February 1755, aged sixty-
six, in the calm enjoyment of his great reputation.
The best edition of Montesquien’s works is that of E.
Laboulaye (7 vols. Paris, 1875-79); that of Lahure (3
vols, 1856) is convenient and serviceable. ‘here are
English and other translations of the Lettres Persanes,
and a commentary by Meyer (1841). The Spirit of
Laws was soon translated into English by T. Nugent
(new ed. by Prichard, with D’Alembert’s Analysis, 2
vols. Bohn, 1878). Vian’s Histoire de Montesquieu, sa
Vie et ses @uvres (2d ed. 1879) is the fullest biography
and bibliography. The smaller monograph by A. Sorel
(Eng. ed. by G. Masson, 1887) is excellent; that by
Zevort (1887) may also be mentioned.
Monteverde, CLAUDIO, composer and_har-
monist (1568-1643). See HARMONY, MUSIC.
Montevideo, the fy Sige of the republic of
Uruguay, is situated on the north shore of the La
Plata estuary, about 125 miles E. by 8. of Buenos
Ayres. It was built originally on a low promon-
tory between the ocean and a horseshoe-shaped
bay, 2 miles across; but its extensive suburbs now
stretch far into the flat country behind, and have
crept round the bay to the landmark which gives
the city its name—the Cerro, a smooth, isolated
cone, 505 feet high, crowned with a lighthouse and
an old fort, At its base there are nearly a score
of great saladeros, or beef-salting establishments,
where 200,000 cattle yearly are Killed + and here,
too, is the largest of the city’s dry-docks. The city
proper covers an area of about 5 square miles, the
old town, on the little peninsula occupying nearly
one square mile; and the sea-breezes make its
climate both pleasant and healthy. Montevideo is
an attractive town, with broad streets exception-
ally well paved— Mulhall declares the Calle 18 de
Julio, which is 85. feet wide, ‘incomparably the
finest street in South America.’ The houses are
flat-roofed, mostly of two or three stories, and
often crowned with small square belvideres, High
above these rises the cathedral (133 feet), with two
side towers and a dome covered with green and
blue and yellow tiles. The next most prominent
building is the large opera-house ; and otliers are
the town-hall, the custom-house, the exchange, the
Cabildo (law-courts and parliament house), the
school of arts and trades, the university, the
museum, the English and Basque churches, two
convents, the Hospital de Caridad (330 beds) and
the British hospital (60 beds), the extensive public
markets, and several of the banks and _ hotels.
Tramears run in all directions—there are over 55
miles of lines; there are local electric lighting and
telephone companies, and a submarine telephone
to Horned Ayres ; and water is brought by a pump-
ing-main from the river Santa Lucia, a distance of
34 miles.
The depth of water in the bay ranges from 9 to
15 feet, and vessels of heavy draught are compelled
to anchor in the roadstead outside, which is exposed
and often very rough. If a proper port had been
constructed in the years before 1864, when the
Buenos Ayres trade was diverted by the Para-
guayan war, Montevideo might have permanently
taken the place now occupied by the Argentine
288 MONTEZ
MONTFORT
capital; as it is, possessing the advan of a
ates natural harbour, it may even wet hesuie
again a dangerous rival, should the necessary
harbour-works ever be constructed. It has com-
munication by steamer with the United States and
Europe, and on five days a week with Buenos
Ayres. Its foreign trade is that of Uiewy (q.¥.).
The manufactures are more numerous than im-
yortant, but have increased of late years nearly as
fast as the population. In 1877 there were 110,167
inhabitants, in 1889 there were 214,682, in 1894,
225,680; of these nearly half were foreigners.
This foreign element—mainly drawn from Italy,
France, and Spain, and engaged principally in
retail trade—is a very noticeable feature of Monte-
video life.—A fort was built on the Cerro, by the
Spaniards, in 1717, and the first settlement of
the town made in 1726; a century later (1828) it
became the capital of the newly-formed republic
of Banda Oriental, Its later history will be found
under UruGuAy. See books on the river Plate by
Mulhall (5th ed. 1885) and Levey (2d ed. 1890),
and Vincent’s Around and About South America
(1890).
Montez, Loua, adventuress, was born in 1818
at Limerick, and was christened Marie Dolores
Eliza Rosanna, her father being an Ensign Gilbert,
her mother of Spanish descent, Taken out to
India, she there lost her father by cholera; and,
her mother having remarried, Dolores bee * Lola’)
was sent home in 1826 to Europe, and brought up
at Montrose, in Paris, and at Bath. To escape
the match, arranged by her mother, with a gouty
old judge, she eloped with a Captain James,
whom in July 1837 she married at Neath; but the
marriage ended in a separation and in her return
from India (1842). She now turned «dancer, com-
ing out at Her Majesty’s Theatre; and after visits
to Dresden, Berlin, Warsaw, St Petersburg, and
Paris (where she formed a liaison with Dujarrier,
a young Republican editor, who fell in a duel), she
came towards the close of 1846 to Munich. There
she soon won an ascendency over the eccentric
artist-king, Louis I., who created her Countess of
Landsfeld, and allowed her £5000 a year. For
more than a twelvemonth she was all-powerful,
her power directed in favour of Liberalism and
against the Jesuits; but the revolution of 1848 sent
her once more adrift on the world. Again she
married (this time a Lieutenant Heald), a marriage
as unlucky as the first; and, after touring (1851-
56) through the States and Australia, and after
two more ‘ marriages’ in California, in 1858 she de-
livered in New York a series of lectures written
for her by C. Chauncey Burr. She died, a penitent,
at Astoria, Long Island, on 17th January 1861,
her last four months devoted to ministering in a
Magdalen asylum near New York, and was buried
in iconic Cemetery. See her Autobiography
(1858), and Zhe Story of a Penitent (1867).
Montezuma, the name of two of the emperors
of Mexico. Montezuma I., the most able of the
Mexican emperors, ascended the throne about 1437,
and soon after commenced a war with the neigh-
bouring monarch of Chaleo, which resulted in the
annexation of that kingdom to Mexico. He next
erushed a confederacy of the Tlascalans, and
reigned safely till his death in 1471. Montezuma
IL, the last of the Mexican emperors, sueceeded
to the throne in 1502. Already distinguished as a
warrior, henceforth he devoted his chief attention
to the improvement of the laws, and indulged his
taste for ser and luxury at the cost of heavy
taxation, leading to frequent revolts among his
subjects. When Cortes landed in Mexico with his
small army in 1519 Montezuma tried to buy off
the dreaded enemy, but all his temporising could
not prevent the conqueror’s progress to his capital.
Soa he himself was prackiaaiiy a prisoner in the
Spanish camp, and when the citizens rose in revolt
rtes brought out Montezuma in order to pacify
them ; but an accidental wound from a stone flung
from amongst the crowd of his own subjects
ak ag a climax to all the indignities he had.
ered. He repeatedly tore the endagee from his
wound, and soon after died broken-hearted, June 30,
1520. Some of his children adopted the Christian
religion, and his eldest son received from Charles
V. the title of Count of Montezuma. One of his
descendants was viceroy of Mexico from 1697 to
1701. His last descendant, Don Marsilio de Teruel,
Count of Montezuma, was banished from Spain by
Ferdinand VII., and afterwards from Mexico, on
account of his liberal opinions, and died at New
Orleans in 1836. See Corres.
Montferrat. formerly an independent duchy of
Italy, between Piedmont, Milan, and Genoa, now
forming part of the kingdom of Italy. _It consisted
of two separate portions, both lying between the
Maritime Alps and the Po, and having a united
area of over 1300 sq. m. The capital was Casale,
After the downfall of the Frankish empire, Mont-
ferrat was ruled by its own marquises till the be-
ginning of the 14th century. This house sent its
most illustrious sons to take part in the Crusades,
seneceny. Conrad, the defender of Tyre inst
Saladin, and the competitor with bee e Lusignan
for the crown of Jerusalem; and Boniface, who
became ruler of Thessalia, Iolande or Irene, sister
and heiress of the last male of the house, was
empress of Constantinople; her second son be-
came the founder of the family. of Montferrat-
Palwologus, which became extinct in 1533, and
Montferrat then passed to the Gonzagas of Mantua.
In 1631 the Dukes of Savoy obtained a portion of
Montferrat, and in 1703 the remaining portion,
Montfort, L’AMAvRI, the name of a noble
French house, traditionally descended from a mar-
riage (end of 10th century) between the heiress of
Montfort and Epernon and William of Hainault,
great-grandson of Baldwin, Count of Flanders, the
third husband of Judith, daughter of Charles the
Bald. The name was taken from the castle of
Montfort between Paris and Chartres. Its most
famous members were the great Simon de Montfort
and his father, Simon IV., Comte de Montfort and
Earl of Leicester, subsequently Comte de Toulouse,
the ruthless perseentor of the Albigenses. He was
born about the year 1160, went on a fruitless
crusade to Palestine, but began about 1208 the
more congenial crusade of extermination against
the harmless heretics in the south of France. He
was killed by a stone at the siege of Toulouse, 25th
June 1218, See ALBIGENSES.
Montfort, Smion pr, Earl of Leicester, the
fourth son of the preceding, and of Alice de Mont-
morency, was born about the begihning of the
13th century. The title of Earl of Leicester came
to him by his ndmother, Amicia de Beau-
mont, sister and co-heiress of Robert, Earl of
Leicester; and in 1230 we find him in England
where he was well received by Henry IIL, am
confirmed in his title and estates two years later.
He married in 1238 the king’s youngest sister
Eleanor, who had been betrothed to the Earl of
Pembroke, and who, in the grief of an enthusiastic
girl of sixteen, at his death had taken in her haste
a vow of or chastity, but never proceeded to
take the veil. The marriage aroused the jealousy
of the barons and the denunciations of the church,
whereupon Simon repaired to Rome, and there
snsobeded by gold in obtaining the pope’s sane-
tion. In Jane 1239 he was godfather at the
baptism of Prince Edward, but three months later
suf-_
.
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MONTHOLON
MONTPELIER 291
The Jews, Arabians, and Turks still reckon by the
lunar months of 29 and 30 days, and are therefore
compelled, like the ancient jreeks, to insert an
intercalary or ‘embolismic’ month. The French
republicans in 1793 divided the year into twelve
months of 30 days, with five odd days (six in lea
ear) to be utilised as national festivals, each month
feing subdivided into three decades of 10 days each,
as with the ancient Greeks. Another distribution
of the months has since been suggested, should
such opportunity in oceur—viz. : Ist, 3d, 5th,
7th, oth. llth months, each 30 days; 2d, 4th, 6th,
Sth, 10th months, each 31 days; and the remain-
ing month 30 days in the ordinary year and 31
in leap year. The existing ‘calendar’ or ‘civil’
months are as i lar in length as they were
left by the Romans; the 4th, 6th, 9th, and llth
having 30 days, the second 28 days (or 29 in leap
year), and the seven others 31 days. To compli-
cate this disorder, a month in English law is ‘a
lunar month or 28 days unless otherwise ae ee
*a lease for twelve months is only for 48 weeks’
(Blackstone, ii. 141). Besides the archaic division
of the month into four, as already mentioned, the
early Greeks of Homer’s time and previously seem
to have had only two parts, the earlier half and
the ‘waning half;’ and a trace of that probably
remained in the Roman /des, the middle or dividing
day of each month.
Montholon, (uAr.es Tristan DE, Count of
Lee, was born at Paris, 1782. Having served in
the navy, he entered the army, and was severely
wounded at W . Napoleon made him his
chamberlain in 1809. During the Hundred Days
Montholon was Napoleon’s adjutant-general. He
accom his master to St Helena, and along
with Gourgand 9 aarp Mémoires pour servir
a@ UHistoire de France sous Na, nm (8 vols.
1822-25). As chief of the staff to Louis Napoleon
in 1840, he was condemned to twenty years’ im-
| eee} he regained his freedom in 1848,
ing published in 1846 Récits de la Captivité de
Ni (2 vols.). He died 24th August 1853.
Monthyon. See Montyon.
Monti, Vincenzo (1753-1828), an Italian poet
of the classical school, politically anti-French,
Napoleonist, pro-Austrian in turn. He was pro-
fessor at Pavia, and, under Napoleon, state historio-
Monticelli, Avoipue (1831-85), a noteworthy
modern painter, ‘ creator of the phantom genre,’ was
born at Marseilles, studied at Paris, where he lived
mainly till 1870. He sone rage 4 settled in
Marseilles, and died there in cag is paintings
fall into three periods, of which the last and most
characteristic is notable for masses of warm and
rgeous colouring, with vague almost invisible
Rete byeephe imly discernible in luxuriant
green meadows against a background of glorious
cloud masses.
Montilla, a town of aie, 23 miles SSE. of
Cordova by rail. Pop. 13,207.
Montjoie St De the French war-ery, old
least as Wace’s day (12th century), from the
hill near Paris on which St Denis (q.v.) underwent
the joy of martyrdom. See HERALD.
Montlucon, 4 town in the French department
=
of Allier, on a castle-crowned hill whose base is
washed by the Cher, 202 miles S. of Paris. It
owes its rapid development to the opening up
of the 2 er apap field, and has large iron-
works and “cpa eee manufactories. Pop. (1872)
20,251 Bg) ,019. Néris-les-Bains, 18 miles
SE., is the Neri of the Romans—of whom
many are left—and since 1821 has in
risen into repute throngh its warm alkaline aainetal
(126 F.). Pop. 1675.
Montmartre. See Paris.
Montmédy a town and fortress in the French
department 0! Meuse, 25 miles N. of Verdun and
31 miles by rail SE. of Sedan, consists of two por-
tions, the citadel and upper town overlooking the
lower town, which lies in the valley of the Chiers,
a tributary of the Meuse. Built and fortified in
1235, it was taken by the French in 1542, 1555,
1596, and 1657 ; they, after it was definitely assigned
to them by the peace of the Pyrenees (1659), had
it reconstructed and re-fortilied by Vauban. It
was, however, captured by the Germans in 1815
and again in 1870. Pop. 2740.
Montmorency, 2 river of Quebec, a tributary
of the St Lawrence, famous for its beautiful falls, 8
miles NE. of Quebec. Here the stream is 100 feet
wide, and the falls have a sheer descent of 250 feet.
Montmorency, ANNE, first Duc pr, Marshal
and Constable of France, born 15th March 1492,
belonged to one of the oldest and greatest of the
noble families of France. oon, up along with
Francis L., he distinguished himself by his caleniy
and military skill at Marignano (1515) and in the
defence of Méziéres, and was taken prisoner along
with his sovereign in the battle of Pavia (1525).
In consequence of his efforts to win his master
freedom, and his successful warring against the
emperor’s armies, he was made Constable in 1538 ;
but, being suspected by the king of siding with the
Dauphin against him, he was banished from court in
1541. On the accession of Henry II. (1547) he
was restored to his former position and dignities.
In 1557 he commanded the French army which
suffered the terrible defeat of St Quentin at the
hands of the Spaniards, in which he was again
taken prisoner. During the minority of Charles
IX. Montmorency, with the Duke of Guise and
the Marshal St André, com the triumvirate
which opposed the influence of Catharine de’ Medici.
In 1562 he commanded the royal army against the
Huguenots at Dreux, and was taken prisoner a
third time. In the following year he drove the
English out of Havre. He again engaged Condé
at St Denis (1567), but received a fatal wound, of
which he died at Paris on the following day, 11th
November 1567. See Life by Decrue (2 vols. Paris,
1885-89 ). ;
Montmorency, HeEnzI, second Duc DE, grand-
son of the famous Constable de Montmorency, was
born at Chantilly, 30th April 1595. His godfather
was Henry IV., who always called him his ‘son.’
When he was seventeen years of age Louis XIII.
made him admiral and viceroy of Canada, and in
the following year governor of Languedoc. During
the religious wars of 1621 and the following years
Montmorency commanded the Catholics in the
south against Rohan, was almost captured at the
siege of Montpellier (1622), took the islands of Ré
and Oléron from the defenders of Rochelle (1625),
and penetrated into Piedmont ( 1630). But Riche-
lieu, jealous of his popularity, provoked him into
rebellion along with the king’s brother, Gaston,
Duke of Orleans. Marshal Schomberg was sent
against him, defeated him at Castelnaudary, and
took him prisoner. _Montmorency, cove’ with
wounds, was carried to Toulouse, senten to
death by the parliament, and, notwithstanding the
intercession of King Charles I. of England, the
pe, the Venetian Re ublic, and the Duke of
voy, was beheaded, h October 1632. Mont-
morency was distinguished for his amiability and
the courtesy of his manners, as well as for his
valour.
Montoro, « town of Spain, on the Guadal-
quivir, 26 miles ENE. of Cordova. Pop. 13,293.
Montpelier, the capital of Vermont since 1805,
is on the Winooski or Onion River, 206 miles by
292 MONTPELLIER
MONTREAL
rail NNW. of Boston. It, contains a handsome
granite state-house, with a statue of Ethan Allen,
and has some mills and tanneries. Pop. (1900) 6266.
Mon ier, the capital of the French depart-
ment of Hérault, on the river Lez, 6 miles from the
sea and 31 SW. of Nimes. Pop. (1872) 54,466 ;
(1891 ) 69,258. Lying near the centre of Langue-
doe, on the great route from Italy and Provence to
Spain, with its seaport at a point offering the
shortest land-route not only to all parts of Langue-
doc, but to north France, Mcntpellier’s position
was a highly favourable one during the middle
ages. Hence alike its commercial and intellectual
importance, and its stormy history, during which
it was sometimes independent, and sometimes
under the suzerainty of Aragon or Navarre, before
finally becoming a possession of the French crown
in 1392. Its schools of medicine, law, and arts,
developing during the 12th and 13th centuries,
were formally constituted a university by a papal
bull in 1289, at which time the schools of law and
medicine Noy latter founded by Arabian physicians)
rivalled those of Paris. In the following century
Petrarch was a student at the law school, and
Arnaud de Vill ve, the alchemist and physician,
was teaching in the medical school. ith such
a Pte eng ition Montpellier was easily
sti by the Renaissance. belais and Ron-
delet the anatomist both graduated in medicine’
in 1537; Casaubon was made Greek professor in
1586. After Rondelet there is a continuity al-
most unique in the history of seience. A pupil
of his founded the famous botanie garden (the
oldest in France) in 1593; other pupils, Lobel,
Clusins, the brothers Bauhin, were highly dis-
tinguished amongst the earlier botanists (see
BoTany). At the end of the 17th century’
(during which Clarendon and Locke had been
residents), Magnol again made Montpellier the
centre of the science, and reckoned among his pupils
Tournefort and the elder De Jussieu. De Candolle
also wrote here some of his principal works, and
laid out the first botanic garden upon the natural
system in 1810, The medical school had also a
notable history; and a new period of activity
is indicated by the celebration of the sexcen-
tenary of the university (1890), with its reor-
ranisation upon thé fullest seale of equipment.
The town has also an important picture-gallery
and library.
A centre of wine production, upon which its
present nage ag depends, Montpellier suffered
greatly by the phylloxera; but it was here that
the cure of grafting French vines upon American
stocks was earliest applied. The new School
of Agriculture, oe, devoted to the practical
study of wine and silk culture, is very flourish-
ing. Of the medieval town little remains, its
fortifications and most of its buildings, save the
cathedral and the adjoining bishop’s palace (which
now houses the school of medicine), phen been
destroyed in the religious wars, in the Revolution,
or by municipal improvements. — The older streets
are crooked and narrow, but afford better shelter
from the sun, and ‘from the chilling mistral, than
do the modern ones. The chief modern buildings
are the theatre and law-courts; but the principal
lory of the town is its two great terraces, form-
ing public promenades overlooking the undulating
country dotted with innumerable mazés or country
cottages, and in the distance the Mediterranean,
Cevennes, Pyrenees, and Alps. See Duval Jouve,
Montpellier ; Aigreteuille, Histoire de Montpellier
(1739; new ed. 1877).
Montreal, the largest city of the Dominion
of Canada, is the centre of Canadian commerce,
of Canadian banking, and of the extensive system
of railways by which the country is now covered.
It is built on the south-east side of an island formed
by the junction of the Ottawa River with the St
Lawrence, and may be said in eral terms to be
situated on the northern bank of the St Lawrence.
ee ONS
eee oD
Lock,
The city is about 4 miles long and 2 wide, the
Central Mountain rising in the rear narrowing
me! at its base for some distance. It is not the
political capital of the province of Quebee, but
it exerts an immense political influence, and prac-
tically not only directs the political business of
Quebec, but exerts also by means of its eg
its manufactures, and its great importin
pee liotis commercial houses a t influence
Sy the R24 lic policy of the Federal Government.
t is
so the seat of the greatest universities,
hospitals, convents, and seminaries in all Canada.
Finally it is during the season of navigation—i.e.
from May to November—the great maritime port
of the Dominion, a dozen transatlantic steam-
ship companies it one of their head-
quarters; while a lake and river and coast navi-
tion of great activity increases and diversifies the
usiness of the city. It is nearly 1000 miles from
Montreal to the oereeyts tor and 250 to the first
salt water. Pop. (1871) 107,225; (1881) 140,747,
or with the su 155,237 ; (1891), including
suburbs taken into the city since 1881, 216,650.
In 1881 the people were divided into 78,684 of
French descent, 28,995 Irish, 16,407 English, and
12,531 Scotch, with a sprinkling of various other
nationalities. The revenue of the city in 1888 was
$2,095,411, and the expenditure $2,062,275.
The growth of the commerce of Montreal is
very remarkable. In 1870 the imports amounted
to $23,698,688 and the exports to $11,222,101, In
1889 the imports were $43,948,594 and the exports
$29,032,613. The 1500 miles of the St Lawrence
River contribute to this growth of export, and
distribute largely the growth of import. The
total of ts of grain, flour, and meal at
Montreal in 1900-05 amounted to about 20,000,000
bushels annually, the shipments of the same being
some millions less. The annual soanegs of ship-
ping rose from 208,000 tons in 1870 to 550,000 tons
in 1890-95 (the American ships declining). For
the great Victoria Railway Bridge across the St
Lawrence, see BRIDGE, vol. ii., p. 441: see also
CANAL. The Federal Government having assumed
the debt of the port incurred for deepening the
channel, and the canal tolls having been uced
to a minimum with a prospect of being entirely
abolished in order to encourage a through trade, the
future of the port of Montreal as a practically free
rt seems assured. The canal system which finds
its outlet at Montreal is remarkable. By means
the canals Montreal is enabled to touch and
MONTREAL
MONTROSE 293
the no Duluth _ — ashy sor mee ee
s jor, of Chi ‘and Mi ele e Michi-
Coil and Goderich on Lake Huron,
Butfalo and Cleveland on Lake Erie, Hamilton,
Toronto, Kingston, and Oswego on Lake Ontario.
These canals afford a continuous course of water-
These great
roads open up by means of various connections the
whole railway-system of the United States and
Canada, and the Canadian Pacific Railway has a
through line from Montreal to Vancouver City in
British Columbia, a distance of 2906 miles. In the
boot and shoe manufacture over 3000 hands are em-
. loyed, in clothing-factories over 2500, in tobacco-
a abecien about 3000, in the breweries about 500;
in the works’ of the railways an army
There are also rubber-
capacity 21,000 eS eo located at
i i ighting and for the
ontreal requiring
; Of the
some of them splendid: St Peter’s Church is
a repetition on a smaller scale of the church at
Rome; Notre Dame holds 10,000 people ; St
Patrick’s is the church of the Irish Catholics. In
the French churches the as is generally in
eit “ree gp eral yore ones "the
» it sev er churches, the
.> Methodists have eleven, and other denominations
also are well In all there are seventy-
four churches in the city. Education in Montreal is
conducted under the law of the province of Quebec.
It is denominational in character, the vast majority
of the schools being of course Roman Catholic. The
Protestant schools are under the control of a special
The taxes on Catholics go to the Catholic
the taxes on Protestants to Protestant
schools. M‘Gill University, which obtained its
__ charter in 1821, has been an active establishment
since 1852; over 1200 ates claim it as Alma
Mater. Laval University of Quebec has a branch at
Montreal ; the semi of St Sulpice, founded in
1657, is a theological institution, training about
300 pupils at one time; the Presbyterian College,
chartered in 1865, has an endowment ane peer
i lion of
e was
oo list are
tional College, the jocesan
3 Cali, founded in 1848 by
the academic hall of which holds 1200
5 mise in attendance numberin
the ues Cartier Normal School,
he the provincial government,
Christian Brothers’ ools, the schools and
convents of the coi tion of Notre Dame, the
schools and convents of the Sacred Heart. M‘Gill
College has a li of 25,000 volumes, the Advo-
eates
College
Library has 15,000 volumes, the Presbyterian
Li 10,000 volumes; the Mechanics’
institute, the Fraser Institute, and the Y.M.C.A.
fie also sniper acl ope sim on about
! i in the city, including six
Drench, and ve English dailies, and ten French
; eight English weeklies. The Quebec Gazette
1764) was the first paper ae in Canada ;
ontreal Gazette (1778) is the next oldest, and
is the leading journal still. There are musical,
art, and historical associations also which maintain
in Montreal a taste for art, literature, and science
not common in colonial commercial cities. Amon
the chief philanthropic institutions are the Gena]
Hospital, costing $40,000 a year; the Protestant
House of Industry, to which 20,000 people a year
have access; the Y.M.C.A. building; the Dis.
pensaty, aiding about 10,000 persons a year; the
xray Nuns’ Hospital (1755), which is also a found-
ling hospital ; the Hétel Dieu (1644), with 350 beds,
receiving over 3000 persons per annum, and costing
about $35,000 a year for maintenance.
Lae FE Rear was purchased from the presi-
dent of the Hundred Associates of France, a trading
corporation, by Abbé Olier and Dauversiére, who
were moved by religions enthusiasm to establish
institutions there; it was actually founded by
Maisonneuve, the leader and military head of the
enterprise of Olier and Danversiére, who landed at
Montreal ( Ville-Marie de Montreal) on the 18th
May 1642. The early history of the city was one of
continuous struggles against the Iroquois Indians,
by whom the whole island was more than once
devastated up to the very palisades of the town’s
defences ; and in 1660 the Indians almost exter-
minated the population not actually within the
feeble defences, In 1722 the city was fortified with
a bastioned wall and ditch. In September 1760,
the year following the capture of Que by Wolfe,
Montreal was surrendered by the French gover-
nor, De Vaudreuil, to the British, under Lord
Amherst and General Murray. In 1776-77 the city
was occupied by the invaders from the revolted
colonies, who did their best to coerce or cajole the
Canadians into joining in the rebellion. In 1777 the
British forees advanced from Quebec, and Montreal
was evacuated by the invaders. Since that time
the history of the city has been peaceful. The
war of 1812-14 did not disturb its pr The
rebellion of 1837 for a moment ruffled its political
serenity ; but all its modern history has been the
history of constitutional development, of business
, of educational advancement, and of growth
in population.
Montreux, 2 group of villages on the north
shore of the Lake ce Gasevs, 15 miles by rail SE.
of Lausanne. The name properly belongs to one
small hamlet, but is popularly extended so as to
include the adjoining vi of Clarens, Vernex,
Veytaux, &c., with a population of 8019. The
beautiful situation and mild climate of ‘the Swiss
Nice’ attract many invalids to the place, which
abounds with hotels and ions. Near it is the
castle of Chillon. See Steiger’s Der Kurort
Montreux (Zur. 1886). 4
Montrose, a seaport of Forfarshire, 76 miles
NNE. of Edinburgh and 42 SSW. of Aberdeen.
It stands on a level peninsula between Montrose
Basin (a tidal loch, measuring 2 by 1? miles, but
almost dry at low-water) and the mouth of the
river South Esk. A fine suspension bridge (1829),
432 feet long, leads to Inchbrayock or Rossie
Island, in the Esk’s channel, and is continued
thence by a drawbridge; and there is also a rail-
wa: viateare (1883). ae has a plain town-
hall (1763-1819); a large parish church (1791-
1834), with a steeple 200 feet high; an academy
pice a lunatic asylum (1868), 2 miles NNW. ;
good links; and a wet-dock (1840). The foreign
trade—timber its staple—is chiefly with the Baltic
and Canada; and the average tonnage of ships
entering the port exceeds 90,000 tons per annum.
Flax-spinning is the principal industry ; and topet,
canvas, soap, &c, are also manufactured. on-
trose was the birthplace of Robert Brown,
botanist; Joseph Hume; Sir Alexander Burnes;
294
MONTROSE
and Paul Chalmers, R.S.A. It has memories, too,
of Edward L., the two Melvilles, the Great Marquis,
the Old Pretender, Dr Johnson, and Lola Montez.
A royal burgh since 1352 and earlier, it unites with
Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar, and Bervie to return
one member to parliament. Pop. (1851) 15,238;
(1881) 14,973; (1891) 13,048. See Mitchell’s His-
tory of Montrose (Montrose, 1866).
Montrose, JAMES GRAHAM, MARQUIS oF,
belonged to a family which can be traced back
to the year 1128, and which since 1325.had been
settled at Old Montrose, in Maryton parish, For-
farshire, near Montrose town. It had been en-
nobled with the titles of Lord Graham (1451) and
Earl of Montrose (1505); and three of its members
had fallen at the battles of Falkirk, Flodden, and
Pinkie; whilst another, Sir William Graham,
a Nex the eek egy tae s “9 his second
wife Mary, ter 0! rt Ill.—a marriage
from which sprung the Grahams of Claverhouse.
John, third Earl of Montrose, was chancellor and,
after James VI.’s accession to the English crown
viceroy of Scotland. His successor, John, marri
Lady M t Ruthven, eldest sister of the un-
fortunate 1 of Gowrie; and the issue of this
union was five daughters and one son, James, the
f t — who was born in 1612 at Old
ontrose. is mother died in 1618, his father
in 1626. Next year the young earl was sent to
the university of St Andrews by his guardian and
brother-in-law, Archibald Lord Napier, son of the
famous inventor of logarithms. He was proficient
in all nage xh and an apt if not ardent student,
besides exhibiting a genuine love of literature,
which his stormy after-life never destroyed. In
1629 he married Magdalene Carnegie, daughter of
the first Earl of Southesk, and he lived at Kinnaird
Castle, his father-in-law’s seat, till in 1633, on
attaining his majority, he left Scotland to travel
in ttaly, France, and the Low Countries.
On his way home, in 1636, he had an audience
with Charles I., but, owing to the machinations of
the Marquis of Hamilton, was coldly received; and
he had not been long back in Scotland before by
the ‘canniness of Rothes’ he was ‘ brought in’ to
the ranks of the king’s opponents, at this time
comprising the great mass of the Scottish nation.
Montrose returned in the very year (1637) when
the tumults broke out in Edinburgh on the attempt
to introduce Laud’s Prayer-book ; and he was one
of the four noblemen selected to compose the
‘Table’ of the nobility, which, along with the
other Tables of the gentry, the burghs, and the
ministers, drew up the famous National Covenant
(q.v.). In the summer of 1638 he was despatched
to Aberdeen, to coerce it into subscription ; and in
1639 he made three military expeditions thither.
On the first occasion or March) he employed
conciliation; Baillie laments his ‘too great’
humanity. On the second (25th May) he imposed
on the city a fine of 10,000 merks, but, though his
soldiers committed some acts of pillage, he resisted
the importunities of the Covenanting zealots to
give -Meroz’ to the flames, and Baillie again
complains of ‘his too great ienity in sparing the
enemy's houses.’ The arrival at Aberdeen by sea
of the Earl of Aboyne, Charles's lieutenant of the
north, with reinforcements, caused Montrose to
retreat, followed by the earl and the Gordon High-
landers ; but at Meagra Hill, near Stonehaven, on
15th June, he won a complete victory, and four
days later, after storming the Bridge of Dee, he
was once more master of Aberdeen. The citizens
expected some bloody punishment for their well-
known Episcopalian leanings, but again Montrose
agreeably ee (a oo their fears, again to be
upbraided by the Committee of Estates for not
having burned the town.
News now arrived of the ‘ pacification of Berwick,’
and terminated the struggle in the north. Charles
invited several of the Covenanting nobles to meet
him at Berwick. Among those who went was
Montrose ; and the Presbyterians dated what the
— as his apostasy from that interview. H
political arene was certainly different after his
return. In the General Assembly which met in
August 1639 he showed symptoms of disaffection
towards the Covenant; and one night, it is said,
& paper was affixed on his chamber-door, ‘Jnvictus
armas, verbis vincitur.’ In the second Bishops’
War, when, on 20th August 1640, 25,000 Scots
crossed the Tweed, Montrose was the first
to plunge into the stream; but that very month,
with eighteen other nobles and gentlemen, he
had entered into a secret engagement at Cum-
bernauld against the dictatorship of Argyll, to
whom and the zealots Montrose was as hostile
now as he ever had been to Hamilton and the
‘sometime pretended prelates.’ It leaked out that
he had been secretly communicating with the king;
and when the Scottish parliament met (November
1640) he was cited to appear before a committee.
The affair of the ‘Cumbernauld Bond’ was brought
up; but nothing came of it, thongh some of the fiery
spirits among the clergy ‘ pressed,’ says Guthrie,
“that his life might go for it.’ Next June Mon-
trose with three others was accused of plotting
oe ll, and confined till November in
inburgh tle. Clarendon’s story that Mon-
trose, about this period, offered to the king to
assassinate Argyll and- Hamilton ma safely be
set aside; but to Hamilton he owed the rejection
of his two proposals in the rd i Lapa to raise
the royalist standard in the Highlan
In 1644, however, he quitted his forced inaction
at Oxford, where he had been residing with Charles,
and, disguised as a groom, made his way into
Perthshire, with the rank of lieutenant-general in
Scotland and the title of Marquis of Montrose.
At Blair-Athole he met 1200 Scoto-Irish auxiliaries
under Alaster Maccoll Keitache Macdonell (* Col-
kitto’), and placed himself at their head, the clans
een wy hy round him. Marching south, on Ist
ptember he fell on the Covenanting army, com-
manded by Lord Elcho, at Tippermuir, near Perth,
and gained a signal victory. He next defeated a
force of Covenanters at Aberdeen (13th Septem-
ber), and took possession of the city, which was
this time abandoned for four days to all the
horrors of war. The approach of Argyll, at the
head of 4000 men, compelled Montrose, whose
forces were far inferior in numbers and discipline,
to retreat, He plunged into the wilds of e-
noch, recrossed the Grampians, and suddenly
—_ in Angus, where he wasted the estates
of more than one Covenanting noble. Havi
obtained fresh supplies, he once more return
to Aberdeenshire, with the view of raising the
Gordons; narrowly eseaped defeat at Fyvie, in
the end of October; and again withdrew into the
fastnesses of the mountains. Argyll, baffled,
returned to Edinburgh, and threw up his com-
mission, Montrose, receiving large accessions
from the Highland clans, planned a winter cam-
paign, marched south-westward into the country
of the Campbells, devastated it frightfully, drove
Argyll himself from his castle at Inveraray, and
then wheeled north intending to attack Inverness.
The ‘ Estates’ at Edinburgh were greatly alarmed,
and, raising a fresh army, placed it under the com-
mand of a natural son of Sir William Baillie of
Lamington. He arranged to ee way of
Perth, and take Montrose in front, while Argyll
should rally his vast array of vassals, and fall on
him in the rear. The royalist leader was in the
Great Glen of Albin, the basin of the Caledonian
MONTROSE
MONTYON PRIZES 295
Canal, when he heard that Argyll was followin
him. He instantly turned on his pursuer an
surprised and utterly routed him at Inverlochy,
2d February 1645. Fifteen hundred of the Camp-
bells were slain, only four of Montrose’s men.
He then resumed his march northward, but did
not venture to assault Inverness, his wild moun-
taineers being admirably fitted for rapid irregular
warfare, but not for the slow work of beleaguer-
ment. So, directi his course eastward, he
passed with fire sword through Moray and
Aberdeenshire. Baillie and Hurry, his lieutenant,
were at Brechin, but Montrose by a dexterous
movement eluded them, captured and pillaged
Dundee (3d April), and escaped safely into the
‘Grampians. nm 4th May he routed Hurry at
Auldearn, near Nairn, and on 2d July inflicted
2 still more disastrous defeat on Baillie himself at
Alford in Aberdeenshire. ‘Before the end of the
summer,’ he sent word to Charles, ‘I shall be in
Covenanters being slain.
i of Montrose’s six
splendid victories, seemed to lay Scotland at his feet,
but the clansmen slipped away home to secure their
booty, and Aboyne withdrew with all his cavalry.
Still, with 500 horse and 1000 infantry, he had
entered the Border country, when, on 13th Septem-
ber, he was surprised and hopelessly routed by 6000
troopers under David Leslie at Philiphaugh, near
Selkirk. Escaping to Athole, he again endeavoured,
but vainly, to raise the Highlands ; and on 3d Sep-
tember 1646 he sailed for Norway, whence he pro-
ceeded to Paris, Germany, and the Low Countries.
Here it was that news reached him of Charles I.’s
execution, whereat he swooned, and then reviving,
‘swore before God, angels; and men to dedicate
the remainder of his life to the avenging the death
of the martyr.’ So, on behalf of Charles IIL., he
undertook a fresh invasion of Seotland, and from
Or passed over to Caithness, his little army
almost annihilated by shipwreck. Neither gentry
nor commons would join him; but he pushed on
to the borders ‘of ire, where, at Inver-
charron, his dispirited remnant was cut to pieces
by Strachan’s cavalry, 27th April 1650. He fled
into the wilds of Sutherland, and was nearly
starved to death, when he fell into the hands of
Macleod of Assynt, who sold him to Leslie. He
was cuveyes with all possible contumely to Edin-
burgh, where, dressed like a gallant bridegroom,
in the Grassmarket on a loft
crane 2ist May 1650. Eleven years afterwards
is mangled remains were collected from the four
airts, and buried in St Giles’s, where a statel
monument was reared to him in 1888. He left
a son, James, the ‘good Marquis’ (c. 1631-69),
whose grandson in 1707 was created Duke of
Montrose.
Montrose’s few poems, all burning with passion-
ate loyalty, are little known, save the one famous
stanza commencing, ‘He either fears his fate too
much.’ That has the right ring, one would think ;
and yet its asecription to Montrose is doubtful,
first put forward in Watson’s Collection of Scots
Poems (1711). There are four portraits of Mon-
trose—by Jameson ( 1629 and 1640), Dobson (1644),
and Honthorst (1649), Of the inner man the finest
estimate is Mr Gardiner’s: ‘When once he had
chosen his side, he was sure to bear himself as
# Paladin of old romance. If he made any cause
his own, it was not with the reaso’ calculation
of a statesman, but with the fond enthusiasm of
a lover. When he transferred his affections from
the Covenant to the king, it was as Romeo trans-
ferred his affections from Rosaline to Juliet. He
fought for neither King nor Covenant, but for that
ideal of his own which he followed as Covenanter
or Royalist. He went ever straight to the mark,
impatient to shake off the schemes of worldly-wise
ticians and the oF of interested intriguers,
ature had marked him for a life of meteoric
splendour, to confound and astonish a world, and
to leave behind him an inspiration and a name
which would outlast the ruins of his hopes.’
See the Latin Memoirs by his chaplain, Dr Wishart
( Amst. 1647 ; i lish translation, 1756 ; complete
trans. by Mi orland on er 1893); Mark
api ; 4th ed. 1856);
Napier’s Memoirs of Montrose (1
Lady. Violet Greville’s Montrose (1886); and Mr S§. R.
iner’s History of England, Great Civil War, and
History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate.
Montserrat (Lat. Mons Serratus, so named
from its saw-like outline), a mountain of Catalonia,
in north-east Spain, 30 miles NW. of Barcelona.
Its height is 4055 feet ; and ‘its outline,’ says Ford,
‘is most fantastic, consisting of cones, pyramids,
buttresses, ninepins, sugar-loaves,’ hte pious
Catalonians aver that it was thus shattered at the
Crucifixion. Every rift and gorge is filled with
| box-trees, ivy, and other evergreens. From the
topmost height the eye wanders over all Catalonia.
The mountain, however, owes its celebrity to the
Benedictine abbey built half-way up it, with its
wonder-working im of the Virgin, and to the
thirteen hermitages formerly perched like eagles’
nests on almost inaccessible pinnacles, In 1811
the French, under Suchet, plundered the abbey,
burned the library, shot the hermits, and hanged
the monks (who had given shelter to their emi-
grant brethren at the Revolution). The place
suffered still more in 1827, when it became the
stronghold of the Carlist insurrection.
Montserrat, one of the Lesser Antilles,
belonging to Britain, lies 27 miles SW. of Antigua.
It is about 11 miles in length, 7 in breadth, and
has an area of 32 sq. m. The surface is ve
mountainous (3000 feet), and heavily tim
Sugar and limes and lime-juice are the pines
products. The island, governed by a president and
a legislative council, is the healthiest in the West
Indies. The ae average nearly £25,000, and
the exports £21,100. The island was discovered in
1493, and colonised by the British in 1632. It has
remained in their hands ever since, except for two
short intervals (1664-68 and 1782-84), when it was
in the ae of France. Pop. (1881) 10,083;
(1891) 11,762, of whom about 1500 were at Ply-
mouth, the chief town.
Mont St Michel. See St MicHEL.
Montyon P: rewards for signal instances
of disinterested ness discovered throughout
the year, awarded by the French Academy, accord-
ing to the will of Jean-Baptiste-Robert Auger,
Baron de agen hay (1733-1820), who bequeathed
£120,000 to public hospitals, and the remainder of
his fortune to give sums of money to poor patients
on leaving Paris hospitals, and to found the prizes
since connected with his name. Already in 1782
he had originated the prize of virtue, but on his
return to France in 1815 he arranged the scheme
in its final form. The Academy of Sciences awards
annually a prize of 10,000 frances to the individual
who has discovered the means of making any
mechanical occupation more healthy, another of
equal value for improvements in medicine and
surgery; while the Forty themselves award the
prize of virtue, and another to the writer of the
work likely to have the greatest beneficial influence
on morality—both alike of 10,000 francs a year.
296 MONUMENTS
The last are usually divided among several re-
we arg and for these there seems to be a some-
what liberal standard of interpretation, for in a
single year (1884), for example, we find awards
yiven to a Journey to Japan, a Life of General
Chanzy, a History of English Literature, and an
Essay on Laughter. The same indulgence extends
also to romance, all that seems required being some
literary merit and a fair average of morality. In-
stead of rewarding works specially advantageous to
morality, the Academy has been redaced to the
necessity of crowning those which are content
merely to respect it. in 1885 the Academy accepted
a legacy of 10,000 franes to recompense particularly
lilial piety. A society was formed in 1833 to publish
cheap lives and portraits of all men to be regarded
as benefactors to their species ; whether the benevo-
lent, as Montyon, Howard, and Mrs Fry, or special
originators like Jenner, Franklin, Davy, and Jac-
quard. A medal bearing the heads of Montyon
and Franklin was struck at its foundation, and a
Id medal is given every year. See Memoir of
Montyon by Labour ( Paris, 1881), and Taillandier’s
Priz de Vertu (1877).
Monuments. The Ancient Monuments Pro-
tection Act of 1882 constitutes the Commissioners
of Works guardians of a certain number (some
seventy groups) of monuments in Great Britain
and Ireland; and provides for their being made
guardians of as many more as from time to time
the owners shall put under their care. The owners
retain all their rights save as regards injuring or
defacing the protected monuments; any person
defacing or injuring them is liable to a fine not
exceeding £5, or imprisonment for a month. The
Commissioners, the specially appointed Inspector
of Ancient Monuments, and their workmen are to
have access to do what may be necessary to protect
the monuments. In France famous castles and
churches, as well as dolmens, &c., are among the
monuments historiques protected by law.
Barrow. Earth-houses. Obelisk.
Brasses, Hadrian’s Wall. Offa's Dyke.
Brochs. Kits Coity House, Pyramid.
Cairn. Maeshowe, Round Towers,
Callernish. ) ausclenm. Standing Stones.
Castile. Mouaster Stennis
Colossus, Mound! Builders. Stone Circles,
Dolmen Nuraghe. Stonehenge.
Monza (anc. Modetia), a town of Italy, on the
river Lambro, 9 miles by rail NNE. of Milan. It
was aq seed the capital of the Lombards, to whose
queen, Theodelinda, it owesits chief public buildings,
notably the cathedral (595 ; reconstructed in the 14th
century); it was noted for its wealth and its exten-
sive cloth trade in the middleages. It has an inter-
esting town-hall (1293), a royal lace (1777), and
manufactures of cottons, hats, leather, &. The
cathedral contains many relics of Theodelinda, and
the famous Iron Crown (see Crown, Vol. LIL., p.
589), restored by Austria in 1866. Pop. 17,077.
Moody, Dwicut LyMAN, evangelist, was born
February 5, 1837, at Northfield, Massachusetts. In
1854, after a youth of great poverty, he went to
Boston, where, during his two years’ service as a
shopman, he became converted. He went to Chicago
in 1856, and here was active in Sunday-school mis-
sion work; and from 1858 he devo himself en-
tirely to Christian work. During the civil war he
served the Christian Commission, and afterwards
became practically the head of the Young Men's
Christian Association work in Chicago. In 1871 he)
was joined by Ira D. Sankey, an effective singer,
his life-long colleague. They worked with great |
suecess in most of the principal cities of the United |
States, and in 1873, 1881, and 1883 in Great Britain. |
Mr Moody died at Northfield, December 22, 1899.
Here are the great schools for boys and girls, started
in his own home in 1879; they accommodate now
MOON
about 1000 pupils. He published volumes of ser-
mons and other works. aoe the authorised Life by
W. R. Moody (1900).
Mooltan, See MuLTAN.
Moon, the satellite of the earth. It ranks
among the larger satellites of our system, being an
almost perfect sphere of 2160 miles in diameter.
It revolves at a mean distance from the earth's
centre of 238,833 miles. Its total surface is 0°074
of the earth's, or in sq. m, 14,657,402; and its
volume 0°02034 of the earth's, or in cubic miles
5,300,000,000, or in terms of the sun’s volume only
sxxdeces- Its mass is 0°0128 of the earth’s, or in
tons 78,000,000,000,000,000,000, Its density is
3°57 that of water, or 0°63 that of the earth. It
travels in its orbit with a velocity of 3334 feet per
second, and its equatorial velocity of rotation is
10 miles per hour. Presenting as large a surface
Fig. 1.—Comparative Sizes of the Earth and Moon,
to the eye as the sun, and changing both its form
and position with great rapidity, it has necessarily
always attracted a large measure of attention, and
has proved in early ages and among savage peoples
the most useful of the heavenly bodies for the
measurement of time. Its motions, always in-
teresting, have in modern times been most care-
fully observed and calculated, from their great
value in enabling the traveller and navigator to
determine the Teasttade (see LATITUDE AND
LONGITUDE).
The explanation of the moon's changes of shape,
from a thin crescent to a full disc, is the first prob-
lem presented to the most careless observer, A
little watching shows that these are due conjointly
to the globular form of the moon, its motion, and
the fact that it does not shine by native light, but
simply reflects the solar rays. The illuminated
(or conver) edge of its figure is always turned
towards the sun, When right opposite the sun
it appears as full, and sometimes is so situated as
to partially obscured by the earth’s shadow,
the earth intercepting the solar light by which
alone it shines, When it is near the sun in the
sky it appears as a thin crescent, turning almost
entirely its dark side to the earth. Sometimes, at
new moon, it comes between us and the sun, ob-
securing his dise either in a partial or total Eclipse
(q.v.). At either half moon the moon is said to
be in quadrature, or in the ‘first’ or ‘last quarter.’
At new and full moon it is said to be in syzygy
(Gk. syn, ‘together;’ zygon, ‘yoke’). Our own
observation will soon show that these chan
result from the constant illumination of one side
of the moon, and constant darkness of the other,
the crescent being larger or smaller as, from the
moon's change of position, we see more or less of
the bright side.
Thus we see that the moon’s phases depend on
its motions over the sky, with reference to the
sun. These motions and their causes we next
consider. And it is most convenient in doing
so to discuss first the apparent motions—i e.
FULL MOON, EXHIBITING BRIGHT STREAKS RADIATING FROM TYCHO.
Vol. VIL, page 296.
MOON
297
grey iy which the ae so tt the a
es Demy. 43, nas ike a driving cloud,
though not with the same rapidity.
We can reduce all such motions to movements
in the two easily-noted directions, first, north and
south ; secondly, east and west. And it is most con-
venient to take the sun as our point of reference.
Sometimes the moon is north of the sun, and some-
times south, sometimes east of it, and sometimes
west. It moves, then, in both of our two directions.
But when we compare the east and west motion
with the north and south we soon note an important
difference. The east and west motion is continu-
ously and steadily from west to east, carrying the
moon right round the heavens ; starting at new
moon near the sun, and i porwr until at full
moon nearly the whole breadth of the sky separates
them; then still progressing, until the sun is
a again from the opposite side. In fact,
if the sun stood still at its setting for a lunar
- month, we should see the moon soar steadily
upwards in the western sky, cross the whole ex-
= of heaven, and own below the eastern
orizon. Then it would continue its course, re-
turning to the sun, beneath our feet, and reach
nearly its original position. o perform this
eyele the moon takes 29°53 days, which is called
its synodical period. If we took a bright star as
the starting-point and of the moon’s circle,
instead of the sun, we should find the moon only
take 27°32 days to return to the star. This is
called the moon's sidereal period. The cause of the
difference is that the star is steady in its position,
while the sun slowly moves in his annual course
in the same direction as the moon, which therefore
has to overtake the sun when returning to him.
Thus the motion from west to east is always in the
same direction ; but this is not the case with the
north and south motion. While performing its
= ge from west to east, say in the month of March,
moon begins by travelling northward at first,
but latterly swings as far southward. In autumn
the reverse is the case (see below). In Decem-
ber full moon occurs at the most northern point
of its course, and in June at the southernmost.
In winter, therefore, we have at night most light
from the full moon, and in summer least.
March the evenings have least moonlight, and in
September they have most. Attentively consider-
ing all these movements, we soon see that the
moon travels round the earth in a curve not differ-
ing very much from a circle, for as it always appears
nearly of the same size, it must remain constantly
at nearly the same distance from the earth.
We have now almost insensibly passed from the
observation of t motions to the idea of an
orbit or path, which the moon traverses. And this
leads at once to the consideration of the nature of
this orbit, or the moon’s real motions. Accurate
observation reveals that the moon’s distance from
the centre of the earth is not the same in different
of its orbit. It varies in apparent diameter
m a maximum of 33’ 31” to a minimum of
29’ 21". As this variation forbids the idea that the
orbit is a circle concentric with the earth, so it
also forbids the idea that it is a circle eccentricall
— in regard to the earth. The true form is
nd to be that of an ellipse having an eccentricity
of 005491, with the earth in one of the foci, This
ellipse is, however, continually distorted by various
inequalities to be noticed hereafter, chiefly due to
the sun’s attractive energy, which continually con-
tends with that of the earth for the mastery over
its satellite.
The lunar orbit is inclined to the ecliptic (or
earth’s orbit) at an angle of 5° 8’ 40". The ts
where the two intersect are called the Nodes (q.v.),
and the line joining them the line of nodes. The
point of her orbit nearest the earth is the perigee,
that most distant is the apogee, and the line joinin;
them is called the dine f apsides. Both the line o'
nodes and line of apsides change their place, the
former turning completely round in 6793°391 days
=18°6 years, the latter in 3232°57 days = nearly
9 years. These motions take place, however, in
opposite directions: the line of apsides revolves
with the moon’s orbital motion, the line of nodes
inst it. These motions are due to the sun’s
disturbing influence (see PERTURBATIONS). Each
day, on an average, the moon describes 13° 10’ 35”
of the circle of her path. To do this requires, at
its distance, an actual velocity of 3 miles
per hour. This ees is found to be exactly
what is uired to balance the moon’s weight,
supposing that to be reduced in proportion to the
square of its distance from the earth. Thus Newton
concluded that the force retaining the moon in its
orbit is simply its weight, or the mutual gravitation
between it and the earth. This conclusion is
veritied by the elliptic form of the orbit, and the
place of the earth in one focus. For an orbit of
this form is produced by a force varying inversely
as the square of the distance. Both the form
of the orbit, then, and the varying nature of the
force governing it, as well as the powerful disturbing
influence of the sun, cause variations in the moon’s
pasa a Usually these are allowed for by taking
as a foundation the mean or average angular
velocity given above, and considering its variations
under the title of inequalities, which must all
be allowed for if the moon's place in the sky is to
be if i with accuracy at any time.
irst in order is the elliptic inequality discovered
2 Hipparchus. It is caused by the quicker or
ower motion of the moon as it over the
nearer or more distant of its elliptie orbit.
Its value is 6° 18’ nearly. Secondly, there is the
annual ation (diseovered by Tycho Brahé), a
yearly effect, arising from the increase and diminu-
tion of the sun’s disturbing force, as the earth
approaches or leaves the sun in its annual course.
is amounts to 11’ 10’, and, as our earth is nearer
the sun in winter and farther off in summer, it
causes the moon to be behind its mean place in
the first part of the year and before it in the later
months. Thirdly, there is the variation (discovered
by Abul-Wefa). This arises from the changes in
direction and amount of the sun’s disturbing force,
which are caused by the moon’s motion in its own
orbit. Its effect on the moon’s longitude may
amount to 39 31”. Fourthly, there is the evection,
ene on the position of the axis of the moon’s
orbit, and the line of nodes, with regard to the
sun. Its effects are complicated, but may amount
to 1° 16’ 27” on the moon’s longitude, and 8’ 57” on
its latitude.
Besides these, the parallactic in lity is inter-
esting, as giving a means of calculating the sun’s
distance from our earth. The sun’s disturbing
action varies in amount as the moon in its orbit
is nearest or farthest away from the sun, This
variation ee on the ratio of the moon’s
distance to that of the sun; so that, knowing the
amount of the inequality and the distance of the
moon, a value may be found for the sun’s distance.
Hansen showed by this means that the value long
received for the sun’s distance required to be
diminished. See PARALLAX, SUN.
The secular acceleration of the moon was dis-
covered by Halley in 1693 from a comparison of the
times of Eclipses (q.v.) many centuries apart.
This inequality is an increase of the moon’s mean
motion by about 12” per century. It is partly due
to a slow change in the form of the earth’s orbit,
by which the sun’s disturbing force is slightly
lessened, which is equivalent to an increase of the
298
rth's attractive force, whereby the moon’s angular
velocity is increased. This part will, however,
compensate itself in the course of ¢ It is partly
also due to a slow lengthening of the day—i.e. the
period of the earth's rotation, which arises from the
frictional action of the tides, that act like a brake
upon the earth’s surface. This portion remains
uncompensated, of course.
The moon's distance from the earth is obtained by
observations of its place from two widely-separated
stations, such as the observatories at Greenwich
and the Cape of Good Hope. If simultaneously
observed from these, the moon will not appear to
both observers in the same position among the
stars; the amount of difference in apparent
tion depending on its distance from the earth at
the time. From this difference is deduced the
moon's horizontal parallax. This is the change in
the moon's place which would be noted by an
observer on shifting his place from the centre of
the earth to a point on its surface where the moon
would be seen on the horizon. The moon’s mass
being very nearly »,th of the earth’s, the force of
lunar gravity at the moon's surface is then such
that any object would weigh there only 0°15 of its
weight at the earth's surface, and a falling body
would there only traverse 2°48 feet in the first
second of its course. The moon’s rotation on its
axis agrees in period with its revolution round
the earth, so that, as has been said, we have
08i-
Fig. 2.—The Moon, tirst quarter
always the same side presented to our view.
Occasionally, however, we see a little round one
or other edge owing to Libration (q.v.).
From these conditions of size, density, and mass
we should expect that, while presenting some
features of agreement, in most respects the moon
would differ widely from the earth in physical
condition. Even to the naked eve some peculiar
ities are obvious. Attentively watching the full
moon, we soon become familiar with its irregularly
spotted surface, which changes. It cannot
then be like that earth, which often
obscured by clouds and mist The telescope con
firms this impression All the details of the lunar
eurface are hard, cold, and glaring in their delinea-
never
of the is
|
|
of
| classified, and the arrangement commonly in use is
(inverted, as seen through telescope ).
(From Photograph through the Great Lick Telescope, by Prof. 8, W. Burnham.)
MOON
tion. The delicate colouring and shade of terrestrial
scenery is entirely absent. All is marked in white
and black, or in various shades of yellowish gray.
Nothing like mist, cloud, or vapour has ever been
| seen, except in some doubtful instances on the floor
of the erater Plato, or other deep depressions, There
is neither water to furnish vapour, nor atmosphere
lit to bear clouds. Observation of the stars occulted
by the moon (see OCCULTATIONS ) confirms this, and,
if there be even an attenuated atmosphere, it cannot
have more than g},th of the surface-density of our
own. Bessel’s maximum value for this of yey, has
heen shown by Neison to be too small, and it is not
improbable that the moon possesses an atmosphere
of extreme rarity, having a surface-density of prob-
ably about 45th that of the earth. Vegetation and
| animal life appear to be equally absent from the
moon, and the best modern theories of its state
| require us to regard the surface as either bare rock
pe sand, or as ice and snow. These theories have
arisen in the attempt to explain the strange forms
the lunar surface. These forms have been
followed here as convenient. But it must not be
regarded as a really scientific one. For some
formations, while in their general aspect belonging
| to one class, might really be assigned to other
| classes in other respects.
| The term Mare (Lat.) has been apes to the
| large dark plains, an example of which is the Mare
Crisium, easily seen as an oval dark
spot near the edge of the new moon.
There are also large level areas which
are brighter, and to which no special
name has been attached. To one large
irregular dark plain the title of Oceanus
Procellarum has been given. The terms
Palus (marsh), Lacus (lake), and Sinus
(gulf) have been somewhat fancifully
used to denote smaller dark areas.
Under the broad title craters have
been grouped many formations, so dif-
ferent from one another that seleno-
graphers now divide them into walled
plains, _mountain-rings, _ring-plains,
crater-plains, craters, craterlets, crater-
pits, crater-cones, and depressions—
names expressive enough of more or
less circular ramparts varying in size
from 150 miles in diameter to a few
hundred yards, and in depth, or height
of walls, ranging from 18,000 feet down-
wards. In some parts of the lunar sur-
face these literally swarm, crossing and
interrupting one another, smaller ones
perched on the edge or sides of larger
ones, and, generally, in the flat bottom
of the larger ones several of the smaller
kinds are sure to be seen. Any moder-
ately good telescope will show the larger
kinds. Besides these there are the true
mountain ranges, called the Lunar Alps,
Apennines, Cordilleras, &c., similar in
most respects to terrestrial chains. These range
from 20,000 feet in height downwards, and where
their profile is seen at the edge of the lunar dise
they form distinct notches. The lunar rills (so
named by Schriter, their discoverer, in 1787) are
clefts or cracks in the surface, passing often right
through mountains and valleys, sometimes for a
distance of 300 miles, their breadth being relatively
so small as to give them the appearance of true
cracks.
Most striking of all lunar appearances are the
broad white rays, which diverge from some of the
principal lunar ring-plains. Those proceeding from
Tycho extend, in one case at least, nearly 2000
| miles, There are hundreds of them, and they
MOON
‘
299
range from 10 to 20 miles broad. They pass right
on over mountains
of the surface at all points, but distinct from
it in brightness. There are seven principal systems
of these inexplicable streaks.
To denote the relative brightness of lunar forma-
tions a scale is used, the brightest being called
10°, and the less bright 9°, 8°, &e., down to 0°.
These formations are variously named. The
incipal mountain ranges have been named after
Shoes. on the earth. e craters are named after
astronomers or philosophers, as Tycho, Plato, Aris-
totle, &c. The different parts of these, and smaller
objects near them, are known by Greek or Roman
letters, attached to the name of the chief object.
Greek letters are used for peaks and hills, Roman
letters for craters and depressions. Capital letters
imply measured objects. For rills the letters
¢, = v, x9, and 7 are chiefly used. But there
are occasional variations from rules, as in the
case of most astronomical ah eiggnep st Pes
These peculiar appearances, so different m
those around us on the earth, have much puzzled
astronomers. The usual t attributes them to
voleanic action, combined with shrinkage of the
lunar globe on nee oe A recent theory explains
them as the result of slow glaciation, the craters
being lakes, around whose margins the quickly
vapour from their surfaces has fallen
in mountains of ice. The craters are vents for
water-vapour, and their cones masses of ice. To:
this t! the extreme rarity of the lunar atmo-
here is favourable, buat it cannot be said, any more
alee tts release theory, to mideh all the ditiealtion
me thoroughly satisfactory explanation has as yet
n pro) ;
The total amount of light given by the full
moon is probably less than yyssy9th of the sun, Its
aout a age intensity, however, has admitted of
sev ne pho’ hs being taken, notably by
Rutherford of New York, and recently by the
fine telescope of the Lick Observatory, California.
Harvest-moon.—At or about the time of har-
vest in the north temperate zone the sun in its
annual course is approaching the celestial equator,
which it crosses from north to south on September
22. On that date it sets close to the exact western
= of the horizon. If it happens to be then also
ll moon, the moon rises that evening as the sun
sets, and is at its rising opposite the sun, or close
to the exact eastern point of the horizon. Thus it
begins to give light at sunset, and continues to do
so until sunrise, when it sets opposite to the sun,
just as the latter rises. This arrangement holds
good without any great menue for several days, so
that there is practically no darkness, especially if
the weather fine. The full moon which thus
illumines the autumn niglits is called the Aarvest-
moon. No other full moon in the year rises for so
many days in succession so soon after sunset. If
the date of full moon be not exactly September 22,
still the same phenomena occur, though not with
the same ection, and the longer the interval
hetween full moon and that date the less perfect
they This is because the full moon, being on
are.
September 22, coincides with the time when the
moon (being at full moon necessarily opposite the
sun) is crossing the celestial equator from south to
north, at which time its northward motion is most
a ol The position of any body on the Celestial
Sp (q.v.) determines the time of its rising at
any place in our latitudes, and, if that tion be
altered, the time of rising will be altered also. If
it moves southward the moon will tend to rise /ater,
if it moves northward it will tend to rise earlier.
We have seen that the moon’s northward motion is
most rapid when crossing the equator. Hence it
has then a strong tendency to rise earlier each
a ae partaking of the 4
evening. But its motion towards the east (or
downwards, when it is on the eastern horizon ) gives
it a tendency to rise later. These opposite tend-
encies, in the case of the September full moon,
—— a balance, if the observer be in the lati-
tude of northern Europe. Therefore the moon in
that case rises only a few minutes later each even-
ing for about a week. Farther north, about lat.
644°, a balance is attained, and for two evenings
the moon rises at the same time. Still farther
north it rises earlier the second evening. But the
most generally observed phenomena are of course
those to be seen between latitudes 40° and 60°,
which consist in the nearly full moon rising but
little after sunset for several aye in succession.
In these latitudes of the southern hemisphere
March enjoys the benefit of the harvest-moon, as
September does in the north. And as celestial
appearances are reversed to observers in different
hemispheres, it follows that, when we have most
benefit from the full moon, our neighbours at the
antipodes have least.
The best charts of the moon’s surface are those by
Lohrmann, Beer, and Midler, Schmidt of Athens (a
gigantic work), and the Committee of the British Associ-
ation. For further information readers may consult Der
Mond, by Beer and Miidler (1837); The Moon, by Ed.
Neison (1876); The Moon, by Nasmyth and Carpenter
(1874; new ed. 1885); and for the lunar theory, popu-
larly treated, Airy’s Gravitation, and Sir J. Herschel’s
Outlines of Astronomy.
Superstitions regarding the Moon.—The moon was
anciently an object of worship, and even in the
17th century she was supposed by the common
ple of England to exercise great influence over
uman affairs. The times for killing animals for
food, gathering herbs, cutting down wood for fuel,
sowing of various kinds, were all regulated
by the ae of the moon, and these set periods
were considered to be a necessary part of practical
knowledge, and ignorance or neglect of them
to be infallibly productive of loss. There were
similarly defined periods for taking particular
medicines and. seems the cure of particular
diseases. Many such superstitions prevailed till
a recent period in the Highlands of Scotland,
favourable or unfavourable consequences from any
occurrence being predicted according to the age
of the moon at the time it happened. Through-
out Scotland the waning moon was considered to
have an evil influence, and full or new moon to
be the most auspicious season for commencing any
enterprise. The same opinion was held in Scandi-
navia and Germany, and the history of all nations
teems with similar superstitions. The special influ-
ence of the moon on persons of weak or wavering
reason is preserved in our words /wnatic and moon-
struck, and is still an article of popular belief.
Amongst mere superstitions must ie ranked the
old and widesp belief that the changes of the
moon influence the weather on the earth, bringing
about fair or rainy, settled or stormy weather; so
that from the moon’s periods predictions as to tlie
weather may be made. The only known weather
influence is a slight but appreciable tendency to
dispersion of clouds shortly after full moon. See
the article ECLIPSEs.
In the Edda we read that ‘Mundilféri had two
children—a son, MAni (‘moon’), and a daughter, S61
(*sun’);’ and in German the moon is masculine and
the sun feminine to this day. It was the same in
Anglo-Saxon, although modern English has in this
matter followed the classic mythology, in which
Phebus and Sol are gods and Selene, Luna, and
Diana are goddesses ; Grimm (Deutsche Mythologie,
. 666) quotes an old invocation to the ‘New
Moon, gracious lord’ (Neuer Mon, Holder Herr),
for inerease of wealth; and down to recent times
300 MOON
the German people were fond of speaking of ‘ Frau
Sonne’ and ‘Herr Mond’ (‘lady sun’ and ‘lord
moon’). The same inversion (as it appears to
us) of gender is found among the Lithuanians and
Arabians, and even the ancient Mexican Meztle
(‘moon’) was masculine. Among the Slavs, ac-
cording to Grimm, the moon is masculine, a star
feminine, and the sun neuter. See the Rev.
T. Harley's Moon-lore (1886), itself containing a
good bibliography.
Moon, viel ae OF THE, —— Layne
mysterious in African geography since the
dave of Ptolemy, who indicated them as contain-
ing the sources of the Nile. Their exact position
was not known; they were generally figured on
medieval maps as a high range crossing the entire
continent from Abyssinia to the Gulf of Guinea.
As modern enterprise has opened up the interior of
Africa, different mountain-chains and peaks have
been identified as Ptolemy’s Mountains of the
Moon—for instance, the mountains of Abyssinia,
the groups of Kenia and Kilima-Njaro, the so-called
Kong (4q.v.) Mountains inland m the Gulf of
Guinea, and finally Mr Stanley’s Ruwenzori and
its fellows.
Moonshiners, « term in popular use in
America, especially in the south-eastern states, for
illicit distillers of whisky.
Moonstone. See Fevspar.
Moonwort ( Botrychium lunaria), an interest-
ing fern, native of Britain, and widely distributed
over northern Europe, penetrating to within the
Arctic regions and Asia, and along with the few
other species of which the a? is composed
appearing also in North America. The plant is of
simple structure, consisting of a root-stock bearin
a single erect stem from 3 to 6 inches high.
single pinnate leaf springs from the stem about
mii Se one root to apex, the segments being half-
moon shaped, pale green, and of thick consistence.
The fructification is developed on a branched spike,
her ong in outline, from 1 to 2 inches long, the
ranches all turning to one side. B.. virginicum,
the oe et growing species, is named the Rattle-
snake Fern, from the circumstance that it generally
abounds in places frequented by that reptile
Moor. See Boo, Peat, Waste LANps; and
for Grouse Moors and Moorfowl, see GROUSE.
Moore, Dr Joun, the author of Zeluco, was
born in December 1729 at Stirling, a minister's
son. Educated at Glasgow, he there studied medi-
cine, and there began to practise, with Smollett’s
and his own old master, Dr Gordon, for his partner,
after spending some time in Holland (as army sur-
geon), in London, and in Paris. As medical attend-
ant to the young Duke of Hamilton he travelled
six yoo on the Continent, and on his return
(1778) settled in London. His View of Society and
Manners in France, Switzerland, Germany, and
Italy (4 vols. 1779-81) was well received; but the
novel Zeluco (1789), which suggested Byron’s Childe
Harold, is to-day the least forgotten of his works.
These include two other novels, Medical Sketches,
and a couple of books on the French Revolution.
Dr Moore died at Richmond, 2Ist January 1802,
See the Memoir by Dr R. Anderson prefixed to his
Complete Works (7 vols. 1820).
Moore, Str Joun, English general, born at
G w, 13th November 1761, was eldest. son
of a. He entered the army as
ensign when a fifteen, and first distinguished
himself in the descent — Corsica (1794); he
served the West Indies (1796), in Ireland
in
during the rebellion of 1798, and in Holland
in 1799. He was in Egypt in 1801 with the
army under Abercromby, and obtained the Order
— in Sicily St ya 1808 he was ne
with @ corps y men to strengthen
English army in the Peninsula. He arrived in
instructions
vancing by Valladolid to unite himself with the
Spanish general Romana, and threaten the com-
munications between Madrid and France. But
the apathy of the Spaniards, the successes of the
French in various parts of the Peninsula, and,
above all, the folly and intrigues of his own country-
men, soon pl him in a critical position. Yet
he had determined to make a bold advance from
Salamanca to attack Soult when the news reached
him that Madrid had fallen, and that Napoleon
was marching to crush him at the head of 70,000
men. Moore's forces amounted to only 25,000
men, and he was consequently forced to retreat.
In December he began a disastrous mareh from
Astorga to Corufia, a route of near 250 miles,
through a desolate and mountainous country, made
almost impassable by snow and rain, and harassed
by the enemy. The soldiers suffered intolerable
hardships, and arrived at Corufia in a very dis-
tressed state. It was impossible to embark with-
out fighting, and Soult was in readiness to attack
as soon as the troops should begin to embark.
The battle was mainly one of infantry, for the
cavalry after destroying their horses had gone on
board, and the bulk of the artillery, for which the
ga was not adapted, had also withdrawn.
nm the 16th January 1809 the French came on in
four strong columns. A desperate battle ensued.
While pagent the 42d Regiment in a brilliant
c in an early stage of the action, Moore was
struck by a cannon-ball on the left shoulder and
died in the moment of victory. The French were
defeated with the loss of 2000 men; and the dead
leader was buried at night just before the embark-
ation of his troops. The British army in this
expedition lost their magazines and 6000 soldiers,
Soult, with a noble feeling of respect for his valour,
raised a monument to Moore's memory on the field
of battle, and at home another was erected in St
Paul’s Cathedral. His uncommon caneeeay was
prema | the purest virtue and governed by a
disinteres' patriotism, while a certain heroie
eageeenn f of et and the singular beauty fa
is person powe' impressed every one w
came near Rn Wolfe's nee on the burial of
Sir John Moore have helped to keep his memo
green. See the Life by his brother (2 vols, 1834),
and Napier’s Peninsular War (vol. i.).
Moore, THoMAs, the ‘ Bard of Erin,’ was born
at 12 ne Street, Dublin, on 28th May 1779,
the son of a Catholic grocer. From the school
where Sheridan had been educated, and where he
himself became a ‘determined rhymer,’ he passed
in 1794 to Trinity College, and thence, after taking
his B.A., ag re in 1799 to London to k
terms at the Middle Temple. He brought wi
him a translation of Anacreon, which came out in
1800, dedicated to the Prince of Wales, his
then, but the butt from 1813 of his satire. It
proved a hit, and, with his musical talent,
ured him admission to the best society. In
801 followed the Poetical Works of the late Thomas
Little, whose pretty erotics were a deal
blamed, and ve ny 4 read. In 1803,
Lord Moira’s influence, he was appointed
of the Admiralty court at Bermuda. He went
there to arrange for a deputy, and, after a tour in
won SS —————E—E—E————=——<———<<<——
MOOREA
MOORS 301
the States and in Canada, returned in a twelve-
month to England—the democratic notions of his
Dublin days toned lg his transatlantic
experience. For his Odes Epistles (1806) he
was sharply taken to task in the Zdinburgh. The
bulletless duel with Jeffrey was the consequence,
over which Byron made so merry, but which left
the non-combatants fast friends for life. In 1811
he married an actress, good Bessy Dyke (1793-
1865), and, after living successively in Leicester-
shire, in Derbyshire, and at Hornsey near London,
in 1817 they settled at Sloperton Cot , near
Bowood, Lord Lansdowne’s seat, in Wiltshire.
Meanwhile, among other fugitive pieces, Moore
had published the earlier of the [rish Melodies (ten
parts, 1807-34) and The neeerey Post-bag (1812),
whose tropes at once glittered and stung. Now he
became anxious to emulate his brother-poets, who
published in quartos. He fixed on an oriental
subject, and in 1817 the long-expected Lalla Rookh
appeared, dazzling as a firefly; and the whole
English world applauded. After the publication
he went with Rogers to Paris, and there wrote The
Fudge Family (1818). For Lalla Rookh the Long-
mans paid him 3000 guineas; the Irish Melodies
brought in £500 a year; but Moore had ‘a generous
contempt for money;’ and about this time his
Bermuda deputy embezzled £6000. Moore’s liability
was redu by compromise to £1000, which he
ultimately paid by his pen; but in 1819, to avoid
arrest, he went to Italy with Lord John Russell.
He spent five days at Venice with Byron (his friend
since 1811), went on with Chantrey to Rome, and
then with his family fixed his abode in Paris, where
he wrote The Loves of the A (1823) and a prose
romance, The Epicurean (1827). He returned in
1822 to Sloperton ; and here, except for occasional
‘junketings’ to London, Scotland, and elsewhere,
he his last thirty years. To those years
belong the Memoirs of Captain Rock (1824), the
History of Ireland (1827), and the Lives of Sheri-
dan (1825), Byron (q.v., 1830), and Lord Edward
Fi (1831). In 1835 he received a ———
of . but his last days were clouded by
sorrow and suffering—the loss of his two sons, and
the decay of his mental faculties. ‘I am sinking,’
he writes to Rogers in 1847, ‘ into a mere vegetable.’
He died on 25th February 1852, and was buried in
Bromham Churehyard.
Moore in his lifetime was popular as only Byron ;
bnt to-day he ranks far below Wordsworth, Shelley,
Keats. His muse was a gled dancing-girl—
light, ay, graceful, but soulless. The Loves of the
Angels, his most ambitious effort, falls beneath
even the Byronie standard ; Lalla Rookh, in, is
brilliant, but fatiguing. He is best in his lyrics;
and even in them there is a certain sameness, with
their eternal ‘love of one’s country, of the wine of
other countries, and of the women of all countries.’
See his Memoirs, Journal, and Ci dence,
by Lord John Russell (8 vols. 1852-56) ;
Valtat, Thomas Moore, sa Vie et Guvres ( Paris, 1886).
Moorea, See Eimeo.
Moor-hen. See WATER-HEN.
Moor Park. See Farnuam.
Moors, a vague ethnographical expression
applied to le whose hieal frontiers have
been constantly shifting. First given (Mauri) to
the inhabitants of the kingdom and subsequent
Roman province of Mauretania, comprising within
variable limits the whole country west of Numidia,
now ealled Algeria and Morocco, later on it in-
eluded the inhabitants of the whole of Africa north
of the Sahara and Atlas from Tripoli westwards.
Here for some three centuries flourished the great
African ebureh of Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augus-
tine ; in 429 the country was overrun by the Arian
Vandals from Spain, but was recovered for the
Byzantine emperors by Belisarius (533-36) ; invaded
ty the Arabs in 647, it was speedily subdued, and
1€ Moors embraced Mohammedanism as quickly as
they had embraced Christianity, and. have clung
to it ever since. From 1830 these countries have
been vag. 4 occupied and colonised by the
French, with the exception of Tripoli and Morocco.
The Arab slave-dealers and mixed Arab and Negro
clans to the south are sometimes called the Moors
of the western Soudan. In early or prehistoric times
it is possible that the inhabitants north of the Atlas
and of southern Spain, the builders of the mega-
lithic monuments, may have been of the same race
in both continents.
Whether in a ove or in Morocco the Moors can-
not be considered as a pure race. Some authorities
take them as nearly equivalent to the Berbers, even
the nomad tribes; others restrict the name to an
admixture of Arab blood, and call Moors only the
more settled Arabic-speaking population of the
towns. According to some the Arabic stock is
the Semitic element, the Berber or native is the
Hamitie element in the resultant Moor. Though
still numerous, the town Moors seem destined to
dwindle before the European colonists. The more
nomad Berber or Kabyle tribes will probably
maintain their ground.
In European history the term is a in a
general way to the inhabitants of the Barbary
states under Turkish rule, and to the actual in-
habitants of Morocco, but in a special sense to the
Arab and Berber by sehr and occupants of Spain
from 711 to 1492. ithin twenty years from their
first landing — ye had bps the whole
in except sturias, got possession 0
Narbonnaise (719), had-raided into France, till
finally repulsed by Charles Martel near Tours in
732. For a short time one calif ruled the whole of
Islam from beyond ad to the Atlantic. When
in 750 the Abbaside califs overthrew the Ommiades
(Califs), a descendant of the latter, Abdurrahman
L., escaped and founded the califate of the West at
Cordova in 755. His dynasty lasted till the degrada-
tion of Hashim III. in 1031. Then after a period of
anarchy the Almoravides ( Berbers) su ed from
1086 to 1147; the Almohades followed from 1130
to 1232. The greater part of Spain had now been
lost, but the Beni-Nasr held Granada from 1232 to
1492. The chief steps of the Spanish re-conquest
are the taking of Toledo, 1085; Saragossa, 1118 ;
Valencia, Jaime I. of Aragon, 1238; Seville,
1248; Murcia, 1260; Granada, 1492. The first of
these invaders of Spain were mainly of Arab blood,
and brought with them capacities of civilisation.
From the 8th to the close of the 11th centuries
the Spanish Moors in architecture, literature,
science, industry, manufacture, and iculture
were far in advance of any northern European
race of that date; no other people in western
Europe could have then built a cathedral like the
mosque of Cordova (784-793) ; in corr 6 and in
the terms of mathematical and astronomical science
they have left their impress on most of the lan-
guages of western Europe. Only in religion were
they inferior, and even here their toleration of the
Christians, though contemptuous, contrasts favour-
ably with that of the Christians towards the Moors
after the conquest. But after the 12th and 13th
centuries the conditions were reversed. The Moors
had no reserve of civilisation or of increasing
resources to fall back upon in northern Africa ;
they were degenerating, while behind Christian
Spain was a Europe ever growing more civilised
and richer in resources of every kind. The con-
quest was retarded the division and intestine
struggles of the Christian kingdoms; but these
same causes told far more fatally on the Moors.
302 MOORSHEDABAD
MORAVIA
There were never more than five or six separate
Christian kingdoms; bat the Moorish states were
at times divided among over twenty little kings,
and every dynasty in succession fell to pieces
throngh intestine strife. The latest researches,
especially in numismatics, are continually adding
fresh proofs of this disunion, and augmenting the
number of petty independent princes or chiefs.
The advance of the Turks westward after the taking
of Constantinople (1453) was too late to help their
co-religionists in Spain. Barbarossa established
himself in Barbary in 1518; but he, failed at
Malta in 1551 and 1565, and after the battle of
Lepanto (1571), however much the Moors might
harass Spain, there was no real danger of a re-
conquest, Their piratical efforts only served to
raise a hatred between two chivalrous races who
had once ted each other and to carry it to
the bitterest fanaticism.
See the articles CaLirs, ALMORAVIDES, ALMAHADES,
Averria, "ANDALUsIA, Corpova, GraNADA, Morocco,
Sparx, Tunis; Los Beréhberes en la Peninsula, by F. M.
Tubino ( Madrid, 1876); The History of the Mohammedan
vols. 3d ed. Leyden, 1881); De causis cur Moham-
medanorum cultura, &c., by R. P. A, Dozy (1869); The
Moors in Spain, by Stanley Lane-Poole (Lond. 1887) ;
Libro de Agricultura, by Abou Zacaria (2 vols. Seville
and Madrid. And see ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE.
Moorshedabad. See Mursuimpasap,
Mooruk, See Cassowary.
Moose. See Evk.
Moosonee, a Canadian district south of Hudson
Bay, and touching Lake Superior and Lake
Winnipeg. It is the see of an Anglican bishop.
Moplas, a race of Southern India, mainly near
the Malabar coast, who as fanatical Mohammedans
have caused trouble by outbreaks. Descended from
the old Arab traders, they number about 700,000.
Moquis. See PvEBLOs.
Moradabad, « town of British India, capital
of a district, and centre of a large trade in country
oe, stands on the Ramganga, 100 miles E. by
. of Delhi. It is noted for its metal-work.
Pop., with cantonment (1891), 72,921.
Moraine. The masses of rock which, by
atmospheric action, are separated from the moun-
tains bounding the valleys along which glaciers
flow, find a temporary resting-place on the surface
of the ice, at the margin of the glacier, and are
carried along with it, but so slowly that they form
a continuous line along each margin. These lines
of debris are called lateral moraines. When two
glaciers unite, the two inner moraines unite also
and form one large trail in the middle of the trunk
lacier, and this is called a medial moraine. A
arge portion.of these rocky fragments at length
reach the end of the glacier, and here the melting
ice leaves it as a huge mound, which is known as
a terminal moraine, The rock-debris, sand, clay,
gravel, &c., which are dragged forward underneath
the ice, are called ground-moraines, or moraines
profondes. See GLACIERS, BOULDER-CLAY.
Moralities. See Mysreries.
Moral Philosophy. See Eruics.
Morano, a city of Southern Italy, built on a
hill in a wild neighbourhood, 37 miles NNW. of
Cosenza. Pop. 8259.
Morar. GWALIoR.
Morat (Ger. Murten), a town of 2364 inhabit-
ants, in the Swiss canton of Freiburg, 12 miles
ESE. of Neuchitel and 48 by rail NNE. of
Lausanne, lies on the Lake of Morat (3) by 2
pe feet above erie: Here, = 22d
une the Swiss gained a victory over Charles
the Bold, Duke of Bagenay.
Morata, OLyMriA, a 16th-century scholar, was
born at Ferrara in 1526, the daughter of the Bg
Fulvio Pellegrino Morato (who died in 1547).
Already in her sixteenth year she gave public
lectures in her native city; but, saving 1548
married the German tan Andreas Grundler,
she followed him to Germany and ea
testant. Driven from place to place by the religi-
ous wars, and redu to B ag nl she died at
Heidelberg, 26th October 1555, leaving numerous
Latin and Greek ms, mainly on religious sub-
ict air ee Le Ae Se ee
ialogues, letters, Kc, e Monograp
Bonnet (4th ed. Paris, 1865).
Moratin, LEANDRO FERNANDEZ DE, comic
poet, was born at Madrid, March 10, 1760, and
was the son of a poet. In 1790 appeared his first
and best comedy, Li Viejo y la Nina; it was
followed by La Comedia nuova, El Baron, La
Mogigata, and El si delas Nifias. Godoy
several ecclesiastical benefices upon him; Joseph
Bonaparte made him chief royal librarian; but
after 1814 he took refuge in Paris, He died in
Paris, June 21, 1828.
Morava. See MARCH (river).
Moravia (Ger. Méhren), a crown-land of the
Austrian empire, is bounded NE. by Silesia, SE.
by Hungary, S. by Lower Austria, and NW.
Bohemia. Area, 8583 sq. miles; pop. (1870)
2,017,274; (1890) 2,276,870. It is enclosed on all
ides by mountains, ted from Silesia
sid — separa’
by the Sudetes, from Bohemia by the Moravian
tein, and from Hungary by the Carpathian Moun-
tains ; while branches of these various chains inter-
sect the whole country except in the south, where
there are extensive plains rising to about 800 feet.
Numerous small rivers flow south-east, and fall
into the March or Morava, from which the country
derives its name, and which joins the Danube.
The Oder rises among the mountains on the north.
east, and soon leaves the country. Moravia is
essentially an agricultural ion, On the whole
the soil is rich, 56 per cent. being cultivated and 14
meadows and yrass, and the temperature is more
genial than in other Euro) countries lying on
the same parallel. The principal crops are rye and
oats; then come barley, wheat, potatoes, beet-root,
leguminous plants, and many fruits and vegetables.
The breeding of all the usual varieties of domestic
animals is actively prosecuted. The principal
mineral products are coal and iron, with some
graphite. The principal branches of industry are
the manufacture of woollen, linen, and cotton
goods, and beet-root sugar. Silk-weaving, lace-
making, iron-founding, tanning, brewing, dis-
tilling, and the manufacture of ‘chemicals, glass,
paper, tobacco, and furniture also flourish. Briimn
(q.v.), the capital, is the chief emporium for the
manufactures, and Olmiitz (q.v.) the ae 3p
cattle-mart. The former university at Olmiitz is
now represented by a theological faculty, and by a
large technical institute at Briinn. The bers te
(95 per cent.) of the people belong to the Church
of Rome. By nationality 70 per cent. are Slavs
(Czechs and Moravians) and 29 per cent. Ger-
mans,
Moravia was anciently occupied by the Quadi,
who were succeeded r the 5th century
the Rugii, the Heruli, and the Longobardi, an
finally in the 6th century by the Slavonians.
Charlemagne brought the people under nominal
subjection, Christianity was first established in
the middle of the 9th century by Cyril (av) and
Methodius. In 871 its ruler was made a duke by
= \)
MORAVIA
MORAVIANS 303
the em
po their country with his own. From 1029 it
was i with Bohemia, and at the close of
the century was erected into a margraviate, and
declared a fief of Bohemia, to be held from the
erown by the younger branches of the royal house.
On the death of Lewis II. at the battle of Mohacz
in 1526, Moravia, with all the other Bohemian
lands, fell to Austria, in accordance with a pre-
existing compact of succession between the reign-
ing dynasties. In 1849 it was formally separated
from Bohemia, and declared a distinct province
and crown-land. See Dudik, Méhrens allgemeine
Geschichte (11 vols. 1860-86).
Moravians, otherwise known as Herrnhuters,
The Church of the Brethren, or The Unity of the
Brethren, are a small body of Protestants who claim
to be the modern representatives of the ancient
church of the Bohemian Brethren (see BOHEMIA),
or Unitas Fratrum, which first took a definite shape
in 1467, when the followers of Peter of Chelezicky,
a pious layman and a contemporary of Huss,
formed themselves into a separate ecclesiastical
aren a on the apostolic model. They held
that all Christians should lay aside distinctions of
rank, abstain from mili service and the use of
oaths, and live in literal accordance with the
teaching of Christ. These views forced them to
keep from both sections of the Hussites
proper, and, thongh there may have been Wal-
denses amongst them, they owed very little at any
period of their history to these crypto-Protestants.
At the of 1467 three elders, a bishop, and
two presbyters were chosen by lot, and received
ordination probably from a Waldensian priest,
though the first beginnings of the church are
wrapped in a mist of confused traditions and
mniraculous tales. Under the influence of Lucas
of Prague, a man of strong character and t
lite’ talent, the Brethren in 1494 abandoned
their levelling ideas, but maintained their stern
and rigid discipline, and by the beginning of the
16th century there were between 300 and 400
churches in the Unity. They had much friendly
intercourse with Luther, but stood out for the
celibacy of the clergy, the doctrine of works, and
con ional purism, For a time, however, the
Unity was under the influence of Lutheran ideas,
though the Brethren had naturally a much stronger
sympathy with Calvinism. From the commence-
ment of its history times of persecution alternated
with Se iy of zenoee: and many - ae,
especially in the ear of the 16th century,
were forced to flee 4 Poland and Prussia, In
1570 the Polish branch united with the Reformed
Church, and, though in 1600 the Bohemian and
Moravian branches included two-thirds of the
lation and most of the nobility, the Brethren
ving got mixed up with the revolution which
ended so disastrously in 1620, by 1627 the church
was entirely broken up and destroyed. In 1722
some of the Moravian descendants of the suppressed
Unity, who had beev roused by the preaching of a
“od ac ay Christian David, a converted Roman
Catholic, resolved to emigrate, and were allowed
by the pious young Count Zinzendorf (1700-60) to
settle on a part of his property in Saxony, close to
the Austrian frontier. The first company consisted
of two brothers, their wives, four children, two
ions, and David, but these were soon joined by
other emigrants from Moravia and Bohemia, and
by pious and fanatical people of various nationali-
ties. Five years later the settlers at Herrnhut
‘the Lord's Keeping’) amounted to over three
undred, They at first attended the parish church,
but soon to quarrel among themselves and
with the Lutheran pastor, an pted wild and
extravagant views. Owing to the exertions of
rar
; he subdued the Bohemians and incor-*
Zinzendorf peace was restored, and the settlers
formed themselves into a society in communion
with the Lutheran Church, and drew up certain
rules for their guidance in all matters of religion
and conduet, the chief of these being that all in
Herrnhut should live in love with all their brethren
and with all the cliildren of God in all religions.
Twelve elders were chosen to be the teachers and
overseers of the community, and these came to be
assisted afterwards by male and female ‘labourers’
of all sorts, including ‘inspectors’ of spiritual
nuisances, and even of the work done and the
goods sold by the Brethren. August 13th of this
year (1727) is still celebrated as the spiritual birth-
day of the renewed church. By 1733 the Society
had become a distinet church, and in 1735 the first
bishop was elected and was ordained by Jablonski,
court chaplain in Berlin, one of the two surviving
guardians of the precious apostolical succession,
which had been handed down by Amos Comenius,
the last bishop of the old Unity. Although the
Moravians imitated certain parts of the constitu-
tion and practice of the original church, much of
what was peculiar in their views and discipline is
to be traced to Zinzendorf, who was consecrated
bishop in 1737, and was their ‘advocate’ until his
death in 1760. The members of the community
were divided into ‘ bands,’ which met to exchange
experiences, to study the Bible, to sing and pray,
and there was a special division, still maintained,
into ‘choirs,’ which consisted respectively of un-
married men, unmarried women, married couples,
widowers, widows, boys and girls. Some ot: the
‘choirs’ had their own houses, where the members
lived under the direction of a brother or sister.
There were two daily services in which all joined,
and hourly prayer was kept up night and day by
certain members of the bands, while every morn-
ing the Brethren were supplied with a text as
a ‘watchword.’ Love-feasts were introduced by
Zinzendorf, and are still held, though the practice
of feet-washing before the communion has been
abandoned. All important. matters, even marriage,
were decided by an appeal to the ‘lot,’ and, as
Zinzendorf taught that death was a joyous journey
home, the departure of a brother or sister was
announced by blowing a trumpet, each ‘choir’
having its own peculiar air.
Various branch settlements were established in
Germany, America, and Britain, and in these the
Herrnhut arrangements were strictly carried out ;
but, when this was not possible, congregations
were set up, or societies were created, com-
posed of members of other Protestant churches,
as Brethren might belong to either of the three
‘tropes’—the Lutheran, the Reformed, or the
Moravian. These ‘diaspora’ societies contain
at present 70,000 members, and the German
‘diaspora’ mission is the most important part
of the home-work of the Brethren. Some of
the Moravians came into contact with the
Wesleys and Whitefield, and had considerable
influence on their views, and they were even
patronised by Anglican dignitaries, but partly
owing to m resentation and partly owing to
infadiclous conduct on the part of some of the
Brethren, their use of certain foolish hymns and
sensuous and tesque language in reference to
the wounds of Christ, bitter opposition was roused
against them both in England and the Continent.
Since the middle of the 18th century the home-
history of the Unity has been uneventful.
At present the executive government of the
church is vested in the Elders’ Conference of the
Unity, a clerical body composed partly of bishops
and partly of presbyters. ‘This conference carries
out the injunctions of the synod, the supreme
court of the church, which meets every ten
304 MORAY
MORE
years at Herrnhut, At the meeting in 1889, a
synodal resolution was on practically abolish-
ing the use of the lot. There are also provincial
synods and conferences, and each con tion is
governed by its own Elders’ Conference, which con-
sists of all the male and female ‘labourers.’ The
bishops, of whom there are eighteen, enjoy no
special privileges in the way of rank or ayer but
have the sole power of ordaining. The ordinary
church service is largely liturgical, and hymn-
singing has always been a prominent feature of
Moravian worship. The Moravians have no formal
confession, though at an early period they declared
their adhesion to the Augsburg Confession, and
the litany which is used on Easter Sunday and two
other Sundays is really a creed. The Unity is
divided into three provinces : the British, with 38
con
with 27 congregations and 8374 members; and
the American, with 66 congregations and 17,848
members. At Ayr, in Scotland (the birthplace
of James Montgomery), there is a congregation
with 65 members. The Moravian Church has
all along been distinguished for its missionary
and educational activity, and is r
the missionary church of Christendom. The first
mission, that to the West Indian slaves, was
started in 1732, and soon after stations were estab-
lished in Greenland (q.v.), Lapland, North and
South America, South Africa, and other countries,
and enthusiastic Brethren tried even to convert
the Gypsies. At present the church has 111
stations with 22 filials, served by 343 missionaries
and 1659 native assistants, who minister to 29,971
communicants and 55,835 baptised adults, and
carry on 232 schools with 19,794 scholars. The
Moravians have also had an important leper mis-
sion in Jerusalem since 1867. The actual annual
expenditure is about £50,000. The Brethren have
12 boarding and 13 day schools in Britain, with
1810 pupils; 20 boarding and 22 day schools in
Germany, with 2769 gE and 4 schools in
America, with 500 pupils.
See histories of the Brethren by Holmes (1828),
Schweinitz (1885), Bost (1848; and Eng. trans.); and
in German by Gindely (1868) and Goll (1882); on
their constitution, by Seifferth (1866); on their missions,
Thompson ( 1883). and tej tinny Reichel (1874);
‘oravi s ls w Cust ; besid
numerous German lives of Zinzendorf (1772-1888).
Moray, James Stuart, EArt or, by Pro-
testants called the ‘Good Regent, was the natural
son of James V. of Scotland, by Margaret, daughter
of John, fourth Lord Erskine, whom James in 1536
thought seriously of pding, even though she had
already wedded Sir Robert Douglas of hleven.
Born in the year 1531, in 1538 he was made prior
in commendam of St Andrews, in 1556 joined the
Reformers, and almost immediately became the
head of the Protestant party in Scotland. In 1561
he was despatched to ence to invite his half-
sister, Queen Mary, to return to her kingdom ;
and on her arrival he acted as her prime-minister
and chief adviser. In 1562 she created him Earl
of Mar; but that earldom being claimed by Lord
Erskine, the title of Earl of Moray was in 1564
conferred instead on Lord James, who had mean-
while put down the Border banditti, and defeated
Huntly at Corrichie, Strongly opposed to the
marri of Mary to Darnley (1565), he is falsely
alleged before it to have pte Aidan to seize the
pair near Lochleven; and after it he openly
sea to arms, but was easily put to flight by
t mem and forced to take refuge in England.
He did not return to Edinburgh till 10th March
1566, the day after Rizzio’s murder, to which he
was certainly privy. In April 1567 he withdrew
to France, but in the following August was recalled
F
tions and 5408 members; the German, -
dy the nobles in arms against , and found her
pri and oat ited
with the queen on the 15th he ‘ behaved himself
rather like a unto her than like a
forven ah Langside, near Gleagery (13th May 1608),
orces e, near G w 1 x
ots ls was ae oe on pass
conduct the ons
her. e then, as always, pe with =
vigour and prudence he succeeded in securing the
peace of the realm, and stem, | the affairs
ehureh, But on 20th January 1570 he was shot at
Linlithgow by James Hamilton of Bothweilhaugh,
who was ins thereto by Mary’s adherents,
and prompted also, it ve be, rsonal enmity.
He was buried in St Giles’s, Edinburgh. Of
ambition there can hardly be question ; still, the
most different estimates have been formed of his
character, according to men’s estimates of Mary.
+ gee QUEEN OF Scots, and works there
ci
Moray Firth, an indentation of the German
, on the north-east coast of Scotland, measur-
ing 21 miles across its entrance from Tarbat Ness,
in ies hire, to Stotfield Head, near Lossiemouth
in Elginshire, and 39 miles thence to the mouth of
the river Beauly. The name is sometimes applied
in a wider sense to the whole extent of sea between
Kinnaird’s Head in Aberdeenshire and
bay Head in Caithness.
Morayshire. See ELGINsuire.
Morbihan, a maritime department of France,
formed out of ancient Brittany, with the Atlantic
on the south and Finistére on the west. Area,
2624 sq. m.; pop. (1872) 490,352; (1891) 544,470.
The coast is much indented, and has a multitude
of bays, promontories, harbours, and islands. The
largest island is Belle Isle (q.v.). The department
forms a plateau of no great elevation, partly eul-
tivated, ly occupied by extensive tracts of
heath and marsh (see BRITTANY). Morbihan is
divided into the four arrondissements of Vannes,
L’Orient, Ploermel, and Pontivy. The chief town
is Vannes (q.v.), but the most populous is L’Orient
(g.v.). Many ancient customs still prevail in
orbihan ; communal proprietorship survives there,
and in some of the islands the cuvré,.assisted by a
council of notables, governs the people in a patri-
archal fashion.
Mordants. See Dyerna.
Mordaunt, Cuartes. See PETERBOROUGH,
Mordvins, a Finnic race, now however y
intermingled with the Russians, who dwell along
the middle course of the Volga, from the govern-
ment of Hace gy to that of Samara. They
number about 790,000,
More, Hannan, was the fourth daughter of
the village schoolmaster of Stapleton, near Bristol
where she was born in 1745. As a child she showed
ag eongce of apprehension and a good memory.
er sisters were sent to a school in Bristol, and
when the eldest was twenty-one they opened a
boarding-school there, to which Hannah went when
she was twelve years old. She wrote verses at an
early age, and 1762 - nape bg ni
after Happiness, a to rama. In 4 she
went on De visit to rman; and was introduced to
the Garricks, and by them to Dr Johnson, Burke,
Sir Joshua Reynolds, and the best literary society
of London. During this period of her life she wrote
two tales in verse, and two tragedies, Percy and
The Fatal Secret, both of which were acted. While
in London she went a great deal into society, but
gradually found this mode of life to be unsatis-
MORE
305
, and was led by her religious views to with-
draw from it. After the mblication of her Sacred
Dramas, she retired to Cowslip Green, a cot
near Bristol, where she did much to improve the
condition of the poor in her neighbourhood b
establishing schools for their instruction. She sti
continued her literary work, and helped by her
writings to raise the tone of English society. _
essays on The Manners of the Great and
ligion of the Fashionable World (a pamphlet on
illage Politics), her novel Celebs in Search of a
Wife, and a tract called The Shepherd of Salisbury
Plain are some of the most popular of her works.
In 1828 she moved from Barley Wood, a house
she had built for herself near Cowslip Green, and
took up her abode at Clifton, where she «ied, Sep-
tember 7, 1833. See the Life by Roberts (2 vols.
1838), and the short Life by Miss Yonge (1888).
More, HeENry, one of the Cambridge Platon-
ists, was born at Grantham in Lincolnshire in 1614.
He was educated at Eton and Christ’s College,
Cambridge, revolted early against the Calvinism
of his parents, Le gaye ayes entirely to Lars
hy, ially to Plato and more particularly
the Neo fatonist writers. He took his Bachelor's
degree in 1635, his Master’s in 1639, when he was
elected fellow of his college. Here he remained all
his life, nor could he be prevailed upon to accept
church preferment. He lived in an atmosphere of
unusual spiritual elevation, and exercised a great
influence on the young men that gathered round
him. Among his pupils was a young lady of family
who became Viscountess Conway, and at whose
seat of ley in Warwickshire More often stayed.
This lady’s sympathies with the mystic and the
occult extended also to Van Helmont and Valen-
tine Greatrakes, and she ultimately found rest
sraaenlly epee ma cade! earlier ration -—
ve place to ess mysticism an
ey enh Vis ro Rhea 9 works decline corre-
in value. He died vig ngen ed 1, 1687,
and was in the chapel of
Divine Di
ica in 1678.
ard Ward (1710), and
More, Str THoMAs, was born in Milk Street,
London, in 1478. His father, who rene,
became Sir John More, Justice of the Queen’s
sg re was a _ of character aes _
a sense ibility. ore
received his first instruction le Toite, then the basis
of all education, in one of the most famous English
schools of the time—that of St Anthony, Thread-
needle ogg London. In after-life More wrote
Latin with all the facility, though not with the
classical purity, of the best Italian scholars of
the Revival of ing. When he attained
his fifteenth year his father, after the fashion of
the time, placed him as page in the household of
Archbi Morton, to whose virtues More after-
wards paid the highest tribute in his Utopia.
Morton, on his side, formed the highest expecta-
tions of More, and was in the habit of sa ing to
the nobles who dined with him : ‘ This child here
waiting at the table, whosoever shall live to see it,
prove a marvellous man.’
By Morton More was sent to Oxford, where the
Renaissance was now represented by such men as
Colet and Linacre, both of whom had travelled
and studied in oe From Linacre he appears to
have learned Greek, and froin Colet he received a
spiritual impulse which gave a direction to his
entire life and opinions. From Colet More also
asap” ~ pc novel methods cf biblical interpreta-
tion which Colet himself may have learned from
Savonarola in Florence. By his acquaintance with
the classics therefore, and by his enlightened views
regarding the theology and the traditions of the
church, More was emphatically a man of the new
order. When, some time after leaving Oxford
erage Angee 1498); he first met Erasmus, both
at once felt that they were in entire sympathy on
all the deepest questions of the time.
It was his father’s wish that he should follow the
same profession as himself. Having completed his
legal studies, first at New Inn and afterwards at
Lincoln’s Inn, he acted for three years as reader in
Furnival’s Inn. It marks the religious basis of
More’s character that he spent the next four years
in the Charterhouse of London in ‘devotion and
prayer.’ By his marriage with the eldest daughter
of Mr Colte, a gentleman of Essex, he definitively
made choice of a secular career. During the last
= of Henry VII. he became under-sheriff of
mdon and member of parliament, in which latter
capacity he gave serious offence to the king by
rotesting against the excessive dowry demanded
Henry from parliament on the occasion of his
daughter's marriage with James IV. of Scotland.
On the accession of Henry VIII. (1509) a brilliant
tie Fos was opened up to More. It was Henry’s
ambition to surround himself with men of genius
and accomplishments ; and More had by this time
attained a European reputation in the world of
learning. As ambassador on two occasions to the
Low Countries he had also given proofs of his tact
and capacity for business. More, however, had
little inclination for public life, and it was only after
much hesitation that he took service under Henry.
Introduced to the king through Wolsey, he rose
rapidly in dignity in the royal favour. He
became Master of Requests (1514), Treasurer of
the Exchequer (1521), and Chancellor of the Duchy
of Lancaster (1525). For a time the king showed
him every mark of personal ee him
unexpected visits at his house in Che ‘to be
merry with him.’ Congratulated on these marks
of favour by his son-in-law Roper, More, who had
divined Henry’s real character from the first,
replied : ‘If my head would win him a castle in
France it should not fail to fo. As speaker of the
House of Commons (1523), More, on the occasion of
Wolsey’s demand for a subsidy of which the House
disapproved, received the great cardinal in a
manner that made him exclaim: ‘Would to God
you had been at Rome, Mr More, when I made
you speaker." More, however, still continued to
enjoy Henry's favour; and on two occasions was
sent on missions of importance to Francis L. and
the Emperor Charles V.
On the fall of Wolsey in 1529, More, against his
own strongest wish, was appointed to the office of
Lord Chancellor. Seeing from the first where the
king's divorcee from Catharine of Aragon must
eventually lead, he knew that only one fate could
be in store for himself. In the discharge of his
office he displayed a primitive virtue and simplicity,
being ‘ y to hear every man’s cause, poor and
rich, and keep no doors shut from them.’ The one
stain on his checuter as judge is the harshness of
his sentences for religious opinions. In passing
such sentences. More acted only in the spirit of the
time; but in his Utopia he had shown the clearest
conception of the sacredness of the individual con-
science. ‘The Utopians,’ he says, ‘put the un-
believers to no punishment, because that they be
persuaded that it is in no man’s power to believe
what he list.’ More sympathised with Colet and
Erasmus in their desire for a more rational theology
and for radical reform in the manners of the clergy,
but like them also he had no promptings to break
with the historic church. He could look only with
306 MOREA
MORECAMBE BAY
displeasure, therefore, on the successive steps which
led Henry to the final schism from Rome. In
1532 he ed the chancellorship, and retired
into private life. The disapproval of his — by
such a man as More could not be disregarded by
Henry, and various attempts were made to win
him over. Nothing, however, could shake the con-
stancy of More, and his death became a mere
matter of time and policy. The opportunity came
in 1534. In that year Henry was declared head of
the English Church; and More's steadfast refusal
to recognise any other head of the church than
the pope led to his sentence for high-treason
after a harsh imprisonment of more than a year.
The manner in which he met his death, while it is
one of the commonplaces of gy ree history,
strangely illustrates an inveterate habit of his
nature—the disposition to jest with the most
serious questions and on the most momentous
occasions. As, on 7th July 1535, he mounted the
scaffold he exclaimed to a stander-by: ‘Friend,
help me up; when I come down in I can shift
for myself ;’ and raising his head after it had been
laid on the block, he bade the executioner stay till
he had put aside his beard, ‘for,’ said he, * it never
committed treason.’
More was twice married; but only by his
first wife had he any family. In no life of More
should his daughter Margaret, the wife of his
biographer Roper, pass unmentioned. By her —
character and accomplishments, but above all by
her pious devotion to her father, she holds a place
among the illustrious women of English history.
One of the distinguished characters in the politi-
cal history of England, More also ranks high in the
history of its literature. By his Latin Utopia
1516; Eng. trans. 1556) he takes his place with
the most eminent humanists of the Renaissance,
and he was the one literary Englishman of the 16th
century well-known and admired on the Continent.
In his History of King Richard ITI. (1513) he pro-
duced what may be regarded as the first book in
classical English prose. In his personal character
More was the most attractive and lovable of men ;
and his ic end gave the crown to the moral
beauty of his life. From Erasmus’s sketch of him
we realise all his virtues and all his attractions ; but
realise also that he was a winning rather than an
pee rp figure. He had ingenuity rather than
insight ; not infrequently his wit passed into levity
and even into flippancy; and there was in his
character a strain of morbidness and superstition
which precluded him from the largest and famanest
views of men and things. In 1886 he was beatified.
See Roper, Life of Sir Thomas More ( first printed 1626);
Lord Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors; Mackintosh,
Lardner’s Cabinet Encyclopedia ; Seebohm, Oxford Re-
kere D. Nisard, Renaissance et Réforme ; Utopia by
pton (1895) and Michelis (1896) ; Lives by Father Brid-
gett (1891) and W. H. Hutton (1895); also works cited
at Henny VILL, Worsry, Erasmus, and FisHer.
Morea, the medieval and modern name for the
Peloponnesus (q.v.), in southern Greece, said to be
. derived from morus, ‘a mulberry ’—the outline of
the peninsula bearing a resemblance to the leaf of
that tree; others, however, such as Fallmerayer,
trace it back to the Slavonic more, ‘the sea,’
which nearly encircles the Morea. After being
overrun by the Goths and Vandals, it became a
prey. in the second half of the 8th century, to Slav
nvaders, who were gradually subdued and civilised
by the Byzantine emperors. In 1205 the peninsula
was conquered by the Normans, who formed its
western portion into a feudal gat yality subject
to the crown of Sicily. Michae Vill Paleolo
. reconquered the country after 1261; but the prin-
cipality of Achaia remained in the family of Ville-
hardouin till 1346, when the male line became
extinct. Various claimants now arose, and much
strife and confusion ensued, At length, in 1461,
the Diag! of the Morea fell into the hands.
of Turks, the remainder being held by —
who abandoned it in 1540. Venice recmqneee
the Morea in 1684, but again lost it to the
in 1714. For its later history, see GREECE.
M JeAN Victor, the test general of
the French itepabii, except Denaparees was born,
llth August 1761, at Morlaix, in Brittany, the
son of an advocate, and was sent to study law
at Rennes, On the outbreak of the Revolution
he was chosen to command the volunteers from
Rennes, served under Dumouriez in 1793, and dis-
played such military talent that in 1794 he was
made a ral of division ; he took an active part
in reducing Belgium and Holland under Pichegru
in that and the following year. When Pichegru
fell under suspicion, the Directory appointed
Moreau, in the spring of 1796, to the chief com-
mand on the Khine and Moselle. He crossed the
Rhine at Kehl, defeated Latour at Rastatt and
the Archduke Charles at Ettlingen, and drove the
Austrians back to the Danube. But, owing to the
defeat and retreat of Jourdan, he was ob to
make a desperate effort to regain the Rhine, which
he accomplished, notwithstanding great difticulties,
in a retreat that established his reputation for
a more than all his previous victories.
suspicion of participation in the plots of Pi
led to his bein rs ge of his command after
coup d'état of 18th Fructidor. In the ee
year (1798) he succeeded Schérer in the comm
of the army in we which was hard pressed by
the Russians and Austrians. By a retreat con-
ducted with consummate skill, he saved the French
army from destruction. The Directory, neverthe-
less, deprived him of the chief command, and gave
it to Joubert. But Moreau remained with the
army at Joubert’s request to be present at the
battle of Novi. Early in the engagement Joubert
was killed and Moreau in assumed the com-
mand, and conducted the defeated troops to France.
The noble disinterestedness of Moreau’s character,
his military talent, and his political moderation
induced the party of Sieyes, which overthrew the
Directory, to offer him the dictatorship of France ;
he declined it, but lent his assistance to Benes
on 18th Brumaire. Receiving the command of the
army of the Rhine, Moreau gained victory after
victory over the Austrians in the comet of
1800, drove them back behind the Inn, and at last
won the great and decisive battle of Hohenlinden
(q.v.). Astrong feeling of jealousy against Moreau
now took firm root in Napoleon’s mind. He
aceused his rival of participation in the plot of
Cadondal (q.v.) and Pichegru against his life, had
him arrested, brought to trial, and found guilty on
insufficient evidence, 9th June 1804. A sentence of
two years’ imprisonment was pronounced ; Napoleon
commuted it into banishment, and Moreau went to
America, and settled in New Jersey. There he
remained until 1813, when he accompanied the
emperor of Russia and the king of Prussia in the
march against Dresden. Fortunately for his fame
he did not live to invade his country, for here, as.
he stood talking to the Emperor Alexander on 27th
August, a French cannon-ball broke both his legs.
Amputation was ormed, but he died at Laun
in Bohemia, 2d tember 1813. He was buried
in St Petersburg. the studies by C. Jochmus.
an 1814) and A. de Beauchamp (trans. Lond.
814).
Morecambe Bay, 2n inlet of the Irish Sea,
separates the main sobaae of Lancashire from the
detached portion of Furness, It is about 10 miles.
in average breadth and 18 miles in length, and
MOREEN
MORGANATIC 307
receives the Leven, the Kent, and the Lune. The
depth of water in the bay is never great except in
the channels of the rivers.
Moreen. See Morre.
Morel ( Morchelia) is a genus of Discomycete
fungi, of which a number of species (/. esculenta,
deliviosa, bohemica, &c.) are commonly eaten fresh
and preserved in central and southern Europe. In
Germany the morel is so highly rized that, as it
often springs up where trees have been burned, the
forests were often d yed for its sake, till this
had to be restrained by severe penalties.
Morelia, capital of the Mexican state of Mich-
oacan, is siti , among gardens and orchards, in
a valley 6400 feet above sea-level, 115 miles (234
by rail) W. by N. of Mexico city. It contains a
cathedral and seminary, and manufactures cotton,
tobacco, and candles. Morelia, which from 1541
to 1828 was called Valladolid, was the birthplace
of the patriot Morelos, in whose honour the name
was , and of Iturbide, the short-lived
emperor of Mexico, Pop. 25,000.
Morella, a town of Spain, 80 miles N. by E.
of Valencia, was the stronghold of Cabrera, the
Carlist general, who scaled the castle on 25th
January 1839. ——- retaken in July 1840 by
More Pork. See PopArcus.
Moreri, Lovts (1643-80), was born in Provence,
took orders, and was for five years a noted preacher
at Lyons, where in 1674 he published Le Grand
Dictionnaire Historique, ou le Melange Curieux de
UHistoire sacrée et profane (in 1 vol. folio). In
1675 he went to Paris, and laboured at the expansion
and improvement of this important work till his
death. The best edition is the 20th (Paris, 1759),
in 10 vols. folio. It was translated into Spanish,
Italian, and English, Jeremy Collier adding to
this an cea or supplement filling a folio
volume. geographical and historical articles
have become obsolete, but the biographical part is
still valuable.
Moresnet, a smal! neutral territory between
Belgium and Prussia, 5 miles SW. of Aix-la-
Chapelle, and containing about 70 acres. There is
on it a village of 3000 inhabitants.
Moreton Bay, on the east coast of Queens-
land, Australia, is formed inside the islands of
Moreton and Stradbroke, the former 20 miles and
the latter 33 miles in length, and both about 5
miles in greatest breadth. The bay is 40 miles
long by 17 broad ; its sonthern half is dotted with
— . and oe es receives the six cams’
able streams, Nerang, Pimpama, Logan, Brisbane,
Pine, and Caboolture. The entrance at the north
end is practicable at all times for vessels of the
largest size; the entrance between Moreton and
Stradbroke Islands is narrow, and less safe.
Moreton-bay Chestnut, a genus of plants
so named because of the su resemblance in
form and qualities of the to the sweet chest-
nut of Eu um australe is the
only species of the genus known. It belongs to
the sub-order Papilionacee of the natural order
minosze, is a native of Queensland,
Australia. The tree grows to the height of from
70 to 100 feet, with spreading branches clothed
With pinnate leaves about afoot long. The flowers
_ t yellow, and red—are succeeded by
cylindrical pendulous pods of a bright brown
colour, 6 to 8 inches long generally, containing
about four seeds each, which are roundish but
somewhat flattened on one side. Though likened
the sweet chestnut, they are much inferior in
of flavour, being very rales eo but they
are somewhat improved when roasted.
Morgagni, G. B. (1682-1771), founder of patho-
logical anatomy and professor at eae See
ANATOMY.
Morgan, Mount. See Mount MorGay.
Morgan, Avcustus DE. See Dr Moraan.
Mo HENRY. See BUCCANEERS; also
J. C. Hutcheson, Sir Henry Morgan (1890), and
Howard Pyle, The Buccaneers and Marooners of
America (1891).
Morgan, Lapy, novelist, was born (Sydney
Owenson) in Dublin on the Christmas-day of 1780
or thereby—‘cold, false, erroneous, chronological
dates’ she protests against. Her father, a theatri-
eal manager, fell into difficulties ; and the clever,
bold, live y oung woman resolved to prevent the
fortunes 0 the family, first as governess, afterwards
as author. She had had ‘somewhat mysterious
relations’ with at least one admirer, Sir Charles
Ormsby, when in 1812 she was married off-hand to
Thomas Charles Morgan, M.D. (1783-1843), whom
the Lord-lieutenant knighted for the occasion.
For the next quarter of a century, excepting two
long visits to the Continent, the pair made Dublin
their home but in 1837 Lord Melbourne gave her
a pension of £300, and next year they removed to
London. _ Here she died on 16th April 1859, having
continued busy with her pen and her tongue to the
last. Her twenty-two works—rattling novels,
verse, travels, &c.—include St Clair (1804), The
Wild Irish Girl (1806), O’Donnel (1814), France
(1817), and Jtaly (1821). Her silly but not un-
amusing Memoirs were edited by Hepworth Dixon
(2 vols. 1862).
Morgan, Lewis Henry, an American archo-
logist, was born at Aurora, New York, 2lst
November 1818, graduated‘ at Union College in
1840, and became a lawyer at Rochester. He
served in the state assembly (1861) and senate
(1868), and died December 17, 1881. Morgan’s
earliest work, The League of the Iroquois (1851),
was the first account of the organisation and
government of an Indian tribe; but even more
valuable are his Systems of Consanguinity and
Affinity of the Human Family (1869), and his
treatise on Ancient Society (1877). He also pub-
lished Houses and House-life of the American
Aborigines (1881), and an account of the beaver.
Morgana, Fata. See Fara MorGcana.
Morganatic Marriage ( ipothans from Goth.
jan, ‘to limit ;’ perhaps Ger. morgengabe, a
gift given by the husband to the wife after
marriage ; Littré suggests morgen, ‘morning ’—a
wedding celebrated privately in the morning),
sometimes called Left-handed marriage, a lower
sort of matrimonial union, which as a civil engage-
ment is completely binding, but fails to confer on
the wife the title or fortune of her husband, or on
the children the full status of legitimacy or right
of succession. In Germany it came in very early
times to be accepted as a a that Ebenbiirtig-
keit, or equality of birth between husband and
wife, was essential to a proper marriage. The
lower nobility were of course not Kbenbirtig with
the higher nobility, nor the best born commoners
with the lower nobility. Now the rule only econ-
cerns reigning houses and the higher nobility. But
still members of German princely houses entering
into marriages of this kind with their inferiors in
rank (as frequently happens) contract merely mor-
ganatie unions. The marriage, for instance, in 1851
of Prince Alexander of Hesse to the Countess Julie
von Hauke, from which sprang. the Battenberg
family, was a morganatic one. andfasting (q.v.)
in Scotland had a certain resemblance. The Royal
Marriage Act, 12 Geo. III. chap. 11, reduces to a
position somewhat like that of morganatic unions
308 MORGARTEN
MORISCOS
every marriage in the 7,64 family of Great Britain
not previously approved by the sovereign-under the
Great Seal, provided the prince entering into it is
under twenty-five, and every such marriage of a
prince above twenty-five which is diengproved by
pees Thus, rages and most iography
wooks make no mention of the Duke of Cambridge's
marriage with Miss Farebrother, an actress (died
1890) ; their children bear the name of Fitzgeorge.
See Roya FAMILY.
Morgarten, 4 mountain slope on the east
margin of Lake Eyeri, in the canton of Zug,
Switzerland, is the place where 1400 meft of the
Swiss Forest Cantons—Schwyz, Uri, and Unter-
walden—won a great victory over 15,000 Austrians,
November 15, 1315.
Morghen, RAPHAEL SANZIO CAVALIERE, a
famous engraver, was born at Rapley: June 19,
1758. His first instructor was his father, a mediocre
engraver of German origin. But he gave such
indications of talent that at the age of twenty he
was sent to Rome to study under Volpato, then
considered the best engraver in Italy, whose
daughter he married in 1781. His. progress
was very marked, and even his first works
obtained t success. Raphael's celebrated
figures in the Vatican of ‘ Poetry ’ and ‘ Theology’
were ve yd by him in 1781; and he afterwards
produced a succession of engravings of a bese high
class from many of the masterpieces of art:
amongst these ‘may be mentioned Raphael’s
“Madonna della Seggiola’ and the ‘Transtigura-
tion ;’ the ‘Madonna del Sacco,’ by Andrea del
Sarto; the ‘Duke of Moncado,’ by Van Dyck;
and by his burin, Da Vinci's ‘Last Supper,’ not-
withstanding its decay, has been rendered with
such consummate skill as to lessen the regret felt
for the evanescent condition of the original work.
He accepted an invitation from the grand-duke to
reside at Florence, with a pension of 400 sendi and
a free residence, under condition of establishing a
school of engraving ; and he received marked atten-
tions from the Emperor Napoleon, to whom in 1811
he dedicated his engraving from the ‘ Transfigura-
tion,’ the grand result of sixteen years of labour.
He died at Florence, April 8, 1833." His Life, with a |
portrait and catalogue of his works to the number
of 254, was published by his pupil, Niccolo
Palmarino. The works of Morghen will always
hold a very prominent place in the history of
Engraving (q.v.). See Fred. R. Halsey, Raphael
Morghen’s Engraved Works (New York, 1885).
Morgue, a building in Paris, just behind the
cathedral of Notre Dime, where the dead bodies
of persons unknown, found either in the river
( e) or in the streets, are exposed to public
view for three days. The corpses are put under a
glass case, on sloping slabs of marble. When a
corpse is identified, it is handed over to the
relatives or friends of the deceased, on ply
of costs and dues; otherwise it is interred at the
expense of the city. The number of bodies yearly
exposed in the Morgue is about 300, of which five-
sixths are those of males.—There are morgues in
Berlin, and in Boston, New York, Brooklyn, Phila-
delphia, Chicago, and other American towns.
Moriah, Mount. See JERUSALEM.
Morier, JAmes, an English novelist, born in
1780, served from 1810 to 1816 at the court of
Persia, first as secretary of legation, subsequently
as envoy. In 1812 he published his Travels in
Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor to Constant-
tnople, and in 1818 A second Journey through
Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor. The minute
and familiar acquaintance he had acquired with the
manners and customs of the Persians was seen in
his highly-interesting series of eastern romances :
The Adventures of Hajji Baba of Is (3 vols,
1824), with its continuation, jji Baba in
England (2 vols. 1828); Zokrab (1882 ; Ayesha
(1834); and The Mirza (1841). His other novels
are Abel Alinut (1837), Lhe Banished (1839), and
Martin Toutrond (1842). Morier died at Brighton
19th March 1849.
Morinus. Jean Morin, a French theologian
(1591-1659), wrote on ecclesiastical antiquities,
and ranks as one of the founders of bib! criti-
cism mainly in virtue of his editions and notes on
the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Targum (in the
Paris Polyglot), and his Eyereitationes on the
Hebrew and Greek text of the Bible.
Morion, an iron or steel headpiece without
visor. See ARMOUR.
Moriscos. Moriscos is the name usually
given to the Moors who remained in 8 in after
the taking of Granada in 1492; Mozarabes or
Muzarabes, to the Christian Spaniards who lived
in the parts of Spain under Moorish rule; Mude-
jares, to the Moors who submitted to the Christians
in the earlier periods of the x Satay =>
To take first the Mozarabes. Christianity was
freely, if posibeenpenseetys tolerated under the
Moorish rule. Occasional outbursts of fanaticism
used to take — These were often provoked
ht Christians defiantly seeking martyrdom, as in
‘ordova in the 9th century; this persecution
intermittently till 953, when it well-nigh ceased,
The Mozarabes kept their ancient livareys though
many of them had ceased to understand Latin and
spoke and wrote Arabic only, writing even Latin
and Spanish with Arabic characters. They occa-
sionally held councils, but indifference prevailed,
and the Spanish egrets were more astonished
at the laxity of the Mozarabes than at their con-
stancy in retaining their old faith. For Mozarabie
liturgy, see LITURGY.
Mudej —Moorish names ap) first in the
9th century as inhabitants of the country, and
witnesses to documents, under Spanish rule. One
of the earliest capitulations or fueros granted to
them is that of Huesea (1081); by this and subse-
uent fueros (Tudela, 1115, &e.) the widest tolera-
tion was extended to them ; they were allowed full
exercise of their religion, laws, language, dress,
and customs. The fuero of Jativa i Sege by
Jaime I. of A n (1251) even provides that if
any Saracen should become a Christian he should
lose his landed moperty 3 that of Siliebar, near
Seville (1255), allows them to build a castle for
their defence. These capitulations seem to have
been fairly observed till the 14th century, when a
change of tone becomes apparent. In 1301 the
Moors of Aragon were compelled to wear a distine-
tive dress, and in the next century their privileges
were By carta | sine y (ek ve
upon them. e Mudejares 0} n, en
a | Castile had hitherto been faithful, had ov
loyally in war even st Moors, had taken the
royal ‘side in all popular movements ; even as late
as 1528 they appealed to their well-proved loyalty
to the crown.
But their situation was greatly im by the
incorporation am them of the Moriscos, after
the fall of Gran (1492). The terms of the
capitulation of Granada were to the full as liberal
as those under which the sony a had lived
loyally in Aragon, Valencia, and tile for three
or four centuries. Under Talavera, the first Areh-
bishop of Granada, some attempt was made to
observe these conditions, and with ha) results,
But the bigotry of Cardinal Ximenes, violating the
capitulation, led to a rising in the Alpuxarras
(1500-2) and to the expulsion of the Moriscos of
Castile and Leon; though in 1503 and in 1510
MORISCOS
MORLAND 309
Ferdinand forbade the expulsion of those of Aragon
and Valencia. At the close of the rising in the
Alpuxarras the alternative of exile or of baptism
been offered to the Moriscos. Those who chose
exile went to swell the number of the Corsairs of
Algeria and the Barbary States, who were hence-
forth a standing ae and annoyance to Spain.
The newly-converted Moriscos (New Christians as
they were called) became the objects of the severi-
ties of the Inquisition ; as doubtful Christians they
were ~ with ter jealousy and yea
than as professed Mohammedans. Under danger
of relapse their children were taken from them,
and their young men sent to the galleys. In the
war of the Germania in Valencia (1520) they were
ruthlessly massacred by the populace, but were
still faithful to the king and to the nobles who
their privileges. The ever-increasing
persecution provoked a still more serious rising
under Philip II. in Granada. It was put down
after two years of warfare by Don John of Austria
(1568-70); many of the Moriscos, and especially
the women, were given to the soldiers as slaves,
and the rest, who did not emigrate, were removed
to Castile, Valencia, and Marcia. The action of
the Corsairs, avenging on Spain the wrongs of their
fellow-countrymen, ruining the commerce, carrying
off Christian captives, ravaging the coasts so that
for leagues the south-east it remained un-
cultivated, increased the bitterness against the
Moriscos, who were of being in league
with the Corsairs, and directing their forays.
Many returned openly to their ancestral faith ;
spasmodic attempts at _— conversion proved
fruitless; in 1 the Archbishop of Valencia re-
ported the conversion of one Morisco woman only
as the result of a year’s labour. Harsher measures
were tried and failed ; persecution only nade them
cling more firmly to their faith; partial expulsion
only au ted the number of Corsairs ; and
at were forbidden to leave the country by
sea. The hatred, however, of Philip II. inst
the Protestants was stronger than his dislike of
the Moriseos, and his reign is marked by constant
vacillations in his policy towards them ; and their
lot cannot have been absolutely intolerable, for one
charge against them was that their numbers in-
creased continually while that of the old Christians
diminished. The fear and suspicion aroused on
both sides made it difficult for Spaniards and
Moriscos, tiew and old Christians, to live together.
After so many breaches of faith the Moriscos could
trust no promise made to them by king or church.
To the Spaniards it seemed intolerable to have an
intestine foe, while the kingdom was so sorely
ressed from without; and churchmen taught the
ing that anything, short of the extermination
which he might commit with a safe conscience, was
aT In 1582 the total expulsion was first
mooted ; it was decided on in principle in 1599.
In 1609-10 the whole of the Moriseos were expelled
the kingdom, either sea from Valencia, or
throngh the m Aragon and Castile.
All their goods were confiscated, except what t
could turn into money, or carry with them on their
persons; robbery, murder, assault, excesses of
every kind against them marked their track ; all
their children under four years of age were taken
ota to be ~ tu - mes Froese over
yi oriseos, c efly agricultural labourers or
farmers, left the country in which their people had
dwelt for so many centuries. The results to Spain
were like those which subsequently followed the
emigration of the Huguenots from France. Even
this does not end the story ; the descendants of the
children forcibly kept behind, or of those really
converted to Christianity, were regarded with
horror, and were constantly denounced to the
Inquisition. For nearly a century afterwards we
find decrees of particular provinces expelling
families for being descendants of the Moriscos.
A taint of Moorish blood was sufficient to prevent
the holding of any public office, even in the smallest
municipality.
See Guerra de Granada, by Diego de Mendoza;
Rebellion y Castigo de los Moriscos del Reino de Gran-
ada, by L. del Marmol Carvajal (both in vol. xxi. of
Rivadeneyrai’s Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles); Estado
Social y Politico de los Mudejares de Castilla, by F.
Fernandez y Gonzalez (Madrid, 1866); Condicion Social
de los Moriscos de Espaiia, by Florencio Janer ( Madrid,
1857); La Expulsion de los Moriscos Espaiioles, by M. .
Danvila y Collado ( Madrid, 1889 ),
Morison, ComMMANDER. See ZADKIEL.
Morison, JAmMeEs Correr, author and Positiv-
ist, was born in 1832, and educated at Highgate
mar-school and Lincoln — Oxtord,
is first work was his masterpiece, The Life and
Times of St Bernard (1863). His latest, The
Service of Man, an Essay towards the Religion of
the Future (1886), attracted much attention, but
it was commenced when sickness had already
seized him, and it does not adequately represent
his views. He was one of the founders and first
pen of the Fortnightly Review. His intel-
ectual _— were associated with a most genial
and kindly nature; he was reputed one of the best
talkers of his time in French as well as English,
and had long projected a work on the history of
France, but owing to ill-health it was never fairly
begun. He died February 25, 1888.
Morison, Rosert, botanist, was a native of
Aberdeen, born in 1620. Having borne arms as a
royalist in the civil wars, he retired to France
when his sovereign’s cause collapsed, and took the
degree of doctor at Angers (1648). Two years
later he became superintendent of the garden
formed at Blois by Gaston, Duke of Orleans.
After the Restoration he was appointed by Charles
IL one of his physicians, ‘botanist royal,’ and
‘ professor’ of Botany at Oxford. He was knocked
down by a coach in London, and died the follow-
ing day, 10th November 1683. His chief work is
Plantarum Historia Universalis Oxoniensis (1680).
Morisonianism. See EVANGELICAL UNron.
Moris, a pictu ue and flourishin rt of
France, in the Breton department of Finistére, on
the tidal Dossen, 64 miles from the sea and 38
ENE. of Brest. It has many quaint timbered
houses, a huge railway viaduct 20F feet high, and
manufactures of tobacco, paper, &c. Vessels of 400
tons can reach the quays. Moreau was a native,
Pop. (1872) 12,723; (1896) 15,200. See BERNARD
or MORLAIX.
Morland, Grorce, inter, was born in
London, 26th June 1763, the eldest son of Henry
Morland, crayonist (1712-97), to whom at fourteen
he was articled for seven years, and who brought
him up with extreme rigour. No sooner, then,
had he become his own master than he went hope-
lessly and utterly to the bad. His marriage in
1786 had no power to check him; and his whole
after-life was a downward course of debt and
dissipation. He was regular only in this, that
‘every day he got thoroughly intoxicated, and
then generally would lie all night long on the
floor.” Yet he worked hard and rapidly, in the
last eight years of his life turning out nearly nine
hundred paintings and more than a thousand
drawings. His strength lay in country subjects
(pigs, Gypsies, and stable interiors) ; his sea-pieces,
also numerons, are not so good, He died of brain-
fever in a Holborn sponging-house, 27th Oct. 1804.
See Lives by Dawe (i807) ¢ and Richardson (1895).
MORMONS
310 MORLEY
Morley, a municipal borough in the West Riding | he was elected for Newcastle-on-Tyne, Mr Morley
of Yorksitte, 5 ae SW * 55 Leeds, with eben was editor of the Pall Mall Gazette. His articles
manufactures, coal-mines, and stone quarries.
Mentioned in Domesday, it became a borough only
in 1885. Pop. (1881) 16,011; (1891) 18,725.
Morley, Henry, English author, was born in
London, September 15, 1822, and educated at
the Moravian School, Neuwied-on-the-Rhine, and
King’s College, London, where he edited the King’s
College Magazine. After practising medicine at
Madely, Shropshire, from 1 till 1848, and keep-
ing school for the next two years at Liscard, Liver-
»00l, he settled down with some reluctance in
ndon to literary work in connection with House-
hold Words and the Examiner. Of the latter he
was joint-editor from 1856 to 1859, and sole editor
from that year till 1864. He was English lecturer
at King’s College for eight years previous to 1865,
when he became professor of English Language and
Literature at University College, London, an office
which he resigned in 1889. In 1889 he contributed
the article on English Literature to this work. In
1870 he was appointed examiner in English Lan-
re, Literature, and History to the university of
Ton on. His numerous writings include How to
make Home Unhealthy (1850); A Defence of Ignor-
ance (1851); Lives of Palissy (1852), Jerome Car-
dan (1854), and Cornelius Agrippa (1856); Memoirs
of Bartholomew Fair (1857), reprints of his essays
in Household Words ; two volumes of Fairy Tales
(1859-60); English Writers to Dunbar (2 parts,
1864-66), worked up anew into the first 4 vols.,
1887-89, of a projected complete history of English
literature in 50 volumes); annotated editions of
the Spectator (1868) and Boswell’s Life of John-
son (1886) ; Tables of English Literature (1870);
Clément Marot and other Studies (1871); A First
Sketch of English Literature (1873); i of
English Literature (5 vols. 1876-82); and Of Eng-
lish. Literature in the Reign of Victoria (1881).
No man has done so much to make classical
literature (both English and foreign through
English translations) accessible to the people
as Henry Morley through his admirable series,
Morley’s Universal Library (63 volumes at a shil-
ling each, 1883-88); Cassell’s National Lib
(209 volumes at threepence each, 1886-90) ; ‘ant
the Carisbrooke Library, a series of half-crown vol-
umes (1888 e¢ seq.). He died 14th May 1894. See
Life by H. 8. Solly (1898).
Moeriey, Joun, M.P., was born at Black-
burn, 24th December 1838; he was educated at
Cheltenham and Lincoln College, Oxford, and,
after taking his degree in 1859, was called to
the bar, but chose literature as a profession.
The best known of his books are Edmund
Burke (1867), Critical Miscellanies (1871 and
1877), Voltaire (1872), On Compromise (1874),
Rousseau (1876), Diderot and the Encyclopadists
(1878), Richard Cobden (1881). From 1867 till
1882 he edited the Fortnightly Review ; and he has
edited the ‘English Men of Letters’ series. He is
an hono LL.D, of Glasgow. Though possess-
ing t literary faculty and power of phrase, Mr
Morley’s desire has not been merely to write a
readable book or to transmit knowledge, but
always to make character stronger and deeper.
He seems cae aa by the triviality of life; he
feels that only the best is worth an effort, but that
this is worth all effort, while indifference and
mediocrity of aspiration are the greatest curses of
mankind. In polities he has been throughout life
& pronounced ical, and in religious questions he
has long stood far apart from the great majority of
_ his countrymen. :
He unsuccessfully contested Blackburn in 1865,
and Westminster in 1880. From 1880 to 1883, when
in favour of Home Rule written then, and followed
up by action in the House of Commons and
in the country in 1885, did much to influence publie
opinion before Mr Gladstone's change of nage eed
known. In 1886 he became Irish the
dissolution which followed the rejection of the
Home Rule Bill in that year. In 1890, during the
difficulty as to the leadership of the Irish party,
he directly supported Mr Gladstone. As a speaker
Mr Morley has certainly succeeded in the country ;
he has few of the superficial gifts of an orator, but
he never fails to convey to a public audience an
irresistible impression of earnestness and some
which has given him a personal hold on men’s m
Though not an advocate of state interference, he
wishes polities to be regarded as a means for raising
the Ta and elevating national character,
His political opponents say that Mr rps is a
man of letters, more fitted to write history to
make it, but seized with a perverse desire to be
a politician ; and doubt whether his earnest cour-
age is matched by penetrating insight into the
airs of the moment and the quickness of decision
essential to the highest success in public life. His
opposition to the compulsory Eight Hours Bill
lost him his popularity and his seat at Newcastle
in 1895. In 1896 he was elected for the Montrose
Burghs. a took a ee en Roger:
in public affairs, but strongly opposed
sere Boulan expeditions. His Staties te Litera-
ture appeared in 1891; his Romanes lecture on
Machiavelli in 1897. In 1898 he was selected to
write Mr Gladstone’s Life. See the Review of
Reviews for December 1890.
Morley, SAMUEL, born in Homerton, October
15, 1809, extared his father's heii Wuneeiaias, Gil
shared with a brother the chief responsibility from
1840 till 1854, when he became sole head of the
concern. He was returned to parliament for Not-
tingham, in the Liberal interest, in 1865; was un-
seated on petition ; represented Bristol in 1868-85,
and declined a peerage. Identified with many reli-
gious and philanthropic movements, he gave £6000
towards the erection of a Nonconformist me
hall, and during 1864-70 contributed £14,000 to-
wards the erection of Conare aa esc He
died September 5, 1886. See Life by Hodder (1887).
Mormaer. See EArt. ;
Mormons, or, as vs 5 fee themselves, ‘the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, a re-
ligious organisation, the founder ght 1801, 1807, and
which was Joseph Smith, who | 1000 tw the C4. oy 2. 8.
was horn at Sharon, Vt., on 23d | MPriveets :
December, 1805. He was the son of a farmer, and
at the age of ten removed with his parents from
the state of Vermont to Palmyra, in the state of
New York, and four years later to the neighbour-
ing town of Manchester. It was here, according to
his claim, that he received in 1820 his first revela-
tion—his divine call as a "mt of the Most High
with no less authority and power than were wiel ed
by the ancient seers and prophets of biblical fame.
Prior to this he had belon to no religious body,
though of a spiritual turn of mind, with a leanin,
toward Methodism. He declared that no less a visi-
tation than that of the Father and the Son, of two
rsons of the Trinity, was vouchsafed to him.
His second visitation from the unseen world was on
the evening of 2)st tember 1823. A glorious
personage appeared at his bedside, and, announe-
ing himself as a messenger from the presence of
God, ‘called me by name and said unto me...
that God had a work for me to do, and that m
name should be had for good and evil merry tes
nations, kindreds, and tongues. . . . He said there
ee
3
a
———-
>| >| >|
MORMON TEMPLE, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH.
Vol, VII, page 310,
MORMONS
311
-was.a book deposited, written upon golden plates,
giving an account of the former inhabitants of this
continent, and the source from whence they sprung.
He also said that the fullness of the everlasting
was contained in it, as delivered by the
viour to the ancient inhabitants. Also, that
there were two stones in silver bows deposited with
the plates, and the possession and use of these
stones was what constituted seers in ancient or
former times, and that God had prepared them for
the purpose of translating the book. . . . While he
was conversing with me about the plates, the
vision was opened to my mind that I could see the
place where the plates were deposited, and that so
sciences by ~- :
respectively ; W. nsere form (1 . an
also ‘On the —— of ho > pee
- Soc. mesa) (1888); Herbert Spenser, Prindiples
Morphy, Pav. See Cuess.
Morris, Georce Perkrys, author of ‘ Wood-
Spare that Tree,’ was born in 1802 in Phila-
delphiat fonnded the New York Mirror and after-
wards the Home Journal, with both of which
N. P. Willis was associated, and died in New
York, 6th July 1864.
Morris, GOUVERNEUR, an American statesman,
was born in Morrisania, New York, 3lst January
1752, graduated at King’s (now Columbia) College
in 1768, and was admitted to the bar in 1771. e
early showed a talent for finance, and took an
active share in the political affairs of the Revolution
riod. In May 1780 he lost a leg through a fall
rom his carriage in Philadelphia. From 1781
to 1784 he was assistant to Robert Morris, super-
intendent of the national finance. In 1787 he
took his seat as a delegate in the convention that
framed the United States constitution, and the
a after sailed for Paris, where for two years
e devoted himself to private business. The greater
part of the year 1791 he spent in England as a
confidential nt of Washington’s, and next served
till August 1794 as United States minister to
France. Returning to America in 1798, he sat for
New York in the United States senate from 1800
to 1803, and was chairman of the New York
canal commissioners from 1810 till his death, 6th
November 1816.
, by Jared oe
in
(1888), also The Diary and Letters of Gouverneur Morris,
edited his granddaughter, yey Morris (2 vols.
1889), last contains many interesting glimpses of
Paris in the fever of Revolution.
Morris, Sir Lewis, knighted in 1895, a writer
of verse which has attained an eee ed
popularity, was born in Carmarthen in 1832, an
educated at Sherborne School and at Jesus College,
Oxford, where in 1855 he uated first-class in
classics, and won the Chancellor’s prize. He was
ealled six years later to the English bar, and prac-
tised till 1881, when he accepted the post of honorary
secretary to the university of Wales. In 1877 he
was elected an honorary fellow of Jesus College.
Sir Lewis’s first offerings of verse appeared in
1871, when under the pen-name of ‘A New Writer’
he published Songs of Two Worlds, which at
once passed into numerous editions, and which
was followed in 1874 and 1875 by a second and
third volume. In 1876 appeared The Epic of
Hades, the work with which the author’s name
is usually associated; it has run into several
series, and these series into many editions. He
has since published Gwen, a Drama; The Ode of
Life; Songs Unsung; Gycia, a Tragedy; and A
Vision of Saints (1890), &e., which have shown
no falling off in popularity.
Morris, W1L11AM, the poet, was born in 1834,
and educated at Marlborongh and at Exeter
College, Oxford, where he formed an important
and lasting friendship with Burne-Jones, the
famous nter. He himself studied to be a
painter, but withont success, his artistie tempera-
ment being destined to have play in another diree-
tion. In 1858 he published a small volume entitled
The Defence of Guenevere and other Poems, which
almost unnoticed at the time ; but in 1867 he
won the attention and admiration of every true lover
of poetry by a long narrative poem entitled The Life
and Death of Jason. The Earthly Paradise (3 vols.
1868-70) contirmed his high reputation. This work
is made up of twenty-four legendary and romantic
ms of classic or of Gothie origin, recited by
orwegian seamen who had sailed westward to
find. the earthly paradise. Other works were
Love is Enough (i873), the Aneid of Virgil
done into English verse (1876), Sigurd the Volsung
(1876—his own favourite amongst his poems),
and The Fall of the Niblungs, a Poem (1877).
His translation of the Odyssey (1887) is more
successful than his 4neid. In collaboration with
Mr Eirikr Magnusson he translated from the
320 MORRIS-DANCE
MORTAR
Icelandic Grettir the Strong, The Story of the
Volsungs and Niblungs, and Three Northern Love
Stories. The House of the Wolfings (1889) was in
; as was also The Roots of the Mountains
Pi890), a fine story of primitive Northern life, in
artificially archaic language, afterwards much
affected him. The Glittering Plain and News
From N’ (1891)—a utopian romance—followed,
and in the same year Poems by the Way, his last
volume of original verse. Later were ood
beyond the World (1895), Child Christopher (1895)
—a variant of ‘ Havelock the Dane,’ a verse trans-
lation of Beowulf (1895) and The Well at the
World’s End (1896). In 1863 Mr Morris and others
founded the establishment for the manufacture of
wall-papers, stained glass, tiles and artistic house-
hold decorations, which has largely contributed to
reform English taste in colour and design (the article
on painted or stained glass, Vol. V. p. 246, is by him).
soneot | a pronounced socialist, fervid in his
sympat Bri the r, but by no means syste-
matic in his theory, he wrote and lectured much in
support of his views, and edited and wrote for the
Commonweal. and Fears for Art (1892) were
lectures. In his later years much of his ene
was devoted to the Kelmscott Press, founded
him, which in 1891-96 published in special typo-
graphy and with beautiful adornments a series of
some fifty works, including translations of medieval
French romances, Shelley, Keats, Rossetti, Herrick,
arts of Shakes; P Coleridge, and Swinburne,
is own Beowulf and some other poems, and finall
a magnificent Chaucer. He died 3d October 1896,
and was buried at Kelmscott, near the Oxfordshire
mansion he pe way after D. G. Rossetti. See his
Life and Letters by J. W. Mackail (1899). Morris
strove to lead his contemporaries away from the
hideousness and materialism of modern life into a
beautiful garden of dreams. As a story-teller, he
was endowed with the richest gift of imagination ;
and he was unsurpassed in the freshness of his
descriptions and the music of his verse.
Morris-dance, « rustic dance, formerly an
accompaniment to the May-day games and Whit-
sun-ales, probably of Moorish origin. Douce con-
jectures it was introduced into England by John of
aunt on his return from Spain ; but Strutt main-
tained that the Morisco or Moor dance differed
from the morris-dance in England, having been
accompanied with castanets or rattles at the end of
the fingers, and not with bells attached to various
parts of the dress. The principal performers of the
morris-dance were Robin Hood, Maid Marian, the
hobby-horse, and the Bavian or fool.
Morrison, Rosert, the founder of Protestant
missions in China, was born of Scottish parentage
at Morpeth, in Northumberland, 5th January 1782.
He studied at one of the Independent colleges,
and in 1807 he was sent to Macao and Canton
hy the London Missionary Society. In February
1809 he was appointed translator to the East India
Company's factory at Canton, and by 1814 he had
completed the translation and printing of the whole
of the New Testament. Four years later, by the
help of William (afterwards Dr) Milne, he had
done the same with the Old Testament; and in
1823 he completed and printed his great Chinese
Dictionary in six large quarto volumes, at an
expense to the East India Company of £12,000.
It occupied him for sixteen years, and in connec-
tion with it he had accumulated a library of
10,000 Chinese books. It contained 40,000 words
expressed by Chinese characters, and was after-
wards translated into Japanese. In 1816 he
acted as interpreter to Lord Amherst. In 1818 he
established an Anglo-Chinese College at Malacca.
When he returned to England in 1824, he brought
with him his collection of books, ultimately pre-
sented to the Council of University College, ion.
After visiting France, Ireland, and Scotland, he
in 1826 returned to China. In 1834 he accom-
ied Lord Napier to Canton as interpreter, and
ied there Ist August. Besides the works alread
mentioned, he is the author of Hore Sinica (1812
being translations from the popular literature of
the Chinese, a Chinese Grammar (1815), and
Chinese Miscellany (1825). In 1839 his widow
poker his Memoirs. See also Townsend's
‘obert Morrison (1888).
Morristo capital of Morris county, New
Jersey, on the Whippany River, 30 miles sy rail
W. of New York. It is a pleasant summer-resort,
with some historic associations, and has ironworks
and various mills ; 3 miles to the north is a large
state lunatic asylum. Pop. (1900) 11,267.
Morse. See WALRUS.
Morse, SAMUEL FINLEY BREESE, American
artist and inventor, was the eldest son of Rev. Dr
Jedidiah Morse, geographer, and was born at
Charlestown, Massachusetts, April 27, 1791. He
seep at Yale College in 1810, and visited
ngland with the American painter Washington
Allston, to study painting with him and Benjamin
West. In 1813 he received the gold medal of the
Adelphi Society of Arts for his first effort in seulp-
ture, the ‘Dying Hercules.’ Return to New
York in 1815, Ev hiseame the first president of the
National Academy of Design, which was estab-
lished in 1826, and filled the office till 1842, and
was appointed professor of the Arts of = in
the university of the city of New York in 1835.
He did not give his entire attention to art, but
devoted much study to chemistry, especially to
electrical and galvanic experiments; and on a
rr from Havre to New York in 1832 he con-
ceived the idea of a magnetic tel h, which he
exhibited to congress in 1837, and vainly attempted
to patent in England. His claims to priority of
invention over Professor Wheatstone in England
have been the subject of considerable controversy
(see TELEGRAPH). He struggled on _heroicall
against scanty means until 1843, when at length
con at midnight, in the last moments of the
session, appropriated 30,000 dollars for an experi-
mental bag, 7m line between Washington and
Baltimore. Morse lived to see his system of tele-
phy adopted in France, vs aga Denmark,
weden, Russia, and A ia. Honours both
from home and abroad were heaped upon him, and
an international present of ,000 francs was
po him in 1858, at the instance of Napoleon
Il. A bronze statue was erected to him in New
York in 1871. He died in New York, 1872. See
the Life by 8. I. Prime (New York, 1875).
Morshansk, a town of Russia, 58 miles N. of
Tamboff and 149 by rail W. by N. of Penza, has
distilleries and an active trade in wheat, ag a
seed, and tallow. It was almost burned to the
ground in 1874. Pop. 21,190.
Mortality. The subject of general tables of
mortality is discussed at INSURANCE; see also
ViraL Statistics. Weekly ‘Bills of Mortality,’
weekly reports as to christenings and burials, were
first prepared by the parish clerks of London about
1592-93, in consequence of the frequent recurrence
of the plague. The area ‘within the old bills of
mortality’ was gradually increased, till in 1726 it
extended to 21,587 acres. In 1801 the ‘New
Tables of Mortality * gave the registration district
an area of 30,000 acres, which has also ex-
tended till ‘ tration London’ had in 1871-81
an area of 75,362 acres. LONDON.
Mortar, a short and very thick fe poe vig ne §
of large calibre, firing a heavy shell at a
MORTAR
MORTIMER 321
of 45° or thereabouts, so that the projectile
may strike the object aimed at in a direction more
or less verti he range is regulated the
amount of powder used, which, being pl ina
chamber completely closed by the projectile, pro-
duces its maximum effect. Mortars are leu-
lar] at sieges, as their ‘high-angle’ fire
enables them to search out the interior of the
. works, and against ships whose decks offer a vul-
nerable target to such fire. The common type of
mortar is a muzzle-loading smooth bore of ie 8,
10, or 13 inch calibre, firing a spherical shell; but
rifled mortars and elongated shells were used by
the Germans at the siege of Strasburg in 1870. The
12-inch breech-loading rifled mortar of the United
States (see fi ) is a very powerful and accurate
weapon ; wil
50 lb. of smokeless powder and 45°
elevation, it will ject a 1000-Ib. shell a distance
of enna The ian artillery have a so-called
field-mortar, which, being fi with elevating
ar, is best classed asa howitzer. It is 3 feet long,
-loading, weighs only 9 ewt., and is as mobile
as an ordinary field . It throws a 6-inch 46-lb.
shell, with an effective range to 4000 yards. Very
large mortars have been tried at times, as at the
siege of Antwerp citadel in 1832, when the French
used one of 24-inch calibre. This monster, owing to
its unwieldiness and other causes, was a failure.
Larger still is Mallet’s 36-inch mortar, constructed
in 1855, of iron parts welded together, and now in
coe recage Only two or — er ge =r
n rom this weapon, as it showed signs
cracking after being disehergon
Mortar, See CeMENTs.
Mortara, Epcar, a Jewish boy who, on 23d
June 1858, was forcibly carried off from his parents
by the orders of the Archbishop of Bologna, on the
plea that he had, when an infant, been baptised
into Christianity by a’ Roman Catholic maid-
servant. The manner of the boy’s abduction, and
the refusal of the Roman Catholic authorities to
core i to his parents, becoming known
ghout Europe, excited indignation,
more particularly in England. But the bo
remained in the hands of the Roman Catho
Church, and became an Augustinian monk.
Mortar-vessel, « class of gunboat for mount-
ing sea-service mortars. Mortar-boats were a
smaller kind. The most ancient form of mortar-
vessel was the ‘bomb-ketch,’ convenient because of
the length of deck without a mast. In the British
naval service these several kinds of bomb-ships
have ceased t) exist.
e, in English law, is a contract where-
by Property transferred to a creditor by way of
security for rn a a A mortgage of land
is, in form, an absolute conveyance, subject to a
proviso that, if the money lent is repaid within a
certain time, the mortgagee shall reconvey the land
to the mortgager or borrower. Even when the time
fixed has expired, equity will permit the mortgager
to redeem his property on payment of his debt : if
he proves unable to do so, the mortgagee may
apply to the court for a sale of the pre rty, or for
foreclosure—i.e. for a decree which deprives the
mortgager of his right to redeem and transfers the
property absolutely to the mortgagee. A mort-
may also, as a general rule, enter into
possession of the land and draw the rents and
profits ; or he may sue the pegged for payment
of the money due. Further rights ma given
him by ment, and it was formerly usual to
stipulate for large powers over the property. The
Conveyancing Act of 1881 now regulates the powers
exercised by mort, rand mortgagee respectively,
unless in so far as its provisions are excluded b
express ent. equitable emir hy 5 oe is
effected when an owner of property binds himself
by memorandum or otherwise to execute a formal
mortgage. A person who deposits the title-deeds
of his land with a banker, as a security for money
advanced, is an equitable mortgager. Mortgage
deeds do not, with certain exceptions, require
Registration (q.v.). An owner who has mort-
gaged not unfrequently obtains further advances
on the security of a second or third mortgage
of the same proven: A third mo who
buys up the first and gets cop naw ae of the title-
deeds is permitted to tack the first and third mort-
pages together: both will have to be paid off
ore the second. Pesca are also Nery a ? in wee
a morgnee is permitted to consolidate claims
against erent properties’of the same debtor,
niring him to pay off all or none. No trustee
is justified in advancing money on security of any
but a first moi ; and in every case a trustee
is bound to see that the value of the property is
amply sufficient to secure the amount advanced.
See on this point the Trustee Act, 1888.
A mortgage of goods is made by means of the
deed known as a Bill of Sale (q.v.). Shares, policies
of insurance, and even debts, may be mortgaged
by using the appropriate forms of transfer. In all
cases, whatever the nature of the property, the
Conveyancing Act enables the mortgagee to obtain
a sale of the property, if the mortgager is unable
to pay principal and interest. See Coote’s Law of
Mortgage (5th ed. 2 vols. 1884).
In Scotland mortgages are effected by means of
a Bond and Disposition in Security (see Bonn).
Moi are a higher and better form of security
than in England, because of the system of registra-
tion of deeds affecting land (see SASINE); and
trustees have power to invest in mortgage securi-
ties, which are considered as safe as government
stock, and less liable to fluctuations of interest.
In Seotland it is not the practice to mortgage
lands by mere deposit of title-deeds.
In the United per _ Oey and peeps of a
mortgage are nat y the laws of each state.
Except in Bevbiens; the English law seems to
have been accepted on the basis of American legis-
lation. The Bronieatend Laws (q.v.) enacted by
several states have an important influence on the
law of mort; . See L. A. Jones, Law of Mort-
gages (3d ed. ton, 1888).
Mortification, in Scotch law, is a term used
to denote lands given for charitable or public uses.
Mortification, in Medicine. See GANGRENE,
INFLAMMATION,
Mortimer. See Epwarp Il. and III; and
for Mortimer’s Cross, see HEREFORDSHIRE.
322 MORTLAKE MORVERN
parish of S 2 the south | and part’ in Darnley’s murder, he was beheaded
bake : es, 2 miles "EN i, of Richmond with Nis own ‘Maiden’ in the Edinburgh Grass-
and 8 W. by S. of London. From 1619 to 1703 it
was famous for its tapestry works; now malting
and brewing are the leading industries. It is also
a great boating-place, the Oxford and Cambridge
race being rowed from Putney to Mortlake. It
has associations with Archbishops Anselm and
Cranmer, the astrologers Dr Dee and John Part-
ridge, Cromwell, Swift and Stella, Sir Phili
Francis, Sir Richard Owen, and Sir Richarc
Burton. Pop. (1851) 3110; (1881) 6330. See John
. Anderson's History of Mortlake (priv. printed,
888 ).
Mortmain (Fr. morte main) signifies in law
the dead hand of a corporation, At an early
period (1279) the English parliament took note
of the mischief which resulted from the transfer of
land to religious corporations; statutes were boa
restricting the right of corporations generally to
hold land. At the present day a corporation,
whether it be a college or a railway company, can-
not acquire and dispose of land, except in so far as
its charter or act of parliament authorises it to
do so. The statutes of mortmain were directed
against ngs te generally ; the so-called Mort-
main Act of 1736 was serge intended to guard
inst improvident gifts of land by will for chari-
table pores. The Mortmain and Charitable
U ct, 1891, allows land to be left by will; but
it must be sold within a year or other period
fixed by the High Court or Charity Commis-
sioners. Money given to purchase land, and
moneys charged upon land, are within the provisions.
Land situated in Scotland, in the colonies, or in
foreign countries is not within the policy of the
English statutes. In Scotland the common law
ut a somewhat similar check on deathbed aliena-
ions of land; but this check has been abolished by
statute. In the United States the laws of several
states limit the amount of real estate which may
be held by religious bodies and charitable societies ;
and the laws of the United States impose a limit
in the Territories,
Morton, James Dove.as, EArt or, regent of
Scotland, was born in the first quarter of the 16th
century, the younger son of Sir George Douglas of
Pittendriech, near Edinburgh. In 1553, in right
of his wife Elizabeth, daughter of the third Earl of
Morton, he succeeded to the title and estates of
that earldom. He joined the Reformers in 1557;
in 1561 was sworn a privy-countcillor; and in 1563
was made Lord High Chancellor. Having borne
a foremost part in Rizzio’s assassination (1566), he
fled with his associates to England, but, through
Bothwell’s interest, in eight months obtained his
pardon from the queen. He was privy to the
design for Darnley’s murder, but was purposely
absent from songs on the night of the tragedy
(1567); and, on Bothwell’s abduction of Mary, he
joined the confederacy of the nobles against them.
e figured prominently at Carberry Hill; dis-
covered the ‘ Casket ters;’ led the van at
Langside (1568); and, after the brief regencies of
Moray, Lennox, and Mar, in November 1572 was
himself elected regent. His whole policy was
directed in favour of Elizabeth, from whom in i571 he
was receiving bribes; and his high-handed treatment
alike of the nobles and of the Presbyterian clergy,
his attempts to restore episcopacy, and the avarice
and rapacity imputed to him, daily swelled the
number of his enemies, who already included all
Mary’s adherents. He seemed to have retrieved
his temporary downfall by the seizure two months
later Stirling Castle (May 1578); but Esme
Stuart in 1580 completely supplanted him in young
King James's favour; and on 2d June 1581, as ‘
market. ‘He died prondly, said his enemies, and
Roman-like, as he had lived; constantly, humbly,
and Christian-like, said the pastors who were
beholders.’
See Doveias, MARY QUEEN oF Scots, and James VI.,
with works there cited ; also Mr T. F. Henderson’s article
in vol, xv. of the Dict. of Nat. Biog. (1888). ‘
Morton, Jonny, Cardinal, and Archbishop of
Canterbury, was born at Milborne St Andrew, in
Dorsetshire, about 1420, studied at Cerne Abbey
and Balliol College, and practised as advocate in
the Court of Arches. Holder of various ecclesias-
Seal eee and a member of Privy-council,
he adhered with great fidelity to Henry VL, yet
by Edward IV. was made Master of the Rolls and
Bishop of Ely. Richard II. imprisoned him, but
he soneet: and joining Henry VII. was by him
made Archbishop of Canterbury and chancellor
(1486). In 1493 he became a cardinal; and he
died 15th September 1500. Sir Thomas More was
a page in his house. See Hook’s Lives of the Arch-
bishops (1867), and Gairdner’s Henry VII. (1889).
Morton, Levi Parsons, vice-president of the
United States, was born at Shoreham, Vermont,
16th May 1824, was first a country storekeeper'’s
assistant, then partner in a nm firm of
merchants, and in 1863 founded banking-honses in
New York and London. In 1878 and 1880 he was
returned to con: as a Republican ; in 1881-85 he
was minister to France ; and in 1888 he was elected
vice-president of the United States.
Morton, SAMUEL GEORGE, an American phy
sician, born in Philadelphia, January 26, 1799,
studied medicine there and at Edinburgh, and in
1839 was appointed fay ive of Anatomy in the
Pennsylvania Medical Coll He died May 15,
1851. Morton may be fegartod as the first Ameri-
ean who endeavoured to place the doctrine of the
original diversity of mankind on a scientific basis,
His great works are Crania Americana (1839) and
Crania Eqyptica (4 vols. 1844); and his museum
of comparative secenps i preserved at Phila-
delphia, contains some 1500 skulls—900 of them
human,
Morton, THOMAS, dramatist, was born in 1764
in the county of Durham, but, left an orphan, was
brought up by an uncle in London. He entered
Lincoln’s Inn, but soon quitted law for play-writ-
ing, and produced Speed the i (1798, with its
invisible ‘Mrs Grundy’), The Blind Girl (1801),
Town and Country (1807), School for Grown Chil-
dren (1826), &e. For thirty-five years he lived at
Pangbourne, near Reading, till in 1828 he removed
to London, where he died, 28th March 1838.—His
son, JOHN MADISON Morton, the author of Box
and Cox, was born at Pangbourne, 3d January
1811, and was educated in Paris and German
(1817-20), and then at Clapham under Dr Richard-
son (1820-27). From 1832 to 1840 he held a clerk-
ship in Chelsea Hospital, and between 1835 and
1885 wrote close on a hundred farces, of which Box
and Cox (1847) alone is said to have brought him
£7000. But the rise of burlesque was his ruin, and
in 1881 he became a ‘poor brother’ of the Charter-
house. He died December 19, 1891. See memoir
by Clement Scott prefixed to Plays for Home
Performance (1889).
rvan, LE, a barren district of France, a
Fy few extension of the central plateau (see
France, Vol. IV. p. 770), is mainly in the depart-
ment of Niévre (q.v.).
Morve a peninsula of north-west Argyll-
chic herrece Lochs Sunethiant Aienbe...i ie
the ‘ Highland parish’ of Norman Macleod.
EO ———
MORWENSTOW
MOSCHELES 323
Morwenstow, or MoorwinsTow, a parish in
the extreme north of the Cornish coast, 7 miles N.
of Bude; pop. 810. Its church, dedicated to St
Morwenna, is mainly of Norman date; R. S.
Hawker (q.v.) was its vicar.
Mosaics. Mosaic work (Lat. opus musivum)
consists of small — of diversely coloured
marble, glass, or other substances set together
so as to produce a Skpangns or artistic design.
Mosaies are principally used for ornamental floors
and pavements, and for the permanent artistic
decoration of the walls of churches and other
blic buildings. The art is of ancient origin;
the book of Esther we may infer’ that it
was i in the days of Ahasuerus; but
am the Romans it was very common, for
have the remains of any ancient Roman
villa discovered without finding in it a
mosaic pavement. These ancient pavements bein
com) of small tessere or dice of col
marble, and rarely also of glass, are known as
tesselated mosaics. The pieces used consist of
irregular cubes varying from a quarter to half
an inch in size, and they are carefully bedded
in a cement surface set over a p' concrete
foundation. The designs, ial or otherwise,
are produced by selecting and setting together,
in proper ition and relation, tesserze of the
ired colour and size. The most famons tes-
se mosaic of ancient Rome now existing is
that obtained from Hadrian’s villa at Tivoli, pre-
served in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, and
known as ‘Pliny’s pigeons’ from the subject it
Under the Byzantine empire mosaic
became a distinctively Christian art, employed for
decorating the walls of churches with figures of
the Saviour, apostles, saints, &c., and the remains
of such Byzantine art form a link of great import-
ance between classical and mediwval periods. The
art was revived in Italy about the beginning of the
13th century, when it was employed with great
effect for the decoration of churches; and since
that time it has remained, with many fluctuations,
a distinctively Italian pursuit. odern mosaics
are also made in Russia, forming a oe seal of
the imperial glass manufactory at St Petersburg ;
and in Paris some excellent work has been done.
The cubes of opaque glass for mosaic pictures,
technically called smalts (Ital. smadto), are of all
possible varieties of colour, as many as 25,000
shades being prepared. With these the finest
gradations in tone may be produced, and copies
' of any painting may be made, but mosaics of real
artistic significance are simple in composition, and
and sober in treatment. Italian mosaics are
of two distinet classes—Florentine and Roman, the
former being composed of pieces of stones or shells
of natural colours shay inlaid in marble
slabs according to the design to be produced ; but
it is limited in its application chiefly to floral
scrolls and Arabesque désigns. This variety of
mosaic is extensively produced in India, having
been there introduced the Frenchman Austin
de Bordeaux in the decoration of the famous Taj
Mahal at Agra, whence it is distinguished as Agra
work. Roman mosaic is made up of the small
cubes above mentioned, and, while the larger wall
decorations are composed of pieces which may be
half an inch in size and upwards, small mosaics
are composed of almost microscopical squares, these
being used by Fact for the ornamentation of
brooches, small boxes, and miscellaneous bijous.
Mosaic pavements are extensively made of small
cubes or tessere of coloured marbles, and baked
clay or terra-cotta similar to the ancient Roman
pavements,
See Thomas Morgan, Romano-British Mosaic Pave-
ments (1836); Parker’s Church Decorations and Mosaic
Pictures ( Archeol. of Rome, vol. xi. 1876) ; and Gerspach,
La Mosaique (1883).
Mosasau a huge fossil reptile, belonging
to the remarkable group of Pythonomorphs or
‘sea-serpents,’ which suggest both lizards and
snakes. The remains of three species have been
disinterred from Cretaceous strata. They were
aquatic animals, furnished with pings and are
estimated to have attained a length of as much as
75 feet (see REPTILES).
Mosaylima, or MOSEILEMA (‘Little Moslem’),
one of the most important rivals of Mohammed,
belonged to the clan Dfil, a division of the tribe of
the Beni Hanifah, of Yamfima in Nejd. The
traditions abont his life and age are extremely
contradictory and legendary. It appears, how-
ever, tolera y certain that he had risen to some
eminence in his tribe, probably as a religious
teacher only at first, before Mohammed assumed
his prophetical office. It was in the ninth year
of the Hegira that Mosaylima, at the h of
an embassy sent by his tribe, appeared before
Mohammed, in order to settle certain points of dis-
pute. Shortly after this event Mosaylima —
— himself to be a prophet as well as
ohammed. The latter sent a messenger to him,
as soon as he heard of this, to request him to
reiterate publicly his profession of Islam. Mosay-
lima’s answer was a request that Mohammed should
share his power with him. ‘From Mosaylima, the
Apostle of God,’ he is said to have written, ‘to
Mohammed, the Apostle of God. Now let the
earth be half mine, and half thine.’ Mohammed
replied ; ‘From Mohammed, the Apostle of God,
to er yee the liar. The earth is God’s: He
giveth the same for inheritance unto such of his
servants as He pleases, and the happy issue shalh
attend those who fear Him.’ Yet notwithstanding
these testimonies, of probably late dates, it seems.
on the other hand, iectly certain that Mohamm
made very great concessions to his rival—conees-
sions that point to his having secretly nominated
Mosaylima his successor, and that he by this
means bought Mosaylima’s open allegiance during
his lifetime. It was not a —— of dogmas,
though they each had special revelations, but a
question supremacy which was thus settled
amicably.
After Mohammed’s death, in the 11th year of the
Hegira, it at last came to an me breach between
the two rival powers. Abu Bekr, the calif, sent
Khalid, ‘the Sword of the Faith,’ with a number
of choice troops, to compel ogg apa to sub-
mission. Mosaylima awaited the enemy at
Rowdah, a vill in the Wadi Hanifah. So
formidable ind was Mosaylima’s force that
Khalid is said to have hesitated for a whole day
and night. On the second morning, however, he
advanced, and, in a battle which lasted until the
evening, contrived, with fearful losses of his own,
to n the victory, in which Mosaylima fell,
and his he was practically stamped out. It is
extremely difficult to come to any clear notion of
Mosaylima’s real doctrines, as all the accounts
that have survived of them come from victorious
adversaries. See Sir W. Muir, Annals of the
Early Caliphate (1883).
Mosch’eles, IGNAz, pianist and musical com-
poser, born at Prague, 30th May 1794, of Jewish
parents, was between 1808 and 1816 the favourite
musician and music-master of Vienna. Settlin
in London in 1825, he taught at the Academy o!
Mnsic and directed at the Philharmonic Concerts.
From 1844 he laboured at the conservatory in Leip-
zig until his death, 10th March 1870. A brilliant
rformer on the piano and an able composer,
oscheles ranks high amongst modern_ writers
for the pianoforte. e also edited, in English,
324 MOSCHUS
MOSCOW
Schindler's Life of Beethoven (1841). See the Life
by his wife (Eng. trans. 1873), and his Correspond-
ence with Mendelssohn (Eng. trans. 1888).
Moschus, Greek bucolic poet, usually desig-
nated of Syracuse in Sicily ; he flourished circa 150
B.c., and wrote in a style of almost painfully
finished elegance an epitaph on Bion, a couple of
short epics, and minor poems. His works are
generally printed along with those of Theocritus
and Bion; and there is a fine prose translation of
the three, with an introduction, by Andrew Lang
(1889).
Moscow, formerly the capital of Russia, and
still venerated as such by the Russian peasantry,
stands on the little river Moskwa, a sub-tributary
of the Volga, 403 miles by rail SE. of St Petersburg,
768 ENE. of Warsaw, and 967 NNE. of Odessa.
The city, a rade rhomboid in shape, measures 7
miles by 9 along its diameters, and covers some
40 sq. m. of area. Its centre is the enclosure
called the Kreml or Kremlin (‘Citadel’), which is
surrounded by walls, crowned by eighteen towers
and pierced by five gates. This enclosure is the
most sacred spot in all the vast Russian empire.
The stranger equally with the native pilgrim,
on entering its Saviour gate (1491), must doff his
cap to the holy icon of the Saviour that suar-
mounts it. The most notable of the religious build-
ings inside the Kremlin are the cathedral of the
Assumption, built originally in 1326 and rebuilt in
1475-79; its interior is encrusted with mosaics
and jewelled ornaments, adorned with. venerated
pictures, and sanctified by numerous relics of
saints; within its walls the early czars and all the
Russian metropolitans and patriarchs have been
consecrated, and the metropolitans buried. The
cathedral of the Archangel was originally built in
1333, but restored in 1505; here were buried the
Russian czars down to Ivan Alexievitch, brother of
Peter the Great. The cathedral of the Annuncia-
tion (1489; rebuilt 1554) was formerly the private
chapel of the czars; it shelters some remarkable
paintings by Rubleff (1405). There are numerous
churches of minor rank, and several monasteries ;
in the Voznesenski monastery (1393) the ezarinas
and female relatives of the ezars are buried. In
1600 Boris Godunoff built in the Kremlin the Ivan
Veliki tower, 270 feet high, the summit of which
commands a magnificent view of Moscow, with
her gilded cupolas and fantastic towers, her half
Asiatic, half European architecture. Close by,
at its foot, stands the gigantic bell, Czar Kolokol
(‘king of bells;’ see BELL). The more important
secular buildings within this sanctuary of Moscow
are the imperial palace (1849); the palace built in
the reign of Ivan III. ; the new palace Orushenaya,
which serves as a museum of the most valuable
Russian antiquities ; the palace of the patriarchs,
with archeological treasures and 1500 rare Russian
and Greek MSS.; the arsenal (1701-36), before
which is the trophy of 1812, a pile of 800 or 900
French cannon; and the Hall of the Synod, with a
valuable library and ecclesiological collections,
Outside the Kreml the chief objects of interest are
the colossal ‘Temple of the Saviour’ (1838-81), a
building commemorative of 1812; the cathedral of
St Basil (1554), a ‘nightmare in stone,’ with fan-
tastic towers; the gigantic bazaar (Gostinoi Dvor);
the historical museum ; the library (10,000 vols. of
old printed books and 600 MSS.) of the synod and
its typographical museum; the university (1755),
with scientific collections and a library of 170,000
vols.—it is frequented by 3350 students; the public
museum (1861), containing a library of 300,000
vols. and 5000 MSS., a first-rate ethnological
museum, a gallery of pictures, and scientific col-
lections ; the Golitzyn Museum ( 1865), with 20,000
vols. and a collection of paintings ; an observatory ;
a large foundling hospital (1764); and numerous
monasteries and special educational institutions.
Moscow is celebrated for its excellent scientific
Cathedral of St Basil, Moscow.
sprinkled with palaces, parks, and monasteries,
some of the first and last being of great historic
rey
ext to St Petersburg, Moscow is the busiest
industrial city in the empire, manufacturing cotton
and woollen goods, silks, leather, tobacco, candles,
metallic articles, machinery, paper, chemicals,
bricks, avai Fe pottery, and watches, all on an
extensive scale. But the city occupies an even
higher position as a commercial mart. Situated
nearly in the centre of Euro Russia, midway
between the Baltic, the Black Sea, and the Caspian,
it is one of the principal meeting-places of the
streams of Asiatic and European commerce. In
the 14th, and more especially the 15th century, it
was of even greater Esportesiee than it is to-day as
a commercial mart. An enormous trade is done
in grain, collected from the provinces and exported
throngh the Baltic ports; in timber, from the
northern governments ; in furs, hides, tallow, and
cattle ; in the mineral products of the Ural region ;
in tea, sugar, and other ries ; in cotton, silk,
and rooiiees goods, and in all the various manu-
factured wares of Russia. The Moscow customs
office levies annually £6,000,000 to £7,000,000 on
merchandise entering the city bounds, Pop. (1864)
365,000 ; (1891) 822,397, nearly all Great Russians
of the Orthodox Greek Chureh. As a general rule
the temperature ranges from a winter mean of
14° F. to a summer mean of 66°, the annual mean
being 40°,
Previous to its settlement by Great Russians in
the 12th century, the site had been occupied by
Finnish races. he-young state was greatly im-
perilled in its first years by the Mongols, who
sacked the town in 1237 and 1293. But by the
beginning of the 14th century its princes had
secured their position, and began to make conquests
and annexations on all sides, In 1325 the metro-
poten of central Russia moved his seat to
loscow; a few years later the principality of
MOSELLE
MOSES 325
Viadimir was united to that of Moscow; the
Kremlin, built in 1300, was in 1367 encircled with
stone walls. Moscow continued to grow in area
and in political influence, and Ivan III. (1462-
1505) assumed the title Czar of all Russia. Its
prosperity received serious checks in the next
century: it was nearly wholly burned to the
in 1547, was taken and burned by the
of the Crimea in 1571, was hard pressed _b;
the Mongols in 1591, and was the scene of riots
arising out of the behaviour of the large Polish
retinue who accompanied the bride of the Czar
Demetrius early in the 17th century. During
the whole of that eentury the people parents
rose against the czars and their unworthy favour-
ites, 1713 Peter the Great founded St Peters-
burg and made it his capital ; but the old merchant
families, the old conservative nobles, and the
peasan still continne to look upon
oo Holy’ as the real ca eg wig vas
em e cit: in suffered greatly from fires
in 1739. 1748, a 1753, and the cup of misfortune
was filled to the brim when the city was set on
fire and burned in 1812, according to the traditional
belief the patriotic act of its own inhabitants to save
it from Napoleon and the French (see NAPOLEON).
Since then the city has been in great part rebuilt.
—The ment of Moscow has an area of 12,855
sq. m., and a pop. (1887) of 2,210,791.
Moselle (Ger. Mosel), a left-hand affluent of
the Rhine, rises at the south-west extremity of the
Vosges Mountains in France, at an elevation of
about 2412 feet. Its course is north-westerly as far
as Toul, passing Epinal on the way ; thence it pro-
ceeds in a north-easterly direction Flamer » with
many picturesque windings) through Luxem-
and Rhenish Prussia, and joins the Rhine at
Cob flowing on its way through Metz, Thion-
ville, and Treves. Its entire length is 315 miles,
and it is navigable up to Frouard, 214 miles from
Coblenz. _ Its iar Hel tributaries are the
Meurthe, Seille, and on the right, and the
Orne, and Kyll on the left. The wines
gown in the basin of the Moselle are noted for
lightness and their delicate aromatic flavour.
Moselle was formerly a frontier department in
the north-east of France, but the greater of
it was taken by Germany after the war of 1870-
1871, and became as of old part of Lorraine. The
small left to France was joined to the
opp of Meurthe. Pop. of Moselle in 1866,
157. See MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE.
Moser, Mary, flower-painter, was the only
woman, besides auffmann, ever elected
an Academician, er father, a Swiss, George
Michael Moser (1704-83), was an enameller and
and she herself died Mrs Lloyd
1819. boa
Moses (Heb. Mésheh; LXX. and Vulgate,
Moyses), the great lawgiver and judge, under whose
leadership Israel first to be a nation. The
whole subsequent course of Hebrew history and liter-
ature bears witness to the greatness of his fame and
influence ; but the details of his life preserved in
that literature, though sometimes very minute, are
not, as a whole, very full or satisfyi This was
felt to be the case even when it was believed that
the so-called ‘Books of Moses’ were written by
and, therefore, so far autobiographical ; and
now that the Pentateuch (q.v.), or rather Hexa-
teuch, is held not to have taken its present form
till at least 800 years after his death, and the
historical traditions which it embodies are seen
to be of various dates and to represent various
phases of growth, the outline of his life and
character has become dimmer than ever. He
still remains, nevertheless, a great historical
figure. If we adopt the now very generall
accepted belief that Meneptah or Merienp
was the Pharaoh of the fe Py (see Eaypt,
Vol. IV. p. 240), Moses was born in the first half of
the 14th century B.c. At the time of his birth the
‘children of Israel’ (B’ne Israel) were a pastoral
people who had long dwelt on the eastern fringe of
the Nile delta, where it begins to merge into the
Arabian desert. His name—for which a Hebrew
interpretation (‘drawn ;’ the verb is the same as in
Psalms, xviii. 16) is offered in Exodus, ii. 10—is now
generally supposed to be really of Forees origin
(perhaps mes or messu, ‘son,’ ‘child’). His life
ivides itself into three periods of forty years
each (a definite for an indefinite number), during
two of which he had long and intimate experience,
first of the civilised life of Eeypt, and afterwards
of the simple nomadic life of the desert. Ulti-
mately he became the acknowledged leader of
Israel in the movement for civil and religious
freedom which led to the Exodus. Thenceforward
the scenes of his activity were eg Sinai,
‘the Olympus of the Hebrew peoples,’ En-Mishpat
or Kadesh (Gen. xiv. 7), a locality of which the
site is not certainly known, and the plains of
Moab to the east of Jordan. The ter part of
the time was no doubt argc at Kadesh, which
seems to have long been the national headquarters.
Here his energy and force of character, combined
with a conciliatory meekness eb xii. 3) which
has become proverbial, enabled him to establish
the beginnings of the national organisation on an
enduring basis. At the foundation of the ecommon-
wealth as outlined by him lay the theocratic idea,
and the faith which had for its formula ‘Jehovah
is the God of Israel, and Israel is the people of
Jehovali,” Although there is evidence that the
name Jehovah was not unknown in pre-Mosaic
times, it was not until now that it became a
national watchword. Among the religious institu-
tions posers by Israel were some which their
forefathers had carried with them in their early
migrations from Chaldea, and others that had been
more recently Te in Egypt. To the former
class peonere t) fundamental institution of
sacrifice, also, possibly, that of the Sabbath;
on the other hand it seems probable that the ideas
connected with an ark and a separate priesthood
had the later origin. The practices resting on
these Moses, as a ‘prophet,’ extended, regulated,
and reformed. It was as a member of the priestly
caste (he belonged to the tribe of Levi) that at the
sanctuary and oracle of Jehovah at the ‘ Well of
Judgment’ (En-Mishpat) he exercised the functions
of law-maker and andge, and so laid the founda-
tions of that ‘Torah ’—i.e. ‘instruction’ or ‘law ’—
which, handed on by oral tradition and enriched by
ever-broadening precedents, ultimately passed into
writing in more than one form as the ‘Mosaic
legislation.’ It does not appear that writing was
much used in these early days; and most modern
critics are agreed that the historical portions, as
well as almost all the legislative documents, of the
Pentateuch belong to a much later time. The
—— compositions which are attributed to
loses—the so-called ‘Song of Moses’ (Deut.
xxxii.) and Psalm xc.—also give internal evidence
of more recent authorship.
After the close of the Old Testament canon Jewish
tradition still busied itself about the story of Moses;
some of its later additions have been preserved in the
writings of Philo and Josephus (cf. Acts, vii. 22), and
many a he yoy 4 aa m on ag For a
8 ol e lite 0! see ‘wiinson’s
Wtoels hte Life "aad Times (1887), "A more critical
point of view is represented in Wellhausen’s History of
Israel (1885), 429-440; Reuss’s Geschichte des Alten
Testaments (2d ea, 1890); Renan’s Histoire du Peuple
326 MOSHEIM
MOSQUITO COAST
@ Ieradt (vol. i, 1887; Eng. trans, 1887); and Kittel’s
Geschichte der Hebrier (1838), Auiple references to the
literature of the subject are given by Keuss,
Moshei JOHANN LORENZ VON, a distin-
ished church historian of Germany, was born at
jibeck on 9th October 1694, studied at Kiel,
became in 1723 professor of Theology at Helmstedt,
in 1747 at Gottingen, as well as Chancellor of the
University. Here he died, 9th September 1755.
His sven, nae works are numerous, amongst which
are a work on Bible morality and Heilige Reden.
But his most important work ‘ie a to the
department of chureh history, his Jnstitutiones
Historia Ecclesiastice (1726; improved ed. 1755)
being familiar to every student as a work of great
learning and accuracy. Its author is, in Gibbon’s
hrase, ‘full, rational, correct, and moderate.’ It has
ae translated from the original very elegant Latin
into English and other langu The best
English translation is that by Dr James Murdock
3 vols. New York, 1832). Other works were
nstitutiones Historia Christiane Majores (1763);
De Rebus Christianorum ante Constantinum Com-
mentarii (1753); Dissertationes ad Historiam Ecele-
siasticam pertinentes (2 vols. new ed. 1767); and
a Ketzergeschichte (2 vols. 1746-48). Mosheim’s
standpoint is that of liberal orthodoxy; and his
greatest work remains a monument of erudition
and insight from the point of view of the impartial
observer.
Moskwa, a branch of the Volga’s tributary,
the Oka, rises in a marsh in the east of Smolensk,
flows east to the city of Moscow, and thence 112
miles south-east to the Oka. Its total course is 305
miles. It is navigable from its mouth to Moscow,
except between November and April, when it is
geenly frozen, and is connected directly with
e Volga by the Moskwa Canal.
Mosque, 2 Mohammedan house of prayer. The
word is derived, through the Italian moschea, from
the Arabic mesjid, ‘a place of prayer.’ The form of
the oldest mosques is evidently from that of the
Christian basilica (see ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE).
The original forms became, however, entirely oblit-
erated in the progress of Mohammedan architec-
tare, and the mosques, with their arcaded courts,
gateways, domes, and minarets, became the most
characteristic edifices of Saracenic art. Wherever
the Mohammedan faith prevailed, from Spain to
India, beautiful examples of these buildings exist.
They vary considerably in style in different
countries, the Saracens generally borrowing much
from the architecture of the various nations who
adopted their faith. In India the mosques have
many features in common with the temples of the
Jains (see the section on architecture in INDIA,
and the illustration at AGRA), while in Turkey
they resemble the Byzantine architecture of Con-
stantinople. Everywhere the dome is one of
the leading and most beautiful features of the
mosques, which commonly consist of porticoes
surrounding an open square, in the centre of
which is a tank or fountain for ablution. Ara-
ues and sentences of the Koran inscribed
upon the walls, which are generally whitewashed,
and never bear any device representing a living
thing, are the only ornaments of the interior. The
floor is generally covered with mats or carpets ;
there are no seats. In the south-east is a kind of
pulpit (mimbar) for the imam ; and in the diree-
tion in which Mecea lies (the Kibleh), there is a
niche (mihrab) towards which the faithful are
sh ay to look when they pray. Opposite the
pulpit there is generally a platform (dikkeh),
surrounded by a parapet, with a desk bearing the
Koran, from which portions are read to the con-
gregation. The five daily prayers, which are
generally said at home on week-days, are said in
the mosque by the whole congregation on geet 4
and certain other days, er with some addi-
tional prayers, and at times a sermon is super-
added to the service, It is not custo for
women to visit the mosques, and if they do, they
are ted from the male worshippers. On
entering the mosque, the Moslem es his
shoes, performs the necessary ablutions, and finishes
by putting his shoes and any arms he may have
with him upon the matting before him. The chief
officer of a mosque is the nazir, under whom are
two imdms, a kind of religious official, in no way
to be compared with what we understand by a
denne of a creed, but who performs a certain
number of religious rites, and, being very badly
remunerated, erally has to find some other
occupation besides. There are further many per-
sons attached to a mosque in a lower ity, as
Muezzins (q.v.), door-keepers, &c., all of whom are
paid from the funds of the mosque itself—gener-
ally derived from lands. With many of the larger
mosques there are schools, academies ( medresselis ),
and hospitals connected, and public kitchens, in
which food is prepared for the poor,
Mosquito (dim. of Span. mosca, ‘a fly’), a
name applied to various troublesome Fi pi r the
most belonging to the genus Culex, though
sometimes members of the adjacent family Simu-
lide. They are very widely distributed, especially
in tropical countries, but also in the far north, as
in Arctic America, Lapland, and Siberia. The
numerous species to which the popular title mos-
quito is justifiably applied are not yet known with
sufficient precision. Yet the entomologists cata-
ae 150 species of Culex alone, of which 35 occur
in Europe, and most of these bite sorely enough to
be ranked as mosquitoes. In hot summers the ¢
is sometimes heard that mosquitoes have appease
in Britain from the Continent or even from
America. Importations no doubt occur; but the
fact is that mosquitoes are always with us under the
nanie of gnats. In hot weather they often appear
in great swarms, especially in low countries,
and the temperature seems to ex: rate their
venomous voracity and our sensibility too. In
laces where they abound complete protection
m their notoriously intense bites is almost im-
possible, but ‘ mosquito-curtains’ of very fine gauze
are most useful safeguards at night. The natives
of various countries smear themselves with oil or
grease, and sometimes sleep with their bodies almost
uried in sand. It is noteworthy, however, that
some people are much less susceptible and sensitive
to mosquito-bites than is the case with the great
majority. In some countries an additional terror
is associated with mosquitoes, since they seem to
be the host of the embryonic stage of Filaria san-
guinis hominis, a parasite of man associated with
the loathsome disease of Elephantiasis (q.v.). For
the Fab and life-history of most mosquitoes,
see GNAT.
Mosquite Coast, or Mosquirtta, eg
independent state under the protectorate of Britain,
lies on the east side of Ni 1a (q.v.), to which
it has belonged since 1860. The coast-lands are
low and swampy, but the interior rises into moun-
tains, and is healthy. The characteristic products
of the West Indies are grown. The inhabitants
are a mixed race, of Indian and African blood, and
number about 15,000. The chief town is Bluefields
(pop. 500). The Mosquito Coast was discovered
in 1502 by Colnmbus, and, though never con-
quered, was claimed by Spain. During the 17th
century it was the rendezvous of the Buccaneers
(q.v.), and was subjected to Britain in 1655, who
only abandoned it in 1850,
i ee ee
ial
es a ee
ae
>
MOSSAMEDES
MOSTAGANEM 327
Mossamedes, a seaport on Little Fish Bay, in
Angola, the Portuguese territory on the West
Coast of Africa. Pop. 2000.
Mosses (Musci). The mosses are a class of
small flowerless plants, important in the economy
of nature, and of great interest in their life-history.
They are found in all climates, but are most abund-
ant in tem regions and in damp places. They
are included with the Liverworts in the division
Muscinee, which is sharply separated from the
r division of Vase Cryptogams (Ferns,
&e.) by the absence of vessels; while the lower
members of the group consist of a mere flat thallus,
and are thus to the Thallophytes. This,
with other characters, indicates that the Muscinee
form an independent branch of the tree of evolution,
and are not an intermediate type.
The uses of mosses in medicine and the arts are
few and unimportant, but in mountain-regions the
thick felts of moss and deep beds of peat soak up
the rain, and so prevent floods from sudden storms,
and in dry weather supply the streams through
weeks of drought. With favouring surroundings
the life a Apc ee seems to be at} the
mosses ( um) we see wing to-day in a
bog are the tips of plants whieh | began life perhaps
thousands of years ago, and which have formed a
bed of peat, which may be 20 feet thick.
his social habit of moss is a peculiarity. In some
species cushions of marvellous regularity are formed ;
it enables individual plants to stand erect, and is of
Get importance in the process of fertilisation.
he capsules of many mosses must be familiar to
every one as small sacs at the ends of their hair-
like stalks, which rise in great numbers from a
moss-cushion. These contain the aporee, from each
of which when sown there grows in a few days a
tiny thread-like plant, the protonema. Buds of
young moss-plants soon appear on this, and then,
as a rule, thread-plant dies. A moss-plant
consists of a stem with leaves and roots. The
roots will grow out from any part of the plant that
is kept dark and damp; they are very like the
Diagram of the Life-history of a Moss :
the threas-like underground proto-
yon de which ‘will rise into moss-
ng portion of moss-plant 5 4 oeee of
i
Ey
if
i
E
male ns (antheridia)
ped organs ( pro-
ae
a
ap
=
ge
lies between ¢ and f; f, apex
is A owe py -. face in
ich — from division of Kiilices egg-cell =a upon
protonema, indeed buds of new plants may arise
on them. Even from a detached leat roots ond new
will grow; this is a sign of the simple
nature of the tissues, By their branching habit,
and by the death of the older parts, which leave
the branches as te plants, and in many species
by the h special buds which are easily
Sisitased frome the porents mosses are rapidly pro-
E
i
"| ‘seta.’
pagated, indeed in many species the production of
spores is rare. The sexual mode of Sepals is
as follows. At the apex of a plant about mid-
summer may often be seen what are popularly
known as moss flowers. These consist of a rosette
of numerous leaves, smaller than ordinary, a sort
of bud in fact. In the centre are male and female
organs (antheridia and archegonia), but in some
species the male are on one plant, the female on
another ; within the ‘ftowers’ are also barren leaves
known as lhyses. The antheridia are club-
shaped bodies ; when ripe, if they are wetted, they
burst ; the contained cells are squeezed out as a
gelatinous mass ; within each cell is a small motile
“antherozoid ;’ this, owing to the nearness of the
plants to one another, is able to swim away if the
moss is thoroughly wet. The archegonia are flask-
shaped; within them lies, in the bottom of the flask,
the egg-cell; in the neck a row of ‘canal cells;’
these, when the egg-cell is ready, swell up and form
a jel. If an antherozoid is near, it enters the
jelly, and working down to the egg-cell fertilises
it. The ovum now ws within the flask, which
for a time grows with it, forming the ‘calyptra ;’
but after a time the flask is split, and the growing
embryo forces its way down into the parent plant,
and is nourished by it. When fully grown it is the
capsule containing spores, of which we have already
spoken, and thus tlie life-cycle of the moss is com-
pleted. This cycle consists of two generations, the
moss-plant which produces an egg; from the egy
grows a plant which produces spores, but itself
remains attached to the parent plant. This is
called an alternation of generations. The fern has
a similar story, but in this case the spore-bearing
ean es is the conspicuous plant. Fossil remains
ave been found in rocks of Paleozoic age.
Classification.—There are some 3000 species ; these
are divided into four orders. (1) Bryaces, which
include the vast majority of genera, The sporan-
ginm always has a cap, ‘calyptra,’ which, when
7 is blown away by the wind; beneath this is
a lid, ‘operculum,’ which splits off from the capsule,
exposing the spores. The capsule has a long stalk,
The commonest forms are Funaria, Poly-
trichum, &e. (2) Phascaces, a small order; the
spores are set free by the rotting of the sporan-
gium ; the protonema persists until the maturity of
the sporangium. (3) Andreacew, a single genus ;
no operculum ; the sporangium opens by 4-8 longi-
tudinal slits. (4) Sphagnacez, hae mosses ; some
of the cells of the leaves grow larger than the rest,
lose their contents while their walls become spirally
thickened ; these cells open one into the other ; the
smaller cells are filled with chlorophyll, and form a
network round the large empty ones. The tissue
of the stem is in the centre a sort of pith; outside
this a layer of long cells with thick walls ; outside
this an epidermal layer of large empty cells. The
male and female organs are either on separate
branches or separate plants.
See articles Liverworts, Ferns, GENERATIONS (AL-
Hnee of Cl OF). ray ten ypas Paracas ; oeOek ays;
nes 0, an apecial y xIO! >
Bennett and Murray, Handbook of Crypt cs ic Botany ;
and works on British mosses by Stark, Holmes and
Gray. Bagnall, and Hobkirk.—The so-called Irish moss
(see CARRAGEEN) is a seaweed. Corsican moss and
Ceylon moss are names of alge (of the genus Plocaria)
used for producing an edible mucilage. Iceland Moss
(q.v.) is a lichen.
Mostaganem, 2 town of Algeria, on the coast,
45 miles NE. of Oran, manufactures Henge and
has corn-mills and tanneries. Pop. (1886) 12,395,
more than one-third being Europeans. It was a
of 40,000 inhabitants in the 16th century ;
and has again grown up from its decayed state
since the French took possession in 1833,
328 MOSTAR
MOTHS
Mostar, the chief town of Herzegovina, on the
Narenta, about 35 miles from the Adriatic, con-
nected by railway with the port of Metkovics,
and vid Sarajevo with Budapest. It takes its
name (‘old bridge’) from a 16th-century bridge of
one arch, 95 feet in span, has numerous mosques,
and is the seat of a Roman Catholic and a Greek
bishop. Wine is produced, and swords and to
manufactured. Pop. 12,655.
Mosul, a decayed town of Asiatic Turkey, in
the province of Al-Jezireh (ancient Mesopotamia),
is situated on the right bank of the Tigris, op-
posite the ruins of ancient Nineveh (q:v.),
miles up the river from It is partly
surrounded by crumbling walls. During the
middle it was a very prosperous city, with
much industry—muslin takes name from this
town ; now its bazaars are filled with the manu-
factures of the West, and almost the only export
is gall-nuts, from the Kurdish mountains. Mosul |
was formerly the metropolis of the Mesopotamian
Christians (the Nestorians, the United Chaldeans,
the Jacobites, “c.), and still contains many
Catholic Christians. Pop. estimated at 30,000.
The town, which existed in 636, enjoyed its greatest
prosperity in the 9th century, and onwards, until
the desolating inroads of the Mongols in the 12th.
Then came the Seljuks; and they were followed
bo mel Tarks, and since then Mosul has steadily
ined.
Motacillidz. See WAcTAIL.
Motazilites, a ‘heretical’ Mohammedan sect,
founded by Wasil b. Ata in the 2d century after
Mohammed. They denied predestination, and re-
cognised in man a power over his own actions.
Mote-hill, See FoLtKmoor.
Motett, a name applied to two different forms
of musical composition—(1) a sacred cantata, con-
sisting of several unconnected movements, as a solo,
trio, chorus, fugue, &c. ; (2) a choral composition,
generally also of a sacred character, beginning with
an introduction in the form of a song, perhaps with
figurative accompaniment; after which follow
several fugue subjects, with their expositions, the
whole ending either with the exposition of the last
subject, a repetition of the introduction, or a special
final subject. A motett differs from a double or
triple fugue in that the subjects never appear
simultaneously, but are introduced one after the
other. In one form of the motett the successive
oo of an entire chorale are treated as so many
ugal subjects,
Mother Carey’s Chicken, a name (a cor-
ruption of Mater cara) familiarly given by sailors to
the Stormy Petrel and other small oceanic species
of Petrel.—The name MoTHER CAREY'S GOOSE is,
in like manner, given to the Great Black Petrel or
Gigantic Fulmar (Procellaria gigantea) of the
er Ocean (see articles on PETREL and FUL-
MAR). :
Mother of Pearl. See PEARL.
Motherwell, a town of Lanarkshire, 12 miles
E. of Glasgow. Owing its rapid growth to the
amazing extension of its mineral industries, it has
a water-supply (1877), municipal buildings
(1887), a public park (1887), large iron and steel
works, &e. Pop. (1841) 726; (1861) 2925; (1871)
6943 ; (1881) 12,904; (1891) 18,726. .
Motherwell, W1L11AM, a Scottish poet and
antiquary, was born in Glasgow, 13th October
1797, and educated in Edinburgh and at the
grammar-school of Paisley, where, in his fifteenth
year, he entered the office of the sheriff-clerk. At
the age of twenty-one he was appointed sheriff-
clerk depute of the county of Renfrew. In 1819
he published his first work, the Harp of Renfrew-
shire, containing biographical notices of the
of that district from the 16th to the 19th century.
This work was but the prelude to one of far iter
importance—his Minstrelsy, Ancient and Modern
(1827). In 1828 he commenced the —s Maga-
zine, in which some of his finest original pieces
first saw the light, and in the same year accepted
the editorship of the Paisley Advertiser, a -
servative journal. In 1830 he became editor of
the Gi Courier. In 1832 he published a col-
lection of his best poems, entitled Poems Narrative
and Lyrical. He died in Glasgow, November 1
1835, at the early age of thirty-eight Motherwell
displays in his best moods (but only then) a rich,
beautiful, and strong imagination, great warmth
and tenderness of feeling, and a thorough know-
ledge of the technique of a poet. His Jeanie Mori-
son is unsu for the mingled pathos and
pao beauty of its reminiscences of boyish
ove; and the lit iece beginning, ‘My heid is
like to rend, Willie,’ has seldom been read with-
out tears. An enl edition of his tical
parang with a memoir, was published in London
in 1849, :
Motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca), a plant
of the natural order Labiate, found about hedges
and in waste yee
in Euro and now
abundantly _natural-
ised in some parts of
North America. It is
not very common in
Britain, and eke
has been introdu
It is perennial, has a
branched stem about
3 feet high, stalked
leaves, the lower ones
3-lobed, and crowded
whorls of reddish-
white flowers. The
plant was formerly in
much use as a domes-
tic pectoral medicine,
but is now compara-
tively little employed.
It has a strong, but
not agreeable smell.—
Other species of the
same genus are found
in Europe and the
north of Asi
Moths, a sub-order
of Lepidopterous_in-
sects, which in twilight
and darkness take the place of the light-loving
butterflies. Technically known as Heterocera,
they are distinguished from the butterflies or
Rhopalocera by the antenns, which are variable
in form instead of being constantly club-tipped,
and by the fact that the wings are usually ex-
paadee, and not elevated, when the insect is at
rest. Like the parallel series of butterflies, the
moths differ greatly from one another in size and,
colour, habit and diet. The giant owl-moth of
Brazil ( Thysania ippina) measures nearly a foot
across from tip to tip of expanded wings, while the
smallest are hardly visible to unaided — They
are represented in most of the world, and are
usually very prolific. The larve or caterpillars
feed mostly on living plants, and in this connection
are very familiar; others of these ravaging forms
ruin clothes, furs, and the like. Most of the latter
belong to the family Tineide, especially to the
genus Tinea. They are the ‘moths par excellence,
against whose ravages housewives carefully ee
Clothes should be kept perfectly dry, and the
MOTIF
MOTLEY 329
wardrobe, chest, &c. containing them should have
no cracks or crevices. Pieces of camphor, sprinkled
pepper, and yee A odoriferous ‘ moth-powder * of
some sort will help to keep the adult moths away ;
but when a host of larvee have the gar-
ment it may be immersed in boiling water, carbolic
acid, &c., or burned as pepeiomiy spoilt, Almost
the only directly useful form is the Silk-moth
(o-v.) There are se te articles on the Hawk
oth, Death’s-head Moth, Gooseberry Caterpillar,
&e. ; see also BUTTERFLY, CATERPILLAR, INSECTS.
Motif, in a musical composition, means the
principal subject on which the movement is con-
erected, and eee carne the “evar ne is con-
stantly appearin one or other of the parts
Sither’ aoniplote a modified. In elaborate and
long compositions there are also secondary motifs.
Motion, Laws or. In developing the subject
of Dynamics (q.v.) it is convenient to lay down in
the form of axioms or the fundamental
principles on which the science is These
axioms are generally referred to as the laws of
motion. They rest ultimately, as do the axioms
of geometry, upon our experience; and once the
terms in which they are expressed are sufficiently
understood, the laws themselves are admitted with-
out further question. We owe to Newton what
still remains the most serviceable, because the
most concise and at the same time complete,
expression of these dynamical axioms. Newton's
aioe ae parti rly Galileo, had already
ormulated some of the fundamental principles of
abstract dynamics; but in the Three Laws of
Motion, which form the basis of the Principia, we
have for the first time all the necessary and sufli-
cient principles laid down in a manner easy to
understand and easy to apply. These three laws
are given both under DyNAMICs and under Force,
and need not be reproduced here.
Newton's method of presenting his definitions
and axioms has been made the subject of much
criticism. And doubtless a logician, confining
his attention to the eight definitions of mass,
momentum, inertia, force, acceleration, &c., and
the three laws of motion, could easily discover
faults of logical arrangement. Nevertheless, tak-
ing this minary section of the Principia, with
its masterly scholia, as a whole, and bearing in
mind that the aim is to establish a theory of
dynamics that shall harmonise with the facts of
experience, we shall find no difficulty in admittin
the soundness of Newton's principles. There is
absolutely no confusion of thought. The demands
on our intellectual faith, whether explicitly stated
or implicitly involved in other statements, are
essentially rational. The treatment is luminous
as it is profound. Attempts have been made to
substitute a more logical procedure; but all such
attempts lead to intricate phraseology and a
cor ing intricacy of dynamic conception
quite beyond the ers of apprehension of the
tyro. And even when all is done it is doubtful if
the strict canons of logic are quite satisfied. It
may be safely said that, as an introduction to the
study of dynamics, Newton's laws of motion, along
with the definitions of the physical quantities
involved, have not as yet been su ,
The train of thought running through Newton's
method may be thus described. Everything dyna-
mical that pens in nature consists of changes
of position and motion of the parts of a material
system. Fixing our attention on one body or
in the system, we soon perceive by experi-
ence that its changes of motion or (more strictly )
momentum relatively to the other parts of the
F eoarec must depend on the mechanism connecting
with these parts. With this mechanism, how-
ever, we do not at first explicitly concern ourselves.
For it we substitute the conception of force, or its
time-accumulation, impulse, which we regard as
the external something causing the observed
change in momentum and measured by that
change. This force may be constant or variable
in space, or it may depend on the velocity of the
body. On these conceptions and definitions we
base the simplest department of abstract dynamics
—that known as the dynamics of a particle. Many
of its theorems are found to be very approximately
realised in the falling of bodies, in the flight of
projectiles, in the motions of planets and comets
round the sun. But before we can to the
dynamics of material systems we must restore the
bones we severed when cag ted, che a of
oree acting on a single particle. ris Newton
completely effected by his third law, in which
every force is ised as being only the half of
a whole, the other half being the equal but
oppositely directed reaction. This means that
whatever change of momentum may be observed
to be taking place in one particle must be balanced
by an equal and opposite change of momentum
occurring elsewhere. Thus, the momentum of a
material system as a whole can never change, how-
ever much its configuration may alter, in virtue of
the mutual actions of its parts. And in this state-
ment we may readily recognise the generalisation
of the first law of motion—commonly called the
Law of Inertia—in its application to any complex
material system, dynamically isolated, and con-
sidered as a unity. Newton's very remarkable
second interpretation of the third law, given at the
end of the scholium attached, implicitly contains,
as was first pointed out by Thomson and Tait,
nearly the whole of the modern doctrine of energy.
It is discussed under that heading. See also Force
for the discussion of the Second Law.—For Motion
in Plants, see IRRITABILITY, PLANTS, SENSITIVE
PLANTS, SPORE; for animal locomotion, see FLy-
ING, Horse, &e,
Motley, Joun Lorurop, historian and diplo-
matist, was born in Dorchester, Massachusetts,
April 15, 1814. He had an in- right 1891 in U.S.
heritance of wit and literary taste vy J. B. Lippincott
as well as of fortune, and had all °™?*":
timely advantages of education and travel to
make him the ‘picked man of countries’ which
he became. He attended the school at North-
ampton, Massachusetts, kept by Dr Cogswell and
Bancroft the historian, and at the age of thirteen
entered Harvard College, graduating in 1831.
He next studied in German universities, and at
Géttingen was the intimate friend of Bismarck.
His reading was various und enormous, especially
in poetry and fiction, and in modern languages.
He ‘toiled terribly’ afterwards, when he made the
studies for his history, but his early assiduity was
like that of a bee in a flower-garden. He was
naturally a favourite in society, as he was tall and
gneeeaney: handsome, with a captivating manner.
His resemblance to Lord Byron was priking:
He was married in 1837 to Miss Benjamin, a lady
of beauty and accomplishments. In 1839 he pub-
lished his first work, an historical novel, entitled
Morton’s Hope. Its brilliant pictures were ad-
mired, but it was not successful. His second
novel, M mt, was partly a protest against
the gloom of Puritanism, and was more favourably
received ; yet it was evident that the genius of the
author was not to be displayed in fiction. When,
afterwards, the splendour of Motley’s style lighted
up the t scenes of history, as, for instance, the
abdication of Charles V.’ in the town-hall of
Brussels, it was seen that his ardent and im-
apinetive nature had found its predestined place.
is studies early turned in this direction, but
$30 MOTLEY
MOULDINGS
fully ten years were consumed in his pre
tions, and in completing his History o, the Dutch
Republic. This work, published in 1856, estab-
lished his fame, and was translated into many
lan, the French version being supervised by
Guizot. The labours which were the indispens-
able foundation of the work can be compre-
hended best from the author's own account, which
will be found in a letter printed in Dr Holmes’
Memoir of Motley (1878). This letter is further-
more valuable as a sketch of his intended work,
which was to be continued to 1648, the peace of
Westphalia—a vast design which he did»not live
toaccomplish. In 1857 he was once more in Boston,
and contributed to the Atlantic Monthly a paper on
Florence. But he soon returned to Europe, as the
materials for European history were not accessible
in the United States. The first part of his History
of the United Netherlands appeared in 1860. The
capacity for research and the power of pictorial
representation were combined in this as in the
preceding work.
The civil war in the United States aroused the
deepest feeling in Motley, and his letters to the
London Zimes upon the policy of the British
government were probably the most important
and decisive of all the efforts made by patriotic
Americans to enlighten the British public upon
the momentous issues involved. In 1861 he was
ewe minister to Austria, and remained until
1867, when he resigned in consequence of a foolish
attack made upon him. In 1868 the second part of
the History of the United Netherlands appeared.
In 1869 he was appointed minister to Great
Britain, but was summarily recalled the followin;
year, under cireumstances which made the reca
an megys f There had grown up a deadly feud
between Charles Sumner, senator from Massa-
chusetts, and President Grant; and, as Motley
and Sumner were intimate friends, the recall of
the minister was designed as a blow at the senator.
The pretext was that Motley had disregarded his
instructions, but it is evident that his dismissal
had been determined upon. Motley was cut to
the heart, and brooded over his unmerited disgrace
to the day of his death.
His next and final work was The oF and Death
of John Barneveld, a biography which is virtuall
history, and a part of his main theme, thong
not a distinct continuation. After the death of
his wife in 1874 Motley paid another visit to the
United States. His severe labours and trials had
impaired his strength, and he had had some slight
attacks of apoplexy. After his return to England
in 1876 he gradually sank, and died at Kingston
Russell, the Dorestehire residence of his daughter,
Sir William Vernon Harcourt’s wife, May 29, 1877.
He was buried at Kensal Green.
The character of Motley is strongly impressed
upon his works, and they are as far removed from
annals as possible. His long studies, aided by his
creative imagination, enabled him to make past
ages live again, and to present historical person-
with their own traits and manners. Few
historians have given such illumination and stereo-
scopic reality to people and scenes described ; and
the same eager nature makes it impossible for him
to attain to judicial impartiality. He glories in
eeing a partisan—a partisan of progress, liberty,
and humanity. Criticism has touched his narra-
tions only in some minor details; of their general
faithfulness there is no question.
Two large volumes of his correspondence were edited
by George William Curtis in 1888, His own letters are
plotarenque, eloquent, and weighty by turns. Many of
them are addressed to Dr Holmes, his most intimate
friend. Bismarck’s letters are charming. The Memoir
by O. W. Holmes (1878) is an affectionate tribute.
Motor-cars. See Traction ENcInes, TRAM-
ways, ELECTRIC RAILWAY, GAS-ENGINE. The
restrictions that hampered progress were removed
in November 1896. For motor-powers in general,
see also AIR-ENGINE, COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE,
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINES, ELECTRICITY,
STEAM-ENGINE, ec.
Motril, a town of Spain, 31 miles S. E. of
Granada, with factories and lead mines. The port
is at Calahonda, 64 miles SE. Pop. 16,665.
Motto, in Heraldry, a word or short sentence
which forms an accompaniment to a coat-of-arms,
crest, or household badge ; it was called in Scotland
the ‘ditton.’ In France and Scotland it was fre-
quently placed above the crest, in England almost
invariably below the escutcheon. A motto is
sometimes a religious or moral sentiment, as
‘Gardez la foi,’ ‘Humanitate,’ ‘Et decus et
pretium recti’ (Grafton); it is not unfrequently
a heroic exclamation or war-cry, ‘Cou sans
peur,” ‘Forward.’ Sometimes it alludes to a
set tenure, as ‘Free for a blast’ (Clerk of
enicuik); while in a great many cases it bears
reference to the crest, badge, or some bearing of
the eseutcheon. Thus, Stuart, Earl of Moray, has
for crest a pelican wounding herself, and for motto,
‘Salus per Christum Redemptorem.’ Not a few
mottoes are ‘canting’ or punning allusions to the
family name—as ‘Seuto amoris Divini,’ for Seuda-
more; ‘ Ver non semper viret,’ for Vernon; ‘ Fare,
fae,’ for Fairfax; ‘Time Deum, cole regem,’ for
Coleridge; and ‘Teneo quia teneor,’ for Holden.
Two mottoes are sometimes by the same famil
—one above the crest, the other below the shield.
The motto, ‘ Dieu et mon Droit,’ which accompanies
the royal arms of Great Britain, is sup to have
been a war-cry, and was used in England at least
as early as the time of Henry VI. Its origin has
been assigned to a saying of Richard I., ‘ Not we,
but God and our right ave vanquished France.’
See Seton’s Law and Practice of Heraldry (1863).
Monuffion (Ovis Musimon), the wild sheep of
Corsica, Sardinia, central Asia, &c. ARGALI,
and SHEEP.
Moukden. See MUKDEN.
Mould, or Movipress, the common name of
many minute fungi which make
their appearance, often in
crowded multitudes, on decay-
ing or diseased plants and 1
animals and animal and vege-
table substances. To the naked
eye they often seem like
patches of fine cobweb, which
are shown by the a may
to consist of cellular threads.
Their structure and history are
described in the article FUNGI,
from the systematic of
which it will be seen that the
popular name is applied to 3
many very different forms—
e.g. the common White Mould
U ucor mucedo), the Bread
—
ould (Eurotium Aspergillus-
glaucus), the mould of fruit 4
=e
and jam ( Penicillium glaucum),
&e. See also Dry Rot.
ornaments in cornices, els,
arches, &e., and in all enriched
apertures in buildings. In
soak architecture the mould-
ings are few in number, and
definitely fixed in their forms. The illustration
MOULINS
MOUND BUILDERS __33i1.
shows (1) the Echinus, (2) Cyma Recta, (3) Cyma
Reversa, (4) Scotia, (5) Torus; another ie the
Fillet (q.v.); and each of these mouldings has its
ro lace assigned to it in each order (see
Conon ). In Gothic architecture, and all other
styles, the mouldings are not reduced to a system
as in the Greek and Roman styles, but may be
used in every variety of form at the pleasure of
the artist. Certain forms generally prevail at one
period in any style. Thus, in Gothic architecture
the date of a building may in many instances be
determined by the form of the mouldings. The
Norman mouldings were very simple in outline,
and frequently enriched with the zigzag and billet
ornaments. Fig. 6 is a common Norman form.
In the English style the mouldings are also
simple in outline, and are usually arranged in
rectangular divisions, as in fig. 7, and consist of
Various Mouldings.
alternate rounds and hollows. In late examples
of this style the fillet was introduced (fig. 8) and
led to the more elaborate form of mouldings durin,
See Papateuler exyla tes gevcally Satter
1e ular style are gene jatter an
thinner than the preceding, and have \ Sone hollows
separated by narrow fillets.
Moulins, the capital of the French department
of Allier, on the right bank of the river Allier, here
crossed by a handsome stone bridge of thirteen
arches, lies 196 miles by rail SSE. of Paris and 124
NW. of Lyons. A clean, well-built town, with
— promenades, it has a cathedral (1468-1871),
he r old ; a square tower of the old castle of the
dukes of Bourbon ; a 15th-century belfry ; and the
chapel of a former convent. Marshals Villars and
Berwick were natives, and Clarendon wrote here
t part of his History. Nor must Sterne’s Maria
forgotten. Pop. (1872) 19,774; (1886) 21,213.
Moulmein. See MAULMAIN.
Moultan, See Mutran.
Moulting, a general name for the process by
which birds lose some of their Soathetrs, or crusta-
ceans cast their cuticular shells, or young insects
get rid of their outer husk in metamorphosis. The
shedding of the hair in. mammals and the sloughing
of snakes, &c. are also analogous. See Brirp,
Cras, Crustacea, Harr, Insects, SNAKE, &c.
Moulton, Louise CHANDLER, writer, was born
in Pomfret, nectient, 5th April 1835, married at
twenty W. U. Moulton, a Boston publisher, and
has published children’s stories, novels, essays, and
poems. Her.stories are unaffected and well con-
structed, full of grace and tenderness; her verse
reveals the rarer gift of lyrical music. Here may
Sy eH
seco es , and a thi 1880) ; Some
Women’s Hearts (1874); Miss Eyre from Boston,
de. pie and In the Garden of ums (1890),
a volume of charmingly tender and pathetic verse.
Moultrie, Fort, a fortress on Sullivan’s Island,
at the mouth of Charleston Harbour, South Carolina,
celebrated for the repulse of a British squadron com-
manded by Sir Peter Parker, 28th January 1776.
The fort, which had 26 guns and 435 men, and was
commanded by Colonel William Moultrie (1731-
1805), had been hastily built of palmetto logs, in
two rows 16 feet apart, with the space between
filled with sand. The spongy wood of the palmetto
was found to resist the cannon balls perfectly.
Moultrie, JoHN, minor poet, born in London
in 1799, educated at Eton and Trinity College,
Cambridge, took orders, and was presented in 1828
to the rectory of Rugby where he enjoyed the
friendship of Arnold. e died in 1874. Some
little poems of deep tenderness in My Brother's
Grave (1837), and The Dream of Life (1843), have
kept his name from being quite forgotten ; neither
the praises of Wordsworth nor Praed could keep
Godiva alive. There is a Memoir by Derwent
Coleridge prefixed to an edition of his Poems (1876).
Mound-birds (Mega ide), a family of gal-
linaceous birds remarkable for the large mounds
which they build as incubators for the e; They
are natives of Australasia and of the islands in
the Eastern Archipelago and Pacific. The Australian
Megapodes (Aegipodine tumulus), about the size
of common fowls, build mounds of leaves, vege-
table refuse, and soil, and add to them year after
until they become immense structures. The
gest on record measured 150 feet in circumfer-
ence. Both sexes work at the nest, in which the
eggs are laid in separate holes at a depth of 5 or
6 feet, and left to be hatched by the warmth of the
decomposing vegetable matter. The mound of the
Nicobar species (M. nicobariensis) seems to be used
not only by the original pair, but 5 Bes descend-
ants as well. In a related genus, Leipoa, the eggs
are laid separately in a circle in the centre of the
mound, and then deeply coyered up with compost.
In the genus Tallegallus—represented yd the large
Brush-turkey (Tallegallus lathami) of Australia—
the mounds are socially by a number of birds.
Mound Builders, the name given to a
vanished race of North America, by whose labour
the remarkable earth mounds found in the United
States were raised. These mounds exist in extra-
ordinary numbers over all the country between the
Alleghany and Rocky Mountains, but chiefly in
Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri; they are
abundant in all the Gulf States, and even farther
south, and they extend at least as far north as the
Great Lakes. Their usual height is from 6 to 30
feet, with a diameter of 40 to 100 feet. The
majority are simply conical burial mounds, mostly
rising from 15 to 25 feet, though one in West
Virginia is 70 feet high and over 300 feet in
diameter at the base. But very many others of
these mounds are defensive, and others again have
a religions origin. The fortifications, usually
earthworks raised on heights near some water-
course, embrace walls, trenches, watch-towers,
and are too skilfully constructed to have been
temporary defences: many archeologists believe
that there was a connected line of defensive works
from New. York to Ohio. In the Mississippi
Valley, where the largest mounds are, these forts
disappear; and it is supposed that the principal
enemies of the Mound Builders had sheir home in
the east—perhaps in the Alleghanies. Some of the
Ohio fortresses enclose over 100 acres, the walls of
earth, winding in and out, in each case being several
miles long. In the alluvial valleys other enclosures
have been found, regular—circular, square, &c.—
in shape; these have been called ‘sacred en-
closures,’ but on very problematical grounds; and
the same criticism applies to the identification of
the smaller low mounds, from a few inches square
to 50 by 15 feet, which have been called ‘altars.’
Of the ‘temple’ mounds, however, there are
numerous examples, some very large: one in
332 MOUNTAIN ASH
MOUNTAINS
Illinois reaches a height of 90 feet, and measures
700 by 500 feet at the base; and another in
Mississippi is 600 by 400 feet, and its topmost
mound 18 80 feet above the base. To these must
be added the curious mounds constructed in the
shape of animals, and sometimes extending to
a length of 400 feet. They are most numerous in
Wisconsin, but one of the most interesting is the
serpent mound near Bush Creek, Ohio (figured
and described in The Century, April 1890).
As to the identity of the Mound Builders opinions,
of course, differ. The general tendency is to recognise
their descendants in the Natchez and other kindred
tribes whom the r ormge found on the Mississippi,
rtly because their chief was both king and
deity—he was regarded as the child of the sun—
and so we find evidences of the religious feeling
and the despotic power necessary to secure the
accomplishment of such enormous works, The
race may perhaps also have survived in the more
highly civilised tribes whom De Soto and his fol-
lowers met with in Florida and the other southern
states. But a comparison of the Mound Builders’
civilisation with that which prevailed in Mexico
when Cortes landed, supplies very strong argu-
ments for connecting these northern Indians,
driven sonth by their nomadic enemies, with the
tribes who came from the north and in turn
- expelled successively the Toltecs and one another,
blending their more savage customs with the higher
civilisation which they found there (see MEXICO),
The contents of the mounds support this view. It
is evident that the Mound Builders, like the later
Mexican tribes, were in the transition stage between
the stone and metal age ; copper they had obtained
in the same primitive manner as it was obtained
in Mexico, but the weapons and tools were stone
implements, and knives of obsidian especially—the
well-known sacrificial knives of the Aztecs—were
common. Their art and manufactures were both
of a low standard; bnt it is well known that
the invaders of the Mexican tableland partly
absorbed the civilisation they found there, partly
degraded it. Finally, it may be mentioned that
the sepulchral mounds yield many evidences of the
cruel rites of their builders; and the pyramidal
form of the ‘temple’ mounds is reproduced in the
teocalli of Mexico. See Squier and Davis, Ancient
Monuments of the Mississippi Valley (1848); Con-
ant’s Footprints of Vanished Races in the Missis-
sol Valley; Thruston, Antiquities of Tennessee
fs ); Shepherd, Antiquities of Ohio (1890); and
oorehead, Fort Ancient, Ohio (1890).
Mountain Ash. See Rowan.
Mountaineering. See ALrrne CLUB.
Mountain-leather, &. See AmpursoLe.
Mountain Meadow. See Danires.
Mountains. Every one knows what a moun-
tain is, and yet it is hard to give an adequate
definition of the term. We may say vaguely that
any region the surface of which rises with a more or
less steep gradient to a height of 1000 feet or more
is a mountain. Mountains differ vastly in form—
some assuming pyramidal or conical shapes, others
forming ridges, others occurring as irregular amor-
— masses. Some again stand in more or less
ated positions, whilst in other cases very many
crowd together, forming a billowy mass of elevated
ground; and yet others, amongst which are the
most prominent mountains of the globe, extend
continuously in definite directions as long ran
and chains for hundreds or thousands of miles,
Notwithstanding this diversity of form and of
grouping, all mountains may be classified as—(a)
mountains of accumulation, (4) mountains of eleva-
tion, (¢) mountains of circumdenudation,
(a) Mountains of Accumulation.—Voleanoes may
be taken as the type of this class of mountains
(fig. 6 These are of course formed by the accumula-
tion of igneous materials around the focus or foci of
p Z.
Fig. 1.—Volcano ; Mountain of Accumulation.
eruption. Most volcanoes are more or less conical
in shape ; but in the case of those which have been
oe extinct the form has often been ae
modified by the denuding action of the su rial
agents. me very ancient ones have been so
demolished that frequently all that remains of
pasar oe goes range poe of the so
erystalline rocks that up t i or flues
through which the enemas "sine found a
passage to the surface. In former times lava
seems often to have welled up along the lines
extensive fissures and flooded surrounding regions.
This happening again and again, vast plateaus
have been built up. These are called plateaus of
accumulation. Many of these, however, have since
been highly denuded, so that a have now quite
@ mountainous appearance (fig. 2). As examples
Fig. 2.—Plateau of Accumulation, A—B ;
Mountains of Circumdenudation (m, m).
may be mentioned the denuded | pisreerarsny Teeland,
the Faroes, Antrim and Mull, Abyssinia, and the
Decean, Of course a of accumulation are
not always formed of igneous rocks. Any area of
approximately horizontal aqueous strata, were it
to be elevated to a height of a thousand feet or
so, would form a plateau of the kind, such as the
plateau of the Colorado, That plateau is geologi-
cally of recent origin, and yet sufficient time has
elapsed to allow of profound erosion of its surface.
Thus, mountains and plateaus of accumulation
often owe — of ceva present features to the
(6) Mountains of Plevation owe their origin to
the folding, crumpling, and fracturing of strata
that accom t movements of the
earth’s crust. ey are lines of weakness al
which the rocks have yielded to excessive late!
compression by fol and doubling up, during
the sinking down of the cool outer shell of the
globe upon the more rapidly contracting hot
nucleus, The simplest structure presented
mountains is shown in the Uinta Moun of
Wyoming and Utah. This is a flattened arch of
strata, bores Soh role of 50 miles and a length of
150 miles, w bulges up to a h Int of 5000 or
6000 feet above the plains on either side. It shows
a broad platean-like surface which has been deeply
eroded. Powell believes that a thickness of
34 miles of strata has been denuded from its
surface. In the Jura Mountains we have a series
of parallel ridges, each ridge coinciding with a
symmetrical anticlinal or saddle-backed arrange-
ment of strata, while the intervening hollows
occupy symmetrical synclinal troughs (fig. 3).
The tops of the anticlines are all more or less
denuded, In the western part of the same ran
of mountains the flexures of the strata are m
such .
ee) a
Vol, Vil; page 882, SHELL MOUND, BARKER'S BLUFF, INDIAN RIVER, FLORIDA.
MOUNTAINS
333
“‘Rdeymmantzical (6g. 4). In
the Alps and mountain-
ranges of similar ter the fiexures of the strata
Ballsthal. Miinster. Rameux.
eX —
Fig. 3.—Symmetrical Flexures of Swiss Jura
(Mountains of Elevation).
are frequently reversed—the beds being doubled
back so that older strata are inverted and over-
turned upon younger beds. The accompanying
section exhibits the principal features in what is
known as the Alpine type of mountain structure
Valserine,
H -
L$OSEEB GY NT
Fig. 4.—Unsymmetrical Flexures of Swiss Jura
(Mountains of Elevation ).
(fig. 5). A glance at the diagram will show that
the greater features of the surface coincide approxi-
mately with the larger flexures of the strata, but
S| Ys
———= Zz : SATA . \ AN \\\\ .
SS LAF.) WY) }
{
a-< CNN
\ ww
Mi
Fig. 5.—Section across a Mountain-chain (Elevation Mountains): a—a, Isoclinal Folds (showing inversion
of strata) ; b-—b, Symmetrical Folds.
that these features have been greatly modified
denudation. In such mountain-regions the
highly flexed and contorted strata are uentl
islocated; but for the sake of clearness suc
dislocations are not represented in the diagrain.
Occasionally we find that the prominent features
in a mountain-region have been determined by pro-
found dislocations of the rocks, as is well shown in
the parallel ranges of the Great Basin, of western
Arizona, and of northern Mexico. That region has
heen divided into a series of long narrow blocks by
a system of parallel dislocations—the prominent
mountain-ridges corresponding to the blocks on
the high or upeast side of the fractures. Although
the direction and general form of those mountains
are thus the result of earth-movements, the
evidence of subsequent erosion and denudation is
every where conspicuous.
(c) Mountains of Cireumdenudation.—In countries
com of undulating and highly-folded strata
which have been for long ex to the
action of eroding agents the ultimate form assumed
os the ground is directly dependent on the character
the rocks and the mode of their arrangement
(fig. 6). Plateaus in course of time come to be
deeply trenched in different directions and eventu-
ally lose their plateau character. The remaining
portions of high und then form groups of moun-
tains and hills. In regions of horizontal or approxi-
mately horizontal strata the mountains assume the
form of pyramids or flat-topped mesas and buttes,
excellent lerrond og of which are seen in the
western territories of North America, and in the
much-denuded basaltic plateans of Iceland and the
Faroe Islands (fig. 2). In regions of folded and
contorted strata, com of diverse kinds of
the orographic features are more variable.
A highly-denuded plateau of folded strata seen
from a height presents the appearance of a tumbled
and billowy sea—the Scottish Highlands and the
high grounds of Scandinavia being examples of
mountains of cirenmdenudation which have been
carved out of elevated plateaus of denudation
big. 7). The origin of a plateau formed of such
and contorted strata requires a word of
explanation. Mountains of elevation are in the
course of time denuded and degraded, and should
the land of which they form a part remain long
enough above the sea, the whole surface must
A> ™m ™m m <_B
1; L,
/
Fig. 7.—Plateau of Denudation, A—B; showing
Mountains of Circumdenudation ( m, m).
eventually be reduced to the condition of a low
gently undulating plain. Should elevation now
ensue, this plain Tse a plateau—the surface
of which by-and-by is trenched and furrowed by
running water, &c., as is the case with the ancient
platgaus of Scotland and Scandinavia.
Age of Mountains.—As might have been expected,
mountains are of all geological dates, and the age
of a large number has been determined. But this
has reference chiefly to those that owe their origin
to accumulation (voleanie cones) or to com-
pression and folding of strata during great eartli-
movements (mountains of elevation). Many of
the latter are the result, not of one, but of several
successive periods of uplift, It can often be shown
that between those periods of movement the
mountains have been subjected to long-continued
erosign, and partially or even wholly submerged,
while newer accumulations of sediment were gradu-
ally piled up over their denuded surfaces. The
Pyrenees, the Alps, the Jura, the Himalayas, the
Andes, and many other ore monet ranges have
been formed by successive upthrusts, separated by
longer or shorter periods of degradation and sedi-
mentation. Some mountains of elevation, which
originated in very early geological times, appear to
have been denuded down to their very roots—
reduced to the condition of low-lying plains. Such
plains have subsequently been pushed up bodily
and converted into plateaus, which in the course of
time have been profoundly modified by denudation,
so as now to present the appearance of a rolling
mountainous country—the mountains being moun-
tains of circumdenudation (fig. 7). The greatest
and loftiest mountains of elevation have all received
their latest uplift in comparatively recent geological
times. Amongst such young ranges we find that
the larger orographic features coincide more or
less closely with the greater convolutions, folds,
and fractures of the strata. In ranges belonging
to much older dates denudation has profoundly
334 MOUNTMELLICK
MOUSE
modified the original configuration of the surface—
the present orographic features being the result
of denudation, determined by the character of the
rocks and the geological structure of the ground.
Hence in such regions anticlinal mountains, which
are weak structures, are almost unknown, while
synclinal troughs, which are strong structures, in
pace of coinciding with valleys (as in the Jura
fountains, fig. 3), have often come to form moun-
tainous ridges (figs. 6, 7).
Mountain-systems.—Some attempts have been
made to group the various mountain-ranges of the
world into systems, more rticularly E. de
‘Beaumont, who maintained the synchronism of
ranges situated on lines parallel to one another. The
parallelism does not consist in having the same
relations to the points of the compass—for these as
regards north and south would be far from parallel—
but is estimated in its relation to some imaginary
great circle, which being drawn round the globe
would divide it into equal hemis heres, Such circles
were called Great Circles of Reference. But De
Beaumont went beyond this, and proposed a more
refined classification, ge cag on a principle of
metrical symmetry, which he believed he had
iscovered among his great circles of reference,
These geometrical speculations have never com-
mended themselves much to geologists. It has
been demonstrated indeed that certain mountain-
chains in widely separated regions belong approxi-
mately to the same geological age, and may really
be strictly synchronous. But much more has yet
to be known of the geological structure of the
various ranges of the earth before any general
grouping of these into systems can be considered
reliable. See ALps, GREAT Britain (Physical
Geography), HIMALAYA.
The following table shows the heights of some of
the principal peaks in the several continents :
Norra AMERICA, Feet.
Nevado de Toluca....... 454
Orizaba,..........eeeees 1
Mount St Elias...
Mount Brown ....
ASIA,
Everest, Himalayas...... 29,002
Dapsang, Karakorums. . .28,700
Tagarma, Pamir......... 25,800
Khan-tengri, Tian-shan., 24,000
Evrore.
Mont Blanc.
Ben Nevis..
Snowdon ...
Carran-Tual ...
Scaw Fell Pike.
Mountmellick, a town in Queen’s County,
Treland, on the Grand Canal, 7 miles N. of Mary-
jowlien of by rail. It has a brewery, a tannery, and
manufactures woollens and tobacco, Pop. 3126.
Mount Morgan, a gold-mining township in
Queensland, 28 miles SSW. of Rockhampton. The
gold-mine at the summit of the mount, said to be
the richest deposit in Australia, was originally
sold for £640 to a copartnery, including the
brothers Morgan, and after changing hands several
times became a limited liability company, with a
capital of £1,000,000. The gold is described as of
unusual fineness and purity. An estimate made
in 1887 was to the effect that there were 1,000,000
tons of ore available, from which gold to the value
of £20,000,000 was expected. The yield in 1891 was
143,795 ounces (see QUEENSLAND). Pop, 3514.
Mount Vernon, memorable as the residence
and the burial-place of General Washington, is on the
ht bank of the Potomac, in Virginia, 15miles below
ashington. In 1856 the mansion and surrounding
property were saved from the auctioneer’s hammer,
and secured as a national possession by the Ladies’
Mount Vernon Association, assisted principally by
Edward Everett.—Mount Vernon has given its
name to a number of places in the United Sta’
the most important of which is a city, the capi
of Knox county, Ohio, on the Vernon River, 44
miles by rail NNE. of Columbus, It contains many
handsome residences, and the river affords ample
water-power for a number of mills and manu-
factories of doors and sashes, furniture, machinery,
&e. Pop. (1890) 6016.
Mourne Mountains. See Down.
Mousa. See Brocu.
Mouse (Mus musculus), a familiar rodent,
ec eg on of a large genus to which rats also
belong. It is not necessary to describe the soft
* mouse-coloured ’ fur occasionally varying to white ;
the scaly tail so useful in climbing; the bright,
conspicuous eyes; and the well-hidden nest,
Not less familiar is the way in which this tiny
mammal has followed man everywhere over the
earth; breeding all the year round, and bringing
forth four or five young ata birth, its extraordinary
fecundity sometimes causes a plague in a district (as
in the wheat-fields of South Australia in 1890). It
may be well, however, in the face of continually
recurrent discussion, to note the power that at least
some of the common mice have of making musical
sounds, ‘ not a pcem a but singing, musically and
rhythmically, in a high key, with a thin and ela
but not displeasing quality —something like a weak-
voiced canary bird.” Mice are occasionally canni-
bals, and have been known to eat painters’ pu
with red lead in it, Larger than the above
the beautiful Wood-mouse (J/. sylvaticus), an
abundant pest in the fields and gardens of Euro
notable for the stores of grain and other food which
it accumulates among the grass or just under the
surface of the und. Smaller than either, and
smallest of British mammals, is the Harvest-mouse
(M. minutus),
which makes a
neat globular
nest of woven
_ amon,
the an
reads; The
white - footed
mouse (Hes-
peromys of
copus), whic
is exceeding]
common in N,
America, has
small cheek-
pouches, struc-
tures best de-
veloped in the
related family
of Cricetine
t eer es
rresponding
to the Euro-
1, Harvest-mouse (Mus minutus) ;
2, Long-tailed Field-mouse (Afus
sylvaticus).
todon, of which 0. humilis measures only about
2 inches in length, not including the tail. Ws
the Water-mice (Hydromys) of Australia may
noted as remarkably divergent. The name is some-
times extended, as we have seen, to include the
smaller species of other genera than Mus, rat being
an equally wide title for the larger forms. But,
while the wide application of the name is naturally
justified, care must be taken to keep the shrews
(Sorex ) in their entirely distinct, though somewhat
analogous, position among Insectivora. See Rat,
SHREW, VOLE.
ie ey
ma al
MOUSQUETAIRES
MOZART 335
Mousquetaires, the mounted body-guard of
the kings of France, all of noble birth, were
ocanieel | by Louis XIII. in 1622. They rode gray
horses, and were disbanded in 1815.
Mouth. See the articles dealing with Palate,
Digestion, Teeth, Tongue, Cancrum Oris, Saliva-
tion, Seurvy, Xe.
Movables. See HERITABLE AND MOVABLE.
Moville, a seaside resort in County Donegal,
on Lough Foyle, 19 miles NNE. of Londonderry.
It is a calling-station of the Transatlantic steam-
packets of the Anchor line. Pop. 1129.
Moving Plant (Desmodium gyrans), a plant
of the natural order minose, sub-order Pa-
pilionacee, a native of India, remarkable, as are
also some other species of the same genns, for the
taneous movement of the leaves. See PLANTS
(MOVEMENT OF).
Mowing machine, a machine for mowing
lawns and mling-ererue, instead of the scythe.
The mowing- ine differs from the reaping-
machine in afinciple, chiefly in having revolvin
instead of horizontal cutters. The first successfu
mowing-machines in use in Britain were those
invented by Shanks of Arbroath and by Green of
Leeds about 1850, whose improved machines are
pg the best where the wear and tear are heavy.
ere are now many rivals to these, chiefly of
American manufacture, which are preferable to
them on the score of lightness of dranght, and
consequently ease and speed in the performance of
the work,
Moxa is a peculiar form of counter-irritation
which was early practised in the East, particularly
by the Chinese and Japanese, from whom it was
learned Portuguese. One or more small
cones, formed of the downy cove of the leaves
of Artemisia Moxa (as u by the Chinese), or of
the pith of various plants (as of the common sun-
dag diel of linen stee in nitre, are placed on
the skin over the affected part, and the ends remote
from the skin are ignited. The combustion gradu-
ally pom throngh the cone and forms a super-
ficial eschar on the skin. The surrounding parts
must be protected by a pad of wet rag, with a
_ in it for the pear Pies is not Lae used in
urope in consequence of the somewhat severe pai
attending it. : Fi
Mousuibaene, the collective name for the
territories of Portugal on the east coast of Africa,
extends from Delgado to Del Bay, a
distance of 1300 miles. northern boundary is
the Rovuma, the southern (in part), the Maputa,
and the western frontiers are formed by Lake Tan-
genyike, the river Ruo, the Zambesi up to Zumbo,
ashona and Matabele Lands ( British South Africa
Company’s Territories), and the Transvaal. The
principal rivers, besides those already mentioned,
are Limpopo and Sabi, towards the south.
The coast belt is low and swampy; but the in-
terior rises into well-wooded plateaus, which fur-
nish valuable timber. The soil is naturally fertile,
and yields, in addition to maize, rice, manioc, &c.,
an abundance of natural products, such as cotton,
sesame, cocoa-nut, medicinal plants, and india-
rubber, but very little is done to cultivate them,
owing to lack of capital and of means of communi-
cation. The imports (cotton goods, beads, hard-
ware, arms and gunpowder, coals, spirits, and pro-
visions) average about £508,000 annually; the
exports Cvery. ground nuts, india-rubber, wax,
copal, and oil ) about £765,000, The gn ie 3
is oagee’ (seven-tenths) in the hands of Britis
firms. Customs duties are eterna 3 heavy ;
agriculture does not flourish ; mining is little pro-
‘secuted, although the country is rich in minerals,
in gold, silver, iron, coal, and copper ; pearls abound
on the reefs off the coast, but are not gathered to
any extent; and there is annually a deficit equal
to 43 per cent. of the expenditure—some £60,000,
which is made by the home country. The
p. of the province is estimated at one million.
Tiere is a railway (1887) of 52 miles from Dela-
foe Bay to the Transvaal frontier. Chief towns:
ozambique, Quilimane, and Lourenco Marques,
for which see the separate articles. The Mozam-
bique territories are administered by a governor-
general, assisted by a governing and a provincial
council, and are divided into nine districts, each
under a district governor.
MOozAMBIQUE, the capital, stands on a small
coral island lying close to the mainland, and has
a fine government house, a cathedral, an arsenal,
&e. A fort, built by Albuquerque in 1508, two
years after he occupied the island for Portugal,
still stands at the north end of the island. Pop.
7380, of whom 6800 are natives, 280 Banyans, and
about 100 Europeans. The city was formerly a
t place for the slave-trade, but seems now
ardly able to hold its own against Quilimane and
Lourenco oon Its total trade ranges annually
between £250,000 and £320,000.
Mozambique Channel, between Madagascar
and the east coast of Africa, is about 1000 miles in
length and 400 in average breadth. At its northern
extremity lie the Comoro Islands.
Mozarabes. See Mortscos; and for Moz-
arabian Liturgy, see LITURGY.
Mozart, WoLFGANG AMADEUS CHRYSOSTOM,
was the younger child of Leopold Mozart, Kapell-
meister to the Archbishop of Salzburg, and was
born in Salzburg on 27th January 1756. Num-
erous anecdotes are related of his childhood, illus-
trating an almost incredible precocity of genius,
whose early promise, however, was amply ful-
filled in his after-life. On his first professional tour
through Europe when he was six years old, he was
accompanied by his sister Marianne, and under
their father’s care the children visited Vienna,
Paris, Belgium, and London. The greatest triumphs
of Mozart were won in Bologna, then the musical
centre of Italy. The Philharmonic Academy there
suspended the rule 25 oor no one under twenty
was eligible for membership, in order to elect this
young prodigy of barely fifteen. The wonderful
pone of his memory was illustrated by a famous
eat performed in this Italian tour. The Easter
music in the Sistine chapel was jealously kept from
the eyes of outsiders, and no copy of it was per-
mitted to be made. After one hearing, Mozart
wrote from memory a full and minute y correct
vocal score. During all the years of childhood and
boyhood Mozart been ever under the immediate
care of his father, until his twenty-first year, when,
stung by the indignities heaped upon him at the
archiepiscopal court, he asked permission to leave
it. In September 1777 he left Salzburg for Paris,
with his mother as companion and adviser; and
from this date began that struggle with the world
in which he was to be so soon overthrown. In
Mannheim, which he visited on the way, he
made the rn of a new instrument, the
clarionette, which he was the first to incorporate
in the modern orchestra, and fell in love with
Sore Weber, the second daughter of a poor man
with a considerable family. For many obvious
reasons Leopold Mozart was greatly disturbed, and
the correspondence between the anxious loving
father and the SAT epeee but always dutiful son
throws a tlood of light on the relation, as beautiful
as it is rare, in which they stood to each other. ‘
In Paris mother and son had to practise the
strictest economy, for the mature musician no
336
MOZART
longer commanded the limitless admiration and
interest so readily accorded to the prodigy fifteen
rs before. In poor lodgings and amid depress-
g surroundings the mother’s health gave way ;
she died in her son’s arms; and Mozart returned to
the paternal roof in Salzburg.
In 1781, having re-entered the service of the
archbishop, he followed him with the rest of the
relate’s household to Vienna. Although the arch-
Fishop was proud to have such a famous artist
in his suite, he hated Mozart, and even the com-
pliments so easily won on all hands by the young
man were made so many occasions to wound his
proud spirit. At last, stung by the studied and
systematic insult to which he was subjected by his
tron, Mozart retorted in language more caustic
han roman which procured him an instant and
ignominious dismissal. :
Mozart took lod with his Mannheim friends,
the Webers, who now settled in Vienna. The
father, his firm friend, was now dead, and Aloysia
was married ; but her place in Mozart’s heart was
taken by her younger sister Constance, a very
gentle and attractive girl. Constance made
a loving and devoted wife, but a wretched
manager. She kept her husband up to his engage-
ments, and amused him by her powers as a
story-teller; but debts and difficulties increased.
Just a month previous to his marri he pro-
duced the charming little opera, Die Entfiihrung
aus dem Serail, which paved the way for the
next, The Marriage of Figaro, the most delightful
of lyric comedies. With his magic wand he touched
the somewhat coarse or at least questionable ele-
ments in Beaumarchais’ play, and these assumed
an ideal form in a supernatural atmosphere of
wed piquancy where naughtiness is unknown,
he opera was more than a success, it created a
furore; yet jealousy and court intrigue prevented
any reward, any acknowledgment that the greatest
living musician was labouring and hungering in
their midst. More generous appreciation was
offered him in Prague, and, being commissioned
to write an opera for the theatre there, he set
to work on Don Giovanni. The summer-house
and the little stone table on which most of the
charming music was writtén are still shown in the
rdens, where, amid the noise of conversation
and skittles, he worked svrheee sf undisturbed.
The extraordinary success of Don Giovanni made it
impossible for the court still to overlook the com-
poser, and he was appointed ‘ Kammer-Musicus’
to Joseph II., his duties being to supply dance-music
for the imperial balls at a salary of £80 a year.
Pecuniary embarrassments tga heavily on
his heart once so light, and he writes of gloomy
thoughts, which he has to repress with all his
might. He had great hopes that a journey to
Berlin, vid Dresden and Teipals in company with
his friend and pupil, Prince Lichnowski, might
ve some chance of bettering his condition; and
ndeed Frederick-William II. of Prussia was so
delighted with him that he offered him the post of
eo Parent a with about £450 a year. But a
sentimental er ee him from accepting it.
Ever-increasing difficulties induced him to inform
the emperor of the king of Prussia’s offer, and when
Joseph seemed painfully surprised, Mozart, con-
firmed in an unreasoning affection fora monarch who
did so little for him, exclaimed: ‘I throw myself
upon your kindness and remain.’ Joseph IL.
ordered a new opera, Cosi fan Tutti, but owing to
ene = indifference to a of his successor
po -, the composer reaped no pecuni
benefit. He made one more desperate ap’ Hieation
for a regular post, and was rewarded by being
— assistant and successor (without pay for
present) to the Cathedral Kapellmeister, who
outlived him many years. His carelessness
improvidence beset him with endless petty
barrassments, and Constance’s uent illnesses,
which necessitated pena visits to health-
resorts, were an add and serious drain on
the precarious income, He was hastened towards
financial ruin too by his heedless and overpowering
generosity, often casting his before swine—
‘false friends,’ his sister-in-law terms them, ‘secret
blood-suckers and worthless people, intercourse
with whom ruined his reputation.’ In 179],
Mozart’s health even then breaking down, an
adventurer, a brother freemason, applied to him for
help. This was Schikaneder, a theatre manager,
who found himself in difficulties, from which he
said only a new opera by Mozart could save him.
He s the subject himself, The Magic
Flute, and, seeing Mozart's failing health and un-
certain powers or work, he took care to keep him
under his own eye, giving him working accom-
modation in his own house, and keeping him in
good humour with copious supplies of wine and
requent invitations to dinner. For a time
Mozart, harassed and ailing, sought to him-
self in a continual fever of excitement, and the
—_ of these few sad weeks, multiplied and mag-
ified, gave rise to the judgments which upon
those who so hastily condemn reflect double the
dishonour '§ would impute. As the stru
with the world became more unequal, as the
entered deeper into his soul, his vision became
clearer to read the mystery of life. In six weeks
he wrote his three greatest symphonies, in which
first throbs that intense expression of passion and
* Weltschmerz’ which was to raise Beethoven, his
stronger successor, to the highest place of honour
in Music's a
In March 1791 he began the Magic Flute, which
was produced on the 30th September ; and, though
it was at first coldly received, it rapidly conquered
public opinion, and in the end made the fortune
of the lucky Schikaneder. While he was at work
on the opera Mozart received the famous visit
about which so much mystery has been made.
One night a stranger, now known to have been
the steward of a nobleman, Count Walsegg, ap-
ared and commissioned him to write a niem
to be finished in a month. He enjoined the
strictest sec’ and ec gmbrs as mysteriously as
he had come. The month passed, and Mozart was
just ste into the travelling-carriage which
was to take him to Prague for the production of a
new meg! when the stranger again ap and
reminded him of his promise. The incident made
a deep impression on him ; and the idea that it was
a summons from the other world grew upon the
fevered brain and broken heart of the composer,
He was really dying, and, as he worked hard at the
uiem, he felt, as he said, that he was writing
it for himself. On the 4th of December a few
friends met in his room to rehearse the part of the
work which was finished, but the dying composer
was unequal to the effort. During the evenin:
he seemed, even in unconsciousness, to be pg
with his work until at midnight came the last
summons,
He was buried in the common ground of St
Mark’s Churehyard, and no friendly eye saw his
remains laid in their last resting-place. When the
bereaved wife made inquiries a few days after-
wards, she found that the gravedigger had been
changed, and her search for the grave proved fruit-
less ; thus no one knows where Mozart was buried.
It was many years after his death that Vienna
awoke to sense of her shame and erected a beautiful
monument to the memory of her adopted son.
Mozart wrote 624 compositions ; he left no branch:
of the art unenriched by his genius; and he takes a
MOZDOK
MUDAR 337
high in all. Indeed, in opera and ym hony,
in spite of the more advanced writings of Wagner
and Beethoven, he may be said to be second to none.
Gifted with an inexhaustible vein of the richest,
purest melody, he is at once the glory and the
roach of the Italian school (see OPERA); for,
while he surpasses all Italians on their own chosen
ground, his strict training in the German school
laced at his service those wonderful resources of
ony and instrumentation in which the south-
erners have always been deficient. His most im-
Loria ae are those already mentioned, Don
i i, The Magie Flute, and Figaro. The first
stands upon a pinnacle of its own in the history
of opera. It no rival, and commands the
unlimited admiration of every true musician ; the
great deficiencies of the libretto are forgotten in
the charm of the music, in the masterly com-
binations of effect shown in the finales and con-
pieces, and in the triumph of sustained
dramatic power in the last scene. The greatest
compliment that could be paid the M Flute
is it still holds its place as a classic on
the opera- in spite of the most incoherent
and incom sible plot. The importance of the
orchestra gives the work a place only second
naga Giovanni, and it has been i. favourite aay
great opera-composers. Figaro is per
the most perfect opera of the three, for in it the
plot is slight, and the time required for its develop-
ment very short.
Of forty-one symphonies there are three which
will occupy an honoured place so long as music
exists, hese are the C —- (called the
Sagan G minor, and Ed. first. deserves
its name the proud and noble rhythm of the
first part, and the absolute ease with which the
last movement sets forth a triumph of the most
complicated counterpoint. In the G minor beat
the first distinct pulses of that great wave of
romanticism and passion which was to flood with
its influence all future musical development.
The E? is very lively and good-humoured and
tender withal. It might almost be called a ‘Car-
neval,’ written before Schumann had shown the
way to such titles. The quartets are very beau-
tiful and exceedingly original; but they are not
associated with ‘s name as they are with
that of Haydn, nor is the fame of the earlier
creator overshadowed in this branch of the art as
is the case in the realm of orchestral writing. His
i rte nonin. a for the vio ees
iano, are no great importance except in t
evelopment of musical form; but an satepihin
must made in the case of the Fantasia in C
minor, which, like the G minor symphony, fore-
shalows much of the new school, and reaches even
so far as the influence of Schubert. His Masses are
all youthful pha: pes the faults of youth sore |
recognisable, and the marks of the haste with whic
they were supplied as occasion required. The Ave
Verum, a late church composition, though simple,
is very expressive and touching. The unfinished
Requiem remains a noble monument of his genius.
The + authority on Mozart’s life is Otto Jahn
(1856-50; 2a ot. 1867, Big by Townsend, 1882) ;
trans. by allace,
om py elie 1877). See also the Life by Fischer
tan ) of Mozart’s second son, Wolfgang Amadeus (1791-
), who wrote a few compositions of slight importance.
Mozdok, a town of Russian Caucasus, on the
Terek, 58 miles N. of Vladikavkaz, with three
large annual fairs for horses, sheep, cattle, &e.
Tt grows excellent melons and wine. Pop. 11,008.
poster, James Bow.ina, an able theological
writer and High Church divine, was born in Lincoln-
shire in 1813. Educated at Oriel College, Oxford,
he became a fellow of Magdalen, vicar of Old
Shoreham, canon of Worcester, and in 1871 regius
professor of Divinity at Oxford. His chief books
are: The a ener Doctrine of Predestination
(1855); The Primitive Doctrine of Baptismal Re-
generution (1856); Review of the Baptismal Con-
troversy (1863); his admirable Bampton Lectures on
Miracles (1865); Oxford University Sermons (1876);
Ruling Ideas in Early Ages (1877); Theory of
Development, in answer to Newman (1878); Essays,
Historical and Theological (2 vols. 1878), contain-
ing among other papers admirable essays on Land
and Luther, an ee study of Strafford,
and a still less successful depreciation of Cromwell
and Dr Arnold; and Sermons, Parochial and
Occasional (1879). Mozley had at intellectual
force, subtlety of analysis, and imaginative ver-
satility, but ‘he wrote without facility, and his
style is not commensurate in quality with his
thought. He died 4th January 1878. See his
Letters (1884).—His elder brother Thomas, rector
of Plymtree, Devon, is well known as the author
of Reminiscences chiefly of Oriel College and the
Oxford Movement (1882), and Reminiscences, chiefly
of Towns, Villages, and Schools (1885).
Mozuffernugger. See MUZAFFARNAGAR.
Msket, also written MTsckeTHA and other-
wise, probably the most ancient town of the Cau-
casus, and down to the 5th century the capital of
the old Georgian k s on the south side of
the Caucasus, 10 miles NNW. of Tiflis. It con-
tains a cathedral, already existing in the 4th cen-
tury, in which the Georgian kings were crowned
and buried. When the Poti-Tiflis Railway was
constructed, an ancient necropolis was laid bare ;
the graves were those of a cannibal race, and
furnished proof that the modern Georgians are
the direct descendants of the ancient Iberi.
Mtzensk, a town of Russia, 31 miles by rail
NE. of Orel. Pop. 15,067.
Much Woolton (i.e. ‘Great Woolton’), a
town of Lancashire, 6 miles SE. of Liverpool.
Near it are large quarries, Pop. 4541.
Mucilage is the term applied to the solution of
a gum in water—thus, muc a of acacia, mucilage
of tragacanth. The term is also sometimes applied
to the natural solution of gummy substances
found in plants. See Gum.
Muckers, the popular name of a sect which
sprung up at Kénigs' in 1835. The movement
seems to have ori in the dualistic and theo-
sophie views of John Henry Schénherr (1771-1826)
concerning the origination of the universe by the
combination of a spiritual and a sensual principle.
The most notable of his followers were two
cl men, J. W. Ebel (1784-1861) and Diestel,
both of whom were in 1839-42 degraded from their
office. Hepworth Dixon (in his Spiritual Wives,
1868) pointed out the resemblance of the Mucker
sect to the pemone (q.v.) and the Perfectionists
(q-v-): In 1874, at Porto Alegre in Brazil, a band
of German Muckers, under a prophetess, were
nearly all killed in conflicts with the military.
Mucous Membrane, Under the term mucons
system anatomists include the skin, mucous mem-
branes, and true glands, all of which are continuous
with one another, and are essentially composed of
similar parts (see SKIN, GLANDS). The mucous
membrane is divided into the siomentety: miter
membrane (for which see Digestion, Vol. III.
p- 813), the respiratory (see NosE, RESPIRATION),
and the genito-urinary (see KIDNEYS, &c.).
Mudar (Calotropis), a genus of Asclepiadacee
found in India, Persia, &c. The inspissated juice
is used as a purgative and sudorific medicine.
338 MUDEJARES
ane
MUHLHAUSEN
Mudejares, See Moriscos.
Mud-fishes ( Dipnoi), a small but very import-
ant order of fresh-water fishes, a connecting-link
towards Amphibians. There are only two genera,
widely separated in hical distribution—
Ceratodus from Queensland and Protopterus from
tropical Africa, Of an alleged third genus, ‘ Lepi-
dosiren’ from Brazil, we know extremely little, not
enough to warrant its separation from Protopterus,
The wide range of distribution, and the discovery in
Mesozoic rocks of fossil teeth resembling those of
Ceratodus, confirm the impression of ancient origin
which is suggested by not a few facts of Dipnoan
anatomy, such as the persistent notochord without
distinct vertebrae, the intestinal spiral valve, the
cloaca, the abdominal pores, &e. (see FIsHES).
On the other hand the mud-fishes are in other
respects almost amphibians, for the swim-bladder
functions as a single (Ceratodus) or double (Pro-
topterus) ‘lung,’ along with which gills also persist.
The Dipnoi are thus important connecting-links,
The limbs are peculiar in the possession of a central
axis, which in Ceratodus bears rays on each side,
The body is covered with flat scales, is from four to
six feet in length, and bears a symmetrical tail.
Ceratodus seems to feed on decaying leaves and
the like, Protopterus on fish, frogs, insects, &c.,
Head of Protopterus (after Wiedersheim ):
Showing fore-limb (a), ome ‘a gill-cavity (6), external
gills (¢
while ‘ Lepidosiren,’ though described by the natives
as feeding on roots, is said to have teeth suited to
carnivorous diet. The nostrils open posteriorly
into the mouth, a condition occurring in no other
fish, unless Myxine be reckoned as such. Air is
taken into the lungs at the surface of the water,
and this mode of respiration becomes more
emphatic when the fishes venture to wriggle
ashore, as Ceratodus is said to do, or get into
thick muddy water, or when the dry season
begins to desiccate the pools. It is then in fact
that Protopterus most deserves its popular name,
onan f into the mud, roundin off a nest for
itself, and becoming more or less dormant. ‘The
mud around one of these nests becomes very hard,
and the balls thus formed have been dug out, and,
without breaking, have been brought to Europe
or North America. A short immersion in water
serves to release the fish, which will live for some
time in confinement.’ Both Ceratodus and Protop-
terus are esteemed as food. The development of
all the forms is still quite unknown. The term
‘mud-fish’ is also applied to a Ganoid (Armia
calva) not uncommon in some of the fresh waters
of the United States. It attains a length of two
feet, is carnivorous in diet, and gulps air at the
surface of water, the air-bladder having truly
pulmonary functions,
See Cernatopvus, Fisues, LEPIDOSIREN ; also Giinther's
Study of Fishes (Edin. 1880); Howard Ayers, Jenaische
Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss. xviii, 1885, with literature.
Mudie, Cuartes Epwarp, founder of the
celebrated library which bears his name, was
born at Chelsea in 1818. Having started as a
bookseller, he established his lib in ey]
which became a limited company in 1964, and
25,000 members in 1890, the annual receipts being
£100,000. He ay tical Stray Leaves
(1873), and died 28th Oct. 1890. See BooK-TRADE.
Mudki, often spelt Moopkrr, a vil of
the pent, India, 35 miles 8. of the Suey and
on the old road from Firozpur to Here
the first battle in the Sikh war of 1845-46 was
fought (18th December 1845), when the British
under Sir Hugh Gough repulsed the Sikhs, and Sir
Robert Henry Sale, ‘ Fighting Bob,’ was killed.
Mud Volcanoes. See VoLcCANoEs,
Muezzin (Arab. Mu-zin or Mu-azzin ; some-
times Mueddin), the official attached to a Moham-
medan mosque, who announces the different times
of prayer. MOHAMMED, p. 249.
Mufti. The Turkish Grand Mufti or Sheikh-
ul-Islam is the head of the great corporation of
Ulema (q.v.), the interpreters of the Koran, by
whose decisions (when written down, Fetwas) the
Cadis have to judge. The chief of the Ulema is
little less powerful than the Grand Vizier.
Muggletonians, a sect that arose in England
about the year 1651, and of which the founders
were John Reeve and Lodowick Muggleton
(1607-97), obscure men, but who claimed to have
the spirit of prophecy. Muggleton was a journey-
man tailor. He professed to be the ‘mouth’ of
Reeve, as Aaron was of Moses, They aflirmed
themselves to be the two witnesses of Rev. xi.
They asserted a right to curse all who oppose
them, and did not hesitate to declare eternal
damnation against their adversaries. They favoured
the world with a number of publications, one of
which—particularly directed to the Parliament
and Commonwealth of England, and to his Excel-
lency the Lord General Cromwell—was entitled a
Remonstrance from the Eternal God. The prophets
were at that time imprisoned as nuisances in
ey pee He ag epee 7 a —_—-
pistle from 'y Spirit in ; Muggleton’s
writings were Cached’ again in 1832. fie had
assailed the Quakers, and was answered effectively
by Penn and George Fox. He denied the doctrine
ob the Trinity, held anthropomorphist opinions,
with many strange doctrines over and above, as
that the devil became incarnate in Eve, &c. A few
Maggletonians lingered in England well into the
19th century. See Jessopp's Coming of the Friars,
and other Essays (1888). ; :
M S, a title conferred, during the
United Sindee posidential election of 1884 (New
York Sun, June 15), on such Republicans as threw
over the nominee of their party for Cleveland, the
Democratic candidate, in the interests of civil
service reform. The title implied a belief that
these Independents set themselves up as superior
to their former associates.—The word means ‘big
ehief’ in a uin Indian dialects, and John
Eliot, who spelled it ‘Mugquomp,’ employed it to
translate ‘leader’ and ‘duke’ (as in XXxvi,
15) in his Indian version of the Bible.
Mithiberg, a town of Prussian Saxony, on the
Elbe, 36 miles SE. of Wittenberg. Pop. 3441.
Here, on 24th April 1547, the Emperor Charles V.
defeated John Frederick the Magnanimous, Elector
of Saxony. See SCHMALKALD.
Miihthausen, a town of Prussian Saxony, on
the Unstrut, 25 tmiles by rail NNW. of Gotha, An
important imperial free city in the 13th century, it
came to Prussia in 1802, to Westphalia in 1807, and
again to Prussia in 1815; and it is still an active
centre of commerce, with manufactures of woollen
and cotton goods, hosiery, &c. Pop. (1875)
MUIR
MULBERRY 339
21,054; (1885) 25,141. See works by Herquet
(1874), Pfatf (1874), and Stephan (1886).
Muir, Joun, a distinguished Sanskrit scholar,
was born in Gl w in 1810, studied at the univer-
sity there and at Haileybury, and at eighteen went
out to Bengal to join the East India Company’s
Civil Service, in which he remained for twenty-five
years. His last years were spent in Edinburgh,
where he — comme ye carfRea was - —
ficent patron of learning, and himself a scholar o:
unusually wide intellectual and on sym-
thies. He founded and endowed a chair of
krit in Edinburgh, as well as Brees for high
attainments in that language, and also provided
the funds for a lectureship in comparative ——
His work ait his Ori ihe eante of I er
on the Origin a istory of the € 0 ia,
their Religion and Institutions (5 vols. 1858-70;
2d ed. 1 73). Another book is Metrical Transla-
tions from Sanskrit Writers (1878).
Sie WILLiasM Murr, his brother, was born in
1819, and at eighteen joined the Ben Civil
Service after having attended lectures at both the
universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow. He rose
rapidly in rank, was made K.C.S.1. in 1867, and was
lieutenant-governor of the North-west Provinces,
1868-74, and Financial Minister to the government
of India, 1874-76. After his return to England he
sat on the Council of India, 1876-85, when he was
elected Agr on of the university of Edinburgh.
Sir William Muir is an eminent Arabic scholar, and
his Life of Mahomet (4 vols. 1858-61; abridged
ed. 1877) and Annals of the Early Caliphate (1883)
are works of solid and enduring value. Other
books are The Cordn, its ition and Teaching,
and the Testimony it bears to the Holy Scriptures
cee revees Jroee Cordn (1880); and The
ly Caliphate and Rise of Islam, the Rede
Lecture for 1881.
Moirkirk, a town of Ayrshire, 26 miles E. by
N. of Ayr, bleakly sit ; 720 feet above sea-
level. It is the seat of t ironworks, dating
from 1787. Pop. (1871) 2376; (1891) 3329.
Mukaddasi, an Arab geographer, born at
Jerusalem, ae extensively for twenty years,
bed Moslem lands in a work published
and deseri
in 985 A.D. It was edited by De Goeje in 1877;
and the relating to Syria and Palestine was
transla from the Ara) for the Palestine
Pilgrim’s Text Society in 1887, by Guy Le Strange.
Mukden, or Movxpey, capital of Manchuria,
is situated in the southern of the country, on
a branch of the river Liao, 425 miles NE. of Peking.
Mukden is the Manchu name; the Chinese call it
Shingking, its present official title. The town is
surrounded by a masonry wall, a parallelo-
in shape. tside this the suburbs extend
‘or one to two miles and are protected by a mud
wall. The imperial stands in the centre of
the city, enclosed within a third separate wall.
Previous to 1625 the town was called Shenyang ;
in that year Nurhachu, the founder of the present
reigning ce in China, made it his capital and
called if Mukden. The Irish and Seotch Presby-
terians are Mae active in the place; they conduct
also a medical mission which is very successful.
There is, too, a Roman Catholic mission. Numer-
ous temples adorn the city. About four miles to
the east is the tomb of Nurhachu. Mukden con-
tains other imperial tombs of the reigning family.
Good coal exists in the vicinity. Its port is New-
chwang (q.v.); and it is an important point on the
ian railway system which connects the Siberian
line with Port Arthur and the China Sea.
Mulatto, See Necro. .
Mulberry (Morus), a us of trees of the
natural order Moracee, ves of temperate and
warm climates, with deciduous leaves, unisexual
flowers in short, thick spikes, a 4-parted perianth,
containing either four stamens or one pistil with
two styles, the perianth of the female flowers
becoming succulent and closing over the small
pericarp, the whole spike coalescing into an -
rate fruit.—The Common Mulberry, or Black
ulberry (M. nigra), is a native of the middle
of Asia, but was introduced into the south of
urope more than a thousand years ago, and is
now almost naturalised there. It is a low tree,
much branched, with thick rough bark, and broad
heart-shaped leaves, which are unequally serrated,
and very rough. It is cultivated in the middle
parts of Europe, and succeeds well in the south of
Common Mulberry ( Morus nigra).
England, but in the northern parts of Britain it
requires a wall. The perianth and stigmas are
roughly ciliated, and the fruit is of a purplish-
black colour, with dark red juice, fine aromatic
flavour, and subacid sweet taste. The fruit is
much esteemed for dessert; an excellent preserve
and a pleasant light wine are made of it. The
tree often produces its fruit in prodigious quantity.
The wood is apeon in cabinet-work, but is not
of much value. e leaves are sometimes used for
feeding silkworms. The Black Mulberry lives
long ; trees still existing in England are known to
be more than 300 years old. It is propagated b
seed, by suckers, by layers, or b —— t
succeeds best in a rich light soil.—The White
Mulberry (M. alba) is a native of China, and has
been there planted from time immemorial for the
sake of its leaves, which are the best food for silk-
worms; on this account also it has been culti-
vated in the south of Europe since about 1540. In
North America it does not succeed farther north
than 43° lat., being somewhat more impatient ot
frost than the Black Mulberry. The perianth and
stigmas are smooth ; the fruit is almost white, and
is much less palatable than that of the Black
Mulberry, although in this respect there is great
difference among the many varieties. A rob made
of it is useful in sore throat. The best variety for
feeding silkworms, on account of its rapid growth
and abundant leaves, is that called the Philippine
Mulberry. In India the White Mulberry is
treated as a bush, and cut down twice a year;
the shoots, mei po of their leaves, being thrown
away, although the bark has long been used in
China and Japan for making paper. It grows
readily from cuttings. The root has a considerable
reputation as a vermifuge.—The Red Mulberry
(M. rubra), a native of North America, abounding
340 MULCASTER
MULL
particularly on the lower parts of the Missouri,
endures severe frosts much better than either of the
receding, and is therefore preferred for cultivation
in some parts of Europe. Its fruit is deep red, and
almost as pleasant as the Black Mulberry. It
forms a tree 60 to 70 agence with a circumference
of about six feet; the w is fine grained, strong,
and adapted even for shipbuilding, but cannot be
rocured in any Toe! for that purpose.—The
ndian Mulberry (Jf. Indica) has black fruit of a
delicate flavour, and the leaves are extensively
used for feeding silkworms in China, Cochin-
China, and Bengal.—M. atro-purpurea has been
introduced into India from China for feeding silk-
worms. M. Mauritiana, a native of Madagascar
and Mauritins ; MM. celtidifolia and M. corylifolia
Peruvian species ; M.. Tatarica, a native o central
Asia; M. levigata, the species most common in
the north of India; and M. Cashmeriana, a native
of Cashmere, produce pleasant fruit. MM. dulcis, a
native of the north of India, is said to be superior
BELLS cm mnnte popes
i Paper Mulberry ia ‘era
differs riety the true mulberries in having the
female flowers collected in a globular mass. The
tree is of moderate size, or, in cultivation, a bush
of 6 to 12 feet high, with leaves either simple or
lobed, a native of India, Japan, and the islands of
the Pacific Ocean, but now not uncommon in
pgp ea in Europe and North America.
he islanders of the Pacific cultivate the Paper
Mulberry with teare. They make a kind of
clothing from the bark, using for this purpose the
bark of small branches about an inch in diameter,
which they macerate in water, and then, scraping
off the epidermis, they press and beat the moist slips
together. The sr ged also which is used in Japan
and many parts of the East is in great made
from the bark of the young shoots of this plant,
which for this purpose is boiled to a pulp, and
treated somewhat in the same way as the pulp of
rags in Europe. When the shoots are cut, new
ones spring up very rapidly. Silkworms eat the
leaves of the Paper Mulberry. The fruit is oblong,
of a dark-scarlet colour, sweetish, but insipid.
Muleaster, Ricuarp, B sper ohare 1611),
was a scholar of King’s College, Cambridge, in
1548, but attracted no notice till 1555, when he
removed to Oxford, and was chosen student of
Christ Church, quickly becoming eminent for his
knowledge of eastern literature. In 1561 he was
appointed master of Merchant Taylors’ School, and
in 1596 master of St Paul’s School. He enjoyed
great reputation as a Greek and oriental scholar
and successful schoolmaster, His English and
Latin works were celebrated in their day, the
rincipal being Positions, cc. necessarie for the
raining up of Children (Lond. 1581) and Ele-
mentarie on the Right Writing of our English Tung
(1582). He was early addicted to dramatic com-
es and assisted in the performance of plays
ore Queen Elizabeth.
Mulder, Grrarp JOHANNES (1802-80), was
—e of Chemistry at Utrecht, and was best
nown from his investigations on protein and
vegetable physiology.
Mule, the hybrid pee of the male ass and
the mare, much used and valued in many parts of
the world as a beast of burden. The head, ears,
croup, and tail show very distinctly the ‘pre-
potency’ of the ass; but in bulk and stature the
mule is nearer the horse, and seems to excel both
its parents in sagacity, muscular endurance, sure-
footedness, and length of life. Though never much
used in Britain (save in some places for tram-cars),
it has been common from ancient times in many
parts of the East, and is a very important animal
in most of the countries round the Medi
and in the mountainous
The best Euro bi are found in France,
Spain, and Italy; those of Kentucky, Missouri,.
innesota, and Mexico are renowned, The
carrier-mules of South America and elsewhere are
driven in troops, each led by a bell-bearing old
mare. Her they follow with such docility and
affection that when the troops mingle in their
halting-places they are readily separated by seeur-
ing the leader. In ancient times mules were often
reserved as the peculiar steeds of princes, and
are still used to draw the of Italian car-
dinals and other ecclesiastical dignitaries. Mules
are very surefooted, strong of limb and firm of
hoof, clever at ang ae laces and sharp
turns, easy to please with . They mae
ridden, driven, or used for pack purposes.
flesh is edible.
The fact that mules are generally sterile has
given rise to the common mistake of suppeans
that sterility is a necessary consequence of hybrid-
isation, Even as regards mules, the females may
be successfully crossed by horse or ass, though the
more numerous males seem to be constantly sterile.
The hinny or companion hybrid of the mule, the
offspring of a female ass and a stallion, is not com-
mon, and is decidedly inferior in size, strength,
and beauty. See Ass, Horse, Hyprip, CANARY;
and for the Spinning-mule, see SPINNING.
Mu ve Islands, a name given to some of
the nleray Islands (q.v.) from their discoverer,
the navigator Lord Mulgrave (1744-92).
Miilhausen (Fr. Miudhouse), a town of Alsace-
Lorraine, on the Il] and the Rhone and Rhine
Canal, 68 miles by rail SSW. of Strasburg and 20
NW. of Basel. It consists of three parts, the old
town, the new town, and the artisans’ town, and
is a place of first-rate industrial importance. The
cotton manufacture employs 16,000 workpeople in
the town and 60,000 in the adjacent villages. Be-
sides this, it has printing and dye works for cotton,
linen, calico, wool, and silk fabrics, chemical fac-
tories, iron and other metal works, and shops for
making er railway plant, &e. oa
(1821) 13,027 ; (1861) 45,887 ; (1885) 69,759 ; (1890)
76,413. Miilhausen, which existed as early as 717,
was made a free imperial city by Rudolf of H
burg in 1273. By siding with some of the Swiss
cantons in the ]4th century, it was enabled to
maintain a certain degree of neutrality in the feuds
between the empire and France. In 1515 it joined
the Swiss Confederation, and in 1528 adopted the
Reformed faith. But in 1798 it was incorporated
with Tesaees and to come to the front as an
industrial place after 1829. It is noted for the
excellent arrangements made for the housing, &e,
of the working-classes, It became a town of the
German empire after the war of 1870-71. See
Histories of the town by De Sablitre (1856) and
Metzger (Lyons, 1883).
Miilhe a manufacturing town of Rhenish
Prussia, on the river Ruhr, 16 miles N. of Diissel-
dorf. It has t ironworks and an extensive
trade in coal. p. (1875) 15,445 ; (1890) 27,702. —
MULHEIM-AM RHEIN, 3 miles above Cologne,
carries on extensive manufactures of silk, velvet,
thread, leather, &e. Pop. (1875) 17,350; (1885)
24,975.
Mull, an Argyllshire island, the
Hebrides after Lewis and Skye, is rom
the mainland by the Sound of Mull (19 miles long
and 4 to miles wide), and is engirt by a num-
ber of smaller islands—Gometra, Ulva, Staffa,
Iona, &c, It is 347 sq. m. in area, and has a
maximum length and. breadth of 30 and 29 miles,
but is so deeply indented, especially towards the
largest - the
rn
MULLEIN
MULLER 341
Atlantic, by a dozen sea-lochs and bays—the chief,
Loch-na-Keal and Loch Scridain—that the coast-
in the south-west ;
tainous. Benmore (3185 feet) is the loftiest sum-
mit, Bentalloch the most beautiful, where there is
much that is beautiful—these misty heights, the
stretching moors, the sea-cliffs at Carsaig, the
terraced
gree
for the Highlands, ca the
but grazing answers much
better than corn- Tobermory, in the north,
28 miles WNW. of Oban, is the only town. It
was founded in 1788 at the head of its sheltered
harbour, and has a pier (1864), a telegraph, a new
water-supply (1882), and 1200 inhabitants. Aros
and Duart Castles are interesting ruins ; and Mac-
kinnon’s Cave was‘pronounced by Dr Johnson ‘the
greatest natural curiosity he ever seen.’ Pop.
(1851) 7485; (1891) 4691, of whom 4013 were Gaelic-
speaking. See GALLOWAY (MULL OF), KINTYRE.
Mullein, the common English name of the
genus Verbascum, belonging to Logg a sepa *
and containing some eighty ies, of which some
six (Great Mullein, White. wank Moth, &c.) are
natives of England, and have been naturalised in
the United States. The leaves and stem (2 to 4
feet ), of the common and larger species, are
cov! with a dense, woolly growth; the flowers
form a dense spike a foot long. A mucilaginous
decoction of the leaves is used to allay coughs and
as an emollient application.
Miiller, F. Max-. See Max-MULLER.
) Miiller, GzeorceE, founder of the Orphan Homes,
. down, Bristol, was born near Halberstadt,
September 27, 1805. While in training
; for the ministry he was dissipated in his habits,
and at sixteen he was sent to aati for defrauding
an hotelkeeper. He went to Halle as a student of
divinity, and a visit to a private meeting for praise
and Dreyer proved the turning-point in his career,
and in 1826 he began to preach and teach, and took
up his abode in free lodgings provided for poor
divinity students, Through Tholuck’s advice he
came to London in 1829, and studied Hebrew and
Chaldee with the view of becoming a missionary to
the Jews. He settled at Teignmouth as minister of
Ebenezer Chapel, and in the conduct of his church
abolished collections and depended on voluntary
ifts. In 1835 he printed proposals for the establish-
ent of an Orphan House, which took shape in
1836 at Bristol. As the result only of ‘prayer to
God’ he announced that he had recsived £84,441
up to 1856 on behalf of the orphans, who then
numbered 297. By 1875 upwards of 2000 children
were lodged, fed, and educated. In 1889 it was
announced that the O Homes and associated
enterprises cost about ,000, which sum was the
result of faith and prayer and voluntary subseri
tions on the part of the public. Miiller visited the
East on an evangelistic tour in 1889. He has
published A Narrative of some of the Lord’s Deal-
igs with George Miiller (1837). Other three
portions were published, 1841-56.
' Miiller, Jouannes, one of the most eminent
ists of the 19th century, was born at
on 14th July 1801, studied at Bonn and
Meraripostuted protemorol Puytioloey and Anetoure
was 0) an atom:
at Bonn; in 1833 he sasecnied :
udolphi as pro-
fessor of Anatomy and es bore at Berlin, and
held that post until his eath, 28th April 1858.
is regarded as the founder of modern physi-
, on the ground that he summed up the work
predecessors, instituted the methods of ex-
&
mental and microscopic investigation of physio-
[oadeal ro ies, himself carried out and recorded
most taki le observations in connection with the
mechanism of sight, hearing, and voice, and the
chemical and physical properties of chyle, lymph,
and bile, and studied in an original and fruitful
way the phenomena of reflex action and the glands.
Moreover, his Handbuch der Physiologie des Men-
schen (2 vols. 1833-40; Eng. trans. 1840-49) exer-
cised a great influence as a text-book of the science,
and Miiller counted amongst his pupils several
men who soon stood in the front rank of German
science, such as Helmholtz, Vierordt, Du Bois
Reymond, &c. Miiller was scarcely less eminent
as a student of comparative anatomy ; he observed
rapidly and accurately, and a remarkable
insight into the interrelations of structural parts.
In this department of work his most famous me-
moirs were those on the Amphioxus, on Fishes,
the Echinoderms, and the Cecilians. Several of
his works were translated into English between
1839 and 1849.
Miiller, JoHANNES VON, historian of Switzer-
; was born 3d January 1752, at Schaffhausen
studied at Géttin under Heyne, Schlizer, an
others, and in V2 was appointed professor of
Greek at Schaffhausen. ready he had com-
menced the investigation of Swiss chronicles and
documents. From 1774 to 1780 he lived in Geneva,
taught there, and wrote his Aligemeine Geschichte
(3 vols. 1810), and published e first volume of
his great work, Geschichte der Sch Shortly
afterwards he was given the professorship of ger
and a librarianship at Cassel, but resigned bot
posts in 1783. In 1786 he became librarian and
councillor of state to the Elector of Mainz, and
— the publication of his larger Geschichte der
schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (5 vols. 1786~
1808 ; improved ed. 1826), In wii ae of the con~
federation of the German princes he wrote a Dar-
stellung des Fiirstenbundes (1787). In 1792, whem
Mainz was taken by the French, he went to
Vienna, where the Emperor Leopold nominated
him a member of the wo asset but, a Pro-
testant at a Roman Catholic court, he did not see-
much prospect of advancement, and in 1804 left,
Vienna for Berlin, where he was appointed his-
toriographer of the Hohenzollern family, and wrote
Ueber die Geschichte Friedrich’s I., Ueber den
Untergang der Freiheit der Alten Volker, and
Versuch waber die Zeitrechnungen der Vorwelt.
Introduced to Napoleon after the battle of Jena,
he was appointed by him (1807) secretary of state
in the new kingdom of Westphalia; but died at
Cassel, 29th May 1809. His Stimmtliche Werke
were published, 27 vols, Tiibingen, 1800-17; new
r vols, Stuttgart, 1831-35. See Lives b
Heeren ba Pace (1835), Monnard, in Frenc
(1839); and Thiersch (1881).
Miiller, Jutivus, a German theologian, was
born at Brieg, April 10, 1801, brother of Karl
Otfried Miiller, the antiquary. He studied at
Breslau and Gottingen, at first law, next theology,
and after a severe mental struggle adopted opinions
in religion opposed to those of the Rationalists. In
1825 he was appointed pastor at Schénbrunn, south
of Breslau, in 1831 second university preacher in
Gottingen, in 1834 extra-ordinary professor of The-
ology there, next year ordinary professor in Mar-
burg, and in 1839 in Halle. Here he died, 27th
September 1878. His reputation as a theologian
chiefly rests upon his t work on sin, Die
Christliche Lehre von der Siinde ( Bresl. 1839; 6th
ed. 1878). It was translated into English by W.
Urwick (2 vols. 1868). Another work was Dog-
matische ah pages 7 (1870). Miiller, together
with Neander and Nitzsch, edited from 1850. to
342 MULLER
MULREADY
1861 the Deutsche Zeitschrift fiir Christliche Wis-
und Christliches Leben. There is a
soe by Kiihler (1878) and a study by Schultze
(1879).
Miiller, Kart Orrriep, classical archeologist,
was born 28th August 1797, at Brieg, in Silesia,
studied at Breslau and Berlin, and in 1819 was
os professor of Archeology and director of
the Philological Seminary at Géttingen. He died
at Athens, Ist August 1840, whilst on a tour
through Italy and Greece, His great design was
to embrace the whole life of ancient Greece, its
art, politics, industry, religion, in one warm and
vivid conception—in a word, to cover the skeletons
of antiquity with flesh, and to make the dry bones
live. Thus his activity ranged over the whole
field of Greek antiquity. We are indebted to him
for many new and striking elucidations of the
geogra hy and topography, literature, grammar,
mythology, manners an customs of the ancients.
His work on the Dorians (Die Dorier ; Eng. trans.
1839) forms the 2d vol. of his Geschichte Helle-
nischer Stéimme und Stéddte (new and improved ed.
1844), his principal production ; the first vol. deals
with Orchomenos and the Minyans. _ The treatises
on the ancient Macedonians (1825) and on the Etrus-
cans (2 vols. 1828; new ed. 1877-78) continue the
same line of investigations. Other valuable works
from his pen are Ancient Art (1830; new ed. 1878;
Eng. trans. 1847); System of Mythology (1825;
Eng. trans. 1844); and History of the Literature
of Ancient Greece (1846), undertaken at the request
of the British ‘Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge,’ translated into ne ee by Sir George
Cornewall Lewis and Dr Donaldson, the latter of
whom continued the work down to the taking of
Constantinople. The German — was pub-
lished by Miiller’s brother (2 vols, 1841; new
ed. 1882-84). Miiller issued useful critical editions
of Varro, De Lingua Latind (1833); Festus, De
Significatione Verkorvn (1839); and A®schylus,
Eumenides (1833-35). See Memoirs by Liicke
(1841) and F, Ranke (1870).
Mullet (Mugil), a genus of acanthopterous
bony fishes, type of the family Mugilide. The
members are common coast fishes, often frequent-
ing brackish water. bia eat mud, which they
crush and sift within a filtering pharynx, reject-
ing the useless stuff, swallowing the rest for the
sake of the organic debris it contains. The mouth
has at most feeble teeth; the gill-rakers form an
effective sieve; the stomach is rather like a bird’s
Common Gray Mullet ( Mugil capito).
gizzard ; the intestines are exceedingly long. There
are about seventy species, some of which attain a
ht of 10 or 12 pounds. As they are edible
and sometimes highly esteemed, the mullets ou ht
to be more cultivated. Among British species
M. octo-radiatus, M. capito, M. auratus may be
noted, A eae from the fresh waters of Central
America fo . proboscideus) has a pointed fleshy
snout, he Mediterranean mullet formed a
favourite Roman dish, and their roes preserved
are made into a delicacy.
The so-called ‘red mullets’ (Mullus) are quite
different from the above, and not far Femasved task
es. The body is slightly compressed, and
covered with thin scales, There are two
long, erectile barbels and feeble teeth. About
forty species, — from tropical seas, are divided
among a number of sub-genera. There is only one
Euro species (MM. barbatus), of which the so-
called ‘surmullet’ is probably the female form.
It occurs on the southern coasts of Britain, and is
much esteemed as a delicacy. The male seems to
be smaller than the female, which in British waters
rarely exceeds two pounds in weight. The colour
PARE ERS
BAA ys Ue hy
Aus AA MAX PRS
of the surmullet is pale pink, with three or four
yellow longitudinal stripes ; but where any of the
es have been rubbed off beautiful tints of
purple and bright red appear. This takes place
also during the struggles of the fish when dying,
and the Romans were therefore accustomed to
bring surmullets alive into their banqueting-rooms
that the guests might see them die, and enjoy
the brilliant display of colour before eating the
fish. ‘The fishermen of our times,’ Giinther says,
‘attain the same object by scaling the fish imme-
diately after its capture, thus causing a permanent
contraction of the chromatophores (colour-cells)
containing the red — See Giinther’s Study
of Fishes (Edin, 1880).
Mullet. See HERALDRY.
Mullingar’, the chief town of Westmeath, in
Ireland, 50 miles WNW. of Dublin by rail, on the
Royal Canal and the river Brosna. It is an im-
portant trading town, has large infant barracks,
and is a centre for anglers visiting the Westmeath
lakes. Pop. (1861) 5426; (1891) 5323.
Mullion, the upright division between the
lights of windows, screens, &c. in Gothic architec-
ture. Mullions are rarely met with in Norman
architecture, but they become more frequent in the
Early English style, and in the Decorated and Per-
pendicular are very common. They have some-
times small shafts attached to them, which carry
the tracery of the upper part of the windows.
In late domestic itecture they are usually
plain. See WINDOW.
Mulock, Miss. See Craik.
Mulready, W1LL1AM, genre-painter, was born
at Ennis, in ireland, 1st April 1786. When a
boy he went to London with his parents, and at
the age of fifteen entered as a student in the
sf Academy. ering tried classical subjects
an errr he me av his — yr
nre-painting—painting subjects such as ‘ -
ede Inn,’ ‘Horves J Baiting,” the ‘ Barber’s Shop,’
and ‘Punch’ (1812), ‘Boys Fishing’ (1813), ‘Idle
Boys’ (1815). He was elected an Associate of the
Royal Academy in November 1815, and an Aca-
demician in Feb 1816. He also worked inde-
fatigably at portrait-painting and the illustra-
tion of children’s books; designed the famous
MULTAN
MUNICH 343
‘Mulready envelope’ for Sir Rowland Hill; and
was throughout conscientious, careful in drawing,
and rich in colouring. ‘The Truant’ (1835), ‘The
Seven Ages’ (1838), ‘The Sonnet’ (1839), ‘ First
Love ’(1840) are famous works of his middle period ;
and his illustrations to the Vicar o, Wakepetd are
well known. His later works, ‘Women Bathing’
(1849), ‘Blackheath Park’ (1849), ‘The Toy
Seller’ (1862), showed failing powers. He died in
London, 7th July 1863. See Stephens, Memorials
of Mulready (‘Great Artists’ series, 1890).
Multan, or MooLtTan, an ancient city of
India, in the Punjab, stands on a mound formed by
the ruins of ancient cities that occupied the same
site, 4 miles from the left bank of the Chenab, the
inundations of which sometimes reach Multan. It
is surrounded on all sides except the south by a
wall 10 to 20 feet high. The European quarter
lies to the north and west of the city, whilst to the
south is the citadel, which contains two Moham-
medan shrines, the ruins of an ancient Hindu
temple, and a massive obelisk (70 feet) to the
memory of Vans Agnew and Anderson, mur-
dered here in 1848. The vicinity abounds in
mosques, tombs, shrines, &e. Manufactures of
silks, cottons, and carpets are carried on; and the
glazed F sera! and enamel work enjoy a high
reputa ultan is an important centre of
trade: it collects all the products of the Punjab,
chiefly cotton, wheat, wool, sugar, indigo, and oil-
seeds, sends them by the Indus Valley Railway to
Hyderabad and Karachi, and imports Euro
piece-goods and other sanufactuted articles rom
Afghanistan it receives fruits, drugs, spices, and
raw silk, and sends back indigo, cotton, and other
textiles, sugar, and coarse shoes (of its own manu-
facture). 1849 Multan was taken by the
British man and annexed. Pop. (1868) 54,652;
(1881) 68,674; (1891) 74,562.—The area of the
district is 6079 sq. m., and its pop. (1891)
631,434.
Multiple-poinding is a well-known form of
process in Scotland, by which competing
claims to one and the same fund are set at rest.
A person who has funds in his possession, to which
there are more claimants than one, is liable to be |
harassed by double distress; and hence he com-
mences a suit called the action of multiple-poinding,
by which he alleges that he ought not to be made
to pay the sum more than once; and as he does
not know who is really entitled to payment, he
cites all the parties claiming it, that they may fight
out their claims among themselves, The correspond-
ing process in England is Interpleader (q.v.).
Multiple Proportions. See Cuemistry.
Mum, « peculiar kind of beer made of wheat-
malt, to which some brewers add oat and bean meal.
See Notes and Queries for November 1881, p. 376.
Mummius. See Cortnra.
Mummy. See Empatmine.
Mumps, « popular name of a specific inflam-
mation of the salivary glands described by nosolo-
ists as P , or Parotitis. In Seot-
d it is uently termed The Branks. The
disorder usually ns with a feeling of stiffness
about the jaws, which is followed by pains, heat,
and swelling beneath the ear. The swe sing bears
in the parotid, but the other Salivary Glands (q.v.)
usually soon become implicated, so that the
swelling extends along the neck towards the chin,
thus giving the patient a deformed and somewhat
a appearance. One or both sides may be
, and in general the disease appears first
on one side and then on the other. There is seldom
much fever. The inflammation is usually at its
highest point in three or four days, after which it
begins to decline, suppuration of the glands scarcely
ever occurring. In most cases no treatment further
than antiphlogistic regimen, due attention to the
bowels, and protection of the parts from main
the spore of flannel or cotton-wool is required,
and the patient completely recovers in a week or a
fortnight. The disease is infectious; and the
infection probably remains for at least a fortnight
after mt recovery. Like most infectious
diseases, it seldom affects the same person twice.
It chiefly attacks children and young persons.
singular eireumstance connected with the disease
is that in many cases the subsidence of the swell-
ing is immediately followed by swelling and pain
in the testes in the male sex, and in the mamme in
the female. The inflammation in these glands is
seldom very painful or long continued, but is ra
in the male to lead to permanent atrophy of the
organ.
Miinchen, See Municn.
Miinchhausen, Kart Frrepricn Hrerony-
Mus, BARON VON, a member of an ancient, noble
family of Hanover, whose name has become pro-
verbial as the narrator of false and ridiculously
exaggerated exploits and adventures, was born 11th
May 1720, at enwerder, in Hanover, served as
a cavalry officer in Russian campaigns against the
Turks, and died at his birthplace, 22d February
1797. A collection of his marvellous stories, or
stories attributed to him, was first published in
English under the title of Baron Miunchhausen’s
Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Meow
in Russia nil, 1785). They were compiled by
Rudolf Erich Raspe, an expatriated German (whose
financial enterprises were not creditable to him),
and by other hack writers. The book went rapidly
mits several editions ; and in 1786 appeared the
first German version edited by the poet Biirger.
Ellisen’s edition bie apart in 1890) is enriched by
an admirable introduction. So is Seccombe’s Eng-
lish edition (1894), which points ont many hits
at Bruce, Montgolfier, &c. Several of the adven-
tures ascribed to the baron occur in Bebel’s Facetie
(1508); others in Lange’s Delicia Academice (1765).
See Miiller-Fraureuth, Deutsche Liigendichtungen
(1881).—A Freiherr von Miinchhausen (1813-86)
became in 1850 head of the government of Hanover;
and after the annexation of Hanover by Prussia
(1866) he made himself a champion of the national
party.
Muncie, capital of Delaware county, Indiana,
54 miles by rail ENE. of Indianapolis, is an im-
rtant railway junction, and has manufactories of
urniture, castings, &c. Pop. (1900) 20,942.
Miinden, a town of Hanover, at the influx of
the Werra and Fulda to the Weser, 15 miles NE.
of Cassel. Engirt by wooded hills, it has a school
of forestry Qi ), an old castle, and manufactures
of india-rubber, glass, sugar, &e. Pop. (1875)
5679 ; (1885) 7053. See also MINDEN.
Mungo, St. See KENTIGERN.
Mungoose. See IcHNEUMON.
Munich (Ger. Miinchen), the capital of
Bavaria, is situated in a flat, barren plain, 1700
feet above the sea-level, chiefly on the left or west
bank of the a egy Isar, a tributary of the
Danube. By rail it is 440 miles SSW. of Berlin,
272 W. of Vienna, and 867 SE. of London. Seven
bridges, including a railwa; beides, span the river
to the miburte on the right bank. The elevated
site of the city and the ips oot of the Alps
render it liable to sudden changes of temperature,
sometimes ranging over 20° in twenty-four hours.
The population in 1885 was 261,981, of whom about
84 per cent. were Roman Catholics; by 1890 it
had increased to 350,710; in 1880 it was 230,023;
344 MUNICH
MUNICIPAL ARCHITECTURE
in 1801 only 48,885. Munich is one of the hand-
soinest cities in Germany, and perhaps the richest
in treasures of art, while itself famous for its
school of painting. Within the last two generations,
and especially under King Ludwig L. (1825-48),
who spent nearly 7,000,000 thalers in beautifying the
city, it has been decorated with buildings of almost
every style of architecture, many of them orna-
mented with frescoes and sculpture; wide and hand-
some streets have been constructed ; and the squares
and gardens adorned with statues and other monu-
ments. Among the imposing edifices raised for
the accommodation of the public colleetions are
the Glyptothek (1816-30), with its magnificent
collection of ancient and modern sculpture, inelud-
ing the famous A’ginetan marbles, discovered in
1811; the Old Pinakothek (1826-36), mae
paintings by the old masters, besides 168,
engravings and 22,000 drawings, and a priceless
collection of 1500 antique vases; the New Pina-
kothek (1846-53), devoted to the works of modern
painters; the Royal and National Library, with
over 1,000,000 volumes and 30,000 MSS. ; and the
Bavarian National Museum, illustrating the history
of civilisation and art. The New Palace includes
an older palace and chapel, the Kénigsbau (1826-
35), in the style of the Pitti Palace at Florence.
with Schnorr’s frescoes of the Nibelungenlied, and
the sumptuously-adorned Banqueting Hall building.
Other public structures are the Court Theatre, one
of the largest in Germany, with room for 2600
spectators; the old and the new town-house; the
emple of Fame, a Doric colonnaded building con-
taining busts of eighty illustrious Bavarians, in front
of which rises the colossal statue of Bavaria, 65
feet high; the Generals’ Portico (1844), a copy of
the ia dei Lanzi at Florence; the conspicuous
Maximilianeum, on its terrace on the right bank
of the Isar, a college for civil servants, containin,
a gallery of modern historical paintings; an
various aces and administrative buildings,
Among the gates of Munich the most beautiful
are the Gate of Victory, designed after Constantine’s
triumphal arch in the Forum; the old Isar gate,
with its elaborate frescoes; and the Propylea
(1862), commemorating the Greek war of independ-
ence. The numerous churches are all, except two
or three, Roman Catholic. The oldest is St Peter’s
(1294). The huge brick church of Our
1468-88), the cathedral of the archbishopric of
Iunich-Freising, is remarkable for its two un-
finished towers (325 feet), now capped with
cupolas; in the interior is the elaborate tomb of
the Emperor Louis the Bavarian. St Michael's,
or the Jesuits’ church (1583-91), contains a monn-
ment by Thorwaldsen to Eugéne Beauharnais ; the
Theatine Church (1767) contains the royal burial-
vault; the Louis Church (1830-44) is embellished
with Cornelius’s fresco of the ‘Last Judgment;’ the
beautiful church 6f St Mariahilf (1831-39) is noted
for its gorgeous painted glass and fine wood-cary-
ings ; and the basilica of St Boniface (1835-50) for
its sixty-six monoliths of gray Tyrolean marble
and resplendent interior decoration. The Court
Chapel of All Saints is a perfect casket of art-
treasures. Munich is admirably endowed with
scholastic, literary, scientific, and benevolent in-
stitations, including Royal Academies of Art and
Science, a Polytechnic School, &c. The university,
removed from Landshut to Munich in 1826, has
171 professors and teachers, and over 3000 students ;
its library contains over 300,000 volumes; and its
subsidiary institutions are numerous and well
mere. Adjoining the palace is the Court
Garden, bounded on two sides by arcades adorned
with frescoes ; farther north is the English Garden,
a park 600 acres in area; and on the right bank of
the Isar are the attractive Gasteig promenades,
The industrial development of Munich lags behind
its esthetic development. Its sae eer
iron, brass, and bell foundries, Pep opin."
engraving works, and manufactories of op' and
mathematical instruments, and various artistic
articles are, however, deservedly noted. Still more
famous are the enormous breweries of Bavarian
beer, which annually produce about 49,000,000
gallons, of which 37,000,000 are consumed in the
city itself. Munich carries on a large trade in
grain and in objects of art.
In 1158 Henry the Lion raised the Villa
Munichen from its previous obscurity by establish-
ing & mint and a salt-emporium within its F eapr 905,
the name (also appearing as Forum ad Monachos)
being derived from the monks who owned the site.
In the 13th century the dukes of the Wittelsbach
peo | selected Munich for their residence and
fortified the town. In 1327 the old town was nearly
destroyed by fire, and was rebuilt by the Emperor
Louis the Bavarian very much on the plan which it
still exhibits ; but it was not until the fortifications
were razed at the close of the 18th century that the
limits of the town were enlarged to any extent,
The true history of modern Munich is the account
of its artistic development in the 19th century, with
which the artists most closely identified are Klenze
and Giirtner the architects, Schwanthaler the
sculptor, and Cornelius and Kaulbach the painters.
The modern Munich school of inting, headed by
K. von Piloty and W. Diez, is characterised by
marked realism in colour and detail, in contrast to
the romanticism of the older masters.
See works by Sélt] (1854), Reber (1876), Maillinger
(3 vols. Tso) egnet, (187), and Trautwein (13th ed,
Gaet 1379) witt-Watts’ Art-student in Munich
Municipal Architecture is shown in the
buildings used for municipal purposes, such as
town-halls, guildhalls, &c. These were first built
when the towns of the middle ages rose in import-
ance, and asserted their freedom. Those of North
Italy and Belgium were the first to move, and con-
uently we find in these countries the earliest
and most important specimens of municipal archi-
tecture during the middle ages. Municipal build-
ings always partake of the character of the archi-
tecture of the period when they were erected. In
Italy, for instance, they are of the Italian-Gothie
style in Vicenza, Venice, Florence, &e. during the
13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. In Belgium, during
the same period, they are of the northern Gothic
pe pe and are almost the only really fine specimens
of the civil architecture of the middle ages now
extant. The Cloth-hall at Ypres, and the town-
halls of Brussels, Louvain, Bruges (see BELFRY),
Oudenarde, the Exchange at Antwerp, and many
other markets, lodges, halls, &c. testify to the
early importance of the municipal institutions in
Belgium. We look for town-halls in vain in France
or England till the development of industry and
knowledge had made the citizens of the large towns
so wealthy and important as to enable them to raise
the municipal power into an institution. But from
the 15th and 16th centuries there exist in Britain
abundant instances of buildings erected for the use
of the guilds and corporations and the munici
courts. Many of the corporation halls in London
have recently been rebuilt by the wag bodies
they belong to, such as the Fishmongers, Merchant
Taylors, Goldsmiths, and other companies (see also
GUILDHALL). Municipal buildings on a large
scale for the use of the town-councils and magis-
trates have also been recently erected in many
large towns in Britain; and now no town of im-
portance is complete without a great town-hall for
the use of the inhabitants. _
It is a curious fact that in France, where the
MUNICIPALITY
MUNSTER 345
towns became of considerable importance during
the middle ages, so few municipal buildings remain.
This arises from the cireumstance that the resources
of the early municipalities of France were devoted
to aid the bishops in the erection of the great
French cathedrals, and the mommapocrle used these
cathedrals as their halls of assembly, and even for
such purposes as masques and amusements.
Municipality (from Lat. municeps, from munus
and jo, ‘one who enjoys the rights of a free
citizen’), a town or city of certain privi-
leges of local self-government, the governing body
in such a town. Municipal institutions originated
in the times of the Roman empire. The provincial
towns of Italy, which were from the first Roman
colonies, as also those which, after having an
independent existence, e members of the
Roman state, though subjected to the rule of an
im governor, were allowetl to enjoy a right of
lating their internal affairs. A class of the
inhabitants called the curia, or decuriones, elected
two officers, — iran cee hye age =
pri wear to an: to those of the consu
of imperial city, and who exercised a limited
Leis mi a a — and criminal. rine! eatin
portant nary in every municipality cal
the defensor civitatis, or advocate for the aty, the
protector of the citizens against arbitrary acts on
the part of the im | governor. The municipal
system declined with the decline of the empire, yet
it retained vitality —_ to be afterwards resusci-
tated in union with feudalism, and with the Saxon
i . Some cities of Italy,
France, and —, have indeed derived their
naar magistracy by direct succession from
mperial Rome. For British Municipalities, see
Boroven, Ciry; see also FREE IMPERIAL CITIES.
Munjeet. See Mavper.
, Situated
Munkacs,s market-town of Hun,
at the foot of the Carpathians, 101 miles by rail
NE. of Debreczin, has mines of iron and rock-
crystals, called Hungarian diamonds. The citadel,
built on an iso! height, resisted the mepese
arms for three years (1 ); and, having fallen
1848 into the hands of the Hungarians, was
captured by the Russians in the following year.
It is now a state-prison. Pop. 9691.
Munkaesy, MicHaet, mt whose real sur-
name is LIEB, was born at Munkacs, 10th October
iy
much lighter and brighter in tone, as ‘Munkacs
in his Studio,’ ‘Father's Birthday,’ ‘ Two Families”
are best known. Vigorous characterisation, dra-
matic power, and pictorial breadth are conspicuous
traits. Insane since 1897, he died 1st May 1900.
Munnipore. See Manirvur.
Munro, Hvucn Anprew Jounstone, Latin
scholar, born at Elgin in Scotland in 1819, was
educated at Shrewsbury and Trinity College, Cam-
Len ape gp fellow of his coll in 1843, and
of Latin in his university in 1960 (he
resigned the chair in 1872), and died at Rome, 30th
March 1885, His test achievement was an
edition of Lucretius (1864; 4th ed. 1885), text,
translation, and notes, one of the finest and most
brilliant works of British scholarship. His Horace
appeared in 1869; his Criticisms and Elucidations
or Catullus in 1878 ; and his translations into Latin
and Greek verse were printed in 1884.
Munro, Str Tuomas (1761-1827), son of a
Glasgow merchant, was educated at the Glasgow
grammar school and university, arrived as an
officer in the H.E.I.C.S. at Madras in 1780 in
time to serve in the operations against Hyder
Ali in 1780-83, assisted in the reorganisation of
Mysore, administered Canara, and introduced the
tyotwari system of tenure, subsequently extended
to most of Madras and Bombay. In 1807-15 he
was in England, where he had great influence on
Indian lsgisietlan: Havingcommanded inthesecond
Mahratta war, he was in 1819 named governor of
Madras. He died of cholera. See Lives by Gleig
1830), Arbuthnot (1889), and Bradshaw (1894).—
ot to be confounded with him is Str Hecror
MuNRO (1726-1805) of Novar in Cromartyshire, who
served in the Low Countries, embarked for India in
1760, won the t battle of Buxar in Behar in
1764, and sh with Coote in the defeat of Hyder
Ali. He returned to England in 1781, held military
appointments at home, and spent his last years in
improving his estate at Novar.
Munster, See IRELanp, Vol. VI. p. 198.
Miinster, capital of Westphalia, stands on a
small stream, by rail 101 miles N. by E. of Cologne
and 106 SSW. of Bremen. It retains numerous re-
mains of medieval architecture, including the mixed
Romanesque and Gothie cathedral (12th to 14th e.);
Our Lady’s Chureh, Gothie( 1340); theGothic chureh
of St Lambert (14th c.) ; the church of St Ludgerus,
also Gothic, dating from 1330; the Gothic town-
hall, in which, in 1648, the peace of Westphalia
was signed (also signed simultaneously at Osna-
briick, q.v.); the castle, built in 1767, and sur-
rounded by fine P pepe then hreereoen including botani-
cal gardens ; and the 16th-century town wine-cellar,
in which are preserved some rare pictures of the
old German school. The old Catholic university of
Miinster was dissolved in 1818; there is now an
academy, with a Catholic theological and a philo-
sophical faculty, and about 470 pupils. Attached
to it are a library of 123,000 volumes, a natural
history museum, and collections of art and anti-
quity. The industrial products of Miinster include
ee len, omy and <“ see and me r, besten
yei inting, and enamelling. e trade is
limited Gaia: woollens, thread, cattle, corn,
&e. Pop. (1875) 35,705; (1885) 44,060, of whom
36,751 were Catholics; (1890) 49,613. Miinster
was known under the name of Mimigardevord
in the time of Charlemagne, who in 791 made
it the see of the new bishop of the Saxons, St
Ludgerus. Towards the middle of the Ilth
century a monastery (whence Miinster) was founded
on the spot, and by 1186 it had grown into a town,
In the 12th century the bishopric was elevated into
a principality of the empire. In the 13th century
the city e a member of the Hanseatic League ;
and in 1532 it declared its adhesion to the Reformed
faith, notwithstanding the violent opposition of the
chapter. During 1535 Minster was the scene of
the violent politico-religious movygment of the Ana-
baptists (q.v.). The bishop re himself of
the city, and in 1661 Bishop Bernhard built a strong
citadel within the walls, and deprived the citizens
of nearly all their liberties. In both the Thirty
Years’ War and the Seven Years’ War Miinster
suffered severely. The bishopric, which since 1719
had been held by the Archbishop of Cologne,
although it retained a special form of government,
was secularised in 1803, and divided among various
reigning houses. The Congress of Vienna gave
the greater part of the principality to Prussia, a
346 MUNSTER
MURAL DECORATION
small portion bein rtioned to Olden i
while Nandret seunied ihe territories of the vant -
atised Dukes of Aremberg. The bishopric was
reconstituted in 1821. See works by Erhard
1837), Cornelius (1855-60), Keller (1880), and
tten (1887).—There is another Miinster in
Alsace, 12 miles SW. of Colmar by rails; pop. 3390.
Miinster, SEBASTIAN, scholar, was born at
Ingelheim in the Palatinate in 1489, studied at
Heidelberg and Tiihingen, and became a Fran-
ciscan monk, bat at the Reformation he embraced
the new doctrines (1529). He then taught Hebrew
and theol
matics at 1, in which city he died on 23d May
1552. He brought out the first Hebrew Bible
(1534-35) edited by a German ; wrote Cosmographia
1544), a work on geography that kept its ground
‘or more than a century; and published a Hebrew
grammar, a Chaldaic grammar (1527), and lexicon
(1527), and a Latin-Greek-Hebrew dictionary (1530),
Muntjak (Cervulus muntjac). These small
deer, of which there are several species, appear to
connect the true deer with the Chevrotains (q.v.) ;
they inhabit the forest tracts of the oriental region
—i.e. India, China, Java, Sumatra, Formosa, and the
Philippines. The males have large canine teeth as
in the Chevrotains; the horns are borne upon a
long icel covered with hair, which seems to
resemble the ‘horn’ of the giraffe.
Muntz’s Metal. See Brass.
Miinzer, THoMAs, one of the leaders of the
Anabaptists (q.v.), was born at ges in the
Harz, about 1489, studied theology, and in 1520
began to preach at Zwickau. His Christian social-
ism and his mystical doctrines soon brought him
into collision with the Reformers and the town
authorities. He thereupon made a preaching tour
— Bohemia, Silesia, and Brandenburg, and
settled in Thuringia (1523). Ages deprived of his
, an
office, he visited Nuremberg, Base other south
German cities, and was finally in 1525 elected pastor
of the Anabaptists of Miihlhausen, where he won
the common people, notwithstanding Luther's de-
nunciations of him, introduced his communistic
ideas, and soon had the whole country in insurree-
tion. But on 15th May 1525 he and his men were
totally ronted at Frankenhausen by Philip of
Hesse. Miinzer himself was captured in flight and
executed on 30th May at Miihlhausen.
See Lives by Melanchthon (1525), Strobel (1795), and
Seidemann (1842); also Rank», Zettalter der Reforma-
tion (vol. ii.), and Jérg, Geschichte des grossen Bauern-
kriegs (1850).
Murvena. See EEL.
Mural Circle, an astronomical instrument for
the observation
of celestial bodies
at their meridian
passage. It con-
sists of a large
metal circle,
turning on an
axis the end of
which rojects
from a solid stone
ier or wall
whence the
name), close to
which the circle
moves, The
lane of the circle
set as nearly
as possible in the meridian. Fixed immovably to
the circle is a telescope, which by turning the
circle is made to point to the star to be observed,
at the time of its meridian Two wires,
one fixed and one movable, similar to those in the
at Heidelberg, and from 1536 mathe-,
Transit Circle (q.v.), enables the altitude, or zenith
distance, of the star to be noted, if the instrument
has been properly adjusted, and if the zenith or
horizontal point on the circle be known. On the
rim of the circle are divisions in d &e., 80
that the angle through which it is turned can be
noted by means of several microscopes, as in the
transit circle. The mural circles once in use at
Greenwich were six feet in diameter, and each
degree of the division on the edge measured more
than six-tenths of an inch in length. The manner
of support allowed of a large circle, which gave
this advan The mural circle is now almost
obsolete, modern improvements enabling all its
work to be much better done by the transit circle.
Mural Crown. See Crown.
_Mural Decoration dates from very ancient
times. The ptian and Etruscan monuments
form an in and important part of the history
of Painting (q.v.), and have helped to mould the
development of certain styles of art (see ARAB-
ESQUE). Incised work and reliefs have been largel
employed. The Greeks tinted their temples an
‘picked out’ their sculptured friezes and pediments
with colour; coloured bricks were used in ian,
and wall tiles (see PoTTERY) in Moslem, itec-
ture. Some of the Roman walls were built of tufa
and red brick, coloured brick, terra-cotta, and
variegated arrangements of marble were largely
to
Many
riod have been
t of flint and stone, and much Tudor work of
i-coloured brick. Distemper and Fresco are
escribed in separate articles; water glass is a
silicate process of which there is an example in the
Houses of Parliament. Mosaic-work is extensively
used in floors and ceilings, but also occasionally
employed in mural decoration, The dado of the
Albert Memorial Chapel at Windsor is composed
of slabs of inlaid marble hatched with coloured
gold cement. See also TAPESTRY, WALL-PAPER.
Another system is that known as Encaustic
Painting (Gr. encaustiké, ‘fixed by fire’), a
manner of mural painting with a medium com-
principally of wax, practised by the
ancients, As the name implied that fire was
used in the execution, some have been led to
suppose that encaustic painting was the same as
enamel painting; but notices by Pliny and other
writers show clearly that it was a species of paint-
ing in which the chief ingredient used for uniting
and fixing the colours was wax dissolved by heat.
Various attempts have been made in modern times
to revive it. About the middle of the 18th cen-
tury Count Caylus and Bachelier, and in 1792 Mrs
Hooker of Rottingdean, under the name of Emma
Jane Greenland, made various successful experi-
ments with this view. Encaustic paste was
in taken up in Germany under the patro
of Louis I. of Bavaria, who commissioned Louis
Schnorr to execute a series of historical subjects on
the walls of the royal palace, Munich. For pre-
paring her medium Mrs Hooker dissolved gum-
arabic in water, afterwards elaine gute seneiesy
which was dissolved by stirrin iling,
when the mixture reached the boiling-point
she put in the wax. After painting the picture,
she passed a thin coating of melted wax over it with
a hard brush, and then drew over the surface an
iron—for ironing linen—moderately heated. After
the picture cooled it was rubbed with a fine linen
eloth. The German method is somewhat similar,
but some other ingredients are used ; among these,
potash with the wax ; and, in place of an iron being
passed over the surface, the wax is brought to the
surface by a vessel containing fire being held at a
a
MURANO
MURCHISON 347
little distance from the picture. It is also possible
to employ a medium made of a mixture of turpentine
and beeswax sufficiently plastic to be worked like
oil. A modification of the system was also devised
8 Mr Gambier-Parry, and is known as Spirit
resco. By his method the walls are coated with
wax and gum compounded with spirit of lavender.
The colours are ground with the same medium.
Murano, famous as the seat of the Venetian
Giga ekaetacee: te ant foland and town a little
more than a mile north of Venice, with 3600 inhabit-
ants. It a fine 12th-century cathedral,
and another church with some valuable pictures, in-
cluding Paul Veronese’s ‘St Jerome in the Desert.’
But the chief interest centres in the glass-factories
—an industry established in the 13th century, and
revived in 1860 by Antonio Salviati (1816-90).
Mw JoacuiM, king of Naples, was the son
of an innkeeper @t La Bastide-Fortunitre, near
Cahors, in France, and was born 25th March 1771.
He was at first intended for the priesthood, but the
outbreak of the Revolution fired his enthusiasm ;
he entered the army, and soon rose to the rank of
colonel. Attaching himself closely to Bonaparte, he
served under him in Italy and in t, distinguish-
ing himself in many battles; rose to the rank of
a general of division (1799); returned with Bona-
parte to France, and rendered him most important
assistance on the 18th Brumaire, by dispersing the
Council of Five Hundred at St Clond. Bonaparte
now entrusted him with the command of the Con-
sular Guard, and gave him his em sister,
Caroline, in marriage. Murat held his usual post,
the cominand of the ope at Marengo, where
he covered himself with Gory, and in 1801 was
nominated governor of the Cisalpine Republic. On
the establishment of the French empire he was
loaded with honours. He continued to command
the cavalry in the armies led the emperor, and
contributed not a little to the victory at Austerlitz
(1805), at Jena, at Eylan, and to many other
victories. In 1806 the newly-erected grand-duchy
of Berg (q.v.) was bestowed upon him, and on Ist
August 1808 he was | giex ong king of the Two
Sicilies by the style of Joachim L Napoleon. He
took ion of Naples, but the Bourbons, sup-
ed by the fleet of Britain, retained Sicily. By
eration of his ye gweed he won the
hearts of his subjects. In the expedition against
Russia he commanded the cavalry, and indeed the
army after Napoleon left it. After crushing the
Austrians at Dresden (1813), and helping to fight
the disastrous battle of Leipzig, he concladed
a treaty with Austria, and a truce with the British
admiral, and promised the allies an auxiliary corps;
but, as soon as he learned of Napoleon’s escape
from Elba and return to France, he commenced a
hasty war against Austria. He was, however, de-
feated at Ferrara (12th April 1815), and again at
Tolentino (2d May). With a few horsemen he fled
to Naples, where all was insurrection and com-
motion ; thence he found his way to France. After
Napoleon’s final overthrow, he took refuge in
Corsica, from which he proceeded with a few fol-
lowers to the coast of Calabria, and proclaimed him-
self king and liberator, but, being presently taken
er, was tried by court-martial, and shot at
izzo, on 13th October 1815. See biographical
accounts Gallois (Paris, 1828), Coletta (Paris,
1821), and Helfert (Vienna, 1878).—His widow
(1782-1839) assumed the title of Countess of np
and resided in the neighbourhood of Trieste till her
death. His two sons went to the United States,
where the elder, NAPOLEON ACHILLE (1801-47),
settled in Florida, married a niece of Washington,
and published Exposition des Principes du Gouverne-
Républicain en Amérique (1833). The younger,
NAPOLEON LUCIEN CHARLES (1803-78), suffered
reverses in fortune ; but, returning to France after
the revolution of 1848, he attached himself
closely to Louis Napoleon, who in 1849 sent him
as am or extra-ordinary to Turin, and in 1852
made him a senator.
Muratori, Lopovico Anronto, Italian anti-
Prat and historian, was born at Vignola, in the
duchy of Modena, 21st October 1672. His life was
devoted mainly to researches in history, especially
the history of his native country. In 1695 he was
= egg! a librarian of the Ambrosian Library at
ilan. His first work was to issue collections of
inedited Latin fragments, Anecdota Latina, fol-
lowed later by Anecdota Greca. In 1700 he was
recalled by the Duke of Modena to take charge of
the D'Este Library and the ducal archives at
Modena. In 1723 the first folio volume of his
great collection, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, was
published, and between that date and 1751 twenty-
eight more. This work contains all the chronicles
Italy from the 5th to the 16th century, illus-
trated with commentaries and critical notices, It
was accompanied by a collection of dissertations
illustrative of the religious, literary, social, political,
military, and commercial relations of the several
states of Italy during the same period, in 6 vols.
folio, 1738-42, a work which, although far from
being free from errors, is still regarded as a
treasure-honse of medieval antiquities. Muratori
likewise undertook a general history of Italy
(Annali d'Italia, 12 vols. 4to, 1744-49); compiled
in two vols, Antichita Estensi (1717); and pub-
lished Antiquitates Italice Medii Avi (6 vols.
1738-42), and a collection of Ancient Inscriptions (6
vols. 1739-42). In his later years he was attacked
by the Jesuits on the ground of teaching heresies ;
but he found a protector in Pope Benedict XIV.
He died at Modena, 23d January 1750. The Anti-
quitates Italice (vol. iii.) contains a catalogue or
canon of the New Testament Scriptures, a frag-
ment (the ‘Muratorian Fragment’), apparently
drawn up by a contemporary of Irenwus; see
aa ol. IT. Sh Lightfoot rae ote it to
Hippolytus ; see his Clement of Rome (vol. ii. 1890).
Muratori’s Collected Works fill 36 volumes ( Arezzo,
1767-80), and 48 volumes in another edition ( Venice,
1790-1810). See the Life by his nephew (1756).
Murchison, Str Roperick Impey, geologist
and apher, was born at Tarradale, Ross-shire,
19th February 1792. He was educated at the
ammar-school of Durham and the Military
llege, Great Marlow. He entered the army
at an early served as an officer in Spain and
Portugal, and was present at Vimiero and the
retreat to Corunna. Quitting the army in 1816, he
devoted himself to science, especially geology, and
travelled in various parts of the globe. He found
the same sedimentary strata lying in the earth’s
erust beneath the old red sandstone in the moun-
tainous regions of Norway and Sweden, in the vast
and distant provinces of the Russian empire, and
also in America. The result of his investigations
was the discovery and establishment of the Silurian
pba which won for him the Copley Medal of
the Royal Society, and European reputation as
a geologist. His subsequent exposition of the
Devonian, Permian, and Laurentian systems in-
creased and confirmed his reputation. He explored
several parts of Germany, Poland, and the Car-
pathians; and in 1840-45, with De Verneuil and
others, carried out a geological surrey of the
Russian empire. Struck with the resemblance in
geological structure between the Ural Mountains
and the Australian chain, Murchison in 1844 first
predicted the discovery of gold in Australia. He
was president of the British Association in 1846,
348 MURCIA
MURDOCK
and of the Royal Geographical Society in 1844-45,
was re-elected in 1857, and continued to hold that
ep till 1870, when he was compelled to resign it
y paralysis, Perhaps no contemporary did more
to promote geographical science at home, and kindle
the spirit of adventure among those engaged in
Arctic exploration on the one hand and African dis-
covery onthe other. In 1855 he was made director-
veneral of the Geological Survey and director of the
Royal School of Mines. His investigations into the
erystalline schists of the is ae or established a
striking instance of regional metamorphisfn on a
large scale, He was a vice-president of the Royal
Society, and a foreign member of the French
Academy, was kniglited in 1846, and made a
baronet in 1863. In 1870 he founded the chair of
Geology in Edinburgh University. He died 22d
October 1871. Most of his contributions to science
ap in the Zransactions of the Geological and
other Societies, His principal works were The
Silurian System (1839); The Geology of Russia in
Europe and the Ural Mountains (1845 ; 2d ed. 1853).
See Life by Professor Arch. Geikie (1875).
Murcia, an ancient town of Spain, on the left
bank of the Segura, by rail 46 miles SW. of Alicante
and 50 N. by W. of Cartagena. It stands in the
productive vale of Murcia, an old-fashioned Moorish
town, embosomed in gardens of mulberry, orange,
fig, palm, and other fruit trees. Almost the only
notable buildings are the bishop’s palace and the
cathedral, this last begun in 1353, but reconstructed
in 1521, and surmounted by a fine bell-tower. Silks,
saltpetre, soda, gunpowder, musical instruments,
and glass are manufactured ; fruit-growing, the
preparation of olive-oil, and the weaving of a
also flourish. Pop. (1877) 91,805; (1887) 98,538.
Alfonso X. of stile took the city from the
Moors in 1263; an earthquake almost destroyed it
in 1829; and it was captured by the insurgents in
1843.—The province of Murcia has an area of 4478
sq. m. and pop, (1887) of 491,438. Along with the
present province of Albacete it was an independent
Arab kingdom for 27 years in the 13th century.
Murder is the unlawful and intentional killing
of a human being by a human being. The most
compendious statement of the distinctions drawn
by the law of England between murder and man-
slaughter is given by Sir James Fitzjames Stephen
in article 223 of his Digest of the Criminal 5
He says: ‘Manslaughter is unlawful homicide
without malice aforethought. Murder is unlawful
homicide with malice aforethought. Malice afore-
thought means any one or more of the following
states of mind preceding or co-existing with the
act or omission by which death is caused, and it
may exist when that act is unpremeditated : (a)
an intention to cause the death of, or grievous
bodily harm to, any person, whether such person
is the person actually killed or not ; (6) knowledge
that the act which causes death will probably cause
the death of, or grievous bodily harm to, some
rson, whether such person is the person actually
illed or not, although such Kaowlele is accom-
— by indifference whether death or grievous
ily harm is caused or not, or by a wish that it
may not be caused; (c) an intent to commit any
felony whatever; or (d@) an intent to oppose by
force any officer of justice on his way to, in, or
returning from the execution of the duty of arrest-
ing, keeping in custody, or imprisoning any person
whom he is lawfully entitled to arrest, keep in
custody or imprison, or the duty of keeping the
peace, or dispersing an unlawful assembly, pro-
vided that the offender has notice that the person
killed is such an officer so employed.’ If the act of
killing is done in the heat of passion caused by
provocation, it is not murder, but manslaughter,
The law presumes that every one who has killed
another has murdered him, unless there are cireum-
stances in the case to raise a contrary presumption.
Murder is punished by death, manslaughter by
penal servitude for life, or by a fine, according to
the degree of culpability involved in the
The law of Scotland does not substantially differ
from that laid down by Sir James Stephen, the
chief distinction being that what in England is
called manslaughter is in Scotland called culpable
homicide. In the United States the only note-
worthy distinction from the law of England is the
recognition of different d of murder,
early act of the legislature of Pennsylvania dis-
tinguishes murder by poison or beled or any
other deliberate and premeditated killing, or
murder committed in the furtherance of any arson,
rape, robbery, or burglary, as murder of the first
degree, and murder of all other kinds as murder
of the second d The statute law of other
states has similar provisions. In England and
Wales during 1856-88 the maximum number
murders (as returned by coroner’s inquests) in any
one year was 272 in 1866, the minimum 153 in
1879. During that same iod the minimum
number of executions was 4 in 1871, the maximum
23 in 1875 and 1877. According to a paper in the
Journal of the Statistical Society for 1885, the pro-
portion of homicides of all kinds to population was
in England and Wales 1 to 63,000, and in the
United States 1 to 43,000. From differences in
legal classification and administration, it is notori-
ously difficult to compare the frequency of murder
in different countries. But an estimate has been
made that, whereas in England there are 7:1
murders per 10,000 deaths, in Germany the pro-
portion is 6°4 murders to 10,000, in France 8, in
Austria 8°8, in Switzerland 13°8, in Spain 23°8, in
Italy as many as 294 per 10,000 deaths. The
arguments for and against the abolition of Capital
Punishment (q.v.) have been discussed in a separate
article; see also Execution, BirtTH (CONCEAL-
MENT OF), SuICIDE; and Holtzendorff, Die Psy-
chologie des Mordes (1875).
Murdock, or Murpocn, WILLIAM, inventor
of gas for illuminating es , was born 25th
August 1754, near Auchinleck, Ayrshire. His
family traced their descent from some Flemish
architects or engineers; and his father, a mill-
wright and miller near Old Cumnock, designed
the first iron-toothed gearing in Great Britain.
Murdock worked under his father till he was
twenty-three, then entered the employment of
Boulton & A ley Birmingham, and showed such
marked ability that he was sent to Cornwall to
superintend the erection of mining engines there.
At Redruth he constructed in 1781 the model of
a high-pressure engine to run on wheels. Watt
showed some jealousy at these efforts ; but Boulton
offered him a reward for an engine capable of
carrying two persons and the driver. His labours
in Cornwall were arduous, though he had not more
than £1 per week up till his forty-fourth bev
and, a request for an increase of salary not being
promptly acceded to, he made up his mind to
change. The mining companies at last realising
the value of his services, offered him £1000 a year
as chief engineer at the mines. But he declined,
returning to Boulton & Watt, who gave him a like
salary as general manager of Soho Works. Mur-
dock's inventive brain was never idle; he intro-
duced labour-saving machinery, a new method of
wheel rotation, and an oscillating engine (1785) of
a pattern still in use. He also improved Watt's
engine.; introduced a method of casting steam
cases for cylinders in one piece, instead of in seg-
ments; a rotatory and compressed-air e; &
steam gun; cast-iron cement; a method of
a
MURE >
MURILLO 349
by circulating water ong pipes; a method
sending messages through an exhausted air
tube; and many other inventions. His investiga-
tions in the distillation of on Tm began at
Redruth in 1792, when he lighted his offices and
by its agency. He palit showed the
resul A iuhted a _ in —_ om pseu at Bebe
with gas. But he did not reap due
rofit from this usefal invention. He died 15th
ovember 1839. See a life of him by his kinsman
Alexander Murdoch (1892).
Mure, Str Wit1aAM, of Rowallan in Ayrshire,
Scottish t, was born in 1594, a nephew of the
author of The Cherrie and the Slae. He was
wounded at Marston Moor, and died about the
end of 1657. He translated into English sapphics
pn hieg ain tigger
tiana, but hi work is his True Cruci
Sor True Cathovikest Edin, 1629). His fine version
of the Psalms dates from 1639. See the Scottish
Text Society's edition of his poems (2 vols. 1898),
Mure, WILLIAM, was born at Caldwell in Ayr-
shire in 1799, educated at Westminster and the
universities of Edinburgh and Bonn, represented
Renfrewshire 1846-55, was Lord Rector of Glasgow
University 1847-48, and died in London, Ist April
1860. Colonel Mure was for many years com-
mandant of the Renfrewshire militia. He was the
author of A Critical Account of the Language and
-Literature of Ancient Greece (5 vols. 1850-57), a
work of sound scholarship and great learning ; he
maintains the unity of the Homeric poems. ure
also wrote Journal of a Tour in Greece (1842) and
a couple of treatises on Egyptian chronology.
Muret (Mvuretus), Marc ANTOINE, a cele-
brated humanist, was born at Muret, near Limoges,
12th April 1526. In early life in France he read
lectures on civil law with great success, but subse-
quently in Italy he seems to have devoted himself
entirely to literature till 1576, when he took orders.
He afterwards resided in Rome till his death, 4th
June 1585. His well-known Orations, though
shallow, are remarkable examples of elocution in
the style of Cicero. His poems, Latin and French,
though graceful and fluent, are now considered
worthless; but his learned criticisms and com-
mentaries, Varia Lectiones, in 5 books, are held in
estimation. There are editions of his works
Ruhnken (1789) and Frotscher (1834-41), and
2 vols. of Scripta (1871-73) by Frey. See
also the monograph by Dejob ( Paris, 1881).
Murex, « genus of marine Gasteropods in the
same set as buckies, cone-shells, and cowries. The
members prey upon other molluscs, boring by
means of the usual rasper. The shells are rs
Woodcock-shell (Murex tenuispina).
with numerous spines in a very quaint and bean-
tiful fashion, to which some names, as ‘ Venus
Comb,’ obviously refer. Several species, especially
M. trunculus and M. brandaris, used to be crushed
to furnish the famous hg Tyrian purple. A few
occur on Bri coasts.—For Murexide
* rate of Ammonia, or Roman Purple), see
EING, Vol. IV, p. 139,
Murfreesborough, capital of Rutherford
county, Tennessee, and from 1819 to 1826 capital
of the state, is 33 miles by rail SE. of Nashville,
and has several mills and factories. Close by the
bloody battle of Stone River was fought, 31st
December 1862 and 2d January 1863, between
Generals Rosecrans and Bragg; the Confederate
army was compelled to retreat, but the losses on
both sides were nearly ae forces,
9511; Confederates, 9236. Pop 3800.
Miirger, HENRI, novelist and poet, was born
in Paris on March 24, 1822. He began life as a
notary’s clerk, and afterwards acted as secretary to
Count Tolstoi, at a salary of about a pound a
week. He ary himself to literature, and for .
several years led the life of privation and adventure
which he has described in his Scénes de la Vie de
Bohéme (1845). At last his genius was recognised
by Arséne Houssaye, the editor of the Artiste, and
during his later years his popnlarity was secure.
Every journal was open to him, but he wrote
slowly and fitfully in the intervals of dissipation,
and was never in easy circumstances. He died in
the prt cree in Paris on January 28, 1861. His
first and best novel, Scénes de la Vie de Bohéme, is,
says Mr Saintsbury, a work final and perfect, which
deserves a place in the literature of humanity. A
vivid transcript from the scenes, alternately sombre
and jovial, of the writer’s years of struggle, it is in
rts infinitely pathetic, in parts irresistibly amus-
ing. Miirger had a rich gift of humour, but his
age tone is one of poignant melancholy.
e Manchon de Francine is one of the saddest, as it
is one of the most beautiful, short stories ever
penned. He had uncommon literary skill, and
could portray certain types of character admirably.
But he had = one subject which he could handle
successfully—the Bohemia of literary Paris. Next
to the Scénes dela Vie de Boheme, lis best prose
works are Scénes de la Vie de Jeunesse, Les Buveurs
d@’Eau, and the short tales included in the volume
entitled Madame Olympe. His ms, Les Nuits
d’ Hiver, are graceful, sincere, and often deeply
ri bearing strong traces of the influence of
usset. One of them, La Chanson de Musette, is
a lyric masterpiece—‘a tear,’ said Gautier, ‘ which
has become a pearl of poetry.’ Several of Miirger’s
i have been translated with rare felicity by
r Andrew Lang in his Lays of Old France.
~— was likewise the author of Le Dernier
ezvous, Scénes de Campagne, Le Pays Latin,
Le Sabot Rouge, Les Vacances de Camille, &e.
See the notices of Miirger by Gautier, Houssaye, Janin,
and Saint-Victor in Les Nuits d’ Hiver (1862).
Murghab, a river that rises in the mountains
north-east of Herat in Afghanistan, flows north-
west, and loses itself in the desert of Turkestan
beyond Merv.
Muriatic Acid. See Hyprocutoric Actin.
Muridz, a family of rodent quadrupeds, con-
taining many genera and a very large number of
species, distributed over all parts of the world, and
of which rats and mice may be regarded as bf ey
examples. To this family belong also voles, lem-
mings, dormice, jerboas, marmots, &c.
Murillo, BARTOLOoMé EsTEBAN, was born of
humble paren at Seville, and baptised January
1, 1618; and, after receiving some education, was
placed with his relative, Juan del Castillo, to
study painting. Having saved a little money,
which he made by painting somewhat stiff and
rough religious pictures for the fairs of Seville and
for exportation to South America, he went to
Madrid in 1641, being then in his twenty-fourth
year; was favourably noticed by his celebrated
townsman Velasquez; and through his influence
was enabled to study the chefs-d’ewuvre of Italian
350 MURPHY
MURRAY
and Flemish art in the royal collections. In 1645
he determined to return to Seville, though advised
to proceed to Rome by Velasquez, who offered him
letters from the king. After seat in Seville, he
painted eleven large and remarkable pictures for
the convent of San Francisco. He at once became
famous, and, receiving numerous important com-
missions, was soon sckupelatend as the head of
the school there. In 1648 Murillo married a lady
of fortune; he now maintained a handsome estab-
lishment, and his house was the resort of people of
taste and fashion. About this time he from
his first or ‘cold’ style—dark with decided outlines
—to his second or ‘warm’ style, in which the
drawing is softer and the colour improved. Of the
second style good examples are ‘St Leander,’ the
‘Nativity of the Virgin,’ and ‘St Antony of
Padua.’ In 1656 he was engaged on four great
semicircular pictures, which are the first examples
of his third or ‘vaporous’ manner, the outlines
vanishing in a misty blending of light and shade.
The three 3p it should be said, are not strictly
chronological, the warm style constantly reappear-
ing. The Academy of Seville was founded by him
in 1660, but he filled the office of president only
during the first year. After this came Murillo’s
most brilliant period; eight of the eleven pictures
inted in 1661-74 for the almshouse of St Jorge,
including ‘Moses striking the Rock,’ ‘Abraham
and the Angels,’ ‘The Miracle of the Loaves and
Fishes,’ ‘St Peter released from Prison,’ and ‘St
Elizabeth,’ are accounted his masterpieces. He
executed some twenty pieces for the Capuchin
Convent after 1675. He frequently chose the Im-
maculate Conception or Assumption of the Virgi
as a on and treated them much alike; the
famous ‘Conception’ now in the Louvre was sold in
1852 at the sale of Marshal Soult’s pictures for
£24,000. In 1681 he went to Cadiz, and while there
fell from a scaffold when painting an altarpiece in
the church of the Capuchins, returned to Reville,
and soon after died from the injury he received,
April 3, 1682. Murillo’s pictures naturally fall into
two great groups—scenes from low life, Gypsies and
beggar children (mostly executed early in his life),
and scripture and religious works. Of the former,
by which he is largely known abroad, very few are
to be seen in Spain. Though his best pictures
show much technical skill, truth to nature, and
sentiment of a kind, they seldom show ideal beauty
or sublimity of feeling.
See Miss E. E. Minor’s Murillo (‘ Great Artists’ series,
1882), and ©. B, Curtis’ Velasquez and Murillo (1883),
the latter giving a list of 481 pictures by Murillo—105 in
London, elsewhere in England, 61 in Madrid, 59 in
Seville, 21 in Paris, 24 in Russia, &c.
Murphy, Arruvur, dramatic and miscellaneous
writer, was born in Roscommon, Ireland, in 1727.
Intended by his father for business, he was placed
m a London bank, but_having, during his educa-
tion at the college at St Omer, in France, made
extraordinary ssaraary’4 in Greek and Latin, he
contracted literary and dramatic tastes. In 1752-74
»
he published the ity Inn Journal, a weekly
h
pe r which obtained him the acquaintance of Dr
ohnson. Being > fs agen of some expectations
and alread and
in debt, he went on the stage,
made his first appearance as Othello. In one
season he paid his debts, and then left the age
with £400 in his pocket ; and, determining to study
law, he entered Lincoln’s Inn in 1757. In 1758 he
roduced his first play, Tie Upholsterer, a successful
farce; in 1762 he was called: to the bar, but with
so poor a result that in 1788 he retired. He
continued to write comedies and other plays for the
stage, and is said to have produced more stock
pieces than any man of his time. His translation
of Tacitus (1793) is excellent; but his Essay on
Johnson and Life of Garrick did not add to his
fame. His dramatic works fill 8 vols. Late in
life he became a Commissioner of Bankrupts, and
nies pen of £200 a year. He died in 1805.
See his Life by Jesse Foot (1811).
Murrain is the generic term loosely used to
designate a variety of diseases of domestic animals,
but more generally restricted to the vesicular epi-
zootic, popularly known as the foot-and-mouth
disease. It is a contagious, infectious eruptive
fever, affecting cattle, sheep, pigs, and ‘try ;
but is rarely communicable to horses or men. _It is
characterised by the ap ce of little bladders
or vesicles in the mouth, on the lips, gums, and
tongue, on the coronets and interdigital 5 of
the feet, causing inability to eat, drivelli ne of
saliva, sometimes heat and swelling of the udder,
and lameness. The disorder runs a fixed and
definite course se in eight or ten days. Good
nursing, comfortable odgings, and a liberal supply
of soft, easily digestible , are the chief requisites
for a recovery. A laxative may be given if
needed. The mouth may washed out twice
daily with a mild astringent solution, which may
be made with half an ounce of alum, oxide of zine,
ors of lead, to the quart of water, When the
udder in milch cows, in which the complaint is
usually most serious, is affected, it should be bathed
with tepid water before and after milking, which
must be attended to very regularly, the feet kept
clean, loose horn removed, and washed occasion-
ally with the lotion used for the mouth. See also
ANTHRAX, CATTLE-PLAGUE, PLEURO-PNEUMONIA,
Murray, ALEXANDER, philologist, was born
the son of a shepherd in the parish of Minni-
Kirkeudbright, 22d October 1775, and had
ardly any education save what his father could
im till 1788, when he was at school for a short
time. Yet by diligent and omnivorous reading
all such books as fell in his way or could be borrowed,
he, when e as a shepherd, acquired, besides a
scholarly know edge of English literature, a mastery
of the classics, all the principal Euro re
and Hebrew. The fame of the learned shepherd |
to an invitation to Edinburgh, where he obtained a
bursary, gave private lessons, and continued his
linguistic labours, which were extended to oriental
tongues and ancient and modern Abyssinian. In
1 he became minister of Urr, in 1812 professor
of Oriental Lan in Edinburgh University ;
but he died 15th April 1813. His History of
European Languages was published in 1823.
M DAvip CHRISTIE, novelist, was born
19th April 1847, at West Bromwich, in Staffordshire,
and had served as reporter and then as war-corre-
spondent (1877-78) for several newspapers, when
in 1879 he published A Life's Atonement in ‘Cham-
bers’s Journal.’ In the same journal appeared
Val Strange and John Vale's Guardian. Other
works are By the Gate of the Sea, The Way of the
World, Aunt Rachel, Old Blazer's Hero, The
Weaker Vessel, A us Catspaw, &. In
1889 he visited Australia and went on the stage.
Marray, Eustace CLARE GRENVILLE, the
‘Roving Englishman,’ was born 2d October 1819,
the natural son of the second Duke of Bue -
ham. After studying at Oxford, he served till
1849 in the Austrian army; in 1851 joined the
British embassy at Vienna as attaché; in 1853-54
went on a special mission to the islands in the
c Sea ; in 1857 was attaché at Teheran; and
in the next year consul-general at Odessa. For
ex inthe public press in 1866 certain
abuses connected with the foreign office he was
dismissed the service. He spent the rest of his
life in Paris, and died at Passy, on 20th December
1881, As a journalist he is best known for his
— 7.) oS
‘
MURRAY 351
brilliant p: in the tempt vi eae iy op
Gazette, as an author y ‘oving ish-
man (1854-55), Raitaintes and Foreign ‘Courts
(1855), History of the French Press (1874), Men
of the Second Empire, &c. (1872-74), and a few
brilliant novels. Of the last, 7ie Member for Paris
(1871) is the cleverest, but Young Brown (1874),
from the circumstances of its hero’s birth, has the
most interest.
Murray, James A. H., philologist, was born at
Denholm, Roxburghshire, in 1837, received his
elemen education at Minto school, removed
to Hawick, and was appointed assistant-teacher
in the parish school there, and afterwards master
of a subscription academy. He next removed
to London, filling the post of foreign correspondent
in the Oriental Bank for some years; he after-
wards became senior assistant-master at Mill Hill
school. Dr Murray has been twice president of
the Philologieal Society (1879-80), is a uate
of London University, and LL.D. of Edinburgh
University. His work on the Dialects o, ‘the
Counties of Scotland (1873) established
his reputation as a philologist. He is familiar
with almost all the European lan and a
] number of oriental tongues. The great work
of his life, the editorship of the Philological
Society’s New English Dictionary, issued by the
Clarendon Press, was begun while at Mill Hill
(1879), an iron building in his garden there bein
utilised for the assortment of the two tons o
material to which he fell heir from his pre-
decessors in the editorship, Herbert Coleridge and
Dr Furnivall. This work has been continned at
Oxford, where Dr Murray has, with a staff of
assistants, devoted his whole attention to the task.
Dr Murray has fought his way to the front rank as
an au ity in the history and derivation of words,
and his great English Dictionary is the most
thorough and important work of the kind ever
undertaken in Britain. A civil list pension of
£270 per annum was conferred upon him in 1884. *
Murray, Joun, the name of four generations
of English publishers, will for ever remain asso-
ciated with the palmiest days of English literature
in the 18th and 19th centuries. The founder of the
by his son JoHN (born November 27, 1778), a
minor of fifteen at his father’s death, who was
for a short time associated as ner with his
father’s shopman, Mr Highley. One of the earliest
hits of John the second was Mrs Rundell’s Cookery-
book, of which over 300,000 copies were sold. e
connected with Mr Stratford Canning,
‘afterwards Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, through the
assistance he lent him and other Etonians ~with
ora ob grey of elem enema 1808-9 ~
e Qua ew, a Tory organ, in
pppoaiiiom to the Whig Edinburgh Fe; his
first step being to obtain Canning’s countenance.
A severe criticism of Scott’s Marmion in the Edin-
burgh Review to Murray a visit to Scott;
he secured his co-operation, as also that of Heber,
Canning, George Ellis, and Sir John Barrow.
The first number was published February 1, 1809,
under the editorship illiam Gifford. The new
periodical was completely successful, attaining a
circulation of 18,000 copies, and brought Murray
into communication not only with the chief literati,
but also with the Conservative statesmen of the
time. A still more fortunate connection was that
with Lord Byron (1810), whom he offered £600 for
the first two cantos of Childe Harold (published
1812). Murray now removed from Fleet Street to
Albemarle Street, where the business is still carried
on. Here Byron and Scott first met, and here
Southey made the acquaintance of Crabbe. Almost
all the literary ates of the day were ‘four
o'clock visitors’ in Albemarle Street—‘ wits and
bards ; Crabbes, Campbells, Crokers, Freres, and
Wards.’ Murray paid Byron nearly £20,000 for
his works, and his dealings with Crabbe, Moore,
Campbell, and Irving were princely. He had at
one time dealings with Constable and Ballantyne,
but never eee of their methods of business,
Hearing that Byron was in difficulties in 1815, he
sent him a cheque for £1500, promised another for
the same amount, and even offered to sell the copy-
right of his works on his behalf if necessary. (Rs
to Byron’s autobiography, see Byron, Vol. II. p.
598). Perhaps his only unsuccessful venture was
the ive (1826) newspaper; his ‘ Family
Library’ was begun in 1829, and he issued the
travels of Mungo Park, Belzoni, Parry, Frank-
lin, and others. The second John Murray died in
his sixty-fifth year, June 27, 1843, and was suc-
ceeded by his son, JoHN MURRAY the third, born
in 1808, and educated at the Charterhouse and
at Edinburgh bie Aaa b A more practical and
realistic had su ed that of Byron, and the
‘Home and Colonial Library’ was the precursor of
much of the cheap railway and other literature of
the present day. Many of the greatest works in
pessoag biography, travel, art, and science have
been issued by the third Murray. Among his
successes may be mentioned Dr Livingstone’s
Travels and Last Journals, Smiles’s Life of ¢ George
Stephenson, Self-help, of which more than 150,000
have been sold, Darwin's works, Dr Smith’s
dictionaries, and the well-known Handbooks for
Travellers ( n 1836; see GUIDEBOOKS), of the
first five of which he was author. He died April 2,
1892, when his son, the fourth Joun Murray,
became head of the firm. See S. Smiles, A Pub-
lisher and his Friends (1891).
Murray, Joun (1741-1815), was the founder of
Universalism (q.v.) in America.
Murray, LINDLEY, grammarian, was born at
Swetara, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in 1745,
the eldest of twelve children, and was educated at
a school in Philadelphia belonging to the Societ
of Friends. On his father’s removal to New Yor
he was placed in a counting-house, but his thirst
for study was so ardent that he escaped to a school
in New Jersey. He then studied law, and was
admitted to the bar at the age of twenty-one, and
commenced a good practice. ring the revolution-
ary war he engaged in mercantile pursuits with
such success as to accumulate a handsome fortune.
In 1784, his health failing; he came to Eng-
land and purchased an estate at Holdgate, near
York, where he devoted himself to literary pur-
suits. In 1787 he published his Power of Religion
on the Mind, which passed through nineteen
editions, and was translated into French. His
Grammar of the English Language was issued in
1795, and was followed by English Exercises, the
Key, the English Reader, Introduction and Sequel
(both translated into French), a Spelling Book, A
First Book for Children, A Compendium of Faith
and Practice, and The Duty and Benefit of a Dail:
Perusal of the Scriptures. The lesson-books a
passed through numerous large editions, and there
can be no stronger indication of how entirely the
352 MURRAY
MUSCZ VOLITANTES
systematic study of the English language had been,
until recent years, neglected by scholars than the
fact that Murray’s Grammar was for half a century
the standard text-book throughout Britain and
Awmenca. Murray wrote an autobiography to the
ear 1809, which was published after his death,
ebruary 16, 1826.
Murray, THe Recent. See Moray.
Murray River, the principal river of Australia.
It rises in the Australian Alps, flows north-west
along the frontiers of New South Wales and
Victoria, and in South Australia southward
through the shallow Lake Alexandrina towards the
sea at Encounter Bay. In its 1120 miles’ length
it drains 270,000 sq. m.; it is navigable for small
steamers as far as Albury, 190 miles NE. of Mel-
bourne, but its mouth cannot be entered by ships of
any size. The chief tributaries are the Lachlan
and Murrumbidgee and the Darling (q.v.), them-
selves large rivers. See also AUSTRALIA, NEW
Soura WALES, VICTORIA.
Murshidabad, a town of India, situated on
the left bank of the Bhagirathi, a branch of the
Ganges, 124 miles N. of Calcutta. During the 18th
century it was the capital of Bengal and a very
alous city; but about the time (1790) the
ritish made Calcutta their headquarters Mur-
shidabad began to decline. Mine (1881) 39,231;
1891) 35,576 The chief buildings of note are
he palace of the Nawab (1837), the Imambara
(‘house of prayer’), and a mosque. Two milessouth
of the city is Motijhil or Pearl Lake; on its bank
stood the palace of Suraj-ud-Dowlah, in which Clive
enthroned Mir Jafar, and the English Residents—
Warren Hastings the first—dwelt. On the oppo-
site side of the river is the old cemetery of the
Nawabs, containing a mausoleum, mosque, &c.
The city is noted for its ivory-carving, its em-
broidery in gold and silver lace, silk-weaving, and
the manufacture of hookah pipes and musical in-
struments. It is moreover a busy centre of trade.
The district has an area of 2144 sq. m., and @ pop.
(1881) of 1,226,790 ; (1891) 1,250,
Murten, battle. See Morar.
Murviedro, a town of Spain, 18 miles NNE.
of Valencia, stands on the site of the ancient
Saguntum, a Greek colony, the siege of which by
Hannibal (q.v.) was the beginning of the second
Punie war. Pop. 6287.
Murzuk. See Fezzan.
Musacez, a natural order comprising the
largest of herbaceous plants, generally destitute or
almost destitute of true stems, yet resembling trees
in a rance, and sometimes rivalling palms in
stateliness, the long sheathing bases of the leaf-
stalks combining to form a false stem. The blade
of the leaf has many fine parallel veins proceeding
from the mid-rib to the margin. The flowers are
con, ted on spadices, which are protected by
ro ves. The fruit is either a 3-valved capsule or
eshy. The species are not numerous; they are
natives of warm climates, in which they are widely
distributed, and are of great value to the inhabit-
ants of tropical countries; the fruit of some,
pomeery of the genus Musa, being much used
or food, whilst the fibres of the leaves are em-
ae for cordage and for textile pu (see
ANANA, ABACA, FIBROUS SUBSTANCES). A very
interesting a of the order Musacee is the
Traveller's Tree (q.v.) of Madagascar.
Muszeus, one of the ancient mythical poets,
seers, and priests of the Greeks, is said to have
been the son of Eumolpus and Selene, or, accord-
ing to others, the son and pupil of Orphens. He
was the reputed author of a number of poems,
oracles, purificatory verses, hymns, &c., of which
we possess but a few ts, and those of
doubtful anthenticity.—A later Museus, who
flourished about the end of the 5th century, was
the author of a beautiful little poem in Greek,
entitled Hero and Leander (ed. by Aldus Manutius
c. 1494; by Dilthey, Bonn, 1874). See HERo.
Musa Ibn Nosair (born 640), the Arab con-
ueror of northern Africa (699-709) and of Cpa
(712), fell under the displeasure of the Calif of
amascus, and died in poverty in Hedjaz in 717. _
Musaeus, Jonann Kart Avcust, a German
writer, born on 29th March 1735, at Jena, where he
studied theology. In 1763 he was asa tutor
to the at the ducal court of Weimar, and in
1770 became professor at the gymnasium. His first
roduction in 1760 was a parody of Richardson’s
Bir Charles Grandison, a book at that time extra-
vagantly admired in Germany. Eighteen years
later he satirised Lavater in Physiognomische
Reisen. But his lite’ fame rests upon his ver-
sion of Volksmdrchen der Deutschen, which pro-
fessed to be a collection of popular tales noted
down from the lips of old people ; but such is not
exactly the case: their chief note is an artificial
naiveté. Nevertheless, they are tinctured with
such a blending of satirical humour, quaint fancy,
and graceful writing that they have become a
classic of their kind. He continued to work the
satirical vein in Freund Heins Erscheinungen mn
Holbeins Manier (1785), and began a course of
tales, Straussfedern (1787), which he did not live
to complete, dying at Weimar, 28th October 1787.
See Life by M. Miller (1867) and Ad. Stern in
Literatur: nte (1893).
Musce Volitantes is the term applied to
ocular spectra, which appear like flies on the wing,
or floating black spots before the eyes. There are
two kinds of muse volitantes—the one a perfectly
harmless kind, while the other is symptomatic of
serious disease of the ie Whoever will look
through a minute pin-hole in a card at the clear
sky may see floating before his sight a number of
translucent tubes or fibres, and many little beads,
of which some are separate, some attached to the
tubes, and some apparently within them, Some
of the tubes or fibres are straight, others looped or
twisted, and others again forked. All these ob-
jects are bright in the middle, and bounded by fine
lack lines, beyond and parallel to which may be
seen an appearance of coloured lines or fringes.
The doubl and crossings of the loops or knots
in the twisted fibres appear as black points.
Though the eye be fixed, these bodies change their
position with greater or less rapidity. These
appearances are produced by the ws of
minute corpuscles and fibres present in the vitreous
humour, They are not generally noticed under
ordinary conditions; but some persons, especially
those who have small pupils or who are short-
pay ec readily see them, especially on looking at
a t surface, such as a white cloud or a brightly-
illuminated sheet of paper. If attended to and
watched they become more prominent, and may
cause & deal of annoyance. When they be-
come visible and troublesome under ordinary con-
ditions they generally indicate some defective state
of health, particularly of the digestive organs,
The appearance of dark spots before the eyes not
answering to the above description generally points
to the existence of a diseased condition of the
deeper of the eye, vitreous humour, retina
or choroid : and as these, or the morbid conditions
causing them, are almost always visible with the
ophthalmoscope, the eyes should be thoroughly
examined in any doubtful case (see Eyz, OPHTHAL-
MoscoPE). For further information on the differ-
ences between the innocent and the dangerous
a
MUSCARDINE
MUSCLE 353
forms of muscz volitantes, the reader is referred
to an article by Sir David Brewster in the North
British Review for November 1856.
Mu or SILKWORM Rot (Botrytis
Bassiana, so called from the Italian physician
Bassi, who first proved its true nature in 1836), is
a mould doubtless belonging to tle Discomycetes
(since its congener B. cinerea has been shown to be
the spore-bearing phase of Peziza Fiickeliuna). It
was first observed on the silkworm in Piedmont
and France in the later part of the 18th century,
and was F sgwmared bb eae during the first half
of the 19th, but has since been practically stam
out. De Bary has shown that it occurs not unfre-
quently upon a variety of insects.
Muscat, or more correctly MASKAT, capital of
the independent state of Oman or Muscat, which
occupies the south-eastern corner of Arabia. It
stands in a narrow rocky cove that opens out to the
Indian Ocean on the one side and on the other
forms the exit of a leading from the interior
of Arabia. It is surrounded by a wall, and defended
by forts planted on the rocky heights above. Its
streets are narrow and not over clean ; in summer
the heat is intense ; hence Muscat is not a healthy
lace. Yet the advantages of its situation make
t of great importance for the commerce between
eastern Arabia, Persia, India, the east coast of
Africa, and the Red Sea, Its total trade reaches
the value of £1,100,000 annually, the chief exports
being pearls and fish, in which its coastal waters
are extraordinarily rich, and salt, dates, drugs,
dyestuff, horses, and the imports chiefly coffee,
A sugar, piece-goods, oil, &e. Pop. about
20,000. Although a very ancient place, Muscat
snr small fase of little rf. em —_ -
uguese took possession of it in 1508. Under
their rule, lasting exactly a century and a half,
it developed into a rous commercial centre.
It was subsequently governed by native rulers
imams), who in the 17th century sneceeded the
‘ortuguese also as masters of Zanzibar and some
places on the east coast of Africa. These African
were, however, wrested from the reign-
ig imam of Muscat by an illegitimate son in 1856.
Muscatel (Ital. moscado, ‘musk’), the name
given to many sweet, strong French and Italian
wines, whether white or red. Amongst the finest
are the white Rivesaltes and red ol from
Roussillon, and the Lunel from the Pyrenees, the
Lacryme Christi of Naples, Kc. Fine varieties
are yielded by Syracuse, Sardinia, the Cape,
Canary Islands, Corfu, Crete, and Cyprus.
Muscatine, capital of Muscatine county, Iowa,
is on the west bank of the Mississippi, built mostly
on rocky bluffs, where the river makes a great bend
to the south, 211 miles by rail WSW. of Chicago.
Tt has a large trade by river and rail, and contains
great pork-packing establishments, as well as flour
and lumber milis, and glonsh and furniture
factories. Pop. (1890) 11,454 ; (1900) 14,073.
Muschelkalk (Ger., ‘shell-lime’), the middle
member of the Triassic system as developed in
Germany. It is wanting in Britain. The muschel-
kalk consists chiefly of limestone—the series attain-
ing a thickness of 550 to 1100 feet. The upper
on is more or less pure limestone and highly
iliferous ; the middle and lower portions consist
mostly of dolomitie limestone, with which are
Geeoskated rock-salt, gypsum, and anhydrite. One
of the most abundant and characteristic fossils of
the musehelkalk is the lily encrinite (Encrinurus
liliiformis), See TRIASSIC SYSTEM.
Muscle, the fleshy parts of an animal. Mus-
cular tissue is ie distinguished its
power a contracting rf one dGenion; bcs is
the instrument by which all the sensible move-
ments of the animal body are performed. When
examined under a high magnifying power the fibres
of which it is com are found to exist under
two forms, which can be distinguished from one
another by the presence or absence of very close
and minute transverse bars or stripes. The fibres
of the voluntary muscles—those whose movements
can be influenced by nerve impulses originated
by the will—as well as the fibres of the heart, are
striped ; while those of the involuntary muscles,
such as the muscular fibres of the intestinal canal,
of Blood-vessels (q.v.), and in skin, are unstriped.
On examining an ordinary voluntary muscle
with the naked eye, we observe that it presents a
fibrous appearance, and that the fibres are arranged
with larity in the direction in which the
muscle is to act or contract. On closer examination
Fig. 1.—Attachment of Tendon to Muscular Fibre
in the Skate.
it is found that these fibres are arran
or bundles of various sizes, enc]
areolar tissue, by which they are at
the same time connected with and
isolated from those adjoining them ;
and when the smallest fasciculus
visible to the naked eye is examined
with the microscope it is seen to
consist of a number of cylindrical
fibres lying in a parallel direction,
and closely bound together. These
fibres may end in blunt extremities
or be forked as in i
branched as in the tongue.
fibre consists of an elastic homo-
geneous sheath—the sarcolemma
(Gr. sara, ‘flesh,’ and lemma, ‘a
skin or husk’), which contains a Fig, 2.—Sarco-
contractile semi-fluid material. lemma of Mam-
This substance shows transverse malian Muscle.
in fasciculi,
in sheaths of
strive at lar intervals, as well
a striz. Dilute mineral acids cause
the fibre to cleave crosswise into discs. When
Fig. 3.—Mnuscular Fibre of Fig. 4.—Portion of Human
rog’s Tongue—ma. 200 Muscular Fibre — mag.
diameters (after Kélliker), 600 diameters.
highly magnified the transverse strie resolve them-
354
ES oe
MUSCLE
selves into (1) a thin dim dise whose edges appear
to adhere to the sarcolemma, (2) a clear space,
(3) a broad dim disc, (4) a clear space like 2, (5)
another dise like 1, &e.
Nerve fibres pierce the sarcolemma, and end
upon the contractile substance (see NERVOUS
System). No blood-vessels penetrate the sar-
colemma; they merely lie in the intervals be-
tween the fibres. Through the medium of tendon
or aponeurosis the muscular fibres are attached
to the parts which they are intended to move.
A in parallel series, of greater or
lesser size, and associated with nerves) vessels,
tendinous structures, &c., they form the various
muscles, which are for the most part
solid and elongated, but are sometimes
expanded (as in the diaphragm) into
a membranous shape. In the human
a pele’ voluntary muscles are red,
and although pale fibres are scattered
b through many of them, still nothing
is ever seen to correspond with what
may be found in the muscles of the
rabbit. The colour is due to a sub-
stance closely akin to the blood-pig-
ment. Each muscle has a middle portion
: or belly and two extremities which are
attached. When the belly contracts it
acts in a straight line, and drags equally
on both extremities ; but, as one is more
fixed than the other, the force is spent
in bringing the movable attachment
nearer to the fixed one, and thus the
fixed end is named the origin, the mov-
able end the cnsertion. Muscles are
usually grouped around joints, and
attached to bone.
The involuntary or unstriped muscular
Fig. 5. tissue most commonly occurs in the
Muscular shape of flattened bands of considerable
Fibre-cells length, but of a width not exceeding
from the ,J,5th or ggysthofaninch. Their sub-
scanty ag stance presents fine longitudinal mark-
Seatine(et ings, and each cell possesses an elon-
ter Quain): gated nucleus, towards each end of
a. complete Which a few fine granules are found.
cell show. Kélliker has shown that every one of
ing nucleus, these bands or fibres is either a single
intranue- elongated cell (a fibre-cell) or is a fasci-
< <9 culus of such cells (see CELL). These
longitudi. fibres have not usually fixed points of
nal fibrilla- attachment like the striated fibres, but
fons », cell form continuous investments around
veoess ~of €@Vities within the body, such as the
lation. intestinal canal, the blood-vessels ; or
are dispersed through the substance of
tissues, such as the skin, to which they impart a
contractile property.
Cardiac muscle, although involuntary, differs in
a remarkable manner from the fibres just described.
It consists of quadrangular cells, which are often
branched at their ends. Each cell has a clear oval
nucleus near its centre, and the cells present
transverse striw not so distinet and less regular
than those of voluntary muscle. Hitherto these
cardiac fibres have not been shown to possess a
sarcolemma,
The chemical composition of ordinary or volun-
tary muscle is described at FLEsH. The fibrille, or
the sarcous elements of which they are com ;
consist of a substance termed Syntonin (q.v.),
which closely resembles the fibrine or coagulating
constituent of the blood; and the same syntonin
is also the main constituent of the unstri
muscles, or at all events of their fibre-cells. Like
the blood-fibrine, it exists in a fluid form in the
= tissue, and only coagulates or solidifies after
eat
Muscles vary extremely in their form. In the
limbs they are usually of considerable length,
surrounding the bones and
forming an ieaportant rotec-
tion to the joints; while in e€
the trunk they are flattened
and , and contribute
ve to form the
walls of the cavities which ™ n
they enclose. Muscles derive
their names variously (1)
from their situation—as the
temporal, pectorals, gluteals ;
or (2) from their direetion—
as the rectus, obliquus, Xc.
of which there may be several
irs—as, for example, rectus
emoris, rectus capitis; or(3) Fig. 6. — Muscular
from their uses—as the mas- Fibre-cclls from Hu-
seter, the various flexors, ex- man Artery (after
tensors ; < Reece their Kélliker): tan
shape—as the , trape- 1, nuclens ; ¢, cell trea
aon rhomboid; or (5) from with acetic
the numberof their divisions— ;
as the biceps and triceps ; or (6) from their
of attachment—as the sterno-cleido-mastoid,
sterno-thyroid.
The skeleton, which may be
termed the locomotive framework,
may be ed as a series of
levers, of which the fulerum is, for
the most part, in a nog at
one extremity of a bone—the re-
sistance (or weight) at the further
end, and the force (or muscle) in
the intermediate portion. In most
cases, in order to preserve the neces-
sary form of the body, muscles are
applied at a great mechanical dis-
cavanbiage as regards the exercise of
their power; that is to say, a much
larger force is “evn gg than would
suffice, if differently applied, to
overcome the resistance. The two
main sources of this disadvantage Fig. 7.—Meocsles
lie in the obliquity of the inser- Fibres from the
tion, and consequently of the action Heart.
of most muscles, and in the muscles
being usually inserted very near the fuleram, The
first of these disadvantages is in many cases dimin-
ished by the enlargements of the bones at the
joints, See fig. 8, A.
m
ro | A.
0
B A
he tendons (1) of the
Fig. 8.
‘ints
muscles (m) situated
above the joint are usu-
ally inserted immediately
below the bony enlarge-
ment, and thus reach the
bone that is to be moved
(0) in a baie os Meena
what approaching the per-
mdieaiae If this en-
argement did not exist (as in fig. 8, B), the con-
traction of the muscle, ins of causing the
lower bone to turn upon the upper one with
comparatively little loss of power, would do little
more than cause the two ends of the bones to
ress upon each other. The second mechanical
anda is compensated for by gain in the
extent and velocity of movement, and by the
avoidance of the t inconvenience of having
the muscles extended in straight lines between
the ends of jointed continuous levers. Thus, the
bones of the forearm (fig. 9, b, c) are bent y te
the bone of the arm (a) by the biceps muscle a).
which arises close to the head of the latter, and
inserted ate, at a short distance from the elbow-
joint, which acts as the fulcrum of the lever (c).
MUSCOVITE
MUSHROOM 355
this arrangement a contraction of a single inch in
the muscle moves the hand (/), in the same time,
through the extent of about 12 inches, but then the
hand moves through every inch with only about
the twelfth of the power exerted by the
muscle. By the junction of two or more levers in
one direction, as in the different segments of the
extremities, the extent and velocity of their united
actions are communicated to the extreme one.
Thus, a blow of the fist may be made to include
the foree of all the muscles engaged in extending
the shoulder, elbow, and wrist.
The great and characteristic property of muscular
tissue—that of shortening itself in a particular
direction when stimulated—is called contractility.
The stimulus may be direct irritation by mechanical
means, or vanism, or by some chemical sub-
stance, but in the living body the muscular fibres
are, in most cases, made to contract by the imme-
diate influence of the nerves distributed among
them, which are consequently termed motor nerves
(see Nervous SysTeM), and are under the influ-
ence of the will. By an exertion of volition, we
can contract more or fewer muscles at once, and to
any degree, within certain limits ; and, as a matter
of fact, there is hardly any ordinary movement
performed in which several muscles are not called
into play. But every voluntary muscle is also
subject to other influences more powerful in their
operation than the will. The movement of the
features under the impulses of passion and emotion
are more or less pereagen’ A as is shown by the
very partial power the will has of restraining
them, and the extreme difficulty of imitating them.
Many movements ensue involuntarily when certain
impressions, which need not necessarily be attended
with consciousness, are made on the surface of the
body, or on any of its interior, either by
ex or in causes. Such movements are
termed reflex, and are noticed in the article NERVOUS
System. For various important groups of muscles,
see ArnM, Eye, Foot, HaNp, Tvac, Lea, Xe. ;
and for the source of muscular force, see Drier,
DiGEstIon.
Muscovite. See Mica.
Muscovy. See Russta,
Muses, in the Greek Mythology, divinities
original aM included amongst Vine "Wmpha, but
afterw regarded as quite distinct from them.
To them was ascribed the power of inspiring song,
and poets and musicians were therefore regarded
as their pupils and favourites. They were first
honoured amongst the Thracians, and, as Pieria
around Olympus was the original seat of that
people, it came to be considered as the native
country of the Muses, who were therefore called
Pierides. In the earliest period their number was
three, though Homer sometimes speaks of a single
muse, and once, at least, alludes to nine. This last
is the number given by Hesiod in his 7heogony, who
also mentions their names—Clio, the muse of his-
tory ; Euterpe, of lyric try ; Thalia, of comedy ;
Wekorlonne: of tragedy; Terpsichore, of choral dance
and song; Erato, of erotic poetry ; Polyhymnia, of
the sublime hymn; Urania, of astronomy; and
Calliope, of epic poetry. Their origin is differ-
ently given, but the most widely-spread account
represented them as the daughters of Zeus and
nemosyne. Homer speaks of them as the
goddesses of song, and as dwelling on the summit
of Olympus. y are also often represented as
the companions of Apollo, and as singing while he
played upon the lyre at the banquets of the Immor-
tals. Various legends ascribed to them victories in
musieal competitions, ponent over the Sirens.
In the later classic times particular provinces were
assigned to them in connection with different
departments of literature, science, and tlie fine
arts ; but the invocations addressed to them appear
to have been, as in the case of modern writers,
merely formal imitations of the early poets.
Their worship amongst the Romans was a mere
imitation of the Greeks, and never became truly
national or popular. Among the places sacred to
them were the fountains of 2" pe and Hippo-
crene on Mount Helicon, and the Castalian spring
on Mount Parnassus.
Museum (Gr. mouseion), originally the name
given by the ancients to a temple of the Muses,
and afterwards to a building devoted to science,
learning, and the fine arts. The first museum of
this kind was the celebrated Alexandrian Museum
—a meeting-place for learned men and a library,
founded about 280 B.c. in the palace. After the
revival of learning in Europe the term museum
came to be applied to collections of antiquities,
and sculptures, and paintings. Collections illus-
trative of natural history and other sciences now
form a chief part of the treasures of many of the
greatest museums, and there are museums devoted
to particular branches of science, and to illustrating
the industrial arts. Of the museums of Britain,
the British Museum (q.v.) and that of South
Kensington (see KENSINGTON) are the most im-
portant. The museums of the Vatican in Rome,
of the Louvre in Paris, of St Petersburg, Dresden,
Vienna, Munich, and Berlin, and the National
Museum at Washington also are among the
test in the world. See the Address of the
ident of the British Association, 1889.
Musha Islands. See Ozock.
Mushroom, or AGaric, the popular name of
a somewhat diverse group of genera and species of
fungi belonging to the sub-order Hymenomycetes,
of great class Cryptogams. The best known of
the true mushrooms to English readers is the
Common Mushroom (Agaricus campestris), and it
is the type of the sub-order named. In Britain
it is the most esteemed of its tribe, though little
valued in countries where fungi more generally
form an article of diet of the people; in Italy
it is disapproved. It should be noted that some
of the forms common to Europe and North
America are esteemed in England, but found un-
ble in the United States. The Common
ushroom varies considerably in appearance accord-
ing to soil and locality, but presents in all its
variations the same essential characters. It has
a fleshy head or pileus, smooth or scaly on the
epee surface, varying in colour from white to
different shades of tawny or fuliginous brown.
The gills (hymenium) on the under side of the
head are free, at first pallid, changing by grada-
tions in to pink, purple, ee brown-black.
The stem is white, varied in shape, full, firm,
furnished towards the top with a white persist-
ent ring. The Common Mushroom is widely
356
MUSHROOM
distributed in most of the temperate regions of both
the northern and the southern hemispheres. In
Britain it is abundant chiefly in autumn in
tures and iy io a ma = Mushroom (A.
arvensis) is very frequently found growing in com-
pany with the Common Mushroom. It is altogether
Fig. 1.
1. Parasol Agaric (Agaricus procerus); a, young. 2 Ora
milked Agaric (A, deliciosus); b, young. 3. White Field
Agaric (A. virgineus); c, young.
a coarser and larger form, and is less favoured for
culinary purposes except in the making of ketchup.
It often attains enormous dimensions; the top is
generally smooth and snow-white, gills brownish
white, ultimately with age becoming brown-black,
stem pithy or hollow, with a ragged or floccose
ring. This is the ‘ sheen. > Mushroom of some
parts of England.—The true St George’s Mushroom
(A. gambosus of some, or primulosus of others),
so called from appearing about St George's day
(April 23), is sometimes confounded with the
Common Mushroom. The head is thick and fleshy,
at first convex, becoming undulated and irregular
in outline, light yellow in colour in the centre,
nega to opaque white at the edges, gills yellow-
ish white, irregularly interposed, smaller and larger,
overlying each other like the plaits of a frill;
the stem is solid, white, when young bulging at the
base, but in age either equal throughout or taper-
ing to greater thickness above. The skin of this
mushroom is soft and firm to the touch, and in
appearance has been aptly described by Berkeley
as resembling a cracknel biscuit. It is one of the
most prized of the Agarics on the Continent, so
much so in Rome that a dish of it is considered
the most fitting present to any one whose
offices are to be propitiated.—The Fairy-ring Mush-
room (A. es; Marasmius oreades of some),
also the Cham ignon of the French, is common
in pastures and in lawns in Britain, and in most
rts of oy _ The head is small, smooth,
1avi
of convex, ng a boss (umbo) in the centre
toug 1, leathery, elastic, wrinkled; when soaked
with water brown, when d
buff. The ee are free,
distant, somewhat paler than the head ; the stem
equal in thickness, twisted, tough, fibrous, of a
pale silky-white colour. This species is much
esteemed by all who know it. Its flavour is
extremely fine, and it is employed in the making
af the best kinds of ketchup. On the Continent it is
dried and used in the form of a powder to flavour
various made dishes. Its peculiar mode of grow-
ing in circular patches or in rings, which procured
fer it ite popular name, leads to the risk of an
allied but poisonous species which sometimes
ws in the same manner being confounded with
it. This is the False Champignon (A. or Mar-
asmius urens), which is readily distinguished
from the true Fairy-ring Mushroom by its having
a flat top without any boss, and by its narrow
gills being closely crowded together. The fore-
going are the most commonly esteemed of edible
ritish mushrooms. But there are a number of
others which are not only wholesome but ex-
tremely delicate in flavour and nutritious, There
is the Parasol Mushroom (A. procerus); the Maned
Mushroom (Coprinus comatus), of which youn
Saeco only should be used; the Red-flesh
ushroom (A, rubescens); the Clouded Mushroom
(A. nebularis), appearing late in autumn in moist
places on the borders of woods; and the Oran
milk Mushroom (Lactarius or A-deliciosus). This
last is much prized by connoisseurs in edible fangi
on the Continent and in Britain. It has, as the name
implies, orange-coloured milky sap in the head, and
when broken or bruised both the flesh and the milk
become green by exposure to the air. This is an
i Fig. 2.
4. St George’ rie ( Agaricus georgit) ;
nontotn ( tteommote H . eek
(A, oreades); f, young.
young, 5, Common
iry-ring Mushroom
. Ciavaria phalloides; g, young.
excellent test when there is any doubt as to the
identity of this and an allied but virulentl
poisonous species—L. torminosus—in which bot
the flesh and the milk are white, and do not change
colour when broken or bruised. Although many
of the British fungi are wholesome and nutritious
food, yet it is proper that the inexperienced in
diagnosing them should be cautioned strong]
inst eating any species of the wholesome quali-
ties of which they are not absolutely assured.
In many continental cities inspectors are appointed
to examine all fungi that are brought to market,
lest deleterious species should perchance be sold
to the people. Those who desire to acquire an
accnrate ——- of edible British species of
fungi may refer to Dr Badman’s Esculent Funguses
(1863), J. Berkeley's Outlines of British
Fungology (1860), M. C. Cooke’s Edible and Poison-
pig OH (1894), and other works cited at FuNGr.
The culture of the common mushroom for profit
in Britain has since 1875 become an important
branch of gardening industry. About London in
particular % is entered into by market-gardeners
and even by specialists who live and_ thrive
solely by the production of mushrooms for the
million. To a lesser extent the industry is also
—
MUSHROOM
MUSIC 357
being taken up in the vicinity of the larger pro-
vincial towns. In Paris the catacombs are utilised
for the growing of mushrooms, as are caves in all
eee France; and in Edinburgh the disused
Street tunnel was acquired in 1886 for the
same purpose. “The principles of the culture of
mushrooms are very simple, though considerable
attention and skill are required in working out
the eran, details. For , see W. Robinson’s
M Culture (1880).
Music. European music is by no means a
spontaneous expression of ideas and sentiments,
and it is only in a poetical sense that we can talk
of the ‘music’ or ‘melody’ made, for example, by
birds. Music is an art, and in order to make an
impression on our minds it must take as its founda-
tion the succession of sounds embodied in the scales
we have chosen, and to which we are accustomed ;
it must also conform to the rules which have become
Foye ee couse We must look wo its birth in
t, but it wi serve no purpose here to ocenpy
any space with the little that is known of Egyptian,
or its offspring Greek music.
It is not improbable that the Israelites took with
them to Palestine some they had learned in
t; and that many of hymns of the early
Christian church were identical with Temple
melodies. As from these hymns was formulated
the first authoritative musical system, we may say
that in a double sense we are indebted to Egypt
for the beginning of the modern art. It was St
Ambrose to the close of the 4th century,
and Gregory the Great two centuries afterwards,
Hs
BS et fut Fede, te
meof me mut nif
Neume Notation of the Tenth Century.
who selected eight scales or ‘modes’ (the ‘Gre-
pect as proper for use in church music (see
ARMONY), and till about 1600 A.D. the legitimate
development of music was in the hands of the
clergy. At first a rude system of dots and scratches
(neumes) above the syllables in the Rubric served
to indicate approximately when and how far the
voice should be raised or lowered in pitch. This
could ree 4 have been an aid to memory. The rela-
tive pitch of the notes was more definitely shown
when a line of normal piteh was drawn through
neues; and to this line was added three
others in order to attain a more exact definition of
intervals. The key or clef (clavis) was given to
this stave of lines by a sign—usually (° or |B &
on the line which represented that note (C); some-
times F (F >) Later the G (G) clef came
into use, of which our treble or violin Clef (q.v.)
is a corruption. With the idea of singing in
parts instead of unison came the necessity for indi-
eating the relative duration of notes as well as
their pitch, and for this purpose different shapes
were given to the { Nota] oe (2)—the Maxima
(1) being twice as
o 2 % 4 5 cn - the
revis (3) with its
= 7S s supplementary Semz-
brevis (4). A very
short note was added—the Minima (5). When
musie came to be printed these signs were made
Ma and convenience in writing substituted
round form for the square or diamond, The
semibreve (go) is now our mo note, althongh
the breve is still to be met in church music, and in
the indication of the measure ‘two semibreves to
the bar’ (Alla Breve). In order to avoid a certain
false relation of sound called the tritonus, which
the pious old theorists called ‘the very devil’ (‘ Mi
contra fa diabolus est in musica’), some of the
church modes used B? instead of B. This was the
only ‘license’ allowed, and was indicated by the
*B rotundum’ (b) instead of the ‘B quadratum’
(b). These signs are the origin of our ‘acci-
dentals’—the flat (>), which lowers the pitch of
a note one semitone, and the natural (%), which
restores it. The sharp (2), which raises the pitch,
is also a development of ‘the ‘B quadratum.’ See
also GUIDO ARETINUS.
Counterpoint (1400-1600 A.D, ).—Such were the
materials with which Johannes Ockenheim_ or
Okeghem (c. 1420-1513) and Josquin des Prés
(ec. 1450-1521) laid the foundation of Counterpoint
(punctus contra punctum, ‘ note — note’), the
art of combining one or more melodic parts with a
principal melody called the ‘Canto Fermé,’ or fixed
song. Connterpoint was the workshop in which
were made many of the best tools used by great
musicians of modern times. The art attained its
perfection under Orlando di Lasso and Palestrina
at the end of the 16th century, just when a new
departure by Monteverde became the inauguration
of the new school of harmony which was to super-
sede the old contrapuntal school by assimilatin
all that was good therein. Other influences whic
helped to break the monopoly of church counterpoint
were the growing popularity and secularity of
Madrigals (q.v.), at first distinguishable only by
their words from church music; the improvement
in organ-building and organ-playing, which en-
couraged freer part-writing and bolder melodic pro-
ions than the limitations of unsupported
Soa voices allowed; and doubtless also the
natural warmth of musical feeling which had found
expression among the troubadours of France and
the minnesingers of Germany, and in the rude
popular songs of these early ages.
lorence Academy.—Most ren: factor of all in
this new birth of musie was the invention (in 1594-
1600) of recitative music and the introduction of
the dramatic principle the Florence Academy
—a group of literati and artists who met in the
house of Count Bardi, a Florentine nobleman.
Their aim and ambition was to restore the ancient
accompanied Greek play; and by making use of
all the slender resources which harmony could then
put at their disposal they stumbled, as it were by
accident, on the form of recitative, or, as they
ealled it, ‘Stilo rappresentativo.’ The develop-
ment of opera and oratorio, with all the various
forms of aria, &c., was a natural consequent, a
particular aeconnt of which will be found under
their proper headings.
Monteverde,—T he great landmark which separates
the old school of counterpoint from the new is
the compositions of Monteverde, whose importance
is explained in the article on Harmony. It was
only gradually that the new leaven spread through
the schools of Europe, and nearly one hundred
years ela between the setting of Palestrina’s
sun and the appearance of the twin morning-stars
of modern music—Bach and Handel. The time,
however, was well occupied. In vocal music greater
freedom in the use of established forms was gradu-
ally attained, and new forms were invented, chief
among which was the Aria introduced by Ales-
sandro Scarlatti (1659-1725). He first used the
‘second part,’ which, followed by a da capo or
repetition of the first strain, summarised for vocal
music the tendency which was dominating all
musical development.
The French Grand Opera school, founded by
the Florentine Lully (1633-87), studied the art of
358
MUSIC
expressing in sound the most fleeting emotions to
be found even in the ever-varying turns of thought
in an operatic recitative.
Of still more importance was the progress made
during the century in instrumental music. A
great impetus to solo-playing in particular, and
execution in general, was given by the improvement
in the manufacture of violins. The centre of this
industry was Cremona, where the three famons
families of Straduarius, Guarnerius, and Amati
worked for three generations. Some of their instru-
ments are to-day literally worth more than their
weight in gold.
‘andel and Bach.—In 1685, on the 23d of
February and 18th of March respectively, were
born Handel in Halle and Bach in Eisenach. From
1710 till 1722 Handel devoted all his energies and
genius to writing operas after the Italian school,
and most of his works have shared the fate of their
contemporaries and rivals. He was then led into
the path of oratorio, and a brilliant suecession of
well-known compositions sheds an undying radiance
on the last twenty years of his active life (see
ORATORIO). Bacli’s influence has been wider and
more far-reaching even than that of his great con-
temporary. Indeed, no less a critical authority
than Schumann has declared that music owes as
much to Bach as Christianity does to its founder.
xj virtue of his complete and easy command of
all the resources of harmony and counterpoint, his
boundless originality and fertility, the invariably
high level of is compositions—even when judged
wy his own high standard—he takes a place above
all ancient and modern composers. Under his in-
tluence also the German school of composition chose
the path of instrumental music, in which the voice
is only one of a large orchestra of instruments,
entitled to no more consideration than its limits
demand. The attempt in Gluek's operas to recon-
cile the oa ee vg of expressive instrumentation
and the demands of the vocal school was more
suecessful in theory than in reality (see GLUCK),
and the true central column of progress has moved
up till now in Germany along instrumental lines in
the hands of Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Schumann,
Wagner, and their contemporaries.
a.—The most important form of instru-
mental music had hitherto been the Fugue (q.v.),
and in its strait and heavy harness these giants
of old moved with ease, grace, and dignity. But
the age of monothematie work was al y past,
and the old dance forms (allemande, courante,
sarabande, gavotte, gigne) did not readily lend
themselves to the requirements of thematic develop-
ment, so necessary to instrumental music as a con-
ception distinct from music, to which words at once
give inspiration and im limitation. Corelli,
and D. Scarlatti, Bach, and others each strove
to solve the problem in his own way, and the sum
of their influences was handed from Emmanuel
Bach to the ‘formulator of the modern sonata,’
Joseph Haydn (1732-1809).
The name ‘sonata’ was first used in Italy for
music which was only to be played or ‘sounded,’
contrasted with ‘cantata,’ which was to be sung.
The particular form, however, gradually separated
itself from all other instrumental music, and when
generations of earnest musicians had lavished care,
thought, and experience on its development it was
ted, and is accepted, as the form par excellence.
In its inould are cast sonatas, symphonies, quartetts,
concertos, &c., and even the most romantic an
daring of fantasias find it ry to recognise
its broad and accommodating principles. Haydn's
sonatas are still very formal; so also are Mozart’s,
though he had more in common with the Romantic
school of the next century than the elder composer.
This is shown by a comparison of their symphonies.
Haydn’s are beautiful and graceful, but the themes
and subjects he chooses are never very deep, nor
can they move the depths of the heart. He is most
successful in his airy and humorous quick move-
ments. In Mozart’s symphonies a, nobler and more
romantic spirit breathes—sometimes with most
intense passion, sometimes with a dignified melan-
choly. And so the way was prepared for the
most powerful and the most widely hononred of all
rulers in the realms of sound. In the works which
are classed as his ‘first period’ Beethoven showed
how he had studied and mastered the work of his
great predecessors. In his second period he pro-
ceeded to build on the solid foundation that
wonderful structure to which the vast conceptions
of his third period form a fitting and glorious
crown. Nothing important has been added to sonata
form since Beethoven wrote the works between
the Erotica and the Choral Symphonies (1803-23) ;
and although much has since been written,
much that is new, much that is original—although
a ready appreciation is granted to the passion of
Schumann, the romantie power of Schubert, the
poetry of Chopin, the refined elegance of Mendels-
soln, the successful use of new colour shown in
later works by Brahms, Dvorik, Liszt, &e.—
Beethoven’s sonatas and symphonies still stand
unrivalled, unchallenged.
Fantasia.—A desire for some more direct, more
unfettered expression of feeling not unnaturally
succeeded this long striving after adequate form.
But, while all great composers devoted most of
their genius to its development of ee form,
the growth of the fantasia was much neglected,
Only when the greatest minds turned their atten-
tion for a moment from the more important
aim was anything of a importance produced ;
and that because it is only the mind trained in
the strict school of form to use all available
resources which can wisely enjoy a liberty so easily
converted into license. The earliest attempts in
fantasia form were called ‘toccatas’ during the
17th century; and, notwithstanding excellent
modern toccatas by Schumann, Rheinberger, and
others, we may say that the history of the toccata
was brought to a close by the magnificent specimens
written early in the 18th century by J. 8. Bach.
The same composer left a freer model than the
somewhat formal toceata in one of the most famous
and successful fantasias in existence, and instru-
mental music has never attained nearer to the
definiteness of articulate speech than in the great
Chromatic Fantasia,
The strong romantic movement which naturall
ensued after the perfecting of the classical sehoo!
in Beethoven's hands eagerly followed out the path
he so often and with such effect indicated in his
works; and, et tp. the name fantasia has lately
fallen into much disrepute by reason of many
unworthy and worthless compositions, it m
recover its fair fame when Schumann’s an
Schubert's fantasias have survived their contem-
varies. In any case the endless varieties of
antasia (i.e. gy ed form, and eH ony
in rhaj ies, symphonic poems, and the like,
have ad as valuable and as potent a factor in
modern romantic music as the various modifica-
tions they have effected in the classical sonata
form (eg. ’s concertos and sonatas), Schumann
adopted some very curious whimsical or poetical
names for his smaller compositions—novelette,
humoreske, carneval, &ec.—and the idea has found
great favour with many modern writers, The
nocturne invented by the Irish pianist Field is
more identified with Chopin’s dreamy genius. The
latter composer also transfused the waltz and the
polonaise and mazurka of his own unhappy country
with such an intensity of passion, such a chiv
—_— ee
»
———
)
MUSIC 359
“nobility, and surrounded them with such a halo of
poetry and romance that they are an important
addition to the resources of a modern composer,
and in’s name overshadows that of Schubert
and Weber, earlier workers in the same field
(Deutsche Téinze, L’Invitation & la Valse). The
latest developments in instrumental music are
intense nationality in colour and thought, as shown
in the works of Grieg, Dvorak, Liszt, Mackenzie,
and a new striving after more definiteness which
was ry by Berlioz.
Vocal ic.—The progress of vocal music from
its first great triumph in 16th-century counterpoint
was much slower and varied than that of instru-
mental. The reason of this is not hard to find;
for the conception of vocal writing in the contra-
puntal school was sound and artistic, and it reached
a point of absolute ion in that epoch called
the ‘Golden Age.’ Thus there was not the neces-
sity for that advance which ever improving instru-
ments and the feeling for instrumental effects
demanded. Indeed, in choral music exactly the
same principles which formulated the rules of
counterpoint in the 16th century, must be recog-
nised by composers of to-day who wish to produce
the purest and dest effects; and the rules
themselves have n rather extended in scope
than relaxed in meaning by Bach, the most daring
choral writer, and his successors. Where the letter
of the law has been modified it has been so from
within, and the spirit remains the same. It will
be convenient here to treat of choral and solo
vocal music, leaving the other obvious subdivisions
of sacred and seenlar to be treated in the articles
OrATOoRIO and OPERA.
Monody.—From the invention of part-singing
till the end of the 16th century (i.e. during the
course of its legitimate development in the chureh)
vocal music was entirely choral. When a solo
was required, the most melodious part was selected
from a choral movement, with what must have
been a most w and incomplete result.
The first example of a piece conceived and written
for one voice seems to have been Ugolino, a
dramatic scena with viola accompaniment, written
(1584) by Galilei (father of the p ilosopher), one of
the Florence Academy. It was this invention of
Monody which ee the way for opera and
made it possible. Unfortunately, the first writers
in this new school, which aimed after expressive
melody, were little cient in the more solid art
of counterpoint which they affected to despise ;
and this tendency consistently followed out has
procured for Italian music its unenviable reputa-
_ tion of being gracefully melodious at the expense
of depth and meaning. The rude recitatives of
earlier composers became more and more melodious
till A. Scarlatti formulated the first Aria—i.e. a
regular strain of melody, followed by a second in
contrast and complement, and thereafter repeated
(Da Capo). Almost any of Handel’s well-known
songs will furnish an advanced specimen of this
form, which was — to perfection by Mozart.
The more serious style required for sacred works,
as well as the greater skill in the science of music
which was at the disposal of composers like
Handel, Bach, and Mozart, saved the Aria from
its friends, and in northern Europe it chose a
slower development but a worthier end. In the
schools of Bach, Gluck, Beethoven, Schumann,
Wagner, and Liszt the voice is treated as only one
instrument, to which indeed the important part is
assigned of giving the words intended for illustra-
tion—the ex , however, being entrusted to
the whole mass of instruments employed. The
claims of any settled form to absolute considera-
tion are likewise disregarded where these seem to
clash with the higher demands of expression and
dramatic truth. Hence the opposition offered and
the accusations brought against all these composers
in succession by the professional and amateur
melodists of each day. None of their styles may
be entirely exonerated, lut their ideal is certainly
the true one, and their work shows a progressive
development along at least closely related lines.
Ballads. — Alon ide this scientific progress there
has always been the popular love of melody which
has found expression in folk-song and ballads.
Each nation has its characteristics strongly reflected
in these, and where they have been recognised and
accepted as a veritable and refreshing fount of in-
pega: in Germany, Hungary, and Norway—
the gain has been t. They are of course
the origin of the simple strophic song or ballad (e. &
Mendelssohn’s Es ist bestimmt), however skil-
fully modern composers adorn it with graceful
accompaniment (e.g. the same composer's Auf
Fligein des Gesanges). The Ballade, which aims
at a dramatic setting of some romantic story,
is the offspring of the same influence which
inspired Weber’s operas. In this style Loewe
showed Schubert the way (Eri Kénig), and follow-
ing mae have used the device very success-
fully (Villiers Stanford’s La Belle Dame). A
later form is the art song which tries to reflect the
most delicate turn of meaning and the deepest
subjectivity to be found in the words. It was to
a great extent the result of Heine’s poetry, and
its first t exponent was Schumann,
C Music.—The chosen home of modern
choral music has been Germany and England.
In the inning of the 17th century H. Schiitz
left his home in Dresden to study the ‘new
music’ of the Florentine school in Italy, and he
took the weakling back with him to be reared
among the great instrumental masters of Ger-
many. The noble German chorale was chosen
as a foundation, and in the effort to illustrate
the text no device of counterpoint, no resource
of the ever-improving science of harmony, was
left unused. Graun, Bach, Haydn, andel,
Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn have enriched
the church with innumerable and _ inestimable
treasures in their Passions, Oratorios, Masses,
and Psalms; and it is surprising how well fitted
the strict writing of all these masters has proved
in their hands to convey the most elevated, the
most dramatic, the most tonching emotions. More
modern works are such as Dvorak’s Stabat Mater,
Liszt’s Masses, &c. But the same principle has
always commanded the same success; whatever
modern development in modern instrumentation,
harmony, &c. may be added to a composer's re-
sources, there is only one foundation, that on which
the great masters have ever built when rearing
their great choral works,
Formal choruses have never been an important
part of operatic writing since the first rude begin-
nin n plays the single characters will be
rat er brought together, as it were, than introduced
with a distinct intention of giving each an equal
part. This feeling for dramatic truth is the origin
of the concerted writing in operas—duets, en-
sembles, finales—the treatment of which is in-
debted nb to solo vocal writing, partly to
choral. The handling of crowds, again, and the
best expression in music of their feultugs requires
different treatment, and it is interesting to com-
pare how each great reformer has approached the
problem. Curiously enough, it is the composers
who have shown the greatest capacity for many-
part writing who have most successfully given
the correct impression. No two works are wider
asunder than Bach’s Matthew Passion (1729)
and Wagner's Meistersinger (1867); and yet it
is ‘impossible to deny that the single terrible
360 MUSIC
MUSICAL BOX
shout of the multitude ‘ Barabbas !’ and the com-
plicated chorus ‘Let Him come down from the
cross,’ show that a genius in no way inferigr to
Wagner's, but with comparatively very limited
resources, could grapple with the same problem
which is so marvellously solved in the street riot
seene (Meistersinger, act ii.). Gluck’s correct
feeling saw the difficulty, but his powers were
not great enough to overcome it. Mozart’s greater,
and in this matter somewhat irresponsible, genius
never troubled itself on the subject.
Orchestra,—It only remains’ to describe shortly
the growth of the orchestra before closing with
an account of the latest development in European
music. Monteverde laid the foundation of the
modern orchestra when he multiplied the stringed
instruments and relegated the pianoforte (or
rather its precursor the harpsichord) to a soine-
what subordinate position. The latter, however,
maintained its place in the orchestra till after
Handel’s day. tween Monteverde and Haydn
many experiments were made in the arrangement
and combinations of instruments; also in the
manufacture of the instruments themselves. By-
and-by the various forms of ‘ Viol’ ( Viol di Gamba,
di Braecia, &c.) resolved themselves into the viola
or tenor violin, and the violoncello (i.e. ‘ the little
violone’ or smaller double bass), The violin is
of course the little viol, And these remain the
foundation of our orchestra. The wind-instruments
were the flute and the oboe (a compromise among
various forms—Oboi d’Amore, di Caccia, &c.), to
which the bassoon gave the bass. To these were
added trumpets and drums for special etfects. Such
was the orchestra with which Haydn laid the
corner-stone of modern instrumentation. Mozart
added the expressive clarinet, which was at once
incorporated in the band. The piccolo, or little
flute, and the double bassoon (Contra Fagotto) can
hardly be called additions in the sense of novelty ;
and from Mozart's time to Wagner’s the improve-
ment, with one important exception, has been in
the direction of improv t in hanism, and
in power of variety in combinations and tone
colours. The exception is the trombone, tirst used
with its full effect by Mozart in Don Giovanni,
and ever egy ie, Sure important in the hands of
Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, and Wagner.
Berlioz, the greatest master of instrumentation the
world has seen, embodied the result of his experi-
ence in a ‘Treatise’ which will ever remain one
of the greatest monuments of his extraordinary
genius. He has been worthily followed by the
searcely less successful Wagner, and an enumera-
tion of the instruments at his masterly disposal
will show what limitless combinations and perum-
tations are now apeye In Zannfdiuser, the
orchestra for which he writes comprises, besides
the usual stringed band (about 12 first violins,
12 second violins, 8 violas, 8 violoncellos, and 6
double basses), 3 flutes, 1 piccolo, 2 oboes, 2 clari-
nets, 1 bass clarinet, 2 bassoons, 2 horns, 2 valve
horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, and 1 bass tuba,
with 1 pair of kettledrums, bass dram, cymbals,
triangle, tambourine, and harp; and, on the stage,
4 fintes, 2 piccolos, 4 oboes, 6 corni Inglesi,
6 clarinets, bassoons, 12 trumpets, 12 horns,
4 trombones, cymbals, triangle, and tambourine,
Programme Music.—Many attempts of a more
or less legitimate kind have been made to
illustrate by abstract music a certain story, set
of scenes, or progress of emotions. Probably the
earliest examples which can be pronounced
artistically successful are the famous Pastoral
Symphony and the sonata Les Adieuzx, l’ Absence,
et le Retour, by Beethoven. To criticise this
tendeney would lead us far beyond the limits of
this article, and a mere enumeration of names
and compositions will suffice to show what an
attraction the idea has had for almost all modern
composers. Mendelssolin has tried to paint Fingal’s
Cave in his Hebrides overture, and his Scotch
Symphony he seeks to convey the impressions made
on him during his visit to Scotland. Schumann
has painted a whole set of figures and characters
in his Carneval, and in his great Fantasia in C
he has set out with a very definite intention to
convey the means of a verse by the poet Schlegel,
Berlioz has gone further and proposed to tell the
i wer in the Life of an Artist in a symphony.
nfortunately, his morbid and rather gruesome
genius has chosen very repulsive pictures to paint ;
and he also makes the mistake of entrusting a
certain character or sentiment to a certain phrase
—evidently impossible without words set to the
music or a pencom explanation, Raff's Lenore
Symphony, Mackenzie’s La Belle Dame, and Liszt's
Mazeppa are good examples of well-known poems
set forth in music alone. MacCunn’s Land of the
Mountain and the Flood is a descriptive overture ;
and Liszt’s and Saint-Saéns’ Symphonic Poems are
very beautiful and expressive.
Of course, descriptive music which occurs in the
course of a cantata (e.g. in David's Le or
Berlioz’s Faust) has the advan of a definite
starting-point in the words whieli surround and
explain it, and therefore is distinct from these
works mentioned which aim at dispensing with
words bie asan inspiration. The suecess which
has attended the attempts is certainly unequal,
but an immense new field of effort has been
to composers which will doubtless yield a rich
harvest.
Whither music is tending in the 19th contre it
is difficult to say ; but so long as the treasures left
us by the great com are as reverently and
as earnestly studied and accepted as they are at
present : so long as composers recognise that their
genius is a call to labour and not to enjoyment :
so long as criticism is honest and based upon sound
knowledge, there is no fear that the heritage of
the ages will be lost. It is noteworthy that in
almost every country in Europe a keenly national
spirit is alive, which lovingly studies all available
treasures of national music and melody, appreciat-
ing it with an insight and breadth only to be ob-
tained in a school of wide and deep musical culture.
See the general histories of music by Naumann ( Lond.
2 vols. 1882-86), Ritter (1880), Rockstro (1886),
Rowbotham (1886), Ambros (Leip. 2d ed. 1881), Fétis
(Paris, 5 vols. 1868-76), F. Weber (1892), Parry (1894) ;
Davy, History of English Music (1895); Marx, Music of
the 19th Century (2d ed. 1873); Hullah, Modern Music
1861; new ed, 1875); Riemann’s Dictionary of Music .
trans. 1896); and Grove’s Dictionary of Music and
usicians (4 vols. 1878-89). See also the articles in this
work on famous composers and musicians, and on
Accompaniment, Conservatoire, Orchestra,
Acoustics, Cornet. Organ.
Adagio, Pow ea Overture,
Andante. Double Piano,
Anthem. Drum, Pitch,
Arranging. Flute, Plainsong.
Bagpipe. Fugue, do.
Band. Glee. Sax-horn,
Banjo. Harmonies, le,
Harmony. Solfeggio.
Harp. Song.
Bugle, Horn. Sound,
Catch, Madrigal. Symphony.
Cavatina, National Hymns. Temperament,
Chant. . Trombone,
Choirs. pera. Trampet,
ord. Ophicleide. Violin,
Clarinet, ratorio, Violoncello.
Musical Box, a case containing a mechanism
which, when the spring is wound up, plays tunes
automatically, Teeth projecting from a barrel (as
in a barrel-organ or a mechanical peal of chimes)
impinge on and set vibrating the tongues cut out
————
MUSICAL GLASSES
MUSK-RAT 361
in comb or steel plate; the difference of tone being
due to the greater length and breadth of the teeth.
The larger and better boxes, some of which play
many tunes after one winding up, can be regulated
in pace by a fly regulator, with flat wings, which
eatch the air. The invention dates from about the
middle of the 18th century. Switzerland (especi-
ony Geneva) is the headquarters of the manu-
ture.
Musical Glasses. See Harmonica.
Musk. The musk of commerce, which is an
important element in very many compounded
perfumes, is mainly obtained from the Musk-
deer (q.v.), the best kind ey | that known
as Chinese musk, and imported from Tonquin.
Other kinds are the Indian (from the Himalayas)
and the Siberian. Musk is often adulterated
with dried blood, bits of leather, &e. In 1890
Bauer of Erfurt produced an artificial musk by
treating butyl-toluol with a mixture of sulphuric
and nitric acids, the resulting nitro-compound
being purified by crystallisation from alcohol.
Musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus) is a rumi-
nant Ungulate forming a special family of the
Artiodactyla. According to Flower, it represents
an ancestral type of the Pecora ( Bovide, Cervide,
Giraffide), but with nearest affinities to the Deer
Cervide). Asin the Cervide, the young is spotted,
t it has no horns, and the canine teeth of the
male project in the form of longish tusks; this
latter fact has led to the association of Jfoschus
with the T. lida: (Chevrotains, q.v.), which is,
however, not justified by its other characters. The
musk-deer is an inhabitant of the mountainous
regions of central Asia from the extreme north to
as far south as Cochin-China and Nepal. There
is only one species, with perhaps four well-marked
varieties. he musk-deer is much hunted on
account of the odoriferous secretion which is found
in a special gland upon the hinder-part of the
abdomen of the males. This substance was first
introduced into the west by the Arabs. It is
spoken of in the pharmacologies of Serapion
and Avicenna and by the traveller Marco Polo.
The value of the substance used to be very
great, as it figures among the costly objects
ae by Saladin to the Greek emperor in
189. It was used in the embalming of bodies as
early as the 14th century. For an interesting
account of the musk-deer (and the Chevrotains),
see Milne-Edwards, Annales des Sciences Naturelles
(1864) ; and for the anatomy, Flower, Proc. Zool.
Soe. 1875.
Muske’gon, capital of Muskegon county,
by gear me on the Muskegon River, which here
4 miles from its mouth in Lake Michigan) widens
nto Muskegon Lake, the best harbour on the east
side of Lake Michi Muskegon is 40 miles by
rail NW. of Grand Rapids, has daily steamboat
communication with Chicago, and saws and ships
enormous quantities of lumber. It has also a
number of foundries, machine-shops, boiler-works,
&e. Pop. (1900) 20,818.
Musket, See Firearms.
Musk-glands, skin-pits in mammals paces
a secretion with a musky odour. They belong to
a series of skin-glands, which occur in various
of the body and with various secretions (see ANAL
GLANDS). The most notable musk-glands are
those of the male musk-deer and the male beaver.
See Beaver, Casroreum, Civet, &e.
Musk or Muscovy Ducks See Duck.
Musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) is a member of
the family Bovide, It inhabits at present the
most northern parts of the American continent
north of lat. 60°. Its remains, which have been
found in Quaternary deposits of England, Europe,
and Siberia, indicate that it had formerly a sin
wider range. The hair is long, serving of course
to protect the animal from the rigour of the
climate which prevails in its habitat, and of a
brownish colour. The creature measures above 54
feet from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail,
and so approaches in size the smallest Highland
cattle. It is ious, there being only one
or two males to a herd of eighty or a hundred.
Fle poe on grass, reindeer moss, willow shoots,
the Labrador tea-plant, and crowberry bushes. The
flesh of the calves and cows, when in condition,
is very palatable. Unlike many purely Arctic
Musk-ox ( Ovibos moschatus).
animals—e.g. the Arctic fox—the hair does not
become white at the approach of winter. But it
has been suggested that this protective change in
coloration is not n » Since it is an animal
which lives in herds; hence it is better for an indi-
vidual, which has got accidentally separated from its
fellows, to regain a position of safety by being able
to readily detect the whereabouts of the herd tlian
to trust to escape from carnivorous foes by a resem-
blance in colour to the surrounding snow.
Musk-plants. Various parts of a number of
plants smell more or less strongly of musk. Among
these are the common little Musk-plant (see
MIMULUS) and the Musk-seed (see Eruteous
The musk-tree of Jamaica ( Moschorylum Swartzit),
belonging to the natural order Meliacer, emits
from all a smell of musk. All parts of
Guarea grandifolia, another tree of the same order,
a native of the West Indies, sometimes called musk-
wood, also smells strongly of musk.—The drug
called Musk-root or Sambul is the root of a plant
of the natural order Umbelliferse, and is brought
from Persia or central Asia; it has a pure musky
odour, and is used as a substitute for musk.
Musk-rat, a name applied to several distinct
animals, (1) The Desman (Myogale), a genus of
insectivorous eee of the Shrew (q.v.) family
(Soricide ), differing from the true Shrews (Sorex)
in having two very small teeth between the two
large incisors of the lower jaw, and the upper
incisors flattened and triangular. Behind these
incisors are six or seven small teeth (lateral incisors
or false canine teeth) and four jagged molars. The
muzzle is elongated into a small flexible proboscis,
which is constantly in motion. The eyes are very
small; there are no external ears; the fur is long,
straight, and diverts the tail long, scaly, and
flattened at the sides. All the feet have five toes,
fully webbed; and the animals are entirely aquatic,
inhabiting lakes and rivers, and making holes in
the banks with the entrance from beneath the
surface of the water. Only two species are known,
one (M. pyrenaica), about 8 inches long, with tail
as long as the body, a native of the streams of the
362 MUSLIN
MUSSEL
yrenees; another larger sp (M. hata),
nay plentiful in the Volga and other rivers and
we
SSS
yy sy
: IN
x
Musk-rat, or Desinan ( Myoyale pyrenaica).
lakes of the south of Russia, nearly equal in size
to the common hedgehog, with tail about. three-
fourths of the length of the body. The Russian
desman is blackish above, whitish beneath ; it has
long silky hair, with a softer felt beneath, and its
fur is held in some esteem. Desman skins, how-
ever, are chiefly valued on account of the musky
odour which they long exhale, and which is derived
from a fatty secretion produced by small follicles
under the tail of the animal. The desman feeds
on leeches, aquatic larve, \c., searching for them
in the mud by means of its flexible proboscis. It
seldom, if ever, voluntarily leaves the water, except
in the interior of its burrows, which are sometimes
20 feet long. (2) The name of Musk-rat is also
® common name for an Indian species of Shrew
( Sorex murinus), in size about equal to the common
brown rat, in form and colour much resembling the
common shrew of Britain, but remarkable for the
powerful musky odour of a secretion which pro-
ceeds from glands on its belly and flanks. (3) The
name is also given to the Musquash (q.v.).
Muslin, a fine cotton fabric somewhat resem-
bling Gauze (q.v.) in appearance, but it is woven
plain without any looping of the warp threads on
the weft. A piece of the finest muslin at one time
manufactured at Dacca in India, measuring 3 yards
in length by 1 in breadth, weighed only the fifth
art of an ounce, and cost £40; but none approach-
ing to this in fineness is made in India now. Very
fine muslin has been woven from yarn spun by
machinery at Manchester, but it wanted the
delicate softness of the finest Dacca. Printed
muslins are made in France and England for
female summer attire. In India some muslins
are woven with coloured patterns; others are em-
broidered with silk or beetles’ wings ; others again
are printed with gold and silver leaf. Such names
as ‘woven air’ and ‘evening dew’ are given in
that country to those of exquisitely fine texture.
Musquash, also called MUSK-RAT, or ONDATRA
( Fiber zibethicus), a rodent quadruped, a native of
North America, from the Rio Grande to the
Arctic regions. The genus to which it belongs
contains only one other species, F. alleni, from
Florida. They belong to the family Muride,
The musquash is in shape nearly similar to the
brown rat; the head and body are about 15 inches
in length, the tail 10 inches. The whole body is
naverel with a short, downy, dark-brown fur, inter-
mixed with longer and coarser hairs. It is a very
uatic animal, seldom wandering from the rivers,
lakes, or marshes in which it makes its abode. It
is chiefly a vegetable feeder, but like other Muride
will geceaionally take to animal food—the molluse
Unio is a favourite delicacy. The fur is in demand,
and forms an article of commerce—skins in large
numbers being still exported from America to
Britain and other European countries. The
musquash burrows in the banks of streams and
ponds, the entrances of its burrows being always
under water. In marshes the orusqunds hallds a
kind of hut, collecting, coarse grasses and mud,
and raising the fabric from 2 to 4 feet above the
water, The flesh of the musquash, at those seasons
Musquash ( Fiber 2ibethicus),
when it is fat, is in some request among the
American Indians, and is said to be not un-
palatable.
Mussel, a name applied to several common
bivalves or Lamellibranch molluses. (1) The
Common Sea-mussel (Mytilus edulis), very import-
ant for bait and not unfrequently used as food,
is pee distributed in crowded ‘beds’ between
high and low water marks. It is usually sedentary
and firmly anchored by yellowish silken ‘ byssus,’
but it is also able to shift its quarters and even to
climb by slowly extending the range of the byssal
thread exuded from the ‘foot.’ (2) The Horse-
mussel (Modiolus modiola) is nearly twice as ]
as the above, and lives a more active burrowing life
below the low-water mark. It is never u for
food, and is not available for bait. Both these sea-
mussels are representative of large genera, and are
included in one family—Mytilide. (3) Quite differ-
ent from the above are the fresh-water mussels,
Unionidewe, widely distributed in lakes and rivers,
where they plough their way slowly along the
bottom from one aera piace to another, As good
representatives of the Unionide, the Pond-mussel,
Anodon cygqnea, the Painter's Mussel, Unio pictorum,
whose ‘sliclls were once used for holding water-
colour paints, and the Pearl-mussel, Margaritana
margaritifer (see PEARL), may be noted. For the
structure and general characters, see BIVALVEs.
The common edible mussel abounds on the
Atlantic seaboard of the United States, but is
used neither as food nor as bait. In England it is
largely used as human food; in Scotland it is not
so used, but enormous quantities are required for
bait, especially by haddock fishers. he chief
ye ae hg mussels oad, that eo
occasion isonous. ussels especially whic
are unbealiley: or dead are very apt to contain
dangerously poisonous waste-products ; care should
accordingly taken that those used for food
are thoroughly fresh. A French Commission
reported in 1889,that the poison is due to the
resence in the mussel of a volatile alkaloid
eveloped under the influence of a particular
microbe, which is only found in mussels growing
in stagnant and polluted water. Sew fairly
free from the pollution of manufactories is distinctly
MUSSELBURGH
MUSSET 363
‘beneficial to mussel culture. It is said on good
authority that mussels lose any poisonous pro-
perties they may have if cooked for ten minutes
with carbonate of soda. The wasteful and un-
ted consumption of mussels from the scalps
on the British coasts, the reckless destruction of
immature mussels, and the wholly inadequate
efforts at artificial mussel culture have caused in
some parts of Britain a mussel famine, and necessi-
tated large importations from abroad. Great
natural sealps on the British coasts are those of
the Wash, Morecambe Bay, and the estuary of the
Clyde. The last, from which it is computed
that since 1840 one hundred thousand tons of
mussels have been taken, is now exhansted and
unproductive. The cultivation is practised in the
Thames es and the Medway, in the Teign
and Exe, at Montrose, and elsewhere; but large
supplies are imported from Holland. Scotland
imports from England, the north of Ireland, and
Ham . In one year the Eyemonth fishermen
have nine hundred and twenty tons of mussels,
mainly imported, and costing £1800. Yet in Lanca-
shire and Norfolk mussels are wastefully used as
manure. Mussels may be cultivated either on
natural beds—especially where clean gravel]
bottoms are exposed at low-water, and where salt
and fresh water mix—by transplanting spat and
protecting young mussels; or in deep water, where
transplantation may also be practised. In north
Germany and north France mussels are successfully
cultivated on wicker-work attached to isades,
The Dutch artificial beds are mainly provided with
spat from the coasts of Essex and Kent.
Musselburgh, an old-fashioned town of Mid-
lothian, near the mouth of the Esk in the Firth of
Forth, 6 miles E. of Edinburgh by a branch-line
1847). Since 1832 it has united with Leith and
ortobello to return one member, the parliamentary
burgh including the large fishing-suburb of Fisher-
row, with a small tidal harbour, and the pretty
village of Inveresk, whose conspicuous spired
church was rebuilt in 1805 by ‘Jupiter’ Carlyle,
and occupies a Roman preetorium. Musselburgh’s
chief features are its celebrated golf-links (since
1817 also the Edinburgh racecourse), Loretto
school (marking the site of a famed place of pil-
image), Pin House (1613), the ‘Roman’
the quaint tolbooth, and a statue of David
Moir. The manufactures include paper, nets,
leather, &c. Pop. (1841) seer) eel) 7566 ; (1891)
8888. See Paterson’s History of Musselburgh (1857).
Musset, ALFrrep DE, one of the most striking
figures in the literature of modern France, was
born in Paris, 11th December 1810, the son of an
official who rose high in the War Office. He was
bomen § any geek from his childhood, and pre-
cocious alike in sensibility and in genius, and grew
Pg handsome in person and fascinating in manners,
t he retained something of the spoilt child all
his | He thought first of law, next of medicine,
then of art, but at eighteen discovered himself to be
a poet, and scarcely a year after published his
Contes d Espagne et d’ Italie, a collection of unequal
poems, of which Portia, Mardoche, and Don Paez
at least are still remembered. A splendid and
brilliant youth, of equal and assurance, he
was warmly received into Victor Hugo’s Cénacle,
the inner shrine of militant Romanticism; was
erowned with seductive flatteries by the wider
world of society; and in his hunger for pre-
mature experience at once flung himself reck-
lessly into the eager pursuit of pleasure in every
form. He was eager to feel, et: feeling brought
suffering in its train, but gave him the impulse
ont of which came his verse—ever a part of himself,
the answering echo of his own emotions. His piece
La Nuit Vénitienne failed at the Odéon in 1830, and
thus turned him from a career in which he was yet
to gain triumphs without seeking for them. In
1832 he published Un Spectacle dans un Fauteuil,
comprising two short plays—La Coupe et les Lévres
and A quoi révent les Jeunes Filles, as well as the
m Namouna, written hastily to eke ont a
slender volume. Next year followed in the pages of
the Revue des Deux Mondes two of his very greatest
works, the tragical comedies André del Sarto and
Les Caprices Marianne. 1t was of Marianne
that her creator replied, when asked where he had
found her character, ‘Nowhere and everywhere ;
she is not @ woman, she is woman.’ Next followed
the famous poem of Rolla, which has not sustained
the applause with which it was received. Then
came the fatal journey to Italy with George Sand.
He first met her in the summer of 1833, and the
intimaey quickly blossomed into love. The pro-
jected tour was at first opposed by De Musset’s
mother, but George Sand took the extraordinary
step of calling upon her one evening, and in a
moment of emotion gained her consent. They set
out for Venice at the beginning of winter. About
the middle of February his letters to his mother
and brother ceased; for six weeks there was silence,
then on the 10th April he He tae alone, broken
in- health and sunk in the deepest depression of
spirits. A quarter of a century later, and soon
after his death, she gave the world, in the guise of
a novel, Elle et Lui, her version of the events
which led to the Pear eae Paul de Musset at
onee retorted with Lui et Elle (1859), a book poor
as fiction, but which rings like truth. His account
was that she had been grossly unfaithful to him,
and that his diseovery of this in a state of weak
health had brought on an almost fatal attack of
brain-fever; she, on the other hand, explained the
infidelity as but a delusion of the fever itself. It is
at anyrate suspicious that but one of the pair
suffered deeply, while the other went on calmly
writing romances, and utilising the experience at
once as impulse and material. The Jacques Laurent
of her story bears many a trait of the true De
Musset. Despite, or, more probably, in conse-
nence of his sufferings, the five years that followed
is return were his best years of production.
Another love a followed, only to end as
unhappily ; and that oem was succeeded by a
series of unworthy and often sordid entanglements,
which distracted his heart and were followed by
periods of deep depression which alcohol did little
to allay. The patronage of the Due d'Orléans,
the warm friendship of a small cirele of devoted
friends, and his appointment in 1838 to be librarian
at the Home Office did something to take him out of
himself, but he was ever as capricious in character
as in genius, and the feverish activity that some-
times seized him soon exhausted itself in splendid
projects and unfinished ms. Even his famous
Confession d’un Enfant du Siecle (1835), like most
of his works, was begun, laid aside, and then
finished under a cloud of sorrow. It is not an
autobiography, os op it owes its sombre colour to
its author’s personal experience. It is a striking
study of moral pathology, full of admirable expres-
sion of cynical contempt for the world and of the
misery of hopeless doubt; but, as a work of art, it
breaks down pitifully at the close into weakness
and platitude. When De Musset’s health gave
way about 1840 his literary activity began to
decline also. He was already, in Heine’s phrase, ‘a
oung man who has had a splendid past ;’ he felt
himself an old man at thirty, and to the end he was
never blessed with anything of the serenity of the
Olympians, nor was he even one of those artists who
find consolation in their art. The success of Un
Caprice at the Théitre Francais in 1847 recalled
364 MUSSET
MUSTARD
him for some time to life and hope, but during his
last half-dozen years he wrote nothing of import-
ance. He was elected to the Academy, but not
without difficulty, in 1852, and Sainte-Beuve has
told us of his coming tipsy to its sittings. ‘ Musset
s'absente trop,’ said a member on one occasion ; ‘ I]
s'absinthe oa was the response. He died of
heart disease, May 1, 1857.
Of De Musset’s try the four pieces entitled
Nuits mark the highest reach of his lyrical talent.
The Nuit de Mai and that d’Octobre are perfect
and immortal poems, like Milton’s J/\Penseroso
with passion added, says Sainte-Beuve. The
Nuit a Décembre is a subtle realisation of that
other self that had shadowed all his life. These
poems quiver with the quick pulse of life and the
throb of suffering, yet the poet’s eyes are open
throughout to all the innumerable beauties of
the universe. The Ode a la Malibran is a
mpledia tribute of admiration to a great actress ;
the Lettre 4 Lamartine, to a master in his own
art; L’Espoir en Dieu, a noble expression of the
longing of the human soul for certainty; the
famous Rhin Allemand, a spirited retort to
Nikolaus Becker's too patriotic German poem,
which brought him a crop of challenges from
foolish German officers. ie test merit of
these poems is that they thrill with real, not simu-
lated ion. ‘Mon verre n'est pas grand, mais je
lois dans mon verre’. was his own judgment of
himself, and so far as regards his genuineness it is
true. He is the poet of a certain range of per-
sonal emotions, of youthfulness, and, above all, of
assion, in which respect he follows close upon
yron in power, while far su ing him in
unaffectedness and reality, if not always in finish
and exqnisiteness of art.
His dramatic work is unique in 19th-century
literature of its kind for originality, intensity, and
variety, linked to brilliant wit and real dramatic
enius. It consisted of comédies, or regular
ramas, full of tragic quality and ending with
tragic abruptness, and proverbes, the latter short
dramatic illustrations of some common saying.
Of the former class are André del Sarto, perhaps
his greatest work; Lorenzaccio; Les Caprices de
Marvanne ; and On ne badine avec l’Amour.
To the class of proverbes belong Fantasio and
Barberine, both bright and gracetul, if fantastic ;
Le Chandelier, slight in structure, but absolutely
perfect in art; J/ ne faut et de Rien, more
serious, but no less successful; Un Caprice, grace-
ful and brilliant ; Jd faut qu'une Porte soit ouverte
ou fermée, bright and charming ; Louison, in verse,
less interesting; On ne saurait penser d tout, an
extravaganza ; Carmosine, a charming little master-
viece of romance in miniature ; and Bettine, a lively
ittle drama.
Of his largest although not greatest prose work
we have already spoken. _ It remains only to speak
of his brilliant and inimitable Nouvelles or short
stories and his Contes. To the former belong Les
Deux Maitresses, in which Valentin is said to have
been a study of his own character ; Emmeline ; Le
‘ils du Titien, perhaps his finest work in prose ;
Frédéric et Bernerette, which grew out of an un-
~ Saby ae nag of his own ; Crozsilles ; and Margot.
The Contes are Pierre et Camille; Mademoiselle
Mimi Pinson, a charming study of the best aspect
of that peculiar Parisian product, the grisette, as a
work of art an absolute masterpiece ; Le Secret de
Javotte ; Le Merle Blane; and Lettres de Dupuis
et Cotonet. His Mélanges and Quvres Posthumes
are less valuable. De Musset’s whole work fills
but ten small volumes (Lemerre, 1876), but it is
not too much to say that these include some of the
noblest poetry, greatest plays, and best short
stories French literature has yet produced,
Soe the Riis 2 Sie: beothen seh ee (3d ed.
1877); French Poets and Novelists (1884),
James; a Fe Sn C. F. Oliphant (1890) ; and
h by ‘Arvéde Barine’ (Grands Ecrivains, 1893).
and New (1890) is a translation by W. H. Pollock of the
Nuits. ere is a translation of four of the Comedies
in the ‘Camelot’ series (1890).
Mussooree. See LANDAUR.
Mustagh, See Karakorum.
Mustang. See Horse.
Mustapha, a suburb of Algiers (q.v.).
Mustard (Sinapis), a genus of plants of the
natural order Crucifere, now ergo included
as a sub-genus of Brassica. Three species,
annuals, of Sinapis contribute their seeds to the
manufacture of mustard. (1) Black Mustard (8.
nigra), a native of the middle and the south of
Europe, also of Britain, but rare in Scotland; a
rather coarse plant, two or more feet high, having
the lower leaves lyrate and usually hispid, the
upper leaves linear-lanceolate, entire, and hair-
less. The flowers are yellow, in slender racemes.
The pods rarely exceed half an inch in len
closely pressed to the stem. The seeds are deep
brown. (2) White Mustard (S. alba), a native
of southern Europe and western Asia, naturali
in the southern parts of Britain and in Ireland, and
in the United States. The whole plant is more
or less naltys the leaves pinnately lobed. The
flowers are large compared with those of the pre-
ceding ems Sbaneve nearly twice as long, with
a long flattened , and five prominent nerves
and the seeds are pale yellow. «493 The Wil
Mustard (S. arvensis), in near] parts of the
country better known as Charlock, is a weed of
cultivation only too common throughout Britain
and Ireland in cornfields, and in some parts of the
United States. It is from the ground seeds
of the two first named that mustard is chiefl
obtained, but those of the last named are also ase
in the manufacture of that condiment. The wild
mustard is reputed to have yielded the original
Durham Mustard, but its seeds are now onl
thered for mixing with those of the two preced
ing species, The black mustard is the most pun-
gent, and is almost exclusively used in the manu-
acture of mustard on the Continent. White
mustard is most favoured in Britain, chiefly be-
cause the skin is more easily separated from the
seed. The greatest bulk of it is grown in the fens
of Lincolnshire and oats pe also in Kent
and Essex. White mus’ is sown in eee
and used asa small salad. Much of the mus
seed imported from India is Sarepta Mustard (S.
juncea), Mustard is often adulterated (see ADUL-
TERATION); but ‘mustard condiment,’ made of
mustard flour and wheaten flour or starch flour, is
less bitter and stinging than pure mustard, and
keeps better. Both black and white mustard seed
— by expression a non-drying fixed oil, which is
nown as oi of mustard, and is free from pungency.
When the residual cake, ing in itself little
pesaeas odour, is treated with water it immediatel
mes powerfully irritating to the skin, This
due to a chemical action between an albuminous
body, myrosin, and complex bodies differing in the
two varieties of seed which are present in the cells.
These in presence of water react, giving, in the
case of black mustard, a volatile oi, having the
composition of isosulphocyanate of allyl, C,H,SCN,
while in the white seed the non-volatile sulpho-
cyanate of acrinyl, C,H,SCNO, is produced. This
action is similar to that of oil of bitter almonds
(see ALMONDS). It is to the formation of these
vesicating substances that the pungeney and
activity of a mustard plaster are due. the
| white seed contains more myrosin than the black,
fd
—E——————
MUSTELIDZ
MUYSCAS 365
it is usnal to mix the two, so as to fully develop
the action of the latter.
ture has been supposed to be Salvadora persica, a
small tree of the natural order Salvadoracese, a
small order allied to Myrsinacex ; but other inter-
preters insist that the ordinary black mustard is
meant in the proverb.
. Mustelidz, a family in the bear section of
the Carnivora (q.v.), somewhat on cmagg | divided
into otter-like (Lutrine), badger-like (Meline),
and weasel-like (Musteline) sub-families. See
the articles on these and related types.
Musulman S rire = form of Arabic Muslim),
a Moslem or Mohammedan. We need hardly add
that the termination ‘fn’ has nothing to do with
our word man, and that a further English plural
Musulmen, instead of Musulmans, is both barbar-
ous and absurd.
Muta Nzige, a lake of Equatorial Africa dis-
covered by Stanley in 1876, an in seen by him
in 1889, and renamed the Albert Edward Nyanza.
It oceupies the southern end of a vast natural
depression, of which the Albert Nyanza (q.v.) fills
the northern extremity.
Mute, a small instrument used to modify the
sound of the violin or violoncello. It is made of
hard wood, ivory, or brass, and is attached to the
bridge by means of a slit, its three legs standing
between, but clear of, the strings. The use of the
mute both softens the tone and im to it a
peculiar muffled and tremulous quality, which is
sometimes wat effective. Its application is indi-
eated by the letters c. s., or con sordino, and its
foster agg by »s. os oa Free A mute,
a -8 ea , is some-
‘ten iee used for fhe heen and trumpet. It is inserted
into the bell of the instrument, thereby subduing the
sound and producing the effect of great distance.
Mutiny, as defined by British military law,
is ‘ collective insubordination,’ or the combination
of two or more persons to resist or induce others to
resist lawful military authority, The punishment
laid down in the Army Act of 1881 for this crime
and for failing when present to use the utmost
effort to suppress it, or, when knowing of a mutiny
or intended mutiny, failing to give notice of it to
the commanding officer, is death or such less
punishment as a court-martial shall award. It
may be pointed out that, in view of the above
legal definition, one man alone cannot be guilty of
mutiny, but may be cp ony with ‘ insubordina-
tion,’ a crime which, in its worst forms, is also
punishable by death. On board ship the mutiny
Bounty (see PrrcainN ISLAND) in 1789
is memorable, and of that on board the Danaé
frigate in 1800; the great naval mutiny at the
Nore (q.v.) in 1797 is dealt with specially. The
Indian Mutiny is a common name of the Sepoy
rebellion of 1857. See INpIA.
Mutiny Act was an act passed by the British
parliament from year to year, to regulate the
government of the army. The navy and marines,
when serving on a ship in commission, are under
Naval Discipline Acts, 1861 and 1866, the successors
of Articles of War first enacted under Charles IL,
which, unlike the Mutiny Act, remained in force for
an indefinite time. By the Bill of Rights the main-
tenance of a standing army in time , unless
by consent of parliament, was declared iHaysl, and
from that time the number of troops to be main-
tained, and the cost of the different branches of
the service, have been regulated by an annual vote
of the House of Commons. Soldiers, in time of
war or rebellion, were always subject to military
law; but the occurrence of a mutiny in certain
Scottish regiments soon after the Revolution raised
the question whether the same law could be
enforced in time of peace; and it was decided
that, in the absence of any statute to the
contrary, a soldier in time of was only
amenable to the common law: if he deserted, he
was only liable for breach of contract; or if he
struck his officer, to an indictment for assault.
The authority of the legislature became indispens-
able to the maintenance of discipline ; and parlia-
ment, from 1689 till 1879, conferred this and
other powers in the Mutiny Act, limited in its
duration at one time to six months, but latterly
to a year. Although it was greatly changed from
the form in which it first passed, the annual
alterations were slight, and substantially it had
a fixed form. The foment quoting the above
declaration from the Bill of Rights added that it
was judged n that a force of specified
strength should be continued, while it gave
authority to the sovereign to enact Articles of
War for the government of that force. The act
specified the persons liable to its provisions,
treated of courts-martial crimes and punishments,
and of wees prisons, furlough, Enlistment (q.v.),
, billets, and the conveyance and enter-
tainment of troops. For years prior to 1878 atten-
tion had been drawn in parliament and elsewhere
to the shortcomings of the act, as well as to those
of the Articles of War (q.v.) by which it was
accompanied, explained, and amplified. These
representations culminated in the appointment of a
Parliamentary Committee, which in 1879 presented
a Bill to supersede the Mutiny Act, and, like it,
to be poe annually as the ‘ Army Discipline and
Regulation Act.’ The Marine Forces when serving
on shore were under the Marine Mutiny Act up to
1879; then they were bronght under the ‘Army
Discipline and lation Act.’ In 1881 this act
was slightly modified and called the ‘ Army Act
of 1881.’ It is brought into force annually by a
short act called the Army Annual Act, which lays
down the number of troops to be kept up for the
ensuing twelve months, the prices to be paid in
billets, and any amendments found to be necessary
in the Army Act itself. The latter is accom-
panied by Rules of Procedure for its administra-
tion, and contains the whole military law of Great
Britain.
Muttra, or MaruurA, a town of India, in the
North-west Provinces, is situated on the right
bank of the Jumna, 30 miles above Agra. For
centuries it was a centre of the Buddhist faith, and
the surrounding country teems with traditions of
Krishna (or Vishnu, q.v.) and his brother Balarama.
There are numerous temples and mosques ; the river
is lined with magnificent flights of stairs, leading
down to the bathing-places in the sacred river ;
large numbers of pilgrims resort to the city on the
occasion of its religious festivals; and troops of
monkeys and turtles are supported by the charity
of the gentle-hearted people. The city has passed
throu i a long series of misfortunes : it was sacked
by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1017; its temples were
destroyed by a native sultan in 1500, and by
Aurungzebe in 1669; and it was plundered by the
Afghans in 1756. In 1803 it passed into the hands
of the British. Pop. (1881) 57,724; (1891) 61,195.
—The district has an area of 1453 sq. m., and a
pop. (1881) of 671,690 ; (1891) 772,874.
Muyscas, See CoLomsia.
366 MUZAFFARNAGAR
MYNA
Muzaffarnagar, a municipality in the North-
west Provinces of India and capital of a district
(area, 1656 sq. m. ; por: in 1891, 772,874), 80 miles
NE. of Delhi by rail. Pop, 15,080,
Muzaffarpur, capital of a district (area, 3003
Sq. m. ; pop. In 1891, 2,711,445) in Bengal, on the
Little Gandak, 140 miles N. by rail of the Ganges
at Patna. Pop. 49,192. ‘
Myall Wood, the hard violet-scented wood of
the Australian Acacia homalophylla, much used
for making whip-handles and tobacco-pipes.
Mycale, a wooded promontory of ancient
Tonia, over against Samos ; in the channel between
them, Leotychides the Spartan and Xanthippus
the Athenian defeated the Persian fleet, 479 B.C.
* Mycelium, the vegetative part of fungi which
is not concerned in spore-bearing. It may consist
simply of a much-elongated cell growing from the
spore, or of a chain of cells, but in the majority it
is a tissue of interlaced branched filaments or
hyphz, loosely united in many moulds, membranous
in a Ea compact and tuberous in mushrooms.
See FUNGI.
Myce'nz, a very ancient city in the north-
eastern part of Argolis, in the Peloponnesus, built
upon a oragey height, and said to have been
founded by Perseus. It was the capital of Aga-
memnon’s kingdom, and was at that time the
principal city in Greece. About 468 B.C. it was
destroyed by the inhabitants of Argos, and
never rose again to anything like its former
prosperity. In Strabo’s time its ruins alone re-
mained ; these are still to be seen in the neigh-
bourhood of Kharvati, and are noble specimens of
Cyclo architecture. The most celebrated.are
the ‘Gate of Lions,’ chief entrance to the ancient
Acropolis, and the ‘Treasury of Atreus.’ _Exca-
vations prosecuted at Mycenz by Dr Henry Sehlie-
mann brought to light in 1876 another subter-
ranean treasury and several ancient tombs, con-
taining, with architectural fragments, terra-cottas,
vases, weapons, gold death-masks (see MASKS),
and other ornaments of thin hammered gold.
authorities say these objects show a type of art
derived from Mesopotamia through Phoenicia and
Asia Minor, with little or no trace of Greek tastes,
beliefs, or usages. Their date seems to be about
that of the Dorie invasion (see GREECE, Vol. V.
p. 386). See Schliemann’s Mycene and Ti
(trans. 1877) and Zhe Mycenwan Age (1897) by
Tsountas, Manatt, and others.
Mycetozoa, See MyxomMycrres.
Myelitis (myelos, ‘marrow’) is the term em-
ployed to signify inflammation of the substance of
he spinal cord, It may be either acute or chronic,
It the latter is by far the most common affection.
The chronic form begins with a little uneasiness in
the spine, somewhat disordered sensations in the
extremities, and unusual fatigue after any slight
exertion, After a short time paralytic symptoms
appear, and slowly increase. The gait becomes
uncertain and tottering, and at length the limbs
fail to support the bod y. The paralysis finally
attacks the bladder and rectum, and the evaeu-
ations are discharged involuntarily; and death
takes place as the result of exhaustion, or oceasion-
ally of asphyxia if the paralysis involves the chest.
In the acute form the symptoms are the same as
those of the chronic form, but they occur more
rapidly and with greater severity, and death some-
times takes place in a few days. Pain may be
present in the spine, or in the parts of the
whose nerves proceed from the diseased area of the
spinal cord; but it is not usually a prominent
symptom when the morbid process begins in the
cord itself.
The most common causes of this disease are fall
blows, and strains from over-exertion ; but pro
abuses and intemperate habits occasionally induce
it. It may also result from other diseases of the
spine (as caries), or may be propagated from inflam-
mation of the sorepeeding tissue of the brain.
The treatment, which is much the same as
of inflammation elsewhere, must be confided
entirely to the medical practitioner; and it is
therefore unnecessary to enter into any details
rin it. When confirmed rs bgt has set in.
there is little to hope for, but in the early stage
the disease is often checked by judicious remedies.
Mygale. See Brrp-caTcHine Spmer.
Mylitta, a Babylonian dess of fruitfulness,
procreation, and birth, in whose honour, according
to Herodotus, every girl had once in her life to
give herself up to the embraces of a stranger.
My'lodon (Gr., ‘grinder-teeth’), a genus of hnge
fossil slotls, whose remains are found in the Pleis-
tocene deposits of America, associated with the
Megatherium and other allied genera. A complete
skeleton of: the best-known species (J. robustus),
dug up at Buenos Ayres, measured 11 feet from
the forepart of the skull to the end of the tail.
Another species from the same region was consider-
ably larger. The genus ranged into North America,
the remains of one species (M. eens having
been found in Kentucky. Although like the
modern sloth in general structure and dentition,
the immense size of Mylodon forbids us to pests
that it could have had the same arboreal habits,
and the modifications of its structure seem to have
fitted it for the parry and Ltragicica tet the
trees, the foliage of which supplied it with E
Myna (Acridotheres, or Gracula of Cuvier),
a genus of birds of the family Sturnide, of
which there are seven pon ranging, ore the
whole oriental region and Celebes. re head is
more or less crested, and some have a naked space
behind and under the eye; the bill is rather short,
stout, and compressed; the tail is rounded; the
feet are strong, the toes long, and the claws moder-
ately curved. The Common Myna (A. tristis),
which is found throughout India and extends into
Assam and Burma, measures about 10 inches in’
length, and is of a glossy black colour on the head,
neck, and breast; the rest of the plumage is snuff-
brown, darkest on the back and wing-coverts, and
re beneath ; the bee er: are black, with a
white spot at their base, forming a conspicuous
wing-spot; the tail is black, with a white tip; the
bill is deep yellow; and the legs are dull yellow. It
is one of the commonest birds of India, where it is
found in large numbers, being eminently sociable
in its habits. It feeds chiefly on insects, grain, and
fruit. It makes its nest in nooks and eaves of
houses and in holes in the walls of houses and
ruins. The eggs, which usually number four or
five, are pale bluish green in colour. It has a
variety of notes, some musical and pleasing, others
harsh. It is often domesticated, when it Precesic
pert and familiar, and a good imitator of the human
voice, in this respect excelling parrots. This bird
was introduced into Mauritius to destroy the grass-
hoppers, which it did very effectively ; but in its turn,
when naturalised there, it became a pest throu
its ravages among fruit trees.—The name Hill
Myna or Grakle tae} is given to four distinct
races of birds eae iP to the genus Eulabes of
Cuvier, or Gracula of Linnzeus, one from Southern
India, another from Ceylon, a third from the Hima-
Jayas and Burma, and the last from Malaysia. They
are birds of fine glossy plumage with prominent
yellow wattles behind the ears. This genus com-
prises thirteen species found in the oriental region
as far as south-west China, Hainan, and Java, and
MYOPIA
MYRTACE 367
in the Australian region in Flores, New Guinea,
and the Solomon Islands.
Myopia. See Eye.
Myosin. See GLoBULINs.
Myosotis. See ForGET-ME-NOT.
Myrecia, a genus of trees of the natural order
aoe. to which belongs the Wild Clove or
ild Cinnamon of the West Indies (M. acris), a
handsome tree of 20 or 30 feet high. Its timber is
very hard, red, and heavy, capable of bert.” a
fine polish, and much used for cogs of wheels. Its
leaves have an aromatic cinnamon-like smell, and
an agreeable astringency, and are used in sauces.
Its berries are round, and as large as peas, have an
aromatic smell and taste, and are used for culinary
ep a leaves, berries, and flower-buds of
2 pncngrbaeed have a hot taste and fragrant smell,
are also used for culinary purposes.
Myrica. See CANDLEBERRY.
Myriopoda (Gr., ‘ myriad-footed’), a class of
terrestrial Arthropods with numerous and very
uniform segments. The head is distinct and bears
a pair of antenne, while mandibles and maxille
form the true mouth-appendages, The legs them-
selves have six or seven joints, and end in a claw.
Respiration is discharged by air-tubes or trachew.
The class includes two orders, which differ consider-
ably: the Centipedes (Chilopoda), with flattened
bod , a pair of legs on each ring, the second pair
behind mouth with powerful poison-claws; and
the Millipedes (Chilognatha), with cylindrical body,
and two pairs of legs on most of the rings. The
Centipedes are carnivorous, and their venomous
‘bite’ is sometimes dangerous; the Millipedes are
destructively vegetarian, but otherwise nless,
Generally they avoid the light, and live in the
ground, under stones, among moss, under bark, or
in similar hidden habitats. A few have a quite
ancestral-like simplicity of structure. Fossil forms
appear in Carboniferous strata. See CENTIPEDE.
Myristicacex. See Nurmes.
Myrmecophaga. See ANT-E£ATER.
Myrmidons, the followers of Achilles in the
Trojan war. They were an old Thessalian race
who colonised the island of Agi According to
Greek legend, Zeus peopled Thessaly by transform-
ing the ants into men; hence myrmidons (urmex
=‘ an ant’).
Myrobalans, the astringent fruit of certain
on of Terminalia, trees of the natural order
ombretacez, natives of the mountains of India.
T. Belerica produces great part of the myrobalans
of commerce of that name; the fruit is about the
size of a nutmeg, very astringent, with bitter
kernels, to which peepee analisies have been
ascribed. It is also said to tonic, but is now
scarcely used in medicine. The bark of the tree
abounds in a gum, resembling gum-arabic, which
is soluble in water and burns away in the flame of
a candle. The kernel of the fruit is said to yield
an oil which encourages the growth of the hair.
Other forms of myrobalans are the Chebulic, the
fruit of 7. chebulica ; the Citrine, the fruit of 7.
citrina; and the Indian, which are the small
Thee “yee 2 Fg a or all of the ig.
are all chiefly in request tanners, dyers,
and the manufacturers of As Emblic aio:
balans, the fruit of Emblica officinalis, of the
natural order Enphorbiacew, are used in India as
tonics and astringents, in tanning, and in the
making of ink. For Myrobalan Plum, see PLUM.
Myron, Greek sculptor, a native of Eleuthers,
flourished about 450 B.c. He was a fellow-pupil
of Phidias, and excelled in modelling athtet
animals, and figures in motion. His most cele-
brated works were the ‘ Discobolos,’ ‘Ladas the
Runner,’ ‘A Cow,’ and ‘Athene and the Satyr.’
Copies have survived of the first and last only.
Myron worked principally in bronze.
Myrrh (Heb. mur), a gum-resin produced by
Bal. ron (q.V.) myrrha, a tree of the
natural order Amyridacez, growing in Arabia,
and also in Som-
ali Land. The
myrrh-tree is small
and scrubby, spiny,
with whitish-gray
bark, thinly-scat-
tered small leaves,
each ores ty, of
three obovate leaf-
lets. with obtuse
toothlets, and the
fruit a smooth
brown ovate drupe,
somewhat larger
than a pea. Myrrh
exudes from the
the same time be-
coming darker.
Myrrh has been
known and valued
from the most
ancient times; and
was amongst the
ts which the wise men from the East
rought to the infant Jesus. (The ‘myrrh’ of
Gen, xxxvii. 25, Heb. lét, was ake Ladanum,
q-v.) Myrrh appears in commerce either in tears
and grains, or in pieces of irregular form and
various sizes, yellow, red, or reddish brown. It is
brittle, and has a waxy fracture, often exhibiting
whitish veins. Its smell is balsamic, its taste
aromatic and bitter. It is used in medicine asa
tonic and stimulant, in disorders of the digestive
organs, excessive secretions from the mucous mem-
branes, &e., also to cleanse ulcers and promote
their healing, and as a dentifrice, particularly in a
spongy or ulcerated condition of the gums. It was
much used by the ancient ptians in embalming.
The best myrrh is known in commerce as Turkey
hon but practically all myrrh comes either from
Aden or from Bombay.
M
( Buteoniodesoens myrrha).
yrtacezw, a natural order of exogenous
plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, natives
chiefly of warm, but partly also of temperate,
countries. The order, as defined by the greater
number of botanists, includes several sub-orders,
which are regarded by some as distinct orders,
particularly Chamielauciace (in which are con-
tained about fifty known species, mostly beautiful
little bushes, often with fragrant leaves, natives of
Australia and Tasmania), Barringtoniacee, and
Lecythidacew. Even as restricted, by the separa-
tion of these, the order contains about 1300 known
species. The leaves are entire, usually with pellucid
ots, and a vein running parallel to and near their
margin.—Some of the species are gigantic trees,
as the Eucalypti or Gum Trees of Australia, and
different species of Metrosideros, of which one
is found as far south as the Auckland Islands,
in 504° lat. The timber is generally compact.
—Astringency seems to be rather a prevalent pro-
perty in the order, and the leaves or other parts
of some species are used in medicine as astringents
and tonigs. A fragrant or pungent volatile oil is
often present in considerable quantity, of which
368 MYRTLE |
MYSTERIES
Oil of Cereus and Oil-of Cloves are examples,
Cloves and Pimento are amongst the best-known
products of the order, The berries of several
species are occasionally used as spices in the same
way as the true Pimento. A considerable number
ield pleasant edible fruits, among which are the
omegranate, the Guava, species of the genus
Eugenia, and some species of myrtle.
Myrtle (Myrtus), a genus of Myrtaces, the
characteristics of which are well illustrated in the
accompanying = pes The Common Myrtle (4.
communis) is well known as a beautiful evergreen
shrub, or a tree of moderate size, with white flowers.
It is a native of all the countries around the Medi-
terranean Sea, and of the temperate parts of Asia,
often forming thickets, which sometimes occur even
within the reach of the sea-spray. The leaves are
ovate or lanceolate, varying much in breadth.
They are astringent and aromatic, contain a
volatile oil, and were used in medicine by the
ancients as a stimulant. The berries are also
aromatic, and
are used in
medicine in
Greece and
India. A
myrtle wine
is also made.
Myrtle-bark is
used for tan-
ning in many
parts of the
south of
Europe. A-
mong the an-
cient Greeks
the myrtle
was sacred to
Venus, as the
symbol of
outh and
anty, Was
much used in
festivals, and
was, as it still
Myrtle (Myrtus communis) : is, often men-
a, branch in flower », vertical section tioned in
of flower.
poetry. The
myrtle —_ en-
dures the winters of Britain only in the mildest
situations in the south. ‘The Small-leaved Myrtle
of Peru (M. microphylia) has red berries of the size
of a pea, of a pleasant flavour and sugary sweet-
ness. Those of the Luma (J. /uma) are also palat-
able, and are eaten in Chili, as are those of the
Downy Myrtle (M/. tomentosa) on the Neilgherry
(Nilgiri) Hills, and those of the White-berried
Myrtle (M. leucocarpa) in Greece and Syria. The
berries of this species or variety are larger than
those of the common myrtle. A very humble
species of myrtle (M. nummularia) spreads over
the ground in the Falkland Islands, as thyme does
in Britain. M. Ugni, a native of Chili, was about
1865 highly extolled as a fruit-bearing shrub adapted
to the warmest districts of Britain; but it proved
unfit for open-air culture, though it fruits freely in
an unheated greenhouse. The fruit emits an
aromatic se py which permeates the atmo-
sphere around the plant continually, and the juicy
pulp of the berries possesses a rare mixture of
sweetness and spiciness which is very agreeable.
Myrtle-wax. See CANDLEBERRY, WAX.
Myaia, a district of ancient Asia Minor, having
the pontis (Sea of Marmora) on the N., the
Egean on the W., Lydia on the 8., and Bithynia
and Phrygia on the E. The Troad (Landeof Troy)
was one of its subdivisions.
Mysis, a genus of ophthalmons (stalk-eyed
coovtoeeabas oF the nab tomapoda, much 2 bay
bling the common shrimps in form. ;
Mysore, or Matsur, a native state of Southern
India, is surrounded entirely by distriets of the
Madras Presidency. The area is 24,700 sq. m.
Pop. (1871) 5,055,412; (1891) 4,944,604,
is an extensive tableland much broken ‘by hill-
ranges and deep ravines, and is divided into two
portions, a little north of 13° N, lat., by the water-
shed between the Kistna and the Kaveri rivers,
Numerous isolated rocks (drugs), rising to 4000 or
5000 feet, are a peculiarity of the country, and
have been mostly converted into hill-fortresses,
The rivers are used for irrigation pu , but are
not navigable. The climate of the higher districts
is during a t portion of the year penine and
leasant. The annual value of the exports, chiefly
tel nut and leaves, coffee, ragi, gram, cotton,
piece-goods, cardamoms, rice, silk, and sngar, is
above £1,200,000. The imports, consisting mainly
of piece-goods, cloth, wheat, silver, gold, cotton,
rice, silk, betel-leaves, and pepper, are over
£1,500,000._ The ruinous misgovernment of the
native prince led the British to assume the admin-
istration in 1831; but in 1881 Mysore was
to the native dynasty. The famine years (1876-78
told with great severity on that state. Chi
town, Mysore; but the British headquarters were at
Bangalore. For the history of Mysore, see HYDER
ALI, Tippoo SAurIB, and INDIA.
The capital of the state, Mysore, is situated
amid picturesque scenery on a declivity formed by
two parallel rg, running north and south, 245
miles WSW. of Madras. prosperous, well-built
town, it has broad, regu
honses and public buildings. On the south side
stands the fort, which encloses the rajah’s palace ;
its chief object of interest is a magnificent chair or
throne of fig-wood, overlaid with ivory and gold.
Pop. (1881) 60,292; (1891) 74,048. The gold
obtained by companies working at Kolar in the
east of Mysore increased in 1877-90 from 15,500
ounces to 72,000 ounces per annum.
Mystagogue (Gr. mustés, ‘an initiated person,’
and pon *T lead’), the name in the Greek religious
system of the priest whose duty it was to direct
the preveretiias of the candidates for initiation
in the several mysteries, as well as to conduct
the ceremonial of initiation. The same name is
applied in the Christian church as early as the
4th and 5th centuries to the catechists or other
clergy who prepared candidates for the Christian
mysteries, or sacraments, of baptism, confirmation,
and the encharist, especially the last.
Mysteries (Gr. from mué, ‘I close the lips or
eyes’), also called Z'eletai, Orgia, or, in Latin, Initia,
designates certain rites and ceremonies in ancient,
chiefly Greek and Roman, religions, only known to
and practised by, congregations of certain initiated
men and women, at appointed seasons, and in striet
seclusion. The ont as well as the real purport of
these mysteries, which take no unimportant place
among the religious festivals of the classical period,
and which, in their ever-changing nature, d ate
various phases of religious development in the
antique world, is all but unknown. — It does seem,
indeed, as if the vague speculations of modern times
on the subject were an echo of the manifold inter-
retations of the various acts of the mysteries given
y the priests to the inquiring disciple—acco
to the Tights of the former or the latter. Some
investigators, themselves not entirely free from
certain mystic influences (like Creuzer and others),
have held them to have been a kind of misty or
around a kernel of pure light, the bright rays of
which were too strong for the eyes of the multitude 5
lar streets, and substantial
MYSTERIES
369
that, in fact, they hid under an outward garb
of mumm a certain portion of the real and
eternal tenth of religion, the knowledge of which
had been derived from some primeval or, perhaps,
the Mosaic revelation ; if it could not be traced to
certain (or uncertain) ptian, Indian, or gener-
ally eastern sources. To this kind of hazy talk,
however (which we only mention because it is
still repeated every now and then), the real
and thorough investigations begun by Lobeck, and
still pursued by many competent scholars in our
own day, have, or ought to have, put an end.
There cannot be anything more alien to the whole
irit of Greek and Roman antiquity than a hiding
abstract truths and occult wisdom under rites
and formulas, songs and dances; and, in fact, the
mysteries were anything but exclusive, either with
respect to sex, age, or rank, in point of initiation.
It was only the speculative tendency of later times,
when Polytheism was on the wane, that tried to
bolise and allegorise these obscure ceremonies.
The very fact of their having to be put down in
later days as public nuisances in Rome herself
speaks volumes against the occult wisdom incul-
cated in secret assemblies of men and women.
How it was that in the best times of Greece
these mysteries had such a hold on such large
numbers of people is a point about which there
need be no hag 6 It is ectly plain. God
has at no time himself without a witness.
The Greeks were men; and being men found it
im ble to believe that with the death of the
body man’s life was at an end, or that the suffer-
of the innocent met with no reward, the
triumph of the wicked with no requital. But
the Greeks had no revealed religion, no authori-
tative teaching on this point. Yet the religious
sentiment required some external support for this
ration, craved some confirmation of this hope.
And at the celebration of the mysteries the man
or woman whose thoughts were fixed upon the
next world found his or her faltering ho
strengthened by the sympathy of thousands who
were present from the same motives and in the
same faith. That this is the secret of the mys-
teries is indicated partly by the fact that it was
the resurrection of various gods which was most
prominently set before the eyes of the initiated ;
and still more by such expressions as that of
Pindar (fr. 137), ‘ Blessed is he who has seen them
before he below ground ;’ or of Sophocles
(fr. 719), ‘Thrice happy they who have been initi-
ated before they die, for theirs is the lot of life,
and evil is it with the others ;’ or of the chorus of
the initiated in Aristophanes (Ran. 455), ‘ We alone
enic the holy light, we, who were initiated and led
a life of ness toward both kin and stranger ;’
or of the stone record (Ephem. arch. 1883), ‘To
the initiated death is not an evil : it is a gain.’
The bs (ger oe as such, consisted of purifications,
sacrificial offerings, ons, eonge, dances,
dramatic kone and the like. e mystic
formulas (Deiknumena Legomena, the
latter including the Liturgies, &c.) were held deep
— rat hpi be Unigene to those
who e of preparation at
the mystagogne’s hand. “the hold which the
nightly secrecy of these meetings, together with
their extraordinary worship, must naturally have
taken upon minds more fresh and childlike than
our advanced can boast of was increased by
all the mechanical contrivances of the effects of
ad and sound which the priests could command.
ysterious voices were heard singing, dome tar
and sighing all around, eee a in manifold
colours from above and below, figures appeared and
disappeared ; the mimic, the tonic, the plastic—all
the atm te fact, were taxed to their very utmost to
make these performances (the nearest approach to
which, in this country, is furnished by transfor-
*mation-scenes, or sensation-dramas in general) as
attractive and profitable (to the priests) as could
be. As far as we have any knowledge of the plots
of these Mysteries as scenic representations, they
generally brought the stories of the special gods or
desses before the spectator—their births, suffer-
ings, deaths, and specially their resurrections.
Many were the outward symbols used, of which
such as the Phallus, the Thyrsus, Flower Baskets,
_— Boxes, in connection with special deities,
told more or less their own tale, although the
meanings supplied by later ages, from the Neo-
platonists to our own day, are various, and often
very amazing. The most important Mysteries
were, in historical times, those of Eleusis and
the Thesmophorian, both representing—each from
a different point of view—the rape of Proserpina,
and Ceres’ search for her: the Thesmophorian
mysteries being also in a manner connected with
the Dionysian boners © There were further those
of Zeus of Crete (derived from a very remote
— ), of Bacchus himself, of Cybele, and Aphro-
ite—the two latter with reference to the Mystery
of tion, but celebrated in ‘irtapeayeen f
opposed ways, the former culminating in the self-
mutilation of the worshipper, the latter in prosti-
tution. Further, there were the Mysteries of
Orpheus, who in @ certain d was considered
the founder of-all mysteries. Nor were the other
gras and goddesses forgotten: Hera, Minerva,
iana, Hecate, nay, foreign gods like Mithras
(q.v.) and the like, had their due secret solemnities
over the classical soil, and whithersoever Greek
(and ly Roman) colonists took their Lares
and Penates all over the antique world. The
Eleusinian mysteries can be ti back to the 7th
century B.C. (cf. Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 1.
473 ff.) In the time of Herodotus as many as 30,000
people attended them (viii. 65); and between 480-
430 B.C., the period of Athens’ highest power and
of the Elensinian mysteries’ test fame, the
number must have n much greater. When,
towards the end of the classical periods, the
mysteries were no longer secret, but public orgies
of the most shameless kind, their days were
numbered, The most subtle metaphysicians, alle-
gorise and symbolise as they might, failed in re-
viving them, and in restoring them to whatever
Sasa dignity there might have once been in-
rent in them.
See Lobeck, A mus (1829); Preller, in Pauly’s
Encyce. & ¥V.; . Pet , Der geheime Gottesdienst
(1848); Lehrs, Populiire Aufsdtze ; Baumeister, Denk-
miiler, s. v. Eleusinia ; and P, Stengel, in Miiller’s Hand-
buch der Klassischen Altertums-wissenschaft, vol. v. pt. 3.
Mysrerice and Miracle-plays were dramas
founded on the historical parts of the Old and New
Testaments, and the lives of the saints, performed
during the middle ages, first in churches, and
afterwards in the streets on fixed or movable
8 Mysteries were Lada ork! taken from biblical
and miracle-plays from legendary subjects, but this
distinction in nomenclature was not always strictly
adhered to. We have an extant specimen of the
prety ta ay ge a date prior to the beginning of the
middle ages in the Christos Paschén, assigned, some-
what questionably, to Gregory Nazianzen, and
written in 4th-century Greek. Next come six
Latin plays on subjects connected with the lives
of the saints, by Hroswitha (c. 920-968), a nun of
Gandersheim, in Saxony, which, though not very
artistically constructed, possess considerable dra-
matic power and interest; they were discovered
by Konrad Celtes and by him first published in
1501 at Nuremberg. The performers were at first
the clergy and choristers ; afterwards any layman
370. MYSTERIES MYSTICISM
might participate. The earliest record of the | A degenerate relic of the miracle-play may yet be
performance of a miracle-play in England is found | traced in some remote districts of England, where
in Matthew Paris, who relates that Geoffrey,
afterwards Abbot of St Albans, while a secular,
exhibited at Dunstable in 1110 the miracle-play of
St Catherine, and borrowed copes from St Albans
to dress his characters, Fitzstephen, in his Life of
Thomas & Becket (1183), deseribes with approval
the representation in London of the sufferings of
the saints and miracles of the confessors. On the
establishment of the Corpus Christi festival by
Pope Urban IV. in 1264, miracle-plays became
one of its adjuncts, and every considerable town
had a fraternity for their performance. Throughout
the 15th and following centuries they continued
in full force in England, and are mentioned, some-
times approvingly, sometimes disapprovingly, by
contemporary writers, Designed at first as a means
of religious instruction for the ple, they had
long before the Reformation so far departed from
their original character as to be mixed up in many
instances with butfoonery and irreverence, inten-
tional or unintentional, and to be the means of
inducing contempt rather than respect for the
church and religion. _An example of the degrada-
tion of the Mysteries may be seen in the folk-book
of Till Eulenspiegel (q.y.). They lingered on after
the Reformation, the mystery-play of The Three
Kings of Cologne being performed at Newcastle so
late even as 1599. Remarkable collections exist
of English mysteries and miracles of the 15th cen-
tury, known as the Towneley Mysteries (Surtees
Soe, 1836), the Coventry Mysteries (Shakespeare
Soc. 1841), the Chester Plays (Shakes Soe.
1843), and the York Plays (Clar. Press, T385),
Out of the mysteries and miracle-plays sprang a
third class of religious plays, called Moralities in
hich allegorical personifications of the Virtues and
Vices were introduced as dramatis persone. These
personages at first took part in the play along
with, the scriptural or legendary characters, but
afterwards entirely superseded them, The oldest
known English compositions of this kind are of the
time of Henry VI.; they are more elaborate and
léss.interesting than the miracle-plays. Moralities
ntinned in fashion till Elizabeth’s time, and were
the immediate precursors of the regular drama.
.Miracle-plays and mysteries were as popular in
France, Germany, Spain, and Italy as in England ;
and indeed some of the pastorales still acted amon;
the Basques (q.v.) are mere survivals, A piece o
the kind yet extant, con in France in the 11th
gentary, is entitled the Mystery of the Wise and
Roolish Virgins, written partly in Provengal, partly
ip Latin. A celebrated fraternity, the Confrérie de
la Passion, founded in Paris in 1350, had a mon-
opoly for the performance of mysteries and miracle-
bays, the exhibition of each of which took several
ys. Many of these are still extant,
‘It is a mistake to suppose that the hostility of
the Reformers was what suppressed these exhibi-
tions. The fathers of the aloriation showed no
unfriendly feeling towards them. Luther is reported
to have said that they often did more good and
roduved more impression than sermons; and Bishop
le’s Brefe Comedy of Johan Baptyste (1538)
is an onslaught on the friars. The most direct
encouragement was given to such plays by the
founders of the Swedish Protestant Church, and by
the earlier Lutheran bishops, Swedish and Danish.
The authorship of one drama of the kind is as-
signed to Grotius. In England the greatest check
they. received was from the rise of the secular
drama; yet they continued to be occasionally per-
formed in the times of James I. and Charles I, and
it is well known that the first sketch of Milton’s
Paradise Lost was a sacred drama, where the
opening speech was Satan’s Address to the Sun.
the story of St George, the dragon, and Beelzebub
is rudely represented by the peasantry. Strange to
say, it was in the Catholic south of Germany, w
these miracle-plays and mysteries had preserved
most of their old religious character, that the
severest blow was levelled against them. In 1779
a manifesto was issued by the pester of
Salzburg, condemning them, and prohibiting their
performance, on the pets their ludicrous mix-
ture of the sacred and the profane, the frequent bad
acting in the serious parts, the distraction of the
lower orders from more edifying modes of instrue-
tion, and the scandal arising from the exposure of
sacred subjects to the ridicule of freethinkers. This
ecclesiastical denunciation was followed by y
measures on the of the civil authorities in
Austria and Bavaria, One exception was made to
the general suppression. In 1] the vill of
Ober-Ammergau (q.v.), in the Bavarian highlands,
on the cessation of a plague which desolated the
surrounding country, had vowed to perform every
tenth year the Passion of Our Saviour, out of
gratitude, and as a means of religious instruction ;
a vow which had ever since been regularly observed. —
The pleading of a deputation of Ammergan peasants.
with Maximilian of Bavaria saved their m
from the general condemnation, on condition of every-
thing that could offend good taste being expunged,
It was then and afterwards somewhat remodelled,
and is perhaps the only mystery or miracle-play
which has survived to the present day—taking place
every ten years (1870, 1880, 1890, &c.). The inhabit-
ants of this seeluded village, long noted for their
skill in carving in wood and ivory, have a rare union
of artistic cultivation with perfect simplicity. Their
familiarity with sacred subjects is even beyond
what is usual in the alpine part of Germany, and
the spectacle seems still to be looked on with feel-
ings much like those with which it was originally
conceived. What would elsewhere spree impious,
is to the alpine peasants devout and edifying. The
personator of Christ considers his part an act of
religions worship; he and the other principal ee
formers are said to be selected for their holy life,.
and consecrated to their work with prayer. The
players, about 500 in number, are exclusively the
villagers, who, though they have no artistic instrue-
tion except from the parish priest, act their parts
with no little dramatic power, and a delicate
appreciation of character. The New Testament
narrative is strictly adhered to, the only een
addition to it being the St Veronica handkerchief.
The acts alternate with tableaux from the Old.
Testament and choral odes. Many thousands of,
the try are attracted by the spectacle from
all the parts of Tyrol and Bavaria, among whom
the same devout demeanour prevails as among
the performers. Plays of a humbler description,
from subjects in legendary or sacred history, are
not enivorenet: got up by the villagers around”
posal which show a certain rade dramatic.
talent.
See Leroy’s Etudes sur les Mystdres (1837); Monmerqué.
and Michel, Thédtre eats an moyen dge, 12*-14° Siécles.
(1839); Mone, Schauspiele des Mu it );. A.
a’ Ancona, Sacre ra, azione dei Secoli 14-16 (Flor.
3 vols. 1872); Se Le Drame Chrétien au moyen dge
(1878); Petit de Julleville, Histoire du Thédtre en France’
2 vols. 1880) ; Miracle-plays, by K. Hase, trans, by Jackson’
1880); A. W. Pollard, English Miracle-plays, Moralities,:
and Interludes (1890) ; the classified list of References for:
Students o Biroveerene and Mysteries, by Francis H.
Stoddard (Berkeley, U.S. 1887); and, for the passion~
of, neenenetaens works by Seguin, Tweedie, Farrar, and
others.
Mysticism is not so much a definite system of.
thought as a tendency of religious feeling, cher-,
Ne
——
MYSTICISM ‘
; MYTHOLOGY 371
ished more or less at different periods in most
religions by individuals or groups: the essential
element being the effort to attain to direct and
immediate communion with God or the divine.
The tendency appears in the Mysteries (q.v.) of
the Greeks, but is more marked in Buddhism, in
various Hindu sects, in Sufism, and is the most
rominent feature in Neoplatonism and some of
The Gnostic systems. But it is more especially to
Christian writers of the middle ages that tle name
of mystics is wont to be given, one of the earliest
being Dionysius the Areopagite, followed by Scotus
Erigena; and this mode of thought or mood of
mind developed itself specially in opposition to the
dry, cold, rationalistic formalism of scholastic theo-
logy. Among the great Catholic mystics are Bernard
a Clairven: his contemporaries the Victorines
—Hnugo, Richard, and Walter of St Victor near
Paris; Bonaventura; John of Chur (died 1380);
and Thomas & a The German mystics are
specially Meister Eckhart, Suso, Tauler, Ruys-
broeck. Aberrant or fanatical forms are found
amongst the Fraticelli, Beghards, Beguines, the
thren of the Free Spirit, the Brethren of the
mon Life ie whom Thomas & Kempis be-
longed), and the Anabaptists. Less theological
more philosophical are Paracelsus, Bruno,
Campanella, Jacob Boelime, Schelling, and Swed-
enborg. In England William Law is a conspicuous
example; and some of the Cambridge Platonists
like Hoary More were to some extent mystical in
their religious teaching. Millenarianism has pro-
duced several types; from Jansenism sp the
Convulsionaries. In modern Catholicism St Ther-
esa, Fénelon, Mad. Guyon, Molinos, the Quiet-
ists, and Bourignon be ly mentioned.
Most of them are «iscnssed in separate articles.
See Boreume, Eckuart, in this work; also
IntuminatiI, Rosicrvuctays, EOSOPHY; Vaughan,
po eggae the an et 3d mg ta tl ght:
hilosophy o, ism (trans. Massey, 3
and German marks on tie Gorres (1846),
Helfferich (1842), Noack (1853), (1881).
Mythology. A myth is a story told about
- heroes. Mythology is a term sometimes
applied to the collected myths of a nation, some-
times to the scientific study of myths, Myth-
ology in the latter sense of the term has for its
object not to ascertain why men believe in gods—
that is rather the business of the science of religion
—lnut, granted the belief, why men tell these (some-
times rrbaegcaie yi a stories about them. The
first nation to busy itself with this enquiry was the
nation whose mythol had the most luxuriant
development, the Gree From very early times
they started their enquiry with the assumption
that there must be something behind the myths as
known to them—that there was some meaning in a
myth. Thus far, they were as s most myths
unite right. The mistake, however, which the
reek ogeey nap who undertook to recover the
original meaning of various mytls made was that
they imagined the anthors of these myths to be,
like themselves, philosophers. In other words, they
ned that not only was there a meaning con-
led behind myths, but that that meaning had
intentionally concealed, and that wat kn were
vehicles by which ps grag teaching had
inally conveyed, and in which it might
still be detected. Myth was identified with
gory. The mlar branch of philosophy sup-
to be veiled by mythio!
of the a r
depended on the
mythologist. Anaxagoras
discovered l teaching behind the veil ;
Empedocles found his own theory of the four
elements santo of being stated in terms of myth-
(see EMPEDOCLES), and he thus effected the
reconciliation between science and religion.
And speaking generally, we may say that from that
day to this the magic mirror of mythology has never
failed to show to every enquirer that which he
wished to see in it. The next attempt at inter-
pretation, which also proceeded from Greece, was
to strip myth of all that was supernatural and
affirm the residuum to be history (see EUHEMERISM,
to which article it is only necessary here to add that
in the opinion of Gruppe, in Die griechischen Culte
und Mythen (vol. i. 1887), the work of Euhemerus was
not intended as an explanation of mythology, though
it was subsequently regarded as such, but was a
romance of much the same character as some of.
Lucian’s work or Gulliver’s Travels). It is interest-
ing to note that in India an independent attempt was
made by the Aitihasika school to explain the myth-
ology of the Vedas as history clothed in the garb of
the supernatural. The two modes of interpretation
already deseribed—the allegorical and the Euhem-
eristie—continued to be the only methods applied
throughout Roman and Christian times to the
present century, nor can they be said to be wholly
extinct even now. At Rome the Stoics, develop-
ing systematically what had been rather suggested
than definitely formulated by Empedocles, endeay-
oured to explain all myths as but allegorical
descriptions of physical facts. They failed, how-
ever, to explain just those myths which most
required explanation, the immoral, brutal, and
bestial myths, for examples of which we may refer
to Vol. V. p, 385 of this work. Their failure was
the more remarkable inasmuch as in India the
same key had been applied by the native gram-
marians with considerable apparent success: but
we must remember that the science of grammar
had been already carried to. great perfection in
India, and that some of the mythological figures
in the Vedas have names which are much more
pp re’! names of nature-powers than is the case
in Greek mythology. For instances of native
Indian interpretations we may refer to Max-
Miiller’s History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p.
529. Inadequate as was the allegorical interpreta-
tion of myth, it continued to enjoy an undisputed
mastery of the field of investigation in Europe for
many centuries. But, as it was sterile to the end,
we need here only mention the fact that the latest
and most, learned form in which it appeared was
the Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Volker of
Creuzer (q.v.), published 1810-12. The effect of
the publication of this work was to overthrow the
mode of interpretation which it was designed to
prove and illustrate. It led to a thorough investi-
gation of the assumptions on which the allegory
theory was ; and an era in the history of
mythology as a science is marked by the demon-
stration given by Lobeck in his Aglaophamus
(1829), of the utter untenability of these assump-
tions. What is implied in any theory whic
explains myths as truths conveyed in the form of
allegories is the existence of a caste or class of
pres or philosophers, possessing a _recondite
nowledge and teaching it by means of parables. _
Now the existence of such a class or caste is a
matter which requires to be proved, and of which
the proof must satisfy the canons of historical
criticism. And it may safely be said that there is
absolutely no evidence whatever to show that such
a class ever existed amongst the Greeks or any
other Indo-Germanic nation.
The establishment of this negative conclusion
by Lobeck paved the way for the next ee
forward in the science of mythology. Scholars h
hitherto assumed that the authors of myths were
men of learning, ge ty After the exposure
of ‘this error, the next step was to recognise
the necessity not only of peowing aside our
modern, civilised, artificial ideas, but also of,
372
MYTHOLOGY
endeavouring to see the myths in ‘the light in
which they presented themselves to the Homeric
or Hesiodic audience.’ The conviction of this
necessity manifests itself, after the time of Lobeck,
in Grote, from whom the quotation in the last
sentence is made, Lehrs (Gott, Gétter, und Déim-
onen), and Renan ( Etudes de l’' Histoire Religieuse).
Now, if we try to see myths as primitive man saw
them, we can hardly doubt that to the Greek of
Homer’s time or Hesiod’s Aphrodite must have
resented herself as the ideal of female beauty,
Deseter as the perfect type of motherhood, and
so on. Thus far it was thought, by Grote and
others, possible to fo in the way of interpretation :
the Greek was at all times characteristically given
to anthropomorphism. But to fe further and try
to explain not only the individual figures of the
gods, but the relations in which those figures are
represented by = fox as standing to each other,
was, by a natural reaction against the exploded
system of allegorical interpretation, considered to
be futile. Primitive man is but a child; he lives
in a world of dreams and fancies which are to him
as real as the waking world of facts. As for
coherence or meaning in what he chose to dream
abont his gods, you may as well undertake to
decide what shapes the clouds have or what words
the bells say. The imagination knows no law, or
at the most is subject only to the laws of poetical
and sesthetic consistency. It is vain to endeavour
to go beyond the myth, or behind it. It is like
the curtain of Zeuxis, which was itself the picture.
There is nothing behind it. This, as we have
said, was a natural reaction, but the pendulum
swung too far. Noone at the present day would
think of denying that in many cases there is some-
thing behind the veil—that most myths have a
meaning of some kind. Nor would any one now
admit that myths possess poetic or esthetic con-
sistency ; on the contrary, one of the problems of
scientific mythology is to explain the inconsistency
of feeling which is to be found in myths relating
to the same subject, to explain, for instance, the
repulsive origin attributed by mythology to Aphro-
dite, the type of feminine 5 fees y, or the amour
carried on by Demeter, the ideal of motherhood,
in the shape of a mare, with Poseidon.
A partial solution of this problem was afforded
by the brothers Grimm (q.v.), whose labours mark
a new era in mythology. While collecting their
famous fairy tales from the mouths of the people,
they were forced to the conclusion that many a tale
which had hitherto only been known in a literary
form had existed orally long before it had been put
on paper or shaped into verse, and the further
inference from this became the wide-reaching con-
clusion that mythology was not, as the allegory
theory had falsely taught, the work of the superior
few, but the production of the people. It was the
way in which the many expréeet their religious
feeling. It was their only mode of expression, and
it was theirs exclusively. The current of myth-
ology, on this theory, flows from the lower strata
of meng d to the upper. Here we have an explana-
tion of the vegies aaa existing in the myths told
of Aphrodite or Demeter, for instance; for myths
could not be perpetually retold in one generation
after another without being reshaped to suit the
changing modes of thought of different generations,
But it will be also noticed that, granting that the
current of mythology is upwards from below, we
are no nearer an answer to the question, Why do
men tell the extraordinary stories they do tell
about their gods? The quarter, however, in which
an answer to this question might be looked for
was indicated by Grimm.
One and the same myth may be found, in differ-
ent forms, amongst different Aryan peoples (see
Vol. I. p. 471), and aeerig, # some such myths
may have been borrowed by one people
another, just as one language may borrow words
from another, still the resemblances between
the myths of different a bes pores could, like
the resemblance between their languages, be only
properly accounted for on the supposition that
they had been handed down by each separate
people from a time when the forefathers of all
were united in one home, one tongue, one faith.
In fine, the solution of the problem was to be
sought in the eee of the comparative
method to the study of mythology, and in the
creation of a comparative mythology of the Aryan
peoples. The verification of this hypothesis was
supposed to have been effected when it was dis-
covered that the literature of Sanskrit threw the
same light on the structure of myths as the lan-
uage of Sanskrit had Hi seded on the betes of
the an tongues. m ive mytho
fairly ‘teesia'te } be the pes pba two scho ete
Germany Adalbert Kuhn (1812-81), and in England
Max-Miiller(q.v.). The object of the school founded
hy them is to trace myths k to Aryan times, to
determine their original forms, and, having done
this, to show what was their original meaning, and
any changes that may have su uently come over
that meaning. Their guiding principle is that in
the Vedas (q.v.) we see Tecan myths in their earliest
form—indeed, that we see them in process of making.
The conclusion to which they come is that, owing
to the defects of langaage in its earliest stage, the
primitive Aryan could only speak of natural objects
as living things, and that in consequence he came
* believe = all nature was ae of _
gain, as in language we can only predicate of a
subject something which the enhjask is not, so in
myth, primitive man could only express a pheno-
menon of nature by ge gies it with something
which it was not—in fact, could only express it by
a simile. When in course of time, and owing to
the ‘disease of lan, .’ the meaning of the simile
caine to be forgotten, what had originally been a
very innocent comparison might me a very
repulsive myth. For instance, the sun’s relation
to the dawn may be likened to that of a husband
to his wife, or of a son to his mother; and a myth
of incest may be the result.
The reaction inst the allegory theory, which
was strongest in the time of Grote, has, we observe,
ceased by the time of Max-Miiller, and the pen-
dulum once more approaches more nearly to the
true mean. According to the comparative mytholo-
gists, there is, after all, something behind myth;
not, however, an intentionally veiled meaning, but
an unintentionally forgotten substratum, a simile
originally descriptive of some natural phenomenon.
But though this school is right in maintaining that
myths have a meaning, and that in some cases the
meaning is to be found in a metaphorical deserip-
tion of the sun, the dawn, the wind, &e., the
extremes to which this mode of interpretation has
been pushed have caused a revolt amongst recent
mythologists. The earliest insurgent, Mannhardt
(1831-89), was content to turn from the Vedas to
popular beliefs and folk-tales as the earliest stratum
accessible to the comparative mythologist ; but the
ae revolter, = we may say = erred is
druppe, rejects the comparative me ier,
and Ninteriakes to Seaonatrete in his second and
following volumes that myths have been borrowed
by one nation from another, not handed down from
the common ancestors of the separate les, It
seems indeed impossible to deny that, with regard
to the importance of Sanskrit, the same mis
has been made by comparative mythologists as was
at first made by comparative philologists, The con-
viction is spreading that the myths of the Vedas
MYTHOLOGY
MZENSK 373
form a literary mythology which is nothing like so
near to the myth-making stage in the history of a
people as are many of the popular traditions of the
of Europe. On the other hand, although
Max-M ler and his school have been guilty of many
offences against the canons of comparative > philology
in their desire to identify the names mytho-
logical figures, Gruppe undoubtedly has gone too
far in asserting that comparative peisieey lends
no support whatever pogpoayl that the e ans
possessed any gods at all. us, Aurora, and Agni
may safely ‘e said to have been known to the
Aryans, and to have been worshipped as deities.
. Another series of attacks has been made upon the
Kuhn and Miller school on the ground that, if the
com tive method is to be applied, it should be
applied to the whole of the facts, and not to one
particular section of them. In other words, we
must not confine ourselves to Aryan myths, but
must open our eyes to the fact that nearly every
Aryan inyth can be paralleled by similar tales from
the remotest quarters of the globe. No explana-
tion which oe mead a part of the phenomena
and leaves er exactly similar phenomena un-
explained can possibly the right explanation.
Obviously, therefore, it is impossible to find the key
toall the mythologies in any peculiarity of language,
for such peculiarity or ‘disease’ would only affect the
mythology of the nations speaking that language
or family of languages. The et) ologist has not
only to answer the question why men tell their
extraordinary tales about the gods, but also the
question why do they all tell the same sort of
story, no matter what race or clime they belong to.
The theory that all myths are derived from a
common centre, from which they spread in all
directions over the face of the h by borrowing,
would explain the similarity in the myths; but,
until that theory is more y elaborated than
it is at present, the field is held by a theory
of mythology of which the most distinguished
champion in England is Mr Andrew Lang (q.v.).
It is, briefly, t myths are parvivals from
a primitive s' of culture throngh which all
races pass, in which they much resemble
each other. Ez eisdem eadem, Primitive man,
whether of the stone. age on this side of the world
or on the other, chipped his flint implements
in much the same way; and no one thinks of
accounting for the resemblance between tlie imple-
ments thus manufactured by any theory of borrow-
ing or of common descent. It is obvious that the
same causes acting on the same isms produce
similar results, and this is as true of mental and
moral culture as of material culture. Here, too,
we haye the explanation of the strange nature of
many myths; what seems brutal to us does not
seem brutal to the savage. There is therefore
nothing surprising in the fact that the gods and
heroes of the savage are, like himself, savages.
Above all, the same problems presented themselves
to primitive peoples in all of the world, and
were solved by the aid the same analogies.
What was the origin of man? of the world?) What
causes rain? Why does the wind blow? Why does
the sun behave as he does? Why are certain customs
observed? The answers w commended them-
selves to primitive man constitute mythology. At
the same time there is no reason to believe that primi-
tive man was not as fond of hearing and tellin
stories as civilised man is of reading novels. A:
though most myths may be the explanations which
‘its progress. It gr
were invented to explain what seemed to primitive
man to need explanation, some myths probably
were from the beginning designed solely for the
gratification of the imagination.
In addition to the works of Creuzer, Lobeck, Grote,
Lehrs, Renan, Grimm, and Gruppe already referred to,
see Max-Miiller’s various works, and particularly his
Bioyraphues of Words ; Mannhardt, Wald und Feldkulte ;
Schrader, Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples ;
E. B. Tylor, Karly History of Mankind and Primitive
Culture; A. Lang, Custom and Myth and La Mythologie
( Paris, repel Canon ‘laylor, Origin of the Aryans ;
Chant
Gri isch Mythologie ; P. '
Gréce antique; and Roscher's Lexikon der Mytholoyie.
See also the articles in this work on such mythologists as
Eubemerus, Cox, Gubernatis, Lang, Max-Miiller; those
on the several gods ; and the following :
Ancestors, worship of. | Demonology. Magic,
Animals, worshipof. | Divination. Mysteries.
Animism. Egypt (religion). Rome (religion).
Auguries. G (religion ). Scandinavian
Beast-fables. Hesiod. Mythology.
Bidpai. Homer. Totem.
Cosmogony. India (p. 104), Witchcraft.
Myxeede’ma is the name generally accepted for
a diseased condition first described by Sir William
Gull in 1873. It occurs in adults, generally females,
and is characterised by a thickening of the sub-
cutaneous tissue, most noticeable in the face (which
becomes enlarged, swollen-looking, and expression-
less) and the hands, with a simultaneous dulling of
all the faculties and ape of the movements of
the body. A precisely similar condition oceurs in
many cases where the thyroid gland has been
removed for disease. Myxcedema is very slow in
tly resembles cretinism, | ah =
the mental condition is much less affected. In
1890-91 Horsley and others treated cases success-
fully by grafting in the thyroid gland of a calf, or
by injecting the juice of animal thyroids. Since
then remarkable success has been attained by giving
the patients calves’ thyroids to eat, or administerin
the extract by the mouth. The improvement, which
is swift and marvellous, lasts only so long as the
sufferers continue to take the remedy. See mono-
graph by A, M. Wilson (1893).
Myxomycetes, or Mycerozoa, a class of
very simple organisms, sometimes claimed by
botanists as fungi, and by zoologists as primitive
Protozoa. ‘tie live on damp surfaces exposed
to air, especially on rotting wood, and feed on
organic debris. They form composite masses or
ia, in which numerous units are fused, or
in rare cases simply combined in close contact.
On the margins of such a mass amceboid processes
of living matter flow in and out, with streaming
internal movement, and the plasmodium spreads
towards moisture, food, and warmth, or away
from the light. Drought, cold, or scarcity of food
produce a dormant encysted stage. t other
times part of the plasmodium divides into spores,
each enclosed in a coat, which bursts and liberates
a swarm spore, sometimes flagellate, always eventu-
ally like a little amwba. A number of these
minute amcebee unite to form the plasmodium from
which we started. About two hundred species have
been described. See FuNGI, Protozoa ; De Bary,
Die Mycetozoen (1864); Zoph, Die Schleimpilze, a
Schenk’s Botanik, iii. (1887).
Mzensk, a town in the Russian government of
Orel, 200 miles SSW. of Moscow. Pop. 15,067.
N
the fourteenth letter in our
alphabet, is derived from the
hieroglyphic sign for water (see
ALPHABET). When taken over
by the Phoenicians it was called
nun, ‘the fish.’ The earliest
Greek form was NN, which after-
wards became Our script
form, , is derived from the old
Roman cursive. The sound of n is defined as
a nasal dental. It is produced when the organs
are in the ition for pronouncing d, and the
breath is allowed to pass into the nose. Hence
n attracts d, as in expound from expono, sound
from sonus, or in thunder and hind from Old
English thunor and hine, Our two nasals m and
n also interchange according to the nature of
the following consonant. If it is a labial n
changes to m, as in hemp from Old English
hancp, or comfort from confortare ; but if it is a
dental m changes to n, as in ant from Old —
emete, or count from computare. We also find an
intrusive n before = and dentals, as in
nightingale from Old English nihtegale, messenger
from ger, p wer from passager, or lantern
from laterna.
Naas, a ison town of Kildare county,
garriso
Treland, 20 miles SW. of Dublin by rail; pop.
3808. Once the capital of Leinster, Nene obtained
charters from Henry V., Elizabeth, and James L,
but was disfranchised at the Union.
Rabateans, a Roce of northern Arabia,
nerally considered to have been of pure Arab
lood, though somé authorities, identifying them
with the Ishmaelite tribe of Nebaioth, re; ii them
>. having been closel _ to the waren
ey took possession of the country once occupi
by. the Edomites ; and in the beginning of the 3d
century B.C. they were one of the most powerful
amongst the Arab tribes, warlike, with a force of
10,000 fighting men, nomadic, and busy carriers of
merchandise between the East and the West. In
312 B.c. Antigonus, the general of Alexander, made
an attack, unsuccessful, upon their desert fast-
ness of Sela or Petra (q.v.). By the Ist century
B.C. they had shaped their power into a kingdom ;
in the time of St Paul their king Aretas, who died
in 40 A.D. after a reign of forty-eight years, was
master of Damascus and Cele-Syria. They were
in antagonism successively to the Syrian monarchs,
the Maccabean rulers of Judea, and the Romans,
but eventually acknowled the supremacy of
these last. Nevertheless Trajan, in 105, captured
their stronghold and put an end to their kingdom.
They a certain measure of culture, derived
from the Syrians. The language of their coins and
inscriptions is Aramaic. See Charles Doughty,
Documents Epigraphiques recueillis dans le Nord
de l' Arabie (1884), and books cited at Epom, .
Nabha, a Sikh principality under the political’
control of the Punjab, cis-Sutlej, to the E. of
Patiala and S. of jana; area, 928 sq, m.
Pop. 261,824.
Nablus, corrupted from the Greek Neapolis,
the ancient Shechem, a town of Palestine, stands
on the highest part of the pass, between Mounts
Ebal and Gerizim, that leads from the Mediter-
ranean to the Jordan. In the same valley or
are Jacob’s Well, the Tree of the Sanctuary, an
Joseph’s grave. At first a Canaanite city, it was
destroyed by Abimelech, a son of Gideon the
Judge. Here Rehoboam was crowned king of
Israel. The place became the religious centre of
the Samaritans (q.v.). The Greek city gave birth
to Justin Martyr, and suffered much during the
Crusades. See Memoirs of Palestine Exploration
Fund, vol. iii.
Nabob, an Anglo-Indian corruption of the word
Nawab (‘deputy’), was the title belonging to
the administrators of provinces under the Mogul
empire. The title was continued under the British
rule, but it ually came to be applied generally
to natives who were men of wealth and considera-
tion. In Europe it is applied more or less sarcas-
tically to those who, having made great fortunes
in the Indies or in foreign Wicca goer return
to their native country, and live the:
splendour. ;
Nabonassar. See BABYLONIA.
Nachtigal, Gustav, German traveller, was
born 23d February 1834, at Eichstedt, between
Magdeburg and Wittenberg, studied medicine, and
served as army surgeon until 1863, In that year
he went to North Africa, suffering from a chest
disease. In 1868, through the influence of este
he was selected to carry presents from the kin
Prussia to the sultan of Bornu. Starting toms
Tripoli in 1869, he travelled by way of Fezzan and
Tibesti to Bornu, made excursions into the states
of Borgu and irmi, and returned home by way
of Wadai, Dar-Far, Kordofan, and Cairo, where lie
arrived on 22d November 1874. This long and
successful journey, in the course of which he visited,
the first of Euro s, the native states of Ti
Borgu, and Wadai, put him in the forefront 6
modern travellers. His vast collection of most
valuable information was written down in the three
vols. of Sahara und Sudan (1879-89). In 1884
Nachtigal was commissioned to annex for Get-
many Togoland, Cameroons, and Liideritzland
(An Pequefia) on the west coast of Africa.
He died on the return journey off Cape Palmas,
19th April 1885, and was buried on that bbsir |
promontory ; but in 1887 his bones were remov
to German soil in the Cameroons, See Dorothea
Berlin’s Erinnerungen an Nachtigal (1887). :
Nacre. See PEARL ( MOTHER OF). ,
emir ( —_ sal that i eg Se: epiten
which is diametrically 0) ite to the Zenith (q.v.
so that the zenith, eeaik, onl centre of the av
are in one straight line. The zenith and nadir form
the poles of the Horizon (q.v.). : s)
© Nadir- Shah of Persia, the -Conqteror, bé-
longed to a Turkish tribe, and was born in Khor-
assan in 1688, He entered the service of the
governor of Khorassan, and soon obtained high
promotion ; but, having been degraded for some
offence, he betook himself to a lawless life, and
for several years was the daring leader of a
re in oriental
EE —— ——
' NADIYA
NAGASAKI 375
of 3000 robbers, and gradually extended his terri-
torial pears Persia was at this time ruled by
Ashraf, an Afghan, whose grinding tyranny and
cruelty produced in the mind of every Persian a
deadly hatred of the very name Afghan. Nadir
having avowed his intention of expelling the
hated race from the country and restoring the old
dynasty, numbers flocked to his standard, and
tem f Herat, and all Khorassan were speedily
reduced. Ashraf, si ly defeated in several en-
ts, fled ore the avenger, who, with a
Selority only equalled by its thoronghness, pu
Persia of even the semblance of Afghan domina-
tion. The rightful heir, Tamasp, then ascended
the throne, and Nadir received for his services
the government of the provinces of Khorassan,
Mazanderan, Seistan, and Kerman. He was sent
inst the Turks in 1731, and defeated them at
amadan; but his sovereign having engaged un-
successfully the same enemy, Nadir caused him
to be put in prison, and elevated his infant son,
Abbas IIl., to the throne in 1732. The death
of this puppet, in 1736, opened the way for the
elevation Nadir himself, who was crowned as
Nadir Shah. He resumed the war with the Turks,
and, though totally defeated in the first two battles,
turned the tide of fortune in the subsequent cam-
paign. He also conquered Afghanistan, and drove
the Sat ea Uzbegs. culties arose with
the Great Mogul, and, his envoy having been
murdered at Jelalabad, Nadir ravaged the North-
west Provinces, and took Delhi, which he pillaged.
With booty to the amount, it was said, of
£20,000,000, including the Koh-i-nfr (see Dra-
MOND), he returned to the west bank of the Indus.
He next reduced Bokhara and Khaurezm, restoring
to Persia her limits under the golden reign of the
Sassanides. From this period liis character under-
went a sudden change; he became suspicious,
avaricious, and tyrannical, and was assassinated
20th June 1747. See H. Maynard's Nadir Shah
(Stanhope Essay, 1885).
Nadiya, capital of a district in Bengal, on the
irathi River, 63 miles N. of Calcutta; pop.
14,1 It was the residence of the last independ-
ent Hindu king of Bengal (till 1203).
Neevius, GN2&vs, with the exception of Livins
Andronicus, the earliest of the creators of Latin
literature, was aoe petebly in Campania, about
265 B.c. In his youth he served in the first Punic
war, made his first ce at Rome as a
dramatic writer in 235, and continued his activity
for thirty years. Of his life we know little, save
that he was very decidedly attached to the plebeian
y, and in his Lge satirised and lampooned the
man nobles with all the virulence and indiscre-
tion of a hot-blooded impetuous Campanian—that
Gascon of ancient esi 8 He ineu the especial
hostility of the Metelli, and was imprisoned at
their instance, as we learn from a Looe, in the
Miles Gloriosus of Plautus. He was ultimately
obliged to retire to Utica in Africa, where he died
after 204. Besides his dramatic writings, compris-
ing both tragedies and comedies, he wrote an epic
ots De Bello Punico, in the old Saturnian metre.
is work bore the stamp of the national genius,
and its vigour and invention gave pleasure to Cicero
and to Horace. Only a few very unimportant
fragments are extant, which may be found in
editions more or less complete by Vahlen (1854)
and Ribbeck, Scenice Poesis Romanorum Frag-
menta (2d ed. 1871-73). See also Sellar’s Poets of
the Roman Republic, and Ribbeck, Die Réimische
Tragidie (1875).
Neevus (Lat., ‘a mole;’ known popularly as
_ mother-spot or birth-mark) is a congenital mark or
growth strictly on a part of the s The most
frequent form is the pigmentary nevus, or mole.
This may be simply a darker pigmentation of a
circumscribed portion of skin; or the pigmented
skin may be thickened and rough as well, and is
often thickly covered with hair. Moles do not
tend to increase, and do not need to be treated
unless for the sake of appearance. In that case,
removal by knife or destruction by caustics must
be reso to.
When the name is used without qualification, a
vascular nevus or overgrowth of capillary blood-
vessels is generally meant, and the term is used of
such abnormal growths in whatever organ or tissue
they oecur. The slightest form is sometimes called
port-wine stain, and is sufficiently described by the
name : there is just so much overgrowth as to pro- -
duce a deep red discoloration, without appreciable
swelling of the part affected. Frequently the
abnormal tissue forms a distinct tumour, either in
the skin, when it is of a dark red colour, or beneath
it, when it may sometimes be recognised hy a blue
or purplish tinge. The most frequent situations
of these vaseular nevi are the skin and subcu-
taneous cellular tissue of the face and head; but
they may occur elsewhere. The popular belief
is that they are caused by the longing of the
mother during her pregnaney for a lobster, or
straw or raspberry, or some other red-coloured
article of food, and that the influence of her
mind has impressed upon the foetus a more or
less vivid image of the thing she longed for; and
hence the name of mother-spot. Sometimes these
tumours waste away spontaneously, and give no
trouble; but frequently they increase rapidly, in-
vade the adjacent tissues, and ulcerate or slough,
and thus become dangerous to life by hemorrhage.
When these tumours do net show a tendency to
increase no treatment is necessary, except to
remove the disfigurement. When treatment is
desirable many different methods may be employed,
according to the form and situation of the tumour :
e.g. removal by knife or ligature; coagulation of
the contained blood by electrolysis ; production of
inflammation by application of caustics or, in
infants, by vaccination upon the nevus.
N is, in Hindu Mythology, the name o'
deified serpents.. Their king is Sesha, the sacred
serpent of Vishnu.
Naga Hills, « district of British India, the
south-eastern extremity of Assam, with an ap-
proximate area of 6400 sq. m. anda: pop. of
130,300. It ‘consists of a mountainous region,
covered with jungle and forest, the haunt of
various wild animals, and is inhabited by the
aboriginal Nagas and other semi-savage one
whose incessant raids into the more orderly British
provinces occasioned much trouble from 1832 down
to 1881. In that year their country was made
an administrative district, and garrisoned with a
native regiment. ,
Nagar. See BepNor.
agasaki, « seaport of Kyiishi, Japan, and
for more than two centuries the only gate of com-
munication for that empire with the outer world.
Its harbour, famous for its beauty, is a narrow
inlet about 3 miles in length. Near its head,
beside the native town, is the low, fan-shaped
island of Deshima, where the Dutch factory was
situated. From 1637 to 1859 the Dutch traders
were immured in this prison of 250 x 80 yards, the
monotony of their lives being varied by the arrival
of the yearly ship from Batavia, and the annual
journey to Yedo, when presents were made to the
hogun. Chinese traders were also permitted to
earry on a limited trade. In 1859 Nagasaki became
one of the five open ports. The great Takashima
coal-mine, situated en an island 8 miles seaward Of
376 NAGINA
NAILS
the entrance to the harbour, serves to give im-
portance to Nagasaki as a coaling station. Naga-
saki also a fine dockyard and patent slip.
The foreign settlement is situated on the flat land
at the east side of the harbour, The Roman
Catholic Chureh has a strong mission here, and in
one of the valleys in the neighbourhood is a com-
munity of historical native Christians. Protestant
missions are represented by the English Church
Missionary Society, and the American Methodist,
Episcopal, and (Dutch) Reformed Church missions.
At the mouth of the harbour is the small island of
Pappenberg (Takaboko), from which 300 €hristians
are said to have been hurled in the frightful perse-
cutions of the 17th century. Pop. (18y5) 72,321.
Nagina, a town in the North-west Provinces of
India, 48 miles NW. of Moradabad. Pop. 20,503.
Nagpur, a city of British India, the seat of
administration for the Central Provinces, 450 miles
ENE. of Bombay by rail. It lies embosomed in
trees, has several handsome tanks, gardens, and
temples, and extensive suburbs, but is not a
health city, the mean temperature being 78°°7 F.
Fine cloth fabrics are woven, and there is an active
trade in wheat, salt, spices, and Euro) goods,
Here, on the 26th and 27th November 1817, a
British force of 1350 men, commanded by Colonel
Scott, defeated a Mahratta army of 18,000 men.
ek (1872) 84,441 ; (1881) 98,300; (1891) 117,014.
—The district of Nagpur has an area of 3843 sq. m.
and a pop. of 757,862; the division, 24,127 sq. m.
and a pop. of 2,982,507,—Chota Nagpore (q.v.) is a
division of Bengal.
Nags Head Consecration, a calumnious
legend first circulated by Roman Catholies forty
_— after the event with respect to Archbishop
‘arker’s consecration (1559), to the effect that
he was consecrated in the most casual and ir-
a manner in the Nag’s Head Tavern, Cheap-
side. The facts of the case are that the election
took place in the chapter-house at Canterbury, the
confirmation at St Mary-le-Bow’s Church in Cheap-
side, and the consecration in the chapel of Lambeth
Palace, the consecrating bishops behig Barton,
Scory, Coverdale, and Hodgkin.
Nahant, a summer-resort on a small, rocky
ee of Massachusetts Bay, 12 miles NE. of
ton. Pop. (1900) 1152.
Nahum, The seventh of the twelve minor
prophetical books of the Old Testament is in-
scribed: ‘The burden of Nineveh. The book of
the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite,’ The opening
verses speak (i. 2-8) in general terms of the
certainty and awfulness of the divine judgment
against the enemies of God, and of his unfailing
goodness to those who put their trust in him ; these
rinciples are then applied (i. 9-15) on the one
mand to some power, not yet named, ‘that
imagineth evil against the Lord;’ and, on the
other, to Judah (i. 15), who, though now afflicted,
is to be aftlicted no more. The second chapter
> ag with a rapid sketch of a military armament—
the red shields, scarlet uniforms, flashing chariots,
brandished spears—hurriedly summoned for defen-
sive war; then Nineveh, first named in ii. 8, is
seen as a ruined site which an inundation has
swept bare, and the great spoil of the ‘dwelling of
the lions’ is indicated rather than described. The
subject is continued in the coneluding chapter,
which predicts for the bloody city, full as it is of
lies and rapine, the same fate as has already over-
taken ‘populous No’ (iii. 8) or No-ammon, the |"
Egyptian Thebes. The date of the prophecy must
thus be placed somewhere between the fall of
Thebes—i.e. not earlier than 666 B.c., and that of
Nineveh—i.e. not later than 606 B.c. The explan-
ation of i. 11 by former interpreters as alluding to
Nahum’).
Sennacherib is thus excluded ; the reference must
rather be to some actual or threatened invasion of
Judah in the reign of Manasseh, and most probabl
to that of Assurbani abont 647 B.c., wh
Manasseh was himself carried into ae The
prophecy is written in classical Hebrew, and is
characterised by a bold and vivid originality of
style, if also by a conciseness sometimes border-
ing on obscurity ; in more than one expression it
has been thought that the writer betrays personal
acquaintance with Ninevite affairs, and it is con-
jectured that he may have been either an Israelite
of the northern kingdom who in early youth had
been deported after the fall of Samaria, or a
Judean who had been carried captive along with
Manasseh. Of his personal history nothing is
actually known; the name, which is not a very
common one, reopen in Luke, iii. 25, and in the
name of the Galilean Capernaum (ews of
He is described as a native of Elkosh,
by which perhaps is to be understood the modern
El-Kauseh, near Ramah in Upper Galilee, though
others think of Al-Késh near Mosul, on the left
bank of the Tigris, where the grave of the prophet
has been shown since the 16th century. com-
mentaries Wy O. Strauss (1853), C. Blomquist
1853), F. Gihl (1860), M. Breiteneicher (1861),
Reinke (1867), and E. Mahler (1886), and works
mentioned under HosEA.
Naiads. See Nympus.
Naihati, a town of Bengal, miles NW. of
Calcutta by rail. Pop. bn oy ”
Nails are flattened, elastic, horny plates, which
are placed as protective coverings on the dorsal
surface of the terminal phalanges of the fingers
and toes. Each nail consists of a root, or part
concealed within a fold of the skin; a body, or
exposed part attached to the surface of the skin ;
and a free anterior extremity called the edye.
The skin below the root and y of the nail is
termed the matrix, from its being the from
which the nail is produced. This is thick, and
covered with highly vascular papille, and its
colour is seen through the transparent horny tissue.
Near the root the papille are smaller and less
vascular; hence the portion of nail corresponding
to this part is of a whiter colour; from its form,
this portion is termed the /unula. It is by the
successive growth of new cells at the root and
under the y of the nail that it advances for-
wards, and maintains a due thickness, whilst at
the same time its growth in a pro irection is
ensured. The chemical composition of the nails
is given in the article HORN, to which class of
structures they belong. According to the observa-
tion of Bean, the finger-nails grow at the rate of
about two-fifths of a line in a week, while the
toe-nails only grow with about one-fourth of that
rapidity. hen a nail has been removed by
violence, or has been thrown off in co; uence of
the formation of matter (pus) beneath it, a new
nail is speedily formed, provided the matrix has
not heen seriously injured.
There is a very common and troublesome affec-
Hon peeares known as ingrowing nail. Its most
usual seat is by the side of the great toe. It does
not in reality arise from any alteration of the nail,
but from the adjacent soft parts being constantly
ressed by the use of tight shoes against its edge,
liese parts become swollen and inflamed ; sup-
uration ensues, and an intensely sensitive ulcer
i, focused. in which the nail is imbedded. Surgical
advice should at once be resorted to in these we
as there is no probability that the ulcer will h
spontaneously, especially if the patient continue to
move about, and thus keep up irritation. In
obstinate cases it is not unfrequently necessary to
NAILS
NAIRNSHIRE 377
remove a portion of the nail, an operation attended
with much pain, although quickly performed. -
Nails. The making of nails by hand has been
an established manufacture in the Birmingham
district for 300 years. Before the successful (but
very gradual) introduction of machine-made nails,
men, women, and children, to the number of 60,000,
were engaged in the scum) 6 They all worked,
as nailers who forge nails by hand still do, in small
shops or sheds attached to their houses. In 1861,
when the number employed at this work had
dwindled down to 26,000, nearly one-half were
females. At the vil of St Ninians near Stirling
in Scotland, where within the memory of persons
still living 400 hands were employed in forging
nails, there are now scarcely a dozen. After the
introduction of slitting mills into England in 1865,
which supplied nail-rods of the proper section to
pr toa the uoee became | : “begs it
still is gradually prospered. Iron plates are
cut up into nail-rods by a pair of slitting rolls
with square grooves on their surface.
In making nails by hand, the nailer heats the
end of the nail-rod at his small forge, and brings it
into the form of the spike of a nail by a few strokes
of his hammer on the anvil. It is then ent to
whatever length is wanted on a chisel, leaving it
still attach it next into
to the rod. Dropping
one of two holes in a ‘ bolster,’ and detaching it
from the rod, the nailer forms the head from the
7 org end by a few more strokes of his hammer,
then the nail is finished. Dies or ‘swages’
are required for the heads of ornamental nails.
Nail-making machines are complicated and can
hardly be understood without a number of illustra-
tions and a lengthy description. We can only
name the principal parts of one for making wrought
nails from ‘ridge’ rolled iron plate, which, though
not of very recent design, has been much used.
From a ak of this sheet or plate, which has a
single or double ridge along its edge, the machine
cuts the nails crosswise and partially forms the
head of each from the ridge at sed angles to the
spike. These cut pieces or blanks are next
moulded to the required form between suitable dies
or forming tools, and then other tools come into
play to shape and finish the heads. In this process
the nails are formed while the iron is heated. A
es ee a the snennnes in use at one Fo
largest ish nail-works is given in the
Engineer, 31 September 1886. =
ut nails are made from strips of cold iron the
breadth of which corresponds to the length of the
nail, and the fibre of which runs the long wa:
of the nail. In cut nails the production of shan
and point is done at the same time, but an
additional tion is necessary if they require
to be . The annexed diagram shows how
these nails are made without waste of material.
Horseshoe-nails, which are formed of the best
charcoal iron, have hitherto been the most difficult
to make by machinery, but machine-made nails
even of ee kind are now rapid] ary the
very large proportion of cut nails, as
other ilads, are now made from Bessemer
and Siemens-Martin steel, and the quality of these
is superior to most of the old wrought-iron nails,
are also made for horticultural pur-
for nailin be apd to hold plaster. Some
are annealed, and are then almost as
tough as wrought nails. Cast nails are also made
in brass. Wire nails, which are of French origin,
are made by a machine in which the end of a reel
of wire, while held for a moment by cam grippers,
receives a blow from a punch to form the head.
The wire is then pushed forward the length of
a nail and two punches advance to form the point,
when a ‘ knocker-off’ throws out the finished nail.
Since 1889 nails have been successfully made
in America from tinplate scrap. This substance
is sheet-iron, usually of excellent quality, and its
coating of tin is an advantage for some, if not
for most kinds of nails. Moreover, scraps of it
accumulate in large quantity wherever tinplate
goods are extensively made. For one size of nail,
a blank of tinplate about 12th inch by &th inch is
crushed up or flattened edgewise into the form of
a nail s) ee ae eee way a & fan i
folded up; or the blank can be rolled up into a
round nail. The machine for making these is the
invention of Mr G. H. Perkins of Philadelphia,
and has through several experimental forms.
It performs the cutting, crushing, gripping, and
heading operations.
Naini Tal, the summer-resort of the lien-
tenant-governor of the North-west Provinces of
India, nestles between spurs of the Himalaya, be-
side a beautiful lake 6109 feet above sea-level, 70
miles N. of Bareilly. By a disastrous a here
in 1880, 150 lives were lost. There is a military
convalescent depdt. Pop. 6576, but over 10,000
in the season (September).
Nairne, CAROLINA OLIPHANT, BARONESS,
song-writer, was born 16th August 1766, at the
‘auld house’ of Gask in Perthshire, the third
daughter of its Jacobite laird. In 1806 she married
her second cousin, Major William Murray Nairne
bier ol who in 1824, by ‘reversal of attainder,
me the sixth Lord Nairne, and to whom she
bore one son, William (1808-37). They settled at
Edinburgh, and after her husband’s death she
lived for three years in Ireland, then for nine on
the Continent, returning at last to the new house
of Gask—the old one 1 been pulled down in
1801. Here she died, 27th October 1845. Her
eighty-seven songs appeared first under the
udonym ‘Mrs Bogan of > or ‘B.B.’ in
Scottish Minstrel (1821-24), and posthumously
as Lays from Strathearn. Not a few of them are
mere Bowdlerisations of ‘indelicate’ favourites ;
but four at least live, and shall live, with the airs
to which they are wedded—the exquisite ‘Land 0’
the Leal’ (¢. 1798), and ‘Caller Herrin’,’ ‘The
Laird o’ Cockpen,’ and ‘ The Auld House.’
See Charles on. Life and Songs of Lady Nairne
(1869), and T. L. Kington Oliphant’s Jacobite Lairds of
Gask (Grampian Club, 1870).
Nairnshi the fourth smallest county of
Scotland, is washed on the north for 10 miles by
the Moray Firth, and elsewhere bounded by niga
and Inverness shires. Till 1891 it consisted of a
main body, with a maximum length of 18 miles,
a mean breadth of 11, and an area of 169 “ m.,
and also of five detached portions situated in Elgin,
Inverness, and Ross shires, which, having a total
area of 31 sq. m., were annexed to Nairnshire in
1476, but disjoined therefrom by the Boundary
Commissioners in 1891. The chief rivers are the
Nairn and the Findhorn, the former rising in Inver-
ness-shire, and ray Sag miles north-eastward to
the Moray Firth. The surface has a generally
southw ascent from the fertile and well-wooded
*laich of Moray’ near the coast, till at Carn Glas on
the southern boundary it attains 2162 feet. Loch Loy
{ia by + mile) is the largest of seven small lakes.
than one-fifth of the entire area is in cultiva-
tion, more attention being paid to stock than te
crops. The chief antiquities are Kilravock (1400}
378 NAIRS -
NAMES
and Cawdor Castle (q.v.); at Auldearn, near
Nairn, Montrose (q.v.) won his fourth victory.
With Elginshire the county returns one mem-
ber; and with Inverness, Kec. Nairn town returns
another. Pop. (1801) 8322; (1841) 9217; (1881)
10,455 (1980 Gaelic-speaking) ; (1891) 10,019.
Nairn, the county town, stands on the west
bank of the river Nairn at its mouth in the Mora
Firth, 16 miles by rail ENE, of Inverness.
leasant little watering-place, with a small harbour,
it was constituted a royal burgh by William the
Lion. Grant, the African traveller, was_a native.
Pop. (1841) 2388 ; (1881) 4161; (1891) 4651.
Nairs, 2 Mohammedan caste in Malabar, who
have peculiar marriage customs, described under
Family (q.v.). Colonel H. Drury tells much about
the Nairs in his Reminiscences (1890).
Nala is a legendary king of ancient India, whose
love for Damayantt, the daughter of Bhima, king
of Vidarbha, and the adventures arising therefrom,
forms a celebrated episode of the Mahabharata
(q.v.), a8 also of a separate poem, the Nalodaya,
attributed to Kalidasa as its author.
Namaquas, the principal existing tribe of the
race generally known under the name of Hotten-
tots (q.v.). They inhabit the region called Great
Namaqualand, north of the Gariep or Orange
River, and the country a few miles south of it, as
far as the Kamiesbergen. They are a pastoral
people of rather peers habits, and live under
the rule of their chiefs,
GREAT NAMAQUALAND, or NAMALAND, is the
extensive region in South Africa north of the
Cape Colony, extending from the Orange River
to Damaraland (q.v.) northwards, and stretching
inland from the west coast to 20° E. long., the
borders of British Bechuanaland. Since 1885 a
German possession, with the exception of the small
British coast territory of Walvisch Bay (q.v.), it
has an area estimated at 460,000 sq. m. It is
mainly a most sterile and barren region, and along
a coast-line of upwards of 400 miles does not pre-
sent a single running stream ; but a few little bays
along the coast, such as Angra-Pequeiia (q.v.),
Sandwich Harbonr, and Walvisch Bay, afford safe
anchorages. The Rhenish Mission, which has long
been active here, has six stations in Namaland
with over 2500 converts. There has often been
war between Namaquas and Hereros (see DAMARA-
LAND). LitrTLE NAMAQUALAND is a barren dis-
trict of Cape Colony (q.v., Vol. IL. p. 738), south of
noe Lower Orange River. Much copper is mined
here.
Names are usually classed as either local or
personal, but neither class can be profitably studied
apart from the other; since the names of places are
frequently derived from the names of persons, while
numerous personal names prove ultimately to be
derived from local names. Thus, Washington, the
capital of the United States, derives its name from
George Washington the first president; his name
in turn was derived from that of a Durham village
. where his ancestors resided, and this vill itself
obtained its name from the Wasings, a Teutonic
clan. Names must therefore not be regarded as
arbitrary signs—they have a meaning and a history,
thongh owing to the absence of early documents
the history may be lost, and the meaning may be
unascertainable with certainty.
Local names are usually either descriptive, like
Red River; personal, like Charleston ; historic,
like Point Turnagain; or transferred, like New
Sonth Wales. Another broad distinction may be
drawn between the names of physical features,
such as rivers and mountains, which are frequently
the memorials of extinct or very ancient races,
and the names of villages and hamlets, which are
usually of more recent origin, and to a large extent
are derived from the personal names of early set-
tlers, Thus, in the United States, while the Red
Men have disap , or have been withdrawn to
remote reservations, they have left behind them
such familiar names as Niagara, Ohio, Potomac,
Mississippi, Missouri, Huron, Erie, Michigan,
Connecticut, and Massachusetts; while places of
hanitation bear modern names, like Brownsville,
Grantstown, or Madison, derived from the names of
settlers or politicians. In England also the names
of rivers are chiefly ancient and Celtic, while those
of places of habitation are mainly recent and Teu-
tonic. There are four rivers in England called
Avon, a word which in Celtic means ‘ river ;’ while
from the Celtic word uisge or wysg, ‘water,’ we
derive the names of the Esk, the Usk, the Exe, the
Axe, the Ash, and the Wye; and from dubr, cuefr,
or dur, ‘ water,’ we have the Dove, the Dovy, an
probably the four Derwents; while tam, ‘ wide,’
gives us the Tame and the Thames, On the
other hand we know that Clapham was the
‘home’ of the Osgod Clapa, in whose house
Harthacnut drank himself to death, while Addle-
— was the place where Ardulfr settled.
Allover Europe local names bear witness to races
departed or absorbed. Thus, we find traces of Slavs
and Celts in Germany, of Romans and Celts in
Gaul, of Phenicians on the Mediterranean coasts,
of Arabs in Sicily and Spain. Not a few names
attest the early extension of Phoenician commerce.
Such are Malta, ‘the refuge ;’ Catania, ‘ the little’
harbour, in Sicily; Carthage, ‘the new town ;’
Carthagena in Spain is Carthago Nova or New
Carthage; Seville is the city ‘on the plain’
Malaga, ‘the place for salting’ fish ; Tarragona is
‘the palace;’ Cordova, ‘the olive-press;’ an
Lisbon, ‘the walled’ town. Arabic names are
naturally more numerous both in Sicily and Spain.
In Sicily, besides Marsala, ‘the port of Allah,’ we
have several names containing the word kalat, ‘a
castle,’ and ras, ‘a cape,’ such as Caltanisetta,
Caltagirone, Calascibetta, Calatafimi; together
with Rasicanzir, Rasicalbo, and Rasacarami. In
Spain numerous rivers exhibit the Arabic wadi, ‘a
river’ or ‘ valley,’ in the Spanish form Guad. Such
are Guadalqniver, ‘the great river ;’ Guadalaviar,
‘the white river;’ Guadalupe, ‘the river of the
bay ;’ and many others. We find the Arabic
article ad as a prefix in Algeciras, ‘the island,’
which is the same name as Algiers; as well as in
Almanza, ‘the plain;’ Almaden, ‘the mine;’
Aleazar, ‘the palace;’ Alcantara, ‘the bridge.’
The province of Algarvé means ‘the west;’
Alcala is ‘the castle ;’ halut, ‘castle,’ so com-
mon in Sicily, reappearing in the names of Cala-
trava and Calahorra, The word Medina, ‘a city,’
is seen in Medinaceli and Medina Sidonia ; while
Gibraltar, ‘the mountain of Tarik,’ preserves the
name of one of the earliest invaders,
French cities, unlike those in England, frequently
preserve the Celtic names of the Gaulish tribes of
which they were the capitals. Thus, Paris was the
capital of the Parisii, Rouen of the Rothomagi,
Amiens of the Ambiani, Arras of the Atrebates,
Evreux of the Eburovices, Beauvais of the Bellovaei,
Lisieux of the Lexovii, Chartres of the Carnutes,
Rheims of the Remi, Chilons of the Catalaumti,
Sens of the Senones, Saintes of the Santones,
Soissons of the Suessiones, Troyes of the Tricasses,
Limoges of the Lemovices, Poitiers of the Pictones,
Tours of the Turones, Cahors of the Cadurei,
Toulouse of the Tolosates, while Berri was the
seat of the Bituriges. Such names are rare else-
where, but Tréves (Trier) preserves the name of
the Treviri, Turin of the Tanrini, Venice of the
Veneti, Worcester of the Huiccii, Devon of the
Damnones. : : *
|
‘NAMES
379
The way in which the dominion of Rome was
established. by the foundation of colonies and
privileged cities can be traced over the greater part
of Europe. The name of Cologne is a corruption
of Colonia Agrippina, Lincoln of Lindum Colonia ;
Lodi was Laus Pompeii, Pampeluna was Pompelo
or Pompeiopolis. riuli and Fréjus are variant
corruptions of Forum Julii, Forli of Forum
Livii, Jiilich of Juliacum, Lillebonne of Juliabona,
Beja of Pax Julia. Badajoz was Pax Augusta,
Merida was Augusta Emerita, Saragossa was
Augusta. Augsburg, Aosta, Aoust, Augst,
and Auch are corruptions of Augusta, Autun of
Augustodunum. pein “ape was Claudii Forum,
Fiora was Forum Aurelii, and Orleans was Aurelia.
We find the name of Valentinian in Valenciennes,
of Gratian in Grenoble, of Hadrian in Adrianople,
of Constantine in Constantinople ; while Constance
and Coutances bear the name of Constantius. Of
the same class are Alexandria, Scanderoon, Antioch,
and Seleucia, which recall the dominion of Alex-
ander and his successors.
The Roman cities in Britain are commonly desig-
nated by dialectic variations of the Anglo-Saxon
en (a word —s. oe we the Latin Sprite
which is toa ent of the
primitive Celtic She sty Thus, in the Baxon region
we have such names as Winchester, Chichester,
Dorchester, Rochester, and Colchester. In Mercia
we have Gloucester, Worcester, Leicester, Man-
chester, and Chester. In the Anglian district we
find Tadcaster, Lancaster, Doncaster, and on the
(saerwa or yen frontier Wroxeter and Exeter.
ut many of our larger towns grew up in post-
Roman sisses near the t fords over ivens} such
are Oxford, Hereford, Hertford, Bedford, Chelms-
ford, Guildford, Stafford, Stratford. That only the
smailer streams were bridged is shown by the
carer Po Cambridge, Tunbridge, Weybridge, and
xbridge.
The nomenclature of Teutonic lands—Germany,
England, and north-eastern France—fully bears
out the description given by Tacitus of the Ger-
mans, ‘ Nullas Germanorum lis urbes habitari,
satis notum est; ne pati oe inter se jtinctas
sedes, Colunt discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut cam-
pas, ut nemus placuit.’ Hence the local names in
nm and y differ essentially from those
of Italy, France, Spain, Wales, and Ireland in one
important res} The first element is frequently
the name of the Teutonic settler who selected his
home in field or forest. Round these isolated
dwellings vill grew up, and became known as
the ton, ham, or by of the first settler and
his family. Thus, to take a few village-names from
a small district in Yorkshire, we find that a man
named Asketel settled at Asselby and another at
ere meme
eby,- Fulechar at thorpe,
: at Ganton, Lambi at Langthorpe, Midll at
Millin , Rether at Raisthorpe, Hrolfr at Rowls-
ton, Thorgrimr at Thornthorpe. In like manner the
majority of German village-names are derived from
the names of the earliest Teutonic settlers. Thu
we find Hrudulf at Rudelsheim, Rudisleben, an
Riidelshansen ; Wolfbert at Wolfertshausen ; Diet-
rich at Dietersheim, Dietershausen, and Dieters-
dorf ; a at Rappoltsweiler; and Ratbert at
er.
the other hand, in Celtic lands—Cornwall,
Wales, Ireland, Scotland, and of France—a
more religious spirit has the vill more
commonly to bear the name of some local hermit or
evangelist, or of the saint to whom the church is
dedicated. In Teutonic lands such names are rare,
and, as in the case of St Albans or St Edmunds-
bury, St Gallen or Glarus (St Hilarius), they
commonly refer to a town which has-grown up
under the shadow of some great monastery. In
many of France such names are more common,
as in the ease of St Omer, St Denis, St Cloud, St
Malo, St Privat, St Didier, St Cyr, and about
6000 other names. In Ireland some 2700 names
begin with Kil, which denoted a ‘church,’ or a
monastic ‘cell.’ Thus Kilkiaran is the church or
cell of St Ciarran, Kilkenny of St Cannech, Kil-
bride of St Brigid, Kilskeer of St Scire, Killaloe
of St Lua or Dalua, and Kilkee of St Caeide. In
the Celtic part of Scotland we have a fair number
of such names, though not so many as in the Isle of
Saints; such, for instance, are Kilmarnock, Kilfinan,
Kilpatrick, and Kilsyth. Kirk (‘church’) iscommon
in the Teutonic part of Scotland, as in Kirkeud-
bright, Kirkcaldy, and Kirkpatrick. This prefix is
also flames = Mar tote of ae land, Aaasctd oh have
34 vi irby or Kirkby (‘church village’).
In the south of England church occasionally is
found as a suffix, as in Bonchurch and Whitchureh ;
while in Axminster, Kidderminster, Leominster,
and. Westminster the suffix denotes a monastic
foundation. In Wales the ecclesiastical prefix is
usually Lian, meaning an ‘enclosure.’ Thus, Llan-
dudno is the church of St Tudno, Llanberis of St
Peris, LI lien of St Collen, Llanfair of St
org Llanbadern of St Padern, Llanilltyd of
St Illtyd. All the Welsh sees, Llandaff, St Davids,
St Asaph, and Bangor (‘the white choir’), are
named from churehes, whereas every English see,
except the modern see of St Albans, bears a name
of secular origin. A very large number of Indian
towns take their names from the temple of some
deity ; Bombay, for instance, is a corruption of
Mambai, a dess to whom an ancient temple
was dedicated, and Calicut is Kali’s fortress.
Names derived from conspicuous trees or the
nature of the vegetation are everywhere common.
From the oak we have such English names as
Acton, Aclam, and Auckland; such Celtic names
as Derry, Kildare, and Darrock ; while there are
about 200 Slavonic places called Dubrau. Those
in England named from the ash, such as Ashby and
Ashton, amount to nearly the same number; but
there are only 27, such as Appleby and Appleton,
named from the apple, and 11 from the birch. The
Slavonic name of the birch (brasa) gives its name
to 40 places; the lime (/ipa), to upwards of 200,
including Leipzig, while in England we have Lynd-
hurst, Linton, and a few more. We obtain Alder-
shot and Olney from the alder; Thorney from the
thorn ; Lbre 9 | from the broom; Rusholme from
the rush; and Farnham and Farnborough from the
fern. Selinus, one of the greatest of the Greek
cities in Sicily, took its name from the wild parsley.
There are also names from animals; from the fox,
for instance, we have Lochmaddy, Todmorden, and
Foxholes. Many towns take their names from the
rivers on which they stand. In England we have
Exeter on the Exe, Axminster on the Axe, Oke-
hampton on the Oke, Taunton on the Tone, Maid-
stone on the Medway, Plymouth, Dartmouth, and
heaps = a lym, ong? at howl —
ull, proper! ingston-upon-Hull, has usurpe
the manag at fs a ae Hull. In Asiatic Russia
Tomsk, Tobolsk, and most of the chief towns are
thus named.
The commonest suffixes in English place-names,
denoting habitation or enclosure, are -ton, -ham,
-worth, -stow, and -bury in the south, and by,
-thorpe, -toft, -garth, and -thwaite in the north,
The patronymic suffix -ing, either alone, as in
Woking and Barking, or combined with -ton or
-ham, as in Buckingham and Birmingham, Isling-
ton and Kensington, denotes the settlement of a
family orelan, The more usual suffixes not denoting
habitation are -ey, -ley, -field, -ford, and -bridge.
One of the commonest ‘English village-names is
380
NAMES
Newton. There are 120 Newtons, 17 Newbiggins,
12 Newports, 11 Newbolds, 11 Newnhams, and 10
Newecastles. Burton, which means an enclosure on
a burh or hill, occurs 66 times; Barton (bere-tun),
@ grange or enclosure for corn or barley, occurs 45
times. Hutton, an enclosure on a hoo or projecting
heel of land, is also very common. There are also
77 Suttons, 57 Nortons, 36 Westons, and 14 Eastons.
The settlements of the Danes in Ireland are marked
by the names of such important towns as Waterford,
Wexford, Carlingford, Limerick, and Wicklow ; and
three out of the four Irish provinces, Leinster, Ulster,
and Munster, where the sullix -ster means a settle-
ment or district. In Normandy the Danish suffixes
-by, -toft, -thorpe, and -fleet appear in the forms of
moat -tot, -tourp, and -fleur, as in Marbauf, Quille-
benf, Ivetot, Clitourps, Harfleur, and Honfleur.
The usual suffixes in German names are -wetler,
-leben, -hof, -hausen, -heim, -dorf, -wik, -stadt,
-burg, -bold, -hall, -sitz, -ing or -ingen, all of which
denote habitation or enclosure, while -ried or -rode
signifies a clearing, and -wald, -holt, -feld, and
-hain refer to uninhabited places.
In Celtic names, contrary to the Teutonic prac-
tice, the substantival element comes first, and the
adjectival last. Thus, Cwmbechan is Celtic, Addis-
combe is English, Dalry is Celtic, Rydal is English.
The commonest element in Irish names. is baile
( Anglicised bally), meaning ‘a town-land’ or ‘ vil-
lage,’ which is found in the names of 6400 Irish
town-lands. Very frequent also are Lis, Rath, Dun,
and Caher, Caer, or Car, which denote ‘ fortified
laces ;’ Bod and Tigh (Welsh Z'y), ‘a house;’
re, common in Cornwall, means ‘a village ;’ Ki
means ‘a church ;' Ath, ‘a ford;’ Coed and Coil, ‘a
wood ;’ Clon, Agh, Gort, Blair, and Magh or Moy
denote ‘fields and plains ;’ Ben, Pen, Cenn, Slieve,
Drum, Cefn, Bryn, Muli or Moel, Ard, Tulla,
Knock, Ros denote ‘hills and ridges;’ Strath,
Glen, Nant are ‘ valleys ;’ Carrick or Craig means
‘a rock;’ Maen and Clogh, ‘a stone,’ the plural
Cloghan denoting either ‘stepping-stones,’ or the
‘gravestones’ in a churchyard ; Jnis or Inch is ‘an
island ;’ Cul or Cool, ‘a corner ;’ Tober, ‘a well;’
Rhos, ‘a moor ;’ Tra, ‘a strand ;’ and Lough, Loch,
or Lyn, ‘a lake.’ Of the adjectival components
the commonest are mor, ‘great ;’ beg, ‘little ;’
garw, ‘rough ;’ glas and liath, ‘ green’ or ‘ gray ;’
dubh, ‘black;’ gorm, ‘blue;’ buidhe or boy,
‘ yellow ;' dearg, ‘ red ;’ gal and ban, ‘white.’ Thus,
Benmore is ‘the great hill;’ Balfour, ‘the cold
town ;’ Agia ‘the gray height.’
In Turkish names the commonest components are
koi, ‘village;’ hissar, ‘castle;’ serai, ‘ palace;’
kopri, ‘ridge;’ hamman, ‘hot baths;’ bazar,
‘market ;’ dagh, ‘mountain ;’ bagh, ‘ garden ;’ su,
* water ;’ ermak, ‘river ;’ denghis, ‘sea ;' ili, ‘dis-
trict ;’ with the qualifying elements yent, ‘new ;’
eski, ‘ old ;’ kara, * black ;’ ak, ‘white ;’ kezil, ‘ red ;’
ala, ‘ beautiful;’ bala, ‘high.’ Thus, we have
Yeni-koi, ‘ new village ;’ Eski-bazar, ‘old market ;’
Kara-su, ‘ black water ;’ Ak-serai, ‘ white palace ;’
Bala-hissar, — castle ;’ Kezil-ermak, ‘the red
river ;’ Ak-dagh, ‘white mountain;’ Mus-tagh,
‘snowy mountain ;’ Ala-bagh, ‘ beautiful garden,’
Chinese names are usually easy to explain. We
have names from colours, such as Hoang-ho,
‘yellow river,’ and Hoang-hai, ‘ yellow sea ;’ from
ition, such as Nan-king, ‘southern capital ;’
an-shan, ‘southern mountains ;’ Ho-nan, ‘south
of the river;’ Yun-nan, ‘south of the clouds ;’
Tong-king, ‘eastern capital ;’ Shan-tung, ‘ east of
re mountain ;’ or from size, as Ta-kiang, ‘ great
ver.
Countries often take their names from some
small district which first became known to the
outer world ; from some ye, or conquering tribe ;
or from relative position. Thus, Asia originally
denoted only the plain of Ephesus, Africa the se
of Carthage, Europe the plain of Thebes. India
derives its name from the people who dwelt on the
banks of the Indus; Switzerland from the village
of Sehwyz; Peru from asmal] stream near Panama,
800 miles north of the present boundary ; Italy from
a district in Calabria which first became known to
the Greeks ; Greece from a tribe in Epirus, probabl
not of Greek race, who first came in wonteek wi
the Romans; Russia from a Finnic corruption of
the Swedish name of the vikings who oceupied
Novgorod ; Hungary, Boliemia, and Bavaria from a
temporary occupation by Huns and Boii; Scotland
from the Seots, an invading Irish sept; England
from the Angles; France from the Franks, a Ger-
man tribe whose chiefs founded the ruling dynes
Sweden and Denmark from the Suiones and
Danes; Palestine from the Philistines who oceu-
pe the portion of the coast which first became
nown to the Greeks; and Portugal from Oporto,
the first, part of the modern kingdom to be con-
quered from the Moors. Spain is the land from
which the Phenicians obtained the skins of
‘rabbits ;’ Brazil is the land which yielded the
braza, a valuable dye-wood; Poland means ‘the
lains ;’ Lorraine takes its name from Lothair,
livia from the liberator Bolivar, China from the
T’sin dynasty ; Japan and Anatolia are both ‘lands
of the rising sun;’ the Deccan is ‘the south
country ;’ Norway, ‘the northern route’ taken by
the vikings ; Austria is ‘the Eastern realm ;’ West-
phalia, the Jand occupied by the inhabitants of the
‘western plain’ of the Weser. Northumberland
was originally the whole district north of the
Humber; Sutherland, Surrey, Suffolk, Sussex,
Norfolk, Northampton, Essex, Wessex, and West-
morland are all named from their position.
Nations are frequently called by their neighbours
by a name different from that by which they desig-
nate themselves. Thus, Germany is a name bor-
rowed by the Romans from the Gauls, and is
applied to a country called Deutschland by its
inhabitants, who designate themselves as Deutsche,
‘the people,’ while the Slavs call them Niemiec,
which means the ‘dumb’ or ‘ unintelligible’ people.
Their French name is derived from that of the
Allemannie frontier tribe ; the Magyars call them
Swabians, the Finns and Gypsies them Saxons,
The Welsh call us Saxons, while we call ourselves
Englishmen. Welsh is a general term meaning
‘foreigners,’ applied by Teutonic races to non-
Teutonic tribes. We apply it to the Cymry, the
Germans apply it to Italians. Cornwall, Spe rg
Corn-wales, is the land inhabited by the Welsh of
the horn; Walloon and Wallachian are Teutonic
names used to denote neighbouring races ——
neo-Latin dialects. Those whom we call Lapps
call themselves Sabme. Those whom we call
Finns call themselves Quains or Suomalaiset, and
by the Russians are called Tschuds, which means
pf Bis hese or ‘barbarians.’ The people who call
themselves either Slavs, ‘the s ers,’ or Serbs,
‘kinsmen,’ were called by the Germans Wends,
which means ‘ foreigners’ or ‘ strangers.’
The map abounds with names which record
recent discovery or settlement. The Straits of
Magellan, Torres Strait, the Bermudas, the islands
of Juan Fernandez and Fernando Po bear the
names of Spanish and Portuguese explorers ; Cape
Horn, the Oran River, New Zealand, New
Holland, the Gulf of Carpentaria, and Tasmania
or Van Diemen’s Land bear witness to the enter-
rise of the Dutch; Montreal, Detroit, New
rleans, Louisiana, and St Louis to French colon-
isation in America; Behring Strait bears the name
of a Dane in the Russian service; while Hudson
Bay, Baflin Bay, Davis Strait, Cook Strait, Bass
Strait, Vancouver Island bear the names of
|
4
NAMES 381
English explorers. Jamestown, Charleston, Car-
olina, Albany, New York, and Pennsylvania date
from the time of the Stuarts, while Virginia points
to an earlier, and Georgia to a later period.
Tn attempting to discover the meaning of names
it is essential to narited the at — PP ca wa!
corruption, assimilation, and popular etymology
having often disguised the feelers forms beyond
recognition. Thus, in the case of Brighton, the
ancient form Brihtelmes-stan shows that Brigh,
the first syllable, is the genitive of the proper
name Brihthelm, and that the second syllable is
not ton but stone, the name probably referring to a
stone house built by an early Saxon settler. So
Thornthorpe is shown by its old form to have
nothing to do with the thorn-tree, but to be the
thorp of Thorgrimr, while Westow is the ‘ woman’s
place.’ Drypool is Dritpol, the muddy or dirty
pool and not the dry pool; Thixendale takes its
name from the sixteen dales which form the town-
ship; Durham is an assimilated form from Dun-
holm, and Stepney from Stebenhithe.
The old dative or locative suffixes which occur
in the early forms of so many English and German
names have been either disused or assimilated to
other usual suffixes. Thus, the locative Wellon
(‘at the wells’) has become Welham, Huson (‘at
the houses’) has become Howsham, Colnun (‘at
the summits’) is now Cowlam, Chillon (‘at the
springs’) has become Kilham, Aclun (‘at the
oaks") is now Acklam, Fivelae (‘five pools’) is
Filey, and Rodestain (‘rood-stone’) is now Rud-
ston. These instances may suffice to show that it
is of little use to guess at the meaning of the name
mere modern forms; it is only when the
ancient form of the name has been recorded that
the meaning can be ascertained with certainty.
Personal names as a rule are less obscure in their
origin and meaning than local names, but owing
to their tendency to transference and migration
they are more liable to degradation and mutilation.
Thus, John, Gian, Hans, and Ivan are derived from
Joannes; Sandy and Alec from Alexander; Jim,
Tago, James, and Hamish from Jacob; Beppo,
Seppi, Fifine, and Joe from Joseph; Peggy,
Gretchen, Maggie, and Madge from Margaret.
The origin of most of our names now in common
use is either Semitic, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, or
Celtic. To these five classes we may therefore
direct our chief attention.
The old Semitic names were frequently com-
pounded with the names of deities, as is seen in
the names of Babylonian and Assyrian monarchs.
The name of Nebuchadnezzar is a prayer, ‘ Nebo
defend the crown;’ Nebushasban means ‘ Nebo
save me;’ M -baladan is ‘Marduk gave a
son;’ Abedn means ‘the servant of Nebo;’
Mordecai is ‘ belonging to Marduk ;’ Shalmaneser,
‘Shalman is favourable.’ The names of the
Assyrian kings, Assur-hani-pal, Assur-din, Assur-
natsir-pal, contain the name of the eponymous god
of Assyria. — Hebrew names were formed on
the same principle. Thus, Obadiah means ‘the
servant of the Lord’ (Jehovah); Abdiel, ‘the
servant of God’ (Elohim); Tobias or Tobiah, ‘the
Lord is good;’ Abijah, ‘the Lord is a father ;’
Ahijah, ‘the Lord is a brother;’ Jehu, ‘the Lord
is He;’ Nehemiah, ‘the Lord comforteth ;’ Joel,
‘the Lord is God;’ Elijah, ‘God is the Lord.’
Many Hebrew names thus compounded, such as
Elizabeth, Samuel, Daniel, Josiah, Joshua, and
John (Jehohanan, ‘whom Jehovah gave;’ Gr.
Ioannes), have become common among ourselves,
ther with a few, such as Mary, James, Ann,
Thomas, which do not contain the divine
names. Modern Arabic names are derived either
from those of the Old Testament, as Moussa,
Yacoob, Yusuf, Suleiman, and Ayoub (Job) ; or,
like Ali, Hassan, Fatima, and Mohammed, from
the family of the Prophet; or from bynames of
the Prophet, like Achmet (Ahmed), ‘the praised.’
Many are compounded with divine titles, like Ald-
el-Kader, ‘the servant of the Holy One ;’ or Abd-
el-Raman, ‘the servant of the Exalted One.’
A Greek, like a Hebrew, bore only one name,
though he might be described, for distinction, by
the name of his father or of his birthplace, as
Thucydides the Athenian, or Alcibiades the son of
Clinias. The name of the eldest son was fre-
quently the name or a variation of the name of that
of the paternal grandfather. The usage of bearin
only a single name led to the great variety of Greek
names, in the invention of which much ingenuity
was displayed. Such are Aristarchus, ‘the best
governor ;’ Agathocles, ‘ fame ;’ Alexander,
‘the helper of men ;’ Philippus, ‘ the horse lover ;’
Philemon, ‘the lover of thought;’ Aristobulus,
‘best counsel.’ Of similar construction are
Demosthenes, Plutarch, Callicrates, Archimedes,
Archimachus, Anaxander. There are also patro-
nymies in -ides, as Aristides and Anaxandrides.
The s seem at first to have borne only
one name, but at a very early period they adopted
the Sabine practice, using a prenomen or personal
name, such as Titus, Quintus, or Marcus, followed
by a gentile or tribe name, ending in -ius, such as
Julius, Claudius, or Tullius. This, in the case of
patricians, was followed by a cognomen, usnally
derived from some personal peculiarity, such as
Cesar, Cicero, Naso, Torquatus. Thus, in the
case of Marcus Tullius Cicero, Marcus is the pre-
nomen, Tullius the nomen, and Cicero the cog-
nomen, Occasionally, in the case of distinguished
personages, an honorific omen, or second cogno-
men, was added, such as Africanus or Germanicus.
A man might be called by the prenomen or the
cognomen, or by the prenomen and nomen, or by
the prenomen and cognomen, Thus, Caius Julius
Cesar might be called either Caius, or Cesar, or
Caius Julius, or Caius Cesar, but our modern
appellation Julius Cesar would have been contrary
to Roman
The old Teutonic names were compounded of
two elements, a substantive and an adjective.
usually expressing the characteristics most prized
by a fierce and warlike race. The commonest com-
ponents are bern, ‘ bear ;’ wulf or ulf, ‘wolf ;’ arn,
‘eagle ;’ her or hari, ‘warrior ;’ helm, ‘helmet ;’
gar, ‘spear ;’ stan, ‘stone ;’ wine, ‘friend ;’ wald,
‘power ;’ mund, ‘ protection ;’ rath or red, ‘coun-
sel ;’ grim, ‘ fierce ;’ hard, ‘stern;’ bald, ‘bold ;’
adal or ethel, ‘noble;’ hrod or rod, ‘glorious ;’
bert, ‘bright.’ Thus, Bernard is ‘the stern bear ;’
Arnold, ‘eagle ee ;’ Roger, ‘ glorious spear ;’
Richard, ‘stern might;’ Robert, ‘glorious bright-
ness ;’ Albert, ‘noble brightness ;’ Alfred, ‘noble
peace ;’ Athelstan, ‘noble stone ;’ Edmund, ‘ noble
protection ;’ Ethelred, ‘ noble counsel.’
The Teutonic name system prevailed among the
Franks, Burgundians, and Normans in France,
the Goths and Lombards in Italy and Spain, as
well as in England, Germany, and Scandinavia.
Hence we get such French names as_ Louis
(Hlodwig) and Lothair (Hlodochar), with Italian
names, such as Humberto and Garibaldi, and
Spanish names, such as Gonzalo and Fernando.
In England a complete change came in with the
Norman conquest. In the early entries in the
Durham Liber Vite we find only such Anglian names
as Herebald, Cynbert, Edwin, Arkel, and Bernulf.
In the Durham Boldon book, compiled about a
hundred years after the Conquest, Norman names,
such as William, Robert, Walter, and Ralph, are
usual among tenants, but the fathers of these men,
when their names are recorded, are mostly of the
old English type, such as Osbert and Turkil.
382 NAMES ‘
NAMUR
In 1380, when ae Hatfield made his survey
of the same manors, the old English names had
disappeared. No less than 40 per cent. of the men
are named John, followed by William with 22 per
cent., while, if we add Robert and ‘Thomas, 80 ed
cent. of all the men’s names are accounted for.
In the West Riding poll-book of 1379 John also
heads the list, and more than half the men are called
either John, William, Thomas, or Richard. In the
13th century William is the commonest name, in
the 14th and following centuries John is first,
with William second, till after the Revolution of
1688 William resumed, and has ever since retained
the first place. This popularity of John, a name
hardly to be found in Domesday, is believed to be
due to the supposed suitability in baptism of the
Baptist’s name. So Jordan was a name common]
given to children who were baptised in water which
had been brought from the Jordan by pilgrims or
crusaders, The prevalence of William is due to
William the Conqueror, of Robert to sympathy
with the misfortunes of his son, Thomas came in
with the murder of the great winciee pe the eru-
sading exploits and the ss ogra of Richard I.
made the name popular, while to the adventures of
the paladins we owe Roland, Roger, and Reginald.
In the 14th century Charles, James, and George
are almost unknown, and even Henry is unusual.
Charles only became popular after the execution
of Charles I., and George came in with the Hano-
verian dynasty. In the 14th century Mary, Sarah,
and Ann, now so common, are scarcely to be found,
and Elizabeth usually appears in the form of
Isabella. One-third of the women are named
either Agnes or Alice. If to these we add Joan,
Margaret, Isabella, Cecilia, and Matilda, 75 per
cent. of the women are accounted for. The great
vogue of Agnes and Alice is explained by popular
metrical legends. In the time of Charles I. Agnes
has dasseeded from the first place to the tenth, and
Alice from the second to the sixth. Ann and
Elizabeth now head the list, followed by Jane,
Margaret, Mary, Alice, Isabel, Dorothy, and Ellen,
in the order named, while Sarah is seventeenth, It
may be noted that it was not till after the Restora-
tion that two baptismal names were given to the
same person.
Surnames were of very gradual introduction. In
the case of Ethelred the Gace. Edmund Ironside,
or Harold Bluetooth, we have not surnames, but
mere nicknames, which did not descend to the
children, Hereditary surnames make their appear-
ance in the 12th century, in the 14th they are
usual rather than exceptional, and even now in the
mining districts of England and in some parts of
Wales they are not universally used. It is easy to
detect the process by which surnames were intro-
dueed. Thus, at the end of the 14th century we
have Richard Johnson, son of John Richardson,
where Johnson and Richardson are plainly deserip-
tions or designations, but not true surnames, In
the next generation Johnson would become the sur-
name. In the same century we find families whose
members are designated as John Smyth, son of
Thomas Wright, Agnes Smythwyf, and Alice
Smythdoghter. We may detect the origin of
such residential surnames as Wood, Green, Lane,
Townshend, Yates, and Wells in the descriptive
entries John at the Wode, William by the Green,
‘Alice in the Lane, Agnes at the Townend, Richard
by the Kirkgate, Thomas atte the Welle. Other
names, chiefly those of tradesmen and artisans,
indicate recent migration, such as John of Don-
caster, or William of York, while among the
franklins and esquires we find territorial sur-
names such as John de Cawood of Cawood,
In addition to these residential and territorial
surnames, patronymics, such as Jones, Johnson,
and Jenkins, are innumerable. There are also
nicknames like White, Hogg, and Goodfellow,
which have become hereditary ; surnames of office,
such as William le Mayor and Robert le Falconer ;
and a very large class of names of occupation.
Thus, the surnames Lister, Walker, Dyer, Fuller,
‘Tozer, Tucker, and Webster all refer to the manu-
facture of cloth; Skinner, Barker, Lorimer, and
Sadler to that of leather.
The oldest Celtic names resemble the Teutonic
names in their construction. Thus Dumnorix may
be translated ‘the world king;’ Toutorix, ‘the
tribe king ;’ Vergobretos, ‘the excellent judge ;’
Cunobelinus (Cymbeline), ‘the war chief ;’ Boadi-
cea, ‘the victorious.’ At a later time we get
names of another description, such as Ruadhri
(Saateines Rory), ‘the red;’ Buidhe (Anglicised
Boyd), ‘the yellow;’ Cumara, ‘the sea-hound’
(whence MacNamara); Scolaidhe, now Scully,
‘the reciter’ or ‘story-teller;’ Bhaird, now Baird,
‘the bard ‘ . pas now inet and Tigh e, ‘the
poet;’ and Liagh, now , ‘the physician’,
or ‘leech.’ With ~- we ot 0 ae
anity we get names of another class, as aggart
(a Sermcton of sacerdos), ‘the priest.’ m
maol, ‘a tonsured servant,’ we have such names.
as Malone, Malony, and Mulready. Malcolm
means ‘the tonsured servant of St Columba.’
From giolla (Anglicised as gillie), ‘a youth’ or
‘servant,’ we obtain Kelly, ‘the servant ;’ Gil-.
christ, ‘the servant of Christ;’ Gillespie, ‘the,
servant of the bishop;’ Gilfil, ‘the servant of St
Paul ;’ Gilbride, ‘the servant of St Bridget ;’ Gil-
roy, ‘the red-haired servant.’ Maq or Mace, ‘son,’
which in Welsh becomes Map and Ap, has given
rise to a host of patronymic surnames, Maclean
is Mac-giolla-Ean, ‘the son of the servant of,
John.’ Mackay, M , and Kay are corru
tions of MacAedha; Kegan is Mac » Quain is
Maclan (Johnson), Kew is MacHugh, Keary and
Carey are MacCiardha, Quin is MacCoinn, Quirk
is MacCore, Kane and Caine are MacCathain
Cleg is MacLeagh, Cayley is MacCaolaidhe, and
Macpherson means ‘the son of the parson.’ So in
Wales Price and Bryce are Ap Rhys, Powell is Ap
Howel, Pugh is Ap Hugh, Parry and Barry are Ap
Harry, Bowen is Ap Owen, and Bevan is Ap Evan
(Johnson). The Irish wa, ‘ grandson’ or ‘descend-
ant,’ which has become O’, has also given rise to in-
numerable Piss ere surnames, but is not found.
in Scotland or the Isle of Man, '
It may be mentioned that in England any one,
my take another surnaine or as many surnames
as he pleases without either an act of parliament or
royal license,
The literature of the subject is very extensive, but for
the most part is either obsolete or uncritical, Three
instaki monographs, Fiérstemann’s Altdeutsches
umenbuch, Joyce's Ma doa and History of Irish Names.
of Places, and Moore’s Surnames and Place-names of the
ies of Man, may be raph et unreservedly Rae ar
e Etymologisch-geographisches Lexicon o i is
fuirly comprehensive, dealing with more than 17,000—
names, and, though not mvariably ‘accurate, is a useful
book ‘of reierence. Dr Taylor’s Words and Places and
Mr Bardsley’s English Surnames are less technical, and
cover a wide field, Lower’s Patronymica Britannica,
Cocheris’ Les Noms de Lieu, Buttmann’s Die Deut-
schen Ortsnamen, Miss Yonge’s History of Christian
Names, Miss Blaikie’s Dictionary of Place-names, and.
two books by Mr Ferguson, Surnames as a Science and
The Teutonic Name System, may also be consulted,
always with caution, though usually with advantage.
Namur (Flem. Namen), a city of Belgium, at
the confluence of the Sambre with the Meuse, 35
miles by rail SE. of Brussels. With the exception .
of the picturesque citadel (1784), the old fortifica-
tions have been razed since 1866, their place b
taken by a cordon of seven forts. The town itself,
NANAIMO
NANTES 383
>
suffered so much by war that it offers little of
terest—the cathedral, completed in 1772, with
the grave of Don John of Austria; the Jesuit
ghareh of St Loup (1653), a large military school,
an antiquarian museum, monuments of Leopold I.
and the geologist Omalius d’Halloy (1783-1875),
&e. Namur is noted for its cutlery, and also
manufactures firearms, leather, paper, and tobacco.
Pop. (1874) 26,030 ; oat 30,674. Namur was
captured by Louis XIV. in 1692, but recaptured in
1695, after a ten weeks’ siege, by William III. and
‘my uncle Toby.’
‘The province of Namur, on the French frontier,
lying between Hainault and Luxembourg, has an
area of 1414sq. m. Fertile and rich in minerals,
it is watered by the Meuse, Sambre, and Lesse,
and traversed by wooded spurs of the Ardennes
(2000 feet). Pop. (1871) 313,655; (1891) 336,543.
Nanaimo, a town on the east coast of
Vancouver Island, 74 miles by rail NNW. of
Victoria. There are large coal-mines in the
district, and the town is the chief seat of this
trade. Pop, (1891) 4595.
’ . Nana Sahib, the name under which Dundlu
Panth, adopted son of the ex-peshwa of the
Mahrattas, Geseoua known as the leader of the
Indian Mutiny in 1857. Born about 1821, the son
of a Brahmin in the Decean, and educated as a
Hindu nobleman, he was bitterly disappointed that
when the peshwa died in 1851 the latter’s pension
was not continued to himself; and, industrious in
fanning discontent with the English rule, on the
outbreak of the Mutiny he was proclaimed peshwa,
and was responsible for the massacres at Cawnpore
(q.v., and see INDIA). After the suppression of
the rebellion he escaped into Nepal.
Nancy, « beautiful French town, capital of the
bo arya of Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the Meurthe,
miles by rail E. of Paris and 94 W. of Stras-
burg. It comprises, besides several suburbs, the
old and new towns, and contains many fine squares
and imposing edifices. Here are statues of Stanislas
Leszezynski (1677-1766), twice king of Poland, Gen-
eral Drouot, Thiers, and others, and among its noted
institutions are the hétel-de-ville, bishop’s palace,
theatre, cathedral (1742), numerous churches, the
16th-century ducal palace, a university, &e. Nancy,
which has grown much in importance since t
German annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, has manu-
factures of cotton and woollen , artificial
flowers, iron, tobaceo, &c.; but its staple industry
is embroidery on cambrie and muslin. Pop. (1872)
52,565; (1886) 79,020; (1891) 87,092. Nancy,
dating from the 12th century, was the capital of
the duchy of Lorraine ( eo é Here occurred the
death of Charles the Bold (1477), and the birth of
Callot and Claude Lorraine. See works by Cayon
(1846), Lepage (1866), and Courbe (1886).
Nanda Devi. See Himaraya.
Nandu (American Ostrich). See RHE.
Nankeen Cloth is a very durable fabric made
of a kind of cotton grown in China which is
naturally of a buti-yellow colour, and this is also
the colour of the cloth. The plant which yields it
is a mere variety of Gossypium herbaceum. In the
first half of the 19th vorper{ Nankeen cloth was
much used for ladies’ and children’s attire, and also
for men’s trousers, but now the name, when applied
to certain kinds of cotton 1s, is not confined to
fabries resembling genuine Nankeen cloth.
“N capital of the province of Kiangsu,
aoe the capital of China, on the Yangtse
ver, 130 miles from its mouth. Its name sig-
nifies the Southern Capital. Since the removal of
the seat of government to Peking (Northern Capi-
tal) in the beginning of the 15th ora f the
official name has been Kiangning, though the old
name is preferred parr From 1853 to 1864
it was the capital of the Taiping rebels, who
destroyed nearly all the magnificent public build-
ings for which the city was once famous. Previous
to that time the walle enclosed an area nearly 20
miles in circumference, and reached in many places
an elevation of 70 feet. The most memorable of
the ruined buildings were the Porcelain Tower,,
described under CHINA (Vol. III. p. 186; see also
PacopA, p. 694), the summer peor and the
tombs of the kings, with remarkable sepulchral
statues. Since its recapture by the Chinese im-,
perialists, Nanking has resumed its position as the
seat of the viceregal government, and an arsenal
has been established. In 1842 it was captured by
the British. Although specified in the treaty of
Tientsin (1858) as a river-port to be opened to
foreign trade, little has come of this concession.
Pop. 150,000. ;
Nansen, Frivtior, Ph.D., a distinguished Nor-
wegian scientist and explorer, was born at Great
Fréen, Norway (near Christiania), October 10, 1861.’
At the age of nineteen he entered Christiania Uni-
versity, giving his attention there chiefly to bio-
logical investigations, in the pursuit of which, in’
1882, he made a voyage in a sealer to the North
Atlantic sealing-grounds, and in 1888 crossed the
continent of Greenland, returning in 1889. Fol-
lowing 1884, he matured a plan for a polar journey,
a vessel (the Fram) was built, designed especial
for encountering the drift-ice, and on June 24, 1893,,
with a crew of eleven men, he set sail from Chris-
tiania for the polar regions,—the design being to
reach the North Pole by letting the ship get frozen
into the ice north of Siberia and drift with a current.
setting towards Greenland. They reached the New
Siberian Islands in September, and in 1895 were
in lat. 84° 4’. There, accompanied hy Johansen,
Nansen left the Fram in charge of his other com-
ions and pushed across the ice to Franz-Josef
d, where he wintered. Here, on June 17, 1896,
he met the Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition, with
which he returned to Vardé, having in his eruise
etrated to lat. 88°, cirenumnavigated the Nova
mbla, Franz-Josef, and Spitzhergen archipela-
, and reached a point about 225 miles from the
Pole. One week later the Fram reached Vardi.
See Nansen’s Farthest North (1897), and his Life
by Brogger and Rolfsen (1897).
Nantes, the seventh t city of France,
capital of the department of Loire-Inférieure, lies
on the right bank of the tidal Loire (here 2000
yards wide, and joined by the navigable Erdre
and Sévre-Nantaise), 35 miles from the sea, and
248 by rail SW. of Paris. The natural beauties of
the site have been much improved by art, and, the
old town having been demolished between 1865
and 1870, Nantes is one of the handsomest cities in
all France, with its noble river, quays, bridges,
shady boulevards, squares, and statues. The un-
finished cathedral (1434-1852) contains Colomb’s
splendid monument (1507) to the last Duke and
chess of Brittany, and another (1879) to General
Lamoricitre. The ducal castle, founded in_ 938,
and rebuilt in 1466, was the occasional residence
of Charles VIII. and most of his suscessors, the
prison of Cardinal de Retz and Fouquet, and the
place where on 15th April 1598 Henry IV. signed
the famous Edict of Nantes, which gave freedom
of religion to the Hnguenots (q.v.), and whose
revocation by Louis XIV. on 18th October 1685
drove 400,000 French into exile. Other noteworthy
buildings are the splendid church of St Nicholas
(1854), the palais de justice (1853), the theatre
(1787), and the new post-office (1884), besides a
museum, a picture-gallery, and a library of 50,000
volumes. ween 1831 and 1887 £180,000 was.
384 NANTUCKET
NAPHTHA
expended on harbour-works, but the rise since 1845
of the port of St Nazaire (q.v.), near the mouth
of the Loire, and the increasing difficulty in the
navigation of the river, have combined with depres-
sion of trade to reduce the commercial importance
of Nantes ; to restore which is the object of the
ship-canal (1891) between the two places. The
chief exports are hardware, cereals, and preserved
provisions, the chief imports sugar, iron, cocoa,
and wines; and their value respectively in 1872
was £2,200,000 and £2,800,000, in 1889 only £560,000
and £2,100,000. Shipbuilding also has greatly
fallen off, but still is one of the leading industries,
together with the preparation of sardines, and the
manufacture of sugar, leather, iron, nets, soap,
machinery, &c. ; whilst 10 miles below Nantes is
the vast government steam-engine factory of Indret,
employing from 2000 to 3000 hands, and familiar to
every reader of Daudet's Jack. Pop. of Nantes
(1872) 112,947 ; (1891) 115,608. The Portus Nam-
netum of the Romans, and the former capital
of Brittany—a rank it disputed with Rennes—
Nantes has witnessed the marriage of Anne of
Brittany to Louis XIL. (1499), the embarkation of
the Young Pretender (1745), the ‘noyades’ of the
execrable Carrier (q.v.), the fall of the Vendéan
leader Cathélineau (1793), and the arrest of the
Duchess of Berri (1832). Fouché was a native.
See works by Travers ($844) and Mellier (1872).
Nantucket, an island (15 miles long) off the
south-east coast of Massachusetts. On the north
shore is Nantucket town (pop. 3006), with a
nearly landlocked harbour. It was formerly a
great seat of the whale-fishery, but is now mainly
noted as a summer-resort.
Nantwich, a market-town of Cheshire, on the
Weaver, 4 miles SW. of Crewe. It has some
uaint old timber honses; a fine cruciform parish
church, Early English to Perpendicular in style,
with a central octagonal tower, 110 feet high; a
Gothic town-hall (1858); a market-hall (1867); a
gag Naan (1611); and brine-baths (1883).
he Halen Gwyn (‘white salt town’) of the
Welsh, Nantwich was once the second largest
town in Cheshire, the seat of 300 salt-works in
’ Leland’s day, a number reduced to 100 through
the discovery of better brine-pits in other of
the Weaver's valley in 1624, since which date the
industry has gradually quite died out. Boot and
shoe making now is the principal industry. A
great fire (1583), and its siege by the royalists
under Lord Byron (1644) are the chief events in
its history. Pop. (1851) 5424; (1881) 7495; (1891)
7412. See works by Platt (1818) and Hall (1885).
Naphtha is derived from the Persian word
nafata, ‘to exnde,’ and was originally applied to
liquid hydrocarbons which exude from the ground
in the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea; in like
manner it was applied to the natural oils found
more or less compen: in nearly all countries of
the world, and also to the oil distilled from Bog-
head mineral in Scotland. But the inconvenience
and danger of classing all these oils indiscrimin-
ately as naphthas became apparent after the
Scotch parattin and the American petroleum refined
oils began to be used for domestic illumination.
The word naphtha is still used in a very general
and vague sense, and has no specific application
either scientifically or commercially to any par-
ticular liquid ; but since the more general applice-
tion of the words paraffin and petroleum to mineral
oils the sense in which the word naphtha is used
has been narrowed considerably. The various
British Petroleum Acts since 1862 have also aided
in the interest of public safety in emphasising
the wise distinction now made between the heavier
and safe hydrocarbon oils on the one hand, and the
volatile and unsafe hydrocarbon spirits or naphthas
on the other.
Commercially, naphtha is now understood to
apply to the inflammable distillates of crude
mineral oils and coal-tar. For trade con
the volatile distillates of petroleum and shale oil
are known respectively as petroleum spirit and
shale spirit, to distinguish each from the other,
»
and both from coal-tar naphtha. The term naphtha
also embraces distillates of india-rubber, bones,
peat, and wood, the last of these being known as
wood-spirit or methyl alcohol. A few words with
regard to each of these naphthas may serve to indi-
eate more particularly the nature and method of
Lnbariwig. and also the uses to which they are
applied.
etrolenm spirit is obtained from crude petro-
leum in the process of refinement by distillation.
The first or lightest portion of the oil which
over from the still, being highly inflam e, is
not allowed to mix with the burning oil, but is run
into a separate or naphtha tank. American crude
petroleum yields from 15 to 20 per cent. of erude
naphtha, which in some of the refineries is separ-
ated into line, sp. gr. °640 to 650; benzin
sp. gr. ‘670 to ‘710; and benzoline or deod
spirit, sp. gr. ‘710 to “730. Russian ie
yields a comparatively small proportion of naphtha,
about 5 or 6 per cent., which is separated into light
benzine and heavy benzine, varying in sp. fr.
from ‘730 to °775. Shale spirit is a product of t
crude oil distilled from shale, which is one of the
important mining and chemical industries of Seot-
land. This crude oil contains 4 to 5 per cent. of
naphtha, having a sp. gr. of ‘715 to 740; but some
of the shale-oil works produce a small quantity of
gasoline with a oa gr. of “640 to 680. Coal-
naphtha is distilled from the tar obtained from
coal in gas-works, The production of tar is 10
to 12 gallons per ton of coal put through the
retorts, This tar on distillation yields from 5 to
20 per cent. of naphtha according to the quality
of coal used, Gas-tar from Newcastle ives
only 5 per cent. of naphtha, while the tar from
some cannel coals yields as much as 20 per cent.
Coal-tar naphtha has a sp. gr. varying trom *850
to *950, and is thus much heavier than the
naphthas obtained from crude mineral oils. Coal-
tar naphtha may be fractionated into a oat: of
hydrocarbons with boiling-points ranging from 175°
to 350°; but the two of the greatest commercial
importance are benzole and ordinary naphtha.
Caontchine is a naphtha oltained by the destruc-
tive distillation of caoutchoue or india-rubber, It
also may be fractionated into » number of hydro-
carbons of different densities and boiling-points.
Bone-naphtha is obtained by the distillation of
bones in the manufacture of animal charcoal. It
is known also as bone-oil, or Dippel’s animal oil.
Owing to some neutral or nitrogenous substance as
yet unknown, it possesses a peculiarly offensive
smell, and until some easy means is discovered of
removing this very objectionable feature bone-oil
can never become of much use as a naphtha. The
crude naphthas obtained from these various sources
are all refined or —_— by similar processes—viz,
simple redistillation by means of steam, as in
America, for the lightest fractions; but for the
heavier spirits a treatment with sulphuric acid
and then with caustic soda, and a subsequent
washing with water are necessary previous to
redistillation.
The uses to which in the industrial arts the
different qualities of naphtha are applied are ve
numerous, The lighter spirits, such as benzole an
benzine, being solvents of grease and oil, are used
for detergent purposes. Benzoline was for some
years burned pretty generally by the poorer classes
a. ae
——
NAPHTHALENE
NAPIER 385
in cheap benzoline or sponge lamps ; but its use in
this way has hap ily been greatly restricted, if
not piss , by the low price at which
— m and oils have for some years
obtainable. The light naphthas are also used
for extracting the perfumes of flowers and plants,
and the oil from various seeds. Gasoline is em-
loyed exclusively for carburetting air- The
of the coal-tar naphtha, and much of the shale
and petroleum spirit, are employed as solvents in
the manufacture of + gen es ae gutta- a
goods. They are solvents of wax, and fatt;
and eyed rote ral aor’ are so used ea in
pasate, t ities o n Wax.
quantities are caemed in naphtha, torch, and
flaring lamps for outside use. They are also
used as a substitute for turpentine in the p
tion of paints; and in the solvent action
of shale spirit is turned to account in the prepara-
tion of an anti-damp or stone- and timber-preserving
fluid called Alexinoton. A considerable percen
of wax is dissolved and held in Piation 7
the spirit; and if this liquid be applied to freestone,
brick, or wood, it into the pores of the mate-
rial, and the spirit rapidly evaporating leaves the
wax permanently in the stone or wood, so that
water cannot be absorbed by it. While for these
various pu all the naphthas produced in
Britain d a ready market, in America and
Russia petroleum spirit is made in such quantities
bat is ioeek lage find Lerma outlets for it
; t quantities in many petro-
leum refineries are consumed as fuel pr fag the
stills, se much of the crude naphtha has to be
burned in waste pits to get rid of it.
Naphthalene, C,,H,, is a solid substance ob-
tained from Coal-tar(9.¥.) It ese nonar a
parent, bri t th a pearly lustre an
unctuous to the bouch. It melts at 176° (80° C.)
and boils at 422° (217° C.), but it readily sublimes
at a much lower tem re. Although not very
inflammable, it is (as in the Albo-carbon light)
to increase the illuminating power of coal-gas, the
naphthalene being placed in a metal receiver heated
by the esc orogd and the illuminating gas passed
owly throu Asmoky but brilliant light is thus
obtained which under some circumstances may be
useful. Naphthalene is of most importance from a
scientific standpoint. Its molecule of C,,H, may be
regarded as e up of two aromatic nuclei, having
two atoms of carbon in common; but for further
information on this point, see AROMATIC SERIES.
Naphthalene forms an extensive series of derivatives
in which one or more atoms of hydrogen are replaced
by NO,—chlorine, bromine, &c.
Napier, the chief port and city of the provincial
district of Hawke's Bay, New Zexland, on the east
coast of the North Island. Port Ahuriri (or Scinde
Island), where most of the wholesale stores are
situated, is within the.municipal boundary. A
railway, intended eventually to connect with Well-
. was 5 to Woodville (97 miles) in 1889,
harbour been deepened in order to accom-
modate ne yeeee There is a considerable ex-
of timber and wool, tinned and frozen meat.
he value of the exports in some years tly
exceeds a million sterling (mainly wool). Pop. of
Napier, which is the seat of a bishop (1891), 8341.
Napier, Str Cuarvzs, English admiral, was
cousin to the hero of Sind and the historian of
the Peninsular war, and was born 6th March
1786, at Merchiston Hall, near Falkirk. At
thirteen he went to sea as a naval volunteer. In
1808 he received the command of the Recruit, 18
, and had his thigh broken by a bullet. He
Eept up a running = in the West Indies with a
ns da cae ship, and assisted in her
capture. This obtained him a_post-captaincy ;
but being thrown out of active service, he served
ashore as a volunteer in the Peninsular army, and
was wounded at Busaco. Commanding the Zhames
in 1811, he inflicted an incredible amount of dama,
upon the enemy in the Mediterranean. In 1814 he
led the way in the hazardous ascent and descent
of the Potomac; and he took an active part in the
operations against Baltimore. In 1829 he received.
comm of the Galatea, a 42-gun frigate, and
was employed ‘on particular service ’ on the coast of
Portugal. Becom acquainted with the leaders
of the Constitutional party, he accepted the com-
mand of the fleet of the young queen; and by
defeating the Miguelite fleet he concluded the war,
and placed Donna Maria on the throne. He was
made admiral-in-chief of the Portuguese navy, and
attempted to remodel it; but official and corrupt
influence was too strong for him, and he returned
to England. In the war between the Porte and
Mehemet Ali he o ised a land force, with
which he stormed Sidon and defeated Ibrahim
Pasha among the heights of Mount Lebanon. He
took part in the naval attack on Acre, blockaded
Alexandria, and concluded a convention with
Mehemet Ali. In 1847, now a K.C.B., he received
the command of the Channel fleet. When the
Russian war broke out he was sent out to command
the Baltic fleet; but the capture of Bomarsund
failed to realise the high expectations formed, and
he was deprived of his command. He twice sat in
parliament, for Marylebone and Southwark, and,
until his death at his Hampshire seat, Merchiston
Hall, November 6, 1860, he laboured to reform the
naval administration. See his Life and Correspona-
ence (1862).
Napier, Str CHARLES JAMES, the conqueror of
Sind, was great-grandson of the fifth Lord Napier
and a descendant of Napier of Merchiston. He
was born at Westminster, 10th August 1782, and,
having received a commission in his twelfth year,
served in Ireland during the rebellion. He com-
manded the 50th Foot during the retreat on
Corufia; and at the fatal battle in which Sir John
Moore fell he was wounded in five places and
made prisoner. Marshal Ney dismissed him,
with permission to go to England, where he
engaged in li work, and even wrote an his-
torical romance. In 1811 he returned to the Pen-
insula. At Coa, where he fought as a volunteer,
he had two horses shot under him. At Busaco he
was shot in the face, having his jaw broken and
his eye injured. He recovered in time to be present
at the battle of Fuentes d’Ofioro and the second
siege of Badajoz, He took part in a fighting
cruise off the oy ‘Soomaes capturing American
vessels, and making frequent descents upon the
coasts. He did not return to Europe soon enough
for Waterloo, but was e in the storming of
Cambrai, and accompanied the army to Paris.
After the peace he was, in 1818, made governor of
the island of Cephalonia, the affairs of which he
administered with great energy and intelligence ;
but, being of an excessively combative disposition,
he became embroiled with the authorities at home.
In 1838 he was made a K.C.B., and in 1841 was
ordered to India to assume the command of the
army of Bombay against the ameers of Sind. His
destruction of a fortification called Emaun Ghur,
in 1843, was a most remarkable military feat. The
fearful battle of Meeanee (q.v.), on 17th.February,
followed, where Napier, with 2800 English and
sepoys, defeated 22, Baluchs, stron, vow
The ameers surrendered, except Shere Mohammed,
t 25,000 men into line of battle at
Napier had only 5000 men, but in
ined a decisive victory,
apier was in the palace
who brou
Hydera!
three honrs his little arm
A few days afterwards
386 NAPIER
NAPLES
of the ameers, and master of Sind ; and after the
annexation Lord Ellenborough made him governor
of Sind. He gained the respect and reverence of
the inhabitants, but soon became en, in an
acrimonious war of despatches with the British
authorities. In 1847 he returned to England.
After attending a series of festivals in his honour,
he lived in retirement until the disasters of the
Sikh war caused the 5 i of his countrymen to be
turned to the hero of Sind. He went to India,
but found on his arrival that the Sikhs had been
routed. He now turned his attention, as com-
mander-in-chief of the army in India, to the subject
of military reform, and quarrelled with Lord Dal-
housie. e bade a final adieu to the East in 1851,
and returned to his native country, where he
resided until his death, which took place at his
seat, at Oaklands, near Portsmouth, on 29th
August 1853. He had then attained the rank of
lientenant-general, was G.C.B., and colonel of the
221 Foot. It must be remembered to his honour
that he was the first English general who ever
recorded in his despatches the names of private
soldiers who had distinguished themselves, side by
side with those of officers. Brave to rashness,
ready alike with tongue, pen, and sword, quarrel-
some with his superiors, but beloved by his soldiers,
and, to crown all, of wild yet noble and striking
ap ce, Napier was one of the most remark-
able men of his time. See the oeeeny by his
brother (4 vols. 1857), that by W. Napier Bruce
(1885), and the short Life by Sir W. Butler (1890).
His brother, Sik WILLIAM FRANCIS PaTRICK
Napier, K.C.B., was born 17th December 1785,
served in the Peninsular campaign, and became
lieutenant-general. Besides his famous History of
the War in the Peninsula (6 vols. 1828-40), he
nblished The Conquest of Scinde (1845), and the
ife of his brother Sir Charles (1857). He died at
Clapham, 12th February 1860. See his Life by
H. A. Bruce (1864).
Napier, Jonn, Laird of Merchiston, was born
at Merchiston Castle, near Edinburgh, in 1550. He
matriculated at St Andrews in 1563, and travelled
for some time on the Continent, returning to his
native country highly informed and cultivated ;
but, declining all civil employments, he preferred
the seclusion of a life devoted to literary and
scientific study. In 1593, however, he was one of
a deputation of six to the king regarding the
punishment of the ‘Popish Rebels;’ and in the
same year he published his Plaine Discouery (or
Interpretation’) of the whole Reuelation of Saint
John (revised ed. 1611; 5th ed. 4to, 1645). In
the dedication to King James VI. he gave his
majesty some very plain advice rding the
propriety of reforming his ‘house, family, and
court;’ and the work went through numerous
editions in English, Dutch, French, and German.
In July 1594 he made a contract with Logan of
Restalrig for the discovery of treasure in Fast
Castle. About this time he seems to have devoted
much of his time to the invention of warlike
machines for the defence of the country against
Philip of Spain, and a list of the same exists at
Lambeth Palace, dated 1596. Like other eminent
men of the time, Napier, though a strict Presby-
terian, seems to have been a believer in astrology
and divination. In 1596 he proposed the use of
salt as a fertiliser of land. In 1614 he first gave
to the world his famous invention of Logarithms
(q.¥.), in a treatise entitled Mirifici Logarithmorum
nonis Descriptio (4to, Edin.). apier’s next
work was Rabdologia seu Numerationis per Vir-
Mace! libri duo ( Edin. 1617), detailing an invention
or simplifying and shortening the processes of
multiplication and division mechanically ss ¢ means
of the device subsequently known as Avnier’s
Bones—an arrangement of narrow
ivory, metal, or pasteboard, inscribed seieh figures.
This ingenious contrivance, however, was super-
ornare s a
seded by his logarithms. He also
second work on logarithms, showing their mode of
construction and application, wi p'
containing several propositions of spherical trigono-
metry, and those formule which are now known
by his name. This work was published after his
death (4th April 1617) by his son Robert in 1619.
There is an English translation by W. R. Mac-
donald, The Construction of the edinryy Canon
of Logarithms, with a catalogue of the various
editions of Napier's works (1889). Napier's eldest
son, Archibald, was raised to the peerage as the
first Lord Napier by Charles I. in 1627, and his
descendants still bear the title—the ninth Baron
Napier having in 1872 become also Baron Ettrick
in the peerage of the United Kingdom.
Two Lives of Napier have been published, the one by
the Earl of Buchan (1787), and the other by Mark Napier
(1834), who also edited Ars Logistica, ‘The of
Merchi his booke of Arithmeticke and bra’
(1839), reprinted from a manuscript copy for the
tyne Club. This work had been originally transcribed
from Napier’s notes by his son Robert.
Napier, Macvey, born at Glasgow, 11th April
1776, was educated there and in Edinburgh, and in
1799 became a writer to the Signet, in 1805 Signet
Librarian (which post he retained till 1837), and
in 1824 first professor of Conveyancing. He edited
the supplement to the fifth edition of the Z
ia Britannica (6 vols. 1816-24), and in 1829
succeeded Jeffrey as editor of the Edinburgh Review
(q.v.). Among his contributors were Macaulay,
Carlyle, J. 8. Mill, Sir William Hamilton, and (alas
for the editor!) Brougham. He died 11th February
1847. See his interesting Correspondence (1879).
Napier of Magd Lorp. Robert Cornelis
Napier was born in Ceylon, 6th December 1810,
and was educated at the Military Coll at
Addiscombe. He entered the Bengal Engineers
in 1826, served in the Sutlej campaign, was
wounded while acting as chief-engineer at the
siege of Multan, and had a prominent share in
the battle of Gujrat. As chief-engineer of the
Punjab, with the rank of colonel, he greatly de-
races the resources of the country. Durin
the Indian Mutiny he was chief-engineer in Sir
Colin Campbell’s army, and especially distin-
guished himself at the siege of Lucknow, and
was made K.C.B. He received the thanks of
rliament for his services in the Chinese war of
858. As commander of the expedition in A
sinia (q.v.) in 1868, he achieved a brilliant success,
both by his whole management of the short cam-
paign and in the storming of Magdala, which ended
it. On his return he received the thanks of parlia-
ment, an annuity of £2000, was made G.C.B., and
created Baron Napier of Magdala. In 1870 he was
a creoes Commander-in-chief of the forees in
India, and nominated a member of the Indian
Council. In 1876-82 he was governor of Gibraltar,
and on ing was made Field-marshal, in 1886
Constable of the Tower. He died 14th January 1890.
Naples owes its foundation to a body of Greek
colonists, two settlements, Palwopolis and Neapolis,,
existing for many years side by side as one com-
munity, Parthenope. In 328 B.c. both were sub-
dued by Rome; from that time Paleopolis dis-
appears, whilst its neighbour was made an ally of
ome. It resisted Pyrrhus, deterred Hanni
hut fell through treachery into the hands of Sulla’s
rtisans (82 B.C.), who massacred the peor
Inder the empire it was a favourite place of
residence for the emperors and the upper classes
of Rome, and of the poets Virgil, Statius, Silius
Italicus, luxury and pleasure, and its beautiful
NAPLES
387
climate, being the sources of attraction. After
Rome fell, it sided with the Goths, but was seized
Belisarius (536), and six years later by Totila.
arses recovered it soon after for the Byzantine
emperors, who made it the head of a duchy. This
in the beginning of the 8th century asserted its
independence, and retained it until the whole
country was subdued by the Normans (q.v.) in the
llth century. To the Norman dynasty succeeded
that of the Hohenstaufen. But their arch-enemies,
e ropes, conferred the sovereignty of Naples
upon Charles of attle of Bene-
Anjou, who in the
vento (1266) annihila: ilated the power of the imperial
(Ghibelline) party. The predominance of the papal
(Guelph) party during the reign of Robert I., who
was the patron of Dante and Boccaccio, the de-
_ libertinism of his heiress and granddaughter
oanna, the ravages committed by German mer-
cenaries and by the plague, futile attempts to
recover Sicily, and the feuds of rival claimants to
the throne, are the leading features during the
tule of the Angevine dynasty, which expired with
the profligate Joanna II. in 1435. It was suc-
ceeded by that of Aragon, which had ruled Sicily
from the time of the Sicilian Vespers (1282). Dur-
ing the tenure of the Aragon line, various unsuc-
cessful attempts were made by the House of
Anjou to recover their lost sovereignty ; and the
country, especially near the :
seacoast, was ns gga
ravaged by the Tur Be-
tween 1494 and 1504 the
French and Spanish dis-
puted between them the
possession of Naples, and
victory inclined to the
latter. Naples was united
with i forming the
kingdom of the Two Sicilies,
an bee “yr by vice-
roys of Spain down to 1707.
The most striking episode
during this period was the
revolt. of Masaniello (q.v.).
— the war of the
Spanish Succession (q.v.),
aples was wrested m
Spain by Austria (1707);
but in 1735 was given to
Don Carlos, third son of
English Miles
0312345
ARO Seta N
(£285,800), live animals and animal products
(£249,700), hemp and flax (£293,450), cereals
(£94,700), curriery (£100,250), &c., to the annual
value of £1,672,000; and importing cereals
(£1,363,500), metals (£736,800), cottons (£707,250),
woollens (£386,300), live animals (£354,900),
earthenware, glass, &c. (£336,150), curriery
(£256,250), silks (£179,500), eries (£173,400),
specie, hemp and flax, dyes, chemicals, &c., to an
ave total of £5,563,000. She trades principally
with Britain (annual total, £2,266,400) and France
(£1,861,900). Naples has many employments but
few industries, and these insignificant, consisting
mainly of woollen, silk, and linen manufactures,
loves, soap, perfumery, jewellery, earthenware,
hats, and carriages. acaroni (q.v.) is almost in-
digenous to the Neapolitan seaboard. Fishing
supports many of the inhabitants. The neighbour-
hood is the market-garden of Italy.
Its attractiveness, due not only to its site, but
to its tonic and bracing climate, specially delight-
ful in autumn and winter, and, thanks to the sea-
breeze, quite tolerable in the summer-heat, has
inspired the well-known proverb, ‘See Naples and
then die.’ Its charms have remained proof against
innumerable sanitary drawbacks, defective drain-
age, impure water-supply, and the fever preserves
of its poorer quarters with their subterranean dens,
STE NP Avasiapia.
eZ Fi
- Philip V. of Spain, who
founded the Bourbon dynasty. In_1789 the troops
of the French Republic invaded Naples and con-
verted it into the Parthenopean Republic (1799).
For Nelson’s share in Neapolitan politics at this
time, see NELSON. A second invasion by Napoleon
(1806) ended in the proclamation of his brother,
Joseph, as king of Naples; and, when Joseph
assumed the Spanish crown in 1808, that of Naples
was awarded to Joachim Murat. On the defeat
and execution of Murat in 1815 the Bourbon mon-
arch, Ferdinand IV., was restored. The insurrec-
tionary movements of 1821 and 1848 were the fore-
runners of the overthrow of the Bourbon rule by
Garibaldi (q.v.) and the Sardinians, and the incor-
poration of Naples in the kingdom of Italy (1861).
See History of the Kingdom of Naples (1734-1825), by
=< trans. by 8. Horner (2 vols. Edin, 1858) ;
and see also Iraty, Sictty, and Ferornann I. and IL
Baples (Gr. and Lat. Neapolis, Ital. Napoli),
till 1860 the capital of the kingdom of Naples, is
the vor cree) Italian cities, and, with the doubtful
exception of ios ese, ay the most beautifully
situated in Europe, 161 miles by rail SE. of Rome.
It is the seat of an archbishop. Pop. (1881)
463,172; (1895) 539,500. Naples is one of the
busiest ports of the kingdom, exporting wine
and olive-oil (£504,150), chemicals and perfumery
in course of removal since June 1889. The impetus
to this work was given by the fearful cholera
explosion of September 1884, when in one night
nearly 2000 people were attacked, and about
1000 of them died. The new drainage-works
carry the sew to Cume, thus relieving the
sea-margin, under the principal hotels, of the
liquid poison that used to stain the water black
hard-by the most frequented marine-baths, and
infect the oysters moored in baskets near the
shore. An aqueduct opened in 1885 furnishes pure
drinking-water to every part of the city. Along the
quay considerable improvements are in progress—a _
new harbour, solid embankments, and commodious
promenades following up the handsome squares,
planted with trees and parterres, new streets cut
through the more populous quarters, a fine embank-
ment carried along the sea-front, and the Corso
Vittorio Emannele, a road traversing all the
heights above the city—these latter improvements
begun and partly finished under King Victor
Emmanuel. !
Naples occupies the base and flanks of a hill-
range rising, amphitheatre wise, from the sea,
and divided into two unequal parts by the Capo-
dimonte, 8. Elmo, and Pizzofalcone heights, the
latter ending in the small ridge crowned by the
388 NAPLES
NAPOLEON I.
Castel dell’ Ovo. The most ancient and populous
aged of the city lies in the eastern crescent, and
intersected from north to south by the Via Toledo
(now Via di Roma), the main historic street of
Naples, more densely peopled than any other of
equal space in Euro Hemerons broad streets
have lately been built on this side of the city.
A fine mg, * extends eastward to the Castel del
Carmine. To the back of this lies the poorest and
most populous quarter, now being dismantled.
Westward runs the less ancient city, smaller in
extent, but freer as to air and prospect, and fre-
quented by the more favoured classes, resident and
migratory. Along the sea-margin extend the royal
ens and the Riviera di Chiaja, the lower
undary of the comparatively new quarters built
against the slope. On the Vomero Hill, in the
north-west, house-construction is busily going on
to accommodate the inhabitants of the dismantled
*rookeries’ near the harbour, for whom dwellin;
have also been built ay Se the railway station
the east of the city. Naples is three miles long
and two broad. It a modern look, but in spite
of external change still presents the same noisy,
vivacious, mercurial life so astonishing and ere
long so oppressive in its monotony to the new-
comer from the north. From the precocious street
arab to the gray-haired and vociferous mendicant,
with a whole army of importunate pedlars, cabmen,
newsvendors, flower-girls, and touts between, there
is no pause night or day—that ‘ Naples never
to * is indeed a scarcely ex rated saying !
The historic interest of the suburban quarters along
the shore is greater than in the city. But its poverty
in Greco-Roman antiquities is made up for by its
National Museum, becoming daily richer in arche-
ological treasure-trove from Pompeii, while its
lendid aquarium teems with typical specimens
the flora and fauna of the Mediterranean, and
forms the exhibition-room of its Zoological Station.
Of architectural interest Naples has but little.
Besides her five forts and four gates of medieval
construction, she has upwards of 300 churches,
including the cathedral (1272-1316) of St Januarius
(q-v.), whose blood is said to liquefy in the phials
containing it on three yearly festivals. The
university (1224), with nearly 100 teachers and 4150
students, the royal palace, the catacombs, and, still
more, the law-courts are worth visiting. Naples is
excellently equipped with libraries: the National
Library (1804) has 275,000 books and 8000 MSS. ;
the University Library (1812), 150,000 books ; and
the Brancacciana (1673), 150,000 books and 3000
MSS. The San Carlo Theatre (chiefly for opera)
is one of the | t in Italy, though much less
pular than the Carlino, sacred to ‘ Pulcinella’
the Italian Punch), In fine art Naples is poor—
er music, in spite of her devotion to opera, adding
nothing to the European repertory ; the plaintive
songs of her fishermen are as distinctive of the
Mediterranean as the Venetian barcaruole are of
the Adriatic.—The province has an area of 336
8q. m., and a population (1889) of 1,060,032.
Napoleon I., emperor of the French. Napo-
leon Bonaparte, the second son of Charles Bona-
parte and his wife Letizia de Ramolino, was born
at sree in Corsica, on the 15th August 1769.
In 1779 he entered the Royal Military School of
Brienne le Chateau; there he, remained till the
autumn of 1784, when he was transferred to the
Military School of Paris, according to the usual
routine. An official report on him by the In-
spector of Military Schools in this year speaks
highly of his conduct, and notifies his great pro-
ficiency in mathematics and fair knowledge of
history and geography, but says he is not well up
in ornamental studies or in Latin,-and, curiously
enough, adds that he will make an excellent
sailor. Napoleon lost his father in 1785, and the
same year he was commissioned as second-lieu-
tenant of artillery, in which capacity he served
at Valence and other garrisons. He spent his periods
of leave in Corsica, and appears to have wished to
pl y the ee the history of his native
land, showing the first signs of his ambitious and
energetic character. During the critical times
following the first French Revolution, he at first
joined the moderate party of Paoli; but, ig for
military power, though by untiring acti ty and
reckless audacity he succeeded in being elected
lieutenant-colonel of the National Volunteers of
Ajaccio, he failed in an attempt to seize that town
and was obl to return to France. Although
he had forfeited his French commission by over-
staying his leave, the second Revolution of 1792
was now in p , and the new government
could not spare the few trained officers whom
emigration had left, and his rank was restored to
him. He returned to Corsica and accompanied an
expedition which unsuccessfully tried to get
sion of Sardinia. The French government soon
made an endeavour to ertsh Paoli and do awa;
with Corsican privileges, and the islanders rall
round the patriot. Sapuisos now turned agai
him and attempted to seize the citadel of Ajaccio
for the French; but failing again, with all his
relatives he fled a second time to France,
From this time onwards Napoleon looked to
France for his career. The narrow horizon of his
native island was no longer wide enough for
him, but from its bracing mountain air and from
the quick blood of his race he drew a magnetic
force which im 1 to his decisions and actions
a rapidity and energy that carried all before
them, while at the same time a power of calm
calculation, of industry, and of self-control enabled
him to employ his genius to the best advan
The force of personality was so overwhelm-
ing that in considering his career the regret must
ever be present that the only principle that re-
mained steadfast with him, and is the key to
his conduct throughout, should have been the
care for his own advancement, glory, and ‘
Napoleon now joined the army under
,
which acted against the Marseillais who had de-
clared inst the National Convention and oceu-
pied Avignon. At this time he became attached
to the younger Robespierre, who was a commis-
sioner with the army, and embraced his Jacobin
= He was shortly promoted Chef de
taillon, and commanded the artill at the
siege of Toulon, where he highly distinguished
himself, and is generally believed to have been
the author of the plan of attack which led to the
— the place. He was then promoted general
of brigade.
On the fall of the Robespierres, Napoleon in-
curred serious danger, but was saved by powerful
influence enlisted his favour. He was, how-
ever, ordered to take command of an infantry
brigade in the Army of the West. This he con-
sidered would stifle his military career, and neglect-
ing to obey the order, he was in co uence
removed from the list of employed general officers,
Disgusted with his apparent lack of pore
he was now anxious to be sent to Turkey to re-
organise the Turkish pg § But on the eve of
the 13th Vendémiaire (5th October 1795) he was
appointed second in command of the Army of the
Interior under Barras, and did the National Con-
vention baer service next day in repelling the
attack of the Sections of Paris. Influenced Leted
by fear and partly by appreciation of his talents,
the Directory appointed General Bonaparte to the
command of the Army of Italy on February
1796. On 9th March he m Joséphine Tascher
eed
NAPOLEON I. 389
de la Pagerie, widow of General Vicomte Alex-
andre de Beauharnais, and left Paris for Italy two
an jon ining. the Bonaparte i ted
0) arm ES inau a
new cn in the wars “4 the Hepublie, reviously
the leading motives had been pure patriotism and
love of liberty ; Bonaparte for the first time, in
his proclamation on taking command, invoked the
rit of self-interest and plunder, which was to
ominate the whole policy of France for the next
twenty years. Evil as were the passions which he
aroused, Napoleon’s great mili genius flashed
forth in its full brillianey in this his first were ity a
His power lay in the rapidity and boldness of his
decisions, and in the untiring energy with which he
carried them out, confounding his enemies: by the
suddenness and lightning rapidity of his blows,
which never gave them time to recover. He
found the French army about 36,000 strong, dis-
tributed along the crests of the mountains from
Nice to Savona, and opposing 20,000 Piedmontese
under Colli and 38,000 Austrians under Beaulieu.
These two erals had, however, differing in-
terests: Colli’s main object was to protect Pi -
mont, Beaulieu’s to cover Lombardy. Hence, if
could penetrate the eo of junction of
the two armies, it was probable they would se
rate in their retreat, and could be ten singly.
He therefore attacked the centre of the allied line,
and, driving back the Austrians from Montenotte
on the 12th April, turned — the Piedmontese
and defeated them at Millesimo the next day.
Losing no time he left a division under Augereau
ond tase) the Piedmontese in check, and led the
his army nst the Austrians, defeati
them heavily at on the 14th. The alli
armies then retreated in diverging directions as
expected, and Bona , following the Piedmon-
tese, beat them at a and Mondovi, and forced
the king of Sardinia to the armistice of Cher-
sign
asco, leaving him free to deal with the Austrians.
He crossed the Po at Piacenza on the 7th May,
and obliged the Austrians to retreat to the Adda.
Following them he forced the bridge of Lodi on the
llth May, and entered Milan amid the rejoicings
of the people on the 15th. But his ill-omened pro-
clatiabion had done its work ; violence and Pilla
were rampant in the French a and he could do
little to restrain them. Indeed, he himself showed
an example of plundering, though under more or-
ganised forms. Heavy contributions were exacted,
curiosities and works of art were demanded whole-
sale and despatched to France; and the Directory,
demoralised by the unaccustomed wealth that
flowed in upon them, became fully as eager as
Napoleon for fresh nests and their accruing
Insurrections wed at Pavia and in the
ilanese, but were ruthlessly put down, and on the
27th May the army left Milan to follow Beaulieu
to the Mincio. The Austrians defended the whole
line of this river, but Napoleon, drawing the bulk
of their forces northward by a feint, broke through
their centre at Borghetto, and Beaulieu retreated
into is rn leaving the line of the Adige to Napo-
leon. is he at once oceupied, taking Verona and
from the neu republic of Venice,
whom he frightened into submission.
The Aus' still held Mantua, which Napoleon
now besieged, occupying himself at the same time
in consolidating his conquests. The Austrians
made strenuous efforts to save the fortress, They
had about 20,000 men in Mantua, and Wurmser
advanced through Tyrol with 50,000 more, while
the French were only some 45,000 strong including
the siege corps. Wurmser moved in three columns:
one descended the Adige and threatened Verona,
another moving between the Adige and the Lake
of Garda drove Joubert and Masséna from Rivoli
and Corona, while the third under Quasdanovich
moved west of the Lake of Garda and seized
Brescia, threatening the French communications,
Napoleon’s position was very critical, but he made
a rapid decision, raised the siege of Mantua, spik-
ing his guns and destroying his stores, moved all
the force he could collect against Quasdanovich,
and defeated him at Lonato on the 31st July.
Wurmser moving on Mantua found no enemy
there, and mi being at the decisive point at
the right time. Napoleon, leaving a small force
to watch Quasdanovich, turned rapidly back against
the other two Austrian columns which were not
yet fully united, and beat their most advanced
troops at Lonato in on the 3d August and
Wurmser himself at Castiglione on the 5th, driving
him back into Tyrol with the loss of half his army.
Mantua was again invested, but, the siege-artil-
lery having been lost, the operations against it
were reduced to a blockade. In the beginning of
a Napoleon took the offensive against
urmser, and passing boldly behind him defeated
him at Bassano, cut off his retreat, and forced him
to take refuge in Mantua on the 15th September.
Again, at the end of October, an Austrian army of
50,000, but mostly reeruits, advanced under Alvinzi.
Napoleon could now dis: of from 38,000 to
40, men, having in the meantime formed the
Cispadane Republic and raised an Italian legion
which set free most of his garrisons. Alvinzi
arrived before Verona, while a column under David-
ovich moved by the eastern shore of the Lake of
Garda. Napoleon hastily caused the positions of
Rivoli and Corona to :be reoceupied to check
Davidovich, and moved himself by night from
Verona down the right bank of the Adige, crossed
it at Ronco, and came upon Alvinzi’s rear. Then
followed the three days’ battle of Arcola, during
which Napoleon had a very narrow escape, but
which ended in Alvinzi’s defeat and retreat on
Tyrol. From Arcola Napoleon dated his firm
belief in his own fortune. Once again, in Janu-
ae Pa Alvinzi tried to gener oe
einting inst Legnago to deceive Napoleon,
he intended’ ta, make his main advance between
the Ad and the lake. But Napoleon was
too skilfal to take decided action without full
knowledge, and keeping his reserve half-way
between Rivoli and Legnago waited for more
certain news. When he ascertained the direc-
tion of the real attack, he moved in full force on
Rivoli and won a decisive battle there on January
14, the Austrian detachment on the Lower Adige
having to lay down their arms next day at Rover-
la. Wurmser capitulated at Mantua on the 2d
February, yuan treating him with generosity.
This first Italian campaign was perhaps the most
skilful of all those of Napoleon. Everything was
done accurately and rapidly, and without throwing
away chances. Some of his later campaigns,
though equally brilliant, show him acting more
with the bler’s spirit, running unnecessary
risks with almost a blind reliance upon his star, in
the hope of obtaining results which should dazzle
the world.
In political matters during this time Napoleon
was acting less as a servant of the French Directory
than as an independent ruler. He entirely ignored
the instructions he received from Paris, levying
contributions, entering into negotiations and depos-
ing princes at his own will, and writing that he
is not fighting ‘for those rascals of lawyers.’
His policy was in fact regulated in accordance
with his own ambitious schemes; and we find
him adopting a conciliatory attitude towards
ee ag an eye to the future support of the
chureh.
When his position in Italy was secured by
$90
:
NAPOLEON I.
the fall of Mantua, and by treaties with Rome
and Sardinia, he prepared to advance through
Carinthia and Styria on Vienna. He pushed back
the Archduke Charles from the Tagliamento, and
advanced till he reached Leoben in Styria on the
7th April 1797. Then Austria sued for peace, and
the preliminaries of Leoben were signed on the
18th April pending the conclusion of a definite peace.
But further negotiations dragged on, as Austria
thought a revolution might be impending in France
from which she could obtain advantage. In fact a
party was rising against the Directory, eonsisting
mainly of moderates who were eager only for a
respectable Fabia but containing also a few
royalists. Their inclusion was fatal to the party.
It gave a pretext for raising the cry that the
Republic was in danger, and Augereau, sent by
Napoleon to Paris, aided the Directory to carry out
the coup d'état of the 18th Fructidor, when the
Corps Legislatif was surrounded by troops and the
obnoxious representatives arrested. This strength-
ened the Directory for the moment, but was a
step towards military despotism under Napoleon,
Austria, seeing the Directory again a 6 seated
in power, became more r for peace, the nego-
tiations were hastened, and on 17th October 1797
the treaty of Campo-Formio was signed. By
this France obtained Belgium and the Ionian
Islands, Austria also acknowledging the Cisalpine
Republic, and ceding to it Lombardy, and engaging
to try and get the left bank of the Rhine for France
from the Germanic body. As an indemnity Austria
obtained Istria, Dalmatia, and the territory of the
Venetian Republic, with whom, although neutral,
Napoleon had managed to pick a quarrel with this
end in view.
Napoleon returned to Paris on the 5th December
1797. The Directory, fearing his ambition, thought
per could only keep him Saas by yor ed him,
and gave him command of the so-ca Army of
England. But he was bent on the conquest of
pt. Heappears to have had ee Pa racer
in his temperament, and to have dreamed of found-
ing a mighty empire from the standpoint of the
East, the glow and glamour of which seem always
to have had a certain fascination for him, He
therefore employed the resources of the Army of
England to prepare for an expedition to Egypt, and
the Directory yielded to his wishes, partly no
doubt through the desire of getting him away
from France. But their aggressive policy was at
the same time fast bringing on another European
war. The expedition sailed from Toulon on the 19th
May 1798, ae te gp Malta from the Knights of St
John by treachery, and, escaping by great luck from
the British fleet under Nelson, arrived at Alexan-
dria on the 30th June, The army was disembarked
in haste, for fear lest Nelson should arrive, and on
the 8th July Napoleon marched on Cairo. He
defeated the Mamelukes at Chebreiss and the
ramids, and entered Cairo on the 24th July.
e then occupied himself with organising the
vernment of t, but his position was ren-
ered very hazardous by the destruction of the |:
French fleet on the Ist August by Nelson at the
battle of the Nile, and he saw that his dream of
founding an empire in the East could not be realised.
He thought, however, that he might create a
revolution in Syria, by the aid of which he might
overthrow the Turkish power and march in triumph
back to Europe through Asia Minor and Constant-
inople. He accordingly entered Syria in Februa
1799 with 12,000 men, but was brought to a price
still before St Jean d’Acre. Failing to capture
that fortress, supported as it was by the British
squadron under Sir Sidney Smith, in spite of the
most copeme efforts, he was obliged to return to
Egypt. e expedition to Syria was disgraced by
the massacre in cold blood of 2500 prisoners at
Jaffa ; butthere seems to be some doubt about the
truth of the story that in his retreat Napoleon
caused the sick he could not transport to be
poisoned, After his return to pt, Napoleon
efeated a Turkish army which had landed at
Aboukir, but learning the reverses that had been
suffered by the-French arms in Europe, he resolved
ples \ _— — satel sas? i
secretly on the ugust, leaving a letter i
Kléber in command of the aseae of pl gps
landed in France six weeks later.
He found matters at home in great confusion.
The wars had been mismanaged, Italy was almost
lost, and the government in consequence was in
rey bad odour. Siéyés, one of the Directors,
meditated a coup d'état, but was at a loss for a
man of action to take the lead. At this juncture
Bonaparte arrived, and, though for some time there
was no ca, Lae reat between him and Siéyés
(the latter fearing Bona ’s masterful character,
and Fy me uncertain what party it would be
most to his advantage to join), Noho at length
coalesced, and the revolution of the 18th Brumaire
followed (9th November 1799), when the legislature
was forcibly closed and a provisional executive
of three consuls, Siéyés, Roger-Ducos, and Bona-
parte, formed to draw up a new constitution. This
was promulgated on the 13th December; the
executive was vested in three consuls, Bonaparte,
Cambacéres, and Lebrun, of whom Bonaparte was
nominated First Consul for ten years. He was
ractically paramount, the two remaining consuls
ing ciphers, and the other institutions being so
0 ised as to concentrate power in the executive.
Si¢yts became president of the senate. The
governmental crisis being settled, energetic s'
were taken with to the civil war in
west. A proclamation was issued promising re-
ligious toleration at the same time that decided
military action was taken, and these measures were
so successful that all was quiet at home by the end
of February 1800, Then Napoleon turned his
attention abroad. He made overtures for peace to
England and Austria, now the only belligerents, as
he wished to lull i ng by posing as the friend
of , not as a military ruler; but he inwardly
eines when they rejected his overtures,
he situation of the belligerents on the Continent
was this: the Army of the Rhine under Moreau,
more than 100,000 strong, was distributed along the
Rhine from the Lake of Constance to Alsace, opposed
to Kray, whose headquarters were at nan-
eschingen in Baden; while Masséna with the Arm
of Italy was on the Riviera and at Genoa, op
to an Austrian army under Melas. Napoleon
intended to gain himself the chief glory of the
campaign ; so, giving Moreau orders to cross the
Rhine but not to advance vn bi a certain limi
and leaving Masséna to make head as best he coul
against Melas, with the result that he was besieged
in Genoa and reduced to the last extremity, he
re secretly an army of reserve near the
wiss frontier, to the command of which Berthier
was ostensibly appointed. Outside and even inside
France this army of reserve was looked upon as a
chimera, Moreau crossed the Rhine on the 24th
April and drove Kray to Ulm, but was_ there
checked by Napoleon's instructions, according to
which he also sent a division to co-operate with the
army of reserve. Napoleon himself went to Geneva
on the 9th May, and assuming command of this
army crossed the St Bernard and reached the plains
of Italy before Melas had convinced himself of the
existence even of the. army of reserve, and whilst
his troops were scattered from Genoa to the Var.
Napoleon’s obvious course would now have been to
move straight on Genoa, relieve Masséna, and beat
it
NAPOLEON I.
391
in detail as many of Melas’ troops as he could
encounter. But this would not have been a suffi-
ciently brilliant triumph, as the bulk of the Austrian
army might have escaj ; and trusting in his star
he resolved to stake the existence of his army on
a gambler’s cast. Leaving Masséna to be starved
out, he moved to the left on Milan, and occupied
the whole line of the Ticino and. Po as far as
Piacenza, so as to cut off entirely the retreat of the
Austrians. He then crossed the Po and ex -
by the execution of the Due d’Enghien. He thus
sueceeded in inspiring even republicans with the
conviction that the t way of preventing the
inauguration of a new reign of terror was by con-
firming his position. He chose the title of emperor
as least obnoxious to the republican feeling of the
army, and the change was made by a decree of the
senate of the 18th May 1804.
Preparations for the invasion of England had
been steadily proceeding, but Napoleon’s aggressive
trated as many troops as he could spare at Stradella.
The strategy was brilliant, but the risk run exces-
sive. His army was necessarily scattered, while
Melas had time to concentrate, and he was
besides ignorant of the Austrian position. He
sent Desaix with a column to seek information,
and moved himself on Alessandria, where he found
Melas. Next day, the 14th June, Melas marched
out to attack the French on the plains of ee
and despite all Napoleon’s efforts had actually
defeated them, when fortunately Desaix returned,
and his advance, together with a cavalry ceeee by
Kellermann, changed defeat into victory. Melas,
losing his Sn eve a convention next day giving
up almost all N Italy, h Marmont says that
if. he had fought another battle he must have won
it. Napoleon returned to Paris with the glories of
this astonishing may ; but peace did not follow
till Moreau, when his liberty of action was restored
to him, had won the battle of Hohenlinden on 3d
December 1800. Then followed the treaty of
Lunéville with Germany in Febru 1801, the
concordat with Rome in July 1801, and the treaty
of Amiens with England in March 1802, so that
Napoleon was able to figure as the restorer of
to the world. He then devoted himself to the
ae ruction — the civil yoy wer re wile
emp in this great wor t talent that
he vould find, and impressing on their labours the
stamp of his own genius. The institutions then
ereated, which still remain for the most part, were
the restored church, the judicial system, the codes,
the system of local government, the university, the
Bank of France, and the Legion of Honour.
France at this period, sick of the failure of repub-
lican ramsey bot 3 was gradually veering towards
monarchy, and Napoleon knew how to take advan-
tage of events to strengthen his position, and in
due time establish his own d ty. The plot
of Nivose (24th December 1800), when his life was
pramcreales g a bomb, gave him a pretext for
arresting 130 members of the
Jacobin party, with which he had long since
broken; and after the conclusion of the
of Amiens a great step was taken when, as a
mark of public gratitude for the ification of
the world, he was elected First Consul for life.
But though he desired the credit of making
peace, so as to enable him to establish his authority
over France, when that end was secured he became
again ny tan war, with a view to further exten-
sion of hi wer. He also desired to humble
England, a desire that led to the rupture of the
peace of Amiens in 1803. The immediate causes
of this rupture were his aggressions in Holland, in
the Cisalpine Republic, in Genoa, and Piedmont,
and his monstrous demand that England should sup-
press every print that dared to criticise his actions,
and drive all French from her shores,
Having thus foreed England to resume hostilities,
he made vast ions for her invasion, at the
same time taking the first step towards establish-
ing his ascendancy in Germany by seizing Han-
5 he The assump = predic followed,
apoleon preparing the way with consummate
eunning. He rid_ himself Moreau, his most
rival, by accusing him of conspiring
the royalists, into whom he then struck terror
demeanour after becoming emperor alarmed the
Euro cabinets, so that Pitt was able to revive
the coalition, and in 1805 Napoleon found himself
at war with Russia and Austria, as well as with
England. Forced by England's naval supremacy
to abandon the notion of invasion, he suddenly
changed front in August 1805, and led his armies
through Hanover and the smaller German states,
disregarding the neutrality even of Prussia herself,
and reached the Danube in rear of the Austrian
army under Mack, which was at Ulm. The
surprise was complete; Mack surrendered on the
19th October, and Napoleon then marched on
Vienna, which he entered on the 13th November.
But his position was critical. The Archduke
Charles was approaching from Hungary, a Russian
army was entering Moravia, and Prussia, incensed
at the violation of her territory, joined the
coalition. A short delay would have surrounded
Napoleon with his enemies, but the Czar was
impatient, and the Russian army, with a small
contingent of Austrians, encountered Napoleon at
Austerlitz, December 2, 1805, and was signally
defeated. This cansed the break-up of the coalition ;
the Holy Roman Empire came to an end, the Con-
federation of the Rhine was formed under French
protection, and the Napoleonic empire was firml
established. Napoleon then entered into negoti-
ations for peace with Russia and England, en-
deavouring to conciliate those wers at the
expense 0} The negotiations failed, but
Prussia was mortally offended, and mobilised her
army in August 1806, about which time Russia
finally rejected the treaty with France. Napoleon
acted with his usual promptitude, and advanced
against Prussia before she could get help either
from England or Russia. Although the rank
and file of the Prussian armies was good, their
generals were antiquated, and Napoleon crushed
them at Jena and Anerstadt on the 14th October,
and entered Berlin on the 27th. He had then
to carry on a stubbornly-contested peer with
Russia. An indecisive battle at Eylau was followed
by a hardly-earned French victory at Friedland,
14th June 1807, and the of Tilsit ensued,
by which Prussia lost half her territory, and had
to submit to various humiliating conditions, while
Russia escaped easily, and indeed got a share of
the spoils.
Napoleon was now at the zenith of his power ; he
was the arbiter of Europe and the paramount head
of a confederation of princes, among whom the mem-
bers of his own family oceupied several thrones. To
reward his partisans he at this time created a new
noblesse, and lavished upon them the public money.
Full of inveterate hostility to England, Napoleon
endeavoured to cripple her by the so-called Contin-
ental System (q.v.), by which all the states under his
influence en to close their ports to English
ships, and he also tried to combine all the European
navies against her ; but England, perceiving his aim,
took the initiative and herself seized the Danish fleet.
The emperor also turned his eyes to the Penin-
sula, where the dissolute conduct of the Queen of
Spain and the intrigues of ‘the Prince of the Peace’
(see ALCUDIA) ae him an opportunity. He sent
an army under Junot to Portugal, and angther to
Spain, which, under Murat, took Madrid, Napoleon
392 NAPOLEON I.
then procured the abdication of the king of Spain | vast host =k ae to have been unmanageable.
and placed his brother Joseph on the vacant throne. | Barclay de Tolly and Bagration sneceeded in unit-
But he did not foresee the consequences, The spirit
of the nation was roused, and a formidable insur-
rection broke out, while a British army, under Sir
Arthur Wellesley, landed in Portugal, defeated
Junot at Vimiera, and forced him to sign the Con-
vention of Cintra, evacuating Portugal. So began
the Peninsular war which for the future was to
paralyse half Napoleon’s strength. ;
In Germany also a spirit of revolt against his
. tyranny was rising, Austria at first taking,the lead,
and this brought on the war of 1809 against that
power. Prussia, already beginning to recover her
strength under the military system of Scharnhorst
and Stein (see SCHARNHORST, STEIN), was hostile
to Napoleon in sentiment, but was kept down
by the pressure of Russia. Napoleon declared
war on the pretext that Austria was arming,
and marching through Bavaria drove the Aus-
trians out of Ratisbon, and entered Vienna on
the 13th May. Eugtne Beauharnais, at the head
of the Army of Italy, drove the Austrians before
him into Hun » defeated them at Raab,
and joined Napoleon. The emperor then tried to
cross the Danube, but was checked at Aspern and
step to retire to the island of Lobau. Five
weeks of ——— then followed, the peasant
war under Hofer being carried on in A gi and
then Napoleon made a fresh and successful attempt
to cross the Danube, and won the battle of Wagram
on the 5th July. This was followed by the
armistice of Znaim and the treaty of Schiénbrann,
October 20, 1809, by which he obtained a heavy
indemnity in money and considerable accession of
territory in Carniola, Carinthia, Croatia, and
Galicia. But he mortally offended the Czar by
giving a large portion of the ceded territory of
xalicia to the duchy of Warsaw—i.e. to Polan
On the 16th December 1809 Napoleon, desirous
of an heir, divorced Joséphine, who was childless,
and married on the Ist April 1810 the Archduchess
Maria Louisa of Austria. He had no doubt the
wish also to get a footing in the circle of the
itimate prs gee families of Europe. A son, to
whom the title of King of Rome was given, was
born on March 20, 1811.
Still bent on the humiliation of England, Napoleon
now tried to effect his pu by increasing the
stringency of the Continental System, but this ended
in bringing him into conflict with Russia. He
first annexed the kingdoms of Holland and West-
phalia, to give him command of their seaboards,
and then prohibited English trade even when
carried in neutral bottoms. The Czar, already
estranged by Napoleon’s alliance with Austria and
conduct as regards Poland, refused to adopt
this policy, and the relations between them gradu-
al e so strained that war was inevitable,
and Napoleon took the momentous resolve to invade
Russia. With Maria Louisa, he arrived at Dresden
on the 16th May 1812, and was there greeted by the
emperor of Austria, the king of Prussia, and other
sovereigns. His army for this gigantic enterprise
numbered about 600,000, inélading French, Ger-
mans, and Italians. He crossed the Niemen on
the 24th June, reaching Vilna, which was evacu-
ated by the Russians, on the 28th; and he re-
mained at Vilna till the 16th July, hesitating to take
the final resolution to invade the heart of Russia.
He made overtures for peace to the Czar, who
refused to treat as long as an enemy remained on
Russian soil. Foiled here Napoleon at last decided
to on with his enterprise ; so he advanced, and
at first the Russians were in no condition to meet
him, their forces being scattered. If Napoleon
could have advanced rapidly to Smolensk, he
might have cut the Russian forces in two, but hi
ing at Smolensk, but were driven from it on the
18th August after an obstinate defence. At
Smolensk Napoleon again hesitated as to whether
he should go into winter-quarters, but eventually
decided to press on to Moscow, trusting to the
moral effect of the fall of the ancient capital. It
seems as if, while his superstitious belief in his
star still remained, bodily ailments had caused a
deterioration in his power of rapid decision and in
his energy of action. Meanwhile, great discontent
had been caused in Russia by the continued retreat
of the armies. Kutusoff was appointed to the
chief command, and stood to fight at Borodino on
September 6. Napoleon won the battle, but with
unwonted and misplaced caution refused to engage
his Guard, and the victory was almost fruitless,
He entered Moscow on the 14th September, and
fire broke out the next night, the first effect of
which was still further to alarm the Russians, who
believed it to be the work of the French. The fire
raged fiercely till the 20th, and a t part of the
city was burned to the ground. Had the victory of
Borodino been more decisive the Czar might now
have yielded; but as it was he listened to the
advice of Stein and Sir R. Wilson and refused
to treat, thus putting Napoleon in a dilemma,
His plans were always made on the basis of im-
mediate success, and the course to be adopted in
ease of failure was not considered. Again he
hesitated, with the result that when at last he
resolved to retire from Moscow the winter, coming
earlier than usual, upset his calculations, and the
miseries of that terrible retreat followed. He left
Moscow on the 18th October, and, reaching the
Beresina with but 12,000 men, was joined there by
Oudinot and Victor, who had been holding the
line of the Dwina, with 18,000. His of the
river was op » but he succeeded in crossing,
and on the 6th December the miserable remnant
of the Grand Army reached Vilna. Macdonald,
Reynier, and Schwarzenberg, with 100,000 men, on
the Polish frontier and in the Baltic provinces,
were safe, but this was the whole available remnant
of the 600,000 with which the campaign commenced,
It might have been expected that Napoleon would
now anxious for , but his haughty spirit
could not brook any diminution of his prestige, and,
determining to try and efface the past with fresh
triumphs, he returned to Paris to raise new levies.
The Czar fully understood that no half-measures
would be of any avail, but that he must follow
up what had been begun and carry the war into
Germany the next year, rousing the Germans 10 his
aid. On the December 1812 the Prussian
contingent of the Grand Army, under York, came
over to the Russians, and on the 22d January 1813
Stein procured the meeting of the estates of East
Prussia, when the Landwehr was called out.
Saxony also joined Russia, contrary to the wishes
of the king, but Austria and the middle states
still clung to whe weg
leon left Paris for Mainz on the 15th April
1813, his object being Dresden, which was held by
the Czar and the king of Prussia. Eugene Beau-
harnais was on the Lower Saale with 70,000 men,
and Napoleon, with 150,000 men, well officered,
though raw and short of cavalry, moved to meet
him by way of Erfurt. Davoat was holding down
insurrection in north Germany with 30,000. The
allies at first had only 100,000 available, the pro-
cess of calling out and drilling the people being
slow. Napoleon moved on Leipzig, and won the
battle of Liitzen on the 2d May, which restored
Dresden to the king of Saxony. He then followed
the allies, beat them, though with heavy loss, at
Bautzen on the and 2ist May, and forced
NAPOLEON I.
393
them to retire into Silesia. The armistice of
Poischwitz, signed on the 4th of June, closed
the first period of the campaign. Austria then
asked for certain concessions, which if Napoleon
had ted he might have checkmated the
coalition of Prussia and Russia; but he seems
to have been unable to bring himself to accede,
and contemplated rather war with Prussia, Russia,
and Austria combined, to say nothing of Eng-
land, which was still carrying on the war in
the Peninsula. A treaty was signed at Reichen-
bach on the 14th June, a Austria engaged
as mediating power to offer conditions of peace to
Napoleon and to declare war on him in case of
refusal. The conditions offered were that he should
withdraw from north-west Germany, dissolve the
duchy of Warsaw, and cede Illyria. These terms
were very moderate, but Napoleon seems to have
is position insecure without fresh success
in war, rocrastinated. An ultimatum was
delivered to him on August 8th to which he eo
no attention; so on the night of the 10th to llth
August the armistice was declared at an end, and
the drama swept rapidly to its crisis.
Napoleon had now 400,000 men along the Elbe
Bohemia to its mouth, but his position was
weakened by the adhesion of Austria to the coali-
tion, as she massed her troops in Bohemia, threaten-
Dresden and his communications. The allies
had nearly 500,000 men in three armies, the Austrian
under warzenberg in Bohemia, the old Prusso-
Russian under Bliicher in Silesia, and the bulk of
the Prussian force under Bernadotte in Branden-
burg. The French armies were discouraged, and
the allies enthusiastic; but the latter had diffi-
culties to contend with from their heterogeneous
composition and diversity of interests. The eam-
ea aps teen with varying fortune. A blow at
in was parried by Biilow at Gross-Beeren on
August 23. Napoleon himself forced Bliicher
back to the Katzbach, but had to retire again to
defend Dresden from the Austrians; and his lieu-
tenant Macdonald was defeated in the battle of
the Katzbach on the 26th August. Napoleon
inflicted a crushing defeat on the Austrians before
Dresden on the 27th, but, while Eek. to cut
off their retreat, was disturbed’ by the news of
Gross-Beeren and the Katzbach and by sudden
illness, and at Kulm lost Vandamme with 20,000
men, was spent in fruitless marches,
now into now into Silesia, and towards
the end of the month the allies began their con-
verging march on their preconcerted rendezvous
at Leipzig. At the same time the Confederation
of the Rhine began to dissolve. The kingdom
of Westphalia was upset on the Ist October, and
on the 8th Bavaria joined Austria. The toils were
ete i ty we Napoleon, and between the 14th
and 1 October he was crushed in that battle
of the Titans at Leipzig, and, brushing aside the
Bavarians who tried to stop him at Haynan, on the
Ist November led back the remnant of his army,
some 70,000 strong, across the Rhine at Mainz.
The allies now made overtures for peace on the
basis of natural frontiers, which would have left
France the fruits of the first Revolution—viz.
Belgium, the left bank of the Rhine, Savoy, and
Nice; but Napoleon could not be content with such
curtailment of his power. Evading at first the
proposal, he would have accepted it, but with
we erg ualifications, when too late. The in-
v of followed. The allies issued on
the Ist December a manifesto saying they were
war against Napoleon alone, and advanced
wi separate armies. Secliwarzenberg led the
Austrians through Switzerland, Bliicher crossed
the Middle Rhine towards Nancy, while the north-
erm army passed through Holland. Napoleon had
yet hopes of success on account of the forces he
still had in the German fortresses, the mutual
jealousies of the allies, his connection with the
emperor of Austria, and the patriotism which
would be aroused in France by invasion. But the
allies gave him no time to utilise these influences,
and Paris was not fortified. Napoleon carried on a
campaign full of genius, gaining what advantage
he could from the separation of his enemies. He
attacked Bliicher and won four battles in four days
at ce oN (February 10, 1814), Montmirail
(11th), Chateau-Thierry (12th), and Vauchamps
(13th). . These successes would have enabled him to
make a reasonable , but his personal position
forbade this, and he tried subterfuge and delay.
The allies, however, were not to be trifled with, and
in the beginning of March signed the treaty of Chau-
mont, which bound them each to keep 150,000 men
on foot for twenty years. The battles of Craonne
and Laon followed, in which Napoleon held his
own, but saw his resources dwindle. On the 18th
March the conferences at Chatillon came to an
end, and on the 24th the allies determined to march
on Paris. Marmont and Mortier, with less than
30,000 men, could make no head against them,
while Napoleon himself tried a fruitless diversion
against their communications. Joseph Bonaparte
withdrew Maria Louisa and the king of Rome to
Tours. On the 30th March the allies attacked
Paris on three sides, and in the afternoon the
French marshals offered to capitulate. eg Sorat
when he learned the real state of affairs, hurried
up in rear of the allies, but was too late, and had
to fall back to Fontainebleau. His position was
desperate, and to add to his difficulties Wellington,
whose career of success had gradually cleared the
French out of the Peninsula, had now led his
—— army across the Pyrenees into France
itself.
Napoleon therefore at first offered to abdicate in
favour of his son, but, when he found that would
not be sufficient, he signed an unconditional abdi-
cation on the 11th April 1814. He was given the
sovereignty of the island of Elba, and the Bourbons
in the person of Louis XVIII. were restored to the
throne of France. But the condition of affairs was
very precarious. The return of the Bourbons was
most unpopular. It indeed restored the parlia-
ment, but it unsettled the ition of publie men
and the title to estates. The army was disgusted
at the appointment to commands of emigrés who
had fous against France. The church n to
cause alarm to the holders of national property;
and by the release of prisoners and the return of the
isons of German fortresses very large numbers
of Napoleonic soldiers became dispersed over France.
The coalition, too, broke up, and fresh alliances
began to be sought with a view to check the aggres-
sive spirit which Russia seemed inclined to manifest.
Altogether affairs in Europe and France were in
such a state as to make it not impossible that the
magic of Napoleon’s name might replace him in
power. He accordingly resolved on making the
attempt, left Elba on February 26, 1815, and
landed on the French coast on the Ist March. On
the 20th he entered Paris, having been joined by
the army. He had the advantage of being able to
appear as the liberator of France from the yoke put
upon her by foreigners, but he could only re-
establish his position in the face of the rest of
E by war, and he was not quite the Napoleon
of old, for his physical powers had declined, he had
become stout, and had attacks of illness, sleepiness,
and indolence. He had been epileptic from his
youth. His mind and genius were unimpaired,
and his conception of the Waterloo campaign was
pny and brilliant as of yore, but the execution
394 NAPOLEON II.
NAPOLEON III.
Europe had declared war against him, and a new
coalition had been formed, but only two armies
were immediately ready to take the field; a mixed
foree under the Duke of Lf sta in Belgium,
and a Prussian army under Bliicher in the Rhine
provinces, The English army had its base on the
sea, and the Prussian on the Rhine, so that they
had diverging lines of operation. Napoleon's idea
was to strike suddenly at their point of ——
before they could concentrate, push in between
them, drive them apart, and then defeat each
Napoleon IIL, by name Caries Louis
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, the second emperor of the
French, was born at Paris on the 20th of April
1808. His father was Louis Bonaparte, king of
Holland, brother of the first emperor, and his
mother Hortense Beauharnais, Napoleon I.’s step-
daughter (see BONAPARTE). Louis Napoleon and
his elder brothers were nels proeanipere to the
imperial throne till the birth of a son to the
emperor cast them into a secondary position,
wl Louis Napoleon, the only survivor, was
separately. The plan was unexceptionable, re-
sembling that of his first campaign in 1796, and
the opening moves were successfully carried out.
Napoleon left Paris on the 12th June, his army
being then écheloned between Paris and the Belgian
frontier, so that the point where the blow would
fall was still doubtful. On the 15th he occupied
Charleroi, and was between the two allied armies,
and on the 16th he defeated Bliicher at Ligny
before Wellington could come to his assistance.
So far all had gone well with him; but now appar-
ently his ae was not sufficient to cope rapidl
with the difficulties that no doubt beset him through
the shortcomings of his staff, and the spirit of
mutual distrust that reigned among his officers.
He did nothing till the morning of the 17th, and
it was not till 2 p.m. that he sent Grouchy with
33,000 men to follow the Prussians in the supposed
direction of their retreat towards Liége, pom keep
them at a distance whilst he turned against
Wellington. But he had lost his opportunity ; the
wasted hours had enabled the Prussians to dis-
appear, and he did not know the fact that Bliicher
had taken the resolution to move on Wavre, giving
up his own communications in order to reunite
with Wellington. The latter had retired to a pre-
viously-chosen position at Mont St Jean, and re-
ceived Bliicher’s promise to lead his army to his
assistance. Soon the 18th, when Napoleon attacked
the Duke, unknown to him the bulk of the Prussian
army was hastening up on his right flank while
Grouchy was fruitlessly engaged with the Prussian
rear-guard wen This led to the crowning defeat
of Waterloo, where Napoleon’s fortunes were finally
wrecked. He fled to Paris, and abdicated for the
last time on 22d June; and, finding it impossible to
escape from France, he surrendered to Captain
Maitland of the Bellerophon at Rochefort on the
15th July. He was banished by the British govern-
ment to St Helena, where he arrived on the 15th
October 1815, and died there of cancer of the
stomach on the 5th May 1821.
The literature referring to Napoleon may be divided
into three categories: First, books dealing with his
military and political career by writers contemporary
with him or nearly so, such as Thiers’ Histoire du Con-
sulat et de (Empire; Jomini’s Vie politique et militaire
de Napoléon ( trans. 1885); Montholon and Gour-
gau ’s Mémoires pour servir a [ Histoire de France sous
‘apoléon ; and the memoirs of his generals, such as Mar-
mont, Masséna, and Sachet. Secondly, books touching
his private life by contemporaries, such as Bourrienne’s
Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte; Las Cases’ Journal of
Private Life and Conversations of Napoleon at St Helena;
Forsyth’s History of the Captivity of Napoleon at St
Helena, from Letters and Journals of Sir Hudson Lowe ;
O’Meara’s Napoleon at St Helena. In contrast to these
two classes, both inevitably one-sided, are works written in
a more critical spirit, such as those by Lanfrey, Jung, and
Guillois (1889) in France, with the relevant part of Taine,
and in England and America those by Seeley, O’Connor
Morris (1893), Lord Wolseley (1895), and W. M. Sloane
(1896-97 ). Most valuable also is the Correspondance de
Napoléon I, (32 vols.). See also articles BONAPARTE,
Cope Napvo.fox, France, Joséruine, WATERLOO,
WELLINGTON, and for his last resting-place, Pants (p. 765),
Napoleon II., King of Rome and Duke of
Reichstadt (1811-32), was the son of Napoleon I.
and Maria Louisa (q.v.).
drawn in 1832, at the death of Napoleon’s only
son, to become head of the House of Napoleon.
That house, astoundingly risen from the nursery of a
Corsican lawyer's wife to imperial and royal thrones,
thrust back into private life after a complete
mastery in Europe, was ages raised to imperial
dignity in the person of Napoleon IIL, only to
return to obscurity in the midst of appalling dis-
asters; and it failed to present one of the most
truly tragic dramas of all time through the want
of real grandeur in both Napoleons and in almost
all their blood. Had the nephew been born a scion
of the Bourbon honse, the part of Lonle- Patines
might have been his. But brought up by his
mother from the year 1815, precluded by exile
and imprisonment till he was far advanced in
the years of manhood from learning practical
politics, he became a theorist in statecraft and
a brooder on the Napoleonic legend which was his
only claim to the attention of the nation. He
received his early education at his mother’s resi-
dence, the castle of Arenenberg, in Switzerland,
on the borders of Lake Constance, Sent to the
mnasium at Augsburg, he not only acquired
there, as well as from the prolonged German sur-
rounceeie of his ae life, a marked German
accent, but also developed those features in his
individual character which were most akin to the
nn of his temperament—uncertainty and
indefiniteness of thought, philosophic dreaminess
laming every conviction, ambition touched with
fatalism firing a morally indifferent soul.
re was the real foster-mother of the
brighter and healthier side of his nature. Had he
been practical and a man of rectitude, he could
have extracted from his political and social experi-
ence of that country principles sufficiently clear
and wise to prove themselves the palladium of his
later reign. There he develo is aptitude for
military science ; he followed the courses of instruc-
tion given to the Swiss militia officers, Fairly
competent in artillery, in engineering, in the exact
sciences, in history, and in athletic exercises, he
wrote and published at Zurich (1836) a Manuel
@ Artillerie. He hastened with his elder brother
Louis into Italy in 1830 to assist the province of
Rom in its revolt against pontifical rule, an
expedition in which Louis perished of fever, and
he was himself severely stricken, but was nursed
out of danger by his tender mother. This expedi-
tion, thou peprang St he could act with energy
in the di sage of “eg see BH 8 was
a mere episode in that Swiss period of his life,
extending from 1824 to 1836, in which he was ex-
clusively a student and a writer. When at the
death of the Duke of Reichstadt he became the
head of that rootless growth, the Napoleonic
dynasty, he sought as a pretender to lean less
on any concrete historical claim to the throne of
France than on the petality of the French to a
vainglorious rule, and on the intellectual interest
with which he, as a man of letters, could invest
the so-called Napoleonic ideas. For sixteen years
he sued for the hand of France and the attention
of the world, interrupting twice the method of
literary courtship to make personal raids upon
the kingdom of Louis-Philippe. He had indeed a
NAPOLEON III.
395
fair chance. Outside of France, nationalities whose
emancipation had been planned by Napoleon L,
such as Poland, looked to him to effect their long-
deferred liberty (1831). In France he was an out-
law, beeause a formidable rival to Legitimacy ; in
the struggle between the junior branch of the
Bourbon dynasty and the forees at work since the
Revolution, the Bonapartists had a permanent
power of intervention and might enlist as their
own partisans the masses of Frenchmen who were
lukewarm politicians. Moreover, Napoleon I.’s
utter failure as an international politician had in
no wise shaken the organisation he had given to
France ; his home legislation had become part and
1 of the nation; French law, French public
education, French mili institutions, the joint
restoration of state and church stood forth as his
lasting work.
Almost a stranger to France in nurture of thought
and tone of mind, an adventurer rather than a pre-
tender, a philosopher rather than a man of action,
taciturn, speculative, driven from within by a
set motive rooted in a fixed idea, absorbed with
German mysticism and Italian wiliness in a career
so fateful to his mind that moral bridling could not
avail at its Lies at a philanthropist in some
of his dreams, an idealist in some of his deeds, the
of France at Boulogne. It was as grotesque a
failure as the one at Strasburg. Captured on the
shore, while endeavouring to make his escape to
the vessel that had brought him from England,
Louis Napoleon was now brought to trial, and
condemned to perpetual imprisonment in the for-
tress of Ham. Here he continued his Bonapartist
ropaganda by writing Aux Manes de I’ Empereur,
y, ents Historiques, Analyse de la Question de
la Suisse, Réponse a M. de
du Paupérisme, &c.; and actually took part in
editing the Dictionnaire de la Conversation, a
valuable French encyclopedia. After an imprison-
ment of more than five years, spent in patient
meditation, he made his escape (25th May 1846),
by the help of Dr Conneau, in the disguise of a
workman, and a the Belgian frontier, whence
he returned to England.
The revolution of February (1848) was a victory
of the working-men to whom some of his political
theories were especially addressed; he hurried
back to France as a virtual nominee of the
Fourth Estate, or working-classes in town and
country—an embarrassing position, from the obli-
gations of which the smashing up of the Parisian
socialists by the forces of General Cavaignac
martine, Extinction
heir of the French Cesar drifted to his destiny,
not without some vigour and brightness, a victim
to the alleged mission of his race, to which he was
enslaved as by hypnotic suggestion. He published
in 1832-36 his Réveries politiques, Projet de Constitu-
tion, and Considérations tiques et Militaires sur
la Suisse. In 1836, meecercea on the instability
of Louis-Philippe’s throne, the disaffection of some
of the middle classes, the ral favour of his
semi-socialistic theories with the advanced ies,
and the unspent prestige of Napoleon L, he put his
chances to a premature test by appearing among
the military at Strasburg, —— to bribe them
into his service by the prospect of their resuming
the paramount ition which soldiers could not
but oceupy in a Napoleonic state. The rash young
man was easily overpowered and conveyed to
America, without bei ht to trial. Being
under no pledge to stay in America, Louis Napoleon
returned to on hearing of his mother’s ill-
ness. He found her dying; two months later he
received her last sighs ( tober 1837): Although
the affair of Stras had naturally enough caused
many people to doubt the talent and the judg-
ment of Louis Napoleon, still Louis-Philippe,
who was politically an extremely timid monarch,
dreaded some new conspiracy ; the French govern-
ment demanded of Switzerland the expulsion of the
obnoxious, prince, M. Molé actually enjoining the
French am or to demand his rr, in case
of a refusal, Switzerland had neither the right nor
the wish to expel, and was on the point of going to
war for the distinguished refugee ( who was, in fact,
a Swiss citizen) when he resolved to prevent a
nteinn te leaving his adopted country. He now
roceeded to England, and settled in London.
ith certain members of the British aristocracy
he came to live on a footing of considerable in-
timacy, and he was also an object of languid
wonder and interest to the community generally,
but he impressed nobody with a belief in his future
and his genius; nay, Englishmen-erred so far as to
a that the ‘silent man’ was merely ‘dull.’
In 1838 he published in London his Idées Napo-
léoniennes, which, read in the ‘= of subsequent
events, are very significant. urope generally
regarded them as idle dreams; but in France the
book went through numerous editions. In 1839
Louis Napoleon was in Scotland, and took part in
the celebrated Eglinton tournament. Next year
(1840) he made his second attempt on the throne
released the future emperor. Being elected is a
for Paris and three other departments, he too
his seat in the Constituent Assembly, 13th June
1848. On the 15th he resigned his seat and left
France. Recalled in the following September by
a quintuple election, he once more appeared in
the Assembly and commenced his céadilature for
the presideney. The direct election of the head
of the state by the people, intended as a republican
institution, proved itself to be a 5 (cep tenate to
Cesarism, as Louis Napoleon’s peculiar conception
of a modern imperial democracy is called ; in the
constitutional history of the second empire such
appeals to unive suffrage bear the name of
plébiseites. Out of seven and a half million of
votes 5,562,834 were recorded for Prince Louis
Napoleon ; General Cavaignac, his genuine repub-
lican competitor, obtaining only 1,469,166.
On the 20th December he took the oath of allegi-
ance to the Republic. For a few days concord
seemed established between the different political
parties in the Assembly ; but the beginning of the
year 1849 witnessed the commencement of a series
of struggles between the president and his friends
on the one side and the majority of the Assembly
on the other—the latter being justly penetrated
with the conviction that Louis Na eon was not
devoted to the interests of the Republic, but to his
own. He became —— a traitor to his repub-
lican oath when, in league with monarchical Austria
and the king of Naples, he put down the republican
movement in Rome. Then he committed the com-
mand of the army to hands devoted to him, he estab-
lished his — rips pao in posts of honour and
influence, he gained by frequent visits the favour of
the provincial towns, and by acts of liberality and
clemency kept that of the people. He paraded
as a protector of popular rights and of national
rosperity, laying to the door of the Assembly the
eficiencies in his government. Resolved to trans-
form his tenure of power by periodical election into
a life-long one, he was hampered by the National
Assembly ; and, with the example of his uncle’s coup
@ état (18th Brumaire 1799) before him, he deliber-
ately threw off the mask of a constitutional presi-
dent, forswore his formal oath, and became a traitor
to all society. From that moment a perpetual
misunderstanding, badly cloaked by material pros-
perity and military flory, underlay Napoleon’s
relation to the French and to Europe generally.
His methods of government belonged to no acknow-
ledged régime.
396 NAPOLEON III.
NAPOLEON
He whom Victor Hugo has satirically called
Napoleon-le-Petit fatuously chose the anniversa
of the battle of Austerlitz and of Napoleon I.’s
coronation to rid himself by arms of the National
Assembly, to make himself absolute ruler with the
help of the military, and to muzzle all parliament-
ary opposition (2d December 1851). Imprison-
ment, ishment, deportation, the bloody repres-
sion of popular rebellion marked this black 1 4
work, in which the president was assisted by
Morny, Maupas, and St Arnauld. France, whether
wearied of the incompetent Democrats, or (as
Kinglake suppoees) ‘cowed’ by the terrible audacity
of the president, appeared to acquiesce in his act;
for when the vote was taken upon it on the 20th
and 2Ist of the same month, he was re-elected for
ten years, with all the powers he demanded, by
more than 7,000,000 suffrages. The imperial title
was assumed exactly a year after the coup d'état,
in aceordance with another plebiscitary expression
of the people’s will.
An unlawful empire was now legally established.
Men of astuteness and mediocrity took the helm
of the state. The parliamentary trappings of the
first empire were brought out. Resting on such
artificial props as the army and police, Napoleon
III. boasted that he was the upholder of law
and order. Political parties were either demor-
alised or broken. He gagged the press, awed the
bourgeoisie, and courted the clergy to win the
try. Liberals accepted him for fear of the
ialists; the Socialists applauded his plunder
of the Orleans family ; his duly-rewarded parasitic
supporters, such as Jean Fialin, made Vicomte de
Persigny, clung to him as to the fount of all honour
and profit; foreign monarchies accepted him as a
welcome ally in the struggle agaiust liberalism.
But unlike his uncle he did not seek matri-
monial alliance with the old royal houses. He
liked to profess himself the Cesar of the ple,
and led to the altar Eugénie de Montijo, a Gpatich
countess of ordinary blue blood. He endeavoured
to gain international acceptance for the just, but
in his mouth sophistical, doctrine as to the right of
ples to choose their own masters, availing him-
self of it in the annexation of Savoy and Nice to
France, in his Mexican intervention, and in his
handling of the Italian question. At home he kept
the people well in hand by an active economic
policy. The price of bread was regulated, public
works occupied and enriched the working-men in
towns, while others were undertaken to protect and
enhance in value the property of the peasantry.
The complete remodelling of Paris under the diree-
tion of Baron Haussmann raised considerably the
value of house-property, and by the opening of
a network of thoroughfares suitable for the
manceuvres of artillery and cavalry reduced to
a minimum the risk arising from insurrectionary
movements, The holding of international ex-
hibitions and the signing of treaties of commerce
with foreign states acted as a further inducement
to internal peace; but the formation of unscrupu-
lous financial, court, and clergy cliques was an ugly
blot on this picture of a purely material prosperity.
To the blandishments of work and wealth at home
Napoleon III. added the charm of a brilliant foreign
policy, We need not dwell on the Crimean war,
the campaign in Lombardy against Austria, to
which Napoleon was somewhat paradoxically en-
couraged by the-murderous attack of Orsini on his
erson, the expeditions to Mexico and to China.
n all those undertakings Napoleon enjoyed the
support if not always the actual co-operation of
Great Britain. To Prussia his relations were of a
very different kind, a mixture of jealousy and
patronage which boded ill for France in the event of
an actual conflict.
At the death of Morny in 1865 the soothing effect
of Napoleon's measures and also his power to con-
trol the nation were well-nigh spent. Again the
spirit of France stirred abroad. Napoleon's book,
a Viede César, which he wrote to extol his own
methods of government under the guise of honour-
ing Cesar, met with loud protests. Forewarned,
Napoleon reorganised his army, set himself up more
posi as an arbiter in Europe in order to flatter
1is subjects, and took a more conciliatory attitude
to liberalism. His concessions at home were taken
advantage of to set up a lar journalistic and
iamentary opposition. In 1 the Liberal
—— Ollivier was ted a personal interview
that he might explain to the emperor the wishes
of the people, and Rouher, Napoleon’s prime-
ninister, an advocate of absolutism, was dismissed
from office. New men were called into power with
Ollivier to liberalise the constitution. Some wrong-
headed Bonapartists suggested another coup d'état
against the Legislative mbly,now leavened with
opposition. Napoleon was firm enough to resist
such nefarious counsels, and appears to have been
fairly sincere in his latter-day liberalism. That it
was not yet too late to stem the tide of discontent
was shown by the result of another plebiscite (the
fourth), by which te grey new parliamen
scheme was sanctioned by 74 million votes (8t
May 1870). But burdened as he was by a new
policy at, home, by financial embarrassments and
worries in his own family, in ignorance of the
corruption that existed in his remo Ze war, he
sought in foreign affairs a diversion to his troubles,
and thus brought himself all of a sudden to the
edge of the abyss. For the Franco-German war,
see FRANCE ( Vol. IV. p. 782).
Napoleon III. surrendered himself a prisoner at
Sedan in September. Till the conclusion of
he was confined at Wilhelmshéhe. In March 1871
he — the empress at Chiselhurst, Kent, and
resided there till his death on 9th January 1873.—
His son, Eugéne Louis Jean Joseph, Prince Im-
perial of France, was born 16th March 1856. He
was in the field with his father in 1870, but after
the fall of Sedan esca) to England, where
he entered the Woolwich Military Academy,
and in 1875 completed with distinction a regular
course of study, Volunteering to serve with the
English ee in the Zulu campaign of 1879, he
was killed on Ist June, when reconnoitring, by a
party of Zulus in ambush.
See the apologetic Life Berg roi Jerrold (3 vols,
1874-77 ), and that by Archibald Forbes (1898); Delord,
Histoire du Second Empire (6 vols. Paris, 1869-75) ; Sim-
son, Die Beziehung ypoleons ITT, zu Pr ds
C. E. de ont a tab of the Coup d’Etat (Eng. trans.
2 vols. 1884); Hugo's Hist. d’un Crime (877): E.
Barlees, Life of the Prince Imperial (1880); and the
Memoirs of the Duke of Coburg, vols. iii. and iv. (1890).
Napoleon, Price. See BONAPARTE.
Napoleon (a 20-franc piece). See Louis p’OR,
Napoleon, a round game at cards, Five cards
are dealt to each player by one at a time, as at
whist. Each player in rotation to the dealer’s left
looks at his hand and declares the number of tricks
he will stand for, or whether he will . If all
, the first player must stand for one trick.
When a declaration is made subsequent players
must stand for more tricks or » If Nap (all
five tricks) is declared, no further declaration is
made, The stand-hand leads; the card he first
leads makes the trump suit. The other players
follow suit in rotation, as at whist, the winner of
the trick leading to the next. The cards rank as
at whist. A player not able to follow suit may
lay any ecard. No one is obliged to head the trick.
Te the stand-hand wins the number of tricks he s'
for, he receives so much for each trick from each of
- —<—S
NAPOLEONA
NARCOTICS 397
the other players. If he fails he similarly has to
pay all round. If Nap is declared and won, the
stand-hand receives double all round; if lost, he
only pays single. Sometimes this rule — to
four tricks, when Nap receives triple and only pays
single. There is no misdeal; errors in dealin
uire a fresh deal. A player who exposes a pe |
re all have declared, or declares out of turn,
cannot stand on that hand. A player who exposes
or detaches a card after the play has begun, or who
plays out of turn, is fined the value of three tricks
to the stand-hand, besides what he loses if the
stand-hand wins. If the stand-hand loses, the
layer fined receives nothing. The stand-hand is
iable to no ty for paposing or detaching a
card, nor for playing out of turn. If the stand-hand
revokes he loses what he stood for. If any other
player revokes, and the stand-hand wins, the revoker
to pay for all the players; if the stand-hand
loses he to ip Hed all but the revoker, who
receives nothing. rds played after the correction
of a revoke are bs oh See H. G. Playfair’s
Game of Napoleon (1884).
Napoleona (also called Belvisia), a tropical
African genus of myrtaceous plants, of which the
one known species N. imperialis has showy red,
white, or blue flowers, and a fruit resemb ing a
pomegranate.
Narbonne, a town in the French department
of Aude, on the La Robine branch of the al du
Midi, 8 miles from the Mediterranean and 93 by
rail ESE. of Toulouse. The removal since 1865 of
the fortifications has been an improvement, but
the place remains dirty and unattractive, with only
three crete) buildings. These are the Roman-
esque church St Paul (1229); the quondam
cathedral of St Just (1272-1332), only the fine
Gothic choir of which, 131 feet high, has been com-
pleted ; and the former archbishop’s palace, now
the hétel-de-ville, in one of whose three old towers
Louis XIII. in 1642 signed the order to arrest Cing
Mars, and in which are a museum, a library,
and a picture-gallery. The white heather-honey of
Narbonne maintains its ancient celebrity; ‘the
wine is chiefly used for blending purposes. Pop.
1872) 14,150; (1891) 27,056. arbonne is the
arbo Martius of the Romans, their earliest colony
end B.C.) beyond the Alps; and, situated on the
igh-road to Spain and the basin of the Garonne,
was a place of great commercial importance. Under
Tiberius it flourished greatly, its schools for a long
time rivalling those of Rome. About 309 A.D. it
became the capital of Gallia Narbonensis, and had
its capitol, forum, theatre, aqueducts, triumphal
arches, &c, In 412 it was taken by the Visigoths,
in 719 by the Saracens, from whom it was recove
Pepin in 759, to fall just a century later to the
arms of the Northmen. During the ilth and 12th
centuries it was a rous manufacturing city,
but subsequently it decayed. Varro and Mont-
faucon were natives.
Narcissus, according to a Greek fable, was
the son of the river god Cephissus and of the nymph
Liriope or Liricessa of Thespiw, in Bootia. He was
a youth of extraordinary beanty, of which he was
excessively vain ; and for this he was punished b
Nemesis by being made to fall in love with himself
on seeing the reflection of his own face in a fountain.
He died of this love-sickness; and on the place
where he died sprun bo the flower which bears his
name. The vee of Narcissns, narrated by Ovid,
is of comparatively late origin.
Narcissus, a genus of plants of the natural
order Amaryllidew, having a perianth of six equal
petal-like segments, and a bell-shaped corona of
Various magnitude. The species are natives of
the south of Europe, the north of Africa, and
the Se ee parts of Asia. The Common Daffo-
dil is the only one which can be regarded as
truly a native of Britain.
Many are cultivated in
gardens for the sake of
their beautiful and often
ee Ses, oe
in general a; r early
in the pea Some of
them are known by the
names of Daffodil (q.v.)
and Jonquil (q.v.). The
name narcissus is popu-
larly restricted to those
which have flat (not rush-
like) leaves, and a short
(not bell-shaped) corona.
Of these one of the best
known is the Poet’s Nar-
cissus (N. Poeticus),
with generally one-
flowe: scans the flower
white and fragrant, the
corona with a deeply-
coloured border; others
with one or two flowers
on the scape are in
common cultivation.
The Polyanthus Nar-
cissus (NV. Tazetta) has a
number of flowers on the
goene It grows wild in stony places near the
Mediterranean and eastwards ‘to China. Many
varieties of it are in cultivation. It is grown not
only in gardens and greenhouses, but in water-
glasses, like the hyacinth. It is very common in
pg in India, where it is highly esteemed as a
ower. The narcissi in general are propagated
either by seed or by offset bulbs. They succeed
best in a rich light soil. ‘
Narcotics (Gr. narké, ‘stupor’) are remedies
which produce stupor if the dose be increased
beyond a certain point. Opium is the most
important member of the group, and the type from
which most descriptions of the action of this class
of medicines have been drawn; but it includes
substances of very various properties. Some, as
aleohol, produce intoxication in lesser doses ; some,
as belladonna, delirium; most have a primary
stimulating effect: in fact, almost every one
presents some peculiarity in the way in which it
affects the system, and no satisfactory general
description of their minor effects is possible. Their
power of inducing sleep has procured for them the
names of Hypnotics and Soporifics ; while many of
them are termed Anodynes, from their possessing
the sn ng | of alleviating pain. Next to opium,
Henbane, Indian Hemp, and Chloral may
regarded as the most important narcotics. Numer-
ous artificially-produ organic compounds have
been introduced during the last few years, some of
which (e.g. paraldehyde, sulphonal ‘as hypnotics ;
antipyrin, exalgin—an aniline derivative—as ano-
dynes) will probably take a permanent place
among useful remedies.
Narcotics are usually administered either with
the view of inducing sleep or of alleviating pain or
spasm, , however, their action is much modified
by a variety of cireumstances—such as age, idiosyn-
¢
te’
Narcissus Poeticus.
, and prolonged use—they should be adminis-
with extreme caution, and, as a general rule,
pon under competent advice. The various quack
medicines for children which are known as Carmina-
tives, Soothing Syrups, &c. almost always contain
some form of opium, and are a fertile cause of the
great mortality that occurs in early life, especi-
ally among the poorer classes. All the narcotics
when taken in excess are poisonous (see POISONS),
398 NARCOTINE
NARWHAL
Narcotine (C..Hs,NO,) is one of the organic
bases or alkaloids oceurring in opium, in which it
usually exists in the proportion of 6 or 8 per cent.
It is nearly insoluble in water, but dissolves
ee in alcohol, readily in chloroform and
ether. Narcotine possesses fees! | slight alkaline pro-
perties; its salts do not ily crystallise, and
are even more bitter than those of morphia,
although the substance itself is almost taste-
less. When first discovered (in 1803) it was
supposed to be the stimulant principle of opium ;
but in reality it very little, activity.
Its sulphate has n used in India as a sub-
stitute for quinine. Narcotine yields a t
variety of compounds by decomposition, perhaps
the most interesting being vanillin, the flavouring
principle of vanilla.
Nard. See SprkeNARD.
Nardoo (Marsilea macropus), a plant of the
order Marsiles (see RHIzOCARPS), the only plant
of that order which is used in any way by man.
It is found in Australia, and affords important
supplies of food to the natives of some regions ;
it has also been
of great use to
some exploring
parties. It
* grows in places
occasionall
covered wit
water ; vegetat-
ing whilst mois-
ture abounds,
and then ex-
perigs | abund-
ance 0) n
clover-like efoli-
age, the leaves
consisting of four
leaflets at the
top of a stalk
some inches in
length, When
the water dries
up, the remains
of the plants are
often _ covered
with dried mud.
It is then that the spore-cases are gathered for
food. They are oval, flattened, about an eighth of
an inch in length, hard and horny, and requiring
considerable force to pound them when dry, but
becoming soft and mucilaginous when moistened.
The spore-cases, pounded with their contents, are
made into cakes like flour.
Nariad, a town in the presidency of Bombay,
29 miles SE. of Ahmadabad by rail. It does a
great trade in tobacco and ghee, and has a govern-
ment experimental farm. Pop. about 30,000,
Narragansett Bay. See Ruope IsLanp.
Nardoo ( Marsilea macropus).
Narses, a statesman and general, and almost
the last stay of the old Roman empire in Italy,
was born in Persian Armenia about 475 A.D., and
being a eunuch was probably sold as a slave in
childhood, From some menial office in the imperial
household at Constantinople he rose to the post of
keeper of the privy-purse to the Emperor Justinian,
In 538 he was sent to Italy in command of a wf
of troops, professedly to act in concert wit
Belisarius (q.v.), but in reality, it is believed,
with a secret commission to observe and to control
that general. After some successes Narses, having
disputes with Belisarius, assumed an independent
authority ; but his separate command was unfor-
tunate, and he was recalled to Constantinople in
539. After some years, however, Belisarins was
recalled, and Narses was appointed to the chief
command in Italy. His conduct of that expedition
extorted the admiration even of his enemies. Not
having the command of a sufficient number of
transports, he marched his army along the whole
cirenit of the shore of the Adriatic, and, while the
enemy's fleet were still in possession of the sea, was
enabled to encounter them at Tagine (in the
Apennines), where, after a desperate engagement,
the Ostrogoths were totally defeated, and their
king, Totila, slain. Narses took ion of
Rome, and, after a series of successes both in
Southern and Northern Italy, completely extin-
—— the Gothic power in that peninsula.
ustinian appointed Narses prefect of Italy in 554.
He fixed his court at Ravenna, and continued till
the death of Justinian to administer the affairs of
Italy with vigour and ability. But he was —_
with avarice ; and his exactions pressed so heavily
on the exhausted resources of the population that
on the death of Justinian the Romans complained
to Justin of the exactions of Narses, and that
emperor deprived him in 567 of his office. He is
accused of thereafter intriguing with Alboin, kin
of the Lombards, for a new invasion of Italy ; an
he died at Rome about 573. See G Jus-
TINIAN ; and Hodgkin’s Jtaly and her In
Narthex. See Basiiica.
Narva, a Russian town 101 miles WSW, of St
Petersburg, on the Narova, 10 miles from its mouth
in the Gulf of Finland. The navigation of the
Narova is impeded by a waterfall near Narva, 14
feet high, which is taken advantage of for driving
cotton-mills, sawmills, &c. Pop. 8600. Charles
XII. (q.v.) won a great victory here in 1700.
Narvaez, Ramon Marta, general and states-
man, was born at Loja, in Andalusia, 5th August
1800, and when very young served in the war of
liberation against the French. In 1822, when a
reactionary party took up arms to destroy the work
of the revolution, Narvaez ranged himself on the
side of the liberals. The invasion of Spain by a
French army in 1823 forced him to retire from
active life until the death of Ferdinand VII. in
1832. In 1834 he maintained a hot struggle against
the Carlists of the ue Provinces, and in 1836
remy) routed the Carlist leader, Gomez, near
Arcos. He now became immensely popular, and
was ed as the rival of Espartero. In 1838
he cleared the district of La Mancha of kp |
and was appointed in 1840 captain-general of Ol
Castile. He took part in the insurrection against
Espartero that broke out at Seville in 1840, but,
that having failed, he was compelled to flee to
France, where he was shortly after joined by Queen
Christina (see MARIA CHRISTINA ), and commenced
those plots against the government of Espartero
which in 1843 effected its overthrow. In 1844 he
was appointed president of council, and created
Duke of Valencia. His ministry was thoroughly
reactionary, but was overthrown in 1846. After a
brief exile as special ambassador at the French
court, he returned to power from 1847 to 1851, in
1856-57, and again in 1864 and in 1866; and,
despite the efforts of O'Donnell and Prim, he
retained power till his death, 23d April 1868.
Narwhal ecg serirty a genus of Cetacea,
belonging to the Odontocetes or toothed whales
(see WHALE); it is characterised by the presence
in the adult male of a long tusk, and by the early
disappearance of the other teeth, and by other
structural points of less importance. The tusks
represent canine teeth, and there are sometimes
a pair of them present, lying side by side in the
upper jaw; there is such a specimen in the Cam-
bridge’ Museum. When there is only one tusk,
it is the left; rarely the female has a tusk, so
rarely, however, that there are only three instances
NASEBY
NASH 399
on record. There is only one species known, M.
monoceros, which inhabits the northern seas, and
has been on one or two occasions stranded on
British shores; it was first recorded in Britain
by Vulpius from the Isle of May in 1648; another
was observed in 1800 in the Wash in Lincolnshire.
It is common off the shores of Greenland, and is
hunted for its oil as well as ivory; as the creature
is gregarious, sometimes travelling in herds ‘of
many thousands,’ it is captured in considerable
abundance. In early times the tusk of the nar-
whal was valued in medicine, and to this day is so
used by the Chinese. The ivory is very fine, and
in the castle of Rosenborg at Copenhagen is a throne
of the kings of Denmark made of this substance.
The female narwhal is more spotted than the
male, and the young darker. The fact that the
female has not the tusk seems to negative the view
that it is of use in spearing fish; it is no doubt
used by the males for fighting—for examples are
seldom unbroken. Fabricius thought that their
ase was to break and keep open holes in the ice
during the winter, and observers have seen such
breathing-holes crowded with heads of narwhal and
other whales.
Naseby, a Northamptonshire parish, 7 miles
SW. of Market-Harborough. Here, on 14th June
1645, 7500 royalists under Charles I. and Prince
Rupert were totally defeated by 14,000 parlia-
mentarians under Fairfax and Cromwell, the king
losing cannon, baggage, and 5000 prisoners.
‘blockhead obelisk,” which does not mark the
battlefield, was erected in 1823 on the Naseby
ridge (648 feet). See Gardiner’s History of the
Great Civil War (vol ii. 1889).
Nash, Jonny, architect, born in London in 1752,
after the usual course of training for his profession
entered into some building speculations which
enabled him to buy a small property in Car-
marthen. Here in fresh speculations he lost much
money ; therefore, in 1792, he returned to London
and architecture, in which he speedily rose to emin-
ence. On the strength of a patent (1797) for im-
provements in the construction of the arches and
piers of bridges, he claimed a great part of the credit
of introducing the use of metal girders, A large
part of his time was occupied in designing and
constructing mansion-houses for the nobility and
gentry in England and Ireland, but he is chiefly
celebrated in connection with the great street
improvements in London. From February 1815
when he was appointed ‘architect, valuer, an
— to the Board of Woods and Forests,’ down
till near the end of his professional career, he
was busily ed in the planning of routes,
Foont S of buildings, and fixing of sites.
it Street and the Regent’s Park terraces are
pce of his designs. The Pavilion at Brighton,
about which he published a book, was another of
his works. He retired from his profession in 1834,
and died May 13, 1835. Nash, notwithstanding
his many defects, possessed great power of effective
grouping, as is well shown in his works. In the
architecture of mansion-houses, the designing of
‘interiors’ was his forte.
Nash, RicHarp, better known as ‘ Beau Nash,’
was born the son of an impoverished Welsh gentle-
man at Swansea, October 18, 1674. He was edu-
cated at Carmarthen and Jesus College, Oxford,
held for some time a commission in the army, and
next entered at the Middle Temple, but found
greater attractions in the dissipations of society
than the pursuits of law. e conducted the
pageant at the entertainment of William III. by
the Inns of Court, and is said to have declined the
honour of knighthood without a pension. He
made a shifty living by gambling, but in 1704 he
found his true function as master of the ceremonies
at Bath, where he conducted the public balls with
a splendour and decency never before witnessed.
In this way he came to acquire an imperial influence
in the fashionable society of the place. It appears
that he was also distinguished by his sentimental
benevolence. He played hard and successfully ;.
yet if he heard an individual sighing behind his
chair: ‘Good Heavens! how happy would that
money make me,’ Nash would thrust his own
winnings into his hands, with theatrical generosity,
and exclaim: ‘Go, and be happy.’ His own
equipage at this period of his career was sump-
tuous. He used, we are told, to travel to Tun-
bridge in a post-chariot and six greys, with outriders,
footmen,
rench-horns, and every other appendage
of expensive parade. He is praised for the great
care which he took of the morals of the young
ladies who attended the Bath balls, always putting
them on their- guard against needy adventurers
like himself. In his old age Beau Nash sank into
poverty, and often felt the want of that charity
which he himself had never withheld. He died at
Bath, February 3, 1761, and received a_ public
funeral. A Life by Goldsmith was published
anonymously in 1762.
Nash, THOMAS, a busy writer in the last decade
of Elizabeth’s reign, was ‘born at Lowestoft in 1567,
studied almost seven years at St John’s College,
Cambridge, travelled abroad, visiting Italy and
Germany, and thereafter plunged recklessly into
the life of letters in Samui, and forced a shifty
living from fate until the close. He kept ever a
high heart amid manifold troubles, and, satirist as
he was, his inexhaustible gaiety and goodness made
him the darling of his friends—the ‘sweet boy ‘and
‘sweet Tom’ of Greene and Francis Meres. He
was dead by 1601, as prematurely as Marlowe,
Peele, and Greene. Nash had a genuine relish
for good literature; he praises warmly Rabelais,
Aretino, Spenser, Sidney, and Marlowe. He had
also a great faculty for vituperation, and the times
were favourable for its exercise. His first writing
was his vigorous preface to Greene’s Menaphon
(1589), and this was quickly followed by the
Anatomie of Absurditie (1589), a satirical dis-
cussion on social manners; a series of impetuous
tractates flung into the Marprelate controversy ;
Pierce Penilesse, his Supplication to the Divell
(1592), full of keen observation and satire, and
rich in antobiographical interest; Strange Newes
(1593); and Have with you to Saffron Walden
(1596), containing a vehement onslaught on Gabriel
Harvey ; The Terrors of the Night, or a Discourse
of Apparitions (1594); Christ’s Tears over Jeru-
salem (1593), a long, edifying discourse ; The Un-
fortunate Traveller, or the Life of Jack Wilton
400 NASHUA
NATAL
(1594), the best specimen of the apa payed tale in
our literature before Defoe ; Isle of Dogs
(1597), which was at once suppressed, and is now
lost, and for which the author was sent to prison ;
and Lenten Stuffe (1599), ‘in praise of the red
herring,’ really a humorous description of Yar-
mouth. The tragedy of Dido was written in
collaboration with Marlowe; Summer’s Last Will
and Testament, by Nash alone,
See the Memorial Introduction in Dr Grosart’s Com-
plete Works of Thomas Nashe (6 vols. 4to, Lond. 1883-84) ;
also chap. vi. of Jusserand’s work, The English Novel in
the Time of Shakespeare ( Eng, trans. by Eliz)Lee, 1890).
Nashua, a angesaser ge | city of New Hamp-
shire, is 40 miles by rail NW. of Boston, at the
junction of the Merrimac and Nashua rivers. The
‘alls of the latter, rendered available by a canal 3
miles long, supply motive-power to many manu-
facturing establishments, including very extensive
cotton-factories and ironworks, paper and carpet
mills, &c. Pop. (1880) 13,397; (1900) 23,898.
Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, is on the
navigable Cumberland River, 200 miles above the
Ohio, and 185 miles by rail SSW. of Louisville.
The city, which is one of the principal railway
centres in the southern states, is built mainly on
the left bank of the river, which is crossed by a
suspension bridge and a railway drawbridge to the
suburb of Edgefield. Nashville is a handsome,
well-built: town, with an imposing state capitol of
limestone ($1,500,000), a penitentiary (400 cells),
and a large lunatic asylum. As an educational
centre the city is of considerable importance. The
nblic-school system is excellent ; and here are the
Nashville University (1806), Vanderbilt University
(Methodist Episcopal South, 1875), Central Ten-
nessee College (for coloured Methodists, 1866),
Fisk University (Congregationalist, 1867, with
few but coloured students), Roger Williams Uni-
versity (Baptist, also for coloured students), the
state normal college, &c. Most of these institu-
tions are open to both sexes, The city has a large
wholesale trade, the staples being cotton and
tobacco ; while its manufactures, which are rapidly
extending, include cotton, flour, oil, paper, furni-
ture, timber, leather, iron, and spirits, Founded
in 1780, Nashville became the legal capital in 1843.
In December 1864 the Confederates under Hood
were completely defeated here by General Thomas.
Pop. (1880) 43,350 ; (1890) 76,168 ; (1900) 80,865,
Nasik, a town of Bombay, on the Godavari, 31
miles from its source, with a on (4
miles distant), 100 miles NE. of mbay. It
ranks as one of the most sacred of Hindu places
of pilgrimage, the banks and even the bed of the
river being crowded with temples and shrines.
Formerly it was a Mahratta capital ; now it manu-
factures paper, cotton, and excellent brass and
copper work. Pop. (1891) 24,429, not including
at the cantonment of Deolali.—The district
of Nasik has an area of 5940 sq. m., and a pop, of
843,582. See MAGIC SQUARES,
Nasmyth, JAmes, inventor of the steam-
hammer, was the son of Alexander Nasmyth (1758-
1840), portrait and landscape painter, best known
by his portrait of Burns. He was born in Edin-
burgh, August 19, 18C8. From boyhood he evinced a
turn for mechanics, and in his father’s house became
accustomed to use a lathe. At seventeen he con-
structed a small working steam-engine for grindin
his father’s colours, and made besicles five models o'
a condensing steam-engine, and later a small road
locomotive. Employed in 1829 by Maudsley, he
started in business at Manchester in 1834, gained
a good connection, and established at Patricroft
what afterwards became known as the Bridge-
water Foundry, The invention of the Steam-
hammer (q.v.) was conceived in 1839, the occasion
being the necessity for forging an enormous wrought-
iron paddle shaft. But it did not take shape till
1842, when he found the steam-hammer as he had
lanned it at work at Creuzot in France. It had
beat adapted from his own scheme-book. Nasmyth
patented his invention on his return to England,
and it was adopted by the Admiralty in 1843.
Business increased, an a 1856 he was able to
retire with a handsome fortune, and settled at
Penshurst, Kent. Amongst his other inventions
was a steam pile-driver. He published Remarks
on Tools and Machinery (1858), and a volume on
the Moon (1874). He died in London, May 7,
1890. See Life by Smiles (1883),
Naso. See Ovip.
Nassau, formerly a German duchy, now Wies-
baden, a district of the Prussian province of Hesse-
Nassau (q.v.). The soil is fertile and produces
some of the most esteemed Rhenish wines. The
chief towns are Wiesbaden (q.v.), the ital of
the district ; Schwalbach, Schlangenbad, Fachin-
gen, Selters, and Geilnau.—The ago of Nassau,
the elder branch of which reigned till 1866, dates
from the 10th century. The younger branch in-
herited in 1544 the principality of Orange (q.v.),
and as the princes of Orange took an important
place in European history (see HOLLAND). The
reigning Duke of Nassau sided against Prussia in
1866, and his duchy was incorporated with Prussia
(see PrussIA, GERMANY); and on the extinction
of the male line of the Orange branch vd the death
of William IIL of Holland, in 1890, the Duke of
Nassau became Grand-duke of Luxemburg.
Nassau, the capital of New Providence, is the
centre of the trade and seat of government of the
Bahamas (q.v.) and a bishop's see. Pop. 5000.
Nasturtium, the botanical name properly of
the Water Cress (see CRESS), but also the popular
designation of the Indian Cress (7 ‘um
jus). The genus Troprolum is the type of the
small natural order Tropmolacer, and comp
some beautiful garden climbers, such as the widely
cultivated Canary Creeper (7. aduncum), a native
of Pern, and the more recently introduced 7,
eciosum, a native of Chili, which has established
itself in many districts in the north of Scotland
and in Wales, and garlands the walls and roofs of
cottages in summer and autumn with its festoons
of vivid leaves and brilliant crimson flowers.
The Indian Cress is also a native of Peru; the
whole plant is characterised by a warm pungent
taste and tonic stimulant, and antiscorbutiec pro-
perties are ascribed to it. The flowers are em-
ere as an ingredient in salads and for garnish-
ng the same. The seeds when green are pickled
in salt and vinegar and used as a substitute for
capers. As an ornamental garden climber or
creeper, the Indian Cress has been long known and
admired by cottagers and others.
Natal, a British colony on the south-east coast
of Africa, was discovered by Vasco da Gama on
the Christmas-day (hence its name) of 1497. In
the 18th century intermittent trading was ed
on between the Cape Colony and Natal, which in
1800 was pose by ninety-four distinct tribes of
natives. From 1805 to 1828 the despotic Zulu chief
ge (Chaka) enforced his own rule and that
of his own immediate tribe or family clan, the
Amazulu, over the congeries of tribes
from the Limpopo on the north to the Kei River
in the sonth. 'yaka was killed in 1828 a
oo faction who placed his younger brother
ingaan on the throne. Predatory Boers who had
left the Cape Colony to escape British rule divided
into parties and settled in the territories now
known as Natal and the Transvaal; and conflicts
NATAL
401
between Boers and natives were very frequent. In
1838 an embassy of Boers were massacred by Din-
gaan, and a foree of Boers proceeded to Zululand
to avenge their friends. The country was at this
time divided into two factions, one ae con Din-
, and the other his younger brother Umpande
' (Panda). The Boers entered into a secret treaty
with the latter, and a combined attack was made
on , who fled and was killed. Panda sne-
eeeded him as king, and the Boers were recognised
as lords of the of Natal. In December 1838
Sir George Napier, the Cape governor, had sent a
detachment of Highland troops to take ion
of the inland ss ae Port Natal; but owing
to the Cape Kaffir disturbances the Highlanders
were withdrawn, and the Boers at once hoisted the
of ‘the Republic of Natalia.’ Two British
ps of war were sent from the Cape to force a
landing at Durban. After a short struggle there
the Boers gave up the port, and fell k on
Pietermaritzburg, the cay ital, the name of which
is a compound of hristian name of Pieter
Retief and the surname of Gert Maritz, two
leaders of the Boers. Civil negotiations were then
entered on by Mr Cloete, and many of the Boers
accepted British rule and settled down in Natal,
forming there, as a portion of them and their
disubedente still do, an important and loyal
section of the Queen’s subjects in that colony.
Those of the malcontents who crossed the Drakens-
berg Mts. and struck north soon found themselves
fighting — Mosilikatze (father of Lobengula
Matabeleland) in the territory now known as
the Transvaal. In 1843 Natal was officially
declared to be a part of the British dominions,
and the colony was formally annexed to the
Cape of Good Hope on the 3lst of May 1844.
At that time the natives numbered about 150,000,
although in the previous century their total
was nearly a million. But intertribal fights and
the struggles for supremacy of Tyaka scattered
the clans of Natal far and wide. Subsequent
— “agp sage ta by Lape re and its —
ant peace aborigines atal gradually re-
turned from distant places, and their numbers are
now nearly half a million. In 1855 there was a
flood in the colony and Zululand, and in the
ollowing year a very sanguinary fight for the Zulu
succession took place on the Natal northern border,
between two sons of Um le—viz, Cetewayo and
Umbulaze. After a bloody battle on the Tugela
River the forces of the former won the day and
Umbulaze’s beaten men took amy, in Na’ On
the 15th of Jnly 1856 Natal was declared to be a
te British colony, and it was then given
a limited form of representative institutions. Dur-
ing the decade ending with 1860 considerable
immigration from Great Britain took place, and
the immigrants of that time and their descend-
ants occupy the most of the land of the colony
to-day.
In Yara friction arose between Langalibalele, one
of the chiefs on the north-west boundary, and the
next greene Some of the chief’s young men
disobeyed the mandate of the =. (one to give
a guns. Orders were issued to apprehend
chief and certain of his followers. They re-
treated before the crown forces, but some of the
Natal volunteers and mounted police cut them off
in one of the mountain-passes ; bloodshed ensued,
and three well-known young colonists were killed.
Langalibalele esca; to utoland, but was
eaptured and brought back, tried very summarily
in Maritzburg, and banished to the Cape Colony.
measures were adopted by the poreass
i ibalele’s tribe and a neighbourin
tribe. The e government, however, interfere:
and sr the injustice which had been done to
the natives by the colonial authorities while under
a feeling of panic. Langalibalele remained in °
the Cape Colony till 1885, when he was allowed to
return to Natal as a prisoner on parole; he died
near Maritzburg in 1889.
In 1875 there being in the colony much dissatis-
faction with the methods of Downing Street rule,
Sir Garnet Wolseley was sent out to settle matters.
He promulgated a new constitution provsiing for
an extension of the representative system with the
check of certain eminent colonists, selected by the
crown, having seats in the Legislative Council as
nominee members. Sir Garnet Wolseley was suc-
ceeded by Sir Henry Bulwer. During the gover-
norship of the latter a feeling of disquiet was
shown in some quarters at the strength of the
colony’s neighbours, the Zulus under Cetewayo.
Sir Bartle Frere, Her Majesty’s High Commissioner
for South Africa, visited the colony and came to
the conclusion that in the interests of the British
colonists in South Africa it was necessary to break
the power of the Zulus. Despite the protests of
the Natal government and Sir Henry Bulwer, the
governor, an ultimatum which in itself was cal-
culated to precipitate hostilities was served on the
Zulu king, and war ensued (see ZULUS). In this
war Natal suffered severely in the lives of its young
colonists, in its treasure, and in the paralysis of its
trade. For several —— the colony was a camp-
ing-ground for British troops, for in 1881 the Trans-
vaal Boers invaded Natal to anticipate the advance
of English soldiers being sent to support those
beleaguered in the Transvaal garrisons; and the
fights of Schuin’s Hoogte, Ingogo, om, Nek, and
Amajuba (see MAJUBA HILL) were all fought on
British soil.
Natal is situated between. 29° 10’ and 31° 10’ 8,
lat., and covers an area of 18,750 sq. m.—more
than a third of that of England. Dur lies 800
miles ENE. of the — of Good Hope, and the
colony has a seaboard on the Indian Ocean of
180 miles. It is bounded on the N. by the
Tugela and Buffalo rivers, which separate it from
the Zulu Reserve and the Transvaal; on the
NW., W., and SW. by the Kwathlamba or
Drakensberg Mountains, and on the S. by the
Umtamvuna River, se ting it from Pondoland.
Towards the coast the Drakensberg Mountains
present a and almost inaccessible face ;
they gradually die away, however, into the
immense rolling plains of the interior, Many
offshoots from these mountains traverse the colony,
dividing it into a series of steps or plateaus, rising
from the coast region to the foot of the mountains,
and forming so many zones of natural productions.
The coast region, extending for 30 miles inland,
is highly fertile, the climate Seine subtropical and
healthy. In 1856 the cultivation of the sugar-cane
was introduced on the coast, and as an industry it
has thriven more or less ever since. Besides sup-
plying all South Africa with the staple, the value
of the sugar exported by the colony to England in
1894 was £75,629. The culture of the cane requir-
ing that continuous and arduous labour which the
natives did not supply, the Legislative Council had
to take steps to introduce immigrants from British
India. This immigration began in 1863, and in
1891 there were 35,000 coolies in the colony with
their attendant traders who followed them from
India. The Assam tea-plant was introduced in
1877, and steady progress has been made with the
industry, the annual yield being about 150,000 lb. ;
this is consumed locally, and as ine the colony
still imports tea largely. Coffee and tobacco have
been reared, as have also indigo, arrowroot, and
inger. All tropical fruits thrive well. The mid-
Es terrace is more fit for the cereals and usual
European crops; while on the higher plateaus along
402
NATAL
the foot of the monntains are immense tracts of
the finest pasturage for cattle and sheep.
The climate is very healthy; the thermometer
ranges between 90° and 38° F., but the heat even in
summer is seldom oppressive. The mean annual
pi ie at Anapidriecicr on a the capital, is
64°71°._ The winter begins in April and ends in
September. In the summer season the thunder-
storms are ve! uent and severe in the uplands,
The annual rainfall over the whole colony averages
nearly 40 inches, the test fall being in summer,
The colony has only one harbour wortliy of the
name, but that is the best on the south-east coast.
It is called Durban (q.v.) or Port Natal. The
harbour is of great consequence not only to the
colony, but to the empire, as it must one day be an
important coaling station. The principal rivers are
the Tugela, Buffalo, Umkomanzi, Umgeni, Um-
zimkulu, and Mooi. Like the majority of African
rivers, they are of little use for purposes of inland
navigation ; but their streams are permanent and
often available for irrigating purposes.
Coal is destined to play a prominent part in the
future of Natal, the area of the coal-measures being
estimated at 1400 sq. m. The coal is serviceable
for all ordinary pu , the government railways
being worked with 1t. Copper has been found, and
much is hoped from the iron near the coal. The
colony is also believed to be rich in other minerals,
such as asbestos, mica, and plumbago. Gold has
been found in the south and north. Great forests
of fine timber abound in the mountain-passes, while
many tracts along the coast are well wooded.
The chief towns are Pietermaritzburg, 54 miles in-
land, the seat of government and the chief military
station (pop. 1891, 17,500); Durban (25,512) ; Veru-
lam: and Pine Town near the coast, Harding in the
south, and Richmond, Weenen, Colenso, Greytown,
may eared and Newcastle, up country.
ne government of Natal is, since 1893, ad-
ministered by a governor, assisted by a ministry,
Legislative Council of eleven members, and a
Legislative Assembly of thirty-seven members.
The governor appoints ministers, and with their
advice the Legislative Council.
of course elective. The parliament lasts for four
years, unless dissolved before then. The colonists
were offered responsible government in 1883
with tees for native protection, but they
refused the offer. A narrow majority in the
council passed in 189] a bill providing responsible
government; and this measure was finally sane-
tioned the imperial authorities in 1893.
About 1 Natal was plunged into ecclesiastical
warfare. Bishop Colenso (q.v.), the then head of
the diocese, was declared heterodox by a party in
the church, and unsuccessful efforts were made in
South Africa and England to d him. A rival
church was, however, established on the volunta’
system, entitled the Church of England in South
frica, whose head bears the title of Bishop of
Maritzburg. The Presbyterian (Scottish and
Dutch), Roman Catholic, and other churches are
well represented ; many stations of the Wesleyan,
American, Norwegian, and Berlin Missions exist;
and the order of the Trappists do good work near
Pine Town. Schools are multiplying fast.
The chief passes through the Dragensberg are
Van Reenen’s, Oliver’s Hoek, Bezuidenhout, De
Beer's, and ine Nek. Most of the rivers have
been substantially bridged, and a very energetic
policy of public works is being pursued by the
government. A railway runs through the colony,
and will shortly connect the coast and the Free
State and Transvaal. The government lines, 300
miles long, are also laid north and south of Durban
for short distances along the coast. Durban and
Maritzburg were connected by the railway in 1880.
The Assembly is} E
Natal’s chief exports are wool, sugar, ivory, and
hides. The wool ex to Great Britain in 1889
was valued at £752,182, and weighed 29,489,716 Ib.
The clips of three seasons from Natal and Overberg
were as follows : in 1886-87, 63,300 bales ; in 1887—
88, 76,000 bales ; and in 1888-89, 78,500 bales. The
total value of exports in 1889 was £1,656,318.
These comprise, in addition to those named, cotton,
coffee, arrowroot, feathers, molasses, rum, horn:
maize, and skins. In 1856 the ris amoun
to £56,562; in that year the value of the im-
ports was £102,512. In 1889 the imports reached
£4,527,015. In 1894 the Sor prey were £1,197,611,
the imports £2,316,596 ; and that year the revenue
(mainly from railway receipts and customs) was
£1,011,017, the expenditure £1,082,373. In 1857
the revenue was only £43,780. The proseecisy:
of Natal is largely attributable to gold -
eries in the Transvaal. The bulk the Natal
trade is with the mother-country, although a con-
siderable business is done with Australia, India,
and North and South America. Certain kinds of
grape thrive well in Natal, and the wine industry
is now engaging the attention of the colonists..
In 1876 the population numbered 326,957 (20,490
whites); in 1889, 531,158, divided as follows:
37,390 whites, 34,480 Indian coolies, and 459,288
natives. The natives possess horses, cattle, —
&e. They are a fine race physically, gifted wi
high intelligence, of frank and courteous a
and very easy to govern. Upwards of 2,000,
acres of land have been set apart as locations for
the — and over er. > have “—
ni by grant or purchase by Europeans, the
ance of land being jotained for allotment to new
settlers,
The common law in the colony is that prevailing
in Holland during the 16th and 17th centuries,
modified by statute law in the same way practically
as obtains in all the South African states. The
chief difference between English and Roman Dutch
law rests in the laws of marriage and inheritance,
but the difference is now by statute largely optional.
The coolies are subject to the laws regulating
uropeans, as well as to special laws controlling
Indian immigration. The natives are with few
civilised and exempted exceptions subject in civil
matters to native law, which is quite different
from colonial law. The Supreme Court consists
of the chief-justice and two puisne justices; and
there are stipendi magistrates and adminis-
trators of native law in all important centres,
Eland a and hartebeest (see ANTELOPES) are
ig game left, and these have been made
royal game. There are stringent laws for the
protection of deer and game-birds. Alligators are
met with in a few of the central and northern
rivers, Snakes, both colubrine and viperine, are
in plentiful distribution throughout the colony.
Many of the snakes are innocuous, and fatal bites
from the poisonous species are rare. The python,
which attains a size, is to be found in the
seacoast forests, in the reeds by the river-sides,
The hippopotamus is still to be met with at the
mouths of some of the northern rivers.
See The Annals of Natal (1889), by John Bird; Natal
Almanac; Annual Blue Book; Our Colony of Natal,
Walter Peace; The Natal Sugar Ind , by W.
Africa, the writer of this article;
South Africa, Past and veces CEST) eee Noble ;
Notes on Natal, by Sir John Robinson, Lecbyed |
Brooks's Natal (1869), by the late Dr Mann; Laws
the only
Na a seaport of Brazil, capital of the state
of Rio Grande do Norte, stands at the mouth
of the river of that name. It exports principally
———
NATCHEZ
NATIONAL DEBT 403
cotton and sugar (nearly £200,000 annually). Pop.
10,000.
Natchez, capital of Adams county, Mississippi,
is on the east k of the Mississippi River, B14
miles by rail and about 280 by water NNW. of
New Orleans. It is built mainly on a high bluff,
looking out far over the cypress aves ce
Louisiana; the part of the city along the k,
where the heavy shipping business (mainly in
cotton) is transacted, is known as Natchez-under-
the-Hill. The public buildings include a Roman
Catholic cathedral and a United States marine
hospital. Natchez, which was settled by the
French in ‘1716, derives its name from a former tribe
of Indians (see MOUND BUILDERS). Pop. (1870)
9057; (1880) 7058; (1900) 12,210.
National Convention (1792-95). See
Vol. IV. p. 780; GIRONDISTS, J ACOBINS,
ROBESPIERRE.
National Covenant. See Covenant.
National Debt. National or public debts
although of early origin were relatively of small
importance before the development of the modern
stem of banking and credit, and it is only during
the present century that they have become almost
universal on a considerable scale (see Gilbart on
Banking, sect. i.). So long as it was n
either to give pledges such as crown jewels or to
=< ified revenues, it was not possible that
public debts could attain any great magnitude.
As soon, however, as governments were able to
borrow simply on credit, national debts in the
modern sense of term grew rapidly. In less
than a century after the foundation of the Bank of
England (1694), when for the first time in English
history the item ‘Interest and Management of the
Public Debt’ a in the national accounts,
Adam Smith felt compelled to enter a protest
against ‘ rogress of the enormous debts which
at t (1776) oppress, and will in the long-run
probably ruin, all the great nations of Europe.’ At
that time the public debts of the civilised world
were, however, only about one-tenth of their
resent aggregate amount, which exceeds five
Shoasina taillion nds sterling, exclusive of
loeal obli Ithough the English national
debt ved its greatest augmentation during the
great Napoleonic wars, the general indebtedness of
civilised nations has increased most rapidly since
1848. In fact since that year it has been caleu-
lated that there has been an annual average
deficit in the public accounts of the worid of over
£100,000,000. In 1862 there were quoted on the
London Stock Exchange f public stocks to
the amount of nearly £700,000,000, whilst ten years
later these abtabiong had increased to nearly
£2,500,000, At the present time there are
more than one hundred and fifty public securities
dealt in the London market (see Adams on Public
Debts, part i. chap. i). Seeing then that national
debts are now practically universal in the civilised
world, and that the amounts and conditions under
which they are held are constantly changing, a
purely historical or statistical account is plainly
out of the question in the limits of the present
article. It will only be possible to indicate the
ak apr: characteristics and principles involved,
and some of the leading points of controversy.
As regards origin, undoubtedly the most important
cause of public indebtedness is, and always has
been, war-expenditure. Thus the Napoleonic wars
increased the English debt by over £600,000,000,
the United States civil war cost the victors
£450,000,000, and the Franco-German war added
£390,000,000 to the total of national indebtedness.
In-recent years, however,’ governments have
added largely to their indebtedness by borrowing
for various public purposes of an industrial or
social character. In France especially, in spite of
t changes of government, eependiare of this
ind has gone on increasing at an alarming rate ;
the amount of taxation per head of population has
increased by seventy hed cent., and this is largely
due to the growth of administrative functions on
the part of the state. In the British colonies also
the rapid increase of public indebtedness must be
ascribed principally to the same cause. The pro-
sress of civilisation necessarily imposes, as Adam
mith, Mill, and other economists have pointed
out, new industrial functions upon governments,
and it is impossible that these can in all cases be
fulfilled in a directly remunerative manner. But,
apart from this natural growth, in recent years a
quasi-socialistic tendency has become pronounced,
which has involved a large increase in public ex-
penditure. The full importance, however, of this
element can only be seen when account is taken
of local taxation and indebtedness, which would
require a separate investigation. It must also be
observed that money spent on debts incurred for
ublic er may in some cases—e.g. railways,
ocks, , be directly profitable, and in others—
og education, be i tly remunerative.
he nature of public debts differs in some respects
from that of private obligations. It is held, for
example, that the government of a sovereign state
has the discretionary power of enforcing the claims
of its subjects for payment of the national (as con-
trasted with domestic) obligations of another state.
The interests of bondholders may in consequence
give rise to diplomatic intervention and thus lead
to political disturbances, as has been shown recently
by the action of re ge a France in Egypt
and Tunis respectively. The growth of national
indebtedness has, however, hitherto been generally
accompanied by an increased sense of responsibility
founded on the importance of public credit, and
fundamental revolutions in government have not
generally given rise to repudiation, although the
new government wrk strongly disapprove of the
objects for which debt was incurred, or the
methods by which the money was raised—compare,
for example, the history of France during the
| sagt century and the recent revolution in Brazil.
n several occasions, however, specious arguments
for partial repudiation have been urged and met
with some popular countenance.
It has been maintained that if a debt has been
incurred in a depreciated currency—that is to say,
if the government has only received the capital
sum borrowed in this form—it is only yom
bound to pay back the principal with an allowance
for its depreciation. tis position was taken up
by some writers as regards the English debt in-
curred during the period of the bank restriction,
when Bank of d notes were inconvertible
and depreciated, more recently the same reason-
ing was advanced in the United States after the
civil war. The obvious answer, however, is that
a government would receive so much less capital if
the lenders were not assured against uncertain
depreciation. The amount actually received for a
nominal capital sum will clearly vary, according to
the standard in which the payment is to be ulti-
mately met (see Mill’s Political Economy, bk. iii.
chap. xiii.). In the same way it has sometimes
been maintained that if a government has bor-
rowed at a discount, and its stock has afterwards
risen to par, the fundholders have no equitable
right to this rise in value caused by the growth of
credit and national prosperity. But me the reply
is that the chance of their rise in the future was
taken into account by those who made the original
advances, and that they would have required so
much more interest if they were to be entitled
404
NATIONAL DEBT
simply to a return of the signet sun actually
advanced. The practical conclusion to be drawn
from this argument is that in general it is bad
= for a nation to borrow at a discount, because
t is deprived of the opportunity of conversion to a
lower rate of interest. Suppose, for example, that
a nation can only borrow at par at six per cent.,
it is better to do this than to borrow nominally at
three per cent., and create (roughly) double the
amount of capital obligation for the same sum
actually received. In the former case every fall in
the rate of interest at which the nation borrow
may be taken advantage of by a process of con-
version, whilst in the latter case the whole gain
accrues to the fundholders. It is of course assumed
that the debt may be paid off at any time (or
with a short notice), and that payment is not
definitely fixed for certain dates. The opposite
case of the United States shows the importance of
this provision.
It is, however, true as before that the certainty
of high interest for a fixed period will operate
upon the amount actually given for every nominal
hundred, but the point 1s that the state is better
fitted to take advantage of the probable ultimate
fall in the rate of interest, A somewhat similar
ment has been advanced by Dr Chalmers and
others to show that, considering the nature of a
state, it is better always to meet current expenses,
however extraordinary, ont of present taxation,
rather than to resort to loans. The contention is
that to meet the actual expenditure the govern-
ment must in some form or other actually take the
required amount from the sum total of the national
wealth. If it makes a loan it is said that it really
takes the capital amount and diverts it from pro-
ductive purposes, just as effectively as if it obtained
the money directly by taxation, but in addition is
burdened in perpetuity with the interest. The
circumstances under which the national debt of
England was so largely increased in the Napoleonic
wars no doubt seemed to justify this ition.
According to a Parliamentary Return of 1869 it
was shown that from 1793-1816 the total income
raised from taxes amounted to 1149 millions, and
the total expenditure, except for the interest on
the debt, amounted to 1103 millions, That is to
say, for the twenty-three years (apart from the
interest on the debt) the whole civil, military, and
naval expenditure was less than the amount re-
ceived in taxes by 46 millions. Now the ch
on the original debt before the war was about 94
millions per annum, or for the twenty-three years
about millions. nst this must be set the
46 millions of surplus shown above, leaving on the
net deficit for the twenty-three years about 174
millions, But to meet this sum the national debt
was by a process of borrowing and repayment
actually increased by some millions (see
Noble’s National Finance, p. 3, note). In answer
to the general argument, however, it may be pointed
out that the borrowing may be made not from
the productive resources of a country, but from
foreign capital or the general accumulations of the
world, or that the loan may absorb wealth whicli
otherwise would not have been saved at all, or may
intercept wealth which might otherwise have gone
abroad. Mill argues (Political Economy, bk. v.
chap. vii. sect. i.) that a sufficient test whether the
loan is really made from productive capital is given
the effect on the rate of interest. If the rate
rises the presumption is that the productive capital
has been really drawn upon. This test, however,
can only be used with caution, if at all, for the rate
of interest depends upon many factors—e.g. the
state of credit, the general economic conditions of
other nations, &c. ; and on the anticipation of the
outbreak of war a rise is certain to take place
independently of the action upon the productive
— of the country.
he question next arises : Bappotine ® national
debt in existence, should any effort be made to
extinguish the principal? The chief arguments
against any 5) exertion towards repayment
are the following: (1) It is said that the payment
of the interest constitutes a mere transfer of wealth
from one class of the community to another, and
therefore is no real burden, But in reply it may
be eee that all taxation necessarily implies loss
both directly and indirectly, the indirect and ‘ un-
seen’ loss being much greater. Thus in the United
Kingdom, whilst the direct ex of the customs
duties has been placed at only per cent,, the
indirect loss has ben calculated Cliffe Leslie
and others at from 20 to 30 per cent. In some
cases also the national creditors are foreigners, and
in this case the payment of interest must take the
form of a real exportation of wealth without any
corresponding importation. (2) It is ed that
with the natural progress of society industrial
countries become more and more wealthy, that
the burden of the debt becomes portionately
less, and that its extinction can more easily
effected at a more remote period. It ought to be
observed, however, that the rapid accumulations
of the past fifty years have been largely due to
eae 79" = and great changes in connection with
machinery, railways, telegraphs, financial reform,
foreign trade, education, &c., and that although
the same causes will remain in operation, the rate
of increase may not be so great. It is worth notin
that the caleulations of Mr Giffen (see Growth o
Capital) on the accumulations of capital in the
United Kingdom for the ten years 1865-75 are
less than those for 1875-85. In certain countries
also, notably France, population is almost station-
ary, and in nearly all the marriage rate is declining.
(3) It is said that the rate of interest tends to fall,
and that therefore by conversion the real burden
may become less and less. The recent experience
of the United — and of the United States
tends to support view ; but, on the other hand,
there are various elements of berger es
opening up of new countries, the possibility of great
wars, &c. (4) It is maintained that the existence
of a national debt, which consists practically of
perpetual annuities guaranteed by the state, is a
national convenience ; and further, that if the debt
were extinguished, capital would tend to be sent
abroad. he answer is that under modern con-
ditions there are many safe investments, and that
only surplus capital m from a country. (5)
It is said that it is unjust to the present generation
to impose a burden upon it simply for the benefit
of future and new f more wealthy generations;
but it may be rejoined that we must consider the
continuity of national life, and remember that the
— race is supposed to enjoy the benefits of
ormer sacrifices.
On a balance of arguments most economists have
approved of the rule that it is advisable to pay off
debt, so long as the taxes by which the surplus is
raised do not direc iy indirectly impose still
greater burdens. A system of customs and
excise duties, for example, by checking the natural
development of production and trade, may practi-
cally leave the nation poorer than if it had not
paid off its debt by such means. On the other
and, if remissions of taxation have, as in the
United Kingdom, already been carried so far as
to leave the burden of taxation comparatively light,
it is better to use any surplus rather for the pay-
ment of debt than for a further reduction of taxa-
tion. In support of this view, it may be added
that the less the previous debt so much the —
would the power of a state be in making a loan in
NATIONAL DEBT 405
ease of exceptional need. A nation already over-
burdened with debt might be obliged, in the case
of a great war, immediately to resort to a forced
eurrency, which would be liable to a serious or
fluctuating depreciation. An issue of inconvertible
notes is generally the worst method of incurring a
national obligation, being in reality a species of
forced loan. me years ago a favourite argument
against the immediate repayment of public debts
was the assertion that there was in progress a
natural reciation of gold, owing to great dis-
coveries and to the use of credit substitutes. This
argument must, however, now be reversed, for
there can be little doubt that since 1875 the
has been towards an appreciation of gold.
Such an appreciation of the standard in which
most debts have been contracted—in other words,
a general fall in prices—makes the real burden of
these debts so much heavier. With low prices,
including low money incomes, the same amount of
nominal taxation involves greater sacrifices on
the of the taxpayers. open a if the
standard is likely to appreciate still further (see Br-
METALLISM) and no remedy is adopted, it will be
advisable to reduce money debts of all kinds as
rapidly as possible. It should also be noticed that
‘an tax is no tax,’ and that in a period of
it is not advisable to lessen or abolish
es which must afterwards be re-imposed, It is
referable to create a surplus for the extinction of
lebt. The case of the United States with a
surplus than can be made use of, and raised
toa extent by burdensome indirect taxation,
may regarded rather as an exception which
proves the rule.
In conclusion, attention may be called to the
principal methods adopted for the extinction of
public debts. are mainly two, with varia-
tions in detail. First, there is the simple plan of
raising directly more in revenue than is required
for expenditure, and devoting the surplus directly
to the par sp of the bonds or stock representing
the de A continuous surplus of this kind is a
real sinking fund. In former times many fallacies
have been current regarding the powers of a sink-
ing fund. Financiers have deluded through
spurious figures on the powers of indefinite accumn-
lation of a small sum at compound interest, and
have imagined that if a certain sum were set aside
and allowed to grow in this manner, it would in-
sensibly extligenh. any debt. If, however, in the
meantime, the state, as in ease of England
during the Napoleonic wars, continues to borrow
at er rates, a sinking fund of this kind is
directly worse than useless, although indirectly it
may find defenders on the ground that a suspension
would injure the national credit. The second
method o yment which has met with much
favour in the United Kingdom is the substitution of
terminable annuities, at a higher rate, for the per-
petual annuities which constitute the interest on
the debt. The great advantage of this plan is that
there is so far no apparent surplus which the
government or the people can devote to a reduction
of taxes or to new modes of expenditure, whilst a
a Boge is always open to attack. If the
stock originally been issued at a discount, and
a rise may be expected, the adoption of terminable
annuities gives the nation the benefit of this rise,
whilst the ual diminution of the debt of itself
the tendency to rise.
A third method of getting rid pte debts has
been proposed, founded upon the fact
that a state can borrow on lower terms, or that its
credit is better than is the case of private indi-
viduals or com ' Thus it is argued that the
state might purchase the railways, the ordinary
stock of w. in the United Kingdom earns about
four per cent., with money borrowed at less than
three per cent. Adam Smith, however, long ago
pointed out that a nation can rarely make a profit
of any industrial undertaking, and to judge by
recent experience, governments are likely to pa
far more than the real market value of any wtook
they may purchase.
DEBT OF UNITED KINGDOM AT VARIOUS DATES.
At the Revolution of 1688.................. £664,263
At the accession of Queen Anne............. 12,767,225
At the accession of L «+. 86,175,460
At the end of the ish war, 1748... . 75,812,182
At the Peace of By BUGS Crtsse seee - 132,716,049
At the end of the American war, 1784 . - 243,063,145
At the Peace of Paris, 1815.............0.... 861,039,049
= commencement of Crimean war, 1854..... 769,082,549
The debt in 1890 was divided into unredeemed
funded debt, £585,959,852; estimated capital of
terminable annuities, £71,731,869; and unfunded
debt (ie. debt which the state is not bound to
repay), £32,252,305 (including outstanding bonds
for purchase-money of Suez Canal shares). In
1750-57 took place the first t consolidation of
various stocks (see CONSOLS); in 1888 the ‘3 per
cents.’ were consolidated into ‘new stock’ to bear
2? per cent. till 1903, and thereafter 24 (see also
EXCHEQUER Bits). In 1897 the total debt—
£644,909,847—was £55,000,000 less than the
annual value of property and profits peseseal tite
income-tax.
DEBT OF PRINCIPAL BRITISH COLONIES ( 1896-97 ).
{Pree £8,251,778
«+ 27,396,805
++» 8,738,871
+ 104,413,730)
$00,580,873.
season 624,176,412
iaenee 1,119,772, 138
.2,773, 286,173.
. 2,180,395, 067
-1,783,438,
heaves 1,722, 240,163;
At the last-numed date, however, the net debt—deducting the
cash in the treasury —was 757,916,079 dollars ; and of the whole,
764,069,095 dollars bears no interest. The bonds issued to the
Pacific railways, which over 5 per cent., are included
to the amount 64,623,512 Toles, .
DEBT OF THE CHIEF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.
Austria-Hungary—
1
EEE £234,925,193 | Holland, 1889 .... 90,487,524
Austria ........ 11 Italy, 1890........ 872,560,000
Hungary. ...... 157,792,338 | Portugal, 1889 134,298,994
Belgium, 1890.... 599,435 | Russia, 1888...... 746,220,720
Denmark, 1889... 10,574,000 | Spain, 1888....... 19,900,000
Germany, 1858.... 61,500,000 | Sweden, 1890. .... 14, 257,337
Pranie, 1890... 260,236,213 Norway, 1891... 6,438,
Bavaria, 1890 020,789 | Switzerland, 1889. 2,194,920
ODS 56050000 82,182,504 | Turkey, 1890,,.... 180,000,000
The debt of Brazil is said to be £120,000,000; of Japan,
£60,452,000; of Chili, £17,524,600; of Mexico, £16,700,000; of
China, 212,505,000.
See the sections dealing with finance and debt in the
articles on the several countries; H. C. Adams, Public
Debts (1888); J. Noble, National Finance (1875); P.
Leroy-Beaulieu, T'raité de la Science des Finances (2a
ed. 1879); R. Dudley Baxter, National Debts (1871);
Adolph Wagner, Die Ordnung der Finanzwirthschaft (in
Schinberg’s Handbuch der Pol. Oekon., 3d ed. 1885) ;
Sir Stafford Northcote, Twenty Years of Financial Policy
(1862); Leone Levi, ec A of British Commerce (2d ed,
1880); A. J. Wilson, Zhe National Budget (1882); Adam
Smith, Wealth of Nations (M‘Culloch’s ed. 1872), bk.
vy, chap. iii, and appendix on the Funding System ; E.
W. Hamilton, An Account of the O tions under the
National Debt Conversion Act, 1888, and the National
Debt Redemption Act, 1889 (1889); Fenn’s Compendium
of the Funds (ed, by Nash).
406 NATIONAL GALLERY
NATIONAL HYMNS
National Gallery, the principal depository of
the pictures lalonging ® to the! British nation. Phe
t building, which was intended to accommo-
Fatethe Royal Academy and National Gallery, stands
in Trafalgar Square, London, and was finished in
1838 at a cost of £100,000, but was enlarged in
1861, in 1869, in 1876, and in 1887. The nucleus
of the National Gallery was the Angerstein collec-
tion of thirty-eight sae cag purchased in 1824 for
£57,000, and a considerable sum is now annually
voted by parliament for the pu of adding to it,
the estimates for 1889-90 showing an expenditure
of £14,487. The collection is most valuable to the
student of art, and occupies more than twenty-two
rooms. The various early and late Italian schools
are extensively illustrated ; there are good examples
the chief representatives of Italian art, as
hael, Co io, Paul Veronese. There are a
few examples of Murillo and Velasquez and
the Spanish school; and the great Dutch and
Flemish painters, Rembrandt, Rubens, Van Dyck,
and the others, are well represented. The last
extensive bequest in the department of the ‘foreign
schools’ was that of Mr Wynn Ellis in 1876, com-
prising ninety-four pictures. In the department
of the ‘British and modern schools’ the largest
additions as yet made by private munificence are
the gift of Mr Robert Vernon in 1847, consistin
of 157 pictures, and the bequest of Joseph M. W.
Turner, R.A., in 1856, embracing 105 works in oil
and an immense number in water-colours and pencil
his own hand. The entire collection now con-
sists of over 1280 pictures. There are catalogues
to the Gallery by Blackburn (1877, 1879), E. T.
Cook (3d ed. 1890), and others, and the Pal/ Mall's
Half-holidays at the National Gallery (1890). The
Royal Academy of Arts, which used to have its
ec seabgge here, is now established at Burling-
ton House.
The NaAtTionAL Portrair GALLERY, founded
in 1856, was established at South Kensington in
1869, but removed on loan to the Bethnal Green
Museum in 1885. Hence it was finally transferred
in 1896, to occupy a handsome suite of buildings
erected for it at the rear of the National Gallery.
There is an admirable catalogue by the first
director, Sir George Scharf, K.C.B. (1 ).
There are also National Galleries of Art in Edin-
burgh and Dublin; the t public collections of
Paris, Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Florence, Rome,
&c. are mentioned in the articles on those cities,
National Gu an organisation for local
defence, at the disposal of the municipalities, not of
thecrown. Such a burgher guard had long existed
in many French towns, but it was introduced into
Paris only in July 1789, during the Revolution,
when the revolutionary leaders decreed the forma-
tion of a national guard for Paris of 48,000 citizens ;
and ere long there were 300,000 for the kingdom.
During the revolutionary excesses they were some-
times supine, sometimes sy withstood the more
violent insurrectionists. In 1794 they were the most
devoted adherents of Robespierre. In 1795 they
assisted in disarming the people, and were them-
selves reorganised so as to exclude turbulent
elements, none but men of substance being allowed
to serve; they even became royalist in feeling, and,
rebelling nst the convention, were defeated by
Napoleon and the regular army, and practically
ceased to exist. Napoleon re-established a national
gaard or militia, but, after various vicissitudes in
$14, 1830, and 1845, it has been wholly super-
seded by the military reorganisation since 1870.
National Hymns. The origin of the English
national anthem has been a subject of controversy
since the end of the 18th century, and is still in-
volved in obscurity. ‘God save the King’ was first
printed in the Harmonia Anglicana of 1742, with-
out name of author or composer, varying slightly
from the present version; and in 1745, during the
Scottish rebellion, it became widely known, versions
of it being sung nightly at Drury Lane and Covent
Garden Theatres with great applause. Of the
numerous claims to its parentage, the view sup-
ported by most, and by several eminent writers,
attributes it, both words and music, to Henry
Carey (q.v.), the Hoe song-writer, about 1740,
The evidence for this is given in Chappell’s P
Music of the Olden Time, and Clhrysander’s Jahr-
biicher, vol. i. But Mr W. H. Cummings, who
throng. beat out the subject in a series of
papers in the Musical Times in 1878, entitled to the
greatest weight, considers this evidence unreliable ;
and he arrives at the conclusion that the music
has been adopted (but when, and by whom, we
shall spe a never know) from an ‘Ayre’ by
Dr John Bull (q.v.), found (without words) in a
collection of music by him once in the hands of
Dr Kitchener, afterwards of Richard Clark, the
original of which seems to have disa . See
also a paper by Major Crawford in the Dictionary
of Hymnology (1891), by the Rev. John Julian,
The hymn was translated into German by Hein-
rich Harries, a Holstein clergyman, and sung to
the original air at a birthday celebration in honour
of the king of Denmark in 1790; and an adapta-
tion from these words, made in 1793 by Dr B. G,
Schumacher, beginning ‘ Heil dir im Siegerkranz,’
has ever since n in use as the Prussian
national hymn. It called forth the admiration
of Beethoven and Haydn, and moved the latter
to compose the Austrian national hymn, which
was first sung on the Emperor Franz’s birthday
in 1797. The words now used, beginning, ‘Gott
erhalte Franz den Kaiser,’ are by Baron Zedlitz;
the original words were by Hauschka. The Hun-
i have two national hymns—the Szdézat
‘The Appeal’), beginning, ‘Be true to the land
of thy birth,’ written by Vérdsmarty (1800-55),
the creator of Hungarian poetry of the Romantic
school, and composed by Benjamin Egressy, an
actor and eminent com r of sacred music; and
the Magyar Hymnusz, written by Kélesey and com-
posed by Francis Erkel. The Rakéezy march, by
an unknown com , dates from the end of the
17th century. The simple and dignified Russian
national anthem dates from 1830, and is the
work of General Alexis Lwoff (1799-1870). Of
the Danish national hymn, ‘ Kong Christian,’ the
words are by Ewald and the music by Johann
Ernst Hartmann (1726-91). There are several
claimants to the honour of being the Norwegian
national hymn, of which may be mentioned
‘Sinner af Norge,’ written about the beginning of
the 19th century, music by C. Blom; and the
modern ‘Ja, vi elsker dette yandet’ (Yes, we love
this land), words by Bjérnson, music by R. Nord-
raak. The Swedish hymn, ‘King Karl, the you
hero,’ was written by Esaias Tegner (1782- so)
The Dutch national hymn, ‘Wien Neerlan
Bloed,’ was written by Henrik Tollens (1780-1856 ),
and com by J. W. Wilms. ‘La Brabangonne,
the Bel, revolutionary song of 1830, was written
by Jenneval, a Brussels actor, and com by
Campenbout. The ‘Marseillaise’ (q.v.) of the
French was written and cmp in 1792 by
Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle (1760-1836), and re-
ceived its name from being sung by the volunteers
from Marseilles who took part in the movements
in Paris in that year. Various doubts have “been
thrown on De Lisle’s authorship of the tune, but
these were finally dis 1 of by a pamphlet written
hy his nephew in 1865, The Portuguese ‘Hymno
constitucional’ was composed by Dom Pedro L,
emperor of Brazil, Though scarcely to be
— a a ee
NATIONAL PARK
NATURALISATION 407
fied as a h , ‘Yankee Doodle’ is the American
air, notwithstanding the more recent rival claims
of ‘Hail Columbia’ and ‘The Star-spangled
Banner,’ neither of which have high intrinsic merit
or have taken any great popular hold. More like
a hymn is the song ‘ America,’ which is sung to
the tune of ‘God save the King.’ The origin
of ‘Yankee Doodle’ is as obscure and disputed a
point as that of ‘God save the King.’ The most
probable account ascribes to the tune an English
origin, and the words to Dr Schuckburgh, an army
surgeon, about 1755, soon after which, during the
American revolution, it came extensively into
vogue. It was first printed in Arnold’s opera,
Two to One, in 1784.
National Park. See YELLOWSTONE, and
Yosemite. In Canada a domain 26 miles by 10 in
extent has been set aside as a national park at
Banff in Alberta (by rail 562 miles NE. of Van-
couver and 920 W. by N. of Winnipeg). It
embraces one of the most beautiful sections of the
Rocky Mountains, contains hot sulphur-springs,
has a handsome railway hotel, and is popular as a
pleasure-resort. bees gee Pass, 135 miles to the
west, is also reserved as a government park. See
also NIAGARA.
Nations, LAw or. See INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Nativity. See AsTRoLoey.
Natrolite, one of the most common of the group
of minerals known as Zeolites (q.v.).
Natron, of TRONA, an impure sesquicarhonate
of soda, which always contains sulphate of soda
and gery fest sodium.
margins es in
and from the borders
‘Seas.
Natron Lakes, t in number, are in a
depression to the west of the Damietta branch of
the Nile. The locality is renowned for four
monasteries, from whose libraries of Arabic, Coptic,
It is obtained from the
Siberia, Tibet, &c.,
the Black and Caspian
and Syriac MSS. various E collections have
been enriched. In the time of St Pachomius 5000
anchorites dwelt here.
Natterjack. See Toap.
Natural History, in its widest and oldest
sense, includes all the concrete sciences, but
psychology and sociology have been rated off
at the one end of the series, physics and cliemistry
and all their branches at the r, so that natural
history became synonymous with the science of
living — Most frequently, however, it simply
means zoology, ly in so far as that is con-
cerned with the life and habits of animals. See
BioLocy, BoTANY, EVOLUTION, SCIENCE, ZOOLOGY.
Naturalisation is the process whereby an
alien is invested with the privileges and made
liable to the obligations of a natural-born citizen.
It implies the renunciation of one political status
and the adoption of, another. Formerly many
states absolutely refused to recognise any act of
naturalisation as exempting the party naturalised
from the nences of his allegiance. Thus,
the caasion of Buglieh common law, Nemo potest
exuere riam, precluded a natural-born subject
from adopting a new political status, and rendered
him liable to the penalties of treason if found in
arms against his native country. The existence
of this principle gave rise to many disputes, more
rh ly between Great Britain and the United
tates. It was not, however, till the Naturalisa-
tion Act of 1870 that the doctrine of the indelibility
of natural allegiance was formally abandoned by
Britain. In the same year a ti was entered
into between Great Britain and the United States,
which vided that British subjects becomin
naturalleed in the United States should be trea’
in all respects as United States citizens; and a
corresponding provision was made with respect to
United States citizens becoming naturalised in
British dominions.
The conditions on which naturalisation will be
allowed by the state to which the applicant seeks
to affiliate himself vary in different countries. In
Great Britain naturalisation is effected either
through a special act of aarp or under the
Naturalisation Act, 1870 (33 and 34 Vict. chap. 14).
This statute, wherein are embodied the present
i, na a with reference to naturalisation, pro-
vides that any foreigner who has resided in the
United Kingdom for five years, or has for that
period held service under the crown, can obtain
a certificate of naturalisation from one of the
principal secretaries of state. On the granting of
this certificate he is entitled to all political and
other rights, powers, and privil , and is subject
to all the obligations to which a natural-born
British subject is entitled or subject. The only
ualification is that he shall not, when within the
limits of the foreign state of which he was pre-
viously a subject, be deemed to be a British citizen
tnless he has ceased to be a subject of that state.
British colonies have the power of making their
own regulations on the oubioss of naturalisation,
but such regulations have effect only within the
limits of the colony. In the United States a
foreigner must make a declaration on oath of his
intention to become naturalised. This oath may be
taken before any superior, district, or circuit court,
and the applicant must renounce any title of
nobility. ter the lapse of two years from the date
of this declaration, and after five years’ residence in
the United States, he becomes an American citizen,
and a certificate of naturalisation is issued to him.
There is, however, no uniform system of registra-
tion of such. certificates, and, as there are about
3000 federal and state courts having power to grant
them, difficulties sometimes arise in proving
naturalisation. In France a foreigner who has
obtained permission to become domiciled in France
is entitled to letters of declaration of naturalisa-
tion after three years’ residence. Also, by the
French Naturalisation Act, 1889, a foreigner who
has resided in France for ten years may at once be
naturalised without preliminary ceremony. In Ger-
many naturalisation can be conferred only by the
higher administrative authorities; the applicant
must show that he is at liberty, under the laws of
his native country, to change his nationality, or, if
he is a minor, that his father or guardian has given
him the requisite permission, that he is leading a
respectable life, that he is domiciled in Germany,
and that he has the means of livelihood. In all
countries a married woman is held to be a citizen
of the state of which her husband is for the time
being a subject, and the naturalisation of a father
carries with it that of his children in minority. In
countries where mili service is gerne ers
naturalisation in fraud of this either is prohibited
or renders the offender liable to imprisonment, if
he returns, and forfeiture of all property sub-
Say snore acquired in his native country.
ertain privileges of British nationality may be
acquired by the issue to an alien of letters of
denization granted by the crown; and for this
no previous residence is required. A denizen
acquires his limited privileges as from the date of
the letters, and not from the date of his birth; a
naturalised person, on the other hand, is placed in
the same position as if he had been from birth a
British subject. The difference was important so
long as aliens could not inherit land ; for a denizen,
being without inheritable blood, could not inherit
land, nor could his issue, horn before his deniza-
tion, inherit it from him.. Since the Naturalisation
408 NATURALISM
NAUTILUS
Act has swept away all the disabilities to which
aliens were subjected in the taking, holding, and
inheriting of (see ALIEN), the distinction
between denization and naturalisation is of little
practical importance. It is, however, to be
observed that the statute (12 and 13 Will, IL
chap. 2, sect. 3) which disqualifies a denizen from
being a member of the Privy-council or of parlia-
ment, and from holding any office of trust, civil or
military, still remains in force.
ity by Chiet Gookburn (1800); and La Nation,
ality, ief-justioe m ; an ‘ation-
lite, y \Geeparts (2d ed, 1890),
Naturalism, « term once used as almost equiv-
alent to Deism, and sometimes for nature-worship,
also for brutish defiance of moral law, is now
usually employed as synonymous with Realism
(q.v.) in art, literary or other.
Natural Philosophy is a term still fre-
uently employed in Great Britain to designate
hysies (q.v.), or the branch of physical science
which has for its subject those properties and
phenomena of bodies which are unaccompanied by
any essential change in the bodies themselves.
See SCIENCE.
Natural Selection, See Darwinian
THEORY.
Natural Theology. See AroLocetics, and
THEOLOGY.
Nature-printing, a process by which engrav-
ings or lates sanwerlag ihacoto are produced by
taking impressions of the objects themselves, and
rinting from them, invented or improved about
853 by Alois Auer of Vienna. Suitable objects—
for they must have tolerably flat surfaces—such as
dried and pressed plants, embroidery and lace, are
fond between a plate of copper and another of
ead, both worked smooth, and polished; the
plates are drawn through a pair of rollers, under
ressure ; then, when the plates are separated, it
found that a more or less perfect impression of the
object has been made in the leaden plate. This
may be used directly as an engraved plate, if
only a very few impressions are wanted ; or a fac-
simile of it may obtained in copper by the
electrotype process. Nature-printing has been
superseded by pho phic methods. See ILLvs-
TRATION OF KS, PHOTOGRAPHY.
Nau'‘cratis, an ancient city of Egypt, situated
in the Nile delta, near the modern village of
Nebireh, 47 miles SE. of Alexandria, existed in
the 7th century B.c. It was the only city in
Egypt at which the Greeks were allowed to trade ;
was celebrated for its artistic pottery ; and was a
centre for the worship of Aphrodite, The site was
discovered by Flinders Petrie in 1884, and exca-
vated by him in that and the following year. His
monograph Naukratis ire) gives an account of
the ruined temples and the many valuable arche-
ological discoveries made on this site.
Naugatuck, in Connecticut, on the Naugatuck
River, 22 miles by rail NNW. of New Haven, con-
tains the factory of the Goodyear Glove and Rubber
Company, and also manufactures cutlery and iron-
wares, Pop, (1900) 10,541.
Naumachia, a Greek word signifying liter-
ally a naval battle ; afterwards, among the Romans,
a spectacle which consisted in the imitation of a
naval battle. Julius Cesar was the first to intro-
duce a naumachia into Rome, 46 B.C., causing a
portion of the Campus Martius to be dug to form
a lake, on which the spectacle came off. Augustus
also made an artificial lake near the Tiber for the
same purpose, and Claudius employed Lake Fucinus,
where on one occasion 19, combatants were
engaged for this purpose. The combatants were
for the most part either captives or condemned
criminals, These naumachia were not sham-fights
any more than were ordinary gladiatorial com ;
both sides fought on in real earnest for dear life
until one was utterly overpowered.
Naumburg, a quaint old town of Prussian
Saxony, on the Saale, in an amphitheatre of vine-
clad hills, 30 miles by rail SW. of Leipzig. Of its
six churches, the triple-towered cathedral (1207-42)
is a noble Romanesque and Gothie structure.
The manufactures include ivory carvings, combs,
hosiery, wine, &c. The yearly ‘cherry feast’ com-
memorates the raisin the siege of Naumburg
by the Hussite leader Procopius in response to the
supplication of the children (28th July 1432); but
recent historians cast doubt on the whole
The seat of a bishopric (1059-1564), Naumbu
suffered much in the hirty Years’ War; in 1814
came to Prussia. Pop. (1875) 16,258 ; (1890) 19,739,
See works by Puttrich (1843) and Mitzschke (1881).
Nauplia, a small fortified town and seaport
with an excellent roadstead in the Morea, Greece,
at the northern extremity of the Gulf of Argos or
Nauplia, 25 miles 8. of Corinth. At an early
period it was the port and arsenal of Argos. In
the 13th century it was occupied by the Venetians
(who called it Napoli di Romania), and it was
taken by the Turks in 1540. From 1824 to 1835 it
was the capital of Greece, and had a population of
upwards of 12,000; but on the removal of the
court to Athens it fell into decay. Pop. 4598.
Nauplius. See Crustacea,
Nausea is a distressing sensation always re-
ferred to the stomach, It is unattended by pain
but is usually accompanied by a feeling of general,
languor or debility, a small and often irregular
pulse, a pale, cool, and moist skin, general mus-
cular relaxation, an increased flow of saliva, and a
sensation that vomiting will supervene. It is most
commonly a direct symptom of disease or disorder
of the stomach, but sometimes it is a very import-
ant indirect symptom of disease of some part ata
distance from the stomach—as, for example, the
brain or the kidney. The nausea which is so
troublesome to pregnant women is due to the
irritation excited by the enlarged uterus being
reflected by nervous agency to the stomach. Sea-
sickness is separately discussed.
Nautch Girls, or BAyApéres, public female
dancers in India and the East Indies, Their per-
formances constitute a principal part in the spee-
tacular entertainment called a nautch or natch,
Nautical Almanac. See ALMANAC.
Nautilus, a remarkable mollusc in the class of
Cephalopods, the _ surviving member of a race
once abundant. It differs conspicuously from the
other extant Cephalopods or ‘cuttle-fish’ in pect:
ing a shell, within the outermost chamber of which
it lives, while the lobes of the ‘foot’ round about
the mouth bear numerous tentacles retractile into
sheaths, the ‘siphon’ consists of two free folds,
the eyes are open sacs without cornea or lens, there
are four gills and four kidneys, and there is no
ink-bag. ‘The spiral shell, coiled in one plane like
that of the water-snail Planorbis, differs from this
in being chambered ; moreover, the foot or ventral
side of the enclosed animal is towards the outside
in Nautilus, towards the inside in Planorbis. When
young the Nautilus lives in a small shell bent like
a horn; with wth this is increased spirally, but —
as the animal periodically draws itself onwards
and closes a door behind it, a chambered spiral
results, in which the original shell is in the v
eee. vr successive ¢ ee ee all conn “ey
owever, by an organic, partially calcareous tu
and all except the outermost, in which the ‘nimad
NAUTILUS
NAVAL RESERVE 409
lives, are filled with see epperentiy a mixture of
oxygen and nitrogen somewhat different from air.
The outside of the shell. is covered with a thin
Fig. 1—Pearly Nautilus (after Owen). Contracted spirit
specimen, with the shell in section :
@, dorsal ‘hood ’—a portion of the ‘foot;' b, a portion of the
mantle reflected on the shell ; ¢, tentacles; d, eye; ¢, ventral
side of visceral hump; / funnel; g, a partition between two
chambers; 8, siphuncle or tube traversing the chambers.
organic layer, beneath which there is a porcelain-
like stratum with bands of colour, while inter-
nally the lime has the usual mother-of-pearl struc-
ture, the lustre of which, often artificially exposed
by the use of acids, has earned for the aninial its
common name of Pearly Nantilus.
Though the Nautilus seems to have been known
to Aristotle, and though the shells have always
been familiar, our knowledge of the animal itself
is almost wholly due to the investigations of Owen,
and to some interesting observations (1705) by the
Dutch naturalist Rumphius. The rarity of speci-
mens, so evident from the fact that only one was
collected on the Challenger expedition, is mainly
due to its habitat in somewhat deep water. But
it must also be noted that the natives of Fiji, the
New Hebrides, the Molueccan Islands, &e. catch
the animal in lobster-pots and eat it with relish.
The Nautilus probably creeps or gently swims along
the sea-bottom, feeding on ernstaceans and the
like; but it is also seen floating on the surface,
probably washed up by storms and injured by the
waves. The species best known is Nautilus -
pilius, but there are probably four or five others,
while the fossil relatives are reckoned in hundreds.
The Paper Nautilus (Argonauta) is a very
different animal, like an octopus except that the
= Po ee ao
Fig. 2.—Female Paper Nautilus, showing the two
modified arms which make and embrace the shell,
female bears a beautiful, translucent, ribbed shell
in which the eggs are sheltered. But this shell is
not in any way comparable to that of the Nautilus
or of other molluses ; it is a cradle, not a house;
it is secreted and embraced by two broadened
dorsal ‘arms,’ not by the mantle ; it is unchambered
and peculiar to the females. The Argonaut was
credited by Aristotle with the power of lifting its
broad arms, and of thus sailing before the wind,
but there is no truth in this fancy often reiterated
by poets and naturalists. For the Argonaut squirts
water from its funnel and swims backwards like
any other euttle-fish, or else creeps along the
bottom. At the breeding season it is a pelagic
surface swimmer in tropical seas, at other times it
seeks the depths. The male measures little more
than an inch in length, only about a tenth of the
size of his mate, and he is also notable for the
modification of one of the arms into a detachable
sac of spermatozoa, formerly mistaken for a para-
sitic worm. Some half-dozen living species are
recorded. See CEPHALOPODA, CUTTLE-FISH.
Nauvoo’ (from Heb. navdr, ‘to be beautiful’),
a village of Illinois, on the east bank of the Missis-
sippi River, 14 miles above Keokuk. It was built
by the Mormons (q.v.) in 1840, and in afew months
contained a population of 15,000. Its principal
feature was a great temple of white limestone
(1841-45) ; but it had also mills and factories, and
the beginnings of a university, and was for a few
years a prosperous and happy town. After the
expulsion of the Mormons in 1846, the temple was
half destroyed by fire in 1848, and further ruined
by a tornado in 1850. The town was for a time
oceupied by French Socialists, and has now only
1321 inhabitants.—The Nauvoo Legion was a
Mormon military organisation, embracing all the
males between the ages of sixteen and fifty, founded
here in 1840, and reorganised in Utah in 1857. In
1870, when it mustered for the last time, it num-
bered about 13,000 men. °
Naval Cadets. See CADET, MipsHIPMAN.
Naval ae ipa, Royat, is a sort of militia
auxiliary to the royal navy. It isa force held in
high esteem by naval men, and is considered an
extremely valuable reserve of trained men ready
to man the fleet in case of emergency. The
act under which the foree was instituted in
1859 authorises the engagement of 30,000 men,
each for a period of five years, and provides that
each shall be trained for twenty-eight days in every
year to the use of arms and in naval gunnery,
either in ships of the navy or on shore. In case
of national emergency, these men can, by royal
proclamation, be called out for service in the
navy in any part of the world, for periods not
exceeding five years. While training and while
called out for actual service, the men receive the
same wages as corresponding ratings in the royal
navy; and in addition they receive a retaining
fee for every year of training completed, the
amount of which is regulated according to_ the
class of the reserve in which they are enrolled ;
this is £6 a year for men in the first class, and
£2, 10s. with a suit of clothes for the second class;
boys in the third class receive no retainer, but the
fourth class, consisting of stokers, receive £5 a year.
On actual service, after three years—whether of
uninterrupted service or at broken intervals—the
volunteer becomes entitled to twopence extra per
diem. The man can terminate his engagement
at the end of five years, unless on actual ser-
vice, when he may be required to complete five
years of such service before discharge. During
the continuance of his engagement he must
not embark on voy, whieh shall entail a
longer absence Hake United Kingdom than
six months, unless with special permission of the
Admiralty. The periods for training are made as
410 NAVAL RESERVE
NAVARRE
far as practicable to suit the sailor’s convenience :
he may break the twenty-eight days into shorter
periods, none being less than seven days. Penalties
are enfi if men fail to attend; and failure
ee notice to come up for actual service
is held equivalent to desertion. While training or
on duty the men are liable to all the punish-
ments, as they are entitled to all the rights and
privil of regular seamen. The men con-
ot hee gondii desirable are (1) those having fixed
residences, and personally known to the registrar
or his deputies; and (2) men having regular
employment in the coasting trade, or in vessels
the business of which —— them back to the
same ports at frequent and known intervals. In
1861 the system of the Reserve was extended
to officers of the merchant-service, certificated
masters and mates being respectively granted com-
missions in the Naval Reserve as lieutenants and
sub-lieutenants. The holders are required to train
for twenty-eight days annually on board Her
Majesty's ships, and are liable to be called out for
actual service when required. The number of
these officers allowed by regulation is 130 lieuten-
ants and 270 sub-lieutenants.
The Royal Naval Reserve now contains four
classes of men, (1) The first class comprises men
under thirty years of age, who must prove at least
six years’ sea-service within ten years, and of these
six years’ service two at least as able seamen in
foreign-going or coasting vessels, and must declare
that it is their intention to follow the sea-service
for a period of at least five years, Six months’
service as ski or second hand in first-class
fishing-vessels in the English Channel and North
Sea may be accepted in lieu of two years’ service
as able seamen. Men discharged from the navy
as able seamen with good characters may be
enrolled in the first class up to thirty-five years
of age, also men who have previously served in the
Royal Naval Reserve. (2) The second class con-
tains men with the proper qualifications between
nineteen and thirty years of age, who have been
at sea on foreign-going, coasting, or fishing vessels
for three years, of which at least six months must
have been with the grade of ordinary seaman ; and
they must sign a declaration that it is their inten-
tion to follow the sea for a period of at least five
years. Apprentices who have completed their inden-
tures for a term of not less than three years may
be enrolled in this class without further proof of
service. (3) The third class comprises boys, not
under fifteen nor above sixteen and a half years of
age, who have been eighteen months under train-
ing in a mercantile training-ship, or have been
ucated at Greenwich Hospital, are under engage-
ment to join a merchant-ship, are physically and
go te A qualified, and can show proficiency in
navigation and gunnery and seamanship; they must
produce certificates of good character from the
captain or superintendent. In the case of the
Marine Society’s ship Warspite, boys will be
received with nine months’ training. They may
be promoted to the second class at the age of nine-
teen after six months’ service at sea; and in due
time to the first class. (4) The fourth class consists
of firemen. A candidate must be over twenty and
under thirty-five years of age; he must produce
certificates of good character, conduct, and ability
as fireman from his last employer, for not less
than six months in foreign-going or regular coast-
ing vessels within the twelve months previous to
his een. Every enrolment is for five aug 3
and when a man is promoted to a higher class he
must re-enrol, The annual training may be accom-
lished either on board a ship of war or at a Naval
Beserve battery. In 1889 the total number of
reserve men was 18,869, of which number
8294 were receiving an extra penny a day as trained
men. The officers of all ranks pro for in
1895 numbered 1400 and the men 23,700, the cost
amounting to £215,600.
Besides the Royal Naval there are other
Naval Reserve forces at command of the Admiralty.
The most important is the Comegeen (q.v.).
corpsof Royal Naval Artillery Vo! baie 8h ceased
to exist; but,there is still a foreedrawn from amongst
the seamen pensioners (see PENSIONS). Petty
officers and seamen of the navy, on being pen-
sioned for length of service, may, if under forty-
five years of age, be enrolled in the Seaman Pen-
sioner Reserve. They must serve fourteen days
annually, and on reaching fifty years of age get
the Greenwich Hospital age pension and are
exempt from further drill.
Naval Tactics. See Tactics (NAVAL).
Navan, a market-town in County Meath, situ-
ated at co! pene of the Boyne and Blackwater,
16 miles W. of Drogheda by rail. Pop. 3873,
almost all Catholics,
Navarino (also Neocastro, and pagers! Fac
on a bay on the south-west coast of the Morea in
Greece, contains only 2000 inhabitants, but has an
excellent deep harbour, the best in Greece. The
ancient Pylos, the city of Nestor, stood near. The
Bay of Navarino was the scene of a t sea-fight
between the Athenians under Cleon and the
Spartans (425 B.c.), in which the latter were
defeated ; and on the 20th October 1827 it saw
the annihilation of the Turkish and ptian
navies by the combined British, French, and
Russian fleets under Sir Edward Codrington.
Navarre (Basque Nava, naba, ‘a mountain
plain,’ and erri, ‘country ;’ there is also a Basque
word Nabarra, ‘ variegated’), formerly one of the
kingdoms which arose in the Pyrenees after the
downfall of the Goths, has since 1512 been divided
into Spanish Navarra, and French or
Navarre (now Basses Pyrénées). Spanish Navarra,
by far the greater, is bounded N. by France, E.
Aragon, 8. oi Ba A the Ebro, partly by Castile
and Aragon, and W. by Alava and Guipuzcoa. The
area is somewhat over 6000 sq. m. ; Pop. 304,122,
or 50 to the square mile. It is one of the most
varied provinces of Spain in surface and climate ;
within sight of the Atlantic at its north-west
corner, the rainfall is there one of the heaviest in
Europe, while in the south-east the steppes of the
Bardenas Reales are almost sterile for want of
water, and at Tudela we encounter Moorish modes
of tion, supplemented by the canal of Charles
V. The mountains of the northern frontier range,
west to east, from 3000 to 8000 feet of altitude; in
the interior they reach occasionally 5000. With
the exception of the Bidassoa, which enters the
Atlantic at the inner angle of the Bay of Biscay,
bg ayn it other streams flow at right es
to the
the principal are the Aragon, A and
The Sr aitais valle yS are narrow but fertile, ’
the energy of the ues, who do not live like
the _ rds only in towns and villages, eultiva-
tion is carried on almost everywhere. The chief
productions are maize, wheat, chestnuts, apples,
and a strong red wine, Cattle abound, but not
many sheep or horses. Minerals are found in the
Pyrenees, and mines of argentiferous lead oa ph
and iron are worked; rock-salt also is found in
the province. The wild animals include the bear,
ogi Pian tane bani hag in urd mountains Fi
the Aragonese frontier; foxes, w cat, et
otter, marten, &c. are in sufficient ped os to
make commerce of their skins. The population of
Navarre is generally bilingual; from a little to
the south of Pamplona northwards Basque prevails;
Pyrenees, and are all affluents of the Ebro;
q
NAVARRE
NAVICULAR 411
to the south Spanish only is spoken. Until now
— has encroached far more on Basque in
avarra than has French in Basse-Navarre.
History.—In Roman times the country now called
Navarre was occupied by the Iberian Vascones, who
have given their name both to Basques and Gascons.
Within historic times there has been a strong Celtic
element in the country. The capital, Pamplona
(P iopolis), recalls the Roman Triumvir, but
the older native name, [run (Jrunean), is often on
books printed at Pamplona. The subjection of the
Vascones to the Visigoths was nominal only. On
the downfall of the latter and the incursion of the
Arabs the mountains of Navarre became one of
the early centres of resistance and of reconquest.
From native chiefs, or counts, arose the
first dynasty of Nav; ia Jimenez (860)
to Sancho the Strong (1234). The history of
Navarre is full of interest. In 778 the rout of
e's rear-guard, and the death of Roland
at Roncesvalles, furnished a theme for countless
ms and romances. With Aragon and Castile
avarre shares the honour of being one of the
first countries in which parliamentary rule with
representation of towns and commons ( Univer-
sidades) obtained. The Cortes (Curia) arose out
of the Councils, and there was lar represen-
tation of the three orders before the close of the
12th century. During this period Navarra gained
its name and modern limits, but under Sancho
the Great (1028-35), and again (1109-34) under
Alfonso L, it seemed as if the union completed
under Ferdinand and Isabel would have taken
place three or four centuries earlier. Sancho
the Strong left no male heirs, and the future sue-
cession of Navarre was singularly broken from the
same cause. The crown to Thibaut, count
of Champagne, through the younger daughter.
There were three kings of this house from 1 3
when the crown 1 by marriage to Philippe le
Bel of France. Five kings of France (1284-1328)
reigned over Navarre, when, through the female
succession, it passed to Philippe, count of Evreux ;
three kings of this line succeeded—Philip IIL,
Charles II. the Bad, and Charles III. Under them
Navarre reached its highest prosperity ; most of
the architectural beauties of Navarre date from
this period, 1328-1416. Navarre had been always
closely connected with Aragon, and three of its
kings had already borne the title of A m and
Navarre. Blanca, the daughter of Charles IIL.,
married first Martin, king of Sicily, and after his
death Juan IL of Aragon, Civil war arose be-
tween him and his son, Don Carlos, Prince of
Viana, one of the most interesting characters of
his time. The factions of Beaumont (Don Carlos)
and of Gaye (Juan IL) proved the ruin of
Navarra. Henceforth her jealous neighbours could
always rely on the support of one . other in their
encroachments. Leonor, the daughter of Juan IL,
married Gaston of Foix, and thus Navarre became
united to Bearn ; her granddaughter, Catharine de
Foix, married Jean fAlbret in 1486, and during
their reign in 1512 the Duque d’Alba conquerec
Navarra, which has since been united with the
— erown. French Navarre was pane to
t of France by the accession of Henri of Navarre
in 1589, but the formal union was not completed
until 1620 by Lonis XIIL After ifs union Spanish
Navarre was governed by a viceroy, and retained
its own cortes, mint, style of kings (Carlos III. of
Spain was VI. of Navarra, &c.), power of taxation,
and Fueros (q.v.). These sipileges were almost
wholly lost by the first Carlist war (1833-39), and
were still more diminished by the second (1872-76).
Navarra is now one of the forty-nine provinces of
Spain, with merely local self-government in minor
matters in certain districts, In France Basse
Navarre preserved its fueros till 1789, refused to
send deputies to the States-general as part of
France, and declared that it would only accept the
new constitution if it were better than its own.
The jfueros of Navarre are more like those of
Aragon than those of the Basque Provinces. In
their written form they are probably not older
than the 13th centiry, but many provisions point
back to a higher antiquity. The seven Fazanias
(precedents) are in the form of apologues, animals
are considered as morally responsible and guilty of
homicide towards each other, marriage is a civil
right, the children of a concubine (barragana) are
provided for, compurgation is in full force, and
social excommunication is inflicted on those who
will not conform to the customs. Toleration is
extended to Moors and Jews, and the oath to be
taken by the latter is very long and curious. In
the Cortes the power of taxation was secured by
supplies being withheld until all grievances had
been red . With consent of the Cortes the
king might amend, but could not impair the fueros.
Navarre was a frontier of the English possessions
-in south-west France from 1152 to 1453. Richard
I. and Henry IV. married princesses of Navarre ;
had the former had issue, they would have been
heirs of Navarre in preference to the counts of
Champagne. Charles the Bad was the ally of the
Black Prince, who through his dominions
to Navarrete. Wellington blockaded Pamplona,
and marched through Navarre in 1813-14.
See P. J. Moret, Investigaciones Historicas del reyno
de Navarra (1 vol. 1665) and Anales del reyno de
Navarra (3 vols. Pamplona, 1684)—both reprinted by
E. Lopez of Tolosa in 1890-91; Tanguas, Diccionario
de las Antiguedades de Navarra (4 vols. Pamplona,
1840-43); Fuero General de Navarra Ge ear ee 1869) :
La Navarre Francaise, par. M. G. B. de Lagréze (2
a Fone cor Ph eta of the —. —
erno as Leyes vis Repar ve.
vol. vii, and V. dela Fuente, Exudios Criticos sobre la
Fri ta sa aaa ii, (Madrid,
Nave, See Cuurcn, Goruic ARCHITECTURE.
Navew (Fr. navette), a garden vegetable much
cultivated in France and other parts of the con-
tinent of Eu , although little used in Britain.
It is by some botanists regarded as a cultivated
variety of Brassica napus, or Rape (q.v.), whilst
others refer it to B. cam is, sometimes called
Wild Navew, the species which is also supposed to
be the original of the Swedish Turnip (q.v.). The
part used is the swollen root, which is rather like
a carrot in shape. Its colour is white. Its flavour
is much stronger than that of the turnip. It
succeeds best in a dry, light soil. The seed is
sown in spring, and the plants thinned out to 5
inches apart. Wild Navew is extensively culti-
vated in the north of France and Holland for the
sake of its seed, which yields Colza oil.
Navicular Di in the horse, consists
of an inflammation, often of a rheumatic char-
acter, of the small bone—the navicular—below
which passes the strong flexor tendon of the foot.
It is most common amongst the lighter sorts of
horses, and especially where they have upright
pasterns, out-turned toes, and early severe work
on hard roads. It soon gives rise to a short trip-
ping yet cautions gait, undue wear of the toe of the
shoe, and projecting or Fen ’ of the affected
limb whilst standing. Even when early noticed
and in horses with well-formed legs, it is ineur-
able; and when of several weeks’ standing it leads
to so much inflammation and destruction of the
tendon and adjoining parts that soundness and fit-
ness for fast work n are impossible. In order to
reduce the pain and inflammation, rest should at
once be given, the shoe removed, the toe shortened,
412 NAVIGATION LAWS
NAVY
and the foot placed in a large, soft, hot poultice
changed every few hours, Laxative medicine an
bran mashes should be ordered, and a soft bed
made with old short litter. After a few days, and
when the heat and tenderness abate, cold applica-
tions should supersede the hot; and after another
week a blister may be applied round the coronet,
and the animal placed for two months in a good
yard or in a grass field, if the ground be soft and
moist ; or, if sufficiently strong, at slow farm-work
on soft land. Division of the nerve going to the
foot removes sensation and consequently lameness,
and hence is useful in relieving animals intended
for slow work. The operation, however, is not to
be recommended where fast work is required, for
the animal, insensible to pain, uses the limb as if
nothing were amiss, and the disease rapidly becomes
worse, Navicular disease is very often due to
hereditary taint; hence horses suffering from it
should never be used for breeding purposes.
Navigation Laws. The importance of the
early maritime codes in developing International
Law is indicated in that article. Laws restricting
foreign trade and sup
commerce and shipping are of very anciefit date.
Thus, in England, by a statute of Richard II., in
order to augment the navy of England, it was
ordained that none of the lieges should ship any
merchandise out of the realm except in native ships,
though the statute was soon evaded and seldom
followed. At length in 1650 an act was passed
with a view to stop the gainful trade of the Dutch,
It prohibited all ships of foreign nations from
trading with any English eae without a
license from the Council of State. In 1651 the
prohibition was extended to the mother-country,
and no goods were suffered to be imported into
England or any of its dependencies in any other
than English bottoms, or in the ships of that Euro-
pean nation of which the merchandise was the
genuine growth or manufacture. At the Restora-
tion these enactments were repeated and continued
by the Navigation Act (12 Char. II. chap. 18), with
the further addition that the master and three-
fourths of the mariners should also be British
subjects. The object of this act was to encourage
British shipping, and was long believed to be wise
and salutary. Adam Smith, however, perceived
that the act was not favourable to foreign com-
merce or to opulence, and it was only on the
ground that defence was more important than
ous that he said it was ‘perhaps the wisest
of all the commercial regulations of England.’
In 1826 the statute 4 Geo. IV. chap. 41 repealed
the Navigation Act, and established a new system
of regulations, which were further varied by sub-
sequent statutes, till, under the influence of the
free-trade .doctrines, new statutes were passed
which reversed the ancient policy. It was not,
however, till 1854 that the English coasting trade
was thrown open to foreign vessels. In the United
States the coasting trade is reserved exclusively to
American vessels, As regards those laws of navi-
gation which affect the property and management
of ships, a complete code of regulations is contained
in the Merchant Shipping Acts (q.v.).—On navi-
gation, see GEOGRAPHY, LATITUDE and LONGI-
TUDE, GREAT CrRcLe SMLING, &c.; and the
handbooks by Inman, Norie, Merrifield, Rosser,
and Raper.
Navigators’ Islands, See Samoa.
Navy. The ancient method of naval warfare
in great part in the driving of beaked
vessels 2 ype each other; and therefore skill and
celerity in maneuvring, so as to strike the enemy
at the greatest disadvantage, were of the utmost
importance, The victory thus usually remained
\
to be in favour of native’
with the best sailor, These vessels were propelled
by oars, which were arranged in one, two, or three
banks, according to size of ~ the oars were
manned > Flame ager J or standing on platforms
arranged above each other according to the number
of banks; those with three banks of oars were called
triremes. The earliest powers having efficient
fleets appear to have been the Phenicians, Cartha-
inians, Persians, and Greeks; the Greeks had
eets as early as the beginning of the 7th century
B.C.—the first sea-fight on record being that be-
tween the Corinthians and their colonists of
Core: 664 B.c. The earliest t battle in
which tactics appear to have distinctly been opposed
to superior force, and with success, was that of
Salamis (480 B.c.), where Themistocles, takin
advantage of the narrows, forced the Persian flee
of Xerxes to combat in such a manner that their
line of battle but little exceeded in length the line
of the much inferior Athenian fleet. The largest
triremes in the Persian fleet were manned by 200
rowers and 30 fighting men; there were 1200 tri-
remes and 3000 smaller vessels, while the Greek
fleet consisted of 366 triremes only, with a certain
ay oo oe of smaller vessels, yet they succeeded
inflicting a crushing defeat on the Persians,
The Peloponnesian war, where ‘Greek met Greek,’
tended much to develop the art of naval warfare.
But the destruction of the Athenian maritime power
in the Syracusan expedition of 414 B.c. left
mistress of the Mediterranean. The Roman power,
however, gradually asserted itself, and after two
centuries e omnipotent by the destruction of
Carthage. For several following centuries the only
sea-fights were occasioned by the civil wars of the
Romans—the greatest that of Actium (q.v.) in
31 B.c. Towards the close of the empire the
stem of fighting with pointed prows had
Sasa mtinued in favour of that which had always
co-existed—viz. the running alongside and board-
ing by armed men, with whom each vessel was
crowded, Onagers, ballistee, &c, were ultimately
carried in the ships and used as artillery ; but they
were little relied on, and it was usual, after a dis-
charge of arrows and javelins, to come to close
quarters, A sea-fight was therefore a hand-to-hand
struggle on a floating base, in which the vanquished
were almost certainly drowned or slain.
The northern invaders of the empire, and sub-
sequently the Moors, seem to have introduced
swift-sailing Galleys (q.v.), warring both in small
squadrons and singly, and ravaging all civilised
coasts for plunder and slaves. This—the break-up
of the empire—was the era of piracy, when every
nation which had more to win than lose by free-
booting sent out its cruisers. Foremost for daring
and seamanship were the Norsemen, who e-
trated in eit beeen from the Bosporus to New-
foundland. ~bination being the only security
against these maranders, the medieval navies
gmeeen sprang up; the most conspicuous being,
hogs acon wit “¢ A. — Gos
i nm, the Knights o ta, an e
Turks; and on the Atlantic seaboard, England
and France,
Mediaval Navies.—In the Mediterranean, towards
the middle of the 16th century, so powerful and so
threaten: had the Turkish fleet become that,
after the Knights Hospitallers had been driven out
of Rhodes the Sultan Solyman I. in the year
1523, a combination of the Christian powers was
formed for self-defence ; but it was not until the
ear 1571 that the celebrated battle of Lepanto was
‘ought, which broke temporarily the naval power
cf tend tye
of Venetian, , and papal s'
under the command of Don John of Austria, with
six Maltese galleys, and mustered over 200 vessels,
NAVY
413
of which six were Venetian galeasses, which were
carried a heavier weight of metal than
The ordinary eys were about 160 feet long, 32
feet wide, iy paler lied by some sixty oars ;
they generally carried a 24-pounder forward and two
8-pounders on the poop. In the galeasses the rowers
were covered by a narrow deck on which small
were geri The peer — oe ’ 240
s, but were completely defeated, losing
pas of ther ships, 7 which 94 were sunk or
run aground, and the remainder were captured ;
30,000 Turks were slain, and 15,000 Christians
serving as galley-slaves in the Ottoman fleet were
pe shin | from captivity. The confederates lost 15
gers and 8000 men. The Venetian and Maltese
leets subsequently became the great naval powers,
although sharing the sovereignty of the Mediter-
ranean with the Turks; but during the close of
the 16th and 17th centuries the naval power
ay fell into the hands of the English, French,
teh, and Spaniards.
Modern Navies.—Dating the modern navies of
the world from the 16th century, we find the British
navy rising from ificance by the destruction
of the a A = in — mack from —_
oe jally recov the weight o'
which the Dutch, whose naval force had acquired
tremendous strength in their struggle for inde-
lence, increased by their triumph in 1607, in
the Bay of Gibraltar. At this time there was no
decisive superiority of the fleet of England over
that of France; but each was inferior to the Dutch
navy. The Commonwealth and reign of Charles
II. were signalised by the st le for mastery
between the English and Dutch, when victory,
after ssa alternations, finally sided with the
former. rough the 18th century the English
and French were the principal fleets; but Louis
XVI. gave a decided superiority to the navy of
France, and at the period of the American war the
naval power of England was seriously threatened.
Spain, Holland, and Russia (now for the first time
a naval power) had meanwhile uired consider-
able fleets; and the ‘armed neutrality’ to which the
northern powers gave their adherence rendered the
British position most critical. However, the slowly
roused en of her government, the invincible
courage of seamen, and the genius of her
admirals brought Britain through all her trials.
Camperdown broke the Dutch power; many battles
weakened the French navy; and at Trafalgar in
1805 it, with the Spanish power, was swept tem-
porarily from the ocean.
‘The resources of France, however, were so great
that in a few years after the signing of peace
in 1815 her fleet had again been brought up to
its old strength, and it still continues to penal
the second p' among the navies of the world.
To Napoleon IIL. belongs the credit of first pro-
tecting ships with iron, and La Gloire, launched
at Toulon in 1859, was the first armoured battle-
ship to be > afloat. Much more uniformit
in armament and design is found in the Frenc
armoured fleet of the nt day than exists in the
ish. The armour-belt round the water-line of
many of their ships is of 2 gga thickness than in
7 ing English ships. All the armour is
wel
the water, and the ships themselves steam well.
Many distinguished English naval officers are of
— that, ship for ship, many of the latest
rench ships are more than a match for ships
of a similar tonnage in the British navy. Durin
the Franco-German war of 1870-71 the Frene
fleet had no opportunities of proving its effective-
ness,
Of navies which have sprung recently into exist-
buted, the guns are carried high out of.
shi
ial notice, the German and
rst named may be said to date
its birth from the acquisition of Kiel by Prussia
after the war with nmark in 1864; and, al-
though too weak to make any head in the war
with France in 1870 aon the French fleet, yet
since that date so rapidly has the young fleet grown
that the German navy will most certainly play
an important part in any future European compli-
cations, The ships are good, and the officers and
men are probably among the most highly trained
of any navy in the world.
The Italian navy dates from the absorption of
the kingdom of Naples by Sardinia in 1860. Since
the disastrous battle of Lissa (1866), each succes-
sive Italian government has devoted large sums
and much energy towards building up a powerful
navy, and aor may fairly claim now to rank as a
first-class naval power, occupying a position next
to France (see ITALY). Among the Italian iron-
clads may be numbered ten of the largest and
most powerful battle-ships afloat—viz. the Dandolo
and ilio and the Jtalia and her seven sisters.
All these ships carry four 110-ton guns in their
turrets or bar besides a pote auxiliary
armament, while the engines of the five latest of
these ships are far more powerful than those of
even the most newly-designed English battle-ships,
and are calculated to drive them at a speed of 18
knots an hour.
The Austrians, the victors at Lissa, have since
1840 a small, but naga for its size
one the most efficient of the oh Nem navies,
officers and men being most carefully and thor-
oughly trained.
The Turkish navy, once the terror of the whole
Mediterranean, has now sunk to a low ebb. In
1827 it sustained at the battle of Navarino a crush-
ing defeat, from which it never recovered. At the
outbreak of the war with Russia in 1853 a division
of the Turkish fleet was completely destroyed by a
superior Russian force at Sinope; but as a result
of the restrictions im on Russia after the
Crimean war, and of the energy infused once more
into Turkish naval administration by Admiral
Hobart Pasha, when war broke out between
Russia and Turkey in 1877 the Russian fleet was
effectually paralysed by the superior Turkish forces,
which retained command of the Blaek Sea during
the war. Since then, however, no new shi
have been built, and in the present state of the
finances of the country it is unlikely that the
Turkish navy will play any important ré/e again
in the future.
The Russian navy was founded by Peter the
Great, but, although it soon became a formidable
one, it has never as yet distinguished itself or become
an important factor in the numerous wars in which
Russia has been en . After the battle of
Sinope in 1853 the bulk of the Black Sea fleet was
sunk by order of Prince Menschikoff, governor of
Sebastopol, to block the entrance to the harbour,
and the remaining ships were burned when the
Russians retreated in September 1855. By the
abrogation of the Black Sea portion of the treaty
of Vienna in 1871 Russia regained a free hand once
more in the Black Sea, and she has for some years
been making strenuous efforts to resume her place
as a naval power. Several formidable ironclads
have been built, while others are in course of con-
struction, as well as several cruisers of the most
modern type, and she in her turn is once more
mistress of the Black Sea.
NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES.—Simultaneously
with the war of Independence, the Americans
to build ships, and during that war and
the war of 1812 and 1814 their fleet maintained a
glorious althongh unequal struggle with Great
ence two deserve 5
the Italian. The
414
NAVY
Britain. The war of Secession, which broke out in
1860, however, found the United States navy at a
low ebb, and although a large number of vessels
were built during the ensuing four years, they were
mostly gunboats for blockading purposes and
monitors for coast and river work. The construc-
tion of the original Monitor, however, at that time
by tain Ericsson, and the good work she per-
, in reality settled the type of the armoured
battle-ships of the future. The first steps towards the
construction of the modern navy were taken in 1883.
Since that time every process necessary to the con-
struction and equipment of the most efficient ves-
sels of all classes, their armour-plate, ordnance,
and ammunition, has been perfected in the United
ome pO be oar Lee ee sane ». 1899, —
prised vessels built, building, and projected ;
of these, 50 were in construction, 20 were bein
planned, and 17 were unfit for service, leaving 1
vessels of all classes for active service. This num-
ber included 5 first-class battle-ships, of great dis-
placement, heavily armoured and armed ; 1 second-
class battle-ship; 2 armoured cruisers, of great
cruising capacity, with heavy armour and ord-
nance; 1 armoured ram; 6 double-turreted moni-
tors, with heavy batteries, and 9 iron single-turreted
monitors; 15 protected cruisers; 4 unprotected
cruisers; 20 gunboats, and 19 gunboats under 500
tons Py yee mainly on service in the Philip-
ines; 1 dynamite gunboat; torpedo boats, tugs,
espatch boats, &c. Of the vessels under construc-
tion and being planned (1900) there were 12 first-
class battle-ships, 6 armoured cruisers, 9 protected
cruisers, 4 single-turreted monitors, 16 torpedo-boat
destroyers, 15 torpedo boats, and 7 submarine tor-
pedo boats. Some of the Spanish vessels captured
or sunk during the Spanish-American war (1898)
are in service. The personnel of the navy in 1899
comprised 1340 commissioned officers, and 177 war-
rant and 4370 petty officers, 10,131 enlisted men,
and 2221 apprentices ; total, 18,239. In 1899 the
engineer and executive branches were amalgamated.
The marine corps has 201 officers and 6006 men.
The accompanying table will give a fair estimate
of the comparative strength of the different navies
of the world in 1890.
Tue British NAvy.—Alfred the Great was the
founder of the English navy, having perceived the
necessity of a fleet to 2 spar the coasts from the
swarms of pirates in the northern seas. A slight
advantage gained by some ships of his over the
Danes in 876 induced him to build long ships and
galleys, which, as his countrymen were not com-
petent to manage them, he manned with such
iratical foreigners as he could engage. After
had driven out the Danes he applied his
talents to improve his ships, and built vessels
higher, longer, and swifter than before, some row-
ing more than thirty pairs of oars. Under his
successors the number of vessels in , and
both Edward the Elder and Athelstan fought many
naval battles with the Danes, Edgar aspired to be
lord of all the northern seas, and had from three
to five thousand galleys, which he divided into
three fleets, on the western, southern, and eastern
coasts respectively. Ethelred IL. enacted that
cor even of 310 hides of land should build and
furnish one vessel for the service of his country.
William the Conqueror established the Cinque
Ports, and gave them certain privileges, on condi-
tion of their furnishing fifty-two ships for fifteen
days, ne ny rest men each, in case of
emergency. chard I. took one hundred 1
ships and fifty galleys to Palestine. King John
claimed for England the sovereignty of the seas,
and required all foreigners to strike to the English
flag, an honour which was exacted by the English
CHIEF NAVIES OF THE WORLD, 1890.
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UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP “INDIANA.”
Length, 348 feet; displacement, 10,288 tons.
Vol. VII., page 415,
NAVY 415
admiral from the fleet conveying Philip II. of
Spain off Southampton-water, when the latter was
on his way to espouse Queen Mary: this honour
was formally yielded by the Dutch in 1673 and the
French in 1704, but the custom since the peace of
1815 has fallen into disuse. In the year 1293 a
great naval action was fought in mid-channel with
the French, when the English captured 250 sail ;
and Edward III. with the Black Prince at the
battle of Sluys in 1340 defeated a greatly superior
French fleet.
Henry V. had something of a navy; but Henry
VII. seems to have been the first king who thought
of providing a naval force which might be at all
times ready for the service of the state. He built
“a Ary i
w
marth il |
wt NN
SS
the Great Harry, properly speaking the first shi
of the royal navy. She cost £15,000, and was ane
dentally burned in 1553. To Henry VIII, how-
ever, bel the honour of having laid the founda-
tion of the British navy as a distinct service. He
constituted the Admiralty and Navy Office, estab-
lished the Trinity House, and the dockyards of
Deptford, Woolwich, and Portsmouth, fixed regu-
lar salaries for the admirals eaptains, and sailors,
and made the sea-service a distinct profession. In
1512, when a fleet was fitted out inst France
igh Admiral,
‘or his own
1000 tons and carrying 122 guns, to be con-
structed, in emulation. of a somewhat similar
ship called the Caracon, but - carrying 100
guns, which had lately been built by Francis I. of
rance. She appears to have been built rather
for magnificence than for use; only thirteen of her
guns were 9-pounders or upwards, and she is
said to have steered badly and rolled heavily.
After making one voy she was disarmed at
Bristol and suffered to decay. The French ship
was still more unfortunate, being accidentally de-
stroyed by fire at Havre. The ships of this period
were high, unwieldy, and narrow, their guns
close to water, and they had lofty oper and
forecastles. At the death of Henry VIII. the ton-
nage of the navy was 12,000 tons; there were some
fifty cog manned by 8000 men. Elizabeth in-
creased fleet greatly. The fleet which met the
Spanish Armada numbered 176 ships armed by
14,996 men; but these were not all ‘shippes royal,’
for she encouraged the merchants to Phild large
ships which were as much fighting ships as traders,
and rated at 50 to 100 tons more than they measured.
She raised the wages of seamen to 10s. per month.
Signals were first used in this reign as means of
communication between ships. In the reign of
James I. lived the first able and scientific naval
architect, Phineas Pett; he introduced a better
system of building, and relieved the ships of much
of their top-hamper, abolishing the lofty ag and
forecastles. = exp he lai crricbe the Spee
Royal, a two-decker carrying sixty-four guns; an
in 1637 from Woolwich he launched the celebrated
Sovereign of the Seas, the first three-decker and the
— ship hitherto constructed on modern prin-
ciples. She was 232 feet in length, of 1637 tons,
and carried at first 130 pieces of cannon; being
found unwieldy, she was cut down, and proved an
excellent ship, but was burned in 1696. In this
reign the navy was first divided into rates and
classes. Cromwell left 154 sail, measuring 57,643
tons, of which one-third were two-deckers. He was
the first to lay before parliament annual estimates
for the support of the navy, and obtained £400,000
for that pu During the Protectorate Peter
Pett, son of Phineas, built the Constant Warwick,
the earliest British frigate, from a French design
and pattern. The Duke of York, afterwards James
IL, assisted by the celebrated Samuel Pepys, as
Secretary, did much for the navy. He appointed a
new commission when he came to the throne, with
which he joined Sir Anthony Deane, the best naval
architect of the time, who essentially improved the
ships of the line by bs tag 8 from French models ;
at this time, and during the 18th century, naval
architecture was zealously studied in France, and
the English constructors were so sensible of their
inferiority that even up to the beginning of the
19th century all our best ships were either cap-
tured from the French or copied from them. At
the Revolution of 1689 the fleet was in excellent
condition, with sea stores complete for eight months
for each = The force consisted of 184 vessels,
carrying guns, and 42,000 men, whereof nine
were first-rates,
William III, added greatly to the navy, which
numbered at his death 272 ships of 159,020 tons,
the annual charge being £1,056,915. The dockyard
at. Hamoaze, out of which has since grown the
considerable town of Devonport (q.v.), was also
established during his reign (see also the article
Dockyarps, Roya).
At the death of Queen Anne in 1714 the
number of ships was less, but the tonnage
relatively greater, there being 198 ships, “nl
ing 10,600 guns, the tonnage being 156,640. n
1747 a naval uniform-was first established. The
navy increased rapidly during the reigns of the
first two Georges, and at the accession of George
III. consisted of 127 ships of the line and 198
of fifty guns and under, measuring 321,104 tons,
and manned by 70,000 seamen and marines. The
navy was kept in a high state of preparation,
and, when in February 1793 the French Republic
declared war inst England, in a few weeks
fifty-four sail of the line and 146 smaller vessels had
ut to sea completely equipped. The whole fleet in
1793 consisted of 122 ships of the line, 97 frigates,
and 102 sloops and smaller vessels, manned by
85,000 seamen and marines. The navy of France
had never been so powerful ; it amounted to above
200 vessels, of which 82 were of the line, and 71
were in addition ordered to be built. The English
had about 115 sail of the line fit for service; but
the majority of the French ships were larger and
finer and carried heavier guns on their lower or
principal battery. The following abstract will
416 NAVY
show the losses on both sides up to the peace of 186 feet long, has a tonnage of 2100 tons, and
Amiens (1802). carried 100 guns, the bulk of which were long
Captured vet. | 32-pounders, weighing 56 cwt. In 1859 the flag-
British ships of the line.......---+.4+ P 4 ship in the Mediterranean was the screw three-
VOBBOLS «0 cece ee ence eneeeeenee Bi. ee d er, the Marlboro ih ; she. wan S08, tas lente
Mote ics scakescvatesve 42 9 6100 tons, “rig — 4 ms eg ei
— = ns were ewt. 8-inch she’ ns throwing a
eee ee On = . shell with bursting charge inclusive of 56 Ih. while
Sponteh wo 6 5 her remaini ins were the long 56 ewt. 32-
Danish ” unders, Wi whic ne Ve :
2 0 pound it ich the Victory had been armed
! —— "7s nearly a century before. But since 1860 a vast
a revolution has n effected in our naval forces,
French smaller vessels ....... eee te F 266 “4 and it seems almost incredible that in so short
Dutch = Wo ae eeeteeweneenes . - a space so great a transformation should have
Spanish Mi. 5250qnennsceesae e ane taken place. Masts and sails have dinappeared,
Grand Total..........+- 443 76 the wooden walls of old England are things
This estimate does not include 807 privateers,
chiefly French, taken and destroyed. Of the
above, 50 sail of the line and 94 under that size
were added to the British navy.
During the peace of Amiens pe rations for
war were actively continued on both sides, and
when war broke out again in March 1803 the
British fleet consisted of 153 ships of the line and
411 under that size, manned by 120,000 seamen and
marines. ‘In the year 1809,’ to quote the words
of Alison, ‘the British fleet was at the zenith of
its power, and Great Britain first appeared in the
field on a scale adequate to her mighty strength.
With a fleet of near 1100 vessels, including of
the line, manned by 140,000 men, she blockaded
every hostile harbour in Europe, and still had 37
ships of the line to strike a blow at the Scheldt.
With 100,000 lar troops she maintained her
immense colonial empire ; with 191,000 more she
ruled India; with 400,000 militia she guarded the
British Isles; while her fleet could convey yet
another 100,000, with which she menaced, at once,
Antwerp, Madrid, and Naples ; while Lord Minto,
the Governor-general of India, announced in his
despatches with well-founded pride that ‘from
Cape Comorin to Cape Horn a French flag could
nowhere be found flying.
The following abstract shows the losses on each
which
ded to
”?
side from 1803 to the end of the war, durin
33 sail of the line and 68 under were
the British navy.
ere ere Tere rere ress
Total
Since eee og“ in 1815 the number of vessels has
been greatly diminished, although their power has
vastly increased.
The reogrestve augmentation of size in vessels
may be judged from the increase in first-rates. In
1677 the largest vessel was from 1500 to 1600 tons;
by 1720, 1800 tons had been reached ; by 1745, 2000
tons ; 1808, 2616 tons; 1853, 4000 tons; 1860, 6959
tons—the Victoria, the last three-decker built in
England; while the Warrior, the first ironclad
t in Britain, and launched in 1861, is 9210
tons, and in 1890 ironclads were building of
14,000 tons. We may observe by the way that
up to the year 1860 the ships were practically
the ships of the last two centuries, improved and
developed ly certainly by the introduction
of steam, of increased tounage and of better lines
but still the same ships, and in the matter of
armament with but little improvement to record
over the beginning of the century. In 1786 the
Victory was Jaunched ; she was at that time the
largest three-decker in the English service; she is
and
The use of steam as a propell wer is the agent
hee leosn effect
1 in fact, the last sailing frigate in commission,
the Calypso, only returned from the Pacific at the
latter end of 1861, The first war steamers were all
pee vessels, and this mode of propulsion
rought a change in the armament, or rather in
the method of mounting guns. The paddle-wheels
being quite ex , and the machinery also being
mostly above the water-line, there was great danger
that a lucky shot would soon put a ship out of
action, if compelled to fight broadside to broadside,
as ships had been accustomed to do formerly.
obviate this danger as far as possible, the few guns
these paddle-ships carried were mounted as pivot-
guns, by which a far larger arc of training was
possible than to a gun mounted on the b i
thus enabling a ship to fight her guns without
exposing her whole broadside to an enemy's fire.
A few paddle-frigates, however, of | size, were
built, and in their day did service; of these
the well-known Terrible, nicknamed during the
2 ware 1854-56 me ager yarn, Cat,’ was
e largest; she was a ship of some 3600
carried sixteen 68-pounders, and had engines’ of 800
horse-power. At the bombardment of Sebastopol
the sailing line-of-battle ships were all towed into
their places by the paddle-frigates, which were
lashed on their off-sides, But it was the applica-
tion of the screw as a means of propelling ale
which has really revolutionised ships of war. Its
vast superiority over the paddle was at once seen,
and by the commencement of the Russian war in
1854 many ships of the line, frigates, and smaller
vessels had been either conve or built as screw
ships. After the conclusion of the war 1
the sailing three-deckers were converted into
steam two-deckers, being Jongthened amidships,
Fe engines being then fit to them; while
uring
architecture seemed to have reached its acme, the
line-of-battle ships and frigates which were launched
at the time being quite unsurpassed for beau
of their hulls, their size, and their sailing
steaming qualities. Strangely enough, for the
first time in history, the new ships at this time
were far superior to the French, es ly the
line-of-battle ships, which all carried their lower
deck guns twice as high out of the water as the
Fre ships, and were altogether finer and
ne three and four succeeding years naval —
|
NAVY
417
mer models, But the knell of wooden
ips had already sounded, and many of the finest
line-of-battle ships built at this time were never
even commissioned.
To Napoleon IIL, emperor of the French,
belongs the idea of plating ships with iron. The
effect of shells on the ships at the first bombard-
ment of Sebastopol showed clearly that unless some
means of protection could be devised ships were
ae] at a terrible disadvantage when attacking
avy shore batteries. The result was the layin
down in France and England in the year 1855 o
what were called floating batteries, which were,
however, completed too late to take any active
part in the war. Some ten were built in England ;
they were 172 feet long, 43 feet beam, about 2500 tons
displacement, a draught of water of 7 feet 9 inches,
had engines of 200 horse-power; they were
tent with 4 inches of iron on inches of wood
king ; they could only steam about 5 knots,
and, as they were flat-bottomed with no keels, were
very unmanageable ; but they were heavily armed,
carrying sixteen 68-pounders in their batteries.
Three years later, however, the first ironclad
frigate was laid down at Toulon, the celebrated
La Gloire. She was designed by M. Dupuy-de-
Lome, head of the constructive department of
the French admiralty, was built of wood and
lated entirely with 44 inch iron plates to 6 feet
low the water-line; she was 250 feet long, 55
feet beam, was built with a ram-bow, and could
steam about 13°5 knots. She was launched in the
early part of 1860, and in December of that year
ed on a series of trials in company with the
Fr te one of the fastest French line-of-battle
sh She proved herself a ¢ sea-boat, and
under all conditions steamed better than the
wooden ships. In England they were not idle, and
in January 1861 the Warrior was launched from
the works of the Thames Shipbuilding Company.
Designed by Mr Scott Guentl. this ship, which,
unlike La Gloire, is still fit for service, was built
entirely of iron. She is, however, only armour-
plated for two-thirds of her length, her bow and
stern being unprotected ; she is 9210 tons, 420 feet
over all, with a beam of 59 feet, and her —
44 inches thick ; while her engines—5770 indicated
horse-power—gave her a speed of nearly 15 knots.
She was thus nearly double the size and tonnage
of La Gloire ; but, although still a fine vessel and
a beantiful model, she has long been obsolete
asa fighting ship. She was quickly followed by
others—ships in which the armour was carried com-
pletely round the hull; and in order more rapidly
to form a large ironclad fleet several of the new
line-of-battle ships were cut down, and converted
into armoured frigates with ram-bows, and with
plating from 44 to 6 inches in thickness. These
ships were, however, only makeshifts, as they had
no watertight bulkheads, and the armour soon
caused the wooden sides underneath to rot and
decay. Still they answered their purpose, and
filled a gap until newer and stronger ships, built
entirely of iron, could be designed and constructed.
From 1861, when the Warrior was launched, up
to the present day has been an unceasing era
of change in design to meet the ever-increasing
requirements of a modern ship of war, brought
Fig. 3.—The Warrior armour-plated screw frigate,
32 guns.
about by the production of guns ever growing in
size and power, and the corresponding necessity of
ine thickness of armour. In Hampton Roads
during the American civil war was fought on the
9th of March 1862 the first naval action between
armoured ships, which practically sealed the fate
of armoured frigates of the earlier type almost
before they in many cases left the stocks.
When Norfolk with its dockyard was evacuated by
the Federal troops at the outbreak of the war
between the Northern and Southern states, the
Merrimac, a large pag steam-frigate, was set
on fire to prevent her falling into the hands of the
Confederates. She was, however, only rtly
burned, and the Confederates found her in all
essential respects uninjured. Remembering the
many experiments that had been made in Europe
to show the value of iron armour for ships, and
painfully conscious of their weakness at sea, they
appear to have thought there was one grand
opppceaesy open to them, and to have made use
of it with characteristie vigour and skill. They
built up over her deck and down upon her sides
to below the water-line a shot-proof covering
formed of macs | pais of railroad iron, and meet-
ing at the top like the roof of a house, through
which came her funnel and the only opening for
Fig. 4.—American Turret-ship, Miantonomah.
ventilation. She was armed with two 100-pounder
Armstrong guns and eight 11-inch guns, and on the
8th of March 1862 she steamed out to attack the
blockading Federal squadron, consisting of two
418
NAVY
——
sailing frigates, the Cumberland and the Congress,
and three steam-frigates, which latter, however,
were unable to come up in time to take part in the
action. The Cumberland was sunk and the Con-
gress had to surrender, the Merrimac herself
sustaining no injury, although she sunk the
first-named ship by ramming. The next morn-
ing she came out to attack the remaining ships,
but was met by an antagonist which, Gin ay =
much smaller, proved more than a match for
her. This was the celebrated Monitor, built and
designed by Captain Ericsson (q.v.); and from
her have sprung the monster turret-ships of the
present day. She was only 210 feet long, with an
extreme beam of 45 feet; her deck and low sides
were plated, and she carried two 150-pounder
Dahlgren guns in a single turret amidships, which
was protected with eight l-inch iron plates screwed
together, and was turned by steam; she had no
bulwarks, and her deck was barely two feet out of
the water, while besides the turret nothing showed
on deck except her funnel and an armoured pilot-
house at the stern. The result of the fight is well
known, and the Merrimac had to retreat before
her small opponent. Great was the excitement
caused when the news of this action reached
Europe, and nowhere more than in England, where
a demand immediately arose for the conversion of
the fleet into Sucve akin. Captain Cowper Coles
(q.v.) had ever since the Crimean war been urging
the Admiralty to build turret-ships in some
form or another, but no attention had been
Fig. 5.—Turret-ship, Royal Sovereign.
paid to him; he now again came forward with
plans for converting some of the wooden ships
into Monitors, and the Admiralty determined to
vive his plan a trial. Accordingly a screw three-
decker, the Royal Sovereign, was cut down,
armour plated, and fitted with four turrets, each
earrying two 9-ton guns. She had a freeboard of
six feet, thus making her a great deal more sea-
worthy than the American Monitor; but, as the
ship had not originally been destined for such
heavy work, she laboured under some disadvan-
tages. Nevertheless she was considered for a time
the most formidable ship in the navy. When once
fairly tried the advantages of the turret over the
broadside system was evident; the turrets are
placed in the centre of the ship, so the weight of
the guns and the armour of the ship is more
systematically and evenly distributed, and it has
become possible to mount the heaviest guns in
turrets and barbettes—guns of a size and weight
which by no possibility could ever be carried on the
broadside. nother advantage which turrets offer
is the much greater protection afforded to the guns
in them and to their crews, not only from the in-
creased thickness of the armour which can be carried
on them, but also from the probability that many
projectiles will glance off the rounded surface of the
turret instead of penetrating, while, owing to the
Turret-ships did not, however, immediately super-
sede broadside ships, and the controversy as to
the respective merits of the two systems raged for
some time. Guns and armour were in the mean-
time growing. In 1866 the Bellerophon was com-
pleted, a fine broadside ship with a 6-inch belt at
the water-line and 5-inch over her battery, in
which she carried twelve 12-ton guns.
To Rear-Admiral Scott the country is indebted
for the iron carriages and slides, with their patent
compressors for checking the recoil, which made
the mounting of heavy guns on the broadside
possible. But now a new danger to be guarded
against had arisen in the shape of that dangerous
weapon the torpedo, The word was first applied
to everything, no matter what its nature, which
was exploded under water against ships; but of
late years the word torpedo refers solely to mobile
under-water weapons of offence, and niore particu-
larly to the fish or Whitehead torpedo, whilst the
fixed or stationary torpedoes are now called sub-
marine mines (see TORPEDOES and MINES). To
afford as much protection as possible from these
enemies, and also to make a ship as unsink-
able as possible, not only has a system of
building ships with an inner as well as an
outer ttom been adopted, but by means of
transverse and other bulkheads the whole hull
below the water-line is subdivided into a num-
ber of watertight compartments, so that if a
ship is injured the damage and water admitted is
confined to as small a section as possible. Two
complete sets of engines, driving each a separate
screw, also took the place of the old single screw.
This not only gives ships A prev peep wers,
but if one engine is disabled they are not left quite
helpless. In 1869 three ng ie low freeboard mast-
less turret-ships were laid down, the Devastation,
Thunderer, and Dreadnought ; the first-named ship
was commissioned at the end of 1872, and they
have all done good service, and still remain amongst
our most formidable ships. They are protected
a belt of 14-inch armour at the water-line ; above
Fig. 6.—The Devastation.
this, ranning abont two-thirds of the length of the
ship, is an armoured breastwork with 12-inch armour
which protects the base of the turrets, loading-
r, &c. An armoured deck resting on the top
of the belt covers in the whole ship outside the
casement, the turrets being placed at each end of
this breastwork. The freeboard fore and aft. of
these ships is extremely low, the deck being barely
four feet out of the water, thus necessitating at sea
the closing of all apertures by watertight hatches,
as the deck is continually under water. A super-
low freeboard, the mark offered to an enemy is much | structure or hurricane deck is erected in the 5
smaller than in a high freeboard broadside ship. | between and slightly above the turrets, where
a
eae Cl el CU CMY
NAVY
419
accommodation is found for the boats, chart-
house, and armoured conning-tower ; the funnels,
ventilators, and means of communication with
the interior of the ship when the hatches on the
upper deck are , all lead up through this
structure, which is sufficiently spacious to form a
small i
ers of the same
e in bad weather. These ships
and are ventilated below
means of air which is driven down ‘by fans
worked by steam. They have only what is called a
military mast, the principle use of which is to serve
as a support for the derrick used to hoist out the
large boats. The original armament of these ships
=
7.—Diagram Disposition of Armour in
M.S. Devastation (1872), twin-screw double-turret
ocnlagg Sey class, four 29-ton guns in pairs in
turrets. tons, 7000 H.P.
@, a, 3 , sup
consisted of four 35-ton muzzle-loading guns, but
since 1890 they have been supplied with 29-ton
breech-loading —_ of the most modern type,
and a full com ent of 3- and 6-pounder quick-
firmg guns, which are mounted on the super-
structure. The introduction of this new type of
sea-going turret-ship was a bold experiment and
the oceasion of much controversy ; but even in the
first Perera ene ewan ot success was achieved.
Deficiency of free forward is the fault of the
Devastation and her sisters, as also of many of the
later ships, for with such a form of bow it is diffi-
cult, if not impracticable, to maintain a high rate
of steam cone Nau it Pegg Of course, the
object of ws being kept so low is to offer a
smaller target to the enemy and to enable the
guns mounted in the fore-turret to command an
all-round fire.
Captain Coles was not satisfied with the Royal
Sovereign or the —— subsequently de-
He believed he could build a turret-ship
which, with a low freeboard, should yet be heavily
a and able te k oo under sail alone;
so the Captain, a large shi over 6000 tons, was
Imilt from his designs with a freeboard of only
6 feet ; bp daha. — masted so as to beled
great sail-power ; esign was not approved at
the ‘Admiralty, her freeboard for a masted-shi
being considered dangerously low. So the Nanirok
a turret-ship of about the same tonnage, but with
a freeboard of 14 feet, was built at the same time
embodying the Admiralty idea of what a masted
turret-ship ought to be. Both ships carried four
; ¢, upper deck.
25-ton in their turrets. The fate of the
unfortunate Captain is well known. About an
hour after t on the. morning of the 6th of
September 1870, while cruising with the Channel
oa aoe off Cape Finisterre, she was capsized
when under sail in a heavy squall, and went down
immediately ; 500 officers and men, among whom
were her captain, Captain Burgoyne, V.C., and
Captain Coles himself, were lost. The Monarch, on
the other hand, has been continually in commission,
and in 1890 was re-engined and provided with new
breech-loading guns. After the completion of the
Bellerophon in 1866 an entire change was made in the
arran, nt of the guns in the batteries and in the
ition of the armour-plating in the new broad-
side ships which followed her. The Bellerophon,
like her predecessors, was armoured all over, the
plating extending some 5 feet below the water-line,
while her guns extended along the maindeck as in
the old wooden ships. An attempt was now to be
made, without materially increasing the size of the
ships, to carry yet heavier guns and protect them
with thicker plating; at the same time various
devices were comand to to try and combine some
of the advantages of the turret-ship with the
broadside system of mounting guns, by giving an
end-on fire to bow and quarter guns and generally
increasing the are of training.
The result was what are now known as central-
battery ships, of which the Hercules, Sultan,
Téméraire, and Alexandra are very fine speci-
mens. These ships have a complete belt of armour
round the water-line tapering from 12 inches to
5 inches in thickness. armour is carried up
over the penta d tegen of the ship and the bat-
teries; athw ip armour bulkheads shut in
the batteries fore and aft, forming a complete
armoured citadel ; before and abaft these bulkheads,
above the armour-belt, the sides are unprotected in
any way, and here are the quarters for the officers
and men. The guns are carried in the batteries,
there being an upper and a lower one, the lower
being the main or principal battery ; the foremost
and after ports are so as to give a nearly
end-on fire, while in some cases the upper battery
is made to overhang, the ship’s side being made to
fall in, and thus a direct bow and stern fire is
obtained. Both the Alexandra and Téméraire
Disposition of Armour in
Fig. 8.—Diagram i H
-M.S. Alexandra (1875), twin-screw central-battery
— battle-ship, Ist class. 9490 tons, 8610 H.P.,
guns.
a, upper two 25-ton and two 18-ton guns; b, main
battery, two 25-ton and six 18-ton guns, six .6-inch guns on
upper deck ; 6, men's quarters; d, officers’ quarters ; © poop.
carry 25-ton and 18-ton a in their batteries ;
these ships were launched in 1875, and were the
last lncanaiia ships to be built, as they are the
finest. After the loss of the Captain, and in view
of the rapidly increasing competition between guns
and armour for the mastery, as illustrated by the
fact that in ten years pi had been made from
44 to 14 inch armour, and from 68-pounders to 35-ton
guns, the Admiralty appoin a committee of
naval officers and architects to consider and report
on the best design for the battle-ship of the future.
The result of their deliberations was the adoption
of what is known as the citadel type of ship, and
on this ramen with certain modifications, several
battle-ships were built.
In this type of Lo Sm continuous armour-belt
round the water-line is done away with, and in its
place the armour of great thickness is concentrated
round a citadel in the central portion of the ship ;*
the length of the citadel varies from about one-
third the length of the “ap to nearly a half; the
armour extends to a depth of some 5 feet below the
water and about 6 feet above; at each extremit
rise the turrets in which the guns are mounted.
In the Inflexible, the first ship of this type built,
the armour at the water-line is 24 inches thick,
with 17 inches on the turrets; the plates, how-
ever, are of iron, while in the later ships they are
compound—iron faced with steel. The Inflexible
carries two 8l-ton muzzle-loading guns in each
of her turrets, capable of throwing a projectile
of 1750 lb. weight a distance of 64 miles, with an
initial velocity of 1800 feet. From the base of
420
the citadel fore and aft extends the whole remain-
ing length of the ship a watertight turtle-backed
armoured deck, from 2) to 3 inches thick; and
below this deck, which is below the water-line
and within the citadel, are contained all the vitals
of the ship—engines, boilers, m ines, &c.—the
only communication from above being down through
the citadel. The quarters for the officers and men
Fig. 9.—Diagram showing Disposition of Armour and
Armoured Deck in H.M.S. Colossus (1882), improved
Inflexible twin-screw double-turret citadel battle-
ship, 1st with unarmoured end but armoured
a 9420 tons, 7500 H.P., four 47-ton guns, two in
each turret; five 6-inch guns on superstructure.
are mostly provided for in those parts of the ship
before and abaft the citadel, and are built up above
the armoured deck ; the idea being that these un-
armoured ends might be destroyed by the enemy’s
fire, but that the body of the ship would remain
intact ; the citadel, in fact, resting on an unsink-
able inner ship below the surface of the water, there
being as many as two hundred different watertight
compartments in some of the latest battle-ships, in-
cluding the compartments of the double bottom.
Since the year 1880 another revolution has been
carried out, this time in the armament of ships,
steel breech-loading guns being now substituted for
the old muzzle-loaders. This change was rendered
necessary in order to obtain the increased velocity
requisite to penetrate the thicker armour now in
use. It was found that the n length
to obtain this increased velocity could not be
given to guns which were loaded at the muzzle,
so the authorities found themselves compelled to
re-arm our whole fleet anew. The work was long
in completing, but since 1882 all the new battle-
ships and cruisers have received the new guns,
The introduction of fast-steaming torpedo Coats
has also rendered it necessary for the heavy
armament of battle-ships to be supplemented by a
large number of light guns; and to the necessity of
meeting the attacks of these swift little vessels,
we are indebted for all the rapid-firing guns now
in use, of which every ship carries a large comple-
ment. It thus again became necessary to carry
guns on the broadside, and the design of the citadel
ships had to be materially modified. Six battle-
ships were laid down, known as the Admiral class,
Fig. 10.—Diagram showing Disposition of Armour in the
Admiral class, H.MLS. ney (1885), twin-screw bar-
bette battle-ship, Ist class. 10,300 tons, 11,500 H.P.,
four 67-ton guns mounted in pairs in the barbettes (¢);
six 6-inch guns in central unarmoured battery (a).
6, sparleck with quick-firing guns ; ¢, officers’ quarters; d, men’s
quarters ; /, fighting top, armed with two 6-pd, q.-f. guns,
named after distinguished naval commanders.
Much controversy has arisen over these ships, and
it is certain that they are deficient in armour-protec-
tion; on the other hand, their armament is a formid-
able one; they carry four 67-ton guns mounted in
pairs, en barbette, in fixed heavily-armoured redoubts
above the armoured portion
of the hull, and all hy
t
draulic loading arran
ments are protected by them. The amm
is also brought up from below through armoured
tubes. A belt of 18 inches of compound armour
protects about 156 feet of the water-line of the
ship amidships, and there is in addition a 3-inch
steel-armoured deck. Between the barbettes is a
long central battery, in which are carried the ten
6-inch guns forming the auxiliary battery, while
on the spar-deck above are mounted a due -
tion of 3- and 6-pounder quick-firing guns.
advantages claimed for the barbette system, which
is in general use by the French, over the turret, is
that the guns are carried much higher out of the
water; on the other hand, they are much more
liable to injury from an enemy’s fire, as, except
when loading, the whole gun is completely ex-
posed ; while the absence of broadside armour for
the central secondary battery is a serious defect,
leaving the crews, as it does, ex to destruction
by shells ch with melinite or other high
et age and the hail of fire from the quick-
fi guns. These ships are also too low for-
ward, and, although fast ag they cannot steam
at any speed against a heavy head sea,
As the outcome of the popular revulsion against
the Admiral type of battle-ship, in consequence of
the amount of armour-protection, and in view
of the development of ae explosives for use in
shells, and the rapid growth in the size of the quick-
firing guns, the Nile and 7; ie were laid down
in the year 1885. For their offensive powers and for
i m showing Di ition of Armour in
erie (1888), rent genie double-turret
class, with armoured central
, battery.
11,940 tons, 12,000 &.p., four 67-ton guns in turret (b);
the completeness of their armour-protection, as
compa with any former ships, they were un-
questionably the two most formidable battle-shi
launched till then. Although not completely
belted all round, they are very nearly so, and may
be described as improved Devastations, with the
addition of a central battery between the turrets
for the auxiliary armament, in place of the super-
structure of the earlier ships. The main arma-
ment consists of four 67-ton guns, while the auxil-
iary armament consists of eight 4°7-inch 40-pounder
quick-firing guns, which are protected by 5-inch
steel armour; and in addition they carry sixteen
3-pounder and 6-pounder quick-firing guns, mostly
mounted on the spar-deck. In 1889 what is known
as the Naval fence Act was which
authorised the construction of ten new battie-ships,
forty Ist and 2d class cruisers, and twenty torpedo
gunboats. The battle-ships (of which the first
were launched in 1892), of 14,000 tons displacement,
have a length of 380 feet, and a beam of 75 feet
their engines of 13,000 horse-power have a 8 of
18 knots, a knot faster than that of the Nile and
Trafalgar. 'The disposition of the armour is much
the same as in the two former ships, and the armour
is of the same thickness except at the water-line,
where it is two inches less ; this water-line belt is
NAVY
421.
8 feet broad, extending three-fourths the length
the ship, with a maximum thickness of 18
inches; the belt is terminated by transverse
armoured bulkheads; above it is a 3-inch steel
deck, while a strong under-water deck completes
aa pee before and abaft the belt. The
ide above the belt is protected to a height
of 94 feet above water over a considerable portion
of the length by 5-inch armour, screen bulkheads
similarly armoured enclosing the central beget
The armour on the barbettes is 17 inches thick,
while the protection of the guns and crews of the
auxiliary armament has been carefully arranged in
view of the development of high explosives and
quick-firing guns. In eight of these ships the
main armament of ps dona 67-ton guns is carried
in barbettes 23 feet above the water; in the re-
maining two they are mounted in turrets. The
auxil ap 8 consists of ten gree ai ay
100-pounder quick-firing guns, sixteen 16-pounder,
and eight + ceausion A cg hag together with
sev! tubes, of which two are submerged.
en to’
Since 1880 a large number of fast cruisers have
been built. Of these ten are protected by a belt of
10-inch steel armour two-thirds of the length of
the ship at the water-line, as well as by an
armoured deck; all the remainder are known as
‘protected cruisers ’—i.e. they have an armoured
turtle-backed deck which extends throughout the
py of the ship; the thickness varies in the
ifferent ships from 6 inches on the slope to 2
inches on the horizontal per. The top of the
deck rises to a maximum of about 18 inches above
the water-line, but on the side it curves down to
join the plating of the skin 64 feet below the
water. In the new cruisers, round the hatchways,
funnel casings, &c. ipo is given by 5-inch
steel armour, while the guns also are protected by —
casemates with 4-inch steel armour, and the “
up from the magazines to
the guns th h armoured tubes. The speed of
these ships varies from about 16 knots in the
cruisers of 1880 to 19 knots in the more recent
ones, and two first-class cruisers, the Blake and
Blenheim, were intended to steam 22 knots. As
in the battle-ships, so in the modern cruisers
ammunition is
“GLACIS
MAIN DECK
Fig. 12.—Section of Lurret, showing System of Tid Heavy Guns, and Hydraulic Arrangement for Loading.—
8. Colossus.
A, saddle on which the oe fixed; B, recoil press; 8, slide; C, pivot of slide; ~ elevating cylinder; E, loading trongh;
ng rammer and shot; L, teak backing;
is placed in a trough (E) on the deck ; the trough is raised by a ram (H) until it is in the required position (E’) for
projectile into the trough being
masts and sails have been done away with;
and while the battle-ships have what is called
a military mast fitted with two armoured tops in
which are carried one or more quick-firing guns,
the cruisers have only a couple of light poles
for signalling purposes. The armament of the
ernisers consists generally of two 9-inch 22-ton
guns as bow- and stern-chasers, and a proportion
of 6-inch or 5-inch guns, according to the size of
the ship, with a due complement of quick-firing
ns and four or six tubes for peonerang White.
ead torpedoes. In these ships which have no
vertical armour a certain amount of protection is
afforded by the stowage of coal in bunkers above
the water-line. Battle-ships and cruisers alike are
now lit by electricity, by means of which also the
guns are fired and joes discharged ; they are
also provided with powerful electric search-lights,
which will illumine the sea for some 2 miles, while
gy PR is now carried on also by electric
light. Asa further defenée against torpedoes, all
large ships are provided with torpedo-nets, which
are made of steel wire, with meshes of about 3
inches in diameter, and are rigged out all round
the ory etd means of booms, which project about
30 feet from the ship’s side a little above the water-
line ; these nets are about 18 feet deep, and when
not required for use are stowed inboard.
Ships are further provided with countermines
for the par of destroying mine-fields defending
hostile rs. See TORPEDOES, MINEs.
In England iron plates faced with steel (called
compound plates) have been definitively adopted
, the
gun; on the
for heavy armour; while steel plates, from 6 inches
to 2 inches in thickness, are used for the armoured
decks and the shields for the protection of the
light guns; and mild steel is now used instead of
iron for the hulls of all ships,
The heaviest guns in use in the royal navy are
the 111-ton breech-loaders, which throw a projectile
of 18001b., with an initial velocity of 2300 feet, from
10 to 11 miles. The charge for this gun is 900
lb. of brown prismatic powder. These guns were
put in three ships, the Victoria (lost in 1893) and
Sanspareil, in these being mounted in pairs
in a single turret forward, and the Benbow,
which has one mounted in each of her barbettes
forward and aft. The 67-ton gun proved most
successful, and was in 1889 adopted as the heavy
gun, The cost of the 110-ton gun is £19,600;
of the 67-ton gun, £13,600; of the 22-ton gun,
£4816; while a 5-inch 36-cwt. gun costs £568.
In considering the question of guns it is essential
to keep in view that the endurance diminishes as
the calibre increases ; the life of the 110-ton gun is
considered to be 95 rounds ; that of the 67-ton gun,
127 rounds ; and that of the 45-ton gun, 150 rounds.
The 67-ton gun throws a projectile of 1250 1b., with
a charge of 630 Ib. of brown prismatic powder, a
distance of 10 miles, and will pierce 30 inches of
armour; but experience shows that armour of this
weight cannot be carried on ships of anything like
a reasonable size. There is a strong opinion
among naval officers that a 12-inch gun of modern
design and about 50 tons in weight should possess
sufficient power; and in 1898 the Majestic’s 12-inch
422 NAVY
NAXOS
46-ton gun showed energy little less than that of
the 67-ton gun, and greater power of penetration
than the 110-ton gun. In the smaller types of quick-
firing guns the projectile and charge are made up
in one idge, and by an ingenious sekerg, oR
of the breech it can be opened and closed by one
man almost instantaneously. The first quick-firin
runs were the 3-pounders and 6-pounders inven
by Nordenfelt and Hotchkiss: these guns fired
twenty-eight rounds a minute. A 40-pounder
uick-firer, made at Elswick, proved most success-
1. A 100-pounder gun was the next enterprise
(see CANNON, MACHINE GUN).
The nine battleships of the Spencer programme
—Majestic, Magnificent, Victorious, Prince George,
Mars, Jupiter, Ilustrious, Hannibal, and Cesar,
launched 1896-97—were of 14,900 tons, and the
largest ships afloat except the Jtalia and Lepanto.
The Canopus class (Canopus, Ocean, Goliath, Albion,
Glory, Vengeance) are of about 12,950 tons. The
Renown is of 12,350. The Spartiate, launched
1898, is of 11,000 tons. The first-class cruisers
Powerful and Terrible are ships of 14,000 tons.
The Formidable, launched in the end of 1898, like
the Irresistible and the Implacable—then being
built—are called ‘improved Majestics,’ as the
Majestic was itself called ‘an improved Royal
seas ex The tonnage is 14,900, the engines are
15,000 horse-power, an there are twin screws ; the
side armour is 9 inches thick by 15 feet deep. The
ship is armed with four 12-inch breechloading wire
guns, twelve 6-inch quick-firers, each in its own
casemate of Harveyed steel; sixteen 12-pounder
uick-firers; two 12-pounder 8-cwt. guns; we
axims; four submerged torpedo-tubes; and a
heavy steel ram. The cost of the greater ships
may be set down at or over £1,000,000.
In 1898 there were 30 battle-ships of the first
class afloat, 7 of the second, and 21 of the third ;
14 coast defence ships ; 9 armoured cruisers ; 16 first-
class ernisers ; 64second and third class cruisers ; 19
lookout ships ; 34 torpedo gunboats ; 147 first-class
torpedo boats, 4 of the second class and 20 of the
third. Besides, there were building 9 first-class
hattle-ships, 12 first-class cruisers, 2 sloops, 4 gun-
boats, and 41 torpedo destroyers. The new pro-
gramme of 1898 comprised 3 battle-ships, 4
armoured cruisers, and 4 sloops, besides 4 armoured
cruisers ordered in July 1897.
The naval estimates pro by Mr Goschen for
1898-99 amounted to £23,780,000, providing for a
force of 106,000 men and boys of all ranks.
As com with the French navy, next in
size, Britain had, in 1898, in battle-ships 53 to their
32; in armoured cruisers 18 to their 9; protected
cruisers 109 to 36; in unprotected cruisers 16 to
16; in coast defence ships 15 to 14; in torpedo
craft 214 to the French 225. The general con-
tention is that Britain must keep her navy strong
enough to defeat any two other navies.
The great naval review at Spithead in the
Jubilee year, 1897, attracted notice to the un-
paralleled strength of the British navy. And after
the German Emperor's letter to President Kruger
in 1896, and during the Fashoda incident in 1898,
the weight of the navy obviously influenced the
scales of diplomacy. The year of the Czar’s peace
manifesto (1898) saw the utter destruction of the
Spanish navy by that of the United States, a still
more convincing proof of the importance of a
poem! navy than the destruction of the Chinese
eet by the Japanese in 1894; and Britain, France,
Germany, and Russia were all increasing their
naval strength.
In 1861, just before the introduction of ironclads,
the flagship in the Mediterranean was the screw
three-decker Marlborough, of 121 guns, and with
a crew of 1200 officers and men. 1¢e officers and
crew of a line-of-battle ship averaged as a rule
from 800 to 950; of a frigate, from 400 to 600; and
smaller ships in proportion, A modern battle-ship
of the Colossus type has a complement of 450 officers
aud men; a barbette ship of the Rodney class, one
of 560; and a broadside ship of the Alexandra
type, one of 750. The Formidable (1898), if used
as flag-ship, has a complement of 789 officers and
men. Ina battle-ship, with a complement of 600
officers and men, the numbers and ratings would
be approximately as follows: the vice-admiral and
his staff, consisting of his flag-lieutenant, secretary,
and 4 secretary's clerks; a captain, commander,
staff-commander (for navigating duties), 6 lieu-
tenants, 2 sub-lieutenants, 13 midshipmen, 7
warrant officers, 3 marine officers, a chaplain, and
naval instructor, 3 surgeons, a paymaster, a chief-
engineer, and 5 assistant-engineers. The ay
company would be composed of about 40 chief, Ist
and 2d class petty oflicers and leading seamen, 260
seamen and boys, 90 marines, 15 engine-room
artificers, and 120 stokers, the remainder dsmen
and other non-combatants. Not only are the com-
plements of modern ships much smaller than in the
old ships, but the proportion of trained seamen is
also much smaller in comparison with the rest of
the crew. This is due to the increase of the engine-
room staffs, and to the large number of stokers now
carried in the new ships, amounting sometimes to
as many as one-third of the whole complement.
As this large number of untrained men seriously
affects the fighting efficiency of ships, steps are
now taken to minimise the danger by Sante
stokers regularly at heavy gun and other drill, so
that those not actually required in the stokeholes
may be available for use as combatants in action.
rota men-of-war are far more heavily manned
than English ships of a similar size. By the Naval
Defence Act of 1889, and in the estimates of 1898,
rovision was made to into effect a large
increase of the personnel of the navy.
See Derrick, The British Navy (1806) ;
Naval History of Great Britain (3d ed. 6 vols. 1847) ;
5 vols, 1882-83), and his ny f Annual ;
; se
; Robinson, c
iteevens, Waval Policy (1896); W. L.
The Royal Navy (8 vols. 1897-99); and the Ann
Naval Pocket-Book by Clowes, For the Royal Naval
College, see GREENWICH; see also TRAINING-SHIPS,
Tactics, Capet, Marines, Naval RESERVE, TORPEDO,
Gun, &c.; the articles on ApmiraL, Captain, &c.;
those on the great naval commanders, BLAKE, NELSON,
&e,; and the sections of the articles on the various
countries — France, Germany, Itaty, &c, — dealing
with national defence,
Navy AGENT, a banker and attorney for naval
officers, who bears some such relation to Admiralty
expenditure as the Army Agent (q.v.) to War Office
expenditure. By the Act of 1865, each of Her
Majesty's ss ud hci zou in cme has
an t appoin by the commander, and regis-
rete oy Hie duties are to act for the ship in cases
of salvage, merchant shipping law, distribution of
prize-money, capture of s ave-shi , &. He
receives 2 per cent. as payment in full of his
services, the Navy List.
Naw , a seaport of India, and capital
anagar.
of a native state (area, 1380 84. m, ; Rs 320,000 ),
stands on the south shore of the Gulf of Cuteh,
310 miles NW. of Bombay. Pop. (1891) 48,530.
Naworth Castle. See LANERCcosT.
Naxos, the largest, most beautiful, and most
fertile of the Cyclades, is situated in the ASgean,
midway between the coasts of Greece and Asia
NEANDER 423
NAZARENES
Minor. It is 20 miles in length, and has a . of
14,880. The shores are steep, and the island is
traversed by a ridge of mountains, which rise in
the highest summit, Dia, to 3289 feet. The
wine Naxos was famous in ancient as it is
in modern times, and on this account the island
was celebrated in the legends of Dionysus, and
especially in those relating to Ariadne (q.v.). It
was ravaged by the Persians, 490 B.c., and after
the conquest of Constantinople by the Latins
became the seat of a dukedom founded by the
Venetians. It was — Nap one till on
became a ne axos, ital (pop. 2000
is the seat of a Greek bishop aaa a Latin arch-
bishop. See Tozer’s Islands of the Aigean (1890).
Nazarenes. See EBIONITES.
Nazareth, the home of Jesus, anciently in the
district of Galilee, 21 miles SE. of Acre, is still a
small but flourishing town of Palestine. It lies in
a hilly tract of pees fi and is built partly on the
sides of some rocky ridges. In the earliest ages of
Christianity Nazareth (which is not mentioned in
the Old Testament) was quite overlooked by the
church ; the first Christian Sager x to it took
place in the 6th century. @ principal building
is the Latin convent, on the su seene of the
Annunciation; but the Greeks have also erected
on a church in commemoration. The
traveller is shown a Latin chapel, affirmed to
be built over the ‘ wor of Joseph ;’ the chapel
of ‘the Table of Christ’ (Mensa Christi), a vaulted
chamber, containing the veritable table at which
our Lord and his disciples ate; and the synagogue
out of which he was thrust by his townsmen.
The Virgin’s Well is just outside the town. The
women of the village have long been famous for
their beauty. Major Conder says they are more
Italian than Arab in feature—owing ibly to
admixture of European blood. Pop. (1891) 7500
2870 Greek Catholics, 1310 Roman Catholics, 950
nited Greeks, 1825 Mohammedans). There is here
a Protestant mission and orphanage.
Nazarites ( ly Nazirites, from Heb.
nazar, ‘to A paces ), men or women among the
Jews who consecrated themselves to God by
certain acts of abstinence, as refraining from using
wine, from shaving their heads, as well as from
the defilement of contact with the dead. The
law in to them is laid down in the Book of
Numbers (vi. 1-21), The usual term of the vow was
thirty days, but examples of vows for life were the
cases of , Samuel, and John the Baptist.
Nazianzen, See Grecory.
Neagh, Loven, the largest lake of the British
Islands, is situated in the ow of Ulster, Ire-
land, and is surrounded by the counties of Armagh,
Far Londonderry, Antrim, and Down. It is
16 miles in — and 10 miles in average breadth,
contains 98, acres, is 102 feet in test depth,
and is 48 feet above sea-level. It receives the
waters of numerous streams, of which the principal
are the Upper Bann, the Blackwater, and the
Callan ; and its surplus waters are carried off north-
ward to the North Channel by the Lower Bann.
Communication by means of canals subsists between
the Lough and Belfast, Newry, and the Tyrone
coalfield. The southern shores of the Lough are
low and marshy, and dreary in appearance. It is
well stocked with fish—lake trout, char, and pullen.
Neal, DAnret, author of the History of the
Puritans, was born in London, December 14, 1678.
He was educated first at Merchant Taylors’ School,
and afterwards at Utrecht and Leyden, and in 1706
became minister of an Independent congregation in
Aldersgate Street, London. His first work was a
History of New England (1720), which met with a
very favourable reception in America. But his
reputation rests on his laborious and accurate His-
rt dy dig Puritans (4 vols. 1732-38 ; new ed., with
i Joseph Toulmin, Bath, 1793). Neal died
at April 4, 1743.
Neal, Joun, American author, was born at
Falmouth (now Portland, Maine), August 25, 1793.
In his youth he was a Quaker, and he began the
world at twelve as a shop-boy. In 1816 he failed
in business, and turned to the study of law, sup-
porting himself the while by his pen. He was
one of the first Americans to write in the greater
English magazines, and from 1823 till 1827 he lived
in and, of the time as one of Bentham’s
students and secretaries. After his return to
America he settled in his native town, practised
law, edited newspapers, lectured, and found relaxa-
tion in ising and teaching sg fencing, and
gymnastics. He died 2lst June 1876. Among his
numerous works are a series of novels, Bentham’s
Morals and Legislation, and Wi ing Recollec-
tions of a Somewhat Busy Life (1869).
Neale, JoHnN Mason, hymnologist, born in
London, maak 24, 1818, was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, became incumbent of pry ie
Sussex, in 1842, and in May 1846 warden of Sack-
ville College, East Grinstead, where he died,
Au 6,1 He belonged to the most advanced
on of the High pee wo ack , and was long
one of the most misunde and unpopular men
in England. He was inhibited by his bishop for
fourteen years, and burned in effigy in 1857, while
throughout life his means were of the smallest.
He founded in 1854 the well-known sisterhood of
St Margaret. His most im t work is his
History of the Holy Eastern Church (4 vols. 1847-
51); others were Medieval Preachers (1857), His-
tory of the so-called ‘ Jansenist’ Church of Holland
(1858), a terous adaptation of The Pilgrims’
Progress Pisd3), and a long series of stories for the
young, intended to gi owigad church history, but
the value of which is almost exclusively other than
historical. But his work was his invalu-
able contribution to ymnology, both original and
translated. His H; Sor Sick and Hymns
Sor Children were followed by his more important
volumes of translations: Medieval Hymns and
Sequences (1851), the Rhythm of Bernard of Mor-
laiz (1858), and his Hymns of the Eastern Church
(1863). Many of his translations are cherished by
all English- ig Christendom, as the beautiful
hymns, ‘O love how deep, how broad,’ ‘ The day is
en and over;’ and the exquisite series adapted
rom his translation of Bernard of Morlaix’s poem,
‘The world is very evil,’ ‘ Brief life is here our por-
tion,’ ‘ For thee, O dear, dear country,’ and ‘ Jeru-
salem the golden.’ There is no modern author to
whom hymnology owes a greater debt than to this
one inspired writer whose own conscious ecclesi-
astical sympathies were yet so narrow. A selection
from his writings appeared in 1884. See Hymn.
Neander, Jouann Avcust WILHELM, the
greatest of church historians, was born at Géttin-
gen, 17th January 1789, of Jewish ntage. His
name prior to baptism was David Mendel, and by
the mother’s side he was related to the philosopher
Mendelssohn. He received his early Rdncatians at
the Johanneum in Hamburg, and had for com-
panions Varn m von Ense and Chamisso the
poet. Even while he was a boy, Plato and Plutarch
were his favourite books, and he was profoundly
stirred by Schleiermacher’s famous Reden iiber die
Religion (1799). Finally in 1806 he publicly
renounced Judaism, and was baptised, adopting
the name of Neander (‘new man’), and taking his
Christian names from several of his friends. His
sisters and brothers, and later his mother also,
424 NEANDERTHAL
NEBRASKA
followed his exam: He now ed to Halle,
where he stud theology er Schleiermacher,
and concluded his academic course at Gittingen.
In 1811 he took up his residence at Heidel
as a privat-docent; in 1812 he was appoin
there extra-ordinary eon of Theology; and
in the following year he was called to the newly-
established university of Berlin as
Church History, Here he laboured till his death,
July 14, 1850. Students flocked to him not only
from all parts of Germany, but from the most
distant Protestant countries. And his sweetness
of character was no less attractive than his genius.
Profoundly devotional, sympathetic, glad-hearted,
profusely evolent, and without a shadow of
selfishness, he inspired universal reverence, and
was himself by the simplicity and sanctity of
his life a more powerful argument on behalf of
Christianity than even his writin He used to
ve poorer students free admission to his
res, and to supply them with clothes and
money. The greater portion of what he made by
his books he bestowed upon missionary, Bible,
and other societies, and upon hospitals.
Neander is believed to have contributed more than
any other single Christian scholar to the overthrow,
on the one side, of that anti-historical Rationalism,
and on the other of that dead Lutheran formalism,
from both of which the religious life of Germany
had so long suffered. To the delineation of the
development of historical Christianity he brought
& generous and sympathetic, yet broad and im-
partial intellect. ‘To him Christianity was a_per-
i force more than a series of dogmas, and the
of the church was throughout but the his-
peg’ the divine life of Christ pervading humanity,
to be understood only in proportion to the student's.
rsonal experience of the significance of the life of
rist. This is the meaning of Neander’s famous
aphorism— Pectus est quod facit theologum.’ The
most striking characteristic of his great work is its
objectivity in the portrayal of persons and the
movement of events; its greatest merit is the
admirable biographical skill with which the figures
are made to pass before the reader; its one defect,
the weakness with which the outstanding separate
figures are fitted into their relation to the general
movement of the history.
Neander’s works, in the order of time, are monographs
on Julian and his times (1812), St Bernard (1815), the
Gnosties (1818), St Chrysostom (1822); Denkwiirdig-
kriten aus der Geschichte des Christenthums und
Christlichen Lebena (1822 ; 3d ed. 1845-46); Antignosticus
(1826); the t Aligemeine Geschichte der Christlichen
Religion und Kirche (6 vols. 1825-52); Geschichte der
Pflanzung und Leitung der Kirche durch die Apostel (2
vols. 1833; 4th ed. 1847); Das Leben Jesu Christi, written
as a reply to Strauss’s work (1837; 5th ed. 1853);
Wi. haftliche Abhandlungen (1851); Geschichte der
Christlichen Dogmen (1856). Most of these works are
accessible in English translations. See the studies
rf Hagenbach (1851), Otto Kraabe (1852), J. L. Jacobi
(1882), and Adelbert Weigand, the last with a good biblio-
graphy appended (1889),
Neanderthal, 4 wildly romantic valley be-
tween Diisseldorf and Elberfeld in Rhenish Prussia.
In « limestone cave in this valley was found in
1857 the skeleton of a pees man, and the
peculiar formation of the skull induced several
archwologists to regard it as typical of a separate
race of ancient cave-dwellers. Other authorities
explain the abnormality as caused by disease during
the lifetime of the individual.
Neap-tides, See Trpes.
Nearchus, an officer of Alexander the Great,
was a native of Crete, who settled in Amphipolis
during the reign of Philip, and became the com-
panion and friend of the young prince Alexander.
rofessor of
‘and Wyoming. Area, 76,855 sq. m., of which
y
In 330 he was governor of Lycia and other i
vinces in Asia or, In 329 '8.c. he joined Alex-
ander in Bactria with a body of Greek mercenaries,
and took part in the Indian campaigns. Having
built a fleet on the ea tg Bea gave
Nearchus the command of it. He left the Indus
towards the end of November 325, and, skirting
the coast all the way, arrived at Susa, in Persia,
in February 324. His own narrative of his voyage __
has been preserved in the Jndica of Arrian, the
best edition of which is printed in C. Millers
Geographi Graci Minores (Paris, 1855). -
Nearctic, See GkoGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, _
Neath, a parliamen and municipal borough —
and sivarnart of Gisuateas South ona |
navigable river of the same name, 8 miles ENE. of
Swansea by rail. It is believed to stand on the
site of the Roman station Nidum ; and near it are
the remains of an ancient castle, burned in 1231, —
and ruins of Neath rages described by Leland as
‘the fairest abbey in all Wales,’ but now sadly
decayed and begrimed smoke and coal-dust.
There are at Neath, which is one of the Swansea
boroughs, extensive copper and tin-plate works and
iron-foundries, and chemicals are manufactured. _ {
The engineering works are also important. Pop.
(1851) 5831; (1881) 10,447 ; (1891) 11,157. “4a
Neat’s-foot Gil is, as the name implies, an oil an
obtained from the feet of the common ox, either by
splitting them up ca Neri — over an pepe
re, or by treating them with su eated steam in
a closed cyieden.” See OILs, ss ti
Ne a central state of the American
uae: a the erenth es area, lies. between 40° _
43° N. lat., and in 95° 23’— os
104° W. long., and is bounded | i900 isin bd
by South Dakota, Iowa (sepa- |! “Prine . ,
rated by the Missouri River), Kansas, Colorado, —
one-fifth is in improved farms. The surface is
chiefly an slovetad undulating prairie ; it is very
level in the eastern and southern portions, but in
the north and west the ‘ Bad Lands’ extend into —
the state, while to the north of the Niobrarah —
River there are sent sandhills, composed of —
pebbles, gravel, and sand, covered for the most —
part with a sparse vegetation. The average eleva- —
tion of the state rises from about 1200 feet in the —
east to 6000 feet towards the western border. The
princioal rivers are the Platte, Niobrarah, and
publican, all flowing east. The atmosphere is
dry and invigorating, and, though great extremes
of heat and cold are sometimes experienced, 8
are not usual. There are few swamps and marshes. —
The total rainfall in 1889 was 21°83 inches, the
mean temperature 51°25° (range, from 94° above to _
17° below zero). Buttalo anc anahons are still,
though seldom, seen ; but the coyote, large timber
wolf, fox, skunk, rabbits, &c. abound. on
The soil of Nebraska, except in the Bad Lands
and sandhills, is mostly a rich black mould, 2to8 _
feet in depth. The staple crop is maize, of which —
enormous quantities are grown. Tobacco and the
sugar-beet also are cultivated gamers = of the —
latter the first very large crop was raised in 1890, _
but now there are a number of factories establi
for the manufacture of beet-sugar ; other important —
crops are oats, wheat, rye, barley, flax, pi t
pe buckwheat. In the western part of the ‘a
ts are hurtful; there flowing wells are —
irrigation is needed. Forests are no-—
where found, and tree- see bernsihres been extensively
practised of late. e uncultivated lands ,
great quantities of hay, and Nebraska holds a
es place among the stock-raising states ; sheep,
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NEBRASKA CITY
NECKER 425
uplands, and in the east. The live-stock
trade has its headquarters in Omaha, which in this
respect ranks after Chicago and Kansas City.
ining and manufacturing are much less import-
ant than is agriculture. Limestone, sandstone, and
coal are found ; the latter has been mined for local
use. In the eastern and northern parts are numerous
factories. The articles produced include agricult-
ural implements, vitrified brick for paving, woollen
clothing, soap, and the beet-sugar already referred
ree Serene cennng factories He
in operation. ever-changing current an: -
gerous sand-bars of the Misesurt do not enco
river; but the e
by rail (5542 miles open in 1898) is very heavy.
and Lincoln are ports of entry.
Nebraska has forty universities, colleges, and
academies ; and the public schools (6234 in 1891-92,
with 253,909 = ils in attendance, and 9085
teachers) are liberally provided for. The state
and private charitable institutions also are numer-
ous. The total ex iture for educational work
in 1891-92 was $4,434,228. The assessed valuation
of the state was $167,810,764.79 in 1898, being over
$27,000,000 less than in 1892. Pop. (1860) 28,841;
fuse) 452,402 ; (1890) 1,058,910 ; (1900) 1,066,300.
rhree cities have populations of over 25,000,—
Omaha (102,555 in 1900), Lincoln, the capital
(40.169), and South Omaha (26,001 ).
History.—Nebrask# was included in the Louis-
iana Purchase, and was for many years a part. of
the North-west Territory. The way was prepared
for settlers by the overland emigration to California
in 1849. Nebraska territory was organised in 1854,
with an area of 351,558 sq. m. ; it extended north
to British America, and west to the Rocky Moun-
tains. But of this vast area great portions were
afterwards carved ont for Colorado, Dakota, and
Idaho. Nebraska became a state in 1867.
Nebraska City, capital of Otoe county, Ne-
braska, is on the west bank of the Missouri
River, 74 miles below’Omaha (44 by rail). It con-
tains the Nebraska College (Episcopal, 1863), the
Academy of the Annunciation, an elevator, and a
number of mills and factories. Pop. (1900) 7380,
Nebraska River. See PLarre.
Nebuchadnezzar. See Basy.onta, I. 634.
Neb‘ulz are cloudy patches of light in the
heavens. Some, as those in Andromeda and Orion,
are visible to the naked eye, but the greater num-
ber can only be seen in telescopes of considerable
power. ‘ore the invention of the Spectroscope
(q.v.) they were for a time all considered to be star-
clusters. This instrament has shown that these
clusters, which appear as nebulz in small telescopes,
are totally different in constitution from nebule
oper (see STARS). Halley in 1716 gave a small
ist of 6 nebuls, but the chief workers in this field
are Messier, who in 1784 catalogued 103; Sir W.
Herschel, who alone discovered more than 2500; and
Sir J. Herschel, who added to them more than 2000.
These lists, however, include many star-clusters.
Nebulw proper have been classified as (1) annular,
log = (3) spiral, (4) planetary, and (5) nebu-
_stars. These various forms do. not indicate
specific differences, but rather result from (1) the
various presentation of their edges and surfaces to
the spectator, and (2) their differently condensed
material. For example, the elliptic nebula in
Andromeda has been shown by photography to
consist of a spiral, or a congeries of rings, exhibit-
ing thus in itself the marks of the first three classes.
Psstery nebula show faint discs, often bluish in
colour, whose structureless appearance is probably
only due to our imperfect telescopes. The spectrum
of nebule consists usually of a few ves lines
indicating their gaseous structure. To what gases
these lines belong is still uncertain, although
have been attributed to nitrogen, hydrogen, an
magnesium vapour. In a few cases, as in a small
nebula in Taurus and the t one in Orion, their
light certainly varies in intensity, and they are
sometimes associatetl with variable or temporary
stars. They form, according to the theory of La-
lace and Sir W. Herschel, the earliest stage in the
ormation of stars and planets. Though certainly
not Hrd pas this nebular theory is very generally
accepted, and has been greatly strengthened by
Lockyer’s recent spectroscopic researches,
Necessaries, See INFANT.
Necessity may be natural, according to the
laws of nature ; logical or mathematical, according
to the laws of human intelligence ; moral, accord-
ing to moral law. See CAUSALITY, Locic, Eruics,
KANT, EmprricisM. Necessity, Necessitarianism,
or Necessarianism, is also a name for the view that
denies the freedom of the will. See WILL.
Neches River rises in eastern Texas, and
flows about 350 miles SSE. to Sabine Lake, its
waters ing thence by Sabine Pass into the
Gulf of Mexico.
Neck. See Spinat CoLumn, THROAT.—Of
diseases of the neck, STIFF-NECK is the term com-
monly applied to a condition of the neck in which
lateral movement of the head causes { pain,
and which is due to rhenmatism of the muscles
lying on the side of the neck, especially the sterno-
mastoid. In the great majority of cases only one
side of the neck is affected, the head being drawn
more or less obliquely towards that side; but
oceasionally both sides are ho ag attacked, in
which case the head is kept stiffly ereet and look-
ing straight forwards, As long as the head is
allowed to remain at rest there is merely a feeling
of discomfort; but every movement is extremely
painful. This affection is usually caused either by
exposure of the part affected to a current of cold
air, or by wearing wet or damp clothes round the
neck (see RHEUMATISM).—Derbyshire Neck is a
synonym for Goitre (q.v.).—For Necks in geology,
see IGNEOUS Rocks.
Neckar, one of the largest tributaries of the
Rhine, and the principal river of Wiirtemberg, rises
on the eastern declivity of the Black Forest, near
the village of Schwenningen. It has a winding
course of 250 miles, and joins the Rhine at Mann-
heim—the other towns on its banks being Tiibin-
gen, Heilbronn, and Heidelberg. From Cannstadt,
about midway in its course, the Neckar is navi-
gable. Fair wines are grown on its banks.
Necker, Jacques, a famous financier and
minister of France, was born 30th September 1732,
at Geneva, where his father, a native of Kiistrin in
Pomerania, had become professor of Public Law.
At fifteen he went to Paris as a clerk to the banker
Vernet, and in 1762 established the famous London
and Paris bank of Thellusson and Necker. His
public career commenced with his becoming a syndic
of the French East India Company, as well as minis-
ter for the republic of Geneva at Paris, and with
his marri: (1764) to the charming, accomplished,
and ambitious Suzanne Curchod, who was born in
1737, the daughter of a tor near Lausanne, and
had loved Gibbon for five years with a constancy
of which his colder temper was not worthy. The
rich banker had first wooed Madame de Verméneux,
a wealthy young widow, whoscrupled at her suitor’s
lack of nobility, bit he easily transferred his affec-
tions to her young protégée, and he proved till
death an affectionate and faithful husband. She was
religious and above reproach in character, yet her
salon became a centre of all the intellect of Paris,
and her Fridays drew together such celebrities
426 NECKER NECTARY
as Grimm, Diderot, the Buffon, Marmontel, | Mf. Necker, by his daughter in 1804; and
Thomas, B’Alembert, and the Abbé Galiant In 1773 | for his life, her work, La Vie privée de M. Necker
Necker gained the prize of the French Academy for | (1804), his 8 Notice sur la Vie de M.
an éloge on Colbert, and in 1775 he distinguished | cher, prefixed to, the collected edition, of ‘his ——
hi still further by his Essai sur le Commerce | *'¥® V° see eae (1798-1502). The phe ager yok life
des Grains, in answer to the free-trade policy of the LS chattogic. told, from the papers Ar
great Turgot, in which he claims for the state the | i, the oe D’Haussonville’s work, Le Prosgge
right of fixing the price of grain and, if necessary,
of prohibiting its exportation. Already also he had
lent money to the needy government when in 1776,
Protestant as he was, he was made Director of the
Treasury and next year Director-general of Finance.
He devoted five years of hard work to his hopeless
task, and, if he showed no great statesmanlike
foresight, he proved himself an honest, prudent,
and sagacions minister. Indeed, some of his reme-
dial measures were a real boon to suffering France,
as his more equitable adjustment of taxes, his
establishment of state-guaranteed annuities and
monts de piété. But his most ambitious scheme—
the establishment of provincial assemblies over all
France, one of the functions of which should be
the apportionment of taxes, proved a disastrous
failure. His retrenchments were hateful to the
ueen, and the publication in 1781 of his famous
Jompte Rendu, a plain statement of the financial
state of France, was promptly made the occasion
for his dismissal. He retired to Geneva, carrying
with him the respect of all Frenchmen ; and here
he busied himself with writing, and married his
only daughter in 1786 to the Swedish Baron von
Staél-Holstein. In 1787 he returned to Paris, and
when M. de Calonne at the opening of the Assemb!
of Notables in that year cast a doubt on the trut/
of the Compte Rendu, he published a justificatory
minute, which drew upon him the king’s displeas-
ure and his banishment to a distance of forty
i es from Paris.
e was recalled to his former office in September
1788, and quickly made himself the popular hero of
the hour by recommending the summons of the
States-general. But the successful banker was in-
fatuated with his popularity, and quickly proved
himself unfit to steer the ship of state amid the
storms of revolution, while his constitutional irre-
solution in the hour of danger drew the well-meaning
king into the fatal error of being forced into hye J
—_ the union of the three estates, instead of tak-
ing the lead in freely granting what was inevitable.
On the 11th July, while sitting at dinner, he received
the royal command to leave France at once, but
the fall of the Bastille three days later frightened
the king into recalling him amid the wildest popular
enthusiasm. But now his incompetence for age
matters than accounts was at length fully dis-
covered, and after with fatal obstinacy spurning the
help of Lafayette and Mirabeau, and leading the
king to surrender his suspensive veto and the
Assembly to stultify itself by a self-den ordin-
ance that ministers should not be chosen from its
members, which made a really responsible parlia-
mentary government in France impossible, he finally
laid down his office unnoticed and without —
after the carrying of Mirabeau’s scheme for reliev-
ing immediate financial distress by the issue of
assignats, September 1790. He retired to his
estate of Coppet near Geneva, and here his wife
died, 6th May 1794, while he himself, after pub-
lishing books which had no longer any importance,
followed her on 9th April 1804.
The only other works that need he named are De U’ Ad-
ministration dex Finances de la France (3 vols, 1784),
Sur U Administration de M. Necker, par lui-méme (1791),
Du Pouvoir exécutif dans les Grands Etats (2 vols.
1792), De la ution Francaise (last ed. 4 vols,
1797), and Dernidres Vues de ‘olitique et de Finance
(1802). A collected edition was edited by his grand-
sen (15 vols. 1820-21), See also the Manuscrits de
Madame Necker (2 vols. 1882; Eng. trans. 1882).
Necklace, Diamonp. See Diamonp NeEck-
LACE.
The eleventh book of Homer's Od:
title of Nekromanteia, and in it the le of Tiresias
is brought up and consulted by Ulysses. In most
parts of Greece necromancy was prac
pocete or consecrated persons in the temples; in
hessaly it was the profession of a distinct class
of persons called Psychagogoi. See DivinaTION,
and MaGic.
Necropolis, a Greek term, meaning ‘the ci
of the lend? and applied to the comsuariin in de
It occurs in el
vicinity of ancient cities.
antiquity only as applied to a suburb of Alexandria, —
lying to the west of that city, where the corpses
an received and embalmed. Here Cleopatra
applied the asp to her breast® See CEMETERY.
Necrosis (Gr. nekros, ‘dead’) is a term em-
loyed to denote the death or mortification of bone,
hut often restricted to the cases in which a con-
siderable part of the shaft of a long bone dies,
either directly from wae cd or from violent inflam-
mation, and is encl by a layer of new bone; the
death of a thin superficial layer which is not en-
closed in a shell of new bone being usually termed
exfoliation, and the more gradual destruction of
cancellous tissue Caries (q.v.). The bones of the
lower extremity—the femur and tibia—are
which are most frequently affected by necrosis, but
any bone may be the seat of the process. The
jawbones, however, very often suffer from it in
rsons engaged in making lucifer matches, the
pari a induced by the pernicious action of
the vapour hosphorus. The more general use
of red or amorphous phosphorus for this purpose has
rendered necrosis of the jaws much less common.
The dead bone, known as ae sequestrum, —
a ro appearance, as if worm-eaten.
Bl investing the bone (the periosteum)
remain healthy, it deposits lymph, which speedily
ossifies, forming a shell of healthy bone, which com-
pletely invests the dead portion. The essential
int in the treatment is the removal of the segues-
se which is too purely a surgical operation to be
described in these pages.
Nectar, the name given by Homer, Hesiod,
Pindar, and the Greek poets generally, and by the
Romans, to the beverage of the their food
being called Ambrosia (q.v.). But Sappho and
Aleman make nectar the food of the gods and
ambrosia their drink. Homer describes nectar as
resembling red wine, and represents its continued
nse as causing immortality. By the later poets
nectar and ambrosia are represented as of most
delicious odour; and sprinkling with nectar, or
anointing with ambrosia, is spoken of as confer-
ring pe’ 1 youth, and they are assumed as the
symbols of everything most delightful to the taste.
Nectarine, See PEacu.
Nee . in Botany, an organ in the flowers
of many phanerogamous plants, devoted either to
the secretion or the reception of honey. Of the
former kind are nectariferous glands, scales, and
pores ; of the latter, tubes, cavities, &c.
———
é
NEED-FIRE
NEEDLES 427
Need-fire. See Fire, Vol. IV. p. 630.
Needle-gun. See BREECH-LOADING, RIFLES.
Needles. The sewing-needle must be one of
the oldest implements by man. Bone needles
with eyes are found in the reindeer-caves of France,
and among the finds on the sites of the prehistoric
lake-dwellings of central Europe there are numerous
‘eyed’ needles of bone and of bronze, butas yet _
a single one of iron appears to have been discove:
Ancient bronze n ies, 34 inches long, have been
found in Egypt, and there are surgeon's needles
and thimbles which have been used in — with
ordinary needles from Pompeii in the Naples
museum. Savage races use needles of various
materials, such as bone, ivory, wood, and metal.
Some tribes do their sewing with awls of bone or
of thorns with which they make holes, and then by
ing and ling work the thread or string
them in the same manner as a shoemaker
does. The Fuegians in sewing skins even make a
tie at eve! ie. The make needles of
iron or steel, with a constriction under the pin-like
Lltiuictuneas.
an eye.
Steel needles were made in 1370 at Nuremberg,
at which early time its artisans were skilled in
working me including the drawing of wire in
iron, steel, and brass, vious to 1563 the wire
used for making needles in England was imported
from Spain and Germany, but in England the
manufacture was not of much importance till about
1650. The early-made needles were all square-
ed. The seat of the needle-manufacture in Great
itain is at Redditch near Birmingham, where in
the best factories considerable improvements have
in recent years been effected by the adoption of
new mechanical appliances, and especially of auto-
matic machines in some of the espe
In the system of processes, about twenty-two in
number, by which needles are now made, the first
is the eu of the coils of wire into two-needle
lengths vd a oe shearing-machine. The
is of the
wire t crucible steel, and requires to
be very carefully to size. After being cut,
the lengths of are raised to a dull heat
and placed in loose bundles inside iron rings to be
straightened by rolling each bundle backwards and
forwards on a face plate with a slightly curved bar,
Fig. 1,
through which the rings project (see fig. 1). The
wires are next pointed at both ends, which was
formerly entirely done by hand on a grindstone with
aconcave surface. An arrangement is now in use b;
which the wires are withdrawn—one closely follow-
ing another—from a hopper by a pulley revolving
at right angles to the dstone, the wires being
held to the face of the pulley by an india-rubber
band. In their passage between the pulley and the
grindstone the wires (double-needle blanks) revolve
on their axes and become pointed at one end, and
the process is ted for the pointing at the other
end. The fine steel dust formerly so injurious to
the health of the hand-grinders has for some years
been drawn away from the operative by the suction
of a stzong current of air. The stamping of these
two-length blanks in the middle by thehand-worken
stamping-machine so as to produce the flat of the
eyes the mark for the holes (fig. 2), as well as
the punching of the holes by a screw press, can now
be accomplished by more expeditious machines.
—s=
oe
Fig. 2.
By the newer method the wire blanks are auto-
matically fed into a quick-running belt-driven
machine, in which a punch and dies form the
prints or flats for the eyes. The next operation
consists in punching two oval holes through the
two prints of each blank by a vertical belt-driven
une -machine. After being eyed the still
louble blanks—they are
now rather double needles
joined at the heads by
thin fins—are ‘ spi
through their eyes on two
wires flatted at one end
to retain them. The burr
made by the punch and
die (stamping) is now re-
moved b the spitted
needles cba deve “pines
and after being broken in
two between the heads
which are then also Fig. 3.
smoothed by filing, a row
rs single needles is left on each spit, as shown in
ig. 3.
In the tem g process which the needles
und at this stage, they are first hardened by
being laid on a plate and raised to a red heat in
a furnace, after which they are dipped in cod-oil,
i, cool by running off a portion as it gets warm
and replacing it by an equal quantity of cold oil.
The needles heing now hard and easily broken, are
made less brittle by placing them on a continuous
band of ‘wire gauze which travels slowly over gas
flames. The next step is to roll the needles one
by one under the finger on a smooth stone, and thus
weed out those that are bent. In parcels of 50,000
they are next washed and scoured with soap to
remove any of the oil used in tempering which still
adheres, and the eyes are afterwards ‘blued’ to
soften them. In the case of needles of fine quality
the eyes are gilt. By one method the eyes are
lished by threading them loosely on wires carried
standards fixed to a tray or platform which is
moved vis gers with a reciprocating motion in a
horizontal plane. In about one hour, with the
assistance of a little fine emery and oil, the con-
stant swinging of the needles on the wire smooths
their eyes so as not to cut the thread. But the
eyes of the best needles are hand-polished with fine
emery on flax threads. The next step is to grind
the heads and set the points by hand on a rapidly-
revolving stone of fine texture.
An ingenious machine is employed for the final
polishing of the shanks. The needles are fed in
a longitudinal direction, in rows one deep, between
transverse leather-covered rollers, with holding
rollers above them. Besides turning on their own
axes, a lateral as well as a backward and forward
motion is given to the rollers, which produces a
high polish on the needles. The older method of
po ee needles is to put many thousands of them
along with putty powder and oil in a canvas bundle
wound round with a cord. A number of these rolls
or bundles are then placed between two wooden
slabs—the upper one heavily weighted—and made
to roll backwards and forwards in a polishing-
machine for several hours. When taken out of
the canvas and the polishing material adhering to
428 NEEDLES
NEGROES
them removed with soap and water, the needles
have a bright polish. It should be said that by
this process, re the needles are thus rolled wit
putty powder and oil, they are previously rolled in
a similar way with sand and emery-powder. After
receiving a high polish the needles are not touched
again by hand before leaving the factory, in order
to prevent rust.
he needles now require to be laid with their
heads in one direction. A gun-metal disc revolv-
ing vertically takes up each needle by a groove in
its periphery, and lets it fall on an inclined glass
plate. Owing to the taper form of the. pointed
ends of the needles they describe an are in revolv-
ing, so that those with the points in one direction
roll to the right and the others fall round to the
left. The finished needles, although intended to
be of the same size, always differ to some extent
in their lengths, so that those of exactly one size
require to be separated from other lengths by the
sorting process, in which gauges are used. Lastly,
the needles are papered either by being spitted on
cloth pasted to paper, or by being made up into
small packets, in which case the bits of paper are
eut and folded in a machine like that used for
envelope-making.
It is estimated that about 50 millions of needles
and articles akin to them are made weekly in the
Redditch district. These are of many sorts and
sizes, including large needles for sewing canvas and
such special kinds as are used for upholstery: surgi-
eal, and some other pu Recently a grooving
machine has been used in the manufacture of sew-
ing-machine needles instead of the old stamping
See the Engineer, vol. |xii. p. 224 (1886) ;
and the volume on the Birmingham trades in
Bevan’s British Manufacturing Industries.
Needles. See Wicurt (ISLE or).
Needlework. See BAyeux Tapestry, Em-
BROIDERY, LACE, and TAPESTRY.
Neerwinden, a small village in the north-west
corner of the a province of Liége, is noted for
the wortees by the French under Luxembourg
over the English under William III. (29th July
1693), and also for the defeat of the French under
Dumouriez by the allies under the Prince of Coburg
(18th March 1793).
Ne Exeat Regno is the title of a writ issued
by a superior court to prevent an individual leaving
e kingdom, unless he gives security to abide a
decree of the court.
Neff, Feirx, a Protestant pastor, born at Geneva,
8th October 1798, was in his twenty-sixth year
ordained, in England, to minister to the neglected
inhabitants of the lofty Alpine valleys in the east
of the department of Hautes Alpes. His parish
was a most difficult one to minister to, owing to its
mountainous nature and great extent (80 miles
long), and the uncivilised character of the people.
But with unwearied devotion and simple piet;
Neff laboured amongst them like his chosen model,
Oberlin (q.v.), until his death, 12th April 1829.
See Memoir by W. 8. Gilly (1832), and Letters and
Biography (trans. from French of Bost, 1843).
Negapatam, a seaport of British India, on the
Coromandel coast, 180 miles S. by W. of Madras
city. ey a Portuguese settlement, it was
taken by the Dutch in 1660, and by the English in
1781. The port trades in cottons, live-stock, ghi
exported), and spices, piece-goods, coal, gunny
(imported), to the total annnal value of
,000, chiefly with Burma, the Straits Settle-
ments, and Ceylon. Pop, (1891) 59,221.
Negligence. See LiAsitiry or Employers.
Negritos is the name given by the Spaniards
to certain Negro-like tribes inhabiting the interior
of some of the Pistia Islands, and differing
both in features and manners from the Malay
inhabitants of the Eastern Archipelago. They
seem to be more closely akin to the Andaman
Islanders than to either Papuans or any other
stock ; and are also known as Aétas fag 5S see
PHiLtpPrNxke IsLANDS). The name is also used in
a wider sense for the Papuans and all the Melan-
esian kare eu of Polynesia (q.v.). For certain
negroid African peoples, see ETHNOLOGY,
Negroes, The negroes and le of n char-
ee at a dealt with at AFCA and
THNOLOGY. In America the
word is used-for all of African | 8 i
descent, whether of the true | MPpinectt Company.
negro or of Bantu stock. The total number of ne-
groes, pure or mixed, in America has heen recently
estimated as somewhat above twenty millions, of
whom about one-third are in the area of the United
States. Their importation has been going on
steadily since the early years of the 16th century,
when it was begun by the Spaniards, even the
good Las Casas recommending it in the interest
of the native Indians. Both Queen Elizabeth
and King James I. issued patents to English
slave-trading companies operating between the
coast of Guinea and the American colonies. Eng-
land, by the treaty of Utrecht (1713), en to
carry out the contract of the old French Guinea
Company, and to import into the New World
130,000 ‘slaves in the course of the next thi
years, and is said to have more than made
the engagement. In the United States the traffie
was open and active until the passage of the Act of
1794 prohibiting the importation of slaves into an
of the federal ports. Long after this it continu
to be a brisk business in the West Indies and South
America. As late as 1840 there were seventy-five
ships plying constantly between Brazilian ports
and the African coast, bringing of 300 or
400 slaves at each trip. The principal pointe at
which the slaves were obtained were along the
coast of Guinea, yxy pore on what was known as
the Slave Coast, between the rivers and
Assinie, where were the crowded marts of Waidah
and Anamaboe, and again along the Angola coast,
from 8° to 18° S. lat. In these two regions
the traders encountered two guite different
branches of the African race, and their human
wares in America show that they were derived
from different sources. Along the Guinea a
whence most of the slaves brought to the Uni
States were derived, the population belongs to the
true negro ty As most of the coast tribes
enriched by the traffic did not sell their own
members, but obtained the slaves from the interior
by capture or purchase, we do not find traces of the
‘ans, Ashantis, or Dahomis in the n popu-
lation of America, but well-marked character-
istics, both linguistic and anthropologic, of the
interior tribes, oneal of the extensive Mande
or Mandi stock. Such words as Juba and Obi
are traced to this stock, and a method of counting
in use among the negroes of Maryland about the
beginning of the 19th century proved to be derived
from She Mandingo numerals. In Brazil and other
parts of South America the preponderance of im-
portations was from the negroid stock south of the
nator, whose dialects and Ly frie traits are
allied to those of the Kaffirs and Zulus of the east
const (Bantus). The slaves in all parts, however,
being from mixed stocks, their descendants do not
resent any well-marked anthropologie peculiarities
ide those of the race. As a rule, they are in
strength equal to the whites, and in endurance of
exposure and labour under a tropical sun are
superior to all other immigrants. ne experiment
was officially tried in British Guiana to ascertain
— _
NEGROES
429
the relative working powers in field labour of
negroes, Chinese, and East Indian coolies. The
performed twice as much labour as the
Sorkin Gel a third more than the Chinese, although
the latter were the most intelligent in their work.
It is usually held that the negro is not naturally
industrious; but this seems to some extent
answered by the severe field labour of many tribes,
both men and women, in their native continent,
and by the official reports of the United States
government showing a ter ac’ of land
under cultivation in the former slave states and a
of cotton than before the civil war.
When under the control of a strong social organ-
isation, and with obvious motives for industry and
economy before his eyes, the American negro is
both industrious and provident, and the instances
are numerous where members of the race have
accumulated fortunes of respectable size. Their
viability appears on the whole to be about the
same as the whites, except in the more northern
states, where it is unquestionably much less. Thus,
according to the census of the United States in
1880, the total average annual mortality of the
white male population was 15°08, while that of the
black lation was 17°19, a showing which might
fairly be attributed to difference of social position
and consequent more careful observance of hygienic
laws by the whites ; but in the northern states of
the Union there was a contrast which could not be
so explained, but must be attributed to an inability
of the African to withstand the cold of a high
latitude. The proportion of deaths per thousand
in Connecticut, tes nachuseths, and New ig poe
was in 1880, among whites, 15, 19°06, and 16°23;
but — — 22°41, 24°41, and 265. In
1890, in New England, New Jersey, New York,
Delaware, and District of Columbia, the highest
death rate amongst whites was 23°19 per 1000;
amongst negroes, 34°14 ; the lowest amongst whites,
15°60 ; amongst ni , 18°78. See Vol. X. p. 380.
In New England and Canada negroes gradually
but surely perish. The diseases to which they are
i subject are those connected with the
organs tion, as pneumonia, tuberculosis,
leuritic affections, and bronchitis. On the other
id, in the south they are less subject to malarial
diseases, to yellow fever, to hepatic derangement,
and to sunstroke than the white population. It is
generally conceded that they are not so liable to
acute alcoholism (delirium tremens) as the whites,
which bn ty attributed to the inferior suscepti-
bility of their nervous systems. The special senses
are usually acute and correct: colour blindness is
four times commoner among whites than with
negroes, and the vocal powers of the latter are per-
ce! ca apm From a number of autopsies of
ult males carried out during the civil war, it results
that the lungs are rélativels smaller and the liver
— than in the whites. e assertion has been
made that the average weight of the brain in the
negroes of the United States is greater than that
of the true African negro; but repeated dis-
sections tend to disprove this statement. No
change whatever has been observed in the colour
of the African in any part of America so long as
the blood has been unmixed. Observations con-
ducted in Guiana, however, would seem to show
that the hair may und some alteration, render-
ing it slightly less woolly ; and it is stated posi-
tively that the odour peculiar to the negro is not
in the wild ne of that country who have
for generations lived apart in the woods. This is
certainly not the case in the n of the United
States, and it is likely that the Guiana tribes are
descendants of negroids from Angola, who have
little or none of the odour of the true negro of the
Soudan, There is a prevalent opinion that in-
stances of uncommon longevity are more frequent
rasan | the coloured than the white population ; and
according to some statistics which have been pub-
lished, the number of centenarians of this race in
the southern United States in proportion to its
membership is a hundred times that of the French !
The explanation of this is simply that old negroes
very rarely know their own age and love to mag-
nify it; in other words, no dependence is to be
placed on the statistics. There is no evidence of
exceptional longevity among them.
The change from one continent to another does
not ap to have reduced the fecundity of the
race, which, it is well known, stands at a high mark
in Africa. It has been caleulated that in the
United States at present the white race increases
annually at the rate of 2°9 per cent., while the
coloured population, including all shades, increases
3-4 per cent. This preponderance much more than
makes up for the slightly higher death-rate. It is,
however, not directly attributable to a ter
natural fertility, but to the fact that a coloured
woman very rarely remains unmarried, and does
not avoid offspring.
The disposition of the negro is usually pacific
and cheerful. He is not easily depressed by
verty or thoughts of the future. Content that
is immediate wants are provided for, he rarely
prepares for a distant contingency. Eminently
rious in his instincts, he is usually to be
ound in certain streets and quarters of the town
exclusively occupied by members of his own race.
His interest in the past is weak, and few or no
reminiscences of his ancestral languages, tradi-
tions, superstitions, or usages have been retained.
His religion is emotional, and exerts but a moder-
ate influence on his morality. Frequently it is
associated. with superstitious beliefs and _ rites
known as Voodoo or Obi mysteries. It is believed
by some that these are relics of the fetichistic
worships of equatorial Africa, but the connection
has never been demonstrated; on the contrary,
the tales of the sacrifice of children; of ritual
cannibalism, and of obscene ceremonies alleged to
prevail in Hayti, and to a less d among the
negroes of other parts of America, have been
shown by W. W. Newell to rest on very doubtful
authority, and, if they occur at all, are ‘the actions
of a very few superstitions fanatics. The word
Voodoo, or, as usually pronounced in the United
States, Hoodoo, is a Creole form of the French
Vaudois, and is etymologically derived from the
riod of the persecution of the Vandois or Wal-
enses, who were represented by their opponents
as sorcerers and necromancers, whence the name
Vaudois came to be synonymous with ‘witch’ or
‘wizard.’ By a similar Creole French corruption
the word Wanga, which among the negroes of
Louisiana and Hayti means a philter or charm,
and as a verb, ‘to bewitch,’ is, in spite of its
African physiognomy, the French Onguent, an
ointment or salve, such preparations being cur-
rently believed to magic powers. It is
argued, therefore, that both the words and prac-
tices are of European origin. Nevertheless, it is
unquestionably true that among the negroes both
of the West Indies and the United States there is a
widespread faith in charms, philters, and fetiches.
In the latter country the employment of these
means to cast an evil spell upon, or, as it is called,
‘to cunjer’ (to conjure), a m is familiar to
every one at all acquainted with the folklore of
the coloured — The maleficent influence can
be exerted by obtaining something belonging to
the victim and doing some injury to it, or by
securing a little of his blood, or hey nc Se certain
roots in the path where he is accustomed to walk,
or by scattering brown paper before the door of his
430 NEGROES
NEHEMIAH
house, or in many other ways. In the West Indies
an Obi bottle is often hidden in the house or pow
ofanenemy. It is filled with pins, rags, pebbles,
small sticks, leaves of certain plants, Mc. The
result is often successful ; for a negro who believes
himself ‘cunjer’d’ will refuse food, and sink into
the profoundest dejection, resulting occasionally
in death. That a serpent or snake plays any pro-
minent in these Obi rites, as has often been
stated, does not ap) confirmed. Nor is it a pro-
minent figure in the stories and folk-tales of the
race in America. These fictitious narratives are
very numerous, the negro being a tireless talker
and raconteur. Many of them reveal a high stage
of the art of story-telling, as the ree tales
collected by J. C. Harris and Colonel C, C. Jones,
and numerous others from the southern states by
various writers. Many of them belong to the
class of ‘ beast-fables,’ similar to some which have
been collected among the American Indians and
the natives of the African continent, and such as
were favourite staples of amusement in Europe dur-
ing the middle One of the principal figures is
the rabbit (the ‘ brer rabbit’ of the ‘ Uncle Remus’
tales). He figures conspicuously not only in the
southern United States, but in the West Indies and
on the Amazon (Hartt), and as tio conejo (‘uncle
rabbit’) in the folklore of the Venezuelan negroes
(Dr Ernst). This unimportant animal also plays a
leading part in the mythology of various American-
Indian nations, as the Algonquins and Mexicans
( Aztecs) ; and it appears not unlikely that its pro-
minence in negro-American folklore was a loan from
this source. Along with story-telling, singing and
musie are favourite diversions of the coloured
pulation. This tendency is a direct inheritance
rom their African ancestry, as throughout that
continent the natives are p mone mages 4 fond of these
diversions. In Central America the negroes still
savley the marimba, a native African instrument
with wooden keys placed over jars or gourds, the
keys being struck with a stick. In the United
States the violin, the fife, and the guitar are used,
but the favourite is the ‘banjo,’ an instrument of
African derivation, modified from the gui with
strings still in use on the Guinea coast.
vith these simple means they produce music of
—— though not artistic character. In_ in-
ividual instances (as Blind Tom, born in Georgia in
1849) members of the race have attained remark-
able skill on the piano and organ, rendering the
most difficult compositions with spirit. No negro
composer, however, has attained celebrity. Their
songs are numerous, many of them of a religious
character, others turning on the incidents of daily
life. They are generally defective in prosody and
without merit, being often little more than words
strung together to carry an air.
The negro is ambitious for education, but un-
-illing to make the necessary mental effort to
obtain it. In the United States public schools
their progress is about equal to that of white chil-
dren, up to the important changes at the age of
puberty, when a visible ascendency of the appetites
and emotions over the intellect and an increasing
indisposition to mental labour supervene. In the
higher studies they fall notably behind the whites ;
and if one of them undertakes the studies requisite
for a profession, he is content with what is barel
sufficient for its remunerative practice. Notable
results are attending the education of the negro in
mechanical and agricultural per however,
in such institutions as those at Hampton, Virginia,
and Tuskegee, Alabama. The social position of the
negroes in some parts of South America differs little
from that of the whites. But in the United States,
despite the theoretical equality, the natural sense
of inequality between the races is making itself felt,
and they are probably now farther asunder in sym-
— than they were at the close of the war, in
th the northern and southern states,
Brazit, Jamaica, &e. ¢
G. W. Williams, History of the Negro Race in America
(2 vols. New York, 1882; Lond. 1883); Blyden, Chris-
tianity, Islam, and the Negro Race (S687) H. J. Bell,
Witcheraft in the West Indies (1890); W. L.
Black America ( Times letters; Lond, 1891); and many
articles in the American Folk-lore Journal.
PS ladcdung See pte
egros, an e “ island of the Remy
between Panay and Zebi. Area, about 8q. m.
It is voleanic, with an active crater, and is crossed
by densely-wooded mountains. It is wach fo
ing tobacco, coffee, sugar-cane, and wheat, -
duces fabrics of abaca and canonegro. Pop, 321,777.
Bacolor, on the west coast, is the chief — att
Negus, a compound of either port or
hot einer aneatensd with sugar and flavoured with
lemon-peel and spices. It is a favourite beverage
in England, and derives its name from a Colonel
Francis Negus (¢. George I.).
Negus. See AByssINIA.
Nehemi who, next to Ezra, among
men whose -_s have been handed down, had the
most important share in the making of post-exilic
Judaism, comes before us ees certain
fragments of autobiography imbedded in the can-
onical book that now his name. From these
we learn that he was a Jew who had for some time
held the post of cupbearer to Artaxerxes Longe
manus (‘ King of Babylon,’ xiii. 6), when, at the
winter-palace of Shushan or Susa, towards the end
of the year 445, he was surprised and saddened
with unexpected tidings of the very unprosperous
state of Jerusalem. How or when the events now
for the first time reported to him had ey Ere is
not related, but the result had been to leave the
city impoverished and defenceless. In the following
spring (444), having obtained leave of absence
from court for a limited time, and full powers to
act as governor-extraordinary of Judea, he set out
without delay for the city of his fathers. The
first necessity was to have the walls rebuilt ; on his
arrival no time was lost in taking the necessary
steps, and the entire structure was completed, in
the face of much opposition, within fifty-two days
from its commencement (vi. 15). His next care
was to reinforce the mapueicon of the depleted
capital by drafts from the surrounding districts,
and in icular, it would seem, to bring back to
town the Levites who, through non-payment of
dues, had been compelled to abandon service at the
temple and give themselves to field labour through-
out Judea. Arrangements having been made for
the lar support of the sacred offices, the feast
of the dedication of the walls was now gone about
with t pomp and joy. It is to be presents
that Nehemiah returned soon afterwards to his
duties at the Persian court. We read (xiii. 6; ef.
vy. 14) of a second visit of Nehemiah to Jerusalem,
twelve years afterwards, on which occasion he either
initiated or renewed and completed certain reforms
which henceforth were among the most character-
istic features of post-exilic Judaism. One of the
most marked of these was the crusade
mixed marriages and the separation of the Jews
of pure descent from the ‘mixed multitude’
(xiii, 3). His cleansing of the temple, and expul-
sion of Tobiah from its precincts, ultimately led, it
would seem, to the formation of the Samaritan
community as a separate religions organisation.
Another of Nehemiah’s reforms was the stringent
enforcement of a strict law of Sabbath observance.
Others are to be found in the pe ey he
made for the permanent maintenance of the temple
See Stavery, UniTep Sta
all the
j
|
.
NEHEMIAH
NELSON 431
worship and the support of the priests and Levites.
In this connection, and as bearing on the criticism
of the Pentateuch, Neh. x. 32 [33] ought to be
compared with Ex. xxx. 13, Neh. x. 33 [34] with
Ex. xxix. 38, 39, and Num. xxviii. 3, 4; also Neh.
x. 37 8) with Lev. xxvii. 32, and Neh. x. 36 [37]
with Num. iii. 12, 13. How long Nehemiah’s
second visit to Jerusalem lasted we are not told,
nor does authentic hi record the time or place
of his death. In the late apocryphal book of
2 Maccabees a spurious letter, purporting to date
from the year 124 B.C., is preserved, where wonder-
ful things are told as to Nehemiah’s rekindling of
the sacred altar-fire by means of ‘naphthar,’ and it
is also said (2 Mace. ii. 13) that he founded a
library in which he ‘ gathered together the acts of
the kings, and the prophets, and of David, and the
istles of the kings concerning the holy gifts.’
his last statement can only be used with great
caution as bearing on the history of the canon.
The canonical Book of Nehemiah originally
formed the c' chapters of the undivided work,
Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah (see CHRONICLES), for
which two of the most important original sources
were the high ange wse,e tic memoirs of Ezra and
Nehemiah. ese have been rved, however,
only in so fragmen and dislocated form that it
is exceedingly difficult now to gather from them
the true order of the events to which they relate.
The book in its present shape s (Neh. i. 1-
vii. 5) with Nehemiah’s account of the building of
the wall and the difficulties he had to encounter.
The depleted state of the city had suggested to him
a census of Juda, and in this connection is given
the list of those who had come os lg Zerubbabel
nearly a century before (vii. 6-73); this list,
apart from very numerous and considerable textual
variations, is identical with that in Ezraii. The
reader might now expect to find a corresponding
census for Nehemiah’s own time, but instead of
this the next three rs give an account of the
reading of the law Ezra, the celebration of the
feast of tabernacles, the fast and repentance of the
people, and the solemn sealing of the covenant to
observe the law. These chapters are continuous
with Ezra x. In Neh. xi. the interrupted narrative
is resumed, or rather the place narrative is
taken by a series of name lists (inhabitants of
Jerusalem, heads of houses in Judah and Ben-
jamin, priests, and Levites). Chapter xii. 27-43
then gives Nehemiah’s description of the dedication
of the walls, and the rest of the book (xii. 44—
xiii. 31) consists of the account of the reforms
t of the covenant as con-
tained in x, 30-39. It would seem as if the editor
of Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah had before him two
distinct documents relating to Ezra and Nehemiah
respectively, but that into the first of these be-°
tween Ezra x. 44 and Neh. vii. 73 6 (originally
continuous) he ye it e ient to introduce
from the second a of Nehemiah’s memoirs
(Neh. i. 1-vii. 5) in order to the way for
the mention of Nehemiah in Neh. viii. 9 and x. 1
(2). The work mentions Jaddua, who was high-
est in the days of Alexander the Great, and
ius, the last of the Persian kings (xii. 22). It
cannot, therefore, have been compiled earlier than
333 B.c., and probably it onght to be dated at least
half a century later. In the jual compilation
of the Jewish canon, the Ezra-Nehemiah section of
the larger book was first added to the list of authori-
tative writings, some account of the times subse-
quent to the captivity being plainly required. The
need for a second history, parallel with that con-
tained in the ‘former prophets,’ was not so obvious ;
Chronicles, therefore, the remaining portion of the
work, was the very last to take a p among the
Old Testament Scriptures,
For Nehemiah’s place in the Old Testament dispensa-
tion, see the histories of Israel by Ewald, Stanley, Hitzia,
Knuenen, Wellhausen, and others. Compare Reuss,
Geschichte der heiligen Schriften Alten Testaments (2a
ed. 1890); and Sayce, Introduction to Ezra, Nehemiah,
and Esther (3d ed. 1889). The best commen on the
Book of Nehemiah is that of Bertheau-Ryssel (1887). See
also Keil (Eng. trans. 1873), and Rawlinson in Speaker's
Commentary. All three works contain references to
Neligherry Hills (properly Nilgiri ; Sansk.
nila, ‘blue,’ and giri, ‘mountain’), a mountainous
district in the south of India, rising abruptly from
the plains to the height of 6000 feet, though
individual shoot up to 8760 feet. The
mass is entirely isolated, with the exception that
a precipitous ite ridge leaves its western face
and connects it with the Western Ghits. The
surface consists of uplands with large groves
of forest trees; but the lower slopes are heavily
timbered. The Neilgh Hills are inhabited by
five distinct tribes, of whom the Todas are the
most interesting. They s a Dravidian dialect
and practice polyandry ; in 1881 there were 675, in
1891, 800. The men are tall and athletic, with Roman
noses, black bushy beards and eyebrows, but they
are dirty in their habits. Their sole occupation is
tending cattle. Owing to their great elevation, the
Neilgherry Hills have a delightfully cool climate,
more -corraet, $0: Carat. Shese eee
erent and afferent. If the anterior root be divid
tween the point of its origin from the cells of the
anterior horn of the spinal cord and its junction
with the or root, the part un with
the cord will waste along the whole length of the
nerve, and the muscles which it supplies will waste
also. The cells in connection with the anterior
roots, therefore, not only send out motor impulses,
but exert a nutritive or trophic influence on the
nerve and muscle. Division of the posterior root
beyond its ganglion is followed by wasting of the
corresponding fibres of the nerve to their ultimate
termination. If the root be cut between the.
an and the spinal cord, the part attached to!
the ganglion remains unaltered, while that con-
nected with the spinal cord wastes. This shows
that the lion of the posterior root exerts a
trophic influence on the fibres connected with it.
If the nerve be divided after the junction of the two
roots, the whole of the nerve farthest from the
spinal cord will waste. -
The afferent nerve impulses which along the
terior roots comprise those which give rise to
e sense of touch, pain, and temperature, and to
reflex movements of various kinds without neces-
sarily exciting our consciousness, such as those
concerned with the maintenance of the equilibrium
of the body, and with the functions of the internal
0
‘ex Action.—By this we mean an action
brought about directly by the influence of an
afferent impulse quite independently of voluntary
control. For such an action four elements are
necessary : (1) afferent fibres, (2) nerve cells or
centres, (3) efferent Shanes 1) muscle fibres.
The impulse travels up
afferent fibres and stimulates
the nerve-cells to send an im-
pulse along the efferent fibre to
the muscles. If any of these
four factors is absent, the reflex
action cannot take place. A
familiar example is the mov-
ing of the foot as the result of
ticklin gthe sole. The afferent
impulse passes up the nerves
to the nerve centres in the
spinal cord, which send out-
wards direct to the muscles
motor impulses, which often
be controlled by the
movement is brought about by
an impulse originated in a nerve
centre itself, without the influ-
ence of an afferent stimulus, it is called automatic
or yee Such actions are apt to occur
bi ba
Fig. 9.
ically, such as the action of the heart.
untary Actions.—In these the outgoing im-
motor
and mk Bag
side of the spinal cord to the nerve-cells in its
anterior horn. From thence they are transmitted
by the efferent nerves to the muscles, Fig. 9
will explain the relation of voluntary to reflex
action: ¢ is a nerve-cell in the b ; n, the
a, an afferent nerve; s, a nerve-cell; Gs
the power of voluntary
NERVOUS
SYSTEM 443
motion will be lost, but the reflex arc, 0, a, 8, €, m,
remains intact. We can sometimes control or
8 thetic Nerve; the right
the mae and abdomen, and the stomach,
10.—The lateral °
Trail of
hog wremeg4 liver, spleen, and pancreas being removed
to bring it in view:
1, 2, 8, the superior, middle, and inferior cervical ganglia;
4, the two lines from this include the twelve dorsal
ganglia; 5, include the four lumbar ganglia; 6, include the
tive ganglia; 7, the lion impar ; 8, cardiac plexus;
9, solar plexus; 10, aortic plexus; 11, nypowetads lexus ;
a, the larynx; b, the trachea; c, arch of the aorta; vam
nal carotid; ¢’, internal carotid; d, the heart; e, ¢, the dia-
h ~ +h *
ragm; f, the cardiac end of the Pp , a
per 7’, abdominal aorta; h, the kidney; i, the Ss renal
capsule; k, the sacrum; J, the section of base of skull;
m, the bladder ; n, the lower portion of the rectum.
repress a reflex action voluntarily. The cell ¢ in
the brain can so act on the cell s as to hinder or
inhibit its ordinary response to a stimulus, and
when the cell in the brain is destroyed the cell s
is more easily stimulated reflexly, Senin, irritation applied to one branch
of a nerve give rise to pain at the extremity of
another
branch of the same nerve, the sensation
being reflected along the branch which is not
directly exposed to the irritation. Thus, facial
neuralgia very frequently depends upon di d
conditions of the teeth, even if they themselves are
not painful. In this way we may explain the pain
in the shoulder which often accompanies disease of
the liver; the pain in the thigh, which is often
associated with irritation of the kidney ; the pain
in the left arm, which is often coincident with
disease of the heart, &c. Persons suffering from
debility, anzemia, and g gouty or rheumatic con-
stitution are so especially liable to neuralgia that
-these conditions, as also exposure to malarious in-
fluences, must be ae among the predisposing
causes, Amongst the exciting causes exposure to
cold and wet, or to a cold dry east wind, is the
most frequent ; but fatigue, strong mental emotions,
the abnse of tea, coffee, tobacco, and alcoholic
drinks, a wound or bruise, the retrocession of gout,
rheumatism, or cutaneous eruptions, Kc. occasion-
ally suffice to excite the disease,
e resources of the materia medica have been
exhausted in searching for remedies for this cruel
disease, But, in the first tg see a careful search
must be made for any possible local source of irrita-
tion; and next, ‘hygienic conditions must be very
carefully attended to; fresh air, regular bodily
exercise, freedom from worry and overstrain of
mind, plenty of sleep, an abundant supply of whole-
some nourishment, are each essential’ (Fagge).
Fatty food, as cod-liver oil, butter, cream, is of
especia] importance.
Of drugs which give immediate relief to the pain,
morphia, ially when administered “tape me
cally (see HYPODERMIC INJECTION), holds the first
place. But it must be used with t caution, and
not entrusted to the patient himself, lest a ‘morphia
habit’ become established. Antipyrin and exalyin,
coal-tar derivatives recently introduced into medi-
cine, sometimes take the place of morphia, and are
free from some of its Ss va deme yr Croton-chloral
an ium are often useful in facial neuralgia.
Relief from the suffering is often the first step
towards recovery.
But in most cases some treatment is necessary
to remove the constitutional state on which the
neural s. Iron, quinine (especially when
the sala reeurs at regular intervals), arsenic, phos-
phorus, chloride of ammonium, are the medicines
most generally useful. But the treatment must
of course be ad to the disorders, frequently
d ive, present in each particular case.
: | applications can be of no permanent service
in cases where the pain results from organic change,
or from general constitutional causes; they will,
however, often give considerable temporary relief.
Amongst the most important local applications may
be mentioned landanum, tincture of aconite or
aconitina ointment, belladonna-plaster, and chloro-
form (which should be applied upon a piece of linen
saturated with it, and covered with oiled silk to
ent evaporation), mustard leaves or poultices,
en ee ee ne also —s
tly, neuralgia, being a purely nervous affec-
tion, is often influen ir alain ealeulated to
make a strong impression on the mind of the
patient; and hence it is that galvanic rings, electric
chains, mesmerie passes, and other applications
wor tg these, act more upon the mind than
upon the body of the patient, occasionally effect a
cure.
In cases which have resisted all other modes of
treatment, surgical measures are sometimes neces-
sary—viz. acupuncture, nerve-stretching (see under
ScIATICA), or, in the last resort, removal of a
portion of the affected nerve.
Neuritis, a term applied to inflammation of the
nerves. ‘The disease is not very common, and not
very well defined. The symptoms are those of
neuralgia, with impairment of sensation, or local-
ysis, according as sensory or motor nerves
are affected.
Neuroptera. See Insects.
Neusatz, a town in the Hungarian province of
Baes, on the left bank of the Danube, opposite
Peterwardein (q.v.). Pop. (1890) 24,717.
Neusiediér Lake, a small lake on the north-
west frontier of Hungary, 22 miles SE. of Vienna.
It is shallow (13 feet), and has lost much of its
former area (133 sq. m.) by the draining of the
adjoining marshes—from 1865 to 1870 it was dry.
Lat h waters are valuable as medicinal
ths.
Remap, 0° ancient manufacturing town of
Rhenish ssia, near the left bank of the Rhine,
4 miles W. of Diisseldorf by rail. Its church of St
P mageear a notable specimen of the transition from
the round to the pointed style, was founded in
1209. Neuss has flourishing ironworks, foundries,
flour and iron mills, and manufactures of cottons,
woollens, leather, r, chicory, &c. Pop. (1875)
15,563 ; (1885) 20, 3 (1895) 25,026.
Neustadt, a town of Prussian Silesia, 25 miles
SW. of Oppeln. It is the seat of considerable
industry, woollen and linen fabrics and carpets
being the staple manufactures, Pop. (1875) 12,515 ;
(1885) 16,093 ; (1895) 19,243.
Neustadt, or WIENER-NEUSTADT, one of the
most beautiful towns of Lower Austria, is situated
32 miles S. of Vienna by rail. The town is over-
looked by the large old castle of the Dukes of
Babenhberg, now a military academy. The castle
contains a fine Gothie chapel (1460), rich .in
a windows; it is the burial-place of the
Superor Maximilian I. The old church dates from
1230, and was restored in 1890; a Cistercian abbey
(1444) and a town-house are notable buildings.
Locomotives and machinery, wire, bells, pottery,
starch, leather, and ribbons are amongst the manu-
factures. Thi city, called ‘the Ever-faithful,’ was
founded in 1192, and was rebuilt after a great fire
in 1834. Pop. 23,735.
Neustadt-an-der-Hardt, a town of Rhenish
Bavaria, at the foot of the Hardt Mountains, 20
miles W. of Spires. Its church, with several
curious monuments, dates from the 14th century.
It manufactures paper, cloth. soap, wine, brandy,
&e. Pop. (1885) 12,255 ; (1890) 15,016.
Neustrelitz, capital of the grand-duchy of
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, pleasantly situated in a
hilly district, between two lakes, 62 miles NNW.
of Berlin. Founded in 1733, it is built in the
form of an eight-rayed star, and contains the ducal
palace, with magnilicent gardens. Pop. 9366.
Neustria, the name given in the times of the
Merovingians and Carlovingians to the western
rtion of the Frank empire, after the quadruple
ivision of it which took place in 511. Neustria
contained three of these divisions. It extended
originally from the mouth of the Scheldt to the
Loire, and was bounded by Aquitania on the
§., and by Burgundy and Austrasia (Francia
Orientalis) on the E. The principal cities were
Soissons, Paris, Orleans, and Tours, See the
historical maps at EUROPE.
450 NEUTRAL SALTS
NEUTRALITY
Neutral Salts, See Sauts.
Neutrality. Neutrals are states which in
time of war take no part in the contest, but con-
tinue pacific intercourse with both belligerents.
The aim of the doctrine of neutrality is to recon-
cile the right of belligerents to carry on their war-
like operations with the no less undeniable right
of other nations to pursue peacefully their ordinary
business, For many years after the rise of modern
international law the conduct of warfare was dis-
cussed only with reference to belligerents, and no
intermediate relation between an ally and an
enemy was recognised. Not, indeed, till the
middle of the 18th century did the terms ‘neutral’
and ‘neutrality’ come into general use; for not
till then was a systematic effort made to regulate
the relations of belligerents to nations standing
aloof from the war, or to define their reciproca!
rights and daties.
As between belligerent states and neutral states,
the principles whence spring the complicated rules
of modern neutrality are in themselves extremely
simple. On the one hand, the neutral, being
neither judge nor party, must show absolute im-
partiality in his dealings with both belligerents ;
on the other hand, the belligerent must pay
scrupulous respect to the sovereignty of his
nentral neighbours. Accordingly, throughout a
war, neutrals continue diplomatic intercourse with
both belligerents. A neutral state is not per-
mitted to give armed assistance to either bel-
ligerent, even though such aid may have been
promised before the war; nor to lend money to
either side or guarantee such loan; nor to allow
the passage of belligerent troops through its
territory. A neutral is bound to prevent and
cancel all acts of hostility, either in the neutral
territory itself or in the a waters, and to
prohibit the exercise of any belligerent jurisdiction
therein. So, if an attempt be made by troops of
either belligerent country to traverse neutral terri-
tory, the neutral state is bound to disarm and intern
such troops, and to set at liberty all prisoners of
war found within its borders. Should a neutral
state deviate from its duty in any of these par-
ticulars, the state injured is entitled to treat such
deviation as a just cause of war. On the other
hand, a belligerent is not permitted to carry on
hostilities within neutral territory; nor to use
neutral harbours for the purpose of fitting out
expeditions against his enemy.. He must scrupu-
lously observe all the regulations of neutral states
regarding the admission of cruisers or prizes into
their ports.
The relations of belligerent states to the private
citizens of neutral states involve greater difficulties.
On land the property of nenizal individuals is, of
course, protected from belligerent attack ; to this
rule an exception is furnished by the Right of
Angary (Low Lat. angaria, ‘forced service’),
under which a belligerent may seize the property
of a neutral found in the territory of the other
belligerent, and. make use of it for the pur-
pose of warlike operations, subject to his payin
compensation. At sea, however, the commercia
interests of belligerent and neutral merchants are
so interwoven that it is difficult to separate them
and strike at an enemy without injuring a friend ;
hence ever and again have arisen bitter econtro-
versies regarding the extent of a belligerent’s
eer over the property of neutral citizens at-sea.
Wo distinct principles for regulating the maritime
capture of neutral property have at different times
prevailed. By the one principle, the nationality
of the ship determined liability to capture, so that
neutral goods on hostile ships were liable to con-
fiseation, while hostile goods on neutral ships went
free. By the other principle, the nationality of the
property determined its liability, so that neutral
goods went free even though found on hostile
ships, and hostile goods were liable to seizure
even though found on neutral ships. In 1856 the
Declaration of Paris finally settled the question
by providing (1) that the neutral should cover
an enemy's foods, except contraband of war; (2)
that neutral goods, except contraband of war,
should not be liable to capture even under the
enemy's flag. The law, as thus settled, is the old
rule, ‘Free ship, free goods,’ without the corol-
lary, ‘Hostile ship, hostile goods.’ Attempts had
frequently been made at an earlier period, particu-
larly by Prussia in the Silesian Loan controv
and by the Armed Neutralities of 1780 and 1
to incorporate the rule into international law; it
was, indeed, mainly through the opposition of
Great Britain that its final acceptance was post-
poned till 1856.
To the general rule of maritime capture, as thus
determined, several important exceptions must be
noted, Belligerents continue to have the right
of intercepting, even on board of neutral y. ;
such articles as are deemed contraband of war.
The test to be tuken in deciding what goods
are contraband has been much discussed and is
now quite unsettled (see CONTRABAND). The
vessel, too, carrying the goods may be condemned
along with its contraband cargo, where both bel
to the same owner, or where false papers are found,
or any other fraudulent device is resorted to.
Another instance in which a belligerent is entitled
to interfere with the ships and property of neutral
individuals is furnished by the law of blockade
see BLOCKADE). Again, if during a war ships
longing to neutral citizens perform certain classes
of services on behalf of one of the belligerents, the
other belligerent is entitled to confiscate these
mys 2 Among such hostile services, against which
a belligerent is entitled to protect himself, are
reckoned the transmission of naval signals or
messages, the carriage of military naval
despatches, and the transportation of belligerent
officers or troops. Where a citizen of a neutral
state engages in any forbidden ventures—whether
it be carrying contraband s, running a blockade,
or doing other un-neutral service—the rieved
belligerent does not complain to the neutral state,
but strikes at the neutral citizen directly by cap-
turing his property and condemning it in his own
prize court. The neutral state does not appear in
the matter at all, unless the penalty imposed by
the prize court be such as is not warranted by
international law; in this case the neutral state
claims reparation for its injured subject from the
offending belligerent.
The most unsettled
neutrality is that d
rt of the modern law of
ing with the oblige
ng
imposed on a neutral state, of restrain
conduct of its own citizens and of enforcing the
due observance of neutrality on all persons within
its jurisdiction. In recent times the pate has
been towards a large extension of the duties of
neutral states in this respect. The movement was
commenced by the Neutrality Act of the United
peg in 1794, and re-enacted, with addi-
tions, in 1818. The principles of these American
statutes have been closely followed in the series of
British Foreign Enlistment Acts, passed with a
view of arming the British government with suffi-
cient power to enable it to fulfil the extended obli-
gations of neutrality. Among the more important
offences st neutrality which are now struck at
by the municipal law of most states are such acts
as the following : To leave the neutral territory in
considerable numbers for the purpose of enlis
in the service of a belligerent; to accept letters
marque from a belligerent; to fit out within its
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NEUVILLE
NEVADA 451
territory armed expeditions against a belligerent,
or increase therein the warlike force of any belli-
gerent ship or expedition. At the same time a
neutral state is not bound to restrain its subjects
from trade in arms and munitions of war. The
extent of the responsibility of neutral states for
the building and fitting out of ships within their
territory appears still to be uncertain. Till lately
the English idea seems to have been that the
neutral government was under no obligation to
stop such proceedings, unless the vessel was ready
to commence hostilities at the moment of its leay-
ing neutral waters. But the events connected
with the escape of the A/abama (see ALABAMA)
and her sister-cruisers during the American civil
war showed the inadequacy of this view. The
treaty of Washington, 1871, by which all these
questions were referred to arbitration, directed the
arbitrators to apply, in addition to the ordinary
rules of the law 4 ES Ponty three new rules, known
as the Rules of Washington. These rules, owing
to their loose phraseology, lave raised more ques-
tions than they have solved, but their general
effect is immensely to extend the duties of neutral
states,
See Hall, International Law (2d ed. 1884) and The
Rights and Duties of Neutrals (1874); Wheaton, Inter-
national Law (Eng. ed. by A. C. Boyd; 3d ed. 188%),
For the history of the growth of the law of neutrality,
see Manning, Law of Nations. See also the Letters of
Historicus, and the works cited at Enemy.
Neuville, ALPHONSE MARIE DE, the most
r of the youngest school of French ory de
of battle-scenes, was born at St Omer on 3lst May
1836, and after studying under Delacroix painted
a series of successful pictures illustrative of French
exploits in the Crimean war, Italy, and Mexico.
Then came the war with Germany. Neuville
oe. in the ranks and learned something of real
fare from actual experience. This knowledge
im additional power to his next and last
series of works, depicti incidents of that war.
The attack at Rorke’s Drift and that at Tel-el-
Kebir were also chosen by him as subjects for
pictures. Neuville axaled. moreover as an illus-
trator of books, his best work in this line being
the d for Guizot’s Histoire de France. He
died in 20th May 1885.
Neuwied, a town of Prussia, on the right bank
of the Rhine, 8 miles below Coblenz, was capital of
the mediatised principality of Wied ; the castle of
the princes has a beautiful garden, in which are
many Roman antiquities discovered here. The
town contains an important institute of the
Moravian Brethren, and there are some minor
manufactures, Pop.
Neva, a river of Russia, flows westward from
the south-west corner of Lake Lad to the Bay
of Cronstadt, in the Gulf of Finland, passing
through St Petersburg, and carries to the sea an
enormous volume of water (greater than that of the
Rhine) from the lakes Lad Onega, Ilmen, and
others. Its total length, with windings, is about
40 miles ; in places it is over 4000 feet wide, else-
where the channel is narrowed to 180 feet ; and in
one or two places the navigation is embarrassed by
reefs and rapids. It is frozen on an average from
November 25 to April 21. By the Ladoga Canal
the Neva communicates with the vast water-system
of the Volga, and thus it may be said to join the
Baltic with the Caspian Sea.
Nevada, a silver-mining state of the American
rege aa spose N. b obey and Idaho, E. by
and Arizona, and S$. an ae
W. by California, “Its greatest to00 iar the U8. by 3 Be
pect from north to sonth is a | \PP!eett Company.
little less than 500 miles, and its greatest width
from east to west is more than 300 miles. In aréa
nee sq. m.) it is the fourth largest state of tlie
nion; in population it is the lowest of all the
states and territories—(1870) 42,491 ; (1890) 45,761;
(1900) 42,335. Nearly the whole of Nevada is in-
eluded in the Great Basin (q.v.), once occupied by
a great inland sea, and afterwards by several great
lakes which have also disappeared. Some of the
deepest depressions of such a body of water are yet
marked by Walker, Humboldt, Carson, Pyramid,
and Winnemucca lakes, and by other ‘sinks’ and
playas. The ancient shore-lines are clearly visible
in certain places, and the climate, now arid and
nearly rainless, was once moist. The soil of the
Great Basin at some time produced an abundant
vegetation, whereas it is now almost totally unfit
for agriculture, frowned upon by barren treel
mountains, and traversed by regions of nearly
absolute desert. At present Nevada is a high
plateau with an average altitude of 4000 feet,
crossed by numerous ranges of mountains which as
a rule are parallel and separated by valleys from
5 to 20 miles in width. Some of these valleys are
barren and desolate; others, through which the
rivers flow, have areas of arable land. The moun-
tains contain rocks of every geological period ;
many of them are voleanic, and there are striking
exhibitions of metamorphic and trap rocks. In
the valleys lie the sedimentary deposits of ages
mixed with cinders and other volcanic products
which fell in many cases on the surface of the
extinct lake, and at the mouths of the cafions are
vast moraines, The mineral production of Nevada,
especially of silver, has been enormous (see Com-
STOCK DE). Though the high grades of ore
appear to have been largely exhausted, the pro-
duction was at first so great as to materially change
the value of the precious metals, and to promote
Nevada hastily from an uninhabited desert to a
state of the Union. Mining is still the chief
interest. A small area in the north is drained by
the Owyhee River, a tributary of the Snake, and
another portion of the state in the south belongs
to the Colorado valley. Otherwise Nevada lies
wholly in the great basin of interior drainage,
where none of the water reaches the sea. ‘The
streams disappear in the sand or flow into ‘sinks,’
salt or brackish lakes, or playas, which are shallow
mud lakes that evaporate when the supply of water
fails. The Humboldt River pursues a winding
course of 350 miles. There are numerous hot
springs, many of which are surrounded with in-
crustations of tufa often in weird and fantastic
forms. Some of the lakes are nearly saturated
solutions of borax and salts of sodium and potas-
sium, and in the valleys are tracts of glistening
begat deposits, which mark the beds of extinct
akes.
The atmosphere is dry, remarkably clear in
winter, but filled in summer with minute particles
of dust, which produce endless and extraordinary
effects of colour on the sunlight. The temperature
is subject to extremes, and the rainfall is exceed-
ingly light. It nowhere exceeds 15 inches, and
scarcely averages more than 5 inches. Some
sections receive no rain for several successive years.
Sage-brush and other desert plants capable of
enduring drought form the native vegetation. It
has been estimated that with careful irrigation
about three per cent. of the land may be suecessfully
cultivated. The Mormons established a few tem-
porary camps in 1848, and in 1850 a settlement was
made at Genoa; but the real history of the state
begins with the discovery of silver in 1859. Nevada
was separated from Utah territory in 1861, and in
1864 was admitted to the Union as a state. There
are fourteen counties in the state, and the most
important towns are Virginia City and Gold Hill,
452 _NEVERS
NEWBERN
which are contiguous and situated on the Com-
stock lode, and Carson, the capital. Within the
state there are over 900 miles of railway. The
state board of education controls the public schools ;
there is a state university at Reno. In 1898 there
were 8529 Indians (Pah-Utes, Pi-Utes, and Sho-
shones), living on 1490 sq. m. of reservations. The
schools on the reservations are well attended.
Nevers, the capital now of the French depart-
ment of Niévre, and formerly of the province of
Nivernais, is picturesquely seated on a hillside,
600 feet above sea-level, at the influx of the Niévre
to the Loire, 159 miles by rail SSE, of Paris. The
Noviodunum of Cyesar, it has been the seat of a
bishop since 506; its beautiful cathedral, restored
in 1879, belongs mainly to the 13th century. The
stately palais-de-justice, dating from_ 1475, was
formerly the castle of the Dukes of Nevers; and
there are also a fine public garden, a bridge of
fourteen arches over the Loire, a medieval gate-
way, and a triumphal arch (1746) commemorating
Fontenoy, The industries comprise the manufac-
ture of cannon, iron cables and chains, porcelain
(introduced by Italians about 1565), &c. Pop. (1872)
22,276 ; (1886) 23,610; (1896) 24,750.
Neviansk, a town of Russia, in the govern-
ment of Perm, 50 miles N. of Ekaterinburg by rail,
stands on the Siberian side of the Ural Mountains,
and on a tributary of the Tobol. The district
around Neviansk is famous for its mineral wealth,
particularly gold and iron. Pop. 16,066.
Neville’s Cross. See Bruce (Davin).
Ne an island of the West Indies, belonging
to Great Britain, forms one of the Leeward Islands,
and lies 2 miles SE. of St Christopher, with which
it has been since i882 administratively connected,
sending three (unofficial) members to the common
legislative council. It is cireular in form, rises in
the centre to a wooded ancient crater (3200 feet),
and has an area of 50sq. m. The lower slopes are
cultivated, the sugar-cane being the principal crop,
though limes and oranges are grown to a sma
extent. Statistics are given under St Christopher
(gx) Pop. (1891) 13,087. The capital is the port
of Charlestown (pop. 1500). Nevis was discovered
Agar in 1498 and colonised by England in
1 As long as the slave-trade lasted it was one
of the principal marts for slaves in the West Indies.
The island has suffered much at various times from
hurricanes and earthquakes,
Nevis, Ben. See Ben Nevis.
New Albany. poe > of Floyd county, Indiana,
is on the north bank of the Ohio River, nearly
opposite Louisville. By rail it is 317 miles 8. by
of Chi and 267 miles E. of St Louis. The
city is well built, and is the principal manufactur-
ing town in the state. It contains iron and brass
foundries, rolling-mills, potteries and brick-yards,
flour, woollen, cotton, anc pe mills, &e. ; while
its plate-glass works are the largest in the United
States. Pop. (1880) 16,423; (1900) 20,628.
New Almaden, See ALMADEN.
New Amsterdam. See New York.
Newark, (1) « port of entry and the capital of
Easex county, New Jersey, is on the Passaic River,
rail W. of New York. Itis a handsome
city, with several beautiful little parks and wide
streets shaded with lines of elms, It has a city
hall, court-house, public library, and* nearly
150 churehes, but is mainly noteworthy for its
manufactures. There are altogether 400 indus-
trial establishments in Newark, producing brass
and dron work, hardware and machinery, carriages,
‘trunks, saddlery, boots and shoes, hats, clothing,
Four rail ways provide frequent com-
jewellery, &e.
Sateieatiog with New York, which is maintained
also by river-steamers; the line of docks is over a
mile long. Newark was settled in 1666 by a colony
from Connecticut, and received a city charter in
1836. Pop. (1870) 105,059 ; (1890) 181,830 ; (1900)
246,070.—(2) Capital of Licking county, Ohio, on
the Licking River (here crossed by four iron
i ), 33 miles by rail E. by N. of Columbus.
Stoves and fu boilers, machinery, wagons,
flour, woollens, an zee are among its
manufactures. Pop. (1880) 9600 ; (1900) 18,157,
Newark-upon-Trent, a town of Notts, on a
navigable branch of the river Trent, 18 miles
by_rail NE. of Nottingham and 120 N. by W.
of London. It is approached from the north by a
causeway, 14 mile , constructed by §
in 1770, and carried over the flat island formed
by the Trent on the west and the Newark branch
on the east. The fine h church, built mainly
between 1350 and 1489, has an oc!
223 feet high, and contains a good brass of 1361.
Other edifices are the town-hall (1805), corn
exchange (1848), hospital (1881), coffee-palace
(1882), free library (1882), and grammar-school,
ounded by Archdeacon Magnus in 1529. Newark
has a very important corn-market and
malting industries, besides iron and brass foun-
dries, manufactures of boilers and ultural
implements, and plaster of Paris s. Ineor-
porated by Edward VI., it returned two members
to parliament till 1885. Pop. (1881) 14,018; (1891)
14,457. A British town and Koman sta!
Newark in Saxon times became the seat of a
castle, which was rebuilt in 1125 by Alexander,
Bishop of Lincoln (hence the name New Wark),
and which long bore the name of the ‘key of the
north.’ King John died in it (1216); and in the
Great Rebellion it stood three sieges, in the second
of which it was relieved by Prince Rupert (1644),
whilst in the third it was surrendered to the Seots
by order of Charles I., who had just delivered him-
self up (5th May 1646). It was then dismantled,
and is now represented only by a very pictur-
esque ruin, round which a public garden is main-
tained by the corporation. See works by Shilton
(1820) and Cornelius Brown (1879).
New Bedford, « city and port of ont of
Massachusetts, is on the Acushnet estuary (oes
crossed by a bridge 4000 feet long), 3 miles N. of
Buzzard’s Bay and 56 miles by rail 8. of Boston.
Many of its ae residences are very Pres ies
while the public buildings include a city hall
ite, a custom-house, 30 churches, a public
ibrary, and a fine high school ($126,000 ere
is a broad drive (4 miles) round Clark’s Point, at
the extremity of which there is a strong granite
fort. For a century (1755-1854) New Bedford was
the chief centre of the American whale-fisherii
sending out more than 400 whaling-vessels, an
receiving 60,000 barrels of sperm and 120,000 of
whale oil in a year; but this industry has since
declined, till now only some 80 whaling-vessels
belong to the port, and the people have turned
their attention mainly to manufactures. . es
several great cotton-mills (nearly 500,000 spindles),
the city contains foundries, oil-refineries, manu-
factories of drills, cordage, boots and shoes, flour,
glass, plated ware, carriages, candles, &e. Pop.
(1880) 26,845 ; (1890) 40,733 ; (1900) 62,442.
and port of entry, capital
orth
navigable Neuse and the Trent
Newbern, «4 cit;
of Craven oven
the junction of the
here crossed by a long bridge), 107 miles by rail —
E. of Raleigh. It exports tar, turpentine, and
lumber, and early vegetables for the North. It
manufactures railroad-cars and cotton-seed oil, and
factory, sawmills, and an
has also a wood-pulp
oyster-canning establishment. Pop. (1900) 9090.
arolina, is situated at
ar
' NEWBERY
NEW BRUNSWICK 453
Newbery, Jounx, a London bookseller, inti-
mately associated with Dr Johnson, Goldsmith,
Christopher Smart, Smollett, and many other men
of letters, was descended from an old bookselling
vem lh and born a farmer’s son, in the Berkshire
ish of Waltham St Lawrence, about midsummer
113. He had first a shop for general wares at
Reading, and about -1744 settled in London as a
vendor of books and such medicines as Dr James's
Powder—the = gy of Horace Walpole as of
Goldsmith. He was the first to publish little books
for children such as have ever since been popular,
and he was himself, in conjunction with Giles and
Griffith Jones (1722-86), and perhaps Goldsmith,
— author of some of the best of the series, as the
tistories of Goody Two-Shoes and Giles Gingerbread
and the Travels of Tommy Trip. He published
many books of a more useful character, a complete
list of which is given in Mr Welsh’s careful volume.
In 1758 he started the Universal Chronicle, or
Weekly Gazette, in the numbers of which the cele-
Idler was first printed. The Public Ledger,
commenced in 1760, has continued to our own day
—in its early numbers appeared Goldsmith’s Chinese
Letters, \ater reprinted as The Citizen of the World.
His death took place 22d December 1767. He hada
genius for advertising, even to an ingenious method
of bringing in allusions to his books and wares in
the text of his stories. Johnson sketched him
humorously as ‘Jack Whirler’ in No. 19 of thie
Idler. 1t was to Francis Newbery (1743-1818),
his nephew and ultimate successor, that Boswell
tells us Dr Johnson told him he sold for sixty
ds the manuscript of Goldsmith’s Vicar of
akefield, in which John Newbery has been
immortalised as ‘the philanthropic bookseller in
St Paul’s Churchyard, who has written so many
little books for children. He called himself their
friend, but he was the friend of all mankind.’
This transaction has occasioned much difficulty, as
Boswell himself gives no date, while the accounts
of Mrs Piozzi and Hawkins differ very materially,
and Mr Welsh has discovered that B. Collins of
Salisbury on October 28, 1762, paid Goldsmith £21
as one-third rice of the book. Boswell describes
the book as then ‘realy for the press ;’ Mrs Piozzi
says Johnson procured the distressed author ‘some
immediate relief;’ Hawkins says the price that
Johnson brought him was £40. The year of the
sale by Dr Johnson was most likely 1762, when
the of the book was written ; and it is
most probable that Johnson did not mean that he
brought the whole sum, but only an instalment of
it. Charles Knight’s Shadows of the Old Book-
sellers (1865); and A Bookseller of Last Century,
by Charles Welsh (1885).
New Brighton, a post-village of Richmond
Borough, New Yor City, beautifully situated on
the north-east shore of Staten Island, 6 miles from
the Battery, to which steamers run frequently.
ey houses of New Brighton are mostly villa resi-
ences.
New Britain, a manufacturing town of Con-
necticut, 9 miles by rail SW. of Hartford, engaged
in the production of hardware, cutlery, locks,
jewellery, hooks and eyes, hosiery, &e. It is a
leasant city, with two large parks, and contains
state armoury and normal school. The water-
supply is from a reservoir of 175 acres. Pop. (1880)
ll, 3 (1890) 19,007 ; (1900) 25,998.
New Britain, by Germans called Nev-Pom-
MERN, an island of the Western Pacitlic, separated
the north-east coast of New Guinea by the
Dampier Strait. The interior is almost wholly un-
known. In the forest-clad interior there are several
voleanoes, active and quiescent, the highest pe
the Father (3900 feet), The climate is hot an
moist. Cocoa-nuts, yams, bananas, bread-fruit,
betel-nuts, and similar fruits are the chief products.
Fish are caught in great numbers. The natives,
cannibals, of the Melanesian division, are warlike,
but suspicions and crafty. They make handsome
canoes, with sails and outriggers, earthenware
vessels, baskets, mats, &c. The sling, stone axe,
and spear are their favourite weapons. They
worship goed and evil spirits. Area, 9600 sq. m.
The population of the several islands is not known.
and New Guinea
See illy, The Western Paci
(1886) ; Powel, Wanderings in a Wild Country (1883);
and Parkinson, Im Bismarck-Archipel (1887). For map,
see New GuINEA.
New Brunswick, a province of the Dominion
of Canada, is hounded on the N. and NW. by the
province of Quebec, from which it is separated by
the river Restigouche ; on the N. by the Chaleur
Bay; E. by the Gulf of St Lawrence and Northum-
berland Straits—the latter separating it from
Prince Edward Island; S. by the Bay of Fundy
and part of Nova Scotia; and on the W. by the
state of Maine, the boundary with the latter being
the St Croix and St John rivers. It has an area of
28,200 sq. m.—rather smaller than Scotland. Its
coast-line is 500 miles. in length, interrupted only
at the point of juncture with Nova Scotia, where
an isthmus not more than 11 miles broad con-
nects the two provinces, and divides the waters
of Northumberland Straits from those of the Bor
of Fundy, across which isthmus is the (unfinished )
Chignecto Ship-railway. The surface of the country
is generally undulating. There are low hills skirt-
ing the Bay of Fundy and the rivers of St John
and Restigouche. A feature of the coast-line is
the number of fine harbours, which have been of
t value as a means for exporting the timber
or which the country is famous.
Several important rivers traverse the province ;
among the fern ae is the St John, 450 miles in
length, and navigable for vessels of 100 tons to
Fredericton, the capital of the province, 90 miles
from the sea. Above this point smaller vessels
and steamboats ascend for 125 miles. The country
drained by the St John and its tributaries com-
prises about nine million acres in New Brunswick,
as well as eight million in Quebec and the state of
Maine. The Miramichi River, 220 miles long and
7 miles wide at its mouth, is also navigable for
some distance. The Restigouche is 3 miles wide
at its entrance into the Chaleur Bay, and over 200
miles in length, The lakes are numerous, but of
small extent, the largest being Grand Lake, 30
miles long and 3 to 7 miles wide, communicating
with the St John River, 50 miles from the sea.
The population of the province in 1881 was
321,129; in 1891 321,270. In 1891 there were
115,961 Catholics, 79,649 Baptists, 43,095 Church
of England, 40,639 Presbyterians, and 35,504
Methodists. The population in 1881 included
93,387 - of English origin; 101,284 Irish ;
49,829 Scotch ; 1401 Indian ; 6310 German ; French,
56,335. The principal cities and towns are St
John (including Portland), (44,000), Fredericton,
the capital (6700), Moncton (6000). The provin-
cial government is administered by a lieutenant-
tenia. assisted by an executive council, a legis-
ative council of eighteen, and a legislative assem-
bly of forty-one members, elected by the people.
The province sends ten members to the senate,
and sixteen to the Dominion House of Commons.
Like that of many other parts of Canada, the
climate of New Brunswick is subject to extremes
of heat and cold. The mean temperature for the
year 1885 was 40°3° F. at St John; the highest
and lowest temperatures for the year being 81*
and —15° respectively. If, however, the climate of
a country is to be judged by its effects on animal
454 NEW BRUNSWICK
NEW CALEDONIA
life, that of New Brunswick may be pronounced
one of the best in the world.
The revenue is largely made up of subsidies from
the Dominion government and from what is called
‘territorial revenue,’ including the proceeds of land
and timber sales. The educational institutions
supported by law are the Provincial University,
the training or normal school for teachers, and a
—, system of free common schools,
The provincial revenue in 1890-95 was about
$750,000 a year, rather more than covering the
expenditure. The imports have a value of about
$7,000,000, nearly half from the United States.
The exports reach a somewhat higher value, timber
bein the chief item. ‘The fisheries of the Bay of
Pandy, as also the river fisheries, are very valuable.
Agriculture is the chief industry in New Bruns-
wick. Except in a portion of country adjacent to
the coast of the Bay of Fundy, the soil is very
fertile, and every kind of grain and roots produced
in England is grown, as well as others. Attention
has been paid to live-stock both by the government
and private breeders ; and recently the government
has established a stock farm. The province, owin
to its cheap coal and proximity to the markets o
the world, has also many advantages as a manu-
facturing country. The principal articles manu-
factured are sawn lumber, leather, cotton and
woollen Is, wooden-ware, paper, iron-castings,
nails, and mill machinery, bolts and nuts, railway
engines and carriages. There are indications of
considerable mineral wealth, and a number of
mines are being successfully worked. Shipbuild-
ing is still extensively prosecuted, although it has
heen much interfered with by the substitution of
iron and steel for wooden vessels.
Land may be obtained in the province by settlers
on reasonable terms—in fact, practically free, if the
conditions of settlement are carried ont, requiring
the improvement of the land to a small extent,
reasonable cultivation, and residence for three
years. Land is also put up to auction at an upset
price of $1 per acre. Improved farms can be had
in most parts of the province at reasonable prices ;
many farmers having moved to Manitoba and the
North-west, as they can there start their families
with less capital.
There is plenty of sport of all kinds in the pro-
vince, and some of the finest trout and salmon
fishing in the world is to be had. Close times for
animals and birds are strictly observed.
It is generally held that New Brunswick, as a
rt of Nova Scotia, was ceded by France to Great
ritain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The
boundaries of Nova Scotia, however, were not well
defined at that time, and the country along the
St John River remained a subject of dispute which
was not finally settled until the treaty of Paris in
1763 conceding and guaranteeing to Great Britain,
in full right, Canada with all its dependencies,
When in 1755 the memorable expulsion of the
Acadians from Nova Scotia took place many of
these — retired to what is now known as New
Brunswick, and settled along the upper St John
River, the Miramichi, and in the eastern parts of
the province. The first British settlers in the
province emigrated from Scotland to the Miramichi
district in 1764; and in 1783, at the close of the
American revolution, when the exodus of the
loyalists from the United States took place, a large
body settled near the eee city of St John and
along the St John River. For the map, see
CANADA.
New Brunswick, capital of Middlesex county,
New Jersey, is at the head of navigation on the
Raritan River, 31 miles by rail SW. of New York,
and is the terminus of the Delaware and Raritan
Canal. It contains a Roman Catholic cathedral,
and nearly a score of other churches, and is the
seat of Rutger’s College (1771), connected with
which is the theological seminary of the Dutch
Reformed Church, as well as an observatory and a
state icultural coll and model farm. New
Brunswick is noted for its great india-rubber
factories, and has also iron and brass foundries,
and manufactories of hosiery, lamps, needles,
paperhangings, &e, Pop. (1900) 20,006.
Newburgh, a al burgh of Fife, near the
Firth of Tay, 11 miles ESE. a Perth. It arose in
connection with the neighbouring Benedictine
abbey of Lindores (c. 1196); and in its vicinit:
also is the famous Cross Macduff. Pop. 237
See A. Laing’s Lindores and Newburgh (1896).
Newburgh, a city of O county, New
York, is on the west bank of the Hudson Thebes 1
mile wide), 57 miles by rail N. of New York,
the grand scenery of the Highlands. Its handsome
edifices, villas, and gardens, rising 300 feet from
the river, command a noble prospect. The city
has, besides foundries, boiler-works, ship
and powder-mills, manufactures of woollen
cotton goods and carpets, leather, flour, soap, oil-
cloth, brushes, paints, plaster, tiles, &e.
nantities of butter, grain, flour, and coal are
s paged here, Newburgh was the scene of the dis-
bandment of the American army, 23d June 1783;
and ‘ Washington’s Headquarters’ is preserved as
the property of the state. Pop. (1900) 24,943.
Newbury, a thriving market-town of Berk-
shire, on the ‘swift’ Kennet, 17 miles W. by 8. of
oe and 55 from London. Its gray old chureh,
resto in 1867 at a cost of £15,000, is a fine
Perpendicular edifice, with a noble tower added in
151 by John Winchcombe or Smallwoode, otherwise
‘Jack of Newbury,’ a famous clothier, who sent a
hundred of his own men to fight at Flodden. The
large Italian corn exchange was built in 1862, in
which year was started a great yearly wool-
market; and still more recent are the handsome
municipal offices and the new grammar-school,
though this claims King John for its founder
(1216). Newbury—‘new’ only as distinguished
from the old Roman station of Spine nos Soa
—besides has many ancient and wealthy charities,
It was inopepprated by Elizabeth in 1596, and the
borough boundary was extended in 1878. we (1851)
6574 ; (1881) 10,144 ; (1891) 11,002. Two hard-fought
battles too place here in the Great Rebellion—
the one between Charles and Essex, on 20th Sep-
tember 1643; the other between Charles and
Manchester, on 27th October 1644, The advan-
of the first was, on the whole, on the side of
the king, but it cost the lives of Lords Falkland
(q.v.), Carnarvon, and Sunderland, to whom a
memorial was erected in 1878. The second would
have been a decisive royalist defeat but for Man-
chester’s hesitancy.
See the ee eas (1839), a work on the two
battles W. Money (1881), and his History of the
Ancient Town of Ni ry (Oxford, 1887).
Newburyport, 4 city and port of entry of
Massachusetts, on the south bank of the Merrimac,
3 miles from its mouth, and 37 miles by rail NE.
of Boston. A long, ay High Street, with a pond
of six acres, is its chief ornament. Shipbuilding
is carried on, and there are a number of
cotton and shoe factories, besides manufactories
of combs, hats, pumps, &c. Here Whitefield, who
died in 1770, is buried. Pop. (1900) 14,478,
New Caledonia, an island of the South
Pacific Ocean, belonging to France, and lyi
midway between the Fiji Islands and the eas
coast of Queensland. The Loyalty Islands, Isle
of Pines, and some others, with a total area of
1250 sq. m., are politically dependent upon New
a, ae
free
NEW CASTLE
NEWCASTLE 455
Caledonia. This principal island is about 240
miles in length, 25 in average breadth, and has an
- area of 6450 sq. m. The long axis runs from north-
west to south-east; the interior is greatly broken
by irregular mountain-chains (highest point, Mount
Hamboldt, 5380 feet); and the entire island is
surrounded by coral-reefs. There are good har-
bours on the east coast, but the only one used is
Noumea, the capital (4601 inhabitants), on the
south-west coast. In the valleys the soil is fruit-
ful, producing the cocoa-nut, coffee, maize, tobacco,
fruits, &e. But the most valuable natural products
are minerals, especially nickel, with copper, cobalt,
antimony, chrome, &c. There are several useful
timber-trees, Promising attempts have been made
to introduce wheat, the vine, and the silkworm,
Turtle and fish are abundant. Locusts frequently
devastate the crops. Besides the smelting of the
minerals, meat is preserved and sent to France,
and some soap and tapioca are manufactured.
Wines and spirits, flour, drapery, groceries, iron-
mongery, machinery, coal, &c. are imported to the
annual value of £400;000, and nickel, cobalt, chrome
ore, silver, lead ore, preserved meat, copra, coffee,
&e. exported to the av value of £300,000.
Every year about 130 vessels of 75,000 tons visit
the island, one-half being British. The total
population in 1890 numbered 62,790, thus made up
igines (Canaqnes), 41,884; French colonists,
5595; convicts, 7487 ; liberated convicts and politi-
eal prisoners, 2521 ; officials and others, 3478. The
island was discovered by Captain Cook in 1774,
and was annexed by France in 1853. She began
to use it as a convict station, and after 1871 sent
out numbers of political prisoners, mostly
Communists. The righ aE are a mixture of two
pes, one resembling the Polynesians, the other
« Papuans. They were formerly cannibals, and
delighted in war, yet were hospitable, and skilful
tillers of the soil. They live now chiefly on vege-
table food. Leprosy is a scourge amongst them.
See the French works on New Caledonia by
Lemire (1878 and 1884), Riviére (1880), Chartier
(1884), eil (1885), and Moncelon (1886).
New Castle, capital of Lawrence county,
Pennsylvania, on the Shenango River, 50 miles by
rail W. of Pittsburg, contains a college, large
rolling-mills, foundries, and manufactories of bee 9
furnaces, and flour. Pop. (1900) 28,339.
Neweastle, a of New South Wales,
75 miles NE. of Sydney by rail, at the mouth of
the Hunter River. It is the chief port of the north
coast, its shipping nearly equalling that of Sydney ;
coal and wool are the main exports. The harbour,
which is defended by a fort, is dangerous during
storms from the ESE. Pop. (1881) 15,595; (1891)
12,914,
Newcastle, Dukes or. See CAVENDISH and
PELHAM.
Neweastle-under-Lyme, 4 parliamentary
and municipal borough of Staffordshire, on the
Lyme brook, 16 miles NNW. of Stafford and
147 rail NW. by N. of London. Pop. (1881)
17,493 ; (1891) 18,452. The aspect of the town
has of late years been much improved by the
widening of the main thoroughfares, and the
erection of new public buildings, notably the
town-hall (1890) and the high school (1876).
The latter was reconstructed under a new scheme
in 1874 from the amalgamation of various
ancient charities (the earliest founded 1602); its
distinctive features are the study of natural science
and modern languages. The parish church, part]
Early English and ly Decorated, was rebuilt
in 1876 from designs of Sir Gilbert Scott, and has
@ quaint old square tower of red sandstone with
pinnacles, and a fine peal of bells. The manu-
facture of hats was formerly a speciality of the
town, but has of late years been discontinued ;
brewing, malting, and the making of paper and
army clothing are now the principal industries,
whilst the surrounding district is noted for its
tteries, and numerous coal-mines are worked.
Bf the castle, from which the town derives its
name, all traces have entirely disappeared ; it was
built by Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, the youngest
son of Henry III. Neweastle, which confers the
title of duke upon the family of Clinton, returned
two members to parliament from 1353 to 1885, since
which time it has only had one representative. -
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, a city and county
of itself, seated on the north bank of the Tyne,
275 miles from London, 117 from Edinburgh, and
10 from the German Ocean. It is the seat of a
bishopric founded in 1882. The city is governed
by a corporation consisting of a mayor, 16 alder-
men, and 48 town-councillors, and it returns two
members to rliament. Pop. (1801) 28,294;
(1841) 71,850; (1881) 145,359 ; (1891) 186,345.
During the Roman occupation of Britain the high
ground overlooking the river in the neighbourhood
of the castle was the site of the military station of
Pons A‘lii. The * Roman wall’ would probably form
its northern boundary. Soon after the abandon-
ment of Pons Alii by the Romans, the Angles took
pean r= of it. Subsequently it appears to have
nm a monastic settlement, and at the time of the
Conquest was known as Monkchester. Pandon,
which until 1299 was a vill quite distinct from New-
castle, is supposed to have been the place where,
about 653, Peada, son of Penda, king of the Mid
Angles, and Sigebert, king of the East Angles, were
baptised by Bisho Finan. When the Conqueror
arrived at Monkchester in 1072 there was nothing
to be seen of the bridge above water, and the town
was too small or impoverished to victual his army.
Robert Curthose, on his return from an expedition
against Malcolm in 1080, constructed a fortress
here, which was named the New Castle. The south
tern is probably a fragment of his work. William
Rufus is stated—on doubtful anthority—to have
rebuilt the castle, and to have granted to the in-
habitants of the growing town many privileges and
immunities. He besi the castle in 1095. The
present keep—one of the most perfect examples of
a Norman stronghold in the kingdom—was built
between 1172 and 1177 at a cost of £911, 10s. 9d.,
and the Great Gate of the castle—the Black Gate as
it is now called—in 1247, at a cost of £514, 15s. 11d.
In the time of the first three Edwards the town
was enclosed by a wall, 8 feet thick and over 12
feet high, whieh embraced in its circuit the monas-
teries of the Black, the White, and the Grey Friars,
the Benedictine nunnery of St Bartholomew,
together with the vill of Pandon. The levies for
the Scottish wars were usually directed to assemble
at Newcastle. In 1644 Neweastle, which had
declared for the king, was besieged for ten months
by the Scots under General Leslie. This loyal
resistance of the town to the forces of the parlia-
ment is commemorated in the motto which it bears
on its coat of arms ‘ Fortiter Defendit Triumphans.’
Events of tragic importance in the annals of the
town were the visitations of the Asiatic cholera in
1831 and 1853, and the great fire which destroyed
so much of the old town in 1854.
The city occupies a striking and picturesque site,
being built for the most part on steep slopes and
gently rising ground. It abounds in contrasts,
such as the grim,old keep and the High Level
Bridge ; the modern Grey Street and the ancient
Side; the stately stone buildings erected by
Grainger and the half-timbered Elizabethan houses
with projecting stories and latticed casements ;
the Elswick Works, a mile in extent, and Jesmond
456
NEWCASTLE-
UPON-TYNE A q
Dene, one of the loveliest ravines in the country ;
the closely-packed hillsides and the rolling expanse
of common called the Town Moor.
The principal remains of antiquity in Newcastle
are the Norman keep; the Black Gate; the
cathedral of St Nicholas; the churches of St John
and St Andrew ; portions of the Edwardian walls,
with the Durham, Heber, Mordaunt, and Plummer
towers, and the Sally-port Gate; part of the Black
Friars Monastery ; fragments of the houses of the
Austin Friars and the Friars of the Sac; and
several mansions of the 16th and 17th centuries. |
The church of St Nicholas, now the cathedral, is
said to have been founded by Osmund, Bishop of
Salisbury, in 1091. This early structure was
destroyed by fire in 1216. The present building
belongs to the Decorated and Perpendicular periods ;
the nave and transepts dating from 1359, the
chancel from 1368, and the tower with its beautiful
architectural crown from about 1435. All that
remains of the previous edilice is some masonr
above the arcades, together with an Early English
pillar built up in the north-east pier. The reredos,
erected in 1888, is of fine unpolished Uttoxeter ala-
baster with splayed screens of Caen stone. In cano-
pied niches around the central figure of Christ are
statues of Northumbrian saints and the four evan-
gelists, St John’s Church, built in the latter part
of Henry I.’s reign, contains much of the original
Norman work, with Early English, Decorated, and
Perpendicular additions. St Andrew's Church dates
from about 1175 to 1185, and retains some interest-
ing Transitional features. All-Saints’ Church was
. Tebuilt in 1786-90 on the site of the church of All-
Hallows, founded in the 12th century. There are
twenty-one other places of worship in the city con-
nected with the Established Church; the Roman
Catholics have four churches, one being the cathe-
dral of St Mary, erected in 1844 from the designs of
Pugin; and the various other religious bodies are
represented by about sixty chapels and meeting-
houses.
The central part of Newcastle with its stately and
ornate buildings is a monument to the genius of
Richard Grainger (1798-1861), a man of lowly origin
who, by his vast building schemes, quite changed
the appearance of his native town. Grey Street
and Grainger Street, built in 1834-38, are the finest
thoroughfares in the city. Monuments have been
erected to Earl Grey (1838) and George Stephen-
son (1862). The town-hall, built in 1863, stands
near the cathedral. Associated with it are the
corporation offices and the corn-market. Other
public buildings are the guildhall and exchange
on the Sandhill, the former (which occupies the
site of the hospital of St Catharine) dating from
1658, the Moot Hall (1810), the general post-oftice
(1876), the central ty mots (1874), the gaol
(1823-28), the Wood Memorial Hall (1870), the
Trinity House (chapel, ¢. 1651; hall, 1721; alms-
house, &c., 1782-95), the Central Exchange News-
room and Art Gallery (1838), the Assembly Rooms
(1774-76), the (branch) Bank of England (1834),
the Royal Areade (1831-32), the Butchers’ Market
(1835), covering an area of 13,906 sq. yd., and the
barracks (1806). There are two theatres in New-
castle. The museum of the Natural History
Society was erected in 1883-84 at a cost of £42,000,
It contains valuable collections of British birds,
fossils from the coal-measures, and a unique series
of Bewick’s drawings. The Literary and Philo-
a rn Society (1793) has a library of about 40,000
volumes. The public library (1881) contains over
68,000 volumes.
There are two useful collegiate institutions in
Newcastle affiliated to the university of Durham—
the College of Medicine (1851) and the College of
nee (1871): the College buildings were opened
in 1888 and 1889. The Royal Free Grammar-
school, founded in 1525, has since 1870 occupied
new premises off Westmoreland Road. Among the |
various benevolent institutions in Neweastle are
the Royal Infirmary (1751), the Jesus Hospital
(1681), the Keelmen’s Hospital (1701), the Trinity
Almshouses (inco 1492), the Northern
Counties Institution for the Deaf and Dumb (1861),
the Fleming Memorial Hospital (1887), and the
Northern Counties Orphan Institution (1876).
The Central Railway Station in Neville Street
(1850) is the terminus for all the trains entering
Newcastle, with the exception of those on the
Blyth and Tyne section of the North-Eastern Rail-
way, which run to New Bridge Street Station.
Tramways have been laid from the centre of the
city to the chief suburbs. The public pleasure-
grounds of Newcastle are the Town Moor (987.
acres), Castle Leazes, and Nuns Moor, the Leazes,
Elswick, Brandling, Heaton, and Armstrong Parks,
the Cruddas recreation-ground, and Jesmond Dene.
For the Armstrong Park and Jesmond Dene, New-
castle is indebted to the munilicence of Lord
Armstrong.
Newcastle is connected with Gateshead by three
bridges: (1) the High Level Bridge, erected in
1846-49 from the plans of Robert Stephenson and
T. E. Harrison, at a cost, with the site and
approaches, of £491,153. It is 1337 feet long, and
consists of six cast-iron arches, which, springing
from piers of solid masonry, support a railway at a
height of 112 feet and a roadway at a height of 83
feet above high-water (see Vol. Il. p. 440). (2) The
Swing Bridge, erected 1868-76, at a cost of £233,000,
on the site the Roman, medieval, and 18th-century:
bridges. The movable portion, which weighs 1450
tons and is 281 feet long, is worked by hydraulic
machinery, and can be swung round in 90 seconds.
(3) The Redheugh Suspension Bridge, erected
1868-71, at a cost of £35,000, is 1453 feet in length,
its height from high-water mark to the under
side of the arch ig 87 feet. Newcastle is well
supplied with water. Hay and cattle markets are
held on Tuesdays, corn-markets on Tuesdays and
Saturdays. The port of Newcastle isa very ancient
and important one. Since 1840 between 70 and 80
million tons of stuff have been dredyed from the
bed of the river, which is now navigable by |
vessels to Elswick. Since the river came under
the jurisdiction of the Tyne Commissioners im-
provements on a large scale have been made. The
total number of vessels using the port during the
year 1889 was 14,757, of a net register < of
6,914,392. The quay, the great terminus of the
river-traffic of the port, is about 1540 yards in
length, and, as the depth of the river there at low-
water is 20 to 22 feet, vessels of large size can be
moored in safety. Since the 13th century the chief
trade of Neweastle has been in coal. A charter
was ted by Edward III. to the bu to
dig for coal outside the walls in 1350. The ont-
ut of the northern coalfield, of which Neweastle.
the centre, in 1889 was 39,101,182 tons. During
this period the number of persons employed in the
collieries, &c. was 115,440. In 1889 10,529,401 tons
of coal and coke were ship from the port of
Newcastle. One of the principal industries of New-
castle is shipbuilding, the river yes being second
in order ae roduction to the Clyde. In 1889
281,710 tons of shipping were launched on the river.
The principal manufactures of Newcastle are
locomotive and marine engines, machinery, heav
ordnance, carri and harness, white and ,
lead, sheet and pipe lead, glass of various kinds,.
earthenware, chemical manures, alkali, cement,,
bricks, tiles, and fireclay s, colours, shovels, .
grindstones, wire rope, nails, sails, &c. The most-
important works at Newcastle are those of Sir-
a I te
NEW-CHWANG
NEWFOUNDLAND 457
W. G. Armstrong, Mitchell & Co., Limited,
founded in 1847. They comprise blast-furnaces,
engine-shops, foundries, and steel-works. Since
the amalgamation of the original firm with that of
C. Mitchell & Co., shipbuilders, at Walker, in
1882, several ships of war with their armaments
have been completed at Elswick, a notable one being
the ill-fated TMS. Victoria. From the engine-
works of R. Stephenson & Co. (founded by Geo:
Stephenson in 1824), and R. W. Hawthorn, Leslie
& Co, locomotive and marine engines have been
sent to all parts of the world. Newcastle is the
birthplace of I Lords Eldon and Collingwood, Mark
Akenside, Charles Hutton the mathematician, and
Lord Armstrong.
Sve Gray’s Chorographia (1649); and the histories of
the town by Bourne (1736), Brand (1789), an anony-
mous writer—supposed to be the Rev. John Baillie
(1801), E. Mackenzie (1827), Welford (3 vols. 1884-87),
KR. J. Charleton (1885), and J. R. Boyle (1890),
New-chwang, or Niv-cHWANG, a city of
China, in the province of Manchuria, stands on the
river Liao, 20 miles from its mouth and 120 from
Mukden. By the treaty of Tientsin (1858) New-
chwang was opened to foreign trade. From the
accumulation of alluvial soil in the lower reaches
of the river, vessels are obliged to load and dis-
charge at Ying-tzu, at its mouth. It is there the
Europeans are settled, and they call Ying-tzu b
the name of the treaty-port New-chwang—whic
latter is now a greatly decayed place. Ying-tzu
imports cotton, woollen, and silk goods, sugar,
paper, metals, opium, tobacco, &c. to the annual
value of £600,000, and exports beans, silk, ginseng,
skins, and horns to the annual value of £1,500,000.
The import of Indian opium has fallen from
£572,000 in 1866 to £8000. The port was captured
by the Japanese in March 1895; in 1896 provision
was made for connecting it with the Siberian rail-
way ; and by 1898 it was, like the rest of Manchuria
(q.v.), almost wholly under Russian control. The
port is closed four or five months from November
With ice. Since 1872 Scottish Presbyterian mission-
aries have been working here; there is also a
Roman Catholic mission. Pop. 60,000.
Newcomb, Sox, astronomer, was born at
Wallace, Nova Scotia, 12th March 1835, nated
in 1858 at the Lawrence Scientific School, at
Harvard, and in 1861 became a professor of Mathe-
maties in the United States navy. He was appointed
at once to the naval vere th sca at Washington, and
in 1877 was placed at the hi of the office of the
olficial American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac.
He organised the government So yee, to observe
the transit of Venus in 1874, and in 1882 observed
the transit of the same planet at the Cape of Good
Hope; he had already been sent to Saskatchewan
(1860) and to Gibraltar (1870-71) to observe
ecli of the sun. In 1884 he undertook, in
addition, the duties of the chair of Mathematics
and Astronomy in the Jolins Hopkins University.
His writings embrace over a hundred papers and
memoirs, and include especially most exact tables
of the motions of the slaneth He has also pub-
lished several volumes on political economy. Pro-
fessor Newcomb is a Fellow of the Royal Society of
London, and has received doctorates from Colum-
bian University (at Washington), Yale, Harvard,
Columbia, Leyden, and Heidelberg, and many other
honours, both in America and in urope.
Newcomen, Tuomas, the inventor of a Steam-
engine (q.v.), was born at Dartmouth sometime
in the month of February 1663, and died in London
in August 1729. In 1705, along with Cawley, a
Dartmouth glazier, and Savery, the manager of
a Cornish mine, he obtained a patent for what
is now known as the atmospheric steam-engine.
Some six years later his invention was brought
into use for pumping water out of mines.
Newdigate, Sir RocEr (1719-1806), was born
and died at Arbury in Warwickshire, having sat
for many years in parliament as member for
Middlesex and the university of Oxford. He was
a great antiquary, but now is chiefly remembered
as the endower of the Newdigate prize poem at
Oxford, winners of which have been Heber
(1803), John Wilson (1806), Milman (1812), Hawker
(1827), Lord Selborne (1832), Faber (1836), Stanley
(1837), Ruskin (1839), Shairp (1842), M. Arnold
(1843), Sir E. Arnold (1852), J. A. Symonds (1860),
W. J. Courthope (1864), and W. H. Mallock (1871).
New England, « collective name given to the
six Eastern States of the United States of America
—Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts,
Rhode Island, and Connecticut—embracing an area
of 66,400 sq.m. The people, distinctively known
as Yankees, are celebrated for industry and enter-
prise. The joint population in 1900 was 5,592,017 ;
this is more than one-fourteenth of the entire
pulation of the republic, while the area of New
Eiigland is less than one-fiftieth of the total area
of the United States. For the influence of the
Puritans who settled here, see Fiske, The Begin-
nings of New England (1889).
Newent, an old market-town 8 miles NW, of
Gloucester. Pop. of parish, 2889.
New Forest, a triangular district of south-west
oe 9 miles SW. of Southampton, bounded
W. by the river Avon, S. by the Solent and
English Channel, and NE. by Southampton Water.
It measures about 14 by 16 miles, and has an
extreme area of 144 sq. m., or 92,365 acres, of
which, however, only 64,232 belong to the crown
demesnes. The district seems to have been wooded
from the earliest times; its present name dates
from 1079, when the Conqueror here made a
‘mickle deer-frith,’ and cleared away several ham-
lets. This afforestation, enforced by the sav
‘Forest laws,’ was regarded as an act of the
greatest cruelty; and the violent deaths met by
two of his sons, Richard and William Rufus, of
whom one was killed here by a stag, and the other
- an arrow, were looked on as special judgments.
he deer were removed under an act of parliament
(1851); and under another of 1877 the New Forest
now is managed by the court of Verderers as a
public pleasure-ground and cattle-farm. Enclosed
plantations ocenpy about one-fourth of the entire
area, the remainder being open woodland, bog,
and heath. The principal trees are oaks and
beech. The former were once much used as timber
for the navy; the mast of the latter still feeds
large herds of swine. There*is also a herd.of small,
rough-coated ponies. The hollies, the rhododen-
drons, and therewith the general absence of under-
wood, give a beautiful park-like aspect to the
forest, points within whieh or on whose verge are
Lyndhurst, Beaulien, and Lymington.
See Gilpin’s Forest Scenery (ed. by F. G. Heath, 1879) ;
Blackmore’s Cradock Nowell (1866); and Wise’s The
New Forest (1863; 4th or ‘ Artist’s edition,’ 1883, with
Linton’s engravings of views by Crane, and etchings by
Sumner) ; The Portfolio (1894) : The New Forest by De
Crespigny and Hutchinson (1895); also Forest Laws.
Newfoundland (New'fundland’), an island
and British eolony in North America, not yet incor-
porated with the Dominion of Canada, lies at the
mouth of the Gulf of St Lawrence, separated from
Labrador on the north by the strait of Belle Isle
(q.v., 11 miles broad), and extending in lat. from
° 38’ to 51° 37’ N., and in long. from 52° 44’ to
59° 30’ W. In shape it resembles an equilateral
triangle, of which Cape Bauld on the north, Ca
Race on the south-east, and Cape Ray on the
458
NEWFOUNDLAND
south-west form the angles, It is 370 miles in
length, 290 miles in breadth, and has an area of
40,200 sq. m.—a fifth less than England. Pop.
1874) 168,958; (1891) 197,934. ‘The coast of
brador from the entrance of Hudson Strait to
a line to be drawn due north and south, from
Anse Sablon on the said coast to the fifty-second
degree of north latitude, and all the islands adja-
cent to that part of the said coast of Labrador,’
is claimed as constituting a dependency of New-
foundland, During the fishing season in each year
about 30,000 inhabitants of Newfoundland visit
Labrador, and live about its harbours, either on
shore or in their vessels, for about three months in
each year. The population of Newfoundland and
Labrador amounted in 1884 to 197,335, of whom
75,354 were Roman Catholics, 69,000 members of
the Church of England, and 48,767 Wesleyan
Methodists. The able-bodied fishermen numbered
33,000, and about 21,000 women and children were
also engaged in curing fish.
The island, as seen from the sea, presents a wild
and sterile appearance. Its surface is diversified
by mountains, ponds, and lakes. The mountains
in the Avalon Peninsula (stretching south-east
from the main portion of the island, and connected
with it by an isthmus of only about 3 miles in
width) rise in some cases to over 2000 feet above
sea-level. The number of the lakes and ‘ponds’
is remarkable, and it has been estimated that
about one-third of the whole surface is covered
with fresh water. The coast-line is everywhere
deeply indented with bays and estuaries. These
bays vary in length from 25 to 70 miles, are of
great breadth, and are lined—as indeed the whole
coast is—with excellent harbours. The rivers are
narrow and winding. Much of the soil is produe-
tive, and there is considerable cultivation along the
seaboard of the settled districts, but careful ex-
ploration has shown that the best land and timber
are in the river-valleys and upon the west coast.
Large tracts of very good timber, chiefly pine
and spruce, exist in several parts of the island.
The great body of the people being employed
either in the fisheries or in establishments con-
nected with them, little attention used to be paid
to the culture of the soil. In 1845 the only
crops raised were oats and hay; but within
recent years large supplies of grain, vegetable,
and garden seeds have been imported; and now
about 1,000,000 bushels of potatoes are produced
annually, and turnips, hay, carrots, clover, barley,
and oats are cultivated with success. The island
many minerals, The chief seat of copper-
mining is around the shore of Notre Dame Bay.
The ore is found in connection with the serpentine
rocks, which are spread over an area of 5000 sq. m.
Up to 1890 the value of copper and nickel ore ex-
ported was about £1,500,000 sterling ; the export
in 1896 was worth over £99,000. Iron is worked
mainly as yet on the east coast. Gold has been
found. Rich deposits of lead ore exist in several
places. Cre and marbles are plentiful. Roof-
ing-slate isfound. Coal and iron exist side by side
near the west coast, but their development is
. unfortunately hampered by claims set up by the
French to a right to use the strand for drying fish
‘free from interruption’ hy the colonists. The
saine claims have seriously impeded mining opera-
tions in several parts of the island.
A great variety of valuable fish is found in the
waters of the colony and its dependencies, but cod,
herring, and salmon are the most important. The
capture of seals and the canning of lobsters also
add to the resources of the Newfonndlandets,
Abont 250,000 seals are annually taken and their
skins sent to Great Britain for manufacturing
purposes ; the ‘fat’ is made into seal-oil, which is
used in manufacturing and for lubricati rposes.
The industry of canning lobsters, though com-
menced since 1880, has an annual value of
about $500,000. Several factories for canning
lobsters have been erected by the French upon the
coasts of Newfoundland over which they have
certain rights, but the legality of this action is
contested by the colonists, upon the ground’ that
the lobster is not a ‘fish’ but a crustacean, and
that canning lobsters is not ‘drying fish.’ The
average annual value of the herrings exported and
consumed in the country is about $600, , and
that of the salmon exported about $100,000. 7
The people chiefly —— for a livelihood upon
the Hea of the -fisheries, of which there
are three distinct branches—namely, the Labrador
fishery, the shore fishery, and the bank fishery.
The average annual value of the cod-fishery is
$6,034,242. This calculation includes the dried cod-
fish exported, the quantity consumed by the popu-
lation, and the oil extracted from the fish. From
25,000 to 35,000 people and 1200 vessels engage in
the Labrador fishery, and the annual export is
valued at about $1,500,000. The shore fishery is
rosecuted along the whole coast-line in New-
oundland, and is the mainstay of the very large
portion of the population who from poverty,
or disinclination refrain from going either to the
Labrador or bank fishery, or divide their time
between farming and fishing, The bank fishery is
rosecuted upon the ‘ Banks,’ so called, which lie to
he southwards of Newfoundland, These ‘ Banks’
are submarine plateaus gigi |
averaging about 600 miles in length and 200 miles
in breadth, The depth of water over the ‘ Banks’
varies from 100 to 600 feet, and the most produe-
tive ground is known as the ‘Grand Bank.’ Amer-
ican, C jan, and French fishermen also resort
to these ‘ Banks’ to fish, the French using their
islands, St Pierre and Miquelon, as a base of opera-
tions. But it is necessary to procure fresh supplies
of herring, caplin, and squid at frequent intervals
for use as bait upon the "Banks,” and this can only
be obtained, at the seasons when most wanted, and
without great delay and expense, in the southern
bays of Newfoundland, chiefly in Fortune and Pla-
centia bays. Newfoundland does not now allow
the bait-fishes to be exported for bait except
under licenses, for which a large fee has to be paid,
and the result has been a considerable decrease of
the catch upon the banks by foreign fishermen.
The revenue in 1893—the year before the great
financial, commercial, and political ecrisis— was
$1,853,844, the expenditure heing $2,110,000, while
the debt in 1894 was $9,116,534. ‘The imports in
some years have reached $7,500,000, the exports
$6,500,000. There has been a slow recovery since
1894, assisted by very promising finds of gold
during the year 1
In 1882 a contract was made with a company for
the construction of a railway from St John’s to
Hall’s Bay, a distance of about 250 miles, After
85 miles of the railway—from St John’s to Harbour
Grace—had been completed the work of construe-
tion was suspended, In 1887 the government com-
pleted a branch-line to Placentia, By the ‘Reid
contract’ (1898) a private contractor leased the
railways from government for fifty years,
to work them and complete the system for a
nt of so much land per mile, undertook to make
ocks and build steamers for a fast route to Britain
(Galway or other port), and arran: to exploit
the coal and iron of the interior. Atlantic cables
land at Heart’s Content, on the eastern side of
Newfoundland, and at Placentia, on the western
side. Thereare 1400 miles of me h.
_ The early history of Newfoundland is involved
in obscurity. It was discovered 24th June 1497,
over a tract —
etm,
NEWFOUNDLAND
NEW GUINEA 459
in the reign of Henry VII., by John Cabot, and the
event is noticed by the following entry in the
accounts of the privy-purse expenditure: ‘1497,
Aug. 10. To hym that found the New Isle, £10.
It was visited by the Portuguese navigator, Gaspar
de Cortereal, in 1500; and within two years after
that time regular fisheries were established on its
shores by the Portuguese, Biscayans, and French.
In 1578, 400 vessels, of which fifty were English,
were en, in the fishery. Sir Humphrey Gilbert
(q.v.), with his ill-fated expedition, arrived in St
John’s Harbour, August 1583, and formally took pos-
session of the island in the name of Queen Elizabeth.
In the return voyage the expedition was scattered
by a storm, and the commander lost. In 1621 Sir
George Calvert (afterwards Lord Baltimore) settled
in the great peninsula in the south-east, and named
it the Province of Avalon. The history of the
island during the 17th and part of the 18th cen-
turies is little more than a record of rivalries and
feuds between the English and French fishermen ;
but by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the island was
ceded wholly to England, the French, however,
retaining certain privileges in connection with the
catehing and drying of fish on the coast extending
from Cape Bonavista on the east to Point Riche
on the west. By the treaty of Versailles (1783)
the boundaries were so changed as to extend
from Cape Joln on the east to Cape Ray on
the west, and at the same time the French were
promised ‘freedom from interruption by the com-
petition of the British.’ This promise the French
construe and urge so as to prevent the develop-
ment of the resources of the interior adjacent to
coasts over which their rights extend, and much
friction consequently exists between the French
and the people of Newfoundland. A governor was
appointed in 1728. The present form of govern-
ment, established in 1855, consists of the governor,
an executive council, or cabinet of seven members,
a legislative council of fifteen members (appointed
by the crown), and a general assembly of thirty-
six members (elected by the people). Every man
of twenty-one years of age, a British subject and
two years a resident in the colony, is entitled to
vote at elections. ;
See L. A. Aus , The History of the Island of New-
foundland (1827); Little, The Government of Newfound-
land (1855); W. Fraser Rae, Newfoundland to Manitoba
(1881); Murray and Howley, Geological Survey of New-
Soundland (1881); Hatton and M. Harvey, Newfound-
land (1883); Howley, Ecclesiastical History of New-
foundland (1888), and French Treaty Rights (1890);
ey, Newfoundland as it iz in 1894; Prowse, A
History of Newfoundland, For map, see CANADA.
Newfound land, a breed of dogs originally
introduced into England from the island of New-
foundland, where oe were used for draught pur-
poses. As the mastiff at that time was scarce, and
the St Bernard had not yet appeared in England,
the Newfoundland became exceedingly common, but
has been eclipsed in popularity of late years by the
other two breeds mentioned. In general appear-
ance the Newfoundland is a large and imposing dog,
mild in expression, but showing yreat strength.
The head should be large, with ears falling close ;
neck long, if ible; loins strong and well
ribbed up, a point seldom seen in this breed ; tail
long and powerful, as it is used greatly when
swimming; coat, long and wiry; colour, black
without any white markings. Much discussion
was caused by Sir E. Landseer’s well-known picture
of a black and white dog entitled ‘ A Distinguished
Member of the Humane Society’ (1838). An at-
tempt was made to prove that the black and white
dog was the true Newfoundland; bnt it is now
generally regarded as a cross from the black. The
lack and white variety, uow known as the Land-
seer Newfoundland, has been kept pure for many
generations ; it is now almost as pure, and cer-
tainly as handsome, as the original variety. The
Newfoundland is a (gate water-dog, and takes
to the sea at an early age. He is also a natural
Newfoundland Dog—Bismarck, 1890.
retriever, and, though himself too heavy for field
work, has been extensively used to found the
ordinary retriever. From his formidable appear-
ance, combined with docility and intelligence, he
makes a capital watch-dog, for which purpose he is
extensively used,
Newgate, a celebrated London prison, stands
at the western extremity of Newgate Street,
opposite the Old Bailey, The exterior presents
high dark stone walls, without windows. It was
long the chief criminal prison of city and county,
but is no longer used for prisoners to be tried at
the Central Court, and is in the hands of the
Court of Aldermen. The earliest prison here was
in the portal of the new gate of the city as early as
1218; and hence the name. About two centuries
afterwards it was rebuilt by the executors of Sir
Richard Whittington, whose statue with a cat
stood in a niche, till its destruction by the great
fire of London in 1666, The present edifice was
erected in 1780, but the new buildings were greatly
damaged by fire in the Gordon Riots of that year
(see Boswell’s Johnson under that date), when 300
prisoners, felons as well as debtors, were released
and let loose on the public. This awful scene
is described by Dickens in Barnaby Rudge. After
the passing of the Prisons Bill in 1877 Newgate,
being considered a very costly and redundant
establishment, was gradually disused, and is now,
except during sessions or when the gallows is in
requisition, practically closed. The Newgate Cal-
endar contains biographical notices of the most
notorious murderers, burglars, thieves, and forgers
who have been confined within its walls. See
Griffiths, Chronicles of Newgate (1884).
New Granada. See CoLomsia.
New Guinea, an island of Australasia, the
largest in the world except the Australian con-
tinent, from which it is separated by the shallow
island-studded Torres Strait, 80 to 90 miles wide
at its narrowest part, about the meridian of
the York Peninsula. There is now no doubt
that the two regions at one time, probably Baring
the Miocene epoch, formed continuous land, an
an upheaval of less than sixty fathoms would
suffice again to unite them. The hundred-fathom
line, as determined by Wallace, would also include
the insular groups of Jobi, Biak, Suk, Mafor
460
NEW GUINEA iF | iS
(Nufor), and Amberpoca in Geelvink Bay; Aru,
near the south-west coast; Mysol, Salwatty,
Batanta, and Waijiu at the north-western, and
the Louisiade and D'Entrecasteaux Archipelagoes
at the south-eastern extremity of New Guinea.
But elsewhere the mainland is washed by deep
waters, ranging from 500 to 1300 fathoms on the
south-eastern and northern seaboards. It is dis-
posed in the direction from north-west to south-
east, stretching from Cape Goede Hoop (‘Good
Hope’), just south of the wagered (0° 19’ S. and 132°
30’ E.), for about 1500 miles to South Cape, over
700 miles below the equator (10° 34’ S. and 150° 48’
E.). But owing to its extremely irregular shape,
somewhat resembling a huge saurian, the width
varies from under 20 miles at the narrowest parts of
both extremities to 480 miles at the broadest part,
about 141° E. long., giving a total area roughly
estimated at 320,000 sq. m., or six times as large
as England. The island thus forms three some-
what distinct geographical divisions—a large
the north and south coasts, while the north-west
ager is decomposed into two secondary mem-
rs by the Macluer Inlet, which penetrates from.
bee on the north-west coast.
ost of the interior is still a terra incognita ; but
the more salient physical features of the island
have already been roughly determined. It is
essentially a mountainous and even an alpine region,
being traversed in its entire length by 7 ran,
by far the highest in the Oceanic world, ant in
some places rising 2000 or 3000 feet above the snow-
line. These ranges, which in the two peninsular
regions form single continuous systems, devel
in the broader central parts two or more
chains with a general south-easterly trend, at man
points approaching close to the coast-line, a
elsewhere enclosing extensive rugged plateaus.
Thus, the Arfak Hills of the north-west peninsula
(10,000 feet) are continued in the central region by
the Charles-Louis range, which for near] miles
central mass from which two peninsulas project | appears to maintain an altitude of over 14,000
south-east and north-west. The south-east pen- | with ae towering to heights of 18,000
insula is defined by Huon and Papua Gulfs on | even 20,000 feet. Parallel with this chain runs the
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SOUTH AUSTRALIA 140 ! jr 5°
northern coast range, known as the Finisterre
Mountains (11,500 feet), which terminate east-
wards in an imposing headland projecting in the
direction of New Britain, and enclosing Huon Gulf
on the north side, Between these two chains run
the Bismarck and Kriitke ran (10,000 feet), the
latter discovered in 1887 by Dr H. Zéller. About
the same time Count Pfeil, administrator of Ger-
man New Guinea, penetrated from the north coast
still farther inland in search of expansive table-
jands suitable for settlement; but he found the
whole surface broken into a confused mass of steep
mountains composed mostly of old sedimentary
rocks—altogether ‘a rugged, hopeless region ’ inter-
sected by deep gorges, but few open river-valleys.
All these mountain-ranges converge in the south-
east peninsula in a single lofty chain which tra-
verses the whole of British New Guinea, but the
various sections of which take the names of the
Albert Victor, Yule, Owen Stanley, and Lorne
ranges, in their order from west to east. But the
_nomenclature is still far from settled, and much
confusion has been caused by recent travellers re-
naming peaks and crests and even rivers already
determined by previous explorers. The there ‘
formations pe bt std to Be wert old plutonic asd
sedimentary rocks. Gneiss and granites crop out’
in the highlands; elsewhere stratified clay-
slates and old limestones abound, containing she
identical with those of south-east Australia ; quartz
and nstones occur on the south-east coast re-
sembling those of the auriferous region in New
South Wales, and there are numerous other in-
dications of the presence of gold in many districts.
Earthquakes are frequent in some places, but no
active voleanoes appear to exist, although there
are several comparatively recent craters on the
spurs of the Owen Stanley range, while pumice
and seoriw cover the flanks of the Finisterre Moun-
tains.
One result of the explorations has been the
discovery of a surprising number of considerable
rivers in every part of New Guinea. The three
largest ap to be the Amberno (Mamberan, or
‘Great River’) in Dutch, the Empress Augusta in
German, and the Fly in British territory. The
Amberno (the Rochussen of Dutch geographers)
descends from the Charles-Louis range to the east
the south-west side to within 20 miles of Geelvink
NEW GUINEA
461
side of Geelvink Bay, where it develops an extensive
delta. The Empress Augusta flows from the un-
central water-parting north-eastwards to
the coast at Cape della Torre in 4° S. and 144° 30’ E.,
entering the sea in a broad, deep channel without
any delta. In the rainy season it is navigable for
many miles by vessels, and both the main
stream and several tributaries are accessible for a
long way to river-steamers. But the largest of all
New Guinea rivers is certainly the Fly, which
_rises on the southern slope of the central water-
‘parting and flows mainly south-east to a delta
of vast extent on the west side of the Gulf of
Papua. The Baxter (Mia Kasa), which enters the
sea farther west, opposite Cape York, is an _in-
dependent stream unconnected with the Fly. This
estuary, which was discovered in 1845 by
Blackwood and named after his vessel the Fly, was
ascended in 1876 by D’Albertis for 500 miles in a
steam-launch, again in 1889 for over 600 miles
Sir W. ee The tides ascend the Fly
fe 150 miles, 90 miles higher up it is joined on
its left bank by the Strickland. Farther east
several other copious streams flowing from the
main range through British territory to the Gulf
of Papua have also been either recently discovered
or for the first time surveyed. Such are the
Centenary, Stanhope, and Queen’s
Jubilee, all of which converge in an almost con-
tinuous common delta about the head of the gulf.
But here again the terminology is much confused,
the and Jubilee being respectively Black-
wood’s Aird and the already partly-surveyed Aivei.
Mr Bevan's oe also is merely the upper course
of the Aird, of which the Centenary appears to be
an eastern and the New a western branch.
The east side of Papua Gulf is joined by other
navigable streams from the Owen Stanley range,
the more important of which are the St Joseph,
flowing from Mount Yule to Hall Sound; the
Vv: draining the southern slopes to Redscar
Bay, and followed by Sir W. Macgregor on his
ition to Mount Victoria (Owen Stanley) in
; the Ke Welch, flowing to Hood yi
and the Da: wa and Hadava, reaching the
. coast at Milne Bay. In German territory also,
besides the Empress Augusta, no less than nine
new rivers have recently been discovered, one of
which, the Markham, gives easy access a long way
into the interior.
The whole of New Guinea lies within the track
of the south-east trade-winds, which prevail from
March to October, and which are charged with
much moisture from the Pacific. These are fol-
lowed for the rest of the year by the north-west
monsoons, whose rain-bearing clouds are condensed
on the cold alpine slopes of the island. The con-
sequence is that the rain or snow fall is considerable
in every part of the country, and this, combined with
an ay igh temperature of from 85° to 90° F.,
results in a hot, moist ¢limate on all the low-lying
coast-lands and fluvial valleys. So excessive is the
moisture in some places that ‘ boots put aside for a
day or two ans a crop of mildew nearly half an
inch in thickness’ (Guillemard). Hence fever is
endemic, not only in the lowlands, but to a con-
siderable height above sea-level, the malarious
exhalations being carried upwards by the atmo-
spheric currents, as on the Central African plateaus.
t the same time its action is most capricious, and
its trne character still but little understood. ‘It
may be very troublesome where weather, soil, and
other conditions should be favourable to health,
and perhaps almost absent under the opposite con-
ditions ’ ( tts Trotter). Exactly similar pheno-
mena have been observed in tropical Africa, and
it may be inferred that New Guinea, as a whole,
‘is as unsuitable as that continent for European
settlement. But some of the neads beyond the
fever zone may be found adapted, if not for, per-
manent colonisation, at least for the establishment
of health-resorts for officials, traders, and mission-
aries.
Thanks to its abundant rainfall, varying altitudes,
high temperature, and position intermediate be-
tween the Asiatic and Australian botanical areas,
New Guinea is almost everywhere clothed with a
rich and highly diversified flora. The vegetable’
zones ap’ to be even superimposed as in Mexico,
and Sir W. Macgregor’s party, after passing suc-
cessively through the domains of tropical plants,
such as the cocoa-nut, sago, banana, mango, taro,
and s -cane, and of such temperate or sub-
tropi d gpiedn as the cedar, oak, fig, acacia,
pine, and tree-fern, were gladdened on the higher
slopes by the sight of the wild strawberry, forget-
me-not, daisy, buttercup, and other familiar British
lants. Towards the summits these were succeeded
y a true Alpine flora, in which Himalayan,
Bornean (Kinibalu), New Zealand, and _ sub-
antarctic forms were all numerously represented.
In general, arboreal vegetation ceases at about
11,000 feet, and shrubs at 12,000, the latter being
overlapped by the Alpine zone. In New Guinea
the Asiatic and Malayan floras are far more richly
represented than the Australian, as shown by the
absence or rarity of the eucalyptus, of which as
many as fifty varieties are found in the southern
continent. Indigenous forms are numerous, and
include many species of palm.
On the other hand, the New Guinea fauna is
much more closely related to that of the Austral
than to that of the northern hemisphere. This is
seen in the almost total absence of placental mam-
mals and the presence of over thirty species of mar-
supials, such as the cuscus and kangaroo, as well
as the bower-bird, of which two new species were
discovered on the Owen Stanley range. Here
also were found the European lark and_black-
bird in curious association with the bird of Paradise,
of which typical New Guinea bird many varieties
occur, Scarcely any birds of prey are found, a
circumstance which may explain the presence of so
many forms—parrots, cockatoos, pigeons, &¢.—
remarkable for their gorgeous plumage. Reptiles
are numerous, and include a remarkable python
(Chondropython ), intermediate between the
Asiatic python and American boa. A still more
remarkable intermediate form, supplying a link
between — and mammals, is the spiny ant-
eater, which is allied to the Australian echidna,
and like it oviparous. There are three species of
this ant-eater, while the placental mammals are
represented only by some bats and mice, besides
the pig and dingo, both probably introduced in
comparatively recent times.
an also would seem to have invaded the island
after its separation from Australia, for the inhabit-
ants of the two regions belong to fundamentally
distinct stocks. tween the Australians and
Papuans, who form the great bulk of the New
Guinea population, there is little in common except
the dark colour, considerably darker, however, in
the latter than in the former. But the New Guinea
natives are far from a homogeneous people, and the
descriptions of travellers in different parts of the
island differ so greatly that many anthropologists
have doubted or even denied the existence of any
Papuan type. These discrepancies are due to the
presence and intermingling of at least four ethnical
elements : Papuan proper, diffused over the whole
region ; Negrito (Karons and others in the north-
west peninsula and probably also in the central
highlands) ; Lastern Polynesian, such as the Motu
of the south-east coast; lastly, Malay, along the
north-western seaboard and around the shores of
462 NEW GUINEA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Geelvink Bay, The mingling of these elements
in different proportions has brought about much
diveérsity in the physical appearance, speech, usages,
and general culture of the natives, who are every-
where broken into small tribal groups speaking a
surprising number of distinct languages, some of
which are members of the widespread’ Malayo-
Polynesian family, while others, especially in the
interior, seem to have no connection with that or
any other known forms of speech. The tribal
organisation is extremely loose, hereditary rulers
being nowhere recognised, and the so-called chiefs
depending for their prestige either on personal,
social, or religious influences (S. Forbes). Can-
nibalism is very prevalent, though by no means
universal ; and some tribes, such as the Togaris of
the south coast, are predatory, living entirely by
plundering expeditions amongst the surrounding
populations. But many others are veful, indus-
trious, and keen traders, displaying remarkable
skill, especially in the arts of pottery, wood-carving,
and husbandry.
New Guinea appears to have been first sighted
by A. D’Abren in 1511, and first visited by De
i Set about 1526, and Alvaro de Saaverda in
1528. It received its present name in 1546 from
Ortiz de Retez (Roda), who was struck by the
resemblance of its inhabitants to those of the
Guinea coast in West Africa. During the flourish-
ing period of the empire of Tidor, the Malay
sultans of that state extended their sway over the
so-called Raja Ampat or ‘Four Kingships’ of
Waijiu, Salwatty, Mysol, and Waigamma, inelud-
ing large tracts on the adjacent mainland. In
1793 the East India Gonpeny occupied the island
of Manassari in Geelvink Bay; but the British
troops were soon withdrawn, and in 1814 the
English government admitted the claims of Holland
to the finja Ampat as suzerain of the sultan of
Tidor. In 1848 the Dutch proclaimed their
sovereignty over the western half of the island as
far as 141° E. long., and this meridian was accord-
ingly taken as the western bonndary of the
eastern half in 1884, when that section was
divided between Great Britain and Germany. The
boundary between the northern or German and the
southern or British division coincides with the erest
of the main water-parting. Subjoined is a roughly
estimated table of the areas and populations of the
territories assigned to these three states :
Area in sq. miles, Population,
Dutch New Guinea... 200,000
British " hee 135,000
German ee ee Fe 100,000
MOM cc cttee es 435,000
In the Dutch section, which is attached to the
Residency of Ternate, there are no towns or ad-
ministrative centres, Dorey, at the north-west side
of Geelvink Bay, being merely a missionary station
chiefly noted as the starting-point of many ex-
peditions to the interior. No effort has ever been
made by the Dutch government or by private
enterprise to develop the resources of the country.
German New Guinea, officially known as Kaiser
Wilhelm’s Land, is a protectorate administered by
the German New Guinea Company, which has
stations at Astrolabe Bay, Finschhafen, Konstan-
tinhafen, and Hatzfeldhaten, It yields for export
tobacco, areca, sago, bamboo, ebony, and other
woods. British New Guinea, which includes the
D’Entrecasteaux and Lonisiade Archipelagoes, was
administered as a protectorate by a Commis-
sioner till 1888, when the sovereignty of the
aK was proclaimed, the government being
p under Sir William Macgregor as adminis-
trator. New South Wales, Victoria, and Queens-
land each contribute £5000 towards the expenses
of administration. The territory is divided into
a western, central, and eastern division, under
deputy-commissioners, the chief station being
Port Moresby. The revenue already exceeds the
expenditure, and the exports, chiefly gold, 3
rs Nie ne and copra, pase 8 000
in i -
See works on New Guinea and accounts of ;
thither by Th, Forrest (1774-76), Modera (Du rts)
in the Journ, Roy. Geog. Xx’ t d’Urville
(1839), Marsden in Trade, . Asiat. Soe, 1831,
G. W. Earl (1835) in "s vi, (1852), J.
Proc, Roy. Geog, Soc. 1883, Coutts Trotter in the same,
1883, 1884, and 1890, Prince Roland in
the Bulletin of the French Geog. Soc. 1884, Rye
rs of the Roy. Geog. Soc. 1 Rev, J.
tides and 1887). Ch. Lyne (1886), Ress (1886 and
1889), Forbes in Scot. Geor. 888,
Geography (1887 ), Thomson's British New Guinea (1892),
and Guillemard’s Malaysia und Polynesia (1895),
New Hampshire, the ‘Granite State,’ one of
the thirteen original states of the American Union,
lying between 42° 40’ and 45° 18’ Copsright 1601, 1857, and
N. lat., and bounded on the N. Ener Lm ae A Ss
by the Canadian province of | “Prive Company.
Quebee, E. by the state of Maine and (for 18 miles)
the Atlantic Ocean, S. by the state of Massachusetts,
and W. by the right bank of the Connecticut River, —
Area, 9305 sq. m.—a fourth larger than Wales.
The average elevation of the state is about 1200
feet, the general slope being towards the south.
The highest point is Mount Washington (6293 feet),
in the White Mountains, which include more than
a hundred peaks of note, mainly in the northern-
most county ; among the peaks over 5000 feet high
are those bearing the names of the successive presi-
dents, Adams, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe,
Geologically they consist of early metamorphic
rocks ; immense masses of granite and gneiss con-
stitute the bare peaks that make the name of the
as appropriate in summer as in winter. The
largest lake is Winnipiseogee (72 sq. m.); the prin-
cipal rivers are the Connecticut, Merrimac, and
Piscataqua. From Dover Point to its mouth the
Piscataqua is about half a mile wide; and the
volume and swiftness of its current at ebb-tide
preva the freezing of the water in Portsmouth
arbour during the coldest winters. The Merrimac
is said to turn more spindles and propel more
shuttles than any other river in the world. The
state is noted for its salubrious climate and oud
picturesque natural scenery, The mean ann
temperature at Concord is 46° F,
The principal een prodnets are hay,
tatoes, maize, and oats ; the recent populari of
ew Hampshire as a summer-resort has brought a
new and re oe reed home market to the farmers,
who, owing to the rough and sterile soil, could not
compete in the great markets with those of the
West, and has revived the declining agricultural
industries. The state still has over a million acres
of forest, which averages in value about double
that of the cleared land. But manufacturing
is the leading industry, cotton and woollen goods
being the chief product; boots and shoes, and
saw-inill products, are important. Manchester
(the largest city), Nashua, and Dover are the chief
ce
ntres.
New Hampshire embraces ten counties, and
returns two members to sca ge The governor
is elected biennially, and by him the judiciary are
appointed until seventy years of age. The public
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NEW HANOVER
NEW JERSEY 463
schools are efficient, and the state possesses one
Dartmouth, founded at Hanover in 1769
as a school for the instruction of Indians; it has
well-appointed academic, scientific, medical, and
agricultural departments, with libraries aggregat-
ing 87,000 volumes. There is also a state normal
school at Plymouth.
History.—The earliest settlements were made in
1623 near Dover and Portsmouth. In 1641-79,
1689-92, and 1699-1741 New Hampshire was joined
to the Massachusetts colony, but during the inter-
vening dates and until 1775 it was under royal
governors of its own. The people took an active
part in the revolution. A provisional government
was formed in 1776, a state constitution adopted in
1784; and New Hampshire was the ninth state
(June 21, 1788) to ratify the national constitution.
Among the eminent men born here have been—
besides one president, Franklin Pierce—Daniel
Webster, Lewis Cass, Salmon P. Chase, and
Horace Greeley. Pop. (1790) 141,899; (1840)
284,574; (1890) 376,530 ; (1900) 411,588.
New Hanover, one of the Bismarck Archi-
lago, lying otf the north-east coast of New
Paines, with an area of 570 sq. m. Its physical
characteristics resemble those of New Britain
(q-v.).
New Harmony, 4 town (Pop. 1341) of In-
diana, 30 miles by rail WNW. of Evansville, was
first settled in 1815 by a German community of
seligions socialists, called Harmonists, under the
leadership of George Rapp (q.v.). _In 1824 the
village and domain was purchased by Robert Owen,
for an _ aL eranarag community on his system ; but
this failed after a test of nearly three years.
Newhaven, a seaport of Sussex, at the mouth
of the Ouse, 84 miles E. of Brighton and 56 8. of
London. It has risen into im ce throngh its
steamboat traflic, particularly to Dieppe (54 hours),
and has a large fort (1864-69) and a little Norman
12th-century church, with an east tower and small
semicircular apse, curiously like that of Yainville-
sur-Seine. Pop. (1881) 4421 ; (1891) 4955.
Newhaven, 4 fishing-vill of Midlothian, on
the south shore of the Firth of Forth, 1 mile
WNW. of Leith, and 2 miles N. of Edinburgh.
Dating from about 1490, it has a tidal harbour,
reconstructed in 1876-77 at a cost of £10,000, and
at famous = hey fish ae and ype bey es
parish ) 6085 ; of vi 2108. See Charles
Reade’s Christio Johnstone ( 1533), and Mrs Cupples’
Newhaven, its Origin and History (1888).
New Haven, the chief city and seaport of
Connecticut, and ital of New Haven county,
at the head of New Haven Bay, 4 miles from Long
Island Sound, and 73 miles by rail ENE. of New
York. Its broad streets are shaded with elms, and
the public squares, parks, and gardens, with its
handsome publie and private edifices, make it one
of the most beautiful of American cities. It is the
seat of Yale College (q.v.), and contains also the
Sheffield scientific school, the Hopkins grammar-
school (1660), and thirty-four public schools. Its
other public —— include the former state-
honse, the city hall, United States government
building, and about sixty churches. 1e harbour
has a jetty and a breakwater surmounted by a
lighthouse, and the port has a large coasting
trade. But New Haven is of more consequence as
a manufacturing town, employing many thousands
of hands in its large works, and producing hard-
ware, wire, locks, clocks, eutlery, firearms, corsets,
india-rubber goods, earri , furniture, per,
matches, musical instruments, &. New Haven
was settled in 1638 by a company from London,
and the colony was not united to that of Con-
necticut until 1662; and till 1873 it was recognised
as, jointly with Hartford, the capital of the state,
It was incorporated as a town about 1665, and
chartered as a city in 1784; and it- retains a town
as well as a city administration, choosing select-
men, &c., besides a mayor, aldermen, and council,
Pop. (1880) 62,882 ; (1890) 85,981 ; (1900) 108,027.
New Hebrides, a chain of islands in the
Western Pacific, extending NNW. to SSE., and
lying W. of Fiji and NE. of New Caledonia.
There are in all some thirty islands (area, 5110
sq. m.), of which twenty are inhabited, the people,
mostly of the Melanesian race, numbering about
70,000. They are of volcanic origin, some—e.g.
Ambrym, Tanna, and Polevi—having active ve,
canoes, but rest upon a coral foundation. The
larger islands are Espiritu Santo (70 miles long by
40 wide), Mallicolo (56 miles by 20), Ambrym (22
miles by 17), Vaté or Sandwich (30 miles by 15),
Erromango (30 miles by 22), Tanna (18 miles by
10), and cic (35 miles in circumference),
All are wooded, and some lofty, reaching 3000
feet.e The climate is moist, but clear and healthy,
the thermometer ranging from 60° to 90° F. The
usual tropical plants and products are grown—yam,
taro, banana, bread-fruit, sugar-cane, arrowroot,
and cocoa-nut. Sandalwood, at one time common,
is now almost extinct. The seas swarm with fish,
some of them poisonous, and whales are taken near
by. The people are savage cannibals of a low
type, and are decreasing in number. They speak a
great number of dialects, many being unintelligible
to the others. The southern islanders ( Erromango
to Aneityum) have been civilised by English and
Scottish missionaries. This chain was discovered
by the Portuguese ned, a! Quiros in 1606, and
was bates ly explored ere Cook in 1773.
They are claimed by the British, though nothing
is done to oceupy them. The French have more
than once cast covetous eyes upon the group, but
their attempts to annex it have encountered the
strenuous yagi of the Australian colonists.
Since 1863 the natives of these islands have been
every year carried away to serve as labourers on
the plantations in Queensland, Fiji, and New Cale-
donia, and many barbarities have been perpetrated
in connection with the traffic. See Dr J. Inglis,
In the New Hebrides (1887) and the Memoir of
J. G. Paton (1889).
New Holland, See AusTra.ia.
New Ireland, now called Nrv-MECKLEN-
BURG, a long narrow island in the Pacific Ocean,
lying to the north-east of New Guinea. Area, 4900
sq. Mm. 5 length, 300 miles ; width, 15 miles. The
hills rise to 6500 feet, and they and the whole of
the interior are richly wooded. The climate, pro-
ducts, and inhabitants resemble those of New
Britain (q.v.).
New Jersey, the name of one of the original
states of the American Union, bounded on the N,
by New York; E. by the Hud- | copyright 1891, 1997, ana
son River, Staten Island Sound, | 190? in the U.S. by J.B.
Raritan Bay, and the Atlantic ; | “??™e"* Compas:
SW. by Delaware Bay ; and W. by the Delaware
River, which separates it from Pennsylvania. Its
reatest len is 167 miles ; its width varies from
to 59 miles, It has an area of 7815 sq. m. ; it is
the smallest of all the states save three, but it ranks
sixteenth in population, and the third in population
v square mile.
In the north-west part of the state there are two
rtions of the Appalachian system. The Blue or
ittatinny Mountains extend along the Delaware
from the Water Gap up, attaining a height of 1400
to 1800 feet. The highlands south and east of
these consist of many ridges, their greatest height
1488 feet. In this part of the state are many
smalllakes, The Palisades, the Orange Mountains,
464 NEW JERSEY
NEWMAN -
and other hills are in the red sandstone region,
which extends from the north-east to the central
part of New Jersey. The Navesink 4 ers
south of Sandy Hook, reach a height of feet,
support two lighthouses, and are the only con-
erable elevation on the Atlantic coast south of
New and. The central portion of the state is
erally level and fertile; the southern part is in
large measure sandy, covered with pine-woods, and
marshy near the coast, The state is abundantly
watered; its chief rivers, the Passaic, Raritan,
Little and Great Harbor, flow south-east
into bays. The coast from Sandy Hook to Cape
May is generally protected by peninsula or island
beaches ; the only considerable exception to this
rule being the strip of mainland, about 18 miles
long, between Monmonth and Squan beaches. |
In agriculture the state occupies a prominent
position in proportion to its area. The farms com-
prise some 3,000,000 acres, more than three-fourths
under tillage ; the value of farm lands approaches
$200,000,000, and that of farm products is pbhout
$30,000,000 annually. The chief products are
maize, oats, wheat, rye, hay, potatoes and sweet
potatoes, cattle, butter, and milk. The leading
mineral products are iron ore, limestone of various
kinds, zine, and slate. Glass, pottery, machinery,
leather, silk, and sugar are among the chief
manufactures.
New Jersey returns ten members to congress.
The state legislature meets at the capital, Trenton,
in January ; a senator is chosen from each of the
twenty-one counties (one-third each year) for three
years; the assembly has about sixty members,
who serve one year. The annual taxes are about
$3,000,000, of which full half is devoted to edu-
cation. There are (besides seven county riggs
two large lunatic asylums near Trenton
Morristown, the latter accounted a model; an
institution for the deaf and dumb, an industrial
school for girls, and a large state-prison, at or near
Trenton ; a reform school for boys near Jamesburg ;
and a home for disabled soldiers at Newark. There
are 1400 school districts. In the cities over 100,000
pupils are enrolled, and some 240,000 in the rural
districts, The state normal school is at Trenton,
and its preparatory school at Beverly; and the
state oe tural and scientific school is connected
with Rutger’s College, at New Brunswick. At
Princeton ( i y.) is Princeton University, founded
in 1746 as The College of New Jersey, the most
famous institution in the state.
New Jersey has two canals, the Morris and the
Raritan, and some fifty railroads, with nearly 3000
miles of length. The position of the state, be-
tween the two great eastern cities and borderin
upon both, has powerfully stimulated travel,
industry, and population. Its south-west portion
has Philadelphia for a market; its north-east
section, including its two largest towns, is a
suburb of New York. Its coast from Navesink to
Squan is covered with villas, cottages, and hotels.
Cape May and Long Branch for half a century,
and Atlantic ay for twenty years or more, have
been noted seaside resorts, Asbury Park, Ocean
Grove, Seabright, &c. are now growing places,
crowded in summer. Newark and Jersey City are
by far the largest cities; next come Paterson,
. den, Trenton, Hoboken, Elizabeth, Bayonne,
Atlantic City, and Passaic, Pop. (1800) 211,149;
(1850) 489,555 ; (1890) 1,444,933 ; (1990) 1,883,669,
History.—In 1617 the Dutch settled at Bergen
near New York. In 1623 Cornelius May ascendec
the Delaware and built a fort four miles below the
site of Camden. Some English colonists in that
were driven away in 1638 by the Swedes,
Who were conquered in 1655 by Peter Stuyvesant.
In 1664 the territory was granted by Charles LL. to
the Duke of York, and by him to Lord John.
Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, with full rows 7.
of government to them and their
was no trouble with the Indians, whose titles fos {
peacefully purchased. The proprietors soon divi
the territory into East and West Jersey. In 1674_
Berkeley sold West Jersey to two Quakers, who
settled Salem and Burlington; and in 1682 a
society under Penn bought the Carteret rights in~
5 In 1702 rs proprietors pl |
East Jersey. d
their power of government to the crown, and the
two provinces were reunited; and from 1738 New
Jersey had its own royal governors, always at
issue with the assembly and the people, New
Jersey bore its part in the colonial wars, con-
tributed 10,726 men to the Continental army,
besides militia, and spent over $5,000,000 in the
cause of liberty. Ww
campaigns and battles. The state sent nearl
7000 men to the war of 1812, and for the civil
war thirty-seven regiments of infantry, three of
cavalry, and five batteries. See the History of
New Jersey, by Raum (1880).
New Jersey Tea, a common name of Red
Root (q.v.). ‘A
New Jerusalem Church, See SWEDEN
BORG.
New Lanark. See LANARK.
New London, « city and port of entry, the
semi-capital of New London county, Connecticut, is
on the right bank of the river Thames, 3 miles
Long Island Sound, 51 by rail E. of New Haven, and
126 NE. of New York, with which it has rail-
way and steamboat communication. It has a court-
house, a brown-stone city hall, a granite custom-
house, a new government public building, hospital,
public library, and four parks. The manufacturesin- —
clude woollens, sewing-silk, agricultural machinery,
bieyeles, printing-presses, hardware, and crackers,
The harbour (30 feet deep) is one of the best in the
United States. On the left bank of the river isa
United States navy yard; and there are two forts
here, one no longer effective. New London was
settled in 1645, and in 1781 was burned by Benedict
Arnold. Pop. (1890) 13,757 ; (1900) 17,548,
Newman, JoHn Henry, CAarDINnat (1801-90),
the leader of the Oxford Tractarian movement
of 1833 in the Church of England, who joined the —
It suffered heavily during the
revolution, and was the scene of several important
Roman Catholic Chureh in 1845, and was madea
cardinal by Leo XIII. in 1879. He was born in |
His father
London on the 2lst February 1801.
was John Newman, a member of the banking firm
of Ramsbottom, Newman, & Co. His mother
was the child of an old Huguenot family which
had settled in London as _ paper-manufacturers.
She was a moderate Calvinist, and taught her
children to love the school of Scott, Romaine,
Newton, and Milner. Her children Jearned early
to take great delight in the Bible, and Newman
has always ascribed the utmost influence over
his early religious views to his mother’s teach-
ing. From Scott, the commentator on the Bil
he learned two principles which may be
in all his subsequent career. The first was to
rize ‘holiness before peace ;’ the second was that
growth’ is ‘the only evidence of life.’ From his
reading of Law’s Serious Call he dates his firm
ingunt assent to the doctrine of eternal
unish-
ment, which he always held as taught by our
Lord himself; a doctrine, however, of which he
often endeavoured to attenuate the mystery—not- —
Milner’s Church —
wman to the writings of —
ably in Callista Seay xix.)
History first attracted Ne
the early Fathers. Yet at the same time he
derived from Newton’s book on the prophecies a
belief which more or Jess biased his mind long
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465
after he had ceased to accept it as a truth—that
Rome is Antichrist. In the autumn of 1816 a
belief took ion of him, as he tells us in his
a” that he was to lead a life of celibacy ;
and this belief held its ground, with certain brief
intervals of ‘a month now and a month then,’ up
to the of twenty-eight, after which it remained
Rhectntely fixed. Newman went to a private
school at Eali The stoppage of his father’s
bank compelled him to take his degree at Oxford
as early as possible without taking full time to read
for honours, and he actually took it (from Trinity
College) in 1820, when he was only nineteen, but
overwork resulted in a partial failure. In 1821 he
wrote jointly with a friend two cantos of a poem
on St olomew’s Eve, but the fragment has
never been republished. It should be added that
Newman was always passionately fond of ‘music,
and showed delicacy and skill as a violinist.
In 1822 Newman was elected to a fellowship in
Oriel College, then the most distinguished in the
university ; and it was here that, after a period of
some loneliness, he formed his close intimacy with
Dr Pusey, and subsequently with Hurrell Froude,
whose dash and genius exerted a great influence
over Newman, and who had a great share in
starting the Tractarian movement of 1833. In
1823, too, Newman first read Butler's Analogy,
from which he tells us that he learned to interpret
the less certain aspects of natural religion in the
sense of revealed religion, and especially to in-
terpret natural phenomena in the sense of the
sacramental system—i.e. as conveying mystical
spiritual influences of which there is no external
sign. Keble’s Christian Year (1827) fell in exactly
With this impression of the mystery at the heart of
apparently purely physical influences. From Bishop
tler Newman also derived the principle that
‘probability is the guide of life,’ which, however,
more or less modified when he became a Roman
Catholic, holding thenceforward that in all matters
of first-rate religious importance certitude can be
attained and not merely probability. At Oriel
Newman formed cordial relations with Dr Haw-
kins, afterwards the —— of the college, and
Whately, afterwards bishop of Dublin. Both
of them exercised influence over him by
teaching him to define his thoughts clearly ; and
he afterwards ex surprise that the casuistry
of the Roman Cliurch should have been credited
with those habits of subtle discrimination which he
had really from his Oxford colleagues.
Newman's first book, completed in 1832, but
not bayer till 1833, was that on The Arians
of the Fourth Century. It was a very careful and
scholarly production, intended to show that the
Arian heresy was not, as had been supposed, of
Alexandrian origin, but was one of the Godaising
heresies which sprang up in Antioch. The book is
a powerful vindication of the Athanasian doctrine
of the divine nature of Jesus Christ from the im-
putation of being arbitrary, or in any way an un-
authorised ccolestastion 1 addition to the essence of
the Pauline and Johannine theology. Newman
insists on the dogmatic definition of the Son as
being ‘of one substance’ with the Father, and not
merely ‘of like substance,’ as the only escape from
either creature-worship on the one hand or the
impossible assertion of the voluntary self-sacrifice
of an eternal creator on man’s account cx the
In the late autumn of 1832 Newman accom-
panied Hurrell Froude and his father in a Mediter-
ranean tour undertaken in the hope of restoring
the health of the former. It was on this tour
that the fire gradually kindled which was to bear
fruit in the Anglican movement of 1833. Most of
Neg my smaller poems were written on this
voyage, and were soon afterwards published with
the signature 6 in the L Apostolica, a volume
of verse the object of which was to reassert for
the Chureh of England her spiritual authority
and mission with something of the ease and
hmoyancy of poetic license. It was on this tour
that Newman first saw Monsignore (afterwards
Cardinal) Wiseman in Rome, and told him gravel
in reply to the expression of a courteous wink
that Hurrell Froude and he might revisit Rome,
*We have a work to do in England.’ At Rome
Newman left his friends to go alone to Sicily,
— soleend “= a apo ae mand rb
eeply uring this illness by the idea
of the work he had to do in England, and the
delay in finding passage to England was very
trying tohim. He spent much of his time in the
Roman Catholic churches, which he had up to
this period refrained from ‘visiting, and speaks
with great feeling in one of his poems of the good
offices of that church, camp. a ‘foe,’ in minister-
ing to his sickness, like the good Samaritan to
the wounded Jew. At last he got passage on
an orange boat to Marseilles. Becalmed in the
Straits of Bonifacio, he wrote the best known
of all his poems, ‘Lead, kindly Light.’ From
Marseilles he travelled straight to England, reach-
ing home in time to be present at Keble’s Oxford
assize sermon on National Apos , Which he
always regarded as the date at which the Trac-
tarian movement began. It was preached on July
14, 1833. .
Into the series of Tracts for the Times which
now commenced Newman threw himself with great
energy ; indeed he himself com a considerable
number of them, In the very first page of the first
tract, which was his own, he told the bishops that
‘black event though it would be for the country,
yet we could not wish them a more blessed ter-
mination of their career than the spoiling of their
oods and martyrdom.’ The tracts which now
gan to pour forth were all intended to assert
the anthority of the Anglican Church, to claim
apostolical descent for the Anglican episcopate,
to advocate the restoration of a stricter discipline
and the maintenance of a stricter orthodoxy, to
insist on the primary importance of the sacra-
ments, and the duty of loyalty to the chureh—
Newman persuaded a friend to stay away from
the marriage of a sister who had seceded from
the Anglican Church—and in general to preserve
the dogmatic purity of the church as well as to
guard her divine ritual. But while he was full
of confidence in these principles, which he held
in common with Rome, what puzzled him was to
justify adequately the strong anti-Romanist lan-
guage of the greater Anglican divines; and a great
part of his time was given during the Tractarian
movement to laying down clearly the doctrine of
the via media or midway course between popular
Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, which he
claimed that the Anglican divines of the 17th
century had taken up. Up to nearly the end of
his Anglican — he disapproved strongly the
eultus of the Virgin Mary and the saints as in-
raga with the true worship of God. In 1837
he made an attempt to distinguish the Anglican
via media from the doctrine of the Church of
Rome in a course of lectures on ‘The Prophetical
Office of the Church viewed relatively to Roman-
ism and Popular Protestantism.’ In these lectures
he contrasted the attitude of the Anglican and
Roman churches in reference to the use and abuse
of private judgment, their attitude towards the
principle infallibility, their very different use
of Scripture, and their view of the fortunes of
the church. But while defending and defining
as far as possible the via media of Anglicanism,
466
NEWMAN
Newman frankly admitted that it had never been
owes! enforced, and that it was a theoretic
ine on which no actual ecclesiastical policy had
heen founded. This it was which it remained for
the Tractarians to do.
In 1838 Newman followed up his discussion of
the via media so far as it affects authority with a
volume on the via media in its relation to the
doctrine of justification by faith. Again he taught
that the Anglican Church takes a middle course
between the Roman Catholie Church and popular
Protestantism in maintaining that justification by
faith—or the imputation without the reality of
righteousness—must precede sanctification, which
gives the reality, though sanctification must
necessarily follow; while the Roman Catholic
theology regarded sanctitication as the whole sub-
stance of justification.
In Tract 85, which was also published in 1838,
Newman made an effort to apply the theology
of the via media to the interpretation of Scripture,
He held that the Roman Catholic Church takes
a view too independent of Scripture, while the
Anglican Church is right in asserting that all
revealed doctrine is to be found in Scripture,
though it could not be found on the mere surface
of Seripture, since it needs the guidance of the
church's traditions to help us to find it there. He
admitted most fully that the stress which one
might expect to be laid is not laid in Scripture on
baptism, on confession, on absolution, nor even
on public worship itself, and that we ean only find
these doctrines in Scripture by attaching the
importance which tradition teaches us to attach
to the hints and obiter dicta of Scripture. Serip-
ture, he held, verifies the teaching of the church
rather than systematically inculcates it. Tract 85
was one of the most careful and characteristic of all
Newman’s essays as a Tractarian.
Tract 90, which appeared early in 1841, and which
gave rise to so much agitation in Oxford, was the
most famous, but certainly one of the least in-
teresting of the tracts. The rigat wing of the
Tractarian party, headed by William George Ward,
was at this time urging Dr Newman to reconcile
his High Church doctrines with the Thirty-nine
Articles. This Newman thought a comparatively
easy matter. The Articles recognise the teaching
of the Books of Homilies as ‘godly and whole-
some ;’ and Newman contended that there was
therefore ample evidence that the intention of the
Articles was Catholic in spirit, and that they were
aimed at the supremacy of the pope and the
popular abuses of the Catholic Church in practice
and not at Catholic doctrine. The Homilies regard
the first seven hundred years of the Catholic
Chureh as quite pure, recognise six councils as
received by all Christians, and speak of many of
the Fathers as inspired by chet Holy Ghost,
Clearly therefore, in Newman's opinion, they
were meant to gain over the moderate Romanists ;
and clearly they were not directed against the
Council of Trent, for when the Articles were pro-
mulgated the council was not over. But in spite of
this really substantial defence for the Anglican view
of the Articles, Tract 90 provoked an explosion
the last which he preached in the ery :
—viz, on the 2d Fobvesiy 1843. During Fite
Littlemore he was a man sus Vf
mt
of
:
disloyalty to his church—for example, of a .
Ronen Catholic already,
ch
over other Anglicans—a course of which he was
quite incapable, On the 8th October 1845 he
who only concealed
of faith in order to exert more influence
invited the Passionist Father Dominic to his house
at Littlemore in order that he might be received
into the Roman Catholic Church, and on the
following day he was received ; and within a few
months he had left Oxford, which he never saw
again for thirty years.
Of Newman's life as a Roman Catholic it is
necessary to speak — briefly.
in a literary point of view much more free
natural than his somewhat repressed and severely —
reined-in life as an Anglican. He first went to
Oscott to be confirmed ; then he went to Rome for
a year and a half; and on his return in 1848 he
published Loss and Gain, the story of an Oxford
conversion —_y different from his own, but full
of happy and delicate sketches of Oxford life and
manners. Shortly afterwards he began, but did
not at that time conclude, Callista, the story of
a martyr in Africa of the 3d century. The little
book is full of literary genius as well as of reli-
gious devotion, and it contains a most vivid pote
of the devastation worked by the locusts in that
country, as well as a still more impressive picture
of Newman's conception of the phenomenon of
demoni possession. In 1849 Newman
lished a branch of the brotherhood of St Philip
Neri (qv) in England (see ORaTory). New-
man established himself at gS yraye== a suburb
of Birmingham; and here he did a great deal of
hard work, devoting himself to the sufferers from
cholera in 1849 with the utmost zeal. The lectures
on Anglican Difficulties, intended to show that
Tractarian principles could only issue in sulmis-
sion to Rome on the of any Tractarian who
had a logical perception of what the movement
meant, was the first book which drew public
attention to Newman’s great power of irony and
the singular delicacy of his literary style. These
lectures were delivered and published in 1850, and
were followed in 1851 by the Lectures on ‘ Cathol-
icism in England,’ in which the Protestant pre-
judices and pre ions about Roman Catholies
were painted with a great power of ridicule and
even caricature. This was the book which gave
occasion to Dr Achilli’s action for libel against
Newman, tried by Lord Campbell, in whieh the
verdict went against Dr Newman so far as _ this,
that the jury thought that he had not succeeded in
justifying the libel, and awarded damages of £100
against him, while the costs of the case are said to
have amounted to £10,000, Lord Campbell’s charge
was deemed very one-sided even by Protestants,
Newman will probably be longer remembered as a
preacher than in any other capacity. His long
series of Oxford sermons contain some of the finest
ever preached from an Anglican pulpit, and his
Roman Catholic volumes—Sermons addressed to
Mixed weg fe par ns (1849) and Sermons on Various
Occasions (1857 )—though less remarkable for their
which was the end of the Tractarian mov t,
and brought on the conversion to Rome of those of
the Tractarians who were most logical as well as
most in earnest. The tract was repudiated by those
in authority ; the bishops almost all declared against
the movement; Newman struggled for two years
wens aed to think his position tenable, but in 1843
res! et the vicarage of St Mary's, which he had
held since 1828, and retired to Littlemore (q.v.).
The ificent university sermon on ‘Develop-
ment in Christian Doctrine,’ which was the pre-
liminary stage of his Zssay on Development, was
pathos, are even fuller of fine rhetoric, and show the
rarest finish. In 1864 a casual remark by Canon
Kingsley in Macmillan’s Magazine on the indiffer-
ence of the Roman Church to the virtue of truth-
fulness, an indifference which he asserted that Dr
Newman Smoves led to a correspondence which
resulted in the publication of the remarkable Apo-
logia pro Vité Sud, afterwards slightly recast as A
istory of My Religious Opinions. Yn this book
Dr Newman gave us much the most fresh and effee-
tive religious autobiography of the 19th century,
It was, however,
and
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“NEWMAN:
NEW MEXICO 467
and completely vindicated the simplicity and
eandour of his own theological career. It is
perhaps the most fascinating of his many works,
as it is of course the most personal. In 1865
Newman wrote a poem of singular beauty, giving
his view of a Roman Catholie’s experience in
death, called The Dream of Gerontius. It isa
m of marvellous subtlety and pathos, as unique
treatment as it-is in subject, and is now repub-
lished in the volume of Verses on Various Occasions
(1874), which contains also all the pieces originally
ublished in the Lyra Apostolica, In 1870 he pub-
Fished his Grammar of Assent, a book on the philo-
sophy of faith, based on the view that a believing
and even credulous attitude of mind clears itself
much more easily of false beliefs than a sceptical
attitude of mind clears itself of false denials. In
the controversies which led to the Vatican
Council Newman sided with the Inopportunists.
He believed that the decree of the pope's personal
infallibility in putting forth ex cathedra defini-
tions on theology or morals intended to teach the
church would alienate many Anglicans from the
Roman Church, and he thought the doctrine, though
true, not ripe for definition, nor pressed upon the
attention of the church by any heresy. He was at
this time in vehement opposition to the Ultra-
montanes under Archbishop Manning and William
George Ward, and the bitterness between the two
parties ran very high. Nothing seemed less likely
at that time than that Newman should ever be-
come a Cardinal ; but after the death of Pio Nono
and the election of Leo XIIL. the policy of the
church altered, and the new pope was very anxious
to show his sympathy with the moderates in various
countries, and especially with the English Catholic
moderates, of whom Dr Newman was much the most
distinguished. Accordingly in 1879 Newman was
summoned to Rome to receive the Cardinal’s hat,
which was conferred on him in a secret consistory
on the 12th May in that year. In acknowledging
the congratulations which flowed in upon him on
that event he renewed his protest against liberalism
in religion, by which he meant the depreciation of
revealed d and the popular view that one
creed, honestly held and practised, is as good as
another. For the last eleven years of his life
Cardinal Newman seldom broke silence, and: his
chief contribution to the religious controversy of
the day was an essay in attenuation of the
diffienlty of treating Seripture as plenarily inspired,
its tendency being to sugyest that inspiration does
not necessarily include mere matters of detail in
history, unless these are of the nature of what are
called ‘dogmatic facts ’—i.e. facts which lie at the
basis of revealed truths, such as the supernatural
birth of Christ. Cardinal Newman died on the
llth Angust 1890, after a very short ilness, of
pneumonia.
See a work on Newman by the author of this article
(1890) ; and Cardinal Newman’s Letters and Correspond-
ence, edited by Miss Mozley (1891).
Newman, Francis WILttAM, brother of the
preceeding, was born in London in 1805, and educated
at a private school at Ealing. Thence he
to Worcester College, Oxford, where he obtained
first-class honours in classies and mathematics in
1826, and, in the same year, a fellowship in Balliol
og This fellowship, however, he resigned ;
and withdrew from the university in 1830, at
the approach of the time for taking the denne of
M.A., declining the subscription to the Thirty-
nine Articles, which was required from candidates
for the degree. After a three years’ stay in the
East, he was’ appointéd classical tutor in Bristol
College, 1834. In 1840 he accepted a similar pro-
fessorship in Manchester New College, and in 1846
his reputation led to his being appointed to the
chair of Latin in University College, London,
which he held till 1863; meanwhile he was an
active contributor to numerous literary and scien-
tifie periodicals, and to various branches of ancient
and modern literature. In controversies on religion
he took a part directly opposite to that chosen by -
his elder brother, being no less eager for a religion
in his view more world-wide, and including what-
ever is best in the historical religions. Phases of
Faith is by far the most widely diffused of his works,,
simply because it was mainly negative ; but it was
P ed by a book ealled The Soul (1849), which
aimed to show a solid ground for divine aspirations
in the human heart. His smaller moral and reli-
gious essays are now collected in a single volume
(ii. ) of Mescellanies. Vol. i. of Miscellanies (1869)
was followed by the above vol. ii. (1887), vol. iii.,.
Politica (1889), and vol. iv., Economica (1890).
Other works were a History of the Hebrew Mon-
archy (1847); a Dictionary of Modern Arabic, in
Romanised type (2 vols. 1871); a Handbook of
Modern Arabic (1866), giving the dialect now used
by literary men in all Arab-speaking regions; and
a Libyan Vocabulary (1882), in which, cutting out
the Arabic, he tried to reproduce the old Numidian,
Mauretanian, and Getulian. He also published
two mathematical volumes, one on Elliptic Integrals
(1888-89); and a small book on the earlier life of his
brother, Cardinal Newman (1891). Died in 1897.
Newmarket, the ‘racing capital of England,’
lies on the border of Suffolk and Cambridgeshire,
14 miles ENE. of Cambridge and 69 NNE. of Lon-
don. Twice almost destroyed by fire, in 1683 and
1700, it chiefly consists of one long street, and con-
tains an unusual number of hotels and fine private
houses, belonging to the great patrons of the turf.
Principal edifices are the Jockey. Club (1773); the
adjoining Subscription Rooms (1844); the Pro-
prietary Club (1882); the Rous Memorial Hospital
(1883), with almshouses for eight jockeys and
trainers or their widows; St Mary’s Church, Per-
pendicular in style; and All Saints (1877). The
town owes its prosperity to its horseraces, as old
at least as 1605; and nearly half the male population
are jockeys, trainers, or stablemen (Holeroft the
dramatist was once one of their number). The
race-ground, on Newmarket Heath, to the west,
which is traversed by the Devil’s Dyke (see CAm-
BRIDGESHIRE), is owned partly by the Jocke
Club, erie! by the Duke of Rutland, and, wit’
its soft elastic turf, is one of the very finest in the
world. Of its ten courses, the longest is 44 miles
in circuit. The training-ground bears a like char-
acter for excellence ; and 400 horses are constantly
in training. There are seven annual meetings, the
principal events being the Two Thousand at Easter
and the Cesarewitch in October. Pop. (1851) 3356 ;
(1881) 5093 ; (1891) 6213. See HorseRAcING ; and
J. P. Hore’s History of Newmarket and Annals of
the Turf (3 vols. 1886).
New Mexioe, a thinly-peopled territo
SW. part of the United fintes, is bounde
Colorado, E. by Oklahoma and
Texas, S. by Texas and Mexico,
and W. by Arizona. Area a
122,580 sq. m.—larger than that of Great Britain
and Ireland. Pop. (1880) 119,565 ; (1890) 153,593 ;
(1900) 195,310. ew Mexico is thus the fifth in
area and the forty-fifth in population of the states
and territories of the continental United States.
The surface of New Mexico belongs to the great
platean upon which rests the Rocky Mountain
system. Pron an altitude of 6000 to 6500 feet in
the north it descends gradually to about 4000 feet
along the Mexican border, and sinks to 3000 or
3500 in the Llano Estacado of the south-east.
Except in the east the whole region is traversed
in the
N. by
Copyright 1891, 1897, and
1900 in the U.S. by J. B.
Lippincott Company.
468 NEW MEXICO
NEW ORLEANS
by broken ranges of mountains having in general
a north and south trend. In the northern central
the Santa Fé, Las Vegas, and Taos ranges
orm part of the main axis of the Rocky Moun-
tains, with a number of peaks over 12,000 feet
high. Farther south, and east of the Rio Grande,
are numerous broken ranges; and west of the Rio
Grande the Sierra Madre rise above the level of the
mesa (plateau) in various ranges. These mountains
and the intervening mesas are cut by deep cafions.
In the north-west a number of chains cross the
Arizona boundary, and the San Juan Mountains
enter the territory from Colorado, Among the
mountains, especially in the north-east; are many
‘parks’ noted for their beauty and fertile soils.
e surface rocks belong mainly to the Cretaceous
period, with belts of Triassic formation. The moun-
tain-chains and great part of the Sierra Madre
plateau are much older. There are many tracts of
metamorphic rock and lava overflows, some of
which appear to be of comparatively recent date.
The precious metals are found in almost all parts
of the territory. Some of the most important
mines are in the south-west near Silver City,
Deming, and Lordsburg, others in the central
region in the vicinity of ‘Socorro, and farther north
near Santa Fé. There are also valuable mines in
the San Juan country. Some of these mines were
radely worked by the early Spaniards, who com-
pelled the Pueblos to labour like slaves. In several
laces old shafts have been discovered which were
lled by the Indians when they successfully re-
volted from this tyranny. Copper and iron occur
in valuable deposits, and near Santa Fé are the
famous turquoise mines. There are also fields of
both bituminous and anthracite coal. Mineral and
hot springs are numerous.
The t mountain-divide causes the drainage
of New Mexico to flow south to the Gulf of Mexico,
and west to the Pacific Ocean. The Rio Grande
traverses the central part of the territory and
receives many tributaries. The Rio Pecos which
joins it in Texas drains the south-eastern part.
n the north-east are streams which unite to form
the Canadian River, and in the west are the head-
waters of the San Juan, Little Colorado, and Gila,
all affluents of the Colorado. In the river-valleys
the soil is fertile and produces excellent crops ; and
Many acres in other sections may be successfull
cultivated by irrigation. The climate is healthful,
and on the whole remarkably uniform, and the
atmosphere is very pure and dry, The death-rate
from pulmonary diseases is the lowest in the
country. The rainy season occurs between the
middle of July and the middle of September, last-
ing about a month. There are extensive forests on
the mountains, and in the hilly regions of the
western part of the territory, and on the pastoral
lains nutritious grasses which support great num-
rs of cattle and sheep. The yucca and cactus
are characteristic forms of vegetation, especially
in the Llano Estacado. Stock-raising is one of the
leading industries. The flocks and herds need no
housing in the winter, but of late years more
attention has been given to improvement of the
breeds, and the stock, instead of roaming at will, is
often confined within enclosed ranges.
Thongh one of the most recently settled portions
of the Union, New Mexico was among the earliest
regions occupied by the white man, and Santa Fé,
cognally an Indian pueblo, claims the title of the
oldest town in the country. When the Spaniards
first visited this region they found a people living in
communities with substantial dwellings, and mark-
ing the decay of a civilisation which had flourished
in previous centuries. In 1822 the people of New
Mexico, in common with the other inhabitants of
Mexico, of which it then formed a part, threw off
the Spanish yoke. By the treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo in 1848, after the war between Mexico
and the United States, part of the territory was
acquired by the latter nation. Additions were
made by a later purchase from Mexico and by a
ceasion from Texas. The population still includes
about 100,000 Mexicans, as well as nearly 40,000
Indians. The territory when originally organised
in 1850 included Arizona and parts of Colorado
and California. The construction of railroads,
begun in 1878, had a marked influence in its
development. There are now about 1400 miles of
railroad, connecting with either ocean and with
all parts of the Union.
ere are nineteen counties in New Mexico, and
the eee na cities and towns are Santa Fé (the
capital), Albuquerque, Las Vegas, Taos, and Socorro,
The common-school system was established by an
act of legislature in 1891; the board of education
consists of five members, ineluding the governor of
the territory. Numerous institutions are conducted
under Roman Catholic auspices. There is a state
university at Albuquerque, an agricultural college
at Las Vegas, and a school of mines at Socorro.
Schools for the Indians are largely attended.
Newnham College, just outside Cambrid
but within ten minutes’ walk of the centre of the
town, may be said to have commenced in 1871,
when the Newnham Hall Company opened a
house for five resident women students. The
numbers steadily increased, and in 1875 Newnham:
Hall was built, providing rooms for the principal,
a lecturer, and twenty-six students. Scholarshi,
were given by the London Companies and priv
friends, the library grew, a chemical laborato
and gymnasium were added, and the whole
machinery of the college became more and more
complete till, in 1879, the Newnham Hall Com-
pany was amalgamated with the Association for
the Promotion of the Higher Education of Women.
Additional land was acquired, and a second, and
finally a third hall was added. These three halls,
Old Hall, Sidgwick Hall, and Clough Hall, now
form Newnham Colne, where at the present time
147 students, under the charge of a principal, two
vice-principals, and five lecturers, receive instrue-
tion, partly by lectures delivered at Newnham,
partly by such lecfures of the university and col-
eges of the university as are open to them. In
the year 1881 the university of Cambridge opened
to students of Newnham and Girton its tripos and
previous exams., and in 1889, out of thirty-five
students of Newnham who entered for the tripos
exam., six took a first-class, sixteen a second-class,
and nine a third-class ; while in 1890 Miss Faweett
was placed above the senior wrangler. Careful
superintendence is here combined with a large
amount of liberty and responsibility. The greater
number of students work for tripos and stay for
three or four years, but special courses of work
can be taken without examination. The fees are
75 guineas a year.
New Orleans, the commercial metropolis of
Louisiana, and the most important city of the south-
ern United States, is situated ) copyright 1801, 1897, and
on both sides of the Mississippi | 19° in the U.S. by J.B.
River—the aed portion on | MPpinestt Companys
the east bank—107 miles from its mouth. Its gr
rate area is 187 sq. m., but a large portion of this
is market-gardens, forest, and swamp, and only
48 sq. m. are built over, a on the Mis-
sissippi, and running back from half a mile to
3 miles. The city proper has a river frontage of
13 miles, and its western district, ‘Algiers,’ of 3
miles, The Mississippi makes two bends here,
giving the old city a crescent-shaped front, whence
its former title, ‘The Crescent City,’ but it is
NEW ORLEANS
NEWPORT 469
of the letter S. The river is from 600
to oar wide, and 60 to 240 feet deep. The
bar at its mouth was removed in 1874-79 by the
Eads jetties in South Pass, and vessels of 30 feet
now easily reach New Orleans. The commerce of
the city is large ($550,493,315 in 1890), and it is
second in the United States in exports. New
Orleans is the terminus of three canals, and of
six large railroads (total mileage, 17,842) and three
local lines, while twenty lines of steamships connect
it with other American and foreign ports. Since
1875 it has made great progress in manufactures,
icularly in cotton goods, cotton-seed oil,
machinery, lumber, furniture, fertilisers, sugar-
refining, rice-milling, beer, cigars, Xc. Its factories
increased from 554 in 1870 to 898 in 1880, and
2100 in 1890; and their product from $8,450,439
to $44,500,000.
The site of New Orleans is perfectly flat, and lies
from 3 to 6 feet below the high-water level of the
Mississippi ; it is protected from overflow by levees
or dykes of earth. Similar levees in the rear keep
out the waters of Lake Pontchartrain. The soil is
saturated with water, and cellars are im ible;
and the dead of the better classes are usual v placed
in tombs of brick or marble above ground. The
climate is warm and damp, the annual mean tem-
ture being 69° I’. ; but the summer is tempered
by winds from the Gulf, and is not oppressively
warm. On account of its situation, the city is
badly drained. It has no sewers, and the open
gutters which carry the rain-water into canals, and
nce into Lake Pontchartrain, are insufficient.
But recent years have seen a great improvement in
the public th, the death-rate having been re-
duced from 59 per 1000 in 1860 to 24-80 in 1890.
_ While it possesses few imposing buildings,
New Orleans is a picturesque city. There are
several parks little improved, but with handsome
monuments or statues of Jackson, Lee, Franklin,
and others, The enstom-house of granite cost
$4,500,000, and is the largest and most imposing
building in the city. The cathedral of St Louis,
a Gothic church erected in 1794, is a good sample
of the Creole-Spanish architecture. The archi-
ng me palace (1737) is the oldest building in
e city. Other noteworthy structures are the
cotton exchange, United States mint, St Charles
Hotel, and Christ and St Patrick’s churches.
There are 188 churches, and 78 public schools,
with 430 teachers and 21,136 pupils enrolled.
Tulane University (known as the University of
Louisiana from 1834 to 1883) has 59 professors
and 683 students. Under its control is the
Sophie Newcomb Memorial College (1887), for the
higher education of girls. The College of the Im-
maculate Conception (under the Jesuits) has 228
students, There are 4 coll for negroes, males
and females, with 1860 students. The Howard
Memorial (1888), Tulane, and Louisiana state
libraries, all free, contain together 120,000 volumes.
The a ee (1784) is the largest institu-
tion of its kind in the United States, with accom-
modation for 800 to 1000 persons; and there are
54 other hospitals, asylums, &c.
The site of New Orleans was first visited in 1699
a4 Bienville, who in 1718 laid the foundations
the city, and in 1726 made it the capital. In
1763 it was ceded to Spain by France, with the
rest of ; but when in 1765 the Spanish
governor, Ulloa, attempted to take ion, he
was driven ont, and the le established a govern-
ment of their own. tas 769 New Orleans was
occupied by the Spanish, and the leaders in the
late movement were shot. It was ceded to France
in 1802, and transferred to the United States a few
days later. Incorporated as a city in 1804, it was
divided in 1836 into three separate municipalities,
now the s'
in consequence of the jealousies between the Creoles
and the Americans; but the three were in
consolidated into one in 1852. Since then New
Orleans has annexed the neighbouring towns of
Lafayette, Jefferson, Carrollton, and Algiers.
Other outstanding events in the history of the city
have been the battle of New Orleans (see JACKSON)
in 1815; its capture in 1862 by the Federal fleet
under Admiral Renegus (q.¥.); serious political
troubles in 1874 and 1877, resulting in 1874 in a
battle on the levee between the citizens and the
police and militia, in which 46 persons were killed
and 216 wounded ; and the lynching in 1891 of 11
Italian maffiosi. In 1880 the capital of Louisiana
was removed from New Orleans to Baton Rouge.
Pop. (1769, when it was transferred to Spain)
3190; (1802, when it became American) 10,508 ;
(1840) 102,193; (1880) 216,190; (1890) 242,039,
r cent. of whom were of American or
&c., 16 negroes, an
Chinese, and Malays, a population truly cosmo-
politan in race and language ; (1900) 287,104.
New Plymouth, the chief town of the pro-
vineial district of Taranaki, New Zealand, 220
miles NW. of Wellington by rail. Two miles
from the town extensive harbour-works are in
progress. Pop. (1886) 3093; (1891) 7932.
Ne rt, since 1891 a county borough of Mon-
mouthshire, a municipal borough, and, with Mon-
mouthand Usk, a parliamentary borough, is seated
on the river Usk, about 4 miles from its mouth, 24
miles SSW. of Monmonth and 145 W. of London,
and it is one of the principal outlets for the produce
of the extensive collieries and iron and steel works
in the vicinity. Its shipping trade has greatly in-
creased, and with it its dock accommodation, which
now covers more than 80 acres. Newport is the
— iron-exporting port in the kingdom, and
ranks third amongst the coal-exporting ports. In
some years 3,000,000 tons of coal are exported,
and 30,000 tons of iron pyrites and manganese im-
ported. The town has many fine public buildings
prominent amongst them being the town-hall
(1885), erected at a cost of £30,000, and St Woollos’
Church, occupying an elevated site, and in style
Pees Norman an partly Perpendicular. Besides
its shipping trade, Newport has manufactures of
india-rubber, gutta-percha, and posi and tele-
graph plant and wagons, whilst several important
rass and iron foundries are in operation, as well
as breweries and pottery-works, On 4th November
1839 the town was the centre of a Chartist ont-
break, which resulted in the death of ten persons,
and the wounding of many more. Pop. (1801)
1087; (1881) 38,427; and in 1891, when it was
created a county borough, 54,707.
Newport, a market-town of Shropshire, on the
Shrewsbury Canal, 11 miles WSW. of Stafford.
Chartered by Henry I., and burned in 1665, it has a
15th-century church, a grammar-school (1656), and
manufactures of machinery and agricultural imple-
ments. Pop, of parish, 2675.
Newport, the capital of the Isle of Wight, on
the navigable Medina, near the centre of the
island, 44 miles S. of Cowes and 10 SW. of Ryde.
The church, rebuilt in 1854-56 on the site of one
nearly 700 years old, is a fine Decorated edifice,
and contains Marochetti’s beautiful monument,
erected by Queen Victoria in memory of the Princess
Elizabeth, who died at Carisbrooke Castle (q.v.)
on 8th September 1650. Newport besides has a
town-hall (1810); a free grammar-school (1612), the
scene in 1648 of the protracted but fruitless negoti-
ations between the liamentary commissioners
and Charles L, to whose secret ‘engagement’ 4
470 NEWPORT
NEW SOUTH WALES
year before with the Presbyterian Scots the town
also gave name ; a girls’ endowed school (1761); a
diocesan school (1860) ; and a literary institute and
museum. To the north-west are a _reformatory
1838) and barracks (1798). A municipal borough,
ewport returned two members till 1867, and then
one an 1885. Pop. (1881) 9357 ; (1891) 10,216.
Newport, a town of Fife, on the Firth of Tay,
14 mile by water SSE. of Dundee. It has a small
harbour designed by Telford (1822), and municipal
Duildings (1890 . Pop. (1881) 2311; (1891) 2545,
Newport, (1) capital of Cam bell cannty, Ken-
tucky, is on the Ohto, opposite Gincinn stl, and at
the mouth of the Licking River, which separates it
from Covington ; both rivers are crossed by bridges,
and there is also a steam-ferry to Cincinnati, The
city contains large rolling-mills, a foundry, bolt-
works, tile-works, and several steam-mills. Pop.
(1890) 24,918 ; (1900) 28,301.—(2) A port of entry
and one of the capitals of Rhode Island, on the west
shore of the island of Rhode Island, in Narragansett
Bay, 5 miles from the ocean, and 69 miles by rail S.
by W. of Boston. It has a deep, excellent harbour,
defended by Fort Adams; and there is a United
States torpedo station on an island in the harbour.
It contains a brick state-house, a custom-house, a
city hall, the Redwood Library, many palatial villas,
and large hotels; it is noted for fine scenery and
sea-bathing, and is one of the most fashionable
watering-p in America. In Touro Park stands
the ‘Round Tower,’ or ‘Old Stone Mill,’ which
suggested Longfellow’s poem, ‘The Skeleton in
Armour.’ The city also contains cotton-mills, a
brass-foundry, lead and fish-oil works, &c. It
was settled in 1638 by eighteen adherents of Roger
Williams, and was an important commercial town
prior to the Revolution, which effected its ruin
and transferred its trade to New York. Newport
was for a time the residence of Bishop Berkeley.
Pop. (1880) 15,693 ; (1900) 22,034.
Newport-Pagnell, a market-town of Buck-
inghamshire, at the influx of the Ousel to the
Ouse, 56 miles by rail NNW. of London. Named
from the Paganels, who owned the manor in the
days of Rufus, it was taken by Essex in 1643, and
held two igo later by Sir Samuel Luke, the pro-
totype of Butler’s ‘Hudibras.’ The fine parish
church, restored by Street in 1858, is the principal
edifice ; lace-making has declined. Pop. of parish,
3686. See its History by Staines (1842).
New Red Sandstone, the name former!
given to the t. series of red sandstones whic!
occur between the Carboniferous and Jurassic
Systems. The sandstones are now divided into
two groups, the lower of which is assigned to the
Paleozoic (see PERMIAN SysTEM) and the upper
to the Mesozoic System (see TrIAssic SYSTEM),
The term New Red Sandstone is used as syn-
onymous in England with the Trias,
New River, an artificial cut, running 38 miles
southward from Chadswell Springs in Hertfordshire
inte reservoirs at Hornsey and Stoke Newington.
It was designed for the water-supply of London,
and completed (1609-20) at a cost of £500,000 by
Sir Hugh Myddelton, goldsmith, who died poor on
With iieoem r 1631, The seventy-five original
shares, sold for £100 apiece, sell now at the rate
of from £85,200 to £94,500.
New Ross, 2 market-town and _river-port of
Leinster, Ireland, situated on the Barrow, partly
in the county of Kilkenny, but chiefly in that of
‘Wexford, 92 miles S. by W. of Dublin and 15 NE.
of Waterford. The two portions of the town are
connected by an iron swing-bridge (1869). Before
the union New Ross—Old Ross lies 5 miles to
the two members to parliament,
and down to 1885 one. It was founded by the
daughter of Strongbow, and was formerly fortified.
The port can he entered at spring-tides by ships
of 800 tons, and at all times by vessels of 200 tons ;
and there is communication by river and canal with
Dublin and with Limerick. Pop, (1851) 7941;
(1881) 6670; (1891) 5847.
Newry, @ seaport and iamen borough
mainly in bounty Dows, bat partly oe Komaghe on
the Newry River, 38 miles SSW. of Belfast by rail.
A canal connects it with Carlingford Lough and
with Lough Neagh. The town is handsomely and
compactly built, and the does a | trade
with Glasgow and Liverpool in cattle and agri-
cultural produce. Flax spinning and weaving, with
rope and sail making, tanning, and granite-po'
are the industries. The place dates from 1131; i
castle was taken by Edward Bruce in 1318, Newry
returns one member to liament. Pop, (1851)
13,191 ; (1881) 15,590; (1891) 13,605.
New Shoreham. See SHOREHAM,
New Siberia, a group of uninhabited islands
in the Arctic Ocean, ying off the coast of Siberia
between the mouth of the Lena and the mouth of
the Indigirka, The penal are Kotelnoi (the
largest), Liakhov, Fadeyeff, and New Siberia.
The coasts are rocky, and ice-bound all the year
round, The soil contains immense quantities of
fossil ivory, of the mammoth, &c, See Petermann’s
Mitteilungen (1888 ).
New South Wales is the oldest colony of
Australasia. It formerly included what is now
known as Queensland, New South Wales, Victo
South Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, al
under the governor at Sydney. The area is now
diminished to 310,700 sq. m. or 198,848,000 acres,
being five times that of England. It has the
Pacific to the east, from Point ger, 28}° S. lat.,
to Cape Howe, 374°; South Australia to the west,
along the meridian 141° E.; Victoria to the south,
by the Murray River; and Queensland to the
north, from 29° 8. lat. A series o' nee
from 20 to 100 miles distance to the sea, exten
from near Cape York to the Australian south-east
corner, The southernmost are the Australian
Alps, running over into Victoria, culminating in
Mount Townsend, 7350 feet high. Northward are
the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney, with
4000 feet, and containing the Jenolan ves
(q.v.). Liverpool Range is more northerly; and
the New England hills, north-east, rise
With the exception of some isolated mountains,
the region to the west consists of vast plains, up
to the er Ranges near South Austra! ia. The
mountains give birth to short and rapid streams
toward the but long and sluggish ones west-
ward. The Hawkesbury or Nepal Hunter,
Clarence, Shoalhaven, and Macleay are eastern.
The Lachlan, 700 miles long, runs into the
Murrumbid which flows 1350 miles before fall-
ing into the Murray. The Murray, after 1100
walles on the New South Wales border, passes
into South Australia. The Darling, rising in
meensland, has more than 1000 miles thi
the colony before reaching the Murray, the mat
receptacle of the country’s waters. The Macquarie
and Mamol go northward to the Darling. The dry
interior has few streams. Among the few lakes
are George, Bathurst, Illawarra,
Brisbane Waters—the last three sea-lakes, Twwo-
fold Bay is not far from Cape Howe. North of it
are Jervis Bay, Botany Bay, Port Jackson, Broken
Bay, Port Hunter, Port Stephen, Port Macquarie.
The capital, Sydney ( By ), is on Port Jackson, and —
is the headquarters of the Australian naval squadron. —
Near it are Windsor and Parramatta. New
and Maitland are by the Hunter River. Goulburn
uarie, and
OE
NEW SOUTH WALES 471
and Bathurst are westward, Albany and Went-
worth on the Murray, Bourke and Wilcannia on
the Darling; Wellington is on the Macquarie,
Wollongong by Illawarra, Deniliquin in Riverina,
Silverton in the Barrier Ran
The colony was established in January 1788,
under Governor Phillip, with a party of trans-
ported prisoners from England, as the former pees
of exile, America, was closed by the independence
of that country. For years the settlement suffered
much from want of food. The introduction of free
colonists, to whom nts of land were given,
-promoted pastoral agricultural pursuits; and the
change from d ism to responsible government
was gradually made. The cessation of transporta-
tion in 1840 was followed by social and political
advance ; and the gold discovery in 1851 gave a great
impetus to the search for minerals. Town indus-
tries were developed ; and commerce was aided by
a fine harbour, an excellent mercantile marine, and
the extension of railways.
As regards flora, the eucalyptus-tree prevails in
the colony, but acacias also are common, and pines
and cedars, as well as palms in the north-east.
Forest preservation is now receiving official atten-
tion. In addition to products of native vegetation,
plants of commercial value are being introduced,
adapted to the warmer, colder, moister, or drier
Tocalitien. Of 1600 economic plants in the colony, 210
are useful for food, 158 forage, 123 drugs, 57 oils, 87
tans, 60 gum-resins, 39 kinos, 14 perfumes, 35 dyes,
67 fibres, 630 timber. Some of these are available
for export. There are more flowering plants than
in all Ravopes
The fauna, as in the rest of Australia, consists
mainly of marsupial animals. In a single year
there have been killed, as nuisances, 1,310,900
marsupials. Birds are of great variety, many
of very beautiful plumage, and some of pleasant
notes. Insects are pretty numerous, and not always
welcome. Lizards and snakes may run to a good
size, but there are no alligators. Fish, especially
in the bays, are plentiful.
Geology.—Silurian and Devonian formations, with
tic, i , and metamorphie rocks, are rich
gold, silver, lead, copper, tin, and other metals.
The hilly country forms the centre of mining
industry, but the older rocks underlie the Tertiary
and Post-Tertiary beds of the vast plains to the
westward. Coal is seen in both Paleozoic and
Mesozoic strata. The Cretaceous beds are con-
fined to the north-west corner. Trappean irrup-
tions are of various geological epochs; yet the
colony has fewer recent pibeatic, though extinct,
craters than its Victorian neighbour. Marsupi-
alian remains of huge dimensions are observed in
the Pleistocene formations. Besides the monsters
Diprotodon and Nototherium, there are the mar-
supial lion Thylacoleo, and the Thylacinus. In
the Pliocene and Pleistocene are the alluvial
gold workings and the diamond and tin wash-
ings. While the more ancient rocks prevail in
the ranges, Mesozoic ones are nearly confined
to the eastern side, north and south of Sydney,
ee she Sydney sandstone, and in ‘the Clarence
Gold, known in 1823, was first worked in 1851,
near Bathurst. is ce = area of 70,000
sq. m., in nite, rphyry, diorite, quartz,
. cad alieetel idepodis Dry eaten is
employed by miners where water is scarce. Gold
is often mixed with silver, copper, or tin; and the
‘ore is worth, according to purity, from 70 to 82
shillings an ounce. The output to the begin-
ning of 1890 was nearly £38,000,000, though only
£434,070 in 1889. Silver, found at Boorook, Sunny
Corner, &c., abounds in the Barrier Ranges near
South Australia, at Silverton, Thackaringa, &c.,
where there are over 4000 miners. Discovered in
1883, in an almost rainless region, the silver area
is 100 miles by 12. One company paid in dividends
£1,676,000 up to 1890, having raised 161,500 tons of
ore, yielding 6,236,000 ounces of silver and 25,170
tons of lead. The district up to 1890 produced
£4,168,397 ; the Broken Hill Company has raised
20,000,000 ounces ; and in 1889 the product of silver
for the colony was £1,971,198. Copper, first
wrought in 1858, yielded £122,444 in 1889; its ore
being known to extend over 8000sq. m. Tin, worked
since 1872, from streams and lodes in granite, has
fields of aeons area, witha yield for 1889 of £207,670.
Lead is chiefly got from silver-mines. Antimony,
manganese, bismuth, &e. are mined. Iron is
abundant, but not profitable to work owing to the
cost of labour. Precious stones, as the diamond,
emerald, zircon, sapphire, topaz, &c., occur in
granite localities. Asbestos, zinc, mereury, cobalt,
and alum are exported. Graphite, kaolin, and
building-stone enrich the colonists. Coal is the
most valuable mineral of New South Wales. It
extends over 24,000 sq. m.; £22,000,000 worth was
raised during 1860-89 ; and the export of 28 million
tons brought in £16,000,000, In 1894 the gold pro-
duced was worth £1,156,717; the silver, £94,150;
copper, £63,617 ; and coal, £1,155,573. Kerosene is
also produced in considerable quantity from the
shale of the Blue Mountains.
The resources in 1895 include as many as
56,977,270 sheep (in spite of recent losses of 8,000,000
from drought) ; cattle, 2,465,411; horses, 518,181;
swine, 2,733,591. Most of these animals are upon
stations or runs, on land leased from government,
sometimes at less than a penny an acre rental in
the dry west. The leases are for twenty-one years
in western divisions, ten in central, and five only
in eastern, at a higher rent. The lessees are the
squatters. In the early years of the colony only
salt meat from England was in use, as there were
no native sheep, cattle, or horses. The sheep im-
ported from Bengal and the C. were hairy, but
the wool was improved by the introduction of
Spanish merinoes; the cattle also were improved
by good English stock. Pigs, goats, and poultry
have been introduced. Wool exported in the year
exceeds two hundred million pounds’ weight.
Agriculture oceupies far less land than pastur-
age. While 140,000,000 acres produce a rental of
£917,190, being devoted to flocks and herds, there
are but a million acres, or one acre to one
inhabitant, devoted to culture, and nearly one-
fourth of that is laid down in artificial grasses.
But farming ground, especially near towns, is very
valuable. Some of this is freehold, bought at
government auction sales, though formerly be-
stowed in nts at a nominal quit rent. Much
is leasehold, held at various rentals on terms of
years from the state, till the full purchase is there-
y effected. Of 46,197 holdings, 580 were over
10,000 acres each, and 6889 were under 15 acres,
The land laws of New South Wales are liberal and
easy to settlers. The country, however, is more
pastoral than agricultural, growing less produce
proportionately to its size than Victoria and South
Australia. In March 1890 the area under er
was 947,072 acres, but 47,620 holdings contain
41,042,629 acres. In 1890 there were 419,758 acres
in wheat, averaging 15 bushels to the acre; 173,836
in maize, averaging 304; 5440 in barley ; and 7867
in vines; hay, of various kinds, 222,262; sugar-
cane, 18,730; oranges, 9804 ; tobacco, 3239; orchards,
16.867 ; market-gardens, 5409; potatoes, 17,551. Yet,
while the colony exported £1,076,350 of agricul-
tural produce in 1889, it imported £5,548,915. The
sugar-plantations in the north-east are not so
productive as in Queensland ; nor are the apple-
orchards and potato-furrows equal to those of
472 NEW SOUTH WALES
Lp’ es
NEWSPAPER
Tasmania. But all the fruits that thrive in Eng-
land and Italy grow here.
Climate intlaences vegetation in the colony.
facilities exist in the Dividing Range,
of New England in the north-east,
slopes to the south, because of fair
moisture. seacoast, with from 40 to 70 inches
of rain a year, differs much from the western
interior, where in some years as little as 5 inches
may fall. But the climate is so uncertain that a
region suffer from fearful drought in one
season and floods in another. Cold and ice with
heavy snows may be experienced on the lofty
plains; but Sydney, 33° 50’ lat., hed no snow in
thirty years. Though in summer the thermometer
might rise to 100° and beyond it during the day, the
nights are generally cool and recuperative after
the heat.
The trade exceeds that of any of the neighbour-
ing colonies. It was worth £46,157,991 in 1889—
£22,863,057 in imports, £23,294,934 exports. Each
ave over £20 a head, or about £16 in produce
of the colony. The re-exports amounted to £5,871,623.
While the United Kingdom sent £8,736,478 of
receiving from the colony £8,964,625, the
neensland trade was £6,415,553; the Victorian,
£7,804,338; the American, £2,225,286; the Ger-
man, £1,052,517 ; the French, £284,004 ; the Indian,
£202,359. The colonial overland trade was
£10,070,189. New South Wales imported £2, 164,206
of drapery; £1,046,146, apparel; £852,304, iron
and nery ; £741,189, flour ; £466,390, spirits ;
£385,363, teas ; £438,004, heer ; £220,793, tobacco.
Of exports, the home produce was £17,423,311;
the foreign, £5,871,623. The animal and vegetable
products realised £7,300,526 ; minerals and metals,
£1,655,776; live-stock, £1,175,979; and coal,
£1,319,271. The colony’s wool of 1889 brought
£10,620,636. Duties are only levied on forty-seven
articles; there are none ad valorem, what is prac-
ge 2 trade having been established in 1872-
79. he customs realised £1,905,883 and excise
£261,371. There entered, in 1889, 3254 ships of
2,632,081 tons; departed, 3229 of 2,689,098. Of
Farm
and ti alps
the tonnage, 4,659,798 were British; 661,381,
Of the former, 2,817,071 were colonial ;
of the latter, 210,164 were American. While
London cleared 5,284,149 tons, and Liverpool
4,758,525, Sydney cleared 1,432,340, and the New-
castle coal-port, 1,126,892. The railways connect
New South Wales with South Australia, Victoria,
and Queensland. The 2530 miles belonging to gov-
ernment has, to 1895, cost £36,611,350. the total
imports in 1894 were worth £15,801,941; the total
ex , £20,577,673.
‘overnment.—The governor is appointed W the
yee The executive is of 10 ministers ; the per
ouse or lative Council had, in 1892, 75 life-
members ; the Lower, or Legislative Assembly, 141
members, in 74 electorates, receiving £300 a year.
ethe parliament is triennial. The revenue in 1825
was £71,682; in 1890, £9,517,121. . From taxation
was raised £2,758,750 ; from land, £2,208,039; from
Festal, railway, and other services, £4,253,830,
he public debt, contracted for useful works, was
£48,578,837 in October 1890. An excellent volun-
teer force comprises some 3500 men. In 1885
a New South Wales contingent was sent to
strengthen the British forces in the Soudanese war,
There is also a naval brigade. The wealth of
the colony is stated at £314 per head, that of the
United Kingdom being £270.
The jon (1891), 1,132,207, of whom 518,199
were female, included 14,156 Chinese and 1997
The ports, farming localities, and
mines return seven-eighths of the people. About
3000 manufactories employ 49,238, wages for eight
hours a day being from 8s, to 12s. The birth-
rate is 339 thousand ; marvingereae death. —
rate, only 13. In religion, the ire of gland q
claims one-half the population, the Roman ;
nearly one-third ; but returns for 1889 gave Sunday
attendance at worship as follows : Roman Catholic,
94,422; Church of England, 83,819; Methodists
(various), 64,900; Presbyterian, 33,247; Salvation )
Army, 14,423; Congregational, 13,669; Baptist,
Public schools are now unconnected with
churches, and no state aid is granted to a
denominational school; but one hour “Pod a
ad ts eee to religious pec jon, 4 7
schools, where parents present no 0! ;
the roll in 2964 schools are 229,043
The annual cost to the government of each child
is £4, l4s.; the fees bain in 12s, 5d,
there are many private schoo!
England has 36,342 children in eee Meg
Roman Catholic, 25,820; Methodist, 29,385; Pres- —
byterian, 12,054. There are technol |. indus-—
trial, and general museums, picture-gal public
libraries, schools of arts, and mining schools; and
a noble state university, having affiliated colleges, »
crowns the educational edifice,
See eae _ Migr Bev ego tng hen :
blems of Greater Britain : Flanagan, .
of New South Wales (1862); ‘Trollope, New tock
‘ales and Queensland (1874); Dr Lang, Historical
and Statistical Account of New South Wales (1875); G.
Sita, ne ce A pe
sources 3; T. A. C Dn, ,
of New South Wales, 1889-90 (Sydney, i890); G. B, Barton,
Pond A aid South Wales from the Records (16 vols,
et seq. :
News) . a sheet of paper printed and dis-
tributed at short intervals for conveying intelligence
of passing events. This is a definition of a news-
paper which might safely be employed for |
pur ; but it is altogether inadequate to de-
scribe the great institution which is now, in all
parts of the civilised and semi-civilised world, at
once the bearer of tidings, the herald of commerce,
and, according to the predilections of its readers,
a more or less accepted guide in matters of polities,
theology, morals, arts, and sports.
The number of the newspapers of the world is
(1891) estimated at 41,000, of which 24,000 appear —
in Europe. A further division, according to stricter
phical limitations, shows that Germany
Coathe list with 5500, then comes France wi
4100, Great Britain and Ireland with 4000, Austria-
Hun with 3500, Italy with 1400, Spain with
850, Russia with 800, Switzerland with 450, and
Belgium and Holland with 300 each. The rest of
Euro newspapers are ba aragi in Po
and the Scandinavian and Balkan countries.
United States of America must be credited with
12,500 newspapers. Canada claims 700,
Australia about the same number. Of Pe
issued in Asia, Japan alone has 200. Africa has
200 newspapers, and the Sandwich Islands three.
Having regard to the respective popularity of the
languages employed, it is found that 17,000 news-
pers are published in English, 7500 in German,
B50 in French, 1800 in Spanish, and 1500 in Italian,
The news r came into existence when
accounts of the imperial armies of Rome were sent
to the generals in command in all parts of the
rovinces, These Acta Diurna were communicated
y the generals to the officers under their command,
and thus the foundation of a system of newspaper
circulation was laid. It is to Germany that we.
have to look for the beginnings of modern European —
journalism. As early as the 15th century small
news-sheets in the form of letters were issued in
Augsburg, Vienna, Ratisbon, and Nuremberg. It
was not until 1566, however, when the
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NEWSPAPER
473
Notizie Scritte were established at Venice by order of
the Venetian government, that a news-sheet at all
answering to present ideas was produced. At first
nef were not printed but written out, and exhib-
in various public places, any one being per-
mitted to read them on areas of the s' coin
called a gazetta. From this these journals acquired
the title of Gazette (q.v.), and the demand for them
was so t that it became necessary to print
them. tes were soon afterwards issued in
most of the leading cities of ores ae
Setting aside the apoory phe: history of the
English Mercurie, said to have been published in
1588 under the sanction of Queen Elizabeth, the
Weekly News of 1622, edited by Nathaniel Butter,
is, so far as positive evidence goes, the first English
news , as we understand the term. The
Toaton Weekly Courant made its 2 apm in
the same year. Twenty years later what has been
ealled ‘the era of the Mercuries’ was entered upon,
and Mereuries of many kinds claimed public pat-
ronage—amongst others the Mercurius Clericus,
started in 1641 in the interests of the clergy; the
Mercurius Britannicus (1642); the Mercurius Civi-
cus (1643), whose first number contained portraits
engraved on wood of Charles I. and Sir Thomas
Fairfax; the Mercurius Politicus, published in
London, and reprinted in Scotland for the enter-
tainment of Cromwell's army; and the waety
Mercurius Caledonius, the first strictly Scottis
newspaper, which, however, did not live beyond
its tenth number. During. the protectorate the
newspaper press enjoyed the luxury of freedom,
and there was a great increase in the number of
political journals. In 1663 the Public Intelligencer
was lished by Sir Roger ag pe but was
suspended on the issuing of the London Gazette,
the first number of which was published at Oxford
on the 7th November 1665. A newspaper censor-
ship, begun in 1662, was continued with more or
less ag acre 4 during the reign of Charles II. and
down to 1695, when the press licensing law was
abolished. eg that period there was no news-
that could he prorerly so called except the
ndon Gazette, which, as Macaulay puts it, ‘con-
tained nothing but what the secretary of state
wished the nation to know.’ Comments on polit-
ical events rather than news formed the staple
of such periodicals as were published during
the existence of the censorship. There was the
Observator, started by L’Estrange in 1681, which
attracted some notice, but it was in no sense a
newspaper. One of the earliest attempts at break-
ing down the barrier of exelnsion was made in
orcester on the publication of Berrow’s Worcester
Journal in 1690, a paper which is still in existence.
After the abolition of the censorship many new
journals blossomed forth, including the Postboy,
the London Newsletter, the Flying Post, the Eng-
lish Courant, and the Lincoln, Rutland, and Stam-
i Mercury. The Edinburgh Gazette was estab-
ished in 1699, and published twice a week. It was
not until 1702 that a daily r was put forth in
England. This was the Daily Courant, a small
sheet printed on one side only.
Advertisements, which now form so important a
factor in the prosperity of newspapers, did not
appear in any journal, so far as can be ascertained,
until tow: the middle of the 17th century.
Occasional books and pamphlets were advertised
in 1647-48, and in 1649 a reward was offered in the
Moderate for the recovery of ‘a piebald nag ;’ but
it was not until 1673 that anything like a regular
og of advertising was established, when the
niex Intelligencer opened its columns to paid
announcements, at the rate of ‘a shilling for a
or coach for notification, and fag for
renewing.’ A little later the Observator Reformed
was prepared to insert eight lines for a shilling ;
but, as the public began to awaken to the value
of this new medium of publicity, the govern-
ment became equally alive to its value to the
revenue, and in 1701 imposed a duty of one
shilling for each advertisement. In the same
year a bill was brought into parliament for the pur-
pose of enforcing a tax of one penny on every
fore aeaange periodically issuing from the press,
wing to the representations of the newspaper pro-
ora who pointed out that they had been in the
bit of selling their sheets in many cases at a
halfpenny a copy, the proposed measure was aban-
doned; but in 1712 a tax of one halfpenny per
sheet was imposed on every newspaper of a sheet
and a half. As a consequence, many newspapers
at once ceased to exist, the Observator amongst the
number. During the reign of George III. the press
was subjected to several additional imposts. At
the beginning of the eign the tax on newspapers
was a penny a copy ; in 1776 it was raised to three-
halfpence ; in 1789 to twopence; in 1794 to two-
pence-halfpenny ; in 1797 to threepence-halfpenny ;
and in 1815 to fourpence. With these heavy taxes
on papers there was of necessity a correspondin
increase in their cost to the public, until the genera
price reached sevenpence, a condition of things
which lasted until 1836, when the duty was reduced
from fourpence to a penny, the impost being
entirely abolished in 1855. Another tax that
affected the cost of newspapers was the paper-duty,
which was repealed in 1861, leaving British journa’
free from imposts of any kind.
In spite, however, of the heavy burdens against
which brs eo to struggle, through nearly the whole
of the 18th and a great part of the 19th centuries,
newspapers ually increased in number and
influence, and exercised much power in the direct-
ing of public opinion. In all the chief centres of
population in the provinces, as well as in London,
pa rs of importance were established. The first
alf of the 18th century saw a striking extension
of journalistic enterprise. In the metropolis there
was, in addition to the Courant, the London Daily
Post and General Advertiser, established in 1726,
This changed its title in 1752 to the Public Adver-
tiser, and attained celebrity as the medium through
which the Letters of ‘Junius’ were first given to
the world. Defoe’s Review of the Affairs of State,
begun while the editor was in prison, existed from
1704 to 1713. The St James's Post and the St
James's Evening Post, started as distinct journals
in 1715, were by amalgamation as the St James's
Chronicle assured of a long existence. The London
Post, started in 1715, had the honour of publishin
a reprint of Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe as a serial
story, commencing in No. 125 (7th October 1719)
and concluding in No. 289 (19th October 1720).
In 1731 there existed 22 journals in London
and 23 in the provinces, amongst the latter
being the Edinburgh Courant, the Edinburgh
Gazette, the Nottingham Journal, the Newcastle
Courant, the Hereford Journal, the Liverpool
Courier, the York Mercury, the Glasgow Courant,
the Leeds Mercury, the Northampton Mercury, the
Gloucester Journal, the Norwich Mercury, and the
Ipswich Journal, Still ter activity was dis-
played in the later half of the 18th century, It
was in 1762 that the North Briton was first issued
by John Wilkes, No. 45 of that notorious journal
being the one which was burned by the hangman
and for which Wilkes was put in the Tower an
cast in heavy dam e Morning Chronicle
was started in 1770, the Morning Post in 1772, and
the Morning Herald in 1781. The Times (q.v.)—
the chief and central figure of modern journalism—
was started in 1788, as a development of the Daily
Universal Register, which had existed from 1785,
474
NEWSPAPER
Mr John Walter was the originator and sole owner
of both papess, and mainly through his energy and
ability did the journal ultimately attain its posi-
tion of pre-eminence. In the literary direction of
the paper he always so the highest available
talent, while in the mechanical production of it he
effected numerous improvements, In 1814 he suc-
ceeded in printing the 7tmes b bag pe wl
The publication of the leading London and pro-
vincial newspapers involves an immense outlay,
and the co-operation of an army of experts repre-
senting every department of human knowl Be.
The work is now divided and subdivided in such a
way that it is difficult to describe its organisation on
the lines of the old official designations. It is no
longer ible to speak unreservedly ofan ‘ editor-
in-chief’ as having necessarily supreme power as
the representative of the proprietors. So onerous
and so various have the duties of that office become
that it is, so to speak, frequently * put into com-
mission.” It is not uncommon to find a managing
editor whose business it is to control in every wa
the supply of news, including foreign correspond-
ence and reporting of all kinds, and a literary
editor who controls the general policy of the paper,
and is responsible for the style and substance of all
original matter. It is increasingly rare to find an
editor who writes any one of the several leading
articles with which most of the great dailies fur-
nish their readers, Each of these journals has a
staff of leader-writers, who are often well-known
workers in literature outside of journalism. On the
principal newspapers the leader-writing staff in-
cludes experts of the highest mark, who are paid
retaining fees in order that they may be in readi-
ness, on the shortest notice, to supply essays on
the subjects of which they are masters. For the
leaders themselves they are po special fees. A
similar system prevails with respect to special
correspondents, whether employed in a military or
social capacity. George Borrow was the first war-
correspondent, writing from Spain to the Morning
Herald in 1839. Some of these gentlemen receive
what Mr G. A. Sala has described as ‘the
wages of an aml dor,’ in ideration of
being always prepared to start for a campaign in
‘Darkest Africa,’ or to chronicle a royal pro-
That the services rendered in return in-
volves much personal danger is sadly suggested
by the memorial in the crypt of St Paul’s to the
war-correspondents who fell in the Soudan. The
sub-editors vary in number, according to the com-
pleteness of the organisation of the particular
paper. The duties of the sub-editor on all im-
portant newspapers, whether metropolitan or pro-
vincial, have been almost revolutionised during
the last four decades of the century. It is true
that on the evenin pers it is still neces-
sary that the sub-editors should make a special
study of the morning papers of the current date.
This indeed enables the evening, or more properly
speaking the afternoon, journals to appropriate the
most interesting telegraphic items within a few
hours of their appearance in the morning papers,
to whose conductors such specially wired news may
have caused a heavy expense. It may be noted
that in some of the British colonies a law already
exists giving copyright of ‘exclusive’ news
twenty-four hours after publication. On the whole,
however, the sub-editor has almost to be a
gleaner in the fields which have been sown and
already reaped by his colleagues, The old-fashioned
sneer at the conductors of newspapers, that they
‘put in anything to fill up,’ is now only an amus-
ing anachronism. Such are the ‘services’ of news
which a daily paper is obliged to employ—whether
they be those of the Press Association, the Central
News, the Central Press, the Exchange Telegraph
Conan , Reuter’s, or Dalziel’s—that a sub-editor's
trouble lea his work is to reconcile the
amount of ‘ flimsied’ matter which he has pnt into
the bor basket with his duties to his chiefs.
Reuter’s ney was founded in 1858, the Central
Press in 1863, the Press Association in 1868, and
the Central News Agency in 1870. .
There used to be twelve or sixteen parliamentary
shorthand reporters on every London daily. At
that time the daily provincial papers obtained their
telegraphic reports of parliament solely from one
or other of the news organisations. This is now
changed. The chief papers in the provinces have
formed syndicates in accordance with their respee-
tive politics for the purpose of obtaining special
reports of the debates from their own associated
staffs of reporters. This arrangement, which par-
liament sanctions, enables the leading provincial
dailies to supply parliamentary reports according
to their own special requirements, the result being
that debates are frequently reported at greater
length in those papers than in the London journals
of the same date. Thus it arises that the chief
provincial papers have offices in the neighbourhood
of Fleet Street or the Strand, where a special wire
or wires will connect the London and the country
offices, Formerly the journalists who were in
charge of these wires were styled the ‘wire men ;’
now they are designated London editors. In the
city there are also editors whose special functions
are the furnishing of information connected with
linancial matters to various panes: The chief
London dailies retain the exclusive services of a
city editor, while several provincial
published in different localities, are served by one
and the same city editor. These remarks apply
also in a modified degree to colonial and even
foreign newspapers, which often have their own
special services of news, and special representa-
tives, in London and other principal cities.
Another important representative of modern
phono enterprise is what is known as the
London correspondent. There were London cor-
respondents of a kind even in the days of the
Restoration, but it was not until 1863 that the
‘London letter,’ as it is now known, was introduced
as a special feature of provincial papers, In that
year the Central Press Agency proposed to supply
their clients with ‘a London letter once a week,
written by a gentleman of long emer in the
literary world.’ This was the late Edward Spender,
who for some years continued to write what formed
an admirable compendium of the week's political,
social, and literary gossip for country ers. As
time went on the weekly letter became a daily
contribution, and other London correspondents
— the ae until ow es Le cil is
an indispensable feature of all provincial journals,
Many well-known journalists are pric in this
work, including several members of parliament, and
the lobby of the House of Commons forms their chief
hunting: nd,
In 1 the number of newspapers published in
London was 79; in 1880 it was about 340; in 1890
it had increased to 646. Of these 28 are daily,
9 of which are issued in the evening (nominally i,
their first editions being issued about noon. The
price of these pares is either a penny, or, as in the
case of the Daily Mail (1896), a halfpenny ; the
Times continues to be published at threepence. The
list of daily papers, which formerly consisted almost
entirely of political journals, has during recent
years been increased by the appearance of several
daily sheets devoted exclusively to financial and
commercial matters. Financial journalism, indeed,
forms a very § 1 feature of modern newspaper
enterprise. he Economist, established in 1843,
journals,
jand a few other weeklies of kindred aims, held this
NEWSPAPER 475
ground with success for many years, but the great
speculative rush of more recent times, consequent
on the altered conditions brought about by the
passing of the Limited Liability Acts, has produced
@ vast number of papers of this class, the Financial
News, started in 1884, and the Financial Times,
founded a little later, being amongst the more
widely circulated of financial daily newspapers.
And again, not only does a fully-illustrated news-
paper, the Daily Graphic (1890), mt pay eve’
morning, but many of the other daily journa
ive illustrations of current events with more or
tne frequency. The difficulties of producing clear
illustrations by the rotary printing-machines which
are necessitated by large circulations are being
gradually overcome.
Of purely literary journals the number is not
lai The Atheneum, founded in 1828, is devoted
ecahadouly to books, authors, science, art, music,
and thedrama. The Academy, established in 1869 on
similar lines, repeatedly ‘modernised’ its plan (as
in 1898, when illustrations in the text were added),
The Literary World covers much of the same
nd. Several weekly journals, while devoting
— attention to lite’ criticism, have by
free, frank, and able handling of political and
social subjects made themselves both feared and
admired. The Examiner, established by Leigh
Hunt in 1808, lost ground after Hunt’s retirement
in 1821, but ker & oesr later, when Albany
Fonblanque succeeded to the post, it again became
a power, and for many years remained the champion
Radical thought. The Spectator, edi by
Rintoul, also held a strong independent position
about this period. Both papers were much read
by the cultured classes; but after changes of
editorship and rae de term of decadence set in;
and when, in 1854, the Saturday Review made its
seresrence, controlled and contributed to by some
the brightest intellects of the day, a great stride
in advance was made, and. the weekly review
became as influential as the great quarterlies had
been in former days. Abont the same time the
Spectator was remodelled hy R. H. Hutton and
eredith Townsend, and has ever since stood
high as the representative of what may be termed
the Philosophical Radicals. The Speaker, estab-
lished in 1890, is edited by Sir T. vat Reid,
and is a Radical @ National Observer
(founded in 1888 as Scots Observer ) ran till 1897
as a rvative political and literary review.
Literature (issued from the Times office since 1897)
is a literary weekly. The Guardian (Anglo-
Catholic, 1846), the Zablet (Roman Catholic, 1840),
the Christian World and British Weekly (1859 and
1886, Nonconformist), are religious newspapers.
oats’ journalism dates from the first publica-
tion of Vanity Fair in 1868, and was strengthened by
the issuing of the World in 1874, and Truth in
1877. These ro and a host of pas that
have been publ hed in imitation o them, have
made the wri of personal paragraphs and
articles a leading feature; one of the results
being a marked increase in the number of libel
suits. The combination of the nal and
se! elements constituting what it is custom-
gg describe as the ‘new journalism’ likewise
calls for mention. Cradled in America, it was
boldly adopted in England by Mr W. T. Stead in
the early days of his editorship of the Pali Mall
Gazette eagerly taken up by numerous others.
The following figures will give some idea of the
de of the a a ress of the United
Kingdom, and — of ite c assification: Daily
morning papers, $ y evenin rs, 126;
pe published in England outside Londen, 1318;
Scotland, 241; Ireland, 192; Wales, 90; the
Channel Islands, 14; the Isle of Man, 7.
In the following analysis of class and trade
journals it has been found practically impossible
to differentiate between newspapers properly so
called and other periodicals. Occasionally, too,
a journal will — under more than one classi-
fication. The distribution of papers according to
subjects, however, may be thus distinguished :
Accountants, 2; agents, 3; agriculture, 30; an-
tiquities, 3; anti-vaccination, 1; architecture, 8;
army, 11; art, 16; astronomy, 1; athletics, 12;
auctioneers, 3; bakers, 3; banking, 1; Baptists,
11; bees, 3; bells, 1; booksellers, 9; boot and
shoe trades, 2; botany, 2; boys, 6; brewers, 4;
builders, 13; bnilding-societies, 2; butchers, 1;
ters, 1; caterers, 3; cattle-dealers, 2; chari-
ties, 5; chemists and druggists, 10; chess, 3;
Church, 47; civil service, 8; coach-builders, 2; coal
trade, 2; colonies, 21; comic, 30; commercial, 41 ;
conf ery, 3; contracts, 4; co-operation, 4;
country, 7; county courts, 1; cow-keepers, 1;
cricket, 1; cycling, 5; decoration, 6; dental, 3;
dogs, 5; drama, 13; drapers, 4; dyers, 1; educa-
tion, 23 ; resem 6; engineering, 10; entomol-
ogy, 1; estates, 7; exchange, 4; fashions, 37;
financial, 39; fire, 2; fishing and fish-trades, 4;
food, 3; freemasonry, 4; Free Methodists, 2;
friendly societies, 4; Friends (Society of), 3; fruit
trades, 2; furniture, 8; gardening, 16; gas, 3;
NaH i , 1; German, 2; grocers,
s gynecology, 1; hairdressers, 2; hardware, 1;
hatters, 1; homeopathy, 2; horology, 2; horses,
2; hosiers, 1; illustrated, 14; implements, 1;
India, 6; india-rubber, 1; insurance, 18; inven-
tions, 3; iron and ironmongers, 7; jewellers, 1;
Jewish, 4; labour, 4; ag pal 3; law, 18; leather,
5; licensed victuallers, 6; lifeboats, 1; literary,
18; live-stock, 7; local government, 6; machinery,
3; matrimonial, 2; mechanics, 3; medical, 26;
meteorology, 1; millers, 2; mineral waters, 4;
mining, 3; music, 18; natural history, 6; navy, 14;
Nonconformists, 13 ; non-sectarian (religious), 46;
notes and queries, 2; numismatics, 1; official, 2;
oil and colour trade, 2; paper trades, 10; pawn-
brokers, 1; peace, 1; photography, 10; phrenology,
2; plumbers, 1; pottery, 1; poultry, 8; Presby-
terian, 3; Primitive Methodist, 7; printers, 12;
railways, 10; Roman Catholic, 15; saddlers, 3;
sanitary, 8; scientific, 6; secular, 3; shipping, 14;
shorthand, 3; society, 24; sporting, 40; stamps,
1; Sunday-schools, 6; tailors, 3; telegraphy, 2;
temperance, 32; textile industries, 11; timber
trade, 2; time-tables, 36; tobacco, 4; undertakers,
1; Unitarian, 2; warehousemen, 3; Wesleyans, 6;
wine and spirits, 4; yachting, 1.
The circulations attained at the present day
the leading metropolitan and Fab apers is
in some instances very large. The Daily Telegraph
and the Standard each circulates close on a quarter
of a million copies. Amongst the London evening
pers the Star, the Echo, and the Evening News
and Post each claims a circulation of 200,000 copies
or thereabouts. Of the penny weeklies, Lloyd's
ewspaper heads the list with half a million copies,
and a further half-million is divided between the
Weekly Dispatch and Reynolds's Newspaper. Other
London weeklies with vast circulations are the
Police News, Referee, Illustrated London News,
with the Sketch, Graphic, and Black and White.
In the provinces there are the Yorkshire Post,
45,000, the three Manchester morning papers (with
a combined issue of at least 100,000), and the
Birmingham Post, 30,000, amongst the mornin
dailies; and a glance at the list of provincia
weeklies. gives us the Sheffield Weekly Telegraph,
215,000, the Glasgow Weekly Mail, 200,000, the
Dundee Weekly News and People’s Journal, 200,000,
the Newcastle Weekly Chronicle, 100,000, the Man-
chester Weekly Times, 100,000, and the Sunday
476
NEWSPAPER
Chronicle (Manchester), 200,000. It should be
mentioned also that since 1882, when 7it-Bits was
started, there have sprung into existence a aes
number of journals aay 3 are eal — y
news rs nor magazines, but are widely popular.
Tit- Bate has a circulation of over half a million
copies per week. Following in its train are such
papers as Answers, Pearson's Weekly, &c., all of
which sell largely.
As already mentioned, the newspaper press of
Scotland had its origin during the civil warsof the
17th century, a printer named Higgins, attached to
Cromwell’s army, being employed to reprint the
London Mercurius Politicus tor the benefit of the
troops then in Scotland. This issue was continued
from 1653 to 1660; in which latter year the Mer-
curius Caledonius was published, existing coy for
three months, and being succeeded by the King-
dom's Intelligencer. In 1699 came the Edinburgh
Gazette, in 1702 the Edinburgh Courant, in 1706
the Scots Courant, and in 1718 the Edinburgh
Evening Courant. In 1720 the Mercurius Cale-
donius was revived as the Caledonian Mercury, and
survived until the middle of the 19th century.
The Scotsman, which may be regarded as the Times
of Scotland, came into existence in 1817, the
Glasgow Herald in 1782, the Aberdeen Journal in
1746, the Kelso Mail in 1797, the Dundee Adver-
tiser in 1801, the Ayr Advertiser in 1803, the North
oo Daily Mail in 1847, and the Scottish Leader
in 1887.
In Ireland, a news-sheet called Warranted
Tidings from Ireland saw the light during the
rebellion of 1641, but the Dublin Newsletter, started
in 1685, was the first Irish news paper roperly so
called. A Dublin daily, called Bucs ccurrences,
ran from 1700 to about 1750; and Faulkner's Jour-
nal, another Dublin daily journal, was started in
1728. Sauncders’s Newsletter, established in. 1746,
existed down to 1879. The Dublin Evening Post
was first issued in 1725; and in 1737 the "Pet fast
Newsletter, the oldest existing Irish nore r,
was § - The Derry Journal was estab’ ‘che
in 1772, the Limerick Chronicle in 1766, and the
Belfast Northern Whig in 1824.
he English papers of the principality of Wales
show evidences of the pressure of a public de-
mand whieh every year becomes more exacting.
In the northern division, a thinly-spread population
have still to be content with weekly papers—
Welsh and English—with the addition of such
daily supply as is afforded by the Liverpool press.
The tenacity with which the masses cling to the
native language enables the Baner of Denbigh to
hold a commanding position among the newspapers
of North Wales. P aifferent condition of thin
obtains in the busy centres of South Wales, wit
its vigorous industrial life and populous com-
munities. Two daily papers share the patronage
of the South Walian, The Western Mail, a pro-
gressive Democratic-Conservative journal, is the
senior in point of age. The South Wales Daily
News is the organ of the advanced Liberalism pro-
fessed by the majority of South Wales electors.
Both mie are published in Cardiff. Each popu-
lous district has its local journal, and the vernacu-
ga is supported by a large, but diminishing,
clas
In the different British colonies newspaper enter-
rise has been very active in recent years. As far
Pack as 1803 the Australian colonies were catered
for by the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales
Advertiser, which was published ‘by authority.’
The Australian, also issued in New Sonth Wales,
was originated in 1824, but snecumbed in 1848,
In 1831, however, the Sydney Morning Herald was
established, and has long held the position of being
the most substantial paper in the colony. In
Victoria the Melbourne Advertiser was the pro-
nitor of the existing race of Victorian journals.
t first it was written, not printed, and had a
circulation of not more than a dozen copies at six-
pence a copy. It ceased with its thirty-second
number. e Argus and the Age—the latter
reputed to have the largest circulation of ony in
Australia—now hold the first rank. South Ans-
tralia has in the Register a journal which has been
published daily since 1850, There are not more
than about a score of journals in Western Australia,
the number including three dailies. The Brisbane
Courier is’ the of journalism in Queens-
land. There are two other dailies in Brisbane, and
about seventy papers altogether in the colony. In
Tasmania the news press to have a
history in 1810. There are four dailies in the
colony, and about twenty others. In New Zealand
there are no fewer than fourteen towns which have
daily
jou
rs, besides more than a lundred other
published throughout the island.
In the South African colonies the Cape Times,
although it was only established in 1876, takes the
lead. In Johannes’ f English enterprise has a
great deeper te re Argus, neues on %
ercury, published three times a week, was es'
lished in 1875 in King William’s Town. Natal has
three daily og ee and cay weeklies. On the
Gold jierra Leone, St Helena, Mauritius,
British (which has a daily paper at George-
town), and the West Indies (with a daily journal
in Jamaica) British journalism is more or less well
represented. Even Cyprus has its weekly Owl.
China claims to have had newspapers before they
were known in Europe, and we are specially
interested in the three or four English dailies pub-
lished in Hong-kong.
In India we find an English press powerful and
influential out of all proportion to the extent of its
circulation. Every European British subject in
India, who has brains and character, is the centre
of a social system. To him the news’ , which
constitutes the link between his early home and
the scene of his daily labour, is an infinitely more
important institution than the British journal is to
the citizen of London or Liverpool. The English-
man, a daily paper published in Calcutta, first
made its appearance in 1821, under the title of the
John Bull in the East, and had set up at its press
the rough proofs of several of Macaulay's
known essays. There are two other dailies in
Caleutta, while Bombay, Madras, Allahabad,
Delhi, Lahore, and Rangoon have each one or
more daily news rs. Many journals are issued
in English by ves for native readers, and the
sheets printed in the vernacular languages are
— The small cost of native labour largely
aids the multiplication of Indian journals.
United States and Canada.—In 1890 there were
issued in the United States and Canada a total
number of 17,760 newspapers and periodical here
lications, consisting of 13,164 weeklies, 2191
monthilies, 1626 dailies, 280 semi-monthlies, 217
semi-weeklies, 126 quarterlies, 82 bi-weeklies, 38
bi-monthlies, and 36 tri-weeklies. The geographical
distribution of the 17,760 periodicals is as 3
New York state, 1778 ; Illinois, 1309 ; Pennsylvania,
1281; Ohio, 1043; Dominion of Canada, 812;
Kansas, 807; Iowa, 799; Missouri, 756; Massa-
chusetts, 685; Indiana, 651; Michigan, 644;
Nebraska, 565; California, 536; Wisconsin, 529;
Texas, 494; Minnesota, 427; New Jersey, 318;
Colorado, 268 ; hg 257; Kentucky, 257;
Sonth a 250; Tennessee, 236; the Terri-
tories, 220; Virginia, 220; North Carolina, 192;
Arkansas, 185; Connecticut, 182; Maryland, 178;
Alabama, 175; Maine, 156; Mississippi, 155;
Lonisiana, 152; Washington, 146; West Virginia,
NEWSPAPER
+
477
143; Oregon, 133; New he emt 126; Florida,
121; South Carolina, 120; North Dakota, 119;
Vermont, 83; District of Columbia, 68; Rhode
Island, 64; Montana, 58; Delaware, 38; Nevada,
24. It is estimated that the total issue of a single
edition of all these pepe represents a circulation
of 41,524,000 copies, being an average edition of
2335 copies. According to classification it is found
that there are 27 publications with circulations of
150,000 for each issue, 28 with 100,000, 35 with
75,000, and 42 with 50,000; while at the other end
of the scale there are 5426 publications classed as
issuing only 500 copies per issue. New York prints
more than a quarter of all the papers which are
sold, and Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Massachusetts
more than another quarter. Nearly 75 per cent.
of all the publications issued appear weekly.
According to an expert statement there were issued
in the United States and Canada in 1899 a total of
22,061 newspapers and periodicals, of which 15,688
were weeklies, and 2229 were dailies.
The earliest newspaper published in America
was Publick Occurrences, 1690; this was followed
in 1704 by the Boston News-letter, which continued
without a rival until 1719, when the Boston
Gazette was issned ‘by authority.’ Later on the
News-letter extended its title, and became the
Massachusetts Gazette and Boston News-letter, and
was conspicuous for its support of the British rule
in the early days of the war of co pea ceas-
ing to exist, however, when the English troops
evacuated Boston. In 1721 the New England
Courant was established by James Franklin, and
subsequently was conducted by his more renowned
, Benjamin Franklin. The latter started a
paper of his own, the Pennsylvania Gazette, in 1729,
after the death of the Courant, and this appeared
weekly down to 1745, whien it merged in the North
American, Edes's Boston Gazette, begun in 1755,
was for a long time the chief organ of the popular
party, and was the medium throngh which John
Adams published his ‘ Letters of Novanglus.’ The
M usetts Spy was another paper of note on
the revolutionary side. On being removed from
Boston to Worcester its title was changed to the
Worcester Spy. At the revolution the New
England colonies 14 newspapers; Penn-
sylvania, 9; New York, 4; and the middle and
southern colonies, 10. All save the semi-weekly
Advertiser of Philadelphia were published weekly.
From this period onward the of American
ournalism was marked by rapid strides; it extended
by leaps and bounds, developing an originality all
own, and displaying an activity in some direc-
tions altogether iad Datending the achievements
of Great Britain.
What the existing journalistic enterprise of
the North American continent represents has
already been indicated; it is desirable, however,
that some of its more salient features should be
referred to. American = have always been
more strongly personal than English journals,
It is to the transatlantic reporter that we owe
the introduction of ‘interviewing’ and the inven-
tion of ‘head-lines,’ amongst other things. No
effort is spared to make an American news-
paper understanded and admired of the people ; it
gives news in abundance, usually presented in a
sensational manner, and vents its views and
opinions with what an English journalist would
regard as a reckless unrestraint. ‘The organisation
and equipment of the leading papers of the chief
cities are most complete, including an editorial and
reportorial staff of neo He ceiranbeiens backed by a
of remarkable vigour and enterprise.
majority of American and Canadian
rs are, of course, printed in English, but there
a considerable number published in other tongues.
Those published in the German language number
724, while 112 are in French, 59,in the Seandi-
navian langu , 34 in Spanish, 16 Bohemian, 12
Dutch, 7 Polish, 4 Danish, 5 Welsh, 8 Finnish, 5
Italian, 2 Portuguese, 2 Chinese, and 2 Hungarian.
The principal papers of America and Canada have
a world-wide renown. The Herald, originated by
James Gordon Bennett, the Tribune, founded by
Horace Greeley, the World, the Times, the Sun
are the chief papers of New York; and in Chicago,
Boston, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Philadelphia, St
Louis, San Francisco, and other cities there are
journals hardly less famous. Amongst the chief
Canadian papers may be mentioned the Toronto
Globe, which claims to be the leading paper of the
Dominion, the Montreal Herald, the Quebec Morn-
ing Chronicle, the Ottawa Free Press, and the
Ottawa Citizen. There is a considerable sprinklin
of Canadian papers printed in French, the chief o'
them yp reaieen Bix Quebee and Montreal. The
Sunday paper long been a specially popular
institution in America. Nearly every prominent
daily in the States issues its enlar; Sunday
edition, which in addition to its news proper
contains a vast amount of miscellaneous reading,
culled from all kinds of sources, and often includ-
Ln eine contributions of great merit. In Canada
Sunday papers are not so common.—In some of the
large cities of South America, also, as in Rio de
Janeiro and Buenos Ayres, there are ably con-
ducted English newspapers.
France.—Journalism in France an with the
Gazette in 1631. The first French daily paper was
the Journal de Paris, started in 1777. Many
journals sprang into existence with the Revolution,
ut most of them had but a brief career. Under
the first Napoleon the freedom of the press was
much restricted. It was then that the danger
attending the handling of political questions sug-
gested the filling of a large — of the sheet
with the ‘ Fenilleton’ (q.v.). There are at present
about 44 daily papers (morning and evening) pub-
lished in Paris alone. As newspapers, in the full
sense of the phrase, the journals of France cannot
be compared with those of Great Britain. They
contain less matter, and they do not, as a rule,
report with any degree of fullness home or foreign
events. The Temps, which is said to have a cireu-
lation of 45,000 Wy day, approaches somewhat to
the English standard ; but the Figaro, which, with
its singular mixture of clericalism and worldliness,
would be considered frivolous in England, has a
circulation of 100,000 daily. French daily papers
generally cost at least twice as much as English
ones. notable exception, however, is found in
Le Petit Journal, an evening 44 costing 5 cen-
times (one halfpenny), witch as probably the
largest cireulation of any paper in the world; it
is put down at 950,000. See also GALIGNANI.
gium.—An illustrated war-gazette called the
Niewetijdinghe was the first journal published in
the Low Countries, in 1605, and was succeeded |
the Gazette van Antwerpen, which survived until
1805. The Belgian newspdpers are now numerous,
including about a dozen daily journals in Brussels,
and half that number (mainly in Flemish) in
Antwerp. The Indépendance Belge, on the Liberal
side, and the Journal de Bruxelles, as the organ of
the clerical party, with the toile Belge, are the
leaders of public opinion.
Holland.—The newspapers of Holland were at
an early date remarkable for the fullness and
accuracy of their intelligence ; but until 1830 their
news was chiefly confined to commercial matters.
The principal Dutch journals of to-day are the
Allgemeene Handelsblad of Amsterdam, and the
Amsterdam Courant; the. Harlemsche Courant ;
and the Journal de la Haye, De Nederlandsche
478 NEWSPAPER
NEWT
meoneeh and Staats-Courant, published at the
aygue.
ee eee the Swiss press is gener-
ally speaking ably conducted, it does not include
any journal of European importance. The different
cantons have their local newspapers, in which local
matters are discussed with much political bias, and
latterly there have been published one or two
Swiss journals printed in French and English, and
intended mainly for the travelling public, the Swiss
Times being the first of these.
Germany, as we have seen, was farnished with
news-sheets long prior to their introduction into
England ; but it was not before 1615 that any
German sco gx ag had a really settled habitation.
Frankfort was the first town to a journal of
its own ; Fulda, Hildesheim, and Herford followed.
The first Leipzig newspaper was published in 1660.
The Blainburguoks Correspondent deserves mention
as the first paper to organise a staff of foreign
correspondents. In 1798 the Al/gemeine Zeitung
was established by Cotta, and gradually made its
way into the front rank of ico pean journals,
being still regarded as the le ing paper in
Germany. Severe restrictions have fettered the
German press even in recent years, the government
having exhibited no little animus against the many
socialistic journals which have sprung into exist-
ence, but now comparative freedom is bg as bay
Berlin owns a large number of daily papers, inelud-
ing the Vossische Zeitung, the orddeutsche
A ine Zeitung, the Neue Preussische Zeitung,
the Post, the National Zeitung, and the Vol
zeitung. The Cologne Gazette is a paper of
influence, and at Hamburg and other leading
towns there is considerable journalistic enterprise.
In_ 1833 Germany had 350 journals of all kinds;
it has now 5500, about a quarter of which were
until recently avowedly government organs—hence
the vogue of the term ‘ Bismarck’s reptile press.’
Austria.—Austrian journalism has similarly ex-
panded and improved in recent years. Vienna is a
very active centre, and within its boundaries many
excellent bp bh are issued, the Neue Freie Presse
and the Neue Wiener Tagblatt being the most
important. oie in
ungary.—The literary activity of Hungary ma:
he jeleel oF the fact that there are no fewer thax
17 papers published daily in the capital, some of
them having a circulation of 25,000.
Denmark,—U p to 1830 only two newspapers were
printed in Copenhagen, and both were entirely
made up of extracts from foreign journals. The
olticial paver, the Berlingske Tidende, which was
establis in 1749, is published daily, and has a
cireulation of 10,000. There are ten daily journals
published in the capital, and the Aftenposten, an
evening paper, has the largest circle of readers.
S n and Norway.—The Ordinarie Post
Tidende, started in 1643, seems to have been the
first Swedish paper. Stockholm now boasts four
daily journals, the Stockholm Dagblad having a
circulation of 23,000. Den Morgendblad is the lead-
ing paper of Norway. *
‘pain.—Spanish journalism cannot be said to
have really existed until a comparatively recent
period. There was no liberty of the press in Spain
until after the revolution of 1854. the chief daily
journals of Madrid are the Correspondencia de
no and the Imparcial, the former having a
circulation of about 50,000, the latter of some
70,000. The press of Portugal is not more flourish-
ing than that of Spain.
taly.—Mention has already been made of the
early Gazettes of Italy. Their successors were
denounced by the , especially by G
XIIL, and up to 183} “the talian orean wae a
small account, A rigid censorship existed until
far into the 19th century. There are now fifty
ay ge nel etree
ogna, Florence, Genoa, Milan, Leghorn,
Palermo, and Turin. The Secolo of Milan is
credited with a daily circulation of 120,000,
Russia,—Peter Great was the author of
Russian journalism. Political journalism, how-
ever, is practically forbidden in the dominion of
the czar, the papers occupying themselves-for the
most with literary and scientific questions:
The Journal de St Petersbourg (1824) is semi-official,
and, though it has but a small circulation, it is
well known throughout Europe, being pu in
French. The two daily papers of largest ci i
are the Novoe Vremya (‘ New Times’), the organ
of the envied party, and the Novossti (‘ Latest’
News’), which represents the doctrinaire Liberals.
Turkey.—Journalism in Turkey is chiefly of
foreign origin, and the French were the first to
French, or ish. The leadi rkish journal,
the Djeridei ished in 1843 by an
Englishman.
See the articles RePorTING, ADVERTISING, and Print-
ING; also Andrews’ History of British Journalism (Lond.
1859); Grant’s The N per Press; its Origin, Pro-
x and hcg Condition Pe ie) H. Fox
's English Newspapers 3 Pebody’s
English Journalism, and the Men who have made It
(Lond. 1882); Baker’s Zhe Newspaper World (Lond.
wet a Newspaper Press Directory ; and Sell’s
8
Newstead Abbey, 10 miles NNW. of Notting-
ham, on the border of Sherwood Forest, was founded
for Augustinian Canons by Henry II. in atonement
for Becket’s murder (1170), and in 1540, after the
dissolution, was given to ‘Sir John Byron the
Little, with the beard.’ Among his descend-
ants were the first Lord Byron (cre. 1643), the
‘wicked Lord Byron’ (1722-98), and the poet
Lord Byron (q.v.), who made the half-ruinous old
place his home in 1808, but sold it in 1818, since
which time about £100,000 has been spent on its
resto For a full description of Newstead,
its lake, ruined chureh, superstitions, and memori
ror tana com Irving’s Abbotsford and Newst
(1835).
New Style. See CaLenpar, CuronoLoey.
New Sweden. See PENNSYLVANIA.
Newt, or Err (Zriton), a genus of caduci-
branchiate Amphibians (see AMPHIBIA), somewhat
resembling the Salamanders, but more slender
and active, and making up with them the family
Salamandride. The newts have a soft, sensitive
skin, covered with warty tubercles or granules; a
laterally-compressed tail; four fingers and five
toes; teeth on the jaws and palate; an el and
a lower eyelid, and a third eyelid or nictitating
membrane ; near the snout, open
internally into the mouth; and_ generally well-
develoged organs of the lateral line. tooe Bon
found in marshes and ponds and damp
In habit they are carnivorous, devouring sewers
of various ies, worms, snails, frog-spawn, and
even smaller animals of their own kind, Sixteen
species are enumerated, widely distributed in
urope, and found also in Algeria, North China
and Japan, the eastern states of North America,
California, and Oregon. The Great Water Newt,
or Warty Newt (7. cristatus), is the British
— y= is — 6 inches long; t! oy is
thick and round, the upper parts are generally very
dark, the sides are dotted with white, and the
breast and belly are of a bright orange colour,
oe ee
NEWT
NEWTON 479
with black spots. The male is more vividly coloured
than the female, the sides of the tail are of a beau-
tiful ly colour, and at the breeding season he
develops a large back crest (fig. 1). The movements
Fig. 1.—Great Water Newt ( Triton cristatus).
in slow swimming are accomplished by means of the
tail and the limbs ; but in fast swimming both pairs
of limbs are laid ——~ the body, and the move-
ments are effected by rapid undulations of the
body and tail. On land they crawl by means of
their weak limbs. In summer they cast their skin
perhaps many times, sometimes by complete slough-
ing, but sometimes it comes off in shreds. In winter
they generally remain at the bottom of ponds and
ditches. Like many other animals of the same
genus, they show great power of reproducing lost
ee. the tail, limbs, and portions of the head
ing very perfectly restored, even several times in
succession. They are also able to withstand great
cold. In laying her eggs the female deposits them
on the leaves of aquatic plants, each egg being
deposited separately below a leaf, which is then
folded, apex to petiole, by means of the newt’s
hind-limbs, so as to retain the egg in position. The
embryo grows rapidly and becomes bent in shape.
In seven days the gills and legs appear as small
knobs. By the ninth day the tail is oar-shaped,
and the heart may be seen beating. On the tenth
day the fore-limbs and claspers appear beside the
gills. In two or three days more the eyes appear
as distinct strnetures, and the gills hecome leaf-
like. About the fourteenth day the embryo escapes
from the and holds on to leaves of water-plants
by means of its claspers. At this stage of its exist-
ence it resembles a fish in outward form and in-
ternal structure, and its whole anatomy may very
easiiy be studied on account of its transparency.
About twelve days after leaving the egg the fore-
feet are longer, rudiments of toes are visible; the
ills, at first ciple, hecome fringe-like, and red
lood circulates through them, and the claspers
a=
- ? : q
= ‘
Fig. 2.—Larve of Triton cristatus.
A, condition before leaving the egg; B, tatlpole shortly after it
is hatched ; C, at about the twenty-second day; D, at about
the forty-second day.
disappear. About the twenty-second day it begins
to breathe by means of its developing fed oe
gills are still large, and the hind-legs begin to
sprout. This change takes place concurrently with
A
the change of diet from vegetable to animal food.
About the forty-second day after hatching, the gills
begin to grow smaller and are soon obliterated.
The newt then seeks to leave the water, respires
atmospheric air only, and goes on to sexual matur-
ity. In some circumstances individuals of this
species occasionally retain some of the external
appearances of immaturity in spite of having be-
come capable of reproduction (a phenomenon more
common, however, in a European species, 7. alpes-
tris, which may become sexually perfect even in its
pg stage); and in rare instances they may bring
forth their young alive as do the true salamanders,
The Great Water Newt is seldom found on land.
The Common Smooth Newt (7. punctatus), a
smaller species about 34 inches long, is much more
common in Britain than the great newt, from which
it also differs in having a smooth skin, the back
crest continuous with ‘the tail crest, and in being
often found on land. Its eggs are laid in the axils
of leaves quite as often as under the leaves. The
Palmated Smooth Newt (7. palmipes) is the only -
other common British species. It has been found
in various of Britain from the Isle of Wight
to the north of Scotland. The toes of the hind-foot
are webbed, the tail ends in a long filament, and
the back crest is straight ; these characteristics are
prominent only in the breeding season.
Newts form very interesting inmates of aquaria,
where they may be easily reared and kept; and
their —— movements and development interest
the observer. The words newt and eft are really
identical, a newt = an ewt, A.S. efeta, just as an
adder resulted from a nadder by mistake.
Newton, (1) crite of Harvey county, Kansas,
134 miles by rail SW. of Topeka, is the centre of a
rich coalfield. Pop, (1900) 6208.—(2) A city of
Massachusetts, 7 miles WSW. of Boston by rail,
and almost surrounded by the Charles River. It
contains many suburban residences belon ing to
citizens of nm, and has manufactures of cloth,
silk, shoddy, machinery, glue, &c. Pop. (1860)
8382; (1890) 24,379; (1900) 33,587.
Newton, Sir Isaac, the greatest of natural
pollens was born on 25th December (0.s.)
642—year remarkable in English history for
the breaking out of the Civil War, and doubl
remarkable in the history of science by the birt
of Newton and the death of Galileo. The farm-
house he was born in, still preserved religiously, is
at the hamlet of Woolsthorpe in Cottersworth
parish, Lincolnshire, 8 miles 8. of Grantham (q.v.),
at whose mar-school the boy received his early
education. On the 5th of June 1661 he left home
for Cambridge, where he was admitted as subsizar
at Trinity College. On the 8th of July following
he: matriculated as sizar of the same college. He
immediately applied himself to the mathematical
studies of the place, and within a very few years
must have not only made himself master of most
of the works of any value on such subjects then
existing, but had also begun to make some progress
in the methods for extending the science. In 1665,
in which year he took his B.A., he committed to
writing his first discovery on fluxions ; and in 1666,
according to Voltaire’s Lettres sur les Anglais
(1733), the fall of an apple, as he walked in the
garden at Woolsthorpe, suggested the most magnifi.
cent of his subsequent discoveries—the law of uni-
versal gravitation. On his first attempt, however,
by means of the law so suggested to his mind, to
explain the lunar and planetary motions, he em-
ployed an estimate then in use of the radius of the
earth which was so erroneous as to produce a dis-
crepanéy between the real force of gravity and that
required by theory to explain the motions, corre-
sponding to the respective figures 16:1 and 13:9.
480
NEWTON
He accordingly abandoned the hypothesis for other
studies. These other pursuits to which he thus
betook himself consisted chiefly of investigations
into the nature of light, and the construction of
telescopes, By a variety of ingenious and inter-
esting experiments upon sunlight refracted nen
a prism in a dark ne gerres he was led to the
conclusion that raysof light which differ in colour
differ also in refrangibility. This discovery enabled
him to explain an imperfection of the telescope,
which had not till then been accounted for. The
indistinetness of the image formed by the object-
glass was not necessarily due to any imperfection
of its form, but to the fact of the different coloured
rays of light being brought to a focus at different
distances. He concluded rightly that it was in)pos-
sible for an object-glass consisting of a single lens
to produce a distinet im He went further, and
too hastily concluding, from a single experiment,
that the dispersive power of different substances
was proportional to their refractive power, he pro-
nounced it impossible to produce a perfect image
by a combination of Jenses. This conclusion—since
proved erroneous by the discovery of the achromatic
telescope (see ACHROMATISM)—turned Newton's
attention to the construction of reflecting tele-
scopes ; and the form devised by him is the one
which, at later periods, reached such perfection in
the hands of Sir William Herschel and Lord Rosse.
Newton became a Fellow of Trinity in 1667,
and Lucasian professor of Mathematics in 1669;
and it was on 11th January 1671 that he was
elected a member of the Royal Society, having
become known to that body from his reflectin
telescopes. At what period he resumed his cal-
culations about gravitation, employing the more
correct measure of the earth obtained by Picard
in 1670, does not clearly appear; but it was in
the year 1684 that it became known to Halley
that he was in possession of the whole theory and
its demonstration. It was on the urgent solicita-
tion of Halley that he was induced to commit to
a systematic treatise these principles and their
demonstrations. The principal results of his dis-
coveries were set down in a treatise called De Motu
rum, and were afterwards more completely
unfolded in the great work entitled Philosophie
Naturalis Principa Mathematica, which was finally
published about midsummer 1687,
Shortly before the Principia was given to the
public Newton had been called to take an active
part in defending the rights of the universit
- enper the illegal encroachments of James IL.
conspicuous which he had taken on that
occasion procu him a seat in the Convention
Parliament, in which he sat from January 1689 to
its dissolution in 1690. In 1696 he was appointed
Warden of the Mint, and was afterwards promoted
to the office of Master of the Mint in 1699, an office
which he held till the end of his life. He again
took a seat in parliament in the year 1701 as the
representative of his university. Thus engaged in
the public service, he had little time left for mere
scientific studies—pursnits which he always held of
secondary importance to the public duties in which
he was en In the interval of public duty,
however, Newton showed that he still retained the
scientific power by which his great discoveries had
been made. This was shown in his solution of two
celebrated problems proposed in June 1696 by John
Bernouilli, as a challenge to the mathematicians of
Europe. A similar mathematical feat is recorded
of him so late as 1716, in solving a problem pro-
gi by Leibnitz for the peees; as he expressed
t, of feeling the pulse of the English analysts,
When in parliament Newton recommended the
_ encouragement of the invention of a method
determining the longitude—the first reward in
consequence being gained by John Harrison for his
chronometer. e was president of the Royal
Society from 1703 till his death, a_ period
twenty-five years, being }
this position he could do much for the ad
ment of science; and one of his most im t
works during this time was the su
ence of the publication of Flamsteed’s i
Observations—a task, however, not accomplished
without much controversy and some bitterness
between himself and that astronomer. The con-
troversy between Newton and Leibnitz as to
priority of discoyery of the differential calenlus, or
the method of fluxions, was raised rather through
the partisanship of jealous friends than throu
the anxiety of the philosophers themselves, w
were, however, induced to enter into and carry on
the dispute with some degree of bitterness and
mutual recrimination. The verdict of the impartial
historian of science must be that the methods
were invented quite independently, and that,
although Newton was the first inventor, a greater
debt is owing by later analysts to Leibnitz, on
account of the superior facility and completeness of
his method. In 1699 Newton was elected a foreign
associate of the Academy of et and in 17
he received the honour of knigh
Anne, He died at Kensington on 20th March
1727, and his remains received a resting-place in
Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erec
to his memory in 1731. Roubilliac’s ificent
full-length statue was erected in 1755 in ante-
chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge.
appeared in 1713, 1726, 1729, 1730; and at Geneva the
esuits’ edition (1739-42; republished at a ges
An admirable reprint is that SS ar and
Eveuatcn of the Onin A ‘i706 the Optical
tion e ies ap! in ; the y
Lectures in 1728; Fluxions in 1736; Horsley
edited an edition of his works (5 vols, 4to
1779-85). Newton was a student of Alchemy (q.v.);
and ‘he left a ane ee of ky er in
theology, especially prophecy, a work on pro-
aaacel Daniel a on ha Apoonizpien: a history of the
tion, and a number of tracts, See the icles in
this work on AsTRONOMY. FLUXIONS, GRAVITATION,
Licut, Motion (Laws oF), Optics, Spectrum; Sir
David Brewster’s Life of Newton (1855); and eye
de Morgan’s Newton, his Friend, and his Niece (1885),
that friend being John Conduitt (1688-1737), Newton's
successor as master of the mint, who in 1717 married
Newton's niece, Katherine Barton, the widow probably of
the Earl of Halifax.
Newton’s Rrncs.—In his investigations of the
colours produced by thin plates of any terial,
solid, fluid, or gaseous, Sir Isaac Newton hit upon
the following mode of exhibiting the colours pro-
duced by reflection from a film of air, He took
two lenses, one convexo-plane, its convex side
having a radius of 14 feet, the other equi-convex,
with the radii of its surfaces 50 feet, and laid the
first with its plane surface downwards on the toy
of the second, thus producing a thin film of air
between the lenses; the film being thinnest near
the centre, and becoming gradually thicker ont-
wards, On slowly pressing the upper lens st
the under one, a number of concentrie coloured
rings, having the point of contact of the lenses for
their centre, appeared, and inc in size when
the pressure was increased. These rings, or more
properly systems of rings, are in this form of the
experiment seven in number, and each of them is
com of a number (ranging from eight in the
first or smallest ring to two in the outermost) of
rings of different colours, the colours, though
different in each of the systems of rings, preserv-
ing the same arrangement as the colours of the
spectrum; thus, in the second ring the inside
of
each year re-elected. In.
from Queen —
ae
_ surveyor at Liverpool.
NEWTON
NEW-YEAR’S DAY 481
colonr is violet, and the outside scarlet red. The
colours are very distinct in the first three systems
of ri but become ually confused and dull
Soyarde the outside, till they almost fade away in
the seventh system. The centre is deep black.
The thickness of the air-film at the centre is about
half a millionth of an inch, and increases nally
to nearly of an inch, when the colours dis-
appear. See INTERFERENCE.
Newton, Joun, the friend of Cowper, was born
in London, 24th July (0.s.) 1725. e had little
schooling, and, as his father was master of a trading
ship, the boy joined him at eleven and sailed under
him for six years. Next impressed on board a
man-of-war, he was made midshipman, but was
degraded and cruelly treated for an attempt to
escape. He was allowed at Madeira to exchange
into an African trader, joined a slaver at Sierra
Leone, and sailed with her for two years, returnin;
to din 1747. He next sailed to Guinea an
the West Indies as mate on a Liverpool slaver,
married in 1750, and made several voyages of the
same nature as master, giving his leisure to study.
In 1755 he renounced his calling to become tide-
His religious opinions had
ly a an im t change, which led
him to apply in 1758 to the Archbishop of York for
holy orders, but without success. In 1764 he was
offered the curacy of Olney, and he was at once
ordained deacon, and next year priest, by the
Bishop of Lincoln. Hither the poet Cowper came
abont four years later, and an extraordinary friend-
ship quickly sprang up between the two men.
Newton was a burning Calvinist, and it cannot be
doubted that the converted slaver’s influence was
to a great extent disadvantageous to the sensitive
nature of the poet. Newton left Olney in 1779 to
become rector of St Mary Woolnoth, London, and
here he died, December 31, 1807. Newton’s prose-
works, Omicron (1762), Cardiphonia (1781), &e.,
are now but little read, save his vigorous and inter-
esting Authentic Narrative of some Interesting and
Remarkable Particulars in his own Life. But his
name can never be forgotten from its association
with Cowper, and from some of his O/ney Hymns,
which have been taken to the heart by the English-
speaking religious world. Of these need only be
named here: ‘ Approach, my soul, the mercy-seat ;’
‘How sweet the name of Jesus sounds;’ ‘One
there is above all others;’ and ‘Quiet, Lord, my
froward heart.’
See the Life by Richard Cecil ( i), prefixed to a
Thomas Weight, The To 4 Couper (1886)) d other
rT own O) 5; and other
works cited at Cowper.
Newton, THomas, was born at Lichfield, Jan-
uary 1, 1704. From Westminster he passed to
Trinity College, Cambridge, became one of its
fellows, took orders, and after minor preferments
was made Bishop of Bristol and Canon identi:
of St Paul’s in 1761. He died 14th February 178:
Newton's annotated edition of Milton’s Paradise
Lost and Paradise Regained, and his Dissertations
on the Prophecies (3 vols. 1754-58) long enjoyed a
reputation far beyond their deserts.
Newton-Abbot, a market-town of Devonshire,
at the influx of the Lemon to the Teign estuary,
15 miles (by rail 20) S. of Exeter. Ford House, a
good Tudor building, has lodged both Charles I.
and William of Orange, who here in 1688 was first
proclaimed king. Pop. (1851) 3147; (1891) 10,951.
_Newton Heath, a town and local government
district, and part of the parliamentary borough of
Manchester, with a pop. of 29,189.
Newton-in-Makerfield (otherwise Newron-
Le-WILLows), with its suburb of Earlstown, a
oder © pial of Lancashire, 16 miles E. of Liver-
pool and 16 W. of Manchester. An important
railway junction, it has rapidly increased in
size, and large printing-works, paper-mills, iron-
foundries, and a sugar-refinery are here in opera-
tion, whilst numbers of hands are employed in the
making of bricks and railway wagons. Near to the
town is a fine racecourse on which a meeting is held
annually in July. At Parkside, 4 mile distant, the
Right Hon. W. Huskisson met with the accident
which caused his death, on the occasion (15th
September 1830) of the opening of the railway.
Newton returned two members to parliament from
1558 to 1832, when it was disfranchised. Pop.
(1801) 1455 ; (1881) 10,580 ; (1891) 12,861,
Newton-Stewart, one of the most beautifully
among the smaller towns of Scotland, on
the Wigtownshire side of the river Cree, near its
mouth, by rail 50 miles W. of Dumfries and 24
E. of Stranraer. It owes its name to a son of
the Earl of Galloway, who obtained a charter mak-
ing it a burgh of barony in 1677. Manufactur-
ing enterprises have hitherto proved unsuccessful.
Its buildings are a fine town-hall (1884) and an
endowed school, the Ewart Institute (1864). Pop.
(1841) 2432; (1881) 3070; (1891) 2732.
Newtown (Welsh Drefnewydd ; anc. Llanfair
Cedewain), a manufacturing town of Montgomery-
shire, North Wales, on the Severn and the Mont-
gomery Canal, 13 miles SSW. of Welshpool. It is
the centre of the Welsh flannel manufacture, and
also produces tweeds, shawls, &e. With Mont-
gomery, &c., it returns one member. Robert Owen
was a native. Pop (1851) 6371; (1891) 6610.
Hewteneerets a town of County Down, 14
miles E. of Belfast by rail. Flax-spinning, muslin-
weaving and embroidering, and nursery-gardening
are the industries, and there are important markets.
Pop. (1881) 8676 ; (1891) 9197.
New Westminster, formerly the capital of
British Columbia, is on the Fraser River, 10 miles
from its mouth and 113 miles by rail and steamer
NNE. of Victoria. Here are 6 churches, a convent,
Roman Catholie and Methodist colleges, a peniten-
tiary, a lunatic asylum, sawmills, and great salmon-
canning establishments, Pop. (1891) 6641.
New-year’s Day, the first day of the year.
The custom of celebrating by some religious observ-
ance, generally accompanied by festive rejoicing,
the first day of the year, appears to have prevailed
among most of the ancient nations. The Jews,
the ptians, the Chinese, the Romans, and the
Mohammedans, although differing as to the time
from which they reckoned the commencement of
the year (see CALENDAR, CHRONOLOGY, YEAR), all
regarded it as a day of special interest. On the
establishment of Christianity the usage of a
solemn inauguration of the New Year was re-
tained; but considerable variety prevailed, both
as to the time and as to the manner of its cele-
bration. Christmas Day, the Annunciation (25th
March), Easter Day, and Ist March have all, at
different times or places, shared with the Ist of
January the honour of opening the New Year; nor
was it till late in the 16th century that the Ist of
January was universally meg: hee as the first day
of the New Year. The early Fathers—Chrysostom,
Ambrose, Augustine, Peter Chrysologus, and
others—in reprobation of the immoral and super-
stitious observances of the pagan festival, pro-
hibited in Christian use all festive celebration ;
and, on the contrary, directed that the Christian
ear should be opened with a day of prayer, fast-
ig, and humiliation, The festal character of the
day, however, generally was preserved, though
the day was also observed as a day of prayer.
From the earliest recorded celebration, we find
notice of feasting and the interchange of presents
482 NEW-YEAR’S DAY
NEW YORK
as usages of New-year’s Day. Suetonius alludes
to the bringing of presents to the capital; and
Tacitus eaes a similar reference to the practice
of giving and pees | New-year's gifts. This
custom was continued by the Christian kingdoms
into which the western empire was divided. In
England we find many examples of it, even as a
of the public expenditure of the court, so far
et as the reign of Charles IL. ; and, as all our
antiquarian writers mention, the custom of inter-
changing presents was common in alk classes of
society. In England, as in Germany, this custom
has been largely eclipsed by the still more popular
ractice of Christmas gifts (see CHRISTMAS); in
Beotland, as in France and Italy, New-year’s Day
is still the day most observed, and the festival
according to Old Style, twelve days later, still
lingers in corners of the country. In some parts
of the United States and Canada gentlemen are
exceptionally industrious in making social calls on
the first day of the year. In many countries the
—_ of New-year's Eve, ‘St Sylvester's Eve,’ was
celebrated with great festivity, which was _pro-
longed till “after twelve o’clock, when the New
Year was ushered in with congratulations, compli-
mentary visits, and mutual wishes for a happy
New Year; this is an ancient Scottish custom
(see HOGMANAY). In eeny paces the practice of
tolling bells till midnight, and then ‘ringing in the
New Year,’ is still observed. Many religious com-
munions are wont to celebrate it with a special
service or ‘watch night.’ In the Roman Catholic
Church New-year’s is a holiday of strict obli-
gation. See bere s Book of Days.
New York, called the ‘empire state,’ is the
ag — in area, the ~* population, and
the fifth in . per sq. m. oO :
the United Staten It fics ‘be- | ais aceh suse
tween 45° and 40° 29’ N. lat., | Mppireott Company.
and between 71° 51’ and 79° 47’ W. long. It is
triangular in shape, and has an irregular outline.
Its boundary line measures 1420 miles, of which
879 miles, or nearly two-thirds of the entire length,
lie along the shores of Lake Erie, the Niagara
River, Lake Ontario, the St Lawrence River, and
Lake Champlain. The remaining portions of the
boundary are formed by arbitrary straight lines.
Area, 49,170 sq. m., or almost that of England,
Long Island is the largest, and Manhattan, con-
taining the most populous part of New York City,
the most important of the many islands.
The surface structure of New York is remarkably
diversified, and presents many contrasts of eleva-
tion. The state is traversed by numerous chains
of mountains and hills, among which lie beautiful
valleys. There is also much rolling land, and there
are several extensive plains. The greatest eleva-
tions are in the eastern and north-eastern parts of
the state, but nearly the whole of the south-eastern
part is hilly or mountainous. From this highland
region the land slopes gradually, and declines in
a series of terraces, north and west toward Lake
Ontario. The most level portions are those border-
ing that lake and the St Lawrence River. The
mountainous region in the east is ent by the gap
of the Mohawk River. The narrow valley of this
stream, once traversed by a mighty river which
drained the great Ontario basin, joins at right
angles the deep depression in which are Lake
Champlain, Lake George, and the Hudson River,
Both of these valleys pass directly through the
Appalachian system of mountains, and divide the
state into three distinct sections, The mountains
are also disposed in three groups. The Adiron-
dacks (highest point, Mount Marey, 5400 feet), in
» the north-eastern — of the state, are completely
isolated by the valleys of Lake Champlain and the
Mohawk River from all other parts of the Appal-
achian system. South of the Mohawk valley are
the Catskills with various associated groups, such
as the Helderberg and the Shawangunk Mountains,
covering an area of about 500 sq. m. The Shawan-
gunk Mountains are continuous with the Blue
or Kittatinny Mountains of Pennsylvania. The
Taconic range of New England enters the state
still farther south, and passes sonth-westerly into
New Jersey. This range is cut by the Hudson
nics eure eres meen
e ew Yor terest -
ing ond compebisdien With the cxeepulee of the
Jurassic formations and a few others closely related
in time with the Jura-Trias, its rocks exhibit de-
posits of nearly every period, from the primitive
—— —_ met seg oy peg alluvium.
riefly and super! , the onteropp’
rocks are disposed as follows: In the norkh-sechiee
part of the state, with the Adirondacks as a centre,
is a somewhat circular area of Archean formation. —
Along the eastern side of the Hudson River and
near its mouth, the Archean rocks again appear,
and are continuous with the primitive formations
of New England. Nearly surrounding the Adiron-
dack region is a belt of Silurian rocks, which ex-
tends southward along the western shore of the
Hudson, and westward, bordering u Lake
Ontario and Lake Erie. North of Adiron-
dacks is a belt of Cambrian rocks, and south and
west of the Silurian belt the greater part of the
formation belo to the Devonian age, with
traces of Carboniferous deposits, but no true coal-
measures, There are in the state some extensive
iron-mines, deposits of lead, copper, zinc, and other
valuable minerals, and an abundance of buil
stones, The salt-springs, especiall
Onondaga salt group, are of great value, There are
also valuable petroleum springs, and mineral and
medicinal springs—the most noted are those at
Saratoga, Ballston, Sharon, Richfield, Avon, and
New Lebanon.
The most important river belonging entirely to
the state is the Hudson (q.v.). he Oswego,
draining a chain of lakes in the central of
the state, the Black, and the Genesee are affluents
of Lake Ontario; the St Lawrence forms part of
the northern boundary; the Niagara connects
Lakes Erie and Ontario, and the Delaware, the
Susquehanna, and the Allegany rise within and
drain the southern portions of the state.
New York lies mainly in the lake region of
North America, The eastern part of Lake Erie,
one-half of Lake Ontario, and one-half of Lake
Champlain are controlled by the state, Among the
numerous lakes of north-eastern New York, fake
George and the Adirondack lakes are the most
noted. There are three groups of picturesque lakes
in central New York. The mountains, rivers, and
lakes of New York make it famous for its scenery,
Of this, one of the most notable features is the num-
her of waterfalls, among which the mighty Niagara
is of course pre-eminent. Other beautiful falls are
the Falls of the Genesee (q.v.), Trenton Falls, the
Kaaterskill Falls in the Catskills, and those of
Cohoes, Ticonderoga, and at Watkins Glen.
The average temperature of New York is about
47° F., with a range of over 100°. The climate
is thus subject to extremes, but is very healthful.
Although the surface is so diversified, most of the
soil is arable, and much of it is fertile. More than
one-half the area of the state is under cultivation,
The usual farm products are raised in abundance.
In the lake valleys there are many vineyards,
Hops and tobacco are also impertant crops. In
the vicinity of New York and the other ]
market-gardening is a pest occupation, and
the highland regions yield excellent milk, butter,
and cheese. But manufacturing is the leading
those of the
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industry, and in the value of its manufactured
roducts New York is the foremost state of the
nion. Moreover, its geographical position and
its natural avenues of communication with other
parts of the country, together with the system of
eanals and railroads, make it the leading com-
mercial state. There are several canals, of which
the Erie (see CANAL) is the most important. New
York is the centre towards which nearly all the
great railroads of the country tend, and within the
state there are over 8100 miles of railway.
Previous to the coming of the whites the territory
now known as New York was ocenpied by the
Troquois (q.v.) Indians. Almost simultaneously,
in 1609, Samuel Champlain discovered the lake
which bears his name, and Henry Hudson explored
the Hudson River as far as the present site of
Albany.
NOBILITY 513
the articles on the several orders of nobility. The
oldest English is the earldom of Arundel,
from 1155, and now held by the Dukes of
Norfolk ; the Irish barony of Kingsale dates from
1181; to the period 1181-1205 belong four baronies
now in other titles ; the Scottish earldom
of Suther’ goes back to 1228; and the baronies
of Le cer, De Ros, and Hastings are all of
the year 1
By the Act of Union between England and
and the Scotch rs elect sixteen of their
number to represent their body in the House of
Lords in each parliament. The peers of Ireland, in
virtue of the Irish Act of Union, elect twenty-
eight of their number to sit in the House of Lords
for life. The Act of Union with Scotland has been
understood to debar the sovereign from creating any
new Scotch ; all peers created in either
England or Beotland between that date and the
union with Ireland are peers of Great Britain ; and
peers in any of the three kingdoms sub-
sequently to the union with Ireland are peers of
the United Kingdom, with this exception that one
new peerage Ireland may be created on the
extinetion of three existing a ae When the
Irish peers are reduced to one hundred, then on the
extinction of one peerage another may be created.
All peers of Great Britain or of the United King-
dom have a seat in the House of Lords. A Scote
peer, marge not one of the sixteen representative
is debarred from sitting in the House of
Jommons, a disability which does not attach to
Irish peers. The peerage has from time to time
recruited by new additions, the persons selected
being in general peers of Scotland or Ireland ;
dered members of the families of peers; royal
(so recently as 1831); persons distinguished
for naval, military, political, or diplomatic services ;
eminent lawyers promoted to high judicial appoint-
ments; persons of large property and ancient
family, noble in the more extended sense; and
lastly, persons who have by commerce acquired
large fortunes and social importance. Many of the
Scotch and Irish sit in the House of Lords as
pera oe ot mo, ee ceage or of the
nited Kingdom. e privileges belonging to
peers as members of parliament will be espistiel
under PARLIAMENT; as peers, they also
the following immunities : they can only be tried
by their peers for mipny. treason, or misprision of
treason, when the whole members of the peer
are summoned, All the privileges belonging to the
English except the right of sitting in the
House were extended to the peers of
Scotland by the y of Union. A peer who has
(Roegt
different titles in the takes in ordinary
rlance his highest title, one of the inferior titles
ing given by poarieey4o his eldest son. Certain
Courtesy Titles (q.v.) belong also to the daughters
and younger sons of a peer, but do not extend to
their ren. British subjects can hold foreign
titles of nobility only by consent of the crown.
The ancient Scottish ogee of Fairfax has since
1800 been confirmed to citizens of the United
States, landholders in Virginia. The sixth baron
was a friend of Washington, the tenth (1829-69)
was speaker of the California House of Representa-
tives, The barons of Longueuil, a Canadian
family, are socogamed in Britain (see LE Moyne).
In | boa a limited body of the higher nobility,
styled the peers, were in the enjoyment of privileges
not by the rest. The title of Duke was
oubject to strict rnle, but many titles of Marquis
Count, believed to be pure assumptions, were
068 ON the courtesy of society. The head of
a noble family often assumed at his own hand the
title of merge 5 and if an estate was purchased
ometrry belonged to a titled family the purchaser
was in the habit of transferring to himself the
honours by his predecessor—a practice to
which Louis XV. put a stop. Immediately before
the Revolution 80,000 families claimed nobility,
many of them of obscure station, and less than 3000
of ancient lin Nobles and clergy together
possessed two-thirds of the land. Practically, the
estimation in which a member of the French nobility
was held depended not so much on the degree of his
title as on its antiquity, and the distinction of those
who had borne it. The higher titles of nobility
were not borne by all members of a family ; eac
son assumed a title from one of the family estates—
a custom productive of no small confusion. Unlike
‘roturier’ lands, which divided among all the
children equally, noble fiefs went to the eldest son. -
The Revolution overthrew all distinction of ranks.
On 18th June 1790 the National Assembly decreed
that hereditary nobility was an institution incom-
= with a free state, and that titles, arms, and
iveries should be abolished. Two years later the
records of the nobility were burned. A new
nobility was created by the Emperor Napoleon I.
in 1808, with titles descending to the eldest son.
The old nobility was again revived at the Restora-
tion. All uises and viscounts are of pre-
revolution titles, none having been created in later
times,
Commercial rsuits have more or less in
different count been considered incompatible
with nobility. In England this was less the case
than in France and Germany, where for long a
aa could not engage in any trade without
osing his rank. A sort of commercial ‘ Biirger-
Adel,’ or half-gentlenian class, was constituted out
¢ the er oongen ae : — ot the great
erman ¢ rticularly Augsburg, Nuremberg.
and Frankfort, a whom the oo rors bestowed
coats-of-arms. In semi-fendal Italy there was on
the whole less antagonism between nobility and
trade than north of the Alps. The aristocracy of
Venice had its origin in commerce; and, though
untitled, -~ were among the most distinguished
class of nobles in Europe. On the other hand, in
Florence, in the 14th century, under a constitution
purely mercantile, nobility me a disqualifica-
tion from holding any office of the state. In order
to the enjoyment of civil right, the nobleman had
to be struck off the rolls of nobility; and an un-
popular plebeian was sometimes ennobled in order
to disfranchise him, A little later there grew up,
side by side with the old nobility, a race of plebeian
nobles—as the Medici—whose pretensions were
originally derived from wealth, and who eventually
came to be regarded as aristocrats by the demo-
cratic pew:
The nobility of Spain boasts of a special
antiquity and purity of blood, a descent from
warriors and conquerors alone. ‘Hidalgo’ (q.v.) is
a term which implies gentility or nobility; the
hidalgo alone has in strictness a right to the title
‘Don,’ which has latterly been used by persons
who have no proper claim to it about as extensively
as ‘Esquire’ in England. The higher nobility are
styled Grandees (q.v.); the class of nobility below
them are called ‘ Titulados.’ Red blood is said to
flow in the veins of the hidalgo, blue in that of the
grandee. The preservation of noble blood, un-
tainted by plebeian intermixture, has often been
reckoned a matter of much moment. In Spain
most of all this purity of lineage has been jealously
guarded. In the German empire no succession was
allowed to feus holding immediately of the emperor,
unless both parents belonged to the higher nobility.
In France the offspring of a gentleman by a plebeian
mother was noble in a question of inheritance or
exemption from tribute, but could not be received
into any order of chivalry. Letters of nobility were
514 NOBLE NODIER
sometimes ted to reinstate persons in this posi- | has been recorded as found off Wexford and in
tion. In Norway titular hereditary nobility was | Dublin Bay, but no specimens other than the two
abolished in 1821; in Sweden it still survives.
It is in Germany mae important for many pur-
poses to —— eight or sixteen quarterings—
i.e. to be able to show purity of blood for four or
five generations, the father and mother, the two
grandmothers, the four great-grandmothers, and
also, in case of the sixteen quarterings, the eight
great-great-grandmothers, having all been entitled
to coat-armour. Among the higher grades of the
peerage in England a considerable number may
pointed out who do not possess this complete
nobility.
See the works of May, Hallam, Stubbs, and Herbert
Spencer ; Sir H. Nicolas’s Historic Peerage (1825; new
r ry Courthope, 1856); Freeman's Comparative Politics
1873); also the Peerages of Debrett (since 1802); Burke
since 1826), and J. Foster (since 1880).
Noble, a gold coin first minted by Edward IIL,
and so called from its being of noble metal : on the
one side was a ship, in allusion to Edward’s victory
at Sluys. The original value was half a mark, or
6s. 8d. A later issue (Edward IV.) bore a rose on
the same side as the ship, and were called _rose-
nobles and ryals, Silver having depreciated, the
value of the noble rose to 10s. (much greater pur-
os value than now), and a new coin of the
old value was issued, called the Angel (q.v.).
Nocera, «n episcopal city of South Italy, 8
miles NW. of Salerno. Pop. 12,522.
Noctiluca (lit., ‘night-light’), a phosphorescent
marine Infusorian, extremely abundant round British
and other coasts, one of the chief causes of the
, or, pag >of the waves. It is a spherical
animal—| for an Infusorian (5 in. in dia-
meter)—and moves by means of a long stout lash
or flagellum, beside which there is a second, very
much smaller, lying in the ‘month’ region. Its
substance is remarkably spongy, and the phosphor-
escence is said by Atlas to have its seat just
underneath the rind. See INFUSORIA, PHOs-
PHORESCENCE,
Nocturn. See BREvIARY.
Nocturne (‘night-piece’), a dreamy musical
piece, generally for the piano, especially associated
with the names of Field (q.v.), its inventor, and
Chopin. See Music, p. 358.
Nodal Lines. See Harmonics, Sounp.
Noddy (Anous), a genus of birds of the famil
Laridw, differing from terns in having the vill
slightly angular, thus exhibiting an approach to
—
Noddy ( Anous stolidus),
gulls, and the tail not forked, but somewhat wedge-
shaped. Altogether seven species are enumerated,
widely distributed thronghout the tropics and in
the temperate zones. One species (A. stolidus)
obtained there have been taken in the British Isles
or on the Continent. It is a familiar bird in
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, not unfrequently
alighting on vessels and suffering itself to be taken
by the hand; and so at its breeding-places also,
where, not accustomed to the visits of man, it
scarcely gets out of the way, and the female sits un-
disturbed on the nest. Hence it commonly shares
with the booby the reputation of unusual stupidity.
It is about 15 or 16 inches long, from the tip of
the bill to the end of the tail, the general colour
being a brownish black. The food consists oun
of small fish and molluses. Particular islands
seem to be specially selected as the breeding-places
of noddies, among them being the Bahamas, man
of the Keys of the West Indies, the Laecadives, 5t
Helena, nsion, and many islands of Polynesia
and Australia. Their nests, which are built on
shelves of rocks or patches of sand or on trees, are
sometimes very closely placed ther. Each nest
generally contains only one » Which is about
two inches long and of a colour, sparsely
speckled with reddish brown. The eggs are very
to eat, and in some places are collected in
arge numbers. The other species of noddy are
distinguished by their smaller size and slightly
different colour.
Nodes, in Astronomy, are the two points in
which the orbit of a planet intersects the plane of
the ecliptic, the one through which the planet
m the south to the north side of the
ecliptic being called the ascending node ($2), and
the other the descending node (?§). As all the
bodies of the solar system, whether planets or
comets, move in orbits variously inclined to the
ecliptic, the orbit of each possesses two nodes, and
a straight line drawn joining these two points is
called the line of nodes of each body. It is searcely
n to add that as the earth moves in the
plane of the ecliptic she has no nodes. The places
of the nodes are not fixed points on the plane of
the ecliptic, but are in a constant state of fluctua-
tion, sometimes advancing (eastward ), and at other
times receding (moving westward). This motion
is produced by the mutual attractions of the
— which tend to draw each of them out of
he plane of its orbit; and it depends upon the
relative positions of the planets with respect to
another planet whether that planet's nodes shall
advance or recede. On the whole, however, the
majority of possible ‘relative positions,’ or con-
Jigurations, as they are called, is in favour of a
reti e motion; and we find by observation
that in an average of many revolutions round the
sun a constant retrogradation of the node takes
lace. The determination of this re tion
in the case of the planets is a most complicated
problem, as the separate action of each on the
others has to be taken into account. The revolu-
tions of the planetary nodes are accomplished ef
slowly, never ae to as much as a single
degree in a century. The nodes of the lunar orbit
retrograde with much greater speed under the dis-
turbing influence of the sun. It is owing to the fact
that * pom complete a revolution in nearly eighteen
— nse oe stags Ne that - es of
ecli arly recur in that period.
Eourress, Onnir, PERTURBATIONS ; and Herschel’s
Outlines of Astronomy.
Nodes, in Botany. See Stem.
Nodier, CHAR es, a considerable French writer,
was born at Besancon, 29th April 1780. (Sainte-
Beuve), in 1781 (Weiss), or even 1783 (Quérard),
the son of arevolutionist lawyer. He lived a shifty
life at Paris, Besancon, Déle, Laibach, and last
SEE lee
NOE
NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS 515
in at Paris, where he was appointed in 1823 to
the Ubrarianship of the Bibliothéque de l’Arsenal.
As a child an ardent Jacobin, he became a royalist
at the Restoration, was elected to the Academy in
1833, and died 27th January 1844. He was a de-
voted student of entomology, philology, and biblio-
graphy, but his importance in literature depends
mainly upon the influence his personality exerted
on the group of Romanticists of 1830. Most of his
li work is already forgotten, save his delight-
fully hh and fantastic short stories, of which
may here be named Smarra, Histoire du Roi de
Bilin de sos sept Chateaux, La Fée aux Miettes,
Inés de las Sierras, La Légende de Seur Béatriz,
Franciscus Columna, and his volume of Fairy-tales.
His Souvenirs de Jeunesse (1832) must not be taken
too seriously. The uvres Complétes (12 vols.
1832-34) are far from complete. There are Lives
énessier- N odier (1867).
by Wey (1844) and Mme.
See also Mérimée’s admirable éloge.
Noé, See Cuam.
Noetians. See PATRIPassrans.
Nogent-le-Rotrou, 4 town in the French
department of Eure-et-Loir, prettily situated on
the Huisne, 93 miles by rail SW. of Paris. It is a
long, well-built place, with the ruined chitean of
the great Sully, his violated sepulchre, and a
statue of General Saint-Pol, who fell before
Sebastopol. The Germans here won two fights,
on 2lst November 1870 and 6th January 1871.
Pop. 7346.
Noisseville, a village of France, 5 miles E. of
Metz, where, on 3lst August—lst September 1870,
attacked the German besiegers of Metz
with 120,000 men and 600 guns. He had some
success on the first day, inst the 41,000 men
and 138 guns commanded by Mantenffel ; but on
the second day gave up the attempt to break
through the German line, which had been reinforced
during the night by 30,000 men and 162 guns,
Nola, an pay ae city of Italy, 16 miles ENE.
of Naples. It is built on the site of one of the
oldest cities of eg pa founded by the Ausonians,
and taken by the Romans in the Samnite war, 313
B.c. Augustus died here, 14 A.D. Pop. 7496.
Noli me tangere. See Lupus, Tusercie.
Nollekens, Joseru, was born in London, 11th
August 1737, the son of a painter from Antwerp.
Being placed in the studio of Scheemakers the
sculptor, he made such ye es that the Society
of Arts repeatedly gira him valuable prizes.
In 1760 he settled in Rome. Garrick, whom he
met there in the Vatican, immediately recognised
his countryman as the young sculptor to whom the
prizes been a ed the Society of Arts,
sat to him for his bust, and paid him handsomely
for it. He also exeented in Rome a bust of Sterne
in terra cotta, which added greatly to his repu-
tation. After residing ten years in Rome he
returned to London, where he set up his studio;
and the tation he had uired in Rome was
such that immediately had full employment,
and within a year after (in 1771) was elected an
Associate of the Academy, and a Royal Acade-
mician the following year. His forte was in model-
ling busts ; and through them he has handed down
the likenesses of most of the im t person:
who figured in Great Britain in the end of the 18th
and at the commencement of the 19th century—of
Samuel Johnson, who was his friend and frequent
visitor, of Fox, Pitt, and other political characters.
George III. also sat to him. es busts, Nolle-
kens executed numerous commissions for public
monuments and statues. He also executed a
number of classical and mythol statues and
groups. He died in London, 23d April 1823, leav-
ing no children to inherit a fortune of £200,000.
See J. T. Smith’s Nollekens and his Times (1828).
Nolle Prosequi, a term used in English law
to denote that the plaintiff does not intend to go
further with the action.
No Man’s Land, a name applied to outlying
districts in various countries, especially at one
time to what now corresponds mainly to Griqua-
land East (q.v.), and also to a territory of 80,000
sq. m. in South Australia.
Nom de Plume, somewhat doubtful French
for nom de guerre or Pseudonym (q.v.).
Nominalism, a famous controverted doctrine
of the middle ages, respecting the nature of our
or abstract ideas, or of ‘universals.’ It
was contended by some that abstractions—as. a
circle in the abstract, beauty, right—had a real
existence apart from round things, beautiful
objects, right actions. This was ed Realism.
Those who held the opposite view were called
Nominalists, because they maintained that there
is nothing general but names; the name ‘circle’
is applied to everything that is round, and is a
general name; but no independent, fact or pro-
perty exists corresponding to the name. Specifi-
cally the controversy was as to the existence of
‘universals’ or of genera and ies, and arose out
of a passage in the Latin translation of Repisy’s
Tsagoge. The watchwords of three schools were
universalia ante res, ‘the universals before the
concrete things,’ of Platonic Realism ; universalia
in re, ‘the universals in the thing,’ held to be
Aristotelian Realism; wniversalia post rem, ‘the
universals after the thing,’ covering both Nomi-
nalism (that the sabres were but flatus vocis,
sounds) and Conceptualism (that the universals
had an existence in the mind of the thinker).
Scholastic Realism of what was regarded as the
Aristotelian type Fhe py until the 11th century,
when Roscelin defended a distinctly Nominalistic
doctrine. tery 4 he applied his philosophy to
the doctrine of the Trinity, and arrived at a tri-
theistic heresy, which (and Nominalism with it)
was condemned by the church. Henceforward
Nominalism carried with it, not unreasonably
altogether, a savour of heresy and rationalism,
and Realism was dominant, though the contro-
versy raged throughout the 12th century. Abelard
was a modified Realist ; Albertus Magnus, Aquinas,
and Duns Scotus were Realists of a kind, though
in the 13th and 14th centuries the feud between
Nominalists and Realists was no longer the central
debate of scholasticism. Nominalism triumphed
with William of Ockham (died 1347), with whom
scholasticism may be held to have begun to dis-
solve. See SCHOLASTICISM, and works quoted
there; the articles on the chief medieval thinkers ;
the article PHILosopHy; and monographs by
Exner (1841), Kéhler (1858), and Liwe (1876).
Non-combatants, See ComBpaTants.
Non-commissioned Officers, in the British
army (sous-officiers in the French, and unter-
offizieren in the German), form a most valuable
and im t class, intermediate between the
commissioned officers and the men. It is essential
that some persons in authority should live amongst
the men, superintend their Mess (q.v.), teach them
their drill and duties, take charge of small parties
on duty and in the field, and, generally, overlook
them in every way. None are so well fitted to do
so as those who are selected from amongst the men
themselves, after several years’ service as private
soldiers, for promotion to non-commissioned rank.
They must be well qualified by ee conduct, tact,
temper, education, and knowledge of military
516 NONCONFORMISTS
NORD
duties—in the two last mentioned they must pass
examinations—and the efficiency of the corps will
largely depend u the way in which they do
their duty. Besides extra pay, they enjoy special
privileges, and many obtain commissions as officers.
All quartermasters and_riding-masters, all officers
of the Coast Brigade Royal Artillery and Coast
Battalion Royal Engineers, and many combatant
officers of cavalry and infantry are selected from
amongst them. They can only be reduced to the
ranks, or to a lower grade, by sentence of a court-
martial, and cannot be subjected to any minor
punishment except a reprimand. The followin
are included in the term ‘non-commission
officer :’ master-gunners, 3d class (who have
of the armament and magazines in a
fort), staff-clerks, all Sergeants (q.v.), Corporals
(q.v.), and Bombardiers (q.v.). rgeants have
a separate Mess (q.v.), and in most barracks there
is a corporals’ room. The proportion of non-
commissioned officers to other soldiers in a bat-
talion at war strength is 91 to 959; in a regiment
of rior 83 to 551; and in a battery of artillery,
21 to-149. The following are warrant officers, a
class ranking above non-commissioned officers, from
whom they are nearly all selected, but below
officers : Bandmasters, schoolmasters of more than
twelve years’ service, conductors of supplies or
stores, master-gunners (Ist and 2d class), super-
intending clerks, Ist class staff-sergeants, sergeant-
majors, and corporal-majors. For the Navy, see
Petty OFFICERS, WARRANT OFFICERS,
Nonconformists, 2 name sometimes given
nerally to all sectaries who, at any period in
nglish history since the establishment of Protes-
tantism, have refused to conform to the doctrine and
practices of the Episcopal Church. It is used ina
restricted sense to denote the clergy who in 1662—
two years after the Restoration—left the Church
of England rather than submit to the conditions
of the Act of Uniformity. In 1727 the Presby-
terians, Independents, and Baptists received some
special legal recognition, and came to be known as
e Three Denominations. See ENGLAND (CHURCH
OF), PRESBYTERIANS, INDEPENDENTS, &c.
Non-effective (Fr. non-activité) is the term
used to describe the status of officers of the British
army or navy who are on retired or pens mal Non-
commissioned officers and men who are discharged,
die, or desert are also said to become ‘non-
effective.’
Nones. See CALENDs.
Nonius Marcellus, a Latin grammarian, of
whose life nothing is known. Little can be made
of his surname 7uburticensis, but at least we may
date him later than the middle of the 2d century,
as he frequently copies A. Gellius, and earlier than
the sixth, as he is frequently quoted by Priscian.
His name is attached to a treatise in eighteen
chapters, without arrangement or critical sagacity,
but precious as preserving many words in forgotten
senses, and from books of ancient Latin
authors now lost. A good edition is that by
Gerlach and Roth (1842); see also Professor
Nettleship’s Eesays in Latin Literature (1885).
A collation of the Harleian MS. of Nonius, by the
late J. H. Onions (1852-89), was published in
1882 in the Clarendon Press Anecdota. The last
seven years of this brilliant young scholar’s life
were devoted to preparing an edition of the text
of Nonius Marcellus for the Clarendon Press.
Nonjurors, the name given to that portion
of the clergy in both <0 gem and Seotland who,
a taken the oath of allegiance to James IL,
re at the Revolution to take it to William
and Mary. An act of parliament required them
all to take this oath by Ist August 1689, six
months’ grace being allowed before depri
Castesbory, by Bishors of Bath and Wells
terbury, by Bi ells,
Turner of Ely, Frampton of Gloucester, Lloyd of
Norwich, White of Peterborough, Thomas of
Worcester, Lake of Chichester, and Cartwright of
Chester (the three last died during the year), and
by about 400 of the English clergy. In Scotland,
where all the bisho pos the oath, E; pacy
was abolished in 1689, and more than clergy-
men were thrust out; and not till the death of
Prince Charles Edward in 1788 did the Protestant
bishops in Scotland, ‘upon mature deliberation
with their clergy, unanimously agree to comply
with and submit to the government of King
George III,’ nor until four years later did the
bill for their relief receive the royal assent. South
of the Tweed the schism was perpetuated _
consecration in 1694 of Hickes (q.v.) and -
staffe as suffragan bishops of Thetford and ich,
in 1713 of Jeremy Collier (q.v.) and two o
also by the introduction in 1718 of the ‘
(a new communion office, prayer for the dead,
mixed chalice, &c.). Thereby, however, for some
thirteen years the Nonjurors themselves were split
into two bodies, both ordaining bishops, till the
dispute was terminated by the general adoption of
the ‘ .’ A fresh breach occurred through the
consecration in 1733 of Roger Lawrence by a single
Scotch bishop; and this branch suppl some
adherents to the rebellion of the ’45, in which none
of the regular body were involved. For, High
Churehmen as were all the Nonjurors, and believers
in the doctrine of passive obedience, it is a
mistake to imagine that they were all Jacobites,
or, at anyrate, active Jacobites; while, on the
other hand, there were many active Jacobites who
were not Nonjurors (for instance, Atterbury).
Robert Gordon, the last of the re Nonjur-
ing bishops, died in 1779; Booth, the last of the
irregular Nonjurin bishops, in 1805; and James
Yeowell, probably the very last Nonjuror, long the
sub-editor of Notes and Queries, in 1875. Non-
jurors, not mentioned already, were Thomas Baker,
Carte, Hearne, William Law, Charles Leslie, an
Robert Nelson (q.v.).
See Jacopires, and works there cited; Lathbury’s His-
tory of the Nonjurors (1845); and Abbey and Overton’s
English Church in the Eighteenth Century (2d ed. 1887).
Non Nobis Domine. See Grace aT MEALS.
Non Possumus (Lat., ‘we cannot’), a papal
formula taken from Acts, iv. 20 Valests) and
said to have been used by Pope Clement II. in
reply to Henry VIII.’s demand for the dissolution
of his marriage with Catharine of Aragon ; used in
general expression for the refusal of the Roman
curia to yield to the demands of the temporal power.
Non-residence. See PLURALISM.
Non-suit is a legal term in England, which
means that, where a plaintiff in a jury trial finds
he will lose his case owing to some defect or acci-
dent, he is allowed to be non-suited, instead of
allowing a verdict and judgment to for the
defendant. But there is now, in general, no differ-
ence between the effect of a non-suit and that of
a verdict for the defendant.
Non-user. See Desvrtupe.
Nootka Sound, a harbour on the west coast
of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, its entrance
protected by an island of the same name.
Norbertines. See PREMONSTRATENSIANS,
Nord, the most northerly department in France
(whence its name), corresponding with the former
rovince of French Flanders, and bordering on
Igium and the Strait of Dover. Area, 21 a
m. ; pop. (1881) 1,603,259 ; (1891) 1,736,341. It
—
.
: ——————E————
NORDAU
NORFOLK 517
watered by the Scheldt and the Sambre, with
their affluents, and has many canals. Next to that
of the Seine, it is the most densely-peopled depart-
ment in France; Lille has 200,000 inhabitants,
Roubaix 115,000, and several towns have over
30,000. In blood the people are Flemish and
Walloon in about equal proportions ; some 177,000
stillspeak Flemish. The soil is fertile, the fisheries
are productive, the mineral wealth very great,
especially in cual; and for manufactures Nord is
one of the foremost of French departments. It
five first-class fortresses, and has been
the scene of many great campaigns and battles.
Nordau, Max Simon, born of Jewish descent
at Bu t, 29th July 1849, studied medicine there,
and e a series of travels in France, Spain,
Italy, in England, Scandinavia, and Russia, estab-
lish himself as ore first at Pesth (1878),
and at Paris (1886 He wrote several works
on his travels, but became known by his work
ving that current ethical, religious, and political
iples were but Conventional Lies of Society
P1883. 15th ed. 1890; Eng. trans. 1895); Paradoxes
(1886), and eneration (1893; Eng. traus. 1895),
maintaining that most that is conspicuous in con-
temporary art, literature, and the characters of the
great men of 2m time, hs acd proof to Lather
chical degeneration. is novels ( Gefiiils-
Lomadie, &c.) have been more successful than his
dramas and poems.
Nordenfelt. See MAcHINE GuN.
Nordenskiiéld, Baron Nits Apotr Erik,
Arctic navi , was born at Helsingfors in Fin-
land, on 18th November 1832, son of the superin-
tendent of Finnish mines, and studied at home
and in Berlin. In 1857 he naturalised himself in
Sweden, and in the following year was appointed
head of the metres gy department of the Royal
Museum at Stockholm. During the next twenty
years he frequently visited Spi ven ; in 1864 he
measurement of an arc of the meridian
mapped the south of the island. After
two seeiennesy trips to the mouth of the Yenisei,
the navigability of the Kara
Sea, ly accomplished (June 1878—
September 1879), in the celebrated Vega, the
navigation of the North-east Passage, from the
Atlantic to the Pacific along the north coast of
Asia. On his return he was made a baron of
Sweden (1880), and during the next five years
published the results of the F rooney in Voyage of
the Vee ae eee urope (Eng. trans. 2
vols, 1881), Scientific Results of the Vega Expedi-
tion (1883), and Studies and Investigations (1885).
Greenland, too, he has made two expeditions ;
on the second occasion (1883)
reached a point 140 miles distant from the east
coast, but without finding the ice-free interior
Baron Nordenskidld believed to exist. Three
years later he published a book on the icy interior
of Greenland. In 1891 he proposed to lead an ex-
meagre to the Antarctic polar region, the expense
ing borne in part by the Australian colonies.
He died 12th August 1901. See A. Leslie’s Arctic
Voyages of A. E. Nordenskjild, 1858-79 (1879).
Norderney, « small treeless island, lying 3
miles off the coast of the Prussian district of t
Friesland, and forms one of a string of islands that
line that coast. Area, 4 sq. m.; pop. 2850. It
enjoys a great reputation for sea-bathing, and in
summer may have 13,000 or 14,000 visitors.
Nordhausem, a flourishing town of Prussian
Saxony, pleasantly situated at the southern base
of the Harz Mountains, and the west end of the
fertile Goldene Aue (‘golden plain’), on the Zorge,
48 miles by rail NNW. of Erfurt. St Blasius, one
of its seven churches, contains two paintings by
Cranach ; and there are also a quaint town-hall, .
seventy extensive distilleries of corn-brandy or
‘ Nordhaiiser schnaps ’ (11,000,000 gals. per annum),
-and manufactures of tobacco, sugar, leather, chemi-
cals, &e. Dating from 874, and in 1253 created a
free imperial city, Nordhausen embraced the Re-
formation in 1 and in 1803 fell to Prussia.
Pop. (1875) 23,570; (1890) 26,744. See works by
Férstermann (1825-55), Lesser (1860), and Girsch-
ner (1880).
Nérdlingen, a town in the west of Bavaria,
is situated on the river Eger, 44 miles NW. of
Augsburg by rail. It has a Gothie church (re-
stored 1880), with a high tower and fine organ,
and manufactures carpets. Here took place, 6th
September 1634, the great battle in which the
Swedes were defeated by the Imperialists with a
loss of 12,000 killed and wounded. Pop. 8095.
Nore is a sandbank in the estu of the
Thames, 3 miles NE. of Sheerness and 47 from
London. Off its east end is the floating light,
which revolves 50 feet above high-water. he
name is commonly applied to the portion ‘of the
es' in the Siege Mr the Nore light and sand-
bank.” It was here that the outbreak of the fleet,
known as the ‘mutiny at the Nore,’ broke out on
20th May and lasted until 13th June 1797. The
ringleader, Richard Parker, who had styled himself
President of the ‘ Floating Republic,’ was hanged
on the 30th from the yardarm of his ship; and a
few other men soon afterwards executed or flogged
through the fleet. The King’s Own, by Marryat,
gives a sketch of the mutiny.
Norfolk, an important county on the east coast
of England, oval in shape, and in size yielding only
to Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and Devonshire, is
bounded N. and NE. by the North Sea, SE. and
S. by Suffolk, and W. by Cambridgeshire, Lincoln-
shire, and the Wash. With an extreme length
and breadth of 66 miles by 42, it has an area of
2119 sq. m. or 1,356,173 acres. Pop. (1801) 273,371;
(1831) 390,000; (1881) 444,637; (1891) 454,516.
Its coast-line, upwards of 90 miles in length, is for
the most part flat, and skirted by low dunes, except
near Cromer, and again at Hunstanton, where clifis,
from time to time undermined by the sea, rise to a
height of from 100 to 200 feet. land the surface
is undulating, well timbered, and well watered,
the principal rivers (by which, and by the Great
Eastern and Eastern and Midlands Railways
communication throughout the county is kept up)
being the Ouse, which flows northward to the
Wash, and the Bure, Yare, and Waveney, which
fall into the sea near Yarmouth, and in their
course link together the numerous Broads (q.v.)
sitnate in the north-eastern district. The soil
consists chiefly of light loams and sands—in places
there are extensive rabbit-warrens, and with so
much wood (51,258 acres in 1889) there is naturally
an abundance of game. The climate, though in
the spring-time cold me} to the prevalence of
east winds, is on the whole dry and_ healthy.
Apart from lime, chalk, and excellent brick-earth,
no minerals of any importance are worked, but
agriculture in all its different branches is here
brought to the highest state of perfection : all the
usual crops, especially turnips, swedes, and man-
gold, are extensively cultivated ; upwards of 3400
acres are occupied as market-gardens and orchards ;
whilst great attention is paid to the reeing of
turkeys and geese for the London markets, and on
the rich marsh-lands in the extreme west of the
county, as well as on the tures bordering the
various rivers, great quantities of cattle are grazed.
The principal manufactures are noticed under
Norwicu, and of other industries the most im-
portant is the herring-fishery connected with
518 NORFOLK
NORMAN ARCHITECTURE
Yarmouth and other ports. Norfolk comprises 33
hundreds, the city of Norwich, the municipal
boroughs of King’s Lynn, Great Yarmouth, and
Thetford ( the two latter extending into
Suffolk), and 736 civil parishes with parts of 9
others, mostly in the diocese of Norwich. Its par-
liamentary divisions are six in number, each return-
ing one member, and the county council consists of
76 members. Towns other than the foregoing are
Dereham, Diss, Downham Market, North Wal-
sham, Swaffham, and Wymondham. In the history
of the county the most notable incidents have been
the settlements within its borders of the Flemish
and Walloons in the reigns of aoe Le
Edward IIL, and Queen Elizabeth; and Ket’s
rebellion (1549). Many interesting traces of the
handiwork of its former occupants are still extant
in the ruins of priories at Castle Acre, Thetford,
and Walsingham, in the castles of Norwich, Castle
Rising (where Queen Isabella was confined a pris-
oner), and Caistor, in earthworks at Bueckenham,
Caistor, and Thetford, and in the old halls of Blick-
ling (the home of the Boleyns), Holkham, Hough-
ton, Oxburgh, and East Barsham. Among St
‘worthies’ (omitting those noticed under Norwich)
are to be found the names of Gonville (founder of
the college at Cambridge which bears his name),
Sir John Fastolf, the Earl of Surrey, Sir Thomas
Gresham, Skelton and Shadwell (poets-laureate),
Sir Edward Coke, his descendant the Earl of
Leicester, Spelman (the antiquary), Sir Roger
L’Estrange, Sir Cloudesley Shovel, Sir Robert al-
pole and his son Horace, Blometield (the topo-
it her), Tom Paine, Windham (the statesman),
illiam Godwin, Lord Nelson, Professor Porson,
Manby (inventor of life-saving apparatus), Sir
Astley Cooper, Elizabeth Fry, Fowell Buxton,
Lord Cranworth, Captain Marryat (the novelist),
Cattermole (the painter), Borrow (the Romany
Rye), Bulwer Lytton, and Rider Haggard. For
the Dukes of Norfolk, see Howarp.
See the county histories by Blomefield (11 vols.
1805-10), Chambers (2 vols. og Rye (1885), and
White (new ed. 1890); also A. D, Bayne’s Eastern
England (2 vols. 1873), G. C. Davies’ Norfolk Broads
and Rivers (1884), and Jessopp’s Arcady ( 1887).
Norfolk, a city and port of entry of Virginia,
on the right bank of the Elizabeth River, 8 miles
from Hampton Roads, and 33 miles from the ocean,
The city is irregularly built on low ground, and
contains a city hall, mechanics’ and masonic halls,
enstom-house, military academy, and Catholic
seminary. Its 0 deep harbour is defended by
Fort Calhoun and Fortress Monroe. A govern-
ment navy yard, dry-dock, and hospital are at
Gosport, a naval suburb of Portsmouth, on the
spponte bank of the river. Norfolk ships con-
rable quantities of cotton, oysters, and early
fruits and vegetables; lines of steamers connect
it with New York and other cities, and three
canals end here. The town was burned by the
British in 1776. The famous engagement between
the Merrimac and the Monitor (1862) was fought off
Norfolk. Pop. (1890) 34,871 ; (1900) 46,624.
Norfolk Island lies in the Western Pacific,
about half-way between New Zealand and New
Caledonia, 400 miles NNW. of the former. The
coasts are high (mean altitude, 400 feet) and steep,
and the surface generally uneven, rising in Mount
Pitt to 1050 feet. The island is 6 miles long, and
has an area of 134 sq. m. The soil is fertile and
well watered, and the climate healthy. The
Norfolk Island Pine grows to a height of 200 feet ;
the Norfolk Island Cabbage is a dwarf pine.
Norfolk Island was discovered by Cook in 1774.
Between 1788 and 1805, and again between 1826
and 1855, it was a penal settlement for convicts
sent from New South Wales. In 1856 many of the
inhabitants of Pitcairn Island (q.v.) were trans-
ferred hither by the British government, In 1888
the . was 741. This includes about 150 Melan-
esian and girls being educated at Bisho
Patteson’s mission-station of St Barnabas, Norfol
Island being the headquarters of the diocese of
Melanesia, which was founded in 1861. The
people govern themselves, under the ee
tendence of the government of New South Wales;
they fish, farm, and supply provisions to passing
vessels,
Norham Castle, the Border fortress of the
seo of Durham, on the right bank of the
Tweed, 8 miles SW. of Berwick. Founded in
1121, and deemed Si Sy eee in 1522, it has
memories of Kings John, Edward I., and James
1V., but is known best through Marmion. The
icturesque ruins comprise a great square k
0 feet high. See Hubert Jensen Ni cam
Castle (1883). ;
Nor‘icum, a Roman province, situated between
Rheetia on the west and Pannonia on the east,
and corresponding to the present states of Austria
proper south of the Danube, Styria, Carinthia, and
part of Salzburg. The Roman emperor Drusus
subdued the native Celtie Norici or Taurisci in
15 B.c. The name survives in the Noric Alps;
see ALPS.
Normal Schools, or TRAINING-COLLEGES,
institutions where teachers are instructed in the
principles of their profession and trained in the
rages of it. See Epucation, Vol. IV. pp. 211,
Norman Architecture, a style originated
and chiefly used by the Normans. n after their
conquest of the north of France they pa to erect
churches and cathedrals in memory of their vic-
tories ; and, not contented with the small churches
then common in France, they desired to erect monu-
ments worthy of their great conquests. They
accordingly expanded the dimensions, while to a
t extent retaining the style of the buildings
ey found in the north of France; though they
seem also to have borrowed some of their ideas
from the Rhine (see GorHic ARCHITECTURE).
The leading characteristics of their style were
size and massiveness. ‘They adopted the old Latin
plan (derived from the Basilica) of central and side
aisles ; and at the east end they invariably placed
a semicircular apse. They seized on the tower as
a distinguishing feature, and developed it as their
style progressed. The ornaments are simple and of
great variety, but the most common and distinetive
are the zi , billet, chevron, nail-head, &e. The
windows and doors are simple, with semicircular
arched heads—the former without bebeeeg The
tympanum of the door-arch is occasionally filled
with sculpture, The nave-arches are carried some-
times on single ges but more frequently, especi-
ally as the style advanced, on piers with shafts,
The shafts are almost always recessed in nooks (or
‘nook shafts’), Owing to the t size of the
buildings the architects were unable at first to vault
the main aisle, which, accordingly, had usuall
a wooden roof, the side aisles only being vaulted.
The masonry is rude, the joints being large, and
the stones generally unhewn. The style prevailed
from about the beginning of the 10th century till
the death of William the Conqueror, near the end
of the 11th century. There are many examples in
Normandy, the churches at Caen being well-known
buildings of the date of William.
This style of architecture was brought into
England by the Normans at the Conquest, 1066.
They there extended the scale of the buildings, as
they had done in Normandy, preserving, however,
many local peculiarities of the Saxon style, which
NORMANBY
NORMANDY 519
they found in the country. The chapel of St | of the 9th century its coasts were harried by the
John, on the second floor of the White Tower of
London, is the earliest example of pure Norman
vikings or sea-rovers of the north (see NORTHMEN) ;
shortly after the 10th century began they estab-
work in England, that ancient keep having been | lished themselves in such force along the Seine
built by William the Conqueror in 1078. There | that Charles, king of the Western Kingdom,
are, however, many buildings, both in England and | was
lad to make a definite agreement with
Scotland, which date from before the end of the 12th | their leader Rolf (Rollo, Rou) at Clair-sur-Epte
2 PAY meses neem oa Dem +
St John’s Chapel, Tower of London,
century, when the pointed style began to be used;
Durham, Lindisfarne, Canterbury, Dunfermline are
partially Norman, besides many other churches and
castles. The Anglo-Norman is heavier than the
French-Norman, the cylindrical nave piers of the
English buildings being much more massive than
those of French works. To relieve this heaviness
the chevron, — and other groovings were cut
in the piers. The mouldings and forms of doors
and windows are the same as those of Normandy.
There is one remarkable difference in the plans of
the Early Norman churches in the two countries :
in France the apse at the east end is always semi-
circular, but in England this form was gradually
given up, and towards the end of the style the
square east end was generally adopted.
Normanby, 2 town in the North Riding of
Yorkshire, 34 miles SE., and mainly within the
parliamentary boundary, of Middlesborough. Pop.
9114. It has given the title of marquis in 1694
to John Sheffield fav.) Earl of Mulgrave and
afterwards Duke of Buckinghamshire, as also in
1838 to Constantine Henry Phipps (1797-1863),
previously Earl of Mulgrave, and a distinguished
statesman,
Normandy, formerly a province of France,
lying along the seaboard of the English Channel,
between Brittany and French Flanders, its eastern
boundaries being marked by the little rivers Eu
and Epte, and its western by the Couésnon., In
area it corresponded approximately to the modern
departments of Seine-Inférieure, Eure, Orne,
Calvados, and Manche, its capital being Rouen.
It is on the whole a fertile region, with well-
eultivated fields and many smiling orchards, filled
with pope trees, from the frnit of which cider is
made. The people are intelligent and industrious,
and rank amongst the best and most energetic
of French provincials. When the Romans were
masters of Gaul this portion of the country formed
_ of Gallia Lugdunensis Secunda; after the
tanks’ invasion it made a constituent part of
the kingdom of Nenstria, and was given by Charles
the Bald to the Duke of Paris. From the middle
==
i)
;
y
in 912. Rolf, Duke of the Northmen,
became the vassal of the king, but
wrested his lands from the Duke of
Paris, and consequently had him for
an enemy all his life. Rolf at the
same time became nominally a Chris-
tian, taking at his baptism the name
of Robert. His successor was his son
1 William Longsword, who declared
i himself King Charles’s vassal in 927.
| His father had conquered lands to the
west of those originally granted to
him; William added the Cotentin, or
peninsula of Manche, and thus ex-
tended the duchy westwards to Brit-
tany and the sea. This he seems to
have done partly with the help of
} new-comers from the north, who
settled there. Thus there were strik-
f ing differences between eastern and
western Normandy: the former
gs adopted Christianity, the
French language (/angue d’owl), and
~ the manners and customs of the
French, whilst the newer districts
stuck sturdily to their heathen faith
and customs and their native Norse tongue. Open
war was waged between the rival parties not only
during the lifetime of William, but in the reign of
his son and successor, Richard the Fearless (943-
996), who only overcame the heathen and Scandi-
navian party with the help of King Louis and the
Duke of Paris. Louis then attempted to make
himself master of Normandy—Richard being a
youth—but was frustrated by Hugh of Paris, who
now sided with the Normans. In 987 Hugh be-
came king of the Western Kingdom of France;
and the good understanding established between
Normandy and France lasted from that time
down to the accession of William, the Conqueror
of England. Richard the Good, son of Richard
the Fearless, began to rule in 996, and, dying in
1026, left his son Richard as his successor. It was
during his reign that Nortmannia began to be sub-
stituted for Land of the Northmen; hence Normandy
and Normans. The second Richard’s sister Emma
married, first Ethelred of England, and second
Canute (Knut) of Denmark and England ; this
knit the first close ties between the ruling families
of England and Normandy. The third Richard was
succeeded after a reign of two years by his brother
Robert, who died fa Bis way back from a pilgrim-
age to Jerusalem in 1035, leaving as the heir to his
duchy his natural son William, at that time a boy.
During William’s minority the duchy was tlie
scene of anarchy and confusion. The western
portion made an attempt to assert its independ-
ence, an attempt crushed by William with the
help of the king of France at Val-és-Dunes
(1047). The next twenty years are written glori-
ous in the annals of Normandy. William ruled
with vigour and prudence; he fostered the noble
houses, but kept a firm hand on the nobles ; en-
couraged the churches, yet preserved the control of
church matters himself; thoroughly established
the feudal system; gave countenance and support
to learning (Lanfranc, Anselm); and favoured the
building of magnificent abbeys. He also waged war
with the Count of Anjou, his southern neighbour,
for the county of Maine, and conquered it in 1063 ;
and even fought against the king of France, who
]
i a LT
AA tae a lh | >
eq
520 NORMANTON
NORTH
= ;
ve assistance to rebels apnea William's rule.
fter the conquest of England (q.v.) Maine’ re-
volted and had to be subdued again, William's
son Robert rebelled st him in Normandy, and
a war broke out with France, in which William
(q.¥.) lost his life. The incapable Duke Robert
mortgaged his duchy to his brother William Rufus,
and went crusading to the East. After his return
he was defeated and imprisoned by his brother
Henry I., who ruled Normandy till ,his death
(1135), notwithstanding the efforts of Robert's
son William to dislodge him. After the acces-
sion of Stephen in England Matilda’s husband,
Geoffrey of Anjou, gradually made himself master
of Normandy (1139-45), but after reigning five
ears he resigned it to his son, afterwards Henry
it. of England. Richard I. and John were the next
dukes, ut the duchy was taken away from
John by the king of France (1203-4), on the plea
that as the murderer of his nephew Arthur he
(John) had forfeited his French fiefs. The claim
to the title was, however, only formally renounced
by Henry Ll. in 1259. Twice Fotarae J
Normandy was in English hands: Edward III.
conquered it in 1346, and Henry V. in 1417-18; but
the English were finally driven out in 1450. The
Channel Islands (q.v.) are a remnant of the Nor-
man ions still belonging to the descendants
of the Norman kings of England. For map, see
France in provinces; for the Norman-French and
Anglo-Norman literature, see ENGLISH LITERA-
TURE, Vol. IV. p. 366; FRANCE, Vol. IV. p. 785;
and ROMANCE LANGUAGES.
CustoMARY LAW oF NorMANDY.—The duchy
was governed by customary law, which grew up
principally out of local usages; at first it was the
same as the customary law of England. Even
down to the present day the law administered in
the royal courts of the Channel Islands is virtually
the old customary law of Normandy. One feature
survives in the Cry of Haro (q.v.). This ancient
customary law of Normandy seems to have been
collected in writing on three separate occasions.
The earliest collection was apparently written
down by private persons in 1200 and about 1220,
and had no official character; the third collection
(1585) is a revised edition of the second, the Grand
Coutumier, completed early in the 14th century.
See Sir Travers Tiss in Academy, 24th June 1882.
See Freeman, Norman Conquest (5 vols. 1877); Pal-
paver History of Normandy (4 vols. 1878); Planché,
Conqueror and his Companions (1874); Spence,
Dreamland in History (1890); and topographical works
by Blackburn (1869) and K. Macquoid (1874).
Normanton, a town in the West Riding of
Yorkshire, by rail 3 miles NE. of Wakefield and
10 SE. of Leeds, an apeient railway junction, and
seat of coal-mining and iron-working. Pop. 10,234.
Norns, the Parce of Scandinavian mythology,
were three maidens, by name Urd, Verdandi,
and Skuld—i.e. Past, Present, and Future. They
sit by the well of Urd, under the world-tree
Ygdrasil in Asgard, and there determine the fate
both of gods and men. Besides these three there
are many inferior norns, both and bad,
answering to the genii of classical mythology; to
such are attributable the unequal destinies of men
in the world. Women who possessed the power of
prediction or magic also bore this name.
Noronha, FERNANDO, a group of small islands
Levape ped to Brazil, in the South Atlantic, about
200 miles ENE. of Cape San Roque. The group.
which comprises a main island, 64 miles long and
about 2 broad, and several smaller islets, is of
voleanic character, phonolite and other rocks of
late formation resting on a foundation of basalt.
A curious calcareous sandstone is also common,
consisting of sand and fragments of shells, rendered
firm by the action of water. The climate is healthy,
and the trade-winds keep the temperature moderate.
The islands are fertile, and maize, sugar, sweet
— casavas, melons, and bananas are raised.
he low hills and valleys of the main island are
convicts are kept, guarded by 200 soldiers.
Norristown, capital of gp county,
Pennsylvania, on the left bank of the iver Schugh
kill (crossed by three bridges to Bridgeport), 17
miles by rail NW. of Philadelphia. It contains a
fine marble court-house, a state asylum for the
insane, a number of cotton-mills and woollen-
factories, rolling-mills and foundries, flour-mills,
and manufactories of glass, tacks, Xe, Pop. (1880)
13,063 ; (1900) 22,265.
Norrképing, the first manufacturing town of
Sweden after Stockholm, stands at the head of the
Bravik, 113 miles by rail SW. of Stockholm, and is
a well-built modern town. First founded in 1384,
it has been several times destroyed by fire. The
id river Motala, which connects Lake Vetter
with the Bravik, and which is spanned by several
substantial bridges, affords considerable water-
power, by which the numerous manufactories are
worked, Here are cloth-mills, cotton spinning and
weaving, manufactures of sugar, paper, tobacco,
&e., and shipbuilding (gunboats, &ec.). Here
Charles LX. (1604) and Gustavus IY. (1800) were
crowned. Pop. (1895) 34,825.
Norse. See IcELAND, SAGA, SCANDINAVIA,
NORTHMEN,
North, a family famous in the mp2 of Eng-
land, the most illustrions members of which were
three of the sons of Dudley, fourth Baron North of
Kirtling in Cambridgeshire, all of whose lives
ieee 8 “my nf ragged are youngest sehege:
Roger, who has ueat to posterity an
interesting and characteristic, but unfinished, auto-
biography. These have all been collected by Dr
Jessopp (3 vols. 1890).—Sir EDWARD NorTH ( 1496-
1564) was famous as a lawyer, and was created
Baron North of Kirtling in cenaaee in
1554. His second son was Sir THomas NorrH, of
whose life we know but little save that he was still
living in 1603 when the third edition of his trans-
lation of Plutarch (first are) ae published. This
work, a translation from the French of Amyot,
remains a noble monument of English, and was
beyond doubt one of the fountains from which
Shakespeare drew his knowledge of ancient history.
There isan admirable edition of the portions relating
to Shakespeare vy Professor Skeat (1875). Other
translations by North were Zhe Diall of Princes,
from a French version of Guevara (see EUPHUISM),
and The Morall Philosophie of Doni, from the Italian
(1570; new ed. by Joseph Jacobs, 1888 ).—CHARLES,
the eldest son of the fourth Baron North, was creas
Lord G of Rolleston, but on the death sp. of
his son, William, sixth Baron North (1734), the
barony of Grey ceased, and that of North devolved
upon his cousin, Francis, third Baron Guilford. He
was created Earl of Guilford in 1752, and his son,
the second Earl of Guilford and eighth Lord North,
was the famous statesman under George III. The
third earl had only three daughters, between whom
the barony of North of Kirtling fell into ance
on his lordship’s death in 1802, until in 1841 it
vested in Snsan, Baroness North (1797-1884),
whose son, William-Henry John, succeeded as
NORTH
NORTHALLERTON 521
eleventh Baron North in 1884. The other honours
of the third earl devolved upon his brother,
Francis, fourth earl ; and next on another brother,
Frederick, fifth earl; on whose death in 1827 the
earldom reverted to his cousin, Francis, sixth earl ;
who was succeeded by his grandson, Dudley-
Francis, seventh earl; and he in his turn, in 1885,
by his son, Frederick-George, eighth Earl of Guil-
ford.—Francis NortTH, second son of Dudley,
fourth Baron North, was born 22d October 1637.
He had his education at Bury and St John’s
College, Cambridge, studied law at the Middle
Temple, and was called to the bar in 1655. He
rked hard, was judicious in his drinking, and
rudent in his marriage, and was
re — Solicitor-general Pn cha and
ttorney-gene in succession to Sir Heneage
Finch bis teu years later. In 1674 he became
Lord Chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas.
As far from being the despicable creature of
reece de picture as the saint and sage of
his brother’s eulogium, he knew how to make
interest for himself, and quickly became a privy-
councillor, and in 1682 Lord-keeper of the Great
Seal, and Baron Guilford (September 1683). We
know of his love for music, his kindness to his
brothers and sisters, his dislike of witchcraft trials,
and his distrust of all the many plots of the time.
After the king’s death he was much vexed the
intrigues and insolence of Sunderland and Jeffreys,
but soon after died, 5th September 1685.—Sir
Dubey Nort, the third son, was born 16th May
1641, and, like his brothers, educated at Bury.
Even at school he was a trader, and at an early
age he was bound to a Turkey merchant in
London. Ever the industrious apprentice, he yet
solaced himself with cock-fighting and swimming.
He made a voyage to Archangel, next to Smyrna,
where he settled for some years in trade. After-
wards he settled in Constantinople, returning to
England some years after with a considerable
fortune, which he continued to increase by keeping
an interest in the Levant trade. He became one
of the sheriffs of London, and was pliant enough in
the interest of the crown. He was knighted, married
the widow Lady Gunning, and was appointed a
Commissioner of Customs, next of the woe yt A
then of the Customs again. Under James II. he
sat in parliament for Banbury, and after the Revolu-
tion made but a sorry defence of his actions as
sheriff. He was a keen-eyed observer of men and
manners, had great mechanical genius, a ion for
architecture, and —_ extraordinary ability as a
financier. Indeed, his Discourses upon Trade (1691)
anticipate in a striking manner some of the ideas of
Adam Smith. He died 31st December 1691.—Dr
Joun Norru, the fifth son, was born in London, 4th
September 1645, was educated at Bury, and entered
Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1661, becoming fellow
there in 1666. He was strangely timid, yet a
severe student, solacing himself by book-buying and
de ey, spiders in wide glass bottles. He
su ed w as Master of Trinity College in
1677, became clerk of the closet to Charles IL, and
died, after a long and grievous sickness, in April
1683.—RoGER NorTH, the sixth and youngest
brother, was born at Tostock in Suffolk, 3d
tember 1653, educated at Bury and Jesus Coll
Cambridge, entered the Middle Temple, and under
the influence of his brother the lord-keeper, soon rose
to a lucrative practice at the bar. Atthe Revolution
his hopes of advancement were closed, and he cast
in his lot with the nonjurin: rty, and retired to
his estate of Rougham in Norfolk, where he indulged
the family passion for building, and acted as trustee
for his brother’s estate at Wroxton. In 1696
he , and lived henceforth the life of a country
gentleman and virtuoso, his only unusual tastes
being a passion for acquiring books, and for plant-
ing trees. He died Ist March 1734. His fees
hyper-eulogistic biographies, his autobiography,
With all its naiveté of detail and its amusing pre-
udices, and his Examen (1740) of Dr White
ennet’s History of England give him a place in
English literature not quite commensurate with
his own merits.—FREDERICK Norrn, eighth Lord
North and second Earl of Guilford, a famous
English minister, was born April 13, 1732, and
educated at Eton and Trinity College, Oxford.
When only twenty-two he entered the House of
Commons, and was made a Lord of the Treasury
in 1759, having inherited the Tory Peres y of
his ancestors. On the death of Charles Townshend
in 1767 he was made Chancellor of the Exchequer
and leader of the House of Commons, a post for
which he was well qualified by his eloquence,
good-humour, wit, and iness of resource,
even inst such antagonists as Fox and Burke.
In 1770 he ag 7 the eee of ban ”
prime-minister. North was largely responsible for
the measures that brought about the loss of
America; as a minister he was too ready to sur-
render his own judgment to that of the narrow-
minded and obstinate king. Indeed, North was
called by Horace Walpole the ostensible minister ;
the real minister was George III. In 1778 he
renounced the right of taxing the colonies, already
seeing that the war was hopeless, and in 1782 he
resigned. With North’s retirement came to an end
the king’s scheme of governing the country by his
own will, and ruling the House of Commons by
thinly-disguised corruption. North was succeeded
by the Marguis of Rockingham, on whose death Lord
Shelburne @ premier. Fox's dislike of the
terms of peace with America led him to enter into a
coalition with North, whom he had for so many
years inveighed against as a minister without fore-
sight, ti erous, vacillating,and incapable. North
and Fox took office under the Duke of Portland
in 1783, but the coalition destroyed Fox’s pops.
larity, and the Portland administration only lasted
a few months, North was afflicted by blindness
during the last five years of his life. He succeeded
to the earldom of Guilford in 1790, on the death
of his father, and died 5th August 1792.—BRowN-
Low NorTH, evangelist, was grandson of that
Brownlow North (1741-1820), Bishop of Lichfield,
Worcester, and Winchester, whose son succeeded
in 1827 as sixth Earl of Guilford. Born at Chelsea,
January 6, 1810, he spent six years at Eton,
travelled abroad, bled, and lived much in the
north of Scotland, but underwent conversion in
1854, and thereafter devoted himself entirely to
evangelical labours under the Free Church of t-
land, as well as in Ireland and England. He died
at Tullichewan in Dumbartonshire, November 9,
1875. See his Life by K. Moody-Stuart (1878).
North Adams, a manufacturing city of Mas-
sachusetts, picturesquely situated on the Hoosac
River, near the west end of the Hoosac Tunnel
(q.v.), 143 miles by rail W. by N. of Boston. It
has a large number of woollen and cotton mills,
shoe and print-cloth factories, a foundry, &c. Pop.
(1890) 16,074 ; (1900) 24,200.
Northallerton, the capital of the North
Riding of Yorkshire, 30 miles NNW. of York.
It has a town-hall (1874); a fine cruciform church,
Norman to Perpendicular in style; a cottage
hospital (1877); and sites of a Roman camp and
a Norman castle of the bishops of Durham. At
Standard Hill, 3 miles N., was fought, on 22d
August 1138, the great battle of the Standard, in
which Archbishop Thurstan routed David I. of
Scotland, and which
of SS. Peter, John
t its name from the banners
Beverley, and Wilfrid, hung
522 NORTHAMPTON
NORTH CAPE
out from a car in the English host (see FLAG, Vol.
IV. p. 662). From 1640 to 1832 Northallerton
returned two members, and then till 1885 one.
Pop. 3802. See the History of Northallerton by
Ingledew (1858), and that by Saywell (1886).
Northampton, the capital of Northampton-
shire, and a =a parliamentary, and municipal
borough, is on rising ground on the left
bank of the river Nen, 66 miles NW. by N. of
London and 50 SE. of Birmingham. Ithas a fine
town-hall (1861-64), to which other municipal
offices have more recently been added at a cost of
£24,000 ; a county hall, noticeable for its decorated
ceiling; corn exchan (1850); museum, free
library, and schools of science and art (enlarged
1889); several large hospitals; a theatre (1884) ;
infantry barracks (1797; rebuilt 1877-78) ; and
thirteen churches, the most interesting of which
are St Peter's (Norman), St Sepulchre’s (Norman
and Decorated, one of the few remaining round
churches in England), All-Saints’ (rebuilt subse-
uent to 1675, but with a fine west tower partly
orman), and St Giles’ (cruciform). The principal
manufacture is that of boots and shoes, the town
being the English centre of that industry ; a con-
siderable trade is carried on in the dressing of
leather, some lace is made, and extensive breweries
are in operation. On the outskirts of the
town is a fine racecourse, on which meetings are
held annually in April and November. Pop.
1801) 7020; (1831) 15,351; of the municipal
rough (1891) 61,016, and of the parliamentar
borough, which returns two members, 70,872. f
the many stirring events of which Northampton
has been the theatre, the principal are its burning
by the Danes (1010); the rebuilding, and erection
of its castle (of which no traces now remain) by
one Simon de St Liz (c. 1075); its siege by the
barons (1215), when garrisoned for King John ;
the establishment of its university (1260), which
was abolished some few years later; the conclu-
sion of a treaty (1318) by which the independence
of Scotland was formally recognised; the hold-
ing of many parliaments; royal visits by Richard
I, (in whose reign a royal mint was established
here), John, Henry III. (who here received homage
from Alexander LI. of Scotland), Edward L, Queen
Elizabeth, and Charles I. ; a battle (10th July 1460)
fought in the meadows below the town between
Henry VL. and the Yorkists, in which the former
was defeated and made prisoner; a visitation of
the plagne (1637), which in five months claimed
500 victims; the mustering here in 1642 of the
ne, forces under Lord Essex on the out-
reak of the Civil War; and a great fire (20th
Se grey 1675) which almost entirely destroyed
e town,
Northampton, capital of Hampshire county,
Massachusetts, stands near the west bank of the
Connecticut River (here crossed by a bridge to
Hadley ), 103 miles by rail W. of Boston and 3 miles
NW. of Mount Holyoke. It contains the state
lunatic asylum, the Clarke Institute for deaf-mutes,
a public library, housed in the handsome Memorial
Hall, and Smith College for women. The manu-
factures are of importance, and include paper, silk,
cotton and woollen goods, sewing-machines, cut-
, baskets, brushes, jet ornaments,
(1 ) 12,172; (1890) 14,990; (1900) 18,643.
Northamptonshire, or NorrHants, a mid-
land county of England, 67 miles long, and 25 where
est, is surrounded by the counties of Rutland,
Lincoln, Cambridge, Huntingdon, Bedford, Buck-
ingham, Oxford, and Warwick. Area, 984 sq. m.,
or 629,912 acres, of which more than half is pas-
ture. Pop. (1801) 131,757 ; (1841) 199,208; (1581)
272,558; (1891) 302,184. In the north-east near
Peterbo the county is flat, and forms part of
the Bedford Level (q.v.), but elsewhere the surface
is undulating, the nest: i—about 800 feet
above the sea-level—being found in the neighbour-
hood of Daventry. It is traversed by the ion
and North-Western, Midland, and Great Northern
railways, and_ communication by water is main-
tained by the Nen and the Welland. which are the
chief rivers, as also by the Grand Junction, Union,
and Oxford canals. The soil, a black, peaty mould
in the north-east, and a brown loam on uplands,
is on the oe very Lay eps Corn and “
crops are large wn, but, as compared with the
neerioen year, agora of land devoted to those
crops in 1889 showed a decrease of 9680 acres. On
the broad pastures many cattle are , and
dairy-farming is carried on, wg 2 Northants
is w hunting county, the breeding of horses is
not much yor ly gs he principal minerals are
limestone, which is quarried in the north-east, and
ironstone of excellent quality, which is found near
Kettering and Wellingborough; in 1889 the amount
of ore produced was 1,957,080 tons, whilst 230,820
tons of Rdg were made, The manufactures are
inconsiderable a from those noticed under
Northampton, The county comprises cg Bs
dreds, the municipal boroughs of Brackley, Daven-
try, Higham Ferrers, Northampton, Peterborough,
and Stamford (the last two extending into Hunting-
donshire and Lincolnshire), and has in all 344 civil
ishes, with parts of four others, almost entirely
in the diocese of Peterborough. The parliament-
ary divisions are four, each returning one member,
whilst the county council (exclusive of that for the
Soke of Peterborough, which has forty members)
numbers sixty-eight. In history the principal inci-
dents connected with the county, omitting those
noticed under Northampton (its capita!), have been
the battles of Edgecote (1469) and Naseby (1645), the
leheading of Mary Queen of Scots at Fotheringa
Castle (1587), and the imprisonment of Charles 4
at er House (1647). Of its natives, besides
Richard III. and (perhaps) Catharine Parr, the
best known are Arclibishop Chichele (the founder
of All-Souls’ College at Oxford), Sir Christopher
Hatton (the courtier), Catesby (of Gunpowder Plot
renown), Thomas Fuller, James Harrington, Bishop
Cumberland, Dryden, Charles Montagu, Earl of
Halifax, William Law, Gill and Carey (the eminent
Baptists), Doddridge (the Nonconformist), James
Hervey, Cartwright (‘the father of Reform’), Dr
Paley, William Lisle Bowles, Clare (the peasant
poet), the Earl of Cardigan (leader of the Balaclava
veer! and Dean Mansel. See the county his-
tories Brid 2 vols. 1791), Baker (2 vols,
1822-41), and Whellan (2d ed. 1874).—Hampshire
(q.v.) is the county of Southampton.
North Berwick, 4 fashionable watering-place
of Haddingtonshire, at the entrance to the h
of Forth, 23 miles by a branch-line (1848) ENE. of
Edinburgh and 10 by water SSE. of Elie in Fife.
Behind it rises conical North Berwick Law (6)2
feet); and westward stretch splendid golf-links
with an 18-hole course. Tantallon Castle, 3 miles
E., fronting the Bass Rock ( sO ), is a magnificent
ruin, finely described in tt’s Marmion. A
stronghold of the Douglases, it resisted James V. in
1528, but in 1639 was ‘dung down’ by the Cove-
nanters. Robert III. made North Berwick a royal
burgh, and till 1885 it returned, with Haddington,
&e., one member to parliament. Pop. 2376. See
Ferrier’s North Berwick (11th ed, 1890).
Northbrook. See Barine,
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NORTH CAROLINA
NORTHMEN 523
Nordkyn (71° 6’ N, lat.), 6 miles farther south than
the North Cape, some 45 miles to the east of it.
North Carolina, one of the thirteen original
ree of Pnrdivapgenanr wi is situated on the
tie ; south of Vir- rant
ginia, in 33° 50’—36° 33’ N. lat., | 190 tu te c-8 by 3".
and 75° 27’—84° 30’ W. long. Its | /?rincott Company.
extreme length is about 500, its breadth 186 miles.
Area, 52,250 sq. m., or larger than that of England.
The eastern part of the state is low, and in some
parts swampy, the central part undulating, and the
western mountainous ; but everywhere, except in
limited areas in the eastern section, the soil is
remarkably fertile and the climate salubrious.
The wy, retirees pape in the United States east
of the Mississippi are in North Carolina, at least
twelve peaks being higher than Mount Washington,
in the White Mountains, and more than fi
exceeding 6000 feet in altitude—Mitchell’s Pea
(6707 feet) the highest. Most of these are clothed
to their tops with thick forests, but some have
prairie-like summits covered with deep turf. All
this picturesque region, known as ‘the Land of the
Sky,’ is a favourite resort in summer for southerners
in winter for northerners.
North Carolina is rich in mineral products. The
value of its gold and silver deposited for coi
and assay from 1793 to 1891 exceeds $12,000,000.
A branch U.S. mint was established at Charlotte in
1838, and has since 1873 been continued as an assay
office. Silver occurs associated with lead in Clay
and Davidson counties, and zine in the latter
county. Iron is widely disseminated in the form
of s ores, hematites, and magnetites ; copper
and plumbago also are found in many counties.
Bituminous coal of excellent quality is mined,
19,000 tons being raised in 1897. There are valu-
able deposits of corundum and extensive beds of
mica in the west, quarries of brownstone and -
ite, and mines of tale, all of which are worked ;
in the eastern section are valuable phosphate beds ;
and more than 150 species of gems, &c., including
the rich ‘hiddenite’ or lithia-emerald, which is
‘not known to occur elsewhere, are found in the
state.
Maize has hitherto been the principal agricult-
ural product, but has recently been rivalled by
cotton in the annual value of its crop. Wheat,
oats, hay, tobacco, and sweet potatoes are the
next most valuable ucts of the soil. One of
the chief industries in eastern North Carolina has
long been the nection of tar, rosin, and spirits
of turpentine from the forests of long-leaved pine
(Pinus palustris) and allied species. The manu-
facturing industries until 1 were limited, but
since that date the spindles and looms for the
manufacture of cotton and woollen fabrics have
n largely increased, tobacco-factories have been
established and en , and in 1888 the first silk-
factory in the southern states was established.
Fisheries constitute a profitable industry along the
coast, and employ from 6000 to 7000 men.
North Carolina contains 97 counties, and returns
ten members to congress. It has about 3700 miles
of railway. The largest city is Wilmington, the
capital Raleigh. In 1896 there were 7249 public
hools (4875 for whites and 2374 for coloured),
with an enrolment of 348,616 pupils. Besides
several denominational ean’ there is a state
university (1795) at Chapel Hill, and a state agri-
cultural college was established at — in 1889.
Raleigh ena lums for a —— at geegrins
Raleigh, a organton—the first for negroes only ;
ote is also made the state for the
blind and deaf-mutes, both white and black. The
penitentiary has about 1300 convicts, but most of
them are h out by contract.
History,—In 1584 Raleigh’s first expedition landed
on Roanoke Island, and was kindly received. In
1585, 1586, and 1587 Raleigh planted colonies on
the island, but the first returned with Drake in
1586, and the others were destroyed. In 1629
Charles I., claiming under Cabot’s discovery,
granted to Sir Robert Heath the territory, also
claimed by Spain and called Florida, from Tht. 30°
to 36° as Carolana Florida. By the English it
was called both Carolana and Carolina. In 1653
a colony from Virginia settled on the banks of
the Roanoke and Chowan rivers: this was the
first ent settlement in North Carolina. In
1663 Charles LI. antes the region across the con-
tinent between lat. 31° and 36° to eight of his
favourites, under the name of Carolina. In June
1665 the king extended the limits of Carolina to
29° on the 8. and to 36° 30’ N. The proprietors,
‘to avoid erecting a numerous democracy’ in
Carolina, adopted a utopian form of ‘fundamental
constitutions, prepared by John Locke and Shaftes-
bury, which ised a nobility of landgraves
and cassiques. e eldest proprietor was tine,
and the other seven had high-sounding titles. The
ia acre rule ceased in 1729, when the king
ght out the claims of the proprietors for £2500
each, and North Carolina became a royal province.
Under the administration of the second royal gov-
ernor, Gabriel Johnston (1734-53), the colony
increased in population from 14,000 to 45,000, and
became hag ees oe The arbitrary rule of
Governor bbs (1754-66) and Governor Tryon
(1766-73) served to intensify the dislike of the
people to the taxation policy of 1 cacesapanyed ; and
when the colonial assembly at Wilmington pro-
tested against taxation witliout representation it
was dissolved by Governor Tryon. The Mecklen-
burg Convention met at Charlotte and adopted a
declaration of independence on May 20, 1775. The
early years of the war (1775-83) were marked by
bitter local and i conflicts between Whigs
and Tories. In the years 1779-81 North Carolina
furnished about one-tenth of the American army ;
still, it was the last state but one to ratify the
federal constitution, November 21, 1789. It was
the last, too, of the eleven Confederate States to pass
in convention an ordinance of secession, May 21,
1861, which was not submitted to the people. The
copies of Fort Fisher in January 1865 led to the
federal oceupation of Wilmington, the advance of
the union forces on Raleigh, and the surrender of
General Johnston, which practically ended the
war of secession. Pop. (1800) 487,103; (1840)
753,419 ; (1890) 1,617,947 ; (1900) 1,893,810—msking
North Carolina the fifteenth state in order of
population. Presidents Jackson, Polk, and John-
son were natives; and Flora Macdonald (q.v.) for
a time resided here.
Northcote, Str Starrorp. See IDDESLEIGH.
North Dakota, one of the two states con-
structed in 1890 out of the former territory of Da-
kota(q.v.). Area, 70,795 sq.m. Pop. (1900) 319,146.
Northern Territory. See Sourn Aus-
TRALIA,
North German Confederation. See Grr-
MANY, Vol. V. p. 184.
Northmen, or Norsemen, the name given in
the middle by the coast-dwellers of Germany,
France, and nginnd to the sea-rovers who came
from the north—Denmark, Norway, Sweden. In
a narrower sense the word sometimes means the
inhabitants of Norway only. The most prominent
characteristics of these North Teutonic tribes were
their love for the sea and for war. Bolder navi-
gators than even the Pheenicians of old, they sailed
east, west, south, and even north into the Arctic
Ocean, to indulge their passion for fighting, to win
fame, to gain wealth, to plunder, and to slay, We
524
NORTHMEN
nowadays should call them pirates ; they called them-
selves sea-kings, vikings, and believed that these
expeditions were the noblest and most honourable
work they could put their hands to. They believed
too that the best title, in the legal sense, to land
and other (movable) property was given by winning
it with the sword: this gained them the highest
respect and influence, and was the surest guarantee
of political power. There were likewise powerful
economic and political causes eee pe |» with
these to send forth, from the middle of the 8th
century to the 13th, and even later, these throngin
swarms of Northmen. The natural resources 0:
the lands they dwelt in were very inadequate to
the support of the relatively large populations.
The system of land tenure, based on the indivisi-
bility and absolute ownership of the family estate,
whilst fortifying the sense of family attachment
and fostering family pride, frequently imposed gall-
ing restraints upon the younger sons, prim the
more restless and high-spirited among them. Hence
they spent the summer in quest of fame and booty
in distant lands; but generally came home again in
the autumn, to pass the winter in the enjoyment of
the good things they had earned. Still stronger
impulses were given to these expeditions when the
more powerful chiefs (kings) at home en to
subdue their weaker contemporaries and rivals, and
the separate i (Norway, Denmark, Sweden)
an oro to take definite shape, under such strong
rulers as Harold Fairhair ( Haarfager) and Canute.
Many of the free odal proprietors, rather than
submit to become the feudal vassals of the con-
querors, preferred to abandon their homes, and go
and conquer new lands for themselves elsewhere.
These strong rulers moreover sternly put down the
intestine conflicts in which the Northmen delfghted ;
consequently to get their fill of fighting they were
obliged to go abroad.
A favourite plan of the weaker viking chiefs was
to lie in wait up some small creek or river-mouth,
or behind the shelter of some island, and thence
suddenly dart out upon a passing vessel. The
larger fleets boldly invaded a district, plundered
the inhabitants, slew them if they offered resist-
ance, or carried them off as slaves if they did no
harried the open country, rifled the churches an
monasteries—which always yielded the greatest
stores of gold and silver—and not infrequently
burned them to the ground, as they did the strong
cities they took and sacked. ing heathens,
worshippers of Thor and Odin, they had no qualms
of conscience as to sacrilege, and stood in no awe of
the threatenings of the church. One viking fleet
would even challenge another to fight it for fight-
ing’ssake only. The vessels they sailed in were com-
paratively small and light of draught, so that they
were able to penetrate a long way up the rivers,
sometimes into the heart of a country ; and as the
Northmen were resistless in arms and unrelenting
in their wrath, their mere appearance was often
sufficient to paralyse an entire district with ic
terror. In many churches a special petition, ‘From
the fury of the Northmen, O Lord, deliver us,’ was
recited in the litany. But these sea-rovers were
also keen traders: on many occasions they first
requested ission to land and trade fully
with the inhabitants, and only when their trading
was done did they begin to plunder. There were
several recogni trading-places along the shores
of the Baltic, and some on the North Sea, which
were visited not only by legitimate merchants from
England, Flanders, Italy, the East, but also by
vi who had slaves, and gold and silver, and
other less valuable booty to dispose of.
The viking age is divisible into two periods:
during the first adventure and plunder were the
chief incitements—this lasted until the middle of
the 9th century ; the second was the period of per-
manent conquests, in Ireland, France, En
South Italy. The sea-rovers made their first re-
corded attack upon England, upon Wessex, in 787,
and first to raid alon e shores of Frisia,
Flanders, and France towards the end of the cen-
tury. These bands came from Denmark, but may
nevertheless have been Norwegi During the
first half of the next century the depredations of
the Northmen were more terrible than ever, on
ay in Frisia and Flanders, during the periods
837 and 845-850. They had also gone farther
south: in 820 a band reached Aquitaine; fifteen
years later another band plundered the French
island of Noirmoutier ; in 843-844 a fleet sailed u
the Loire and Gironde, visited Galicia ee ),
steered up the Guadalquivir and fought the Moors,
From about the middle of the century bodies of
Northmen established themselves in permanent
camps at the mouths of the French rivers, and
repeatedly ascended them on their errands of
plunder and slaughter. Three times in guick sue-
cession they took Paris and wipes it of its wealth
(845, 857, 861); but the most famous si took
place in 885-886. In 859 and 860 an exceptionally
adventurous fleet entered the Mediterranean
ravaged the coasts of Spain and Mauretania, and
Majorea, 7 the winter at the mouth of the
Rhone, and in the following summer laid their
ruthless hand on the coast towns of Italy, especi-
ally on Luna (near Carrara), thinking it was
Rome. Yet Flanders and the north France
suffered most during the thirty-six years from
876 to 912. During all this period a large army,
or even armies, dominated the coast districts from
the Rhine to Brittany, quartering themselves in
entrenched camps, and not only routing time
after time the armies of the weak kings of
Austrasia and Neustria, and their still weaker
vassals, but even making disastrous raids far into
the interior—to Coblentz, Soissons, d
extorting from kings, dukes, counts, and towns
large sums in gold and silver as the price of abstain-
ing from hostilities. The chiefs of these formid-
able bands were Bjérn Ironside, Hasting, Siegfred,
Godfred, and Rollo or Rolf. Detachments of the
main body crossed over more than once to England,
where, however, Alfred was a match for them: ~-
Rollo (Rou) is probably the same as Rolf. the
Ganger ; if so, he was the son of a chief of the west
coast of Norway, and was outlawed by Harold
Fairhair shortly after 872, In 912 Charles the
Simple of France, seeing that it was hopeless for
him to drive away his dangerous and pertinacious
foemen, thought it best to disarm them against
himself, and at the same time arm them t
new-comers, by allowing them to settle in his king-
dom, a S99) adopted by other rulers , before.
Accordingly at Clair-sur-Epte he to cede to
Rollo the district bounded by the Channel, the
Seine, and the Epte, on condition that he would
become his man or vassal, and be baptised a
Christian. Rollo accepted the terms, and thus
acquired the nucleus of the duchy of Voweaee
(q.v.). There the name Northmen was soften
into Normans, a name celebrated in hinony aes
only in virtue of the conquest of England 4 uke
William, bnt also because of their exploits in
Italy and Sicily, and the East, described under
GUISCARD and SICILY,
The earliest serious attacks upon England were
made in 793 and 794, when Lindisfarne and Jarrow
monastery were sacked and Northumberland
ravaged. It was abont the same time that the
sea-kings of Norway began to cross the ‘ Western
Sea’ and sail as far as the st pore or South
Islands—i.e. the Hebrides, the Western Isles of
Scotland, and Man (q.v.)—and to Irelard, prob-
—_-7_——
NORTHMEN
NORTH SEA 525
ably utilising the Faroe (q.v.) and Shetland ( ae)
Tslands as nowy Sm ie They sacked Iona (Hy)
in 802 and again in 806, slaying most of the monks.
Their visits to Ireland were particularly numerous
after 807, and brought great woes upon the un-
happy island. A chief named Torgisl, a Norseman,
ted fiercely with the Norsemen, or, as the
Trish called them, the Eastmen; but in the year
uoted Olaf the White of Norway founded the
Saletteevian (chiefly Danish) kingdom of Dublin,
which lasted three centuries or more, whilst two of
his followers created the separate kingdoms of
Waterford and Limerick (see IRELAND, Vol. VI.
p- 203). The Farde, Orkney, and Shetland Islands
seem to have been frequently visited by Norsemen
after 825, and were permanently colonised during
the next quarter of a cag & Teeland (q.v.) was
i and colonised by the same people
between the middle and end of the century;
and from Iceland they ventured still farther
i
west, and made settlements in Greenland (q.v.),
and even visited Vinland (q.v.) in orth
The viking raids on England were
incessant after 833, but were checked for a time
by the slaughter inflicted on them by Ethel-
wulf at Ockley (Surrey) in 851. Fifteen years
later they again, and this time assumed the
ally the eastern, portions of the island, notwith-
The struggle is sketched under England
q.v.).
By the middle of the 8th century the Norwegians
had discovered the sea-route to the White Sea by
rounding the North Cape. On several occasions
down to 1222 they sailed the Northern Dwina
and plundered the people of Bjarmeland or Permia.
on the
The most oe event in viking histo
east side of Baltic happened in 862. The Slav
(perhaps rather Germanic Russi) tribes who dwelt
south of Lake as far as the Southern Dwina
inavian chiefs (probably from
Sweden), brothers, of whom Rurik became the
most influential, to go and rule over them. —
established themselves at Holmgaard (Nov )
and laid the foundations of the kingdom of Gar-
darike, out of which grew the subsequent Russia
(q.v.), that was ruled over by Rurik’s descendants
down to 1598. Contemporaneously with this two
other Scandinavian chiefs formed the nucleus of
another state at Kénugaard (Kieff); and, sailing
thence down the Dnieper, they threatened Con-
stantinople, which was only saved by a sudden
— a the fleet ~ the agher 29 -
n, arangians), as they were ca 'y
the Slavic Russians and the Greeks. Three times
during the first half of the 10th century these
adventurers appeared before the capital of the
Eastern empire, and on two occasions (907 and
945) went away carrying with them heavy sums,
the by the emperors to save the
city from assault. Igor, the son of Rurik, who
commanded two of these expeditions, even launched
his fleet on the waters of the Caspian, and carried
the terror of the Northmen’s name among the
Mohammedan dwellers on its shores. The ns we
tions of the Vii lually ceased after Viadimir
introduced Christianity into his dominions in 988.
Nevertheless for many years these Scandinavian
rulers in Russia surrounded themselves with stout
and trusty warriors from the north, their position
being precisely analogous to that of the Manchu
emperors in China. From the end of the 10th
century the emperors of Constantinople had, till
the fall of the city in 1453, a picked bodyguard of
Vv i The men of the north esteemed it a
high honour to have served in this chosen cohort
at Myklegaard (i.e. ‘the Great City’); and doubt-
less they carried back to their countrymen at home
man dadentes or traits of the civilised refinement
of the zantine court. After the Norman Con-
quest of land large numbers of English North-
men made their way to Constantinople and enlisted
in the Varangian guard ; these were the only men
whose battle-axes cost Robert Guiscard and his
Normans trouble at the great battle of Dyrrha-
chium (1082).
See Steenstrup, Wormannerne (4 vols. 1876-82); G.
Storm, Kritiske Bidrag til Vikingetidens Historie
; Munch, Det Norske Folks Historie (7 vols.
1 ); Keary, Vikings in Western Christendom, 789-
888 (1891); Du Chaillu, Viking Age (2 vols. 1890);
Barlow, History of Normans in South Europe (1886);
Count Schack, Normannen in Sicilien (2 vols. 1889);
Hci, Med Normands en Italie (1883); also the older
books Worsaae, Danes and Norwegians in England, ee.
(1852); Strinnholm, Wikingseiige (2 vols, 1839-41);
Wheaton, History of Northmen (1831); and Deppin
Histoire des Expéditions des Normands (2 vols. 1826).
See also the books quoted under NorMANDy, and the
articles IRELAND, Nass, SHrpsurtpinc. For the
see ICELANDIC; and see also SCANDINAVIAN
MYTHOLOGY.
North Sea. The North Sea, or German Ocean,
is a southern extension of the Arctic Ocean (q.v.).
It communicates freely with that part of the Arctic
Ocean lying between Iceland and Norway which
has received the name of the Norwegian Its
northern sagen would be represented by a line
drawn from the Shetland Islands to the opposite
coast of Norway, and its southern boundary is the
Strait of Dover; on the west it is bounded by the
east coast of Great Britain, and on the east by the
coasts of Norway, Denmark, Germany, Holland,
and Belgium. ith the North Atlantic Ocean it
has communication through the Strait of Dover
and the English Channel on the south, and on the
north by the Pentland Firth and the channel
between the Orkney and Shetland Islands; with
the Arctic Ocean as already stated; and with
the Baltic by the Skagerrack and Cattegat. The
North Sea is over 600 miles in length and about
400 miles in greatest width, and its area is
estimated at over 160,000 sq. m. By far the
ter pi ion of this area is less than 100
fathoms in oe the only part where deeper
water is found being off the coast of Norway (the
Norwegian — or Norwegian “eg as it has
been called), where a depth of 360 fathoms has
been recorded ; the mean depth of the whole area
is estimated at 61 fathoms. Tle sea is very
shallow towards the south and east, and the coasts
in this direction are low and flat, being in some
places below the level of the sea, whereas to the
north and west, where the water is deeper, the
seacoast is high, and the deep Norwegian Gully is
faced by the high and bold cliffs of scene he
sea-bottom is very irregular, a number of banks
running across from the Yorkshire coast towards
the .Skagerrack, the most important of which is
the Bank (q.v.), and there are also depres-
sions like the Silver Pit ; off the low-lying coasts of
Holland, Belgium, and Britain there are numerous
shoals and sandbanks formed of the materials
brought down by the rivers. The North Sea is
surrounded by continental land and receives the
waters of numerous rivers, the principal of which
are the Thames, Ouse, Humber, lyne, Tweed,
Forth, and Tay, the Scheldt, Rhine, Weser, and
Elbe. The deposits forming on the bottom conse-
quently belong to the class called ‘terrigenous,’
consisting in the shallower water of sands and
gravels and in the deeper water of muds and clays,
526 NORTH SEA
NORTHUMBERLAND
containing stones and f ents of rocks and
minerals derived from the land, along with cal-
careous ents of shells and other organisms,
The salinity of the water of the North Sea
varies between 1°025 and 1°027, the lightest water
occurring in the southern part and in the Skager-
rack, where fresh water comes from the Baltic, and
the densest water at the bottom in the deep water
off Norway. The mean temperature of the air
over the North Sea in summer is about 60° F., and
in winter about 36°, the range throughout the year
being about 34°—from 31° to 65° F. Except in the
summer months, the temperature of the surface
water is higher than that of the air, the mean
temperature of the surface water in summer being
about 58°, and in winter about 42°F, The winds are
variable over the North Sea, the most prevalent
being from the south-west, and the currents are
chiefly dependent on the direction of the wind;
fogs, mists, and rain occur at all seasons,
The great tidal wave of the Atlantic advancing
from the west is divided into two portions on
striking the British Islands: the one enterin
the North Sea round the Orkneys and throu
the Pentland Firth, the other coming up the
English Channel. Captain Tizard, R.N., who has
made a a study of the tides in the North Sea,
says: ‘The former undulation seems to run along
the east coast of Britain like a wave along a break-
water, and makes it successively high-water along
the coast from Duncansbay Head to Orfordness ;
the latter undulation runs along the coasts of
France, Belgium, Germany, &c., and finally ends
at the Scaw. As the distance from the coast
increases, the rise and fall seems to diminish until
it is probable that in the centre of the sea there is
very little if any. Captain Hewitt found one spot
midway between the British and Dutch coasts
where there was no rise and fall. The tidal streams
do not depend on the times of high and low water
at the diflerent ports, but seem to be more dependent
on the position where the maximum rise and fall
takes place, running towards that spot when the
tide is rising there and away from it when falling
there; I have not worked it all out yet, but cer-
tainly on the east coast from St Abb’s Head to the
Wash the stream is always running to the south-
ward when the tide is rising in the Wash and to
the northward when falling there. From Cromer to
the Downs the tide is affected greatly by the un-
dulation from the Channel, and the two undulations
seem to pass through each other; but there is a
very curious fact in connection with the two tides
—viz. all the light-vessels in the North Sea affected
by the Channel tide rotate with the hands of a
clock, and all affected by the tide round the Orkneys
rotate oor the hands of a clock.’
The North Sea has been from the earliest times
one of the most important highways of the world,
and is surrounded by some of the most prosperous
commercial nations, famous for their maritime ex-
ploits. The fisheries of the North Sea are among
the most important in the world, providing em-
ployment for thousands of fishermen from the sur-
rounding countries ; all the varieties of food-fishes
abound, as well as edible molluscs and crustaceans,
such as oysters, mussels, lobsters, crabs, and
shrimps. The value of these fisheries depends to
a t extent upon the abundance of the fauna
and flora living on the sea-floor, all the various
groups of invertebrates being met with in great
profasion in the North Sea, while the surface
waters swarm with algmw, snch as diatoms, &e.,
which sometimes form extensive floating banks,
See North Sea Pilot and Admiralty publications ; also
Expedition zur Dagon ange a und biolorischen
beatae ler Nordsee im Sommer i872 (Berlin,
Northumber
of England, separa)
the most northern county
m the Lowlands of Scot-
land by the Tweed, and from the county of Durham
by the Tyne and Derwent. The German Ocean
bounds it on the E., and the county of Cumber-
land, with a part of Roxburghshire, on the W.
Among the English counties it ranks fifth in
to size, having an area of 1,290,312 acres. Its
greatest length is 70 miles and its greatest breadth
47 miles. The surface of the county, except near
the coast, is picturesquely broken into rounded and
conical-shaped hills and high moorland ridges. Ths
main valleys are fertile and well wooded. The
principal heights belong to the Cheviot Hills (q.v.),
and are seated in the north-west of the county.
These are Cheviot (2676 feet), Hedgehope 2348
feet), Cushat Law (2020 feet), Bloody Bush
(2001 feet), and Windy Gyle (1 feet).
Simonside Hills near Rothbury attain a height of
1447 feet. The chief rivers are the Tyne (formed
the confluence of two streams, the North and Sou
Tyne, a little above Hexham), the Wansbeck, the
Coquet, the Aln, the Breamish, the Till, and the
Tweed. In the south-west of the county are some
small sheets of water called the Northumbrian
Lakes, the largest of which is Greenley Lough,
Off the coast lie a few islands—Lindisfarne or Holy
Island, the Farne Islands, and Coquet Isle. The
logy of the county is simple in its broad features,
he beds as a whole slope to the sea, the direction
of the general dip lying between south-east and
east; hence the oldest rocks—the Silurian—a
in the north-west, near the head of the Rede and
Coquet, and the later formations—the Triassic and
Permian beds and the coal-measures—near the
coast. The strata have been dislocated and broken
by voleanic disturbances, during which were in-
truded the igneous rocks. The Cheviots, which
cover an area of 200 sq. m., owe their origin to the
earlier of these upheavals. They consist chiefly of
andesites and So The Whin Sill, a t
sheet of basalt stretching across the county from
Kyloe near Berwick to Greenhead in Cumberland
in a series of columnar crags, was injected among
the sedimentary rocks during the later eruptions
which took place, it is supposed, at the close of the
Carboniferous period. A number of basaltic dykes
also cross the county. The coal-measures oecupy
the south-east of the county, and the lead-
measures (belonging to the Upper Limestone series
or Yoredale rocks) the south-west.
The climate is cold, especially from March to the
middle of June, when the prevailing winds are from
the east and north-east. The winters, however,
are often much milder than they are in the south.
The average rainfall, too, except in the Cheviot
district, is considerably less than in the counties of
Devon, Dorset, Hampshire, and Sussex. North-
umberland contains 541 civil parishes, and, ecclesi-
astically, is in the province of York, For the
purposes of civil government the county is divided
into nine wards (answering to hundreds or wapen-
takes), three of which formed part of Durham till
1844. It comprises four parliamentary divisions—
the Tyneside, Wansbeck, Hexham, and Berwick-
upon-Tweed, returning four members. The princi-
3s towns are Alnwick, Morpeth, Hexham, and
orth Shields, Newcastle-upon-Tyne (q.v.) is a
city and county of itself. A large portion of the
county is agricultural, especially the fertile tracts
along the principal valleys and near the coast. The
usual rotation of crops is oats, turnips, and a small
quantity of potatoes, spring wheat and barley,
clover and other , and then pasture. Turnips
arty well, the cultivation of them on raised ridges
ving peculiar to the county, and known as the
Northumbrian system. ‘The western portion of the
county is pastoral, the slopes of the Cheviots
ted
*
i
J
#
7
NORTHUMBRIA
NORTON 527
affording sustenance to large flocks of hardy sheep.
In Chil Park there is preserved a herd of
wild cattle said to be of the inal British stock.
The staple trade of the county is in coal, and the
chief manufactures are connected with its mining
and transit. The number of collieries working in
the county is about 114. The salmon-fisheries of
the e and Tweed have long been famous. The
county is traversed by the North-Eastern and
North British railways. Pop. (1801) 168,078;
(1841) 266,020 ; (1881) 434,086 ; (1891) 506,030,
Northumberland in the time of the Romans was
inhabited by a branch of the Celtic people, the tribe
of the Ottadeni. In the 6th —, it was con-
quered and colonised by the Angles. It then formed
part of the kingdom of Bernicia. Being a border
county, it suffered much during the Scottish wars,
and from the 11th to the 17th century was frequently
the seene of much bloodshed. The battles of Otter-
burn, Homildon Hill, and Flodden were fought on
its soil. Northumberland is very rich in memorials
of the No county, indeed, has a more inter-
esting collection of military antiquities, from the
rude circular camps and entrenchments of the old
inhabitants to the t castles and peel-towers of
medieval times. The Romans have left a mighty
monument of their power in the t barrier
across the southern portion of the county,
and in the stations and roads connected with
it. Other antiquities, also noticed separately, are
at Bamburgh, Dunstanburgh, Hexham, Alnwick,
Holy Island, Norham, &c. Northumberland is
the birthplace of Bishop Ridley, Thomas Bewick,
Akenside, Lord Eldon, George and Robert Stephen-
son, Grace Darling, the second Earl Grey, Birket
Foster, and Lord Armstrong.
Hutchinson (1778), Mackenzie (1825), and H
(1820-40) ; inde’s Gi History of Nor-
thu an addition to Hod, ‘s great work
(1858); Hartshorne’s Feudal and Military Antiquities
Gibson’s WNorthu i
Castles, iquitics (1848-54); Brace’s
Roman Wall (1874); Lebour's Geology of Northumber-
land and Durham (1886); Tomli 's Comprehensi:
Guide to Northumberland (1888); the Proceedings of
the Newcastle Antiquaries, and the Surtees Soc.; Bate-
son’s History of Northumberland (12 vols, 1893 et seq. ).
Northumbria, the most northern of the aucient
English kingdoms, pening from the Humber
northwards to the Firth of Forth, and separated
westwards from Cumbria and Strathclyde by the
Pennine range and the Ettrick Forest. Bernicia,
the district north of the Tees, had for its first
king Ida {far ee who built Bamburgh as his
capital. is , Ethelfrith, mounted the
throne in 593, and having married the daughter
of Ella, who in 560 had formed the kingdom of
Deira out of the district between the Tees and the
Humber, set aside the rights of his boy brother-in-
law Edwin, and so united both Bernicia and Deira
into one kingdom. But the ousted Edwin, return-
ing to defeat and slay the usurper in 617, thereupon
himself became of the Northumbrians as well
as Bretwalda. Under him Northumbria was Chris-
tianised. In 633 he fell in battle against Penda
of Mereia and the Welsh Cadwallon, but a year
later St Oswald, son of Ethelfrith, cleared“ the
country of the invaders, and united both divisions
under tule. His brother and successor, Oswy,
Darts, bis goodia bas in Got, by « greet tictery in
n, but in , by a t vi in
which Penda perished, was able png to anite his
kingdom, and reigned till 670 the most powerful
of all Northumbrian kings. Under later kings—
rid (670-685), Aldfrid (685-705), a great patron
Northumbrian influence gave way before the rise
of Mercia, internal tumults, and Danish ravages,
until 806, when the chroniclers cease to give
a suecession of kings, and 827, when at
len Northumbria became tributary to Egbert.
See the Histories of Green, Skene, and Freeman.
North-western Provinces, a lieutenant-
governorship of British India, constituted under
an Act of 1835, and occupying the upper basin
of the and Jumna, extending from
Bengal to Punjab. Oudh, till 1877 a
separate government, is now under the lieuten-
ant-governor of the North-western Provinces, but
in some res has separate institutions. The
oa, which constitutes the great part of
industan proper, is mainly a great alluvial
plain, sloping from the Himalayas, and comprises
the Doa' hilkhand, Bundelkhand, &c., and
the Upper Ganges valley. It is the great wheat
country of India, but is not on a level with Bengal
as to resources or trade. The headquarters of
Hinduism, and containing some of the most sacred
memorials of the Aryan race, it was nevertheless
long subject to Moslem sway; and in 1881 134
per cent. of the — were Mohammedans,
as compared wit 3 per cent. Hindus. The
divisions of the North-western Provinces are
Meerut, Agra, Rohilkhand, Allahabad, Benares,
Jhansi, Kumaon, and the four divisions of Oudh
—Lucknow, Sitapur, Fyzabad, Rai Bareli. Total
area under direct tish administration (with
Oudh), 107,503 sq. m.; pop. (1891) 46,905,085.
The native states have a further area of 5109 sq.
m., and a pop. (1891) of 792,491. With the native
states the area is about the size of Italy, and the
population a half larger than that of Italy. Even
with the Himalayan (istricts, the Re ulation’ is
goer denser than England and Wales. The
capital is Allahabad. See INDIA, OUDH.
North-west Passage, a route for ships from
the Atlantic to the Pacifie by the north of Aaeetibs:
The North-east Passage is that by the north of
Asia. See PoLAR EXPLORATION, ARCTIC OCEAN,
FRANKLIN (SIR JOHN), NORDENSKIOLD.
North-west Territories. See CANADA,
Vol. IL p. 690, and the articles on ALBERTA,
ASSINIBOIA, ATHABASCA, and SASKATCHEWAN.
Northwich, a market-town of Cheshire, on
the river Weaver and the old Watling Street,
18 miles ENE. of Chester. Underneath the
town and all around it are great numbers of
brine-springs, which have been used for the pre-
ration of salt since before the Christian era,
xe town is being gradually undermined by the
— of the brine, and the cavities so formed
ave caused many houses and buildings to fall.
Several of those that still stand are propped u
or bolted together. The streets are narrow an
irregular, and many of the dwelling-houses are
of an antique type. In 1670 rock-salt mines
began to be worked, and now great quantities
of this mineral are extracted. The town was
taken by the parliamentarians in 1643. Pop (1881)
12,246; (1891) 14,914.
Norton, ANDREws, American theologian, was
born at Hingham, Massachusetts, December 31,
1786, graduated at Harvard in 1804, was appointed
mathematical tutor there in 1811, and in 1813
librarian of the university and lecturer on biblical
criticism and interpretation. In 1819-30 he was
Dexter professor of Sacred Literature. Norton
was among the most distinguished exponents of
Unitarianism, equally determined in his protest
— Calvinism and in his opposition to the
- ool of Theodore Parker and the naturalistic
learning, and as many as fourteen re suc-
cessors, most of whom came to a violent end—
yy. His chief writings are Reasons for not
believing the Doctrines of Trinitarians (1833), and
528 NORTON
NORWAY
two works on The Genuineness of the Gospels. He
died at Newport, Rhode Island, September 18,
1853, leaving also a translation of the goepels,
which was edited (1855) by his son Charles Eliot
Norton and Dr Ezra Abbot.—CHARLEs ELIoT Nor-
TON was born at Cambridge, Mass., 16th November
1827, and graduated at Harvard in 1846. He trav-
elled in India and Europe at times between 1849
and 1873, and in 1864-68 was joint editor with
Lowell of the North American Review. In 1874-77
jhe was professor of Art History at Harvard. He
fected in 1884 the degree of Litt.D. from Cam-
bridge University, and in 1887 that of LL.D. from
Harvard. He published a translation of Dante, &c.,
edited the Correspondence of Carlyle with Emerson
and with Goethe, Letters of Carlyle and of Lowell,
and is literary executor in America for Ruskin.
Norton, THE Hon. Mrs. Caroline Sheridan,
poss and novelist, and granddaughter of Richard
rinsley Sheridan, was born in 1808. In 1827 she
married the Hon. George Chapple Norton (1800-75);
the second of their three sons, Thomas Brinsley
1831-77), became (1875) fourth Lord Grantley.
heir marri was most unhappy, and_ her
friendship with Lord Melbourne led her husband
to institute (1836) a groundless and unsuccessful
action of divorce, the damages laid at £10,000.
Already she had made by her pen £1400 in one
year, and after the separation from her husband
she continued her literary activity. Her poems
include The Sorrows of Rosalie (1829), The Undying
One (the Wandering Jew, 1830), The Child of the
Tslands (1845), and The Lady of La Garaye (1862) ;
her novels, Stuart of Dunleath (1847), Lost and
Saved (1863), and Old Sir Douglas (1868). In
March 1877 she married Sir William Stirling-Max-
well (q.v.), but died on the 15th June following.
Her story beyond doubt supplied the subject for
Diana of the Crossways, the most charming of
George Meredith’s nove
Norwalk, (1) a city and township of Connecti-
cut, at the mouth of a river of the same name,
on Long Island Sound, 41 miles by rail NE. of New
York, There is a good harbour, and extensive
oyster-fisheries. Norwalk possesses the largest
straw-hat factory in America, and within the
township there are large manufactories of felt-hats
and cloth, woollens, shirts, shoes, locks, and door-
knobs, besides foundries and ironworks: several
of these establishments are in South Norwalk.
Pop. of Norwalk (1900) 6125 ; South Norwalk, 6591;
township, 19,932.—(2) Capital of Huron county,
Ohio, 55 miles by rail WSW, of Cleveland. It is
a pleasant little city, with streets shaded with
maples, and manufactures organs, shoes, ploughs,
sewing-machines, tobacco, and fanning-mills. ‘op.
(1900 ) 7074.
Norway (Norweg. Norge), the western division
of the Seandinavian peninsula, extends from lat.
57° 59’ N. (Lindesnws) in the south-west to 71° 11’
in the north-east, overlapping Sweden and Lap-
land on the N. and screening them from the
Arctic Ocean, Although 1160 miles in length
(coast-line 3000 miles), it varies in width from
20 to 100 miles north of 63° N. lat.; below that
line it swells out to a clul-shaped mass 260 miles
in width, It is pea from Sweden by the
Kjilen (i.e. Keel) Mountains (3000 to 6000 feet),
the backbone of the peninsula, which ran par-
allel to the Norwegian coast from the plateau of
Finmark in the north to 63° in the south, and
then bifureate. The main range proceeds south-
wards, still marking the boundary between the
sister kingdoms, though it decreases greatly in
height. é other division continues parallel to
the ccast, in a south-westerly and then southerly
direction, to the extremity of the country. But
the mountains in this division no longer form a
narrow ridge or ‘keel;' they widen out into a
broad plateau, undulating between 2000 and 4000
feet and embossed with mountain-knots—Dovie,
Jotun, Lang, Fille, Hardanger Fjelde ( fells) —the.
separate s of which shoot up to feet and
higher (e.g. Galdhippigen, 8300 feet ; Glittertind,
8379 ; Snohwetten, 7566 ; Lodalskaupen, 6790 feet).
The leveller portions of this plateau region consist
of dreary moors, covered in winter with snow and
in summer with coarse grass and heather, and
studded with numerous tarns and belts of forest
(conifers, birches, willows), The affords
turage to the sheep and cattle of the dalesmen ;
he setre or huts of the herd-girls and the wood-
cutters are the only habitations in these mountain
solitudes. But the bear, lynx, wild reindeer, and
lemming make their home there; owls,
and buzzards prey on the smaller animals and birds;
snipe, teal, and loom frequent the lakes; and vast
numbers of lapwing and plover breed in the tarns.
Moreover, in winter the ptarmigan is plentiful on
the snows. Besides these creatures, the fox, eagle,
sparrow-hawk, raven, crow, and woodcock are com-
mon, not only here, but perpen 2. the kingdom,
Numerous wild berries—cloudberries, raspberries,
bilberries, cranberries, &c.—ripen on these loftier
ons in summer.
orway presents a bold front to the Atlantic,
The west side of the peninsular rampart—the ‘ West-
land,’ which is nowhere more than 70 miles wide—
sinks down abruptly to the ocean, in some cases by
ohoee Verecet, in others sheer to the water's ed
On the inner or eastern side—the * Eastland ’—
slope is more gradual; the general versant faces
south-east. The prvting part of the country lies
between the same degrees of latitude as Greenland,
and would in all probability be covered with a
similar ice-cap to Greenland—as indeed it was in
the end of the Tertiary period—were its shores, on
west and north, not washed by the Gulf Stream.
It is mainly owing to this warm oceanic artery
that Norway is habitable; its influence, together
with the direction of the lel mountain ram-
part, the distribution of the atmospheric pressure,
and the presence of deep-sea banks off the coast,
determines the predominant climatological features
of the country. The isotherms do not run from
west to east, but parallel to the coast. Hammer-
fest, for instance, on the north coast, in 70° 40’ N.
lat., has a winter mean of 22°6° F., ‘3° higher than
Christiania, which has virtually an inland site, in
59° 55’ N. lat. In winter the west coast districts
are the warmest, and the cold increases in intensity
according to the distance inland ; whereas in sum-
mer the reverse is the case, thongh altitude is then
a more potent influencing factor than in winter.
The places that have the lowest winter mean (11°8°)
are all inland, as Elverum and Réros (Réraas),
near the Swedish frontier, Kantokeino (in southern
Finmark), and regs} (at the head of Varanger
Fjord); at all these places the mereury has been
known to freeze (—40° F.). The places which have
the highest summer temperature are Christiania,
the south-west extremity of the country, the heads
of the western fjords, and the interior of Finmark.
The prevalent south-west winds bring considerable
rainfall, 40 to 70 inches in the year, to the west
coast of southern Norway,
In the interior only 12
to 16 inches fall during the eet.
The population has doubled since 1820, when it
stood at 977,500, the increase having been most
rapid since 1850, In 1885 there were only nine
towns with viz.
NORWAY 529
= eg towns. The density of the population over
entire surface is 15°6 per re mile, much
the lowest of any country in Europe; but then
fully 70 per cent. of the total area is wholly un-
cultivable, being barren mountain and waste (2 per
eent. under glaciers); in addition 24 per cent. is
covered nef tostat. The table shows the area
population of the districts.
Pop. 1875. Pop. 1891.
107,804 721,007
116,365 100,431
76,054 148,319
120,618 120,356
115,814 108,446
102,136 105,229
87, 97,651
83,171 91,406
73,415 77,510
75,121 76,195
110,965 114,305
119,303 127,771
830 52,756
208 87,987
117,220 127,690
116,804 123,620
$2,271 $1,571
104,151 132,583
54,019 64,827
24,075 29,382
Total...............124,495 1,806,900 1,988,997
Finmark, which is inhabited chiefly by Lapps,
about 18,000 in number, whom the Norwegians
eall Finns, whilst the trae Finns they call Kvens,
is a monotonous undulating plateau (1000 to 2000
feet). The coast is deeply indented with large
fjords (Varanger, Tana, e, Porsanger, Alten),
and east of the North Cape (q.v.) is low, bare, and
bleak, though the banks of Pasvig, the frontier
river with Russian Lapland, are green with patches
of firs, pines, and birches. fp sagas barley, and
peas arg on the shores of the fjords, thanks to
the Gulf Stream and the eight weeks of uninter-
rupted sunlight that prevails in summer. At that
season too gnats are a terrible plague to man
and beast. The cliffs and islands swarm with
wild-fowl, and the sea-waters with fish. The wolf
and glutton are common, the former being a
dangerous enemy to the ig a reindeer herds.
West of 22° E. long. the coast breaks rocky, wild,
and precipitous, its outline being i lar in the
extreme; and these characteristics it preserves
right down to below 59° N. lat., to the point
nearest Scotland (280 miles distant). From this
point up to the North Cape the entire coast is pro-
tected from the Atlantic waves by a belt of rocky
islands, called the Skjergaard or ‘Skerry Fence,’ be-
tween which and the coast there are connected navi-
pie roads, sheltered and safe at nearly all seasons.
he outermost islands of this belt are the Lofoten
and Vesteraalen chains; in both groups the moun-
tains (2000 to 3000 feet) rise in extremely fantastic
pinnacles and turrets, with razor-backed saddles
and gabled roofs, But wherever, on these and all
the other islands of the Skjergaard, there are Jevel
pee and ledges of soil touched by the modify-
ing climatic influences grass grows abundantly.
climate of the Lofotens is indeed so mild that
e and barley easily ripen, and large flocks of
8 or ae left out all winter, whilst from 27,000 to
31,000 fishermen congregate here in the winter to
ie the herring and cod fisheries. All the
lands of the Skjwx are frequented by
enormous quantities sea-birds, chiefly of the
duck and gull varieties ; they are ‘fowled’ for the
sake of their down (from the eider duck), feathers,
flesh, and oil. On some of the islands the red deer
still lingers. On the mainland the mountains in
cageneg placed Be rye bare, angular nog as
ie Lofotens, support in man rts large
forests se fir and pine; fn southern Nacway they
have rounded, dome-shaped summits, and are, next
the sea, only sparsely. covered with fir (no pine)
and other trees. he peninsular rampart is
crowned with several gigantic glaciers—e.g. the
shores (6000 feet) of Lyngen Fjord in the north are
lined with them; from Jékel Held, on an arm of
Kvenang Fjord, large masses of ice drop off the
glaciers into the sea and float away as icebergs ;
just north of 67° N. lat. is the enormous snowfield
of Sulitjelma (6168 feet), and just south of the
same parallel Svartisen (3600 feet), the second
largest glacier in Norway, measuring 44 miles by
12 to 25, and wate | own glacier curtains to
within a few poet rg of the pe ie Nor-
Way possesses second largest glacier in Euro
(Vathajokull in Iceland being the largest), the
roof-shaped Justedal (4600 to 5400 feet), which has
an area of 580 sq. m. (87 miles long by 6 to 22 miles
wide), and reaches down its icy polypous arms to
within 150 feet of the sea; to the south of it lies
the snowfield of Folgefond, 40 miles long and 7 to
15 wide (108 sq. m.), and 3000 to 5000 feet in
altitude. Throughout Norway the limit of per-
yore snow ranges from 3100 feet on Jus to
150 on the Dovre Fjeld.
The lofty west coast region is everywhere cleft
by gigantic fissures, very narrow and winding, into
which the sea-water flows—the fjords. In some
eases they are of depth, much deeper than
the sea outside t fathoms): Sogne Fjord, for
instance, is 2820 feet deeper ; Hardanger Fjord, 930
feet; and Vest and Nord Fjords, 840 feet. Some
of them penetrate great distances inland and send
off numerous branching arms. e Fjord cuts its
way to the foot of the Jotun Ejeld, 106 miles from
the ocean, and poaeet Fjord, which encircles
the Folgefond, is 68 miles long. Nord and Sogne
Fjords clasp the Justedal between them. These
three pores offer some of the dest and most
accessible scenery in Norway. Their landward con-
tinuations either rise rapidly to the plateau region
above or form narrow valleys at a slightly higher
elevation, and in that case generally contain a deep
ake separated from the fjord by a moraine or
barrier of glacial deposits. The finest of these
valleys is Romsdal, where the rounded, pure gneiss
mountains tower up to 6000 feet with almost per-
ndicular walls. The steep sides and extremities
(2000 to 4000 feet) of these fjords and valleys are
ided with waterfalls, varying in character from
trickling ribbons and veils of white foam to full-
volumed streams like Skjeggedal (530 feet),
Véring (475 feet), and Vetti (900 feet). The inner
reaches of the fjords have as a rule warm summers
and mild winters; all the orlinary cereals and
hardy fruits ripen easily, and such trees as fir,
birch, hazel, elm, mountain ash, aspen, bird-cherry,
oak, ash, lime, and alder grow according to the
elevation. The only considerable break in the
lofty coast-wall is the basin of Trondhjem, a little
north of 63° N. lat. This district was the centre
of the ancient national life of the country, and in
the cathedral of Trondhjem city (called Nidaros to
the middle of the 16th century) the kings of Nor-
way are still crowned. The southern coast-lands,
bordering the Skagerrack and the wide Christiania
Fjord, are comparatively low and tame.
On the eastern side of the peninsular rampart
the valleys trend south and south-east, and con-
verge upon Christiania Fjord. At their upper
extremities they are generally narrow and deep ;
and many are filled with chains of lakes, which
make fine waterfalls (Rjukan, 800 feet, in Thele-
marken) as they drop from level to level; their
lower reaches Fi wider and shallower as they pro-
ceed south. ost of these valleys are traversed by
mountain torrents and streams, the longest bein
the Glommen (350 miles), Drammen (163), wit
530
NORWAY
its a the Hallingdal (113), Nummedal
Laagen (143), and Otteren (140). Some of these
streams in their lower courses open into long
narrow lakes of considerable size: Lake Mjésen is
60 miles long, and its bottom is 1080 feet below
the level of the sea; others are Randsfjord (43
miles long), Tyrifjord (19 miles), and Femund
(35 miles long and 2300 feet above sea-level).
The slopes of these valleys, especially in the
southern and eastern parts of the country, are
lanted for miles upon miles with forests, chiell
fir. In these forest regions the elk is still found,
and the blackeock, capercailzie, and hazel-grouse
abound. The trees are felled clpeoat aed in winter,
and floated down the streams in early spring to the
sawmills at their mouths.
Geology.—The great mass of the Norwegian
plateau consists almost entirely of Archian rocks,
chiefly granite and gneiss, with quartz and horn-
blende schists in a subordinate degree, in very many
cases clearly stratified. In central and western
Norway (the fjeld region) the primary rocks are
cov with layers of metamorphosed clay-slate
and quartzite, whilst large masses of eruptive rocks
of later date, such as granite, svenite, gabbro
(especially in the Jotun Fjeld), porphyry, green-
stone, labradorite, serpentine, have pierced through
both formations and overspread them in broad
sheets or coverlets, The pocstiog formation in
eastern Norway is called Sparagmite, a loose
accretion of conglomerates and breccias, sandstone
and quartz, Bands of Silurian rocks extend across
the southern part of the country from south-west
to north-east, the two most clearly-defined belts
stretching from Hardanger Fjord to Trondhjem
and from Skien Fjord (on the south coast) to Lake
Mjiésen. Most of the rocks of the plateau have
been greatly crumpled, folded, twisted, crushed,
and dislocated. The prevailing formation through-
out northern Norway is granite. Nearly all parts of
the country bear conspicuous traces of the scratch-
ing, grinding, and polishing to which the structural
rocks were subjected during the Glacial age and
the period of its departure. Incised and striated
lines, and polished surfaces, occur at all altitudes
up to 5000 feet, and generally follow directions
radiating outwards from the highest mountain-
knots of the a rampart. Boulders litter
the surface of the country nearly everywhere ;
moraines are numerous, and transverse ridges of
glacial detritus block the mouths of many of the
valleys; ‘giant kettles,’ the basins that received
the giadal cataracts, occur in numerous districts
near the sea. Moreover, the lines of ancient
beaches, whether of the ocean or of glacial lakes,
are distinctly traceable at many points along the
coast from Bergen to the North Cape; sometimes
there are two, or even more, one above another.
The coast of northern Norway is estimated by some
authorities to have risen between 400 and 600 feet.
See UPHEAVAL AND SUBSIDENCE.
Industries and Occupations.—Norway’s natural
wealth lies in her fisheries, her forests, and her
shipping ; her mannfactures, her mines, and her
agriculture are all unable to meet the home
demands.
By far the most important of the fisheries are
the cod and herring. Cod are taken by 80,000 to
90,000 men on the west coast from January to
April. They are cnred chiefly in two ways, being
either dried on wooden frames (hence called térfisk
= ‘dry fish’) or slightly salted, carried to the
mainland, split ee , and dried on the rocks (henee
klipfisk = ‘split fish’). The former are exported
to Italy to the average annual value of £374,000,
the latter to Spain toa value ranging from £599,000
to £981,000 a year. Besides, cod-liver oil is ex-
ported to an annual average of £338,000, salted roe
to £289,000, and heads and offals, powdered for
manure, to £37,000 to £63,000, Herrings are taken
all the year round and exported to an annual value
He § from £575,000 to £639,000. Mackerel
(£83,300) and oysters are taken off the south
coast, and salmon and sea-trout (£43,400) and
lobsters (£26,200) off the west coast. the north
coast of Finmark cod, saithe, flounders, smelt,.
&e. are taken in summer and bartered to Russian
merchants for flour; this fishery en; about
13,000 men, The fishery in the Polar seas for
whales, walrus, seals, dog-fish, sharks, &c. is
prosecuted by about 1000 men in less than 100
small vessels, sailing from Tromsé and Hammer-
fest, with a few from Vardé; their total earnin
in a season vary between £175,000 and £378,000.
The inland lakes and rivers contain an abundance
of salmon, trout, and red charr, and some of the
southern lakes have also grayling, bream, pereh,
and pike. 4)
The forests cover about 24 per cent. of the entire
surface, though the area has been of late Nemo
very greatly diminished. Trees are, however, ig
systematically planted in several parts. The saw-
mills (340 in number) give employment to 10,300
men, whilst 1600. more are en in the pre
tion of wood-pulp and cellulose (42 factories in
1885). Timber of all kinds is exported to a total
value of £1,785,000 (1888; £2,111,000 in 1890),
wood-pulp and cellulose to £509,500 (a steady in-
crease from £130,300 in 1880), matches to £97,400,
and articles manufactured from wood to £23,600.
Agriculture is carried on chiefly in the vicinity of
Christiania, the lower ends of the eastland valleys,
in the level district of Jmwderen in the extreme
south-west, and around Trondhjem. The farms
are mostly small; 94 per cent. of the entire num-
ber measure less than 50 acres each, and more than
half the farmers own the land they cultivate. Of
the total population 53 per cent. are engaged in or
connected with agriculture. The rearing of cattle,
sheep, and goats—in the north reindeer—are im-
portant branches. The area under cultivation is
only & per cent. of the entire surface of the country,
and meadows and grazing land add another 2°8 per
cent.
A century ago and down to about 1870 the
copper and iron mines of Réros and the silver-
mines of Kongsberg yielded considerable outputs ;
but they have since | eral declined. The only
vigorous mine is at Vigsnas (on Karmé, at the
entrance to Bukken Fjord), which yields £61,000
worth of pyrites in the year. The total mineral
output a, Norway (iron pyrites, silver, copper,
apatite, nickel) was worth £181,300 in 1885, one-
half the value of 1882. The silver mined is, how-
ever, still worth £57,700 a year. Barely 2000 men
are employed in this occupation.
The purely industrial establishments are hsb
mainly around Christiania, and do not employ
more than 45,500 persons altogether. Besides
some already mentioned, the more im t are
textile manufactures (6037 employees and 143 fac-
tories), machine-shops (4282 men in 50 establish-
ments), chemical factories (75 with 3002 men),
iron and metal works (67 witli 2881 men), brick-
works (105 with 2354 men), flour-mills (387 with
1787 men), tobacco-factories (43; 1677), breweries
(47; 1411), and in a minor de; tanneries, dis-
tilleries, and factories for matches, glass, oil (fish
and vegetable), and 1 ge Water is the favourite
motive power, only out of 2000 establishments
using steam,
The Norwegians rank amongst the busiest sea-
carriers of the world, close upon nine million tons
of merchandise being carried annually in Nor-
wegian vessels, in all parts of the world, the
owners of which earn the aggregate sum
SES
ay
* transit. Close upon
° NORWAY 531
about £6,000,000. Yet the mercantile marine of
Norway only embraces (1895) a total of 3528 sailing-
vessels of 1,255,320 tons and 454 steam-vessels of
241,419 tons. But, as in nearly all other countries,
steum-vessels are supplanting sailing-vessels. Ship-
building is carried on in about 100 establishments,
employing 2000 men, and situated chiefly in the
south, the principal seat of this industry being at
Christiania. ils are made by 1000 men in over
fifty workshops. The coast fishermen use for the.
most part heavily-built wooden vessels, of smal
tonnage, with high, square sterns.
The ports of er were entered in 1895 (an
average year) by 11,551 vessels, having an agyre-
gate tonn 2,846,948, of which per cent.
entered under the Norwegian flag and 16 per cent.
under the British. The exports in 1894 had a
total value of £7,268,447 (more than in 1893); the
imports, of £11,373,060 (less than in 1893). The
exports during the ten years ending 1888 ranged
between £4,957,000 (1879) and £6,831,000 (1882)
in value; the imports, between £7,346,000 (1879)
and £9,167,000 (1881). The United Kingdom sends
28 per cent. of the imports and receives 324 per
cent. of the exports. rinany comes next with
27 per cent. of the imports and 14 per cent. of the
exports, and Sweden third, with 13 and 13} per
cent. respectively. The principal articles of im-
port are aye barley, and wheat and rye flour (alto-
"say £1,595,000 in 1888), textiles (£1,527,600),
, butter, and other provisions (£780,000),
iron and other metals, raw and manufactured
(£766,300), coffee (£564,600), coals (£473,300),
ships (£389,800), sugar and molasses (£293;000),
timber from Sweden, in transit (£249,900), oils
and glycerine (£236,400), hides (£224,900), wines
and spirits (£173,100), and smaller quantities of
salt, tobacco, fruits and vegetables, paper, &e.
The more important of the exports are fish
( £2,559,400 in all in 1888), timber, &c. (£2,415,600),
minerals and metal-wares (£414,100), oils, tallow,
tar, &e. (£342,900), hides, horns, &e. (£312,400),
textiles (£197,400), and paper and dyestuffs. In
addition meat, groceries, and timber to the total
value of £318,100: oad out of the country in
per cent. of the total foreign
trade passes through the three principal ports—
Christiania (384 per cent.), Bergen (17} per cent.),
and Trondhjem a per cent.).
People,—The Norwegians share with the Swiss
the honour of being the most democratic people in
Europe. They are prond of their freedom and inde-
pendence, are simple, honest, and straightforward,
sober and frugal, and in a unaffectedly pious,
gh in some districts liable to violent outbursts
of passion. Otherwise they are slow of action and
take life leisurely, The rural population, embracing
five-sixths of the total, are decidedly more demo-
eratic than the urban. All titles of nobility were
abolished in 1821, and none but townsfolk use the
uivalent of our ‘Mr.’ Owing to the insufficiency
of the natural resources of the country to support
the people, nearly 20,000 emigrate every year;
between 1880 and 1888 inclusive 183,267 persons in
all left their country for good, almost ‘all going to
settle in the United States. Those who remain be-
hind are eat A sy Ane on the whole, for, though
£380,000 to ,000 are distributed every year in
poor-relief to between 65,000 and 67,000 persons,
there are (1889) 345 savings-banks, holding deposits
to the total amount of £10,364,200 in the name and
behalf of 452,736 depositors (23 per cent. of the
total population), giving an average of £22, 17s. 10d.
for each depositor. In the matter of illegitimacy
the record is not so good: in the ten years ending
1885 of the total number of children horn 825
cent. were illegitimate; the figure stands in
England at 43; in Scotland, 83; in Ireland, 2-9,
Since 1871 earnest endeavours have been made to
diminish the consumption of spirituous liquors, the
instrument chiefly relied upon being the Gothen-
burg licensing system. This system was by 1888
establi in all but three out of the fifty-four
towns of the kingdom. By this means, in spite
of the rapid growth of the population, the con-
sumption of spirituous liquors decreased from
2,698,960 lions in 1876 to 1,325,060 gallons in
1888, a uction of more than one-half. More-
over, after paying expenses, granting 5 per cent. to
the shareholders, and compensating the sellers of
spirits whom the system supplants, there remains
an annual surplus of £42,800 to £55,500, which is
spent in the maintenance of schools, public roads
and parks, water-works, poor-relief, and charitable
institutions. As road-makers the Norwegians vie
with the Swiss; their difficult country has com-
pelled them to perform some feats of engineering
skill of no mean order, But the principal means of
communication are steamboats, which ply all along
the coast, on the fjords, and the inland lakes.
There are, however, some 15,000 miles of well-kept
national and communal roads, and 970 miles of
railway (all but 42 miles managed by the state),
and close ~ 99 5000 miles of telegraph lines (not
wires). The railway lines radiate chiefly from
Christiania. One connects Trondhjem with the
capital, and in 1891 there were three built and one
luildiay to connect Norway with Sweden. Nor-
way is now visited every summer by great numbers
of tourists ; the number ine from 13,569 in
1886 to 23,403 in 1890, one-third being British, the
rest chiefly Swedes, Danes, and Germans.
The people are on the whole well educated and
intelligent. Attendance at school is free, and
paar upon all children between seven (six
and a half in towns) and fourteen. The country is
well equipped with primary schools, and for the
pe branches there are fifty-four middle-class
schools, seventeen ]yceums, and the university of
Christiania, with five faculties, and (in 1893) 1290
students and fifty-four lecturers. In addition
there are numerous excellent private schools, The
state contributes about one-third of the total cost
of the public educational establishments through-
out the country. Except for about 4000 persons,
the entire population belong to the Lutheran
Chureh. For pu of ecclesiastical government
the country is divided into six dioceses (stifts), each
alministered by a bishop—viz. Christiania, Hamar,
Christiansand, Bergen, Trondhjem, and Tromsé.
Constitution.—Norway is a free, va ree
state, nominally a kingdom, but practically to all
intents and purposes a republic. The supreme
executive rests with the king, who is at the same
time king of Sweden; but the responsibility for
his acts is borne by a council of state, appointed
by himself from Norwegians above thirty years of
age, and consisting of two ministers and at least
seven councillors. One minister and two councillors
must always be in attendance on the king when
he is notin Norway. The other minister and the
remaining councillors administer the internal affairs
of the country, the minister presiding over the de-
liberations of the council (sometimes also taking a
rtfolio ). and the councillors directing each a special
Jeraretaieat resent seven, Religion and Edu-
cation, Justice, Interior, Public Works, Finance,
Defence, Revision of all Public Accounts. As viceroy
in Norway the king may appoint his eldest son, or
his eldest son, but none other ; if there is a viceroy,
lhe presides over the council of state. The king
declares war and , and makes treaties an
ments on his own initiative, but cannot use
the army and fleet for an aggressive war without
the consent of the Norwegian parliament. Both
countries are represented by une and the same
532
NORWAY :
diplomatic corps. The people participate in the
government through the Storthing or parliament,
which consists of 114 members, 76 representing the
country districts and 38 the towns. All Nor-
wegians above twenty-five years of age who satisfy
certain conditions of residence and property
qualification, or station, meet once in every three
years in the parish church and choose one man
rom every hundred of their number to select the
members of parliament for the county. Every man
so selected, even though it be against his will,
is obliged to sit in one parliament (of three years),
but not in asecond. If a sitting member dies his
lace is taken by the man who stands next on the
fist of representatives selected by the electors, As
soon as the Storthing meets (in February every
year in Christiania) one-fourth (29) of the assembled
members are chosen to form an upper house
(Lagthing); the remainder constitute the lower
house ( Odalsthing), in which all legislative measures
are proposed either by a member of the house or
by a member of the government. The upper
honse may send back a bill twice; but after the
second rejection both houses vote together as
one, though in that case a majority of two-thirds is
necessary. The king’s signature makes a bill
law. But if he refuses to sign, and the bill is
p three sive parliaments (not sessions),
it becomes law in spite of the king’s veto. Every
member of the parliament is allowed 13s. 4d. a da
with travelling expenses. The affairs of eac
connty are directed by a special administrative
officer. Both the counties and the conimunes
enjoy a liberal de of self-government. Justice
is administered locally by sheriffs. Of late re-
lations with Sweden have been strained in various
departments, and Norway has demanded repre-
sentation abroad, other than that of Sweden.
The national revenue increased in ten years from
about £2,500,000 to £3,702,389 (in 1897-98), and
the expenditure, which in 1890-94 exceeded slightly
the revenue, was more than covered by it in
1895 and following years. The debt just touched
on £10,000,000 in 1897, The monetary unit is
the krone ( = 1s. 14d.), divided into 100 dre. The
metric system of weights and measures prevails ;
and Norway has her own national flag distinct
from Sweden. The national defences embrace an
army and navy. All men, not incapacitated or
specially exempt, above the age of twenty-three
serve ten years with the colours, but are only
called out for a few weeks’ exercise every summer,
Close upon 6300 men are drawn by conscription
annually. The inhabitants of the counties of Nord-
land, Tromsé, and Finmark, with a certain pro-
ry of the coast population farther south, are
iable to conscription for the navy, and serve
from twenty-two to thirty-five years of age: The
naval dockyards are at Horten, on the west side
of Christiania Fjord. The fleet consists of about
a dozen gunboats (first and second class), four iron-
clad monitors, and some thirty other vessels, with
a torpedo service,
See Kiwr, Norges Land og Folk (1886); Kirchhoff,
Liinderkunde (pt. ii. 1890); in English, see Du Chaillu,
Land of the Midnight Sun (2 vols. 1881); F. Vincent,
Norsk, Lapp, and Finn (1881); Mary Godwin, Letters
Srom Soe (1796); J. D. Forbes, Norvay and its
Glaciers (1853); and numerous modern books of travel,
such as ©. W. Wood, Round about Norway (1880);
Lovett, Norwejian Pictures (1885); Corning, From
Aalesund to Tetuan (1889), and others. For the geology,
see Kjerulf, various works in Norwegian (1855-79): for
the plant-life, Schiibeler, Norves Vextrige (3 vols,
), and other works; and for the statistics, the
publications of the Norwegian statistical department,
a duplicated in French. The best guidebooks to
country are those by Yngvar Nielsen, Baedeker,
Tonsberg, Jérgensen, and Wilson,
History.—It is not until the 9th century that
the story of Norway a to em from the
obscurities of myth and legend, At the time the
tribes of Gothie descent crossed the tie and
k
place cannot be determined exactly. Indeed, it,
according to one theory, the original home of the
Aryans was in Scandinavia, it a never took
lace at all. At the dawn of the historical peri
orway was parcelled out among the free men of
the race (Norreeni, Norsemen, Nore bee
slaves—prisoners taken in war—tilled soil,
whilst they and their free dependents spent their
time in fighting, viking raids, and similar pursuits.
The ties that united these free men were
rather than political or territorial, thou for
judicial fo ages all who dwelt in a well-defined
district (fy/ki) met at stated intervals and at fixed
places to adjudicate in common, on terms of strict
equality. Several of these districts were
together in a higher unity—the thing. Of such
things or meetings there came to be eventually
three, the Frosta for the north, the Gula for the
west and south, and the Eidsifia for the east; at a
later date the Borgar thing for the south-east was
separated from the Eidsifia. Each of these things
had its own independent code of purely customary
laws. The chief men, calling themselves kings,
later jarls (earls), had no official authority ; their
power was due solely to their personal influence
—their character, wealth, warlike renown, and long
descent (compare NORTHMEN ).
The cradle of the future kingdom of Norway was
the district of Vestfold, on the western side of Vik
(now Christiania Mi net ). There a royal race from
Sweden established themselves, seemingly in the
7th century. A descendant of these kings, Black
Halfdan (died 860), reduced the petty kings to the
north of him, as far as Lake Mjiésen. His ter
son, Harold Haarfager or Fairhair (king 930),
extended his rich, Oh far north as Trondhjem, in
which district, as being his first conquest in lands
that owed no allegiance to the chief king in
Sweden, he established the seat of his power,
jst as the elector of Brandenburg called himself
‘rederick I. king of Prussia. After that in three
great sea-fights, the last near Serene in 883, he
conquered the kings of the west and south-west,
and proclaimed himself chief king in Norway.
But many of the defeated chiefs (kings) refused to
submit to Harold, especially when he asserted the
right of conquest, seized their odal lands, and intro-
duced a form of feudalism. They sailed across the
Western (North) Sea, and colonised the Faroe,
Shetland, and Orkney Islands, the Hebrides, Man,
Ireland. But they so harassed the men (jarls) to
whom Harold had given their lands in Norway
that the king, pursuing them, slew many of them
and reduced the islands to his sway, and appointed
earls over them (Orkneys, Hebrides), Those who
were still disaffected escaped his rule by sailing on
farther to Iceland. In Harold’s reign the skalds
or improvisatore court-poets be oops and
were held in great honour, Harold’sson, E) Blood-
axe, was driven from Norway by a younger brother
Haco in 935, and for many years the country
was distracted by Erik’s sons trying to recover
their father’s power. After Haco di Bhag their
principal opponent was Earl Haco of Trondhjem,
who ruled Norway west of the mountain plateau
until he was killed in a revolt (995). Olaf
Tryggveson, a descendant of Harold Haarfager, a
man who had won t fame as a viking in
England (991-994) and elsewhere, stepped into the
gap. Like his. great-uncle Haco, he was a Christian,
——
NORWAY
533
and like him he attempted to make his people
Christian, and he did make them Christian, at
least nominally and superficially. The beau-ideal
of a sea-king, and the pride and admiration of his
le, Olaf died a hero's death, fighting against a
ost off the north coast of Prussia (1000). After
an interval of fifteen years another Olaf, likewise
a descendant of Harold Haarfager, landed and won
the kingdom from the sons of Earl Haco. This
Olaf, St Olaf, made his se tal Christianity
more real, first aoomeny welded the kingdom
into a united state, made all the western islands
tributary, and ruled sternly but well. Ever since
the has Harold Haarfager the king of the Danes
had claimed mereseey over at least southern
Norway ; in 1 the great Canute came with a
fleet to make good his claim. Olaf fled to
Russia, and in attempting to win back his crown
perished in battle at Stikklestad near Trondhjem
(1030). Five years later the chiefs of the land
made Olaf’s son Magnus king, and he became kin.
of the Danes also in 1042. But this office he founc
so difficult that in 1046 he associated with himself
as king his uncle Harold Haardraada, who had
served in the Veering guard at Constantinople and
had fought against the Saracens in Sicily. War
between the Danes and Norsemen was almost
chronic all through the reigns of Magnus and
Harold, who became sole king in 1047. Harold's
love of adventure led him to his death at Stamford
_ Bridge in eA rome in 1066. During the ful
reign of Harold’s son, Olaf agers (1067-93), com-
merce thrived, industrial guilds were formed, and
the land Leg ae aig The next king, Olaf’s
son, us ‘oot, war in the Orkneys,
Hebrides, and Ireland, till he fell in this last island
in 1103. Two sons of Magnus, Eystein (died 1122)
and Sigurd (died 1130), then reigned in concert,
Eystein being foe gre stay-at-home prince, whilst
Sigurd, who inherited all the adventurous
enterprise of his ancestors, sailed to the Levant,
and visited Jerusalem and Constantinople (1107-11 ).
After his return he greatly fostered the church.
At this period the towns began to be prosperous.
From 1130 to 1240 the country was torn by
— feuds, three onesie ne parties er
ior power—an 0) H y amongst the
‘tet men; the bishops’ paris, nie claimed the
right to elect the king; and after 1174 the
nationalist Birkebeiner (i.e. ‘ Birch-legs’), who
generally had the first two parties allied against
them, but who in the long-run got the victory.
After defeating the earls and bishops, and slayin
their nominee or puppet, King Magnus, in Nor
Fjord (1184), made their leader Sverre (died
1202), a Faroe is , and a clever man, king.
Nevertheless, the civil strife went on until the
twenty-third year Mal of the reign of Sverre’s
grandson Haco. This king reigned twenty-three
years longer, and during that time the land
recovered from her distractions. Iceland acknow-
led,
a ae Sepronees: ot She. bin
d (1319) without a son, the throne assed
al atin,
gh marriage to the Danish ( me pd
And now evil days fell upon the land. The extra-
ordinary exertions of Norway’s youth seem to have
worn her out early ; her high spirit and enterprise
were e; her literature died out, and her intelli-
gence burned down to a dull glimmer; her commerce
into the tyrannical hands of the Hanseatic
merchants of Bergen; her old colonies, Orkney
and Shetland, were pledged to Scotland for ever
in 1468; Denmark, which at first respected her
national rights, treated her from 1536 as a con-
uered province, and forced the Reformation upon
er, yet the Norwegians never seriously resented
and oppressive treatment of their rulers.
In 1612 some 300 men from Scotland, whilst making
their way to join the army of Gustavus Adolphus in
Sweden, were cut to pieces by the Norwegian peas-
antry in the pass of Isingelen in Gudbrandsdal.
The national spirit began to stir again in the
awakening of the peoples occasioned by the
French Revolution ; and the transference of Nor-
way to Sweden in 1814 gave back to the Nor-
wegians their national rights, a liberal constitu-
tion, and their sense of national unity. At first
they resisted the transference. Prince Christian of
Denmark headed the movement for independence,
and summoned a national assembly, which at
Eidsveld (17th May) drew up a liberal constitu-
tion. But Sweden marched her forces into the
country, and on 10th October Christian abdicated.
Charles XIII. of Sweden, having ised the
constitution, was elected king on 4th November.
In 1821 the Norwegians abolished all titles of no-
bility. The spirit of independence and of nationality
has grown stro as the years have passed, in-
dustry has thrived, commerce has Speen eee and
brought wealth, and, intellectually, Norway stands
in the van of progress. The principal event since the
epee oe sonar wre . “ey arava: Py a
of the people nst the right claimed by the kin
to veto absolutely bills duly by their elected
representatives, The ‘home rule’ struggle has
since 1895 been accentuated.
See Munch, Det Norske Folks Historie (7 vols. 1852-
63); E. Sars, Udsigt over Norges Historie (1873-77);
Keyser, Norges Stats- og Retsforfatning (1867). In Eng-
lish, Heimskringla, trans. by W. Morris and Magnusson
(vols. iii.-vi. of ny Library, 1891) or by Laing (3 vols.
1844; new ed. 1890); Boyesen, History of Norway (new
ed. 1890); 'T. Michell, History of the Scottish Expedition
to Norway in 1612 (1886); and Powell and Vigfusson,
Corpus Poeticum Boreale (1883), Carlyle’s Early Kinys
of Norway (1878) is adapted from Laing’s Heimskringla.
Literature.—Like Germany, Norway has an
ancient and a modern period of literary stage
the interval between being mostly blank. he
ancient period of Norwegian literature is that of
the Sagas (see SAGA), and see also ICELAND,
SNoRRI STURLASON, EppA. What writers Nor-
way gave birth to between the 13th and the 19th
century, except Peder Dass (1647-1708) and Doro-
thea Enygelbretsdatter (1634-1716), are counted
amongst the Danes, in whose language they wrote.
These men, Holberg, Tullin, Wessel, Fasting, Brun,
Frimann, and others—some of them the brightest
ornaments of Danish literature—have been already
mentioned under Denmark (q.v.).
The modern period begins with the re-awakening
of the national life; it received its first impulses
from the Norwegian Society, a band of patriotic
men living in Copenhagen in 1772, from the
founding of a native university at Christiania in
1811, and from the recovery of national independ-
ence in 1814. The earliest writers of the new era,
the ts Bjerregaard (1792-1842), M. C. Hansen
(1794-1842), and Schwach (1793-1860), though the
ring of patriotism is in their work, possessed little
originality. The creator of the modern national
literature was Wergeland (1808-45), the Schiller
534 NORWAY
NORWICH
of his country, who believed that in the free
—— proprietor lay the hope of Norway's
ture, and who laboured earnestly to make him
rhe gh of that high calling. The nebulous thought
and d of westhetic law and taste shown in
his earlier works provoked the satirical attacks of
Welhaven (1807-73), a master of poetic form, and
the representative of the intellectual aristocracy of
the country, the mercantile and official classes. This
ve rise to a keen literary feud. But, apart from
reas Munch (1811-84), the ladies’ poet, who
stands by himself, and the _ J. Moe (1813-82),
Jensen (1812-67), and Th. Kjerulf (1825-88), who
were more or less influenced by Welhaven, nearly
all subsequent writers have worked in the spirit of
Wergeland, and for the same ends. Monsen (1815-
52) penned lyrics which sometimes ig the
best of Wergeland’s later work in quality. Aasen
(born 1813), Vinje (1818-70), K. Janson (1841),
Sivle (1857), and Garborg (1851), the Maalstrever,
have tried to create a literary language by collating
and fusing together the various peasant dialects, the
first named more especially in philological works,
the others in tales and novels, and even in Baer
Garborg is a writer of striking individuality.
Asbjérnsen (1812-85) and Moe, the poet, an
Faye collected the folk-tales ; Landstad (1802-81),
the hymn-writer, and Bugge (1833) collected the
mond songs. Daa (1809-77) popularised the
istory of his country, and Vig (1824-57) laboured in
the same direction in various works for the people.
Schultze (1823-73), Friis (1821), Ost; (1812-
73), Magdalena Thoresen (1819), and others have
deseri well and lovingly their native land and
its people. Bjiérnson (1832), M. Thoresen, and Lie
(1833) have written good tales from the life of
the provinces; the peasant tales of Bjirnson are
of great merit. Eilert Sundt (1817-75) strove to
educate the country-people through his treatises
on their social and economic circumstances. The
chief writers of the latest Cae of Norwegian
literature are Ibsen (1828), Bjirnson, Lie, Kjel-
land (1849), Garborg, Camilla Collett (1813),
Elster (1841-81), M. Thoresen, Jeger (1854),
Flood (1837), Gloersen (1838), Amalie Skram
(1847), Kristofersen (1851), Krogh, Gunnar
Heiberg, Hamsun, and others. Speaking gener-
ally, these authors, all novelists except Ibsen and
Heiberg, show a strenuous desire for truth, great
earnestness, a strongly realistic way of lookin
at things, keen delight in intellectual and moral
strife, remarkable directness, vigour, and fresh-
ness of style, a decided leaning to satire, and
frequently, too, a charming naiveté and striking
originality. The socio-satirical plays of Ibsen
(q.¥.) have attracted notice in all countries, made
him a conspicuous personality, roused not a
little keen controversy, and affected the history of
dramatic literature. Bjérnson (q.v.), best known
abroad by his tales, has, like Kjeiland and Lie,
also done dramatic work, and produced some ad-
mirable try. Kjelland satirises the classes of
whom Welhaven was the representative; he has
strong cosmopolitan, especially French, tendencies.
Poulsen (1850),"* Marie,’ and Marie Colban (1814-
84) must be mentioned as voluminous and popular
authors of works of a light character.
In other departments than pure literature the
subjoined must be named: in literary history,
Botten-Hansen (1824-69), H. Lassen (1824),
Jeger, Skavian (1838), Dietrichson (1834); in
history, P. A Munch (1810-63), Keyser (1803-64),
Lange (1810-61), Dane (1834), E. Sars (1835), G.
Storm (1845), B. Moe (1814-50), Faye (1802-69),
“pel 1843); in ergs ek Treschow (1751-
1833), Monrad (1816), a Hegelian; in theology,
Caspari (1814), Hange (1771-1824), Wexels (1797-
1866), F. W. Bugge (1838); in philology, P. A.
Munch, Keyser, Bu
Fritgner (1812), Stoe
i ebest yh (1883); d
in archeology, Rygh (1833); j rudence,
Schweigaard (1808-70), Lasson ; (1798-1873),
Aschehoug (1822), Stang (1808), Hall (1816-
76); in mathematics, Hansteen (1784-1873) and
Abel (1802-29); in science, Michael Sars (1805-
69) and his son, G. O. Sars (1837), as biol
and Keilhau (1797-1858) and Th, Kjerulf (1 )
as geologists. The best Norwegian ters have
been Tidemand (1814-76), C. F. 8. Hansen (1841),
Gude (1825), M. Miiller (1828), 8. Jacobsen (1833),
Munthe (1841), and Sinding (1842); the best
sculptor, Middelthun (1820-86) ; the best musicians,
Ole Bull (1810-80), H. Kjerulf (1815-68), Grieg
(1843), and Svendsen (1840).
See Schweitzer, Geschichte der Skandinavischen Lit-
teratur (3 vols. 1886-90); Gosse, Northern Studies (2d
ed, 1882); Halvorsen, Norsk Forfatter- 18.
(1881 et seg.); Jeger, Norske Forfattere (1885) ; and
Botten-Hansen’s excellent bibliography, La Norvége Lit-
téraire, 1824-66 (1869),
Norway Haddock. See Berey.r.
Norwich, a cathedral city of England, the
capital of Norfolk, and a iamen » county,
and municipal borough (the first return two
members), is situated on the Wensum, immediately
above its confluence with the Yare, 18 miles W. of
Yarmouth and 114 NNE. of London. Pop. (1801)
34,975 ; (1831) 61,110 ; (1881) 87,842 ; (1891) 100,964.
Built on the summit and slopes of a hill which
ually rises from the river, the city, with its
mlets, covers an area of 7472 acres, as com
with that of two miles enclosed by its ancient walls
(1294-1342), and its narrow, winding streets are
rich in examples of early architecture—as Pull’s
Ferry and the Bishop’s Bridge (1295), both on the
river-banks; St Giles’ Hospital (founded 1249) ;
the Ethelbert Gateway (circa 1272); Bishop Sal-
mon’s Gateway (circa 1325); the Guildhall (com-
ae 1413); ingham Gate (1420); the Music
ouse Leet h Metnen; and once a residence of
Sir Edward Coke); the Bridewell (Decorated and
Perpendicular, circa 1400); and the Dolphin Inn
(387. ). The cathedral, almost wholly Norman in
style, but the growth of more than four centuri
occupies a site close to the river, and was found
in 1096 by Bishop Herbert Losinga: its dimen-
sions are 407 feet in length by 72 in breadth (or
178 across the transepts), and it is surmounted
a noble (Norman) tower and (Decorated) spire of
315 feet—the highest in England next to Salis-
bury: special features are the relics, consisting
of two glorious arches, of its Early English
Chapel (demolished 1573-89); its cloisters, 1
feet square (1297-1430) ; the Decorated Beauchamp
Chapel (in which is preserved the Bible used at the
coronation of Queen Victoria), and the vaulted
roof of the nave and transept, rich in medimwval
senlptured bosses. Close by is the grammar-school
founded (as a Mortuary Chapel) in 1319, an
famous as the place of education of Lord Nelson,
Rajah Brooke, and other celebrities; also St
Andrew’s Hall (Perpendicular ; formerly the church
of the Black rs), in which are held the tri-
ennial musical festivals, first established at Norwich
in 1824. Next after the cathedral the most strik-
ing edifice is the castle, crowning the summit of a
sugar-loaf mound in the centre of the city, and
originally, with its defences, extents to the
icturesque market-place : its massive rangular
orman keep, the only portion now standing, was
used as a prison till 1886. In it and the adjacent
rison-bnildings has been placed the local museum,
‘amous for its collection of raptorial birds. On the
cattle-market beneath the castle is held annually,
on Maundy Thursday, the famous cattle and
, Aasen, Un (1817),
fleth (1787-1860) + and, Ae
d Lassen (1800-76) ;
NORWICH.
NOSE 535
fair, formerly held on Tombland, and so graphically
described in Borrow’s Lavengro. The cliurches,
forty-four in number, are for the most part built of
flint, and in the Perpendicular style: those of St
Peter Mancroft (where once Archbishop Tenison
ministered), St Andrew, St Giles, St Lawrence, St
Michael Coslany, and St Stephen are the finest
examples; whilst of public buildings of modern
date mention should be made of the hospital
(founded 1771 and rebuilt 1879-83), an Agricul-
tural Hall (1882), and a Volunteer Drill-hall (1886).
Formerly one of the largest seats in England of the
worsted-weaving trade, the city is still noted for its
textile fabrics—especially its crapes; but the prin-
cipal manufactures now carried on are those of
mustard, starch, ornamental ironware, boots and
shoes, whilst extensive breweries and a vinegar
distillery, as well as large nursery-gurdens on the
outskirts of the town, give employment to many
hands.
Oft-times pillaged by the Danes, and in 878
Guthrum’s headquarters, Norwich in 1004 was
burned by Sweyn, and thirteen years later was held
a his son Canute. Subsequent to the Norman
mquest the principal incidents in its history have
been the translation of the bishopric hither from
Thetford (1094); the granting of its first charter
of self-government (1194) ; its sacking by Louis the
French a (1216); the riotous attack by the
citizens on the cathedral monastery (1272); its first
representation in parliament (1295); settlements
of Flemish weavers (1336) and of Dutch and
Walloon refugees (1558-1603); a hurricane (15th
January 1362), which blew down the spire of the
cathedral; John Litester’s rebellion (1381); dis-
astrous fires (1463 and 1509), on the last occasion
the roof of the cathedral bein pee ig the
encampment of Ket’s rebels on Monsehold Heath
(1549); many royal visits, and outbreaks of the
plague, the worst being the Black Death in 1349,
when half the population is supposed to have per-
ished, in 1602, when 3076 persons died, and in 1665,
when 2251 succumbed; and a collision on the rail-
way 2 miles to the east of the city (10th September
1874), when twenty-five persons lost their lives.
Among the sixty-five bishops of Norwich have heen
Pandulph (the pope’s legate), Salmon (the builder
of the grammar-school), Bateman (the founder of
Trinity Hall at Cambridge), Despenser (‘the fight-
ing Bishop of Norwich’), Corbet (the poet), Hurs-
nett and Manners-Sutton (afterwards Archbisho
of York and Canterbury), Wren (father of the
celebrated architect), Joseph Hall, and Reynolds
— composer of the General Thanksgiving in the
yer-book). Of citizens the best known are Sir
Thomas Erpingham (builder of the gate which
bears his name, and chamberlain to Henry IV.);
Thomas Bilney; Archbishop Parker; Dr Caius;
Greene (the poet and dramatist); Bishops Cosin
and Tanner; Sir Thomas Browne; Dr Samuel
Clarke; Sir James Edward Smith ; ‘Old’ Crome,
his son, Cotman, Stark, and Vincent (the ‘ Nor-
wich school’ of Lge NE Mrs Opie; Croteh (the
musical composer); Wilkins (architect and R.A.) ;
William Taylor (q.v.) and Professor Brewer ; Sir
W. J. Hooker; Gurney (the ) sangre and
his sister, Elizabeth Fry ; Lindley (the botanist) ;
and Harriet Martineau and her brother James.
See works b 8 (1819), Bayne (1858), Goulburn
(1876), Jarrold (1883), and Jessopp (1884) ; also those
cited under Norfolk.
Norwich, semi-capital of New London county,
Conn., is at the head of the Thames River, 13
miles by rail N. of New London. The chief por-
tion of the city lies on an eminence that rises
between the Yantic and Shetucket rivers, which
here unite to form the Thames. There are numer-
ous manufactories of paper, cotton and woollen
goods, worsted, picture cords, pistols, wood-type,
files, locks, iron pipes, &e., besides rolling-mills
and ironworks : abundant water-power is supplied
by the branches of the Thames. Steamboats ply
between Norwich and New York. The land on
which the city stands was granted by Uncas the
Mohican to an English ensign who in 1656 reached
him by night with a canoe-load of provisions, when
he was besieged in his stronghéld by the hostile
Indians, and nearly forced by hunger to surrender :
a granite obelisk ing the hame of Uncas was
erected in 1825. Pop. (1900) 17,251.
Norwood, a south suburban district of London,
hilly, healthy, and pretty, long the seat until 1797
of a Gypsy settlement. Pop. 24,797. See A. M.
Galer’s Norwood and Dulwich (1891).
Nose, the organ of smell, and also part of the
apparatus of respiration and voice. Considered
anatomically, it may be divided into an external
part—the projecting portion, to which the term
nose is popularly restricted—and an internal part,
consisting of two chief cavities, or nasal fossa,
se) each other by a vertical septum,
and subdivided by spongy or turbinated bones pro-
jecting from the outer wall into three passages or
meatuses, With which various cells or sinuses in the
ethmoid, sphenoid, frontal, and superior maxillary
bones communicate by narrow apertures,
Fig. 1.—Longitudinal Section of the Nasal Fossx of the
Left Side, the Central Septum being removed :
1, frontal bone; 2, nasal bone; 3, part of ethmoid bone; 4,
sphenoidal sinus. a, superior turbinated bone; b, superior
meatus; ¢, middle turbinated bone; dd, middle meatus; ¢,
inferior turbinated bone; jf, inferior meatus; gg, a probe
passed into the nasal duct.
The external portion of this organ may be de-
scribed as a triangular pyramid which projects from
the centre of the face, immediately above the upper
lip. Its summit or root is connected with the fore-
head by means of a narrow bridge, formed on either
side by the nasal bone and the nasal process of the
superior maxillary bone. Its lower part presents
two horizontal elliptical openings, the nostri/s,
which overhang the mouth, and are separated from
one another by a vertical septum. The margins of
the nostrils are usually provided with a number o
stiff hairs (vibrisse), which project across the open-
ings, and serve to arrest the passage of foreign
substances, such as dust, small insects, &e., which
might otherwise be drawn up with the current of
air intended for respiration. The skeleton or
framework of the nose is partly composed of thé
bones forming the top and sides of the bridge and
partly of cartilages, there being on either side an
upper lateral and a lower lateral cartilage, to the
latter of which are attached three or four small
cartilaginous plates, termed sesamoid cartilages ;
there is also the cartilage of the septum which
separates the nostrils, and in association posteriorly
536
NOSE
with the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid, and
with the vomer, vrhgeade pe sowed partition between
the right and left nasal fosse. It is the lower
lateral, termed by some writers the alar cartilage,
which by its flexibility and curved shape forms
henner chamber a jee 1 noel why
nasal cartilages are capable of being slightly moved,
and the nostrils of being dilated or contracted by
various small muscles.
The nasal fosse, which constitute the internal
rt of the nose, are lofty and of considerable
epth. They open in front by the nostrils, and
behin d they terminate by a vertical slit on either
side in the upper part of the pharynx, above the
soft palate, and near the orifices of the Eustachian
tubes, leading to the tympanic cavity of the ear.
The mucous membrane lining the nose and its
cavities is called pituitary (Lat. pituita, ‘rheum’),
from the nature of its secretion ; or Schneiderian,
from Schneider, the first anatomist who showed
that the secretion proceeded from the mucous
membrane, and not, as was previously imagined,
from the brain; it is continuous with the skin of
the face at the nostrils, with the mucous covering
of the eye through the lachrymal duct (see EYE),
and with that of the pharynx and middle ear
teriorly. This membrane varies in its structure
in different parts of the organ. On the septum
and spongy bones bounding the direct passage from
the nostrils to the throat the lining membrane
contains ample and capacious submucous plexuses
of both arteries and veins, of which the latter are
by far the more large and tortuous. ‘These plex-
uses, lying as they do in a region exposed more
than any other to external cooling influences,
specs to be designed to promote the warmth of
the part, and to elevate the temperature of the air
on its to the lungs. They also serve to
explain the tendency to hemorrhage from the nose
in cases of general or local plethora. In this, the
respiratory part of the nose, the mucous membrane
Fig. 2—Distribution of the Olfactory Nerve on the
Septum of the Nose:
1, frontal sinus; 2, nasal bone; 4, sphenoidal sinus of left side;
7 gor opening of the left nostril; 8, opening of Eusta-
ch tube; 9, section of soft palate; 10. section of hard
—_—. a, olfactory nerve; b, its three roots; ¢, its bulb;
, nasal branch from the ophthalmic division of the fifth
herve; ¢, naso-palatine nerve; g, A, its branches; ¢, the
septum of the nose,
is lined by ciliated epithelium. In the upper third
of the nose—which, as the proper seat of the sense
of smell, may be termed the olfactory region—the
mucous membrane is very thick and coloured by a
brown pigment. The olfactory nerve, or nerve of
smell, terminates in the olfactory mucous mem-
brane. It into the nasal cavity in several
small branches; these ramify in the soft mucous
membrane (fig. 2), and end in tiny varicose fibres
which terminate in elongated epithelial cells
jecting into the free surface of the nose. T
cells—the olfactory cells—which in some animals
are provided with little hairs, are affected by
odorous particles, and the excitement thus set up
travels to the brain by the branches of the o
nerve. In order to smell a substance it must be
in the form of vapour. A scent such as Ean de
Cologne when poured into the nostril is odourless ;
its little particles must be disen ,» and be
carried freely by the atmosphere into the nasal
cavity before we are affected by its odour. So
sensitive is the nose, however, that odorous par-
ticles of inconceivable smallness are capable of
po powerful sensations. When we remem-
r that a grain of musk will scent the air in its
neighbourhood for years, and that this can only be
by the continual loss of particles of its substan
these particles must be infinitely minute. Stil
more wonderful is the development of the sense of
smell in many of the lower animals. A passes
rapidly over the ground and the scent will under
favourable circumstances remain for hours, and be
sufliciently strong to enable the well-trained harrier
to follow it with unerring accuracy. In savage
tribes the sense of smell is poe | more acute than
among; civilised nations ; nevertheless by practice
it is possible for any one to cultivate this sense to
a very considerable extent. _Well-authenticated
cases are recorded of persons ones by the loss of
the other senses to train this, the only one left
for their use, to such a degree of acuteness that
they have been able to recognise both objects and
persons by the sense of smell alone.
Most persons imagine that we are largely be-
holden to ‘taste’ for our gustatory pleasures, In
reality our sense of taste only enables us to dis-
tinguish sweet from sour or bitter, and all the
flavour of the food or wine is smelt. Close the
nose and shut the eyes, and one cannot distingui
port from sherry, a raw potato from an apple,
or beef from mutton,
Until recent years it was impossible to connect
the quality of a smell with the /ind of substance
that produced it. In hearing and sight the char-
acter of the vibrations—of air or ether—determines
the kind of sensation. The sound peculiar to the
violin or piano depends entirely on the character
of the sound vibrations "Ber out by them. The
rose ap red because it reflects to the eye vibra-
tions which are chiefly characterised ) ir
oscillations. The writer of this article has been
able to establish a similar relationship between the
character of a smell and the character of the vibra-
tions associated with odorous particles. He finds,
in studying the odours of elements and their com-
pounds, that in the ‘Groups’ of Mendeleéff (see
Aromic Turory, Vol. I. p. 552) the odours are
similar or vary with the atomic weight of the
element. Exactly similar properties in res
to the production of colour sensations have
observed by Carnelly.
DISEASES OF THE NosTRILs.—Acute inflamma-
tion of the nasal mucous membrane has been already
described under the title of Catarrh (q.v.); the
conditions which cause an offensive smell from the
nostrils are discussed in the article OZ&NA; and
Polypus is a separate article.
Hemorrhage from the Nostrils, or Epistaxis (Gr.
‘a dropping’), is by far the commonest form o
bleeding from a mucous membrane. It may be
produced by direct injury, as by a blow on the
nose, or a scratch in the interior of the nostrils ;
and by other local conditions, as ulcerations or
a
0 EEE ——— rl
NOSOLOGY
NOTABLES 537
obstruction to the circulation through the lungs,
en
ildren and you
of life. It is mue'
male sex than the female. The bleeding usually
occurs drop drop, but may be very profuse.
Sir Thomas Watson wisely says: ‘Sometimes it
is a remedy ; sometimes a warning ; sometimes in
itself a disease.’ The first question to be con-
sidered therefore in any particular case is whether
the hemorr' ought to be arrested. Generally
speaking, in plethoric children and young people,
s eases of Pew we yeh an nity ae
emorrhage, it should not stop) unless t!
loss of blood prove excessive.
When it is desirable to arrest the hemorrhage the
patient should be placed in the sitting posture at
an open window, with the head erect or slightly
inclined backwards; and amongst the simpler
means to be first tried are compression of the
nostrils by the fingers, maintained for five or ten
minutes, the application of a key or other piece of
cold metal to the back of the neck, and the bathin:
of the face or whole head with cold water, especi-
ally if accompanied by a drawing-up of the water
into the nostrils ; should these means fail, recourse
must be had to astringent injections (for example,
twen of alum dissolved in an ounce of
water) thrown up the nostrils by a syringe, or to
astringent powders (as finely-powdered galls, kino,
matico, alum, &c.) blown up the nostrils by means
of a quill or other tube, or snuffed up by the
patient. Asa final resource the nostrils must be
plugged with stri of lint, absorbent wick, or a
ge. occasionally oceur in which
t is n also to plug the rior orifices of
the nostrils an operation, into the details of
which it is not necessary to enter.
Post-nasal Catarrh is a chronic and very trouble-
some disease, most common in America, especially
the United States; so much so that it is there
usually called — catarrh, and elsewhere is
sometimes spoken of as American catarrh. The
symptoms are discomfort at the back of the nose,
leading to frequent ‘hawking’ to clear away the
tenacious mucus which is formed there, and some-
times indistinetness in articulation. The camses
are not well understood ; Sir Morell Mackenzie be-
lieves that the chief is the inhalation of irritating
dust. Treatment must be chiefly directed to the
local condition; alkaline sprays or washes should
be used to remove the adherent secretion, and then
an astringent powder or a thin ointment snuffed
up the nostrils: catechu, red Load gg m,
or sul of iron, diluted with starch, and soft
vaseline, either alone or with = of finely-
powdered boracie acid, are among the most useful
lications. Health otherwise defective may in-
the importance of constitutional treatment ;
and change of climate is sometimes useful.
the nose or a portion of it has been
destroyed by disease or accident, the defect may
be partly made good by the Rhinoplastie (q.v.)
operation.
See Sir Morell Mackenzie, Diseases of Throat and Nosé
Ht Cresswell Baber, Guide to Examination of Nose
1886); Greville Macdonald, Diseases of the Nose (1890).
Nosology (Gr. nosos, ‘ disease’) is that branch
of medicine which treats of the distribution and
arrangement of diseases into classes, See DISEASE.
Nossi-Bé, or NosiBt, a voleanie mountainous
island on the north-west coast of Madagascar (q.v.),
belonging to the French. It has an area of 115
sq. m. and a pop. of 11,299.
Nostalgia (Gr. nostos, ‘the return home;’ algos,
*pain’), a technical term for home-sickness which,
when as sometimes it takes the form of acute
melancholia, becomes ruinous to health, and even
fatal. It is said that inhabitants of mountainous
countries suffer more keenly than others; but it
seems to have less to do with affection for the
hhysical features of home than with inability to
beoek with old habits and modes of life. In armies
it has been found necessary to adopt measures to
prevent desertion on this ground. In Canada the
playing of Lochaber no More by the pipers of
land regiments had to be interdicted ; and so
in France iv was forbidden under pain of death to
sing or play the Ranz des Vaches in the hearing of
Swiss mercenaries.
Nostoc, « genus of plants of the natural order
su er Confervaceze, found upon inoist
rocks near streams, &c., and consistin
of a somewhat gelatinous hollow tumid frond,
filled with simple filaments resembling strings of
beads. N. commune is frequent in Britain, spring-
ing up suddenly on gravel-walks and _ pasture-
grounds after rain. It is a trembling, gelatinous
mass, often called Star Jelly, and vulgarly
regarded, owing to the suddenness with which it
makes its appearance, as having fallen from the
skies, and as of important medicinal
virtues. N. edule is employed in China as an
article of food. ‘
Nostradamus, the assumed name of Michel de
Notredame, an astrologer of Jewish descent, who
was born at St Remi in Provence, 14th December
1503. He studied at Avignon, and next medicine
at Montpellier, took the — of doctor of medi-
cine in 1529, and practised the profession at Agen,
os at Salon rived oA ext year when ae
lague was raging at Lyons he was conspicuous for
fis skill and devotion. He first fell of n his
rophetic vein about the year 1547, but in what
ight he himself regarded his pretensions it is now
impossible to say. The first collection of famous
Centuries ap at Lyons in 1555. These were
predictions in rhymed quatrains, divided into
centuries, of which there were seven; the second
edition, published in 1558, contained ten. Astro-
logy was then the fashion, and these quatrains,
expressed generally in obscure and enigmatical
terms, brought their author a great reputation.
Catharine de’ Medici invited him to visit her at
Blois; the Duke and Duchess of Savoy went to Salon
expressly to see him ; Charles LX. on his accession
appointed him his ee ey, Nostra-
damus died at Salon, 2d July 1566. His predic-
tions have given rise to a vast illustrative or con-
troversial literature. The Centuries were formally
condemned by the papal court in 1781.
See Jaubert’s Vie de M. Nostradamus, Apologie et
Histoire (Amst. 1656); Haitze’s Vie de Michel Nostra-
damus (Aix, 1712); Astruc’s Mémoires pour servir @
UHistoire de la Faculté de Montpellier (Paris, 1767) ;
Apologie pour les Grands Hommes Soupgonnés de Magie
(Paris, 1825); and E. Bareste’s Nostradamus (Paris, 1842).
Notables, the name ——— given in France
to persons of distinction and political importance.
As the States-general were inconvenient to the
despotism of the monarchy, the kings of the House
of Valois adopted the expedient of calling in their
stead Assemblies of the Notables, the time of calling
them and the composition of them being entirely
dependent on the pleasure of the crown, For more
than a century and a half even this poor acknow-
ledgment of any other mind or will in the nation
538 NOTARY-PUBLIC
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE
than that of the mereetes ceased to be made ; but |
n
when the state of the finances brought the mon-
archy into difficulties and perils Louis XVI., at
the instigation of the minister Calonne, had_re-
course again to an Assembly of Notables, which
met 22d February 1787, and was dissolved 25th
May. It consisted of 137 members, among whom
were seven princes of the blood, nine dukes and
peers, eight marshals, eleven arclibishops, twenty-
two nobles, eight councillors of state, four masters
of requests, thirty-seven judges, twelve deputies of
the Pays d’Etats, the civil lieutenant, and twenty-
five persons belonging to the magistracy of different
cities, See Louis XVI, Necker, FRANCE.
Notary-public is an officer of the law or pro-
fessional person whose chief function is to act as
a witness of any solemn or formal act, and to give
a certificate of the same; which certificate, if duly
authenticated, is accepted as good evidence of the
act done in his presence, and attested by him.
Solicitors are sometimes notaries-public, but in
England there are fewer notaries, comparatively,
than in Scotland, where notarial acts and certifi-
cates are more largely used. The English courts
take notice of the seal of a notary, but his certili-
cate is not generally received as proof of the facts.
certified. A notary is employed in the noting and
protest of foreign bills of exchange in case of non-
acceptance or non-payment. In the United States
the powers of notaries are defined by the laws of
the different states. See Brooke, On the Office of
a Notary (ed. by Leone Levi, 1876); and Proffatt,
Law of Notaries-public in the United States (1877).
Notation. For Chemical Notation, see CHEMIS-
TRY ; for Musical Notation, Music, SOLFEGGIO ; for
Mathematical Notation, NUMERALS, ALGEBRA,
CALCULUS, GEOMETRY, QUATERNIONS.
Noto, an ancient episcopal town of Sicily, 16
miles SW. of Syracuse by rail. Pop. 15,925.
Notochord, See Empryo.ocy, AMPHIOXUS.
Notornis, one among many of the family of
Rails, with wings so much reduced as to be ineap-
able of flight, and which have within historical times
become partially or completely extinct. Notornis
inhabited New Zealand, and within the 19th century
three specimens have been taken, one of them in
1881, so that possibly there are still a few survivors
in out-of-the-way districts.
Nototherium, a genus of gigantic fossil kan-
garoo-like marsupials, found in Australia,
Not Proven, See Crna Law.
Notre Dame (Old Fr., ‘Our Lady ’), the name
of many churches dedicated to the Virgin Mary in
France, particularly the cathedral of Paris.
Nottingham, a town of England, the capital
of Nottinghamshire, and a parliamentary, muni-
cipal, and county borough (the first returning three
members ), is seated on the Trent, 126 miles NNW.
of London, 15 E. of Derby, and 38 8. by E. of
Shettield. Formerly surrounded by ancient walls
(910-1265), of which all traces res now dis-
appeared, the town covers an area of about 16
sq. m., and its appearance of late years has been
much improved by the widening of its streets; by
the erection of a new town-hall, University College,
and other public buildings; by the opening and
laying out of an arboretum of 17 acres, of a public
park and recreation grounds of over 150 acres, and
of a tract of open land, called ‘ Bulwell Forest’
(135 acres); as also the spanning of the Trent—
which is here about 200 yards wide—with a broad
granite and iron bridge in the place of a former
narrow structure of seventeen arches, Crowning a
precipitous rock, which rises 133 feet above the river,
stands the castle, built (1674-83) on the site of an
ancient Norman fortress, dismantled during the Par-
liamentary wars, and itself much damaged fire
during the Reform Bill riots of 1831, It op ot
in 1878, and transformed into an art museum.
Near to it are the county hall (1770); St Mary’s
Chureh (restored 1867-85), a cruciform building in
the Perpendicular style, 216 feet in length; and a
spacious market-place, 5 acres in extent, having
at its eastern end the exchange, with a richly-deco-
rated facade (rebuilt 1814). In another group not
far off are the SS and other municipal offices
(1888), in the French Renaissance style of architee-
ture ; two theatres (1865-84) ; and University College
(1879-81), mainly a science school, but accommo-
dating in its wings a free library and natural his-
tory museum. ther edifices worthy of mention
comprise a hospital (1781, with additions set
a Roman Catholic cathedral (1844), cruciform
Early English; and the high school, founded as a
grammar or free school in 1513, moved into new build-
ings in 1867, and since 1882 controlled under a new
scheme ; it has a large income from endowment, and
annually offers for ap ee ht 3 eight exhibitions of
an te value of £435, besides numerous
scholarships. On the outskirts of the town race-
meetings were held annually in March and October
fora hundred years until 1890; the Trent Bridge
cricket-ground is the scene of the county’s home
matches; whilst mention must not be omitted of
the annual goose fair held at Michaelmas. Of the
various manufactures carried on in the town the
most ai, Choe are those of lace and_ hosiery;
baskets, bicycles, cigars, and needles are also m: per
whilst several iron-foundries are in operation,
malting and brewing are extensively carried on.
One of the most suecessful sewage farms in the
country has been laid ont 5 miles from the town,
the whole of whose se is here dealt with.
Pop. (1801) 28,801 ; (1831) 50,220; (1881) 186,575 ;
(1891) 213,984. In the history of Nottingham
(which was one of the Five Boroughs) the prin-
cipal incidents have been its occupation by the
Danes, and their withdrawal on the conclusion of
a treaty for peace (868); its destruction by fire
(1140 and 1153); the granting of its first r
(1155); the convening here of three parliaments
(1330-37); the appointment of its first age 5, <3
bishop Sees e raising by Charles L. of
standard at the commencement of the Parlia-
mentary war (1642); and riots (1795-1816), ly
on account of a bread famine and partly o pg f°
the Luddites (q.v.). See local works Di -
son (1816), Wylie (1853-65), Hine (1876), and W.
H. Stevenson (4 vols, 1890), besides those cited
under the county.
Nottinghamshire, or Norts, an inland coun
of a ; bounded on the N, by be rs ty
Lincolnshire, 8. by Leicestershire, and W. by Derby-
shire. Its greatest length is 50 miles; ave!
breadth, 20 miles; and area, 824 sq. m., or 527,7
acres, Pop. (1801) 140,350 ; (1831) 225,400 ; (1881)
391,815; (1891) 445,823, from the valley of
the Trent, which is very flat, the general aspect of the
county is undulating and well wooded, the highest
ground—600 feet above the sea-level—being in the
west, in the vicinity of Sherwood Forest (q.v.). In
the south are the Wolds, consisting upland
moors and pasture-lands broken up by many fertile
hollows, whilst the northern boundary for upwards
of 15 miles is skirted by the Car, a tract of low-
lying land, formerly a swampy bog, but since 1796
rained and brought into cultivation, The Trent,
with its tributaries, the Erewash, Soar, and Idle, is
the principal river; and the Fosse Dyke and Notts
and Grantham canals, and Midland, Great Northern,
and Manchester, Sheffield and Lincoln railways also
traverse the county. The climate, a in the
east, is remarkably dry, and the soil varies, sand
and gravel, clay, limestone, and coal-land prevailing
OS ——
i mes ibaten. ay
‘ a Job fy jayne tty
“ue acts “ ore oe
eSlebbebig Aye 1 | pea
J Teer |
—
ne.
‘
4 Kye ake Ry
- NOTRE DAME CATHEDRAL, PARIS.
Vol. VII., page 588,
9 Peete te
poe
‘
4
_ gardens. The cultivation of hops
NOUMEA
NOVA SCOTIA 539
in different districts. As 's productiveness it
is not above mediocrity, except in the Vale of
Belvoir to the east of Nottingham. Of the total
area under cultivation, corn and green crops cover
- about 175,000 acres, permanent pasture over 200,000,
whilst some 3000 acres are orchards and market-
has been dis-
continued. The principal mineral products are coal
—of which about 7,000,000 tons are raised annually
—gypsum, iron ore, and limestone. The manu-
factures are noticed under the chief towns—viz. Not-
tingham, Newark, Mansfield, Retford, and Work-
sop, the two former also being the scene of most of
the historical events connected with the county.
Lying wholly in the diocese of Southwell, Notts is
divided into six wapentakes, nine poor-law unions,
and 273 parishes, and returns seven members to
parliament, one for each of its four divisions ( Bas-
setlaw, Newark, Mansfield, and Ruslicliffe), and
three for Nottingham (its capital and assize town).
The county council consists of sixty-eight members.
Of its natives the best known are Archbishops
Cranmer, Secker, Sterne, and Manners-Sutton ;
Garnet (the Jesuit); Denzil Lord Holles ; General
Ireton, and his contemporary Colonel Hutchinson ;
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu ; Bishop Warburton;
Dodsley, Kippis, and Wakefield (the authors) ;
Admiral Earl Howe; Sandby and Bonington (the
artists); Dr Erasmus Darwin; Edmund Cart-
ight; Fynes Clinton (the scholar); Kirke White
and Bailey (the poets); Lord Byron; ‘Speaker’
Denison; and ‘General’ Booth. See the county
histories by Thoroton (3 vols. 1797), Bailey (4 vols.
1852-55), Briscoe (1881), and White (1885).
Noumea, capital of the French penal colony of
New Caledonia (q.v.). Pop. 5000.
Noun, See GRAMMAR.
Noureddin. See Nur ep-Drn.
Novalis, the pen-name of Friedrich von Harden-
, German writer, who was born at Wieder-
t, near Mansfeld, in Prussian Saxony, 2d May
1772. Whilst being educated at Jena, Leipzig,
and Wittenberg he came under the influence of
Schiller, and became acquainted with Fichte, Fr.
Schlegel, and Tieck, studied deeply the works
of Boehme, and imbued himself with the spirit of
Romanticism to such an extent that he was after-
wards desi the ‘Prophet of Romanticism.’
He made his start in life as a mining official. At
Weissenfels (1795) he fell in love with a beautiful
young girl, whose early death left a lasting im-
——- upon him. Ere many years were past he
imself, delicate from his boyhood up, was seized
with consumption, and died 25th March 1801.
The princi tenets of his two philosophical
romances, th left incomplete, einrich von
Ofterdingen and Lehrlinge zu Sais, were that life
——_ to be poetry realised in practical conduct,
and that there are in the universe many verities
and realities the truth of which cannot be grasped
by the cold, critical intellect ; they ean only be
known by the 2 oes anv intuition of feeling.
His Hymnen an die Nacht are a glorification of his
sorrow at the loss of his mistress. These, together
with his Poems and Sacred Songs, are the only
finished productions he has left. Novalis penned
many thoughtful and suggestive sentences, often
in very graceful language; but on the whole his
writings lack precision of thought and robust
common sense; their prevailing atmosphere is
a mystic twilight, where is much obscurity, but
also much beauty and much deep feeling. His
Sammtliche Werke (2 thin vols.) were published by
Tieck and Fr. Schlegel in 1802. To these a third
volume, containing a ort spewed to the Life printed
in vol. i., together with poems and philosophic
fragments by Novalis, was added in 1846. See
Carlyle’s Miscellaneous Essays (vol. ii.), the German
Life of Novalis published at Gotha (2d ed. 1883),
and his correspondence with the Schlegels (Mainz,
1880).
Novy: capital of a North Italian province, 60
miles N. of Turin by rail, with several fine churches,
a trade in silk, grain, and wine, and manufactures
of silk, cotton, and linen. Here the Sardinians
were utterly defeated by the Austrians under.
Radetzky, on 23d March 1849. Pop. 19,557.
Nova Ricetin, » province of the Dominion
a, lyi tween 43° 25’ and 47° N. lat.
and 59° 40’ and 60° 25’ W. long., consists of a
long, narrow peninsula, and the island of Ca;
Breton, which is separated from the mainland
the Strait of Canso. It is bounded on the N.
by Northumberland Strait (which separates it
from Prince Edward Island) and by the Gulf of
St Lawrence; NE., S., and SE. by the Atlantic
Ocean; W. by the Bay of Fundy; and NW. by
New Brunswick, with which it is connected by an
isthmus only 11 miles wide, separating the Bay of
Fundy from Northumberland Strait. Across this
isthmus is the Chignecto Ship-railway (1889-92).
The greatest length of the province is 350 miles,
the greatest breadth about 120 miles, and the area
20,600 sq. m. (13,184,000 acres)—one-third less
than that of Scotland. According to official esti-
mates (1891) only a very inconsiderable part of this
area (50 square miles) is water. About 5,000,000
acres are fit for tillage; about 1,839,020 acres are
in crop and pasture, and 21,624 acres are devoted
to fruit cultivation. Pop. (1806) 67,515; (1851)
276,117 ; (1871) 387,800 ; (1891) 450,523.
The coast-line is about 1000 miles in length, and
the shores abound with excellent harbours, of
which the chief are Halifax Harbour, Chedabucto,
St Ma t’s, Mahone, and St Mary’ bays, Anna-
lis, Mines, and Chignecto basins, and Victoria
arbour. There are numerous rivers, but few of
them are more than 50 miles long. The most im-
portant are the Avon, Annapolis, and Shuben-
acadie. Of the rivers of Nova Scotia fifteen flow
into the Northumberland Strait, four into St
George’s Bay, seventeen into the Atlantic, and
twenty-four into the Bay of Fundy. Among the
lakes the chief is Great Bras d’Or Lake (which is
really an inland sea), about 50 miles long, and with
an area of about 500 sq. m., and a depth of water
varying from 12 to 60 fathoms. The next largest
lakes are Lake Rossignol, 20 miles in length; Ship
Harbour, 15 miles long; Grand Lake, and College
Lake. The most remarkable body of water in the
province is Mines Basin, the east arm of the Bay
of Fundy, etrating 60 miles inland, and termin-
ating in Cobequid Bay. The tides rise in the basin
with great impetuosity, and form what is called a
‘bore.’ At the equinoxes they have been known
to rise from 40 to 50 feet. On an average, how-
ever, the rise is abont 30 feet, while in Halifax
Harbour, on the opposite side of the coast, the
spring-tides rise only from 6 to 8 feet. The
country is beautifully variegated by ranges of
hills and broad valleys, both of which run longi-
tudinally through the province. The Cobequid
range of mountains, as they are called, run through
the interior of the province. On each side of these
mountains are two extensive ranges of rich arable
lands. The Annapolis valley is especially favour-
ably situated, and is noted. for the magnificent
apples grown there. The southern part of Cape
reton is very much the same in appearance as
the northern part of the mainland, but the northern
rt of the island is bold and steep, the land at
orth Cape being 1800 feet above the sea-level.
The distance from North Cape to Cape Ray on the
Newfoundland coast is 48 miles.
540
NOVA SCOTIA
The principal cities and towns are Halifax
40,000), Dartmouth (4000), Yarmouth (6000),
ruro (7000), Pictou (5000), Amherst (4000),
Windsor (8600), Kentville (4000), Annapolis
2000), and Digby esgesd The climate of Nova
tia is Sore aaa A temperate considering its
northern latitude. he extreme of cold is 20°
below zero, and the extreme of heat 98° in the
shade. The western counties average from 6 to
8 degrees warmer than the eastern, and in Anna-
pte county the mercury a falls below zero.
egetation is very rapid, and the autumn forms a
delightful season. Spring is rather tedious, and
the winter variable. Fogs are prevalent along the
eoasts, but do not —- inland to any extent.
iculture and horticulture are among the prin-
ci industries in the province. Rye, oats, and
barley, buckwheat, Indian corn, tomatoes, potatoes,
turnips, and all root-crops grow in abundance.
Wheat is not grown to any t extent, although
there is nothing to prevent its cultivation. Apples,
pears, plums, cherries, and other garden fruits
attain the utmost perfection. The apple-orchards
in Annapolis and King’s counties are very produc-
tive. They extend along the roadside in an un-
broken line for 50 miles, and in the autumn form
a sight which, once seen, is not soon forgotten.
More attention is now being devoted to dairying
and to the raising of live-stock than was formerly
the case. The manufactures of the province are
yet limited, but are being developed. Cottons and
woollens are manufactured in various parts of the
country. There are ironworks at Londonderry,
steel-works at New Glasgow, and stove and hard-
ware works at Amherst ; and there are also several
a oneesien te paper-mills, boot and shoe and
other manufactures of leather, manufactories of
agricultural and other machinery, furniture and
wooden ware, and many sawmills. The shipbuild-
ing industry was formerly a most important one,
but has suffered from the substitution of iron for
wooden vessels. Endeavours are, however, being
made to develop the iron shipbuilding trade.
Mining is extensively carried on. The annual
oe of golil has risen from 16,000 oz. in
884 to from 25,000 to 30,000 oz. ; and the total
ey from the time mining was commenced is over
,000 oz. The average yearly earnings per man
are stated to be £135. Coal and iron are abund-
antly distributed and extensively worked ; and the
manufacture of iron and steel is likely to be much
increased, Upwards of 1,500,000 tons of coal are
raised annually, and are sent to different parts of
Canada, the West Indies, and South America.
Notwithstanding that the export of coal to the
United States fell off considerably when the
reciprocity treaty with that country came to an
end in 1866, the output of coal has increased
year by year, the falling off in the United States
trade being more than counterbalanced by the
gw increase in the consumption in the Dominion,
ther minerals are also abundant, including tin,
silver, manganese, gypsum, slates, and several
varieties of precious stones. The fisheries of
Nova Scotia are regarded as among the finest
in the world. A large number of men and boats
are engaged in the industry, which is valued at
from seven to es million dollars annually.
The waters abound with mackerel, cod, herring,
shad, salmon, halibut, haddock, lobsters, &c.
The value of the imports into Nova Scotia is about
$10,000,000, of which $4,000,000 come from Great
Britain, and nearly $3,000,000 from the United
States. The exports may be valned at $9,000,000,
of which $2,000,000 go to Great Britain, $3,000,000
to the United States. The chief exports are fish-
products, minerals, lumber, agricultural products,
and general manufactures,
There are 700 miles of railway in the province,
and many new lines are Me ox The province
is connected with both the Consiiak and United
States railway-systems. There are two ca
in the province, one from Halifax to Cobequid
(not now in use), and the other connecting St
Peter’s Bay and Bras d'Or Lake. The Chignecto
Ship-railway, already referred to, is meant to
ships by railway over the isthmus of Chignecto, so
as to avoid the long detour n to pass from.
the Gulf of St Lawrence to the Bay of Fundy and
the United States by way of the Nova Scotia coast.
he religious denominations according to the
census in 1891 were as follows: Roman Catholics,
122,452; Presbyterians, 108,952; Baptist, 83,122,
Church of England, 64,410; Methodist, 54,195.
Education is free, and there are numerous public
schools and acadeniies, besides a normal and middle
school, several convents, and the following six
colleges: Dalhousie College and University, St
Mary’s College (Roman Catholic), and the Presby-
terian College, Halifax ; Acadia College te tist),
Wolfville . Bit Francis College (Roman lic),
re. a and orig, ie College and University.
Windsor. ‘The last, belonging to the Church of
England, was founded in 1787.
ne public affairs of the province are administered
by a lieutenant-governor, and executive council of
nine members, and a Hg spree assembly of thirty-
eight members elected by the people for four years.
The province is represénted in the Dominion parlia-
ment by ten senators and twenty-one members of
the Lower House, The expenditure in 1893 was
$822,462. The annual revenue of the province in
1893 was $769,976, of which $432,867 represented
the contributions from the Dominion treasury,
under the terms by which Nova Scotia became
a member of the Confederation; the rest was
made up of mining royalties, receipts from: crown-
lands, &e.
‘rhe government offer Jand on reasonable terms—
100 acres for $40. The wild land is, however,
covered with bush, and has to be cleared before
cultivation is ible. Improved farms can be
purchased in different parts of the province at
Hara ranging from $4 to £20 per acre, including
nildings, &c. Excellent shooting and fishing are
to be found all over the province, especially in the
less accessible parts, where big game is still fairly
abundant.
History.—Nova Scotia was first visited by Cabot
in 1497, and the first colonisation recorded is that
in 1604 of the French under De Monts, who
attempted for some years to form settlements at
Port —now Annapolis—St Croix, &c. The
settlers were finally expelled by the colonists of
Virginia, who claimed the country by right of the
discovery of Cabot. Other attempts were made at
colonisation, but with small success. The country
was ed to France by the treaty of Breda in,
1667; its possession, however, remained a source
of contention between England and France, until
it was finally ceded to England by the treaty of |
Utrecht in 1713. A memorable event in the his-
tory of the province was the expulsion of the
Acadians (q.v.) in 1755, some of the events con-
nected with which are the subject of Longfellow’s
Evangeline. Cape Breton was the scene of
struggles between the French and British, -
ally in the neighbourhood of Louisburg (q.v.). In
1763 it was annexed to Nova Scotia. 1t was subse-
quently made a separate province, but again united
to Nova Scotia in 1819. Many attempts were made
to develop the province, but the foundations of its
present position date from the immigration in 1784
of the loyalists who preferred to take up their homes
in British territory rather than remain under the
dominion of the United States. The province of
NOVATIAN
NOVELS 541
New Brunswick was created in 1784 out of Nova
Scotian territory.
See Haliburton’s Wova Scotia (1829), Murdoch’s
History of Nova Scotia (1867), Hannay’s Nova Scotia
(1879), Kingsford’s History of Canada (188), and the
government books,
Novatian, a priest of the Roman Church in the
3d nepas and the leader of a sect called after his
name. e place and time of his birth are not
known with certainty. Novatian is said to have
been a stoic philosopher, but after his arrival in
Rome was conv to Christianity, and, being
seized with sudilen illness while still a catechumen,
received what was called clinical baptism—i.e. ba
tism administered on a sick-bed and without the
solemn ceremonial. Such baptism was in ordinary
circumstances an impediment to holy orders. Not-
Withstanding this irregular baptism, Novatian was
promoted to orders by Fabian the Roman bishop,
and soon acquired great reputation by his learning
and eloquence. Soon after the Decian persecution
& great controversy arose about the marmer of deal-
ing with the lapsed—i.e. those who fell away during
persecution. Novatian at first inclined to the milder
side, but on the election of Cornelius to the Roman
bishopric (March 251), and on Cornelius taking the
indulgent course towards the la , Novatian,
together with Novatus and some other discontented
priests of Carthage, opposed his authority, and
eventually Novatian was chosen by a small party
and actually ordained bishop in opposition to
Cornelius. e party who espoused his cause was
called Wy his name. They were confined mainly,
in the first instance, to Rome and to Carthage,
where a similar conflict had arisen, They held
that in the grievous sin of idolatry throngh fear
of persecution the church had no power to absolve
the penitent; and therefore, although it does not
appear that they excluded such sinners from all
hope of heaven, yet they denied the lawfulness of
readinitting them to the communion of the church.
This doctrine they extended at a later period to all
ievous sins of whatever character.. In this view
ehurch was merely a community of saints whose
very existence is endangered by the presence of
one sinner. Cyprian (q.v.), at first rigorous against
the lapsed, ually abated his severity.
Novatian may thus be regarded as the first anti-
pope. The churches throughout Italy, Africa, and
the East adhered to Cornelius; but the Novatian
party set up bishops and established churches not
= at but at Constantinople, Alex-
andria, Nicomedia, in Phrygia, Gaul, Spain, and
elsewhere. They claimed for themselves a character
of especial purity, and assumed the appellation of
Cathari (Puritans). The time and manner of the
death Novatian is uncertain. According to
Socrates he died a martyr in the perseention of
Valerian, but this is improbable. His sect sur-
vived long after his death. An unsuccessful effort
was made in the Council of Nice to reunite them
to the church ; and traces of them are still discov-
erable in the East down to the end of the 6th
ey See the Letters of Cyprian, Eusebius ;
also Walch’s Ketzerhistorie (vol. ii.).
Nova Zembla (Russ. Novaja Zemlja, ‘New
Land’), an Arctic island lying between the Kara
Sea and Barents Sea, ani separated at its southern
ried rai ¢ from the island of Vaigatch by Kara
miles wide. Long and narrow, it meas-
ures 600 miles from north to south and 60 in
average width, and is eut in two nearly midwa: up
@ narrow winding sea- , the Matochkin
3 western side is broken by several bays,
often studded with islands. The southern portion
anrareatiy —tittle authentic is known about the
r—a p of moderate height ; the centre
and north are mountainous, rising to 4000 feet and
haps higher, and are covered with snow and ice.
The continuation of the Gulf Stream reaches the
western shores and prevents them from being always
icebound. Although not permanently inhabited,
it is visited by Russian and Norwegian seamen
and hunters for the capture of the numerous sea-
fowl, whales, walrus, seals, and dolphins which
ag pan its coasts. It was known to the hunters
of Novgorod in the llth century, but was redis-
covered by Sir Hugh Willoughby in 1553, and has
been nently visited since then, much scientific
information abont its animal and plant life having
heen collected since 1868. See Markham, Polar
i (1881).
Novellz. See Justinian.
Novello, Vincent, musical composer and pub-
her, was born in London, of an Italian father
and English mother, on 6th September 1781. He
officiated as 0} ist in various chapels in London,
and was one of the founders of the Philharmonic
and similar musical societies. His musical com-
positions, chiefly sacred, are considered to have
contributed much to the improvement of cathedral
music. But it is as a nstaking editor of un-
blished works of eminent musicians that he
deserves chiefly to be remembered. He died at
Nice, 9th August 1861.—His daughter, CLARA
ANASTASIA, a distinguished vocalist, was born in
London in 1818; won great trinmphs in the chief
cities of Europe ; but having in 1843 married Count
Gigliucci, she quitted the stage in 1860.
Novels. ‘Novel,’ as the name of a thing, came
to us with the thing itself from Italy early in the
reign of Elizabeth. Boccaccio, from whom Painter
took the ‘excellent nouelles’ in his Palace of
Pleasure, applies ‘novella’ somewhat indiscrimi-
nately, and in his preface speaks of ‘ novels or fables
or parables or stories’ as if they meant pretty
much the same thing; but in Provencal, and
according to the Cento Novelle Antiche, ‘noella’ or
‘novella’ seems to have meant originally some
new drollery, jest, or bon-mot—something, as
Borghini explains, that pleased by its freshness,
and the ‘noellaire’ or ‘ novellatore’ to have been a
kind of jester who collected and retailed sach
ber: ost of the Cento Novelle and a la
number of Boccaccio's, notably those of the sixth,
seventh, and eighth days, are of this sort, and in
the collections of Saechetti and Ser Giovanni the
proportion is still greater. In fact the primitive
novella was something much more akin to the
Sacetice of Poggio, the Cent Nouvelles nouvelles, the
stories of the Heptameron, the Hundred Mery Talys,
and even their humble relatives, the jests attributed
to Joe Miller, than to the long, grave, and often
tragic narratives that appeared under the title
when it had wn elastic in the 16th century.
But if ‘novel’ has departed from its original signi-
fication, ‘romance’ has wandered still farther.
The word originally had nothing whatever to do
with any form or species of composition. It was
simply the name given in the middle ages to the
spoken language of the commonalty, particularly
in France and Spain, in contradistinction to the
Latin or Letra, the language of the learned classes
and the langu used ap Mortar’ and writings
of all kinds, th time, however, it came to mean
not only the vehicle but also the thing conveyed ;
anything in Romance was called romance, and
naturally the term was extensively applied to the
great source of popular recreation, the songs of the
minstrels and trowvéres, by which it was in the
end almost monopolised, ence the two meanings
of ‘romance’ in Spanish—(1) the vernacular (‘en
buen Romance’ is the precise equivalent of our
phrase ‘in plain English’); (2) a piece of popular
542
NOVELS
narrative try such as we mean by the word
‘bailad.’ In France the place of the ballad was
supplied by much longer and more elaborate com-
positions, like the chansons de geste, and to these
the title of ‘romans’ was very generally given. But
it is noteworthy that, ‘romance’ or ‘romans,’ it
was applied, in Spain exclusively and in France all
but exclusively, to compositions in verse, and that
the prose-works which we now call the romances
mak excellence were not so styled in theirown time.
he romances of chivalry were called by their
authors or editors chronicles, histories, or books ;
but, except in one edition of Lancelot, never
romances; and the still more typical romances,
the heroic romances of the 17th century, Polex-
andre, Cassandre, Pharamond, Ibrahim, and the
like, seem to have heen indebted to Searron, but
certainly not to their authors, fer the name.
Neither ‘novel’ nor ‘romance,’ in short, has any
historical or etymological claim to stand for the
latest development of prose fiction ; nor is there
any warrant for a distinction between the novel
and the romance founded on a predominance of
the real or the ideal, the ordinary or the extra-
ordinary, the comie or the tragic, a distinction
which, in practice, it would be impossible to draw.
The names are purely conventional. What we
call a novel the French call a roman; if they
shared our somewhat contemptuous feeling for the
romantic perhaps they would have followed our
example, as we perhaps might have followed theirs
if, instead of bad news, we talked of hearing bad
novels,
For the origin of the thing so called there is no
need to search very iar. ‘To ask where fiction
came from, or what particular race or people were
the-inventors of it, is very much like asking who
invented singing. If we must find a source for it,
or fix it upon someone, a child in a corner telling a
story to itself, with its playthings for dramatis
persone, or Magyie Tulliver unfolding the tale of
the earwig’s domestic troubles to her cousin Lucy,
will be as near the fountain-head of fiction as we
need go, The demand for fiction seems to follow
very closely upon the demand for food. ‘Tell me
a story’ is among the earliest expressions of our
wants in life, and so far as we can see it has been
one from time immemorial, and everywhere and
always story-tellers of one sort or another are to be
pst striving as best they can to comply with the
call, Itis true that we cannot see very far back,
and that onr only available sources of information
convey a very imperfect idea of story-tellers and
story-telling in the remote past. The fragments
and specimens that have come to us through tradi-
tion and literature can no more give a complete
view of the fiction of the age they belong to than
the fossils in a cabinet of the fauna and flora of the
lobe when they were living things. They have
been preserved by accident, or by the possession
of some property or feature conducing to preserva-
tion, while types and species less favoured have
left no trace behind them of their existence. To
take an example, every one at all acquainted with
it must have noticed how strongly the didactic
element asserts itself in early eastern fiction. By
far the greater number of the specimens that have
come down to us through the Panchatantra, Hito-
sa, Bidpai, Lokman, A’sop—for in strictness
1e must be counted among the Orientals—and
other channels are fables with a moral attached.
Now it is obvious that these cannot be the earliest
type of fiction. Children call for stories, but not
(in real life at least) for instruction or improve-
ment until some years have passed over their
heads; and what is true of children is true of
humanity. But the very earliest productions of
the fable family are entirely destitute of this
appendage, and are mere stories told for their own
sake. arse they belong to a still earlier type
than the fable, the stay where animals and in-
animate things speak and act like human beings,
the immediate descendant, no doubt, of the story
the child tells to itself about such objects as take
its fancy (see Pee ae) It is easy to see
how the moral came to be added, and how, once
added, it became protective. The story furnished
with a moral was preserved by and for the sake of
its moral when those told for the story’s sake alone
dropped ont of circulation; and in virtue of its
moral it found its way into literature as soon as
there was a literature to receive it. It is simply
an instance of survival of the fittest; not neces-
sarily of the best, but of the best fitted to survive
in the struggle for existence.
The case of Acsop above referred to is an illustra-
tion of the connection between oriental and Euro-
pean fiction. Some critics maintain that he was
an Oriental himself, and identify him with Lokman ;
but without going so far it may be safely said that
the fables bearing his name are mainly of oriental
origin, and from some source in common with the
Panchatantra, But this is not the only instance,
It is significant that, with scarcely an exception,
Greek prose fiction came from Asia Minor, or from
islands off the coast, and in most instances the
Asiatic influence is distinctly perceptible. Of the
Milesian tales we know little, but from that little
it seems likely that they were compositions some-
what in the nature of the French fabliaux, and
like them lnreel indebted to the eastern story-
tellers. Iamblichus, the author of the Babylonica,
and Heliodorus, the author of the more famous
Theagenes and Charielea, were both Syrians, and
cleat drew their inspiration from the same quarter,
Achilles Tatius, the Follower of Heliodorus, was of
Alexandria, Xenophon, who wrote the tale of
Abrocomas and Anthia, wasof Ephesus. Josaphat
and Barlaam was Wy Jolin of Damaseus. Lucian
was another Syrian, but he cannot be properly
included among those who wrote stories for the
story’s sake, nor indeed among those distinctly
influenced by eastern fiction, any more than the
author of the ota pastoral of Daphnis and
Chloe, whoever he may have been, for ‘ Longus’ is
probably a mere clerical error, As M. Chassang _
says, in his Histoire du Roman: ‘The taste for the.
romance passed from the East to Greece ;’ but it
was to the artistic instinct of the Greeks that the
novel or romance owed the remarkable develop-
ment we see in Daphnis and Chloe and Theagenes
and Chariclea, The taste passed into Italy also
about the same time, but more probably throu
the medium of the Milesian and Sybarite tales
than directly from the East; and it bore fruit in
the Satyricon of Petronius Arbiter and the JMeta-
morphosis, or Golden Ass, of Apuleius, in each of
which the best-known episode is derived from an
eastern story. The Cupid and Psyche of Apuleius
and Petronius’ Widow of Ephesus ave found in
divers forms, and of the latter there is even a
Chinese variant,
The collection of fables, partly from the Pancha-
tantra and Hite, , called Kalila wa Dimna
had a great share in the spread of oriental stories
in the middle ages throughout western Europe, but
chiefly in Spain, where, introduced probably by the
Arabs, it he Je to furnish material for the Disciplina
Clericalis of Pedro Alfonso and the Conde Lucanor
of Don Juan Manuel. But even more influential
was a work that still cireulates as a chap-book in
most European countries, Zhe Seven Wise Masters
of Rome, which, under a variety of titles, Zrastus,
Dolopathos, Syntipas, Sindebad Nameh, Sandabar,
The Seven Vizirs, and through Latin, Greek,
Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian, may be traced back
——
——S
Se Ll
NOVELS 543
to Sanskrit. Such collections of fables, apologues,
and tales, each in a setting more or less ingenious
of its own, and borrowing freely from its prede-
cessors—story-books of a class that has been made
familiar by The Thousand and One Nights—were
very numerous at the time, and served as a mine
of oriental fiction to medizeval Europe. The Gesta
Romanorum, which is in fact a Euro’ story-
book on the oriental model, was largely indebted
to this source, but not nearly so much as the
fabliaux (p ‘fableaux,’ diminutive of
*fables’) of the trouvéres, who found in the in-
ventions of the eastern story-tellers precisely the
sort of tale which their easy verse and esprit qaulois
could readily adapt to the taste of their audiences.
It was from the fabliaux that the Italian novellieri,
from Boceaccio to Bandello, and not only they, but
also the orate of the Cent Nouvelles nouvelles
and of the Heptameron, and the gay novel-writers
of the 16th century in general, chiefly took their
lightest, liveliest, most satirical, and sometimes
most licentious tales; and in this way the fiction
of the East came in numberless instances to be
incorporated in the literature of Europe.
But the trouvéres were at the same _ time
laying the foundations of another very different
ce of novel. There were audiences for whom
the fabliaux were too light and trivial, and who
demanded a lay of a more serious and earnest
character and of deeper interest, and for these they
had the chanson de geste, a sort of minor, epic,
dealing for the most part with the deeds or adven-
tures of some real or legendary hero, and standing
in much the same relation to the fabliaux as
y, or at least serious drama, to light comedy
and farce; and from these chansons de geste in
process of time, as reading became a more common
accomplishment, and books began to take the place
of the lays of the minstrels, came the prose romance
of chivalry. Not, of course, that every romance of
chivalry had its origin in the verse of a trouvére ;
there is no evidence, for instance, that the story of
Lancelot was ever the subject of a chanson de
gene, though there can he little doubt that it
rnished a theme for Welsh and Armorican ballads
long before Walter Map took it in hand. But
Mnquestionably the early romances of chivalry were
as a rule made from earlier metrical romances,
as these again, no doubt, from shorter and ruder
ieces of verse; the process being, presumably, first
ae or tradition, then ballads of some sort
embodying incidents of the legend, then the isolated
ballads connected, unified, and polished into a
chanson de geste by a bard of a higher order, and
finally the prose romance, sometimes curtailing,
but oftener expanding the chanson. The process
is well seen in the romances of the Charlemagne
eycle: the connecting-link between the legend
and the chanson has, of course, disappeared, but it
has left its traces plainly visible in the Chanson de
Roland, the germ of the whole; and we find the
legends of Gascony and the Ardennes and of Charle-
magne’s troubles with his foes and vassals first
furnishing a subject for the trouvére, and then
¢ into prose romances like Huon de Bordeaux,
Quatre fils Aymon, Fierabras, and Ogier le
Danois. Nor is it contined to the romances of
chivalry proper, of Arthur and the Round Table
and Charlemagne and the Peers; for the romances
of the borderland between chivalry and faerie,
Parthenopex of Blois, The Knight of the Swan,
Melusina (q.v.), and the like, were all apparently
sung by the trouvéres before they sought readers in
prose. See RoMANCEs.
The Spanish family of romances of chivalry came
into the world ey after the age of the tronveres,
shough it is very likely that Amadis of Gaul, the
of it, may have made his first appearance
in verse. He is medieval, but all his progeny,
which includes not merely the Amadis series, but
also the Palmerins and isolated romances, are of
modern birth, and a connecting-link between the
novel of the middle ages and the novel of our own
day. They were rae Ne ches ete of a variety of
causes—the taste created by the Amadis, the recent
inyention of printing, which made such reading a
comparatively cheap luxury, and, above all, the
condition of Spain at the time. M. Chassang, in
the book al y quoted, has a remark not wholly
complimentary to novelists and novel-readers, to
the effect that story-telling flourishes most where
the people are most idle. The peoples of the East
were, and still are, the most prolific of story-tellers,
because, living under paternal governments, the
have always ad a surplus of time upon their
hands. The Greeks and Romans did without
stories so long as their republics lasted, for his
share in the affairs of the state gave each man
bee prs enough for his spare time and thought,
and it was not till Greece became subject to Rome
and Rome to the emperors that the Greek and
Latin romances came into existence. This theory,
if we accept it, will account for the passion for
romances that raged in Spain in the 16th century,
until cured by the drastic remedy of Cervantes.
The end of the t national struggle with the
Moors, the establishment of the Inquisition, the
absorption of all political power and authority by
the sovereign, and the general stagnation in public
life left the upper and middle classes to a great
extent without occupation. Only a few could
follow Cortes and Pizarro, and the majority had to
resign themselves to inaction, made all the more
irksome by the memories of a stirring past, and
warm their blood as best they could with the
imaginary adventures and sound and fury of the
chivalry romances. The chief charge brought by
every assailant of these productions, from Pedro
Mexia to Cervantes, is that they infected their
readers with their own extravagance, and made
them think in their style and fancy themselves
acting the scenes they read of. But this was
the great attraction ; they were indulged in, like
bhang or opium, for the sake of the pleasant
insanity that attended indulgence. Don Quixote’s
madness, if an extreme, was not a solitary case;
and astute romancers, like Feliciano de Silva and
Marcos Martinez, knew well that the stronger they
made the dose the better they pleased their readers,
and on principle kept them well plied with rant,
bombast, and absurdity, and fooled them to the top
of their bent.
But if Cervantes purged his country of sham
chivalry, from the bonfire of Don Quixote’s books
—to borrow the witty image of M. Demogeot—
‘am unlucky Phenix rose up for the ennui of the
17th century,’ the heroic romance, Polexandre, Cléo-
patre, Cassandre, Ibrahim, Clélie, and the rest.
Another variety of romance, however, the pastoral,
had some share ih the genesis of the heroic romance.
The Spanish pastorals, supposed by some to have
been the descendants of Daphnis and Chloe, were in
reality, through the Arcadia of Sannazaro, the
offspring of the Renaissance worship of Virgil, of
which were born all the pining shepherds and
olxurate shepherdesses that haunt the poetry of
the 16th century. For a time they disputed in a
feeble way the ascendency of the chivalry romances,
and were threatened with the same fate by Cer-
vantes; but they were left to live out their innocent
lives in peace and die at last of their own insipidity.
To them, or rather to Montemayor’s Diana, the
first and best of them, we owe one of the patriarchs
of the English novel, Sidney’s Arcadia, and the
French owe Honoré d’Urfé’s Astrée, the precvrsor
of the heroic romances. These were based partly
544
NOVELS
on chivalry, partly on poet romance; their
strength lay in their combination of sentiment and
swagyer, the latter borrowed from the chivalry
romances, the former from the pastorals ; and their
one merit, perhaps, was that they provoked some
excellent satires, such as Boileau’s ‘Héros de
Roman,’ Furetitre’s Roman Bourgeois, Sorel’s
Berger Extravagant, Scarron’s Roman Comique,
and Mrs Lennox's Female Quixote.
But a far more important variety of fiction came
into existence in Spain in the time, and partly
through the influence, of the chivalry romances.
These were every day growing wilder and wilder
and more and more regardless of all common sense
and observance of decent probability, when a little
book, called The Life o ilo de Tormes, made
its appearance. It did not pretend to be a satire
or even a protest against the romances in fashion ;
it merely suggested that a story just as interesting
and amusing might be got out of real, everyday life,
without magicians, giants, flying dragons, or en-
chanted palaces, seeing that tastes varied, and that,
as Jean Saugrain of Lyons put it in the French
translation of 1560, it was not everybody that
took delight in reading of heroic deeds. And
in fact the Lazaril/o is studiously unheroic, and
the exact opposite of a romance of chivalry. The
hero is a beggar boy, or rather a beggar-man’s boy;
hunger and thrashings are the dragons and giants
he has to encounter; his adventures and achieve-
ments are cheating and outwitting his masters; the
empire of Trebizond that crowns his career is the
oftice of town-crier of Toledo, and the princess that
bestows her hand upon him, the doubtful house-
keeper of a sly old priest. It was the first genuine
attempt at realism in literature, and for the first
time in the history of fiction readers found them-
selves taking pleasure in the creations of the story-
teller, not because they were remote from ordinar
experience, but because they were familiar. Find-
ing favour, as a matter of course it had successors.
It was followed by the gusto picaresco novels, the
tales of Spanish rogue and vagabond life, of which
Guzman de Alfarache, Marcos de Obregon, and
Quevedo’s Vida del Buscon are the best-known
examples. They took up with this phase of life
partly in deference to the precedent of Lazarillo,
artly because it was a life rich in adventures and
incidents, but chiefly because it was a phase of life
familiar and real to all readers in Spain in the 17th
century. And not in Spain alone, apparently, for
the truth of the picaresque novels seems to have
been recognised wherever there were readers in
Europe ; the best of them were translated almost
immediately into French, and very soon into
English, Italian, German, and Dutch, and, as
ae editions show, took their place every-
where among the acknowledged purveyors of
amusement. In Germany, indeed, they may be
said to have laid the foundation of the novel in
Grimmelshausen’s Simplicissimus, ane. in England
we need only turn to Defoe for proof of their
influence. Colonel Jack and Moll Flanders are
picaresque novels pure and simple, with their
parentaye stamped upon their features, and there
are marks about Cuptain Singleton and Roxana
ra show — to . 7 the iy ‘
ut it was through Le Sage that the picaresque
novel came to be influential in shades pe: ies
fiction. Like a keen-eyed horticulturist who
detects in some wild P soc useful properties that
may be indefinitely developed by cultivation, or
germs that only need the gardener’s skill to expand
into endless varieties of form and colour, Le Bae
was the capabilities of this rough growth of Spanish
humour, and how its asperities might be removed
without impairing its virtues. It may be said it
was no great discovery to perceive that disreput-
able life is not the only one that affords material
available for a story of real life, that raseality and
roguery are not the only qualities from which
amusement may be extracted, and that whatever
may be the artistic advantages of a seoundrel,
there is on the whole more to be made of a hero
who will be ted by the reader as a man and a
brother. But this is only what is said of every dis-
covery as soon us men have come to look upon its
consequences as matters of course. Great or
small, however, this was Le Sage’s discovery, and
whether it was of importance or not the modern
novel of real life and character will show. It
would be difficult, peteps, to define with pre-
cision the extent of Sage’s share in the forma-
tion of this great necessary of 19th-century exist-
ence, but of reality there can be no question.
To take only one illustration out of many—in David
Copperfield and elsewhere Dickens has left it on
record that the favourite stories of his hood
were Roderick Random and P: ine Pi a
training which shows its fruits in Pickwick and all
his early works; but if Gil Blas was not in the
same way Smollett’s primer in fiction we have his
own word for it that it was the model he set before
him when he undertook to ‘ point out the follies of
ordinary life.’ This much, at least, cannot be dis-
puted, that he was one of the great masters of the
art of story-telling, the first to show an artist's
knowledge of the value of details and the t nse
of realism, and the first to make clear dis-
tinction between the novel and prose fiction in
general, Pantagruel and Gulliver’s Travels ave
not novels, not because the ordinary characteristics
of the novel are wanting, but because i
Swift have se assumed the disguise of a story-
teller for the sake of gaining access to quarters
otherwise inaccessible, precisely as Burton put on
a pilgrim’s dress in order to get into Mecca. In
Don Quixote and Robinson Crusoe there may be
just as little of the conventional features of the ~
novel, but there is no disgnise; they take their
places among the novels unchallenged, while the
title of Zristram Shandy must remain at least
questionable, for though it may be called ‘The Life
and Opinions of Tristram Shandy,’ it is in reality
‘the freaks and gri
Sterne.’ Le 's theory, so far as we may infer
one from his practice, seems to have been that to
tell a story is the novelist’s business, and to keep
to it with singleness of purpose his duty as an
artist.
In the foregoing necessarily brief outline of the
history of the novel it will be seen that in its
growth there has been at work a process very
much like that which regulates other growths. One
orm springs from another, supplants it through
being better adapted to surrounding circumstances,
and lasts just so long as the adaptation lasts. In
the novel, too, as in other cases, forms that have
been in this way pushed aside have a tendency to
reap) if circumstances favour them. The long-
winded sentimental novels of the 18th century were
only a reversion of the romances de longue haleine
of the 17th in a soil that happens to suit them;
and in the novels of Horace V Pep ese Clara Reeve,
and Mrs Radcliffe the spirit of the later romances
of chivalry asserted itself, just as the spirit of the
older and truer chivalry romance found expression
in Seott. Quentin Durward is a genuine romance
of chivalry, modified only by genius and modern
influences. In its extraordinary powers of multi-
plication and variation also the latter-day novel
seems to be subject to natural law. The varieties
of wild animals and plants are few, and seldom
strongly marked ; but no sooner does man for his
leasure or comfort appropriate any living thing,
og or pig, rose or cabbage, than it acquires a
maces of the Rev. Laurence -
NOVELS
variability and fertili' parently limitless. Thus
it has rie with on ove po since Le
undertook the domestication of an adaptab
species. Having become not merely a source of
amusement, but a necessary adjunct of modern
life, it now rivals the rabbit in fecundity, and rans
into doreeeeg more Lae apa aoe than ar iar
bulldog, toy-terrier. is luxuriance o! wth,
ienerse, cannot be ed with sieizelia satis-
faction. It would be no small evil if the novel
from an honoured branch of literature were to
degenerate into a manufacture, and yet a certain
that way cannot be denied. Another,
due to the same cause, is the tendency of the
modern novel to mene functions that fe not
Peomeny Bacay bo is n some cases, to be sure,
the pretence of lofty motives is sufficiently trans-
t. It is no more true that excursions into
slums of realism and naturalism have for their
object the scientific study of social evils than
that exhibitions of fasting men are got up in
Secentenreen of schence, r t the nove _—_ is a
preachment, a treatise, a dissertation in disgui
though less disingenuous and Gangrene. 2 no
he prodigious development of
novel literature in recent times seems to have led
to overweening pretensions. We are sometimes
told that the novelist has become the hierophant of
the age, the teacher who holds the keys of philo-
sophy, science, all human knowled But fine
words will not alter facts. The raison d’étre of
the novelist is the old craving for a story, and
those of the craft who have most frankly recognised
this have always been those most beloved in their
own generation and most honoured by posterity.
Scott, the master of them all, claimed to be no
more than a story-teller, and was proud of the title.
The best histories of the novel are Dunlop’s History o
Prose Fiction (1814; 3d ed. 1845; German trans., wi
large additions, Py F. Liebrecht, 1851; a completely new
- edition by H. W: , 1888); O. L. B. Wolff’s Aligemeine
Geschichte des Romans (Jena, 1850); and Alexis Chas-
sang’s Histoire du Roman, et de ses Ra, avec’ Histoire
¢ is, 1862). ‘To these may be . Masson's British
‘ovelists and their ea (Camb, 1859); W. N. Senior,
Essays on Fiction (1864); Landau’s Beitrdge zur Ge-
schichte der Italianischen Novelle (Wien, 1875), and
eee vere cme eee Saint, 1884); Pro-
lessor Der Griechische Roman und seine
Vorldufer (Leip. 1876); F. 's Geschichte des
Romans in Deutschland ( 1876-79); B. Tucker-
man, History of Prose Fiction (1882); H. Courthope
Bowen's i aoe 2 Historical Novels and
Tales (1882); Lanier, The English Novel and Prin-
its Development (New Y: 1883); Ten Brink,
von Gomane (1885)5 Vite EM De
and Biblioth?que des
Quaritch’s i de, ;
for examples of fiction in its primitive form, Miss Frere’s
Old m Days and Miss Stokes’s Indian Fairy Tales.
t to append
and i
the more American
eminent British
novelists, referring for details and criticisms to the articles
on each of them.
Brrtisn,
en Defoe (1660-1731).
(17
Sarah Fielding (1714-68).
NOVGOROD 545
Horace Walpole (1717. er
(1717-97). Mrs Oliphant 5
Tobias Smollett (1721-71). Terence Oliphant (1ee0-00)
Clara Reeve (1725-1803).
schon Goldsmith (1728-74).
enry (1745-1831). | James Payn (
Madame D'Arblay (1752-1840). | J. H. Shosthouse (b, 1884).
Elizabeth Inchbald (1753-1821). | Miss Braddon (b. 1837).
w. Se anh phn heerer 7 Rhoda Broughton (b, 1837).
w. (1759-1844), Miss Thackeray (b. 1837
Mrs Radcliffe (1764-1823). Sir Walter Besant (b. 1838).
Maria Edgeworth (1767-1849). | Thomas Hardy (b. 1840).
Walter Seott (1771-1832). * Ouida’ (b. 1840).
Jane Austen (1775-1817). William Black (b. 1841).
W. Clark Russell (b. 1844
R. L. Stevenson (1850-94
T. L. Peacock (1785-1866). er 1856),
T. Hook | Seoasiaesg , m4 R. Crockett A bamgre?s
—_ arryat ( 1848) Conan 1859
diay 0 Shell Ser 1881) Hind a Foy
bag | f le -] 5 yard nj
G. P. R. James (1801-0 ‘Edna L iP aS
Martineau (1802-76 * Lucas Malet,"
J (1803-57).
Lytton (1803-73). AMERICAN.
Beaconsfield (1804-81 ©. Brockden Brown (1771-1810),
W. H. ( Washington Irvi 1783-1859),
Charles Lever (1806-72) Fenimore Cooper (1 1851).
Samuel W: = N. Hawthorne (1804-64).
H. P. Willis (1806-67).
W. G. Simms (1806-70).
renee Dee ), E. A. Poe (1809-49).
Anthon Trollope’ ote ie Bootes Bia Tii-06
{ TS er Stowe (1811
Bronté (1816-55). J. G. Holland s19.8h). »
Emily Bronté ( Susan Warner (1819-85).
Kingsley (1819-75). Herman Melville (1819-01).
s Eliot’ (18 ). Ba, oy oe (1825-78).
Anne ws Theodore Winthrop (1828-61),
Mrs ‘ood F. R. Stockton (b, 1834).
)
Wilkie Collins (18 }} Henry James (b. 1843).
Macd: para G. W. Cable (b. 1844).
Annie Keary ( |. Eliz. 8. Phelps (b. 1844)
Julian Ha (
F. Marion Crawford (b. 1854
November (Lat. novem, ‘nine’) was among
the Romans the ninth month of the year (the Ger.
Wind month) at the time when the year consisted
of ten months, and then contained 30 days. It
subsequently was made to contain only 29, but
Julius Cesar gave it 31; and in the reign of
Augustus the number was restored to 30, which
number it has since retained. Its festivals are
All Saints (1), St Hubert (3), St Martin (11), St
Catharine (25), and St Andrew (30).
Novgorod (‘new-town’), a famous city of
Russia, capital of a government, is situated on the
Volkhof, near where it issues from Lake Ilmen,
110 miles SSE. of St we by rail. It is
the cradle of Russian history. In 864, according
to tradition, Rurik (a Varangian, apparently a
Scandinavian) was invited hither by the neighbour-
ing tribes, and from him begins the history of the
country and the line of its sovereigns. As early as
the 12th century it had important connection with
the Hanse cities, and it e the market of
north-east Europe. During the time of its pros-
perity the town was called Novgorod the Great,
and 400,000 inhabitants, and extended its
sway to the White Sea and the river Petchora,
Its government was a sort of republic. The great-
ness of Novgorod provoked the jealousy of the
princes of Moscow, and in 1471 the ezar Ivan III.
nearly destroyed the town, bereft it of its liberties,
and exiled the most influential citizens ; and when
Archangel was opened for mn rc trading-vessels,
but especially after the foundation of St Peters-
burg, its trade fell away, and the town rapidly de-
clined, till now it is but the shadow of its former
self. Of the existing ancient buildings the most
remarkable are the church of St Sophia, founded
546 NOVI
NUISANCE
in the 11th century, and built on the model of St
are at Constantinople, ing some remark-
able paintings and tombs; several others of more
than thirty churches; and wall surrounding the
Kreml, ere is a little trade, but hardly any
manufactures. Pop. (1885) 20,000.—The govern-
ment, Wi lies immediately east of that of St
Petersburg, has an area of 47,236 sq. m. and a
Pop. (1885) of 1,213,058. It has some 3000 lakes
and many marshes. Three-fifths of this area is
covered with forest.
Novi, a town of Italy, 30 miles NW. of Genoa
by rail. Pop. 9917. Here in 1799 the French
were defeated (15th August) and victorious (6th
November).
Novibazar (also Jenipasar, sometimes Rascia),
the capital of a sanjak, situated on the river
Rashka, an affluent of the Morava, 120 miles SE.
of Bosna Serai. Pop. 12,000. The sanjak of Novi-
bazar (3842 sq. m.; pop. 168,000) is mountainous
and barren, but as lying between Servia and Mon-
tenegro is of strategic importance. The western
part is occupied by Austria ; but the civil adminis-
tration is nominally at least reserved to the Porte.
Hovew orgieysk, a Russian fortress of the
first rank, on the Vistula, 20 miles NW. of
Warsaw. With Warsaw, Ivangorod, and Brest
Litovsk, it constitutes the Polish Quadrilateral.
Novorossisk, 4 fortified port on the Black
Sea, to the SE. of Anapa in Russian Caucasia;
the completion of a projected railway to Tzaritzin
on the Volga would make it command the Volga
trade. A breakwater and quay were begun in
1890. Pop. 2988.
Novotcherkask, 2 town of southern Russia,
capital of the province of the Cossacks of the Don,
on the Aksai, a tributary of the Don, 40 miles
from the Sea of Azov, a distance of 12 miles from its
right bank, and about 70 miles ENE. of Taganrog.
The central administration of the territory was
transferred hither from Tcherkask in 1805; but the
choice was not a happy one, the distance of the
town from the Don, the t commercial artery,
being much felt. Drinking-water has since 1867
been Leek 8 by an aqueduct 18 miles long. Pop.
37,091, who carry on agriculture, cattle-breeding,
fishing, wine-growing, and the making of candles
and bricks.
Noyades (Fr., ‘drownings’). See CARRIER
JEAN).
Noyau. See Liqueur.
Noyes, J. Humpurey. See PERFECTIONISTS.
Noyon, a town in the French department of
Oise, 67 miles NNE. of Paris by rail. It has a
fine cathedral in the Transition style of the 12th
century, an hétel-de-ville (1485-1523), and a former
a Yee lace. Pop. 5753. The Noviodunum
of Cwsar, Noyon was a residence of Charlemagne
and Hugo we and the birthplace of Calvin.
See Lefranc, Histoire de Noyon (Paris, 1888).
Nubia is a comparatively modern name for a
large region of Africa, formerly a portion of Ethi-
opia (q.v.), and extending on both sides of the Nile
from pt to Abyssinia ; touching the Red Sea on
the east and the desert on the west. Nubia Proper,
or Lower Nubia, extends from Assouan on the
Egyptian frontier to Dongola; beyond that is
pper Nubia. But of late the name of Fon ian
Soudan, properly reg Map to a section of Upper
Nubia, has come to be used for Nubia in its widest
sense, ther with the once Egyptian territory
actually in the Soudan, and the equatorial provinces
(see SOUDAN, also NILE), Under the Pharaohs
Nubia was called Cush, but under the twentieth
dynasty it was recovered hy a series of native rulers,
who adopted the civilisation of the Egyptians, and
at a later date were Christianised (see ETHiopra).
At present the country is occupied by races belong-
ing to several different ceory’ which have in most
places become much mixed in blood. The chief
elements are Arab, more or less mixed with Nilotic
and Ni blood, mainly in Upper Nubia; Ababdeh
and Bisharin between the Nile and the Red Sea;
and Nubas and Barabira in Lower Nubia, on and
near the Nile between Assonan and Dongola. The
Semitic Arabs are comparatively recent intruders
to this region. They entered Nubia after occupying
Eeypt in the 7th century, but were resisted by the
Christian Dongolawi kings till the 14th century,
when the Arabs, assisted” by a large contingent of
Bosnians, became masters of the land. Presumably,
the aboriginal negro population and tongue have
been ually modified by the admixture of
Hamitie and Semitic elements. The various tribes,
most of them active and warlike, are Moslems by”
faith, and till 1820 were ruled by their own chiefs.
In that year Ismail Pasha made Nubia an Egyp-
tian territory ; and till 1881 it shared the fate of
Egypt. For its later history, see Eoypt, SOUDAN.
Both in its lower and upper sections Nubia is for
the most an expanse of steppes or rocky es
with patches where grass sometimes grows,
ravines in which moisture enough is found to keep
alive a few mimosas or palms, and to raise pasture
for lies and camels. There are also wells and
small oases here and there, as on the chief caravan
routes, The great ‘ Nubian Desert’ lies east of the
Nile, opposite the great western bend of the river.
Below Khartoum rain is almost unknown; the
climate is accordingly rome: f hot and dry, and,
except in the river-ports after the fall of the Nile
is very healthy. The only exception to the general
aridity is the narrow strip of country on both sides
of the Nile, which nowhere exceeds four miles in
breadth, and in many places is only a quarter of a
mile wide. The most fertile part is near Dongola,
A mountain barrier bounds the valley on both sides
of the Nile, and consists of granite and sandstone.
Nucleobranchiata, or Hereropops. See
GASTEROPODA.
Nucleus, See CELL.
Nudibranchiata, See GastEropopa.
Nueva Esparta. See MArGanrira.
Nuevitas, a port of entry of Cuba, on an ex-
tensive and irregular bay of the north coast, 50 miles
ty rail ENE. of Puerto Principe. It has consider-
able importance, exporting sugar, molasses, honey
and wax, &e. Pop. (1899) 4228.
Nuisance, in English legal language, is used
to denote whatever causes hurt to one’s neighbour,
or impedes him in the enjoyment of his property
or the exercise of his liberties. A nuisance
either private (e.g. the creation of noxious vapours
which make a Saf house unhealthy) or
public (e.g. the diffusion of noxious vapours in
a populous neighbourhood). It is not every
slight annoyance that is described in law as a
nuisance ; there must be some serious interference
with the property, health, or comfort of the acd
who complains. The remedies provided for th
form of wrong are various. A court of common
law would entertain an action for the recovery of
damages ; courts of equity went a step further, and
granted injunctions forbidding the nuisance to be
continued, An injunction may be obtained pend-
ing the trial of an action, and it is usual to apply
for an injunction in any case where immediate
relief is desired. Where the nuisance is injuri
to health or life, and where it amounts to obstruc-
tion of a right of way, the injured party may abate
(remove) the nuisance without resorting to a court
of law; but in doing so he must take care not te
— ———————
NUKHA
NUMBERS 547
cause unnecessary disturbance or destruction of pro-
perty. Where the nuisance is public an indictment
will lie. If a highway, for instance, is in a danger-
ous state for want of repair, an indictment lies
i one who are bound to repair it; but
if an individual has suffered special d , over
and above what he suffers as one of the public, he
may bring an action. These legal remedies are now
i eed by the extensive powers conferred on
local authorities. The acts for the removal
of nuisances are now consolidated in the Public
Health Act, 1875. Sanitary authorities (the 5 nee
dians in rural districts, and the council or local
board in towns) are empowered to appoint in-
and medical officers, and to take measures
for the removal of nuisances. The act contains an
elaborate code of rules in regard to sewers, privies,
ditches, gas-works, cellars, common lodging-houses,
offensive trades, sale of unsound meat, infectious
and epidemic diseases, &c. Bylaws may be made
by the local authority in regard to these matters ;
such bylaws require to be confirmed by the Local
Government Besides the provisions of
the Public Health Act, which are too volumin-
ous to be even summarised within our present
limits, there are other acts which empower local
authorities to deal with alkali-works, chimneys
emitting black smoke, and other forms of nuis-
auce. The Rivers Pollution Act, 1876, was in-
tended to prevent the fouling of streams. Special
acts have been for the metropolitan district
and for the river Thames; and the local acts which
have been obtained by town-councils and other
public bodies make numerous additions to the
already complicated rules of the general law. For
the enactments in regard to the suppression of
brothels, see PROSTITUTION.
In Scotland the remedies provided in cases of
nuisance are substantially the same as in England ;
and the Public Health Act of 1867 consolidates
the statutory powers of local authorities. As to
Treland, see the Public Health Act of 1878. The
United States law closely follows the English law ;
in the legislation of some states the term is used
in a narrower sense to denote houses of ill-fame,
&e. The powers of municipal authorities are de-
fined by the law of the state to which they belong.
Nukha, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in
Elizabethpol ; it is on the southern slope of Cau-
casus, and 120 miles E. of Tiflis. Pop. 34.994.
Nullification, in the history of the United
States, refers especially to the action of the legis-
lature of South Carolina in 1832, declaring certain
= < top peewee and or ype
null and void. In 1 congress passed what
known as the ‘tariff of abominations,’
which discriminated unfairly against the people of
the southern states. There cotton was the staple
product, and any step tending to impose restric-
tions on tle commercial intercourse with Europe,
where its principal markets lay, was bitterly
opposed ; whereas in the north, with its manufac-
turing interests, a protectionist policy had steadily
nin favour. In 1832 congress readjusted the
ff, modifying some of the objectionable features,
but still leaving the southerners unjustly treated.
In November a state convention in South Carolina
an ordinance nullifying the tariff of 1828
and 1832, and declaring their right and intention,
in the event of any attempt at coercion, to with-
draw from the Union and ——— a separate
ernment. In December ident Jackson
q.¥.) issued a vigorous proclamation against the
ordinance, and the governor of South Carolina
replied with a counter-proclamation, and volun-
teers, in addition to the state militia, were organ-
ised to resist the national government. But in
February 1833 Clay, the ‘great pacificator,’ intro-
duced a Compromise Bill, orovidieg for the gradual
reduction by the year 1842 of all higher duties to
20 per cent. ; congress this on March 2, and
on March 15 the South Carolina convention re-
ed the ordinance of nullification and secession.
CALHOUN ; and for the whole question out of
which this movement grew, see STATES’ RIGHTS.
Numan the chief town of the Celtiberian
people called Arevaci, in Hispania Tarraconensis,
was situated on a steep hill on the Durius (Douro),
in the neighbourhood of the present Soria in Old
Castile. he site is proba NM marked by the
resent Puente de Guarray. Numantia is cele-
rated for the heroic resistance which it made to
the Romans. After a siege of fifteen months, in
the course of which famine and the sword had left
alive very few of its 8000 brave defenders, it was
taken and destroyed by Scipio the younger, 134 B.c.
Scipio’s army numbered no fewer than 60,000 men.
Numa Pompilius, in the legendary histo
of Rome, its second king, the successor of Recenter,
He was a native of Cures in the Sabine country,
and was universally reverenced for his wisdom and
piety. Unanimously elected king by the Roman
people, he soon justified by his conduct the wisdom
of their choice. After dividing the lands which
Romulus had conquered, he proceeded, with the
assistance of the nymph Egeria, who gave him
interviews in a grove near the city, to draw up
religious institutions for his subjects, and thus
stands out in the primitive legend as the author of
the Roman ceremonial law. His reign lasted for
thirty-nine years, and was a golden age of peace
and happiness,
Numbers. See PENTATEUCH, Brs_e, Apoca-
LyPTIC NUMBER.
Numbers, THeory or, the most subtle and
intricate, and at the same time one of the most.
extensive branches of mathematical analysis. I
treats primarily of the forms of numbers, and of the
properties at once deducible from these forms; but
its principal field is the theory of equations, in as
far as equations are soluble in whole numbers or
rational ions, and more particularly that branch
known as Indeterminate Equations. Closely allied
to this branch are those pro lems which are usually:
grouped under the Diophantine Analysis (q.v.), a
class of problems alike interesting and difficult ;
and of which the following are examples : (1) Find
the numbers the sum of whose ef shall be a
square number ; a condition satisfied by 5 and 12,
8 and 15, 9 and 40, &e. (2) Find three square
numbers in arithmetical progression ; Answer, 1, 25,
and 49; 4, 100, 196, &e.
Forms of Numbers are certain algebraic formulas,
which, assigning to the letters successive
numerical values from 0 upwards, are capable of
producing all numbers without hemes ga by
giving to m the successive values 0, 1, 2, 3, &c., in
any of the following groups of formulas, 2m, 2m +
1; 3m, 3m +1, 3m+2; 4m, 4m+1, 4m + 2,
4m + 3, we can produce the natural series of
numbers. These formulas are based on the self-
evident principle that the remainder after division
is less than the divisor, and that consequently
every number can be represented in the form of
the product of two factors + a number less than
the smaller factor.
By means of these formulas many properties of’
numbers can be demonstrated without difficulty.
To give a few examples. (1) The product of two
consecutive numbers is divisible by 2: Let 2m be
one number, then the other is either 2m+1 or
2m — 1, and the product 2m(2m + 1) contains 2 as
a factor, and is thus divisible by 2. (2) The product
of three consecutive numbers is divisible by 6: Let
548 NUMBERS
NUMERALS
3m be one of the numbers (as in every triad of con-
secutive num one must be a multiple of 3),
then the others are either 3m — 2, 3m -1; 3m - 1,
3m +1; or 3m +1, 3m +2. In the first and third
cases the proposition is manifest, as (3m — 2)
3m — 1) and (3m + 1) (8m + 2) are each divisible
y 2, and therefore their product into 3m is divisible
by 6 (= 1.2.3). In the second case the product is
3m(3m — 1) (3m + 1), or 3m(9m* — 1), where3 is a
factor, and it is necessary to show that m(9m?* - 1)
is divisible by 2: if m be even, the thing is proved ;
but if odd, then m? is odd, 9m? is odd, and 9m? - 1
is even; hence in this case also the proposition is
true. It can similarly be proved that the product
of four consecutive numbers is divisible by 24
(= 1.2.3.4), of five consecutive numbers by 120
(= 1.2.3.4.5), and so on generally. These pro-
positions form the basis for proof of many properties
of numbers, such as that the difference of the
gen of any two odd numbers is divisible by 8.
e difference between a number and its cube is
the product of three consecutive numbers, and is
consequently (see above) always divisible by 6.
Any prime number which, when divided by 4,
leaves a remainder unity, is the sum of two square
numbers: thus, 41 = 25 + 16 = 5? + 4", 233 = 169
+ 64 = 13? + 8%, &e,
Besides these there are a great many interesting
Lhe aber of numbers which defy classification ;
such as that the sum of the odd numbers beginning
with unity is a square number (the square of the
number of terms added)—i.e. 1+ 3+5=9 = 3?,
1+3+5+7+9= 25 = 8, &c.; and the sum of
the cubes of the natural numbers is the square of
the sum of the numbers—i.e. 15 + 23 + 3§=14+8
+ 27 = 36 = (1 + 2 + 3)?, 19 + 2% + 33+ 43 = 100
=(1+24+3 + 4)%, &.
Numbers are divided into prime and composite—
prime numbers being those which contain no factor
greater than unity, composite numbers those which
are the product of two (not reckoning unity) or
more factors. The number cf primes is unlimited,
and so consequently are the others. The product of
any number of consecutive numbers is even, as also
are the squares of all even numbers; while the
product of two odd numbers, or the squares of
odd numbers, are odd. Every Sane Oa number
can be put under the form of a product of powers
of numbers; thus, 144 = 2* x 37, or generally,
n = a?.bt.c, where a, b, and ¢ are prime numbers,
and the number of the divisors of such a composite
number is equal to the product { +1) (¢ +1)
vv + 1), unity and the number itsel ‘sing included.
n the case of 144 the number of divisors would be
(4 + 1) (2+ 1), or 5 x 3, or 15, which we find by
trial to be the case. Perfect numbers are those
which are equal to the sum of their divisors (the
number itself being of course excepted); thus,
6=14+2+3, %=-14+2+4+7+14, and 496
are perfect numbers. Amicable numbers are pairs
of numbers, either one of the pair being equal to
the sum of the divisors of the other; thus, 220
(=1+2+4+5+ 10+ 11 + 20 + 22 + 44 4+ 55
+ 110 = 284) and 284 (= 1+2+4+ 71+ 142=
220) are amicable numbers. For other series of
numbers, see FIGURATE NUMBERS.
The most ancient writer on the theory of numbers
was Diophantus, who flourished in the 3d century,
and the subject received no further development
till the time of Vieta and Fermat (q.v.), who
greatly extended it, Euler next added his ae |
ndre, an
and was followed by Lagrange,
Gauss, who in turn successfully applied themselves
to the study of numbers, and brought the theory
to its present state. Cauchy, Libri, and Gill (in
America) have also devoted themselves to it with
success.
See Barlow’s Theory of Numbers (1811); Legendre’s
Essai sur la Théorie des Nombres (3d ed. Paris, 1830);
and Gauss’s Disquisitiones Arithmetice (1801; new ed.
1860; Fr, trans. 1807); H. J. 8, Beall in. rit Aus.
Reports (1859-65) ; Cayley, in Brit, Ags. (1875).
Numerals, The invention of to repre-
sent numbers is doubtless much older than an
form of writing. But the origin of counting, pa
as bebe —— a —_ .
as might ought ; the power of apprehending
even comparatively small ha ones but late
in the development from savage to civilised life.
Even yet the aborigines of Australia work with
only the numbers 1 and 2; 3 being 2 and 1 or 1
and 2; 4 being 2 and 2; and, as a rule, no
Australian black can count as high as 7, The
earliest visible signs are doubtless the fingers’ held
uP and the denary system of notation is due to
—— that we a on 8 = ped rude —
of finger-coun as been developed into a hi -
complicated wax ey of reckoning, still eae .
eastern Europe by pedlars; various tions and
arrangements of the ten digits allowing of reckon-
ing as high as 10,000. For permanent purposes a
system of single strokes is the most obvious
method ; and series of strokes as high as four or
five are found in various countries in old inserip-
tions. But strokes, when numerous, are incon-
venient and confusing; hence additional symbols
are found to make their apeneenes for 5, 10, 100,
and 1000. In Babylonian inscriptions two Cunei-
forms (q.v.) serve to express all the numbers from
1 to 99. The Egyptian scheme is explained and
illustrated at HrEROGLYPHICs ( Vol. V. p. 707); and
from these ppt ee were derived the Phenician,
Palmyrene, and Syriac numerals.
After alphabetic writing was in use, the alpha-
betic signs obviously lent themselves to employ-
ment as numerals—either following the order of
the letters, each having a sey.
than its predecessor; or the initial letter of the
word for the several numbers might be used. Thus,
according to the latter method, the Greek ares
tions used I for 1, II (Iére) for 5, A (Aéxa) for 10,
H (the old sign for the rough breathing in “Exaror )
for 100, X (Xr) for 1000, and M ( Méjpoc) for 10,000.
Then a II with a A‘ inscribed in it stood for 50
(5 x 10), and with H inscribed (5 x 100) for 500,
In this connection the capitals or uncials were used
of course. Otherwise, hea simply the order
of the letters, the twenty-four letters of the Ionic
alphabet were used for the numbers 1 to 24; the
books of the Jitad, for example, are often thus
numbered. But a more ingenious method was
soon adopted by the Gree as also Hd the
Hebrews. The alphabet (cursive) was divided
into three groups, of which the first did duty for
the units, the second for the tens, the next for
hundreds. The Hebrew square character had
twenty-two distinct letters, and double forms for
five of them, so that three proupe, each of nine
characters, were available. The Greek —_——
as ultimately arranged, had twenty-four letters ;
the three additional signs required to make up
three nines were obtained by keeping two of the
old Pheenician letters f or ¢ (see DiGAMMA) for 6,
and 5 or 4 (koph) for 90, and adding the super-
fluous sibilant Y om ge for 900. Then a to @ were
1 to 9; from« to koph were 10 to 90; p to sampi
were 100 to 900, The thonsands were made by
subscribing an « beneath the units; thus was
1000; | is 1891. Sometimes a sort of alge-
braic method was employed for larger numbers ;
BM = (2 x 10,000) 20,000.
The cumbrous Roman method of using the
capitals is familiar enough to ourselves yet. The
C has been understood to be the initial of centum,
and M of mille. But some (as Canon Taylor) con-
tend that the Latins, when they dropped the Greek
value |
Ee ——
NUMERALS
NUMISMATICS 549
phi, chi, and theta as phonetic signs, retained them
as numerals, with arbitrary values. In this case the
C would be originally ©, assimilated to C, because
C was the initial of centum. The old ©, used for
1000, came to be written CIO, afterwards con-
i or M, the initial of mille. The
erivative from an old Chalcidian
form of chi, inscribed for lapidary purposes |, and
theory of the dropped Greek letters suppose that
M is from a cial with a vertical stroke, the C a
circle with a horizontal stroke or a cross, ®. The
X, V, and L might all come from this letter. In
any ease, X is twice V (whether or not the latter
ted in the hand held with the thumb to one
side and the other fi together); and D (for
ont cB de cei CIO. See the articles in this
on the letters C, D, L, and M.
It is doubtful how far the Abacus (q.v.) has to
do with the development of the system of numerals,
in which the value of the cipher depends on its
position. There were abacus boards so arranged
that the first column meant units, the second tens,
the third hundreds, the fourth thousands; or,
conversely, a method of writing numbers derived
from this was actually used in
: | Europe in the middle ages; we
show the columnar arrangement
IV | simplifying the reading in the
Iv | several cases, 654, 650, 604, 54.
IV In the decimal scheme of
coe as now used by us, the
nine numerals with the zero, which enables the
value of the position to be secured without abacus
or columnar arrangement, are known as the Arabic
numerals, but are unquestionably of Indian origi
From India they were apparently brought to -
dad after the middle of the 8th century, and the
value and use was set forth early next century by
the Arab mathematician Abu Ja’far Mohammed
a3} 0°
< <<] *
found in MSS. of the 12th century; by the 14th
they were practically of the same shape as now.
The 12th century numerals are evidently forms of
the Gobar or western Arabic numerals used in
eee Ss 7 C5
ARS ce oak ae ee
LL FAGG519 9%
a, Indian, 10th century; 6, Gobar, 10th century ;
¢, se ty bpm diy
Persia in the 10th century. These can be traced
to the contemporary Indian Devanagari numerals,
which again are as certainly based on an old series
of characters used in cave-inscriptions in the Ist
and 2d centuries. These Canon Taylor contends
aller Me ager So ed forms of the Indo-
Bactrian alphabet. See ALPHABET, Vol. I. p. 188.
The modern arithmetic was not practised in Eng-
land till about the middle of 16th century,
and for a long time after its introduction was
— on sim the Faas are
system, porensing on e sym-
bols—viz, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 (called the nine
digits the principle of giving to each
symbol or ‘figure’ two values, one the absolute
value, and the other a value depending upon its
ition, a fi moved one place to the left being
eld to be increased in value ten times. When
such a number as 6473 is analysed, it is seen to
mean (6 times 1000) + (4 x 100) + (7 x 10) + (3 x
1); and 6004 becomes (6 x 1000) + (4x 1). In
this latter instance the peculiar importance of the
re 0 isseen (see DECIMAL SYSTEM).
It should be mentioned that European nations
do not all read the numerals in the same way, as
regards r numbers. Let us take the figures
56,084,763,204,504 ; these, read after the fashion of
the French and other continental arithmeticians,
are fifty-six trillions, eighty-four billions, seven-
hu -and-sixty-three millions, two-hundred-and-
four thousands, five-hundred-and-four units; and
so also in America. In Britain, instead of billions,
we have, according to the current usage, thousands
of millions ; after this, tens of thousands of millions
and hundreds of thousands of millions, and then
billions, which are the same as the French trillions.
The above number, according to the British mode,
would be read fifty-six billions, eighty-four-thou-
sand-seven-hundred-and-sixty-three millions, two-
hundred-and-four thousands, five-hundred-and-four
units. The British trillion has nineteen figures, the
continental has thirteen.
origin of our numerals, see Canon
Taylor, 1883; vol. ii. Pn 263-268 ) ;
WwW Memoire sur la tion des Chiffres Indiens
(1 ; Burnell, South Indian Palewography (1874) ;
Geschichte unsrer Zahlzeichen (1875).
Numidia (Gr. Nomadia, ‘land of Nomads’),
the name given by the Romans to a part of the
north coast of Africa, corresponding to some extent
with the modern Algiers,‘ and lying between
Mauritania and the Roman province of Africa ; on
the south it reached to the chains of Mount Atlas.
The inhabitants of Numidia, as of Mauritania,
belonged to the race from which the modern
Berbers are descended. T were a warlike race,
and excelled as horsemen, but were proverbially
faithless and unscrupulous, Of their tribes the
Massyli in the east and the Massesyli in the
west were the most powerful. In the grand
struggle between the Carthaginians and _ the
Romans they at first fought on the side of the
former, but subsequently the king of the Eastern
Numidians, Massinissa, joined the Romans, and
rendered them effectual ‘service in the war with
Hannibal. Favoured by the conquerors, he united
all Numidia under his sway. Of his successors in
this kingdom Jugurtha and Juba are the most
/ famous. After the victory of Crsar over Juba I.
in the African war Numidia became a Roman
province (46 B.c.); but Augustus afterwards gave
the western part, with Mauritania, to Juba II.,
and the name Numidia became limited to the
eastern part. Among important places were Hip
Regius, Zama, and Cirta (the residence of the
Numidian kings), afterwards called Constantina, a
name still preserved in Constantine. For the
modern history of Numidia, see ALGIERS,
Numismaties ( Gr. nomisma, from nomos, ‘law;
‘a legally current coin’) is the science which
embraces the study of the current coins of all
nations. In the wider, though less accurate, baa a
tion of the term it includes also that of medals,
both artistic and historical. The various branches
of numismatics are (1) Greek, Phoenician, &c. ;
(2) Roman and Byzantine; (3) Medieval and
odern; and (4) Oriental. The chief value of
numismatics consists in the light which coins
throw upon history. The eens importance
of the science is purely artistic. The study of
coins is also of t use in elucidating the mytho-
logy of the ancients, in fixing the chronology
of the different systems of alphabetical writing
550
NUMISMATICS
(Pal
gradu
rincipal systems of weighing the precious metals
{Metrology ). Historically, coins are of the
utmost pe achat as being contemporary and
authentic documents furnishing us with in many
cases the only means of ascertaining the names of
obscure cities and peoples, together with the
chronological succession of their kings, tyrants,
or chief-magistrates. Artistically, they faithfully
record the successive phases of art from its earliest
beginnings to its culminating point, and through
all the stages of its decline, subsequent temporary
revival, and second decadence, to the present day.
I. Greek Coins.—The use of the precious metals
as mediums of exchange may be traced back to the
remotest ages of which we possess any historical
accounts. Thus, for instance, we read that
Abraham was ‘very rich in cattle, in silver, and in
gold’ (Gen. xiii. 2; xxiv. 35), and in the account
of his purchase of the cave of Machpelah (Gen.
xxiii. 16) it is stated that ‘Abraham weighed to
Ephron four hundred shekels of silver current with
the merchant.’ This use of gold and silver as
uncoined money, weighed in the balance, must,
however, be carefully distinguished from its use as
‘coin,’ a word which implies that the ingot or piece
of metal is knpooneet with an anete device, marie
or ‘type,’ serving the ay of a guarantee of just
weuignt con value. «Ko aras we have any know-
ledge,’ says Herodotus (i. 94), ‘the Lydians were
the first nation to introduce the use of gold and
silver coin.’ The adoption of this apparently
simple means of facilitating exchanges appears to
have been due in the first instance to the custom
of depositing treasure for safe custody in the sacred
temples of the gods, Ingots or small lumps of
gold or silver, committed to the care of the priests,
were consecrated to the local divinity by being
impressed with a badge or tenia usually the
head of some sacred animal. These pieces of metal
were subsequently put into circulation, the sacred
belies being known and accepted in the district as
a reliable guarantee of value. The earliest Lydian
coins which have been handed down to our times
belong probably to the reign of Gy ges, who
ascended the throne about 700 B.c. They are
bean-shaped lumps of the native Lydian gold ore,
which contained a large admixture of silver, and
went by the name of electrum or pale gold. The
face or obverse of the coin bears the figure of a lion,
the sacred symbol of the goddess Cybele, and the
reverse consists merely of the impress of the rude
unengraved punch or nail-head which served to
keep the ingot in its uae while it was being
struck. The ingot, held in position by a pair o
tongs, was placed on this square nail-head, and on
the top of the ingot the engraved die was laid
while the moneyer strack it with successive blows
of a heavy sledge-hammer until the impressions of
the engraved die on the obverse and of the square
nail-head on the reverse were brought into sufficient
relief and pe respectively.
These one-sided coins with an intaglio or ‘inense’
square on the reverse are characteristic of the early
a of the art of coining not only in Lydia, but
‘n all the Greek cities, for the use of coined money
condly spread from Lydia over all the coasts and
ils of the Aigean $ each city issuing money
bearing the symbol of its local divinity. In Greece
ee the earliest coins were of silver, and are
said to have been struck by Pheidon, king of Argos,
They bear the symbol of a tortoise, a creature
sacred to the goddess yee in whose temple
at Afgina these earliest Greek coins were issued.
On this occasion it is related that Pheidon hung
up in the temple of the goddess Hera at Argos
specimens of the cumbrous bronze and iron bars,
phy), and in indicating the origin and
extension over the civilised world of the
éSeNoxo, which served the purpose of money
before his time, in memory of the old order of
things. From the time of Pheidon onwards the
coinage of Greece and of the East may be classified
historically in the followin eight periods t
(i.) 700-480 B.c.—Peri paic art, ending
with the Persian wars.—The art work on the coins
of these two centuries is characterised at first by a
rude strength of style, and afterwards by a gradual
development into clearly-defined fo which,
however, are are distinguishable their
angularity and stiffness from the freer work of
later times. Thus, for instance, the eye of the
human face is always drawn, even when in profile,
as if seen from the front; both corners bei
visible, while the mouth wears the fixed an
formal smile with which we are familiar on the
Egyptian monuments. Towards the end of the
archaic period a type in relief begins to appear
within the incuse square of the reverses. The coins
which circulated most widely were, in silver, those
of ZEgina with the tortoise above referred to; the
tetradrachms of Athens, first introduced by Solon
590 B.c., obverse, head of Athena, reverse, owl,
the sacred bird of that dess ; and, in gold, the
famous Darics, on which the Persian king is
represented as a kneeling archer. In the west the
chief coins were those of the Greek colonies in
Southern Italy, Sybaris, Croton, Tarentum, Xe.,
which differ from those of Greece ne in having
~ + saa on the reverse in intaglio instead of in
relief.
(ii.) 480-400 B.c.—Period of transitional and
early fine art, to the end of the Athenian supremacy.
e coins of this period are characterised by a
great advance in the technical skill with which
the dies were engraved. The name of the city or
of the chief-magistrate now occurs frequently on
the reverse, remy b in an abbreviated form.
In Asia Minor the chief coinage of this period is
the electrum currency of the flourishing commercial
city of Cyzicus on the Propontis, so often alluded
to under the name of ‘Cyzicene staters’ by Xeno-
phon and other historians. In Greece aves the
Athenian money was still the chief, sage by no
means the only medium of exchange, and in the
West the Corinthian staters, with the figure of
Pegasus on the obverse, had a wide circulation.
In Sicily Syracuse affords a larger variety of types
than any other Greek city, though the finest speci-
mens of the Syracusan monetary art fall into the
next period.
(iii.) 400-336 B.c.—Period of finest art, of
the Spartan and Theban supremacies, and of Philip
of Macedon.—The art of die-engraving attained in
this period a higher point of excellence than it has
ever since reached. The coin-types are remark-
able for sculpturesque reserve, intensity of action,
or rich and varied ornamentation, according to the
requirements of the subject represented. These
are most frequently ideal heads of divinities on the
obverses, and mythological figures on the reverses,
or agonistic types referring to the local games and
religious festivals, such as the victorious quadrige
on the famous Syracusan medallions, which are
nerally recognised as the finest and most beauti-
ully executed coins that have ever been struck.
In this the practice of coining money had
become universal; the number of mints thronghout
the civilised world was enormons, every little town
striking its own ‘autonomous’ silver or bronze,
and, in some cases, gold currency. In Euro
Greece the gold staters of Philip of Macedon
obtained a wide cireulation, and his conquests in
Greece gradually put an end to the independent
issues in that country.
(iv.) 336-280 B.c.—Period of later fine art; age
of Alexander the Great and the Diadochi, charac-
—”
—_—_
NUMISMATICS 551
terised by the introduction of the portrait of the
reigning monarch in place of the head of the
divinity on the obverse.—Before Alexander’s time
no tyrant, however despotic, had ever ventured to
lace his own head upon the coinage of the state,
hitherto the _ had —— pyrene ns
intact its original religious character. e
money of Alexander and his successors now on -
ally superseded the autonomous coinage of the
smaller Greek states, except in the west, which
was beyond the sphere of Alexander's conquests,
and where the cities of Italy and Sicily continued
to strike gold and silver until they were in turn
brought under subjection by the growing power of
Rome (see below).
(v.-vii.) 280 B.c. to the Christian era.—Periods of
early and later decline ; age of the Epigoni, the
Attalids, and of Mithradates the Great.—The
silver and gold coinage during these three cen-
turies is almost exclusively regal, and presents us
with a remarkable series of lifelike portraits of
the long succession of the Seleucid kings of Syria,
of the Ptolemies of Egypt, of the kings of Macedon,
of Pontus and Bithynia, of the Attalids of Perga-
mum, and of the successors of Alexander in
Northern India, many of whom are known to us
only from their coins. The chief characteris-
tie of the art of numismatic portraiture,
which attained its highest perfection about
250 B.c., is its realism, which is carried in
some cases almost to the verge of brutality,
as for instance on the tetradrachms of some
of the kings of Pontus, the ancestors of
Mithradates the Great. It is to this period
that the earliest coins of the Jews belong—
the well-known shekels of Israel, struck at
Jerusalem by Simon Maccabzeus, 143-135 B.c,
rary. the latest portraits on Greek coins is
that of the famous Cleopatra on a coin of
Ascalon. She is represented with wide-open
and eager eyes, a prominent and slightly
aquiline nose, and a large and expressive
month, but with none of the seductive beauty
which we should expect to find on the coins of this
fascinating princess. on’ the non-regal coins
of the 2d century B.c. the large tetradrachins of
some of the Greek cities of the western coast of
Asia Minor, which regained their freedom after
the defeat of Antiochus the Great by the Romans,
190 B.c., are worthy of note; those of Cyme,
Myrina, Smyrna, and Magnesia being especially
remarkable. Throughout the greater part of this
riod Athens continued to coin very plentifully
1er tetradrachms with the helmeted head of the
chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos by
Phidias on the obverse. These coins formed the
ehief currency for the trade between Europe and
the East. ,
(viii.) From the Christian era to the reign of the
Emperor Gallienus.—During this period of near]
three centuries the Romans mitted the Gree
cities in the eastern half of the empire to strike
bronze money for local use. It is known to col-
lectors as the ‘Greek imperial’ coinage. Artistically
it is aay without interest, but archeologically it
is perhaps more important than the matchless silver
and gold currency of the free and independent cities
of more ancient times. The Greek imperial coins
illustrate the local festivals, religions rites, and
municipal institutions which prevailed in the out-
lying provinces of the Roman empire, and are also
of value as reconsting the names of the successive
chief-magistrates and high officials of the various
eities, who mt 99 to have been responsible for the
coinage in each locality.
IL. Roman and Byzantine. Coins.—The Romans
for the first four centuries of their history had no
, the chief medium of exchange
being bronze, circulating yy weight, aes rude, in
lumps of irregular form. It was probably about
the middle of the 4th century B.c. that the pound-
weight of bronze (12 oz.) was first cast into large
unwieldy pieces of circular shape, aes grave,
having on the obverse a head of Janus, and on
the reverse the prow of a galley. This was the
Libral As; and its divisions were the Semis (6 0z.),
the Triens (4 oz.), the Quadrans (3 oz.), the Sex-
tans (2 0z.), and the Uncia (1 oz.), each of which
bore a distinct type and mark of value. As time
went on the As was gradually reduced in weight
until (circa 264 B.C.) it stood at no more than 2 oz.
At this point the law yx se in and endeavoured
to check the further debasement of the coin by ,
fixing the weight legally at 2 oz. (sextantal redue-
tion), and by issuing for the first time a silver coin,
the Denarius, equivalent to ten asses. The fractions
of the silver piece were the Quinarius (five asses)
and the Sestertius (two and a half asses), In 217
B.c. the weight of the as was further legally
reduced to 1 oz. (uncial reduction), and again in
89 B.c. to half an ounce (semuncial reduction).
All these successive reductions were financial ex-
pedients, the object of which was to bring a little
order into the state currency, which continually
Medallion of Syracuse.
tended to become more and more deteriorated.
The types of the silver coins, at first constant and
uniform, were subsequently varied according to
the pleasure of the ¢riumviri monetales, as the
officers were called who were entrusted with the
supervision of the coinage. The long series of the
Republican silver money, which extends from 264
B.C. to Imperial times, is now incorrectly known
as the Consular or Family series, because the ty
usually allude to events connected with the family
history of the ¢riumviri monetales. The Imperial
series commenced in 2 B.C., when Augustus
abolished the office of the monetarii and reserved
for himself all rights connected with the coinage
of gold and silver, though leaving to the senate
the privilege of striking bronze, which was hence-
forth distinguished by the Jetters 8.C. (Senatus
Consulto). All coins now bore the portrait of the
reigning emperor, or of some member of the im-
perial family, and on the reverse, for the most
part, allegorical personifications, representations
of historical events, architectural monuments, or
public buildings. Their inscriptions furnish us
with the exact date of issue. The chief denomi-
nations were, in gold, the aureus; in silver, the
denarius ; and in bronze, the sestertius (now known
as the large bronze), tariffed at four asses; the
dupondius (middle bronze), two asses; and the as
pa divisions (small bronze). The large bronze
from Augustus to Commodus supplies us with a
magnificent series of imperial portraits, but from
Septimius Severus onwards there is a rapid deteri-
oration both in art and workmanship. From the
reign of Caracalla to that of Diocletian the utmost
disorder prevailed in the coinage, each successive
552
NUMISMATICS
en r debasing it more and more, until the so-
called sliver denarius became merely a copper coin
washed with tin. In 296 a.p, Diocletian entirely
reformed the currency, which was again modified
ly Constantine, who reduced the weight of the
aureus from sixty to seventy-two to the pound.
The new gold piece was henceforth known as the
Solidus, and it maintained its full weight and
mrity of metal as long as the empire lasted.
his coin received in western Europe the name
of Bezant or Byzant, from Byzantium or Constant-
inople, the capital of the eastern empire. The
types of the coins of the Christian emperors
retained for a time their n character, though
little by little Christian symbolism crept in, until
at len all pagan influence disap i, and
fi went of Christ and the Virgin took the place
of the allegorical representations of pagan times.
The Latin e in the inscriptions on Byzan-
tine coins coated to be used until the latter
of the llth century, when it was finally dis-
placed by the Greek.
Ill. Medieval and Modern Coins.—The coinage
of western Europe, down to the time of Charle-
magne, consisted mostly of imitations of the Byzan-
tine coins, That emperor (circa 768 A.D.) intro-
duced a new silver coin called the new denier,
which soon came into general use.
English.—The denier was introduced into Eng-
land, under the name of the penny, by Offa, king of
Mercia (0b, 794), previous to whose time the currency
of the Anglo-Saxons had consisted of small silver
coins (sceattas) and copper coins (stycas), which
were rude copies of the Merovingian money.
Under the Anglo-Saxon and ao orman kin,
local mints were established at all the considerable
towns in England, and the penny bore on its
reverse both the name of the town and of the
moneyer by whom it was struck. The earliest
ox, ger gold coins were struck by Henry IIL, but
gold money did not come into general use until
the reign of Edward III., who introduced the gold
noble (6s. 8d.) and the gold florin (6s.), with their
divisions. This king alen first struck multiples of
the penny, groats (4d.) and half-groats. Edward
IV. added new denominations called the rose noble
and the angel, so called from its type, St Michael
slaying the dragon. With the accession of the
Tudor reamed authentic portraits of the reigning
sovereign make their first appearance on the coins
of the realm, and many new denominations, such
as ryals or sovereigns in gold, and crowns, half-
erowns, shillings, &c. in silver, were added. In
the time of Charles I. we note a remarkable im-
provement in the art of die-engraving, of which
the celebrated Oxford crown is a g example ;
on the obverse of which is the king on horseback,
with a view of the city of Oxford in the distance.
In this reign a Frenchman named Briot, employed
in the English mint, introduced the use of the mill
and screw. On the coins of the Commonwealth
the inscriptions are in English instead of Latin,
and some of Cromwell's portraits by the famous
engraver, Thomas Simon, are worthy of the highest
pees: To the series of Charles II. belongs the
utifal Petition crown, also by Simon. This
coin takes its name from Simon's petition to be
reinstated as engraver to the mint, inscribed on
the edge: ‘Thomas Simon most humbly prays your
majesty to compare this, his tryal piece, with the
Dutch, and if more truly drawn and embossed,
more gracefully ordered, and more accurately
engraven, to relieve him.’ In Charles II.’s reign
at
the first guineas were struck from gold brou
SS uinea Coast, and copper coins, consisting
0
nnies and furthings, were first regular]
established, From. this time onwards the English
coinage declines very greatly in artistic interest,
George IV.'s crown by Pistrucei being perhaps the
only modern piece worth noticing,
ish.—The — of Scotland down to the
reign of Robert ILL. followed closely the English
types. From*‘this time original d became
more frequent. It reached its highest point of
artistic excellence in the reigns of James V. and
Mary; and few modern pieces are more beautiful
than the bonnet-piece of the former, representing
the king wearing a bonnet, and the ryal of the
latter, bearing the queen’s portrait in profile.
Irish.—The earliest Irish coins were struck by
the Danish and Norse invaders, 929-1029. They
were copied, as a rule, from the pennies of Ethelred
Il. After this we have no Irish coinage until the
partial conquest of the wee td by Henry II., in
whose reign mints were established at Dublin,
Cork, Drogheda, Limerick, Trim, Waterford, and
Wexford. Among the more modern Irish coins
the gun-metal money of James II. is historicall
interesting. This was ‘ money of necessity,’ strue
after his flight from England. It was decried in
the reign of William and , and redeemed only
at metal value.
Western Europe.—The medieval and modern
coinage of the various Euro states, from the
time of the issue of the new ier by aa
in the 8th century down to the middle of the 17th
century, is no less interesting than that of Britain.
The Italian and Papal coins are artistically
superior to the rest, especially in portraiture,
where the influence of the Renaissance of art may
be clearly traced. An important landmark in the
numismatic history of western Europe is the re-
introduction of gold money, dating from the first
issue of the fiorino d’oro in Florence, 1252. In
France the coins of Francis I. and Henry IL, and
in Germany those of the Emperor Maximiliai L.,
are especially noteworthy; some of the latter
being ascribed to the hand of Albert Diirer.
Many of the later German thalers are also of con-
siderable historical value, as their —~ record the
chief events in the history of the cities by which
they were struck.
1V. Oriental Coins.—Oriental coins fall into
three principal divisions: (i.) The coins of India
beginning with those of the successors of Alexander
the Great in the 3rd century B.c. in Bactria and
the Punjab, and extending down to recent times.
The gold and silver coins of the Pathan kings and
of the Mogul emperors may be here icularised,
more especially the gold mohwrs and silver rupees
of Jehangir with the signs of the zodiac engraved
in bold relief.
(ii.) The coins of the numerous Arab dynasties
in Asia, Africa, and Spain, consist of dinars in
ld and dirhems in silver. The interest of these
ohammedan issues is purely historical, as t
bear no representations of living beings, all sue
im being forbidden to true believers, ‘Man
of ‘these coins possess, however, a beauty of the’
own as specimens of oriental caligraphy. The
inscriptions consist of formule of the faith from
the Worwa; together with the name of Calif, the
place of mintage, and the date of issue. The Kufie
coins are the subject of a special article.
(iii.) The coins of China, Japan, and the far
East.—Those of China date from the 7th centu
B.C., the earliest being in the form of tools, such
as adzes, chisels, spades, knives, &c. In the Ist
century B.C. these pieces are replaced by cireular
dises of brass called cash, with a square hole in the
centre, a form of eoin which has survived until
quite recent years. The coins of Japan begin —
about the 7th century A.D., and are modelled on
the later Chinese pattern. Among the more
modern Japanese issues are oblong pieces of gold
and silver, and large oval plates, called oho-
NUMMULITES
NURAGHE 553
and ko-ban, some of which are more than 6 inches
in length. Like China, Japan has now adopted a
currency modelled on the European pattern.
The standard works on Greek Numismatics in ral
are Eckhel’s Doctrina Numorum (1792-98) ; t,
Déscription des Médailles grecques (1807-37); B. V.
Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887), and Guide
to the Principal Gold and Silver Coins of the Ancients
(3d ed. 1889); and the Catalogues of Greek Coins in the
British Museum (1873 et seqg.). On Roman coins the
chief works are Mommsen, Histoire de la Monnaie
romaine (trans. by Blacas, Paris, 1865-75); E. Babelon,
Monnaies de la République romaine (1885); and J.
Sabatier, Monnaies byzantines (1862). On medieval,
and oriental coins there are L. W. Wellenheim,
Catalogue de Monnaies et Médailles (1845); OC. F. Keary,
Coinages of Western Europe (1879); Coins and Medals
(ed. by 8S. Lane-Pi 1885); J, A. Blanchet, Vumis-
du Moyen Age et Moderne (1890); A. Engel
and Serrure, Traité de Numismatique du Moyen
Age (1891); Ruding, Annals of the Coinage of Great
Britain (1840); Hawkins, Silver Coins of England
(1887); , Gold Coins of England (1884); and
the Bri Museum Catalogues of Oriental Coins, by
8. Lane-Poole and R. 8. Poole (1875-90).
Nummulites, or NumMvuLrna (‘money-
fossils’), a genus of fossil foraminifera, the she
of which form immense masses of rock of Eocene
They are circular bodies of a lenticular
8 » varying in —o from the merest
int to the size of a florin or larger. The shell
composed of a series of small chambers arran
in a concentric manner. The growth of the shell
does not take place only around the circumference,
but each whorl invests all the preceding whorls, so
as to form a new layer over the entire surface of
the dise, thus adding to the thickness as well as
the breadth, and giving the fossil its lenticular
form. A thin
intervening
Space separates
each layer from
the one which
it covers, and
this space at
the margin
swells out to
form the cham-
ber. All the
internal cavi-
ties, however,
seem to have
been occupied with the living sarcode, and an
intimate connection was maintained between them
by means of innumerable parallel tubuli, which
everywhere pass from one surface to another, and
which permitted the passage of the sarcode as freely
as do the minute pores or foramina of the living
foraminifera. The naine is given to them from
their resemb! to coins. The genus appears
first in the Carboniferous system, where it is repre-
sented by one small form. Several species are also
met with in Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks, but the
genus reached its maximum in Eocene times. It
is represented at present by only a few small forms.
NUMMULITE LIMESTONE, an important member
of the Eocene system of southern Europe, &c.,
consists of a limestone composed of nummulites
held ther by a matrix formed of the com-
minu particles of their shells, and of smaller
foraminifera. It attains a thickness of several
thousand feet, and has been traced over a vast
area. It occurs on both sides of the Mediterranean
basin, in Spain and in Morocco. It enters largely
into the composition of the Apennines, the Alps,
the Carpathians, and the Balkans; it extends
through Greece, Egypt, and Asia Minor, and
thence through Persia and the Himalayas to the
coasts of China and Japan.
Nun (A.S8. nunna; Low Lat. nunna or nonna,
‘mother ;’ Gr. nanné, nenna, ‘aunt ;’ Sansk. nand,
a familiar word for ‘mother,’ corresponding to
Sansk. tatd, ‘father’), a member of a religious
order of women. The general characteristics of
the religious orders will be found under the head
MONACHISM (q.v.) and under those of the several
orders. Of arrangements peculiar to the religious
orders of women the most striking perhaps is the
strictness in the regularly authorised orders of
nuns taking solemn vows, nuns of the ‘cloister,’
or enclosure, which no extern is ever permitted to
enter, and beyond which the nuns are never per-
mitted to , Without express leave of the bishop.
The superiors of convents of nuns are called by the
names Abbess, Prioress, and, in general, Mother
Superior. They are, ordinarily speaking, elected
- chapters of their own body, with the approval
of the bishop, unless the convent be one of the
class called exempt houses, which are,immediately
subject to the authority of the holy see. The
ceremony of the solemn blessing or inauguration of
the abbess is reserved to the bishop, or to a priest
delegated by the bishop. The authority of the
abbess over her nuns is very comprehensive, but a
precise line is drawn between her powers and those
of the priestly office, from which she is strictly
dekaried. The name of nun is given in general to
the sisters of all religious congregations of females
who live in retirement and are bound by rule; but
it is pepo 4 and properly applicahie only to
sisters of the religious orders strictly so called. In
most cases, soon after the foundation of the orders
for men ee yarn orders have been established
for women. e usages as to diet, fasting, cloth-
ing, &e. are very various in the different com-
munities. The veil of reception given to a postu-
lant at the inning of her novitiate is white ;
that of profession, given at the end of it, is black
in some orders, white in others. .
Nune Dimit the name given to the canticle
of Simeon (Luke, ii. 29-32), which forms part of
the compline office of the Roman Breviary, and is
retained in the evening service of the Anglican
Chureh when it follows the second lesson.
Nuncio. See LEGATE.
Nuncomar. See Hastrnas (WARREN).
Nundydroog (Nandidrig), a fortified hill in
Mysore, 31 miles N. of Bangalore, and 4810 feet
above the sea. The extensive fortifications on the
lateau-summit were erected by Hyder Ali and
epee Saib, and were stormed by a British force in
1791. The place is now used as a health-resort by
Europeans from Bangalore.
Nuneaton, a market-town of Warwickshire, .
on the river Anker and the Coventry Canal, 14
miles NNW. of Rugby, 9 N. by E. of Coventry,
and 22 E. of Birmingham. It has a good Gothic
parish church, some remains of a 12th-century
nunnery, with a modern church built thereon, and
@ grammar-school (1553). The ribbon manufacture
has given place to worsted, cotton, and woollen
spinning. ‘George Eliot,’ born at Arbury Farm, two
miles to the south, went to school at Nuneaton, and
here witnessed the riot described in Felix Holt,
Pop. of parish (1881) 8465; (1891) 11,580.
Nuraghe, or Nurwac, the name of round
towers, in shape truncated cones, of which 3000 are
scattered about the island of Sardinia. They vary
from 20 to 60 feet in diameter, rise 30 or 40 feet
above the ground, with two or three stories of
‘domed chambers connected by a spiral staircase,
and are made of granite, limestone, basalt, por-
phyry, sandstone, and schist, built in regular courses
of ronghly-hewn stone, without cement. Some of
the stones in the lower courses weigh 12 tons each,
Believed to be of Phoenician origin, they closely
554 NUR ED-DIN MAHMUD
NUREMBERG
resemble the Brochs (q.v.) of Scotland. Nurhage
is regarded by some as an aboriginal word mean-
ing ‘fire-circle’ or ‘hearth;’ by some as derived
from Nura, an old name of Minorca, where such
towers (called talyots) are common.
See Canon Spano’s Nuraghi di Sardegna (1867); James
Fergusson's History of Rude Stone Monuments (1872) ;
and Lieut,-col. Sir R. Lambert-Playfair’s Handbook to the
Mediterranean (1890).
: Nur ed-Din Mahmftd, MALEK AL-ADEL,
emir and sultan of Syria, was born at Damascus
in 1117. His father, Omad ed-Din Zenghi, origin-
ally governor of Mosul and Diarbekir under the
Seljuk sultans, had established his independence,
and extended his authority over northern Syria.
Nur ed-Din Mahmad succeeded him in 1145, and
changed the seat of government from Mosul to
Aleppo. From this time onwards his life was one
long duel with the Christians—the Crusaders,
Hospitallers, Templars, and Knights of the Latin
Kingdom of Jerusalem. The most notable inci-
dents in this contest may be briefly summarised.
Count Joscelin, in an attempt to recover his capital,
Edessa, was signally discomfited under its walls,
and his army almost annihilated. This gave occa-
sion to the second Crusade. The Crusaders were,
however, foiled by Nur ed-Din before Damascus,
and, being defeated in a number of conflicts, aban-
doned their enterprise. The emir next conquered
Tripolis and Antioch, the prince of the latter terri-
tory being defeated and slain in a bloody conflict
in June 1149; and before 1151 all the Christian
strongholds in Syria were in Nur ed-Din’s hands,
He next took possession of Damascus (which till
this time had been ruled by an independent Seljuk
prince) in 1153. About this time a terrible earth-
uake devastated Syria, levelling large portions of
Antioch, Tripolis, Hamath, Hems, and other towns;
and Nur ed-Din devoted all his energies to repair-
ing the damage done. In 1157 the Christian orders
suffered a severe defeat near Paneas ; but an illness
which prostrated their enemy in 1159 enabled them
to retake some of their lost territories. Recover-
ing, Nur ed-Din soon won back what had been
taken from him, and turned his attention to Egypt,
then governed by the effeminate and degenerate
Fatimites. In 1168 his brother, Asad al-Din
Shirkoh, overran Egypt, but, dying soon after-
wards, was succeeded by his nephew, the cele-
brated Saladin (q.v.), who completed the conquest
of the country, and restored the Sunnite faith.
This won for Nur ed-Din the gratitude of the calif
of Bagdad, who created him sultan of Syria and
Egypt. Nur ed-Din, however, grew jealous of his
able young lieutenant, and was preparing to march
into Egypt in person, when he died at Damascus in
May 1173. This prince is one of the great heroes
of Moslem history. He was not a savage conqueror,
but zealously promoted the cultivation of the
sciences, arts, and literature, and established a
strict administration of justice throughout his
dominions; he was revered by his Moslem, and
greatly respected by his Christian, subjects.
Nuremberg (Ger. Niirnberg), a city in the
Bavarian province of Middle Franconia, in a sandy
but well-cultivated district, on the little Pegnitz
(a sub-affinent of the Main), 95 miles N. by W. of
Munich and 145 ESE. of Frankfort. It is the
quaintest and most interesting town of Germany,
on account of the wealth of medieval architecture
which it presents in its many-towered walls, its
gateways, its picturesque streets with their gabled
nouse-fronts, its bridges, and its beantiful Gothie
fountains. The Burg or royal palace, built (c.
1024-1158) by Conrad IL and Frederick Barbarossa,
commands a glorious view of the surrounding
country, and is rich in paintings and wood-
carvings; in its courtyard is a coeval linden-tree,
Of eight fine churches the two finest are St Law-
rence (1274-1477), with two noble towers 233 feet
high, exquisite stained glass, the famous stone
tabernacle (1495-1500) by Adam Krafft, and the
wood-carvings of Veit Stoss; and St Sebald’s
(c, 1225-1377), with the superb shrine of Peter
Vischer. Other noteworthy objects are the Italian
Renaissance town-hall (1622); the new law-courts
(1877); the gymnasium, founded by Melanchthon
(1526); the Germanic museum (1852); an indus-
trial musenm (1871); a library of 70,000 volumes ;
Albert Diirer’s house; and the statues of him,
Hans Sachs, and Melanchthon, with the ‘ Victoria’
Schénbrunnen Fountain, Nuremberg.
or soldiers’ monument (1876). Although the glory
of Nuremberg’s foreign commerce has long since
passed away, the home trade is still of high im-
portance. It includes the specialities of metal,
wood, and bone carvings, and children’s ‘Dutch’
toys and dolls, which, known as ‘ Nuremberg
wares,’ find a ready sale in every part of Europe,
and are largely exported to America and the East.
In all there are close on 200 factories, producing
also chemicals, ultramarine, type, lead-pencils,
beer, &e. ; and the town besides does a vast export
trade in hops, and import trade in colonial wares
from the Netherlands. Pop. (1818) 26,854; (1875)
91,018; (1885) 115,980, of whom 24,213 were
Catholies and 3738 Jews; (1890) 142,590.
First heard of in 1050, Nuremberg was raised to
the rank of a free imperial city by Frederick II, in
1219. In 1417 the Hohenzollerns sold all their
rights to the magistracy. This ged an end to the
fends which had hitherto raged between the burg-
grafs and the municipality ; and Nuremberg for a
time became the chief home in Germany of the arts
and of inventions—watches or ‘Nuremberg eggs,’
air-guns, globes, &c. Sithultaneously it grew rich
with the fruits of the great commerce which it
maintained between the traders of the East and the
other European marts. The discovery of the Cape
passage to India deprived it of its monopoly, and
the Thirty Years’ War completed the decay of the
NURSERY RHYMES
NURSING 555
city, which a century before had embraced the
ormed doctrines. Still, in 1803 it was allowed
to retain its independence, with a territory of 483
sq. m., containing 80,000 inhabitants ; but, in con-
sequence of disputes with Prussia, it entered into
the Rhenish Confederation, and in 1806 was trans-
ferred to Bavaria.
See German works by Voigt (1862), Lachner (4th ed.
1873), Priem (1874), Stockbauer (1879), Roth (1884).
Nursery Rhymes, metrical jingles trans-
mitted in folklore and mechanically repeated by
children at their play, without cng of their
significance or origin. Being in verse form they
are easily preserved, either as mere traditional
rhymes, or as formulas to be used in games; and,
as unconscious survivals of a remote antiquity,
they not infrequently preserve for the scientific
inquirer fragments of ancient incantations for heal-
ing diseases or revealing the future, and invoca-
tions combined with ceremonial observances, while
the intimate nature of the religious conceptions
involved ts back unmistakably to a medieval
origin. Children with all their inventiveness and
imagination are slaves of the letter, and most of
their game-formulas are handed down from genera-
tion to generation along with the games them-
selves, their characteristic directness, point,
and quaintness of phrase, they defy imitation, an
in their faculty of arresting the imagination from
weg age they reveal the instinct of perpetuity.
of them are beyond doubt survivals among
children of May games, ren Pay and dances,
rounds, and kissing games which in old England
were played by grown-up people, and these of the
higher grades of society. And Mr Newell has
proved that many of these are still current in
America which are now forgotten in the mother-
country, although they not infrequently have
equivalents on the continent of Europe.
Under the same J emucie head we include nurse
rhymes proper, and counting-out rhymes (to decide
0 shall in a game), cumulative rhymes,
courting and love games, playing at work, flower
oracles, and riddle and guessing games; while on
the other hand Ly ford mottoes, old saws and
maxims relating to husbandry, the weather, or the
like, and all the wealth of local rhymes and sayings
long to the popular rhymes of folklore generally.
The verses usually consist either of a rhymin
couplet, or of four lines in which the second an
fourth rhyme; they are often accompanied by a
refrain, which may be a single added line, or may
be made up of two lines inserted into the stanza ;
and in place of exact consonance, any assonance,
or similarity of sound, will answer for the rhyme.
See FoLktore, Proverss, and RippiEs; also J. O,
Halliwell’s Nur: Rhymes of England (1842; 6th ed,
1860); R. Chambers, Popular Rhymes of Scotland
(1842); E. Rolland, Rimes et Jeux de U Enfance (Paris,
1883); and especially W. Wells Newell’s admirable
Games and Songs of American Children (New York.
1884), the best work of its class, and a contribution of
the first importance to scientific folklore. Appended is
& list of sixty-five works bearing on the subject.
Nursing. There are few subjects affecting our
social and domestic life in which more interest is
taken at the present time than in the nursing of
the sick, and there are not many in which rr ae
brought about so great an improvement. Fifty
years ago a well-trained and qualified nurse was
almost unknown, and, consequently, the care of
the sick often devolved — persons totally unfit
for, and ignorant of, the duties required of them.
Now there are large numbers of refined and sympa-
thetic women, thoroughly trained in all the different
branches of nursing, whose services can he obtained
at & moment’s notice. It was Miss Nightingale
(q.¥.) who first awakened the public mind to the
all classes of wopiery:
1e
need that existed for trained nurses, and who thus
opened up, what has proved to be, such a large
field for the employment of women taken from
Dating from the time of her
heroic services in the Crimea, the interest. taken in
sick-nursing has gone on steadily increasing. As
a national recognition of her self-devotion the first
training-school for nurses was in 1860 founded in
London in connection with St Thomas's Hospital,
under the title of the ‘ Nightingale Fund Training-
school for Nurses,’ The number of probationer
nurses, at first 15, had in 1871 increased to 32;
and up to 1889 upwards of 500 trained nurses
had been sent out from the school. The different
branches of nursing are hospital nursing, private |
nursing, district nursing, army and navy nursing,
and workhouse infirmary nursing. Monthly nurs-
ing, m, and attendance on the insane may
be regarded as special developments arising out of
ordinary sick-nursing.
For those who desire to make nursing a profes-
sion, a thorough hospital training is now absolutely
necessary. Hospital trainjng may be had in two
ways, either by paying a certain board for a limited
period, or by receiving wages and being under
agreement to remain in the hospital for a certain
term after training. The duties of a hospital nurse
are arduous, and can only be successfully performed
by those who are of both bodily and
mental strength, as well as of a real interest in
attending on the sick. * Some of the work is simply
that of a housemaid, such as dusting the ward
and cleansing the utensils. At the Glasgow
Western Infirmary, for instance, the probationer
is trained in ‘the dressing of blisters, burns, sores,
wounds, and in applying fomentations, ponldon,
and minor dressings ; in the application of leeches,
both externally and internally ; in the administra-
tion of enemas; in the best method of friction to
the body and extremities; in the management of
helpless patients—i.e. feeding, moving, chang-
ing, their personal cleanliness, preventing and
dressing bedsores; in bandaging, making bandages,
padding and lining splints; in making the beds of
patients, and removing sheets while the patients
are in bed; in sick-cookery, such as the making of
egg-flip, gruel, &e.’ The probationer has usually
to wait on the doctor and staff-nurse or sister as
well as on the patients, and she must attend the
lectures on various medical and surgical subjects
that now form part of the training in most hos-
pitals. After training as a probationer in the
management of medical and surgical cases, includ-
ing both day and night work, the usual course is
to become ward- or staff-nurse, or to leave the
hospital for the special kind of nursing which is
intended to be followed. eee oa and again aroused within her the spirit
nationality and the instinct of freedom. He
said himself with we pride, ‘Grattan sat
cradle of his country, and followed her
hearse: it was left for me to sound the resurree-
tion trumpet, and to show that she was not dead,
but sleeping.’ With all his faults he was a
and sincere patriot, whose devotion to the best in-
terests of Ireland will never fade from her remem-
brance.
Of O’Connell’s published writings the most character-
istic is the Letter to the Earl of Shrewsbury (1842). His
Memoir of Ircland, Native and Saxon (1843), never saw
its second volume. and is inaccurate. There is no
adequate biography, th: there are Lives by his son
John O'Connell (1846), William Fagan (1847-48), M. F.
Cusack (1872), and a short Senet ies by the Rev.
John O'Rourke (1875). See W. J. O'Neill Daunt’s Per-
sonal Recollections (2 vols. 1848); his son’s Recullections
and Experiences during a Parlia from 1833
re ‘ence of Daniel O'Connell, the Liberator (2 vols.
1888). The delightful letters to his wife and Nrelbishep
M‘Hale, contained in the last, gave a new revelation into
his character. Good articles on ©’Connell are preg!
J. Ball in Macmillan’s Magazine for July 1873, and
Gladstone in the Nineteenth Century for January 1889.
O’Connor, FEeArGus Epwarp, Chartist, was
born in 1 and was educated at Portarlington
and Trinit;
great stature and strength, his eloquence
enthusiasm, gave him vast popularity as a leader,
and by his paper, the Northern Star, he did much
to advance the cause of Chartism. Elected for
Nottingham in 1847, he presented the monster
tition in the April of the following year. In
852 he was found to be hopelessly insane, and in
1855 he died.
Oconto, capital of Oconto county, Wisconsin,
on Green Bay, at the mouth of the Oconto River,
149 miles by rail N. of Milwaukee. It has large
steam sawmills, and exports pine lumber. Pop.
(1880) 4171; (1900) 5646. :
Octave (Lat. octavus, souk *), in the church
calendar, is the eighth day r a festival, count-
ing in the festival day itself ; also, the week after a
church festival.—In Music octave is the interval
between sd musical note and its most ‘ect
concord, which is double its P viene and otote es the
position of the eighth note from it on the diatonic
scale. The name octave is often given to the
eighth note itself as well as to the interval.
Octavia, the sister of the Roman pave nd
Augustus, and wife of Mark Antony, distinguished
for her beauty, her noble disposition, and womanly
poet ag On the cre os her first ray Mar-
cellus, she consented in B.C, to marry Antony
to make secure the reconciliation between him and
her brother; but in a few years Antony forsook her
for Cleopatra. In 32 B.C. war, lon inevitable,
broke out between Antony and Octavian ; and the
former crowned his insults by sending Octavia a
bill of divorcement. But no injury was too t .
to be forgiven by this patient Griselda of the
ancient world; and after her husband’s death she
brought up with maternal care not only her own
children by Antony, but also those of Cleopatra.
She died 11 B.c,
Octavian. See Avcustus.
October (Lat. octo, ‘eight’) was the eighth
month of the so-called year of Romulus, but became
the tenth when Numa changed the commencement
OCTOPUS
ODE 577
of the year to the first of January, though it
retained its original name, notwithstanding the
attempts made by the Roman senate, and the
emperors Commodus and Domitian, who sub-
stituted for a time the terms Faustinus, Invictus,
Domitianus. Many Roman and Greek festivals
fell to be celebrated in this month, the most
remarkable of which was the sacrifice at Rome of
the October horse to the god Mars.
Oc'topus, a widely distributed genus of eight-
armed cuttle-fishes, the members of which (¢.g. 0.
vulgaris in Europe, and O. bairdii in America)
usually live near shore, lurking among the rocks,
preying upon crustaceans and molluscs. The term
is often extended to related genera, such as Eledone,
and to other members of the sub-order Octopoda,
These differ in many ways from the Decapoda,
such as Sepia and Loligo: thus, the suckers on the
eight arms are sessile and without ® horny ring;
the body is more rounded, and there is no inter-
nal residue of ashell. Of the half-hundred species
some are large: thus, O. vulgaris may have ten-
tacles about 8 feet long, and 0. punctatus of
the Pacific coasts even twice as much. These are
dwarfed, however, by the gigantic ten-armed Archi-
teuthis, of which one specimen exhibited in America
had a head and body 9} feet long and arms of
30 feet, while another had a body twice as big.
Common Octopus ( Octopus vulyaris )
Many fanciful descriptions have been given of the
Octopus, notably that by Victor Hugo in his
Toilers of the Sea, in which the characters of
cephalopod and polyp are dramatically combined.
Large specimens may of course act powerfully on
the defensive, but by nature they are timid, lurking
animals, the econger eel and other voracions fishes
being their most formidable foes. They are some-
times caught in sunken pots, into which they creep,
and the flesh is used both as food and bait. The
predominant colour is reddish, but it changes
rapidly with that of the surroundings and with
the temper of the animal, which has also the
ower of discolouring the water by a discharge of
inky fluid. The eggs are enclosed in small trans-
Incent sacs, and hundreds are attached to a com-
mon stalk which is glued to the rock, and pro-
tected and kept free of small seaweeds, &e., by the
female. For their general structure, see CEPHALO-
PODA, CALAMARY, and CUTTLE-FISH.
Octroi (Lat. auctoritas, ‘authority’), a term
which originally meant any ordinance authorised
349
by the sovereign, and thence came to be restric-
tively applied to a toll or tax in kind levied from
a very early period in France and other countries
of northern Europe on articles of food which passed
the barrier or entrance of a town. The octroi was
abolished in France at the Revolution, but in 1798
it was. re-established. The octroi officers are
entitled to search all carriages and individuals
entering the gates of a town. Similar taxes are
raised in Italy and elsewhere.
O’Curry, EUGENE (1796-1862), Irish antiquary.
See IRELAND, Vol. VI. p. 209.
Od, the name given by Baron Reichenbach
(q.v.) to a peculiar physical foree which he thought
he had discovered, intermediate between electricity,
magnetism, warmth, and light. This force, accord-
ing to him, pervades all nature, and manifests itself
as a flickering flame or luminous appearance at the
poles of magnets, at the poles of crystals, and
wherever chemical action is going on. All motion
generates od ; and all the phenomena of mesmerism
are ascribed to the workings of this od-force. See
Buchner, Das Od (1854); Fechner, Erinnerungen
an die letzten Tage des Odlehre (1876); and the
Transactions of the Psychical Research Soc. (1883).
Odal, See ALLopIuM.
Oddfellows. See FRIENDLY Socrettes.
Ode (Gr. 6dé, from aeidé, ‘1 sing’), a form of
lyrical poetry associated in its supreme form with
the name of Pindar, but practised with splendid
success by many English poets. The Greek ode
was simply a chant or poem arranged to be sung
to an instrumental accompaniment, and all the
variations of form that occurred were merely
subjective, incapable of imitation, and conditioned
only by the exigencies of the music. Archi-
lochus was the first to expand the simple distich
into an epode; Aleman, to adopt the more com-
plex form of the carmen or ode. Sappho, Alczeus,
and Anacreon carried it further, and shaped
the lighter form of ode known to us, through
the masterpieces of their greatest imitator, as the
Horatian. Stesichorus modified the ode of Aleman
by elaborating a triple movement, in which the
metrical wave moving in the strophe was answered
by the counter-wave moving in the antistrophe,
the whole concluded by the epode, a blended echo
of the two. Simonides adapted this elaborate
form to Dorian music, and next followed Pindar,
the greatest master of the ode. His Parthenia or
odes for virgins, his Skolia or dithyrambie odes in
praise of Dionysus, and his encomiastic odes have
all perished ; only his Epinikia, or triumphal odes,
remain. These display an infinite variety of metri-
cal ingenuity; no two odes have the same metrical
structure, yet each obeys a definite structural law,
and license there is none in its irregularity. The
Humanist poets imitated the simpler A‘tolian
measures as they found them in Catullus and
Horace; but many of our poets, taking Pindaric as
synonymous with irregular, produced so-called odes
whose only likeness to their great original was
their ‘unshackled numbers.’ But irregularity in
verse is not allowable except in cases where it is a
natural aid grasped by the poetic mood in its
moment of exaltation ; for the most constant charm
of poetry is the inevitableness of cadence, which
must never be lightly flung away unless to sub-
serve another and still higher law—that of emotional
necessity. It is only in the hands of a master that
the ode may safely he imitated in English; by all
others the apparent artifice of the form and the
necessary spontaneity of the impulse may not be
reconciled. ,
Ben Jonson's odes are unequal; Herrick’s, poor ;
Spenser’s Epithalamium, or marriage ode, is one of
the most splendid triumphs of English poetry ; and
578 ODENSE
ODIN
Milton, in his magnificent poem, On the Morning
of Christ’s Nativity, found in this a form adequate
for that poetic exaltation which was his habitual
mood, wley was already an expert in the
Horatian ode, when he fell in with Pindar, and
imitated him, in externals at least, in a number
of elaborate compositions, usually redeemed from
dullness by bursts of undoubted poetic ~ power.
yden has left at least three immortal odes, Zo
Mistress Anne Killigrew, For St Cecilia’s Day, and
Alexander's Feast ; and Congreve wrote not only
a few admirable, if formal, examples, but an ex-
cellent critical Discourse on the Pindarique Ode
(1705). The matchless Orinda, Lord Orrery, Am-
brose Philips, Young, Akenside, and Shadwell
followed after their kind ; and Gray, first drawn to
this form by Gilbert West, translator of Pindar,
Sey rang in 1754 and 1756 his two inimitable
indaric odes, the Progress of Poesy and The Bard.
The exquisitely poetic, though not Pindaric, odes
of Collins were given to the world somewhat
earlier. Wordsworth, eee Shelley, Keats, and
Tennyson poured some of their noblest verse into
this form, while modifying it further, whether as
requiar—i.e. following a definite arrangement in
stanzas, or as irregular, following no such arrange-
ment. ‘There are no finer odes or nobler ms in
our language than Coleridge’s odes To the Departing
Year and To France ; Wordsworth’s Jo Duty and
Intimations of Immortality from Recollections 0
Early Childhood ; Shelley’s To the West Wind, To
a og aa To Liberty, and To Naples; Keats's
odes To a Nightingale, On a Grecian Urn, and To
Autumn ; Tennyson’s funeral ode On the Death of
the Duke of Wellington ; and Swinburne’s To Victor
Hugo in Exile.
See English Odes (1881), admirably selected by Edmund
W. Gosse, with an excellent introduction ; and the subtle
and-suggestive article ‘Poetry.’ by Theodore Watts, in
vol. xix, (1885) of the Encyclopedia Britannica,
Odense, the chief town of the Danish island of
Fiinen (q.v.). Its cathedral was founded in 1086 ;
and diets were held here in 1527 and 1539. Pop.
(1880) 20,804 ; (1890) 30,277.
Odenwald, a mountainous system partly in
Baden and Bavaria, but mainly in Hesse (q.v.).
Oder (Lat. Viadrus, Slavon. Vjodr), one of the
principal rivers of Germany, rises in the Oderberg
on the tableland of Moravia, 1950 feet above the
level of the sea, traverses Prussian Silesia, Brand-
enburg, and Pomerania, then empties itself into
the Stettiner Haff, wh it into the Baltic
by the triple arms of the Dievenow, Peene, and
Swine, which enclose the islands of Wollin and
Usedom. It has a course north-west and north of
550 miles, and a basin of 50,000 sq. m. The rapid
flow, induced by its very considerable fall, to-
gether with the silting at the embouchures of the
numerous tributaries, renders the navigation diffi-
cult; great expense and labour being, moreover,
necessary to keep the embankments in order, and
prevent the overflowing of the river. Canals con-
nect the Oder with the Spree, the Havel, and the
Elbe; the Warthe is the only tributary of import-
ance for navigation. On the banks of the Baler
are Ratibor (where it is navigable for barges),
Brieg, Breslau, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, Stettin, and
Swinemiinde.
Odescalchi.
Odessa, in point of population the fourth cit;
of Russia, Masts on as thors of the Black Sea,
about midway between the estuaries of the Dniester
(25 miles to the south-west) and the es 90
miles north-east of the Danube mouth, and by rail
967 miles from Moscow and 381 from Kieff. The
city is built facing the sea on low cliffs, seamed
with deep ravines and hollowed out by galleries in
See INNOCENT XI.
the soft rock, in which numbers of the poorest
inhabitants herd ther. Above nd its streets
are long and broad, and cross each other at right
angles. Odessa was only founded in 1794, near a
Turkish fort that fell into Russian hands in 1789;
but it quickly became the principal export town
for the extensive corn-growing districts of South
Russia. oe was greatly aided by its
being declared a free port from 1817 to 1857, and
again by the construction of the railway to Kieff
in 1866. The pore has ine rapidly,
from 3150 in 1796 to 25,000 in 1814, 100,000 in
1850, 184,800 in 1873, 270,600 in 1887, and 404,651
in 1897. Close upon 70,000 of these were Jews,
sharing with the Greeks most of the trade. Mer-
chants of any other nationalities dwell here also.
The harbour is made up of a roadstead and three
basins, protected by moles against the dangerous
winds that sweep the Black Sea. It is impeded by
ice—searcely ever closed by it—during an ave’
of only a fortnight in the year. The imports in
1894 had a value of over £9,000,000 (less than in
1886 or 1891); the exports, over £21,000,000 (more
than in any preceding year). The bulk of the
exports is grain, especially wheat; but the figures
for wheat finetuate greatly, according to the crop
and legislation about exporting it. Yet the value
of the gross exports has steadily increased, doub-
ling between 1886, when the figure was £8,279,900,
and 1889, when it reached £16,787,700. Su
(£1,217,400 in 1889), wool, and flour are the
remaining chief items of export. The imports
(raw cotton, oils, groceries, iron and steel, coal,
food-stufis, fruits, tea, tobacco, machinery ) average
£3,856,500 (five years from 1885), An average of
1295 vessels of 1,370,256 tons enter the port every
year, an average of 716 of these vessels, with a
hy Oy 1,180,245, being British, the Russian ton-
nage being only one-fifth of this. But the Russians
carry on a la and increasing coasting trade.
The chief branches of industrial activity are flour-
milling, sugar and oil refining, and, in a secondary
egree, the manufacture of tobacco, machinery,
leather, soap, chemi biscuits, &c. Odessa has
a university (1865) with close upon 600 students,
and the usual cabinets and collections; a great
number of schools, including a cadet, a com-
mercial, and two music schools; several learned
societies, and a public lib (1829) of 40,000
vols,, many of them rare. ne museum of
Historical and Antiquarian Society contains treas-
ures from the coasts of the Black belonging to
the Hellenic, the Veneto-Genoese, and the Tartaro-
Mongol civilisations. Amongst the publie build-
ings of Odessa we mention the cathedral (1802-49),
which is the church of the Archbishop of Kherson,
three dozen other cliurehes, a very fine opera-house
(1887), palatial grain- warehouses, conn are
and the ‘palais royal,’ which, with its gardens
rk, is a favourite place of resort. Monuments to
unt Worontsoff (1863), the Duke de Richelieu
1827)—both great benefactors of Odessa—and
shkin (1889) adorn the city. Water is brought
by aqueduct (27 miles long) from the Dniester.
flamed coast batteries have been built since
1876 to prevent a recurrence of bombardment, such
as happened when the British fleet sailed past the
city in April 1854. Odessa an unenviable
notoriety as a home of the cholera, for its persecu-
tion of the Jews, and for its Nihilist sympathies,
Odeypoor, See Uparrur.
Odilon-Barrot, See BArrort.
Odin (Odhinn; O. H. Ger. Wuotan ; Saxon,
Wodan, or Woden—whence Wednesday), the chi
god of northern mythology, common to all Ger-
manie les. He is not the creator of the world,
but its ruler, king of heaven and earth. Odin, as
ODOACER
G@DEMA 579
the highest of the gods, the A/fadur, rules heaven
and , and is omniscient. As ruler of heaven,
his seat is the palace Hlidskialf in Asgard, from
whence his two black ravens, Hugin (Thought)
and Munin (Memory), tly forth daily to gather
— of all that is being done throughout the
world. As of war, he holds his court in
Valhalla, whither come all brave warriors after
death to revel in the tumultuous joys in which
they took most pleasure while on earth. His
greatest treasures are his eight-footed steed Sleip-
ner, his spear Gungner, and his ring Draupner.
As the concentration and source of all greatness,
excellence, and activity Odin bears numerous dif-
ferent names. By drinking from Mimir’s fountain
he became the wisest of gods and men, but he
| agers the distinction at the cost of one eye.
e is the greatest of sorcerers, and imparts a
knowledge of his wondrous arts to his favourites.
Friese (q.-v.) is his queen, and the mother of
(q.v.), the Scandinavian Apollo; but he
has other wives and favourites, and a numerous
progeny of sons and daughters. He is claimed as
ancestor of various royal dynasties. Rhys con-
tends that the myths relating to Woden, the great
Teutonic sed may be traced to a Celtic origin,
and com the name Woden with the Celtic
Gwydion. See SCANDINAVIAN MYTHOLOGY,
Odoacer, Ovovacar, the ruler of Italy from
the Pg 476 to 493, was the son of Adico, a captain
of the Germanic Scyrri. He entered the military
service of the western Roman empire, and rapidly
rose to eminence. He took part in the revolution
by which Orestes (475) drove the Emperor Julius
epos from the throne, and confe’ on his son
Romulus the title of Augustus, which the people
i ace Bhan into Augustulus. He soon per-
ceived weakness of the new ruler, and at the
head of the Germanic mercenaries—Herulians, Rug-
ians, Turcilingians, and Seyrri—marched against
Pavia, one restes had emt Teper =
an t his o nt to death (476). nulus
Sbilcated, and withdrew into obscarity. ‘Thus
perished the Roman empire. Odoacer showed him-
self to be a wise, moderate, and politic ruler,
it to conciliate the Byzantine emperor Zeno,
a with the title of Patricius, ruled Italy from
Ravenna, The barbarian ruler did everything in
his power to lift oo of the deplorable con-
dition into which she had sunk. Though an
Arian himself, he acted with a kingly impar-
tiality that more orthodox monarehs have rarely
exhibited. He conducted a successful campaign
in Dalmatia, and against the Rugii on the Danube.
taly should be shared between him
and Theoderic ; but a fortnight after Odoacer was
assassinated at a feast b eoderic himself. See
Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders.
Odometer. See PEDomerTer.
O'Donnell, Leorotp, Marshal of Spain, born
at Teneriffe, 12th January 1809, was descended from
an ancient Irish family. He entered the Spanish
army when young, and espoused the cause of the
infant Queen Isabella inst Don Carlos (see
CARLISTS). When the Carlists were overthrown
he was creaved Chief of the Staff to Es
He took the side of the queen-mother in 1840,
areet with her to France, and took up his
at Orleans, where he planned many of
the political risings which took place under the
tule of Espartero. In 1843 his punigo against
Espartero (q.v.) were successful; and he was re-
warded by governor-generalship of Cuba, where
he amassed a large fortune by favouring the iniquit-
ous trade in slaves. Whien he returned to Spain
(1848) he intrigued against Bravo Murillo and
Narvaez; was made war minister by Espartero in
1854; but plotted against his benefactor, and in
1856 supplanted him by a coup d'état. He was
in three months’ time succeeded by Narvaez, but
in 1858 he returned to power; in 1859 he com-
manded the SrOny in Morocco, and after a tedious
campaign took the Moorish camp, and the city of
Tetuan surrendered, whereupon he was made Duke
of Tetuan. In 1866 his cabinet was upset by
— and he died at Bayonne, 5th November
Odontopteryx (Gr. odous, ‘a tooth ;’ pteryx,
fa Teel & roose-like or duck-like bird, the
remains of which occur in the London clay (see
EocENE SysTeM). The alveolar margins of both
jaws are furnished with tooth-like denticulations,
which are actual of the bony substance itself,
and, therefore, not like true teeth. The tooth-like
serrations, of two sizes, are of triangular or com-
pressed conical form, and are all directed forwards.
Odontornithes, extinct ‘toothed birds from
the Cretaceous strata of North America. There
are two distinct types—Ichthyornis and Hesper-
ornis, The former and its relative Apatornis were
small tern-like flying birds, with teeth in sockets,
and with biconcave vertebree. But Hesperornis
was a large bird, about six feet long, with utterly
degenerate wings and obvionsly incapable of flight.
According to Marsh, to whom our knowledge of
these forms is chiefly due, it was a consummate
diver, even more aquatic than the penguin. The
teeth are set in grooves, the vertebre saddle-
sha) ‘A bird indeed,’ Stejneger says, ‘but a
kind of swimming, loon-like raptorial ostrich, with-
out fore-limbs, with the i armed with formid-
able rows of stron, aan | ike a gigantic lizard,
and with a ge. road, and flattened tail like
a beaver.’ See h’s monograph (1880).
Crolempndivs, JOANNES (the Latin form
of HAUSSCHEIN, although his proper name was
Hussgen), one of the most eminent of the coad-
ae of Zwingli in the Swiss Reformation, born
n 1482 at Weinsberg, in Swabia. He relinquished
the study of law at Bologna for that of theology
at Heidelberg, became tutor to the sons of the
Elector Palatine, and subsequently preacher in
Weinsberg. Being appointed preacher at Basel,
he formed the acquaintance of Erasmus, who.em-
ployed him as assistant in his edition of the New
estament. In 1516 he left Basel for Augsburg,
where also he filled the office of preacher, and where
he entered into a convent. But Luther’s publica-
tions exercised so great an influence on him that
he left the convent, and became chaplain to Franz
von Sickingen, after whose death he returned to
Basel in 1522, and, in the capacity of preacher and
professor of Theology, commenced his career as a
reformer. He held disputations with supporters of
the Church of Rome in Baden in 1526, and in Bern
in 1528, In the controversy concerning the Lord’s
Supper he gradually adopted more and more the
views of Zwingli. In 1529 he disputed with Luther
in the conference at Marburg, and he wrote several
treatises. He died at Basel, 24th November 1531.
He was remarkable for his gentleness of character.
There are Lives in German by Herzog (1843) and
Hagenbach (1859).
Ccumenical. See EcuMENICAL.
€de'ma (Gr., ‘a swelling’) is the term applied
medicine to the swelling occasioned by the effu-
580 OEDENBURG
CZ2NOTHERA
sion or infiltration of serum into cellular or areolar
structures, The subcutaneous cellular tissue is
the most common seat of this affection. Cidema
is not a — , but a sg ose — wag
symptom indicating great danger to life. e
bo of avowed it must be directed to the
morbid condition or cause of which it is the
symptom.
Oedenburg (Hung. Soprony), a town of Hun-
gary, situated in an extensive plain, 3 miles W.
of the Neusiedler See and 48 S. by E. of Vienna.
It is one of the most beautiful towns in Hungary,
and has manufactures of candied fruits, sugar,
soap, &c., with a large trade in wine, corn, and
cattle, the neighbourhood being rich and well cul-
tivated. The Roman town of Scarabantia here
was one of considerable importance ; and numerous
Roman remains have been found. Pop. 22,322.
«Edipus (Gr. Oidipous), the hero of a legend
which supplied subjects for some of the noblest
tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides. C&dipus was
the son of Laius, king of Thebes, by Jocasta, the
sister of Creon, and was exposed after his birth,
with his feet pierced through, on Mount Citheron,
use his father had learned from an oracle that
he was doomed to perish by the hands of his own
son. The child was discovered by a herdsman of
Polybus, king of Corinth, and was named (Edipus
from his swollen feet. Polybus brought him sp as
his own son. Being told by the oracle at Delphi
that he was destined to slay his father and commit
incest with his mother, he would not return to
Corinth, but proceeded to Thebes to escape his
fate. As he drew near he met the chariot of the
king, and the charioteer mete him out of the
way, @ quarrel ensued, in which (Zdipus unwit-
tingly slew Laius. In the meantime the famous
Sphinx had appeared near Thebes, and propounded
a riddle to every one who passed by, putting to
death all who failed to solve it. In the terror of
despair the Thebans offered the kingdom, together
with the hand of the queen, to whoever should
deliver them from the monster. (£dipus offered
himself, bye for the Sphinx asked him, ‘ What
being has four feet, two feet, and three feet ; only
one voice; but whose feet vary, and when it has
most, is weakest?’ Q£dipus replied that it was
man, whereat the Sphinx threw herself headlong
from the rock on which she sat. C£dipus became
king, and husband of his mother, Jocasta. From
their incestuous union sprung Eteocles, Polynices,
Antigone, and Ismene. A mysterious plague now
devastated the country, and, when the oracle
declared that before it could be stayed the mur-
derer of Laius should be banished from the
country, (Edipus was told by the seer Tiresias
that he himself had both murdered his father and
committed incest with his mother. In his horror he
put out his own eyes, that he might no more look
upon his fellow-creatures, while Jocasta hanged
herself. He wandered towards Attica, accom-
panied by his daughter Antigone, and at Colonus
near Athens the Eumenides charitably removed
him from earth,
«Ehlenschliiger, ApaAmM Gorrttos, Danish
poet, was born I4th November 1779 in a suburb
of Copenhagen, where his father, a Sleswicker,
was an organist. After an irregular and desultory
course of education, he tried unsuccessfully the
career of an actor, and then took to law studies,
but seon devoted all his energies to the cultivation
of the history and poetry of his own country. In
1803 ap sd his first collection of poems; and
the Vaulunders Saga (1805) and Aladdins forun-
derlige Lampe raised him to the rank of the first
of living Danish poets. These early efforts were
zecarded hy « travelling pension, which enabled
him to spend some years in travell
the Con-
tinent, and becoming acquainted with and
other literary celebrities, During this period
CEhlenschliiger wrote his Hakon Jarl, the first of
his long series of northern tragedies (1807 ; 4
2 (1800 ; Kg. trans, by Theodore Martin,
0 ; Eng. trans. 1eodore
1854). us 1810 Clifenschliger returned to Den-
mark, where he was hailed with acclamation, and
made professor of A‘sthetics in the university. In
1814 took place his literary feud with Baggesen
(q.v.). In 1819 appensed one of his most mas-
terly productions, Nordens Guder, which showed
that the severe criticism to which his writings
had been exposed during the celebrated
quarrel had corrected some of the faults, and
lessened the self-conceit which had characterised
his earlier works. His reputation spread with his
increasing years both abroad and at home. In
1829 he went to Sweden, where he was weleomed
by a public ovation ; and he was honoured in his
own country in 1849 by a grand Et festival in
the palace at Copenhagen. He 20th January
1850. His fame rests peecpely. on his twenty-
four tragedies, most of them on northern subjects,
Besides those already referred to, the best are
Knud den Store, Palnatoke, Axel og Walborg,
Veringerne i Miklagord. His lyrical and e
poems are of less value. His Poetiske j
were edited in 1857-62 in 32 vols.; the German
translations were done by himself. An Autobio-
graphy appeared in 1830-31, his Reminiscences in
1850; and there are posted Arentzen (1879) and
Nielsen (1879). His Danish and German works
amount in all to 62 volumes,
Ochler, Gustav Friepricu, one of the
Old Testament scholars of the 19th century, was
born at Ebingen, 10th June 1812, studied at
Tiibingen, laboured as a teacher at Basel and
Tiibingen, became in 1840 professor in the theolo-
gical seminary in Schinthal, and in 1845 ordinary
professor of Theology at Breslau. In 1852 he was
called to Tiibingen to be head of the theological
seminary, and here he died, 19th February 1872.
The chief books of this learned and reverent scholar
were Prolegomena zur Theologie des Alten Testa-
ments (1840), Die Grundziige der Alt-testament-
lichen Weisheit (1854), Ueber das Verhéiltniss der
A. T. Prophetie zur heidnischen Mantik (1861),
V ie des Alten Testaments (1873-74; En
trans. 1874-75), and Lehrbuch der Symbolik (1876
See the study by Knapp (Tiib. 1876),
land, a long and narrow island in the Baltic,
4 to 17 miles from the east coast of Sweden,
It is 55 miles long and 5 to 12 broad ; pop. 37,513,
Scarcely more than a limestone cliff, it is sean
cove’ with soil, but in some parts it is w
wooded, and has good powers Cae there are
large alum-works; and the fishing is excellent all
round the coasts.
Oels, a manufacturing town of Prussian Silesia,
16 miles ENE. of Breslau by rail. Pop. 10,276.
nanthic Ether, See Erner. a
noth’era, 4 genus of ornamental plants of the
natural order i , related to the Fuchsia
(q.v.), though strikingly dissimilar in general
appearance, The Evening Primroge (@, brennis),
a native of Virginia, has been known in Europe
since 1614, and is now naturalised in many parts of
Europe and in some of Britain, on the banks
of rivers, in thickets, on sandy grounds, &e. The
flowers are f t in the evening. The root
somewhat resembles a carrot in shape, but is short;
it is usually red, fleshy, and tender, and is eaten in
salads, or in soups, and as a boiled vegeta
Eaten after dinner it incites to wine-drinking, as
olives do. This and numerous other species of
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HAMILTON
_ OHIO.
ScaLe oy Mines,
i984 6 6-76 -8-@
OGDENSBURG
OHIO 585
manufactories of woollens, brooms, boots and shoes,
&e. Pop. (1880) 6069; (1900) 16,313.
Ogdensburg. a port of New York, on the St
Lawrence, at the mouth of the Oswegatchie, —
site Prescott, Canada, and 393 miles by rail NNW.
of New York City. Its principal buildings are the
Roman Catholic cathedral and the United States
government building. The city has a | lake
and river trade, and contains a huge grain-elevator
and manufactories of flour, lumber, and leather. A
steam ferry plies to Prescott. Pop. (1900) 12,633.
Ogee, ve. Ogive is the name given by the
French tee potatos arch; and as an English
architectural term, ogive ribs are the main ribs
- which cross one another at the intersection of the
vaulting. Ogee, a form of the same word, is
applied to a compound curve, made up of a convex
curve continued hy a concave one. Oxival work is
common in the Decorated Style (q.v., fig. 3), and
may be seen in the tracery of the Flamboyant (q.v.).
The ogee moulding is that also called Cyma reversa,
illustrated at MoutpiInc. The French word is
from the Spanish azvge, and that from the Arabic
dwyj, ‘summit,’ ‘ vertex.’
Ogier le Danois, See CHANSONS DE GESTES.
Ogletho JAMES EDWARD, founder of
Georgia, was born in Loudon, 21st December 1698,
the son of Sir Theophilus Oglethorpe, of Godal-
ming in Surrey. After studying awhile at Oxford
he joined the Guards before he was twenty, and
served on the Continent with Prince Eugene.
From 1722 to 1754 he represented Haslemere in
parliament. Meanwhile he projected a colony in
America, where the debtors then languishing in
English gaols might start life afresh, and which
should be also a refuge for the persecuted German
Protestants (see SALZBURG). Parliament contrib-
uted £10,000, George Il. gave a grant of the neces-
sary land, after him called. Georgia; and in 1733
Oglethorpe went out with a company of 130 persons
and founded Savannah. In 1735 he took out 300
more, including the two Wesleys; and in 1738 he
was back again with a regiment of 600 men, raised
in anticipation of a war with Spain, from whose
neighbouring colony of Florida he had already
received annoyance. War was declared by the
mother-countries in 1739, and in 1741 Ogletho
invaded Florida and unsuccessfully attacked St
Augustine (see his own account, published 1742) ;
the next year he repulsed a Spanish invasion of
Georgia. In 1743 he left the colony for the last
time, to meet and repel before a court-martial the
malicious ch one of his own officers. He
was again tried and acquitted after the Forty-five
for having failed, as major-general, to overtake
Prince Charles’s army. e charter of his colony
he surreridered to the British government in 1752.
His later years were spent at Cranham Hall, his
seat in Essex, where he died 30th January 1785. His
intimate friends included many of the most eminent
mea of the day. Pope’s couplet is well known :
Or driven by strong benevolence of soul,
Will fly, like Oglethorpe, from pole to pole.
Dz Johnson w him to write his life, and even
offered to do it himself; and Boswell made a few,
but insufficient, notes with the same object.
See Lives by Harris (Boston, 1841), Wright (Lond.
1867), and Bruce (New York, 1890).
Ogowe, or OGoway, a river of West Africa
has its origin on the west side of the watershed
that parts its basin from that of the Congo, in 2°
40’ 8. lat., 14° 30’ E. eye flows north-west, west,
and finally curves round by the sonth so as to pour
its waters into Nazareth Bay, on the north side of
pe It forms a wide delta of some 70
sq. m,.in extent. In the dry season (July to Sep-
tember) it shrinks to a narrow current winding
between the rocky obstructions of its bed; at other
times it is a deep, broad stream, navigable hy boats ;
numerous islands and sandbanks a shallows pre-
vent vessels of any size from ascending. It has been
dominated by France, through her colony on the
Gaboon (q.v.), since 1885.
‘ges, the earliest legendary king of Attica
ant Beek in whose time a great flood took place
called the Ogygian Flood.
Ogygia, a genus of Trilobites (q.v.), peculiar
to the Lower Silurian system.
oRera, THEODORE, author of ‘The Bivouac
of the ; was born at Danville, Kentucky, in
1820. He was a lawyer and journalist, but served
as captain and major in the Mexican war, after-
wards, for a year, in the United States cavalry, and
in the civil war as a colonel on tle Confederate
side. He died in 1867. See monograph by Ranck
(Baltimore, 1875), and the Century (May 1890).
O'Higgins. See Curt.
Ohio, a river of the United States, called by
the French explorers, after its Indian name, la
Belle Riviére, next to the Missouri the largest
affluent of the Mississippi, is formed by the union
of the Alleghany and Monongahela at Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, and flows west-south-west 975 miles,
with a breadth of 400 to 1400 yards, draining, with
its tributaries, an area of 214,000 sq. m. In its
course it se tes the northern states of Ohio,
Indiana, and Illinois from the southern states of
West Virginia and Kentucky. The principal towns
upon its banks are Pittsburgh, Wheeling, Cincin-
nati, Louisville (where there are rapids of 22 feet
in a mile, with a steamboat canal), Evansville,
New Albany, Madison, Portsmouth, Covington,
and Cairo, The river's principal affluents are the
Tennessee, Cumberland, Wabash, Kentucky, Great
Kanawha, Green, Muskingum, and Scioto. It is
usually navigable from Pittsburgh.
Ohio, a state of the American Union, the fourth
in os Pog oe 38° 25’ and 42° N. lat.,
an and 84° + IONE. | copyrigh , 1897, and
It stretches from north to south | 1000 tu the U.S. by Jb.
210 miles, and from east to | MPrincott Company.
west 220 miles; the northern and southern and
much of the eastern boundaries are irregular.
Area, 41,060 sq. m., or equal to that of Ireland and
Wales together. Ohio is a part of the original
North-west Territory, chiefly claimed by Virginia
under charters granted by the oo ge kings, which
territory became a corporate y soon after the
formation of the Virginia colony ; and when that
colony became a state, the territory, with undefined
northern limits, beeame a county. Ohio was the
fitst state created within the territory,-of which
it comprises much of the best part. It is watered
on the north by Lake Erie, and on much of the
east and all of its southern boundary by the Ohio
River, from which it derives its name.
The face of Ohio, taken as a whole, presents the
appearance of an extensive, monotonous plain. It
is moderately undulating, but not mountainous ;
in many places streams have forced a way through
bold clifis of sandstone. A low ridge enters the
state near the north-east corner and crosses it in
a south-westerly direction. This ‘divide’ separ-
ates the waters of Lake Erie and the Ohio River,
and maintains an average elevation of a little over
1300 feet above sea-level. North of this ridge the
surface of the country is generally level, gently
declining toward the lake. The central part of
Ohio is almost a level plain, about 1000 feet above
the sea, slightly inclining southward. The southern
part is somewhat hilly, the valleys growing iced
as they approach the Ohio River, whose tribu-
taries here water many extensive and fertile
586 OHIO
OIDIUM
valleys. There are a few prairies or plains in the
north-western parts of the state, but over its greater
anaes i ne immense quantities of
im ber. e principal rivers draining southward
to the Ohio are the Muskingum, Scioto, Great
Miami, and Little Miami. Northward to the lake
are the Tuscarawas, Cuyahoga, Sandusky, Huron,
and Maumee, all but the last named being entirely
in the state.
The rocks underlying Ohio belong to the Silu-
rian, Devonian, and Carboniferous systems. The
general arrangement of the geological formation
shows a layer of sheets resting in the form of an
arch from Lake Erie to the Ohio River. The
limestone ( No. 4) agrtty ge the state is unbroken,
and stretches from side to side; the Oriskany, the
Corniferous, the Hamilton, and Huron formations,
though generally removed from the crown of the
arch, still remain over a limited area near the cen-
tral portion. On the side of the great anticlinal
axis the rocks dip downward into a basin, which
for several hundred miles, north and south, occupies
the interval between the Nashville and Cincinnati
ridge and the first fold of the Alleghany Moun-
tains. As they dip toward the centre of this trough,
on the eastern and southern border of the state,
the older rocks are deeply buried, and the surface
is here underlaid by the Alleghany coal-measures ;
while in the north-western part of the state the
strata dip northward and pass in the same way
under the Michigan coal-basin. The coalficlds of
Ohio cover over 12,000 sq. m. ; nearly 11,000,000
long tons were mined in 1897. Immense deposits
of limestone, freestone, and mill-stones abound.
Archzeologically Ohio is the richest field in Amer-
ica. Inno other state have been found so many evi-
dences of man’s antiquity exemplified in implements
of stone, bone, copper, and = ae while the most
extensive and elaborate systems of earthworks in
America are at Newark, near Chillicothe, and on
the Miami bluffs near Waynesville. See Mounp-
BUILDERS.
Ohio is one of the chief manufacturing states in
the Union, leading all others in the manufacture
of farm machinery, carriages and wagons, woollen
and cotton goods, furniture, and wine and spirits.
It has also great rolling-mills and iron-factories,
glass-factories, potteries, and oil-works. In agri-
culture the state is first in the Union in many
regards. Its annual production of maize is some
90,000,000 bushels, of wheat 40,000,000, of wool
over 20,000,000 Ib. Cattle and hogs are reared in
large numbers. Ohio is a leading “aed sre
state. The oil-fields, prevailing largely in the
north-west, are being rapidly developed, and
already the output is second only to that of
Pennsylvania. Natural gas has been found in
immense quantities, but at the present rate of
consumption is soon exhausted.
History.—In 1787 the Ohio Company of Associates
was organised in New England by those who had
served in the war of the revolution, and under their
auspices a large tract of land was purchased from
the government in the territory north-west of the
Ohio River, payment being made in ‘Continental
Certificates’ issued to the soldiers for their services.
This was the first public sale of land by the United
States government. In connection with its sale
the famous ‘Compact’ or ‘ Ordinance of 1787’ was
passed, guaranteeing for ever in the territory civil
and religious freedom, the system of common
schools, trial by jury, and the right of inheri-
tance. In 1788 farietta and Cincinnati were
founded, and till 1791 settlements in the southern
part of the territory increased rapidly. In that
the Indians became troublesome, owing to
e continual encroachments of the whites, and an
army under the governor suffered a disastrous
defeat. In November 1794 a es was
ined by General Anthony Wayne over the
ndians at ‘Fallen Timbers’ on Maumee
River. The year after a treaty of — was con-
cluded at Fort Greenville, the Indians ceding a
great portion of territory, which settlers began at
once to fill, and the towns of Xenia, Dayton,
Hamilton, Chillicothe, Zanesville, Franklinton,
and others were established. Chillicothe was made
the seat of Fanaa nrooe for the territory, and a
capitol buil erected. In 1802 a constitution
was adopted for the ‘Eastern Division of the
Territory North-west of the Ohio,’ to be known as
‘Ohio,’ and on 19th February 1803 Ohio was
formally admitted into the Union. By 1810 its
population was 230,760, and the increase from
that period was rapid. As early as 1812 steam-
boat navigation up and down the Ohio River
was accomplished; by 1834 there were, as now.
709 miles of in operation; and the Mad
River Railroad, begun in 1837, was opened for
traffic in 1842, and completed to the lakes by 1848 ;
in 1897, 8729 miles of railway traversed the state,
not counting double tracks, &c. Ohio has given
five presidents to the Union—Grant, Hayes, Gar-
field, Benjamin Harrison, and M’Kinley.
Ohio is divided into 88 counties, and returns 21
members to con, The justices of the supreme
court are elected for terms of five years by
people. The state has several universities and nu-
merous colleges, with professional, art, and commer-
cial schools. The school population in 1897 was
1,088,000 ; attendance, 56 per cent. The ratio of
illiteracy is less than the average of other states.
The largest cities are Cincinnati, Cleveland, Co-
lumbus (the capital), Toledo, Sandusky, “ewes
Springfield, Steubenville, Portsmouth, A j
Youngstown, and Canton. The total taxable value
of real and personal ross in 1890 was $1,778,-
138,477. Pop. (1850) 1,980,329 ; (1870) 2,665,260 ;
(1890) 3,672,316 ; (1900) 4,157,545.
Ohlan, a town of Prussian Silesia, 20 miles SE.
of Breslau by rail, on the Oder. Pop, 8575.
Ohm, GeEoRG Simon, physicist, born at Erlan-
n, 16th March 1787, became in 1849 professor at
unich, and died there 7th July 1854. For Ohm’s
Law and the ohm as a measure of electric resistan
see ELecrricity, Vol, IV. p. 267.
@Ohnet, GeorGeEs, a French novelist of great
pularity, if not merit, born 3d April 1848 at
Paris, e studied law, and after practising some
time as an advocate took to journalism, and later
to literature proper. Under the general title of
Les Batailles de ia Vie he has published a series
of novels dealin pen probens ia with social
questions, some of which have actually reached a
hundredth edition, The first in this cycle of
romances was Serge Panine (1881), too quickly
followed by Le Maitre de Forges (1882), La Com-
tesse Sarah (1883), Lise Fleuron (1884), La grande
Marniére (1885), Les Dames de la Croix-Mort (1886),
and Volonté (1888).
Oidium, or ErysiPxe, a genns of minute fungi
infesting various plants, and especially important
as the cause of a ravaging disease of the vine,
pularly known as vine-mildew, The disease was
rst observed in Kent in the spring of 1845; it
spread rapidly over the English vineries, and was
observed about the same time in the vineries of
Paris, and soon afterwards in those of nearly all
parts of France, Italy, Greece, Tyrol, and egy
and in a less degree in the Rhine valley. Its
ravages extended to Algeria, Syria, Asia Minor,
and especially to the island of Madeira, where it
nearly put an end to the production of the cele-
brated wine. The disease spore first in the
leaves, these drop off, the plant loses strength
a el
OIL-BEETLE
OILS 587
through impaired nutrition, the young shoots fall
victims, and lastly the grapes. Powdered sulphur
was found useful as a cure, but the applications
had to be very uent; in consequence of its
importance the duty of sulphur was reduced by the
French government. It is probable that in this
case, as in all diseases of the sort, the general
vitality of the organism must be lowered before it
will fall a victim. Over-cultivation and long use
of the same ground are predisposing causes.
Gil-beetle, 2 name given to beetles of the
Mele and allied am which when disturbed
emit a yellowish oily liquor from the joints of their
legs. @ species are used
cantharides,
Oil-bird, See GuAcHARo.
Oil-cake is used mainly for feeding sheep and
cattle. It is made from the solid residue of oleagin-
ous seeds (linseed, rape-seed, cotton-seed ), after a
large “ag m of their oil has been extracted.
The following is the usual process of manufacture
in Britain. The seed is crushed between iron
rollers, then damped and ground upon a mill of
the following construction. Two large circular
blocks of hard granite are set edgewise on a bed-
stone of the same material, which is slightly
hollowed out; these two upright stones are con-
nected by a horizontal shaft which passes through
the centre of both, and is fixed at its middle to a
revolving upright shaft. The stones are thus made
to revolve about their vertical axes, while at the
same time they are left free to be turned round the
horizontal shaft by the friction of grinding. The
meal thus obtained is heated in kettles formed of
as vesicants instead
two com ments, in the inner of which the meal
is p while the outer is filled with steam. The
meal is then filled into small woollen bags of the
shape it is wished to make the cakes—usually
oblong, about 30 inches by 12 inches, and 4 to 2
inch k. These bags are then placed in wooden
Sohie ogeee which consist of two pieces of hard
, of the same size as the cakes, hinged to-
gether at the end; the wood is usually corrugated
and furnished with a stamp to mark the cakes.
The wrappers containing the bags full of crushed
seed are then placed in the compartments of a
worked on the same —— as a Hydraulic
Bramia.y.), except that oil from the seed is
used instead of water. In this way about 90 per
cent. of the oil the seed contains is squeezed out
of it, leaving sufficient to bind the residue of
husks into a solid firm cake. Sometimes
the process is varied, in that the seed, instead of
being ground under stones, is repeatedly crushed
on iron rollers; in this case the crushed seed is
steamed in the kettles to give the necessary
moisture, not merely heated as described above.
Sometimes oil-seeds are subjected to a chemical
instead of a mechanical process—viz. solution of
the oil in bisulphide of carbon. By this means the
oil may be almost completely extracted. Mustard,
castor-oil, undecorticated cotton-seed cake,
and some others are also used as fertilisers,
Oil City, Pennsylvania, on both sides of the
Alleghany River (here crossed by long railroad
and nger bridges), 133 miles by rail N. by E.
of Pittsburgh, is one of the Hacipel oil markets in
the state, and the centre of a busy trade. It eon-
; ; pani beet gee and bacor
factories, and a large coo) ere were fearfu
inundations here in June 1802,
Pop. (1870) 2276 ;
(1880) 7315; (1900) 13,264.
Oil-fuel, See FUEL, GAS-LIGHTING,
PeTROLEUM. For Oil-engine, see GAs ENGINE.
Oil Palm, See O1s, and PALM.
Oil Rivers. See Nicer.
@ils (including Fats). The fats and fixed oils
constitute an important and well-marked group of
organic compounds, which exist abundantly both
in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. They are
not simple organic compounds, but each of them is
a mixture of several such Sane to which the
term glycerides is applied ; and the glycerides which
by their mixture in various proportions form the
numerous fats and oils are mainly those of palmitic,
stearic, and oleic acids, and to a less extent those
of other fatty acids, such as butyric, caproic, cap-
rylic, and capric acids, which are obtained from
butter, myristic acid, which is obtained from cocoa-
nut oil, &e. The members of this group may be
solid and hard, like suet; semi-solid and soft, like
butter, horse- , and lard; or fluid, like the
oils. The solid and semi-solid are, however,
usually placed ther and termed fats, in con-
tradistinction to the fluid oils. The most solid
fats are readily fusible, and become reduced to a
fluid or oily state at a temperature lower than
that of the boiling-point of water. It is not until
a temperature of between 500° and 600° F. is reached
that they begin nearly simultaneously to boil and
to undergo decomposition, giving off acroleine (an
acrid product of the distillation of Me Sen and
other compounds. In consequence of this property
these oils are termed fixed oils, in contradistinction
to a perfectly separate group of oily matters, on
which the odoriferous setae of plants depend,
and which, from their being able to bear distilla-
tion without change, are known as volatile oils,
These, which are also known as essential oils, differ
in toto in their chemical composition from the com-
pounds we are now considering. All the fats and
oils are lighter than water, and are perfectly in-
soluble in that fluid. Their specific gravity ranges
from about 0°91 to 0°94. They dissolve in ether,
oil of turpentine (one of the volatile oils), benzol,
and to a certain extent in alcohol; while, on the
other hand, they act as solvents for sulphur, phos-
phorus, &c. ese bodies the property
of penetrating paper and other fabrics, renderin
them transparent, and producing what is we'
known as a stain. They are not readily
inflammable unless with the agency of a wick,
when they burn with a bright flame. In a pure
and fresh state they are devoid of taste and smell,
but on exposure to the air they become oxidised
and acid, assume a deeper colour, evolve a dis-
agreeable odour, and are acrid to the taste; or,
in popular language, they become rancid. The
rapidity with which this change occurs is consider-
ably increased by the presence of mucilaginous or
albuminous bodies, The rancidity may be removed
by shaking the oil in hot water in which a little
hydrated magnesia is suspended.
The eral diffusion of fats and oils in the
animal kingdom has been already described (see
Fats). In the vegetable kingdom they are
pe ee arr distributed, there being scarcely
any ue of any plant in which traces of them
may not be detected; but they are specially
abundant in the seeds. The seeds of the Cruciferse
are remarkably rich in oil; linseed yielding fully
20 per cent., and rape-seed about 40 per cent. of
oil; and some fruits, as those of the olive and oil-
palm, yield an abundance of oil.
The uses of oils and fats are numerous and
highly important, many being extensively em-
ployed as articles of food, as medicines, as lubri-
cating agents, in the preparation of soaps, oint-
ments, varnishes, pigments, for candles, lamps, and
other means of illumination, and for the purpose
of dressing leather, &c. In Africa, Asia, and the
Pacific animal and vegetable oils and fats are
much used for anointing the person and smearing
the hair, thus affording a protection aganst heat
588
OILS
and the attacks of insects, and ane excessive
perspiration. This practice conduces to health and
preserves the skin smooth and soft. Oil thrown
on the sea has a remarkable effect in subduing
the force of the waves, A few gallons cast upon
stormy seas moderates and prevents the waves
penne 4 with force. This practice might be
adopted by lifeboats when approaching wrecks, and
rescuing the crews of stranded vessels. The com-
position of the fine oils required for watches and
sewing-machines is often carefully kept secret.
Those array, wd used are ben, almond, olive, and
neat’s-foot. The oils suitable for machine-shops
and general cotton and woollen machinery require
a oo body, rather viscid. For woollen spindles
a lighter oil, and for cotton spindles, which have
as of 4000 revolutions per minute, an oil of
still lighter body. For lubricating purposes mineral
oils may with advan be mixed with animal
and vegetable oils to diminish their tendency to
thicken; the more fluid an oil is the less friction
takes place.
(1) Vegetable Fats.—The chief solid fats of vege-
table origin are cocoa-nut oil, nutmeg-butter, cocoa-
butter, and palm-oil. The fluid vegetable fats or
oils are divisible into the non-drying and the dry-
ing oils; the latter being distinguished from the
former by their becoming dry and solid when ex-
posed in thin layers to the air, in consequence of
oxygenation. Some of the drying oils, when mixed
with eotton, wool, or tow, absorb oxygen so rapidly,
and consequently become so heated, as to take fire,
and many cases of the spontaneous combustion of
leaps of oily materials that have been employed in
cleaning machinery have been recorded. The chief
non-drying oils are olive-oil, almond-oil, and colza-
oil; while the most important drying oils are those
of linseed, hemp, poppy, and walnut; castor-oil
seems to form a link Saabs these two classes
of oils, since it ually becomes hard by long
exposure to the air.
2) Animal Fats.—The chief solid fats are beef
and mutton suet or tallow, lard, butter, goose-
&e.; while among the fluids sperm-oil,
ordinary whale-oil, cod-liver oil, and neat’s-foot
oil may be especially mentioned. In many of their
characters spermaceti and wax resemble the
solid fats. Asa general rule, stearin and palmitin,
both of which have comparatively high fusing-
points (between 157° and 114° F.), preponderate in
the solid fats; while olein, which is fluid at 32°,
is the chief constituent of the oils.
When ~ of these bodies are heated with the
hydrated alkalies they undergo a change which
has long been known as Saponification, or con-
version into Soap (qv. ,» in which the fatty acid
combines with the alkali to form a soap, while the
sweet viscid liquid glycerine is simultaneously
formed. When the fatty acids are required on a
large scale, as for the manufacture of the so-called
stearin candles, which in reality consist mainly of
stearie and palmitic acids, sulphuric acid and the
oil or fat are made to act upon each other ata high
temperature (see CANDLE). The fatty acids may
also be procured in a very pure form by the injec-
tion of superheated steam at a temperature of be-
tween 500° and 600° into heated fat. A complete
list of even the chief fats and fixed oils would take
up far more space than we can command. The
more important are noticed in separate articles,
such as Fixed Oil of Almonds, Castor-oil, Croton-
oil, &e., and some account given of their properties
and uses; or under the names of the substances
from which they are procured—Linseed, Rape
Candle-nut, Cocoa-nut, Cotton (for Cotton-seed
Oil), &, Reference may also made to the
articles on Butter, Ghee, Lard, Cod-liver Oil, &e.
The Volatile or Essential Oils exist, in most
instances, ready formed in plants, and are believed
to constitute their odorous principles. form
an extremely numerous class, of which most of the
members are fluid. Many used for flavouring are
artificially compounded (see ButTyrie Acrp).
Essential oils are much employed in perfumes,
for flavouring liqueurs and confectionery, and for
various purposes in the arts. They will be
described at PERFUMERY. The mineral oils will
be found discussed under the heads of Naphtha,
Paraflin, Petroleum.
OILS IN THEIR COMMERCIAL RELATIONS.—
Vegetable Oils,—The principal seeds imported for
expressing oil are cotton, li : ym) and
ground-nut ; but many others are received in small
quantities. Cotton-seed is now a — re iat ee
roduct, whieh was formerly much neglee The
imports into Britain rose from about 20,000 tons
in 1861 to over 314,000 tons in 1890, nearly all
pen: 2 from Egypt: 100 lb. of seed yield about 2
“ot oil. The seed fetches £5 to £6a ton; the
oil £18 to £21 a tun. Linseed.—British imports of
this flax-seed now reach over 2,000,000 qr., of the
value of £4,000,000. Nearly all the supply used to
be obtained from Russia, which produces the best
seed, but now the chief imports are from India;
these arrive, however, very much mixed with rape
and other seeds. India ships about 84 million ewt.
of linseed yearly, of which three-fourths is sent to
England. One quarter of linseed will yield by pres-
sure 120]b. of oil and 24 ewt. of oil-cake. The aver-
age annual production of linseed-oil in the United
ingdom may be taken to be about 120,000 tuns.
India is the chief source of supply for the small
oil-seeds, the value of those exported annually
ranging from £9,500,000 to £10,750,000, besides
about £500,000 more for the oils of various kinds
shipped. Africa alone supplies m-oil and
large quantities of ground-nuts; Ceylon, Indi
and the Pacific islands the cocoa-nut oil o'
commerce. Cocoa-nut Oil is expressed from the
albumen or ripe kernel of the nut, known in
commerce when dried as copra, The production
of this oil does not make the same p
that palm-oil does, as the following decen im-
er into the United Kingdom will show: 1870,
98,602 ewt.; 1880, 318,454 ewt. ; 1890, 184,409
ewt. The price of the oil declined about £10 in
1883-90, the price being in the latter year £27
per ton. Palm-oil.—The average imports of this
oil are 50,000 tons annually. Prices have advanced
of late years, and in 1890 stood at £26 per ton.
This oil forms a chief ingredient in the grease
used for railway axles. Rape-seed.—The imports
of ra range between 459,000 to 2,300,000
qr., of which about half come from Russia and
half from India, The total exports of this seed
from India now exceed 3 million ewt., valued at
nearly £2,000,000 sterling; the great bulk of this
is sent to France and ¥ paver From the first
pressure rape-seed will yield about 90 Ib. of oil nd
uarter, and from a second pressure 60 to 70 Ib.
he Ground-nut (Arachis hypogea) is now a large
source of oil-supply, but the principal commerce
and manufacture centre at Marseilles. It is prin-
cipally cultivated on the west coast of Africa, but
is now much grown in India. The price of the
shelled kernels in the London market is from £11
to £13 per ton. Olive-oil used to be one of the
most valuable vegetable oils used for food, but it is
now much adulterated with or replaced by Gingelie
and cotton-seed oils, The ave imports are
about 20,000 tuns, the best Spanish fetching £37
per tun. For lubricating and woollen manufac-
tures olive-oil has been largely replaced other
vegetable oils and lard-oil (see OLIVE). Gingelie
or Til-oil is the produce of the seed of Sesamum
indicum, which yields about 50 per cent. of oil ; and
_
pe
OILS
589
the annual export of this seed from India is from 1
to 2# millionewt. It goes oni ea Se France an
Italy. The price is 40s. to 50s. the lb. Poppy-
seed. The trade in this seed from India is a fluetu-
ating one, ranging from 450,000 to 730,000 ewt. ;
the exports are chiefly to France and Belgium.
The seeds yield 45 per cent. of oil, which is used
for culinary pu The seed sells at about 43s.
the bag. of 268 tb. Castor-oil seed.—From 600,000
to 700,000 ewt. of this seed are exported annually
from India, and 2,000,000 to 2,600,000
castor-oil. The expression of the oil is chiefly
earried on in Italy and America, besides India.
The various ies of Bassia of India and Africa
yield good oils, some of which are semi-solid and
esteemed for soap-making. Under the name of
Mahwa about 100,000 ewt. are shipped from India
(see BUTTER-TREE).—One or two species of
Aleurites produce what are known as candle-nuts
in commerce; these yield 50 per cent. of oil. Some
species of Garcinia yield kokum-butter, which is
used as a substitute for ghee or clarified butter by
the poorer classes of India. Many species of nuts,
such as the Brazil, hazel, walnut, and others,
even oil which is used locally, but does not enter
argely into commerce. In China oil is obtained
from the Soy bean (Saja hispida), and it yields
about 18 per cent. of a drying oil. The bean-cake
is employed for feeding men and animals, and is
also largely used for manure. Another oil made
there is from the seed or fruit of the Camellia olei-
fera. Wt is of remarkable purity, of an amber
colour, and a pleasant taste. In the
United States corn or maize oil and pea-nut oil are
manufactured, as well as cotton-seed oil, linseed-oil,
and castor-oil. The cocoa seeds or beans of commerce
contain from 18 to 20 per cent. of a concrete fat,
which being separated in the preparation of cocoa
and chocolate, throws a large amount of cocoa-
butter on the market. Several thousand tons of it
in flattened cakes are now sold annually in London
and Holland. It is used for pharmacentical Ws
— and confectionery. Nutmeg-butter, Galam
tter (Bassia), Carapa, Casianbe. and certain
vegetable tallows and waxes partake of this solid
character.
Animal Oils.—The principal solid animal oils
found in commerce are butter and lard, tallow, mares’
sags neat’s-foot oil, and unrefined yolk of egg oil.
first two are fully described under their names.
Tallow is the fat of oxen and sheep, but more
expecially the fat which envelops the kidneys and
other parts of the viscera, rendered down or melted.
The qualities of this solid oil make it { meters
well adapted fer making candles, and until the
end of the first quarter of the 19th centu
candles for use were almost wholly e
of it. Britain obtains probably about 60,000 tons
rt tallow yearly at eetorted ate etary
m & rom North an
South Am om Australia. Russia used to
furnish the chief supply, but the pastoral pro-
grees in the new countries has quite changed
sources of supply of animal fats. The imports
of tallow and s do not vary tly from
year to year; were, in 1870, 1,523,298
ewt.; 1880, 1,316,379 ewt.; 1890, 1,385,517 ewt.
The value of the last-named year’s imports was
£1,729,349. The oleins, obtained by pressure from
animal fats, are known in commerce as tallow-
olein, lard-olein, and neat’s-foot oil; they come
next in value to sperm-oil, The two former are
included under animal oils. Many thousand tons
of these oleins are sent from the United States
to Europe for artificial butter-making. Besides the
home uction of butter, which is large (about
130, tons), the United Kingdom im in
1890 over 100,000 tons, valued at £10,500,000,
gal. of the-
and 54,000 tons of an artificial compound pre-
wags from tallow, chiefly in Holland, and which
to be labelled as ‘margarine’ when sold; for
this more than £3,000,000 is paid (see BUTTER-
INE). Of lard-oil Britain imports 91,000 ewt.,
besides about 27,000 ewt. of other animal oils,
such as mares’ grease, tallow-oil, &c. Lard-oil
from which the stearin has not been pressed is
known as ‘neutral oil.’ An olein is extracted
from beef-suet in the United States, of which
there are three-qualities, Several thousand tons
of this animal oil are sent from Chicago to Holland
for the manufacture of oleom ine. The export
of this olein from the United States averages now
30,000,000 Tb. yearly, valued at £600,000. Horse-
is received from the River Plate states,
where there are over five million horses. The
mares, which are never used for the saddle, are
annually slaughtered in 1 numbers in the
republics of Uruguay and Argentine, A little
horse- is also obtained in Britain from the
ps. apie horses, 400 to 500 dying weekly in
London alone. They furnish about 28 lb. of e
each, which is valuable as a lubricant. Neat’s-foot
oil is obtained in boiling down the feet of cattle.
It does not turn rancid, and remains fluid at 32°.
When part of its stearin has been abstracted it is
used for oiling church and steeple clocks (as it
does not solidify), for softening leather, and other
pw In North America, where swine are bred
so largely, the melted fat of the Big is a very
important secondary product. The United States,
with its 50 million pigs, sends away lard to the
value of £5,500,000 yearly. It is a very important
food-product, and in the West Indies it is much
used instead of butter. The imports of lard from
America into Britain now average 60,000 tons
yearly, of the value of £2,000,000. The imports
increased fivefold in 1870-90, Another animal fat
is the suint obtained in the — of washing
wool. This potassic sudorate forms no less than a
third of the weight of raw wool in the grease.
Marine oils are obtained from various mammals
and fishes in different localities. Much of the oil
obtained passes under the general name of ‘ train-
oil.’ The whale-fishing has been much abandoned
of late years by the nations which formerly pursued
it; but the seal-fishing, which is less precarious
and hazardons, is extensively prosecuted. The
value of the oil shi from Newfoundland annu-
ally exceeds £100, The average value of the
fish-oil imported into Britain is only about
£420,000; about 1880 it used to be double that
amount. In America and the north of Europe fish
oils are principally obtained from the liver of the
cod and shark, from the dogfish, porpoise, Men-
haden (q.v.), age at herring, sardine, and other
Clupea. In the Mediterranean the tunny yields a
large quantity of oil, extracted by boiling, often in
sea-water. It is of a pale amber colour and an
agreeable flavour.
Fish oils are often confounded with the oils
obtained from the blubber of the whale, seal, and
other marine mammals, and their oil is much mixed
with these. The great trade in animal oils and
fatty substances dathlontén the care with which oily
matters rich in carbon and hydrogen are sought for,
supplying as they do a great number of wants in
countries the most civilised as well as among
people still in their primitive state. Some of these
oleaginous substances are employed as food by
man, some in manufactures, and others in medi-
cine. The fish oils are usually thick, with a strong
odour, and of different colours, according to quality
and preparation, ranging from white to blonde and
brown. In northern countries they still serve for
illumination, but of late years have been largely
superseded in this use by gas, petroleum, an
OKEN
590 OIL-WELLS
electri ting. Fish oils are valuable for soap-
min much employed by curries for
dressing leather; and the oil is again recovered and
See eee eres gees
are y t orwa
coast and in the Indian See akieas for their vil
In Greenland 300 or 400 are taken every season,
their livers yielding 2500 barrels of oil, which is
much valued for lubricating. 5S ti, or ‘head
matter,’ as it is commercially termed, from the oil
being principally found in the enormous head of
Ph macrocephalus, has, like whale-oil, been
d ing largely of late ro Britain only re-
ceives some 1430 tuns, valued at £56,325, against
three times that quantity imported about the year
1880, It used to be much employed in_candle-
making, mixed with about 5 per cent. of beeswax
to prevent crystallisation (see WHALE). Seal-oil
is bones ineluded with train or fish oil. The ex-
rts from Newfoundland range from 3500 tuns to
000 tuns yearly, according to the catch of seals.
Tn 1889 Great Britain imported from that island 7000
tuns of oil, valued at nearly £67,000. There was a
large decline—fully 50 per cent.—in the prices of
fish oils in the years 1889-90. The current prices
in 1890 per tun of 252 gallons were, for sperm, £45
to £46; whale-oil, £21 to £23; pale seal-oil, £24
to £26; and cod-oil, £22. The medicinal cod-liver
oil realises higher prices. Fuller information on the
reparation of these will be found under the various
fate In 1878 the British imports of fish oils
of all kinds were 20,656 tuns, valued at £810,891 ;
in 1890, 20,302 tuns received were only valued at
£419,296. In various quarters a considerable
quantity of oil is obtained from different birds.
such as the fulmar, the penguin, puffins, an
species of Procellaria, the Guacharo (q.v.), the
, ostrich, emu, and rhea, the nger pigeon,
and others; but, with the exception of penguin-oil
from the Falklands, none of these a re to any
extent in commerce, and are only Kn ocally.
The large and growing importance of the oil
trade is manifest from a consideration of the
statistics of imports and exports alone in a year,
independent of the various industries and labour
interested therein. Taking the English Board of
Trade figures for 1889, we find that the value of the
imports of animal oils and fats, including butter,
lard, tallow, &c., amounted to £18,395,518, the
vegetable oils to £3,718,074, the mineral oils to
£2,963,834, and the nuts and seeds imported for
yay Pay to £8,269,678, making a total of
347,104. The imports are nearly all used in
Britain, the re-exports being merely to the value of
£3,531,242. If to this we add the £1,701,106 for
oil-seed cake rg eke and the export of oil, soap,
and candles of British manufacture, amounting to
£2,507,095, we have a total capital involved in the
trade of over £37,500,000, and this quite irrespec-
tive of the home production of tallow, butter, fish
oils, and the like.
Gil-wells. See Baku, PeNNsyLVANIA, PE-
TROLEUM
Oinomania, See Dipsomanta.
Ointments are fatty substances intended to
be applied to the skin by rubbing in, and havin,
the consistence of butter. The material employ
as a basis for the ointment varies considerably, and
as a rule the activity and action are entirely due to
the substance incorporated with the basis. The
most ly used basis is lard, either alone or
mixed with wax, &c., to give it more consistence.
To avoid rancidity the lard is usually melted pre-
viously with gum-benzoin, and is then known as
. Although lard is readily absorbed
the skin, yet in this respect it is su by
’s wool and Oleic Acid (q.v.). The former
of these, when incorporated with water, forms an
excellent ointment base, smooth, and in every way
pn So en eeee of att eaade eee
th great advantage. wn
in commerce under a number of names, has also
been used for ointments and does not turn rancid,
but on the whole its use is not extending. As
nearly all substances may be made into ointments,
there is no limit to their number, but the
best known are Zine Ointment (q.v.), Boracie Oint-
ment, and the Red and White Precipitate Oint-
ments (see PRECIPITATE OINTMENT). In all cases
the greatest care is required to ensure that the
active principle is rubbed perfectly smooth with a
small quay of oil or lard before adding the bulk
of the ingredients, otherwise the production of a
homogeneons ointment free from grit is impossible.
See CoLp CREAM.
Oise, a department in the north of France,
separated Agr English Channel by Seine-
Inférieure ; area, 2261 8q. m. ; pop. (1881) 404,555 ;
(1891) 401,835. The principal rivers are the Oise,
a tributary of the Seine, 150 miles in length, with
the Aisne and Therain, affluents of the The
soil is in general fertile, and agriculture advanced.
The products are the usual penn with an
immense quantity of v bles, which are sent to
the markets of the metropolis. There are exten-
sive iron manufactures; porcelain, paper, chemicals,
beet-root sugar, woollens, cottons, and lace (at
Chantilly ) are also made, The department is divided
into the four arrondissements of Beauvais, Cler-
mont, Compitgne, Senlis ; capital, Beauvais.
@Oisin. See Ossian.
Ojibbeways. See Curppeway INDIANS.
Oka, an important navigable river of central
Russia, the principal affluent of the Volga from the
south, rises in the government of Orel, and flows
in a generally north-east direction, and joins the
Volga at the city of Nijni-Novgorod, a course
of 706 miles. Its basin comprises the richest and
most fertile region of Russia, The principal towns
on its banks are Orel, Bielev, Kaluga, Riazan, and
Murom ; the most important affluents are the rivers
Moscow, Kli and Tzna. During spring the
Oka is navigable from Orel to the Volga; but in
summer the navigation is obstructed by sand-
banks,
Okavango. See Noam.
Okeechobee, a lake of Florida (q.v.).
Oken (originally Ockenfuss), LoRENzZ, natural-
ist, was born at Bohlsbach, in Baden, August 1,
1779. He studied at Wiirzburg and Géttingen ;
became genes A professor of Medicine at
Jena in 1807; in 1812 he was appointed ordi-
nary professor of Natural Science; and in 1816 he
commenced the publication of a journal pec |
scientific and partly political, called Jris, whic
led to government interference and his a
tion. In 1828 he obtained a professorship in the
newly-established university of Munich, but in
1832 exchanged it for another at Zurich, where he
died 11th Au 1851. Oken aimed at construct-
ing all knowledge a priori, and thus setting forth
the system of nature in its universal relations.
His system of natural science is a nature-plilo-
sophy, which, though decried as ental
and a deduction from foregone conclusions, was fer-
tile in suggestive ideas. It was he who wrought
out the theory, claimed by Goethe, and now ex-
ploded, that the skull is but a modified vertebra.
His principal works are his Lehrbuch der Na
Arty Eng. trans. 1847), his Lehetwen der
‘aturgeschichte (3 vols. 1813-27), Allgemeine Natur-
geichichte (17 vole, 1859-40) See works on Oiken by
Ecker prey Mg Guttler (1884), and see Sir
Owen's article in the Encyclopedia Britannica.
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OKHOTSK
OLBERS 591
Okhotsk, SEA orf, an extensive inlet of the
North Pacific Ocean, on the east coast of Russian
Siberia, nearly enclosed by Kamchatka and the
Kuriles and halien. It is little navigated.
On its northern shore, at the mouth of the Okhota,
is the small seaport of Okhotsk, with a pop. of 300.
Oklaho: an organised territory of the
United States of America, is bounded W. and S. by
the state of Texas, E. and SE. 1, ¢ 1801, 1897, and
by Indian Territory, and N. by }1900 in the U.S. by J.B.
states of Kansas and Colo- !''?vinertt Company.
tado. The territory includes what was formerly
the western Saga of Indian Territory, together
with the Public Land Strip N. of the Texas ‘pan-
handle.’ This strip, ceded to the United States by
Texas at the time of its annexation, was by an
oversight not included in any of the adjacent states
or territories, and until its incorporation in Okla-
homa Terri was known as No Man’s Land.
The area of Oklahoma is 39,030 sq. m. ane eee
tion in 1890 was 61,834 persons, includin in
Greer county, between the forks of the Red River
and claimed by Texas; it has been awarded to
Oklahoma. The federal census of 1900 showed a
population of 398,331.
surface, which rises gradually toward the
north and west, is for the most part an upland
eS. The most important elevations are the
ichita Mountains in the south. The charms of
Oklahoma (‘ Beautiful Country’) have been much
overrated. It is fairly well watered by the
Red and Arkansas rivers and their affluents, but
many of the streams are brackish, and so saturated
hea alkaline salts - to be at sag eae =
rinki rposes or for irrigation. e rainfa
is een 4 fighter and also less uniform than in
Indian Territory. In the river-valleys and in some
of the upland regions there are fertile and produc-
tive spots, but much of the region is likely to be
subject to the same disappointment which prevails
in western Kansas during unfavourable seasons.
The so-called Public Land Strip, formerly the
of desperadoes, is now the civilised Beaver
county, a rich agricultural and stock country,
though subject to sudden masee, produced by the
$ ers,’ in its usually mild climate. The im-
vement is directly due to the exertions of the
‘oung woman teachers in the public schools.
his of Oklahoma dates from the year
1866, when the tribes to whom the lands of Indian
Territory had ly been nted ceded the
western portion of their domain to the United
States. e land thus acquired was known as the
Oklahoma district, but it was agreed that it should
be used only for settlement by other Indian tribes
or freedmen. Notwithstanding this stipulation
western speculators claimed that the lands were
the property of the government, and open, like
other public lands, for settlement under the Home-
stead (q.v.) laws. In 1879 an organised effort was
made to take forcible possession of the lands, and
adventurers from Texas, Kansas, and Missouri,
equipped and ready for permanent settlement,
invaded the territory. Their action was forbidden
by proclamations from President Hayes, and the
intruders were finally ejected by United States
troops. From this time until his death in 1884,
David L. Payne, the leader of the ‘boomers,’ was
repeatedly arrested, but he always evaded punish-
ment and returned to the forbidden land, with the
number of his followers augmented. He is said to
have received more than $100,000 in fees from
who secured from him permission to settle
Oklahoma. After his death the invasions were
continued with even greater pertinacity by his
lientenants. Althongh the government repeatedly
gga the Peon, pred of the treaties with the
ians and enf them by the authority of the
military, negotiations were opened, as a result of
which, upon the receipt of an additional sum, the
Indians waived all claims to a district in the heart
of Indian Territory. This unoccupied area was
opened for public settlement in 1889, and the terri-
tory was re ly organised with extended boun-
daries in 1890. In 1891 the restriction prohibiting
settlement was removed from other sections, and in
1893 the Cherckee Outlet was thrown open. United
States officials were appointed by the President, a
public school system was organised, and a normal
school was established at Edmond. Educational
facilities have grown with the territory. There is
a territorial university at Norman ; there are three
normal schools, at Edmond, Alva, and Langston ;
Stillwater has an agricultural and mechanical col-
lege; and graded schools are found in the towns
size, with high sthools in the cities. In 1897
there were 90,585 children of school , and (1898)
there were 1879 organised school districts. The
annual income from the school lands amounts to
an average of $200,000. Oklahoma presents an
unprecedented instance of a commonwealth created
almost in a mature condition at a moment's notice.
In an incredibly short space of time the wilderness
was transformed into a region of productive farms
and populous towns, Guthrie, the capital, and
Oklahoma City have each over 10,000 inhabitants.
Norman, El no, Kingfisher City, Stillwater,
Beaver, Perry, and Enid are among the rapidly
growing centres.
Okra, a name for the Hibiscus (q.v.) escilentus.
Olaf, the Saint, one of the most revered of the
early Norwegian kings, was born in 995, and after
having distinguished himself by his gallant ex-
loits, and made his name a terror in several war-
ike — on the coasts of Normandy and
England, succeeded, in 1015, in wresting the throne
of Norway from Eric and Svend Jarl. The cruel
severity with which he endeavoured to exterminate
paganism by fire and sword alienated the affec-
tions of his subjects, who hastened to tender their
allegiance to Canute of Denmark on his landing
in Norway in 1028. Olaf fled to the court of his
brother-in-law, Jaroslav of Russia, who gave him
a band of 4000 men, at the head of whom he
returned, in 1030, and gave Canute battle at
Stiklestad, where Olaf was defeated by the aid
of his own subjects, and slain. His ly was
removed to the cathedral of Trondhjem, where
the fame of its miraculous pel spread far and
wide; and Olaf was solemnly proclaimed patron
saint of Norway in the su ing rtay @ See
Passio et Miracula Beati Olaui, edited by F. Met-
ealfe (Oxford, 1881).
Oland. See CELAND.
Olaus. For Olaus Magnus, see MAGNus; for
Olaus Petri, see SWEDEN (Literature).
Olbers, Henrich WILHELM MATTHAUS, phy-
sician and astronomer, was born at Arbergen, a
village of Bremen, October 11, 1758, studied medi-
cine at Géttingen from 1777 till 1780, and subse-
quently practised at Bremen. In 1811 he was a
successful competitor for the prize proposed by
Napoleon for the best ‘Memoir on the Croup.’
Hy becuase known as an astronomer by his caleula-
tion of the orbit of the comet of 1779. He dis-
covered the minor planets Pallas (1802) and Vesta
(1807); and in 1781 he had the honour of first re-
discovering the planet Uranus. He also discovered
five comets in 1798, 1802, 1804, 1815, and 1821, all
of which, with the exception of that of 1815 (hence
called Olbers’ comet), had been some days pre-
viously observed at Paris. His observations, cal-
culations, and notices of various comets, which
are of inestimable value to astronomers, were pub-
lished in various forms. Olbers also made some
592 OLD BAILEY
OLD CATHOLICS
important researches on the probable lunar origin
of meteoric stones, and invented a method for cal-
culating the velocity of falling stars. He died at
Bremen, 24 March 1840, His correspondence with
Bessel was edited by Erman (1852).
Old Bailey, the court or sessions house in which
the veep 2 of the Central Criminal Court are held
monthly for the trial of offences within its juris-
diction. The judges of this court are the Lord
Mayor, the Lord Chancellor, the judges aldermen,
recorder, and cominon serjeant of London. But of
these the recorder, the serjeant, and the judge of
the sheriff's court are in most cases the actually
presiding judges. The judicial sittings here are
of such antiquity that all record of their com-
mencement has im lost. Crimes of all kinds,
from treason to petty larceny, are tried, and the
numbers in past times were enormous, but are
now greatly reduced by the extended jurisdiction
given to the quarter sessions, and the summ
wers gran to magistrates. Here were tri
in 1660, after the Restoration, the surviving judges
of Charles L; and Milton’s Eikonoklastes and
Defensio Prima were in the same year burned at the
Old Bailey by the common hangman. The patriot
Lord William Russell was tried here in 1683,
Jack Sheppard in 1724, Jonathan Wild in 1725,
the poet Savage in 1727, Dr Dodd in 1777, Belling-
ham, the assassin of the statesman Perceval, in
1812, the Cato Street conspirators in 1820. The
Old Bailey dinners given by the sheriffs to the
judges were long famous. However else varied,
they always included beefsteaks and marrow
nddings, and were served twice a day. The Old
Bailey adjoins ene (q.v.) Prison, between
Holborn Viaduct and Ludgate Hill. Prisoners
awaiting trial at this court are transferred to New-
te for the sake of convenience whilst the sessions
ere are sitting.
Old Believers, See RaskoLniK.
Oldbury, « busy manufacturing town of Wor-
cestershire, 5} miles WNW. of Birmingham, stands
in the midst of a rich mineral district, and has iron
and steel works, besides factories for railway plant,
edge-tools, chemicals, &e. Pop. (1851) 11,741;
(1581) 18,841; (1891) 20,348. See J. Nichols’
History of Manceter Parish (1791).
Oldcastle, Siz Joun, once popularly known
as the ‘ 1 Lord Cobham,’ whose claim to dis-
tinetion is that he was the first author and the
first martyr among the English nobility, was born
in the reign of Edward IIL ; the exact year is not
known. e acqnired the title of Lord Cobham b
marriage with the heiress of the line, and signal-
ised himself by the ardour of his attachment to the
doctrines of Wyclif. At that time there was a
party among the English nobles and gentry sin-
cerely, even strongly, desirous of ecclesiastical
reform, whose leader was ‘old John of Gaunt—
time-honoured Lancaster.’ Oldcastle was active
in the same cause, and took part in the presenta-
tion of a remonstrance to the English Commons on
the subject of the corruptions of the church. At
his own expense he got Wyclif’s works tran-
scribed, and widely disseminated among the people,
and paid a large body of arena to propagate
the views of the Reformer thronghout the country.
In 1411, during the reign of Henry IV., he com-
manded an English army in France, and forced the
Duke of Orleans to raise the siege of Paris; but in
1413, just after the accession of Henry V., he was
examined by Archbishop Arundel, and condemned
as a heretic. He escaped from the Tower into
Wales, but after four years’ hiding was captured.
He was brought to London, and—being reckoned
a traitor as well as a heretic—was hung up in
chains alive upon a gallows, and, fire being put
under him, was burned to death, December 1417.
Oldcastle wrote Twelve Conclusions addressed to
the Parliament of England, several monkish
rhymes against ‘ fleshlye livers’ eee) te clergy,
religious discourses, &c. Halliwell-Philli fret
proved in 1841 that Shak ’s Sir John Falstaff
was ortetnsliz Sir John Oldcastle—a view endorsed
in Gairdner and Spedding’s Studies (1881),
_Old Catholics (Ger. Altkatholiken) is the
title assumed by a number of Catholics who
at Munich protested against the new dogma of
the personal infallibility of the pore in all ex
cuthedré deliverances, proclaimed by the Vatican
Council in 1870. It now applies to a communion
or church in Germany and Switzerland, which has
wn to be considerable in numbers and infl
he Munich protest by forty-four professors, Dr
Lise = and Professor Friedrich at their head
was directed against the binding authority of
the Vatican Council and the validity of its decrees.
To the Munich protest a number of lie pro-
fessors at Bonn, Breslau, Freiburg, and Giessen
declared their adhesion. The leaders of the move-
ment met at the end of A t at Nuremberg
and drew up a declaration. The German bishops,
though they had given warning of the dangerous
consequences of the proclamation of the new
dogma, submitted to the decision of the Vatican
Council, and, in a pastoral letter of the 10th
September 1870, called upon all members of the
faculty of Catholic theology to signify their alle-
iance. Against the refractory (numerous pro-
essors and one priest) they proceeded by sus-
pending them from their functions, and then by
excommunication. The Prussian and Bavarian
governments, however, took their respective sub-
jects, the objects of those measures, under their
protection.
At first the mass of the priests and laity showed
very little sympathy with the movement, only two
country congregations declaring their dissent from
the decree of the Vatican Council. Pamphlets
and an issned by the heads of the party
elici but little response. committees
in furtherance of the cause were, however, formed
in towns of Bavaria and the Rhine country. Ata
neral Old Catholic Con, , held in 1871 at
Ntunieh, it was resolved to draw the bonds of union
close with the church of Utrecht, the Jansenists
(q.¥.) of the Netherlands, which, under its areh-
‘ishop and two bishops, offered to the Oll
Catholics the possibility of priestly consecration
and confirmation. The congress, while carefull
eschewing any decided breach with traditiona
dogma, and professing the desire simply to main-
tain the church as it stood before the 18th July
1870, propounded the far-reaching apr 2 that
the decisions of an ecumenical council, to be vali
id
must be in agreement with the i faith of ,
the Catholic people and with theological science.
The hope was ceo expressed of a reunion with
the Greek Oriental Church and a nal under-
standing with the Protestants. Old Catholic eon-
gregations began to be formed in different towns
of Bavaria and the Rhine country. In 1872 the
Old Catholic priests in the German empire num-
bered about thirty. The Archbishop of Utrecht
in July made a tour in Germany, holding religious
service in Protestant churches and confirm
the children of Old Catholics. At a secon
con at Cologne, 1872, Professor Friedrich
declared that the Old Catholic movement was
now directed not merely against papal infalli-
bility, but ‘against the whole papal system, &
system of errors during a thonsand years, which
had only reached its climax in the doctrine of
infallibility.’ Déllinger, the leader of the move-
ment which led to the formation of the new
OLDENBARNEVELDT
OLDHAM 593
communion, at first disapproved of the establish-
ment of a new sect, but ultimately approved of
the action of his friends. Yet till his death he
never formally joined the community.
At Cologne in 1873 Professor Reinkens of Bres-
lau was Peng om of the ae organ = re
ancient ion, by ‘clergy and people ’—by e
Old Catholic priests and by representatives of the
Old Catholic ions. He was consecrated at
Rotterdam by the bishop of Deventer, and formally
acknowledged by the governments of Prussia,
Baden, and Hesse. The Bavarian government
declined to forbid Bishop Reinkens holding con-
firmations in their kingdom. The third congress
at Constance in 1873 was taken up with ‘synodal
and communal ions,’ and with projects
towards union with other Christian confessions.
There were numerons guests present, An i
Russian, and German Protestant clergy. the
basis of the decrees of this congress the first Old
Catholic Synod was held at Bonn in 1874, being
composed of thirty priests and fifty-nine laymen.
pine bees down en sar for reforms in general,
a auricular confession and compulsory fast-
ing, and appointed two commissions to draw up a
new ritual in the — tongue, and to frame a
Catechism and a Bible History. A formula of
ment drawn up at another conference of 1875
failed to command assent of Easterns or Angli-
cans. The third and fifth congresses (those of 1876
and 1878) permitted priests to marry, and yet fulfil
all ministerial functions, in spite of Jansenist
tests. After 1875 the numbersdeclined. In 1878
ere were in Germany 52,000 Old Catholics; in
1890 some 30,000, in 79 congregations. In Switzer-
land (where a theological faculty was established at
Bern in 1874 and a bishop consecrated in 1876) there
were in 1890, 53 priests and 45,700 members (against
73,000 in 1877). In Austria there were in 1891
about 10,000, mainly in Bohemia. In 1896 a new
bishop, Dr Weber of Breslau, was consecrated in
place of Dr Reinkens, who died in January of
that year. The Jansenist Archbishop of Utrecht
still co-operates with them; but the communion
is nowhere growing in numbers or influence. The
movement in France headed by Pére Loyson came
to little ; see HYACINTHE.
See DoutincEr; Miss Scarth’s Story of the Old Catholic
and Kindred Movements (1883) ; an article in the Church
Quarterly, vol. xix. (1884-85); Déllinger and the Papacy,
in the Quarterly (1891);
works on Old Catholicism by Forster (1879),
Biihler (1880), Beyschlag (1882), and Reinkens (1882),
Oldenbarneveldt. See BARNEVELDT.
Oldenburg, a erg of northern Ger-
many, consisting three istinet and widely
separated territories—viz. Oldenburg Proper, the
pality of Liibeck, and the principality of
irkenfeld. Total area, 2508 sq. m. (less than
Devonshire); pop. (1890) 354,968, Oldenburg
Proper, ecompri ths of this area, is
prises
bounded by the German Ocean and Hanover.
hag eld are the Weser, the Jahde, and
the , Vehne, and other tributaries of the
Ems. The country is flat, belonging to the great
sandy plain of northern Germany, sad consists for
the most part of moors, heaths, marsh or fens, and
eon tracts. The occupations are mainly agrieul-
tural, with some iron-working, fisheries, and ship-
ping; there is also a little wool-spinning and linen-
weaving, The pmax eed of Liibeck, consisting
of the secula: territories of the former bishopric
of the same name, does not contain the city (north
of which it lies), and is surrounded by the duchy
of Holstein. Its area is about 200 sq. m. The
prtecipality of Birkenfeld (q.v.) lies among the
wage Mountains, in the very south of Rhenish
Prussia, by which it is surrounded ; its area is 192
square miles,
Oldenburg is a constitutional ducal monarchy.
The constitution, which is upon that of 1849,
revised in 1852, is common to the three pro-
vinces, which are represented in one joint chninbae:
Each principality has, however, its special provin-
cial council. The grand-duke has a civil list of
£12,570, besides private revenues,
Oldenburg became an independent state in
1180. The family that then established its power
has continued to-rule to the present day, giving,
moreover, new dynasties to the kingdom of
k, the empire of Russia, and the king-
dom of Sweden. the death, in 1667, of Count
Anthony Gunther, the wisest and best of the
Oldenburg rulers, his dominions fell to the Danish
reigning family, and continued for a century to
be vale by viceroys nominated by the kings of
Denmark. This union was, however, severed
in 1773, when by a family compact Christian VII.
made over his Oidenbu territories to the Grand-
duke Paul of Russia, who represented the Hol-
stein oe branch of the family. Paul having
iven up Oldenburg to his cousin, Frederick-
ugustus, of the younger line of the House of Old-
enburg, the emperor raised the united Oldenburg
territories to the rank of a duchy. For a time the
duchy was a member of Napoleon’s Rhenish Con-
federation. The Liibeck territories were added in
1803; Birkenfeld at the Con, of Vienna, when
Oldenburg became a -duchy. The grand-
duchy concluded in 1 a treaty with Prussia, by
which the grand-duke renounced his clainis to the
Holstein succession. See SLESwIcK-HOLSTEIN.
leasantly situated
miles WNW. of
family. Oldenburg is the seat of an active river-
trade, and is noted for its great cattle and horse
fairs. P. (1875) 15,701; (1890) 21,646. See
Runde’s O/denburgische Chronik (3d ed. 1863).
Oldenburg, Henry, a native of Bremen, born
in 1626, was consul for~his native city in London
during the ges of the Long Parliament and the
protectorship of Cromwell. Besides being tutor
to Lord Henry O’Brien and Lord William Caven-
dish, he was elected one of the very first members
of the Royal Society, and, as assistant-secretary,
edited its Transactions from 1664 to 1677, main-
taining an extensive correspondence with Spinoza,
Leibnitz, ee and many other learned men of
the age. ilton also knew him, and addressed
him in the Zpistole Familiares. Oldenburg died
at Charlton, near Greenwich, in August 1678.
Oldham, a parliamentary, municipal, and
county borough of Lancashire, on the Medlock,
7 miles NE. of Manchester, 5 SSE. of Rochdale,
and 38 ENE. of Liverpool. It has grown since
1760 from a small village, such growth being due
to its proximity to the Lancashire coalfields and
to the marvellous extension of its cotton manufac-
tures. It has nearly 300 mills, with more than
12 million spindles, which consume one-fifth of the
total imports of cotton from abroad ; and the other
manufactures include fustians, velvets, silks, hats
(once a leading industry), cords, &c., besides huge
weaving-machine works, one employing 7000 hands.
The town-hall (1841) is a good Grecian edifice,
enlarged in 1879 at a cost of £29,000; and there
594 OLDHAMIA
OLD RED SANDSTONE
are the lyceum (1854-80), a school of science
and art (1865), public baths (1854), an infirmary
(1870-77), and the Alexandra Park of 72 acres
(1865). Oldham received its charter of incorpora-
tion in 1849. It was enfranchised by the Reform
Bill of 1832, and returns two members, the parlia-
er borough (which extends into Ashton-
under- _ parish) covering 19} sq. m., the muni-
ipal only 7%. Pop. of the former (1881) 152,513 ;
the latter (1801) 12,024; (1841) 42,595; (1881)
111,343 ; (1891) 130,463.
Oldhamia, a genus of fossils of unknown
affinities met with in the Cambrian system. Old-
hamia assumes various forms, sometimes consist-
ing of short radiating branches or umbels, which
spring at regular intervals from a central thread-
like axis; at other times the branches radiate in
all directions from a central point. Some pale-
ontologists have supposed the fossil to be a Ser-
tularian zoophyte’; others have referred it to the
polyzoa; while yet others think it may be a sea-
weed. Possibly it is not a fossil at all, but merely
an inorganic structure.
Oldhaven Beds. See Eocene System.
Oldmixon, Joun (1673-1742), author of dull
histories of England, Scotland, Ireland, and
America, and of works on logic and rhetoric, is
known chiefly as one of the heroes of Pope's
Duneiad.
Old Mortality. See PATERSON ( Roper).
Old Point Comfort, a village and watering-
pee of Virginia, at the mouth of James River,on
ampton Roads, is the site of Fortress Monroe. .
Old Red Sandstone and Devonian
System, the name given to certain series of strata
that are intermediate in age between the Silurian
and Carboniferous systems. These, known respec-
tively as ‘Old Red Sandstone’ and ‘ Devonian,’ are
nowhere seen together, but the one is believed to
be the equivalent of the other.
Old Red Sandstone. —This series, which underlies
the Carboniferous system, was so called to distin-
guish it from another set of red sandstones which
rests upon the Carboniferous strata, and was for-
merly known as the New Red Sandstone (see
PERMIAN, and Triassic). In the British Islands
the Old Red Sandstone is confined to Scotland,
Wales, and Ireland. In Scotland it comprises two
groups of strata, the upper resting unconformably
on the lower. The dower group attains a great
thickness (20,000 feet as a maximum), and con-
sists of coarse red, y, brown, and purplish and
sometimes yellowish sandstones, gray flagstones,
clays, and shales, coarse conglomerates, and loca
8 of limestone-and cornstone, Associated with
these strata are interbedded lavas (porphyrites,
diabase, &c.) and tuffs, which in some regions
(Sidlaws, Ochils, Pentlands, Cheviots, Ayrshire,
&e.) reach several thousand feet in thickness. The
fossils of the Lower Old Red Sandstone consist
chiefly of fishes and crustaceans and badly-preserved
plants, which are mostly lycopodiaceous, In Lanark-
shire a thin bed of shale in the group has yielded
a few Upper Silurian fossils. The upper group
comprises sandstones, clays, conglomerates,
and breccias, the sandstones in some areas being
gray, yellow, or white. Few fossils occur, and
are chiefly the remains of ganoid fishes. In
Arran the group contains a limestone which has
yielded marine Carboniferous fossils. In some
places this p upwards conformably into
the lower member of the Carboniferous system.
In Wales the Old Red Sandstone appears to
graduate downwards into the Upper Silurian, and
to be likewise conformable with, the overlyin
Carboniferous strata. In Ireland, as in Scotland,
there appears to be an unconformity between the.
upper and lower groups of the series, the former
Spreqnicens iy uy wards oy the Carbonifer-
ous, and the latter (‘Glengariff Grits’) graduating
downwards into the U Silurian,
In Scotland the Old Red Sandstone strata are
developed chiefly in the Lowlands, but here and
there they rise to considerable elevations, They
flank the Paleozoic strata of the southern up-
lands and the Highlands, and are probably more or
less continuous und the overlying Carbon-
iferous strata throughout the whole breadth of
central Scotland. Other wide areas occur in the
lower basin of the Tweed, along the borders of the
Moray Firth, in Caithness, Orkney Islands, Xe.
In Wales the Old Red Sandstone is well pak eg
in the,region watered by the Usk and the Wye.
In Ireland it is met with chiefly.in the west and
south-west.
Devonian.—In Devon and Cornwall we meet
with a very different series of strata occupying the
same stratigraphical position as the Old Sand
stone. The Devonian strata pass up conformably
into the Carboniferous system, but the base of the
series is not seen, so that the relation of the strata
to the Silurian is not known. The English
Devonian probably does not exceed 10,000 or 12,000
feet in thickness. It consists of three groups
(Lower, Middle, and Upper), the rocks being prin-
cipally gray and brown slates, brown, yellow,.
red, and purple sandstones, grits, conglomerates,
calcareous slates, and limestones. The caleareous
members of the series are generally well cl
with fossils of marine. types, and are developed
chiefly in the middle group.
Devonian rocks occupy wide areas at the surface
on the Continent. They eupeee in the north of
France, and extend from the Boulonnais eastwards
through Belgium to Westphalia. In northern
Russia they extend over more than 7000 miles, and
crop up along the flanks of the Urals. But the
areas ex to view probably bear but a small
roportion to those which lie buried underneath
ater formations. In central Europe the strata
have the general as of the English Devonian,
and contain relics of the same marine fauna, In
Russia the strata are remarkable for showing alter-
nations of calcareous and arenaceous rocks—the
former of which contain an assemblage of fossils of
a Devonian facies, while the latter are charged
with the remains of a fish fauna resembling that of
the Scottish Old Red Sandstone. It may be noted
that voleanie rocks are here and there associated
with the Devonian strata of central Europe. In
North America both types of strata appear; the
arenaceous type occurring in Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick, while the Devonian type is met with
inthe state of New York and t Aree
region, and is largely developed in the Mississippi
in.
Life of the Period.—Fucoidal markings are not
uncommon in the Devonian strata, but land-plants
rarely occur, These latter, however, are met with
now and again in the Old Red Sandstorie, more
especially in that of Nova Scotia and New Bruns-
ea mp ah * eet one small
herbaceous ferns, lycopods (lepidodendroids), great
horsetails (Calamites), and sigillarioida. The vege-
tation would thus appear to have been for the most.
part flowerless, Here and there, however, remains
of | conifers have been detected. Among the
lower forms of life that swarmed in the seas of the
ae were rugose and tabulate corals, Of the
ormer the most characteristic were Cyathophyllum,
Cystiphyllum, Calceola, &e,, while the honeyeomb
corals ( Pavosites) are the most common of the tabu-
late forms. Echinoderms abounded, especially erin-
oids (Cupressocrinus, Cyathocrinus) and pentrem-
OLD RED SANDSTONE
OLEANDER 595:
ites. Trilobites, which formed so marked a feature
in the life of the Silurian seas, were now reduced
in number and variety—among the more notable
forms being Phacops, Homalonotus, and Bronteus.
Some of tle eurypterids (most of which are small)
attained a large size, one of these (Pterygotus)
ing 5 or 6 feet long. They occur chiefly in
the Old Red Sandstone. From the same strata in
North America have come the remains of insects—
neuropteroid and orthopteroid wings of ancestral
forms of May-fly, &c. Myriopods have also been re-
ised. iopods are among the most common
Devonian fossils ; indeed this group appears to have
reached its maximum development in the seas of
that period, Very characteristic forms are Uncites,
Strin: us, and Rensseleria. Lamellibranchs
were well represented, some of the notable genera
being Pterinea, Megaledon, Cucullea, Avicula, &e.
The marine gasteropods call for no particular men-
tion, for they belong chiefly to types which had
come down from earlier Paleozoic times. One
may note, however, that the earliest pulmonates
(Snails, &c.) come from the Old Red Sandstone.
The ight Orthoceras and other old genera of
br continued to flourish, but coiled forms
(Clymenia, Goniatites) began to predominate. in
Devonian times. From the Old Sandstone
chiefly come the remains of numerons ganoid fishes
—a yroup feebly represented in existing waters.
Among these are the Pangea Cephalaspis,
Pteraspis, Pterichthys, and tens, and the
lepidoganoids Cee, Diplopterus, Holopty-
chins, Acanthodes, The largest placoga-
noi was thé Dinichthys of North America—the
armoured head of which was 3 feet in length.
According to Dr Newberry, this fish was probably
not less than 15 feet long, ‘encased in armonr,
and provided with formidable jaws, which would
have severe the body of a man as easily as he
_ off lage sic er forms (such raging
and possibly Phaneropleuron) appear to have rela-
tions with the Saodaca fap 43 (Ceratodus) of
Australia.
It is obvious that in the Old Red Sandstone and
Devonian we have two distinct types of sedimenta-
tion ; the two series must have accumulated under
different physical conditions. The Devonian strata
are unquestionably of marine origin, while the Old
Red Sandstone beds are believed to have been
deposited in large lakes or inland seas. Hence we
meet with the latter in a few more or less isolated
basins, byt aes = former rte = oxo pe
regions. From the geographi istribution of the
marine Devonian in Barope we gather that durin
the period in question the sea covered the south o
England and the north-east of France, whence it
extended eastwards, occupying the major portion
of central Europe, and sweeping north-east.through
Russia, and how much farther we cannot tell.
North of that sea stretched a wide land surface, in
the hollows of which lay great lakes and inland
seas, which seem now and again to have communi-
eated with the ocean. It was in these broad sheets
of water that the Old Red Sandstone strata were
accumulated. Several of these old lakes in Scot-
land were traversed by lines of volcanoes, the relies
of which are seen in many of the hill-ranges of the
central and southern regions of that country. Vol-
canie action also at the same time manifested itself
in some of Germany, but on a smaller scale
apparently than in the Scottish area. The land,
as we have seen, was clothed for the most
with a monotonous flowerless vegetation, but large
pinesgrew on the higher and drier uplands, whence
they were ccnnthoaalis carried down by rivers to the
lakes and seas. Very little is known of the terres-
trial animal life of t riod ; most of the fossils
met with in the lacustrine sediments of the period
consisting of the remarkable ganoids and eury-
pterids already referred to. These (the fishes
especially ) appear to have abounded in the lakes,
whence, however, they now and again descenced
by the rivers to the sea. The general facies and
the geographical distribution of the life of the
Devonian and Old Red Sandstone are suggestive of
genial climatic conditions. Some geologists, how-
ever, have thought that the coarse breccias and
conglomerates which occur in the Old Red Sand-
stone may be indicative of somewhat cold condi-
tions ; for these masses have often quite the aspect
of morainie accumulations. It is ible, there-
fore, either that local glaciers may have existed-in
certain regions, or that the temperature may have
been lowered for some time over wider areas.
However that may be, the presence of the Devonian
fauna in the Arctic regions seems to show that the
temperature of the ocean must have been more
equable in Devonian times than it is now.
Old Sarum. See Sarum.
Old Style. See CALENDAR.
Oldys, WiL11AM, an industrious bibliographer,
was a natural son of Dr Oldys, Chancellor of
Lincoln, and was born in 1696. The most of his
life was spent as bookworm and bookseller’s hack.
He suffered by the South Sea Bubble, lost the
property left by his father, and when he died
(April 15, 1761) left hardly enough to decently
bury him. For about ten years Oldys acted as
librarian to the Earl of Oxford, whose valuable
collection of books and MSS. he arranged and
catalogued, and by the Duke of Norfolk he was
ps Norroy King-of-arms. His chief works
The British Librarian (1737, anonymously); a
em of Sir Walter Raleigh, prefixed to Raleigh's
iwtory of the World (1738); The Harleian Mis-
cellany (8 vols. 1753), besides many miscellaneous
literary and bibliographical articles,
Oleacex, a natural order of exogenous plants,
consisting of trees and shrubs, with opposite leaves,
and flowers in racemes or panicles. Nearly 150
species are known, mostly natives of temperate
countries. Among them are the olive, lilac, privet,
phillyrea, fringe tree, &c. Between some of these
there is a great dissimilarity, so that this order is
apt to be rded as a very heterogeneous group ;
but the real affinity of the species composing it is
manifested by the fact that even those which seem
most unlike can be grafted one upon another, as
the lilac on the olive. Bitter, astringent, and
tonic properties are prevalent in this order.
Oleander (Nerivm), a genus of plants of the
natural order Apocynaces. The species are ever-
green shrubs wish Jontheey leaves, which are oppo-
site or in threes; the flowers in false umbels,
terminal or axillary. Tle Common Oleander (XN.
oleander), a native of the south of Europe, the
north of Africa, and many of the warmer temperate
parts of Asia, is frequently planted in temperate
countries as an ornamental shrub, and is not un-
common in Britain as a window-plant. It has
beautiful red, or sometimes white flowers, The
English call it Rose Bay, and the French Rose
Laurel (Laurier Rose). It attains a height of eight
or ten feet. Its flowers give a splendid appearance
to many ruins in the south of Italy. It delights
in moist situations, and is often found near streams.
All parts of it contain a bitter and narcotic-acrid
juice, poisonous to men and cattle, which flows out
as a white milk when young twigs are broken off.
Cases of poisoning have occurred by children eating
its flowers, and even by the use of the wood for
spits or skewers in roasting meat. Its exhalations
are injurious to those who remain long under their
influence, particularly to those who sleep under it.
A decoction of the leaves or bark is much used in
596 OLEASTER
OLIBANUM
the south of France as a wash to cure cutaneous
ies. N. odoratum, an Indian species, has
t flowers, which are very fragrant. N. pis-
cidium (or Eschaltum piscidium), a perennial
Common Oleander ( Nerium oleander),
climber, a native of the Khasia Hills, has a very
fibrous bark, the fibre of which is used in India
r Ace The steeping of the stems in ponds kills
sh,
Oleaster.
Ole Bull. See Bui.
Olefiant Gas, or Erny.ene, C,H,, is the
most abundant illuminating constituent in coal-
gas. It may be obtained by the destructive dis-
tillation of coal, but more readily by the action of
sulphuric acid on alcohol, It is a colourless gas
with a faint odour, but little soluble in water or
alcohol. It may be liquefied by cold and pressure.
With air it forms a powerfully explosive mixture,
which, on being burned, yields water and carbonic
acid gas. When mixed with an equal volume of
chlorine, and kept cool and in the dark, the two
unite, with the production of drops of an oily
iquid called Duteh Liquid (q.v.).
Olefines. See Hyprocarpons.
Oleic Acid is one of the acids present in olive,
almonil, and other oils, in which it is united to
glycerine. At temperatures above 57° (14° C.) it
exists as a colourless limpid fluid, of an oily con-
sistence, devoid of smell and taste, and (if it has
not been ex to air) exerting no action on
vegetable colours. At 40° (4°4° C.) it solidilies into
a firm, white, crystalline mass, and in this state it
undergoes no change in the air; but when fluid it
readily absorbs oxygen, becomes yellow and rancid,
and exhibits a strong acid reaction with litmus
paper. It is very difficult to obtain the acid in a
state of purity, in consequence of the readiness
with which it oxidises, It is obtained in a crude
form, as a secondary product, in the manufacture
of stearin canilles ; Pit when the pure acid is
required a lengthy process, starting with almond
oil, must be aioptad, Oleic acid forms normal (or
neutral) and acid salts; but the first compounds of
this class that uire notice are the normal salts
of the alkalies. These are all solnble, and by the
evaporation of their aqueons solution form soaps.
Oleate of potash forms a soft soap, which is the
chief ingredient in Naples soap; while oleate of
soda is a hard soap, which enters largely into the
composition of Marseilles soap. Of recent years a
large number of oleates have come into use in
See ELZAGNUS. e|!
medicine, which depend for their activity on the
remarkable ease with which they are absorbed by
the skin, Such are the oleates of zinc, mercury,
lead, tin, morphia, &e., which, in this form, pro-
duce more rapid results than when applied as oint-
ments.
Olein is a compound of oleic acid with glycer-
ine, and constitutes the bulk of olive-oil. ong
with it are associated stearin and mitin,
similar compounds of stearic and palmitic acids
with glycerine. See Fars.
Olenus, 4 genus of Cambrian trilobites highly
characteristic of the upper members of the system.
Oleograph. This is a name given to an
ordinary chromo-lithograph which has been
‘roughed’ after printing, mounted on canvas,
and varnished so as to imitate an oil-painting.
See LITHOGRAPHY.
Oleomargarine. See BurTer.
Oleometer, or ELAYoMETER, an areometer or
balance for ascertaining the densities of fixed oils.
It consists of a very delicate thermometer-tube,
the bulb being large in proportion to the stem, so
weighted and graduated as to adapt it to the
densities of ili leading fixed oils. On the scale is
marked the principal oils of commerce, with their
specific gravity opposite. The standard tempera-
ture of the oleometer is 59° F, Those in general
use are Gobby’s and Lefebre’s oleometers, Fisher's
oil-balance, and Brix’s areometer for lighter liquids.
Oléron (ane, Uliarus), an island lying 2 to 10
miles off the west coast of France, and formin
part of the department of Charente-Inférieure. It
1s 19 miles long by about 5 broad, and is unusually
fertile. Pop. 17,720, mostly Protestants. On Oléron
are the port of Le Chateau, and the small towns of
St Pierre @’Oléron and St Georges d’Oléron.
The Laws or Judgments of Oléron were a code of
maritime law compiled at the instance of Eleanor
of Guienne before she married Henry IL of Eng-
land, modelled on the Book of the Consulate o,
the Sea (a maritime code regulating commerce in
the Levant), but drawn from the decisions of the
maritime court of Oléron, in the duchy of Guienne.
It was intended for the use of mariners in the
Atlantic waters, was introduced into England in the
end of the 12th century and into Flanders in the
13th, The usages and decisions upon which it was
based were those observed in the wine and oil trade
between Guienne and the safe of England, Nor-
mandy, and Flanders. An English translation was
ublished as Rutter of the Sea, by T. Petyt in 1536, .
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Olga, St, a saint of the Russian Chureh, wife of
the Scandinavian (Varangian) Duke Igor of Kieff,
who, after her husband’s death (946), governed
during the minority of her son, till 955. There-
after she repaired to Constantinople, and was
baptised, assuming the name of Helena. Return-
iny to Russia, she laboured with much zeal for the
propagation of her new creed. After her death
(968) she was canonised, and is now held in high
veneration in the Russian Church, Her festival is
held on July 21,
Olib‘anum, a gum-resin which flows from
incisions in several species of Boswellia, growin
on bare limestone rocks in the mountains o}
Somali Land and the south of Arabia. These
trees send their roots to a t depth into the
erevices of the rock (see WELLIA; and an
exhaustive memoir on this gum-resin by Sir George
Birdwood, published in the Linnean Transactions,
xxvii. p. 111). Olibanum is the Lebonah of the
Hebrews, Libanos or Libanotos of the Greeks,
Thus of the Romans, of all which terms the ordi
English translation is Frankincense (q.¥.).
OLIFANT RIVER
OLIGOCENE SYSTEM 597
occurs in commerce in semi-transparent yellowish
tears and masses; has a bitter nauseous taste ; is
hard, brittle, and capable of being pulverised ; and
diffuses a strong aromatic odour when burned. It
was formerly used in medicine, chiefly to restrain
excessive mucous discharges ; but its use for such
urposes is now rare. It sometimes enters as an
ient into stimulating plasters. It is chiefly
employed for fumigation, and is used as incense
in Roman Catholic churches and Indian temples.
Its odour is obnoxious to mosquitoes and other
insects. The inner are of mene of B. c
are transparent, resembling oi paper, and are
used by the natives for writing on. Aden is the
great port where it is chiefly received, The imports
there in 1888 were 16,248 ewt. of ordinary olibanum
and 3600 cwt. of that termed Mayeti, the name
of the ro from which it is received in Somali
Land. is is the produce of B. frereana, and
much resembles Tacamahae, The exports of oli-
banum from Aden in 1888 were 23,000 ewt. In
India, where it is much used, the imports increase
= by year, and_ reached 26,680 ewt. in 1888.
e is sent to China, and about 17,000 ewt.
comes to England, valued at about £41,000.
Olifant River, a forked stream of Cape
Colony, rises in the mountains north-east of Cape-
town, and, after a north-westerly course of 150
miles, enters the Atlantic. Area of drain
basin, 13,000 sq. m.—Another stream bearing the
same name rises in the Transvaal, and goes east to
join the Limpopo.
Oligarchy (oligos, ‘few,’ and archo, ‘I govern’),
aterm applied by Greek political writers to that
ersion of an aristocracy in which the efforts of
the dominant and ruling party are chiefly devoted
to their own ndisement and the extension of
their power and privileges. Ths it bears the same
relation to aristocracy that despotism does to
monarchy and ochlocracy to democracy.
Olig’ocene System, The British strata
belon to this system occur only in Hampshire,
the Isle of Wight, and Devonshire. The series is
as follows :
marine
3% Bemerince Beps: maris and limestone; fresh-water below,
estuarine above, About 110 feet.
2. Ostonye Beps: fresh-water clays, marls, sands, and lime-
stone. About 10) feet.
1. Heapow Bens: variable series of clays, marls, sands, and
Se Se
the upper fresh-water. Alnat 60 tee ics 4;
Usually inelnded as Oligocene are the lacustrine
beds of Bovey Tracey in Devonshire, consisting of
sands and clays with + ad Between the basalt-
beds that compose the denuded plateaus of Antrim
and the Inner Hebrides (Mull, &c.) oceur thin
— of clay and lignite—the so-called leaf-beds—
which are probably of the same age.
Foreign Equivalents.—Oligocene strata, chiefly
of fresh- and brackish-water origin, but containing
intercalations of marine beds, overlie the Eocene
of the Paris basin and that of Belgium. They like-
wise a in Germany, where they fori the
oldest Tertiary deposits—no Eocene having yet
been detected in that region. The German Olixo-
cene is mainly of fresh-water origin in its lower and
upper portions, while marine deposits predominate
in the middle of the series. It is noted for its
beds of lignite or brown coal. In Switzerland the
Oligocene attains a thickness of several thousand
feet, chiefly conglomerates and sandstones, known
as Molasse, and mostly of fresh-water origin; the
portions, however, are marine and brackish-
water, Other areas of fresh-water Oligocene more
or less notable are met with in Alsace, Breisgau,
and Wiirtemberg. In Auvergne, central France,
lacustrine deposits of the same age are well
developed, each like most of the Oligocene strata,
have yielded great numbers of organic remains.
Life of the Period.—The flora of Oligocene times
was abundant and varied. Palm-trees (Sabal,
Flabellaria), both large and small, seem to have
grown over all Europe. Amongst conifers were
various American ty (Libocedrus, Chamecy-
paris, Sequoia, Taxodium) and other forms, such
as Glyptostrolus, like G. heterophyllus of Japan
and China, Widdringtonia, a genus now found
only in South Africa and Madagascar. There were
also proteaceous plants (Dryandra) of Australian
affinities, and species of custard-apple, gum-tree,
spindle-tree, maple, acacia, mimosa, lotus, aralia,
camphor-tree, cinnamon-tree, evergreen oak, laurel,
&e., besides such familiar forms as birch, horn-
beam, elder, elm, poplar, walnut, &c. Evergreens
were the prevalent forms. The invertebrate fauna
needs but little notice. Amongst notable molluscs
were volutes, cowries, olives, cones, spindle-shells,
&e. Cerithium a 2 yrgerrerang he plentiful in the
estuaries of eral ge iod ; while Jamellibranchs were
well represented by modern types of marine and
fresh-water habitats. Amongst the birds common
in Europe were paroquets, trogons, marabouts,
cranes, flamingoes, ibises, pelicans, eagles, secretary-
birds, sand-grouse, Ke. At the beginning of the
iod many mammals of extinct types lived in
urope, such as Palwotherium and Anchitherium,
survivals from the Eocene; certain transitional
forms of ungulates, such as Cainotherium (a small
animal somewhat resembling the living chevrotains
in outward ap nee), Xiphodon (a slenderly .
built deer-like animal ), and Anoplotherium (a long-
tailed animal about the size of an ass, with two
toes on each foot); various tapiroid animals, small
rhinoceroses, Hyzenodon (a carnivore), also forms
of a civet, martin, mole, musk-rat, &e.
Physical Conditions,—During Oligocene times a
wide land surface appears to have extended over
all the British area. the region lying between
what is now Antrim and the west coast of
Scotland great fissure-eruptions took place, and
sheet after sheet of basalt was poured ont, so as
eventually to form broad plateaus that extended
northwards beyond Skye. In the intervals between
successive eruptions these plateaus became clothed
with vegetation, the debris of which has been here
and there preserved in the deposits of shallow lakes
that dotted the surface of the volcanic country. It
is probable that at this time there was land-
connection between Europe and North America
by way of the Faroe Islands and Iceland, in both
of which tracts similar basaltic plateaus occur,
containing intercalated layers of lignite, &c. like
those of Antrim and the Western Islands of Scotland.
The Oligocene strata of the south of England and
the Franco-Belgian area are evidence that the sea
or estuarine waters which occupied that region in
Eocene times (see EocENE SysTeEM) were gradu-
ally silted up. In Germany there existed great
fresh-water lakes, fringed by wide marsh-lands and
by dense forests of a subtropical character. As the
lakes became partially silted or dried up vegetation
encroached upon their deserted beds, only to be
buried under fresh accumulations of sand and
mud when the water had again risen. That these
lakes were now and again in direct communication
with the sea is shown by the occurrence of thick
layers of marine origin intercalated amongst the
fresh-water beds. For some time, indeed, the
lacustrine areas were entirely usurped by the sea,
which may have entered them from submerged
regions in the east of Europe. In Switzerland, in
like manner, we have evidence of changing con-
ditions, At first the sea covered a considerable
598 OLIGOCLASE
OLIVE
portion of the country, but eventually it dis-
appeared, and its place was taken by a series of
brackish-water lagoons and fresh-water lakes. The
x S053 accumulated in those lakes now form con-
siderable mountains at the base of the Alps (Rigi,
Rossberg). In central France, as in Germany,
lacustrine conditions were characteristic of the
period, one or more lakes having occupied a
considerable area in Auvergne. nm) southern
Europe the Mediterranean had withdrawn from
wide regions which were deeply submerged by it in
Eocene times, but it still covered a more extensive
area than at present. The climate of the Oligocene
period was uniformly genial, but hardly so tropical
~~ that of the preceding period. See EOCENE
YSTEM.
Oligoclase. See Ferspar.
Olinda, a city of Brazil, 4 miles NE. of Per-
nambuco. Pop. 8100.
Oliphant, LAvRENcE, traveller, novelist, and
— was born in 1829, son of Sir Anthon
Oliphant, Chief-justice of Ceylon. In early yout
he travelled with Jung Bahadur to Nepal, and
after his return was admitted a member of the
Scottish bar, and later of the English bar at
Lincoln’s Inn. His first work, A Journey to
Khatmandu (1852), was followed by The Russian
Shores of the Black Sea (1853), the fruit of his
travels in Russia in 1852, He next became private
secretary to the Earl of Elgin, Governor-general of
Canada, whom later he accompanied on his special
embassy to China, thus finding material for his
books Minnesota and the Far West (1855) and A
Narrative of the Earl of Elgin’s Mission to China
and Japan in 1857-59 (1860). In 1861, while
acting as Chargé d’Affaires in Japan, he was
severely wounded by assassins, and consequently
pomgne his post, From 1865 to 1868 he sat in
-parliament for the Stirling burghs. Having become
profoundly influenced by certain peculiar religious
opinions, he renoun London society, joined
for a time the community of 'T, L. Harris (q.v.)
in the United States, and finally settled at Haifa
(q.v.) in Palestine. He died at Twickenham,
December 1888. The religious opinions of his
‘zine,
ally appeared in succession in Blackwood’s Maga-
hough these are of somewhat various merit,
in all of them the peculiar talent of the writer is
marked, They are rich in the minute detail which
is dear to the womanly mind ; have nice and subtle
insights into character, a tlavour of quiet humour,
and frequent traits of delicacy and pathos in the
treatinent of the gentler emotions. It was, however,
by the Chronicles of Carlingford (first ‘published
in Blackwood’s, 1861-64) that her reputation asa
novelist was first secured. In the first of them,
The Doctor's Family, the character of little Netty,
the heroine, vivities the whole work, and may rank
as an original creation. The next in the series,
Salem Chapel, perhaps indicates a wider and more
vigorous p than is to be found in any other
of her wor Certain of the unlovelier features of
English dissent, as exhibited in a small provincial
community, are here graphically sketched, and skil-
fully adapted to the purposes of fiction. After more
than forty years of novel-writing Mrs Oliphant’s
Borin showed no decadence; she retained to the
t the art of interesting her readers; there was
still the same fidelity to truth in the minor details
of her novels. A civil list pension of £100 was con-
ferred upon her in 1868. She resided at Windsor
for many years before her death, June 25, 1897.
Her other works include Agnes (1865); Madonna Mary
(1866); The Minister’s Wife (1869); John and Three
Brothers (1870); Squire Arden (1871); Ombra 1872);
A Rose in June (1874); Phabe Junior (1876);
Primrose Path (1878) ; Within the Precinets (1879); He
that Will Not when He May (1880); In Trust (1882);
The Ladies Lindores and It was a and his Lass
(1883); Hester, The Wizard’s Son, and Sir Tom (1884);
Madam and Two Stories of the Seen and Unseen (1885);
House Divided against Itself (1886); A Country
man and The Son of his Father (1887); The Second: Son
and Joyce (1888); Neighbours on the te Lady Car,
and A Poor Gentleman (1889); The D [
and Kirsteen (1890), Her more important contribu-
tions to a literature have been Life of Edward
Irving (1862) ; Historical Sketches of the Reign v Aides
Memoir of
Florence
later years he gave to the world in Symp
(1886) and cae fad Religion (1888), as well as in
his novel Masollam (1886), while they already
formed the background of his earlier novel, A/tiora
Peto (1883). liphant, when he subjected his
intellect to occultism, brought a bright career to
an abrupt conclusion, and flung away a rare literary
endowment. His Piccadilly (1870) was a book of
altogether exceptional promise, bright with wit,
delicate irony, and, above all, individuality ; but
its promise was never fulfilled. :
Cther books of Oliphant’s were The Transcaucasian
Campaign under Omar Pasha (1856); Patriots and
Filibusters (1860); The Land of Gilead (1881); T'raits
and Travesties, Social and Political (1882); The Land
of Khemi (1882); Haifa (1887); and Epi. in a Life
of Adventure (1837). See his Life by Mrs Oliphant.
Oliphant, Mrs MARGARET (née WILSON),
one of the most distinguished of modern female
novelists, was born in 1828 at Wallyford, near
Musselburgh, Midlothian. In 1849 she pub-
lished her first work, Passages in the Life of
Mrs Margaret Maitland, which instantly won
attention and approval. Its most distinctive
charm is the tender humour and insight which
regulate ite exquisite delineation of Scottish life and
character at once in their higher and lower levels.
This work was followed by Caleb Field (1850),
Merkland (1850), Adam Graeme (1852), Harry
Muir (1853), Magdalen Hepburn (1854), Lilliesteaf
(1855), and Katie Stewart (1852), The Quiet Heart
(1854), Zaidce (1855), the last three of which origin-
Principal Tulloch
Yh of Sn eA ot Motor Reign of Queen
Olivarez, GASPARO DE GUZMAN, COUNT OF,
Duke of San Lucar, was born January 6, 1587, at
Rome, where his father was ambassador. He became
the friend of Philip IV., his confidant in his amours,
and afterwards his prime-minister, in which capacity
he exercised almost unlimited power for twenty-two
ee Olivarez showed ability for government;
ut his constant endeavour was to wring money
from the coun that he might carry on wars
ge Portugal, France, and the Netherlands.
is attempts to rob the ae a of their time-
hononred privileges provoked insurrections in
Catalonia and Andalusia, and roused the Portn-
guese to shake off the Spanish yoke in 1640. | But
the continued ill-suecess of the arms of Spain at
length thoroughly roused the nation, and the king
was obliged to dismiss his favourite in 1643. He
was ordered to retire to Toro (Zamora), and died
there, 22d July 1645. See De la Rocea, Histoire
du Ministére du Comte-Duc d’ Olivares (1673).
Olive (Olea), a genus of trees and shrubs of the
natural order Oleacese, having opposite, evergreen,
leathery leaves, which are generally entire, smooth,
and minutely sealy. The general character of the
=
OLIVE
599
us is well illustrated by the accompanying eut.
The species are widely distributed in the warmer
temperate parts of the globe. The Common Olive
(0. Europea), a native of Syria and other Asiatic
countries, is in its wild state a thorny shrub or
small tree, but through cultivation becomes a tree
of 20 to 30 feet high, destitute of spines. It attains
a prodigious age; some plantations, as those at
Terni, in Italy, are supposed to have existed from
Common Olive (Olea Europea), Branch in Flower:
a, ripe fruit; b, section of same showing stone.
(Bentley and Trimen.)
the time of Pliny. Some trees in Turkey are
credited with an age of 1200 years. There are two
Yarieties of the common olive, one having narrow,
willow-like leaves, gra mn above and silvery
below. In the other the leaves are similar in ail
respects, only much broader. The latter has also
much the larger fruit of the two, but the oil it yields
is rank and coarse to the palate, and is rarely used
on the Continent out of Spain, in which country it is
the variety chiefly cultivated. The narrow-leaved
variety is preferred by the French and Italian
olive-growers, the more bland and agreeable oil
from which is better appreciated, especially by the
British. Olive-oil may be said to form the cream
and the butter of Spain and Italy, as it takes the
place of those ee gear of milk in the cookery and
table uses of those countries. Being highly nutri-
tious, it is also regarded as more wholesome than
animal fats in warm climates. The finest quality of
olive-oil is obtained from’Tuscany. The oil is con-
tained in the —T part of the fruit—not in the
stone—from which it is extracted by pressure. The
fruit when ripe is crushed to a paste. It is then
put into woollen bags and subjected to pressure
moderately. Thus is obtained in considerable
quantity the finest quality of oil, which is named
‘Virgin Oil.’ The pulp is then moistened with
water and sole pressed, the result being an oil of
inferior quality, yet oe fit for table purposes. A
further residue of oil is extracted from the ulp
after it has been steeped in water ; but it is ote fit
for soap-making and other manufacturing purposes
(see OILs, and Corron-srEp O1L). Unripe olives
are pickled both for consumption in the countries
in which they are grown and for exportation to
other countries. The best pickled olives come from
Genoa and Marseilles to England, but quantities
are also imported from Languedoc, Leghorn, and
Naples. y are eaten abroad before meals
as a whet to the appetite, and in England at
with wine to restore the palate and as a
digestive. Dried olives are also used for the
same purposes, as well as pickled olives. The
wood is much prized by cabinet-makers, being
beautiful in colour and grain, and capable of -
taking a fine polish; that of the root is most in
demand for the making of snuff-boxes and orna-
ments,
The olive has been cultivated in the East from
the remotest times, is associated with much mythi-
cal lore, and has been regarded in all ages as the
bounteous gift of heaven, as the emblem of peace
and plenty, and the highest reward that could be
iven to the honourable and the brave. The area
evoted to olive-culture in Italy is stated at about
2} million acres, and the total production of olive-
oil is some $0 million gallons. The olive is also
largely cultivated in Turkey and the Levant, in
Morocco and Tripoli, as wel as Spain; and some
attention is being peel to its culture in South
Australia. It grows luxnriantly in Chili, whither it
was brought by the Spaniards. Jesuit missionaries
introduced it into Mexico in the 17th century, and
into California, where it grows freely. It has also
been grown in Florida and other southern states.
The culture of the olive has been attempted in Eng-
land, but without success. Against south walls
it lives, with slight protection in winter, in the
a a of London, and in the same way it
produces fruit in exceptionally favourable seasons
in Devonshire ; but it is generally unsuited to the
British climate. Even in those countries in which
its culture may be profitably pursued the tree is
somewhat fastidious as to soil, aspect, and position.
It does not succeed well in elevated situations, pre-
fers sloping ground facing and not far removed
from the sea, and thrives t in caleareous soil.
It is very generally propagated by suckers, but
where great care is bestowed on it inarching is
practised, It bears an alundant crop only once in
several years, There are other species of Olea more
remarkable for the hardness and usefulness of their
timber than for their fruits. O. verrucosa, O. capen-
sis, and O. laurifolia, natives of the Cape of Good
Hope, are small trees or shrubs with wood of such
density and toughness as to rival in strength and
durability iron itself, and they are all named Iron-
wood by the colonists. The fruit of some of these
is eatable. The fruit of O. americana is also eat-
able. The Fragrant Olive of Japan and China—
O. (Osmanthus of some) fragrans—is a handsome
shrub with sweet-scented flowers, which are said to
be used by the Chinese for flavouring some kinds
of tea. See A. T. Marvin, The Olive: its Culture
in Theory and Practice (San Francisco, 1888); and
United States Consular Report (1890).
Olive, Princess, the title assumed in 1820 by
an impudent pretender, Mrs Olivia Serres, who
claimed to have been born at Warwick on 3d April
1772, the granddaughter of the Rev. Dr Wilmot,
her mother being his only daughter, her father
Henry Frederick, Duke of Cumberland, the young-
est brother of George ILI. In 1791 she had married
John Thomas Serres, painter, but had separated
from him in 1803; and between 1805 and 1819 she
had published ten trashy volumes of poetry and
fiction. She resembled the royal family, and found
some people ready to believe her to be really Prin-
cess of Cumberland and Duchess of Laneaster ; but
she died in poverty, within the ‘rules’ of the
King’s Bench, in November 1834, Lavinia, the
elder of two daughters by her husband (there seems
to have been at least one son by someone else),
married Anthony Thomas Ryves, the adopted son
of William Combe (‘Dr Syntax’), only, however,
also to separate, She died 7th December 1871, five
years after a jury, in Ryves and Ryves v. the
Attorney-general, had decided that Olive Serres
was not the legitimate daughter of the Duke of
‘600 OLIVENITE
OLSHAUSEN
Cumberland, and that eighty-two documents pro-
duced in evidence were forgeries.
See the Life of John Thomas Serres (1826), Motes and
Queries, passim ; and an article by E. Walford in the
Gentleman's Magazine for August 1873.
Olivenite, a mineral, consisting chiefly of
arsenic acid and protoxide of copper, with a little
phosphoric acid and a little water. It is generally
of some dark shade of green, sometimes brown or
yellow. It is found along with different ores of
copper in Cornwall and elsewhere. It is often
erystallised in oblique four-sided prisms, of which
the extremities are acutely bevelled, and the obtuse
lateral edges sometimes truncated, or in acute
double four-sided pyramids; it is sometimes also
spherical, kidney-s aped, columnar, or fibrous,
which latter variety is known as wood-arseniate,
and is greenish gray in colour.
Olivenza, a fortified town of Spain, near the
Portuguese frontier, 20 miles SSW. of Badajoz.
Pop. 7759.
Oliver, the comrade in arms of Roland (q.v.).
Olives, Mount or, called also Mount OLIVET,
a limestone ridge, lying north and south on the
east side of Jerusalem (q.v.), from which it is sep-
arated only by the narrow Valley of Jehosaphat.
It is called by the modern Arabs Jebel-al-Tér, and
takes its familiar name from a magnificent grove
of olive-trees which once stood on its western flank,
but has now in great part disappeared. The road
to Mount Olivet is through St Stephen’s Gate.
Immediately beyond, at the foot of the bridge
over the brook Podren, lies the Garden of Gethse-
mane ; and the road here parts into two branches,
northwards to Galilee, and eastwards to Jericho.
The ridge rises in three principal summits, that to
the north being 361 feet above Jerusalem (2725
above the sea), the central summit, crowned with a
village (Olivet proper), 286, and the third summit
on the south 46 feet. David fled from Absalom by
way of the Mount of Olives, which was also the
seene of the idolatrous worship established by
Solomon. The northern peak is the supposed
scene of the appearance of the angels to the dis-
ciples after the resurrection, and is remarkable
in Jewish history as the place on which Titus
formed his encampment in the expedition against
the fated city of Jerusalem. But it is around the
central peak, which is the Mount of Olives properly
so called, that all the most sacred associations of
Christian history converge. On the summit stands
the Church of the Ascension, on the site of a
eliurch built by St Helena; and near it are
shown the various places where, according to
tradition, our Lord wept over Jerusalem, where
the apostles composed the apostles’ creed, where
our Lord taught them the Lord’s Prayer, &e. Near
the Chureh of the Ascension is a mosque and the
tomb of a Mohammedan saint.
Olivetans, a religious order of the Roman
Catholic Church, whose full title is the Congrega-
tion of Our Lady of Mount Olivet. They are an
offshoot of the Benedictine Order (q.v.), and were
founded in 1313 by Giovanni Tolomei, a native of
Siena, and professor of Philosophy in the university
of that city, who believed himself to have been
miraculously cured of blindness. The order was
confirmed by pope John XXIL., and Tolomei was
chosen the first general.
Olivine, See Curyso.ire, Igneous Rocks.
Olla Podri‘da (lit., ‘putrid pot’), a Spanish
national dish, consisting of flesh, fresh and salted,
poultry, vegetables, &c., well seasoned with pepper
and garlic, and stewed together in a closed pot.
The terin is applied figuratively to literary produc-
tions of very miscellaneous contents. The French
uivalent is pot-pourri, and the Scotch hotch-
py both of which, bat especially the former,
are also employed in a figurative sense.
Ollendorf's Sretem, a method of learning
languayes, invented by H. G. Ollendorf (1803-65),
and designed for those who teach themselves, The
yrammars are meant to give the student a mastery
of the conversational forms of the language, gram-
matical rules being few.
Ollivier, OLtvier Emit, French statesman,
was born at Marseilles on 2d July 1825, and,
having studied law at Paris, began to practise as
an advocate in that city. By clever pleading he
established a reputation at the bar, and after ‘ise
acquired influence as a member of the Legislative
Assembly. In 1865 the vieeroy of Egypt appointed
him to a high juridical office in that country. But
he still took an active interest in French polities,
and in January 1870 Napoleon IIL. charged him
to form a constitutional ministry. But the real
authority of the ministers was practically nil.
Ollivier was an bier 5 tool in the hands of
the Imperialists. * With a light heart’ he rushed
his country into the war with Germany, himself to
be overthrown, after the first battles, on 9th August.
He withdrew to Italy. Ollivier has written books
on Lamartine (1874) and Thiers (1879), and L’ Eqlise
et VEtat au Concile du Vatican (2 vols. 1879),
Principes et Conduite (1875), Nouveau Manuel de
Droit Ecclésiastique Frangais (1885); and_ his
L’ Empire Libé (vol. i. 1894) was an apol
for his administration, and an attempt to throw the
blame of the war wholly on Germany.
Olmiitz, a fortress of Moravia, Austria, on the
March, 129 miles NNE. of Vienna, otable
are the 14th-century cathedral (restored 1887); the
churely of St Maurice (1472), whose organ has 48
stops and 2342 pipes; the noble town-hall, with a
steeple 255 feet high; the archiepiscopal palace ;
and the lofty Trinity column on the Oberring.
The former university (1581-1855) is reduced to a
theological faculty, with over 200 students and a
library of 75,000 volumes. The trade is more im-
arse than the manufactures. Pop. 20,176.
Imiitz, which in 1640 was superseded by Briinn as
the capital of Moravia, suffered severely in both
the Thirty and the Seven Years’ Wars. In 1848
Ferdinand I. signed his abdication here. See the
local history by W. Miiller (Vienna, 1882).
Olney, a pleasant little town of Buckingham-
shire, on the Ouse, 11 miles W. by N. of Bedford
and 10 SE. of Northampton. At the corner of the
market-place still stands the house where Cowper
(q.v.) lived from 1767 to 1786, writing with John
ewton the Olney Hymns (1779). The place
besides has memories of Scott the commentator,
William Carey, and many more missionaries.
Brewing and hootmaking are industries. Pop, 2347.
See Thomas Wright's 7own of Cowper (1886).
Olonetz, a government of Russia, bounded W.
by Finland, NE. by Archangel, and 8. by Novgorod
and St Petersburg. Area, 57,422 sq. m.; pop.
(1883) 327,043. Forests cover 634 per cent. of the
total area, Petrosavodsk is the centre of adminis-
tration.
Oloro t
Basses-Pyrénées, on the Gave d’Oloron, 22 miles
by rail SW. of Pau. It has two interesting
Romanesque churehes, Pop. 7517.
Olshausen, HERMANN, theologian, was born
at Oldeslohe in Holstein, 2lst Angust 1796, studied
at Kiel and at Berlin under Neander, and became
steep at Berlin (1821), Kénigsberg (1827), and
rlangen (1834). He died 4th September 1839.
hy Fy 1 work was a complete commentary on
the N
a town in the French department of |
ew Testament, completed by Ebrard and
— 2
OO ——
OLYMPIA
OLYMPIAD 601
Wiesinger ( 1830 et seg. ; Eng. trans. 4 vols. 1847-49?
rey. ed. 6 vols. New York, 1856-58). His younger
brother Justus (1800-82) was a distinguished
Orientalist ; and Theodore (1802-69) took a promi-
nent part in the Sleswick-Holstein rising, 1848,
Olym the scene of the celebrated Olympic
games, is a utiful valley in Elis, in the Pelo-
ponnesus, through which runs the river Alpheus.
As a national sanctuary of the Greeks, Olympia
contained, within a smal space, many of the choicest
treasures of Greek art belonging to all periods
and states, such as temples, monuments, altars,
theatres, and multitudes of images, statues, and
votive-offerings of brass and marble. In the time
of the elder Pliny there still stood here about 3000
statues. The Sacred Grove (called the Altis) of
Olympia enclosed a level space about 660 feet long
by nearly 580 broad, containing the sanctuaries
connected with the games. It was finely wooded,
and in its centre stood a clump of sycamores,
The Altis was crossed from west to east by a road
called the ‘Pompie Way,’ along which all the pro-
cessions passed. The Alpheus bounded it on the
south, the Cladeus, a tributary of the former, on
the west, and rocky but gently swelling hills on
the north; westward it looked towards the Ionian
Sea. The most celebrated building was the Olym-
icion, or Olympium, dedicated to Olympian Zeus.
t was designed by the architect Libon of Elis in
the 6th century B.c., but was not completed for
more than a century. It contained a colossal
statue of the god, the masterpiece of the sculptor
Phidias, and many other splendid figures; its
paintings were the work of Panenus, a relative
of Phidias. Next to the Olympieion ranked the
Herwum, dedicated to Hera, the wife of Zeus
and Queen of Heaven, containing the table on
which were placed the garlands pre for the
victors in the games. The Pelopium, the Metroum,
the ten Thesauri or Treasuries, built for the reeep-
tion of the dedicatory offerings of the Greek cities,
the temples of Eileithyia and Aphrodite also de-
serve mention. The Stadiwn and the Hippodrome,
where the contests took place, stood outside and
east of the Altix; the Gymuasium and Palestra
were also outside and to the west. Explorations
were carried on in 1875-81 by the German govern-
ment at a total expense of £40,000, and threw
much light on the plans of the buildings. Many
valuable sculptures, bronzes, coins, and other
‘objects were discovered. The greatest find was
the Hermes of Praxiteles, a most beautiful and
inarvellous piece of sculpture, The results of these
excavations have been published officially in Die
Ausgrabungen zu Olympia (5 vols. 1875-81, with
a? poms ).
ympic es were the most splendid national
festival of ha edielens Greeks, aad were celebrated
every fifth year in hononr of Zeus, the father of
the gods, on the plain of Olympia. Their origin
goes back far —— 776 B.C., the year in which
the eustom of reckoning time by Olympiads (q.v.)
began. We may, however, believe that the games
hecame a truly national festival for the first time
in that year. At first, it is conjectured, only
Peloponnesians resorted to the Olympie games,
but F sheng the other Greek states were attracted
to them, and the festival became Pan-Hellenic.
Originally, and for a long time, none were allowed
to contend except those of pure Hellenic blood;
but after the conquest of Greece by the Romans
the latter sought and obtained this honour, and
both Tiberius and Nero figure in the list of Roman
victors. Women—with one exception, the priestess
of Demeter Chamyne—were forbidden to be pres-
ent, on pain of being thrown headlong from the
A pgp k. -The games were held at the first
moon of the summer solstice, when first
throughout Elis, and then throughout the rest of
Greece, heralds proclaimed the cessation of all
intestine hostilities; while the territory of Elis
itself was declared inviolable. The competitors
were required to undergo a preparatory training
for ten months in the gynmasium at Elis, an
cotng the last of these months the gynmasium
was almost as numerously attended as the games
themselves. Much uncertainty prevails as to the
manner in which the contests were distributed over
the different days. Krause (Olympia, B 106)
suggests the following order: On the first day the
great initiatory sacrifices were offered, after which
the competitors were properly classed and arranged
by the judges, and the contests of the trumpeters
took place; the second day was set apart for the
boys who competed with each other in foot-races,
wrestling, boxing, the pentathlon, the F aagpnean
horse-races ; the third and principal day was de-
voted to the contests of men in foot-races of
different kinds (as, for example, the simple race,
once over the course; the diaudos, in which the
competitors had to run the distance twice ; and the
dolichos, in which they had to run it seven or
twelve times), wrestling, boxing, the pankration
(in which all the powers and skill of the combatants
were exhibited), and the race of Aoplites, or men
in nical Peay pach on the fourth day came off the
pentat, (contest of five games—viz. leaping,
running, throwing the discus, throwing the spear,
and wrestling), the chariot and horse races, and
perhaps the contests of the heralds; the fifth day
was set a for processions, sacrifices, and ban-
quets to the victors (called Olympionikoi), who
were crowned with a garland of wild olive-twigs
cut from a sacred tree which grew in the Altis, and
presented to ‘the assembled people, each with a
palm branch in his hand, while the heralds pro-
elaimed his name, and that of his father and
country, On his return home he was received with
extraordinary distinction : songs were sung in his
praise (14 of Pindar’s extant lyrics are devoted to
Olympionikoi) ; statues were erected to him, both
in the Altis and in his native city; a place of
honour was given him at all public spectacles; he
was in general exempted from public taxes, and at
Athens was boarded at the expense of the state in
the Prytaneion. The ulation of the games
belonged to the Eleans, from whom were chosen
the hellanodikai, or judyes, at first two in number,
but latterly ten or twelve. Theodosius I. pro-
hibited the games in 394 A.D. Theodosius II.
ordered the buildings, which had suffered at the
hands of the Romans and of various Byzantine
Emperors, as they afterwards did from Goths and
Slavs, tobe burnt, Olympic games( including bieyele
races) were in a fashion revived at Athens in 1896;
theathletescoming, however, from France,Germany,
and elsewhere, as well as from Greek territories.
See Krause’s Olympia (1838); Béotticher’s Olympia
(1882) ; Baumeister’s Denkmiler ; Lalon and Monceaux,
Restauration de U Olympie (1889) ; and Curtiusand Adler,
Olympia die Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen (1891).
Olympia, capital of the state of Washington,
on a peninsula at the south end of Puget Sound,
some BS miles from the Pacific Ocean, and 121 miles
by rail N. of Portland, Oregon. The Des Chutes
River, which enters the sound here, provides abun-
dant water-power, and the town has flour and saw
mills, boot-factories, &c. Pop. (1900) 4082.
Olympiad, the name given to the period of
four years that elapsed between two successive
celebrations of the Olympic games, a mode of
reckoning among the. Greeks apparently first em-
ployed systematically by Alexandrian writers in
the 3d century B.c. It is used only by writers,
and is never found on coins and very seldom on
inscriptions. The first recorded olympiad dates
602 OLYMPIAS
OMAR KHAYYAM
from the 2ist or 22d of July 776 B.c., and is
frequently referred to as the Olympiad of
Corebus; for historians, instead of referring to
the olympiad by its number, frequently designate
it by the name of the winner of the foot-race
in the Olympic games belonging to that period.
The first year of our present era (1 A.D.)
corresponded to the last half of the fourth year
of the 194th with the first half of the first year
of the 195th olympiad. See CHRONOLOGY.
Olympias, the wife of Philip IL, king of
Macedonia, and mother of Alexander the Great.
She was the daughter of Neoptolemus L, king of
Epirus. She was a woman of great vigour and
capacity, but was passionate, nang and ambi-
tious. When Philip married Cleopatra, niece of
Attalus, she left Macedonia, and she was believed
to have instigated his assassination by Pausanias
(337 B.c.). On the accession of Alexander she re-
turned to Macedonia, and brought about the murder
of Cleopatra and her daughter. Alexander treated
her with respect, but he never allowed her to
meddle with his political schemes. After his
death she obtained the support of Polysperchon,
and in 317 the pair defeated and put to death
Philip Arrhidweus, the weak-minded step-brother
and successor of Alexander, together with his wife
Eurydice. Her cruelties soon alienated the minds
of the people, whereupon Cassander besieged her
moh dep and on its surrender put her to death,
316 B.C.
Glysaplodorns, one of the latest of the Alex-
andrian Neoplatonists, flourished in the first half
of the 6th century after Christ, during the reign of
the Emperor Justinian, Regarding his life nothin,
is known. Of his writings we possess a Life @
Plato, with commentaries or scholia on the
Gorgics, Philebus, Phedo, and Alcibiades I, In
these he appears as an acute and vigorous thinker
and as a man of great erndition.—Another Olym-
piodorus, of the Peripatetic school, flourished in
Alexandria in the 5th century B.c., and was the
teacher of Proclus (q.v.).—A third Olympiodorus,
from Thebes in Egypt, wrote in Greek a history of
the western empire from 407 to 425 A.D., abridged
by Photius.
Olympus, the ancient name of several moun-
tains or chains of mountains—e.g. in Mysia, Cyprus,
Lycia, Elis, Laconia, Arcadia, and one, the most
famous of all, between Thessaly and Macedonia.
lts eastern side, which fronts the sea, shows a
line of vast precipices, cleft by ravines filled with
forest trees. Oak, chestnut, beech, and plane trees
are scattered along its base, and higher up grow
forests of pine, as in the days of the old poets
of Greece and Rome. Its highest peak is 9750
feet above the sea. It was regarded by the ancient
Greeks as the chief abode of the gods, and the
ng of Zeus was supposed to stand upon its
yroad summit. According to Greek legend it was
formerly connected with Ossa, but was separated
from it by an earthquake, allowing a passage for
the Peneus throngh the narrow vale of Tempe to
the sea. The philosophers afterwards transferred
the abode of the gods to the planetary spheres.
Om is a Sanskrit word which, on account of the
mystical notions that even at an early date of
Hindu civilisation were connected with it, acquired
much importance in the development of Hindu
religion. Its original sense is that of emphatic
or solemn affirmation or assent. Later it became
the auspicious word with which the spiritual
teacher to begin, and the pupil had to end,
each lesson of his reading of the Veda. And nlti-
mately (as equal to Aum) it came to be regarded
as an abbreviated method of naming the ‘Hindu
Trinity. In the Lamaist form of Buddhism the
‘formula of six syllables,’ Om mani padme hum,
which is variously interpreted, is the most solemn
aud sacred of invocations ; is the first thing taught
to Tibetan and Mongolian children, the last prayer
breathed by the dying man. It is found engraved
on rocks, flags, and praying-wheels,-and is looked
on as the essence of religion and wisdom, and the
means of attaining eternal bliss.
Omagh (Gael. a magh, ‘seat of the chiefs’),
the county town of Tyrone, on the Strule, 34 miles
S. of Londonderry and 110 NNW. of Dublin. It
grew up around an abbey founded in 792, but is
first heard of as a fortress in the end of the 15th
century, when it was forced to surrender to the
English. It formed part of James I.’s ‘ Plantation’
grants, and was strongly garrisoned by Mountjoy.
On its being evaenated by the troops of Jamieke
in 1689 it was partially burned, and a second fire
in 1743 completed its destruction. But it has been
well rebuilt, and is now a neat and prosperous
town. Pop. (1881) 4138; (1891) 4039.
Omaha, thie chief city of Nebraska, the seat of
justice of Douglas county, is on the right bank of
the Missouri River, at the convergence of several
important railway lines, 490 miles by rail W. of
Chicago, and 476 miles N. by W. of St Louis. Lat.
40° 16’ N. ; lon. 95° 56’ W. The site of Omaha is a
plateau 80 feet above the river, which is spanned by
wagon- and railway-bridges, one of the latter 2750
feet in length and erected at a cost of $1,250,000,
The city covers an area of 244 sq.m. Among its
institutions are 2 cathedrals and over one hundred
other churches, a university, a college, a hall for
girls, a medical college, a state institution for the
deaf and dumb, and a free public library. There _
are also 6 hospitals, with accommodations for 700
patients; a United States court-house and post-
office building, costing $1,600,000; a county court-
house; a high-school louse, costing $250,000; 9
national banks, 8 state banks, and 2 savings-banks ;
a chamber of commerce and exposition pen
There are 140 manufacturing concerns, with a capi-
tal of $22,000,000, ppg ee Pye persons and pro-
ducing is valued at $80,000,000 per year, and 170
wholesaling houses, with a capital of $9,000,000,
Omaha is said to the largest silver-smeltin;
works in the world, epee an annual output
ld, silver, copper, and | valued at $22,000,000,
fits meat-packing industries are also of vast propor-
tions, the several establishments having an aggre-
gate capital of $11,000,000, and employing per-
sons. A belt-line railway encircles the city, and
here are the principal shops of some of the main lines
that centre here. Dail pers and many other
periodicals are published here. Pop. (1870) 16,083;
(1880) 30,518 ; (1890) 140,452; (1900) 102,555.
Omahas, » tribe of American Indians, of the
Dakota stock, settled in northern Nebraska, and
numbering about 1200,
Oman, the most eastern portion of Arabia, a
strip of maritime territory, extending between the
Strait of Ormuz and Ras-el-Had, bounded on
the SW. by the deserts of the interior, At a
distance of from 20 to 45 miles inland a chain of
mountains runs lel to the coast, Tt 6000
feet in Jebel Akhdar. There are some richly fertile
tracts in this region, especially where water exists
for irrigation. he coast is hot and not v:
healthy. This part of Arabia is under the
of the sultan of Muscat (q.v.).
Omar. See CALIF.
, Omar Khayyam, the astronomer-poet of
Persia, was =. at Nishapur, the capital of
Khorassan, about the middle of the 11th century,
and took his takhallus or poetical name. Nig 8
yam,’ from his father’s calling of tent-maker, He
bd
OMAR PASHA
OMICHAND 603
was bronght up under the great Sunni teacher,
Imam Muattik, and formed a close friendship with
two of his fellow-pupils, Nizim-ul-Mulk and
Hassan-ibn-Sabbah, of whom the one became
vizier to the sultan Alp-Arslan, and the other
founded the sect of the Assassins. Omar himself
had an offer from his old friend of a place at court,
but accepted instead a yearly pension of 1200 gold
jieces. He, however, obeyed the summons of
alik Shah to Merv, and during his sultanate
helped to reform the calendar. The result was the
Jaldli erva—‘a computation of time,’ says Gibbon,
‘which surpasses the Julian, and approaches the
accuracy of the Gregorian style.’ To appease the
odium theologicum that he had roused against him-
self he is said to have made the pilgrimage to
Mecea; and he died in 1122 at Nishapur, where
the north wind, as he predicted, still scatters roses
on his tomb.
Of some mathematical treatises by him in Arabic,
one on algebra has been edited and translated by
Woepke (Paris, 1851); and it was almost solely
as a mathematician that he was known to the
western world, until in 1859 Edward FitzGerald
(qv) 7 ore his ‘translation’ of seventy-five
his Rubdiydt or quatrains. The poet of Agnosti-
cism, such was Omar Khayyam, though some in
his poetry see nothing save the wine-cup and roses,
and others read into it that Sufi mysticism with
which, indeed, it was largely adulterated long
after Omar’s death. He was a true poet; yet his
fate has been that of the man in the story who
lost his shadow, to find it years afterwards grown
toa nobleman, through whom he perished.
_ For FitzGerald’s translation is so infinitely finer
than the original that the value of the latter is
such mainly as attaches to Chaucer's or Shake-
speare’s prototypes.
There are editions of the Rubdiydt by Nicolas (464
quatrains; Paris, 1867), Monbir Muhammad Sadik Ali
or 4 800 quatrains; Lucknow. 1878), and E. H.
field (253 quatrains ; Lond. 1883), who also trans-
lated them into very literal English verse {ieee} A
i translation by Justin H. M‘Carthy (1889) has
ittle to recommend it. See an article Professor E,
Cowell in the Calcutta Review (January 1858), and vol.
iii. of Fitzgerald's Letters and Literary Remains (1889).
Omar Pasha, Turkish general, was born at
Plaski, in Croatia, in 1806 (according to some
authorities, in 1811). His real name was Michael
Lattas; he was educated for the Austrian army
at the military school of Thurn, near Carlstadt.
Having by a breach of discipline rendered himself
liable to punishment, he fled to Bosnia, and,
embracing Moham ism, gained through his
beautiful br ere’ the post of writing-master to
Abdul-Medjid, the heir to.the Ottoman throne. On
his pupil’s accession in 1839 Omar Pasha was raised
to the rank of colonel, and in 1842 appointed mili-
tary D, aptasins of the Lebanon. In 1843 he dis-
played considerable skill and energy in suppress-
ing an insurrection in Albania, and in the following
ears others in Bosnia and Kurdistan. On the
vasion of the Danubian Tiger roy by the
Russians in 1853 Omar Pasha collected an army
of 60,000 men, and, crossing the Danube in presence
of the enemy, intrenched himself at Kalafat, where
he successfully withstood the Russians; after they
withdrew from the Principalities Omar Pasha
entered Bucharest in triumph in August 1854.
On 9th Febrr 1855 he embarked for the Crimea,
and on the 17th of the same month repulsed with
ear loss 40,000 Russians who attacked him at
wether He was soon afterwards (October 3,
¥ ) sent fa rh fs chaand cs one ee
tem was c to paci nia
ot a ~ommmll a which were redid an Brain
tion. This being accomplished, he attacked the
Montenegrins, captured Cetinje, and overran the
country in 1862. He died 18th April 1871.
Ombre (through the Fr. from Span. hombre,
‘man’), a game of ecards borrowed from the
rab and usually played by three persons,
though sometimes by two and by five. The game
is played with 40 cards (the eights, nines, and tens
having been removed ), and each player receives nine
cards, three by three.
Omdurman. See Knartoum, Manni.
O'Meara, Barry Epwarp, physician to
Napoleon on St Helena, was born in Ireland in
1786. He first served as surgeon in the army, but
was dismissed the service in 1808 for a discreditable
share in a duel at Messina. Later he entered the
naval department, and was on board the Bedlero-
on when Napoleon surrendered to Captain Mait-
and. He pleased the great exile, and accompanied
him as his private physician to St Helena. He
took part with Napoleon in his squabbles with the
governor, Sir Hudson Lowe, and was imprisoned
and compelled to resign his post in 1818. On his
return to England he asserted in a letter to the
Admiralty that Sir Hudson Lowe had dark designs
against his captive’s life, and had attempted insidi-
ously to corrupt himself. For this monstrous charge
he was at once dismissed the service. His Napoleon
in Exile (1822) made a great sensation, and is still
valuable if read with caution. He died obscure in
London, 3d June 1836.
Omelet (Fr. Omelette), - exquisite dish Vien
exquisitely prepared, an e most good things
perfectly simple. Break fresh eggs (not less than
two or more than five) in a basin with a pinch of
salt and pepper, beat for two seconds, pour into an
omelet- in which butter (1 to 2 0z.) is boiling.
Stir till the mixture sets, fry till one side is
brown, double over in half and serve immediately.
Savoury omelets are made by adding to the eggs
finely-minced herbs, ham, bacon, fish, or game.
For sweet omelets use a little sugar instead of
pepper in the mixture, and place a spoonful of
reserved fruit on the omelet before folding over.
he word is said, by Littré and by Skeat, to be
derived from the Old French Alemelle (a thin flat
plate), first corrupted to Amelette, then Omelette.
Omen (perhaps originally osmen, for ausmen ;
root, audio, ‘1 hear’); also Propicy (Lat. pro-
digium for prodicium, from prodico), names given
by the Romans to signs by which approaching
good or bad fortune was supposed to be indi-
cated. The former applied particularly to signs
received by the ear Sey spoken words ; the latter,
to phenomena and occurrences, such as monstrous
births, the appearance of snakes, the striking of
the foot against a stone, the breaking of a shoe-
tie, sneezing, and the like. It was supposed that
evil indicated as approaching might be averted by
various means, as by sacrifices, or by the utterance
of certain magic formulas; or by an extempore
felicity of interpretation, as when Cesar, having
fallen upon the ground on landing in Africa, ex-
claimed : ‘I take possession of thee, Africa.’ Occa-
sionally we read of a reckless disregard of omens ;
as, for example, when P. Claudius in the first
Punic war caused the sacred chickens, which
refused to leave their cage, to be pitched into the
sea, saying: ‘If they won’t eat, let them drink.’
The belief in omens in one form or other has
existed in all s and countries, and traces of it
linger in the folklore of all countries. And, indeed,
there is no little philosophy in the Scotch pro-
verb: ‘Them that follow freits, freits follow.’ See
AUGURIES, DIVINATION, and FOLKLORE.
Omentum, See PERITONEUM.
Omichand, See CLive (ROBERT).
604 OMMIADES
ONION
Ommiades, See Cair.
Omnibuses, vehicles ‘for all,’ the well-known
test? conveyances. So long since as 1662 Blaise
rascal, the author of the Lettres Provinciales,
assisted by some noblemen, obtained a patent from
the French king for the privilege of running public
nes, containing six persons, each along certain
streets of Paris, and preserving its own route, for
five sous per passenger. For two years the scheme
proved a great snecess, but the death of Pascal and
other causes occasioned its disuse. The first omni-
bus, built in Paris in 1820, was drawn by three
horses, and soon me popular. Paris has also
an excellent system of railway buses to contain
eight ngers inside; the English railways have
recently followed this practice, In England at the
beginning of the 19th century stage-coaches were
used by "sasluens men to reach London from its
suburbs. “These were succeeded by the omnibuses
started in London, July 1829, by Mr Shillibeer,
formerly a coachmaker in Paris, and were drawn hy
three horses, conveying twenty-two persons inside.
Smaller and more convenient buses were introduced
in 1849, which conveyed twelve passengers inside
and two out. Outside seats along the centre of the
roof followed in 1857, and the vehicle was sub-
sequently much improved upon by Mr Miller of
Hammersmith. Large omnibuses are in use in
Glasgow and Manchester and other large towns,
and the three-horse omnibus was re-introduced in
London on the route from Charing Cross to Port-
land Road. Many recent improvements have been
made in the arrangement of seats outside facing
forward, the greater accommodation of the in-
terior, and the lightness of the vehicle. The
London General Omnibus Company, founded in
1855, took over 580 omniluses.. In 1891 it liad
860 omnibuses, employing 9600 horses and 3000
men. Each ‘bus runs about 12 miles daily. The
company build for their own use about 90 or’ 100
lnses annually. The average weight of an omnibus
is 30 ewt., and the cost about £150. The more
recent London Road Car Company, whose opposi-
tion to the older company has resulted in a great
reduction of fares, runs 217 buses, and employs
2619 horses. The average charge per mile by bus
is less than 1d.
Omnium, Jacos. See Hicarns.
Omphacite (Gr. omphaka, ‘unripe grape’), a
frass-green granular variety of the Pyroxenes
(q.v.), one of the constituents of Eclogite (q.v.).
Omphale. See Hercuces.
Omsk, chief town of the Russian province of
Akmolinsk, stands at the contluence of the Om
with the Irtish, 1800 miles E. of Moscow. It was
built in 1716 as a defence against the Kirghiz;
but is now of no importance as a fortress, "at is
the seat of administration for the Steppe provinces
of western Asia. It has a military aculemy, a
Greek and a Roman Catholic cathedral, a museum,
governor’s palace, &c., and a declining trade with
the ete in cattle, hides, furs, and tea. Pop,
(1887) 33,847 ; (1895) 54,750.
On. See HELIopo.ts.
Onager. See Ass, BALLISTA.
Onagracew, ONAGRARLEZ, or CENOTHER-
ACE®, & natural order of exogenous plants, con-
sisting chiefly of herbaceous plants, but including
also a few shrubs; with simple leaves and axillary
or terminal flowers. There are about 450 known
species, natives chiefly of temperate climates, amon
which are some munch cultivated for the beauty o
their flowers, particularly those of the genera
Fuchsia, Enothera (Evening Primrose), Clarkia,
and Godetia. The British yenera are Epilobiam
(Willowherb) and Circwa (Enchanter’s Night-
shade). A few species produce edible berries,
and the roots of one or two are eatable; but none
are of economic importance. The root of Isnarda
alternifolia, found in the marshes of Carolina, and
called Bowman’s Root, is emetic. Some s of
Jussiwa are used in dyeing in Brazil.
One’ga, a seaport in the north of Russia, stands
at the point where the river Onega empties into
the White Sea, 87 miles SW. of Archangel. It is
entered by about 120 vessels annually of a gross
burden of 21,000 tons. Pop. 2547.
Onega, Lake, in the north of Russia, after
Ladoga, to the north-east of which it lies, the
largest lake in Europe, is 50 miles in greatest
breadth, 146 miles in length, and 1000 feet in depth
in parts. Area, 3764.sq.m. It is fed by numerous
rivers ; but its only outlet is the river Swir, which
flows south-west into Lake Lad The northern
end is studded with islands eal. deagly indented
with bays. The shores in other parts are flat and
low and lar. Although the water is iee-bound
generally for 156 days in the year, the lake is the
scene of busy traffic at other seasons. Communica-
tion is promoted by a canal ent lel to the
southern shore. Fish abound. rages are fre-
uent at times. Surveys were completed in 1890
or a canal to connect Lake Onega with the White
Sea; it will be 145 miles long, 10 feet deep, and
63 wide, and is expected to cost only £800,000, the
greater part of the distance being along natural
waterways,
Oneglia, a town on the Gulf of Genoa, 3 miles
NE. of Porto Maurizio by rail. Pop. 7286.
Oneida Company. See PeRFEecTIONIsTs.
@Oneidas (Indians). See Iroqvors.
O'Neil, Hucu. See Tyrone (EARL oF).
Onion (Fr. ofgnon, from Lat. unio, ‘a pearl,
but-in Columella signifying a kind of onion), the
name given toa =a —, of the genus Allium
(q.¥.), an rticularly to A. (Lat. cepa), a
tennial buthonaceationd plant. The bulb Se ahem le,
and in the common variety is solitary, showing
little tendency to produce lateral bulbs. “The native
country of the onion is shrouded in obscurity. It
is supposed to be indigenous to India, whence it
into Faypt, where it was cultivated 2000
years before the Christian era. Thence po
was transmitted to Greece and Italy, anc uall
spread over Europe, in most countries of which it
has been cultivated from time immemorial.
onion contains a white acrid volatile oil, holding
sulphur in solution, albumen, uncrystallisable sugar
ait gern ee phosphoric acid, both free and com-
bined with lime, acetic acid, citrate of lime, and
lignin. The acrid qualities, while present in every
part of the plant, are inost concentrated in the bulb,
When it is cultivated in warm countries the acri-
dity decreases, while the saccharine qualities in-
crease ; hence the comparative mildness of Spanish
and Portuguese onions. So mild and sweet are these
that the peasantry of Spain and Portugal eat them
raw with bread. Indeed, the onion forms a very
important article of food with the poor of those
countries. It is very nutritious and easily ot
yet does not with all stomachs when cook
otherwise than bojled. In boiling, the essential oil
is dissipated and the onion thereby rendered more
agreenble to delicate stomachs. The onion is
stimulant, dinretic, expectorant, and rubefacient.
The acid of the juice has the reputation of dis-
solving calenlns in the bladder. The pulp of the
bulb by fermentation is converted into vinegar, and
with the addition of dregs of beer yields by distilla-
tion an aleoholic liquor. The pulp of roasted onion
with olive-oil forms an excellent anodyne and emol-
lient poultice to suppurating tumours. There are
ONKELOS
ONTARIO " 605
many varieties of the onion in cultivation in Britain,
which have been obtained by natural seminal varia-
tion and by careful selection. In recent years t
has been made by these means in the diree-
tion of increasing the size of the bulb, and there
are now varieties which under good cultivation
surpass even the large Spanish onion of the sho
in size, but they lack the delicate flavour of t
latter. There is great diversity in the keeping
ualities of the bulbs of the different varieties.
Those having small, compact bulbs keep best and
for the longest time. By a oy wa selection of
sorts home-grown onions may be had either green
or matured all the year round. The Tripoli Trebon
and White Lisbon are sown in August to supply
green onions in spring; and if transplanted from the
seed-bed to rich ground at that season they grow
to very large size by September, when they reach
maturity. James's Keeping, Strasburg, and Brown
Globe are varieties which keep long and are sown
in Feb and March for the main crop. The
onion delights in rich, moist soil deeply trenched ;
when very large bulbs are desired it is hardly
possible to overdo the ground with manure. When
the crop ripens, which is known by the central
leaves ceasing to grow and the lower ones going to
decay, the bulbs are taken up and spread out thinly
on a dry surface in the open air till they are quite
dry ; they are then stored in a loft where, in mild
weather, they may have plenty of air but be pro-
tected from frost and damp.—The Potato-onion,
so called because it reproduces itself und und
by division of the bulb, is a nnial variety of
the onion which also bears the names Egyptian
and Ground Onion. It is much favou by
3, in Scotland Vn von A legend that
it was first brought to Britain by the British arm
from t in 1805 is without foundation, as it
was cultivated long before that time in the
country. Pickling onions are usually obtained by
sowing the small silver-skinned variety on poor
soil in spring. The Tree-onion, so named because,
instead of producing seeds after flowering, the
ovaries deve viviparous bulbs by which the
plant is propagated, is rarely cultivated except
as a cnriosity. The Welsh Onion, or Cibol (A.
Jistulosum), produces no bulb, but merely a fleshy
stem like the leek. It is a native of Siberia, and
being ‘very hardy was formerly grown in gardens
to supply green onion tops in spring for salads and
the flavouring of soups and sauces. Being rather
coarse in flavour, however, it has been superseded
by the milder flavoured kinds, which are sown in
August. It is the true syboe of the Scotch, al-
though the term has come to be applied to green
or young onions of whatsoever kind.
Onkelos, the reputed author of an Aramaic
Targum of the Pentatench. See TARGUM.
Onomacrritus, 4 religious poet of ancient
Greece, lived at Athens in the time of the Pisis-
tratide. He exercised t influence on the
development of the Orphic mysteries, and col-
lected the prophecies or oracles of Musius (q.v.),
bmt was banished by Hipparchus for falsifying
them. He followed the Pisistratide into Persia,
and was by them induced to repeat to Xerxes
all the ancient yb that seemed to favour
his invasion of Greece. He helped to arrange
the Homeric poems, and is suspected of having
introduced interpolations into the text of them.
Cromstepeia, a term used in philology to
denote the formation of words in imitation of
natnral sounds, as in cuckoo, pee-wit, and the like.
See PurLoLocy.
Onondagas. See Inoquors.
; pmtarte, Ue easternmost and smallest (7240
sq. m.) of the five great lakes of North America,
receives at its sonth-west corner the waters of the
upper lakes by the Niagara River, and at its
north-east corner it issues into the St Lawrence.
Its surface, which is subject to periodieal variations
(4 to 7 years) of about 34 feet, and which it is
attempted to explain on the supposition of there
ing a subterranean river out of the lake, is
3263; feet below the surface of Lake Erie and
246,%; feet above the ocean-level. Its mean depth
is about 300, its maximum depth 738 feet. It is
190 miles long, 55 in its widest part, and over 500
in ei rence. It has many thriving ports,
of whieh the chief are Kingston, Coburg, Port
Hope, Toronto, and Hamilton on the Canadian
shore, and Sackett’s Harbor, Oswego, and Char-
lotte in the United States. It is connected with
Lake Erie by the Welland Canal, with the Erie
Canal and river Hudson by the Oswego Canal, and
by the Rideau Canal with the Ottawa; and in
1890 a ae agin (69 miles) was projected, to
connect this lake with Lake Huron. Lake
Ontario is subject to violent storms, and it is
robably owing chiefly to the constant agitation of
its waters that it freezes only for a few miles from
the shore. The shores are generally very flat, but
the ~~ of Quinte, near Kingston, a long, crooked
arm of the lake, which stretches —_ 50 ae
possesses some attractive scenery. Burlington Bay,
on which Hamilton lies, is Pig ka here alinost
enclosed by a natural bank of sand, which forms
a beautiful drive. See Crosman’s Chart (1888).
Ontario, the most populous and wealthy pro-
vince of the Dominion of Canada, is bounded NE
and E. by Labrador and Quebee, SE., 8., and SW.
by the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes, N. by
St James’ Bay, and NW. and W. by Keewatin
and Manitoba. Area, 222,000 sq. m.; pop. (1881)
1,923,228 ; (1891) 2,114,321. The province extends
from about 74° 50 to 95° W. long. The surface is
generally undulating, and there are no elevations
of any considerable height. The Laurentian Hills
run westward from the Thousand Islands near
Kingston, and extend north of Lake Simcoe, form-
ing the coasts of Georgian Bay and Lake Huron.
In the middle of the province the high land forms
a watershed, separating the rivers flowing into the
Great Lakes from those entering the Ottawa and
the St Lawrence. The principal rivers of Ontario
are tributaries of the Ottawa, which forms part of
its north-eastern boundary. The St Lawrence
forms the boundary of the eastern portion of
the province, dividing it from the United States.
Bounded by the Great Lakes, among its smaller
lakes are Simeoe, Nipissing, Nipigon, and many
others. Ontario is largely an agricultural country,
and its resources are very great. Immense crops
are raised of all the beset of a temperate
climate, and in the south-west corner of the pro-
vince Indian corn is a regular crop, and grapes,
peaches, and tomatoes are grown and ripen in the
open air. In addition to arable farming, stock-
raising, dairy-farming, and fruit-growing are im-
portant industries. In minerals the country is also
rich. Iron is found in many parts; copper, lead,
plumbago, apatite, antimony, arsenic, gypsum,
marble, and building-stone are abundant; there
are also gold and silver deposits—the latter very
extensive in the country along the shores of Lake
Superior and west to the Lake of the Woods. The
nickel deposits at Sudbury are probably the most
extensive in the world. The petroleum-wells, in
the south-west part cf the province, are yielding
immense and apparertly inexhaustible supplies ;
the same may be said of the salt-wells on the
shores of Lake Huron. Largely owing to the
fayourable position which the province occupies
with regard to water-power—although steam-power
is established to a large extent, coal being obtained
606 ONTARIO
OOSTERZEE
without difficulty by means of the lakes, from
Pennsylvania, and also from Nova Scotia—the
manufactures are numerous and abrndant.
The principal manufactures are agricultural im-
plements, iron and wood ware, wagons and carriages,
railway rolling-stock (including locomotives), cot-
tons and wonlienny leather, furniture, flax, ordinary
iron and hardware, paper, soap, woodenware, c.
The most thickly populated of Ontario
more nearly resembles England than any of the
other colonies. There is only one lar city,
Toronto, which contains nearly 200,000 inhabit-
ants; but smaller cities and towns, such as Ottawa
(44,000 inhabitants), Hamilton (43,000), London
(27,000), Kingston (17,000), Guelph (11,000), St
Catherine’s (11,000), Brantford (13,000), St Thomas,
Peterborough, Port Hope, Woodstock, Galt, Lind-
say, Paris, and Port Arthur, are scattered all over
the province, and are usually manufacturing or
agricultural centres. The farms in these districts
are well cultivated and fenced, with houses as a rule
superior to those found in Great Britain. Ontario
has a perfect network of railways (between 5000
and 6000 miles), which has proved of great advan-
tage in the development of the manufacturing and
agricultural industries ; and in summer it is supple-
mented by the means of transport provided by the
lakes and by the magnificent system of canals on
the St Lawrence. The revenue of Ontario is about
$5,000,000, made up of subsidies and contributions
from the Dominion treasury, land and lumber
sales, licenses, stamps, &c. The expenditure is
invariably under the revenue, and the finances
of the province are in a thoroughly satisfactory
condition.
The value of the imports in 1889 was $42,292,819
including $24,912,245 from the United States and
$14,542,782 from Great Britain. The value of
the exports in the same year was $30,336,698, of
which $23,449,821 went to the United States and
$3,728,174 to Great Britain. The exports in 1893
(manufactured goods, agricultural products, animals
and their products, timber, minerals) had a value
of $33,850,783, while the imports were valued at
$48,243,786. ‘The industries in 1891 produced goods
to the value of $240,100,000.
The school system of Ontario is admirable, and
is under the control of a minister of Education,
who is always a member of the Provincial Cabinet.
The schools are supported by a tax on property,
with state grants, and are free to all. Roman
Catholics may, if they think proper, establish sepa-
rate schools, and are then exempted from supporting
the public schools, receiving a separate grant from
government. The children attending the schools in
1887 were 493,212, out of a total school population of
611,212. There are many universities and colleges,
and the facilities for higher education are. quite
equal to those provided for elementary purposes.
The municipal system is one of the most perfect in
the world, and affords a pattern which has been
followed in many other countries. The public
affairs are administered by a lieutenant-governor,
an executive council of eight members, and a legis-
lative assembly of 93 members elected every four
years, In the Dominion periienins the province
represented by 24 members in the Senate and
92 members in the House of Commons, In Ontario
the Protestant religious bodies predominate; the
Methodists are the most numerous, followed by the
Presbyterians, then by the Church of England,
History.—Ontario was largely founded by the
immigration of United Empire loyalists’ into
Canada after the declaration of independence of
the United States. It was made into a separate
province and called Upper Canada in 1791 (see
article CANADA). The two provinces were re-
united in 1840, as the result of the disturbances in
1837 and 1838, and remained in that pales
until confederation in the hse 1867, wi the
province received the name of Ontario,
Ontology. See Merapruysics, PHILOSOPHY. ~
Onus Probandi, i.e. the burden of proof, is
often a difficult question in litigation; but as a
rule the plaintiff who institutes the suit is bound
to give proof of the allegations on which he relies.
Onyx, an agate formed of alternating white and
black, or white and dark-brown stripes of chalced-
ony. More rarely a third colour of stripes occurs,
The finest specimens are brought from India,
Onyx is in much esteem for ornamental purposes.
The ancients valued it very highly, and used it.
much for cameos, many, of the finest cameos in
existence are of onyx. The name onyx, however,
appears to have been applied by the ancients more
extensively than. it now is, and even to stri
calcareous alabaster, such as is now called Onyx
Marble. The Sardonyz of the ancients is a variet;
of onyx in which white stripes alternate wi
stripes of a dark-red variety of carnelian, called
sard or sarda, It is one of the rarest and most
beautiful kinds of onyx, and is more valued than
carnelian.
Oodeypore. See UpAirur.
Oojein. See Ussarn.
Ookiep. See Care Covony, Vol. Il. p. 735.
@Oolachan, See CANDLE-FIsH.
Oolite (Gr., ‘egg-stone’), a variety of limestone,
a of spherical granules of calcic carbonate,
which have a concentric and often a fibrous radiat-
ing structure. In many cases these granules con-
tain a nucleus or kernel of some foreign substance,
such as a grain of sand, round which the snecessive
layers or encrusting coats of calcic carbonate have
been formed. Granules of this nature are seen
forming in the springs of Carlsbad. A similar
oolitic structure een observed occasionally
in the coral-rock forming the surface of modern
coral-reefs—which seems to owe its origin to the
movement to and fro of grains of coral sand in
Is or sheltered places in which the water is
Righty saturated with carbonate of lime, derived
from the decomposition of dead coral. The coarser
varieties of oolite are termed Peastone or Pisolite.—
For Oolite as the name for a group of strata, see
JURASSIC SYSTEM.
Oonalashka, See ALEUTIAN IsLANDs.
Oori, Limpopo, or CrocopiLE River, a river
of south-eastern Africa, has its sources in
heart of the Transvaal, between Pretoria and
Potchefstrom, describes a = curve to the north,
and. joins the Indian Ocean a little north of Del
Bay. Its course exceeds 800 miles, and it
numerous tributaries, the most_important being
the Olifant from the right. The Lim has been
ascended 50 miles by steamboat; but its upper
reaches are obstructed by rapids and falls.
Oosterhout, a Dutch town in North Brabant,
6 miles NE. of Breda, with sugar-factories, tan-
yards, breweries, potteries. Pop. (1893) 11,001.
Oosterzee, JAN JAKOB VAN, theologian, was
born in 1817 at Rotterdam, studied at Utrecht, was
a pastor in Rotterdam, and in 1862 became a theo-
logical professor at Utrecht, being the leader of
the Evangelical school in Holland. He died 29th
July 1882, He wrote many works, amongst them
a Life of Christ, a Christology, a work on John’s
Gospel (in German); commentaries on Luke and’
the Pastoral Epistles in er Commentary ; also
a Theology of the New Testament (1867; Eng.
trans. 1870, 4th ed. 1882); Christian
(1872; trans. 1874); Moses (trans. 1876); Practical
Theology (trans. 1878).
ey a ae
OOTACAMUND
OPAL 607
Ootacamund, or UTakaMAnp, the chief
town in the Neilgherry Hills (q.v.), the principal
sanatorium of the ras Presidency, and the
summer headquarters of the governor of Madras.
It stands on a plateau, in an amphitheatre sur-
rounded by hills, 7228 feet above the sea, 350 miles
from Madras city, and 24 from the nearest railway
station on the Madras line. There are a public
library (1859), the Lawrence Asylum (1858) for the
children of British soldiers, and botanical ens.
The mean annual temperature is 58° F. The first
house was built in 1821. Pop. 12,335.
0 a term technically applied to some kinds
of deposits found covering the bottom of the deeper
parts of the sea. It is not only the depth of the
water, but the distance from the land which deter-
mines oceurrence of ooze. As we from
the shore out to sea we find a succession of deposits,
shingle, sandy mud, mud—all derived from the
land; but at a distance varying from 60 to 300
nautical miles from the shore, and at a depth
of 2000 feet or more, lie the various oozes, which
consist of the remains of numerous small at vena
isms, but especially of the shells of Foraminifera,
A whitish deposit, containing enormous numbers
of Globigerina shells, which in dying have sunk
from the surface, is very widely distributed till
depths of about 2000 fathoms are approached.
There the es ooze wanes ants and is
replaced in the deeper regions by so-called ‘red
clay.’ At the surface above there are of course
here as elsewhere abundant Foraminifera which
still doubtless sink, but the physical conditions
of the t depths are such that their shells
are dissolved in falling. But in certain of the
dee parts—e.g. at 4575 fathoms—the Challenger
explorers found another kind of ooze, com
of the flint shells of Radiolarians. Besides this, in
other regions the shells of Pteropods and Diatoms
are alundant enough to form a characteristic ooze.
It is to be understood, however, that the various
oozes (Globigerina, Radiolarian, Pteropod, Diatom,
&e.) into one another, and that the names
usually express simply the predominance of one
or other kind of shell, and also that the colours—
white, yellow, brown, and red—mainly denote the
portion in which the ‘red clay’ is present. The
tter owes its colour to the oxides of iron and
manganese, and is composed of disintegrated mate-
rials of volcanic origin, such as pumice, and also
of meteoric dust. These, after being carried by
winds and floated on ocean currents, sink and are
distributed at the bottom. But as to the ooze in
the strict sense, it ought also to be noted that the
_ dead or dying organie material, which the rain
of these organisms brings to the bottom, serves
as the fundamental food-supply of deep-sea animals,
while the shells not only accumulate as ooze, but
aid in the elevation of submarine voleano tops to
the level at which corals can grow. Finally, the
results of the ooze of incaleulably distant ages are
seen in the chalk cliffs often obviously composed of
Foraminifera, or in such Radiolarian deposits as
Barbadoes Earth. See CHALK, D1AToms, Foram-
INIFERA, GLOBIGERINA, PTEROPODA, RADIOLARIA,
SEA, and the on ypex OO of the Challenger
Reports by Murray and ard,
Opacite, name given by petrologists to minute
black, opaque, amorphous aaipeasien, grains, and
patches of indeterminate mineral matter, which
are seen in many igneous rocks when these are
viewed in thin slices under the microscope. Opa-
cite is probably in most cases hematite, limonite,
ite, or other iron oxide, and is a product
of the chemical alteration of one or other of the
el na mineral constituents of the rock in which
occurs.
@Opah, or Kinc-risn (Lampris luna), a fish of
the family Coryphznidz or ‘ Dolphins,’ order
Acanthopterygii. The body is compressed laterally
and deep, and is covered with small deciduous
seales. The cleft of the mouth is narrow, and
there are no teeth. The dorsal fin is single and
has no spinous portion; the pectoral and ventral
fins are falciform and of nearly equal length. The
tail is forked. The lateral line has a strong curve
behind the head, and becomes straight about mid-
way between the eye and the root of the tail. This
fish is beautifully coloured; the back is bluish
green ; the sides violet, becoming red underneath ;
round or oval silvery spots are scattered all over
the body ; the fins and tail are deep scarlet. It is
found only occasionally near shore. It prefers the
deeper waters of the North Sea, being found off
—_— —— -
Opah (Lampris luna).
Norway, the British Isles, Ieeland, Newfoundland,
and jally near the Azores and Madeira. It
is rare in the Mediterranean, and has not heen
recorded off Greenland or east of the North Cape
in Norway. Specimens have been caught measur-
ing 6 feet in length ; one of 4 feet 5 inches weighed
140 Ib. The flesh is red or yellowish in colour, and
is excellent to eat. Its food, so far as is known,
consists of cuttle-fish and other cephalopods. Other
names applied to it are Sun-fish (a name also applied
to Orthagoriscus and to the basking shark), because
it comes to the surface of the water in calm
weather, Sea-pert, Carf, and Jerusalem Haddock.
Opal, a mineral which differs from quartz in
containing generally 3 to 10Q—in some cases only 1,
in others as much as 21—per cent. of water, its only
other essential constituent being silica, although a
little alumina, oxide of iron, &e. is often present.
The water is readily driven off on the application
of heat, and some opals contain so small a propor-
tion of water that they might be described simply
as jelliform rs Not infrequently minute scales
or plates of tridymite (a crystallised variety of
silica) are present in opal. The latter is never
found crystallised, and does not exhibit a erystal-
line structure like quartz. It has a conchoidal
fracture, and is very easily broken. There are
many varieties, which pass into one another, so
that their precise limits cannot be defined, from
which has arisen no little confusion of names, The
finest kind is called Precious Opal or Noble Opal,
and sometimes Oriental Opal. It is semi-trans-
parent or translucent, usually of a bluish or
yellowish white colour, vellow by transmitted light,
and exhibits a beautiful play of brilliant colours,
owing to minute fissures which refract the light.
It is much valued for setting in rings, brooches,
&e., and is polished with a convex surface, never
ent into facets, both because of its brittleness and
because its play of colours is thus best exhibited.
The ancients valued opals very highly. |The
Roman senator Nonius preferred exile to givin
up an opal to Mark Antony. This opal.was stil
to be seen in the days of Pliny, who ascribes to it
a value equal to more than £100,000 sterling. The
608 OPAL
OPERA
imperial cabinet of Vienna contains the most cele-
brated opal now known to exist. It is 5 inches by
24 inches. The finest opals are almost all brought
from Cerwenitza, between Eperies and Kaschau,
in Hungary, where they are found disseminated as
alteration-products in trachyte tuff. They are
mostly very small, but even a very small opal, if
really beautiful, is worth four or five pounds; and
the price increases very rapidly with increase of
size. Precious opal is found also in Saxony, in
South America, Ke. When the colours are not
ere diffused, but in detached spots, jewellers
call it Harlequin Opal, There is a dark or blackish
variety, epeereey tinged by oxide of iron, which
occasionally exhibits very beautiful reflections, and
is then much prized, Girasol (q.v.) and Cacholong
(g-¥ ) are varieties of o t lapidaries call
ime d’Opal is porphyrite or other igneous rock,
containing many small amygdules of opal. It is
cut into slabs, and made into boxes and other
ornamental articles; the stone which contains the
opals being often artificially blackened by boiling
in oil, and afterwards exposing to a moderate heat.
—Common Opal is semi-transparent, white, yellow,
green, red, or brown, and does not exhibit any play
of colours. It is not a rare mineral, and is chiefly
found in veins and cavities or diffused (as an altera-
tion-product) through the mass of various igneous
rocks. Semi-opal is more opaque. Wood Opal isa
petrifaction, and exhibits the form and structure
of wood, the place of which has been taken by
the siliceous mineral. Hyalite and Menilite are
varieties of opal.
Opera (Ital. Opera in Musica, Dramma per la
Musica) is a drama which is sung throughout to
the accompaniment of a full orchestra, The
various forms of aria or song, recitative or de-
clamation, duet, trio, &c., concerted piece or
instrumental interlude are used as the exigencies
of the situation demand. The whole is usually
introduced by an introduction, vorspiel, or Overture
(q.v.), and often one of the acts contains a ballet
or pantomimic dance. It is a direct development
from the discovery by the Florence Academy (see
Music) of Monody or the musical expression of a
single individuality by a single voice. As ever
country, every school since 1600 has felt the fasci-
nation of the art problem, and nearly every great
composer has been ambitious to solve it, the opera
is a universal ion, and its range is almost
as wide and varied as the history of music itself.
Three schools may be distinguished, Jtalian Opera
is marked by its spontaneity and melodious char-
acter, and even more by the honour of priority ;
German Opera is the product of greater geniuses
than the other two schools can boast, but lacks the
continuity which makes the French school so inter-
esting to the student.
talian School.—The experiments in scena-writ-
ing (1582-90) culminated at Florence in the first
real opera, ne (1594), by Peri and Caccini, the
more successful Huridice (1600), and the very
advanced work of Monteverde. The new depar-
ture in music soon spread its influence beyond
Florence to Venice, where Monteverde spent the
last thirty years of his life, and to Naples, where
Alessandro Scarlatti (1659-1725) took up the work
and founded the Neapolitan or ‘ beautiful’ school.
Scarlatti, by the prominence he gave to melody,
re Page said to be the founder of Italian opera,
which to this day is noted for so-called melody
in profusion, and the comparative indifference
to other as important qualities, such as harmony,
orchestration, and dramatic unity. No Italian
work of the 18th century has survived save
Cimarosa’s I/ Matrimonio Segreto (1792), which,
very similar in style to Mozart's greater works,
has been overshadowed by these, ‘The most
famous modern Italian composer is
brilliant vocal writer, whose charming
Seville (1816) is a model of opera buffa, and whose
serious opera, William Tell (1829),
wor
in style (Zrovatore, 1851; Traviata, 1853, &c.
Aida (1871) shows a leaning to, and Otello (1887)
cools adhesion to the — oo
ne veteran com at the t; t
produced still anther work, Falstaff qa Tibia
German Opera.—During the 17th and early part
of the 18th century the opera in southern German
was purely Italian en, where Hasse
supreme, and Vienna were the two centres. It
was in Hamburg that the National school was
founded by Keyser, who wrote (1694-1734) over
100 operas in which a high dramatic ideal is
apparent. Gluck, though a German, belongs
more to the school of French Grand Opera.
Mozart, after beating the Italians on their own
melodic ground in Jdomeneo, Die Entfii
Figaro, and Don Giovanni OS eons
first national romantic opera, The Magic Flute
(1791). Beethoven, desiring nobler plots of a more
serious and moral character than had satisfied the
light-hearted Mozart, chose Bouilly’s Léonore as the
foundation of his single opera Fidelio (produced
1805, rewritten 1814). The operas of Weber were
eg imbued with the romanticism of the early
19th century, and in Der Freischiitz (1821) he uses
the national folklore with immense effect. To
this new Romantic school also belong the operas of
Marschner and of a the beauty of whose
music is buried, like Weber's £ nthe and
Schubert’s Rosamunde, under absurd libretti.
Melodrama in opera is an effective device which
originated in Germany. The singer recites his
part in an ordinary speaking voice aay agen by
orchestral music, which seeks to convey the mean-
ing of the situation and scene to the audience.
Benda first used it (Ariadne, 1774), and Mozart,
who heard it in 1778, was much impressed by its
possibilities. The most successful example is the
grave-digging scene in Beethoven's Fidelio ; Weber
in Der Freischiitz and Mendelssohn in A Midsummer
Night's Dream have also used it with happy effect.
he French Grand Opera School is extremely
important, not only on account of its prc!
Fo consistence, but because at various times,
for various reasons, tmen were attracted from
Sin countries to it as acentre. It was founded
by the Florentine a reformed by the German
luck; and Italians like Cherubini, Spontini,
Rossini, Belgians like Grétry, Germans like
Meyerbeer and Wagner have both learned from
it and contributed to its various stages of develop-
ment, Lully (born 1633) arrived in Paris a boy of
thirteen in the train of the Chevalier de Guise, and
by his diplomatic and social, no less than by his
musical talents, he gradually pushed his way to
the very summit of musical success, and lived in
great favour with King Louis XIV. In 1672 he
obtained a patent conferring the sole right of pro
ducing operas in Paris, and this monopoly he lield
till his death in 1687. Musical Paris was sharply
divided between his followers and those of Ramean
(1683-1764), until the arrival of an Italian com-
pany made them unite their ranks in opposition to
the foreigners. The characteristic of this French
school from its beginning was its attention to
rhetoric and dramatic requirements. The treat-
ment of recitative in particular has always been a
feature since Lully’s time, and he it was also who
invented the overture. Gluck arrived in Paris in
The earlier operas of Verdi are quite Italian
drama.
OPERA
OPHICLEIDE 609
1774, and produced his Iphigénie en Aulide and
ro ape en Tauride there ; and the ideal hers
by Peri and Monteverde, embodied to a considerable
extent in these and other works (see GLUCK), has at
last found its goal in the music drama of Wagner.
Cherubini’s seriousness and nobility. of style (Les
a + ee Sorat Méhul’s oe ear rie effect
(Joseph, 1807), Spontini’s magnificence of concep-
tion ( Vestale, 1805), and Halévy’s dramatie trut
(Juive, 1835) were all ranged under Gluck’s
banner, and the roll of French d opera is
brought to a gorgeous close with the name of
Wagner's predecessor, Meyerbeer ( Robert le Diable,
1831, Huguenots, 1836, Le P , 1843). The
new blood he brought with him from the schools of
Germany and Italy invigorated it, and the time
was a when the experiment of Rienzi was made
in 1 Other important contributions to grand
opera were Auber’s Masaniello (or Muette de Por-
tici, 1828) and arity Guillaume Tell ( vrsad
Opéra eee (by no means comic opera) is a
title applied all works which, on account of
spoken dialogue, were not eligible for performance
at the G 0 Grétry’s Caur de Lion (1784),
Méhul’s J Boieldien’s La Dame Blanche
(1825), Hérold’s Pré aux Clercs (1832), and Auber’s
Le Macon, Les Diamants de la Couronne, &e. are
the most famous. This Opéra Comique, so purely
French, had a large share in the development of
the modern lyric opera, of which Gounod’s Faust
(1859), Thomas’s Mignon (1871), and Bizet’s
Carmen (1875) are examples.
The Ballet (entirely pantomimic) attained a very
high pitch of development in Paris, where Delibes
(1836-91) produced his charming Coppélia and
via.
Comic opera proper (Opera Buffa) is re ted
in Italy by Roosini's Barbiere, Gonisettes Figlia
del y (1840), and Verdi’s last great
oor A (1893); in Germany by Flotow’s
Martha (1847), Nicolai’s Merry Wives (1849) ; in
France uffe) by Offenbach’s Orphée aux
Enfers (1858), Grande (1867), &c., Le-
’s Madame Angot (1873), &c., and numberless
poet bright works ; and in England worthily by the
charming Gilbert-Sullivan series (Pinafore, 1878 ;
Patience, 1881 ; Mikado, 1885).
Music Drama is the ideal which Wagner has
sought to wags 4 in Tristan und Isolde (1865),
M i (1868), Ring des Nibelungen (1876),
and Parsifal (1882). Rienzi (produced in Dresden
in 1842) establishes his connection with the Grand
va, of Meyerbeer, and in the Flying Dutchman
(1843), Tannhéiuser (1845), and Lohengrin (1849)
the growth of his method is distinctly seen, as well
as his indebtedness to many predecessors, especi-
ally, in orchestration, to ioz, Wagner seeks
to make the ‘ Art Work of the Future,’ as he calls
it, equally dependent on music, drama, and scenic
poten sbi erd ees of none being sacrificed to
the de of the other, but all contributing to
one perfect unity. His influence is clearly trace-
able in all modern operas—e.g. Goldmark’s Queen
of Sheba, Merlin, Boito’s Mefistofele, Ponchielli’s
ioconda, Verdi's Otello, &e.
English Opera.—Purcell’s early work, Dido and
Eneas, written at the of seventeen, his chef
deuvre King Arthur (1691), and other works gave
of such an English school of opera as the
mes’ of Lawes and others had suggested
(1613-75), but no one was ready to carry on the
work after his early death in 1695 ( thirty-
seven). Dr Arne’s Artaxerxes (1762), out of thirty-
four operas, is the only other English opera which
calls for mention. Italian opera became the fashion
in London (Handel wrote forty-four, 1710-39), and
England’s attention has been divided between that
school — the highly inesthetic and, from an
bmn toilet wD meh ming bk of Ballad
tae u r Pepusch ( ars ret
1 28), until recent years, when Pe Maekencie’s
Colomba (1883), Villiers Stanford’s Canterbury
Pilgrims (1884), Goring Thomas’s Esmeralda
(1883) and Nadeschda (1885), and lastly Sullivan’s
Ivanhoe (1891) have sought to win recognition for
England among the rs ap schools of opera.—
— — Ne Bog into America in
, in the shape of the ars ra, and
Italian opera in 1825. 7 Pee
articles
Opera, &c., and on GiucK, Mozart, WEBER, WAGNER,
&e. in this work.
lass (Fr. lorgnette), a double tele-
scope, used for looking at objects that require to
be clearly seen rather than tly magnified, such
as adjoining scenery and buildings, the performers
at a theatre or opera, &c. The opera-glass is short
and light, and can be easily managed with one hand.
Its small magnifying power (from two to three
at the most), and the large amount of light admitted
by the ample object-glass, enable it to present a
bright and pleasant picture, so that the eye is not
strained to eae ot or = in ein of
greater power, which generally show a highly-mag-
nified bry faint picture. It allows the oa of both
eyes, which gives to the spectator the double advan-
tage, not possessed by single telescopes, of not
requiring to keep one eye shut (a somewhat un-
natural way of looking), and of seeing things stand
out stereoscopically as in ordinary vision.
The opera-glass is the same in principle as the
telescope invented by Galileo. It consists of two
lenses, an object-lens and an eye-lens. The object-
lens is convex, and the eye-lens concave. They
are placed nearly at the distance of the difference
of their focal lengths from one another (see TELE-
scope). The opera-glass need not be set to a precise
point, as is n with ordinary terrestrial tele-
scopes, for the lengthening or shortening of the in-
strument does not pos so decided an effect on
the divergence of the light ; the change of diverg-
ence caused by screwing the opera-glass out or in is
so slight as not much to overstep the power of
adjustment of the eye, so that an object does not
lose all its distinctness at any point within the
range of the instrument. There is, however, a
Laie length at which an object at a certain
istance is most easily looked at. The two tele-
scopes ef the opera-glass are identical in construc-
tion, and are pl rallel to each other. The
blending of the two im is easily effected by
the eyes, as in ordinary vision. Opera-glasses have
now come into such demand that they form an
important article of manufacture, of which Paris
is the great seat. So largely and cheaply are they
produced in Paris that it has nearly a monopoly of
the trade. They may be had from 2s. 6d. to £6 or
£7. The cheapest opera-glasses consist of single
lenses; those of the better class have compound
achromatic lenses. A very ordinary construction
for a medium price is to have an achromatic one
lass, consisting of two lenses, and a single eye-lens.
n the finest class of opera-glasses, which are called
Jfield-glasses, both eye-lenses and bit ae Masse wep are
achromatic. Plissl’s celebrated field-glasses (Ger.
Feldstecher) have twelve lenses, each object-lens and
eye-lens being composed of three separate lenses.
hhicleide (Gr. ophis, ‘serpent,’ and Xle?s,
oP ), a brass bass Re: seg ses apo was devel-
oped from improvements on the Serpent (q.v.)
about the beginning of the 19th precip © It con-
sists of a conical tube having a bell like that of
610 ' OPHIDIA
OPHTHALMOSCOPE
the horn, a cup mouthpiece, and usually eleven
holes stopped by keys like the old Kent bugle. It
has the usnal harmonic (see HAR-
MONICS) open notes of all brass
instrumen its fundamental,
never used, being an octave lower.
By means of its i it has a
range, including all the semi-
tones, of a little over three octaves,
and its music is written in the
j te
rt
=
bass clef. Alto and double-bass
ophicleides have also been made,
but not much used. It is much
to be regretted that an instrument
of such a characteristically rich
tone, and capable of intonation
so accurate as the ophicleide,
should be allowed to tall com-
pletely out of use, it being almost
superseded by the simpler three-
valved instruments of the Sax-
horn (q.v.) type.
Ophidia. See Serpents.
Ophicleide, Ppblosionen, a sub-order
of Filices or Ferns (q.v.), consist-
ing of a few rather elegant little plants with an
erect or pendulous stem, which has a cavity in-
stead of pith, leaves with netted veins, and the
spore-cases (theca) col-
lected into a spike formed
at the edges of an altered
leaf, 2-valved, and with-
out any trace of an elastic
ring. They are found in
warm and temperate coun-
tries, but abound most of
all in the islands of tropi-
cal Asia. Several species
are European, and two are
British, the Botrychium
lunaria, or Moonwort
(q.v.), and the Common
Adder’s-tongue (Ophiepioes
sum vulgatum), which was
at one time appre to
possess magical virtues,
and was also used as a
vulnerary, although it
seems to possess only a
mucilaginous quality—on
account of which some of
the other species have been
employed in broths, It is
a very common plant in
England, its abundance in
some places much injuring
pastures,
Ophir, a region, fre-
any mentioned in the
ld Testament, from which
the ships of Solomon, fitted out in the harbours of
Edom, brought gold, precious stones, sandalwood,
&e. The voyage occupied three years. Where
Ophir was situated has been a much-disputed
question. Arias Montanus fixed on Peru, Raleigh
on the Moluccas, and Calmet on Armenia. Pro
ably, however, yr was either on the east coast
of Africa about Sofala, or in Arabia, or in India,
but in which of the three countries is doubtful.
Milton (following Purchas), Huet, Bruce (‘the
Abyssinian '), the historian Robertson, Quatremére,
Adder’s-tongue
(Ophioglossum vulgatum),
Mauch, &c. are in favour of Africa; Michaelis,
Niebuhr (the traveller), Gosellin, Vincent, Winer,
First, Knobel, Forster, Crawfurd, Kalisch, and
Twistleton (Smith’s Dict. of the Bible), of Arabia;
Vitringa, Lassen, Ritter, Berthean, Ewald, and
Max-Miiller, of India. Josephus, however, it
should be said, placed Ophir in the peninsula of
Malacca, and his opinion has been adopted by
Tennent and Von Baer. For a complete dinommion
of the point, see Ritter’s ELrdkunde (vol. xiv.),
eighty pages of which are devoted to Ophir.
According to Ritter, who accepts Lassen’s view,
Ophir was situated at the mouth of the Indus.
Ophites (Gr. ophitai, from is, ‘a serpent’),
a an of Gnostice, who, while they shared the
general belief in dualism, the conflict of matter
and spirit, the emanations, and the Demiurgos,
were distinguished by giving a prominent place in
their systems to the ad og Some of their divi-
sions were the Sethiani, t
e Naaseni ( Heb, er
‘serpent’) in Phrygia, and the Perate, who honou
the ghar which tempted Eve, as having intro-
duced knowledge and revolt nst the bondage
of the Archon. We owe our knowledge of them
mainly to Irenzus, Clement, Origen, and Hip-
polytus: the last also contains an account of
two other Ophite systems, that of the Sethians
and of Justinus. Already in his day the sect was
fast dying out, although Theodoret mentions
serpent-worship as still existing in the 5th century.
See Gnostics, and the books named there ; also Lipsius
in the Zeitschr. fiir Wissen tl. Theol. (1863); Gruber,
Die Ophiten (1864); and the Rabbi Dr Adolph Hénig’s
monograph, Die Ophiten (1889).
Ophitic Structure, name given by petrolo-
ists to a structure seen in various crystalline
igneous rocks, in which large plates of a pyroxene
are penetrated and divided, as it were, into small
portions, by crystals of felspar. The separated
—, of the pyroxene, however, are in crystal-
ine continuity, since they all possess the same
optic orientation.
Ophiuroidea, See BrirrLe-stars.
Ophthalmia (derived from the Greek word
ophthalmos, ‘the eye’) was originally and still is
sometimes used to denote inflammation of the eye
generally ; but it is at the present time usually
restricted to inflammations of the conjunctiva or
mucous coat of the eye (conjunctivitis); and to two
other diseases, blepharitis tinea tarsi or ophthalmia
tarsi, and errs inflammation or ophthalmia
(see under EYE)
Ophthalmoscope, an instrument by which
the interior of the eye can be examined. It was first
invented in 1847 by Charles Babbage (q.v.); but, as
unfortunately the ophthalmic surgeon to whom he
showed it did not recognise its importance, he laid
it aside without making it generally known; and
its principle had to be rediscovered by Professor
Helmholtz, to whom belongs the credit of bringing
it before the medical and scientific world in 1851.
The value of the instrament depends on the cireum-
stance that by illuminating and examining an
eye in the same direction its deeper parts can be
rendered visible, All forms of ophthalmoscope
are adaptations of this principle. The form now
generally in use resembles more that of Babbage
than that of Helmholtz. It consists of a concave
mirror of about 10 inches focus, 1 to 3 inches in
diameter, with a small hole in the centre, and cer-
tain lenses to use with it, the most important of
them a separate convex lens of 24 inches focus, and
1} to4 inches in diameter. Examination is facili-
tated agp the pupil of the observed eye with
atropine; and for a complete examination this is
often indispensable. The person whose eye is to
be examined is seated in a darkened room, with a
OPIE
- OPITZ 611
ight light—e.g. a good gas-burner—on a level
bas his eye by the side of his head. The observer
sits opposite him, and placing the mirror close to
his own eye, and about 18 inches from the eye to
be examined, reflects the light upon the latter,
while he looks at it through the hole. The pupil
in a healthy eye ap of a bright red or orange
instead of its usual deep black. In short-sighted
and long-sighted eyes, but not in normal ones, the
vessels of the retina, the entrance of the optic
nerve, &c. can be more or less distinctly seen, and
by their movements the deviation from the normal
jon can roughly be estimated. Opacities in
the lens (Cataract, q.v.) or vitreous humour appear
black, and are discovered by this method more
certainly and easily than by any other. The details
of the retina, choroid, &c. (or fundus) can be seen
in two different ways. In the indirect method the
observer, seated as above described, holds the 24-
inch convex lens about 3 inches from the eye under
examination, between it and his own, when a clear
real ioage of part of the fundus, inverted and
magnified about four diameters, appears in the
red light of the pupil. In the direct method the
observing eye must be placed as close to the
observed as the intervention of the mirror will
allow, when a virtual image of a smaller of the
fundus is seen, but erect and magnified about four-
teen diameters. The fundus a — of an orange
or red colour, varying much in di ‘erent individuals ;
the blood-vessels of the retina are seen as darker
red lines coursing over it. The entrance of the
_— nerve, commonly called the disc, from which
t vessels diverge, appears as a round area of
a much paler colour. The ophthalmoscope has
revolutionised this department of medicine, as most
of the deeper affections of the eye, particularly of
the optic nerve, choroid, and retina, were before
only recognisable after the eyeball was removed
from the body. Some of these affections have,
moreover, important relations to general diseases
—e.g. ot apd disease, diabetes, syphilis, diseases
of the and spinal cord—and general medicine
has benefited accordingly. The ophthalmoscope
has also much facili the discovery and correc-
tion of errors of refraction (short- and long-sighted-
ness, Astigmatism, q.v. ; and see under EYE).
fie, JouN, R.A., was born at the vill of
St , 7 miles from Truro, Cornwall, in May
1761. His father, a master-carpenter, wished him
to follow the same trade, but his bias for art
was st ; and his attempts at portrait-painting
secured the friendly help of Dr Wolcot (‘ Peter
Pindar’). In 1780 he was taken to London by
Dr Wolcot, and immediately came to be acknow-
ledged by the fashionable world as the ‘Cornish
Wonder.’ This tide of good-fortune soon ebbed,
sbut not before Opie had realised a moderate com-
petency. The loss of ular favour, however,
only served to bring out Opie’s manly independ-
ence and strong love of art, and he calmly entered
on that department of painting which was then
regarded as the only style of high art, namely,
vege ma or meh smpetond a on a
seale. His pencil was employed Boydell
in his well-meant and ificent: scheme to elevate
British art; he also painted a number of works
in the illustration of Bowyer’s English History,
Macklin’s Poets and Biblical Gallery, and other
similar undertakings. His pictures of the ‘Murder
of James I. of Scotland,’ ‘The Slaughter of Rizzio,’
‘Jephtha’s Vow,’ ‘Presentation in the Temple,’
‘ Arthur and Hubert,’* Belisarius,’ and ‘Juliet in the
Garden’ are his most noted works. Opie was
elected an Associate of the Royal A i
1786, and Academician in the dike year.
wrote the ‘Life of nolds’ in Dr Wolcot’s
edition of Pilkington’s Dictionary of Painters, and
=
into lifeless imitation of
An Inquiry into the Requisite Cultivation of the Fine
Arts in Britain ; and delivered lectures on Art at
the Royal Institution. Opie was twice married.
He obtained a divorce from his first wife; his
second was the novelist. He died April 9, 1807,
and was buried in the crypt of St Paul's, near
the grave of Reynolds.—AMELIA OPIE, daughter
of a Norwich physician, Dr Alderson, was born
in 1769, and while very young wrote songs and
tragedies, and was acquainted with Godwin,
Mrs Inchbald,. Mrs Siddons, and much of the
literary society of the time. She was married to
Opie in 1798. In 1801 her first novel, Father and
Daughter, appeared ; the following year, a volume
of poems. Adeline Mowbray and Simple Tales
were her next works. On her hushand’s death
she returned to Norwich, and published his lectures
with a memoir prefixed. She wrote also Temper,
Tales of Real Life, Valentine’s Eve, Tales of the
Heart, and Madeline. Having been long acquainted
with the Gurneys, Mrs Opie became a Quaker in
1825, and afterwards published Illustrations in
Lying, Detraction nae a and articles in period-
icals, but no more novels. She died at Norwich,
2d December 1853. See her Memoirs by Miss
Brightwell (1854), and Miss Thackeray’s Book of
Sibyls (1883).
Opitz, Martry, German poet, born on 23d
December 1597, at Bunzlau on the Bober, in
Silesia, who for a century or more after his death
was Peace. tl praised as the ‘Swan of Bober,’
the ‘Swan of Silesia,’ the ‘ Father and Regenerator
of German poetry.” This inflated reputation he
had earned by toadying to the princes of Germany,
by writing adulatory poems in their honour, by
praising third and fourth rate poetasters, who
recompensed him in kind. Although himself «
Protestant, he worked and wrote for one Count.
Hannibal von Dohna, a cruel persecutor of the
Protestants ; but then Count Dohna helped him te
get (1628) from the em r a patent of nobility,
and Ferdinand II. had with his imperial hand
previously (1625) crowned him with the laurel
crown of the poet—recognitions of his talent that
Opitz valued above all thin He was summoned
(1622) by Bethlen Gabor, Prince of Transylvania,
to fill the chair of Philosophy and Polite Literature
at Weissenburg; but at the year’s end was so home-
sick, so wearied of the rude, martial people, and so
famished through lack of the kind words of his
friends, that he returned to Germany. Then he
eurried favour we ragestey, ene the Duke of Lieg-
nitz (1624), Count von Dohna (1626), and King
Ladislaus IV. of Poland (1634), who made him his
secretary and historiographer of Poland. But fate
was against him: in 1620 he had fled from Heidel-
berg to Holland to escape war and the plague ; now
in zig, where he was living, he caught the
plague from a r, to whom he gave a coin in
the street, and died 20th August 1639. The poems
Opitz wrote are like his ordering of his life, cal-
culated: they owe their origin to the under-
standing, have no imagination, and little feeling,
and are cold, formal, pedantic. The fact is, Opitz,
originally a schoolmaster, schoolmastered poetry
udo-classic models.
Poetry must, he propounded, in his most original
work, Buch von der teutschen Poeterei (1624; new
ed. 1876), teach and instruct as well as please.
Hence his favourite pieces are purely didactic—
Trostgedicht in Widerwertigkeit des Kriegs, Zlatna
oder von der Ruhe des Gemiiths, Vielgut oder vom
wahren Glick, Vesuvius, and others—such as the
‘good boy’ writes who wishes to please a pedantic
master. Yet Opitz is entitled to the credit of
having championed the use of his mother-tongue
as against Latin, and of having actually used it.
He also insisted upon the difference between the
612 OPITZ
OPIUM
ancient prosody of feet and quantity and the
modern prosody of accent and rhyme, emphasising
the use of the last for German poetry, and recom-
mending the Alexandrine form of verse as that best
suited to the genius of his native tongue. His
works inelude translations from classic authors
(Sophocles and Seneca, whom he om on exactly
the same rank as dramatists), the Dutchmen Hein-
sius and Grotius (whom he sets up as models of
style), and from the Bible. Throngh the men who
swore by him—the so-called first Silesian school—
Opitz reigned for nearly a century as a sort of
thumous literary dictator, a worthy rival of
ttsched.
The best editions of his Gesammelte Schriften are
those that ap in his lifetime (1637, 1641). See
Lives by Strehlke (1856), Weinhold (1862), and Palm
1862), and critical works on the Buch der Poeteret by
inski (1883), Fritsch (1884), and Berghéffer (1888).
Opium, one of the most valuable of medicines,
is the dried juice of the unripe capsules of a species
of Poppy (q.v.), Papaver somniferum, of which
several varieties are cultivated, the most usual in
India, Persia, and China being apparently the
variety album. The cultivation of the poppy for
the sake of opium is carried on in many —
of India, although the chief district is a large
tract on the Ganges, about 600 miles in length
and 200 miles in breadth, which is divided into
two pepe that of Behar and that of Ben-
ares, the central factory of the former being at
Patna, and that of the latter at Ghazipur. The
poppy is also extensively cultivated for opium in
the Asiatic provinces of Turkey, in Egypt, in
Persia, and in China; and opium of fair =
is produced, although not to any considerable
amount, in some parts of Europe, and even in
Behe i for its profitable cul
e y requires for ro e cultivation
a rich a eral ts India is generally sown in the
a gee of villages where manure can be
easily obtained. The soil ought to be fine and
loose when the seed is sown, The subsequent
cultivation consists chiefly in thinning and weed-
ing. Irrigation is practised. Mild moist weather,
with night-dews, is deemed most favourable during
the time of the collection of the opium. Very d
weather diminishes the flow of the juice, and muc
rain is injurious. The opium poppy is cultivated
for its seed or oil and other purposes besides the
production of opium, concerning which see Poppy.
Opium, as a commercial article, is of great
importance, exceeding indeed that of any other
omg in use. The cultivation of the opium popp
in British India forms a most extensive Peaeeh
of agriculture, and the collection and preparation
of the drag itself employs a large number of
persons, The seed is sown in India in the be-
ginning of November; it flowers in the end of
——— a oe
Fig. 1.
January, or a little later; and in three or four |
weeks after the capsules or poppy-heads are about
the size of hens’ eggs, and are ready for operatin
upon. When this is the case the collectors eac
take a little instrument (fig. 1), made of four small
knives tied together, the blades appearing like the
a a yee with ee . re sk
wound each half-ripe poppy-h (fig. 2) as the
make their way through the pines ria the field,
This is always done in the afternoon, and on the
following morning the milky sap is collected by
scraping it off with a kind of scoop, and trans-
ferred to an earthen vessel hanging at the side
of the collector, When this is full it is carried
home and p in a shallow open
and left for a time tilted on its side,
any watery fluid may drain
out; this watery fluid is very
detrimental to the opium un-
less removed. It now requires
daily attention, and has to be
turned frequently, so that the
air may dry it equally, until
it acquires a tolerable con-
sistency, which takes three
or four weeks; it is then
packed in small earthen jars,
and taken to the factories,
where the contents of each jar
are turned out and carefull
weighed, tested, valued, an
credited to the cultivator.
The opium is then thrown
into vast vats, which hold
the accumulations of entire
districts, and the mass being
kneaded is again taken out
and made into balls or cakes
for the market. After being fully dried these balls
are packed in chests for the market. Of the Indian
opium there are several qualities, as Patna, Ben-
ares, Malwa, &c. The area under cultivation in
India with the poppy varies from year to year; in
been as
Fig. 2.
some years the area in Bengal alone has
high as 560,000 acres. Certain districts are
mitted to cultivate the plant, but the cultiv:
must obtain a license. Government purchases
the opium at about 10s, a seer of 2 Ib., and an
acre yields from 10 to 15 seers of opium over
above the petals, capsules, and seed.
In Persia the drug is prepared at Ispahan, Shiraz,
and Yezd ; the latter is considered the best. The
morphia in Persian opium is only 2 to 8 per cent.,
t 7 to 11 per cent. in Turkish opium. In
horassan the cultivation of the poppy
tenfold between 1875 and 1890. quantity of
-_ for local consumption is prepares in the
pe of sticks or cylinders. That destined for
China is mixed with linseed-oil in the ee perky se
of 6 or 7 lbs. to each chest ; but that sent. ndon
is pure. The exports of Persian opium, whieh in ~
1874 and 1875 were only 2000 chests, rose before
1890 to 7700 chests, In Turkey the production is
also |
For the relation of the opium trade to the
revenue of British India, see INDIA, Vol. VI. p.
115. There has been a good deal of controversial
discussion carried on of late years as to the effects
of opium-smoking (see below), and the abolition
of the Indian trade is by many earnestly de-
manded, Those who support the present .
system of India say it is on the whole better that
the preparation and sale of Indian opium should
be in the hands of the government as a monopoly,
for if abandoned by them its culture and manu-
facture would be carried on in many other localities
favourable to the growth of the poppy. Indeed its
culture has been already tried in Australia,
and parts of America, It should also be remem
that China itself produces opium largely; there is
virtual permission and open connivance of all the
local authorities at the culture of the porpy over
the length and breadth of the empire. essedly
forbidden, its culture is free to all. The local _pro-
duction of opium is indeed believed to be as |
as the foreign import, since the authorities er
to quietly encourage the home-grown produce, 80 as
to prevent the export of bullion for the ya In
south-western China the production of opiam is
stated to exceed 280,000 ewt., and it sells at two-
thirds the price of the Indian,
~
OPIUM
613
In 1880 the annual revenue from opium in
India was nearly £10,500,000, of which the excise
opium (or that locally consumed ) yielded £1,000,000,
and the ‘provision’ or export opium the rest. In
1897 the net revenue from this source was only about
£4,000,000. About 40,000 chests (of 140 Ib.) are
area in the native states of Central India,
jputana, and Baroda, which pay a transit duty
for export from Bombay. The following figures
(in ewts.) show the decline in the export, and the
countries to which the Indian opium goes.
118,598
In 1860 the chest of Indian opium fetched
£185; but it gradually dropped to £111, although
rather better prices were obtained in 1889. It
is sold monthly by public auction at Calcutta.
To prevent speculation and to steady agen the
nantity to be sold during the year is duly notified
a the previous year. he bulk of the Indian
inm, it will be seen, still finds its way to China.
ersian opium, like the Chinese, has i
greatly in recent years, and, being cheaper than
the Indian article, has n to have a distinct
effect upon the market. The foreign exports from
India by no means represent the total trade in the
drug. There is an immense internal consumption
of what is known as ‘excise opium,’ averaging
about 4500 chests yearly. This is retailed to the
Indian consumer as a decoction, or in the form of
two smoking mixtures, chandu and madak.
The quantity of the different kinds of opium
im into China (added to the stock held in
bond from the previous year) was in 1889 as follows,
in piculs of about 1} ewt. each.
DORA 005 evecscaes 86,370 = 108,000 ewt.
The net im into China were, in 1888, 82,612
iculs, and in 1889, 76,052 pieuls. The likin or
jocal duty and the import duty amount to 110 taels
per chest, or about £36, From 1830 to 1840 the im-
ports of foreign opium into China amounted to 20,619
piculs; from 1 to 1850 they increased to 52,925
iculs. In 1860, when the trade was legalised, the
ports reached 89,744; in 1870, 95,043; in 1880,
96,839 ; and in 1895 they fell to 83,500 piculs. The
im of opium into Great Britain average 600,000
to 700,000 lb. annually. This is chiefly re-exported
—about 140,000 Ib. to the United States, and over
200,000 Ib. to South America and the West Indies.
The United States imports nearly 600,000 lb. of
crude opium, and from 45,000 to 75,000 lb. of opium
for smoking.
In Europe opium is mainly used for medicinal
purposes, and large quantities of it undergo further
manufacture, in order to separate from it the
active principles morphine, narcotine, &c. In Great
Britain the chief manufacture of these salts of
opium is carried on in Edinburgh, where two firms
manufacture these products = hee an immense scale,
supplying probably a fifth of the whole quantity
manufactured.
Chemical Properties, &c.—All kinds of opium
have a bitter, nauseous taste, and a peculiar’ nar-
cotic, heavy odour. Chemically it is a af -
‘resin patataing a very large number of alkaloids,
Meconic and other acids, and the ordinary con-
stituents of a plant juice, Its exact composi-
tion varies greatly, but is somewhat as follows :
Alkaloids—morphine (4-15 fe cent.), nareotine
(4-6 per cent.), thebaine, codeine, narceine, papa-
verine (of each from about 4-1 per cent.), erypto-
pine, rheeadine, laudanine, laudanosine, avd
morphine, codamine, meconine, protopine, lantho-
pine, papaveramine, oxynarcotine, hydrocotarnine
gnoscopine, tritopine, and others, all in very small
amount. They exist free or in combination with
meconic, lactic, sulphuric, and phosphoric acids.
There is about 8 per cent. of saccharine matter,
about 35 per cent. of gum, resin, fat, albumen,
&e., various i ic bases, and a variable amount
of water. It may be adulterated with sugar, gum,
or molasses, and sometimes contains nails, lead, or
stones in the centre of the mass.
The chief and most easily applied chemical test
for — depends on the presence of meconic acid,
which is an ic acid peculiar to it. A watery
or aleoholic solution turns blood-red in colour on
the addition of a solution of perchloride of iron,
and this colour is eee by a solution of proto-
chloride of tin. Its smell and taste are also very
characteristic. Turkey opium is
sidered the best, and in the British Pharmacopoeia
it alone is directed to be used for making the
official pharmaceutical preparations (twenty in
number). Before use it must be dried and
powdered, and standardised to a strength of_as
nearly as possible 10 per cent. of morphine. For
making the officinal alkaloids any kind of opium
may be used. A method of assaying the amount
of morphine in it is given with great detail in the
British sonakyy ss pe .
Action and Medicinal Uses.—The action of opium
depends on its alkaloids, and is chiefly determined
by the morphine present in it. Ordinary medicinal
doses (} to 3 grains) depress the activity of the brain
and cause deep sleep with dentiacted. upils, slow
respiration, and insensibility to agen n awaken-
ing there are usually di ble after-effects, such
as loss of appetite, slight nausea, constipation,
mental fatigue, and headache. When minute doses
are taken there ensue symptoms of excitement and
stimulation, as shown by increased mental and
bodily activity, restlessness and sleeplessness, The
imagination is more active, and mental work can
be accomplished with greater ease and celerity. It
is disputed whether these effects are due to actual
stimulation of the brain, or whether the higher
centres are blunted, and thus allow the vice regi
faculties to have fuller oe: Most probably the
latter is the case. Self-consciousness and self-
criticism are lulled, the judgment is less controlled
by the higher centres and by impressions from
without, and left to itself part of the brain lapses
into uncontrolled activity. It is for these reasons
that opium is habitually used by some brain-
workers. Individual susceptibility and race influ-
ence its effects very largely. The Teutonic races
and phlegmatic ple in general tend to sleep
after it, while Phebatte and persons of high]
nervous temperament tend to become excited.
Man, owing to the greater development of his
brain, is somewhat differently affected from the
lower animals. Frogs, after a primary stage of
narcosis, pass into a condition of exquisite tetanic
spasm from stimulation of the spinal cord, and the
lower mammalia exhibit the same condition to 4
lesser degree. In adult man tetanic convulsions
are rarely seen, and only occasionally after enor-
mons doses; but in children convulsions are not
infrequent, the explanation given being that in
them the spinal cord is relatively largely developed
in proportion to the brain. Opium diminishes all
the secretions except the sweat, and thus causes
constipation. It does not materially affect the
nerally con-
heart or circulation in medicinal doses,
614
OPIUM
When opium is used habitually a tolerance for
it becomes established, and enormous doses may
be taken without any special effects. In medicine
it is = wae d to procure — and hvoe ea
. For these purposes it no equal.
ape employed Pereans secretions, to allay irri-
tation, and in diarrhwa, In diabetes, heart disease,
hemoptysis, and many other conditions it is given
with great advantage. Probably no remedy has
such wide and universal applications.
It must be given with great caution to young
children, but many other factors, such as pain,
habit, idiosyncrasy, and various diseases influence
its action and dosage. .
Poisoning.—About half the deaths from poison
which occur in the United Kingdom are due to
opium or its preparations. When the effects of a
dose become fully developed the person lies in
deep coma and in a state of complete insensibility.
Respiration is slow, noisy, and stertorous, the
pupil is contracted to a ‘ Lost int,’ and insensible
to light, the pulse is rapid and weak, or sometimes
full and slow, the face and skin generally are pale
and livid, and covered with cold perspiration.
Constant stimulation i rouse the patient par-
tially, but he always tends to relapse into stupor.
Death is due to paralysis of the respiratory centres
in the brain, but may be due to apoplexy or
collapse. Such are the usual symptoms, but many
cases present peculiar features, such as convulsions,
vomiting, diarrhea, delirium, dilated pupils, and
other anomalous symptoms. The post-mortem
pearances are not characteristic, but the cerebral
hleni-vonadis are usually very full, and there may be
effusion of serum into the ventricles. The smailest
fatal dose recorded for an adult is four grains, but
enormous quantities are often taken without serious
symptoms. In infants very minute doses (4 to 4
grain) may prove fatal. Death may occur in about
two hours or even Jess; few cases are prolonged
beyond twenty-four hours.
he treatment consists in making the gerne
vomit, and in washing out the stomach with large
uantities of water. Owing to the state of insensi-
ility emetics sometimes fail to act. Atropine is
often given subcutaneously, while coffee or tea or
caffeine may be also freely given. The patient
may be further aroused by keeping him moving
about supported by attendants, by cold cloths
applied to the chest, and by electric stimulation.
Any violence or measures which tend to exhaust
the patient should be carefully avoided.
Opium-eating.—The habitual consumption of
opium or any of its preparations by persons other-
wise in [health is known as opium-eating, the
ium habit, morphine habit, or morphinism.
pium, laudanum, chlorodyne, black drop, ro ane:
morphine, and other forms are all used, They are
most commonly taken by the mouth, the sub-
cutaneous injection of Morphine (q.v.) being almost
entirely contined to the more cultured and edu-
cated classes. Its habitual use is usually
begun to relieve pain or sleeplessness, and one
month’s constant use is said to be sufficient in
many cases to confirm the habit. The amount
consumed by different individuals varies greatly.
Of morphine most habitués take about three grains
daily, some five or six grains, while a few go much
por geo De Quincey says that at one time of his
life he consumed 8000 drops of landanum daily,
but his ration was very excessive. The immediate
effects are a feeling of stimulation and well-being,
but as soon as these have passed off there ensues a
state of despondency, to banish which a fresh dose
is taken. It is a craving brought on by indulgence,
and is to be ranked with such habits as an
smoking, gambling, &c. Many persons indulge th
craving during their whole life, and do their daily
|} al
work well. Such persons do not, however, go to any
great excess, although they may have the craving
as iidercloded others —~ — er ernest from
well-developed symptoms of chronic opium poison-
ing. The typical pi tener is lean and pale, with
dull, glazy eyes; he suffers from chronic a,
from nervous irritability, and disturbances of the
circulation. Albuminuria, glycosuria, and various
other disorders are sometimes present. Sudden
deprivation causes severe nervous disturbances and
not seldom alarming collapse. For snecessful treat-
ment of the opium craving the patient had better
be removed from his own home and friends to some
institution where he can be under strict and
constant medical supervision. There is a differ-
ence of opinion as to whether the opium should be
pres a or gradually withdrawn. Recovery is
nerally complete in a few weeks, but relapses
to the habit are exceedingly apt to occur.
Opium-smoking.—The smoking of opium as a
stimulant-narcotic is practised chiefly in China, —
India, Borneo, and the far East. In China prob-
ably about 1 per cent. of the entire population
smoke opium, but the habit is growing rapidly.
In 1767 only about 200 chests of opium were im-
ported yearly, while in 1854, 78,000 chests were
needed, Fines, ties, and even death have
been found ineffective to stop the practice. Opium
prepared for smoking is called chandu, which is
simply a watery extract, about twice the strength
of the original drug. A special form of pipe is
used, a piece of prepared opium about the size of
a pea is placed, by means of a small flattened iron
pen, into a small cup at one end; this is ignited
and the smoke inhaled, and then slowly exhaled
through the nostrils. As a result, Easterns expat
ence mental and physical excitement, follow by
a pleasant sense of well-being and content, an
then narcosis. Europeans, as a rule, are not
affected by it to any appreciable extent. In the
pipe the opium is destructively distilled, and chiefly
the products of destructive distillation come over in
the smoke—pyridine, collidine, and similar bases,
There is probably scarcely a trace of morphine.
The flavour of the smoke is mild and aromatic.
In China and Singapore there are public smoking-
houses, but it is also largely practised in private.
It is reported that there are a million opium-
smokers in the United States, especially in San
Francisco and New York. ;
There is great difference of opinion regarding the
hurtfulness of the habit. Some authorities hold —
that in moderation it is not more hurtful than
tobacco, while missionaries and others maintain
that the habit is franght with moral, social, and
individual degradation. This seems to depend
largely on the extent to which it is carried, and
the question is probably on all fours with that of
alcohol in this country. Many Chinese smoke
opium all their lives in strict moderation without
apparent harm, while others have excessive de-
bauches lasting a week or more, and often become
confirmed in its excessive use. The latter without
doubt wreck their constitutions and suffer in much
the same way as confirmed alcoholics do,
See the articles LaupDaANum, Morputne, Porson; the
medical works on stimulants and narcotics. As to the
harmfulness of the use of opium, see Calkin, Opium and
the Opium Appetite (Phila. 1870); H. H. Kane, ‘um-
smoking in America and China: a Study of its
enceand Effects (New York, 1882); the publications of
the Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade
(founded 1874); W. J. Moore, The Other Side of the
Opium tion, and W. H. Brereton, The Truth about
Opium (1882, for the defence). The Report of the Indian
gone Commission (1895) indicated great diversities
bbe meray vad affirming it to be less harmful than
cohol ; but by a majority advised against interference
by government, For the Opium Wars, see Cuina. 4
OPODELDOC
OPOSSUM 615
Opodeldoc is a popular synonym for soa
Liniment (q.v.). het catein of the term, whic
was apparently applied by Paracelsus to various
forms of liniments or local applications, is not
known. The opo is the same as the opo of
nax, ye, A ny &ec., and is doubtless
erived from the Greek opos, ‘juice.’ See Notes
and Queries, October 1888, p. 316.
Opo’panax, a gum-resin obtained in Persia,
which comes to Europe at rare intervals. It
has an unpleasant odour resembling bruised ivy
leaves. Holmes suggests that it may be the pro-
duce of some Araliaceous plant, but nothing is
known of its botanical origin. The ancient phy-
sicians attached great importance to it as an anti-
spasmodic medicine ; Hippocrates, Theophrastus,
and Dioscorides have neh left descriptions of it.
The plant 0, naz chironium, from which it was
supposed to be obtained, grows generally throughout
southern Euro The perfume known as opopanax
is not derived from this gum-resin. There is a
commercial opopanax, a kind of perfumed myrrh,
obtained from a Balsamodendron, largely imported
Fad Germany, where an essential oil is distilled
rom it.
Oporto (Port. 0 porto, ‘the port’), the second
city of Portugal, stands on the steep, rocky, right
bank of the uro, high above its waters, which
reach the sea 3 miles to the west. ‘The houses,
as they rise confusedly from the river’s edge, some
painted in strong reds, blues, or greens, some left
whitewashed, and the majority retaining the
granite gray of the stone they are built with,
make up a very strange and beautiful panorama,
ringed as the city is by the encircling pine-covered
mountains’ (Oswald Crawfurd); and many of
these louses stand embowered in the greenery. of
rdens. One of the crags overlooking the river
crowned with a Crystal Palace (1865), surrounded
by ens. Many of the former monasteries are
still standing, though put to other uses: one is a
citadel, another the exchange, with splendid mar-
quetry of wood in floor and walls, a third barracks,
and so on. There are seven principal churches,
including the cathedral (built by Henry the Navi-
gator), the old Gothie church of Cedofeita (origin-
ally founded in 559), and the Church dos Clerigos,
with a tower 213 feet high. The English factory
(1785), the bishop’s palace, and the hospital of St
Antony are the most noticeable amongst the
secular buildings. Oporto a polytechnic
academy, with observatory, scientilic collections,
&c., a medical school, a fine art academy, a com-
mercial museum, an industrial institution, a library
(1796) of 200,000 vols. and 9400 MSS., and two
see a On the. south side of the river,
panes xb apoese Oporto, and connected with
it by a lofty bridge, is the suburb of Villa Nova
de Gaia, with a p. of 9126, and extensive wine-
cellars. The rai way to Lisbon (209 miles) crosses
the river a little higher up, on one of the finest
(steel) arch bridges built; the arch spans a hori-
zontal distance of 549 feet, and its centre is
203 feet above the river. Pop. (1878) 105,838;
(1890) 139,856, who are chiefly engaged in the
manufacture of cloth and silks, hats, porcelain,
ribbons, tobacco, soap, and candles, in metal-
casting, tanning, brewing, distilling, cork-cutting,
sugar-refining, and brick-making, and in commerce
and shipping. Oporto is the principal place of
export for Port Wine (q.v., and also PORTUGAL).
The remaining exports of moment are cattle,
oranges and other fruits, cork, copper, onions,
meat, hides, and wool, the total value of all ex-
ports reaching on an average £3,550,000. The
imports, consisting chiefly of corn and flour, cod-
fish, , machinery, textiles, rice, raw sugar.
hides, coal, and timber, amount to £1,800,000
annually.
Originally the Portus Cale of the Romans ( whence
Portugal), this city was the stronghold of the
Christians in the north-west of the Iberian penin-
sula against the attacks of the Moors, and more
than once changed hands between the Sth and the
12th centuries. The ple are noted for their
sturdy patriotism and liberal sentiments; in 1808
they were especially hostile to the French; they
stoutly opposed the usurper Miguel (1828), who
in revenge executed great numbers of its people,
but without breaking their spirit, for they sup-
rted Pedro of Brazil, and withstood the besieg-
ing troops of Miguel thirteen months (1832-33).
It was the scene of frequent republican riots in
potty century. See O. Crawfurd in New Review
(1889).
Opossum (Didelphys), a genus of Marsupialia,
having ten incisors in the upper jaw, and eight in
the lower, one canige tooth on each side in each
jaw, three compressed premolars, and four sharply-
tuberculated molars on each side—fifty teeth in
all; the tail generally very long, prehensile, and
in gol sealy; the feet plantigrade; five toes on
each foot, their claws long and sharp; but the
inner toe of the right foot converted into a thumb,
destitute of a claw, and opposable to the other
digits. The pouch, so characteristic of marsupials,
is generally absent, sometimes rudimentary, rarely
complete. The unwebbed feet and non-aquatic
habits distinguish this genus from Cheironectes
(q-v-) also belonging to the family Didelphide.
The name opossum has also been applied to certain
Australian Lia, but is letter restricted to the
American opossuins, which are the only marsupials
found in America. They range from the United
States to the Argentine Republic. There are alto-
gether twenty-three distinct species, with a consid-
erable range in size, varying from that of a large
cat to that of a mouse. The best known is the Vir-
ginian Opossum (D. virginiana). Among the mar-
supials they are nearest allied to the Dasyuride,
from which they are doubtfully separable; if it were
not for their graphical range, they would un-
doubtedly be placed in the same family. Although
there are now no opossums found anywhere but in
America, they existed formerly in Europe, as is
shown by their fossil remains. The opossums are
all carnivorous, one species, the Crab-eating Opos-
sum, feeding—as its name denotes—upon erabs ; in
order to capture its prey it frequents marshy places.
It is a native of tropical America. Merian’s Opos-
sum (D. dorsigerus) is remarkable for the fact that
it carries its young on its back, their tails being
twined round the tail of the mother; many other
species carry the young on the back; this is due
in many cases to the fact already mentioned—that
616 OPOTECA
OPTICS
there is no pouch. The Niprin Opossum is a
foe to pacreges Pf ce in the United States ; but it
can put up with frogs if there is nothing better to
be had. The opossums, like other marsupials, have
a lowly organised brain; but ~~ are remarkably
cunning in robbing agua 8; on the other
hand, their stupidity in walking straight into the
simplest and most obvious trap is more in accord
with their brain structure. Hunting the opossum
with dogs by night is a favourite sport in the
southern states, especially in autumn, when the
body has a thick layer of fat all over. The animal
takes refuge in a tree, and is either shaken down
or shot as it hangs by the tail. The expression
. playing possum’ refers to the opossum’s habit
of feigning death when caught. At such times,
though usually very timid, it will endure almost
any amount of torture, and give no sign of its
suffering.
0 teca, a sleepy town of 1000 inhabitants, in
Materes, about 1S miles NNW. of Comayagua,
formerly famous for its great silver-mines.
Sppein, a town of Prussian Silesia, on the
Oder, 51 miles SE. of Breslau. Since 1816, when
it was erected into a seat of government for Uppers
Silesia, the town has been much beantified both
with new edifices and with parks and ens.
Its church of St Adalbert was founded in 995;
and there is an old castle on an island in the Oder.
The manufactures include pottery, cigars, cement,
beer, leather, &e., and there is a considerable trade
in grain and cattle, Pop. (1875) 12,498; (1885)
15,975; (1890) 19,206. See Idzikowski’s Geschichte
der Stadt Oppeln (1863).
by 4 Queneng: a town of Hesse-Darmstadt, on
the left bank of the Rhine, 20 miles SSE. of Mainz
by rail, with fine vineyards. On the site of the
man castle of Bauconica, Oppenheim became a
free city of the parte, and was repeatedy besi .
especially in the Thirty Years’ War. Pop. 345
Opportunists, in French politics, are those
who, hke Gambetta, Ferry, and others like-minded,
oppose doctrinaire as well as extreme views, accom-
modate themselves in great measure to the cir-
cumstances of the hour, and aim only at what can
obviously be carried through.
Optical Hlusion. An object appears large
or small, near or distant, according as the rays
from its opposite borders meeting at the eye form
a saree or a small angle: when the angle is large,
the object is either large or near; when small, the
object must be small or distant. Experience alone
enables us to decide whether an object of large
apparent size is so on account of its real size, or of
its proximity ; and our decision is arrived at by a
comparison of the object in position with other
common objects, such as trees, houses, &c., which
may chance to be near it, and of which we have by
experience come to form a correct idea. The same
is, of course, true of apparently small objects. But
when all means for comparison are removed our
judgment is at fault. Similarly, we erroneously
nfer spherical solids at a distance to be flat dises ;
and, by reason of Irradiation (q.v.) in the eye, the
sun appears larger than he would if illumined by a
fainter light, and a man in a white habit seems
larger than he would if he wore a dark dress,
Illusions are also produced by external causes ;
and instances of this sort are given under MIRAGE,
REFLECTION, and REFRACTION.
The persist of impressions on the retina for
about one-sixth of a second after the object which
produced the impression has been removed produces
another class of illusions. Common examples of
this are the illuminated circle formed by the rapid
revolution of an ignited carbon point, piece of red-
hot iron, or other luminous body, and the fiery
eurve produced by a red-hot shot projected from a
cannon,
Another form of illusion is produced to a
who is seated in a vehicle in motion ; and it is very
deceptive when the motion is so equable as not to
be felt by the person himself. The illusion is most
complete when the attention is riveted on an object
several yards off; this object then appears to be
a centre round which all the other objects re-
volve, those between the observer and the object
moving backwards, and those beyond the object
moving forwards. This illusion occurs on a
scale in the ap t motion of the heavenly
eg e ge! —— arise from 2 pprerines|
state of the organs of vision: e.g. the seeing o
things double or movable, or of a colour different
from the true one (see COLOUR-BLINDNESS); the
appearance as of insects crawling over a body at
which the eye is directed, &e.
Optic Nerve. See Eve.
Optics is the science of the phenomena of
light. This science is usually treated under two
heads: (1) Physical Optics, which treats of the
nature of Light (q.v., as also MAGNETISM and
UnpULATORY THEORY), and explains the pheno-
mena of Colour, Reflection, Refraction, Interfer-
ence and its consequences, such as the colours of
thin plates and films, Diffraction, Dispersion, the
Spectrum, Polarisation and the properties of polar-
ised light, for which see separate articles; and
(2) Geometrical or Mathematical Optics. The
eading idea in physical optics is to trace the
P of an undulatory or oscillatory disturbance
in the Ether (q.v.); this disturbance, which may be
termed a wave, has an advancing wave-front; the
direction along which this wave-front advances
through a given point is a geometrical conception,
which it is convenient to make use of in di
more convenient than it would be to draw a series
of successive wave-fronts ; this direction of propa-
gation through any given point is called a ray ; and
metrical optics traces, hy mathematical reason-
ing, the course of a given set of ‘rays’ under
specified conditions, particularly under those which
have reference to Reflection and Refraction (q.¥.).
The part of geometrical optics which deals with
reflection of light is often called Catoptries (based
on such laws as that the angle of reflection is equal
to the le of incidence); that which deals with
refraction is called Dioptrics: and for an account
of these, reference is made to articles REFLECTION
and REFRACTION respectively.
Though the Greeks and their disciples the Arabs
had made some progress in mathematical optics,
their knowledge was confined to the law of reflection
and its more immediate consequences. Euclid,
Aristotle, Archimedes, Hero, and Ptolemy were
acquainted with the fact that light is transmitted
in straight lines; but, with the important exception
of Aristotle and some of his followers, the ancient
philosophers believed that rays proceeded Jrom the
eye to the object, instead of in the contrary direc-
tion. Ptolemy was well acquainted with atmo-
spheric refraction. Alhacen (1070) and Vitellio the
ole (1260) were almost the only cultivators of this
science during the middle ages, and their additions
to it were unimportant. The lens, though known
from early antiquity, was not applied as an aid to
defective eyesight till after the time of Roger
mn. Jansen, Metius, and Galileo separately
invented the telescope about the beginning of the
17th century ; and the last-mentioned philosopher
by its means made various important astronomical
discoveries. Kepler, a short time after, gave
true theory of the telescope, explained the method
of finding the foeal length of lenses, and applied it
to find the magnifying power of the telescope,
OPTIMISM
'
ORACLE 617
besides pointing out the mode of constructing an
instrument better adapted for astronomical pur-
poses than that of Galileo; he also made some
useful experiments on the nature of colours, and
showed that images formed on the retina of the
e are inverted, a fact previously discovered by
yeus of Messina. From this period the
science of optics steadily advanced, and its treasury
of facts received numerous additions through the
labours of De Dominis, Snell (the discoverer of the
law of refraction in 1621), Descartes, Fermat,
Barrow, Mariotte, and Boyle. Up to the time of
Newton it was generally believed that colour was
uced by refraction, but that philosopher showed
y a beautiful series of experiments that refraction
tes the colours already existing in white
light. In his hands the theory and construction
the telescope underwent many valuable improve-
ments, and in 1672 the description of his reflecting
telescope was submitted to the Royal iety.
ven Hag constructed an instrument on similar
ay some years before. About the same
ime Grimaldi made his interesting series of experi-
ments on the effects of diffraction, and noticed the
remarkable fact of the interference of one pencil
of light with the action of another. The theory of
the rainbow, with an el t analysis of the colours
of thin plates, and the A eawe concerning the
nature and propagation of light, now known as
the ‘corpuscular’ theory (see LIGHT), completed
Newton’s contributions to the science. The import-
ant services of the ingenious but eccentric Hooke
cannot be easily stated in a brief abstract, as he
discovered a little of everything, completed nothing,
and occupied himself to a large extent in combat-
ing faulty points in the theories of his contem-
ies. It must not, however, be forgotten that
has as much right as Huygens to the credit of
sr grr mad the undulatory theory. The double
ction of Iceland spar was discovered (1669) by
Bartholin, and fully explained in 1690 by Huygens,
the under of the undulatory theory, who also
aid of mathematical optics to a
considerable extent. The velocity of light was
discovered Romer (1675), and in 1720 the
aberration of the fixed stars and its cause were
made known by Bradley, who likewise determined
with accuracy the amount of atmospheric refrac-—
tion. Bouguer, Porterfield, Euler, and Lambert
rendered essential service to physical optics; the
same was done for the matical theory by
Dollond (the inventor of the achromatic telescope),
Clairaut, D’Alembert, Boscovich, &c. ; while in later
times the experiments of Delaval on the colours
produced by reflection and refraction ; the discus-
sion of the phenomena arising from unusual reflec-
tion or refraction carried, on by Vince, Wollaston,
Biot, Mo and others ; the discovery of polarisa-
tion of light by Malus (1808), and its investigation
by Brewster, Biot, and Seebeck ; of depolarisation
by Arago (1811), and of the optical properties as
connected with the axes of crystals (1818) by
Brewster ; and the explanation of these and other
optical phenomena in accordance with the undula-
tory hypothesis by Young—the discoverer of the
Interference (q.v.) of rays—and Fresnel, went far to
give opties a width of scope and a ey wg which
are possessed by few other sciences. The develop-
ment of the undulatory theory and of optical
seience generally has heen carried on in the present
century by Lloyd, Airy, Cauchy, Clerk-Maxwell,
Hertz, and others; and for an acconnt of the
pueene state of the science reference may be made
Mr Thomas Preston’s Theory of Light (1890), in
addition to the works mentioned under Licut, and’
the articles LENSES, Microscope, TELESCOPE, &c.
Optimism (Lat. optimus, ‘ best’), the doctrine
that the existing order of things, whatever may be
its seeming imperfections of detail, is nevertheless,
as a whole, the most perfect or the best which
could have been created, or which it is possible to
conceive, Some of the advocates of optimism
content themselves with maintaining the absolute
Sa gt that, although God was not by any means
und to create the most perfect order of things,
yet the existing order is de facto the best; others
contend that the perfection and wisdom of Almighty
God necessarily require that His creation should be
the most perfect which it is possible to conceive.
The philosophical discussions of which this con-
troversy is the development are as old as_philo-
sophy itself, and are dealt with in the article on
the origin of Evil (q.v.). But the full development
of the optimistic theory as a rice system
was reserved for Leibnitz (q.v.), in his Theodicée,
the main thesis of which is that, among all the
systenis which presented themselves to the infinite
intelligence of God as possible, God selected and
c in the existing universe the best and most
rfect, physically as well as morally, regard being
ad to the universe asa whole. The Theodicée was
desi, to meet the sceptical theories of Bayle,
and its theories were ridiculed in Voltaire’s Candide.
Modern discussion on this question usually assumes
the form of assertion or denial of the opposite
doctrine of Pessimism (q.v.).
Opuntia, See Prickty PEAR.
Opus Operatum (Lat., literally ‘the work
wrought’) is the phrase employed in the Catholic
theological schools to describe the manner of opera-
tion of the sacramental rites in the production of
It is intended to imply that the ministra-
tion of the rite (opus) is in itself, through the
institution of Christ, an eflicient cause of grace,
and that, although its operation is not infallible,
but requires and presupposes certain dispositions
on the part of the recipient, yet these dispositions
are but conditiones sine qua non, and do not of
themselves produce the grace. Hence, when the
sacraments are administered to dying persons in a
state of apparent insensibility, this is done in the
hope and on the presumption that the dying person
may, though seemingly unconscious, be neverthe-
less really disposed to receive the sacrament; but
it is by no means held that if these dispositions be
wanting the sacrament will itself justify him.—The
phrase Operantis is ha, eng used as denoting
that the effect of a particular ministration or rite
is primarily and directly due, not to the rite itself
(opus), but to the dispositions of the recipient
(operans). Thus, in the act of kissing or praying
before a crucifix, of sprinkling one’s self with holy
water, of telling the prayers of the rosary upon
blessed beads, the fervour and personal piety of
the supplicant, and not the material object of the
religious use, is held to be the efficient cause of the
grace which is thereby imparted.
Orache (Atriplex), a genus of plants of the
natural order Chenopodiacee, having male and
female flowers on the same plant. The species are
numerous and widely spread.over the maritime or
saline parts of the earth, scarcely any species
axeeyh the Common Orache (A. patula) being ever
found inland or away from saline influence. Five
species, including the Garden Orache (A. hortensis),
are natives of Britain. Although formerly much
cultivated in Britain, orache is now displaced as
a pot-herb by spinach (Spinacia oleracea), a species
of a closely allied genus. All the species have
similar qualities, and may be used as spinach.
Oracle, the response delivered by a deity or
supernatural being to a worshipper or inquirer;
also the place where the response was delivered.
These responses were supposed to be given by a
certain divine afflatus, either through means of
618 ORACLE
ORANG
mankind, as in the orgasms of the Pythia and the
dreams of the worshipper in the temples; or by
its effect on certain objects, as the tinkling of the
caldrons at Dodona, the rustling of the sacred
laurel, the murmuring of the streams ; or by the
actions of sacred animals, as exemplified in the Apis
or sacred bull of Memphis, and the feeding of holy
chickens among the Romans. Such responses were,
however, closely allied to augury, which differed in
this respect, that auguries could be takenanywhere,
while the oracular spots were defined and limited.
Oracle dates from the highest antiquity, and gradu-
ally declines with the Sediine of Animism (q.v.)
and with the increasing knowledge of mankind.
Among the Egyptians ‘all the temples were a
oracular, In the hieroglyphic texts the gods spea
constantly in an oracular manner, and their con-
sultation by the Pharaohs is occasionally mentioned.
In later days the most renowned of these oracles
was that of Ammon in the Oasis, where oracular
responses were rendered either by the shaking
of the statue of the god or by his appear-
ance in a certain manner. Oracles were also used
by the Hebrews, as in the consultation of the Urim
and Thummim by the high-priest, and the unlawful
use of Teraphims, and consultations of the gods of
Pheenicia and Samaria. The Hebrew oracles were
by word of month, as the speech of God to Moses,
dreams, visions, and prophetical denunciations ;
besides which there were oracles in Phoenicia, as
that of Beelzebub and others of the Baalim. They
were also in use throughout Babylonia and Chaldea,
where the responses were delivered by dreams
given to the priestesses, who slept alone in the
temples as concubines of the gods. The most
renowned of all Greek oracles was the Delphic
oracle (see DELPHI), which was Panhellenic or
open to all Greece. Sacrifices were offered by the
inquirers, who walked with laurel crowns on their
heads, and delivered in questions inscribed on
leaden tablets (of which many have been recently
discovered); the response was deemed infallible,
and was usually dictated by justice, sound sense,
and reason, Other oracles of Apollo were at Abe
in Phocis; at Ptoon, which was destroyed in the
days of Alexander the Great; and at Ismenus,
south of Thebes. In Asia Minor the most cele-
brated was that of Branchid, close to Miletus,
celebrated in Exypt, Gryneum, and Delos. Besides
that of Dodona, Zeus had another at Olympia;
and those of various other deities existed else-
where. A secondary class of oracles of heroic or
prophetic persons existed in Greece, the two most
celebrated of which were those of Amphiaraus and
Trophonius, The first mentioned was one of the
five great oracles in the days of Croesus, and was
situate at Oropus in Attica. Those who consulted
it fasted a whole day, abstained from wine,
sacrificed a ram to Amphiaraus, and slept on the
skin in the temple, where their destiny was
revealed by dreams, That of Trophonius was at
Lebadea in Beotia, and owed its origin to a
aeified seer. It was given in a cave, into which
the votary descended,- bathed and anointed, hold-
ing a honeyed cake. There were some other oracles
of minor importance. Besides these oracles, written
ones existed of the prophecies of celebrated seers,
as Bacis and Musiens, which were collected by the
Pisistratidw, and kept in the Acropolis of Athens.
Others of the Sibyls or prophetic women were
popular, and at alater period (see Sipyi) Athenais
and others prophesied in the days of the Selencide.
Amongst the oriental nations, as the Arabs and
others, divination was and is extensively practised,
but there are no set oracles, The Celtic Druids
are said to have delivered responses, and the oracle
of the Celtic god Belenus or Abelio was celebrated.
See Herodotus, Hist, v. 89, viii. 82; Curtius, iv. 7;
Hare, Ancient Greeks (1836); Bos, Antiquities of Greece
(1823, p. 31); F. W. H. Myers, Greek Oracles ( Hellenica,
pp. 426-492, 1880); Stengel,’ Griechischen Sakvalalter.
Antigeiis (ations Antequitiay “Hummel ewes ie
ntiquitees us 1€3,
Galuski, 1887). Se - nd
Oran (Arab, Waran), a seaport of Algeria,
stands on the Gulf of Oran, 261 miles by rail W.
by S. of Algiers and 130 by sea S. of Cartagena in
Spain. It climbs up the foot of a hill, is defended
by detached forts, has a thoroughly French appear-
ance, having been mainly bnilt since 1790, when
the older Spanish town was destroyed by an earth-
quake, and possesses a Roman Catholic cathedral
(1839), a grand mosque, a large military hospital,
a college, a seminary, and two citadels or castles.
The harbour is protected on the north and east by
moles constructed in 1887 at a cost of £280,000;
alfa, iron ore, and cereals are the chief of the
exports. Pop. (1891) 73,610. Oran was built b
the Moors. During the second half of the 15t
century it was a highly-prosperous commercial
town, and was celebrated for its cloth and arms
and fine public buildings. But it was taken by
the Spaniards in 1509 and made a penal settlement.
It was captured by the Turks in 1708, but retaken
by the Spaniards in 1732. In 1790 it was destroyed
by an earthquake, and shortly after was altogether
abandoned by the es the Turks weet gs.
it again in 1792. The French took on 0}
the town in 1831.—The province of Oran has an
area of 33,236 sq. m., and a pop. (1891) of 942,066,
of whom 74,810 were French, 91,494 Spaniards, and
15,771 Jews ; (1891) 942,066.
Orang, or ORANG-OUTANG (Simia ws), an
anthropoid ape, found only in the forests of Sumatra
and Borneo. There is only one species, though it
has been said that another smaller variety occurs
in Borneo, The orang is distinguished from other
anthropoid apes by its reddish-brown colour ; and
it has been noticed that the colour corresponds to
that of its human neighbours, just as the black
colour of the chimpanzee and gorilla answers to
PEL CK ET
a
‘ a We
Orang-outang (Simia satyrus).
that of the African tribes inhabiting the same
country. Miklucho-Maklay asserts that the Malays
never use their words Orang titan (‘man of the
woods’) for any ape, but for an uncultured tribe
of Malays living in the woods,
Like other anthropoids the orang is arboreal in
ORANG
ORANGE 619
habit, and can move with considerable swiftness
through a forest, passing from tree to tree; on the
= it is awkward. It has a curious habit of
uilding among the branches a. temporary - hut
or nest as it is usually called. The orang was
formerly regarded as capable of all manner of
—, such as carrying off women and children,
throttling people with its hind-foot as they
passed under the trees. When these beliefs were
proved to be false they were transferred to the
chimpanzee, and particularly to the gorilla. Th
were mainly dispelled by Wallace, who stated,
however, of the orang that ‘there is no animal in
the jungle so airong as he;’ but strength does not
necessarily imply ferocity, and the orang seems
to be a very tamable creature. :
Hornaday, an American traveller, observ
the orang in the act of making its nest. He thus
describes the process : ‘I got there just in time to
see the orang build a large nest for himself. He
took up a position in a fork which was well screened
by the foliage, and began to break off small
branches and pile them loosely in the crotch. There
was no eens at weaving, nor even regularity in
anything. He reached out his long, airy arm,
=e off the leafy branches with a practised
, and laid them down with the broken ends
sticking out, He presently got on the pile with his
feet, and standing there to weight it down, he
turned slowly, breaking branches all the while
and laying them across the pile in front of him
until he had built quite a large nest. When he
had finished he lay down upon it, and was so
effectually screened from us that I could not dis-
lodge him, and after two or three shots I told the
natives that they would have to cut down the tree.’
During one day’s travel in Borneo thirty-six old
nests and six fresh ones were seen ; there appears
to be nothing like house-building, which has been
stated by some to exist among the orangs.
The structure of the orang shows its near rela-
tionship to the other anthropoids and to man.
The curvature of the spine, which is an important
character, os according to Cunningham, to
be different from that of a full-grown man, but to
correspond to that of a boy of six years old. The
extension of the cerebral hemispheres in the brain
backwards over the cerebellum is about equal to
what is found in the chimpanzee; naturally this
is considerably than in man, but greater than
in the new-born child. The orang comes nearest
among the anthropoids to man in certain other
characters, especially in brain characters; but, as
the gorilla an Shape show @ nearer approxi-
mation in various other points, it would not be safe
to call the orang the most man-like of apes. See
ANTHROPOID APEs, .
Orange (Lat. aurantium; from aurum,
fold), the name of one or more species of
itrus (q.v.), of which the fruit is much prized.
Botanists ly regard all the oranges as of one
3, aurantium, but some make the
weet Orange, the Bitter O: , the Bergamot
Orange, &c. distinet species. The wild state of
the orange is not certainly known, although its
characters may be pretty confidently inferred from
the degeneration of cultivated varieties; and no
enltivated plant shows a greater liability to de-
generate, so that seedling oranges are almost
always worthless. From a remote antiquity it has
been cultivated in India; and thence it seems to
~ have spread into western Asia and Europe. It
Was been alleged that the orange is a native of
North America, near the Gulf of Mexico; but the
bability rather seems to be that it has been
troduced, and has become naturalised.
The Common Orange, or Sweet Orange (Citrus
aurantium), is an evergreen tree of moderate size,
with greenish-brown bark; the leaves oblong,
acute, sometinies minutely serrated, the leaf-stalks
‘more or less winged, the flowers white, the fruit
‘roundish, the oil-eysts of the rind convex, the juice
sweet and acid. It is cultivated in almost every
part of the world of which the climate is warm
enough, but succeeds best in the warmer tem-
perate or subtropical climates, as in the south
of Europe, where it is very extensively cultivated,
The orange
as far north as the south of France.
does not seem to
have been culti-
vated by the
Greeks or Ro-
mans, but was
probably brought
to Europe by the
Moors, an “et is
supposed to have
peas introduced
into Italy so re-
cently as the 14th
century, fully
1000 years after
the citron. In
the north of Italy
oranges aresome-
times grown in
conservatories,
but often in the
open air, except
during _ winter,
when they are
covered —
temporary houses Sweet Orange ( Citrus aurantium »
of Boards In eal in Flower :
the south of Eng- a, fruit; b, transverse section of same.
land they are (Bently and Trimen.)
sometimes in like
manner grown in the open air, with a shelter of
boards or matting in winter, but trained against
a south wall; they attain a large size, and yield
fruit. The abundant importation of the
ruit, however, renders the cultivation of the
orange in Britain unnecessary ; and, in general,
only small plants are to be seen in greenhouses
or conservatories, as mere objects of interest.
In some of Queensland and south-west
Australia the orange is grown to great perfection,
but its culture does not appear to be regarded as a
profitable industry—probably owing to the absence
of markets and the facilities of conveyance thereto.
A few counties in the colony of New South Wales
appear to be ey well adapted to orange
cultivation. government report on the area
under orangeries gives it as 10,857 acres in 1889.
Excellent oranges have been exported from the
colony to Britain at remunerative rates. There are
many varieties in cultivation, which are perpetu-
ated by grafting upon seedling orange stocks and
by layers. The principal orange-growing sections
of the United States are Florida, Louisiana, and
California.
Of the varieties of the sweet preg perhaps
the most deserving of notice are the Portugal or
Lisbon Orange, the most common of all, having
the fruit generally round or nearly so, and a thic
tind ; the China Orange, said to have been brought
by the Portuguese from China, and now much
cultivated in the south of Europe, having a smooth
thin rind and very abundant juice; the Maltese or
Blood Orange, remarkable for the blood-red colour
of its pulp; the Egg Orange, open fruit of an
oval shape; the Mandarin Orange, or Clove Orange
(C. nobilis), has fruit much broader than long,
with a rind very loosely attached to the flesh, and
small leaves; and the Tangerine Orange, an arently
derived from the Mandarin, The St Hichael’s
620
ORANGE
Orange is a sub-variety of the China orange. The
Jaffa Orange has now a great reputation. The
Majorca Orange is seedless. The Kum-quat (C.
japonica), from China and Japan, is little bigger
han & berry, and grows well in Australia.
The Bitter ay, k Seville Orange, or Bigarade
= vulgaris, or C. bigaradia), is distin ruished
rom the sweet orange by the more truly elliptical
leaves, the acid and bitter juice of the fruit, and
the concave oil-cysts of its rind. Its branches are
also spiny, which is rarely the case with the sweet
ora The varieties in cultivation are numerous,
The bitter orange was extensively cultivated by
the Moors in Spain, probably for medicinal pur-
poses, as stomachie and tonic. Its chief use, how-
ever, is for flavouring puddings, cakes, &c., and
for making marmalade. The Bergamot Orange
(C. Bergamia) is noticed in a separate article. —
Orange-leaves are feebly bitter, and contain a
fragrant, volatile oil, which is obtained by dis-
tilling them with water, and is known in the shops
as Essence de Petit Grain. Orange-flowers yield,
when distilled with water, a fragant volatile oil,
called Oil of Neroli, which is used in making Zau
de Cologne and for other purposes of perfumery.
The flowers both of the sweet orange and of the
bitter orange yield it, but those of the bitter
orange are preferred. Dried orange-flowers, to be
distilled for this oil, are an article of export from
the south of Europe. They are packed in barrels,
and mixed with salt. The dried flowers have a
yellowish colour; the fresh flowers are white and
very fi t. The use of them as an ornament
in the head-dress of brides is common throughout
t of the world. The small green oranges,
5 ae the size of a pea to the size of a cherry, which
fall from the trees, both of the sweet orange and
the bitter orange, when the crop is too great to
be brought to maturity, are carefully gathered and
dried, and are the Orange berries of the shops.
They are used in making Curagoa, and yield a
fragrant oil on distillation, the original essence
de petit grain. The dried and candied rind of the
ripe bitter orange, well known as Orange-peel, is
used as a stomachic, and very largely for flavourin
puddings and articles of confectionery, The rin
of the sweet orange is sometimes employed in the
same way, but is inferior, A fragrant essential oil
is obtained from the rind of the orange by distilla-
tion with water, and is sold by perfumers as Oil of
Sweet e, or Oil of Bitter Orange, accordin
as it is obtained from the one or the other, wre 4
the two kinds of oil are very similar. The rind of
the orange is used in the preparation of a fine
liqueur called Orange Rosoglio, which is.an article
i) ap yi from some parts of Italy. Besides the
use of the sweet orange as a dessert fruit, and
as a refrigerant in cases of sickness, its juice is
extensively used as a refrigerant beverage, and is
valuable in febrile and inflammatory complaints.
range-trees are often extremely fruitful, so
that a tree 20 feet high and occupying a space of
little more than 12 feet in diameter sometimes
yields from 3000 to 4000 oranges in a year. One
tree in Florida has often borne 10,000 oranges in a
single season. The orange-tree attains an age of
at least 100 to 150 years. Young trees are less
productive than old ones, and the fruit is also less
Juicy, has a thicker rind, and more numerous seeds,
The fruit of the orange-tree is of great com-
mercial importance, for not only is it one of the
most delicious and wholesome of fruits, but for-
tunately it is also the most easily kept and carried
from p to place. No fresh fruit possesses in
the same d as the orange and its congeners,
the lemon, citron, lime, &c., the peepee of being
ly packed in boxes when nearly ripe, and being
in that state able to stand the close confinement
of a ship's hold during a voyage of two or three
re Bo — . eae freeing rd = the
zores, ta, Sic’ in, Portugal, yrian
coast, and latterly” in Prlorida, and it is from
these localities that Britain receives its supply.
Those from St Michael's, one of the Azores, and
from Malta are the best varieties in the English
markets ; but the Mandarin Orange of China and
the Navel Orange of South America are much
superior, The latter occasionally Bri
in small quantities from Brazil; they are nearly
double the size of the ordinary orange, and have
a peculiar navel-like formation on the top of the
fruit, which is somewhat oval in s
Oranges when gathered for pee ar must not be
quite ripe ; those fully formed and with the colour
ust turning from green to yellow are chosen.
h is wrapped in a piece of paper, or in the
husk of Indian corn, and they are R ryarmes in
boxes and half-boxes, chests and half-chests—
the former are the Sicilian packages, the latter
are St Michael’s, Spanish, and Po ese. A
box contains about 250, a chest about 1000
a 1 the rind of th is used
range-peel, or the rin e orange,
em in scene and a —for the
ormer purpose it is merely cut into long strips,
and dried ; for the latter it is carefully separated,
either in halves or quarters, from the fruit, and, .
after lying in salt water for a time, is washed in
clear water, and then boiled in syrup of sugar, or
candied, and is sold extensively as candied peel.
The rinds of the citron and lemon are treated in
the same manner.—The wood of the orange-tree is
yellowish white and close-grained. It is used for
at ty and for turnery.
The orange may be successfully cultivated in
climates the winter temperature which does
not fall below 40°, The tree prefers strong loam
or clayey soil, but succeeds in any kind of soil if
well fertilised. See Dr Moore’s Handbook of
Orange Culture (New York and Lond, 1885); and
— States Consular Report on Fruit ure
( ).
Orange, or GArtzp, the largest river of South
Africa, rises in the Kathlamba Mountains, in the
east of Basutoland, and flows west, with an in-
clination to the north, to the Atlantic Ocean. It
describes numerous wide curves in its course of
1000 miles, and separates Cape brag C on_ the
south, from the Orange Free State, Griqualand
West, Bechuanaland, and Great Namaqualand, on
the north. Area of basin, 325,000 sq. m. Its ¥ -
cipal tributaries are the Caledon and the Vaal,
both joining it from the right. Its volume varies
greatly between the dry season, when it is not
navigable, and the rainy season, when it overflows
its banks in the upper parts of its course. Its
mouth is, moreover, obstructed by a bar.
Orange, « town in the French department of
Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Aigue, 18 miles
by rail N. of Avignon. The Arausio of the Romans,
which contained 40,000 inhabitants, it retains two
splendid Roman remains—a triumphal arch, 72
feet high, and a theatre whose fagade was 340
feet long by 118 high, A neighbouring circus has
been swept away. ‘There is a Romanesque cathe-
dral, and statues of two of the counts. Pop, 6904,
Orange was the capital of a small independent
a , Which was ruled by its own sovereigns
rom the llth to the 16th century. The last of
these sovereigns, Philibert de Chalons, died in 1531
without issue. His sister, however, had married a
Count of Nassau, and to that house the estates and
titles . The Count of Nassau who obtained
the principality of Orange was the father of William
the Silent (see HOLLAND, Vol. V, p. 742). William
.
a—aa
ORANGE
ORATORIO 621
TIL, Prince of Orange and king of England, having
died in 1702 without issue, there n a long-
continued controversy as to the succession between
Frederick I. of Prussia (as grandson of one of the
last princes of Orange), the —— of the
older branch of the House of Nassau (q.v.), and
the head of the younger line. At the peace of
Utrecht (1713) the king of Prussia took the settle-
ment into his own hands, so far as the territory
of Orange was concerned, by making it over for
certain equivalents to the king of France. The
title Prince of bet ay however, remained with
the younger Nassau line, afterwards sovereigns of
Holland. See Bastet’s Histoire d Orange (1856).
Crane a city of New Jersey, 12 miles W. of
New Yor rail, and 3 miles by tram-car from
Newark. slope of Orange Mountain is laid
out in beautiful parks, and ornamented with villas,
There are manufactures of hats, carriages, &c.
Pop. (1880) 13,207 ; (1900) 24,141.
Orangemen, an organisation which had its
origin in the hostility that snbsisted between
Protestants and Catholics in Ireland from the
Reformation downwards, though the term is first
used after the Revolution of 1688. The members
of the Protestant associations appear at first to
have been known by the name of ‘ Peep-of-day
Boys ;’ but the rude and illiterate mob of Peep-
of-day made way for the rich and influential
isation of the Orange Society. Its name was
rd from that of the Prince of 0: , William
IIL, who in Ireland has been popularly identified
with the establishment of that Protestant ascend-
ency which it was the aves of the Orange asso-
ciation to sustain. The first ‘Orange Lodge’ was
founded in the village of Taagheall, County Armagh,
September 21, 1795. Lecky holds that the first
Orange rising was bronght about by the restless-
ness and discontent of the Catholics, co’ uent
on the withdrawal of Earl Fitzwilliam and the
collapse of his schemes of Catholic emancipation,
and was really a plan to expel all Catholics from
Ulster, and drive them to Connaught or else-
where. The immediate occasion of the crisis
was a series of ontrages by which Catholics
were forcibly ejected from their houses and farms,
terminating (September 1795) in an engagement,
called, from the place where it occurred, the
_— oe the ae inn aegioro tag ey =n
nseparably combi religious with the polit-
ical antipathies. In November of that year the
Orange iety had ‘already reached the dignity
of a grand | of Ireland, with a formal estab-
lishment in the metropolis; and in the following
years the organisation extended over the entire
province of Ulster, and. had its ramifications in
all the centres of Protestantism in the other pro-
vinces of Ireland. In 1808 it extended to England.
A grand lodge was founded at Manchester, but
transferred to London in 1821. The subject more
than once was brought under the notice of parlia-
ment, especially in 1813, and in consequence the
grand lodge of Ireland was dissolved; but its
unctions in issuing warrants, &c. were discharged
a through the English Say The most
memorable crisis, however, in the history of the
Orange Society was the election of a royal duke
(Cumberland) in 1827 as grand master for England,
and, on the re-establishment of the Irish grand lod
in 1828, as imperial d master. The Catholic
Relief Act of the following year stirred up all the
slumbering 7 pg of creed and race, and the
association was h preengites more ly
than ever—not only in Wales and Scotland, but also
in Canada and in the other colonies ; and it extended
its ramifications into the army. In 1835 the asso-
ciation numbered 20 grand lodges, 80 district lodges,
1500 private lodges, and from 200,000 to 220,000
members. After a protracted parliamentary inqui
in 1835 the lodges were formally su presead, thong!
the institution afterwards gradually revived as a
secret society. In 1861 there were 150,000 members
in British America. Great days in the association
are the 5th of November, the anniversary of
William III.’s arrival in Torbay ; and the Ist and
12th of July, the anniversaries of the battles of
Pig ey and the Boyne. Serious riots took place
in New York on July 12, 1871, and at Belfast in
1880 and 1886. See Lecky’s History of England in
the Eighteenth Century, vols. vii. and viii. (1890).
River Colony, a British crown
colony in South Africa, lying between the Vaal
and Orange rivers, and surrounded by Cape Colony,
the Transvaal Colony, Natal, and Basutoland.
This region is a sneer rising from 3000 to 5000
feet above the sea-level, with very little wood, except
alongside the numerous watercourses. Its vast un-
dulating plains of magnificent pasture-land slope
down to the Vaal and the hs gy and are dotted
over with the isolated hills called ‘ Kopjies.’ Area
estimated at 48,326 sq. m.; pop. (1890) 207,503—
77,716 being whites. Of these again 51,910 were
natives of the State, 21,116 were born in Ca
Colony, and 2549 in Europe, with 1000 from the
Transvaal and 900 from Natal. Nearly 70,000 were
members of the Dutch Reformed Church. The oc-
eupationsare mainly pastoral. Merinosheep, cattle,
horses, Goats, and ostriches are reared ; corn ( wheat,
maize, Kaffir corn) is grown chiefly in the east.
Coal is mined in the north and diamonds in the
south-west. The climate is healthy and temperate.
Railways connect Bloemfontein (q.v.), the capital,
with the Cape (1892) and the Transvaal. The
annual trade reaches a total of 3 millions sterling ;
the chief exports being wool, diamonds, hides,
ostrich-feathers, and live animals. When the Dutch
Boers left the Cape Colony (1836) and took posses-
sion of this country it was inhabited by Bushmen,
Bechuanas, and Korannas. The Cape government
appointed a resident in the republic in 1845, and
years later it was annexed to the British
crown as the Orange River Sovereignty; but in
1854 it was aes up to the Boers, who formed them-
selves into the independent republic of the Orange
River Free State. ident Sir J. H. Brand (1863-
83) cherished the friendliest relations with Britain,
and mediated in 1881 between Britain and the
Transvaal. On the failure of negotiations between
the Transvaal (q.v.) and Britain in 1899, President
Steyn, in alliance with the Transvaal, issued an
ultimatum to Britain (9th October) which was
virtually a declaration of war, and was followed a
few om afterwards by a joint invasion of Natal.
The r tog having been conquered and
overrun, on 28th May 1900 the Orange River State
was formally annex Llane as a crown colony,
under the name of the Orange River Colony.
See Borers, TRANSVAAL; Norris-Newman, With the
Boers in the Transvaal and Orange Free State (1882) ;
Anthony Trollope, South Africu (1878); E. de Weber,
Quatre Ans aux Pays des Boers (1882); Theal’s History
of the Boers in Southern Africa (1887); and numerous
works on the Transvaal war (1899-1900).
Oratorio, a sacred story set to music, which,
like opera, requires soloists, chorus, and full or-
chestra for its performance, but dispenses with
the theatrical aidjanets of scenery, costumes, and
acting. It is named from the oratory or mission-
hall in Rome, where on feasts St Philip Neri (q.v.)
prompted by the same spirit as had in the medisva
miracle and mystery plays sought to interest and
educate the unlearned, arranged the sacred musical
performances (1571-94), which developed into the
modern oratorio,
622 ORATORIO
ORATORY
The effort to find a more dramatic vehicle of ex-
ression which had proved in Florence the germ of
Gees. (q.v.) was also being made in Rome by Emilio
del Cavaliere. And by a curious coincidence the
first oratorio and the first opera (properly so called )
were produced in the same year ( ) in these
two cities. Cavaliere’s oratorio, which was written
thronghout in recitative style, was called La
ppresentazione del’ Anima e del Corpo, and the
directions for eating. dressing, and dancing, as well
as singing, show how entirely the conception of
oratorio has changed since its first rude beginning.
During the 17th century Carissimi and Scarlatti
wrote many works full of expression, but the
Italians were, as a rule, more engrossed with
the development of opera. Indeed, save in such
expressive works as Carissimi’s Jephtha, Stra-
della's John the Baptist, and the like, there is no
difference between opera and oratorio composition,
and it was among the graver nations of the North
that the oratorio was to arrive at its maturity.
There the first and almost universal subject was
the Passion; and to illustrate the story and direct
the meditations of the devout, Schiitz, Graun,
Handel, and Bach employed all their skill in
musical construction, and all the resources which
counterpoint, harmony, and orchestration could
afford them, Solid part-writing for voices is
absolutely necessary for such impressive and seri-
ous works as oratorios, and it is the neglect among
the Italians of the art they had brought to snch
perfection during the 16th century which has
caused the crown to pass from Italy to Germany.
The greatest ‘Passion Music’ is the St Matthew,
written for service on Good Friday, 1729, by Seb.
Bach. It contains choruses, solos, and chorales (in
which the congregation took part), all of surpassing
interest and beauty, and showing when requisite
t dramatic truth and force. And as this work
is the climax, so it is the close of passion music
development.
The next and most important phase of oratorio was
the Epic, which became in Handel’s giant hands
such a powerful instrument, Before he wrote Sau/
and Israel in Fount ie) he had written an early
oratorio in the Italian, and Passions, Xe. in the Ger-
man style. Between his arrival in England (1710)
and his abandonment of the opera he had in no
fewer than forty-four operas accustomed himself
to all the possibilities of vocal expression ; and his
Italian training, his studies in Germany, and his
varied experience eminently fitted him for his task.
In twelve years he composed fifteen grand oratorios
(Israel in Egypt, Messiah, Samson, Judas Mac-
cabeus, Joshua, Solomon, Jephtha, &c.), besides
several cantatas and anthems of almost oratorio
dimensions, The greatest is Jsrael in Egypt, with its
massive double chorus-writing and its grand effects ;
but the Messiah is a work which stands out not only
among oratorios, but in all musical literature as a
front inspiration. Pure inspiration it must indeed
ave been, for it was written in twenty-four days !
The great admiration for Handel's compositions in
England finds expression every three years in the
Handel Festival, held in London, at which the
Messiah, Israel in Egypt, and a ‘selection’ are
performed on a — scale (about three thou-
sand singers and five hundred instrumentalists),
Haydn heard Handel’s works when he visited
England in 1791-92, and was incited to the com-
sosthlon of his great oratorio, the Creation (and
also the charming pastoral the Seasons, which
should scarcely be called an oratorio); in fact,
Handel has been the inspiration and model of
nearly all succeeding oratorios, as England, his
adop country, has been oratorio’s peculiar
home. There the unequalled choruses and the
general custom of choral festivals on a large scale
offer numerous eepeceenies for producing familiar
masterpieces and inducements to compose new
works. For the Birmingham Festival of 1846
Mendelssolin wrote his masterpiece, the Elijah, a
work of great originality, which, however, owes
more to the influence of h than of Handel. S¢
Paul was produced at Diisseldorf ten years earlier.
Daring orchestral colour and original effects
characterise Spohr’s oratorios, Last Jud,
(1826), Cal (1885), and The rie f .
lon (1842). fodern oratorios take advan
of the dramatic element which is so strong in
music of the 19th century, and in many works
the name is modified (e.g. Dramatic Oratorio—
Mackenzie’s Rose of Sharon, Parry’s Judith, &c.)
or avoided Nope ilogy—Gounod’s Redempti
Berlioz’s Chi
Ludmila and Liszt’s izabeth and Christus lean
more and more to the form of dramatic can
of which Beethoven’s Mount of Olives (miscall
an oratorio), Schumann’s Paradise and the Peri,
Sullivan’s Golden Legend, and Mackenzie’s Dream
of Jubal and Sayid are fine examples.
To treat of the large field thus opened to modern
composers in the dramatic cantata, sacred and
secular, would lead us far beyond the limits of this
article; reference must be made to musical dic-
tionaries, as well as, more strictly for Oratorio,
to Bitter’s Geschichte des Oratorinms (1872), Wan-
gemann’s Geschichte des Oratoriums (1882), Rock-
stro’s careful article in Grove’s Dictionary, and
Upton’s Standard Oratorios (Chicago, 1887).
Oratory of St Philip Neri, Concrrca-
TION OF THE. The origin of the Con; tion of
the Oratory has been described in the article on St
Philip Neri, its founder (see, NERI). Here some-
thing must be said of its constitution and work.
The primary idea of the institution was that its
members should be bound by no religious vows.
They were to be secular priests living together under
a common rule, and practising obedience as free sub-
jects, with liberty to quit the community if the
so willed. Each father must contribute an annu
pension towards the se nad of the house, and have,
moreover, a sufficiency of private means for his
personal expenses, therwise he has absolute
control over his own property. The government
of the congregation is of a remarkably republican
character. Each community is entirely independ-
ent, being subject to no mother-house or general-
superior. The community is composed of three
classes—the novices, triennial and decen
fathers. A member after passing his novitiate
becomes a triennial father, with a consultative voice
in the affairs of the congregation. On the com-
letion of his tenth year he becomes a decennial
‘ather, with a decisive vote. The superior, who
is generally spoken of as ‘the Father,’ is elected
every three years, and with him are elected four
deputies, who form a committee which meets weekly,
has the appointment of the other officers, distributes
the ecclesiastical work, and controls the ordinary
expenditure. But no large expenditure or new
undertaking can be entered upon without the
consent of the general co tion, where in
all vag the voting is sc fa lot. whe i
superior, primus inter pares, has no leges an
is exempt from no rules. He takes his turn in the
waiting at table in the refectory, and has his share
in the work of the church. The principal religious
exercise of the community, beyond the duties
common to all priests, is half-an-hour’s. mental
prayer in the evening followed by the litanies, for
which three times a week is substituted the tak
of ‘ the discipline’ or self-flagellation in a darken
room, The ceremonial for this exercise will be
found described in Hone’s Ancient Mysteries. The
ministerial work of the Oratory consists chiefly in
‘dhood vA rist, &e.). Dvyorik'’s St —
st El
ORBIS PICTUS
ORCHARD 623
constant attendance in the confessional and in the
characteristic daily preaching. Another essential
part of the institute is an external brotherhood
similar in some respects to the ‘Third Orders’ of
the older religious orders, but consisting of men
only, who meet in a separate chapel called the
Little Oratory, under the direction of a father
prefect. The brothers, as a rule, observe the same
exercises as the fathers. It is in the Little Oratory
that the musical services which originated the ora-
torio are held. Music was so often performed in
the oratory at Seville that Blanco White s'
it as the ‘spiritual opera-house.’ Philip Neri,
who governed the community at Rome as long
as he lived, committed no rule to writing. The
traditional rules drawn up at a later time were
approved by Paul V. in 1612.
Oratory spread rapidly through the chief
cities of Italy, and there were several houses in
Spain. In Germany it never took root. In France
Cardinal de Bérulle took the institute as his model
in a new foundation (1611), approved by Paul V.
in 1614, under the name of the ‘Congregation of
the Oratory of our Lord Jesus Christ in France.’
But it differs essentially from the Oratory of St
Philip Neri. It was governed by a superior-gen-
eral, and was mainly concerned with the institution
of seminaries for the training of priests.
The life in the Roman Oratory admitted leisure
for private study ; and the founder, in encouragin
Cesare Baronio to write his t work on chure
history, set an example which was followed by
many distinguished scholars—Bozio, Gallonio,
Aringhi (Roma subterranea), Bianchini (Evan-
gelium quadruplex), Gallandi ( Bibliotheca patrum),
and others. It was natural that the character of
ee | Neri and the community life which he estab-
lished should have a particular attraction to a
number of men from the English universities, who
were led by the Oxford movement to the Church
of Rome. Dr Newman when at Rome obtained
from the pope a brief (26th November 1847) author-
ising him establish the Oratory in England.
Shortly afterwards F. W. Faber, who had founded
a new order, ‘the Brothers of the Will of God,’
generally known as ‘ Wilfridians,’ joined, with his
whole community, the Oratory at Birmingham. In
1849 Father Faber was sent to London with some
other fathers to set up a house in King William
Street, Strand, which in October 1850 was con-
stituted an in ent congregation, and in 1854
was transferred to its present abode in Brompton.
There seems to have been a project of introducing
the Oratory into England in the reign of James II.,
and there is in the British Museum an extremely
rare if not unique copy of an English translation of
the Rule printed in 1687.
Cattolica in Inghilterra,
orvero V Oratorio Inglese, 4 Ca) latro (Na 1859),
and Life and Letters of Faber, . Bowden
(1869). The Instituta Con tionis Anglice was
printed in Rome at the Propag. Press in 1847,
Orbis Pictus. See Comentvs.
Orbit, in Astronomy, is the path described in
space by a heavenly body in its revolution round
its primary. The I es so described is of an elliptic
form, and would accurately an ellipse were it
not for the disturbing influence of the other
heavenly bodies (see PERTURBATIONS). The com-
determination of a planet’s orbit is of the last
mportance to astronomers, as it enables them to
predict the planet’s place in the heavens at any
, and thus determine the exact date of
— of the sun and moon, of transits and occul-
of the planets, and of the appearances and
boseaby aad. of comets. For the determination
ks of
of a planet’s orbit it is necessary to know three
things: (1) The situation of the plane of the orbit
in space; (2) the position of the orbit in this plane;
and (3) the situation at a given epoch, and rate of
motion, of the planet in its orbit. Since the plane
of the ecliptic is for convenience taken as the refer-
ence plane, the position of the plane of a planet’s
orbit is known when (1) its inclination to the plane
of the ecliptic and (2) the line of intersection of the
two planes are known.
Ore: a, whose real name was Andrea di Cione
and his nickname ARCAGNUOLO (‘archangel’), cor-
rupted into O: a, Was a painter, sculptor, and
architect, as well as a maker of ms. Born,
about 1316, the son of a Florentine worker in silver,
he was early imbued with artistic tastes. Sculpture
he learned in the studio of Andrea Pisano, and in
ey was helped by an elder brother. In 1355
@ was appointed architect to the church of Or San
Michele in his native city; his greatest artistic
triumph exists in the marble tabernacle in this
church. ‘This, in its combined splendour of archi-
tectural design, sculptured reliefs and statuettes,
and mosaic enrichments, is one of the most im-
ference and eee — of art mai —- rich
taly possesses. It combines an altar, a shrine, a
rarerica: and a baldacchino’ (Middleton). From
1358 to 1360 he was chief architect of the cathedral
at Orvieto, for which he designed some mosaic
pictures. In Florence he planned a mint, piers in
the cathedral, and other works. His earliest
achievement with the painter’s brush was to
execute, in conjunction with his elder brother
Nardo, several frescoes in the church of Santa
Maria Novella at Florence. Some of these have
perished ; but a ‘ Last Judgment’ and ‘Christ and
the Virgin enthroned in Heaven’ still survive,
though greatly restored. Other frescoes in the
cemetery at Pisa that were attributed to Orcagna
are now believed to have been by a painter or
painters of the Sienese school. Orcagna painted
several panel pictures, including a retable for the
altar in the Strozzi chapel of Santa Maria Novella ;
another for the church of San Pietro Maggiore in
Florence, now in the National Gallery, London ;
an altarpiece in the chapel of the Medici (Santa
roce), Florence ; and ‘St Zenobius Enthroned,’ in
the cathedral of Florence. Orcagna’s death is
usually given as 1389; but 1376 seems a more
likely date, or even 1368, See the article by Pro-
fessor J. H. Middleton in Ency. Brit. ; and Crowe
and Cavaleaselle, Painting in Italy, vol. i. (1864).
Orchard (generally supposed to be from A.S.
ort-gearde—i,e, a yard or enclosure for orts, worts,
or wurts = Lat. o/us, but strangely resembling the
Gr. orchatos, especially in the Miltonie form,
orchat) is a space of ground employed for the
growth of hardy tree-fruit, such as apples, cherries,
pears, and plums. By common usage and the force
of climate the word in Great Britain has now be-
come suggestive of apples only ; and if the fruit be
of any other staple a special prefix is peealy
employed, except in the counties (and few they
are) in which cherries, pears, or plums are grown
thus largely, such as Kent, Hereford, and Wor-
cester. In some parts of the United States peaches
are grown in vast quantities upon orchard-trees,
and that fruit can be ripened thus in the southern
counties of England, when the spring and summer
have been favourable, But in the main with us
the orchard is a plot of ground planted with apple-
trees, and thus we shall chiefly regard it.
In England, as well as the more fruitful parts of
Scotland, the manor-house, vicarage, manse, or
farm, or other well-environed dwelling-place, has
its own orchard not far from the house, and capable
of producing fruit, unless too much discouraged,
624
ORCHARD
Too often the orchard is treated with contempt,
as a space where the children, turkeys, calves,
or pigs may roam at pleasure; and if there are any
apples they are ed as a windfall of some
rarity. This is not as it ought to be. Orchards
were laid out at a time when there was room
enough to move freely, and people knew less
than they seem to know now. Hovudiegy we
find on these old trees either no fruit at all, or
very little, and of that the chief part, worthless,
There is no greater puzzle to the farmer or squire
farming his own land than the sad condition of his
orchard and his own deep ignorance about it.
Amid the more im t works the trees have
too often been neglected; and the space which
should yield its fair share of profit, as well as of
picturesque enjoyment, has become a frowsy wilder-
ness,
Much of the blame for this would fall on those
who are now beyond it. Seldom indeed can we
find an orchard planted by our ancestors with any
common sense or judgment. The trees have been
placed there anyhow, without any knowledge of
their habit, growth, fertility, use, or requirements.
And for this the nurserymen of that time must also
be held accountable, their ignorance of their own
produce having been equal to that of their cus-
tomers. In this particular a vast advance has been
made in the last half-century, and the planter of
an orchard now has himself to thank if he plants
amiss. For of late years it has been imagined
largely that profit, equally speedy and heavy, can
be secured very pleasantly by the growth of fruit
in Britain. In spite of all experience this may
be so, as we find the laws of nature overcome now
and then by superhuman effort. And when every-
thing comes to pass exactly as it should, the
orchard takes occasion sometimes to pay its way.
With a view towards this we may consider first the
formation and planting of an orchard ; secondly,
the renewal of an old and not too hale plantation.
(1) Situation and soil are the first two questions,
the former being even the more important in the
colder of Britain. A slope towards the south
or south-east is best of all; but if that cannot be
found a fair level will do, unless it be in the bottom
of a valley or too near some broad river. A damp
situation is always bad; and especially evil is the
spot—though it may be the warmest in summer—
where the fog of the morning draws and packs from
the marshes or from a tidal river. For the worst
of all enemies to British fruit is the late spring
frost, which settles chiefly in the valley or along
the plain; whence the bleak hillside is often fruitfu
when the sheltered dale is barren. Also the soil
must be fairly ; neither too sandy nor of very
heavy clay. hen the site has been chosen the
nd should be trenched to the depth of two feet
possible, and drainage provided where neelful, as
in all but the most favoured spots it is. Time for
settlement should be allowed after the trenching ;
and then the stations may be prepared for the
standard-trees. The distance from tree to tree and
row to row ought to be governed by the choice of
kinds, and this again es ones upon the object of
the planter. He may plant for home use, or for
sale, or for both; and in either case for table use
or for cider. If he plants for his own table use—
be it for cooking or dessert—his chief concern is
Pag | combined with fair fertility. If he plants
or market he must first consider productiveness
and appearance and the common opinion of his
neighbourhood ; for if he took into the market
the best apple ever grown, but as yet of no repnta-
tion, he would have to take it home again until
the trees old. Also, he would rather sell
ges frnit than bad; but generally speaking this
difficult without much self-sacrifice, For the
finer kinds are, with few exceptions, less fertile
than the inferior. But whatever his objects be, -
and whatever varieties he selects, the planter must
he guided by the habit of the trees as to the
allowed them. It is better to allow too much room
than too little ; and in a plantation intended to en-
dure, 25 feet from tree to tree is not one too many.
The permanent trees should be straight
worked upon the crab-stock, and with 6 feet of
stem from the root to the spread of the branches.
Let them be planted almost upon the surface, then
banked up with re soil, and staked
until cher can hold their own against the wink
Of pruning little or none is required during the
first year of their growth, except that any
shoot should be ent out, or rival to the leader
repressed at once, if the tree is to be carried up in
conical form. No manure should be we as
unless it be in the way of mulching, where the
is very droughty. hen all the standards are
planted and staked, and seen to ‘eut true,’ as
gardeners term it, both along and across the rows,
the tempora ee may be planted among them,
whether of dwarf-trees, or of bushes, vegetables,
clover, or anything. else; but a clear must
be reserved at all times of at least a yard around
the orchard-tree. And throughout the next year
the young plantation must be heeded Gi A Dixie Kilometres, 54=!1 Inch,
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ORDOVICIAN
OREGON 635
are made on the 6-inch maps in the parts of the
country where these exist, but the results are
published on the l-inch scale only, except some
of the mineral districts, which are issued also on
the 6-inch scale. Besides the maps, sheets of
sections, horizontal and vertical, with valuable
memoirs, and monographs on fossils, are also pub-
i ; and a general index map, scale 4 miles to
an inch, is in p . A survey of the West
Indies has been carried out, and memoirs descrip-
tive of the geology of Trinidad, Jamaica, and
British Guiana have been published. The geologi-
cal survey of Canada and that of India are vast
undertakings in progress; also government geo-
logical and mining surveys are in progress in
the Australian colonies. See the articles Con-
Tour Lines, Map, SURVEYING; Colonel White’s
oe of the United Kingdom (Edin.
886).
Ordovician, 2 name sometimes given to a
geological formation intermediate between Cam-
ian and Silurian ; otherwise accounted the Lower
Silurian strata. It is so called from the Ordovices,
an ancient British tribe.
Ore-deposits. Any mineral which is obtained
by mining, and which contains a workable pro-
rtion of a metal, is called by miners an ore.
res are met with in various forms and positions
in the earth’s crust. Sometimes they are found
in gravel, sand, and other alluvial deposits.
Examples of this class are afforded by the placers
of California (see GOLD), the now exhausted tin-
stream works of Cornwall, and the bog iron ores
of various localities. In other cases the ores occur
disseminated through igneous and sedimentary
rocks, Tin ore and magnetic iron ore are fre-
quently met with in this form. When the whole
rock is permeated with mineral matter, accumu-
lated in minute veins, the deposit is termed a stock-
work. Examples of such deposits of tin ore occur
at Carclase and other places in Cornwall, and at
Altenberg in Saxony. Again, the ores may occur
in detached masses. Such, for instance, are the
red hematite deposits of Ulverston in Lancashire,
the brown hematite of the Forest of Dean, the iron
mountains of Gellivara and Taberg in Sweden,
and of Missouri. The ores may occur in regular
— beds (see MINING) or seams pms ated
tween rocks of sedimentary origin, as in the case
of the ironstone of the coal-measures, and in that
of the cupriferous shale of Mansfeld in Prussian
Saxony, a seam not more than 5 inches thick which
has been worked without interruption since the
12th century. Lastly, ores are met with in tabular
masses, known as mineral veins or /odes, differing
in character from the enclosing rocks. The simplest
classification of ore-deposits is that based on their
form, into two divisions: (1) tabular deposits, a
class subdivided into (a) beds, whether inter-
stratified or superficial, and (4) lodes; and (2) non-
tabular deposits, or masses.
A lode is usually defined as a repository of
mineral matter which fills more or less completely
a former fissure. Though this definition is un-
doubtedly trne in most cases, deposits are occasion-
ally met with in which the rock at the sides of the
fissure, having been so altered as to render it worth
working, should be considered as part of the lode.
These exceptional cases are included in a more
neral definition ‘ee ounded by Dr C, Le Neve
Foster, who regards lodes as tabular deposits of
mineral, which have been formed subsequently to
the rocks by which they are surrounded. Lodes
are very variable in thickness, from a mere film u
to 150 feet or more. Their longitudinal extent is
equally variable. The great Mother Lode of Cali-
fornia has been traced for a distance of 70 miles.
In tabular deposits, whether beds or lodes, two
dimensions predominate, and the third or smallest
dimension, the perpendicular distance between the
two bounding planes, is termed the thickness.
The adjacent rock on both sides of these two planes
is termed the country ; the portion on which the
deposit lies is the foot-wall, and that covering it is
the hanging-wall. With beds or seams, these are
known as the floor or roof respectively. The strike
of a deposit is the angle formed with the meridian
by the direction of a horizontal line drawn in the
middle plane, and its dip is the inclination down-
wards measured in degrees from the horizontal.
As the dip of lodes is usually considerable, it is
sometimes measured from the vertical, and is then
termed underlie or hade. The portion of a mineral
deposit occurring at the surface is known as the
ou » basset, or (in the United States) apex.
The contents of lodes vary, some parts containin
worthless vein-matter or gangue, others being fill
with ore. The productive portions are termed
courses, bunches, shoots (U.S. chutes), or pipes of
ore, Cross-courses are veins with a direction nearly
at right angles to the chief lodes of any particular
mining district. Experience shows that the pro-
ductiveness of lodes is affected by intersection with
other veins, by the nature of the adjacent rock, and
by changes of dip or of strike.
The origin of mineral veins is a much debated
subject which has long occupied the attention of
geologists. All the theories which have at various
times been brought forward assume in the first
place that a fissure has been formed in the earth’s
crust. This fissure has, it is thought, been filled
up by mechanical action causing the attrition of
the sides, by sublimation, by injection of molten or
plastic material from below, as in the case of dykes
of eruptive rock, or, lastly, by depositions from
solution, coming from above, from below, or from
the sides. The last mentioned, known as the
lateral secretion theory, has received great sup-
ou by the researches of Prof. F. Sandberger.
hese researches have shown the presence of the
common heavy metals in rocks belonging to every
geological period. Copper, tin, lead, zinc, cobalt,
and nickel have been detected in silicates (mica,
augite, and olivine), occurring as component
minerals of the commonest rocks. Prof. Sand-
berger therefore coneludes that these metals have
been dissolved ont and deposited in fissures.
The subject of mineral deposits is systematically
treated in J, A. Phillips’ Zreatise on Ore-deposits
(Lond. 1884), in which a full bibliography of the
subject will be found, The reduction of. ores is
discussed under METALLURGY, and under the names
of the several metals,
Or'egen: a Pacifie state of the American Union,
bounded N. by Washington, E. by Idaho, 8. by
California and Nevada, and W. | concright 1301, 1807, and
by the Pacific. Lat. 42°—46° | 1900 in the v.'. by’. B.
+ long. 116° 40’—124° 45’ W. Lippincott Company.
Area, 96,030 3 m., or almost twice that of England.
Oregon on the west is literally rock-bound by
the Coast Range of mountains, having, however,
numerous indentations which furnish good harbours
for sea-going vessels, The Columbia River affords
the largest and deepest entrance. Seventy miles
east of the Coast Range is the Cascade Range,
rising to a height of 6000 to 8000 feet, and at
almost — intervals surmounted by snow-
capped peaks of nearly double that altitude. From
the Cascade Range eastward to the Blue Moun-
tains, about 70 miles, and farther on to the eastern
boundary of the state, the surface is diversified by
mountains and valleys, rolling plains, and table-
lands. Here the soil and climate are suitable for
riculture and Lion In Western Oregon is
the Willamette valley, 130 miles long and 60 miles
636 OREGON
ORENBURG
wide, every foot of which is arable and fertile—
adapted by soil and climate to in and fruit.
The valley is situated between the Coast Range
and the Cascade Range of mountains. South of
this are the peg and Rogue River valleys,
both of which produce large quantities of fruit.
The climate of Oregon is mild, in spite of its
northerly situation, owing first to the oceanic cur-
rent from Japan, which, starting with a tempera-
ture of 90°, is from 49° to 54° off the coast here.
Moreover, the cold Arctic winds are warded off by
the Cascade Range, and no blizzard camcross the
Rocky Mountains. The range of temperature from
summer to winter is smal On the coast the
climate is mild and varies little, but there is fog
in summer and excessive rain in winter; in the
Willamette valley the summers are pleasant, the
winters wet, and spring and autumn foggy in the
mornings; the Umpqua valley has a delightful
climate, with some snow in winter; and the same,
with greater heat and cold, is true of the Rogue
River valley, the lake region in the south-east, and
Eastern Oregon, where there is a good deal of
snow in winter. The average mean temperature is
50° F., the rainfall 36 inches—17 at Linkville, in
the interior, and 59 at Astoria, on the coast.
The grain-crops of O m are wheat, oats,
barley, rye, and maize, in this order. Flax-
seed, hay, potatoes, tobacco, and hops (principally
along the rivers Willamette and Mackenzie) are
also raised. From three to four million pounds of
butter and cheese are produced annually. Great
quantities of fruit, both green and dried, are
annually shipped from the state, especially from
the western districts; but in Eastern Oregon, too,
excellent fruit is produced, and, as the bunch-grass
is fast disappearing, and the herds of cattle are
diminishing, agricultural and horticultural pursuits
are receiving more attention. The lands best
suited for fruit-farming are mainly limited to the
valleys and foot-hills ; but these are of vast extent,
and the extreme richness of the soil and the mild-
ness of the climate make the state’s productive
powers almost inconceivably great. The demand
abroad for Oregon fruits more than doubled annu-
ally from 1885 to 1890. The most successful fruits
are the Italian prune, apples (Oregon is called ‘ the
land of red epples’), pears, peaches, grapes, and
cherries (the Royal Ann cherries grow too large for
one bite). The wealth of Oregon in timber is
remarkable. The Oregon Pacific Railroad, in
crossing the Cascade Range, passes through a great
timber belt extending for 90 continuous miles; and
it is stated that careful examination shows in one
locality enough timber on one square mile to
supply for twenty years a mill cutting 150,000 feet
a day.
y:
Among the other industries of Oregon may be
mentioned the catching and tinning of salmon
(430,000 cases were shipped from the Columbia
River in 1890), the rearing of sheep (Eastern
one produces large quantities of wool of good
qu ity), and mining. The minerals of the state
com coal (29,600 tons in 1885), iron ore, gold
(14,965 ounces), copper, nickel, quicksilver, fire-
clay, chrome, silver, manganese, zinc, lead, and
platinum. Trade is facilitated by numerous lines
of railway, and the navigable rivers have steamers
‘running all the year. In 1891 there were three
thro lines connecting Oregon with the east and
south, and another was in construction.
Under the title of Oregon was formerly included
all the land between the Rocky Mountains and the
Pacific Ocean north of 42° N. lat. John Jacob
Astor established Astoria (q.v.) in 1811; in 1813
it was sold to the North-western Fur Company,
and it afterwards passed into the ion of the
Hudson Bay Company. Great Britain's claim to
the territory was based on Drake's of
the coast in 1579, Cook's visit to Juan de Fuca
Strait in 1778, the explorations of Captain John
Meares in 1788-89, and Vancouver's survey of
the entire coast from 30° to 60° N. lat., dis-
covery and ascent of the Columbia River, in 1792.
A treaty of joint occupation was to between
Britain and the United States in 1818, and endured
until 1846. Settlement by the New Englanders
pa eee and an Indian mission was planted
at Salem by the Methodists in 1834. The Oregon
question was a prominent feature of the presidential
contest in 1844. In 1846 the dispute was com-
pone the boundary line with British America
og at 49° N. lat. Oregon became a terri-
tory in 1848, and, with redw limits, a state in
1859. It has thirty-three counties, and sends two
representatives to congress. The judges of the
=e court are elected by aipalar vote. The
valuation of property in 1898 was $133,533,571.
The Bg school system consists of district
schools (3675 teachers in 1898, with an av
daily attendance of 61,234) free to all betwen Es
ages of four and twenty, the state university at
ugene, the state agricultural coll at Corvallis,
and four normal schools, besides institutions for
the blind, deaf and dumb, and orphans. There
are also thirty-three private and denominational
institutions. The principal cities are Portland
(pop. 1900, 90,426), lem, the capital (4258), As-
toria, Albany, Baker City, Eugene, Oregon City,
The Dalles, Pendleton (town), &e. Pop. (1860)
52,465 ; (1880) 174,768 ; (1890) 313,767 ; (1900) 413,536,
Oregon River. See CoLuMBIA.
Orel, a town of Russia, stands on the Oka, 222
miles by rail SSW. of Moscow, has manufactures
of ropes, tallow, bricks, machinery, and verdigris,
and a bi trade in grain, ropes, and tallow. It
was burned down in 1848 and again in 1858. Pop.
(1883) 76,601—The | eon speed of Orel, an agri-
cultural and busy industrial region, has an area of
18,036 sq. m., and a pop. (1883) of 1,918,342.
Orellana, See AMAzoN.
Orelli, KAsPAR von, scholar, was born at
Zurich, 13th February 1787. Ordained in 1806, he
next year e a Reformed preacher at Bergamo;
in 1813 a teacher in the cantonal school at Coire;
in 1819 professor at Zurich, and in 1833 professor
of Classical Philology in the newly-founded univer-
sity. He died at Zurich, 6th January 1849. Orelli
edited many classical authors with great learning,
taste, and acute discrimination, in particular Horace
1837-38), Tacitus (1846-47), and Cicero (1826-31).
is Onomasticon Tullianum (1836-38) and In-
scriptionum Latinarum Selectarum Collectio (1828)
also deserve mention.
Orelli, Konrap Von, theologian, was born at
Zurich, a January 1846, and studied at Lausanne,
Zurich, Erlangen, and especially theology at
Tiibingen, and oriental languages at Leipzig. In
1869 he became orphan-house preacher at Zurich,
ivat-docent in 1871, professor extra-ordinary of
heology at Basel in 1873, and ordinary professor
there in 1881. Among his writings are Die Alt-
testamentliche Weissagung von der Vollendung des
Gottesreichs (1882; . trans, 1885) and admir-
able Commentaries on Isaiah (1887; trans. 1889),
Jeremiah (1887), Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor
Prophets (1888).
Orenburg, a town of Euro Russia, stands
on the = oy, Ural, rail ib miles ESE. of
Moscow. Founded (1743) as a frontier fortress,
it is now of importance for its commerce only ; it
imports cotton, silk-stuffs, cattle, hides, &c. from
Bokhara, Khiva, and Tashkent. Corn, m
sugar, woven goods are the principal exports. The
OO —— a
ORENSE
ORGAN 637
town possesses an arsenal and two mili schools.
Pop. (1882) 42,123.—The government pec area
of 73,794 sq. m. and a py oa 1,198,360, of very
mixed races, Bashkirs (246,000) and Cossacks
(229,000) predominating.
Orense, capital of a Galician province of Spai
near the frontier of Portugal, on the left bank of
the Minho, and 60 miles from its mouth. It has
hot sulphnrous springs, and manufactures woollens,
linens, and chocolate. Pop. 13,291.
Oreodaphne, a genus of trees of the natural
order Lauracew, Piscine called Mountain Laurel.
0. opifera is a native of the countries on the lower
part of the Amazon. A volatile oil obtained from
the bark is used as a liniment, and when kept for
a short time deposits a great quantity of camphor.
0. cupularis is a very large tree with strong-scented
wood, the bark of which yields the cinnamon of
Mauritius. It grows also in Bourbon and Mada-
gascar. O. fetens, a native of the Canaries, has
wood (Til-wood) of a most disagreeable odour. 0.
bullata, found at the Cape of Good Hope, is also
remarkable for the di ble odour of its wood,
the Stink-wood of the colonists; but it is hard
durable, beautiful, takes an excellent polish, and
is used in shipbuilding.
Oreodonts, an extinct family of ungulates, the
remains of which occur in the Tertiary deposits of
North America.
Orestes, son of Agamemnon and Clyteemnestra.
When his father was murdered by his mother and
her ur Agisthus -he was saved by his sister
Electra, who sent him secretly to Phocis to the
court of Strophius, husband of memnon’s sister.
Here he formed a romantic friendship with the king’s
son, Pylades, and as soon as he had "pote up the
pair went secretly to Argos, and slew Clyteemnestra
and Aégisthus. Madness seized him after the
matricide, and he fled from land to land, ever
hannted by the avenging Erinnyes or Furies. At
Athens, whither he had fled by advice of Apollo,
he was purged of guilt by the meoreans. Learn-
ing from erello, according to another story, that
he could only recover from his madness by carry-
ing off the statue of Artemis from the Tauric
Chersonesus, he journeyed thither along with
Pylades, but the friends were seized by the natives
to be sacrificed to Artemis. Her priestess Iphigenia
recognised her brother thee gee and fy saree
escaped together, e statue with them.
Orestes recovered his father’s kingdom at Mycene,
slew Neoptolemus, and married his wife Hermione,
who had been formerly promised to himself. The
story of Orestes afforded a favourite theme to the
great tragedians—to Aischylus in the extant
trilogy, the Oresteia ; to Sophocles in his Electra ;
to Euripides in his Orestes and Electra. See Becker,
Die Orestes-sage der Griechen (1858).
Orfa. See Epessa.
Orfi MATHIEU JOSEPH BONAVENTURE,
founder of the science of toxicology, was born at
Mahon in Minorea, 24th April 1787, and studied at
Valencia, Barcelona, and Paris (whither he was
sent by the junta of his province). In October
1811 he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine,
and immediately commenced a private course of
lectures on chemistry, botany, and anatomy, which
was largely attended, and, along with his successful
practice, soon rendered him famous. In 1813
the first edition of his celebrated work on
= entitled Traité de Toxicologie Générale
‘aris ).
In 1819 he was created a citizen of France,
and became professor of Jurisprudence ; and in 1823
he was transferred to the chair of Chemistry, to
which in 1831 was added the deanship of the
oye On the outbreak of the revolution of
1848 he was deprived of his place in the medical
faculty on account of his conservative opinions,
but retained his professorship. He died at Paris,
March 12, 1853. Other works were on medical
chemistry (1817) and on forensic medicine (1825).
He also contributed largely to various journals,
dictionaries, and encyclopzedias.
Orford, See WALPOLE.
Organ (Gr. organon, ‘an instrument’), a
musical instrument played by keys, and general]
also by pedals, and consisting of metal and w
Pipes, which sound by wind stored in bellows, and
mitted into them at will. The following descrip-
tion is necessarily restricted to the most funda-
mental arrangements of this very complicated
instrument. As met with in cathedrals and large
churches, the organ comprises four or sometimes
five departments, each in most respects a separate
instrument with its own mechanism, called respec-
tively the great-organ, the choir-organ, the swell-
organ, the pedal-organ, and sometimes the solo-
. Each has its own keyboard, but the
dilt erent keyboards are brought into juxtaposition,
so as to be under the control of one performer.
Keyboards played by the hands are called manuals ;
by the feet, pedals. Three manuals, belonging to
the choir, great, and swell organs respectively, rise
above each other like steps in front of the per-
former, while the pedals by which the pedal-o'
is played are placed on a level with his feet. The
condensed air ee lied by the bellows is conveyed
through a wi agent into a wind-chest. Each
department of the organ, it may be mentioned, has
its wind-chest. Attached to the upper part of the
wind-chest is the upper board, an ingenious con-
trivance for conveying the wind at pleasure to any
individual pipe, or pipes, exclusively of the rest.
In the upper are set the pipes, of which a
number different quality, ranged behind each
other, belong to each note. Beneath the upper
board is a row of parallel grooves, ranning horizon-
tally backwards, corresponding each to one of the
keys of the instrument. On any of the keys being
down, a valve is opened which supplies
wind to the groove belonging to it. The various
pipes of each key stand in a line directly above its
ve, and the upper surface of the groove is _per-
orated with holes bored upwards to them. ere
this the whole mechanism of the sound-board the
wind on entering any groove would penetrate all
the pe that groove; there is, however, in the
upper board another series of horizontal grooves at
right angles to those beneath, supplied with cross-
slides, which can be drawn out or pushed in at
pleasure by a mechanism worked by the draw-stops
placed within the player’s reach, Each slide is
perforated with holes, which, when it is drawn out,
complete the communication between the wind-
chest and the pipes: the communication with
the pipes immediately above any slide being,
on the other hand, closed up when the slide
is pushed in. The pipes above each slide form
a continuous set of one B see cml uality, and
each set of pipes is called a stop. h depart-
ment of the organ is nage with a number of
stops, producing sounds of different quality. _ The
great-organ, some of whose pipes appear as show-
pipes in front of the instrument, contains the
main body and force of the organ. Behind it
stands the choir-organ, whose tones are less
powerful, and more fitted to accompany the voice.
Above the choir-organ is the swell-organ, whose
ipes are enclosed in a wooden box with a front of
ouvre-boards like Venetian blinds, which may be
made to open and shut by a pedal, with a view of
producing cr do and di do etfects, The
ee an is sometimes placed in an entire state
hind the choir-organ, and sometimes divided and
638
ORGAN
a part arranged on each side. The most usual
compass of the manuals is from C on the i
Among the reed-stops are the clarion, oboe, bassoon,
‘senda , trumpet or posaune, and trombone or
line below the bass staff to F above the third
ledger line over the treble staff; and the compass
of the pedals is from the same C to the F between
the bass and treble staves—i.e. two octaves and a
half. The real compass of notes is, as will be seen,
much greater.
Organ-pipes vary much in form and material, but
belong to two great classes, known as /lue-pipes and
reed-pupes. A section of oue of the former
is represented in the figure. Its essential
parts are the foot a, the body b, and a flat
plate c, called the language, extending
nearly across the pire at the point of junc-
tion of foot and y. There is an open-
ing, de, in the pipe, at the spot where the
language is discontinuous. The wind ad-
b mitted into the foot rushes through the
narrow slit at d, and, in impinging against
¢ © imparts a vibratory motion to the column
: of air in the pipe, the result of which is a
¢ musical note, dependent for its pitch on
the _— of that colamn of air, and con-
uently on the length of the body of the
pipe: by doubling the length of the pipe we obtain
a note of half the pitch, or lower My an octave,
Such is the general principle of all flue-pipes,
whether of wood or of metal, subject to consider-
able diversities of detail. Metal pipes have gener-
ally a cylindrical section, wooden pipes a square
or oblong section. A flue-pipe may be stopped at
the upper end by a plug called a tompion, the effect
of which is to lower the pitch an octave, the vibrat-
ing column of air being doubled in length, as it has
to traverse the pipe twice before making its exit.
Pipes are sometimes half-stopped, having a kind of
chimney at the top. The reed-pipe consists of a
reed placed inside a metallic pipe. This reed is a
tube of metal, with the front part cnt away, and a
tongue or spring put in its place. The lower end
of tle tongue is free, the upper end attached to the
top of the reed ; by the admission of air into the
pipe the tongue is made to vibrate, and, in striking
either the edge of the reed or the air, produces a
musical note, dependent for its pitch on the length
of the tongue, its Foor f being determined to a
t extent by the length and form of the pipe or
ll within which the reed is placed. When the
vibrating tongue does not strike the edge of the
reed, but the air, we have what is called the free
reed, similar to what is in use in the Harmonium
(q.v.). To describe the pitch of an organ-pipe
terms are used derived from the standard length of
an open flue-pipe of that pitch. The largest pipe
in use is the 32-feet C, which is an octave below
the lowest C of the modern pianoforte. There is,
however, now in the new Sydney organ a al
stop 64-feet tone. By a 32-feet or 16-feet stop
we mean one whose lowest note is produced by a
pipe 32 feet or 16 feet in length.
he stops of an organ do not always produce the
note properly belonging to the key struck ; some-
times they > Seg a note an octave, or, in the pedal-
organ, even two octaves lower, and sometimes one
of the harmonies higher in pitch. Compound or
mixture stops have several pipes to each key, cor-
responding to the different harmonies of the ground-
tone. There is an endless variety in the number
and kinds of stops in different organs; some are,
and some are not continued through the whole
range of manual or pce Some of the more
important stops are called open or stopped dia
(a term which implies that they extend throughout
the whole compass of the keyboard), The stops on
an or, are principally of 8 feet in the manuals.
The dulciana is an 8-feet manual stop, of small
diameter, so called from the sweetness of its tone.
ophicleide, deriving their names from real or fan-
cied resemblances to these instruments and to the
human voice. Of the compound-stops the most
prevalent in Britain is the seoguialieie Saas fre-
quently called mixture—consisting of three to five
ranks of open metal pipes, often a 17th, 19th,
22d, 26th, and 29th from the ground-tone. The
resources of the are further gree
appliances called couplers, by which a
manual and its stops can be brought into play, or
the same manual can be united to itself in the
octave below or above.
are now generally tuned on the Be
temperament (see TEMPERAMENT). The notation
for the organ is in three staves, consisting of a
treble and two bass clefs ; but in old compositions
the soprano, tenor, and alto clefs are used.
The organs used in antiquity were ipinere ro!
water-organs, Large water-organs were oosies
to accompany the performances at m
theatres, and similar instruments were to be found
in the hippodromes of Constantinople. The seope
of the instrument was therefore originally
and one of the earliest patrons of the o was the
Emperor Nero. Ctesibius of Alexandria must be
credited with the invention of the organ. Taking
the idea from a pe sort of clepsydra or water-
clock which he invented, and one function of
which was to tell the hours of the night by musical
notes, he worked onwards from invention to inven-
tion until he constructed the earliest water-organs,
The instruments shown to Nero and the first organs
ever seen in Rome were from the designs of Ctesi-
bius. The water mechanism in the ‘ water-organs’
was connected solely with the blowing, and seems
to have been insisted on so strongly by the early
organ-builders in order to render that operation
equable and steady. By means of pistons working
in cylinders the wind was pum through water
into the wind-chest, where were set the pipes, fur-
nished on the bottom with slides, which were con-
nected with iron keys by strings or trackers. Such
was the main difference between the water-organ
and the wind-organ. The water-organ became the
rage of Rome and increased in favour as the empire
hastened to its decline. In the reign of Honorius
(400 A.D.) no nobleman’s house was considered com-
plete without its organ, and portable water-organs *
were made in great numbers which could be carried
hy slaves from house to house, where concerts or
musical gatherings were attended by their masters.
After the overthrow of the western empire organ-
building seems to have been lost, among other
useful arts, under the influence of the barbarian
inroads, Constantinople, however, remained what
it had always been, the great home of organ-build-
ing in the ancient world. The magnificence of the
a in the Golden Hippodrome is spoken of
with enthusiasm by the Byzantine historians, An
organ which was brought by certain Byzantine
ambassadors on a mission to Charlemagne is said
to have served as a model for the first o} ever
built in medisval Europe, constructed by the orders
of that emperor according to the Greek pattern.
From Aix-la-Chapelle the use of organs spread
throughont Charlemagne’s empire, and this instru-
ment served as a model for the rest.
The application of bellows to the organ was
known in the days of the later Roman emperors.
On the obelisk of Theodosius we have a delineation
of an o blown solely by bellows. Probably
the invention of the bellows mechanism dates from
the time of the a te Julian. Yet this great
secret of organ-bnilding was rarely if ever acted
upon; and until the end of the 9th century, when
Germany had become the centre of organ-building,
a
ORGAN
ORGANO-METALLIC BODIES 639
water-organs were the almost exclusive form of
organ employed both in Europe and the East.
Towards the end of the 9th century large bellows
organs began to be built, in keeping with the
large Romanesque churches of the times. Thirty
bellows were employed in some of these organs ;
the outstretched arms of the organist could not
span the compass of an octave; and the player
or players struck each key with their fist. In
the monasteries meanwhile, where size was not
so much in demand, the mechanism of the organ
was marvellously elaborated. The complete fur-
nishings of the organ parts were manufactured in
the monasteries, even down to the smelting of the
metals whereof the pipes were made. Those dim-
inutive organs, called regals, so small that they
could be held on the palm of the hand, were the
outcome of monastic ingenuity, and Pope Sylvester
IL was a warm patron of organ-building, and him-
self no mean inventor in the art.
The family of the Antignati, in Brescia, had a
great name as organ-builders in the 15th and 16th
centuries. The organs of England were once in
ute, but the puritanism of the Civil War
most of them to destruction; and when
they had to be replaced after the Restoration it
was found that there was no longer a sufficiency
of builders in the country. Foreign organ-builders
were therefore invited to settle in England, the
most remarkable of whom were Bernhard Schmidt
nerally called Father Smith), his nephews, and
natus Harris. Christopher Schreider, Snetzler,
and Byfield succeeded them; and, at a later
— Green and Avery, some of whose organs
ve never been surpassed in tone. The largest
English organs are those of the Royal Albert Hall,
St Paul’s Cathedral, the Alexandra Palace, the
Crystal Palace, St George’s Hall, Liverpool, and the
Town-hall. The German organs are remark-
able for preserving the balance of power well among
the various masses, but in mechanical contrivance
they are surpassed by those of England.
he largest organ in the world is usually said to
be that in the cathedral of Seville, which is stated
to have 110 stops and 5300 pipes. There are several
organs in that cathedral, and this immense o
is said to exceed them all considerably in size. The
method of blowing it is peculiar: a man walks u
and down a long planking, arran like the famil-
iar ‘see-saw,’ the motion of which fills the bellows.
Since, however, there is a conflict of testimony as
to the Seville organ, and no certain indication of
its magnitude can be gathered except by reports
upon hearsay, the ey in point of size amon
theorgans of Europe is usually conceded to the Dutch
organs. The organ in the cathedral of St Lawrence
at Rotterdam is an immense structure, containing
a great organ with 18 stops, a choir with 15, a posi-
tive with 18, an echo with 8, and a al-organ
with 16 stops. These, along with 11 accessory
stops, make up a total of 86 stops. The organ at
the cathedral of St Bavon at Haarlem was lon
celebrated as the largest in the world. It too
three and a half years to build, and cost £10,000.
-It possesses 4088 — and 60 stops, exclusive of
accessory sto e organ of the Protestant
Church in Utrecht has 59 stops, —a
the accessory ones; that in the Octagon Chure
at Rotterdam aera a total complement of
52 stops. St Peter's at Rome has four smallish
organs, the largest of which has only 2 manuals
and pedal, and 27 stops in all, thus divided—
great, 17; swell, 6; pedal, 4. The second largest
organ in St Peter’s has but 1 manual and al.
Generally speaking, the Italian organs are much
inferior in point of size to those of the northern
nations.
Up till the middle of the nineteenth century, little
interest was taken in organ-building in America.
The erection of the great organ in the Music Hall,
Boston, by a German builder, Walcker of Wiirtem-
berg, gave the first impetus to public interest in
the matter. Roosevelt of New York, and Jardine,
likewise of New York, are two of the best-known
organ-builders in America at the present time.
Roosevelt has invented ‘the automatic adjustable
combination,’ which enables the player to place
any required combination of stops under immediate
control, and to alter such combinations as frequently
as desired. By his construction of the wind-chest,
also, each pipe has its own valve, actuated by com-
pressed air. Among the largest organs in America
are the organs of the Roman Catholic Cathedral,
Montreal, the cathedral of the Holy Cross, Boston,
which 83 stops; the Musie Hall, Cincin-
nati, with 96 stops and 4 manuals, and the Tremart
Temple, Boston, with 65 stops.
For the structure of. the o: see Hopkins and Rim-
bault, Zhe Organ (Lond. 1855). For the history of the
STEAD, see Rowbotham’s History of Music, vol. iii. chaps.
3,63 and book iv. chap. 2( Lond. 1887). For organ-play-
ing, see Archer’s Practical Oryan Tutor, Best’s School for
the Organ, Stainer’s The Organ. There are also works
on ha aune by bibewere4 af 1882-87 ) Sp~ ogg (1894),
and a ve 0 i in * and Queries
for 1-90.” The American —. discussed at Har-
MONIUM; and BARREL-ORGAN is a separate article.
Organ, Organic, Organism, terms derived
form the Greek organon, ‘an instrument,’ and still
retaining in some of their applications that signi-
ficance. But the words have found special accept-
ance in connection with the forms of life ; Linnzeus
described these, whether animals or plants, as
Organisata ; and we Leoreigeue speak of them as
organisms, of their larger, well-defined, and integ-
rated parts as organs, of their internal activity and
its products as organic. Prior to the year 1828
it was believed that certain chemical compounds
which were produced as the results of vital processes
occurring within the tissues of animal and vegetable
organisms could not be obtained by the ordinary
methods of the chemical laboratory; and these
compounds were, for this reason, designated as
organic. Wohler in that year, however, discovered
that urea, the most important solid constituent of
urine, could be obtained ‘ artificially,’ as it has been
called, from inorganic materials. Since that date
a very large panber of so-called organic compounds
have been prepared artificially, so that the original
signification of the term ‘ organic’ does not hold any
longer; and the old conception of an organism as
an engine-like collection of organs with fixed func-
tions is disappearing before the doctrine that it is
the protoplasm or living stuff in all parts of the
body that is the basis of all vital activities. The
title of organic eer, is now commonly applied
to thie dhenisiry of the compounds of carbon,
whether these compounds are obtainable only as
the products of vital processes or not; see the
articles CHEMISTRY and ANALYSIS (ORGANIC).
ic impurities in water are those due to
animaleules, bacteria, and decomposing organisms ;
while such phrases as ‘organic disease,’ ‘ organic
connection,’ refer to the relation between a living
organism and its parts. See BioLocy, FUNCTION,
MorPHOLOGY, PuystoLoGy.—For organic bases,
see ALKALOIDS ; for organic radicals, see RADICAL.
Organo-metallic Bodies. Under this term
are included a number of chemical nee
in which organic radicals, such as methyl, CH,
ethyl, C.H;, &e., are united to metals. Amongst
the earliest obtained of these substances were
those derived from the metal zinc. Zine-methyl,
Zn(CH;)., and zine-ethyl, Zn(C,H;)., which may
be taken as examples of the class, are colourless
liquids, heavier than water, which boil at 46° and
640 ORGANZINE
ORIGEN
118° C. respectively. They take fire spontaneously
in contact with air, and burn with the production
of a dense white smoke of oxide of zine. In con-
tact with the skin they give rise to severe wounds
which are very difficult to heal. They are decom-
posed with great energy by water. Substances
analogous to these zine compounds have been pre-
pared, containing cadmium, magnesium, antimony,
arsenic, bismuth, tin, aluminium, mercury, lead,
sodium, potassium, and some rare metals.
For further information on this subject, see an article
by Dr Frankland, in the 13th vol. of the Quarterly
Jour, of the Chemical Soe. ; also the article om‘ Organo-
metallic Bodies’ in Watt’s Dict. of Chemistry ; or any
of the larger recent text-books of organic chemistry.
Organzine. See SILK.
Orgies, secret rites or customs connected with
the worship of some of the n deities; as the
secret worship of Demeter, and the festival of
Dionysus, which was accompanied with many
customs of mystic symbolism, and much license.
From this latter accident comes obviously the
modern sense of drunkenness and debauchery
implied in the word. See MysTERIEs.
Oribasius, a Greek medical author, and
hysician to Julian the Apostate (326-403 A.D.).
fe was born at Pergamus or Sardis, and his works
are largely compilations from Galen (see MEDICINE,
p. 117). "There is an edition of his works in 6 vols.
y Buffemaker and Daremberg (Paris, 1852-76).
Oriel Movement. See Keste, NEWMAN.
Oriel Window, a projecting window in an
upper story, supported on corbels, having more
sides than one, usually three, and commonly
divided into bays by mullions. It is one of the
most picturesque features in medieval and Eliza-
bethan domestic architecture, and adds much to
the convenience of the interior. The word oriel
(Mid. Lat. oriolum, probably dim. from os, oris,
as if a small opening or recess) formerly meant a
chamber or apartment, and a window is so called
which makes, as it were, a small apartment off a
large room. By old writers oriels are called Bay
Windows (q.v.).
Orientation, in Architecture, is the position of
a church so that its chancel shall point towards the
east. This was a fashion invariably adopted in
northern countries, but not adhered to in Italy and
the south, St Peter’s at Rome, for example, has
the choir to the west, and the principal entrance
towards the east. The orientation of aurea is
not usually very exactly to the east, and it is
supposed that the east end in some cases has been
set so as to point towards the place where the sun
rises on the morning of the patron saint's day. In
other cases the choir and nave are not built exactly
in a straight line, the choir having thus a slight
inclination to one side, which in the symbolism of
the middle ages was supposed to indicate the
howing of our Savionr's head npon the cross,
This departure from the line of the true east, how-
ever, in many instances arose more probably from
carelessness or ignorance,
Oriflamme, the red silk banner first of the
foe of St Denis, and afterwards of France, was
so called because it was a aoe Lieeoresy borne on a
gilded (or = ‘ gold’) staff. Fiaa.
Orige the most learned and original of the
early church fathers, and perhaps the noblest figure
amongst them all, was born, probably at Res!
andria, in 185 or 186. His full name was Origenes
Adamantius. He was the son of the Christian
martyr Leonidas, who was beheaded under Severus
in 202. ‘Origen was great even from his cradle,’
says Jerome, In the early years when he was
instructed by his father, Eusebius tells us, ‘ the
simple and easy meanings of the sacred Scriptures
4 not enough for Soar tak he pong som:
deeper,’ and Leonidas would often dover h
son's bed as he lay pg Oe kiss_his breast,
‘which the Spirit of God had made His temple.
In the catechetical school of Clement he frmed the
friendship of Alexander, afterwards Bishop of Jeru-
cry e a d fe ats et markyrciene
and his purpose of joining him in this was only
Gasiadeda by the artifice of his mother, who con-
cealed all his clothes. After his father’s death he
supported his mother and six brothers by teacl
‘grammar,’ and from his eighteenth year he ac’
with the consent of his aes Demetrius, as master
of the eatechetical school. collection of classical
books which he had bought or copied out for him-
self he sold for a sum which yielded him four obols
(or about 6d.) a day, which sufficed for his simple
wants for many years. According to Eusebius he
went so far in his asceticism as to mutilate himself,
following a literal interpretation of Matthew, xix.
12, but by some this is doubted. His in’
with heretics and educated heathens led him to
devote himself to more thorough study of Plato, the
later Platonists and Pythagoreans, and the Stoics,
under the guidance of the Neoplatonist Ammonius
At Alexandria he taught for twenty-eight
years (204-232), composed the chief of his dogmatic
treatises, and commenced his t works of textual
and exegetical criticism. The labours of those
years. were interrupted by sonia to Rome,
Arabia, Antioch, and other places. ring a visit
to Palestine in 216 the bishops Alexander of Jeru-
salem and Theoctistus of aaa had employed
him to deliver public lectures in the churches, and
on a later occasion (in 230) had consecrated him as
* presbyter without referring to his own bishop.
syn
bade him to teach in that city and a second Alex-
andrian opued (consisting of bishops only ) deprived
him of the office of yon he ¢ es of
Palestine, Pheenici bia, and Achaea declined,
however, to concur in this sentence. Origen then
settled at in Palestine, which was his
chief home for twenty years. He there founded a
school which afforded its disciples a thorough
training in literature, philosophy, and theology,
Among their number were Grego Teseeeays
and Firmilian of the Coppadocica Uneaten: In the
latter city Origen took refuge for two years during
the Maximinian ution. In the last twenty
ears of his life he made many other journeys.
n the Decian persecution he was arrested at Tyre
and cruelly tortured. He died there in 253 or 254.
Origen was a most voluminous writer. ‘Which
of us,’ asks Jerome, ‘can read all that he has
written?’ Yet the statement of Epiphanius that
his works numbered 6000 is doubtless exaggerated.
His exegetical writings extended over nearly the
whole of the Old and New Testaments, and in-
cluded Scholia (short notes), Homilies, and Com-
mentaries. Of the Homilies only a small part has
been preserved in the original, much, however, in
the Latin translations by Rufinus and by Jerome;
but unfortunately these cannot be relied
the translators thought fit to modify and tamper
with them. Of the Commentaries a number of
hooks on Matthew and on John are extant in
Fea — on ae of vieretcae for - Fine t of
his ative theology. n’s tic Hexapla,
tha pest Nachiaien of the ra ps ees of the
Scriptures, was too large to be preserved entire. The
remains of its text of the Septuagint were collected
by Bern. de Montfaucon (2 vols. fol. Paris, 1713)
and Field (2 vols, Oxford, 1875). His Eight Books.
against Celsus(q.v.), written in his old age, are pre-
served entire in tre original Greek, This, the great-
est of early Christian apologies, effectively appeals
held at Alexandria under Demetrius for-
upon, for,
a ea
ei ae
ORIGEN
ORINOCO 641
to the Christian life as the most convincing proof of
the Christian faith. The speculative theo of
Origen is presented in his four books Peri Archon,
extant as a whole only in the somewhat garbled
Latin translation of Rufinus. It is a bold attempt
to evolve from the church’s rule of faith, with the
help of Scripture and reason, a science of Clivistian
faith. Two books On the Resurrection and ten
books of Stromata (in which he proved all the
Christian dogmas by quotations from the philo-
sophers) are lost. The eclectic phdbecoby of
Ori the distinctive stamp of Neoplatonist
Stoic theories. God alone has being in the
proper sense. It is essential to the Deity to will,
a and reveal Himself unchangeably and eter-
nally. In the Logos, proceeding by eternal genera-
tion from God, and of the same substance with
Him, all creative ideas are concentrated. He is
the link between the oneness of Deity and the
multiplicity of the world. All finite i | is good
only as it has part in the Divine. All created
irits are free. Their fall led to the creation of
the material world, that in forms more or less
material (soul and body) the renewing discipline
of the spirit within might be realised. The idea of
the procession of all spirits from God, their fall,
their redemption, and return to God lies at the
foundation of the whole development of the world,
at the centre of which is the incarnation of the
for the revelation of redeeming truth and the
union of divine forces with humanity. Origen’s
system is worth eine: + web, cach icare Greek —
physies is the warp, the gos is the woof.
All that was tens be Girocke p ieauhe tice held
to be traceable to the general revealing agency of
the Lagos, who in Christianity alone is fully and
aoe f manifested. The r source of the
knowledge of the Christian faith is the Word of
Christ (i.e. the Scriptures). A living faith in those
truths of Scripture which have been handed down
as fundamental by the church’s succession of
bishops is itself sufficient for salvation. Beyond
such ‘ unreasoning faith’ there is the ‘knowledge’
or ‘wisdom’ which rises to the free love of God,
and leaves behind it the historical contents of the
ehurch’s teaching, which have served to it as the
media of spiritual ideas in its progress from prac-
tical faith to the vision of God and likeness to Him.
It is by entering more deeply into the successive
senses of Scripture that this process is carried out.
Scripture admits of a threefold interpretation, in
correspondence to the tripartite nature of man. The
‘bodily’ (literal or historical) sense is always to be
retained, except where it is unworthy of God or
contradictory to reason ; for God has intended such
ges to be ‘stumbling-blocks,’ suggesting the
necessity of seeking a deeper meaning. The Psychi-
cal (or ethical signification) is next; and beyond it
is the Pneumatic (allegorical or plod sense.
pew ‘ats for the memory of Origen, his name
was chiefly remembered in connection with the
most erroneous part of his work. His fanciful
method of interpretation was tuated alike in
the east and the west, and the fruits of his gigantic
labours were Gee by orthodox theologians,
who branded him as a heretic, and doubted of his
salvation. Long after his death malignant false-
hoods were heaped upon his name by unscrupulous
enemies like Theophilus of Alexandria; and not
merely the heresy of maintaining the ultimate
restitution of all mankind, but even heresy respect-
ing the nature of Christ was trinmphantly dis-
covered in his writings. Yet, heterodox though he
was, not one amongst those honoured by the church
as saints surpasses him in saintliness or spiritual
elevation of character. ‘His whole life,’ says
Bishop Westcott, ‘from first to last was fashioned
on the oe type. It was, according to his own
grand ideal, ‘one unbroken prayer,” one ceaseless
effort after close fellowship with the Unseen and
the Eternal. No distractions diverted him from
the pursuit of divine wisdom. No persecution
checked for more than the briefest space the energy
of his efforts. He endured a double martyrdom :
perils and sufferings from the heathen, reproaches
and wrongs from Christians; and thé retrospect of
what he had borne only stirred within him a
humbler sense of his shortcomings.’
There is as * oath ga complete critical edition of Origen’s
works ; the apology for this is that of the uncle
and nephew, De La Rue (4 vols. folio, Paris, 1733-59)
reprinted by Lommatzsch (25 vols. Berlin, 1831-48), an
Migne, Patrol. Curs. Compl., ser. Gr., vols. xi,-xvii.
Prolegomena to a critical edition by Dr Ph. P. ,
Koetschau of the work against Celsus appeared in
1890, The work of P. D. Huet, Origenis in sacras
Seripturas Commentaria quecunque Grece reperiri
potuerunt (2 vols. Rothomagi, 1668), was the foundation
of the critical study of Origen. For an account of his
theological opinions and the great controversies that these
ori, see the works on church history by Baur,
Neander, Dorner, Béhringer, Schaff, and E. de Pressensé ;
also E. W. Miller, Geschichte des Kosmologie in der
Griechischen Kirche bis auf Origenes (Halle, 1860);
Kahnis, Die Lehre vom Heiliven Geist (1847); and the
prt a Irctragh tech Thomasius, Origenes | Niirnberg,
be ) , Patrologie( b. 1840); — y
epenning, ay cate eine ung seines Lebens
und noir Lele | vols. Bonn, 1841-46). See also Joly,
Etude sur Origene {Dijon 1860); Freppel, Origéne ( Paris,
1868); J. Denis, Za hilosophie d@’ Orighne ( Paris, 1884);
as also Harnack’s Dogmenyeschichte (2d ed. 1888) and
Farrar’s Lives of the Fathers (1889).
Original Sin. See Sin.
Orihuela (the Auriwelah of the Moors), a
town in the Spanish province of Alicante, on the
Segura, 38 miles N. of C ma. Situated in a
plain of great beauty and fertility, it offers an
eastern aspect with its palm-trees, towers, and
domes, and has a cathedral, a college, and manu-
factures of silk, linen, hats, &c. Pop. 20,929.
Orinoco, one of the t rivers of South
America, has its origin on the slopes of the Sierra
Parima, in the extreme south-east of Venezuela;
its exact sources were only discovered in 1886
by M. Chaffanjon. It flows at first west by
north, a mountain-stream, as far as 67° W. long.
A little below Esmeralda (65° 50’ W. long.) it
divides and sends off to the south an arm, the
Cassiquiare, which, after a course of 180 miles,
enters the Rio Negro, a tributary of the Amazon.
The other branch on reaching San Fernando (68° 10’
long. and 4° 2’ N. lat.) is met by the strong current
of the Guaviare; the united stream then turns
due north, and, after passing over the magnificent
cataracts of Maypures and Atures (glowingly
described by Humboldt), and picking up the Meta
on the left, meets the Apure, which likewise
strikes it from the left. Below the confluence with
the Apure the Orinoco turns east and traverses
the llanos of Venezuela, its waters, with an
average breadth of 4 miles, being augmented from
the right by the Caura and the Caroni. About
120 miles from the Atlantic, into which it rolls its
milk-white flood, its delta (8500 sq. m.) begins.
Of the numerous mouths which reach the ocean
over 165 miles of coast-line only seven are navi-
gable. The waterway principally used by ocean-
oing vessels, which penetrate up to Ciudad
livar (Angostura), a distance of 240 miles, is the
Boca de Navios, varying in width from 3% to 23
miles. The total length of the river is some 1550
miles, of which 900, up to the cataracts of Atures,
are navigable, besides a farther stretch of 500 miles
above the cataracts of Maypures; area of drainage
basin, 368,600 sq. m. Most of the larger affluents
are also navigable for considerable distances, the
642 ORIOLE
ORISSA
Meta, for instance, to within 60 miles of ti,
the capital of Colombia. As a rule the river floods
the districts adjoining its banks from May to
January, the country under water sometimes
measuring 100 miles across.
See A. von Humboldt and Bonpland, Voyage au
Nouveau Continent, vol. ii.; Sir Robert Schomburgk,
Travels in Guiana (1840); Michelina y Rojas, Ez-
ploracion Oficial ( 1867); and Chaffanjon,
Comptes Rendus of Paris Geog. Soc. (1887).
Oriole, « genus ( Oriolus) and family ( Oriolidie)
of Passerine birds, confined entirely to the Old
World, and characteristic of the Oriental and
Ethiopian regions. The members of the family
are generally of a bright yellow or golden colour,
which is well set off by the black of the wings.
Twenty-four species are enumerated under the
genus. The best known is the Golden Oriole (0.
gin). The adult male is about 9 inches long.
ts general colour is a rich golden yellow; the bill
is dull orange-
Jred; a_ black
streak reaches
from its base
"| to the eye; the
iris is blood
>| red; the wings
Sjare black,
| marked here
and there with
yellow, and a
pened of yellow
{forms a con-
spicuous wing-
spot; the two
middlefeathers
of the tail are
black, inelin-
ing to olive at
the base, the
very ti el-
low, the base half of the others black, the other half
ellow; legs, feet, and claws dark brown, The
emale is less yellow than the male, and the under
parts are streaked with gray. This bird is some-
what rare in England, but it is an annual spring
migrant to Cornwall and the Scilly Isles, and it has
been found nesting in the south-eastern counties,
In Scotland, especially in the southern districts, it
has been re several times; in Ireland it is
more rare. central and southern Europe it is
common in summer in certain localities; it is
abundant in Persia, and ranges eastwards through
central Asia as far as to Irkutsk. It winters in
South Africa, where it is found at the Cape, Dam-
araland, Natal, and Madagascar. In habit it is an
unobtrusive bird, fond of the shade of woods,
groves, and small ravines, and, although generally
accounted very shy, it may be found building its
nest in avenues in towns. Its food consists of in-
sects and their larvie, especially green caterpillars,
and fruits such as currants, cherries, and mul-
berries. The song of the male is short, loud, clear,
and flute-like; he has also a mewing call-note, and
a harsh alarm-note. The nest is unlike any other
European bird’s; it is placed in, and suspended
from, a fork in a horizontal branch, sometimes of
an oak, usually of a pine, in a shady grove or thick
wood, and is made of bark, wool, anc —. The
eggs number four or five, and are of a glossy, white
colour, blotched with reddish purple. Other orioles
are distinguished by having black on the head and
o— O. kundoo partly replaces the golden oriole
in Turkestan, and extends eastwards to India. 0.
auratus, found in Africa between the Sahara and
the equator, and 0. notatus, found throughout
south tropical Africa, have the lesser wing-coverts
yellow, not black as in the European and Indian
birds. The birds called ‘Orioles’ in the United
States belong to an entirely different family, the
Icteridw, See BALTIMORE Brirp.
Ori‘on, in Greek Mythology, an unusually hand-
some giant and hunter, the son of Hyrieus of
Hyria,.in Bootia. At Chios he fell in love with
Merope, daughter of Cinopion, but for an at-
tempted outrage upon the maiden his eyes were
put ont by ponre Orion recovered his sight by
exposing ach tg Ils to the rays of the rising sun,
and afterwards hunted in company with Artemis.
The cause and manner of his death are differently
related. Some make Artemis slay him with an
arrow, because Eos, enamoured of his beauty, had
carried him off to Ortygia, and thereby offended
the gods, Others say that Artemis, virgin-goddess
though she was, cherished an affection for him that
enraged her brother Apollo. One day pointing
out to her at sea a black object Lorene in the
water, he told her that he did not believe she could
hit it. She took aim and hit the mark, which was
the head of her lover swimming in the sea, A
third myth makes him find his death from the
sting of a scorpion, A‘sculapius wished to restore
him to life, but was slain by a bolt from Zeus.
After his death Orion was placed with his hound
among the stars, where to this day the most
splendid of the constellations bears his name.
Orinsn, an ancient kingdom of India, the
authentic history of which goes back for probably
more than one thousand years, extended from Bengal
on the N. tothe Godavari on theS. The present pro-
vince is the extreme south-west portion of Bengal ;
on the E. it has the Bay of Bengal, and on the W.
the Central Provinces. Orissa was long a Buddhist
stronghold; in 474 a new dynasty made it Brah-
manical, -and introduced the worship of Siva; in
1132 this was replaced by Vishnuism and another
dynasty. It ceased to be an independent state in
1568, being conquered and made an outlying pro-
vince of the empire of the Great Mogul. Its next
masters were the Mahrattas, who seized it in 1742;
but they were forced to surrender it to the English
in 1803, At the present time Orissa is divided
between the British commissionership of Orissa
and the tributary states, and is accounted part of
Bengal Presidency. The pee 1as an
area of 9853 sq. m. and a pop. of (1891) 3,789,799 ;
the tributary states, a hilly country with dense
jungle, 1 between the low coast districts and
he interior platean, has an area of 14,387 sq, m.
and a population of 1,696,710. A}l this region was
visited by severe famine in 1868-69, The principal
river is the Mahanadi, and the chief towns Cuttack,
Balasor, and Puri (Juggernaut, q.v.). The entire
district is sacred und to the Hindus; evi-
dences of the worship of Siva and Vishnu meet
the eye at every turn. Great festivals are held in
honour of this latter — and of his image called
Juggernant (q.v.). e most interesting of the
aboriginal races are the Kandhs ( Kondhs, Khonds),
who number 280,000, besides close upon 150,000 in
the Central Provinces. oe pe these people agri-
culture and war are theonly = oyments, the menial
offices of village life being performed by a subject,
almost slave race. They pay profound reverence
to the earth-god, and used to sacrifice human
beings to secure his favour, until the practice was
suppressed by the British (1837-60). The tribal
government is strictly patriarchal. The tribesmen
were summoned to arms by messengers bearing an
arrow, who sped from glen to glen, like the bearers
of the fiery cross in Scotland. Duelling was
formerly in vogue. The irrigation of a large
portion of Orissa is provided for by an extensive
and costly system of canals, taken over by the
government in 1868,
ORIZABA
ORLEANS 643
- See ‘An Account of the Religion of the Khonds in
Orissa,’ in Trans. Asiatic Soc. (1851); Campbell’s Personal
Narrative of Service amonyst the Wild Tribes of Khondis-
tan (1864); Calcutta Review, Nos. IX., XI., XV., and
XX. ; and Orissa, by W. W. Hunter (1872).
Oriza’ba, capital of the Mexican state of Vera
Cruz, 82 miles WSW. of Vera Cruz City, and 181
ESE. of Mexico, lies in a fertile garden country, 4030
pot above the sea, ass a an oe sca
‘factory, and corn mills, and railway-shops.
Pop. 13,000 The volcano of Orizaba, 25 silcaree
the north, is a noble pyramid rising to an elevation
of 17,876 feet, or, according to Heilprin’s measure-
ments (1890), 18,205 feet. Its last severe eruption
was in 1566.
Orkney Islands, 2 group of ninety Scotch
islands, islets, and skerries, of which only twenty-
eight are inhabited, and which have an te
area of 376 sq. m., the largest being Pomona or
Mainland ( . m.), Hoy (53), nday (26),
Westray, South naldshay, Rousay, Stronsay,
Eday, Shapinshay, Burray, Flotta, &e. They ex-
rome | 50 miles north-north-eastward, and are separ-
ated from Caithness by the Pentland Firth, 64
miles wide at the narrowest. With the exception
only of Hoy (q.v.), which has fine cliffs, and in the
Ward Hill attains 1564 feet, the scenery is gener-
ally tame, the surface low and treeless, with many
fresh-water lochs. The prevailing formation is the
Old Red Sandstone, with a small granitic district
near Stromness; and the soil is mostly shallow,
incumbent on peat or moss. The mean annual
temperature is 45°, the rainfall 34:3 inches. The
area under cultivation has more than doubled since
1850, but is still less than one-half of the total area.
The live-stock during the same period has trebled.
The holdings are small—164 acres on an average;
and iculture and_fis' are the princi
industries. Kirkwall and Stromness, the only
towns, are noticed separately, as also are the
standing-stones of Stennis and the tumulus of
Maeshowe. Orkney unites with Shetland to
return one member to parliament, but it was dis-
severed therefrom as a county by the Local Govern-
ment (Scotland) Act, 1889. Bop. (1801) 24,445;
(1861) 32,395; (1891) 30,453. The Orkneys
Ptolemy’s Orcades) were gradually wrested by
orse rovers from their Pictish inhabitants; and
in 875 Harold Haarfager conquered both them and
the Hebrides. They continued subject to the
Scandinavian erown—under Norse jarls till 1231,
and afterwards under the Earls of Angus and
Stratherne and the Sinclairs—till in 1468 they
were given to James IIL. of Scotland as a security
for the dowry of his wife, Margaret of Denmark.
They were never redeemed from this pledge; and
in 1590, on James VI.’s marriage with the Danish
princess Anne, Denmark formally resigned all
claims to the sovereignty of thé Orkneys. The
present landed proprietors are chiefly of Scotch
descent, the islanders generally of mixed Scandi-
navian and Scotch origin.
See J. R. Tudor’s Orkneys and Shetland (1883); and
Wallace’s Description of the Isles of Orkney (new ed.
1884). For map, see SHETLAND.
Orleans, « city of France, the capital now of
the department of Loiret, and formerly of the old
province of Orléannais, which yy geo the best
td of the present departments of Loiret, Eure-et-
ir, and Loir-et-Cher, with portions of four others.
It stands in a fertile plain on the right bank of the
Loire, here crossed by a nine-arched bridge (1760),
364 yards long, and by rail is 75 miles SSW. of
Paris. Close to itis the Forest of Orleans, covering
nearly 150 sq. m., and planted with oaks and other
valuable trees. The walls and gates have given
place since 1830 to handsome boulevards, but the
town as a whole wears a lifeless appearance, and
its domestic architecture has much more interest
than any of the public edifices. These include the
cathedral, destroyed by the Huguenots in 1567, and
rebuilt from 1601 onwards by Henry IV. and his
three successors ; the Mazrie (1530); and the 15th-
century Musée (till 1853 the hétel-de-ville). Note-
worthy are the house of Agnes Sorel, Diane de
Poitiers, and Joan of Are, of whom there are three
statues—the bronze equestrian one inaugurated in
1855. The commerce is far more important than
the industries (of which the chief is market-garden-
ing), Orleans ing unusual transit facilities
by road and railway, river and canal. Pop. (1872)
48,976 ; (1891) 61,073. The Celtic Genabum, where
in 52 B.c. the gent Gallic rising broke out against
Julius Cesar, Orleans afterwards (about 272 A.D.)
was renamed Civitas Aureliani, of which tle present
name is only a corruption. It was besieged by
Attila (q.v.) in 451; into the hands of the
Franks ; and was twice plundered by the North-
men (855 and 865). In 1428-29 it was besieged by
the English under the Duke of Bedford, but was
delivered by Joan of Are (q.v.), called therefore the
Maid of Orleans. Dunois (q.v.) was known as the
Bastard of Orleans. The town suffered much in the
wars of the Huguenots (q.v.); and in the Franco-
German war it again figured prominently, being
oceupied by the invaders, October 11 to November
9, 1870, and then the headquarters of the great
Army of the Loire until its crushing defeat by
Prince Frederick-Charles (December 3-5). Orleans
was the death-place of the Earl of Salisbury (1429),
of Francis II., Mary Stewart’s husband (1560), and
of the Duke of Guise (1563). See its history by
Bimbenet (3 vols. Orleans, 1884-87).
Orleans, DuKEs oF. This title has belon
to three distinct dynasties of French princes of oe
blood. The title was first given in 1392 by Charles
VI. to his dissolute brother Louis (1371-1407), who
became nt on the king’s madness, and was
murdered in the streets of Paris at the instigation
of the Duke of Burgundy in revenge for his father’s
death (see Jarry’s Louis de France, 1890). His
successor was his son Charles (1391-1465), the
poet. Charles’s son Louis succeeded to the throne
as Louis XII. in 1498, whereupon the dukedom of
Orleans me in the crown. It was revived in
1626, when Louis XIII. created his ambitious and
intriguing brother, Jean Baptiste Gaston (1608-60),
Duke of Orleans and Chartres and Count of Blois.
He died without male issue, whereupon Louis XIV.
at once revived the title in favour of his brother
Philippe (1640-1701), the husband of Henrietta,
sister of Charles IL, and, after her death, of the
Princess Charlotte Elizabeth of Bavaria. His
daughters married Charles II. of Spain, Victor
Amadeus II. of Savoy, and Prince Charles of
Lorraine; his son was the regent and debauchee,
Philippe (1674-1723), and his t-grandson was
the notorious £yalité, Louis-Philippe Joseph (1747-
93). Egalité’s son, Louis-Philippe (1773-1850),
bore the title during his exile, and until he became
ne of the French in 1830. His eldest son
1810-42) took the title; but it was not borne by
is son, the Comte de Paris (1838-94), who in 1883
became head of the French Bourbons, his son,
Louis Philippe Robert (born 1869; travelled in
Asia, 1890-95; married an Austrian princess, 1896),
assuming the old ducal title. For the Orleanist
party, see BOURBON, FRANCE.
CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLEANS, commonly called
Charles d’Orleans, was the eldest son of Louis,
Duke of Orleans, and of the high-spirited Valentina
Visconti, and was born 26t ay 1391. He
married in 1406 his cousin Isabella, the widow of
Richard IJ. of England, who brought him searcely
her good-will, but an ample dowry of half a million
frances. Three years later she died, leaving him a
644
ORLEANS
daughter. He took his share in the intestine
struggles of the time, in alliance with the infamous
Bernard d’A and did his best to aven
on the Duke of Burgundy his father’s murder. He
commanded at Agincourt (October 1415), and there,
or shortly after, was taken prisoner and carried to
England, where he spent over a quarter of a cen-
tury in easy imprisonment at Windsor, Pontefract,
Ampthill, Wingfield in Suffolk, and the Tower.
In his enforced leisure he hunted, hawked, admired
the English ladies, and amused himself with turn-
ing some hundreds of ballades and rondels, which,
conventional and shallow as they are, are easy and
1 in versification, and informed with a
musical and tender melancholy that has a singular
charm for the reader. His long captivity had
made him a martyr to the ote of Frenchmen—it
was one of Joan of Are’s declared intentions to
deliver the captive duke, who, she assured her
judges, was beloved of God. His imprisonment
emma ever more irksome to him, but he was
at length ransomed in 1440 through the offices
of Philip the Good of Burgundy, son of his father’s
murderer, and he at once married Philip's niece,
Mary of Cleves. But it was soon discovered that
there was nothing of the heroic in his temper or
capacity, and he quickly sank again into po itical
insignifieance. The last third of his life he spent
mainly in great dignity and state at his seat at
Blois, where he maintained a kind of literary court
which was visited by all the elegant poets of that
rhyming age. His latest act was a vain attempt to
defend the Duke of Brittany from the grasping
hand of Louis XI. He died at Amboise, 4th Jan-
uary 1465. His son became Louis XII. of France,
The best edition of the poems of Charles d’Orleans is
that of C. d’Héricault in the ‘ Nouvelle Collection Jannet’
(2 vols, Paris, 1874). The Debate between the Heralds of
France and England is assigned to him by Mr Henry
Pyne, its translator and editor; but M. Paul Meyer, in
his edition of the French text, has declared inst his
authorship. See Beaufil’s Etude (1861); and R. L. Steven-
son, in Familiar Studies of Men and Books (1882),
JEAN Baptiste GASTON, DUKE OF ORLEANS,
was the third son of King Henry IV., was born in
1608, and was nted the title in 1626 on his
marriage with Marie of Bourbon, Duchess of Mont-
pensier. His wife soon died, leaving one daughter,
‘La Grande Mademoiselle.’ He troubled France
with incessant and bloody but fruitless intrigues
against Richelieu, and but for his royal birth would
have lost his head like Montmorency, Cinq-Mars,
and De Thou, The validity of his marriage with
Marguerite of Lorraine was only declared after a
long disputation among jurists and theologians.
After Richelieu’s death a reconciliation was effected
between him and the king, and he was appointed
lieutenant-general of the kingdom during the
minority of Louis XIV. The duke, finding himself
impotent in the hands of Mazarin, placed himself
at the head of the Fronde, but with his usual
selfishness soon threw over his friends and made
terms again with the court. After Mazarin’s final
triumph he was confined to his castle of Blois,
where he died, 2d February 1660, leaving three
danghters by his second marriage. See his Mémoires
(Amsterdam, 1683).
Paitipre, DUKE OF ORLEANS, regent of France
during the minority of Louis XV., was the son of
the first Duke Philippe, and the grandson of King
Louis XIII, and was born 4th Angust 1674, He
eager excellent talents, and uired know-
edge with rapidity, but his tutor, Dubois, after-
wards cardinal, early demoralised him by minis-
tering to his ons, and, hardly yet grown up,
he gave himself np to debauchery, The king com-
lied him to marry Mademoiselle de Blois, his
caghter Ay Madame de Montespan, The young
prince now began to alarm the court by an unsus-
ty for war, showed courage at Steen-
irk and Neerwinden, and commanded with success
in Italy and Spain. But his presence in Madrid
after his victories was disliked both by Philip V.
and by Lonis XIV. For some years thereafter he
lived mm complete exile from the court, spending
his time by turns in profligacy, the practice of the
fine arts, and the study’ of chemistry. Lou
having legitimised his sons the Duke of Maine
the Count of Toulouse, appointed the Duke of
Orleans president of the regency only and not
regent, giving the guardianship of his grandson and
heir and the command of the household troops to
the Duke of Maine; but this arrangement was set
aside at his death (1715), and the Duke of Orleans
became sole regent. He was popular, and his first
measures increased his popularity ; but the financial
affairs of the kingdom were perplexing, and the
regent’s adoption of the schemes of Law led to
disastrous results. He favoured an English and
anti-Spanish alliance, and Anglomania, or a craze
for everything English, was one of the features of
his régime. His alliance with England and Hol-
land, formed in 1717, was joined next year the
emperor, and this quadruple alliance s' ed in
effecting the dow of Alberoni and his wildly-
ambitious schemes. At the instance of Lord Stair,
the English ambassador, he expelled the Pretender
from France. He put an end to the parliament, of
Paris meddling with financial or political affairs,
and declared the legitimised sons of Louis XIV.
incapable of s ing to the throne. Dubois
now e prime-minister, and ere long Archbishop
of Cambrai and cardinal. To appease the Jesuits
he sacrificed the Jansenists, ey the parlia-
ment in 1722 to ise the bull Unigenitus. Yet
he was faithful to his trust, and the indolent
poe on his coming of age (1723) rewarded him
retaining him in power. But Dubois died in
the August of the same year, and four months
later, Philippe’s frame gave way under the burden
of ed SS, agg = piv a PSs the
wor ossens (5 vols. 1749) an apefigue
(2 vols, 1838 ). rip
LovuIs-PHILIPPE JOSEPH, DUKE OF ORLEANS, the
famous Egalité, was born April 13, 1747, and
succeeded to the title on his father’s death in 1785,
having been Duke of Chartres since 1752. He
abilities, but early fell into a course
of debauchery which he never quitted till the end
of his career, In 1769 he married the heiress of
the Duke of Penthiévre, and used her immense
wealth to advance his political interest. But he
was looked upon coldly at court, and still more
so after the accession of Louis XVI. (1774), who
abhorred his morals, while Marie Antoinette grudged
him his wealth and independent position and
hated the criticisms of the ring of witty reprobates
who clustered round him. He fought at Ushant,
but was prevented from further service and pro-
motion to the rank of admiral by the jealousy of
the court, He visited London frequently, became
an intimate friend of the dissipated young Prince
of Wales, afterwards inglorious as George IV., and
infected young France with Anglomania in the
form of horseracing and hard drinking. He made
himself widely bepeler by profuse charity and by
flinging open to the poor the splendid gardens of
the Palais Royal. In the lit de justice of Novem-
ber 1787 he showed his liberalism boldly against
the king, and was sent by a Jettre-de- to his
chitean of Villers-Cotterets, As the pe rresie o
drew near he lavished his wealth in disséminatin
throughout France books and papers by Sieyés an
other advocates of liberal ideas, and had himself
ag up in as many as five bailliages, but was e'
but three, Crépy-le-Valois, Villers-Cotterets, and
.
a
ORLOFF
ORMONDE 645
Paris. In October (1788) he promulgated his
Délibérations, written by Laclos, to the effect that
the tiers état was the nation, and in June 1789
he led the forty-seven nobles who ded from
their own order to join it. There is no doubt that,
guided by Adrien Duport and others, he dreamed
of some day becoming constitutional king of
France, or at least regent, but it is no less certain
that the indolent debauchee was to a t extent
the mere dupe of a party, and at no time the deep
designing villain he was believed to be at court.
There the blame of everything was cast upon his
head, even of such great outbursts of the revolu-
tionary fever as the fall of the Bastille and the
march of the women on Versailles. Orleans
ually lost influence, and felt so hopeless of the
volution that he would willing] ve gone to
America had his mistress, the abandoned Comtesse
de Buffon, consented to accompany him. From
October 1789 to July 1790 he was absent in England
on a mission, and after his return he took a smaller
share in political matters than before, while his
efforts to come to an understanding with the court
were still met with repulse. In September 1792
all hereditary titles being swept away, he de-
manded a new name from the Paris electors, and
adopted that of Philippe Egalité, suggested by
Manuel. He was elected the twentieth deputy for
Paris to the Convention, and gave his vote of
death for the king, which sent a shudder to the heart
even of the Mountain. His eldest son, the Duke of
Chartres, afterwards King Louis-Philippe, was a
brave and active officer on the staff of Dumouriez,
and rode over with his chief into the Austrian
camp. lité was at once arrested with all the
Bourbons still in France, and, after six months’
durance at Marseilles, was brought to Paris for
trial. He was found guilty of royalism and con-
spiracy and guillotined the same day, 6th Novem-
ber 1793, dying with courteous Lares on his lips
and all the high courage of the old régime.
See Baschet’s Histoire de Philippe Egalité, the elaborate
— (9. (2 vols. 1840-43) and Mrs Elliot’s
fou ).
Orloff, 2 Russian family that first rose to
eminence during the reign of Paul III., when one
of its members, Gr (1734-83), attracted the
notice of the Gcasiclesbons Catharine, afterwards
the Empress Catharine IL, and succeeded Ponia-
towski as her favourite. It was this man who
planned the murder of Peter III., and his brother
Alexis (1737-1809) who committed the deed (1762).
Both brothers were men of gigantic stature and
herculean strength. The family of the Counts
Bobrinski resulted from Gregory’s intercourse with
the empress. The legitimate line of Orloff soon
became extinct ; but Feodor, a brother of Gregory
and Alexis, left four illegitimate sons, one of whom,
Alexis (1787-1861), signalised himself during the
French wars and in Turkey, negotiated the treaties
of Adrianople (1829) and Unkiar-Skelessi (1833),
and represented Russia at the London conference
of 1832 on the affairs of Belgium and Holland. In
1844 he was ig at the head of the secret police,
and stood high in favour with the Emperor
Nicholas, who employed him in the negotiations
with Austria previous to the Crimean war. In 1856
he sat in the congress of Paris as the representative
of Russia, and on his return was made president
of the grand council of the empire and president of
the committee for the enfranchisement of the
serfs.—For the Orloff diamond, see DIAMOND,
Ormer. See HA.ioris.
Ormerod, Eveanor A., entomologist, the
daughter of George Ormerod (1785-1873), the
historian of Cheshire. She commenced her con-
‘tributions to the science of entomology in 1868
in connection with the Bethnal Green Museum.
In 1880 she edited the Cobham Journals, being
the meteorological and other observations made
during forty years by Miss C. Molesworth, and
involving enormous labour in the consultation of
75,000 observations. In 1882 Miss Ormerod’ was
appointed consulting entomologist of the Royal
Agricultural Society, and shortly afterwards became
— lecturer on economic entomology at the
yal ricultural College, Cirencester. Her -
Manual of Injurious Insects (1881) and her Guide
to Methods of Insect ry be (1884) are the most
generally interesting of her works, which consist
principally of papers on different injurious insects
of South Africa and Australia, as well as of
England. She died 19th July 1901.
Or’molu, 2 name sometimes given to brass of a
golden yellow colour.
Ormonde, an old name for what became after-
wards East Munster, comprising Tipperary.
Ormonde, JAMEs BUTLER, DUKE oF, was the
first of the ancient Anglo-Irish family of Butler on
whom the ducal title was conferred. The family
was of illustrious antiquity. In the beginning of
the 13th century Theobald Butler, from whom the
Duke of Ormonde was descended, held the hered-
itary office of royal cupbearer or butler of Ireland.
The subject of the present article was born in
London in 1610. His father, the son of the cele-
brated Walter, Earl of Ormonde, was drowned in
crossing the Channel; and the old earl havin
incu the displeasure of the king, James L., an
cen Amtoke into prison, James, who on his father’s
death became, as Viscount Thurles, the heir of the
title, was taken on of as a royal ward, and
placed under the guardianship of the Archbisho
of Canterbury. On the restoration of his nd-
father to liberty, he also was released ; and in his
twentieth year he married his cousin, Lady Eliza-
beth Preston, and in 1632 succeeded, upon his
dfather’s death, to the earldom and estates of
nonde, During the Strafford administration in
Ireland Ormonde distinguished himself so much
that on Strafford’s recall he recommended him:to
the king; and in the rebellion of 1640 Ormonde
was appointed to the chief command of the army.
a the troubled times which followed he con-
due himself with undoubted ability, 8
as a necessary consequence of the numberless
divisions and subdivisions of party which then pre-
vailed in Ireland, he failed to satisfy any one of
the conflicting sections ; and when, in 1643, he con-
eluded an armistice, his policy was loudly con-
demned as well by the friends as by the enemies of
the Wat Labie party in England. During the long
con of Charles with the Parliament, Ormonde
continued to uphold the royal interest in his Irish
vernment ; and when the last crisis of the king's
ortunes came, he resigned his Irish command, and
retired to France, from which country he again
returned to Ireland with the all but desperate
design of restoring the royal authority. After a
gallant but unequal struggle, he was, however,
compelled, in 1650, to return to France. His
services to the royal cause continued unremitting
during his exile; and at the Restoration he accom-
ied Charles II. on his return, and was rewarded
‘or his fidelity by the ducal title of Ormonde. His
after-life was less eventful, although he twice again
returned to the government of Ireland. It was in
1679 that the well-known attempt was made by the
notorions Colonel Blood (q.v.) upon the lite of
Ormonde, As he was returning from a civic
festival, he was attacked by Blood and a party of
ruffians, and was dragged from his coach with the
intention of his being hanged at Tyburn. The
attempt drew additional interest from its being
646 ORMSKIRK
ORNITHORHYNCHUS
commonly su to have been instigated
the pro’ Peale of Buckingham, Srmende’s
inveterate foe. He escaped uninjured, and lived
until the year 1688. As a soldier he exhibited both
skill and bravery in command ; and as a politician
he was singularly upright in a period when there
were many rtunities for the trimmer and the
charlatan. is letters and other —— are full
of deep historical interest. See te’s Life of
Ormonde (1735-36).
JAMEs BuTLER, second Duke of Ormonde, was
the dson of the foregoing. He wag born in
Dublin in 1665, and when ten years of age was sent
to France for his education, whence he returned
after a few years, and was entered at Christ Church,
Oxford. In 1682 he married Anne, daughter of
Lord Hyde, afterwards Earl of Rochester. As Earl
of Ossory he served in the army against Monmouth,
and also held an office in the palace under James IT.
After his accession to the dukedom by the death
of his grandfather in 1688, he took his share in the
Revolution conflict, at first being for moderate
measures; but he must have seen the futility of
these, for afterwards, at the coronation of William
and Mary, he acted as lord high-constable. He
was present at the battle of the Boyne, at the head
of William’s life-guards. He soon me popular.
In 1702 he was placed in command in the expedi-
tion against Cadiz; in 1703 he was appointed lord-
lieutenant of Ireland, and in 1711 commander-in-
chief of the land forces sent against France and
Spain. After the accession of George I, Ormonde
somehow fell into di with the king, and was
impeached in 1715 of high-treason, with the result
that his estates were attainted, and he was deprived
of all his honours. He retired into France, where
he attached himself to the Jacobite court, and
spent many years in the secret intrigues of the Pre-
tender and his followers. He died abroad in 1746.
A collection of letters written by him in the
organisation of the abortive attempt by 6 jem to
invade England and Scotland in b19, and which
led to the affair of Glenshiel (q.v.), were in 1890
lrought to light, in the following years prepared
for publication, and in 1896 peak by the Scottish
History Society.
Ormskirk, a market-town of Lancashire, 12
miles NNE. of Liverpool. It has a grammar-school
(1612); a parish church, with embattled tower and
spire, and the burial-vault of the Earls of Derby ;
and manufactures of cordage, iron, silk, cotton, &ec.
Pop. (1851) 6183; (1881) 6651; (1891) 6298.
Or'mulum, a Transition-English metrical
translation of the gospel history. See ENGLISH
Lirerature, Vol. [V. p. 367, and the edition of
the Ormulum by White and Holt (2d ed. 1878).
Ormuz, or Hormvz, a small town on the island
of Jerun (12 miles in circuit), in the strait of Ormuz,
at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, 4 miles 8.
of the Persian coast. Three centuries before the
Christian era there existed on the mainland, 12
miles east of the island, a city Ormuz; this in the
13th goers | was the headquarters of the Persian
trade with India. But about the end of the cen-
tury its ruler transferred his people to the site of
the present town, to escape the Mongols. The
new city maintained its commercial supremacy
even after it passed into the hands of the Portu-
foe through Albuquerque’s capture of it in 1507.
t was taken from the Portuguese in 1622 by an
no fleet ( Baffin, the Arctic navigator, bein
killed in the action), and nee to Shah Abbas o'
Persia, who transferred the trade to his port of
Bandar Abbas, 12 miles north-west on the main-
land. The Portuguese fort still stands, but the
town of Ormuz is a ruin, The island yields salt
and sulphur.
Ormuzd (Ahuré-Mazdaé), the name of the
supreme deity of the ancient Persians, and of their
descendants the Guebres and Parsees. It was at
first emphatically employed in this sense by Zara-
thustra, See ZOROASTER.
a department of France formed out of the
old provinces of Normandy, Alengon, and Perche,
is se ted from the English Channel on the W.
by Manche and on the N. by Calvados,
Area, 8q. m.; pop. (1861) 423,350; (1891)
354,387. A range of wooded hills, nowhere rising
above 1370 feet, extends across the south of the
department from east to west, separating the
streams that flow north to the English Channel
from those that go south to the Seine and Loire.
Although the soil is fertile, culture is not in
an advanced state. Apple and pear trees abound,
and more than 22,000,000 gallons of cider are made
every year. Cattle and horses of the purest Nor-
man breed are reared. There are cotton and hemp
reap and cotton and linen weaving, dyeing,
b a and manufactures of gloves, iron, glass,
&e. Fis re, Na bee-keeping are carried on, The
department is divided into four arrondissements,
Alengon, Argentan, Domfront, and Mortagne;
capital, Alengon.
Ornithol that branch of zoology of which
the subject is (q.¥.).
Ornithorhynchus, or DuckKMOLE (also called
Duck-billed Platypus, the ‘ water-mole’ of colon-
ials), one of the lowest mammals, found in the
rivers of Australia and Tasmania. Along with
the Poreupine Ant-eater (Echidna, q.v.) and a
neighbour genus, the duckmole is included in the
sub-class Prototheria or Ornithodelphia, co-exten-
sive with the order Monotremata. These three
genera are of great interest as ‘living fossils,’
oe the ancient characters of primitive mam-
mals,
The duckmole, represented by a single species
(Ornithorhynchus paradoxus or anatinus), is a
flat animal, between a foot and 18 inches in length,
1,—Ornithorhynchus paradoxus.
not including the broad beaver-like tail, which
measures 45 inches. The thick, soft fur is dark-
brown above, rusty yellow below. The very short
legs have webbed digits in adaptation to the swim-
ming habits, and are also equipped with strong
claws, utilised in burrowing. he ‘duck-bill’ is
due to the anterior expansion of the premaxille
and mandibles, is covered with a horny sheath,
bears the nostrils far forward, and is provided with
curious tactile structures. Behind the ‘bill’ is a
loose, naked, sensitive collar. The eyes are very
small, and there are no external ears. Within the
mouth true teeth are present only in the earliest
stages; their place is taken in the adults by eight
horny plates, sharp-edged in front, broadened out
behind. The tongue is not extensile. In the
young of both sexes a curious perforated spur,
associated with a gland, occurs near the heel, but
a a i
ORNITHORHYNCHUS
ORONTES 647
this only persists in the males, which are further
distinguished in being somewhat larger than their
mates. The body temperature is peculiarly low.
The voice resembles the growl of a small puppy.
No fossil forms are known.
This aces | mammal is essentially aquatic, living
in rivers and ‘ ponds,’ swimming and diving admir-
ably. It is lively and active, diving when alarmed,
rea able to remain several minutes under water.
It constructs on the
¥ bank elaborate burrows
(sometimes 20 to 50
feet in length) with
two entrances — one
above, the other under
; water. Like many
WV other defenceless ani-
mals, it is most active
in the twilight. It
grubs in the mud for
worms, water-insects,
molluses, &c., which it
Fig. 2.
Ornithorhynchus asleep.
can temporarily stow away in cheek-pouches.
When frightened or asleep it often rolls itself up,
in hedgehog fashion, into a living ball. It appears
to live amicably with the water-rat, but is molested
by carnivorous marsupials, and is often wantonly,
though fortunately not easily, shot. The eggs—
for discredited oviparous habit has been con-
firmed—are laid in a rough nest within the burrow.
The young a 4 to use their bills in breaking the
tough shell, The animals have a fishy, oily smell.
The flesh is eaten by the omnivorous natives, who
are said especially to esteem the young forms.
Many of the enigmas about the duckmole’s
structure and affinities are still unsolved, but
there is no doubt that along with its neighbours
it links mammals back to reptilian or even amphi-
bian types. It need hardly be stated that it has
no close connection with birds. Some of the most
important structural characters may be briefly
summarised: The bones of the skull fuse and are
eeiabed as in birds; the halves of the lower jaw
o not unite in front, and have no ascending pro-
cess; the bones of the ear are in a primitive state.
There are important technical peculiarities in the
vertebrie, ribs, hip-girdle, &e. Epipubic bones,
for instance, occur as in marsupials. The coracoids
are remarkable in reaching the sternum, and the
breastbone is like that of the lizard and some other
reptiles. The brain is smooth, and old fashioned
in having a small — callosum and large
anterior commissure. ere is a common cloaca,
receiving the rectum and the urino-genital canal.
The heart in its structure is like that of birds.
The ureters do not open into the neck of the
bladder, but farther down into the short urino-
genital canal. The left ovary is larger than
the right, and the testes are abdominal. The
oviducts have no ‘fimbriated’ upper ends, are
separate throughout their course, open into the
urino-genital and thence into the cloaca,
The vasa deferentia are open separately in the
same way, and have only a temporary connec-
tion with the penis, which lies attached to the
wall of the cloaca. The two milk-glands open
on a flat bare patch of skin. As the duck-
mole is oviparons, there is of course no placenta.
The eggs, like those of reptiles, undergo partial
segmentation.
From the above it will be seen that the duckmole
not only represents the lowest extant stage of mam-
malian evolution, but preserves, more markedly
than the higher forms, traces of the far-off pedigree
of the class,
See Ecurpwa, MAmmMat, MarsvptaAt; also Gould’s
Mammals of Australia (3 vols. 1845-63); Huxley’s
Vertebrates, and text-books of Comparative Anatomy ;
W. K. Parker’s Mammalian Descent; Flower’s Oste-
Phd of the Mammalia ; Spencer, Nature, xxxi. (1884-
Orobanchez, or OROBANCHACEA, a natural
order of parasitical herbs, generally with simple
stems clothed with brown, purplish, yellow, or
blue, but never green scales, instead of true leaves ;
terminating in a spike of flowers each in the axil
of a scale or bract similar in colour and character
to those of the stem. The species known consider-
ably exceed one hundred in number, and are spread
over the greater = of the globe, chiefly in tem-
eats climates, but more abundant in the Old
orld than in the New. Eight species are natives
of Britain, seven of which belong to the genus
Orobanche (Broomrapes), and one species to
Lathrea (Toothwort). In Britain they are all
rather rare or purely local plants. High medicinal
virtues former] : were a to some of tlie
species, especia to i us virginiana (see
Caxcein-n00T), which ps td discredited. With
4; utea ti yptians dye the ropes made
of ae pein Hyphene thebaica vlack.
Orobus, « genus of plants of the natural order
minosw, sub-order Papilionacew, allied to
Vetches, and sometimes called Bitter Vetch. The
species are per-
ennial atk:
ceous plants,
chiefly natives i)
They ai SF y 6
e 0 ~
pon | food for _ ) \
cattle. Two
are natives of
Britain, of *
which the most i if
oes is 0. ft |
tuberosus, , de Se
whose racemes Sad 2 A
and bushy
places, especi-
ally in_ hilly
districts. Its
roots are creep-
ing and swell pe.
out into tubers
ati in-
tervals. The
tubers have a
sweet _ taste,
resemblin
that of liquorice, and are sought after by children ;
they are also bruised and steeped in water in some
parts of the Highlands of Scotland to make a fer-
mented liquor, and a kind of liquor is made also by
steeping them in whisky; they are well flavoured
and nutritious when boiled or roasted, and are use
in this way in the Highlands of Scotland, in Hol-
land, Belgium, and other countries.
Orontes, the ancient name of a river in Syria,
now called Nahr-el-Asi. It rises in the highest
rt of Cole-Syria, near Baalbek, flows northward
tween the mountains of Libanus and Anti-
Libanus, as far as the city of Antioch, and then
westward to the Mediterranean Sea, through a
total course of 147 miles. Its lower course is
remarkably beautiful; its rocky banks are 300
feet high, and the windings of the river show them
off to the greatest ee Myrtles, laurels,
figs, wild vines, arbutus, dwarf-oaks, and_syca-
mores grow up the cliffs in picturesque irregularity.
The country through which the river flows is in
many parts richly cultivated,
Bitter Vetch ( Orobus tuberosus) :
a, standard of the corolla.
648 OROSIUS
==
ORRERY
Orosius, PAvLvs, a Spanish presbyter and
historian, was born at Tarragona, and flourished
in the 5th century. He visited Augustine in 415,
and presented to him his work written against the
heresies of Priscillian and Origen. He went thence
to Palestine to study under Jerome at Bethlehem.
His chief work, the Historiarum adversus Paganos
Libri vii., begins with the creation and goes down
to 417 a.p.. It is apologetic in design, intended
as a complement to the great work of Augustine
written to prove from historical evidence that the
prevailing evils of the time were not due to Cliris-
tianity. It is based on the chronicle of Ensebius-
Jerome, and on Livy, pee agg Justin, Tacitus,
and Suetonius; bunt the work is a trivial, inaceu-
rate, uncritical miscellany of facts, although the
style is elegant if watery, in Bacon’s phrase. It
was a favourite text-book of universal history
during the middle ages, and had the honour of
being translated into Anglo-Saxon by Alfred (ed,
by Bosworth in 1851, anc by H. Sweet from Lord
ollemache’s 9th-century MS. 1883 et seg.). Some
MSS. bear the puzzling title of Hormesta or
Ormista, conjectured by some to be a corruption
of Or. m, ista—i.e. Orosii mundi istoria, or perhaps
Orosii miseriarum (mundi) istoria.
The editio princeps appeared at Vienna in 1471; the
best edition is that by C. Zangemeister in Cor. Script.
Eccles. Latin. (Vienna, 1882). The edition of Havercamp
(1738) was reprinted in vol. ix. of Galland’s Bib. Pat.
(1773) and vol. xxxi. of Migne’s Patrol. (1846); the
history alone by Dr Brohm (Thorn, 1877). An earlier
English translation (1773) was reprinted in Buhn’s
* Antiquarian Library’ (1853).
Orotava, a town on the north coast of Teneriffe,
one of the Canary Islands, is situated below the
Peak, in one of the pleasantest districts in the
world. Pop. 8293.
Orpheus, a Greek hero, a son of Apollo and
the Muse Calliope, or of CEagrus and Clio or
Polyhymnia, His native country is Thracia, where
many different localities were pointed out as his
birthplace. Apollo bestows upon him the lyre,
which Hermes invented, and by its aid Orpheus
moves men and beasts, the birds in the air, the fishes
in the deep, the trees, and the rocks. He accom-
panies the Argonauts in their expedition, and the
wer of his music wards off all mishaps and
isasters, rocking monsters to sleep and stopping
cliffs in their downward rush. His wife, Eurydice,
is bitten by a serpent and dies. Orpheus follows
her into the infernal regions; and so powerful are
his ‘golden tones’ that even stern Pluto and
rpine are moved to pity, while Tantalus
mein his thirst, Ixion’s wheel ceases to revolve,
and the Danaids stop in their wearisome task.
He is allowed to take her back into the ‘light of
heaven,’ but he must not look around while they
ascend. Love or doubt, however, draws his eyes
towards her, and she is lost to him for ever. His
death is sudden and violent. According to some
accounts, it is the thunderbolt of Zeus that cuts
him off, because he reveals the divine mysteries ;
according to others, it is Dionysus, who, ang
at his refusing to worship him, causes the Phe,
to tear him to pieces, which pieces are collected
and buried by the Muses in tearful piety at
Leibeth at the foot of Olympus, where a
nightingale sings over his grave. Others, again,
make the Thracian women divide his limbs between
them, either from excessive madness of unrequited
love or from anger at his drawing their husbands
away from them, The faint glimmer of historical
truth hidden beneath these myths becomes clearer
in those records which speak of Orpheus as a divine
bard or priest in the service of Zagreus, the Thracian
Dionysus, and founder of the Mysteries (q.v.);
as the first musician, the first inaugurator of the
rites of expiation and of the Mantic art, the in-
ventor of letters and the heroic metre; of every-
thing, in fact, that was menos to have con
uted to the civilisation and initiation into a more
humane worship of the deity among the primitive
inhabitants of Thracia and all Greece. A kind of
monastic order sprang up in later times, callin
itself after him, which combined with a sort
enthusiastic creed about the migration of souls and
other mystic doctrines a senn-ascetic life. Ab-
stinence from meat (not from wine), frequent purifi-
cations and other expiatory rites, incantations, the
wearing of white garments and similar things were
among their fundamental rules and ceremonies,
But after a brief duration the brotherhood, having
first, during the last days of the Roman empire,
passed through the of conscious and very
profitable jugglery, sank into oblivion, ar ig
with their ‘ ornhestaliatic® formulas and sacrifices.
Orpheus has also given the name to a al
literature called the Orphic, and was called the first
t of the heroic age, anterior to both Homer and
Hesiod. The fragments current under his name
were first collected at the time of the Pisistratida,
chiefly by Onomacritus, and these fragments grew
under the hands of the Orphie brotherhood, aided
by the Pythagoreans, to a vast literature of sacred
mythological so sung at the public games,
chanted by the’ priests at their service, worked out
for dramatic and pantomimic purposes by the
dramatists, commented upon, philosophised upon,
and ‘improved’ by grammarians, Lg ay oe and
theologians, Although authorities like Herodotus
and Aristotle had already combated the pee
antiquity of the so-called Orphic myths and songs
of their day, yet the entire enormous Orphie litera-
ture which had grown out of them retained its
‘ancient’ authority, not only with both the Hellen-
ists and the church fathers of the 3d and 4th cen-
turies A.D., but down almost to the last generation,
when it was irrefutably proved to be in its main
bulk, as far as it has survived, the production of
those very 3d and 4th centuries A.D., raised upon a
few scanty, primitive snatches. The most remark-
able part of the Orphic literature is its Theogeny:
which is based mainly on that of Hesiod.
story of Orpheus also occurs in English and other
medieval literature.
Besides the fragments of the Theogony which
have survived, imbedded chiefly in the writings of
the Neoplatonists, are to be mentioned the.
nautica, a poem of the Byzantine period, consistin,
of 1384 hexameters; further, a collection of 8
or $8 liturgical hymns; a work on the virtues of
stones, called Lythica, &c. Other poems belonging
to the Orphie Cycle, of which, however, only
names have survived in most instances, are Sacred
Legends, ascribed to Cereops; a Poem on Nature,
called Physica, probably by Brontinus ; Bacchica,
sup) to be written by Avignota, the danghter
of Pythagoras ; Minyas, or Orpheus’ descent into
Hades ; and other poetical productions by Zopyrus,
Timocles, Nicias, Persinus, Prodicus, &c. The
hynins have repeatedly been translated.
See the editions of the Orphica by Hermann (1805)
and Abel (1885); Lobeck’s Aylaophamus (1829); and
Gerhard, Orpheus und die Orphiker (1861).
Orpiment,. See ARSENIC.
Orpine, a kind of Sedum (q.v.).
Orpington. o vill of Kent, England, 12
alles OF rail SE. of London, where Ruskin's books
to be published in 1873 (see E. T, Cook,
Studies in Ruskin, 1890). Pop. 3090.
Orrery, « machine constructed for the pu
of exhibiting the motions of the planets round the
sun, and of the satellites round their primari
which was in high repute during the 18th
|
|
ORRIS-ROOT
ORTHOCLASE-PORPHYRY 649
beginning of the 19th centuries, though now re-
garded as a mere toy. Made by Rowley in 1715 at
the expense of Chark Boyle (q.v.), Earl of Orrery,
it was a combination of the old Planetarium of the
16th century with other machines which showed
the motions of the earth, moon, and planetary
satellites. Though the construction of a machine
which would exhibit accurately the motions, dis-
tances, and magnitudes of the planets is impossible,
yet an orrery is in some degree useful as giving a
general notion of the way in which the planetary
motions are performed. As it was a favourite
machine at one time, a description of it may not
be ar wasn 2 A number of iron tubes equal
in number to the planets, and of different dimen-
sions, are placed oue within the other; their
len, ing arranged so that the innermost tube
projects at both ends beyond the one next to it,
that one similarly’ poe beyond the third, and
so on. At one end of each tube a rod is fixed at
right angles, and a ball or lamp attached to its
end; the lengths of the rods being proportional (or
at least su to be so) to the radii of the
aes orbits. The other ends of the tubes
orm the axes of toothed wheels, which are con-
nected, either directly or by means of combinations
of toothed wheels, with a winch. The several com-
binations of wheels are so adjusted that the velocity
of revolution of the rods is proportional to the
times of revolution of the planets. On turning
the winch the whole apparatus is set in motion,
and the balls or lamps (representing the planets)
revolve round the centre, which is a fixed lam
cons the sun), at different distances, an
with varying velocities.
Orris-root (probably a corruption of Jris
Root), the root-stock (rhizome) of certain species of
Tris (q.v.), natives of the south of Europe, belong-
ing to the division of the genus having bearded
flowers, sword-slinped leaves, and scapes taller than
the leaves—viz. I. florentina, a species with white
flowers ; I. pallida, which has pale flowers; and
I. germanica, which has deep purple flowers. The
flowers of all these species are fragrant. J. ger-
manica extends farther north than the other species,
and its root is sometimes said to be more acrid.
Orris-root was formerly used in many medicinal
preparations as a stimulant, but is now almost
entirely disused. It issometimes chewed to sweeten
an offensive breath. Its chief use is in perfumery.
It has a pleasant smell of violets, which it acquires
in drying. Hair and tooth powders, and oils, are
often scented with it. A tineture of it also is used
as a scent, and is often sold as Lssence of Violets.
Orsay. See D'Orsay.
Orsini, FELICE, conspirator, was born in Decem-
ber 1819, at Meldola, in the States of the Church,
and studied at Bologna. He belonged to a branch
of a noble family, long famous as supporters of the
Guelfie party, which produced famous scholars,
soldiers, and churchmen (including two pes,
Nicholas ILL and Benedict XIII). Felice, the son
of a conspirator, was early initiated into secret
societies, and in 1844 was sentenced at Rome to the
galleys for life. The amnesty of Pius IX. (1846)
restored him to liberty, but he was soon again im-
prisoned for participation in political plots. When
the revolution of 1848 broke out Orsini was elected
a deputy to the Roman Constituent Assembly, and,
invested with extraordinary powers, was sent to
Ancona and Ascoli to suppress brigandage. He
signalised himself by the violence with which he
executed his commission. He also took part in the
defence of Rome and Venice; agitated in Genoa and
the duchy of Modena; and in 1853 was nea
by the Sardinian government to England, where
he formed close relations with Mazzini. Furnished
with money by the leaders of the revolutionary
party, he aj red at Parma in 1854, and after-
w at ilan, Trieste, Vienna, everywhere
agitating in the interest of insurrection; until at
last he was arrested at Hermannstadt, and confined
in the fortress of Mantua. In 1856 he succeeded in
making his escape, and found refuge in England,
where he oof Sade a himself by public lecturing,
and wrote Austrian Dungeons in Italy (1856).
Towards the end of 1857 he repaired to Paris, with
the intention of assassinating Napolsea lil., whom
he reckoned the great obstacle to the progress of
revolution in Italy. His associates in this diabolical
design were persons named Pieri, Rudio, and
Gomez. ‘They took up their station in a house
close by the Opera, and on the evening of the 14th
January 1858, just as the carriage containing the
emperor and empress was drawing up, they threw
three bombs under it. An explosion took place,
and 10 persons were killed, 156 wounded, but
Napoleon and the empress remained unhurt. The
assassins were arrested, tried, and sentenced ;
Orsini, Pieri, and Rudio, to capital lena
Gomez to penal servitude for life. Rudio’s life
was spared at the intercession of the empress, but
Pieri and Orsini were guillotined on 13th March.
See Memoirs and Adventures of Orsini, written
by himself (Eng. trans, Edin. 1857); his Letters
(2 vols. Milan, 1861); and a work by Montazio
(1862).
Orsova, the name of two towns on the Danube
over against the Iron Gates. OLD ORSOVA, a
Hungarian place, is 478 miles by rail SE. of Vienna,
and is a station for the Danube steamers. Pop.
3381.—NEW ORSOVA, on the Servian side, is a
fortified town held by Anstria (since 1878), who
were masters of it between 1716 and 1738;
the Turks held it both before 1716 and after 1738.
In 1890-96 a costly canal and other works were
made for facilitating navigation at the rocky bend
called the Iron Gates (see DANUBE).
Ortegal, Carr, the north-west extremity of
Spain (q.v.), in Galicia,
Ortelius, the Latin form of the name of
ABRAHAM ORTELL, or ORTEL, who, born of Ger-
man parents in 1527 at Antwerp, where he also
died in 1598, published the earliest atlas under the
title Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (1570); a critical
work on ancient geography, Synonymia Geographica
(1578), vemenes. 7 greatly improved, as Thesaurus
phicus (1596); and other geographical
wor, He was also a frequent traveller to Eng-
land, Ireland (1577), and Italy, and the countries
between.
Orthez, a town in the French department of
Basses-Pyrénées, on the right bank of the Gave de
Pau, 41 miles by rail E. of Bayonne. The ‘Tour
de Moneade’ (1240), the stately castle of the counts
of Foix (q.v.), which Froissart visited in 1388, was’
reduced to a ruin by Richelieu. Near Orthez
Wellington gained a decisive victory over Soult,
27th February 1814. Pop, 4757.
Orthoceras, a large genus of common fossil
Cephalopods. The shells are quite straight, but a
gradual series of forms lead on to the Nautilus
type. Some species of orthoceras were gigantic ;
ha O. titan in its fossil state is said to have
weighed some tons,
Orthoclase-porphyry, « crystalline igneous
rock, of wines 06 co eve ih generally reddish.
It is fine-grained and compact in texture. The
ground-mass is felspathic, and micro- or erypto-
erystalline ; now and again it shows a little glassy
or devitrified matter. Scattered through this
ground-mass are microscopic crystals of orthoclase
and usually some hornblende and biotite in small
650 ORTHOCLASE-ROCKS
OSAKA
granules, crystals, and scales. The rock is met
with amongst Paleozoic strata, both as contem-
poraneous lava-flows and as intrusive masses, See
also FELSPAR, and IgNEous Rocks.
Orthoclase-rocks, See Perrocrarny,
Orthodoxy (Gr. orthos, ‘right,’ and doxa, ‘an
opinion’), a name given by theologians to religious
opinions in agreement with Scripture and historical
ition, or rather with the interpretation of these
entertained by the particular chureh to which they
themselves happen to belong. While it is true
that the great cardinal and essential points of
Christian dogma have been preserved by all sec-
tions of the Church of Christ, the gravest diver-
ences have also arisen, alike in doctrine and
practice, each fortified by an assumed infallible
interpretation of the letter of Scripture or the line
of historical descent in the usage of the chureh,—
The antithesis of orthodory is heterodoxy (heteros,
‘other ’—i.e, ‘wrong,’ and doxa, ‘ opinion’).
Orthoepy (Gr. orthos, ‘right ;’ epos, ‘a word’),
@ branch of grammar that treats of the correct pro-
nunciation of the words of a language.
Orthography. See SPELLING.
Orthoptera (Gr., ‘straight-winged ’), an order
of Insects (q.v.).
Or'tolan (Emberiza_hortulana), a species of
Bunting (q.v.) of the Finch family Fringillide.
The adult male is about six inches long; has the
head, neck, and upper breast slate-gray suffused
with yellow; bill reddish brown; chin, throat,
aud feathers round the eye yellow, with a narrow
band of greenish gray descending from a little in
_ front of the angle
of the mouth ; back,
wing-coverts — and
secondaries fulvous
brown with dark
;| stripes; rump red-
Si dish brown. The
4 pame> of the
emale is paler in
colour. he orto-
lan in its summer
migrations ranges
as far north as the
Arctic Circle in
Scandinavia. In
the south of Europe,
where it is found
in great numbers,
and in the north
of Africa, where it
sometimes breeds, it
is but a summer visitor. In winter it migrates as
far south as to Abyssinia and North-western India,
but its true winter-quarters have not yet been
accurately ascertained. Thongh enormously abund-
ant in certain localities on the Continent, it is rare
in Britain, and many of the specimens captured
have no doubt escaped from captivity, considerin
the large quantities imported alive from Hollanc
and Belgium. It frequents bushy places, and
builds its nest of dry grass always on the ground
and generally in the open fields, though sometimes
among herbage or under low bushes, It lays from
four to six Cees, which vary in colour from vei
pale-bluish white to salmon colour, spotted with
rich purple brown, with underlying spots of pale
violet, not streaked as is usual with other buntin
The note of the male is rather metallic, and his
song at times is incessant and very monotonons.
The food consists of beetles and other insécts and
seeds, Large numbers of ortolans are netted during
their migrations, and confined in dark or dimly-
lighted rooms, where they are fattened upon oats
Ortolan ( Emberiza hortulana).
and millet until ready for the table. Their flesh is
considered a great delicacy,
Orton, Arrnur. See TicuBoRNE.
Ortona, a town of Italy, on the Adriatic, 104
miles by rail SSE. of Ancona. It has a cathedral
and a recently improved harbour, Pop. 6366,
Ortyx. See Virginian QUAIL.
Oruro, capital of the department of Oruro, in
Bolivia, stands on a saline plain 11,960 feet above
the sea, near the salt lake of Aullagas, and pos-
sesses mines of silver, gold, and tin. Foundel sa
1590, it had 70,000 inhabitants in 1650, but now,
though connected by rail with Be beret Loe only
13,500. The department, bite on Peru, has
an area of 21,600 sq. m. and a pop. of 111,400. The
soil is saline, but the mineral wealth is great.
Orvieto, a city_in the Halian province of
Perugia, 78 miles NNW. of Rome, crowns an
isolated tufa rock, which rises 765 feet above the
river Paglia, and 1327 above sea-level, The eruci-
form cathedral (1290-1580), one of the most heanti-
ful and richly decorated specimens of Italian Gothic,
is built of black and white marble, and measures
295 feet by 109. The facade is unsurpassed in
richness of material, and in the beauty of its
mosaics, sculptures, and elaborate ornamentation.
The interior also is magnificently decorated with
sculptures and with paintings by Luca Signorelli,
Fra Angelico, &c, The neg ye os. and St
Patrick’s Well (1527-40), with its pen ve are also
noteworthy. Pop. 7304. Orvieto, called in the
7th century A.D. Urbs Vetus—of which its present
name is a corruption—has by some been. su
ey onary the site of a aap Volsinii. In
the middle ages it gave shelter to thirty-two popes.
See works by Gruner (Leip. 1858), Berir (Lend.
1884), and Piccolomini (Siena, 1885).
Orwell, See Irswicu.
Oryx, an old name given to several ] and
heavy African antelopes, with very long, slightly
curved horns. One species (1% tragus leucorys)
frequents the deserts of Central Africa, and once
extended farther north, as is shown by the frequency
of its apparently ‘unicorn’ figure on ancient monu-
ments. Another form (H. capensis) is found in
Kaftiraria. But the name oryx has used
somewhat widely. See ANTELOPES.
Oryza. See Rice.
Osage O e@ (Maclura aurantiaca), a tree
of the natural order Moracem, a native of North
America. It attains a height varying, according
to soil and situation, from 20 to 60 feet, It
is of the same genus with Fustie (q.v.), and its
wood, whieh is bright yellow, probably might be
used for dyeing. The wood is fine-grained and ve:
elastic, and takes a high polish; it is much w
for fence-posts, sleepers, paving-blocks, &e. The
tree is largely employed in America, especially in
the west, as a hedye-plant; it has also been intro-
dueed into Britain for that purpose, Iut has not
met with general appreciation. Its fruit is about
the size of a large orange, has a tuberculated
surface of a golden colour, and is filled internally
with radiating, somewhat woody fibres, and with a
yellow milky juice, the odour of which is generally
disliked, so that the fruit, although not unwhole-
some, is seldom eaten.
Osages, a tribe of American Indians, of the
Dakota stock, formerly very troublesome, but now
settled in the north of Indian Territory, with
Quaker teachers, They number about 1200,
Osaka, or OZAKA, an important city of central
Japan, situated at the head of the gulf of the same
name, and at the mouth of the Yodo River, which
issues from Lake Biwa. The city covers an area of
iin.
OSBORN
OSIANDER 651
about 8 sq. m., and is intersected with canals. Its
fine castle, the stones of whose walls are of astonish-
ing size, was constructed by Hideysohi’s orders in
1583, and the palace, built afterwards in its precincts
and destroyed in 1868, was perhaps the most mag-
nificent structure in Japan. Osaka is the great
commercial centre of the empire, and the head-
quarters of the rice and tea trade. Its port does
not admit of the entrance of large vessels. There
is a foreign settlement, mostly occupied by mission-
aries. Pop. (1889) 361,694; (1892) 479,546.
Osborn, SHERARD, admiral and Arctic naviga-
tor, was born at Madras, 25th April 1822, the son
of an English officer, and entered the navy in 1837.
He took part in the capture of Canton (1841), and
of the defences of Woo-sung (1842); commanded
vessels in two expeditions sent ont in 1849 and
1852-55 respectively to search for Sir Jolin Franklin;
was head of the division of the British fleet that
served in the Sea of Azov during the Crimean war ;
and took a leading share in the Chinese war of
1857-59, penetrating up the Yang-tsze-kiang as far
as Hankow. After his retirement from active duty
he superintended the construction of a submarine
telegraph between Great Britain and Australia, and
was made rear-admiral in 1873. He died 6th May
1875. Besides publishing Stray Leaves from an
Arctic Journal (1852), Journals of Robert M‘Clure
(1856), and Career, Last Voyage, and Fate of Sir
John Franklin (1860), he proved his interest in
Arctie exploration by ota H. Markham to
test the navigability of Baffin Bay in winter (1873)
by steam-power, and by helping to fit out the
expedition which sailed under Nares in 1875.
Osborne, See LEEDs (DUKE OF). For DoroTny
OsBORNE, see TEMPLE (SIR WILLIAM) ; for OSBORNE
House, see Cowes; and for the OsBORNE or
St HELEN’s Beps, see OLIGOCENE SYSTEM.
Osecans (Lat. Osci or Opseci ; Gr. Opikoi), the
name of an Italian people, who at an early period
occupied Campania, and were either closely allied
to or the same race as the Ansones. Su uently
(about 423 B.c.) Samnites from the hilly districts
to the north overran the country, and amalgamated
with the inhabitants whom they had subjugated ;
and the names Osci and Oscan language were subse-
quently applied to all the other races and dialects
whose origin was nearly or wholly the same. The
Osean language was not substantially different
from the Latin, but only a ruder and more primi-
tive form of the same central Italic tongue. By
the victories of the Romans over the Samnites, and
the conferring of the civitas on all the Italians
(88 B.c.), an end was put to the official use of the
Oscan tongue; nevertheless, in the time of Varro
ne century B.C.) it was still used by the people.
uring its most flourishing period it was something
more than a country patois; it is even possible
that the Oscans had a literature and art of their
own (see ATELLAN#). [Besides a considerable
number of coins with Oscan legends, there are
still extant a number of inscriptions in the Oscan
tongue (see INSCRIPTIONS). ;
See Mommsen’s Oskische Studien (1845), and Unter-
ttalischen Dialekte (Leip. 1850); Zvetaieff’s Sylloge
Inser. Oscarum (Petersb. 1878),
Osceola (As-se-he-ho-lar, ‘Black Drink’), a
Seminole chief, was born in Georgia in 1804, the
son of an English trader, named Powell, and of a
chief's daughter. With her he removed to Florida
while a child, and there attained great influence
among the Indians. In 1835 his wife, the daughter
of a runaway slave, was seized as a slave. The
outraged husband threatened revenge, and for his
threats was imprisoned six days in irons by General
Thompson : six months afterwards he killed the
general and four others outside Fort King. This
was the beginning of the second Seminole war.
He then placed himself at the head of a band which
had surprised and massacred Major Dade and a
detachment of soldiers, and taking to the almost
impenetrable Everglades, with two or three hun-
dred followers, he fought for nearly two years with
great energy and skill the superior numbers sent
against him. He was taken prisoner at last, in
October 1837, by General Jesup, while holdin
a conference under a flag of truce—an act o}
inexcusable treachery, though represented as one
of retaliation—and confined in Fort Moultrie until
his death, 30th January 1838. Mayne Reid, in
Oceola, has woven the story into a romance.
‘Oscott, a Roman Catholic college, near Bir-
mingham, which claims to*be the centre of the
Roman Catholic movement in England. The name
(or Auscott, as it cade in Camden’s Britannia) is
first met with towards the close of the 17th century
as the seat of a Catholic mission, which continued
to be served by different priests till in 1752 it was
formed into a college for the education of both
laymen and ecclesiastics, and called St Mary’s
College. In 1835 the present fine buildings were
erected, and in 1889 the establishment became
purely ecclesiastical, no longer admitting lay
students. It is now styled St Mary’s Seminary,
and the curriculum includes a course of higher
classics, science, and mathematics, to meet the
pe meer of the London University B.A. Exam.
r this the course consists of two years of
mental philosophy and three and a half of theology
and kindred subjects. The staff includes a rector,
vice-rector, an eight professors, and the seminary
is upen to students from any British diocese.
O'Shaughnessy, Arruur, minor poet, was
born in London, 1th March’ 1846. He was em-
pore in the natural history division of the British
useum, manied a daughter of Dr Westland
Marston, whom he lost in 1879, and followed to
the grave on 3lst January 1881. During his brief
life he published Epic of Women (1871), The Lays
of France (1872), and Music and Moonlight (1874) ;
and soon after his death appeared Songs of a
Worker (1881). As a poet he is somewhat diffuse,
over-gorgeous in colour, and not sufliciently dis-
cerning in his admiration for modern French
models ; yet he reveals imagination, passion, ten-
derness, melody, and a mastery of lyrical forms.
Oshkosh, capital of Winnelago county, Wis-
consin, on both sides of the Fox River, at its
entrance to Lake hig tong 80 miles by rail
NNW. of Milwaukee. The lake (30 miles by 12),
with the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, which are
connected by a canal, forms a water-route between
Lakes Michigan and Superior. The city extends
along the lake for 4 miles, and contains a number
of handsome buildings. It carries on a great trade
in lumber, and contains fifteen sawmills, extensive
door and sash factories, and large manufactories of
furniture, matches, carriages, and soap, besides
pork-packing establishments. It is the seat of a
state normal school, and close by is a state Innatic
asylum. Oshkosh was incorporated in 1853, and
burned down in 1859; it was again partially
a, Se by fire in 1874 and 1875, and in 1885 a
cyclone overwhelmed part of the suburbs. Pop,
(1880) 15,748 ; (1890 ) 22,836 ; (1900) 28,284.
Osiander, ANDREAS, German reformer, was
born on 19th December 1498, at Gunzenhausen,
near Nuremberg, His name is a Greecised form of
the original German Heiligmann or Hosemann,
Edueated at Ingolstadt, he declared himself an
adherent of Luther, and became a preacher at
Nuremberg (1522), persuaded that city to declare
itself Lutheran, took part in the conference at
Marburg (1529), and was present at the diet of
652 OSIER
OSMIUM
Augsburg (1530), and at the signing of the Schmal-
ald articles (1537). In 1548 he was deprived of
his office as preacher because he refused to agree
to the Angs urg Interim; but was immediately
afterwards invited by Albert, Duke of Prussia, to
become professor of Theology in the newly-estab-
lished university of Kénigsherg. He was hardly
settled there when he became entangled in a the-
ological strife that was greatly embittered by his
vehement and arrogant temper. In a treatise, De
L et Evangelio, Osiander asserted that the
righteousness by which sinners are justified is not
to be conceived as a mere justificatory or imputa-
tive act on the part of God, but as something
inward and subjective, springing in a mystical way
from the union of Christ with man, The most
notable of his opponents was Martin Chemnitz
(q.v.). Osiander’s death in the midst of this fierce
lemical war, on 17th October 1552, did not check
it; the battle was continued by his followers,
called Osiandrists, and led by his son-in-law Funk,
who was executed for high-treason in 1566, and
the entire party was banished from Prussia in 1567.
See Lives by Wilken (1844), Méller (1870), and
Hase (1879). Osiander’s son Lukas (1534-1604)
and his son Lukas (1571-1638) won reputations as
theologians of note.
Osier, the popular name of those species of
Willow (q.v.) which are used chiefly for basket-
making and other wickerwork. They are of low
bushy growth, few of them ever becoming trees,
their branches long and slender; and they are the
more valuable in proportion to the length, slender-
ness, suppleness, and toughness of their branches.
The Common Osier (Salix viminalis), a common
native of wet allu-
vial grounds in
Britain and man
parts of Europe, is
one of those which
¥ sometimes become
trees, although when
cultivated for basket-
making it is not per-
mitted to do so, It
is often planted to
prevent the banks of
rivers from being
washed away. Its
branches are used
for making hoops
and coarse baskets.
There are several
varieties in cultiva-
tion, not easily dis-
tinguished except by
a very practised eye,
but much more use-
: ful than the original
’ or wild kind, which
Common Osier (Salix viminalis): is apt to break, and
a, male catkin; p, female catkin. therefore of little
value. More suit-
able for the finer kinds of basket-making are Salix
Sorbyana, sometimes called the Fine Basket Osier,
and S. rubra, known near London as the Green-
leaved Osier or Ornard ; S. triandra, a triandrous
species, known to English osier-cultivators and
basket-makers as the Spaniard Rod; whilst S.
vitellina, a pentandrous species, sometimes hecom-
ing a tree, is the Golden Osier or Golden Willow,
remarkable for the bright-yellow colour of its
branches, as well as for their pliancy and tough-
ness, There are other xpecies, not natives of
Britain, which also are valuable.
Osiers are very extensively cultivated in Holland,
Belgium, and France, on alluvial soils, especially
near the mouths of rivers ; and from these countries
t quantities of ‘rods’ are imported into Britain.
‘hey are cultivated also to a considerable extent
in some parts of England, particularly on the banks
of the Thames and the foun, and in the level
districts of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, &c,
Islets in the Thames and other rivers, entirely
planted with osiers, are called Osier holts, Osiers
grow particularly well on grounds flooded by the
tide. Much depends on the closeness of planting
of osier grounds; as when s is too abundant
the shoots of many of the kinds do not Ww
up so long, slender, and unbranched as is =
able. The French cultivators, when t wish
osiers for the finest kinds of basket-work, cut
branches into little bits with a bud or eye in each,
and plant these pretty close together, so as to
obtain weak hut fine shoots; but-generally eut-
tings of 15 or 16 inches in length are used, and of
tolerably thick branches, and these are placed in
rows from 18 inches to 2 feet apart, and at dis-
tances of 15 to 18 inches in the row. Osier planta-
tions in light soils continue productive for fifteen
or twenty years, and much longer in rich alluvial
soils, Osiers succeed best in rich soils, but not in
clays. No cultivation is required after planting;
but the shoots are cut once a year, at any time
between the fall of the leaf and the rising of the
sap in spring, After cutting they are sorted, and
those intended for brown baskets are carefully
dried and stacked, care being taken that they do
not heat, to which they are liable, like hay, and by
which they would be rotted and rendered wortli-
less, The stacks must be protected carefully from
rain. The osiers intended for white baskets cannot
at once be peeled, but, after being sorted, they are
placed upright in wide shallow trenches, in which
there is water to the depth of about four inches, or
in rivulets, being kept secure in their upright. posi-
tion by posts and rails; and thus they remain till
they begin to bud and blossom in spring, which
they do as if — remained on the parent plant,
sending forth small roots at the same time into the
water. They are then, in ordinary seasons, easily
peeled by drawing them throngh an instrument
called a k, but in cold springs it is sometimes
necessary to lay them for a while under a —
of litter. After being peeled, they are stacked,
preparatory to sale. BASKET.
Osiris, greatest of Egyptian gods, is the son of
Seb (the Earth—here the father) and Nut (Heaven
—the mother). He wedded Isis his sister while
they were yet in the womb; was slain by Set, was
avenged by his son Horus, and judges the dead in
the nether world, The myth is generally interpreted
by taking Osiris for the Sun, Set for darkness,
Osiris by Nephthys another son Anubis (i.e,
Dusk), who is said to have swallowed his father.
Osiris has also been identified with the god on
with vane pp with the N vn! and bear, annu
sun-period or summer (as against the ly appear-
ing = ). For further discussion of the m tin see
Isis, and works there quoted; also Wiedemann,
Die Religion der Alten Aigypter (1890).
Oskaloosa, capital of Mahaska county, Iowa,
104 miles by rail WNW. of Burlington. — It pos-
sesses mines of bituminous coal, and manufactures
flour, woollens, boilers, electric appliances, &e.
Here are Penn College (Quaker) and two others,
Pop. (1890) 6558 ; (1900) 9212, ;
Osmium ( Os; atom. wt. 191) is a metal
which occurs in association with platinum in
the form of an osmium-iridium alloy. It may be
obtained in the metallic condition by several pro-
cesses which yield it either as a black amorphous
wder or in hard bluish-white 2 gpa It is the
east fusible of all the metals, the anya
jet volatilising, but not fusing it. It is the heaviest
OSMOSE
OSPREY 653
substance known, its specific gravity being 22-477.
Four oxides of osmium are known. hree of
these—viz. the protoxide, OsO, the sesquioxide,
08,05, and the binoxide, OsO,, are black or
grayish-black powders. The peroxide, OsO,, com-
monly called osmic acid, is the most important
oxide. It is produced when the metal is heated
strongly in air or oxygen, and forms colourless,
listening, acicular crystals, freely soluble in
water, and very volatile. At about 100° C. this
compound gives off an extremely irritating and
irrespirable vapour; and hence the name of the
metal (from the Greek word osmé, ‘odour’). It
produces a permanent black stain upon the skin,
and at the same time causes an eruption which
is difficult to heal. It violently attacks all the
Inucous membranes, and its vapour may cause
partial or total blindness by depositing a film of
metallic osmium on the eyes. A solution of the
peroxide is employed in histological work for stain-
ing fat and nerve substance. Osmium also forms
two chlorides; and osmates, corresponding to an
wnknown osmie acid, have been prepa This
metal was discovered by Tennant in 1803.
Osmose, the interdiffusion of two liquids
through a septum, usually of bladder or of parch-
ment paper. If a bottle, filled with one liquid, be
closed by parchment paper, and be completely im-
mersed in a vessel containing another liquid, increase
or decrease of the contents of the bottle will occur
according as the liquid contained in the bottle passes
out through the septum less quickly or more quickly
than the other liquid passes inwards. When the
contents are increased the phenomenon has been
called ; when they decrease it has been
termed exosmose. The distinction is obviously not
a scientific one; for a reversal of the positions of
the liquids will cause a reversal of the osmotic
rocess, so that the process which was formerly
enominated exosmose must now be called endos-
mose, and vice versé. The phenomenon is one of
extreme importance, for it is constantly taking
Place in living bodies—both animal and vegetable.
Nollet was the first to record the occurrence of
osmose, He placed a vessel, filled with alcohol
and closed with a piece of bladder, inside a larger
vessel which was filled with water. The rapid
entry of the water almost burst the bladder; and
the opposite effect took place when the water was
placed inside the inner vessel and the alcohol was
placed outside it. Nollet did not pursue his obser-
vations any further. Dutrochet first made careful
investigations into the subject, which has since re-
ceived numerous practical applications—notably in
the method of dialysis, which is due to Graham.
The phenomenon consists merely in the inter-
diffusion of two liquids complicated by the mutual
molecular actions which take place between the
liquids and the material of the membrane. The
rate of interdiffusion depends greatly upon the
nature of the membrane; sometimes the direction
of the osmose is affected when the membrane is
altered, The action being essentially molecular,
we can readily understand how sap may be raised
to heights in plants and trees against the
action of gravity ; for the molecular forces ina drop
of water (say) are sufficiently powerful to hold the
parts of the drop together pewaet the gravitational
attraction of the whole earth.
process which is analogons to osmose occurs
in the interdiffasion of two liquids through an
intervening liquid layer. The difference between
the rates of diffusion of colloids and erystalloids is
even more marked when the substances are separ-
ated by parchment paper or animal membrane
than whet they diffuse directly into each other.
Osmunda, See Roya. Fern.
Osnabriick, a town in the Prussian province
of Hanover, in the fertile valley of the Hase, 75
miles by rail SSW. of Bremen and 70 WSW. of
Hanover, Its great Catholic cathedral, in the
Transition style of the first half of the 13th century,
is rich in relics and monuments ; and the town-hall
(1486-1512) contains portraits of all the pleni-
potentiaries who here on 24th October 1648 signed
the peace of Westphalia. By that treaty the
Lishoprie of Osnabriick, founded by Charlemagne
about 810, was to be occupied alternately by a
Catholic prelate and a Protestant secular prince of
the House of Brunswick-Liineburg. After having
last been held by Frederick, Duke of York, the
district of Osnabriick came in 1802 to Hanover, and
the chapter was dissolved, until the re-establishment
of the bishopric in 1857. Osnabriick has important
— and ee = -— manufactures of railway
plant, agricultural machinery, gas-meters, paper,
tobaceo, &e. Dating from 772, ff suffered much in
the Thirty Years’ War, but recovered, thanks to
its linen industry, during the 18th century. The
name Osnaburgs given to coarse linens is derived
hence. Pop. (1852) 13,718 ; (1875) 29,850; (1885)
35,899 (of whom 12,086 were Catholies) ; (1890)
39,920. See works hy Méser, by Frideri and Stiive
(1816-26 ), and by E. Miiller (1868).
Osprey (Pandion haliaétus), or FIsH-HAWK, a
not infrequent autuminal visitor to British shores,
estuaries, and lochs, where it feeds exclusively on
fish. It has been known to breed in England, and
several eyries still remain in Scotland. But its
Osprey (Pandion haliaétus),
distribution is almost cosmopolitan, for it occurs
on all the continents, especially where fish are
common and men rare. The male bird is 22 inches
in length, the female 24. ‘The adult male has the
head and nape white, streaked with brown; upper
plumage umber, with a purplish. tinge; under
rts white, with a band of brown spots across the
reast; cere, legs, and toes greenish blue.’ The
female has more brown on the breast. A large
nest of sticks‘and turf, with a small moss-lined
cavity for the eggs, is built on a tree or rock.
he eggs (two or three) are laid in April or
May, and have a ‘ground colour of white or buff,
with chestnut or claret blotches, and blurs of
purplish gray.’ In North America the osprey is
gregarious. It never preys on other birds, and is
not dreaded by them. It is, indeed, of a pacific
and timorous disposition, and readily abandons
its prey to the White-headed Eagle. in the days
of falconry it was sometimes trained and used
+ Oa fish, See Howard Saunders, British
ti e .
654 OSRHOENE
OSSIAN
Osrhoene, a district in the north-west of
Mesopotamia, containing Edessa (q.v.).
the ancient name of a mountain on the
east side of Thessaly, near Pelion (q.v.), and separ-
ated from Olympus by the vale of Tempe. The
ancients placed the seat of the Centaurs and
Giants in the neighbourhood of Pelion and Ossa.
See TITANS.
Ossetes. See Caucasus.
Ossian, the t heroic poet of the Gael. In
form the name is a diminntive—Ovseam, Oisin, the
little os or deer, In Gaelic story Ossian was the
son of Fionn MacCumhail, a celebrated hero who
flourished in the 3d century A.D. Fionn gathered
about him a band of warriors like himself, who
were collectively termed the Féinn, The adventures
and exploits of these heroes, and especially of the
principal figures in the group—of Fionn himself,
animous and wise; of his grandson Oscar,
chivalrous and daring; of his nephew Diarmad,
handsome and brave; of his rival Goll, the one-
eyed; and Conan, the villain of the band—their
jealousies, dissensions, and final overthrow con-
stitute the literature of the Feinn. The story goes
that Ossian was carried away by his fairy hind-
mother to Eilean na h-Oige, ‘the isle of the ever
young,’ from whence he returned betimes; and
now old, blind, and alone, ‘ Ossian after the Feinn,’
he told the story of the heroes to St Patrick.
The legends of the Feinn are but a frayment of
the heroic literature of the Gael, and in the oldest
MSS. the deeds of Fionn and his companions oceupy
but little s There were two earlier cycles.
The first of these extended from unknown antiquity
until the settlement of the Gael in Ireland. The
legends of this period preserve traditions of the
old. divinities of the race, notably the 7uatha de
Danann, ander the guise of earlier colonists whom
the Gael conqnered and displaced. Several tales
of this cycle are preserved, among which the Fate
of the Children of Tuirenn and the Fate of the
Children of Lir are the best known. The second,
and by far the richest, epoch in Gaelic romance is
that of Cuchullin, Conall Cearnach, Fergus, and
the Sons of Uisneach. The date is about the com-
mencement of the Christian era, when Conchobar
MacNessa ruled Ulster and Queen Meave ruled
Connaught. The great literary product of this
pene is the Tain or Cattle Spoil of Cuailgne, the
liad of the Gael. Another noted Saga recounts
the death of the Sons of Uisneach and suicide
of the Lady Deirdre, the Darthula of James Mac-
pherson. ventually the legends of the Feinn
rtly absorbed and totally eclipsed the earlier tra-
ditions; so that Ossianic literature is now but
another name for the heroic literature of the Gael.
These traditions have come down from the misty
past in tale and ballad. They were early reduced
to writing, and as time goes on we observe great
development in incident and detail. In ballads
acre in the Book of Leinster (circa 1150 A.D.)
jan is represented as old and blind, surviving
father and son. A 15th-century MS. recounts the
boyish exploits of Fionn. As we come down, the
volume of tradition gets fuller, while cycles tend
to become confused. The leader of the Feinn is at
one time a god, at others a hero, a king, a giant,
but usually a t warrior, as wise as brave. In
the book of the Dun Cow his mother is Muirn
‘of the Fair Neck;’ in later traditions we hear
of Fionn as the son of a sister of Cuchullin; at
another time a Scandinavian princess is his mother.
But the literary form in which the legends are
preserved remains practically unchanged. A Gaelic
tale is of a distinct type--narrative prose with
verse interspersed. Gaelic poetry, older and later,
is ever rhymed lyric verse, ‘
To the majority of people Ossian is known
through the publications of James Macpherson
(q.v.). In 1760-62-63 this remarkable man
pelieeee Fingal, an epie poem, in six books;
‘emora, another epic, in eight books; with a num-
ber of shorter pieces, epic and dramatic—all
porting to be translations of 8 composed by
ian, the son of Fingal. ‘The translation,’ Dr
Blair is made to say in the preface to the Frag-
ments printed in 1760, ‘is extremely literal.’ These
publications, in the opinion of the most competent
udges, possessed t literary merit.
Caosaks wealth es fame to the author, aah
— the ey of — ee a nan bene
them appeared in nearly every European
Encouraged by the success that attended Mac-
pherson’s venture, other publications of a some-
what, similar kind followed. In 1780 Dr Smith
of Campbeltown issued a volume of Seaw
or ancient poems, ‘com by Ossian, Orran,
Ullin,’ &c.; and in 1787 Baron Edmund de
Harold, an Irishman in the service of the Elector
Palatine, printed at Diisseldorf seventeen so-called
Ossianie poems in English. The genuineness of
Macpherson’s Ossian was early called in question
by Dr Johnson and others. An angry controversy
followed. It was maintained that Macpherson
had jumbled together persons and periods to an
unwarrantable extent; that his originals, so far
as he had any, were not Scottish, but Irish. If
this were all that could be said one would feel
justified in regarding, with Professor Windisch
of Leipzig, Macpherson’s Ossian as a legitimate
development of the old traditions, For the] ds
of the Feinn are the common property of the G ‘
whether in Ireland, Scotland, or Man. They are
located in Scottish topography time out of mind,
and within the last four hundred years quite as
rich a harvest of ballad and tale has been recovered
in Scotland as in Ireland. It is no doubt absurd
to represent Fionn, whom Macpherson after Barbour
ealls Fingal, as a mighty Caledonian monarch, at
one time successfully fighting the Roman legions
in the 3d century, at another assisting Cuchullin,
who lived in the beginning of the Ist century, to
expel from Ireland the Norsemen who made their
appearance for the first time in the end of the 8th.
Dut Macpherson had warrant in genuine tradition
for mixing up names and epochs. In the ‘Battle
of Ventry’ Fionn defeats the kings of the world.
According to a Gaelic tale, his father Cumhal sets
up as king of Alba, and the kings of Ireland and
Scandinavia combine to effect his overthrow; while
the son is ever fighting Norsemen. Zimmer has
ropounded the theory that the whole of these
innsage are in their origin traceable to Teutonic
sources, the very names by which thé hero and his
band are known being borrowed from the Norse.
Find, finn, Fionn this distinguished Celtic scholar
regards as a translation of Avitr, ‘ white;’ while
fiann, féinn are merely fjanda, ‘foe,’ later ‘fiend,’
Again, in genuine Gaelic ballad Fionn and Cuchullin
are not directly brought together, but we find Garbh
or the Rough, son of Starno, now fighting the latter
hero, and again op; to Caoilte, a dis ed
companion of the former, According to some
- ted verses composed in Perthshire before
ames Macpherson was born, the tailor of the
Feinn passes, in the exercise of his calling, from
the house of Goll to Dundealgan, the abode of
Cuchullin, and back again to the palace of Fionn,
without the least consciousness of anachronism.
But in Macpherson’s Ossian there is a wide
departure from genuine Gaelic literature and tradi-
tion. In his aagenttying of the past, in his sym-
pathy with nature, and in his powerful deserip-
tions of the scenery of his own mountain-land
James Macpherson is true to the genius of his
OSSIFICATION
OSTEND 655
—_ But there he parts company with it.
ic literature supplies material for epics and
dramas; but the epic and dramatic, as litera
forms, were unknown to the people. The dim an
owy characters of Macpherson are in shar
contrast to the clear-ent features of the Gaelic
heroes. Rarely does this author make a definite
statement of t; but when he does, as when,
for example, he arms the old Gaels with bows and
arrows, blunders hopelessly. Macpherson is
the most vague and abstract of writers; Gaelic
ts are wearisome in detail, and revel in the
concrete. In the opening of Book iii. of Cathloda,
the author inquires regarding the origin and issue
of things ; but he is indebted for his answer rather
to Bishop Berkeley than to the son of Fionn.
herson was not a Gaelic scholar, and the
fact is considered conclusive proof of his inability
to compose the Gaelic text of Ossian. The only
Gaelic printed in the author’s lifetime was Temora,
k vii. Ossian was published in all the lan-
of Europe before he appeared in his own,
when at length the great edition of 1807 did
apres: there were Gaelic texts for only one-half
of the poems, and for about three-fourths of the
matter published by eee in English forty-
five years previously. For the others, no ‘origi-
nal,’ ancient or ern, has ever yet been found.
And it must be allowed that this truncated Ossian
does not show to “spartan, in his native garb.
The Gaelic-speaking people have never known
him. There is not a single line of these Gaelic
texts which can be proved to have been committed
to writing before Wisephecsoa’s day. The diction
is essentially modern. The loan-words are numer-
ous, several of them borrowed from English. The
idioms and constructions are colourless, and show
traces of classical training rather than of the turns
of phrase characteristic of uative authors. The
so-called blank verse in which the poems are written
is unknown to Gaelic poetry. ne archaic ortho-
gn hy of the seventh book of Temora was adduced
y Dr Clerk of Kilmallie as proof of the anti-
quity of the writing. But in his frequent use
of the tenues (c, p, t), instead of the media (q, d,
b), Macpherson merely followed Alexander Mac-
donald, who published his own poems twelve years
reviously. B the same gifted man he was led
nto the blunder of making grian, ‘sun,’ a mas-
enline noun, contrary to invariable Gaelic u ‘
which has the sun as well as the moon of the
feminine gender.
The truth seems to be that these so-called trans-
lations were essentially the compositions of James
Macpherson, and that the Gaelic texts were pre-
with or without aid from his friends, but
w and when we do not now know. The only
man who could explain things died and made no
sign. One regrettable consequence of this famous
episode in the history of Gaelic literature still
remains. To many persons the discrediting of
James Macpherson means the blotting out of ex-
istence of an extensive and interesting literature
—the heroie literature of the Gael.
See the Poems of Ossian (1762-63); Brooke’s Reliques
of Gaelic Poetry (1789); Ossian (1807); Transactions of
the Ossianic Society of Dublin (6 vols. 1854-61); Popular
mores Book (1862); rk’s Ossian (1870); Leabhar na
Féinne (1872); Folk and Hero Tales from Argyllshire
(1890); Windi Trische Texte (1880); Ztschr. fiir
deutsches Alt., vol. liii.; Academy, Feb 1891 ; William
ra te Introduction to the centenary edition of Ossian
(1896) ; and books noted at MACPHERSON (JAMES).
Ossification is the formation of bone. Most
human bonesare first represented by cartilage, which,
by a complicated series of changes, becomes trans-
formed into bone. The bones of the vault of the
cranium and the face, part of the clavicle, and the
‘sesamoid’ bones occurring in tendons, on the
other hand, are developed from fibrous tissue,
without ing through a cartilaginous stage,
and are distinguished as membrane-bones. In the
larger bones of the limbs at least three centres of
O8St, ion are found, one in the shaft, and one at
each sexes Growth of the bone takes place
mainly at the lines between these elements, which
long remain cartilaginous. Bony union becomes
complete in each situation at a tolerably definite
age (in some not till about twenty-five ; see BONE).
rue Ossification sometimes occurs as a morbid
process ; but in many cases the term is incorrectly
used (especially in the case of blood-vessels—see
under ARTERIES) to designate a hard calcareous
deposit, better called calcification, or calcareous
degeneration, in which the characteristic micro-
scopic appearances of true bone are absent. In
one sense the osseous tissue that is formed in
regeneration of destroyed or fractured bones (see
FRACTURES) may be regarded as due to a morbid,
although a restorative action. Hypertrophy of
bone is by no means rare, being sometimes local,
forming a protuberance on the external surface, in
which case it is termed an exostosis; and some-
times extending over the whole bone or over several
bones, giving to the condition known as Ayper-
ostosis. Again, true osseous tissue occasionally
oceurs in parts in which, in the normal condition,
no bone existed, as in the dura mater, in the so-
called permanent cartilages (as those of the larynx,
ribs, &e.), in the tendons of certain muscles, and
in some forms of tumours. The peculiar causes of
the osseous formations which are unconnected with
bone are not known.
Ossoli. See FULLER (SARAH MARGARET).
emery, a diocese of the Roman Catholic Church
of Ireland, embraces the county of Kilkenny and
Fork of King’s and Queen’s Counties. Tlie bishop
1as his cathedral at Kilkenny. There is an Ossory
parliamentary division in Queen’s County.
Ostade, ADRIAN, painter and engraver, was
born at Haarlem in December 1610, and in that
city he died, 27th April 1685. His teacher was
Franz Hals. Country dancing-greens, farm-yards,
stables, the interiors of rustic hovels and honses,
and beer-shops are the places which he loves to
paint; and his persons are for the most part
coarse peasants, ugly, sordid, dirty, ragged. Vigour
and close observation, with skilful management of
lights, are perhaps his most noticeable character-
istics ; and humour and poetic appreciation are not
unfrequently present. About 1639 he fell under
the influence of Rembrandt's style. He was a pro-
lifie painter, and his works are to be found in the
museums and collections of the Netherlands, Ger-
many, Austria, Russia, France, and England. See
a work by Bode (Vienna, 1881).—IsAAc OSTADE,
brother of Adrian, also a painter, was born at
Haarlem in 1621, and died at Amsterdam in 1649.
Until 1644 he worked in the style of his brother,
but then struck out a path for himself, and ex-
celled in roadside scenes, winter landscapes, village
street life, and similar subjects.
Ostashkoff, a town of Russia, stands on the
south-east of Lake Seliger, 107 miles W. by N. of
Tver. It is one of the chief centres in Russia for
the making of boots and shoes. Pop. 9905.
Ostend, a fashionable watering-place in the
Belgian province of West Flanders, on the German
Ocean, 77 miles by rail WNW. of Brussels. (Its
Digue, or sea-wall, 3 miles long, 40 feet high, and
35 yards broad, forms a favourite promenade, as
also do the two Estacades, or wooden piers, pro-
jecting on both sides of the harbour’s entrance.
wo spacious floating basins for the Dover mail-
656 OSTENSORY
a
OSTRICH
kets (a four hours’ passage) were completed in
874; and as a station also for London steamers,
and the terminus of varions lines of railway,
Ostend is a lively and active = of transport
traflic ( butter, rabbits, oysters, &c.), and the resort
in the season (auly, to September) of 16,000 to
20,000 visitors from Germany, Russia, and all parts
of the Continent. It is, moreover, an important
fishing-station, and has a good school of naviga-
tion, a handsome Cursaal (1878), a hdtel-de-ville
ees ), a fish-market, and a lighthouse (1771; 175
eet). The place is now notorious for gambling
facilities. “r (1874) 16,5383; (1895) 27,250.
Dating from 1072, Ostend is memorable for the
protracted siege by the Spaniards which it under-
went from 7th July 1601 to 20th September
1604. Twice again it surrendered—to the Allies
in 1706, and to the French in 1745. The fortifiea-
tions have been demolished since 1865.—The
‘Ostend Manifesto,’ in American history, was a
despatch forwarded to the United States govern-
ment in 1854 by its ministers at the courts of Great
Britain, France, and Spain, who had met here, by
the government's request, to discuss the Cuban
question. The despatch declared that, if Spain
wonld not sell Cuba, self-preservation required the
United States to take the island hy force, and pre-
vent it from being Africanised like Hayti. Nothing,
however, came of the ‘ manifesto.’
Ostensory. See MonsTRANCE.
Osteol'epis (Gr., ‘bone-scale’), a genus of
fossil ganoid fish peculiar to the Old Red Sand-
stone. It is characterised by smooth rhomboidal
acales, by numerous sharply-pointed teeth, and by
Osteolepis.
having the two dorsal and anal fins alternating
with each other. The body is long and slender.
Osteology. See Bong, SKELETON, Xe.
Osterode, a town of Hanover, at the western
base of the Harz Mountains, on the Sése, an
affinent of the Leine, 30 miles by rail NW. of
Nordhausen. Its church of St Giles (724; rebuilt
1578) contains the graves of the dukes of Gruben-
hagen, and there are also a fine town-hall, baths,
large n-stores, and cotton, woollen, and linen
factories. Pop. (1890) 6757.—OsTERODE, in East
Prussia, on the Drewenz, 77 miles NE. of Thorn,
has a castle of the Teutonic knights (1270) and iron
‘manufactures, Pop. (1890) 9410,
Ostia, a city of Latium, at the month of the
Tiber, 14 miles SW. of Rome. It is said to have
been founded by Ancus Martius, and was regarded
as the oldest Roman colony. It first acquired
importance from its salt-works, and afterwards as
the port where the Sicilian, Sardinian, and African
corn shipped for Rome was landed ; but its name
first occurs during the second Punic war. It was
long, too, the principal station of the Roman navy ;
but its harbour was exceedingly bad, and gradually
the entrance became silted up, so that vessels were
pes a to “ay rae their cargoes in the open
stead. At length, towards the middle of the
Ist century A.D., the Emperor Claudius dug a new
harbour or basin, 2 miles to the north, and con-
nected it with the Tiber by a canal. It was named
the Portus Augusti, and around it soon sprang. up
a new town called Portus Ostiensis, Portus Urbis,
Portus Rome, and often simply Portus. Yet it
was not till nearly the close of the Roman empire
that the prosperity of Ostia as a city to
decline. It was, however, a mere ruin 830,.
when Gregory IV, founded a village—the modern
Ostia—half a mile above the ancient one, whose
100 inhabitants still carry on the manufacture of —
salt. The ruins of Ostia extend fora mile and a
half along the Tiber, and are nearly a mile in
breadth. Excavations were commenced in 1783,
and have been carried on systematically since 1855.
See MITHRAS.
Ostiaks, or OstyAKs, a Ural-Altaic ears
living meen the lower course of the river in
western Siberia, where they struggle against
chronic poverty, drunkenness, frequently famine,
to get a living by fishing and hunting fur-bearing
animals. They dwell in wretched and very dirty
huts, eat flesh raw, use bows and arrows, and
weapons of bone and stone; and are still in
part heathens, They are pee num
and are estimated now at 27,000, eir language
belongs to the Finnish division. ‘
-Ostmen, or EAstMEN. See NORTHMEN.
Ostracion. See Correr-FIsu. :
Ostracism, a right exercised by the people of
Athens of banishing for a time any — whose
services, rank, or wealth appeared to pean. be
to the liberty of his fellow-citizens, or incon: t
with their political equality. It was not a
ment for any particular crime, but rather a pre-
cautionary measure to remove such leaders as were
obviously exercising a dangerous ascend-
ency in the state. Ostracism. was intro-
duced by Cleisthenes about the beginni
of the 6th century B.c., after the expul-
sion of the Pisistratide. The people were
annually asked by the Prytanes if they
wished to exercise this right, and if they
did a publie assembly (ecclésia) was held,
and each citizen had opportunity of de-
positing, in a place appointed for the pur-
pose, a potsherd (ostrakon, also ‘ oyster-
shell’) or small earthen tablet, on which
was written the name of the person for whose
banishment he voted. Six thousand votes were
necessary for the banishment of any person; but
the greatest men of Athens—Miltiades, Themis-
tocles, Aristides, Cimon, and Alcibiades—were
subjected to this treatment. The banishment was:
at first for ten years, but the period was afterwards
restricted to five. Property and civil rights or
honours remained unaffected by it. Alcibiades
succeeded in obtaining the final abolition of ostra-
cism, of which, however, Plutarch and Aristotle
speak as a necessary Seore expedient, and its
utility has been very ably defended in modern times
by Grote ( History of Greece, vol. iv.).
Ostracoda. See Cypris, CrusTACEA.
Ostrich (Strvthio), a genus of birds which was_
once included with the cassowaries, emu, rhea, and
apteryx in a distinct order, the Ratite, but which is
rohaste better ed as forming a family apart.
iirbringer thus places it; its nearest allies appear
to be the rheas of South America. There seem to be
two species of ostrich—viz. Struthio camelus and 8.
molybdophanes ; the differences which distinguish
them are not t. The ostrich is the largest exist-
ing bird, reaching a height of from six to ye ar
As in the other ‘struthious’ birds (= Ratite), the
wings are somewhat rudimentary and quite useless
as organs of flight; but the bird spreads them ont
when running, and they appear to act as sails. The
breastbone or sternum has no keel—that is, no
median ridge to which the great pectoral muscles
OSTRICH
657
in other birds are so largely attached ; in the ostrich
these pectoral muscles are but slightly developed,
which fact is of course in relation to its small wing.
The absence of the sternal keel was the chief reason
which led to the association of all the struthious
birds into one order, and the name of this order—
Ratitwe—emphasised the character, signifying raft-
’ like, as opposed to Carinatz or keeled. The ostrich
is now confined to Africa, Arabia, and Syria, but
the discovery of its fossil remains in India indicate
that it formerly had a much wider range.
The ostrich shuns the presence of man, but is
often to be seen in near pecstaity to herds of zebras,
quagens, giraffes, real ger and other quadrupeds.
t is gregarious, although the flocks of ostriches are
not generally very large. It is polygamous, one
Re Es
Ostrich (Struthio camelus).
male usually appropriating to himself, when he can,
from two to seven females, which seem to make
9 ays in common, 5 ping a RE; hole in the
sani for this purpose. emale is supposed to
lay about ten oe The eggs are all placed on end
in the nest, which often contains a large number,
whilst around it eggs are generally to be found
seattered on the sand. Concerning these, it has
been supposed that they are intended for the food
of the young birds before they are able to, go in
quest of other food; an improbable notion, not
supported by evidence. It seems at least as likely
that these scattered eggs are laid by females wait-
ing whilst the nest is oceupied by another, and that
they are lost to the ostriches, and no more regarded,
Contrary to a very generally received opinion, the
ostrich does not leave her eggs to be hatched
entirely by the heat of the sun; nor is it the case,
as has been alleged, that the male only incubates.
Both parents give their assistance in the task of
watching the eggs. The male and female sit alter-
nately on the egus for six weeks ; the cock sitting all
the night, but the female helping in the daytime.
The ostrich feeds exclusively on vegetable sub-
stances, its food consisting in great part of grasses
and their seéds ; so that its visits are much dreaded
by the cultivators of the soil in the vicinity of its
haunts, a flock of ostriches soon playing terrible
havoc with a field of corn. The ostrich swallows
stones, as small birds swallow grains of sand,
to aid the gizzard in the trituration of the food;
and in confinement it has often been known to
oe, very indiscriminately whatever came in
the way—pieces of iron, bricks, glass, old shoes,
copper coins, &c. Its instincts do not suffice to
prevent it from swallowing very unsuitable things ;
copper coins were fatal in one instance, and a
piece of a parasol in another.
The s of the ostrich, when it first sets out, is
sup, to be not less than sixty miles an hour ;
but it does not seem to be capable of keeping up
this speed fora longtime. It is successfully hunted
by men on horseback, who take advantage of its
habit of running in a curve, instead of a straight
line, so that the hunter knows how to er in
order to meet it and get within shot. It is often
killed in South Africa by men who envelop them-
selves in ostrich-skins, and, cleverly imitating the
manners of the ostrich, approach it near enough
for their pu , Without exciting its alarm, and
sometimes kill one after another with their poisoned
arrows. The strength of the ostrich is such that it
can easily carry two men on its back. Its voice
is deep and hollow, not easily distinguished, ex-
cept by a practised ear, from the roar of the lion ;
but it more frequently makes a kind of cackling,
and, when enraged and striking violently at an
adversary, hisses very loudly. The flesh of the
ostrich is not unpalatable when it is young, but
rank and tough when old. It is generally believed
to have been prohibited as unclean to the Jews
(Lev. xi. 16), although the name is translated owl
in the English Bible. There are frequent references
to it in the Old Testament. :
The eggs of the ostrich, which are white or
yellowish white in colour, are mucli esteemed as an
article of food by the rude natives of Africa, and
are acceptable even to European travellers and
colonists. Each egg weighs about three pounds,
and is thus equal to about two dozen ordinary hen’s
ope. The egg is usnally dressed by being set up-
night on a fire, and stirred about with a forked
stick, inserted through a hole in the upper end.
The thick and strong shell is applied to many uses,
but particularly is much employed by the South
African tribes for water-vessels. The reader will
probably recollect the interesting plate in Living-
stone’s Travels of women filling ostrich-shells with
water. In taking ostrich-eggs from the nest the
South African is careful not to touch any with the
hand, but uses a long stick to draw them out, that
the birds may not detect the smell of the intruder,
in which case they would forsake the nest; whilst
otherwise they will return, and lay more eggs.
The long plumes of the ostrich have been highly
valued for ornamental purposes from very early
times, and continue to a considerable article
of commerce (see below; also FEATHERS). The
ostrich is often to be seen in Britain in con-
finement, and readily becomes quite tame and
familiar, although still apt to be violent towards
strangers. Great numbers were exhibited in the
public spectacles by some of the Roman emperors ;
and the brains of many ostriches were sometimes
presented in a single dish, as at the table of Helio-
balus. See the articles CAssowAry, EMU,
HEA; also ALPYORNIS, DINORNIS.
OSTRICH-FARMING.—Although there were iso-
lated attempts in 1864, the domestication of the
ostrich in South Africa, for the sake of its plumage,
dates from about 1867, and so rapidly had the
industry grown that in 1880 about £8,000,000 of
capital was employed, and the value of feathers
exported was over £800,000. The French have
also made attempts in the same direction in
Algeria ; feathers are exported from Tripoli; there
are tame birds kept in Egypt; while birds have
been imported into Australia by the Melbourne
Acclimatisation Society, and a shipment was made
from Capetown to Buenos Ayres in 1882. Suc-
cessful experiments in ostrich-farming have also
658 OSTRICH
OSYMANDYAS
been made in several places in California, Mr Kin-
near of Beaufort-West, and Mr Arthur Douglass of
Heatherton Towers, near Grahamstown, were two
pioneers in ostrich-farming. Large fortunes were
made in the early days of the industry, when
feathers were worth £100 per Ib., the plumes of
one bird sometimes fetching £25. As much as
£400 or even £500 have been paid for a good pair
of breeding birds, and chicks newly out of the egg
have fetched £10 each. As the supply became
greater than the demand a pair of ostriches might
not bring more than £12, and the plumes of an
ostrich about 30s. for one plucking. The beautiful
white plumes so highly prized by ladies all over
the world grow in the ends of the wings of the
male birds. A good bird in his prime will yield from
twenty to forty of these, besides a few black feathers
also from the wings. The tail-feathers are not
nearly so valuable nor so beautiful. The plumes of
the hen from her wing-tips are generally spotted
and flecked with gray, and are called feminines.
From 120 to 130 good feathers go to a pound : they
are always thus sold by weight. Ostrich-farmers
either may buy the young birds from the breeders
when from four to twelve months old, keep them
for the sake of their feathers, and sell them as
breeding birds when they are four years of age; or
they may give their attention to breeding birds
only, selling the young as they are hatched or when
they are a few months old; or they may breed and
farm for themselves. Where artificial incubators
are in use the eggs are removed from the nest as
soon as laid. Till a year old birds are usually
treated as chicks, and fed with 1 lb, each of
wheat, barley, or Kaffir corn; when the weather
is wet they must be put under cover. After
this age they may be put in a fenced camp,
with ten acres to each bird, and left to shift for
themselves. Still, they need to be watched for two
years, as they suffer much from parasites. There
may be a fortnightly muster, and a stock-book kept,
in which the days for cutting and pulling feathers
are noted, ve-wire fence is recommended by
some breeders, never less than 4 feet 9 inches
in height. The ‘ plucking-box’ is a solid wooden
box, in which the ostrich has only room to stand.
The feathers are cut before the quills are quite
ripe; the stumps remain for a month or two, and
are then easily pulled ont. Formerly the feathers
used to be pulled out by the roots. The first crop
of good feathers is clipped at seven or eight months ;
this is repeated every eight months with like result,
till the birds take to breeding, after which it is not
desirable to deprive them of their feathers, as they
require them to cover the eggs on the nest. The
bird’s plumage has reached perfection when three
years old, and at four years the birds have reached
maturity. The bony body of the ostrich yields
little or no flesh, but the thigh makes delicious
soup. The legs are brittle and easily broken, in
which case the bird has to be killed. Ostriches
may be kept in every part of Cape Colony
except in the cold mountainous tablelands, but
they thrive best in the extensive Karroo plains,
which are their natural habitat, though strong
adult birds may thrive in a good grass country.
They prefer a dry, warm, well-drained Karroo
country, and the wider the range the birds can be
allowed the better they thrive. Their best grazing
unds are where the soil is rich in alkalies. In
885 the export of feathers from the Cape of Good
Hope amounted to 232,119 Ib, of a value of
£900,165; in 1889 to 147,486 Ib., of a value of
£404,091 ; in 1894, to a value of £477,414,
See Mosenthal and Harting’s Ostriches and Ostrich-
farming (1876); Douglass, Ostrich-farming in South
(soon 1881); Martin’s Home Life on an Ostrich-farm
Ostr a town of Russia, in Volhynia, 176
miles Wot Kieff. Pop. 16,522, mostly Jena
Ostrogoths. See Gorus.
Ostuni, a city of South Italy, 22 miles NW. of
Brindisi by rail. Pop. 15,199. y
Osuna, « town of Spain, 66 miles by rail ESE.
of Seville, stands in a fertile plain on a trian
hill crowned by the castle of the Girons, dukes of
Osuna, and by a collegiate chureh (1534), which
was pillaged by Soult of 5 ewt. of ancient church
plate. Pop. 17,211.
Oswald, St, king of Northumbria, was the son of
the conquering Ethelfrith of Bernicia and of Acha,
sister of the brave Edwin of Deira, He fought his
way to the throne by the defeat, at Heavenfield
near Hexham (635), of Cedwalla the Welsh ki
who had aided Penda to crush Edwin at Hattiel
two years before. Under the reign of Edwin he
had found shelter in Scotland, and been converted
to Christianity at Hii or Iona; and now, when he
was hailed king by the whole of Northumberland,
he established Christianity with the help of St
Aidan, who settled on Holy Island. Oswald was
acknowledged as over-lord by all the ae
save those subject to Penda. He fell fig ting
against his enemy at Maserfield (Oswestry) in
Oswego, a port of entry and capital of Oswego
county, New York, is situated at the mouth of
Oswego River (here crossed by three bridges), on
Lake Ontario, at the extremity of the Osw
Canal (to Syracuse, 35 miles rail), and 3
miles by rail NW. of New York City. It is a
handsome city, with wide streets, and a United
States government building, court-house, city hall,
state armoury, &c. It is the principal port on
the lake, with a breakwater, a dozen large eleva-
tors, and 4 miles of wharves, and carries on a brisk
trade, The river falls -here 34 feet, and the
abundant water-power is utilised in flour-mills,
knitting-mills, &c. Oswego starch and corn-flour
are as well known in Europe as in America. Pop.
(1880) 21,116; (1900) 22,199.
Oswego Tea, a name given to several species
of pte particularly pri al yt M. pistes
and M. kalmiana, natives of North America, hecause
of the occasional use of an infusion of the dried leaves
as a beverage. They belong to the natural order
Labiate, somewhat resemble mints in appearance
and have an agreeable odour. The infusion is sai
to be useful in intermittents and as a stomachic.
Some other species of Monarda are used in the same
way, and the three species named are not uncom-
monly cultivated in gardens for ornament.
Oswestry, a thriving market-town and muni-
cipal borough (1397) of Shropshire, 18 miles NW,
of Shrewabur’. It has an old parish church, restored
in 1872 at a cost of £10,000; a fragment of the Nor-
man castle of Walter Fitzalan, progenitor of the
royal Stewarts; and a 15th-century grammar-school,
rebuilt in 1810 and enlarged in 1863-78. Railway
workshops were established in 1865, and sewerage
and water works constructed in 1866, Oswestry
derives its name from St Oswald (q.v.), who was
slain here. In 1644 it was captured by the parlia-
mentarians. Pop. (1851) 4817 ; (1881) 7847; er
$496, See works by Price (1815) and Cathrall (1855).
Osymandyas, the name of a great king of
Egype, mentioned by Diodorns and Strabo, who
reigned, according to these authors, as the 27th sue-
cessor of Sesostris. He is said to have distinguished
himself by his victories, to have invaded Asia with
an army of 400,000 men and 20,000 cavalry, and
to have conquered the Bactrians, who had been
rendered tributa to Egypt by Sesostris. In honour
of this exploit 15 is said by Hecateeus to have
erected a monument which was at once a pal
i Te
OTAGO
OTRANTO 659
and a tomb, and which, under the name of Osy-
mandeion, was renowned for its size and splendour
in later times. The Osymandeion is generally
believed to be eatacted by the extant ruins of
the Ramessenm at Medinet Habu (see THEBES),
though great difficulty has been felt in reconciling
the descriptions of its magnificence in ancient
writers with the dimensions of the existing relic.
Nor can the name of Osymandyas be recognised
amongst the Egyptian kings.
0 0, the most southern provincial district of
New d, in the South Island. It was one of
the original six provinces in the colony, but since
1876 these have been abolished and the county
system has been adopted. The name is said to
be derived from the Maori Otakou, ‘red earth.’
a large army was stationed under Vitellius, which
at once began to march on Italy under the com-
mand of the lieutenants Valens and Cxcina. Otho
showed vigour in his preparations, but his forces
were completely defeated after an obstinately fonght
battle near Bedriacum. Next day, though things
were still far from desperate, Otho set his house in
order, and then stabbed himself, 16th April 69.
Otho I., or Orro THE GREAT, son of the
Emperor Henry I. of Germany, was born in 912,
and was, on the death of his father in 936, formally
crowned king of the Germans. His reign was one
succession eventful and generally triumphant
wars, in the course of which he brought many tur-
bulent tribes under subjection, acquired and main-
tained almost supreme power in Italy, where he
It was colonised in 1848 by the Otago Association
connected with the Free Church of Scotland. It is
bounded on the N. by Canterbury and Westland,
and on the E. and W. by the sea. It has a coast-
line of 400 miles, is 160 miles long by 195 broad,
the estimated area comprising 15,038,300 acres, of
which 9 millions, chiefly in the centre and in the
east, are fit for iculture. Pop. (1880) 138,219;
(1891) 153,097. ld was discovered here in 1861,
and now the goldfields comprise an area of 24
millions of acres, from which gold to the value
of £20,000,000 had been exported up till 1895.
Dunedin (q.v.) is the capital. See NEW ZEALAND.
Otaheite. See Tanti.
0 a (Gr. ot-, ‘the ear,’ and algos, ‘ pain’)
is neuralgia of the ear. See Ear.
Otary ((taria), a genus of the Seal family
(Phocidw). See SEA-LION.
Otchakoff, a seaport of Russia, stands on the
north shore of the estuary of the Dnieper, 38 miles
ENE. of Odessa. It occupies the site of the ancient
Alector, and has beside it the ruins of the once im-
portant Greek colony of Olbia. In 1492 the khan
of the Crimea built here a strong fortress, which
was taken by the Russians under Miinnich in 1737,
recovered in 1738, and again captured after a lon,
by Potemkin in 1788, and definitively annex
by Russia. After it had been bombarded by the
Allied fleet in 1855 the Russians demolished the
fortifications. In 1887 a ship-canal was opened
here, which makes the estuary of the Bug and
Dnieper much more easily accessible to large ships.
Pop. 6977.
Othman, or Osman I., surnamed Al-ghazi
(‘the conqueror’), the founder of the Ottoman
(Turkish) power, was born in Bithynia in 1259,
and, on the overthrow of the sultanate of Iconium
in 1299 by the Mongols, seized upon a portion of
Bithynia. Then he forced the passes of Olympus,
took ion of the territory of Nicsea, except
the town of that name, and gradually subdued a
great part of Asia Minor; and so became the founder
of the present Turkish empire. From his name are
derived the terms Ottoman and Osmanli as synonyms
for the Turks. See TURKEY.
Othman, third calif. See Carr.
Otho, Marcus SAtvius, Roman emperor for
the first three months of 69 A.D., was descended
from an ancient Etruscan family, and was born in
32 A.D. He was a favourite companion of Nero,
who sent him as governor to Lusitania for his re-
fusal to divorce his beautiful wife, Poppzea Sabina.
Here he remained ten years, and ruled with wisdom
and erg roa i pees ee in Sr i
against Nero (68), but, disappoin in his hope o
being proclaimed Galba’s asa, marched at the
head of asmall band of soldiers to the forum, where
he was proclaimed emperor, and Galba was slain.
Otho was ised as emperor over all the Roman
possessions, with the exception of Germany, where
imposed laws with equal success on the kings of
Lombardy and the popes at Rome, consolidated
the disjointed power of the German emperors, and
established Christianity at many different points
in the Scandinavian and Slavonic lands, which lay
beyond the circuit of hisown jurisdiction. He died
in 973.
0 JAMES, American statesman, was born at
West rnstable, Massachusetts, 5th February
1725, graduated at Harvard in 1743, practised law,
and became a leader of the Boston bar. He was
advocate-general in 1760, when the revenue officers
demanded his assistance in obtaining from the
superior court general search-warrants allowin
them to enter any man’s house in quest of smugg]
Otis, however, refused, resigned his posi-
tion, and ap for the ple; and his speech,
which took five liours in delivery, produced a great
impression—Jolin Adams afterwards declared that
‘the child Independence was then and there born.’
When the writs were ted, by the direction of
the home authorities, in 1761, Otis was elected to
the Massachusetts assembly ; and he afterwards
was prominent in firm resistance to the revenue
acts. In 1769 he was savagely beaten by some
revenue officers and others, and as a result of a
sword-cut on the head he lost his reason. On 23d
May 1783 he was killed by lightning. The publica-
tion on which his fame chiefly rests is The Rights
of the Colonies Asserted and Proved (1764), a
powerful and fearless defence of their right to
control their own public expenditure. See the Life
by W. Tudor (Boston, 1
Otitis, inflammation of the tympanic cavity of
one See Ear. ag : ‘
Otley, a market-town in the West Riding of
Yorkshire, on the right bank of the Wharfe, and
at the north base of Otley Chevin (925 feet), 10
miles NW. of Leeds. Its church, restored in 1868-
69, is mainly Perpendicular, but has fragments of
Saxon and Norman work; and there are also a
court-house (1875), a mechanics’ institute (1869),
and a grammar-school (1602), Machine-making. is
the principal industry, with worsted and leather
manufactures. Pop. (1851) 4422; (1891) 7838.
Otocyon. See Doa.
Otoliths. See Ear, Vol. IV. p. 157; FisHes,
p. 652.
Otorrhea, a purulent or muco-purulent dis-
charge from the external ear. See EAR.
Otranto (the ancient Hydruntum), a town in
the extreme south-east of Italy, 29 miles by rail
SE. of Lecce, and on the Strait of Otranto, 45
miles from the coast of Albania on the opposite
side. During the later period of the Roman
empire, and all through the middle ages, it was
the chief port of Italy on the Adriatic, whence
passengers took ship for Greece—having in: this
respect supplanted the famous Brundusium of
earlier times; but its port is now in decay. In
660 OTTAVA RIMA
OTTAWA
1480 it was taken by the Tarks. At the present
day its castle, which gives the title of Horace Wal-
pole’s well-known story, is in the same condition as
its port. The town is the seat of an archbishop,
and has a cathedral, restored after the siege by
the Turks, with fine mosaics and an ancient crypt.
Pop. 1893. For the Duke of Otranto, see FoucHE.
Otta’va Rima (It. Octuple Rime). A stanza
form, consisting of eight lines of eleven syllables
in Italian, and usually of ten syllables in English,
with the rime-order abababec, See METRE.
Ott'awa, one of the largest rivers of British
North America, rises nearly 300 miles due north of
Ottawa city, flows west to Lake Temiscamingue,
some 300 miles, and thence 400 miles south-east,
and falls into the St Lawrence by two mouths,
which form the island of Montreal. Its drainage
basin has an area variously estimated at from 60,000
to 80,000 sq. m. During its course it sometimes
contracts to 40 or 50 yards; elsewhere it widens
into numerous lakes of considerable size. It is fed
by many important tributaries, the chief of which
are the Petewawa, Bonnechtre, Madawaska, and
Ridean on the right, and the Coulonge, Gatineau,
and Rivitres du Liévre and du Nord on the left
side, These, with the Ottawa itself, form the
means of transit for perhaps the largest lumber
trade in the world. The passage of timber over
falls and rapids has been greatly facilitated by
the construction of dams and slides, See next
article.
Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion of Canada,
is situated upon the south bank of the Ottawa
yower. The Rideau Canal, which was made in
Ts27, passes through the centre of the city, and
affords connection with the Rideau Lakes, and so
with the great lakes beyond. Opposite the city, to
the north-east, the Gatineau River joins the Ottawa
and affords further lumbering facilities. A few
miles to the east, the Du Lisvre River opens u
a rich phosphate country, which is being cathe
worked. The industries of Ottawa are mostly eon-
nected with lumber. In the winter thousands of
men are engaged in cutting timber and drawing it
to the streams, and in the spring the freshets carry
down to the mills the rafts, on which the men who
cut it live and labour during the passage. The
cut of timber in the Ottawa Valley amounts in
some years to over 700,000,000 cubic feet. Flour,
iron wares, bricks, leather, and matches are manu-
factured, The exports of the city amount annually
to over $3,000,000, the imports to about $2,000,000.
The parliamentary buildings, constructed in the
Italian Gothic style after 1860, when the Prince of
Wales laid the foundation-stone, are placed on a
noble bluff on the bank of the Ottawa. These strue-
tures, including the handsome library building and
the Victoria Tower (180 feet high), cost altogether
about $8,000,000, The residence of the governor-
reneral—an old-fashioned, ugly building, called
Rideau Hall—is situated about a mile i the
city. The post-office, city hall, banks, and_tele-
| Aegon are all of stone and handsomely built.
‘he churches are numerous, but not splendid in
architecture. Ottawa is the place of residence of
the bishop of Ontario (Church of England), and of
the Roman Catholic bishop of Ottawa, who has a
cathedral here. The Roman
River, 120 miles from its influx into the St Law-
rence at Montreal. The river Ottawa drains a vast
stretch of country as far north-west as Lake Nipis-
sing and beyond; all the lumber-products of this
district, as well as all the local trade, are carried
down to Ottawa, to the point at which the river
forms the splendid Chanditre Falls (200 yards wide
and 40 feet high). These falls, above which a sus-
pension bridge spans the river, supply the motive-
~ower for the numerous lumber-mills, flour-mills,
actories, &e, To the east of the city the river
Rideau forms a second fall, which, although in-
ferior to the Chauditre, supplies further motive-
Catholics have separate
schools; the Protestants
attend almost universally the
public schools. There are a
normal schoo] and a collegiate
institute, both public, and a
very large college conducted
by the lab Rathieted be-
sides a ladies’ college, a musi-
cal emy, and an art
school. Beeal in the academical year 1889-90 was as
ae tay Hon. M.A. 1; Hon. D.C.L. 7; Hon.
All ordinary degrees require that candidates
should have kept a specified number of terms by
having their names on the books of some coll
or hall or of the non-collegiate students. For the
degree of B.A. it is further required that the
candidate should have resided in Oxford during
twelve terms. In the academical year there are
four terms—Michaelmas term (October to Decem-
ber), Hilary or Lent term (January to March),
Easter and Trinity terins (the latter beginning
the day after the former closes, April to July).
The first two are kept by six weeks’ residence,
the last two by three weeks’ residence in each,
the legal Ss cna of residence being thus
eighteen weeks in the year. The colleges, how-
ever, under ordinary circumstances, require an
undergraduate to reside eight full weeks in each
term (counting Easter and Trinity as one term)—
ie. twenty-four weeks in the year.
The number of undergraduates is now much too
large to be accommodated within the walls of the
eges, and most colleges have undergraduates
residing outside the college in lodgings in the town.
bd are still, however, strictly under the control
of the university-and the college. (1) No under-
graduate is allowed to lodge in a house nor with
a landlord who has not been licensed by the uni-
versity, a provision which partially guards against
unsanitary lodgings and overt spun & roe conduct,
but immensely increases the expense of lodgings ;
(2) if the undergraduate goes out or comes in after
10 p.M. the fact is sup to be noted in the
‘gate bill’ which the landlord has to send weekl
to the college. In October 1890 there were feat
ing in lodgings 637 undergraduate members of the
colleges and halls and 211 non-collegiate students.
Since 1868 there has been in Oxford a body of
students not members of any college or hall, styled
formerly ‘unattached students,’ but latterly ‘non-
collegiate students.’ These reside in licensed lodg-
ings + have a building provided by the university in
whieh they attend lectures and meet their tutors ;
are under the page tn control of a censor, as
the students of a college are under the control of
their dean ; and are supervised by a board of dele-
gates, in the same way as the students of a college
are by the head and fellows of their colle Under
a statute of 1882 it is possible for a member of con-
vocation to open a ‘a private hall,’ of which he is
the ‘licensed master,’ for the reception of academ-
ical students. These private halls act chiefly as a
limbo to which, in preference to leaving the
university altogether, students who have been
rejected by or ejected from the colleges betake
themselves,
The number and disposition of the fellows
and undergraduate members of the university in
1891 are shown in the following table :
Fone of Title of Head No. of No. of ag NO Of x No. of
University College (Univ. 71249 Master. 13 17 14 70
St Edmund Hall. 71260 Principal. rs iF 35
Balliol College... 71268 Master, 13 27 82 130
Merton College 1274 Warden, 20 18 10 94
Exeter College... 1314 Rector. 9 26 12 104
ME CMON a doscdvacheciesepneosese 1326 Provost. 14 16 6 68
St Mary Hall (in 1896 incor. with Oriel) 1333 Principal. F + 1 22
n’s College. . «. 1340 Provost, 14 34 88 48
ew College..... 1379 Warden 24 33 13 185
Lincoln College... 1429 Rector. 10 18 12 57
All Souls College... 1437 Warden. 35 ax 4
Magialen College............. 1458 President, 24 380 16 119
Brasenoxe Ser eek a 1509 Principal. 13 26 20 75
Christi College (C C.C. 1516 President. 12 27 7 46
Christ Church (Ch. Ch.)...... 1546 Dean. 28 45 45 181
Trinity College.......... 1554 President. il 20 15 129
8t John’s College........ 1555 President. 16 26 8 68
Jesus College....... 1571 Principal. 10 19 2 62
Wadham College 1613 Warden, 8 18 13 68
embroke College 1624 Master. 8 = 85
Worcester Col ee 1714 Provost. 9 16 10 79
Non-collegiate Students. 1868 Censor. aa vs 225
Keble College............. 1870 Warden. 13 6 160
Hertford College...... .. 1874 Principal. 18 39 9 44
Charley's (Private) Hall... Be ah ice Licensed Master. 81
Turrell’s ( Private) Hall.............+5 Licensed Master. = os = 8
309 494 293 2144
In this table it must be noted that in the column
of commoners none are reckoned who matriculated
before 1886, and that to ascertain the number of
commoners in actual residence about five per cent.
must be struck off the numbers given. At Merton
Coll the scholars are called ‘postmasters,’ at
‘Magdalen College, ‘demies.’ At Christ Chureh
the fellows are called ‘students,’ and until 1877
the scholars were called ‘junior students.’ Christ
Church, being a cathedral as well as a college,
has also an ecclesiastical foundation of six canons.
Oxford is fortunate in having been described from
the points of view of its different interests in several
attractive handbooks: Rev. C. W. Boase'’s Oxford City,
in the ‘ Historic Towns’ series (Longmans, 1887); Dr
Brodrick’s History of the University of Oxford, in the
*Epochs of Church History’ series (Longmans, 1886) ;
‘Rev. E. Marshall’s Oxford Diocese, in the * Diocesan His-
tories’ series (S.P.C.K. 1882); and The Colleges of Ox-
ford : their History and Traditions, edited by A, Clark
(Methuen, 1891). Messrs Parker’s Handbook for Oxford
is an admirable guide to the architectural features of the
city ; and in Andrew Lang's Oxford : Brief Historical and
Descriptive Notes (1885 ; new ed. 1890) a charming present-
ment of Oxford ag both by writer and artists. A
manual of the studies of the university is furnished by
J. Wells in his Oxford and Oxford Life (Metliuen),
A full account of Oxford, civic, jastical, demic,
collegiate, personal, up to the end of 17th century, will
be found in the various works of the great Oxford anti-
uary, Anthony Wood, in the following editions—his
istory of the University and of the Colleges and Halls,
by J. Gutch (1786-96); his Athene and Fasti, by Dr
Bliss (1813-20; a new edition of these is in preparation);
his City of Oxford, by A. Clark (1889 seqq.).. From the
time of Wood the formal annals of the university become
of little interest and very little importance. The interest
of books about Oxford rather lies in the diaries which
684 OXFORD
“a
OXYGEN
ive the day-to-day impressions of Oxford residents,
nthony Wood for the 17th century and Thomas
Hearne for the 18th (best edition of both by the Ox-
ford Historical Society), or in reminiscences of Oxford
ed in Ramet i really mag g. in the —
ies of Edm ibbon, pe oes 5
onl io Oinala s Life of Arnold. Part of the ground
traversed by Wood has been gone over from the point
of view of modern criti woh din rahe pee he
to the year 1100) in his ayy Overt (0.
ist. Soc. 1888), and by H. C. Maxwell Lyte for the
university (to the year 1530) in his History of the Uni-
versity of Oxford (1886). See also Reminiscences af
pe by Oxford Men, edited by Miss Quiller-Couc!
te 1); F. Hulton, Riza Ozxonienses (1592); Joseph
‘oster, Alumni Oxonienses 1500-1886 (1888-91), and his
Oxford Men and their Colleges (1893); Wells, Oxford
and Oxford Life (1893); Oxford as it vs, by a mere Don
(1894) ; Goldwin Smith, Ozford and her Colleges (1895) ;
and The Colleges of Oxford, their History and Traditions,
edited by the present writer (1891). Periodical publica-
tions are the Dost-office Directory and Oxford Almanac ;
for the university, Ozford University Calendar, Student's
Guide to the University, ulations of the Boards of
Studies, University Gazette ; for the diocese, the Diocesan
Calendar and Diocesan Gazette, The local press is vigor-
ous, not to speak of the Oxford University Herald, the
Ozford Review, and the Oxford Magazine,
Oxford, EArt or. See HARLEY.
Oxford Clay, the principal member of the
Middle Oolite series. See JURASSIC SYSTEM.
Oxford Movement. See ENGLAND (CHURCH
OF), and KEBLE, NEWMAN, PUSEY.
Oxfordshire, an inland county of England, in
bape very irregular, and with an extreme length
and breadth of 48 miles by 26; is bounded on the
N. by Warwickshire and Northants, E. by Bucks,
8. by the river Thames, and W. by Gloucester-
shire. Area, 755 sq. m., or 483,621 acres. Pop.
1841) 163,143; (1881) 179,559; (1891) 185,669.
lat and bleak in the north and west, except near
at acer (q.v.), on the Warwickshire border, and
_ undulating in the central district, the county in
the south presents a succession of richly wooded
hills, alternating with picturesque dales, and ter-
poner on the south-east border with a branch of
the Chiltern Hills, which, near Nuffield, attain a
height of nearly 700 feet above the sea-level.
Foremost, however, among the natural beauties of
Oxfordshire are the numerous rivers by which it is
watered, notably the Thames, with its .affluents the
Windrush, Evenlode, Cherwell; and Thame. The
Oxford and Birmingham Canal affords access to the
midland coalfields. The soil in general is fertile,
and the state of agriculture advanced, as evidenced
by the fact that in 1889, exclusive of 2061 acres
under cultivation as orchards and market-gardens,
no less than 414,192 acres were under crops, fallow,
or Ironstone is extensively worked near
Banbury, whilst of manufactures the most: im-
mee are those of blankets at Witney, paper at
hiplake and Henley, and, to a certain extent, of
gloves at Woodstock, The county contains four-
teen hundreds, the municipal boroughs of Banbury,
cues ing Norton, Henley-on-Thames, and Wood
stock, and parts of those of the city and university
of Oxford, and of Abingdon (the remainder being
in Berkshire), and 292 civil parishes, all in the
diocese of Oxford. Three members are returned to
the House of Commons for the county, as also one
for the city of Oxford and two for the university ; the
county council numbers seventy-six members, Most
of the historical events connected with the county
took place at Oxford (a.v.) but apart from them
may be mentioned the battles of Chalgrove (1643)
and Cropredy Bridge (1644). The best known of
its worthies are Edward the Confessor, Leland (the
antiquary ), Dr Heylin, Viscount Falkland, ‘Doctor’
Fell, Thomas Ellwood, Lord Chief-justice Holt,
Rev. James Granger, Warren Hastings, Lord Keeper
Guilford, Sir William Beechey, Miss Edgeworth,
Charles Reade, Green (the historian), Lord Pen-
zance, Sir William Vernon Harcourt, and Lord
Randolph Churehill. See works by Skelton (1823)
and Davenport (1869). d
Oxidation is the term applied in chemistry,
with a somewhat wide significance, to the changes
which occur when elemen or compound sub-
stances enter into new combinations with oxy,
The majority of those chemical actions to w
the term Combustion (q.v.) is applied are examples
of oxidation. The P ucts of the processes of
dation are frequently (but not invariably) oxides.
Oxides are compounds of oxygen with other
elements, and are amongst the most important of
the classes of chemical compounds, Basic oxides
and acid oxides are described in the article
CHEMISTRY (q-v- ). In addition to these two
classes of oxides there are numerous oxides
do not possess either basic or acid properties, or if
at all only to a very insignificant degree.
Oxlip. See Cows ir.
Ox-pecker. See BEEF-EATER.
@Oxus, the ancient name of a river in western
Asia, which is called by Arab writers Jihan, and by
the Asiatics of the regions through which it flows
Amfi or Amf-Daria. It rises in the elev table-
lands between the Tian-Shan Mountains and the
Hindu-Kush, and flows west as far as 66° E. long.
through Badakshan, and then north-west th
Bokhara and Khiva, and empties itself by several
mouths into the southern end of the Sea of Aral.
There are two main head-streams issuing at 13,042
and 14,177 feet respectively, and uniting in 71° 20’
E. long. at 7500 feet. In the first part of its course
the volume of the Oxus is increased by numerous
affluents, but it receives few tributaries after it
turns north-west, its course then running —_
the deserts of Turkestan. The delta is 90 miles -
long, and embraces many lakes and marshes. The
principal = made of the river is for indgalion
urposes ; Khiva owes its prosperity entirely to its
87 eg The river has nico peters for 280 miles
4 steamboats. It is believed that before the
Christian era the Oxus flowed into the Caspian
and that since about 600 A.D. it has twice chan,
its course. The Russians have been considering
the possibility of turning it back again into the
Caspian. The [ip Sgn conditions seem to be
favourable, and if the plan were carried out Russia
would get a navigable highway a couple of hundred
miles farther towards the centre of For
the ae railway bridge across the river Se
see BrinGe, Vol. Il. p. 444; and see works by J.
Wood (1841; new ed. by Colonel Yule, 1872) and
MacG (1876).
Oxyazo. See DyErNnG, Vol. IV. p. 142.
Oxychlorides, chemical compounds contain-
ing both chlorine and oxygen in combination with
some other element, and intermediate in composi-
tion between the oxides on the one hand and the
chlorides on the other. Thus, antimonious oxy-
chloride, SbOCI, is intermediate between anti-
a. oxide, $b,05, and antimonious chloride,
uly.
Oxygen (sym. O, atom. wt. 16) is a colour. —
less, inodorous, tasteless gas, long regarded as a
‘permanent’ gas, but liquefied by Pictet of Geneva
for the first time in 1877. Its chemical affinities
for other elementary substances are very powerful ;
with most of them it is found in combination, or may
be made to combine, in more than one proportion ;
with several in as many as four different propor-
tions; and there is only one element (flnorine)
with which it does not enter into any combination.
OXYGEN
OYSTER 685
Owing to the intensity with which many of these
combinations take place, this gas has the power of
supporting Combustion (q.v.)in an eminent de;
It is only slightly soluble in water ; 100 cubic inches
of that liquid dissolving 4-11 cubic inches of
at 32°, and only 2°99 inches at 59°. It is slightly
heavier than air, its specific gravity being 1-1056.
Oxygen gas is not only respirable, but is essential
to the support of animal life; and hence it was
termed vital air by some of the older chemists. A
small animal placed in a bell-glass containing pure
oxygen will not be suffocated as soon as if it were
placed in the same glass filled with atmospheric
air. For further details on this property of oxygen,
the reader is referred to the article RESPIRATION.
Oxygen is the most abundant and the most
widely distributed of all the elements. In its free
state (mized but not combined with nitrogen) it
constitutes about a fifth of the bulk, and consider-
ably more than a fifth of the weight, of the atmo-
here. In combination with hyd n, it forms
t-ninths of all the water on the globe; and in
combination with silicon, calcium, aluminium, &c.,
it enters largely into all the solid constituents of
the earth’s crust; silica—in its various forms of
sand, common quartz, flint, &c.—chalk, limestone,
marble, and all the varieties of clay, containing
about half their weight of oxygen. It is, more-
over, found in the tissues and fluids of all forms of
animal and vegetable life, none of which can sup-
port existence independently of this element.
There are various laboratory methods of obtain-
ing oxygen on the small scale, the simplest of
which consists in the exposure of certain metallic
oxides to a high temperature. It was originally
obtained by its discoverer, Dr Priestley, from the
red oxide of mercury, which, when heated to about
750°, resolves Spon ne motallie mereny sa
oxygen gas. It may obtained similarly from
pas oxide and peroxide of lead, the resulting pro-
ducts being protoxide of lead and oxygen.
The ordinary laboratory method commonly em-
ployed to obtain an abundant supply of ox gen
consists in heating chlorate of potash, KCIO,,
which yields up all its oxygen (amounting to 39°16
per cent.), and leaves a residue of chloride of
potassium. One ounce of this salt yields nearl
two gallons of oxygen gas. It is found by expert-
ment that if the chlorate of potash is mixed with
about a fourth of its weight of black oxide of copper,
or of binoxide of manganese, the evolution of the
gas is greatly facilitated, although the oxides do not
seem to undergo any change during the a
Various processes have been proposed for obtain-
ing oxygen on the large scale, but only in recent
— has the commercial production of the
n carried out sufficiently cheaply to enable
oxygen to be employed extensively for industrial
pn The method employed by Brin’s Oxygen
‘ompany consists in ing air under pressure
over barium oxide, BaO, heated to a temperature
of dull redness. In this way a quantity of barium
oainer = BaO,, is formed, and this can be made
again yield up its extra oxygen in the pure state
(being reduced again to BaQ) by heating to a full
red heat, or, as is actually done in practice, by
greatly diminishing the gaseous pressure without
altering the temperature. It is estimated that
oxygen can be produced by this process at a cost
of from 5s. to 7s. 6d. per 1000 eubie feet. Oxygen
can now be obtained in practically any required
quantity in wrouglit-steel cylinders, in which it is
or up to a pressure of 120 atmospheres.
Of the compounds of oxygen it is unnecessary to
speak here, as they are described in the articles on
other chemical elements.
Oxygen was discovered almost simultaneously,
in the year 1774, by Priestley and by Scheele, the
Swedish chemist having, however, nearly completed
his discovery in 1772. iestly called it Dephlogisti-
cated Air ; Scheele termed it Empyreal Air ; Con-
dorcet shortly afterwards suggested Vital Air, as
its most oe riate designation; and in 1789
Lavoisier, who, by a series of carefully conducted
and very ingenious experiments, proved that the
combustion of bodies in the air consisted essentially
in their chemical combination with oxygen, and
thus overthrew the Phlogiston (q.v.) theory, gave
it the name which it now retains (from oxys,
‘acid,’ and gennad, ‘I produce’), in consequence
of his (erroneously ) believing that it was a neces-
sary constituent of every acid.
Oxyhydregen. See LIME-LIGHT.
Oyer and Terminer (Fr. owir, ‘to hear;’
terminer, ‘to determine’). See ASSIZE.
Oyster (Ostrea), a genus of bivalves, the mem-
bers of which are well known to be very passive
and very palatable. Structure.—The fundamental
characteristics, as displayed by the favourite Euro-
oe species, Ostrea edulis, are those of other bivalve
ollusea (q.v.), but the ‘foot,’ with which many
less sedentary forms move, is almost completel
degenerate, the two valves of the shell are Hea |
the hinge which unites them is without teeth, and
Diagram of Internal Structure.
The dorsal surface is downwards, the anterior or head end to
the left. a, region where water enters and leaves the animal ;
the dark lines indicate where one mantle-flap has been cut
away to expose the other structures; }, gills; c, margin of
one of the mantle-folds; d, anterior part of hinge; e, hood
over mouth; f, position of mouth; g, h, labial palps; 4, end
¢ 9 a 1, the closing muscle of the shell; m, position of
e heart.
the powerful closing muscle is almost median in
position. The left valve of the shell, that by which
the animal fixes itself, is hollowed out, while the
other is almost flat, and the whole animal is slightly
unsymmetrical. On an opened oyster it is easy to
detect the fringed mantle which lines and makes
the shell, the ciliated gills or ‘beard,’ two some-
what similar flaps (labia! pelps) on each side of the
mouth, which, overhung by a hood, lies near one
end of the hinge, the brownish aigestive gland, the
heart and the kidneys close beside the shell-shut-
ting muscle. ‘I suppose,’ says Professor Huxley,
‘that when the sapid and ope gate morsel—which
is and is gone like a flash of gustatory summer
lightning—glides along the palate, few people
imagine that they are swallowing a piece of
machinery (and going panel 4 too) freatly more
complicated than a watch ’—in fact a living organ-
ism of a high order,
General Life.—The oyster feeds on microscopic
organisms which are washed into the gaping shell
and on to the mouth by the ciliary activity of the
gills and palps; and it may be noted that the
— tinge, regarded by epicures as one of the
ighest credentials of an oyster, is probably due to
a copious diet of minute green alge. As every one
knows, oysters live gregariously in ‘beds’ or
686
OYSTER
‘banks’ at depths of 3 to 20 fathoms, and are
strangely fastidious as to locality. They have
many enemies besides the dredger, such as the
little sponges (Clione), which bore in the shells;
marine worms, and sea-snails (e.g. Purpura and
Murex), which also effect an entrance; besides
starfishes, which swallow little ones intact, or, em-
bracing larger specimens, insert their arms when
the shells gape. Although these passive animals
have no eyes or ears they can detect the shadow of
an approaching boat; the mantle-fringe and some
other parts are undoubtedly sensitive ;and some
enthusiasts have even inferred ‘intelligence’ from
the fact that in the ‘oyster-schools’ and elsewhere
the molluses learn to keep their shells shut when the
tide retires or when they are transported by rail !
Life-history—There are vos | interesting facts
connected with the life-history of the oyster. Thus,
O. edulis is hermaphrodite, being first an egg-laying
female, afterwards a » rm-producing male, while
O. angulata and the American 0. virginica have
the sexes separate. Maturity is sometimes rapidly
attained, but usually not until the third or
fourth year of life, and the maximum fertility is
between the fourth and seventh year. The repro-
ductive season generally begins in May, and con-
tinues till the beginning of autumn, but its limits
are extended or lessened by the conditions of tem-
perature. When the oyster becomes ‘sick,’ ‘milky,’
or ‘out of season,’ the mantle-cavity and the inter-
spaces between the gills are packed with developing
eggs, which fishermen call ‘ white,’ and at a later
stage ‘black spat.’ Buckland likened this black
spat to fine slate-pencil dust, and the emeryence of
the young from the mother to a puff of smoke from
a railway-engine. He computed the number of
developing in an oyster at from 276,000 to
,000; and Professor Mibius, the greatest Ger-
man authority on oysters, calculates that 1000
full-grown parents produce 440 million embryos
annually.
These embryos are only about 7}5th of an inch in
length, and about two millions of them might be
packed into a cubic inch, but the numbers which
rise from an oyster-bank are so immense that the
water seems to be clouded. They are very unlike
the adults in habit, for they swim actively for some
days by means of a protrusible ciliated cushion or
um. The valves of the shell are transparent
and symmetrical ; the gills, palps, and some other
adult structures have yet to be developed. In the
American oyster, the are set adrift at an early
, fertilisation and the whole of development
taking place outside the shelter of the parent. In
either case the mortality is enormous; multitudes
are washed away to unsuitable localities, and multi-
tudes are devoured by hungry animals; in fact
Mébius computes that out of 440 million embryos
es individuals reach maturity.
ose that survive become weighted by their
frowing shells, draw in their ciliated velum for the
t time, and sink to the bottom as a ‘fall of spat.’
‘They settle on stones, shells, or other ‘culch,’ and
nowadays on chalked tiles or on floatin
collectors which are placed for the pe pose O
receiving them. Moored by their left shells, they
grow idly, from sth of an inch when first
attached, till at the end of six to eight months they
are like threepenny pieces, and are known as
‘brood.’ ‘The diameter of an oyster at two years
is about two inches, another inch is added in the
_ year, after which the growth is much less
a ifferent Kinds.—Oysters are represented by
several ws distributed species—e.g. the Euro-
n O, edulis and O, angulata, the American
, virginica with several varieties, two others
from the western coasts (0. conchophila and 0.
lurida)—all of them edible, while the Caps 8
Good Hope, Australia, Japan, &c. are not t
their share, They vary considerably in size; those
from 3 to 6 inches are common, but Sir J. E. Tennent
found one in Ceylon measuring a little over 11
inches in length. American oysters are
very large. The banks of oysters sometimes form
important marine and shore deposits—witness the
banks of long, narrow ‘raccoon’ oysters off the
coast of Georgia and other parts of North America,
which are said to form natural breakwaters. The
race is an ancient one, for oysters appear in
Carboniferous strata, and two related forms—
Gryphea and Exogyra—with thick heavy shells,
are common fossils. The name is sometimes ex-
tended to other bivalves, such as the false oyster
Anomia (one valve of which is perforated by a tag
of attaching byssus), the pearl-oyster Meleagri
(see PEARL), and the thorny oyster Spondylus.
Edibility.—The accumulations of oyster-shells in
the ‘ kitchen-middens’ of Neolithic ages show that
the appreciation of oysters is no modern taste.
To Roman palates the oyster was precious, and the
praises of its appeteing Sa ( ingluvies)
were often sounded. ose of Rutupia (Rich-
borough, in Kent) were os to the epi-
cures and highly esteemed. hen eaten alive or
half-alive in the usual fashion, they are not only
pleasant, but nutritious and readily digested, nor
can any evil effects (such as parasites) be traced to
moderate indulgence in these dainties. ‘The points
of an oyster are,’ Frank Buckland says, ‘first the
shape, which to be perfect should resemble very
much the petal of a rose-leaf. Next, the thickness
of the shell; a_ first-class Lara beige native
should have a shell of the tenuity of thin china or
a Japanese tea-cup. It should also have an almost
metallic ring, and a peculiar opalescent lustre on
the inner side; the hollow for the animal of the
oyster should be as much like an egg-cup as possible.
Lastly, the flesh itself should be white and firm,
and nut-like in taste. It is by taking the evetee
proportion of meat to shell that oysters should
critically judged. The oysters at the head of the
list are of course “natives” (oysters artificially
reared); the proportion of a well-fed native is one-
fourth meat.’
Oysters and Disease.—Many cases of enteric ill-
ness and death having been of late referred to the .
eating of nal the Local Government Board
made searching inquiry into the conditions of
oyster culture and sto along the coasts of
ngland and Wales, and carried on bacteriological
investigations as to the power of the oyster to
absorb, retain, and transmit the typhoid bacillus
and the cholera vibrio. It appears from a report
in 1894-96 that oysters contaminated by sewage,
&c., can and do transmit disease; and that in
many localities the conditions of culture and stor-
age do expose oysters to the serious risk of such
contamination.
Demand.—Some years ago 500 millions were sold
annually in London, at a cost of £100,000; but the
coreene decreased, and the price increased. The
total British expenditure in oysters has since been
calenlated at £2,000,000, for about 240 million
oysters. In Paris the annual consumption is
said to be over 100 millions, which cost, it is
said, 1,654,350 francs in 1853, and 4,500,000 in
1890. In the United States the business employs
60,000 persons and 5000 vessels; some 25 million
bushels are sold for $15,500,000. In New York
state alone the capital invested now exceeds.
$6,000,000. = are sent from Baltimore,
New York, and other principal markets in car-
loads to the west—to Milwaukee, a St.
Louis, and even San Francisco. The grea beds
occur in Long Island Sound and Chesapeake Bay ;
7 OYSTER
OYSTER-CATCHER 687
the former is in part surveyed and divided into
plots, not to exceed 500 acres for any one person,
‘or oyster-culture. The bivalve is found, however,
from the Gulf of St Lawrence to and along the
north shore of the Gulf of Mexico, and, though
smaller, at points on the west coast, as Puget
Sound and Juan de Fuca Strait. In some parts
of the United States the Clam (q.v.) rivals the
oyster in popularity.
Supply.—The British pod is derived from three
sources—from the national oyster-banks, which are
getually getting the attention which they deserve ;
m the continental banks and farms, especially
those of France and Holland ; and from the United
States, with which a trade amounting to about
half a million dollars annually has rapidly grown.
Moreover, it must be noted that young oysters are
largely imported from France and elsewhere to be
‘fattened® on British culture-grounds. The’ prac-
tical problem is to keep wp a supply sufficient to
meet the large demand. For various reasons this
seems to be difficult. As oysters live in 3 to 20
fathoms of water, they can hardly be hered
with much selection ; they are sometimes lifted b
‘rakes’ and tongs, but usually by the dredge; this
is a destructive process, probably killing more than
it secures. There seems some evidence to show
that sheer over-dredging has almost ruined some of
the banks, but this probably has been exaggerated.
Changes in the sea-bottom and in the food-supply
have doubtless had more to do with the disappear-
ance of oysters from localities where they once
abounded. Those who permit all kinds of debris
and foulness to be emptied into the sea can hardly
expect a flourishing oyster-bank in the neighbour-
hood. To preserve the beds, to observe ‘close
time,’ to re-stock when the supply wanes, and
similar practical precautions are certainly effective ;
but regulations which are satisfactory on paper are
often very unsatisfactorily realised. The reader
should consult the Parliamentary Reports on
British Oyster Fisheries (1870), and on the increas-
ing scarcity (1876).
Oyster-culture.—Another practical endeavour
which has been richly rewarded is that of artificial
oyster-culture. This is of course no novelty, having
been practised by the Romans. Thus, Pliny says
that ‘the first person who formed artificial oyster-
beds was Sergius Orata (in the time of Augustus),
who established them at Baie... not for the
gratification of gluttony, but for the sake of gain,
as he contrived to make a large income by the
exercise of his ingennity.’ In the days of the later
A Sh there were well-established ostrearia, and
Lake Fusaro, the Acheron of Virgil, a muddy salt-
water pond, nowhere more than six feet in depth,
has been for many centuries utilised for this pur-
se. Of oyster-culture there are many different
inds; it may be confined to ‘fattening ’ oysters in
some conveniently constructed nd; or ‘fallen
spat,’ collected on tiles or artificial ‘culch,’ may be
brought to the sheltered culture-grounds, where the
young can grow in safety ; or again, oysters may be
red in confi t, as Professor J. A. Ryder has
succeeded in doing in America. In this last case
the oysters were kept in a pond se ted from the
sea by a sandbank, through which water alone
came and went with the tide; they produced eggs,
these grew into ‘spat,’ the young fell on suitable
collectors, which were afterwards removed to the
natural beds. It has even been found possible to
fertilise the eggs artificially with sperm from male
oysters, and though this is not so feasible in the
case of the European species, whose eggs are
retained within the parent until they have to some
extent developed, there is no theoretical obstacle
against breeding them in confinement. Another
possibility is to collect the free larve, which are
‘crustaceans, and small fish.
sometimes very abundant, and transfer them to
culture-grounds where the risksof mortality would be
lessened. The success which has already attended
various forms of oyster-culture, of which details
will be found in the reports cited below, certainly
warrants further extension and experiment, especi-
ally as many authorities believe that there is more
hope in this than in any legislative measures to pre-
serve the natural banks. Arcachon (q.v.) and Can-
cale are important French seats of oyster-culture ;
in England Whitstable is most natalie The frost
of the winter of 1890-91 was estimated to have
done £15,000 of damage to the oysters of two com-
panies at Whitstable.
See Parliamentary Reports on Oyster Fisheries (1870,
1876, 1878); Report of the United States Fisheries Com-
mission, viii, which contains not only the results of
American observations and experiments. but translations
of valuable memoirs by Hoek, Hubrecht, and Mobius ;
Report of Scotch Fisheries Board (J, H. Fullarton on
Oyster-culture in France, &c.), 1890; Mobius. Die Auster
und die Austernwirtschaft (1877); E. Ingersoll, The
Oyster Industries of the United States (1881); W. K.
Brooks, gm ge and Protection of the Oyster in
oh pe (1884), and Studies from Biol. Lab. (vol. i.
A cg ae bare English Illust. Mag. (vol. i. 1883);
uis of e, in Good Words (1890); Philpots,
Oysters and all about them (2 vols. 1892).
Oyster-catcher (Hematopus), a genus of
birds of the family Charadriide, closely allied to
the Plovers, and distinguished chiefly by the long,
strong, straight, wedge-shaped bill, legs of moderate
length, feet with only three toes, all directed for-
wards and united at their base by a small mem-
brane. The genus, which is cosmopolitan in its
distribution, embraces nine species. The only
European species, H. ostralegus, known also as
the -pie and Mussel-picker, is found on many
zie? of the English coast, and is common in Scot-
and along the whole east coast, on the adjacent
islands even as far as St Kilda, and also on the
Irish coasts. Although a coast bird, it often wanders
inland, and may be found breeding near inland
lochs and on the banks of large rivers. It occurs
in Greenland, is common in Iceland, and in many
parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, Its southern
2 . Ss <
aS Pies
Oyster-catcher (Hcmatopus ostralegus).
migrations extend to Burma, Ceylon, Persia,
Mozambique, and Senegambia. The adult bird
is about 16 inches long, has black and white plum-
age, orange-yellow bill, crimson irides, and flesh-
coloured fege and toes. It is very regular in its
feeding habits, passing with great punctuality to
and from its Gather eraande, where it regales
itself. with mussels, whelks, limpets, annelids,
Its eggs, usually
three or four in number, are laid on shingle, more
rarely among sandhills or even in fields inland,
and sometimes on the top of a fairly lofty stack.
The oyster-catcher swims well, and takes to the
688 OYSTER PLANT
OZONE
water of its own accord. Its flesh, though dark in
colour, is palatable. H. capensis is a black species
ranging from the Cape to the Canaries, Three or
four species are confined to America.
Oyster Plant. See SAusiry.
Ozzena (Gr. ozé, ‘a stench’) is generally used
of all diseased conditions of the nose accompanied
by great fetor of the breath. This may arise from
¢ ulcerations occurring in tubercular or syphilitic
disease, or in lupus ; from malignant disease ; from
necrosed bone; or from the presence of a foreign
body. But it also occurs where none of these
causes is present; and to this form of disease the
term is limited by some recent writers (Frinkel,
Morell Mackenzie, and others). In these cases
there is a peculiar form of inflammation of the
mucous membrane of the nose, called dry catarrh,
in which the morbid secretion accumulates in the
form of crusts in the nasal cavity. This ma
occasion comparatively little inconvenience, till it
leads, as it often does, to the occurrence of an
offensive and characteristic odour, the precise cause
of which has not been ascertained. It is a very
chronic and troublesome disease ; but much relief
is obtained by the frequent use of alkaline and
antiseptic washes or sprays. An arrangement
devised by Gottstein renders the secretion moist,
and so keeps the fetor in abeyance—the intro-
duction of a plug of cotton-wool, which is worn in
each nostril for a few hours daily.
Ozanam, ANTOINE FREDERIC, was bern at
Milan, April 23, 1813, studied at Lyons and Paris,
and was appointed in 1841 to fill the chair of
Foreign Literature at the Sorbonne. He died at
Marseilles, September 8, 1853. Ozanam
learning and industry, but fate did not favour him
in his dream of rivalling the work of Gibbon,
save in such f ents as Dante et la Philosophie
Catholique au XIIT* Siécle (1839), Histoire de la
Civilisation au V° Siécle (1845; Eng. trans. 1868),
and Etudes Germaniques (1847-49). A collected
edition of his writings fills 11 vols. (1862-75).
There are Lives by Karker (Paderborn, 1867),
O'Meara (Edin. 1876), and Hardy (Mainz, 1878).
Ozokerite, See Brrumen.
Ozone (Gr. ozé, ‘I smell’).
long ago that a peculiar odonr was produced by
the working of an electrical machine. Van Marum
found that, when electric sparks were passed
rete. a a tube containing oxyge , the gas became
powerfully impregnated with this odour—which he
therefore called the ‘smell of electricity.’ Sub-
sequent writers attributed the phenomenon to the
formation of nitric acid, due to a trace of nitrogen
mixed with the oxygen; especially as the gas was
found to act energetically upon mercury. Thus
supposed to be explained, these curious results
were soon forgotten. But in 1840 Schinbein (q.v.)
with remarkable acuteness made a closer investiga-
tion of the question, and arrived at many most
curious results, all of which have not even yet
been satisfactorily accounted for. The problem
remains, in fact, one of the most lexing, as
well as interesting, questions imperfectly resolved
in chemistry. The earlier results of Schénbein were
these: (1) When water is decom hy the vol-
taic current, the electrodes being of gold or plati-
num, the oxygen (which appears at the positive
pole) in a high degree the smell and the
oxidising power developed by Van Maram by means
of friction-electricity. (2) When the positive elec-
trode is formed of an oxidisable metal these
It was remarked
results are not observed, but the electrode is
rapidly oxidised. (3) The oxygen collected at a
platinum electrode retains these p’ es for an
indefinite period if kept in a el vessel ; but
loses them by heating, by the contact of an oxidis-
able substance, an
bodies as and oxide of manganese.
the substance, whatever it may be, which
such powerful chemical aflinities, Schinbein gave
the name ozone, from its smell. In 1845 he showed
that the same substance can be produced by the
action of phosphorus on moist air, and hinted that
it might be a higher oxide of hydrogen. j
De la Rive and Marignac shortly ee
repeating the experiments of Van Marum,
that electric sparks produce ozone even in and
dry oxygen, and came to the conel that
ozone is oxygen in an sestote t= state, as diamond
is a form of coke or ch . Baumert, in 1
endeavoured to show that there are two
ozone—one formed from pure ox by el
rks, which he allowed to be alletopie oxygen
8
the other formed in the voltaic decomposi
water, which he endeavoured to prove to be a
terowide of hydrogen. Andrews, in 1856, refuted
this view, by showing that no such oxide of hydro-
gen (at least in a gaseous form) is produced in the
electrolysis of water; and that ozone, from what-
ever source obtained, is the same body, and is not
a a but an allotropic form of oxygen.
In 1860 Andrews and Tait published the results
of a series of volumetric experiments on this sub-
ject, which led to some remarkable conclusions—
among which are the following: When the electric
disch is passed through pure oxygen it con-
tracts, hence ozone must be denser oxygen.
A prt 9 ter amount of gprs re and — corre-
spondingly greater quantity of ozone, are uced
ron si aa Ruabaree of electricity peal ris fine
points than by a brilliant series of sparks, The
contraction due to the formation of the ozone is
entirely removed by the destruction of the ozone—
by heat; and this process can
be repeated indefi-
nitely on the same
rtion of oxy;
Soret subsequently determined 14 the density of
ozone as compared with that of oxygen, first by
absorbing the ozone from the oxygen with whi
it was mixed by means of oil of turpentine or oil
of cinnamon, and observing the contraction pro-
duced ; and later by determining the relative rates
of diffusion of chlorine and ozone. He ascertained
that its density is one and a half times that of
Andrews showed later that ozone is
oxygen.
rapidly destroyed when shaken up with dry frag-
meats of glass, &c, He also proved that the effect
which is (almost invariably, antl sometimes in fine
weather pt tes Ad produced by the air on what
are called ozone-test a ap xs steeped in
iodide of potassium which are rendered brown by
the liberation of iodine—is really due to ozone.
He did so by showing that it acts upon mereury
as ozone does, and that it is destroyed by heat at
the same temperature.
The quantity of ozone in the atmosphere is never
great, and it varies within wide limits. Little or
nothing is known as to its function in the air, but
it is believed to be active in destroying unwhole-
some substances, owing to its intensely oxidisi
properties. Ozone has been liquefied by the appli-
cation of pressure, at a temperature of abont -
C. It is stated to be blue in the liquid and
to be liable to decomposition into oxygen, with ex-
plosive violence, on sudden diminution of pressure,
even by contact with such
P
is the sixteenth letter in our
alphabet. The symbol was de-
rived from the -hieroglyphic_
picture of a shutter (see ALPHA-
BET). When taken over by the
Semites, the sign was called
pe, ‘the mouth,’ a name ex-
lained by the fact that in the
Raypien hieratic, from which
the Pheenician sign was obtained, there are strokes
resembling teeth, which, however, disappeared
before the date of the earliest extant Pheenician
inscriptions. The oldest Greek form was f, which
differs little from the Pheenician letter. In the
Latin alphabet the hook
ving the form P, and this being the old form of
the latter acquired a tail to distinguish it. In
the later Greek alphabet P continued to be the
sign for r, and the sign for p was differentiated by
cnpmening the hook, giving ultimately the form
II for the letter pi.
The sound of p is the sharp labial mute. Hence
it interchanges with other labials, especially with
6, the flat labial mute. Most languages give a
reference to one of these two sounds. Thus, the
trnscans preferred p, and have no 6 in their
alphabet, whereas the Teutonic languages dislike
ki especially as an initial. Only six primitive
eutonie words, all probably loan words, begin
with p, and in-Beowulf and Cdmon, taken
together, only three such words are found. In
Mceso-Gothie the Greek p was used b eee but
only for foreign words, such as Pan , Pontius
Pilate, prophet, and presbyter. Most of our Eng-
lish words nning with p, such as plough, parish,
le, or prince, are loan words from Greek,
tin, or Celtic. A primitive Aryan p corresponds
to a Teutonic f, and it is only a primitive 5, a very
rare letter, which can soxmeend to a Teutonic p.
A Welsh p corresponds to a Gaelic ¢ and an Eng-
lish f. us, the Gaelic mac, ‘son,’ is the Welsh
map or ap. The Gaelic cethair is the Welsh
war, and the English four ; and the Gaelic coic
is the Welsh pump, and the English five. Owing
to French influence the English prejudice against
p begins to disappear in the 13th century, and we
get gossip instead of the older godsib, apricot for
abricot, and purse for bor'se, though even here the 4
is retained in the derived verb to disburse. A p
also intrudes between m and ¢, as in empty for the
Old English @mtig, and in tempt from the Old
French tenter. In Latin p intrudes also between
m and /, as in the words exemplum and templum.
In like case, as in humble from humilis, 6 is usually
the intrusive letter in English words.
Paarl, capital of a district in Cape Colony, 40
miles by road NE. of Capetown; pop. (1891) 7668.
Pabna, a town of Bengal, on an arm of the
Ganges, 115 miles N. of Caleutta. Pop. 15,267.
Paca (Celogenys, i.e. ‘hollow-cheek’), a re-
markable genus of rodents, allied to the Agoutis
(Dasyprocta), represented by a single species (C.
gree), which ranges in Central and South America
ually became a loop, |’
Guatemala to Paraguay, east of the Andes.
Its cheek-bones are uniquely developed, the zygo-
356
matie arch being enlarged to form a great cavity
on each side. Each communicates by a narrow aper-
ture with the mouth, is lined by mucous membrane,
and does not contain food as an ordinary cheek-
pouch naturally does. Their function, if they have
any, isunknown. The paca is large for a rodent,
being about 2 feet in length. It is stout and some-
what pig-like in build, with a large blunt head,
Paca ( Calogenys paca).
cloven lip, small ears, stump-like tail, thick legs,
five-toed feet, and rounded back. The colour is
brownish yellow above, whitish below, with whitish-
ellow spots or longitudinal bands along the sides.
hough somewhat clumsy in form and gait, the
paca runs actively, and can swim well. It lives
alone or in pairs in the moist forests, especially by
sides of rivers, and tends to be nocturnal in its
habits. It makes burrows, which are said to have
three Spay The female bears only one or two
young at a birth. As a vegetable eater, the paca
sometimes does fare to sugar-cane plantations
and gardens. Its fat, pork-like flesh is much
esteemed.
Pace (Miuitary). See Yarp.
Pachacamace, a village of Peru, 18 miles SE.
of Lima, with the ruins of a temple from which
Pizarro took immense treasure.
Pachmarhi, a sanitarium and convalescent
depét for European troops in India, is situated,
2500 feet above the plains, in the Central Provinces,
110 miles SW. of Jabalpur.
Pachomius, an Egyptian monk of the 4th
century, the first to substitute for the free asceti-
cism of the solitary recluse a regular conobitic
system. He was born about 292, and about 340
founded the first monastic institution at Tabenna,
an island in the Nile, where ere long there were as
many as 1400 monks. He also established the
first convent for nuns, which was under the presi-
deney of his sister, and he laboured with so much
diligence and zeal that at his death, according to
Palladius, not fewer than 7000 monks and nuns
were under his inspection. The writings ascribed
to Pachomius are not only worthless in them-
selves, but of dubious authenticity. See the article
MOoNACHISM.
690 PACHYDERMATA
PACIFIC OCEAN
Pachyder'mata (Gr., ‘ thick-skins’), a term
applied by Cuvier to hoofed mammals ( Ungulates)
which are not ruminants—e.g. elephants, 5 Ca
hog, hippopotamus, tapir, rhinoceros, horse,
and which have thick skins. For many good
reasons the term is no longer much used. See
MAMMALS.
Pacific Ocean.—Position and Extent.—The
Pacific Ocean is the largest of the great divisions
of the ocean, occupying as it does about one-half
of the water-surface of the globe and more than
one-third of the whole area of the world. It is
almost landlocked towards the north, communi-
cating with the Arctic Ocean by the narrow and
shallow Behring Strait, only about 40 miles in
width, whereas towards the south it opens widely
into the great deep Southern and Antarctic
Looking upon its southern boundary as
the Antarctic Circle, its length from north to south
is about 9000 miles, while its greatest breadth at
the equator is over 10,000 miles. Its area is
gg reese neariy 70,000,000 sq. m.
istory.—The Pacific was first seen by Europeans
in 1513, when a Spaniard, Balboa, with a few
followers, viewed its waters from the summit of
a mountain in Panama; Columbus was aware of
its existence, but did not live to see it. The first
Euro to sail upon it was Magellan, who in
1520 entered it after threading his way through
the strait bearing his name, and he gave it the
designation ‘ acihic," by which it is known to the
present day. From about this time trade was
established between Europe and the Pacific coasts
through the Strait of Magellan and round Ca
Horn. Sir Francis Drake was the first English-
man to sail upon it, entering it in 1577, and. after-
wards sailing across it as far as the Moluccas.
The explorers of the 17th century discovered Aus-
traiia, New Zealand, and other islands, and during
the 18th century the work of exploration was
carried on by numerous voyagers, whose names are
famous in the annals of geographical discovery.
Many of them attempted to find | res between
the Atlantic and Pacific through the Arctic Ocean ;
but the problem remained unsolved until Maclure
in 1850 discovered the North-west Passaye, and
Nordenskiéld in 1874 the North-east Passage. The
routes are, however, of no practical utility. Dur-
ing the 19th century many exploring and surveying
expeditions have completely investigated the region
of the Pacific, and among the more recent scientific
expeditions special mention may be made of that of
H.M.S. Challenger.
River-systems.—Compared with the enormous ex-
of the Pacific the area of land draining into
t is comparatively insignificant—7,500,000 sq. m.,
being less than half of that draining into the
Atlantic. By far the greater proportion of the land
of North and South America drains into the Atlantic,
the Andes and Rocky Mountains, which form the
watershed, running north and south in more or less
+ close proximity to the Pacific coast. The largest
American river is the Yukon in the extreme
north, which is over 2000 miles in length, and flows
into Behring Sea. Proceedin south, we find the
Fraser (600 miles long), the Columbia or Oregon
(750), the Sacramento (420), and the Colorado
(1100). The South American rivers draining into
the Pacific are little more than mountain-streams.
‘The Asiatic rivers flowing into the Pacific include
some of the largest and most important rivers of
the world, There is the Amur, 3060 miles in
length, flowing into the sea of Okhotsk, and with
its tributaries draining an area of nearly 900,000
sq. m.; the Hoang-ho, over 3000 miles long, and
the Yang-tse-kiang, 3200 miles in length, falling
into the Yellow Sea, the combined drainage area
of which two rivers is estimated to exceed 1,250,000
sq. m.; whilst flowing into the China Sea there
are the Choo-kiang, the Mekhong, and the Menam.
The rivers of Australia draining into the Pacific are
of slight importance and small size. The
ann rainfall on the catchment basin of
Pacific is estimated at about 5000 cubic miles ;
annual river discharge at a little over a fifth of
that amount.
Coasts and Seas.—Generally speaking, the Ameri-
can and Australian coasts bordering the Pacific are
mountainous and free from indentations, while the
Asiatic coasts are low and fertile, with many gulfs
and bays, and fringed with islan proces enc
numerous seas, he Alaskan shores of N
America are low and swampy, while the coast
farther south is rocky and ru » With
inlets and off-lying islands. most considerable
indentation of the whole American Pacific coast is
the Gulf of California, the Gulfs of Panama and
Guayaquil being the only others of importance.
The southern extremity of South America presents
a complete contrast to the rest of the coast-li
being broken up into numerous bays with etattered
islands, the winding Strait of Magellan separating
Tierra del Fuego from the mainland. The contour
of the Asiatic coast-line is much more diversified
than that of America, being especially charac-
terised by the off-lying seas more or less aged
enclosed and cut off from communication with the
open ocean. Behring Sea is from the
‘acific basin by the peninsula of Alaska and the
Aleutian Islands, communicating with the Aretic
Ocean through Behring Strait. The Sea of Okhotsk
is divided from yes | Sea by the peninsula of
Kamchatka, and from the basin of the Pacifie by
the Knrile Islands. The Sea of Japan is cut oif
from the ocean by the Japanese islands, from the
Sea of Okhotsk by the island of ialien, and
from the Yellow Sea by the peninsula of Corea,
The Yellow Sea is an extensive indentation of the
Chinese coast, and is so named from the i
amount of ochreous material brought down by the
sy rivers Hoang-ho and iam theres which
ow into it. The China Sea is separated from the
Pacific by the island of Formosa, the Philippine
Islands, the island of Palawan, and Borneo, and
from the Indian Ocean by the Malay peninsula
it includes the two extensive Gulfs of Tonquin and
Siam. The islands of the East Indian Archipelago
cut up this part of the Pacific into several more or
less distinct seas, known as the Sulu, —
Java, Banda, and ‘Arafura Seas, the last nam
lying between the north coast of Australia and
ew Guinea, and including the Gulf of Carpen-
taria. The Coral Sea is enclosed by the north-east
coast of Australia, New Guinea, New Britain, the
Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides, and New
Caledonia, and communicates with the Arafura Sea
by Torres Strait. The Pacific coast of Australia
is mountainous and free from any considerable
inlets, the most important harbours being Moreton
Bay and Port Jackson, the latter one of the
finest in the world. Bass Strait the
island of Tasmania from Australia. The main
islands of New Zealand are separated by Cook
Strait, and the ceeeiral bays are the Gulf of
Hauraki, Bay of Plenty, Hawke Bay, and Pegasus
Bay.
Totands.—The Pacific Ocean is remarkable for
the innumerable small islands and island grou
which stud its surface, but the area occupied by
the truly oceanic islands is very small; they are
principally congregated towards the central and
western portions of its basin, the eastern portion,
for some considerable distance off the American
coasts, being comparatively free from islands. The
principal continental islands may be briefly enu-
merated: commencing at the southern point of
PACIFIC OCEAN
691
South America, and proceeding northwards along
the American coast, then southwards along the
Asiatic coast, we have Tierra del Fuego and the
islands off the coast of Chili; Vancouver, Queen
Charlotte, Prince of Wales, and other islands off
the coast of British North America ; Kodiak Island,
off the Alaskan coast; the Aleutian chain of
islands, stretching from the Alaskan peninsula
towards the Asiatic coast and enclosing Behring
Sea; the Kurile Islands, stretching m the
insula of Kamchatka to the Japanese Islands ;
halien ; the islands of Japan; Formosa and
Hainan, off the Chinese coast; the Philippine
Islands; Borneo, Celebes, Sumatra, Java, and
other islands of the East Indian Archipelago ; New
Guinea ; New Caledonia ; Australia and Tasmania ;
and New Zealand. The oceanic islands of the
Pacific are all either of volcanic or coral origin,
the voleanie islands lying within the zone of coral-
reef builders being fringed with coral-reefs, while
there are large numbers of islands entirely of coral
formation—coral atolls, The principal rg are
the Hawaiian Islands, in the centre of the North
Pacific basin, 18° to 22° N. lat., consisting of eight
r and four smaller islands, containing man
active and extinct volcanoes, including the weil-
known Kilauea in Hawaii, said to be the largest
active crater in the world; the Bonin Islands,
south-east of Japan; the Ladrone or Mariana
Islands, between 13° and 20° N. lat., containing
several active voleanoes; the Caroline Islands,
south of the Ladrones, mostly of coral formation ;
the Marshall Islands, east of the Carolines, entirely
of coral formation; the Gilbert Islands, on the
equator, of coral formation and densely populated ;
in the South Pacific there are the Solomon Islands,
the New Hebrides, the Fiji Islands, the Friendly
Islands, the Samoa or Navigator Islands, the
Society Islands, all fringed by coral-reefs, and the
Paumotu or Low Archipelago, an extensive group
of coral islands lying between 10° and 25° S. lat.,
besides the volcanic Galapagos group on the equator
about 600 miles off the coast of Ecuador, and others
of less extent and importance.
—The Pacifie was formerly looked upon as
rather a shallow ocean, but we now know that some
of the greatest depths in the world occur in it, and
that on the whole it is deeper than the Atlantic,
its mean depth being about 2500 fathoms. The
eastern basin is comparatively uniform in depth,
between 2000 and 3000 fathoms, except a large
area under 2000 fathoms extending from off the
coast of Chili in a westerly direction for over 40° of
longitude, while off the north-west coast of North
America the 2000 fathom line lies a considerable
distance off-shore. The western basin is much
more diversified, numerous groups of islands,
shallow water, and immense depths occurring
irregularly ; the greatest depths yet sounded are
found in this region of the Pacific. The Challenger’s
deepest sounding, 4575 fathoms (nearly 5} miles),
was in the sea between the Caroline and rone
Islands, while the American ship 7uscarora found
a depth of 4655 fathoms to the north-east of Japan,
where a large area of very deep water extends off
the Kurile Islands and Japanese coast; more
recently depths of over 4000 fathoms have been
discovered off the coast of Chili, and a British
surveying ship has sounded in 4530 fathoms east
of the Fiji Islands, which is the deepest sounding
recorded south of the equator. There are ceri
detached patches throughout the Pacific wit
depths of over 3000 fathoms. The seas border-
ing on the western basin of the Pacific vary
considerably in depth: the depth in the Sea of
Okhotsk, the Yellow Sea, and the Java Sea does
not apparently exceed 700 fathoms; and the
Behring Sea, the Sea of Japan, and the Arafura
Sea are all under 1500 fathoms; while the China
Sea, Celebes Sea, Sulu Sea, and the Banda: Sea
are in some places over 2000 fathoms in depth.
The bulk of water filling the Pacific is estimated
at 170,000,000 cubic miles.
Winds and Currents.—The surface-currents of
the Pacifie Ocean depend to a t extent upon
the direction of the prevailing winds, the principal
of which are the two trade-winds, blowing more or
less constantly, the one from the north-east, the
other from the south-east. Between these two
Di, orm is what is called the equatorial belt of
ms, which is found all the year round north of
the equator in the eastern Pacific, but in the west
Pacific it is south of the equator during the summer
of the southern Tey ahh and during the southern
winter it is replaced by a regular southerly breeze ;
north and south of the trade-winds, also, there are
two other belts of calms. In addition to the trade-
winds, there are the monsoons, which blow with
great regularity, but the direction of which changer
according to the season. Monsoons are especially
prevalent in the west Pacific, their general direc-
tion being south-east, north-east, or north-west,
and they cause surface-currents, the direction of
which likewise changes with the season. The
differences between the temperature and atmo-
spheric pressure over the Jand and over the water
cause monsoonal winds. In mid-ocean the winds
are found to have a greater velocity than in the
vicinity of the land.
The Pacific is practically cut off, as far as the
circulation of the deep water is concerned, from com-
munication with the Arctic Ocean in the north, but
towards the south it has uninterrupted communi-
cation with the Antarctic. A cold surface-current
flows constantly northwards from the Antarctic,
dividing into two at Cape Horn, one enterin
the Atlantic, the other flowing along the coasts o
Chili and Peru, thence turning to the westwards ;
but the cold water frequently met with along the
eastern coasts of America is evidently brought from
oceanic depths by the action of off-shore winds.
The great equatorial eurrent flows to the west-
ward, divided by a counter-current running in an
opposite direction into two branches, the northern
one on approaching the Asiatic coast being de-
flected northwards and finally north-eastwards as
the Japan current, which is comparable to the
Gulf Stream in the Atlantic ; the southern branch
is diverted to the southward, flowing along the
shores of Australia and New Zealand, thence curv-
ing eastwards, and ultimately merging into the
Antarctic surface-current. ere are many minor
currents, and branches of these more important
ones, diverted by the numerous groups of islands,
The broad currents, circling in the one direction in
the North Pacific and in the opposite direction in
the South Pacific, enclose in their centres two
miniature Sa Seas somewhat similar to
that of the North Atlantic, though not so well
marked.
Temperature of the Water.—The temperature of
the surface-waters of the Pacific varies with the
season, but in the tropical regions the variation is
very small. Between the latitudes of 45° N. and
45° 8. the temperature of the surface is always
above 50° F., while north and south of these lati-
tudes it is nearly always below 50° F. The highest
temperature occurs among the islands of the Malay
Archipelago and off the Mexican coast, where the
mean temperature rises to 85° F., and in the sea
between Japan and New Guinea the temperature
in August reaches 84° F, In the South Pacific
the temperature of the surface-water is appar-
ently higher than that of the air, while in the
North Pacifie the reverse is the case in some places,
The temperature of the water below the surface
692 PACIFIC RAILWAYS
‘PADISHAH
as a general rule decreases as the depth increases,
the lowest temperature occurring at the bottom in
great depths, where the bottom temperature appears
to be nearly constant all the year round, usually
about 35° This refers only to the open ocean,
for in the enclosed seas of the western basin of the
Pacific the minimum temperature is usually found
some distance above the bottom, depending upon
the depth of water over the barrier cutting off the
sea from the general oceanic circulation. cg SEA,
Vol. IX. p. 272.) The temperature of the inter-
mediate water in the Hs ocean decreases rapidly
at first from the surface downwards, and then
slowly down to the bottom, irrespective of the
surface temperature, which may vary from below
60° to over 80° F.
Salinity.—The meen d of the surface-waters of
the ocean changes with the season; increase of
evaporation raises, while precipitation in the form
of rain lowers, the salinity. In the South Pacific
there is a region of high salinity in the neigh-
bourhood of the Society Islands, the maximum
salinity being 1-02750 (taking: pure water at 4° C.
as unity); in the North Pacitic the verge f is
never so high, the maximum being 1°02650, w ile
in some regions the salinity falls to 1°02485.
For the deposits see the article SEA; see also
works cited at CHALLENGER, CORAL, POLYNESIA.
Pacific Railways, a name given to the
lines from the eastern side of America to the Pacific
coast, which, though not running under one man-
agement from sea to sea, constitute with their con-
nections transcontinental lines. (1) The combined
Union Pacific from Omaha or Council Bluffs to
Ogden, and the Central Pacific, thence to Oakland
for San Francisco), opened in 1869; total distance
rom New York vié Chi and Omaha 3500 miles,
time of transit 44 days, fare $90. (2) The South
Pacific (1881-83), associated with the Atchison
Topeka, and Santa Fé, which connects Kansas and
New Orleans with San Francisco, as well as with
Mexico. (3) The Atlantic and Pacific Railway
(1883) connecting St Louis with a branch of the
South Pacifie. (4) The Northern Pacific (1883) from
Duluth and St Paul to Portland and to Tacoma on
Paget Sound. (5) The Canadian Pacific (1885) to
Vancouver. The Panama Railway is also inter-
oceanic, and so will be the trans-Andean line from
Valparaiso to Buenos Ayres. (See CHILi, RaIL-
WAYS.)
Packard, Atruevs SPRING, an American
naturalist, son of the historian of Bowdoin College,
was born at Brunswick, Maine, 19th February
1839, graduated at Bowdoin in 1861, and was for a
time assistant to iz at Cambridge. He took
in several scientific expeditions, was state
entomologist of Massachusetts in 1871-73, and
lectured at Bowdoin and elsewhere. In 1878 he
became professor of vig ng og Geology at Brown
University. Bunt he is best known as a distin-
guished entomologist; his classification of insects,
proposed in 1863, has been generally accepted. As
an evolutionist, Professor Pack is one of the
leaders of the ‘Neo-Lamarckian’ school (see
LAMARCK). Besides ee works and text-
books, his writings include Structure of the Ovi-
positor of Insects (1868), Development and An-
atomy of Limulus Polyphemus (1871-85), The Cave
Fauna of North America (1888), The Labrador
Coast (1891), <2 ig on the geometrid moths,
the locust’s brain, phyllopod crustacea, &c.
Packfong, or PeToNG, a Chinese alloy or white
metal, consisting of arsenic and copper.
Paco, See ALPACA.
Pacto'lus, anciently the name of a small brook
of Lydia, in Asia Minor, which rises on the
northern slope of Mount Tmolus (modern Buz
Dagh), flows north past Sardis (Sart), and empties
itself into the Hermus (Kodus). It is never more
than ten feet broad and one foot deep. The sands
or mud of Pactolus were long famous in pea
for the particles of gold-dust which they con ;
The collection of these icles, accord! to
legend, was the source of Crosus’ vast ith.
The brook is now called Sarabat.
Pacuvius, the earliest of Roman tragic
the sister’s son of Ennius, was born at Dencdium
about 220 B.c., lived a in Rome, and died at
Tarentum, ninety years of age (130 B.c.). His
dramas, of which only fragments are extant, were.
formed after Greek models, ‘
Padang, capital of a residency on the west
coast of Sumatra, and seat of the Dutch governor
of the west coast province, is situated at the mouth
of the Padang River ; pop. 15,000.
Paddy. See Rice.
Paderborn, a town of Westphalia, situated 50
miles SW. of Hanover. The fine Romanesque cathe-
dral (Roman Catholic), completed in 1163, is built
over the sources of the Pader (a tributary of the
Lippe), and contains the silver coffin of St Liborius,
Other noticeable edifices are St Bartholomew's
Chapel (1017) and the town-house (1615; restored
1870-76). There are miscellaneous manufactures
here; and there are mineral springs close by.
The old Hanse town was sacked by the Duke of
Brunswick in 1622, and it suffered much during the
Thirty Years’ War. From 1614 to 1819 it was the
seat of a Roman Catholic university. Much of it
was burnt down in 1875, Pop. 19,941.
Paderewski, Icnace JAN, Polish pianist,
was born in Podolia (Russian Poland), 6th Novem-
ber 1860, and began to play as an infant of three.
He studied at Warsaw, becoming professor in the
Conservatoire there in 1878, In 1884 he taught in
the Strasburg Conservatoire, but thereafter became
a virtuoso, making his début at Vienna in 1887,
and appearing with phenomenal success at Paris in
1889, at London in 1890, and in America in 1891.
He has composed. largely for the piano, for the
voice, and for piano and orchestra; and is idolised
by his admirers of both sexes,
Padiham, 4 town of Lancashire, 3 miles W.
of Burnley and 8 NE, of Blackburn. Cotton is the
staple manufacture, with coal-mining and. stone-
quarrying. Pop. (1891), with Hapton, 11,311.
Padilla, Juan bk, one of the most popular
heroes in Spanish history, was a scion of a Tole-
dan family, and was appointed by the Emperor
Charles V. military commandant of Sai
“While he was so employed a formidable rebellion:
caused by the excessive taxes which the emperor
imposed on the Spaniards, to defray the cost of
his various wars in Italy, Germany, and the Low
Countries, broke out among the towns of Castile,
and the rebels, who were known as communeros,
called upon Padilla to put himself at their head.
He was su 1 in a number of enterprises
undertaken against the royalist party, but on
23d April 1521 was completely beaten at Villalos,
This conflict decided the fate of the rebellion and
of Padilla himself, who was taken prisoner, and
next day beheaded, His wife, Donna Maria de
Pacheco, rallied the remnants of the rebel army,
and for a long time held Toledo oN the royalist
besieging army; after its fall she retired to
Portugal, where she died in 1531. Numerous poems
and dramas celebrate their deeds.
Padishah, in Turkish PaprsHaa° (Persian
padi, * protector’ or ‘throne ;’ shah, ‘prince’), one
of the titles of the Sultan of the Ottoman empire,
and of the Shah of Persia.
PADUA
PAGODA 693
.
Padua (Ital. Padova), a city of North Italy,
23 miles by rail W. by S. of Venice and 18 SE. of
Vicenza, is still surrounded with walls. The prin-
cipal streets are lined with arcades; most of the
others, especially in the older parts, are narrow,
dark, and ill-paved; but there are several hand-
some squares and fine gates. The first place amon
the public buildings belongs to the municipa'
palace (1172-1219), a huge structure resting on
arches, with balconies running round the upper
story. The roof (1420) of its great hall (2674
feet long, by 89 wide, and 78 high) is perhaps
the largest in Europe bi are ec beg by pillars.
The churches (nearly fifty) include the cathedral
(1552-1754) ; St Antony (1230-1307), said to have
been designed by Niccola da Pisano, a building in
the Pointed style, with Byzantine blendings, and
a richly decorated interior by Donatello, Sansovino,
and others—the bones of St Antony rest in a side-
chapel ; St Justina (16th century), a fine Renaiss-
ance church, with an altarpiece by Veronese, and
other pictures ; church of the Eremitani (13th cen-
tury), with frescoes by Mantegna; the chapel of
the Annunejation (1303), adorned with frescoes by
Giotto ; and the chapel of St George (1377), with
by Avanzi and Altichieri. The ‘saint’s
school’ is adorned with frescoes by Titian and his
papils, illustrating the life of St Antony. Dona-
tello’s fine equestrian statue of Gattamelata, the
Venetian captain, stands in front of the church of
St Antony. Padua has eevee greatest fame
from her university, found by the emperor
Frederick II. in 1221, though the fine Renaissance
buildings date from 1493-1552; there are now 80
teachers and 1100 students. To it is attached one
of the oldest botanical gardens in Europe, and a
library (1629) of 158,500 vols. and 2500 MSS. The
city museum (1881) contains antiquarian, art, and
numismatic collections, a library, and archives,
There is not much industry or much commerce,
though leather, cloth, and gut-strings are prepared.
Pop. with suburbs (1897) 81,300. Padua’s most
famous natives were Livy and Mantegna. One of
the oldest cities in Italy, Patavia came under the
an supremacy in 215 B.c. In the 5th century
it was severely handled by the Huns, and was
bandied to and fro between the Goths and the
Eastern empire. From the Lombards it to
the Franks (774); during the Guelph and Ghibel-
line quarrel it alternately submitted to the em-
aps and sided with the Lombard cities. In 1318
t took to itself as lord the head of the Carrara
family, who ruled it till it was conquered by
Venice in 1405. Venice kept it till 1797, when it
was given to Austria, who held it (except from
1805-14) until it was incorporated in Italy in 1866.
The ince has an area of 797 sq. m. and pop.
(1895) of 445,300.
Paducah, capital of McCracken county, Ken-
tucky, on the Ohio River, 48 miles above its mouth,
and just below the entrance of the Tennessee, 226
miles by rail WSW. of Louisville. It has a large
trade by river and rail, and contains shipyards,
foundries, railway-shops, flour, saw, and Planing
mills, and manufactories of soap, vinegar, ice, furni-
ture, tobacco, &c. Pop. (1880) 8036 ; (1900) 19,446.
Pan (of doubtful etymology), the name given
the ancient Greeks to a kind of 7 try
originally connected with the worship o ‘Apollo,
Pzdo-baptists, See Baptists.
Pwronia, or Peony. See Prony.
Pestum, anciently a Greek city of Lucania,
in Southern Italy, on the present Gulf of Salerno.
It was founded by the Sybarites some time between
650 and 600 B.c., and was originally called Posi-
donia. It was subdued by the Lueanians, and
from them passed to the Romans, who established
a colony there about 273 B.c. The Latin poets’
sing the praises of its roses, which bloomed twice
a year. Pzestum was burned by the Saracens in
the 9th century, and ravaged by Robert Guiscard
in the 11th, and never recovered from these disasters.
Portions of the ancient walls and three well-pre-
served Doric temples remain. See Labrouste, Les
Temples de Pestum (1877).
Pagan. See Burma, Vol. II. p. 566.
Paganini, Nico.o, the famous violinist, was
born a _porter’s son at Genoa on 18th February
1784. His genius showed itself early, and, practis-
ing sometimes a single passage for ten hours run-
ning, he acquired a mastery over his instrument
that has never been equalled ; the vulgar, indeed,
ascribed it to diabolic agency. It must be con-
fessed he was too much addicted to mere feats of
musical legerdemain. He gave his first concert as
early as 1793; began his professional tours in Italy
in 1805; in 1827 received from the pope the order
of the Golden Spur; in 1828-29 made a great sensa-
tion in the chief towns of Austria and Germany ;
and in 1831 created an bi iges Jurore in Paris and
London. He had gambled much in youth, but he
returned very rich to Italy; and he died at Nice
on 27th May 1840, drawing a last long note on his
favourite G string.
See his Life in French by Fétis (1851), in Italian by
Bruni (1873), and in German by Niggli (1882); also
vol. ii, of Grove’s Dictionary of Music (1880), and Engel’s
From Mozart to Mario (1886).
Page (derivation variously assigned to Gr. pais,
‘a boy,’ and Lat. pagus, ‘a village’), a abe oy of
noble or good birth employed in the service of a
royal or noble pence nag Ye he practice of te
ing youths of noble birth in personal attendance
on the sovereign existed in early times among the
Persians and Romans, and was a special feature of
feudal chivalry in the middle ages. The degree of
page was paratory to the further degrees of
esquire and knight. The practice of educating:
the higher nobility as pages at court began to
decline after the 15th century. Pages still figure,
however, on ceremonial occasions at the chief’
courts of Europe. The Corps of Pages at St.
Petersburg is a cadet school for the Russian Guards.,
Paget, Str Greorce Epwarp, K.C.B., was
born at Yarmouth in 1809, and edueated at the
Charterhouse and at Cambridge. He took his B.A.
a in 1831, became Fellow of Caius in 1832,
M.D. in 1838, D.C.L. Oxford and Durham, LL.D.
Edinburgh, and F.R.S. in 1855. In 1872 he was
appointed ~— professor of Physie in Cambridge,
and became K.C.B. in 1885, Sir G. Paget may
well he regarded as a public benefactor, he having
taken the principal part in the great advance lately
made in the education of medical practitioners.
He died in 1892.—His younger brother, Sir JAMES
PAGET, Bart., was born at Yarmouth in 1814,
He became member of the Royal College of
= in 1836, Hon. Fellow in 1843, member
of the Council in 1865, president of the College in
1875, Bradshawe Lecturer in 1882. Serjeant-
surgeon to the Queen, surgeon to the Prince of
Wales, and consulting surgeon to St Bartholomew’s
Hospital, he was created baronet in 1871, and in
the same year LL.D. of the university of Edin-
burgh. Two standard works are Lectures on Sur-
gical Pathol (1853; 4th ed. 1876), and Clinical
Lectures ( Is7o He was vice-chancellor of the uni-
versity of London, and a member of the Institute
of France (Academy of Sciences), Died in 1900.
Pagoda (a Portuguese corruption of the Persian
but-kadah, ‘idol-temple’) is originally an Indian
temple of the approximately pyramidal shape
especially characteristic of the Dravidian style
(see Vol. VI. p. 109). Thus, the great pagoda at
694 PAGODA
—
PAINTED LADY
Tanjore has a perpendicular part two stories in
height, 82 feet square, and above that thirteen
stories, forming an elongated pyramid about 100 |
feet high. The basement section is simple in out-
lines, but adorned by niches and vcard the
pyramidal portion is somewhat elaborately seulp-
tured; and the whole is crowned by a dome (said
to consist of a single stone), which brings the total
height to 190 feet. The temple stands in one of
two great courtyards, and in the same court stand
several small shrines, one of which is se beautifully
carved as to rival in interest the great temple.
Pagoda at Tanjore.
The date of the latter is not certainl¥ known, but
is with much probability referred to the beginning
of the 14th century. The so-called ‘ Thonsan
Pagodas ’ of Brambanan (q.v.) in Java are obviously
modelled on Hindu originals, either Jain or Bud-
dhist.
The Burmese pagodas are described and
illustrated at
Vol. «lLvoap:
5665. The
j term is also
loosely — ap-
slied to the
Shinese taa,
or = tapering
tower, o
which the
most famous
was the Por-
celain Tower
of Nanking,
described at
1 Vol. UL p.
186. This
Go| was erected
} in the begin-
ning of the
15th century ;
only nine of
} the proposed
} thirteen
stories, cased
in white por-
celain, were
oy sare and the height never exceeded about
260 feet. It was destroyed by the Taipings in 1856.
First-class pagodas have seven, nine, or thirteen
Chinese Pagoda of Thirteen Stories.
stories, the more numerous second-class ones
usually three or five.
still erected—sometimes of iron.
Pahang, or PAKANG, a Malay and Moslem
state on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula,
since 1887-89 under British protection and con-
nected with the Straits Settlements (q.v.). Pahang
has an area of 10,000 sq. miles, and a pop. of 57,462,
The capital is Pekan on the Pahang River,
Pahlanpur. See PALANPUR.
Paine, THomAs, deistical and radical writer,
was born at Thetford in Norfolk on 29th January
1737, the son of an ex-Quaker staymaker, He him-
self had by turns been staymaker and marine, school-
master, exciseman, and tobacconist, had married
twice, losing his first wife, and soon divorcing the
second, when in 1774, with introductions from
Franklin, he sailed for rey On 1st Janu-
ary 1776 appeared his pamphlet Common Sense,
which argued simply but strongly for complete
independence, and which in Washington's words,
‘worked a powerful change in the minds of many
men.’ His Crisis, a twelvemonth later, gave the
battle-cry, ‘These are the times that try men’s
souls,’ for the Americans’ first victory at Trenton,
where Paine himself was serving as a private; and
congress rewarded him with the post of Secretary
to the Committee of Foreign Affairs. He lost that
post in 1779 for divulging state secrets, but was
appointed clerk of the Pennsylvania legislature,
and in 1785 received from congress $3000 and the
confiscated farm of New Rochelle. In 1787 he
returned, by Paris, to England, where in 1791-92
he published The Rights Y Man, the most famous
of all the replies to Burke’s Reflections upon the
French Revolution. The work, of which a million
and a half copies were sold in England alone,
involved many in heavy penalties ; Thomas Muir,
for instance, for circulating it got fourteen years
transportation. Paine, however, had slipped off to
Paris, having been elected by the department of
Pas-de-Calais its deputy to the National Conven-
tion. Here he voted with the Girondists, and at
Louis XVI.’s trial he ‘alone,’ says Madame de
Staél, ‘proposed what would have done France
honour—the offer to the king of an asylum in
America.’ He thereby offended the Robespierre
faction, and in 1794 was thrown into prison ; just
before his arrest having written part i. of The Age
of Reason, against Atheism and against Christianity,
and in favour of Deism, Part ii, appentes in 1795,
and a portion of part iii, in 1807, 1¢ book alien-
ated Washington and most of his old friends ; and it
was not till after an imprisonment of eleven months
that he was released and restored to his seat in the
Convention, He became, however, disgusted with
French politics, and occupied himself chiefly with the
study of finance, till in 1802 he returned to America
in aship placed at his service by President Jefferson,
He died at New York 8th June 1809. The stories
about his intemperance were greatly exaggerated.
In 1819 his bones were removed by Cobbett (q.v.)
from New Rochelle to England; their whereabouts
since 1847 is unknown, ‘ Paine’s ignorance,’ says
Leslie Stephen, ‘ was vast and his language brutal ;
but he had the gift of a true dema ogue—the
power of wielding a fine vigorous English,
The completest edition of his works is that by Mendum
(3 vols. Boston, 1850) ; of his numerous biographies may
be mentioned those by ‘Francis Oldys’ (i.e. George
Chalmers, 1791), Cheetham (1809), Rickman (1814),
Sherwin (1819), Vale (1841), and Blanchard (1860).
See also Leslie Stephen’s History of English Thought
in the Eighteenth Century (1880); an article by Moncure
D. Conway in the Fortnightly for March 1879; and
Alger’s Englishmen in the French Revolution (1889),
Pains and Penalties. See ATTAINDER.
Painted Lady. See Burrerrty, II. 589,
Pagodas are occasionally
TESAKA PAGODA, KYOTO, JAPAN.
Vol. VII, page 694,
PAINTER
PAINTING 695
Painter, WiLttAM, author of the Palace of
Pi » was most probably a Kentishman, and
born about 1525. He seems to have been master
of Sevenoaks school about 1560, but early next
year became Clerk of the Ordnance in the ower,
with a stipend of eightpence a day. He kept this
post all his days, married, seems to have a
somewhat easy standard of honesty, grew rich, and
bonght lands. He made his will in 1594, and died
robably soon after. In 1566 he published the
Fret volume of The Palace of Pleasure ‘ beautified,
adorned, and well furnished, with Pleasant Histories
and Excellent Nouells selected out of divers good
and commendable authors ;’ the second volume,
‘containing manifold store of pee Histories,
Tragical matters, and other Moral argument, ve
ee for delight and profit,’ followed in 1567.
the first volume the principal source was the
Heptameron ; of the second, Bandello, through the
medinm of the French translations of Boaistuau
and Belleforest ; but, in the definitive edition of the
whole work (1575), to both parts stories were added
from Boccaccio, Ser Giovanni, and Straparola.
These last two at least he must have taken directl
from the Italian. Painter's work became alae 2
ingly popular, and indeed was the main source
whence many dramatists drew their plots. Even
in almost all Shakespeare’s comedies we see the
prevalence of the convention in early English
comedy in favour of Italian plots, names, and
places. Ascham in the Scholemaster denounces
the ‘bawdie stories . . . enchantments of Circes,
brought out of Italie, to marre mens maners in
England,’ and there can be little doubt that here
he points directly at Painter, though he does not
name his book. Painter’s English is easy and un-
affected, but lacks the se crore the reader expects
of an Elizabethan. His k is the largest work
in prose between the Morte Darthur and North’s
Plutarch, but its real importance is that it intro-
duced into our literature many of the best novels
of Boccaccio, Bandello, and Margaret of Navarre.
Joseph Haslewood edited an admirable edition in 1813
(2 vols.); a later is that by Joseph Jacobs (3 vols, 1890).
Painter’s Colic. See LEAD-POISONING.
Painting. It is convenient to divide this
slight sketch of the history of painting into two
sections, the first dealing with the technical, and
the second with the intellectual, history of the art.
(1) The Technical History of Painting.—The
importance of technical conditions in the fine arts
is due to their influence upon the action of the
mind, For example, fresco-painting, if genuine,
requires both spend and decision, oil-painting per-
mits deliberation and correction almost without
limit. Water-colour ocenpies, as to hurry, a posi-
tion between the two. A technical facility allures
the mind in certain directions, a technical difficulty
impedes it, and a technical impossibility, like an
insurmountable obstacle, diverts its energy into
another channel. Each art has its own educational
influence on the artist who practises it. Albert
Diirer was an engraver with the burin, and he
carried the strictness and precision of the burin
into his painting; Rembrandt was an etcher, and
he painted with an etcher’s freedom ; Turner was a
water-colour painter, and his practice in oil bears
evidence of his other skill. resco was painted
either from drawings or from pure imagination.
The deliberation possible in oil has led to paintin
from the life, with its consequences of increase
reality, better knowledge, and more perfect truth.
The improvement in water-colour done for
landseape what oil has done for the figure. As
water-colour dries quickly it is convenient for
sketching from nature, so that modern landscape-
painters have been induced to study more in colour
than their predecessors, a practice which has brought
about a revolution in landscape-painting by taking
it from the studio and the gallery into the open air.
The extreme importance of technical conditions
may be made guilt cleared by a reference to the
sister arts. With the burin in his hand, the most
impetuous of men must be disciplined by the instru-
ment itself till he becomes cautious, careful, and
methodical. A sculptor may love marble, but he
does not sketch or invent in it; he sketches in
wax or clay. Bronze can be cast into the most
picturesque forms, but the granite of Egypt im-
posed a severe simplicity.
Painting was not, in its origin, an independent
art. It was employed in subservience to sculpture,
to architecture, and to primitive engraving quite
unconnected with printing. Rude idols were
coloured in imitation of life, or rude outlines in-
cised in stone or wood were filled up with spaces of
colour sharply separated and clearly distinguished.
The outlines might also be themselves painted and
then filled up with colour. Painting was separated
from sculpture and engraving long béfore it was
separated from hard and definite linear drawing.
The connection of painting with the hard line is
always evidence of a primitive condition of the art,
either simple-minded as in early work, or affected
in modern work as an archaic fancy, or continued
for decorative reasons.
The earliest painting known to us is that of the
ancient Exyptians, a kind of distemper or water-
colour with dissolved gum. They had a sufticiently
well-supplied palette. White, a light yellow, a
duller yellow, oe red, dark red, light blue, green,
brown, and black appear to have eonstituted their
list. As for the chemical nature of these pigments,
pure chalk supplied a white ;-the Egyptians were
acquainted with a vegetable yellow; they were
familiar with the ochres; cinnabar was to be had in
Ethiopia; their blue was powdered blue glass, itself
stained with copper, and when mixed with yellow
it supplied a green. Black was easily obtained
from animal charcoal and other materials. It is a
misunderstanding of Egyptian art to criticise it as
a pot Pang een of avec! that was eee ty ae
ible by ignorance o rspective and other
tectncioal dehcloncios. It #5 intanded to be at the
same time a record and a decoration, and it effectu-
ally answered both pu It is much too primi-
tive to be artistic in the modern sense, and in fact
the Egyptian painters were not artists but work-
men subjected to authoritative direction and to an
excessive division of labour. Their drawing was
manually skilful, bus limited by want of knowledge;
their colouring was simply decorative.
The remains of Assyrian painting are much less
abundant than those of Egyptian, though it appears
from the evidence of favelers that the Assyrians
must have painted extensively upon internal wall-
surfaces covered with plaster, and also upon tiles
built together so as to make more or less extensive
compositions. The little that we know of Assyrian
and Babylonian painting leads to the conclusion
that it was technically not more advanced than
that of Egypt, and resembled it in being a record
and a decoration rather than an imitation of nature.
Outlines were still strongly marked and adhered to,
and spaces were shirt atly, almost as we colour
them in heraldic painting. The painting of those
early times is, in principle, much the same as that
now employed upon playing-cards.
The supreme position of Greece in the art of
sculpture has strongly predisposed many critics in
favour of her painters, and it has long been
believed that if we could see their works we should
admire them as we now admire Greek statues of
the age of Pericles. There are, however, very
good reasons for believing that Greek pictures,
696
PAINTING
even by the most famous men, would appear to
us still primitive from the pictorial point of view,
though it is certain that the drawing of the figures
would be elegant and observant. We have no
evidence whatever in the classical paintings which
have come down to us that the ancients ever
mastered the craft of sates in the modern
sense—ie. as an art which interprets truths of
effect and which studies not only the forms but
the appearances of nature, The grt Greek
ters must have been fine linear dranghtsmen,
and they would colour their drawings’ carefully ;
but all Greek art that is known to us has a clear
and positive quality incompatible with the rich-
ness, the mystery, and the subtle visual truth of
painting in its most advanced stages. With
regard to the colouring of the Greeks, Sir Joshua
Reynolds praised them for having used only four
colours, and said that four are sufficient to make
every combination required. Sir Joshua probably
was thinking of flesh-colour only, which has since
been soleded by Etty with very few colours.
Maclise said of Etty that ‘with three colours and
white—anything approaching to a yellow, a red,
and a blue—he could produce a sweetly-coloured
picture.” The Greeks in like manner might
colour ‘sweetly’ with few pigments, but it is not
possible to imitate the full colouring of the natural
world without a complete palette. Apelles him-
self could not paint a primrose with yellow ochre,
nor a geranium with red ochre, nor is there any
means of mixing black and white so as to imitate
the azure of a southern sky. It is therefore of
the test interest to ascertain whether the
Greeks had a complete palette or not. Here the
difficulty is to know at what date each pigment
came into use. The vague expression generally
employed is that certain colours were ‘known to
the ancients.’ Of yellows Pliny says that Polyg-
notus and Micon used yellow ochre only. Ver-
milion is said to have n ‘first prepared by
Kallias the Athenian five hundred years before
the Christian era,’ and minium (red lead) was
first used by Nicias, a painter of Athens in the
time of Alexander. It is highly probable that
the Greeks would be acquainted with Egyptian
colours, and the Egyptians knew the madder-root.
The Tyrian purple and Egyptian blue were too
famous for the Greeks to remain ignorant of them.
Yellow and red orpiment were also known to the
ancient world. Blue-black made from burnt wine
lees was used by Polygnotus and Micon, and ivory
black is said to have been employed by Apelles,
As for vehicles, there is a well-known passage in
Pliny which Sir Joshua Reynolds interpreted as a
description of glazing, that is, repainting with trans-
parent colours; but it seems more probable that
such accounts as have come down to us mean really
no more than varnishing. The use of the word ‘atra-
mentum’ by Pliny seems to imply that the varnish
darkened the picture, which it would do if it were
not colourless. It is greeny believed now that
the works of the Greek painters were executed in
distemper and varnished afterwards, except their
encaustic pictures, tediously executed with melted
colours, Distemper or tempera (the Italian word
for the same thing) is a kind of painting in which
enue colours, ground in water, are mixed with
any kind of thin glue or white or yolk of egg with
We believe that the Greeks possessed
oils and varnishes, but there is no evidence that
they ever practised what we call oil-painting.
owever, a tempera picture protected by a coat
of oil-varnish is distinguishable from an oil-paint-
ing only experts. As to their palette, the
probability is that the extremely restricted list of
pigments which has been attributed to them was a
matter of choice rather than of necessity for con-
ventionslly under-coloured hae * they cred have
begun their painti with very few colours, as
Titian did slterwecte, and finished them with a
fuller palette, Be .
For a study of Roman painting our materials are.
much more abundant. We have no im
works by famous artists, but there is an ample.
supply of such ordinary painting as was spelie’ to
the decoration of houses and tombs; and from this
we may infer at least the technical condition of
higher art. The variety of pigments was evidently
sufficient to give a full scale of colouring by mixture
or supe: J af reo - oils and ; + inden
known, it might have been possible for oil- 4
to arise under the Caesars. Everything was ready
for it as everything was ready for printing, yet the
final step was not taken. The art of tempera or
size-painting remained technically much what it
had been before, except that there may have been
greater freedom in execution and in choice of
subject. Classical taste in painting continued
with a tradition of old methods for a considerable
time after the introduction of Christianity, and
even when the nude figure was no Jonge a subject
of study tempera painting was still practised,
though more stiffly than in classie times. The
distance from the painters of Pompeii to medieval
work is marked by more than a technical decline.
In reading histories of painting we may be on
our guard inst the careless and inaccurate em-
ployment of the word ‘fresco.’ It really means
painting on fresh plaster—i.e. on plaster that is
still wet; but the word is inaccurately used for
paintings on dry plaster also, The practice of
painting on walls covered with plaster is as old
as ancient Assyria, and it has been believed that
the ancient Greeks understood true sree prinei-
pally on the strength of an expression of P utarch,
eph’ hugreois zographein, ‘to paint on a wet ground,
itruvius, too, speaks of a wet ground, and, al-
though he does not directly say that it was painted
upon when wet, he says that, so prepared, it was.
fit for pictures, and that colours on it are nan-
ent. This permanence of the colours is the char-
acteristic of true fresco. Unfortunately, Plutarch
compares painting on the wet with encaustic as
eva to perma
Whatever may be the real antiquity of true.
fresco, it is certainly a much older process than
oil-painting. It was understood and practised in
Italy in the middle ages, when mural painting in
churches was already in great request. The pro~
cess is as follows: On the second coat of oni
mortar is spread a coat of fine old lime mixed wi
well-sifted river sand. In a few hours (say from.
three to six, nespesing $0 temperature) this
to ay and the work of painting must be com-
pleted before the drying begins, consequently a
small surface of plaster is laid at a time. All
honest and conscientious fresco-painters, such as
Antonio Veneziano, resisted the temptation to re-—
touch on the dry plaster; but the careless or
incompetent could not resist, though such retouch-
ing is simply cheating, as it is really not in fresco,
and not permanent,
The technical process of fresco was well under-
stood in Italy whilst art itself was still in a
srimitive condition. Cimabue, Taddeo Gaddi, and
iotto, with many less known men, painted in
fresco as well as in tempera, so that all the
technical part of the craft was a matter of ancient
tradition when Raphael and Michelangelo took it
up on their own account, and brought to it far
greater powers of mind. To appreciate the pro-
gress made before these great men it is n
only to refer to the stiff and mindless Byzantine
art from which that of Cimabue was ya
partial emancipation,
PAINTING
697
After the invention of oil-painting the incon-
yeniences of fresco were more strongly felt, and
many artists turned away from it to the new
process. True fresco cannot be retouched ; it has
to be painted darker than the artist’s intention, as
it lightens in drying, and it must be painted from
sketches or cartoons. On the other hand, it is
luminous and has no gloss, and so is suitable for
mural decoration. Raphael seems to have liked
fresco and oil equally well. Michelangelo greatly
——_ fresco, as better suited to his powers.
o da Vinci painted his great mural work,
‘The Last Supper,’ in oil, though fresco must have
naturally s ted itself.
Many modern attempts to revive fresco have
been made in Europe. They have rarely been
snecessful, and have especially failed in the Houses
of Parliament, where many works have decayed
prematurely. Modern failures have led to the
adoption of a process on dry plaster, fixed after-
wards with water-glass in spray, as in Maclise’s
large works in the Royal Gallery ; but this is not
absolutely durable. The best substitute for true
appears to be Mr Gambier Parry’s ‘spirit
fresco,’ employed by Sir Frederick Leighton for his
large compositions at South Kensington. These
are painted with a spirit medium on dry mortar.
In Menaee a substitute for fresco has been found in
pustine on canvas with a dead surface, the canvas
ing afterwards fastened to the wall with white
lead. True fresco may now be considered almost a
dead art.
The next step of importance in the history of art
is the discovery, or earliest known practice, of what
we call ‘oil-painting,’ which includes the use of
varnishes during the progress of the work. This
has been generally assigned to John Van Eyck,
who was born about 1390; but it is now believed
that his elder brother Hubert may have an equal if
not a better claim. Both certainly worked in
the new method, and John continued it after his
brother’s death. Since then the practice of oil-
painting and of varnish-painting has been carried
without interruption down to our own time, and,
though it has undergone much technical develop-
ment, it remains essentially distinguished from
tempera by the mixture of oil or varnish with the
colours themselves and by the consequences in
execution to which this mixture has led. The
brothers Van Eyck themselves were far from
anticipating the future freedom and power of oil-
inting. Their work was beautifully executed
ina smooth and simple way, and, with the excep-
tion of small eracks, it has lasted wonderfully ;
but their careful rendering of detail belongs to the
infancy of art. An Italian student of painting,
Antonello da Messina, stayed in Flanders for some
time and worked under John Van Eyck. He after-
wards returned to Italy by way of Venice, and from
him the knowledge of the new method spread to
Florence, and thence to the other cities of Italy.
The date of Antonello’s death, which occurred in
Venice, is not precisely known, but appears to have
been in the last years of the 15th century.
It may be convenient to remember that the year
1500 saw the practice of oil-painting firmly estab-
lished in the north and south of Europe. It did
not immediately win the absolute pre-eminence
that it has subsequently attained. ichelangelo
expressed a contempt for it which was probably
dne to the fact that its full powers were not yet
developed by his neighbours. The fame of Raphael
as an artist is due to other qualities than the
technical merit of his oil-painting, which remained
comparatively primitive. The earliest practice of
oil-painting was dependent upon the luminous
quality of the ground showing through the colours ;
and, although the early oil-painters manifested a
workman-like skill in dealing with their materials,
they displayed no power of handling. The manual
precision of Albert Diirer has never been surpassed,
yet his work as a painter is primitive. man
painters of the time of Michelangelo might use oil
as a convenience, but they could have expressed
themselves as completely in fresco or tempera.
When we come to the Venetian school the case is
very different. There was a harmony between the
technical methods of oil and the genius of the
Venetians which led to the rh ines technical
excellence. Van Eyck and his followers, both in
Flanders and Italy, painted upon a transparent
monochrome. Titian used a_ substantial dead-
colouring in which he could make whatever altera-
tions he chose, and afterwards worked upon that
by successive glazings till he obtained the utmost
richness of scege The notion that Titian had
some secret that died with him may be dismissed
as purely fanciful. His method of painting is well
known, and his superiority to his imitators may be
accounted for by his natural genius and by favour-
able circumstances. His master, Bellini, drew
carefully and coloured well, but his work is still
rimitive, because it is still coloured drawing. In
itian’s painting the different kinds of technical
knowledge are so completely fused together that
he is not the draughtsman who colours, but the
painter. The same is true of Giorgione, almost
equally gifted, but less favoured than Titian in
the cireumstances of his life.
Rubens was a great master of the technique of
painting in another way. He painted much in
transparent or semi-transparent colours over a first
inting in transparent brown monochrome ; but,
instead of leaving the lights thin that the white
ground might show through as in the practice of
the early Flemish painters, Rubens loaded his
lights with thick opaque colour. His way of
painting was technically very systematic, which
permitted an extreme rapidity. There is evidence
that he followed the early practice of mixing
varnish with his colours, at least when transparent
and for linear sketching with the brush. The
technical execution of Velasquez is a model of
excellence in the use of both transparent and
opaque colours and in variety of handling. It is
not so methodical as that of Rubens, being always
subordinated to the artistic intention of the
painter.
The most perfect works on a small scale have
hitherto been those of the Dutch painters, Teniers,
Terburg, Metsu (or Matsys), Maas, Peter de Hooch
and many others of the same school. Their method
of painting was almost universally to begin with
a transparent brown monochrome on which they
painted the shadows thinly, giving more substance
and opacity to the lights. ing limited in their
aims, and painting chiefly what they could see
around them and study at their own convenience,
they attained a high degree of technical excellence.
Their drawing is almost invariably careful and
true, and their colouring harmonious, whilst the
quality of their textures is often inimitable.
The practice of modern artists is always founded
upon that of one or other of the masters we have men-
tioned. There are not very many ways of painting,
or if they seem to be many they are reducible to a
few very simple principles. The early method of
giving luminous quality to the os by letting
the white ground show through them is seldom
followed in these days, but it has been resorted to
occasionally. The practice of Rubens, by which
the shadows are painted thinly and the lights more
thickly, is much commoner in the modern schools.
Reynolds, who painted first a strong dead-colour
with few colours and a upon it afterwards,
worked on the principle of Tifian, Landseer’s
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PAINTING
practice was essentially that of the Flemish school,
and Meissonier’s (in his best works) that of the
Dutch. Turner approached much more nearly to
the Venetian practice than to that of Rubens, as he
dead-coloured broadly and afterwards painted in
detail on the dead-colour, ming Cones and scumbles
(opaque colour used thinly); but Turner's practice
was complex, as he often had recourse to water-
colour in his oil-pictures, and finally loaded his
lights. Ingres, the leader of the cl 1 French
school, was a close follower of Raphael. It is
difficult to point to any real technical originality in
mexlern art, unless it be the use of thick pigments
in the French school (called in French, pleine pdte)
introduced by Decamps, and often exaggerated by
his imitators, The novelty here was, however,
rather in the brush-work than in the use of thick
ents themselves. Many French artists have
also blurred their outlines in revolt against the
clear definition of the classical school, but the
originality was rather in the manner of doing it than
in the mere softening of the outlines, as Titian,
Correggio, Reynolds, and others had already care-
fully avoided the early hardness of definition,
Although the technical methods of oil-painting
are few and have now been known for centuries,
the varieties of guality which result from individual
genius are almost as numerous as artists them-
selves, They cannot be explained without ex-
amples; but it may be said generally that, as differ-
ent violinists elicit different qualities of tone from
the same instrument, so the idiosyncrasy of painters
produces new results with old colours and old pro-
cesses, It is in this way, and not by the invention
of novel methods, that the art continually renovates
itself.
Oil-painting now holds the first place on account
of its convenience, as it permits of infinite delibera-
tion and alteration, and also on account of its great
power and truth in imitating the textures and tones
of nature. But the true successor of fresco in
modern times is water-colour, It resembles fresco
very closely by its rapidity and by the absence of
glows, though it cannot replace fresco in mural
ecoration. Water-colour, as a process, is much
more ancient than oil, having n extensively
employed in various ways during ancient and
sagaieoral times; but the method of using it that
gives the process its present intellectual value is
essentially modern and English, dating from the
early years of the 19th century. The practice of
the 18th century led up to it by the use of broad
washes in sepia or in neutral tint, afterwards more
or less coloured, an adaptation of the Dutch and
Flemish practice in oil-painting, except that the
finished result stopped very far short of full colour.
The water-colour of the present day has discarded
the monochrome wash, beginning with pale washes
in colour, and working from light to dark, In its
perfection modern water-colour is distinguished by
extreme freshness and brilliancy, It is important
not only as an independent art, but by its t
influence on modern oil-painting. The majority of
oil-painters have themselves employed water-colour
as an auxiliary for studies, especially in landscape,
and much of the light and air in modern oil-painting
may be attributed to its influence. Water-colour,
in our own century, has proved a compensation for
our failure in the attempted revival of fresco.
Thongh apparently of inferior importance, because
practised on a small scale, it has tanght what freseo
taught and more, as it has educated us in land-
seape. Improvements in the materials of water-
colour have led some of its a to attempt
rivalry with the force of oil, which is unnecessary,
as oil must ever remain the more powerful medium
of the two, and water-colour has its own superi-
orities in freshness and delicacy, There does not
seem to be wags Lee tose that either of the two
arts will ever cone by a new discovery as
tempera was superseded by oil, nor is it likely that
the technical methods will be improved. is
room for improvement in a stricter al
from the use of evanescent or destructive colours ;
but wyae es very few artists trouble
selves to secure the permanence of their works.
Water-colour was despised in France until the
fall of the second empire; but the example of
English artists has led the French to the study of ; ,
it, and now many of them pursue it with success,
Their methods of work are usually very simple and
direct, and their influence is almost exclusively in
favour of freshness and decision. ‘
(2) The Intellectual History of Painting.—Under
the Egyptian dynasties painters were recorders of
events and decorators; in Assyria they illuminated
a sort of pictorial history of royal d In both
these cases there could be very little room for the
exercise of individnal intellect in the artist, who
was seldom more than a manual workman, laying
on colour according to methods prescribed for him
by authority. Even in Greece we have evidence
that the manual skill of artists was despised as —
handicraft by the class of gentlemen and scholars ;
however, Greek painters of eminence attained indi-
vidual distinction, and such a complete cent
personal emancipation that they were to
exercise whatever intellectual power possessed,
There is not much expression in Greek sculpture,
but there is some, and what there is proves quite
sufficiently that the subtle and acute intellect of
Greece could express itself in art as effectually as
in literature. What remains to us of Gree
Roman caricature is good evidence of faculties that
might have exerci themselves, by an alliance
with a higher form of art, in what we now call
genre-painting. Still, we have no direct that
od fine arts ePiee pete pi Ate ere
ally so t as her poetry, her phi and her
drama, In the dectine of classinal arte fa ae
more than the current production of an inferior
class of men for the adornment of habita-
tions or tombs. The beginnings of Christian art,
stiff in design and laboriously ornamental, give
hardly any evidence of intellect; the artists who
produced that art were in a condition of mental
servitude, like that of the men who now manufac-
ture holy icons in Russia, and who are the _
descendants of the early Byzantine school. Asthe
fine arts became gradually emancipated from the
thraldom of sacerdotal authority intellectual power _
began to show itself, and, at length, when the
human mind was stimulated in so many directions
by the great outburst of the Renaissance, the art of
painting had its full share in the er activity,
and assumed a place by the side of literature
which it has ever since maintained. Neverthel |
the necessity for high manual accomplishment an 4
technical mastery must always, in peisting. pve
an advantage to the workman over the thinker; —
and so we find, as in many Dutch pictures, that _
clever representations of the most err ‘
subjects preserve their value though almost desti-
tute of mind. There can be no more strikin A.
con
trast than that between a Dutchman toiling for six
weeks on the representation of a besom and s
angelo painting a prophet in half a day; yet
the Dutchman is immortal too. The intellectual
i ae of art has been marked by the extension
of its sympathies, Under Christianity the art of
pees Sees again from the beginning, without
either technical or intellectual preparation. Its
first awakening of sympathy is with the human
side of Christianity, the love of mother and child,
the sufferings of the crucified Christ, the sorrow
and bereavement of the disciples. As religious art
PAINTING 699
advances, its mental progress is shown by the
increasing importance given to the human side of
its subjects and the diminution of ornament in
dress, till at length the dresses become simple
draperies, almost without jewels or embroidery,
and the charm of the work lies in the beauty
or nobility of the faces and the dignity of the
attitudes. With the Italian Renaissance the art of
painting made a great intellectual advance by its
—— 1y with what was then the new activity of
scholarship. Raphael was, if not himself a scholar,
the intimate friend of scholars, working constantly
under their influence; besides which he was an
architect and an archeologist. The selection of
*The School of Athens’ as the subject of one
of the most important mural pictures in_ the
Vatican is most significant. In Leonardo da Vinci
the artistic is united to the scientific intellect;
in Rubens it is united to the broadest culture of
the scholar and the man of the world. Rembrandt
may not have been a learned man, but few authors
or artists have shown more sympathy with different
classes, or have discerned so well the dignity that
may belong to the learned or the unlearned, to the
rich or the poor. The pictures and etchings of
biblical subjects by Rembrandt bring them nearer
to us by their homely truth than the ideal conce
tions of Raphael. Surely we cannot refuse the
title ‘intellectual’ to an art which contains a
hilosophy at once so comprehensive and so ripe.
The faculties of Teniers and Ostade are narrower
and lower, yet even in their works there is a
sympathy with the humbler classes which has
lasted down to the art of our own day, which was
lively in the art of Wilkie, and is graver and more
profound in the work of Israels.
All portrait-painting of any importance has en-
deavoured not only to copy the features, but to
express as much as possible of the mind; and the
knowledge we derive from historiansand biographers
is felt to be incomplete until we have referred
to the canvases of some observant contemporary
artist, some Holbein, Van Dyck, Velasquez, Rey-
nolds, or Raeburn. Even in these days of photo-
graphic invention the portrait-painter ey = his
place, great portraits are painted still, and future
students of history will not be satisfied with the
photograph alone, but will go for the intellectual
element to the canvases of a Millais or a Bonnat.
Closely connected with portraiture is the art which
observes and records the passing phases of social
life, an art which reached perfection in the 18th
century in the strongly characterised and too
truthful pictures of Hogarth. The representation
of contemporary life, in drawing-rooms and else-
where, has been actively pursued down to our own
day in all the leading schools of Europe, and is
now practised more than ever, a id in France,
where the artists are tempted by the elegance of
modern interiors and the grace of feminine cos-
tumes.
In the 19th century there has also been much
retrospective emrto rticularly of the 18th
century, and this has led to a very close and min-
ute study of that century by Leslie in England,
Meissonier and Géréme in France, and many other
artists of ability. The retrospective tendency of
our own time been strongly manifes' in
other ways. The modern interest in the past has
been shown by much ‘historical’ painting on in-
sufficient data representing personages whose _por-
traits we do not possess, in buildings that have
left no trace, and engaged in actions known to us
only by the meagre narrative of some chronicler.
Art of this kind no real historical interest,
though it may bg cog Screened artistic ability.
Of late years it has been in a great measure super-
seded by archeological painting, skilfully practised
by Mr Alma Tadema and his followers, whose
object is to revive the past for us in its details as it
on was by representing everyday life without
much pretence to the portraiture of individuals or
the recording of particular events. This kind of
painting has irosent the art nearer than ever to
the spirit of scholarship. No doubt the special
interest of it is outside of artistic interest, but
there is no reason why archeological pictures
should not be as beautifully drawn, as well com-
posed, and as richly coloured as any others.
A sketch of the history of painting would not be
ae without some notice of the way in which
landseape became a speciality. Rude and childish
landscape backgrounds are found even in Assyrian
art, they are not uncommon in Greek and Roman
antiquity, and they attained a considerable degree
of freedom and observation in the backgrounds of
the paintings at Pompeii. After the death of
classic art, painting began again from its first
rudiments in the ornamental art of the middle
, and the study of landscape soon revived in
the backgrounds of religious pictures. Medieval
landscape lasted down to Raphael,-who was him-
self essentially a medieval landscape-painter,
especially in his early works. The general char-
acteristics of that kind of landscape are clear
atmosphere, pure skies, either cloudless or with a
few white clouds, pale blue distances with hills,
green foregrounds, and almost invariably one or
more well- nid buildings. Trees in the foreground
are usually slender, with thin twigs and few leaves
visible almost separately against the sky; in the
distance they may be more massive. Water is
usually calm in ponds or winding rivers, or serene
in distant sea. Rocks occur in medieval land-
scape, but are seldom accurately represented, the
medizval ignorance of rocks having even persisted
in Leonardo da Vinci notwithstanding his scientific
nius. In the backgrounds of Albert Diirer all
inds of objects are observed and set down as ina
catalogue ; he perceived the grandeur of mountains,
the abundance of forest trees, the picturesque
beauty of medizeval towns, and he took an interest
in all the details of the foreground; but he never
fused his details into one connected whole ; he never
saw nature with the eye of a landscape-painter ; he
had no sense of atmosphere or effect. The begin-
ning of the modern landseape spirit is to be sought
for in Venice. Titian made many studies of land-
seape, and, although in his pen-drawings there is no
recognition of local colour and very little effect,
there is a remarkable sense of grandeur and a fine
grasp of noble scenery, not in detail merely, but as
a whole. In his painted landscape backgrounds
Titian goes still further and attempts transient
effects, showing himself a true precursor of thie
modern landseape-painters. Tintoretto occasionally
exercised his magnificent powers in the same direc-
tion. The most influential of professed landscape-
orale = was Claude, He had not the power of the
enetiaus, but he had a tenderness and charm, and
a sense of grace and beauty, that won the hearts
of pica! pabakeay and have since maintained the
celebrity of his name, though it is easy for criticism
to point out deficiencies of knowledge. Unlike
Diirer, Claude saw nature, not in details, but
synthetically in complete pictures full of atmo-
sphere and light. Salvator Rosa and Gaspard
ughet (or Poussin) maintained a grandeur of con-
ception and style in landscape which, in spite of
a certain remoteness from pure nature, tell effectu-
ally in picture-galleries even at the present day.
The same may be said of Gainsborough, whilst
Wilson perpetuated in England a Sag, for land-
scape akin to the amenity of Claude. Cozens and
Girtin had the old breadth and serenity of concep-
tion, with a more modern view of nature, and
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PAINTING
Turner did not manifest much personal independ.
ence until he had first studied and imitated the old
masters, particularly Claude. Indeed, he is much
more mer x4 brcameced vied the Sey —_ the
future of Jan n e the deepest
respect for Shechiee sale whom he both studied
and imitated, yet he founded no school and has
had little influence on the art of England and none
on that of continental Europe. Constable, on the
other hand, who during his lifetime was a less
celebrated artist, has had a very far-reaching in-
fluence. The freshness and originality of his view of
nature, less poetical and imaginative than Turner's,
but nearer to rustic reality, determined the future
direction of that French rustic school which in its
turn has influenced all the schools of Europe.
Whilst land has had her t landseape-
painter in Turner, France has had hers in Corot,
a painter of at least equal celebrity, though of
much narrower range. Like Turner, Corot founded
his art on the study of Claude, but won public
favour late in life by a delicacy of sentiment
which was his own. His subjects were simple and
his effects chosen so as to avoid strong colouring,
but he composed beautifully and was a master of
quiet grays, pale yellows, and browns.
Since the middle of the 19th century landscape-
painting, both in oil and water-colour, has been
actively pursued all over Europe. Every class
of scenery has found itsinterpreters. Scotland has
been ‘painted effectively by Horatio MacCulloch,
Sam Bough, Mr Peter Graham, Mr Colin Hunter,
and many others. A severely accurate and scientific
irit was imported into English landscape by Mr
ke and Mr Brett. The French landscape of the
present day is usually marked by simplicity of sub-
ject, breadth of treatment, and truth of tone, with-
ont much accuracy of detail. Marine painters in
all countries appear to concentrate their attention
more than their predecessors upon the sea itself,
and both we gee French, and American artists
have produced remarkable studies of waves,
A sketch of the history of painting seems to
require a brief outline of the sects which have
divided artists. The chief of these have been the
Classics, the Romantics, the Realists, the Pre-
Raphaelites, and the Impressionists. The classical
aim was the pursuit of the ideal, which was be-
lieved to be one and to have been attained by
Raphael; this school was represented by the
French painter Ingres, The Romantics desired
freedom from the classical restraint, and liberty
to illustrate all literature and all history that
interested them in their own way; their ti
man was Eugéne Delacroix. The doctrine of the
Realists is the right to represent persons and things
as they are without beautifying them by idealisa-
tion. This doctrine was at one time represented
by the French painter Courbet; but, in fact, there
was a great deal of downright realism long before
his time, as we find it in Velasquez, Rembrandt,
Teniers, Ostade, Hogarth, and many others, who
have redeemed the ugliness of a subject by the
intelligence of their treatment and the force of
their execution. Even in the case of Courbet
himself we now easily see that, although he affected
to take nature exactly as it is, he Tieplaved the
wilfulness and the style of an artist. English Pre-
Raphaelitism was not alone in its return to the
painstaking imitation of detail which marked the
ractice of Raphael's predecessors. Like the con-
nental movements in the same direction, it was
a return to patient analysis, and had a disciplinary
value; but accumulation of artistic experience
was too much for it. After Titian, Velasquez, and
Reynolds, it is not possible to bind down the art
of painting permanently to the minute practice of
the early masters, Intellectually the movement
was of more importance, as it favoured the choice.
of noble subjects, Impressionism asserts the im-
rtance of visual truth as opposed to mere trath of
fact, and affirms that painting ought not to represent:
what és, but what a Impressionism is also
opposed to the abstract rendering of this or that
quality ; it requires a synthesis of all visible qualities
as they strike the eye ther. The Impressionists
claim several great artists, especially Turner and
Constable, as their predecessors. They are equally
ps apne to the detail of the minute ters and to
the hard, clear, linear definition of the classical
schools. There can be no doubt that theo
they have right on their side, but in practice their
art is often unsatisfactory, as it requires the happiest
and most rapid sketching to be successful, with
great certainty in selection and perfect truth of
tone,
The present state of the art of painting is one of
complete freedom from all the former restraints of
religious or classical authority. The fine arts are
as free as the sciences, and, although less exclusivel
devoted than men of science to the pursuit of
truth, contempo painters at least refer to nature
for everything. e@ consequence is a pores
freshness in the modern schools, and it is also
certain that manual skill has never been so general
as it is now. On the other hand, the intensity of
the commercial struggle amongst the multi-
tude of artists is certainly not favourable either to
learning or to refinement, and it is doubtful whether
painting makes any advance in taste and culture
corresponding to the increase of its productiveness
or _ extension of its fields of study.
.—The extent of the subject renders.
laconic treatment necessary. Archaic Greek draw-
ing, marked by want of proportion, especially
in thickness of limbs, lasts in ree pening:
throughout the 6th century B.c. and la
5th century better drawing on many vases; in
4th century it is often learned and Yeautiful, as
on Camirus vase (British Museum), contemporary
with Protogenes, Attitudes then easy and
ful, faces shown in all positions; 5th and 4th
centuries B.C. golden age of antique painting,
including Apollodorus, Zeuxis, Parrhasius, foe
Polygnotus, and Micon. Romans imported Greek
pictures and took up painting by imitation, Roman
ainter Ludius (Augustan age) anticipated Claude
in choice of subjects. Paintings preserved at Her-
culaneum and Pompeii, and in baths of Titus,
belong nearly to Christian era, some earlier, others a
féw years later. Pompeian painting shows interest
in ordinary life and in landscape, Classical art is,
in feeling and principle, prolonged for six centuries
in the service of Christianity,
The middle are divided by Woltmann into
{1) Early, from 700 to 950 A.D. ; (2) eneae
rom 950 to 1250 A.D. ; (3) Gothic, from 1250 to
A.D. Thus the three periods are 250, 300, and 150
years. Throughout these ages, speaking generally,
the human motive of art is religious, and its
artistic motive is ornament. In the middle ages.
— design began again from a barbarous infancy,
it being necessary for the representation of religious
personne From 8th te 13th century childish
rawing and gaudy colouring prevailed throughout
Europe. In 13th some partial improvement takes
lace, and in 14th the advance is remarkable when
Jaes Sluter carved his life-like statues, Brothers’
Van Eyck (q.v.) born in this century.
The 15th century is the time of transition from
the art of the middle ages to an improved craft of
drawing and painting preparatory to the Renais-
sance. Improvement simultaneous in Flanders
and Italy. Van Eyck’s work known in southern
Europe, his influence only technical, and soon died
out in Flanders itself.
EEO el
Roger van der Weyden
a
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PAINTING
701
— 1464) worked differently, having stayed in
taly and exercised much influence in Flanders and
Germany. His pupil, Hans Memling, died 1495. .
The 16th century is remarkable for its exten-
sion of the subject-matter of painting. Before
1500 the art is chiefly confined to religious subjects
and portraits, afterwards it includes more of what
we now call genre—a change associated with the
name of Quentin Massys (1466-1530). The nude in-
troduced into Flemish art from Italy by Jan Gossart
(died 1532). After this date Flemish painters went
much to Italy, which produced a hybrid school
ealled the ‘Italianised Flemings’—e.g. Michael
Coxis (1499-1592), spent many years in Tal . The
first Flemish school, now at an end, was influential
in Germany; Roger van der Weyden had German
upils. Cologne and Nuremberg were active centres,
artin Schongauer lived in Rhineland in the 15th
century. Hans Holbein the elder, of Augsburg,
lived in 15th and 16th centuries. His famous son,
Hans (1498-1543), represents the perfection of Ger-
man realism in portrait. Albert Diirer (1471-1528)
stands for Germany, coming out of, but not yet
delivered from, the middle ages. His contemporary,
Lueas Cranach (1472-1553), was like Diirer, labori-
ous and productive. Diirer visited Venice 1506, and
was admired for his skill (particularly by Giovanni
Bellini), but had little influence. German hardness
and minuteness of finish culminated in the com-
paratively mindless art of Denner (1685-1747).
Italian painting is minutely divided into local
schools, and these 0 chronologically into three
or four stages of development. Masters of 14th
century divided into Tuscans, Sienese, cS at re
Paduan, and Neapolitan; those of the 15th into
Tuscan, Umbrian, Paduan, Veronese, Milanese,
Venetian; those of the 16th are headed by the
well-known t individualities. The schools
affect each other—e.g. it is difficult to disengage
Roman and Florentine art, whilst the Umbrian
school gave strength to Rome. The following list
gives the most famous names.
Uth Century — Tuscans.—Giotto (1276-1336),
Taddeo Gaddi (1300-66), Oreagna (died before
1376). Sienese.—Duccio (still living in 1339),
Angelico (1387-1455).
ith Century—Tuscans.—Paolo Uccello (¢. 1400-
79), Masaccio (1402-28),
haw Lo Lippi (1412-69),
Ghirlandajo (1449-98). Umbrians.—Pietro della
Francesea (living 1494), Giovanni Santi (died
1594), Pietro Perugino (1446-1524). Bolognese.—
Francia (1450-1517). Paduans.—Andrea Mantegna
(1431-1506). Venetians—Antonello da Messina
(1414-93), Gentile Bellini (1421-1507), Giovanni
Bellini (1426-1516).
léth Century—The Great Masters.—Leonardo da
Vinei (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1563),
Raphael (1483-1520), Correggio (1494-1534), Gior-
gione (1478-1511), Titian (1477-1576), Tintoret
(1512-94), Paul Veronese (1530-88). Other Italians
of eminent, but not of supreme, rank in the 16th
century are Luini (living 1500-30), Volterra (1509-
66), drea del Sarto (1488-1530), Sebastiano
del Piombo (c. 1485-1547), Palma Vecchio (c.
1480-1528), Moroni (c. 1525-78).
In the north of Eu there was a new develop-
ment occupying the 17th century. In the year
1600 Rubens was an accomplished artist (died
1640). Snyders (1579-1637) his most ores
contemporary, and Van Dyck (1599-1641) his
most eminent scholar. David Teniers, the father
(1582-1649), was eclipsed by David Teniers, the
son (1610-94); the latter gave genre-painting a
firm position. Gonzales ues (1614-84) was
a portrait-painter. Passing to Holland we find
Frans Hals, a contemporary of the elder Teniers
(1584-1666), and a painter of remarkable certainty
and spirit. The greatest of the Dutchmen, Rem-
brandt, belon entirely to the 17th century
(1607-69). The fame of Rembrandt has greatly
increased during the 19th century, and so has that
of Frans Hals. Rembrandt had distinguished
pupils, like Dow and Flinck, and he influenced
many artists. Terburg, genre-painter, was Rem-
brandt’s contemporary (1608-81), also Metsu (1615-
58). These carried genre-painting to perfection.
Landscape also prospered in Rembrandt's time,
chief representatives being Ruisdael (c. 1628-82)
and Hobbema.
In Spain a primitive school was founded as early
as 1450. In the 16th century local schools developed
themselves. Eminent foreign artists visited Spain
and worked there, asin England. Of the Spaniards
themselves, few have become celebrated out of their
own country. Ford’s list includes only thirty-seven
names; the National Gallery only seven, and of
these one was a Greek. Only five Spanish artists
are represented in the Louvre. The fame of the
school is due almost entirely to Velasquez (1599-
1660) and Murillo (1616-82). Next to these come
Zurbaran (1598-1662) and Ribera (1588-1656) ;
Morales (c. 1509-86) is also known. Goya (1746-
1828) is the only great Spanish artist between the
old masters and our contemporaries.
The French school before developing a character
decidedly of its own was subject to foreign, chiefly
Italian influences, especially after the Renaissance.
Francois Clouet (c. 1500-72), one of the earliest
French masters, was naturalised, and probably
of Flemish origin, like his accurate method
of work; Jean Cousin (1500-89) worked under
Italian influence ; Vounet (1590-1649) studied, lived,
and married in Italy; the great Poussin (1594—
1665) lived nearly forty years in Rome, and died
there; Claude le Lorrain (1600-82) lived fifty-five
Page in Rome, where he, too, died ; Lesueur (1617-
) refused to go to Rome, but was influenced by
Raphael ; Le Brun (1619-90) studied four years in
Rome, like other eminent Frenchmen since his
time. The following artists are essentially French :
Rigaud (1659-1743), Watteau (1684-1721), Lancret
(1690-1743), Chardin (1699-1779), Boucher (1704—
70), Greuze (1725-1805), Fragonard (1732-1806),
Prud’hon (1758-1823
In the British school the seven names which
follow are at the same time distinctly national,
and generally recognised by continental criticism.
They oceupy in this respect a position similar to
that of the few Spanish masters who are gener-
ally known : Hogarth (1697-1764), Reynolds (1723-
92), Gainsborough (1727-88), Turner (1775-1851),
Constable (1776-1837), Wilkie (1785-1841), Land-
seer (1802-73).
The peculiarity of the present situation is that
all schools have turned away from their national
ancestry. The modern Italians go straight to
nature, and paint it as if they had no art behind
them. The modern Dutch have no connection with
the great Dutchmen of the 17th century. Spaniards
of the school of Fortuny are as remote as Americans
from Velasquez. French landscape has nothing to
do with Claude. Leighton is not a descendant of
Reynolds. We find everywhere that the national
artistic ancestry counts for little or nuthin The
localisation of styles has to be done anew by criti-
cism for the close of the 19th century, and it is
complicated by the free choice everywhere made
amongst past examples. Ribot is nearer to Ribera
than to any Frenchman. Paris has become the
capital of the art of pee: The clever and
a American school is as yet an offshoot
rom the French; and the northern European
nations send their art-students to Paris as once
they went to Rome. Schools are no longer
national, the art has become cosmopolitan to a
degree impossible for literature.
702 PAISIELLO
PALZOGRAPHY
Technical Chronology.—400 B.c., white-lead of this date
has been found at Athens; 1398 a.p., Indian ink pre-
Ape pl Bsa ap nerinc| ma Pe _in
taly: 1 oil-pain ly : assian
Mies dines conte Die of Berlin 3 1787, zine white
Sapuested hy Constess of Sten 1802, Thénard discovers
it blue ; 1814, discovery of emerald green; 1814, first
discovery of existence of artificial ultramarine, and prize
offered for its manufacture soon afterwards won by Guimet
of Lyons; 1814, cappagh brown found on Lord sore
estate; 1517, cadmium discovered iy rang 1
zine white Winsor and Newton as Chinese
white; 1 eae, of chromium green by Pannetier
and Binet; 1850, water-glass painting introduced. Of
the ten col h for perm in Prof
Church’s restricted palette six have been discovered
dyring the 19th century.
TBLIOGRAPHY.— Vasari, Lives of the Painters (1850);
Lanzi, History of Painting (1847); Blanc, Histoire des
Peintres (n.d.); Kugler, Handbook, Italian Schools,
with Eastlake’s additions (1874), and Handbook, German,
Flemish, and Dutch Schools, remodelled by Waagen, re-
written by Crowe (1874); Carel van Mander, The Book
of Painters ; Woltmann and Woermann, History of Paint-
ing, edited by 8. Colvin (1880); Canningham, British
Painters, edited by Mrs Heaton (1879); Miintz, Les Pré-
curseurs de la Renaissance (1882), Raphael et son Temps
(1886), and Histoire de ' Art pendant la Renaissance (5
Vols, 1889 et seq.); Passavant, Rafael ron Urbino (1839-58);
Mrs Heaton, Albrecht Diirer (1870) and Lionardo da
Vinci (1874); Scott, Life of Diirer (1869); Gilbert, Land-
scape in Art before Clawle and Salvator (1885); Ford,
Handbook for Spain (1869): Clément, Michel Ange,
Léonard de Vinci, Raphael (1867); Mantz, Holbein (1879)
and Boucher (1880); Fromentin, Les Mattres d’ Autrefois
1876); Ruskin, Modern Painters (1843-60) ; Wedmore,
Masters of Genre-painting (1880) and Studies in
English Art (1876); Poynter, Lectures on Art (1879);
Atkinson, Modern Schools of Art in Germany (1880);
Collier, A Manual of Oil-painting (1886) and A Primer
of Art (1882); Church, The Chemistry of Paints and
inting (1890); Morelli, Italian Painters (applying
new methods for solving problems as to the authenticity
of ‘old masters ;’ trans. 1892); H. Quilter, Preferences
1892); G. Moore, Modern Painting (1898); W. C.
wnell, French Art (1894); R. Muther, History of
Modern Painting (3 vols. ; trans. 1894-96), See further
the articles in this work on the greater painters—DUxer,
LEONARDO DA VINCI, MICHELANGELO, PHAEL, TITIAN,
‘TURNER, and the rest ; that on RUSKIN; also those on ART,
Fresco, Impressionism, PicMENts, PRe-RAPHAELITISM,
RENAISSANCE, ROMANTICISM, WATER-COLOURS, &c.
Paisiello, Giovanni (1741-1816), a Neapolitan
com poser, ides more than ninety operas (in-
eluding a Barbiere di Seviglia), Paisiello composed
over & hundred masses, requiems, and cantatas,
Paisley, a manufacturing town of Renfrew-
shire, stands on the White Cart, 3 miles above its
influx to the be ae 7 WSW. of Gi wand 16
ESE. of Greenock. Although commonly identified
with the Vanduara or Vindogara of, Ptolemy,
whieh Skene places rather at Loudoun Hill in
Ayrshire, it first is heard of sorteinly about 1157
as Passeleth, a possession of Walter itzalan, the
first Scottish ancestor of the royal Stewarts (q.v. ).
He six years later founded here a Clugniac priory,
which was dedicated to SS. James, Mirin, and Mil-
burga, and which in 1219 was raised to the rank of
an abbey. It was burned by the English in 1307;
suffered much at the Reformation on 1561, and
still more by su uent vandalism; and now is
represented chiefly re the aisled Decorated nave
(15th century: the Abbey parish church, restored
since 1862), and by the chapel of St Mirin, called
the ‘Sounding Aisle’ (1499), with the altar-tomb
of Marjory Bruce. Near the abbey are statues of
Wilson the ornithologist and Tannahill, who, like
Professor Wilson (‘Christopher North’), were
natives of Paisley. There are also fine statues of
George A. Clark, founder of the town-hall, and
(since 1891 ) of Sir Peter and Thomas Coats, Mother-
well and Alexander Simith were residents ; and the
latter describes the town well in Alfred Sg oS
Household, Elderslie, 2 miles W., is the
tional birthplace of Wallace.
public edifices include the municipal
(formerly county) buildings (1818); new sheriff
court-house (1885); the fine Clark town-hall, Italian
in style, and built in 1879-82 at a cost of £110,000
the new county buildings (1891), containing one
the finest council halls in Scotland; the Coats free
lib: and museum (1871), with a plctare- ea
ondsah observatory; the grammar-school (1576;
rebuilt 1864); and the Neilson educational institn-
tion (1852). The Coats Memorial Baptist Church
(1894) is, it is claimed, the finest ecclesiastical
edifice built in Scotland since the Reformation,
having cost £100,000. The Fountain Gardens
(1868), the Brodie Park (1877), and St James’s
Park, round which is the racecourse, have an area
respectively of 6, 22, and 40 acres.
he linen, lawn, and silk-gauze industries, im-
portant during the 18th century, are now extinct
as, too, are the age shawls,’ so celebrated
between 1805, and the middle of the century, their
sale sometimes exceeding £1,000,000 per annum.
The manufacture of linen sewing-thread, intro-
duced in 1722 by the witch-denouncer Christian
Shaw of Bargarran, has been nearly superseded
since — by that of cotton = » pineal
assumed gigantic proportions, the two pri
firms now suigheping choas 10,000 hands betwee
them. There are also works for dyeing, bleaching,
tartans, woollen shawls, carpets, distilling and
brewing, ater era Salhi ate Ta
engineering, c., es ship -yards,
Cart since 1786 has been rendered’ navigable,
its water-way being finally d ed to 18 feet
in 1888-90; and water-works (1834-90) furnish
6,000,000 gallons per diem to Paisley and John-
stone. Paisley was made a free burgh of barony
in 1488, the fourth centenary of that event in 1888
being se by the presence of Queen Victoria,
who afterwards pl a memorial of the Stewarts
in the ruined choir of the abbey. Since 1833 it has
returned one member to parliament, In 1843 the
corporation had to suspend payment, nor was the
burgh clear of debt until 1877. "Pop. (1801) 24,324;
(1841) 48,125; (1881) 55,627 ; (1891) 64,379.
See Cosmo Innes’ Registrum Monasterii de Passelet
(Maitland Club, 1832), two works by Semple (1872-74),
Dr Cameron Lees’ Abbey of Petey eh Robert
Brown's History of Paisley (2 vols. 1886),
Pakhoi, a seaport of China, opened to fo:
trade in 1876, stands on the norte shore te
Gulf of Tongking. The harbour is shallow. Trade
does not flourish, The imports—cottons, woollens,
opium, rice—average alr neds hide graneae
exports—tin, sugar, indigo, ani ; hides, -
nut oil—£229,700.. Pop. 25,000,
Palacky, Francis, a Bohemian historian, was
born 14th June 1798, at Hodoslavitz, in Moravia,
and studied at Presburg and Vienna. In 1829 he
was appointed historiographer of Bohemia, and was
cha to write a History 0 ba ian People
to 1526 (5 vols. 1836-67), which appeared in both
German and Bohemian; it is one of the greatest
literary works in the Bohemian tongue, and
nationalist sone and through. Palacky took
part in the political agitation of 1848, and
was the leader of the Slav or national B skit as
opposed to the German at the Diet of the Kremsier.
ides his great History hée published works deal-
ing with the emerge A sear and with Schafarik
edited The Oldest Memorials of the Bohemian
rangnegs (1840). He died 26th June 1876 at
rague.
Palxography is the science which deals with
ancient manuscripts, teaching us not only to
PALZOGRAPHY
703
Gecipher them, but to judge of their date, genuine-
ness, and place of origin. While Epigraphy (see the
article INSCRIPTIONS) is concerned with writings
engraved on some hard substance, such as stone or
metal, the materials for paleographic study com-
prise ancient books, either rolls, volumina, written
on leather or papyrus, or codices, written in book
form on sheets oo vellum or paper. Wax-tablets,
charters, bulls, decrees, acts, business papers, and
similar documents have also to be considered by
the student of palwography.
The oldest extant manuscripts come from Egyp-
tian tombs, and are written on sheets of Papyrus
(q.¥.), prepared from the pith of a rush. few
fragments date from the time of the early empire,
the most important being the Papyrus Prisse, the
oldest book in the world, which was found in a
tomb of the 11th dynasty, and must therefore be
older by several centuries than the Hebrew Exodus,
Coming down to the 18th and 19th dynasties, papy-
rus roll, usually containing portions of the Book of
the Dead (q.v.), are numerous. But documents
written on papyrus, a very fragile material, have
mostly Sete. and the chief ancient MSS. which
have come down to us are written either on parch-
ment, which is still used for legal documents, or
on vellum; the skins being prepared so as to be
written on both sides, thus superseding the older
leather rolls, still used in Jewish synagogues for
copies ot the Law. The necessary limits of this
article make it impossible to discuss the hieratic
and demotic papyri from Egyptian tombs, or any
of the Eastern scripts, Chinese, Pali, Indian, Coptic,
Syriac, Hebrew, or even the magnificent specimens
Persian and Arabie calligraphy preserved in
oriental libraries. The student may, however, be
referred to the oriental series of the Palzeographical
Society, to Silvestre’s Puléographie Universelle,
and Burnell’s Elements of South Indian Paleo-
graphy. It must here suffice to describe briefly
the Greek and Latin style, and the more important
of the medizval scripts.
Both in Greek and Latin manuscripts we find
two contemporaneous but widely-different styles
of writing; a book-hand, formal and stiff, but
legible, used by professional scribes, and a cursive
hand, rapid, careless, loose, and straggling, often
very difficult to read, which was employed for
private correspondence, contracts, accounts, and,
somewhat formalised, for charters, rescripts, and
other official documents. .
The book-hands may be classed as Capital,
Uncial, or Minuscule. The capitals, which differ
little from the lapidary forms used in inscriptions,
are square and angular, such as are still retained
for initials, titles, and superscriptions. Manuscripts
written wholly in po are very rare, the use of
more facile materials, such as parchment or papyrus,
having led at a very early time to modifications of
the lapidary forms, transforming them into uncials,
a formal book-hand, large, clear, and legible, used
by professional scribes for codices, and derived from
the capitals with little change, save that the forms
are more rounded, and often inclined rather than
upright. Thus, € both in Greek and Latin is a
characteristic uncial form, obtained by rounding
the capital form E, and saving labour by requiring
only two strokes of the pen instead of four. The
term Uncial is as old as the time of St Jerome,
but its modern usage is due to a misconception,
uncial letters being seldom an inch in height, as
the name implies. The general resemblance in the
character of Greek and Latin uncials will be seen
by a few words from St John, xxi. 19, as they
appear in the Codex Bezw at Cambridge, a manu-
seript assigned to the 6th century, containing the
ic pg and Acts in Greek, with the Vulgate trans-
ation.
CHMENOONTI OIWOANATCOAOTA CEITONON
Greek,
SICNIFICA NS GQUAMORTENONORIFICADITIUM
Latin.
Or, in ordinary minuscules, cquerwv [onuawwv] row
Bavary dotace tov Oeov, ‘siguificans qua morte
honorificabit Deum.’
In the 8th and 9th centuries a new book-hand
was evolved mainly out of the cursive, but incor-
porating sundry forms from the degenerate contem-
porary uncial. This, by reason of the smaller size of
the letters, is called minuscule. The old majuscule
cursive, developed ont of the capitals and uncials,
which had by this time become formless and illegible,
was gradually superseded by a new cursive, devel-
oped out of the minuscule. The minuscule reached
its perfection as a book-hand in the 11th century,
after which it continually degenerated till the
invention of printing. Both for Greek and Latin
books the ear: y Nagata adopted at first the cor-
rupted forms of the contemporary book-hands, but
afterwards returned to the older and purer types
of the 11th and 12th centuries. Thus there is a
eneral analogy between the successive s of
reek and Latin writing. Side by side with the
old cursive scripts there is a gradual evolution of
improved uncial book-hands till about the 4th
century, followed by a period of decay, till the 9th
century, when the revival of learning produced a
regeneration, again followed by progressive deteri-
oration till the invention of printing caused a
reversion to the best of all preceding styles, that of
the llth century. Traces of these revolutions may
still be recognised. It will be observed that we
now employ four different alphabets : minuscules
for our printed books, and capitals for their title-
pages, headings, and initials, and cursives for our
correspondence, while the initials in our ordinary
writing are analogous to uncials. Familiarity pre-
vents us from noting the wide differences in the
forms of such letters as A, a, a; B, b, b; G, g, 9;
or R, r, r. These are survivals, the first from the
lapidary — of the Augustan age, the second
from the French book-hand of the 11th century,
and the third from the Tudor cursive, modified and
improved by the Italian cursive of the Elizabethan
age.
Greek Palawography.—No Greek manuscripts
written in pure capitals have come down to us,
though the transitional forms may be detected.
The oldest Greek manuscripts now extant are
papyri in early uncials of the Ptolemaic period
which have been found in Egypt, their preservation
being due to the dryness of the climate, and to the
practice of burying documents in tombs. Three
must be earlier than 160 B.c., and there are
several Homeric fi ents on papyri earlier than
the Christian era, "The most important contain
Orations of Hyperides, of which the oldest are
assigned to the Ist century B.c. We have from
Herculaneum an ancient library consisting of 1803
papyrus rolls, which must be older than 79 A.D.s
704
PALZOGRAPHY
when the city was destroyed. These early Greek
uncials being written on [ah ~ Bk ile mate-
rial, are slender and delicate, wi t bold curves,
thick downstrokes, or fine hairlines, which only
became possible when the use of vellum introduced
a firmer and bolder style. In these uncial papyri
the introduction of res produced a tendency
to cursive forms, which are exhibited in the ostraca,
of which great numbers have been found in Egypt.
These are usually receipts for taxes, scratched with
a point or written with ink on potsherds. Our
chief knéwledge of the early Greek cursive is
derived from the private papers and correspondence
of Ptolemy, son of Glaucias, a Macedonian Greek,
who li as a recluse at the Serapeum about
170 Bc. Cursive seri were, however, used by
ithe Greeks at a much earlier period ; Greek in-
‘scriptions in the Cypriote syllabary exhibiting forms
of a distinctively eursive character as early as the
7th century B.c, Compared with the papyri the
uncial vellum codices, of which about 300 are
known, exhibit a firmer and more set uncial style,
which was rendered ible by the material. The
oldest to which a definite date can be assigned is
the Dioscorides now at Vienna, which from inter-
nal evidence must have been written about 506
A.D. Earlier, but undated, are the three great
Biblical codices, the Codex Vaticanus at Rome,
which is assigned to the 4th century; the Codex
Sinaiticus at St Petersburg, assi; to the end
of the 4th or the beginning of the 5th century;
and the Codex Alexandrinus, now in the British
Museum, which probably belongs to the middle
of the 5th. The style of the writing in these
uncial codices is seen in the subjoined specimen,
which is taken from the Septuagint version of
Esther, i. 22, as it appears in the Codex Sinaiticus.
KAI ATT ECTIAEN El: 8
MACANTHN KACI
AKEIAN KATA XCD PAN
KATATH NXAESIN AT
TWN WCTEEINAI
POKONAYTOICEN
TAICOI KIAICKY FE
This in ordinary Greek type would read :
Kat aweorihey as
wacav Thy Bact
ear Kara Xwpay
xara TH MeEw av
Tw wore cat
doSor avras aw
Tas oKus avrol »},
To the 5th century are assigned the palimpsest
Codex Ephraemi at Paris, to the 6th the Codex
Beve at Cambridge and the Codex Claromontanus
at Paris. After the 7th century the Greek uncial
loses its early ane: the letters become oval,
narrow, elongated, and cramped, sloping to the
right ; accents make their appearance, cad’ the pure
er uncial degenerates into cursive forms difficult
At the end of the 6th century we find the first
beginnings of the new minuscule, the book-hand
of the future, which was destined to replace both
the deformed uncial and the earlier cursive, from
each of which it borrowed certain elements.
earliest trace of these minuscule forms as yet dis-
covered are seen in a collection of papyri,
in date from 592 to 616 A.D., which were the S
ness and family papers of Aurelius Pachymius, a
dealer in purple dyes. The transition from the old’
to the new style is exemplified in a most interesting
sheet of papyrus from Ravenna, now at Vienna,
which contains the signatures of certain KE to
the Acts of the Council of Constantinople, in
680. The older bishops sign in slanting uncials
and the younger men in early forms of the new
minuscule. In the 9th century, with the revival
of learning, this new min e developed into a
ealligraphic book-hand, which was used in vellum
codices. The oldest books in which it are
the Uspensky Gospels, written in 835, and the
Bodleian Euclid of 888 A.D. The chief transfor-
mations are due to the use of ligatures, as is
plainly seen in the forms of the letters 6, 9, and
c. Hence in the fully-formed minuscule of the
llth century we find the letters a, €, x, A, ¢, @,
which follow the old uncial forms, while 4, 9, 4, ¥
are taken from the cursive. In the ease of several
letters the double source of this seript is shown by
the retention of duplicate forms, 4 6, w, and s,
for instance, being uncials, while ¢, 9, @, and ¢ are
of cursive origin.
From the end of the 12th century to the inven-
tion of printing the minuscule Fatcwemaie ys Br
erates, losing its purity and beauty, and ing
up into a rough cursive script. The writing becomes
intricate and involved, Higasares and accents
combined into a single character rapidly execu
without taking the pen from the paper, thus makin
the writing very difficult to . In the earli
printed books thecontracted
and ligatured forms of con-
temporary minuscule
were faithfully imitated.
These, however, were u-
ally discarded, though afew,
such as $ for or, & for ov,
and for os, survived till
quite recent times.
Latin Paleography fol-
lowed much the same course
as the Greek. There were
four set book -hands—
capitals, uncials, semiun-
cials, and minuscules, of
which the two last were
influenced by the old Roman
cursive. he capitals are
of two kinds, Square and
Rustic. Sanere capitals
differ little from the lapidary characters used in in-
scriptions, and may be defined as having their verti-
cal and horizontal strokes at right angles, Of the
few examples we possess of this seript the best is
the St Gall Virgil, assigned to the 4th century.
Rustic capitals, which were more usual, are char-
acterised by circumflexed finials and by the crossbars
being curved and slightly oblique. This style,
which can be traced in a Herculaneum papyrus
of the Ist century A.D., was greatly in fashion
from the 3d century to the 7th. Good examples
are four famons Virgils: the Codex Vaticanus
assigned to the 4th century, the Codex Palatinus
to the 5th, the Codex Romanus to the 6th, all of
which are in the Vatican, and the 5th century
Medicean Virgil at Florence. The Rustic died out
about the 9th century, and left no successor.
The uncials arose out of the square capitals, and
exhibit rounded forms of certain letters. The
earliest uncial codices extant are not earlier than
the 4th century A.D., but it is plain that
‘a
PALZOGRAPHY
705
writing was practised at a much earlier period,
since we find uncial forms in some of the Graffiti
(q.v.) scribbled on Pompeian walls, while as early
as the 3d century B.c. the lapidary forms of P, R,
C, 8 show that uncial influences had already trans-
formed the earlier = shapes of these letters.
The uncial book-hand is distinguished from the
contemporary square capitals by the rounded forms
€ u D instead of E, M, V, H, and by the tails
of P, F, Q, and R falling below the line, while the
head of L rises above it.
One of the oldest uncial Latin MSS. is the Ver-
celli ere said to have been transcribed by the
hand of Eusebius himself, but in any case nearly
as early as his time. A good example of the later
uncials is the copy of the Gospels now in the library
of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, which is
believed to have been the actual copy bronght from
Rome by St Augustine in 596. Also of the 6th
century is the Codex Beze at Cambridge, the style
of which is shown in the fac-simile already given.
The earlier and later uncial styles are well seen in
the famous palimpsest Cicero from the monastery
of Bobbio, now in the Vatican. A palimpsest is a
manuscript from which the writing was washed off
with a sponge, or sometimes scraped or rubbed, in
order that the vellum might be used for some other
work. The Codex Ephremi above mentioned is a
palimpsest, a 5th-century Greek text being over-
written in a 12th-century hand. The Vatican
Cicero is a codex consisting of 150 leaves, contain-
ing in the first hand the treatise De Republica,
written in double columns in large uncials,
probably of the 4th centu Over this is written
across the commentary of St Augustine on the
Psalms, in a small uncial hand of the 7th century.
bomeesy gua
FANIMeEeMBna cy)
r B SUNT
J
Seaway mar
PRP PERLE SRP
eTtomnNnes
mda khkpiad
_In the fainter writing of the original manuscript
we may decipher the words EST IGITUR INQUIT
AFRICANUS RESP.[ublica]. The writing in the
second hand reads (line 1) HOMO EST QUIA, (2)
ET OMNES XPIANI [ Christiani] MEMBRA SUNT XPI
[Christi], (3) MEMBRA XPI [Christi] QUID CAN-
TANT. AMANT, (4) DESIDERANDO CANTANT. ALI-
QUANDO.
Towards the close of the 7th century the Latin
uncial becomes rough and careless, and it deterior-
ates still further in the 8th, when it is replaced as
a book-hand by a new script which goes by the
name of semiuncial or half-uncial. This name,
which arose out of a misconception of early palzo-
graplrers, does not signify a script half the size of
the uncial, some semiuncials ing larger than
some uncials, but is used to denote an uncial seript
with new forms of certain letters, of g and s, for
instance, which were derived from the cursive.
The earliest traces of the semiuncial style are
found towards the end of the 5th century, and the
first instance of its use as a book-hand is a Hilary,
written in 509 or 510, now preserved in the Chapter
Library of St Peter’s at Rome.
The old Roman cursive which thus began to
influence the uncial writing in the 6th century is
of great palwographical importance, since it became
the wee of many forms in modern scripts. Its
.
existence has long been suspected, but actual
examples have only recently been discovered. In
a house at Pompeii a number of wax-tablets were
found in 1875 which proved to be the business
memoranda of L. Czcilius Jucundus, a Pompeian
banker and agent, mostly belonging to the years
55 and 56 A.D., and relating to purchases at auctions,
and payments of taxes on behalf of his clients.
Similar tablets, which are dated from 131 to 167
A.D., have been discovered in abandoned gold-
workings in Dacia. This old Roman cursive,
which is very illegible, exhibits the forms out of
which arose f (the long s) and also the modern
forms g, b, f, m, n, d, r, h, which replaced the
capital and uncial forms G, B, F, M, N, D, R, H.
This illegible Roman cursive reappears in a more
set official hand in rescripts addressed to Egyptian
functionaries in the 5th century, in official docu.
ments written at Ravenna in the 6th century, as
well as in numerous marginal notes in uncial or
semiuncial manuscripts. It is also employed in
a copy of Avitus, written in the 6th century, and a
Josephus of the 7th. These two books are written
on papyrus, and the absence of other examples may
be explained by the fact that the fragile papyrus
books, probably copies made by scholars for their
own use, have mostly perished, only vellum codices
as a rule having been preserved.
With the establishment of the Teutonic kingdoms
on the ruins of the Roman empire a ne oe of
national scripts arose—the Merovingian in France,
the Visigothic in Spain, and the Lombardic in
Italy. These were all based on the Roman cursive,
and were used for civil pu as well as for
charters and other diplomatic documents. The
Merovingian e the official hand of the
Frankish empire. _ It is
cramped and vermiform,
with exaggerated loops
for the heads and tails to
certain letters. It was
used as the diplomatic
hand in the chanceries of
France and Italy till the
9th century, and in the
imperial chancery till
1231, when its use was
abolished by Frederick
Il. It has survived,
however, in a modified
form in the modern German. cursive, in which many
of the peculiar forms of the old Roman cursive can
be detected. Out of the official Roman cursive
arose the script, which was employed in papal bulls
till the 12th century; when it was replaced by the
French minuscule, which was used till the 16th
century, when a deformed, contracted, and illegible
script called the dittera Sancti Petri was adopted.
e old cursive derives its chief importance from
having been one of the sources from which was de-
veloped the semiuncial book-hand which superseded
the old uncial. Incorporating sundry uncial forms,
the Visigothie and asker ie cursives developed
in the monasteries into calligraphic book-hands.
But the Irish semiuncial is the most important of
the national seripts, as it became the basis of the
‘Roman type,’ which is used in our modern printed’
books. he history of this Irish semiuncial is
obscure. Its elements must have been obtained,
robably in the 5th century, from the semiuncial
k-hand of southern Gaul. The forms of some
of the letters are plainly those of the Roman
uncial ; others are calligraphic forms which must
have been derived from an ecclesiastical Gallican
type of the Roman cursive. Just as the Greek
minuscule has duplicate forms of certain letters,
some derived from the uncial, others from the
cursive, so the double parentage of the Irish
706
PALZOGRAPHY
semiuncial is demonstrated by the permissive use
of N, R, 8, which are uncials, and of n, r, f, which
are uncialised eursives, Several other forms, such as
b, a, m, f, h, ],are also uncialised cursives, and not,
ke the Roman uncials, merely rounded capitals
(see IRELAND, Vol. VL. p. 208). This Lrish semi-
uncial suddenly blazes forth in the 6th century as
the most splendid of all medimval scripts. The
noblest specimen is the magnificent Boo of Kells
now at Dublin, which was probably written in the
7th century, though often referred to the 9th
(see ILLUMINATION). Of somewhat later date
are St Chad's Gospels, now at Lichfield, and
the Lindisfarne or Durham Book, seagesset d
called St Cuthbert’s Gospels, now in the British
Museum, both of which were written in North-
umbria, where the script had been introduced
by Irish missionaries. This Northumbrian semi-
uncial formed the basis of the nearly perfect
Caroline minuscule, so called because during
the reign of Charlemagne it was introduce:
by Aleuin of York, the friend and preceptor of the
emperor, into the calli hic school at Tours, over
which Alcuin presid m 796 to 804. Alcuin
seems to have incorporated certain elements from
the Roman uncial and the Lombardic minuscule ;
and the new script, recommended by its legibility,
distinctness, and minuteness, was rapidly diffused
by Alenin’s pupils over Europe, and rapidly super-
seded all the other monastic book-hands. Startin;
at the beginning of the 9th century, it reach
its highest periention at the end of the 11th.
In the 13th deformation set in; it stiffens and
becomes more cramped, ligatures and contractions
are introduced, and out of it grew the Black
Letter or Gothic of the 15th century, a form of
which still survives in German printed books. The
black letter was used in the earliest printed books,
but, with the revival of learning, Italian scholars
returned to the beautiful Caroline minuscule of the
llth century, which was imitated in the Roman
type now universal in Italy, France, Spain, Britain,
and America, and which is rapidly replacing the
Gothic letter in northern Europe. See PRINTING.
Besides the pure Caroline minuscules used for
books, various cursive hands grew out of it, more
angular, irregular, and difficult. Such are the
Anglo-Saxon and the pointed Irish, the Domesday
script (see DomEesDAY Book), and the deformed
hands used in English charters and the records of
courts. Our modern English script is based on
this ‘court-hand,’ which arose out of the degraded
Caroline one ggg rekbes however, in the
reign of Elizabeth by the influence of the con-
temporary Italian hand. Tt is, however, much
superior in legibility and distinctness to the modern
German script, which, as we have seen, is toa great
extent a survival from the old Roman cursive.
Contractions. —The_ difficulty of deciphering
mediwval MSS. arises largely from the contractions,
abbreviations, and ligatures which were employed
to economise labour and parchment. To give a
complete list within reasonable limits is impossible,
more especially as they varied at different periods
and in the various scripts, More than 5000 contrac-
tions of Latin words were used in France between
the 7th century and the 16th, while in England more
than 1000 are found in official Latin documents of
the Tudor period alone. There are, for instance,
six = contractions for guoniam, seven for
esse, and ten for et. In one class of MSS. qi
stands for qguoniam, in another for guum, while
qd denotes fo in one script and quoniam
in another. Instead, therefore, of attempting to
catalogue the more usual contractions, which are
tabulated in several works referred to below, it
will be more useful to explain the general prin-
eiples by which medieval scribes were guided. In
most cases, if not in all, these contractions arose
out of ligatures, and were used at first for some
particular syllable, and then as time went on they
were generalised, so as to denote a whole class,
Some of these ligatures we still use, Thus, W, as
the name implies, is a ligature for uu; @
need no explanation. The two superscript dots, as
in & or 6, which express the German umlaut, are
merely the ligatures «@ and @.
The usual modern sign of abbreviation is the full
point, as in ib. or ibid. for ibidem, e.g. for
gratia, or i.e, for id est. But this, which seems so
natural and simple a sign, appears, when we trace
its history, to have arisen out of a ligature for the
common Latin termination -ws. Its earlier form
was the colon (:), which stood for -ws, as in omnib:
for omnibus. The origin of this colon is ee
by the fact that at a still earlier time we the
final syllables -mus and -nus written ™§ and *f,
where the cross stroke § , which is merely the Jong
s, forms a ligature with the curve — whie
represents U. Of this ligature, re ting -ws,
everything disappeared except the dots at the top
and bottom of the s, leaving m: for -mus, or b: for
-bus. The upper dot was then omitted as needless,
and ultimately the use of the full point () was
neralised so as to denote the omission of any
inal syllable. When this had taken place another
special sign was required for -us. This was 9,
so that in later documents we find eig for ejus, or
omnibg for omnibus. But in earlier MSS. the loop
of the sign ° is open at the top, the form y being
manifestly the ligature of U and the long s.
In viz. for videlicet, and oz. for ounce, we have
survivals of a very frequent abbreviation, which
also proves to be a ligature. The z is merely used
by printers for their own convenience instead of
correct sign 3, which is found, by tracing it back,
to be only a rapid and slurred way of writing the
semicolon (;) without taking the pen from the paper.
This sign at one time denoted only the omission
either of et, as in hab; for hadet, or of ue, as in q;
for que. The latter, however, was originally written
q: where the reversed comma ( ) is the letter vu,
and the dot stands for e, as in many other cases,
such as -n- for enim, or + for est. This ligature
was assimilated to the nearly identical —— (3)
for et, where the dot (*) represents e, and the comma
(,) is the remains of the letter T. For a long time
this ligature (3 or ;) was confined to words ending
in we or et, as in qn3 for quand quos for
quognes as for apparet, 0; for oportet, 1; for licet, tz
‘or tenet, hz for habet, s; for scilicet. Afterwards
it was generalised to signify the omission of any
final syllable, as in 0; for ounce, or in the apothe-
caries’ signs % for uncia, and 5 for drachma, The
sign B for seruple is merely the ligature sr, the
ar s being crossed by a cursive r. y
1e superscript comma now used to denote the
omission of medial syllables or letters, as in can’t
for cannot, or I've for J have, was at first merely
& superscript 7, and denoted exclusively the omis-
sion of r or of a syllable containing 7, such as er or
re. In English records it forms a ligature with the
preceding letter, as in flint for fuerunt, for
verbo, or ¥s for tres.
The circumflex (~) grew out a cursive form of
the uncial m, and originally denoted exclusively
the omission of m, then of », and afterwards of
other letters. Thus we have ofies, ofis, and des
for omnes, dia and ofiia for omnia, hditi and hdih
for hominwm, nd and ii for non. The horizontal
line (—) is one of the earliest signs of omission,
and in some cases, if not in all, is merely a simpli-
fied form of the circumflex, as in 6 for cum, ait for
autem, & for annos, Its use was, however, less
restricted than that of the circumflex, and we
use it in the contraction Ib for dibre (pounds), the
=)
PALZOLITHIC
PALZONTOLOGY 707
double bar in 2 denoting a double omission. Shil-
lings and pence, now expressed by s. and d., were for-
merly denoted by § and @, abbreviations for solidi
and denarii. The sign§$ for dollars is said to be the
ligature di/, the S being merely 6, a cursive Dutch
form of d (but see DOLLAR). The circumflex (~)
which was a cursive m was not always written hori-
zontally. We see this in the common sign ¥ used for
rum, as suo% for suorum, or 8vo¥ for servorum. Here
2 is the ligature of 2 and U, which is crossed by m
in the cursive form (~) or (—) written vertically.
For et there are numerous signs, all of which resolve
themselves into ligatures. Some of them, such as
&, &, and ¢, require no explanation. They are
found in &iA for etiam, and in the various forms
&c&era, or &c&Pa, or &cet. or &é, or finally &e.
which we now use for et cetera. The sign 7, used
in Domesday for eé, is also a ligature, as is shown
by the older forms ©Z and %. The sign = or + for
est is also a ligature, the upper dot standing for e, the
bar or cireumflex for the long s (f ), and the lower
dot for ¢. In like manner esse is written’=", the
two dots each representing ¢, and the two cireum-
flexes being each a long s. This became -=- and
then =, whence we obtain =s for esses, =t for
esset, and =mg for essemus.
Many similar contractions were also used, most
of which can be easily resolved into ligatures. A
few of the more common are p for pro, p for per and
por, and p and § for pre, q for quam, q for quod,
q for qui, a for tz, fr for frater, t for vel, € for ser
and sit. Thus we have supius and supig for
superius, ppe for prope, . for proximus, geno for
generosi, ass~ for assisa, fiz for fitz.
BisirioGraPHY.—The study of Eaemosseney requires
either an ample purse or access to a good library, the
works being mostly bulky and costly. The best
books of moderate price for the beginner in Greek Paleo-
gs y are Wattenbach’s Anleitung zur Griechischen
‘ala ie and Schrift-tafeln, and Gardthausen’s
Griechische Paldéographie. ‘or Latin Palwography
it would be well to begin with Wattenbach’s
Anleitung, and Arndt’s Schrift-tafeln. For Medixval
Palwography, Chassant’s Paléographie des Chartes et des
Manuscrits, with his companion volume, Dictionnaire
des Abréviations du Moyen Age, are extremely useful
little books. Prou’s Manuel de Paléographie may also
be consulted. For English Charters, the student, await-
ing Mr Maunde Thompson’s long-promised work, has
had to fall back upon Wright’s Court-Hand Restored,
published in 1773, and the article ‘Records’ in Savage’s
Dictionary of Printing. The evolution of the forms of
letters is traced in Dr Taylor's book on The Alphabet.
Subsidiary matters, such as writing materials, gatherings,
lineation, punctuation, &c., which are useful in determin-
ing the age of MSS., are discussed in the works of Prou
and Gardth alread: tioned, and also in Watten-
bach’s Schriftwesen im Mittelalter, and Leist’s Urkunden-
Of the more costly works, far the most important
are the autotype fac-similes published by the Palwo-
graphical Society, with Zang ister’s Lxempla Codicum
Latinorum, Wattenbach’s Exempla Codicum Grecorum,
and his Scripture Grece Specimina. For MSS.in England,
the fac-similes of tional MSS., of Anglo-Saxon MSS.,
of ancient charters, and of ancient MSs. in the British
Museum must be consulted; for German MSS., Sybel’s
Works and Sickel’s Monumenta Graphica ; for Russian,
Sabas’ Spevimina Paleogruphia ; for Yalion, the Archivio
rafico Italiano; tor Spanish, the Exempla Scrip-
ture: Visigotice ; for French, the Notices et Extraits des
Manuscrits, and the valuable publications of Delisle and
Letronue. Among the older works the most important
are Walther’s Lexicon Diplomaticum, Wailly’s El/ments
de Paléographie, Astle’s Origin and Progress of Writing,
Silvestre’s Paléographie Universelle, Montfaucon’s Palwo-
jphia Greca, Mabillon’s De Re Diplomatica, and the
Benedictine Nouveau Traité de Diplomatique.
Palzolithic. See Arcuzo.ocy, Firnt Im-
PLEMENTS, STONE AGE; also MAN.
Palol ogus, the name of an illustrious Byzan-
tine family, which first appears in history about
the llth century, and attained to imperial dignity
in the person of Michael VIII. in 1260 (see BYZAN-
TINE EMPIRE). The last of the dynasty, Constan-
tine XI., fell bravely fighting at the siege of
Constantinople. His brothers were princes of the
Morea and of Achaia respectively ; a daughter of
one of them married Ivan TIL of Bisatiac A branch
of the family ruled Montferrat from 1306 to 1533.
Paleontology (Gr., ‘study of ancient life’),
the science or study of fossil organic remains—
whether of animal or plant life. The study of
fossil animals is sometimes termed paleozoology,
and that of fossil plants paleophytology. The aim
of average is to attain a knowledge of all
the various plants and animals which have suc-
cessively spreree and disappeared in the course
of geological ages. But as the geological record
is highly imperfect, and myriads of species must
have lived and died without leaving any trace
behind them, it is obvious that our knowledge, no
matter how enlarged it may become, can never
ibly be complete. The history is full of gaps,
some of which may eventually be bridged over, but,
however that may be, it is nevertheless certain
that our knowledge must always bear but a small
proportion to our ignorance. Nevertheless, the
study of paleontology has been fruitful in results,
It has greatly influenced zool and botany—and
that not merely by adding to the number of sub-
jects with which those sciences deal, but especially
y the light which it has thrown on the evolution
and mutual relations of existing forms of life.
Fossil organic remains consist chiefly of the harder
parts—such as bones, scales, teeth, shells, crusts,
spines, &c.—of animals, and the ligneous tissues of
plants (see Fossris). In attempting to interpret
the evidence wegey by such remains, palzeontolo-
gists were early led to study, for purposes of com-
parison, the structures of existing plants and
animals. By applying the results of these com-
act tg to the restoration of extinct forms of life,
uvier was enabled to establish the law of the
‘correlation of organs ;’ and thus the paleontologist,
who has to deal apart with fragmentary
remains, is not in such a helpless case as might have
been supposed. ‘Stated in its most general form,
the law of the correlation of organs is the law that
all the parts of an organism stand in some relation
to one another, the form and characters of each
part being more or less closely dependent on, and
connec’ with, the form and characters of all
the rest. In other words, an organism is not a
fortuitous collocation of unrelated parts, but is
composed of mutually adapted and related organs ;
the possession of any given organ, therefore, imply-
ing the possession of other ‘‘ correlated” parts’
(Nicholson and Lydekker). Hence the paleontolo-
gist can often infer from an isolated organ or strue-
ture the essential characters of the remainder of
the organism. But, while the biological sciences
lave greatly benefited, it is geology which has been
most advanced by paleeontological research. With-
out the help of fossils the geologist would be unable
to reconstruct the past. By their aid he is able to
identify and correlate the various formations which
constitute his systems. It is from them that he
infers former climatic and geographical pea ct
that he is able to distinguish between fresh-
water and marine, shallow-water and deep-sea
conditions, &e. But for the general relations of
paleontology to logical research the reader is
referred to the article GEOLOGY. Some account of
the paleontology of the stratified or fossiliferous
roeks will be found in the articles that deal with
the various geological systems. Here all that need
be done is to summarise the characteristic features
of the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, Cainozoic, and Quater-
nary or Post-Tertiary faunas and floras. ,
708
PALZONTOLOGY
Paleozoic Life.—The most prominent types of
Paleozoic times were se mg pee, corals,
eens: Crinoids, autilid Cepha-
et i rilobites, Eurypterids, and Heterocercal
Ganoi Graptolites ranged from the Cambrian
into the Lower Old Red Sandstone, but attained
their maximum in Lower Silurian times. aw 9
corals, unknown in the Cambrian, swarmed in
Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous seas, but
were much less numerous in those of the Per-
mian, Crinoids first appear in the Cambrian, are
numerous in Silurian and Devonian rocks, but
more abundant still in the Carboniferous. After
this they n to decline. Brachiopods, com-
mencing in the Cambrian, abounded all through
Paleozoic times, but culminated in the Upper
Silurian period, They were still numerous in
Devonian and Carboniferous seas, but less abun-
dant in those of the Permian period. Pteropods
were more common in Upper Cambrian and Silurian
- in PSeeads: oer parwectrtens poe
autili halo; rst appear in the Upper
Cambrian, ead seem caaabebeete in the Silurian,
but they continued to abound in the Devonian and
Carboniferous seas, becoming reduced in those of
the Permian period. Trilobites appear first in the
Cambrian, reach a maximum in the Silurian, wane
in the Devonian and Carboniferous, and die out in
the Permian. They are therefore essentially and
ere — woes aE _ cag owen So weodal =o
are the Eurypterids, which, culminating apparently
in the pels Silurian and Old Red Sandstone,
became extinct in Carboniferous times, Ganoids
with heterocercal tails first appear in Upper Silu-
rian strata, and reach their maximum in the Old
Red Sandstone. The t order of Sharks and
Rays likewise dates back to Upper Silurian times.
Such are the more prominent types in Paleozoic
strata. Many other forms, however, are met with,
amongst which may be noted starfishes (Aster-
oidea), brittle-stars (Ophiuroidea), sea-urchins
(Echinoidea), and the wholly extinct and char-
acteristic Paleozoic types, Cystoidea and Blast-
oidea, Amongst the crustacea were cirripedes,
ostracods, phyllopods, king-crabs, amphipods,
isopods, long-tailed d , and stomapods,
Arachnids were represented by scorpions and other
forms; myriapods and insects by a number of an-
cestral types. All the great classes of molluscan
life were present—Cephalopods appearing first in
the Upper Cambrian; Pteropods in Lower Cam-
brian; Gasteropods in Lower Silurian; and
Lamellibranchs in Upper Cambrian, The fishes
have been already mentioned. Amphibians, repre-
sented by Labyrinthodonts and Baiksanndrods,
first in hg wages acer ‘
mongst plants the prominent weozoic types
are yptogams—Lepidodendroids, Sigillarioids,
and Calamites being exclusively Paleozoic, but
conifers were also present,
It may be noted that many of the characteristic
life-forms of Palwozoic times were what are termed
ic or comprehensive types, that is to say,
types which while belonging fundamentally to some
particular division or group of the animal ae
yet present in their stracture characteristics of one
or more contemporaneous, or as yet non-existing
types. Among such intermediate or comprehen-
sive forms may be mentioned the Labyrinthodonts,
which were urodele amphibians with many piscine
and reptilian characteristics. Examples are also
furnished by the Ganoids, the Trilobites, the
Brach is, the insects, Ke. Amongst plants the
lendroids exhibit similar peculiarities, for
combine characteristics of club-mosses and
fers. Again, many Paleozoic forms attained
a larger size than the corresponding forms that
dbelong to Jater times. Thus, some of the ptero-
phalopods, ds, phyllopods, and in-
sects were larger than a cuveenenene forms of
our own day. The amphibians likewise exceeded
in size any living representatives of thei: class.
Innumerable Palwozoic genera died out before
Mesozoic times, while not a few lived on, and some
have even persisted to the present day. These
versistent forms are met with chiefly among the
oer types of animal life, as foraminifers, brachio-
s, and molluscs. See CAMBRIAN, SILURIAN,
Lp Rep SANDSTONE, CARBONIFEROUS, and
MIAN SYSTEMS,
Mesozoic Life.—The life of Mesozoic times is in
many respects strongly contrasted with that of the
Palwozoic era. In place of Sigillarioids and 0-
dendroids, the prevalent forms of plant-life up
to the close of the Cretaceous period were arbores-
cent and herbaceous ferns, conifers, and cycads,
while in late Cretaceous times the earliest an
sperms appeared, Corals, which were pe
esozoic seas, consisted al
modern types—the
almost to extinction. Echinoids and
abounded, but Crinoids, so prevalent in Paleozoic
seas, were now much reduced in num Some
of the higher grades of the erustacea, which are
hardly known in Paleozoic rocks, were plentiful in
Mesozoic times, and the same was the case with
insects, Brachiopods ceased now to be dominant
forms; while amongst molluses the Cephalopods
take the lead, and reach their culmination in
swarms of Ammonitide and Belemnitide. Gas-
teropods and Lamellibranchs are well represented,
and include a number of modern genera, wh
increased towards the close of the era. Ganoids
were still numerous, eT with symmetrical
tails. Chimeroids, true sharks, and rays were all
represented, while Teleosteans or bony fishes made
their first appearance. Labyrinthodonts, which in
Triassic times attained a great size, soon died out,
making way for the advent of a prodigious tilian
fauna, in which all orders, save the Ophidians,
were represented. There were swimming —
(Ichthyosaurus, q.v., Plesiosaurus, q.v.), flying
reptiles (Pterodactylus, q.v.), snake-like reptiles
(Dinosaurs, see DINOSAURIA ), crocodiles, and chel-
onians, This reptilian life was specially abundant
in Jurassic times. Birds probably were numerous,
some of the forms being toothed, while others mi
have approximated to modern ap ammals
were represented by only the inferior grade of
marsupials, and were all of small size. All the
remarkable reptiles referred to became extinct
lefore the beginning of the Cainozoic era,
it was with the characteristie Mesozoic mollus-
can families of Ammonitide, Belemnitide, and
Hippuritide. Putting aside the lowly :
Protozoa, it may be said that hardly one Cretaceous
species has been met with in Cainozoic or Tertiary
strata. See TRIASSIC, JURASSIC, and CRETACEOUS
SYSTEMS.
Cainozoic Life.—The plants of early Cainozoie
times, although differing specifically and often
generically from living forms, yet approach on the
whole to existing types. Palms were a common
feature of the floras from Eocene into Pliocene
times. Indo-Australian types were common in
Europe during the early etry but later on
forms characteristic of the warmer latitudes of
North America began to abound. A comming!
of Indo-Australian and American types also mar
the bie nye period, but the American forms
gradually increased until in Miocene times they
peaponciees over all the others. The Pliocene
ora of central Europe had a prevalent Mediter-
ranean character. With regard to the lower forme
of animal life, all that need be noted here is the
general fact that these have a modern aspect, the
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j
:
;
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PALZOTHERIUM
PALANQUIN 709
number of existing genera and species becoming
greater as we advance from the lower to the higher
stages. The foraminifers attained now their maxi-
mum development, and are pres ernpiresiet ° -
presented by the large coin-shaped nummulites.
Amongst molluscs the Cephalopods are no longer
dominant forms—the most abundant ig being
Lamellibranchs and Gasteropods. But the most
striking and leading Cainozoic forms were the
mammals. In Eocene times the mammals were
cong developed—many of the forms attaining a
_— size. Among the more notable types of the
early Euro Tertiary are Paleotherium (q.v.),
Anoplotherium (q.v.), along with which were
carnivores, rodents, insectivores, and hats, and also
the earliest representatives of the horse and the
monkey tribe. The later Tertiaries are marked hy
the appearance of Dinotheres, Mastodons, true ele-
phants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamus, deer, antelope,
lles, various carnivores, such as Machairodus,
rs, cats, wolves, &c., and apes. No certain or
unequivocal evidence of man is yet forthcoming
from Tertiary strata.
While it is true that the general aspect of the
plant and animal life of the Cainozoic era approaches
to that of the present, yet this is truer for the less
highly organised types than it is for those which
are higher in the scale of being. Amongst the
higher vertebrates of early Tertiary times not a
few possessed characters which are now met with
only in widely separated forms. Some, for ex-
ample, were intermediate in character between
tapirs and horses; in others (Tillodonts) we meet
with a combination of structures now seen in
ungulates, rodents, and carnivores ; while many of
the carnivores had decided marsupial affinities.
Other remarkable composite forms were the Dino-
cerata (q.v.).
> Serta or Post-Tertiary Life,—The animals
and plants of Quaternary age belong for the most
part to existing species; a number of the higher
vertebrates, however, are extinct. Among these
latter, in Europe, were the Mammoth and various
other elephants, several rhinoceroses, a dwarf form
of hippopotamus, and Machairodus. In North
America the fauna also inelnded various extinet
species, such as Mastodon, an elephant, and several
= members of the Sloth family (Megatherium,
ylodon, Megalonyx). ‘These last seem to have
abounded in South America, where they were asso-
ciated with great armadillos (Glyptodon). The
Quaternary period was characterised by marked
oscillations of climate, and consequently by secular
migrations of flora and fauna. Thus numerous
forms which had survived from the Tertiary era
eventually became extinct, and a still larger number
were banished from the areas which they had
occupied in Pliocene times. It is in the deposits
of the Pleistocene that we meet with the first un-
questioned relics and reinains of man. See PLEIS-
TOCENE SYSTEM, POSTGLACIAL AND RECENT
System; works cited at GEOLOGY ; and the special
handbooks of Paleontology, as by Nicholson (new
ed. 1879), Seeley (1885), Steinmann and Déder-
lein (1888), Zittel (i.-iii. 1879-90), &e.
Palzotherium (Gr., ‘ancient wild beast’), a
genus of pachydermatous mammalia whose remains
occur in the Eocene beds of England and the Con-
tinent. Several species have been described, rang-
ing in size from that of a sheep to that of a horse.
The Upper Eocene gypseous quarries of Montmartre
supplied the first seanty materials, which Cuvier,
by a series of careful and instructive inductions,
built up into an animal resembling the existing
tapir. The restoration, however, is not quite
correct, for the discovery of a complete skeleton
(P. magnum) shows that the animal was longer-
necked, and of a more slender build than the tapir,
and probably was not unlike, in general a) r-
aesés aie livin llama. There pci no bina
however, that Palzotherium resembled the tapir
in erie the snout terminating in a short pro-
boscis. It had three toes on each foot, each
terminated by a hoof. The formula of the teeth
is i. 3, c. }, p.m. {3-4}, m. 3, and the structure
of the upper true molars, in certain particulars,
seeins to foreshadow that of some of the Equide.
Palzotherium magnum.
It is supposed that animals of this genus dwelt on
the margins of lakes and rivers, and that their
habits were similar to those of the tapir.
Paleozoic (Gr., ‘ancient life’), the name given
to the lowest division of the fossiliferous rocks,
hecause they contain the earliest forms of life.
Ther were formerly, and are still generally, known
as the Primary rocks. The strata included under
these titles are the Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian
and Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous, and Per-
mian systems.
Palafox .y Melzi, José pr, Duke of Sara-
gossa, a Spanish soldier, was born in 1780 of a dis-
tinguished Aragonese family, and rose to the rank
of brigadier-general in the Spanish guards. His
defence of Saragossa (q.v.), 22d July 1808 to 21st
February 1809, which only yielded to the French
after a second investment, is one of the most heroic ,
incidents in modern history. Palafox y Melzi was
carried prisoner to France, and not released until
1813. he year after his return home he was
appointed captain-general of Aragon, in 1836 was
created Duke of Saragossa, and in 1837 grandee
of Spain and captain-general of the guards. He
died at Madrid, 15th February 1847.
Palagonite-tuff, usually associated with
basalt-lavas, is fine-grained, red, brown, and some-
times greenish or yellowish in colour. Under the
microscope it is seen to be composed of minute
fragments of voleanic glass, crowded amongst
which are granules and crystals of augite, olivine,
plagioclase, and magnetite. It occurs in Sicily,
the Canary Islands, the Faroe Islands, Iceland,
and Scotland. See IgNEous Rocks.
Palanpur, capital of a native state in Gujarat,
lies 83 miles N. of Ahmedabad by rail. The state
has an area of 3150 sq. m. and a pop. of 234,402.
The ‘Palanpur Agency’ comprises, besides Palan-
pur, twelve other small native states.
Palanquin, or PALKI, an Indian vehicle corre-
sponding somewhat to the Roman litter and the
modern European sedan-chair, but, unlike the
latter, used for long distances by travellers where
railways or good carriage-roads do not exist. It is
a wooden box, about 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and
4 feet high, with wooden shutters which can be
opened or shut at pleasure, and constructed like
enetian blinds. At each end of the palanquin,
on the outside, two rings are fixed, and the ham-
mals, or palanquin-bearers, of whom there are
four, two at each end, support the palanquin by
a pole passing through these rings.
710 PALAPTERYX
PALATINATE ~
Palapteryx (Gr., ‘ancient apteryx’), a genus
of fossil birds whose remains are found in the river-
silt d its of New Zealand, associated with the
tic Dinornis, and which, like it, resembled
the form of the sternum, and the structure of
the pelvis and legs, the living wingless apteryx.
Palapteryx, however, seems to have possessed
rudimentary wings. See Moa.
Palapwe. See SHosuonc.
Palate, the roof of the mouth, consists of two
portions, the hard palate in front and the soft
ate behind. The framework of the hard palate
is formed by the intermaxillary bones, the palate
processes of the superior maxillary bones, and by
the horizontal processes of the palate bones, and is
bounded in front and at the sides by the alveolar
arches and gums, and posteriorly is continuous
with the soft palate. It is covered by a dense
The Mouth widely opened so as to show the Palate :
1, 1, the upper, and 2, the lower lip; 8, 3, the hari palate;
4, 4, the soft palate; 5, the uvula; 6, 6, the arches of the soft
palate; 7, 7, the tonsils; 8, the tongue.
structure formed by the periosteum and mucous
membrane of the mouth, which are closely ad-
herent. Along the middle line is a linear ridge or
raphe, on either side of which the mucous mem-
brane is thick, pale, and corrugated, while behind
it is thin, of a darker tint, and smooth. This
membrane is covered with sealy epithelium, and
is furnished with numerous follicles (the palatal
glands). The soft palate is a wovable told of
miicous membrane enclosing muscular fibres, and
suspended from the posterior border of the hard
palate so to form an incomplete septum between
the month and the pharynx ; its sides being blended
with the pharynx, while its lower border is free,
When occupying its usual position (that is to say,
when the muscnlar fibres contained in it are
relaxed) its anterior surface is concave; and
when its muscles are called into action, as in
swallowing a morsel of food, it is raised and made
tense, and the food is thus prevented from passing
into the posterior nares, and is at the same time
directed obliquely backwards and downwards into
the pharynx.
Hanging from the middle of its lower border is
a smal por setel cer mace process, the wvula ;
passing outwards from the uvula on each side are
two curved folds of mucous membrane con
muscular fibres, and called the arches or pillars
the soft palate, The anterior pillar is continued
downwards to the side of the of the tongue.
The posterior pillar is larger than the anterior,
and runs downwards and backwards to the side of
the pharynx, The anterior and posterior pillars
are closely united above, but are separated Ww
by an angular interval, in which the tonsil of either
side is lod ed. The tonsils (amygdale) are gland-
ular organs of a rounded form, which v:
siderably in size in different individuals. bef are
composed of an assemblage of mucous follicles,
which secrete a thick grayish matter, and open on
the surface of the gland by numerous (twelve to
fifteen) orifices. The space left between the arches
of the palate on the two sides is called the isthmus
of the fauces. It is bounded above by the free
margin of the palate, below by the tongue, and
on each side by the pillars of the soft palate and
tonsils.
As the upper lip may be fissured through imper-
fect development (in which case it presents the con-
dition known as Hare-lip, q.v.), so also may there be
more or Jess decided fissure of the palate. In the
slightest form of this affection the uvula merely is
fissured, while in extreme cases the cleft extends
through both the soft and hard palate as far for-
ward as the lips, and is then often combined with
hare-lip, When the fissure is considerable it
materially interferes with the acts of sucking and
swallowing, and the infant runs a great risk of
being starved ; and if the child grows up its arti-
culation is patntally indistinct. The closure of
cleft palate by operation must be left in the hands
of an experienced surgeon, who should be called to
see the child as soon as the defect is noticed. If
the separation is too great to admit of closure by
operation, a plate or ‘artificial palate’ may be made
to cover the opening.
Acute inflammation of the tonsils, popularly
known as Quinsy, is treated of in a rate
article. Chronic enlargement of the tonsils is very
frequent in scrofulous children, and is not rare
in scrofulous persons of more advanced age,
my give rise to very considerable inconvenience
and distress. It may occasion difficulty in swallow-
ing, confused and inarticulate speech, d in
various degrees from closure of the Eustachian tubes
(now often termed throat deafness), and noisy and
laborious respiration, especially during sleep; and
it may even cause death by suffocation, induced by
the entanglement of viscid mucus between the en-
Pet ge glands. If local and constitutional remedies
fail to reduce the enlarged tonsils they must be
more or less removed by the surgeon, either by the
knife or scissors, or by a small guillotine specially
invented for the purpose.
Enlargement or relaxation of the uvula is not
uncommon, and gives rise to a constant tickling
cough and to expectoration, by the irritation of the
larynx which it occasions, If it will not yield to
local treatment it may require to be removed either
in whole or in part.
Palatinate (Ger. Pfalz), the name for two
“German states, which were united till the year
1623. They were distinguished as the Upper and
Lower Palatinate. The eee or Bavarian Pala-
tinate, now forming a circle of the kingdom of
Bavaria, was a duchy, its capital being Amberg.
The Lower Palatinate, or the Palatinate on
Rhine, lay on both sides of the Rhine, with an area
of 3150 sq. m., and included, besides the Electoral
i, el
—
ae
"PALATINE
PALERMO 711
Palatinate proper, the principality of Simmern, the
duchy of Zweibriicken, the principalities of Veldenz
and utern, &c., and was bounded by Mainz,
Tréves, Lorraine, Alsace, Baden, and Wiirtemberg.
Its capital was Heidelberg.
The counts of the Rhenish Palatinate were estab-
lished in the hereditary possession of the territory
of that name, and of the lands attached to it, as
early as the llth century. In 1216 it was granted
to sa Duke of Bavaria, and with various combina-
tions the Rhenish Palatinate and the Bavarian
territories were held by members of the Bavarian
house and its branches. Sometimes the electoral
dignity was alternately exercised by the Duke of
Bavaria and the holder of the Rhenish Palatinate.
In 1559 the Rhenish Palatinate and the electoral
vote to Frederick IIL, who introduced
Calvinism. Frederick V. (q.v.) was the ‘ Winter
King’ of the Thirty Years’ War, who in 1623 lost
his lands to his kinsman the Duke. Bavaria
retained the Upper Palatinate and the electoral
dignity ; but the Rhenish Palatinate was in 1648
given to Frederick’s son, and the eighth electorate
created for him. In 1694, during the war of the
Spanish suecession, the elector received again the
Tipoee Palatinate and all the ancient rights, re-
sumed again by Bavaria after the war. During
this time the Rhenish Palatinate was repeatedly
and cruelly desolated by French armies; and in
1801 France took possession of all on the left bank
of the Rhine, giving the rest to Bavaria, Nassau,
and Hesse Darmstadt. In 1815 the left bank was
restored to Germany, the larger part of the Lower
Palatinate being, granted to varia (Rhenish
Bavaria); Prussia got the Rhine Province; Hesse
Starkenburg and Rhine Hesse ; and Baden Mann-
heim, Heidelberg, and Mosbach. The religion of
the palatinate has been successively Catholic, Cal-
vinist, Lutheran, Calvinist, and Catholic again, in
accordance with the tenets of the reigning prince.
For the area and population of the modern Upper
and Lower Palatinate, see BAVARIA.
Palatine (from Lat. palatium, ‘palace’). A
Comes Palatinus, or Count Palatine, was, under
the Frankish kings of France, a high judicial officer
(see COUNT), his district being called a palatinate
or county palatine. In England Chester and Dur-
ham became palatine under William I., doubtless
on account A their respective proximity to the
frontiers of Wales and of Scotland. Chester had
not 7 its own courts, judges, constables, and
steward, but a parliament, and was not represented
in the national parliament until 1549 ; it was assim-
ilated by Henry VIII. Durham ceased to be a
county palatine under its bishop in 1836. Lancas-
ter became palatine in 1451, and yielded its juris-
diction in 1873 to the High Court of Justice (see
LANCASTER, Ducuy oF). At various dates Kent,
Shropshire, Pembrokeshire, the Isle of Ely, and
Hexhamshire, were counties palatine, but had lost
their special rights by the 16th century. Of similar
rivileges in — Scotland, the Earls Palatine of.
Btrathearn held the most important.
Palatine Hill (Mons Palatinus), the central
hill of the famous seven on which ancient Rome
was built, and, according to tradition, the seat of
the earliest Roman settlements. See Rome.
Palawan, the most westerly island of the Phil-
ippines (q.v.). Area, 2315 sq.m. It is long and
narrow, with an axial mountain-chain, and has ex-
tensive and well-protected bays and harbours. The
soil is fertile, yielding the products of the archi-
pelago. Capital, Puerta Princesa. Pop. 45,000.
Pale, in Irish history (see IRELAND, Vol. VI. p.
204), means that portion of the ain, se over whic
the English rule and law was acknowledged. It
varied very greatly at various dates, but for a long
period meant generally Dublin and the greater part
of the adjoining counties.
Palem’bang, capital of a residency (formerly
an independent kingdom ) near the south end ot
Sumatra, stands on the river Musi, 50 miles from
its mouth; the houses of the town are built on
great log rafts on either bank. Manufactures,
trade in silk goods, carved wood, ornaments in gold
and ivory, and krises, as well as shipbuilding, are
carried on. In the middle ages Palembang was one
of the most important centres of Arabian trade
on, aay Pop. 43,368; and of the residency,
Palencia (the ancient Pallantia), a walled
city of Spain, in Old Castile, stands in a fruitful
pee 180 miles by rail NNW. of Madrid and 29
NE. of Valladolid. The Gothic cathedral was
built 1321-1504. The first university of Castile
was founded here in 1208, but was removed to
Salamanca in 1239. Blankets and coarse woollen
cloths are manufactured. The vine is cultivated,
and there is a good trade in wool. Pop. 14,505.
—The province of Palencia has an area of 3256
sq. m. and a pop. (1887) of 188,954.
Palenque, Rurys or, lie between the Michol
and Chacamas rivers, in the north of the Mexican
state of Chiapas, 6, miles E. of the village of
Santo Domingo de Palenque. The ruins extend
over 20 to 30 acres, and are buried in a dense
be a forest; trees grow over and about the
buildings, and rise even from the tower. The
ruins consist of vast artificial terraces, or terraced
truncated pyramids, of cut stone, surmounted by
edifices of peculiar and solid architecture, also
of cut stone, covered with figures in relief, or
figures and hieroglyphies in stueco, with remains
of brilliant colours. Most of the buildings are of
one story, but a few are two, three, and some
may have been four stories. The principal struc-
ture, known as the Palace, is 228 feet long, 180
feet deep, and some 25 feet high, standing on a
terraced truncated pyramid of corresponding dimen-
sions ; the front contained fourteen Benin: each
about 9 feet wide. The building was irregular,
and built in two distinct parts, with double eqluadon
of unequal length running round it, and two large
courts, also irregular in shape. Charnay holds that
the Palace was a magnificent convent ; Palenque,
he says, was a holy city, ‘a place of pilgrimage,
teeming with shrines and temples, a vast and
muceli-sought burial-place;’ in the whole place
‘there seems to have been nothing but temples
and tombs.’
See Stephens’s Incidents of Travel in Central America,
&c., and Catherwood’s Views of Ancient Monuments, &c. ;
Charnay’s Ancient Cities of the New World (Eng. trans,
1887); also La Rochefoucauld, Palenque et la Civilisa-
tion Maya (Paris, 1888).
Palermo, formerly the capital of Sicily, now
in point of population the fifth city of Italy, an
archbishopric, and a seaport. It stands in the
north-west corner of the island, on a bay that faces
east, and at the mouth of a fertile valley called the
Conea d’Oro (‘Golden Shell’), 120 miles by rail
W. of Messina, and occupies a picturesque site,
being backed by mountains—on the north by
Mount Pellegrino, with a (pilgrimage) grotto
chapel (1624) to St Rosalia, whose festival is one
of the great annual events of the city. The streets
are for the most part handsome, and there are
many fine old houses. The oldest public buildings
date from the Norman period, and belong to two
ayes of architecture—Saracen and Byzantine.
The most conspicuous of them all is the cathedral
of St Rosalia, Wailt (1169-85) by an Englishman,
Archbishop Walter; it contains sepulchral monu-
ments to Roger I., the emperors Henry VI. and
712 PALERMO
PALESTINE
Frederick IL, and in the crypt the tombs of the
archbishops. Others to be named are the chapel
(1143) in the royal with ilicent
mosaics ; the Norman hall, in the same pile; and
(with fine mosaics), St
John of the Hermits (1132), and St Cataldo; and
the mansions of Ziza, Cuba, La Favara, and Miin-
nerno, all outside the city. There are close upon
three hundred churches and chapels in Palermo,
The royal palace, built by Roger L., is principally
of ish construction; in it Piazzb established
his observatory. The other public buildings—
archbishop's palace, town-house, law-courts, uni-
versity, , &e.—do not call for particular
mention. The university (1447) has 70 teachers
and 1100 students, with schools of engineering,
fine arts, conveyancing, &c. There are also. a
national museum, the town library (1775) with
141,000 vols. and 2640 MSS., and the national
library (1804) with 110,000 vols. and 12,000 MSS.
Industry is little developed ; machinery, essences,
sumach, turnery, iron-founding, books, gloves, and
represent almost the only branches. But
Palermo is an important seaport, with a large,
though not growing, trade. Oranges, lemons,
dried fruits, sumach, tartar, grain, oils, manna,
sulphur, wine, animal produce, and lemon-juice
are the princi} exports, and ave’ £1,457,700
per annum. The imports—grain and vegetables,
cottons and woollens, coals, live-stock, iron, timber,
groceries, silk, hides, petroleum, machinery, linen,
metals, and glassware —fell from £1,439,515 in
1887 to £732,167 in 1889. The bulk of this trade
is with Great Britain, France, and the United
States. There is also a coasting trade—imports,
from 3 to 34 millions sterling; exports, about 1
million sterling. Some 3500 vessels of 1,200,000
tons enter ev year, an average of 430,000 tons
being British. and 685,600 tons Italian. Pop.
(1894) 276,000. The first we know of Palermo,
the ancient Panormus, is that it was a Phoenician
city, and the stronghold of Carthage in Sicily. It
was conqnered snecessively by Pyrrhus (276 B.c.),
the Romans (254 B.c.), the Vandals (440 A.D.),
Belisarius (535), the Saracens (835), the Pisans
(1063), and the Normans from Apulia (1071).
Henceforward it was the capital of the kingdom
of Sicily (q.v.), first of the Norman kingdom,
then of that of the Angevins and their Spanish
successors. It suffered severely from earthquakes
in 1693, 1726, and 1823. The city revolted against
the Bourbon kings of Naples in 1820 and 1848, and
was freed from them in 1860 by Garibaldi. But
since then it has been only a provincial capital.—
The province of Palermo has an area of 1985 sq. m.
and a pop. (1895) of 819,765.
See the excellent guidebook of Gsell Fels; Morso, De-
serizione di Pulermo Antico (1827); Sclubring, Histor-
tache Topographic von Panormus (1870) ; Springer, Afittel-
alterliche Kuust in Palermo (1369); Holm, Studii di
Storia Palermitena (1880); Freeman, Historical E.
(34 series, 1879), and his History of Sicily (1891),
Palestine,—I. /istory.—The name of Palestine
is an i!lastration of the part taken for the whole.
In the song of Moses (Exod. xv, 14) sorrow falls
upon Palestina, and amazement upon Edom at the
coming of Israel. Palestine was to Moses as it was
afterwards to Isaiah and to Joel, to Herodotus, to
the Greeks, the Egyptians, and the Assyrians, to
ay act and to Jerome, simply the Plain of
Philistia, the Wroad slip of coast inhabited by the
Philistines. Milton restricts the word to this
sense. The country has received various names at
different times, with all of which we are familiar.
It has been called Canaan, or the Land of Canaan,
the Land simply, the Land of Israel, the Land of
Promise, and the Holy Land, 4 name which, in the
words of Quaresmius, ‘though of later date than
the churches of
the rest,
them all.’
The nations inhabiting this count
ally given, six in number. A seventh
added in one or two lists. These nations were the
Canaanites, the Hivites, the Hittites, the Amorites,
the Perizzites, and the Jebusites, The seventh
were the Girgashites. The Canaanites—‘low-
landers ’—occupied the country east and west of
the highlands—that is to say, the seaboard and the
valley of the Jordan ; the Hittites, a branch of the
great kingdom whose extent and history are only
now beginning to be recovered, dwelt in what was
afterwards Judwa, the Hivites in Samaria, the
Perizzites in Galilee, the Amorites in the north,
the Jebusites in and around Jerusalem. Of the
Girgashites nothing is known. Other tribes there
were—those of Moab, Ammon, Midian, and Edom
on the east of Jordan, all of Semitic descent; the
yet in excellency and dignity surpasses —
f the Conquest were, accordin to the list
a a |
is
a
tall races—Rephaim, Zuzim, and Anakim; the
Horim cave-dwellers ; and there were the Amale-
kites, who defended the mountain-passes near
Sinai, and the Philistines, of Egyptian origin ; in
later times they were called Cherethites, and at this
day there is a village in Philistia called Keretiya.
he flood of conquest rolled over these tribes.
When the invaders had settled down within the
boundaries allotted to them, we find them fighting "
con-
for their new possessions, being driven back
solidating their position. The conquered people
were nowhere exterminated: the Jebusites held
their own in Jerusalem, the Amorites in Ephraim
the Philistines took and lost and retook Gaza an
Ascalon. There are many who regard the fellaheen
of modern Syria as the direct descendants of the
Perizzite, the Amorite, and the Hivite.
How long the Israelite tribal distinctions were
kept up it is difficult to say. We find them strongly
marked in the early history, but they grow fainter
in the later books.
that Solomon's twelve provinces corresponded
mainly with the twelve tribes. During the term
covered by the Book of ree. 5 and part of Samuel
there was no capital city and no central authority.
The religious centre was shifted; the ark rested at
Shiloh, at Nob, at Gibeon, and at Bethel. Jern-
salem became the capital of David and Solomon,
but on the foundation of the northern kingdom
Shechem, Tirzah, and Samaria became successively
its capital.
Whien the Jews returned from the grant Captivity
they occupied a territory extending from Jerusalem
in the north to Beersheba in the south, and from
Jericho in the east to Lachish in the west. The
Philistines remained in undisturbed possession of
their lands; the Idummans were driven back to
their deserts ; on the north were the hostile Samari-
s. ’
The Maccabean struggle for independence—a
part of history which finds few students, yet a
struggle heroic in its conduct and stupendons in
its results—preserved the national existence. That
there were Jews in the time of Herod, that there
are Jews still, is due to the heroism of
immortal brothers.
The kingdom of Herod the Great covered the
whole country divided into tribes by Joshna, with
the exception of a small portion in the south-west
and the tribe of Asher in the north. West of
Jordan it contained Galilee, a province unknown
hy that name to the Old Testament; Sa
also unknown before the Captivity; Judea
Jdumma; east of the Jordan it contained Perma,
Ganlonitis, Auranitis, and Trachonitis—the ten
cities of the Decapolis belon,
and partly to Gaulonitis, Of these provinces the
most fertile and the most densely populated was
It is not without significance
1 partly to Perea
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ta
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IR aTORY
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PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND
English: Miles 69 16- One Degree
Levitical Cities Gibbethon
Cities of Refuge Kedesh +
=
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Geographical Miles 60-One Degree
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Reduc
from the Maps
by the Committee
> PALESTINE
W& R.CHAMBERS, LIMITED LONDON & EDINBURGH.
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PALESTINE
713
Galilee. He who takes the trouble to examine the
large map of the Palestine Exploration Fund and
to compare with it the statements made by
Josephus will be astonished at the overwhelming
evidence of a vast population and of exuberant
fertility. Nowhere else in the country are there so
many ruins of ancient towns; on every hill-top in
a country which is a succession of hills is a Khurbet
or ruin; springs abound; there are the traces of
ancient terraces on the hillsides, extensive heaps of
pottery, ancient cemeteries, broken oil-presses,
groups of rock-hewn cisterns; proofs on sides
of the ancient prosperity.
This period of prosperity, encouraged by the
Roman rulers, was destroyed by the madness of
the Jews themselves. It vanished with the cam-
paign of Vespasian and with the destruction of the
temple by Titus. Even these rude lessons failed
to quell the fiery spirit of the people. A second
time they rose in revolt, not only in Judza, but also
in Egypt, Cyrene, Babylonia, Cyprus, and Meso-
tamia. They were subdued. But again, when
adrian endeavoured to suppress altogether this
turbulent Judaism, there flowed a rising, the
wildest, the most blood-thirsty of all the Jewish
revolts. It was led by Bar-Cochba (q.v.), ‘Son
of the Star,’ the pretended Messiah, whose pre-
tensions were recognised by Akiba (q.v.) himself,
most learned of all the Jewish doctors. The re-
bellion was followed by a siege of Jerusalem, con-
cerning which history is almost silent. It was
probably marked by all the horrors which belong
to the siege by Titus. The last stand was made
at the fortress of Bether, when Bar-Cochba with
an immense number of his followers was slain.
Then for a period Jerusalem vanishes from his-
tory. It is Zilia Capitolina; a temple of Jupiter
was erected on the site of Herod’s temple; no Jew
was allowed to appear even within sight of the
Holy City. Outside, for the next hundred Minor
thongh perseentions raged, the progress of Christi-
anity was rapid and continuous; pilgrimages began
to the holy places, and as a natural consequence
Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem.
After
inding of the
Cross, and the building of the church of the Holy
Sepulchre, the history of Palestine becomes for
more holy places were discovered every day.
the conversion of Constantine, the
three hundred years ecclesiastical. The country
was all the time a battlefield, but the weapons
were tongues and pens, and the missiles were
words and arguments. Arius, Pelagius, and other
persons of curious and questioning disposition kept
the Holy Land in a continual state of unqniet.
The Samaritans gave trouble from time to time
by murdering Christians ; they were quieted in the
usual manner, ‘by punishment.’ All Syria became
a nest of monasteries, nunneries, and hermitages.
In order to build their monasteries the old syna-
gogues, the old fortresses, were destroyed and their
stones used again. In every cave was a recluse;
on every hillside lived a hermit ; some erected lofty
pillars and Jived upon the top for all to see; the
discovery of relics, holy bones, and holy places
went on without interruption. Day and night, it
is said, the air resounded with litanies. In a word,
the land was given over to monks, for whom the
country-people—the descendants of the Perizzites
and the Amorites—tilled the fertile soil, grew the
corn, pressed the oil, and made the wine.
Then King Chosroes, tle Persian, marched into
Syria (614 A.p.). The Jews, who had been quiet,
but were neither dead nor converted, raised their
heads in hope and gladly joined his victorious army.
What the Persians did in the country itself may be
guessed from the fact that in Jerusalem alone they
massacred 90,000 Christians (the number may be
taken as indicating a gigantic slaughter) and
destroyed the whole of the buildings. When
they retreated they left behind them along the
broad track of their march ruined churches and
monasteries destroyed by hundreds, with thousands
of dead Christians to rejoice the eyes of the Jews
who followed in the train. Fifteen years later
Heraclius reconquered the province of Syria. ‘The
ruined churches were partly restored, the monas-
teries partly rebuilt. Tut for six years only, for
then followed an enemy worse P hem Chosroes,
because, though the Persian destroyed, he went
away. The new-comer came to stay. In the year
636 A.D. the calif Omar with his Moslems took
Jerusalem and proceeded to reduce the whole of the
test which indeed offered no resistance. After
three hundred years of the ecclesiastics followed
four hundred years of the Moslems. Jew and
Christian were alike tolerated ; the latter with a
little less contempt than the
former. Early in this period the
Dome of the Rock (‘Mosque of
Omar’), the most beautiful build-
ing in the world, was erected for
Abd el Melek by Byzantine archi-
tects. The church of the Holy
Sepulchre, or the group of churches
bearing that collective name, was
completed and beautified. We
hear nothing more, however, of the
monks. They disappeared at the
first approach of the Moham-
medans, and were no more seen,
Except for the invasion,*in 1244,
by the Chorasmians (or Khariz-
*mians; see Kuiva), then fol-
lowed a period of peace for the
country. It was also a period of
continual pilgrimages. Men from
all parts of western Europe visited
the country, and knelt weeping at
the places which had seen the
sufferings of the Lord. And year
by year while men related how
these places where miracles were
wrought daily were in the hands of the infidels,
who cursed and reviled the Christian pilgrims, the
indignation grew until the world was ripe for the
Crusades,
The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem began in the
year 1099, and lasted less than a hundred years,
except in name. But it took two hundred years
before the Christians were finally driven from the
coast of Syria, and longer than that before the
74
PALESTINE
great idea of the Crusades (q.v.) finally faded out of
men’s minds, and d to be a factor in European
polities,
For five hundred years Palestine has been so far
happy that she has contributed little to the history
of the world. The Turk succeeded the Saracen ;
there has been no progress till the present yenera-
tion; the rains have become more ruinous ; pashas
come and go; the people are oppressed with taxes ;
the young men are taken for soldiers, and they
never one back ; but the country has been for the
most n peace,
IL. MPhysicad Description of the Holy Land.—
Palestine proper contains an area of about 6000 sq.
m. tis hounded on the N. by the river fees 1
(the ‘ divider’), which is never merttioned at all in
the Bible; on the E. by the Jordan, and on the W.
by the sea. At first sight the map shows ridge
upon ridge of hills running east and west, sloping
gradually to the west, and descending steeply to
the east. On the west is a long strip of low sea-
board varying in breadth, vanishing altogether at
the foot of Carmel, and broadening sonthward into
the Plain of Philistia. The Bible speaks of the
country as consisting of desert, mountain, plain,
low hills (Shephelah), and valley. In North
Galilee the watershed runs at an average height
of 2800 feet above the sea, while the highest peak
rises to a height of 3934 feet. In Samaria the hills
are lower, not rere! above 3000 feet, while south
of Jerusalem the hills again rise to over 2300 feet.
The north country contains the Plains of Buttauf
and the rich plain of Esdraelon, 20 miles long and
9 miles broad, elevated, at its highest point, 250
feet above the sea. The principal elevations in
the atry are Jebel Jermftk, 3934 feeb; Carmel,
1740 feet high and 12 miles long; Mount Ebal,
3084 feet, and Mount Gerizim, 2849 feet; Tell
Asiir, 3318 feet; aud R&s esh Sherifeh, 3258 feet,
the only known spot whence the Dead Sea and
Mediterranean Sea are visible. The Maritime
Plain, formed partly by the denudation of the
mountains and partly by accumulation of sand,
possesses a fertile soil; deep gullies ran across it,
with, in some cases, perennial streams. The
Jordan Valley begins with the rise of the stream
1000 feet above the Mediterranean, and in 100 miles
has fallen to 1292 feet below the Mediterranean,
This is a drop of nearly 2300 feet, or 23 feet in a
mile. The valley itself varies in width from 5 miles,
where it begins, to 13 miles in the Plain of Jericho.
The country terminates southward with the Jeshi-
mon, the ‘Solitude’ of the Old Testament or the
* Wilderness of Judea’ of the New, a platean of
white — rising in cliffs 2000 feet high above the
Palestine is poorly snpplied with rivers. The
following, large and small, flow into the Mediter-
ranean: The Nahr Mefshukh, Nahr Namein (the
Belus), Nahr el Mukatta (the Kishon), Nahr el
Zerka, Nahr el Mefjir, Nahr Iskanderfineh, Nahr el
Falik, Nahr el Aujeh, Nahr Rubin, Nahr Sukereir.
The following are the sources of the Jordan: Nahr
Bareighit, Nahr el HAshany, Nahr el Leddin, Nahr
Banias. On the eastern side, not counting a few
winter rills which run into the Sea of Galilee, there
are the Nahr Yarmuk, Nahr Rukkad, Nahr Zerka
(the Jabbok), Nahr Zerka MA’ain, and Nahr Mojib
(the Arnon), Those which flow into the Jordeh
on the west side are Nahr Jalid and Nahr Far’ah.
The country is not, therefore, plentifully supplied
with streams, On the other hand, it is a country
abounding in springs. The three lakes of Huleh,
Galilee, and the Dead Sea are its only lakes.
The climate of Palestine is extremely hot in
summer, when the temperature reaches 100° F.,
and in winter it is wet and cold, though frost does
not occur on the plains. There are heavy dews.
The ‘former rain’ and the ‘latter rain’ are those
which occur at autumnal and vernal equinoxes.
The fauna and flora of Palestine have been
treated exhaustively by Canon Tristram, ;
distinetive trees of the count
the olive, the cedar, and the sycamore,
shittim-wood is supposed to have been the acacia,
The vine of Sodom is the osher, which has a fruit
like a lemon, containing pith. The rose of Sharon
is a white narcissus ; and the lily of the valley is
the blue iris.
Many of the names of creatures mentioned in
the Bible have been so translated in the old version
as to convey quite a false impression. Thus, the
‘unicorn ’—rém—was a species of wild-ox now
extinct. This, is shown hy the A
reliefs, The ‘hart’ is the fallow-deer ; the ‘
is not the rabbit, but the Syrian hyrax ; the ‘leo-
pard’ is the cheetah; the ‘fox’ is the jackal; the
‘mouse’ is the jerboa; the ‘weasel’ is the mole-
rat; the ‘badger’ is the porpoise. The leviathan
is probably the crocodile, still found in one or two
of the rivers. The wild-goat—bex—is still found
in large herds in the southern wilderness ; the lion
is extinct ; the bear lingers in the mountains; the
hywna is common; the wolf is rare; the dog is
an unclean creature living in the outskirts of
towns, and feeding on garbage. Of birds, man
mentioned in the Bible cannot be identified. A
those which can be identified are still to be fi
Of insects, the locust still devastates the erops;
the grasshopper still serves for food; the hornet
and the wasp are still regarded with terror; and
the worship of the ‘Jord of flies’ is still explained
by the multitudes of those insects in the low
Geology.—In no other country are the physical
features more indicative of the geological structure
than in Palestine ; and every student of the history
of this remarkable country will recognise the
important bearing which these features have had on
the political and religions history of its inhabitants,
The region is physically divisible into four parts:
(1) The maritime district, extending poe the
shore of the Mediterranean, and ineluding Philistia;
(2) the central tableland or ‘hill-country’ of
Judwa, culminating in the Lebanon towards the
north and spreading out into the great plain of the
Badiet-et-Tih in an opposite direction; (3) the
depression of the Jordan Valley and
separating Eastern from Western Palestine; an
(4) the tableland of Edom, Moab, and the on
of Trachonitis to the east of the Jordan Valley
hounded by an abrupt and lofty escarpment, an
stretching away towards the east into the )
of Arabia. Taking these divisions in the order
here stated, their geological structure may be
briefly described as follows :
(1) The maritime district, having an average
elevation of about 200 feet above the sea, is formed
of marls, sand, and gravel, with shells teloniek to
species now living in the adjoining seas. These
deposits are, in fact, the upraised sea-beaches
belonging to geologically recent times, and indicate
considerable eel changes at a period partiall
prehistoric. These littoral deposits rest upon eal-
careous sandstones of perhaps Miocene age, which
terminate inland along the borders of the central ~
tableland. (2) This latter is composed of lime-
stones and marls, of Cretaceous and Eocene age,
with bands of marl and layers or nodules of chert;
the whole having a thickness of about 3500 feet.
The beds rise from beneath the calcareous sand-
stone of Philistia, and form a vast crenelated
arch, the central axis of which in a meri-
dional direction under the summit of the table-
land, where the strata are nearly horizontal ; and
upon which are the sites of Nablas, Jerusalem,
Bethlehem, and Hebron. Fossils in these strata
are the terebinth, “a
|
a
PALESTINE
715
are only locally abundant, but are quite sufficient
to enable us to refer the beds either to the Cre-
taceous or Eocene periods. (3) The great depres-
sion of the Jordan Valley and Dead Sea, known as
the Ghér, lies along the line of a great fault, or
dislocation of the strata, owing to which the strata
do not correspond to each ze on opposite sides
of the valley, but are vertically displaced; being
let down on the west and elevated along the east.
The fault has been traced southwards along the
eastern margin of the Wady-el-’Arabah, and in
Palestine its position is marked by the abrupt
uprising of the tableland along the eastern side of the
Jordan Valley and the Ghér. The valley itself on
either side is often diversified by terraces of marl,
sand, and gravel, with lacustrine or fluviatile shells,
and of rock-salt along the western margin of the
Dead Sea. These terraces are at various levels above
the present waters of the valley, and reach to a
height of about 1200 feet above the Dead Sea
surface in the ’Arabah Valley. As they are clearly
lake-deposits they indicate that the waters of the
Dead Sea once rose to a level of 1200 feet higher
than at present, thus forming a lake which must
have had a length of 120 miles from north to south,
embracing the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan as
far as the lake of Huleh. The remarkable promon-
tory called El Lissan (or ‘The Tongue’), which
ee out into the Dead Sea from the base of the
oabite escarpment, as well as the corresponding
terrace of rock-salt capped by gypseous marl on the
west side of the Dead Sea, are portions of a once
continuous bed of this more ancient and vastly more
extensive inland lake. (4) Along the east of the
Jordan Valley and Dead Sea the base of the Creta-
ceons limestone is seen reposing upon variegated
sandstone, known as the ‘Nubian Sandstone’ of
Lower Cretaceous age and this again on various
erystalline rocks, such as granite, gneiss, porphyry,
and schist, of great geological antiquity. Of these
rocks the flanks of the Edomite Mountains are
composed, as well as those forming the Sinaitic
peninsula. In the valley of the Nile the same
series reaches the surface at the First Cataract,
and is seen to pass below the Nubian sandstone.
Everywhere these crystalline rocks are the founda-
tion of all the geological formations of this region,
and have been referred to the Archzean or Lauren-
tian period. Tle Cretaceous and Eocene lime-
stones form the surface of the tableland of Edom
and Moab, and extend eastwards under the great
elevated plain of the Arabian Desert, a counterpart
of the Libyan Desert west of the Nile. From the
neighbourhood of Kerak nortliwards these lime-
stone strata are intersected or overlaid by dykes
and sheets of basalt, which form the region of
Trachonitis east of the Sea of Galilee, and which
have been poured forth from voleanic vents and
fissures in the region of the Hauran. Some of the
voleanie cones and vents are remarkably perfect
and fresh—resembling those of the Auvergne region
in central France, both having been developed in
Post-Tertiary times ; and it is not improbable that
some of the hot springs which issue forth along
the line of the Jordan owe their high temperature
to the proximity of the underground waters to the
still heated masses of lava beneath the surface.
In the Lebanon and Hermon the Cretaceous and
Tertiary limestones are thrown into numerous
flexures, and are repeated by successive faults,
amongst which the most important is the prolonga-
tion of the Jordan Valley fault, which, judging
from indications which have been observed, appears
to be continued along the valley of the Orontes.
Il. The Exploration of the Country.—The stream
of pilgrims to the Holy Land began in the 2d
century, and has never since then ceased. This
stream rose to its highest flood in the century
before the Crusaders, when the Mediterranean was
covered with ships conveying the pilgrims to the
shores of the Holy Land, and the roads were black
with the troops of those who walked or rode
through Europe and across Asia Minor. Those
of them who returned in safety told what they had
seen. Some of them wrote descriptions of the Holy
Land. Thus, in the 4th century, a pilgrim from
Bordeaux, who visited the country when Con-
stantine’s basilica was being built, wrote an
account of his journey. In the same century
Eusebius produced an Onomasticon or gazetteer
of the Holy Land. Later on Jerome, Eucherius,
Theodorus, Antoninus Martyr, Procopius, before
the Mohammedan conquest, wrote accounts of the
country and of Jerusalem. After the conquest the
pilgrims were allowed to come and go unmolested.
Arculphus, Willibald, Bernard, and others have
left descriptions which belong to the 7th, 8th, and
9th centuries. Moreover, the Moslems themselves
began to write. About 985 El Mukaddasi, ‘the
man of Jerusalem,’ described the whole of Syria.
A few years later Nazir-i-Khusrau wrote an account
of his journey from Balkh, through Armenia and
Palestine to Cairo, thence to Mecca, through
Persia, and so back to his native town. The
Crusaders have left copious accounts of their wars,
their oceupations, and their customs, while the
descriptions and narrations of pilgrims who wrote
in Latin, French, Russian, Greek, Hebrew, Per-
sian, and Arabic throw floods of light on the
country of this time. Maps began to be made;
they lack the accuracy of later geographers, but
they convey instrnetion as regards the land and its
hysical features, which is correct so far as it goes,
linsy the map of Marino Sannto indicates the hill-
country, the mountains of Libanus, the River
Jordan, the Dead Sea, and the Sea of Galilee, and
places the towns with a reasonable degree of
accuracy. Palestine, therefore, though never
explored, was tolerably well known to the world,
as well known as Italy was formerly to the French
or the Low Countries to the English. Modern
exploration, with fuller knowledge of what was
wanting, an in the 19th century with Seetzen,
Burckhardt, Buckingham, Irbyand Mangles, Tobler,
De Sauley, Van de Velde, and Williams.
The researches of Robinson and the immense
additions made by him in the field of Biblical
geography in the years 1838-52 forced upon the
world the necessity for an exhaustive survey of the
country. Robinson demonstrated the existence
every where of rnined towns and hill-forts in which
were preserved the long-lost names of Bible places.
It became certain that a triangulation of the country,
such as that of the Ordnance Survey of Great
Britain and Ireland, which should leave not a
corner of country, not a single hillock, unexplored,
would be fruitful in results, and would furnish a
map of such accuracy as to require no more books
of travel for the elucidation of geographical points.
Thus, the physical features of the country were
already known in general terms, but the details
were mostly unknown; while even the curious foot-
steps of Robinson had left whole tracts of country
totally unexplored. The foundation of the Pales.
tine Exploration Fund (1865) was the first step
taken in this new direction; but it shows how
little the necessity for such a survey was impressed
upon the minds even of its founders that they
began, after a preliminary journey under Captain
(Colonel Sir Charles) Wilson, by excavations in
Jerusalem under Lieutenant (Colonel Sir Charles)
Warren. It seemed at the moment more import-
ant to settle, if possible, the site of the temple
than to make clear and intelligible the whole of
the Bible narrative. For this and nothing short of
this has been the result of the survey. This survey
716 PALESTINE
PALESTRINA
has now been executed, chiefly by Major Conder,
R.E., whose name will be indelibly associated with
a work which has done so much for the right
understanding of the Bible in the version ‘into
English. The whole of Western Palestine is now
mapped on a scale which includes every ruin
as well as every epring, every watercourse, every
wood, and every hillock. At least 150 lost biblical
sites have been recovered ; by means of these the
bonndaries of the tribes cau now be laid down;
one-fourth only of the Bible names remain to be
identified. The topography of Joseplins, of the
Talmud, of the pilgrims, and of the chroniclers has
also been illustrated and recovered. All important
heights have been ascertained; the levels of the
Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee are laid down ;
all the remaining ruins have been planned and
drawn; the various forms of rock sepulture have
examined and classified; the rude stone
monuments have been marked and planned ; for
the first time the route of invading armies can be
followed, and the strategic art of the captains can
be understood ; native customs have been gathered ;
the seasons, the climate, the fauna and flora, the
monuments, the inscriptions, the ethnology of the
country and its people have all been collected.
These things bring floods of light to bear upon the
understanding of the Scriptures, Formerly the
study of the Bible was contined to the books them-
selves and to the literature of exegesis which had
gathered round those books. To this method we
owe the immense mass of writings on the Bible,
books which fill the greater part of our libraries,
books of profound erudition from which scarcely
anything can be gleaned for the instruction of the
ple. Now, however, there are new methods.
Ve approach the Bible armed with coins, with
inseriptions in cuneiform, in hieroglyphics, in
Hebrew, Arabic, and in Greek ; we have inscribed
monuments, such as the Moabite Stone, the Siloam
inscription, the stone of the temple; we have a
map of the country accurate and exhaustive, a
ion for all time, which will never need to be
one again; we have measurements and plans of
all the ruins; we have traditions, legends, Jan-
guages, customs; we have, besides, for those who
. come after us, a great collection of inscriptions in
unknown characters containing one knows not
what ancient history. Lastly, which must not be
omitted, everything which has been found, or
which has been achieved, in the direction of
scientific exploration to prove the literal
exactness of the historical portions of the Old and
New Testament.
The nt condition of the country shows the
beginning of rapid changes in every direction. The
- Survey of Palestine was undertaken not a day too
soon. In a very few years’ the ruins which have
been figured by the surveyors, and so, ina sense,
aaa for ever, will have vanished under the
estructive hands of Change. The thonsands of
visitors who every — pour into the country con-
tribute in no small degree to alter the character,
the habits, and the ideas of the people; roads are
being everywhere constructed in a country where
up tilla few years there were no ronuls, The
traveller can now drive from Jaffa to Jerusalem,
from Jerusalem to Jericho, from Jerusalem to
Hebron, and from Haifa to Tiberias. A railway
is in construction between Jaffa and Jerusalem;
plans and surveys of another from Haifa to Damas-
ens, by way of Nazareth, are also ready ; and there
is now a hotel at Jericho, As ris Jernsalem, a
new town has sprung up outside the walls; the
Russians have dJmildings there which, on occasions,
would serve for fortresses; the Jews are flocking
into the city—it is rumoured that there are now
upon 50,000 Jews in and about the Holy City;
the Mount of Olives is being covered with bnild-
ings. There are Jewish colonies between Ramlah,
Lydda, and Jaffa; there are German colonies in
the same region ; Circassians ocenpy Amman, and
are settling in the Haurin; the people from the
Lebanon are coming down from their bills and
covering the country east of the Jordan. In fact,
those who wish to see Palestine as it has been for
a thousand years and more must go at once or they
will never have the chance.
BreuiocraPuy.—The books published on Palestine are
far too numerous to be set down. But the has
rendered most of them practically useless. All
of travel of modern times may now be ; their
Fauna and Flora, by Canon Tristram ; a volume of
nected with the .
the Name-lists, containing all the names in Arabic
the English transliteration and the translation; and the.
Geology of Western Palestine, by Professor Edward Hall,
F.RS. ; to which is added an index in one volume.
results he may read the works of
work in Palestine, Heth and Moab, Syrian Stone-
that of Mr H. A.
Discoveries. An excellent résumé of the and of E
recent research is also contained in Gonder's Patewine
A collection of early pilgrims is in course of publication
by the Palestine Pilgrims’ Text Palestine
the Moslems, by Guy le Strange (
Fupah gives s . world =) neg first time an
and geographical account of the country compiled exelu-
oer from Moslem writers. See also Canon brerege 3
La side So. (2d ed. 1872); Socin, Palestine
Syria ( eker’s guide, 1878); Thomson, The Land
and the Book (1859; new ed. 1886); Sir R.
Palestine (1888); G. A. Smith, Historical G 0)
the Holy Land (1894); bibliographies by (1875)
and Réhricht (1890); and Thirty Years o;
Holy Land (Pal. Explor. F 1895).
SALEM, and works cited there ; Jews,
Palestine, capital of Anderson county, Texas,
151 miles by rail N. of Houston. It manufactures
brass and iron goods, and has a pop. (1900) of 8297.
Palestrina, the ancient Preneste, an Italian
city, 22 miles E. by S. of Rome, on the slope of
an offset of the Apennines, contains the chief
castle of the Colonnas and the palace of the
Barberini family, the owners after 1630. It is
built almost entirely upon the gigantic substrne-
tions of the ancient Temple of Fortune, one of the
greatest religions edifices in all Italy, celebra
not only for its splendour, but also for its oracle,
which was consulted down to the time of -
stantine. Portions of the ancient wall—Cyclopean
blocks of limestone—still remain. Prieneste was
a member of the Latin League, until in 499 B.c.
it joined the Romans. Yet it took a prominent
part in the Latin war (340-338 B.c.) t Rome.
aving given shelter to the younger Marius in 82
B.C., it was taken and sacked by Sulla. Its elevated
and healthy situation, at no great distance from
the capital, made it a favourite summer-resort of
the Romans, Augustus and Tiberius frequented it;
Horace found it a pleasant retreat ; Hadrian built
there an extensive villa; and Antoninus erected a
palace. Numerous valuable works of art and
other remains have been recovered, dating. prin-
cipally from the 8th, and from the 3d and 2d, cen-
turies B.C., the former showing Phoenician influence,
the latter being Roman. Pop. 5855.
Palestrina, Giovanni Preriuict DA, the
greatest of Italian musical composers, was born at
eee
PALESTRINA
PALEY ~ 717
Palestrina in 1524. He studied music at Rome
under Goudimel, and in 1551 was made maestro di
capella of the Julian Chapel of St Peter’s by Pope
Julius III. In 1554 he published a collection of
Masses, which the pope so highly approved of that
he appointed their composer one of the singers
of the Sixtine Chapel. Being a married man, he
lost that office on the accession to the pontificate of
the severer Paul IV. But in 1555 he was made
choir-master of the Lateran, and in 1561 was given
the similar post in St Maria Maggiore, and held it
till 1571, when he was restored to his office in the
Julian Chapel. The Council of Trent, having under-
taken to reform the mmsic of the church, entrusted
to Palestrina the task of remodelling this part of
religious worship. He composed three masses as
exainples of what could be done; one of them, the
Mass of Pope Marcellus (to whose memory it is
dedicated), saved music to the church by estab-
lishing a type infinitely superior, in its blending of
devotional with artistic feeling, to anything that
had preceded it, a type which, amid all the changes
that music has since gone through, continues to
attract admiration. Palestrina must be considered
the first musician who reconciled musical science
with musical art, and his works form a most im-
1 epoch in the history of Music (q.v.). He
ied in the arms of St Philip Neri on 2d Februai
1594. His compositions, very numerous, are all
sacred, except two volumes of Madrigals; they
have been published at Leipzig (1868 e¢ seq.). The
authoritative Life was written by the Italian
Baini (Rome, 1828).
Paley, FrepericK Apruorp, classical scholar,
grandson of the author of the Lvidences, was born
at Easingwold, near York, in 1816. He had his
education under Dr S. DVutler at Shrewsbury, and
at St John’s College, Cambridge, but, not obtain-
ing mathematical honours, by the regulations of
the time was shut out from the classical tripos,
and likewise did not obtain a fellowship. He
resided, however, at Cambridge till his conversion
to the Roman Catholic faith in 1846, and later
from 1860 till 1874, when he was appointed pro-
fessor of Classical Literature at the abortive
Roman Catholic college at Kensington. He next
went to live at Bournemouth, was twice classical
examiner to London University and for the classical
tripos at Cambridge, and continued till the sudden
close of his life (11th December 1888) his arduous
labours in classical scholarship. In early life at
Cambridge he helped to found the Camden Ecclesi-
ological iety, and published books on Gothic
architecture; but the important work of his life
began in 1844 with the first part of his edition of
4Eéschylus with Latin notes. He re-edited A’schylus
for the ‘ Bibliotheca Classica,’ as well as Euripides,
Hesiod, the Iliad, and completed the Sophocles of
Mr Blaydes, all for the same series ; host also pre-
pared minor editions of similar works, or parts of
these, for the ‘ Cambridge Texts’ series. is Pro-
pertius, Ovid's Fasti, and Martial were less suc-
cessful; but his three comedies of Aristophanes,
Theocritus, and his Select Private Orations of
Demosthenes (in conjunction with Dr Sandys) were
recognised as works of the very highest value.
He eee prose translations of the Philebus
and Theetetus of Plato, the 5th and 10th books ‘of
Aristotle’s Ethics, the Odes of Pindar, and the
Tragedies of AEschylus, and renderings in verse of
the 5th book of Propertius and Fragments of the
Greek Comic Poets (1888). Other works were a
treatise on Greek Particles (1881), Greek Wit
(1881), and an unsatisfactory edition of the Gospel
of St John (1887). Paley received the degree of
LL.D. from Aberdeen in 1883. A sagacious textual
eritic and sound exegete, he left behind him
traditions of a high type of scholarship, of the age
when yet scientific philology was not, and German
might be neglected. In his later years he adopted
a late date for Homer. /
Paley, W1.1AM, a celebrated English divine,
was born at Peterborough, son of a minor canon of the
cathedral, in 1743. His family belonged to the West
Riding of Yorkshire, and not Tong after his birth his
father returned to his native parish of Giggleswick
to become master of the grammar-school there.
In 1759 he entered Christ’s Gollege, Cambridge, as
a sizar, and led for two years an idle (though not
dissipated) life, but thereafter became a severe
student, and in 1763 came out senior wrangler.
After three years as an assistant-master at Green-
wich, he was elected in 1768 a fellow and tutor
of Christ’s College, and here he lectured on moral
philosophy till his marriage in 1776 and presenta-
tion to the rectory of Musgrave in Westmorland
and the vicarage of Dalston in Cumberland, which
were soon exchanged for the more profitable living
of Appleby. In 1780 he was collated to a pre-
bendal stall in Carlisle Cathedral, in 1782 he
became archdeacon, and in 1785 chancellor of the
diocese. In the latter year he published his Prin-
ciples of Moral and Political Philosophy, for which
he received £1000. In this work he propounds his
ethical theory—a form of what is usually known as
utilitarianism. He begins by adducing a series of
strong objections against the popular doctrine of
the moral sense, next takes up the question of the
source of obligation, and resolves it into the will
of God, enforced by future punishment, it bein
admitted candidly that virtue is prudence directec
to the next world. The will of God, in so far as it
is not rendered explicit by revelation, is to be
interpreted by the tendency of actions to promote
human happiness, the benevolence of the Deity
being assumed. Objection may fairly be taken to
the pein pies on which Paley rests his system,
but the lucidity and appositeness of his illustrations
are beyond all praise; and if his treatise cannot
be regarded as « profoundly philosophical work, it
is at anyrate one of the clearest and most sensible
ever written, even by an Englishman. In 1790
appeared his most original work, Hore Pauline,
the aim of which is to prove, by a great variety of
‘undesigned coincidences,’ the great improbability
of the common hypothesis of the unbelief of that
day, that the New Testament is a cunningly
devised fable. It was followed in 1794 by his
famous View of the Evidences of Christianity, in
which dexterous use is made of Lardner’s Credibility
and Bishop Douglas’ Criterion of Miracles. The
treatment is on the historical method, flanked by
auxiliary a, ara is drawn from the superior:
morality of the gospel,- the originality of Christ’s
character, and the like. But the bases of con-
troversy have now entirely shifted, and the work,
able as it is, is no longer, even at Cambridge,
regarded adequate as a defence. The champion
of the faith was splendidly rewarded. The Bishop
of London gave him a stall in St Paul’s; shortly
after he was made subdean of Lincoln, with £700
a year; Cambridge conferred on him the degree of
D.D.; and the Bishop of Durham presented him to
the rectory of Bishop Wearmouth, worth £1200 a
year. Perhaps his latitudinarianism and essentially
unspiritual temperament, as well as such homely
sarcasms as comparing the ‘divine right of kings’
with the ‘divine right of constables,’ may have
hindered him from yet higher preferment. After
1800 he became subject to a painful disease of the
kidneys, yet in 1802 he published perhaps the most
widely fiona of all his works, Natural Theology,
or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the
Deity, largely based on the Religious Philosopher of
Nieuwentyt, a Dutch disciple of Descartes. An
excellent edition is that by Lord Brougham and
718 PALGHAT
PALINDROME
Sir Charles Bell (1836-39), Paley died May 25,
1805.
A complete edition of his works was published by one
of his sons, the Kev. Edmund Paley (7 vols, 1825); later
editions are those by Wayland (5 vols, 1837) and Paxton
(5 vols, 1838). The best biography is that by G. W.
Mea/lley (Sunderland, 1809); and see Leslie Stephen,
Enylish Thought in the Eighteenth Century (1876). -
P. at, a town of Malabar district, 68 miles
SE. of Calient by rail. Its old fort was of great
strategic importance during the wars with Hyder
Ali and Tippoo Saib. Pop, (1891) 39,481.
P. ve, Str Francis, historian, was born
in London in July 1788, the son of Meyer Cohen,
a Jewish stockbroker. He was privately educated,
and showed a quite remarkable precocity, having
at eight translated into French a Latin version of
the le of the Frogs and Mice, which his —
rinted in 1797. His father’s fortunes failing in
803, he was articled as a solicitor’s clerk, and here
he remained until 1822, when he took chambers in
the Temple and was employed under the Record
Commission. On his marriage (1823) he assumed
his mother-in-law’s maiden name of Palgrave. He
was called to the bar in 1827, and soon acquired
considerable practice in pedigree cases before the
House of Lords. As early as 1818 he had edited
a collection of Anglo-Norman chansons ; in 1831 he
contributed a History of England to the ‘Family
Library ;' and in 1832 he published his Rise and
Progress of the English Commonwealth, also Obser-
vations on the Principles ¥ New Municipal Corpor-
ations. The same year he was knighted. From
1833 to 1835 he served on the Municipal Corpora-
tion Commission, and in 1838, on the reconstruction
of the Record Service, he was appointed ace
keeper of Her Majesty’s Records, an office he held
till his death at Hampstead, 6th July 1861.
Besides the works already mentioned, Palgrave edited
for the government the followitig: Calendars of .the
Treasury of the Exchequer (3 vols. 1836), Parliamentary
Writs (1 4), Rotuli Curie Reyis (1835), Ancient
Kalendars and Inventories of the Treasury of Her
Majesty's Exchequer (1836), and Documents and ls
illustrating the History of Scotland (1837). In his
ee capacity he produced the Merchant and the
iar [Marco Polo and Friar Bacon], and a learned and
still valuable History of Normandy and of England (4
vols, 1851-64).
P. ve, Francis TURNER, a gifted poet and
critic, eldest son of the preceding, born in London,
September 28, 1824. He was educated at Charter-
house School, became scholar of Balliol College,
Oxford, and Fellow of Exeter, filled for five years
‘the office of oopoudies of the Training College
for Schoolmasters at Kneller Hall, was private
secretary to Earl Granville, an official of the Privy-
council, professor of Poetry at Oxford in 1886-95,
and was a contributor to the present work. He
died 25th October 1897. His works are Jdylls and
Songs (1854), Essays on Art (1866), Hymns (1867)
The Five Days’ Entertainments at Wentworth
Grange (1868), Lyrical Poems (1871), and the
Visions of ac apr (1881). He is best known
however, as the editor of the admirably selected
oa ae of Bag Lyrics ose ; 2d series,
; The ren’s Treasury of Lyrical Poe:
(2 vols. 1875); The Sonnets 4 rt
ILLIAM GIFFORD PALGRAVE, another son of
Sir Francis, born in Westminster, Janu 24
=p" ae yee di = Charterhonse. School
anc nity College, Oxford, graduating with t
distinction in 1846, Next Sear he Shestooh 4 a
tommission in the Bombay Native Infantry,
which, however, he soon resigned to become a
priest in the Society of Jesus, After a course
of study at Laval in France and at Rome he
was sent at his own request as a missionary to
Syria, where he acquired a wonderfully intimate
knowledge of Arabic. Summoned to France in 1860
by Wapoleon Ill. to give an account of the Syrian
massacres, he went disguised as a physician on a
daring expedition at the emperor's expense throu
central Arabia, crthares | the entire W.
kingdom, and returning to Europe through
and Aleppo (1862-63), With the consent of the
emperor, he published his Narrative of a Year's
Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia (2
vols, 1865), one of the best books of travel in the
English langu Palgrave quitted the
of Sesus in 1864, and was sent by the arr
vovernment in 1865 to treat for the release of
Coil Cameron and the other captives in Abys-
sinia) He was nominated consul at Sukhum-
Kalé in 1866, at Trebizond in 1867, at the island
of St Thomas in 1873, at Manila in 1876, and
consul-general in the eer: of Bulgaria in
1878, and in Siam in 1880. He was ted
British minister to Uruguay in 1884, and died at
Monte Video, September: , 1888. His other works
are Essays on Lastern Questions (1872); Hermann
Agha: an Eastern Narrative (2 vols. 1872); Dutch
Guiana (1876); Ulysses: Studies in Many Lands
(1887) ; A Vision of Life (1891, unfinished ),
Pali, the sacred language of the Buddhists
(see InprA, Vol. VI. P 102). Pali ceased to be a
living language of India when Buddhism was
rooted out of it; it was carried by the fugitive
Buddhists to other countries, especially Ceylon,
Burma, and Siam; but in these countries, too,
it had to give way before the native tongues, in
which the later Buddhist literature was composed.
See the Pali grammars of Minayeff (St Petersburg,
1872; Eng. trans. Maulmain, 1882), Kuhn (1875),
and Miiller (1885); Childers’s Padi Dieti
(1875), and Frankfurter’s Pali Handbook (1882),
Pali, the commercial capital of Jodhpur (q.v.),
45 miles by rail SE. of Jodupas city. st
Palikao, a place on the canal between Peking
and its port on the Peiho, Here in 1860 was
fought an engagement between the Anglo-French
troops and the Chinese, and hence the French
general, oe heres tate ree iste
minister of War in August and Septem }
received his title of Count Palikao.
Palikars, a name for the Armatoles (q.v.).
Palimpsest. See PALZoGRAPHY.
Palindrome (Gr. palin, ‘backwards,’ and
romos, ‘a running’), the name given to a kind
of verse very common in pont the peculiarity
of which is that it may be the same back-
wards as forwards. A few examples will suffice.
Si bene te tna lans taxat sua laute tenebis.
Et necat eger amor non Roma rege tacente,
Roma reges una non anus eger amor,
A Greek palindrome, sometimes inscribed on
Le cg fonts (e.g. Hadleigh and Worlingworth, in
Suffolk), runs : Nivor dyounua wh pévay sw (* Wash
my sin, and not my face only’). A Roman lawyer
gets the credit of Si nummi immunis, which Cam- —
e
n translates ‘Give me my fee, and I warrant
free.’ It is said that in the reign of Queen El
beth a certain Jady of rank, have been compelled
to retire from the court on account of some
the truth of which she denied, took for her motto:
Ablata at alba, ‘Retired but pure.’ The English
language has few palindromes, but one at least is
inimitable, It represents our first parent potioy.
introducing himself to Eve in these words: ‘Madam,
I’m Adam.’ Compare Henry B. Wheatley’s book
PALINURUS
PALLADIUM 719
on Anagrams (1862); G. R. Clark, Palindromes
(Glasgow, 1887).
Palinurus, the helmsman of A®neas, was
lulled to sleep at his post, and fell into the sea.
When Afneas visited the lower world he related
to him that on the fourth day after his fall he
made the coast of Italy, and was there barbarousl
murdered, and his body left unburied on the strand.
The Sibyl prophesied that his death should be
atoned for, a tomb erected to him, and a cave
(Palinurus, the modern Punta della Spartivento)
named after him.
Palisander Wood, a name sometimes given
to Rosewood (q.v.).
Palissy, Bernarp, the great French potter,
was born about 1509 in the diocese of Agen, and,
after wandering for ten or twelve years all over
France as a glass- and portrait-painter, about 1538
married and settled at Saintes. There he em-
ployed himself also as a land-surveyor, when the
chance sight of an enamelled cup made him resolve
to discover how to make enamels. So, nagiconn
all else, he devoted himself to experiments for six-
teen years, by which time he exhausted all
his resources, and, for want of money to buy fuel,
was forced to burn the tables and the flooring of
his house. His neighbours, even his wife, mocked
at him; his children cried to him for food; but in
spite of all these discouragements he persisted, and
was at length rewarded with success (1557). His
ware, bearing in high relief plants and animals,
coloured to represent nature, soon made him famous;
and, though as a Huguenot he was in 1562 im-
risoned at Bordeaux, he was speedily released
y royal edict, and appointed ‘inventor of rustic
figulines’ to the king. Removing to Paris in 1564,
he established his workshop at the Tuileries, and
was specially exempted by Catharine de’ Medici
from the massacre of St Bartholomew (1572).
During 1575-84 he delivered a course of lectures
on natural history and physics, and was the first
in France to substitute facts for fancies, as also to
ive right notions of the origin of springs, the
Tioutin of fossil shells, the fertilising properties
of marl, and the best means of purifying water.
In 1585 he was again arrested as a Huguenot, and
thrown into the Bastille, where he died in 1589.
Palissy’s writings, published between 1557 and
1580, and edited by M. France (Paris, 1880),
possess much interest; but the man himself is
more interesting still, brave, ardent, sincere, a
mixture of Columbus and John Bunyan.
See H. Morley’s Palissy the Potter (2 vols. 1852), and
French Lives by Audiat (1868), Berty (1886), Dupuy (1894),
Paliurus, a genus of trees and shrubs of the
natural order Rhamnaceze, nearly allied to Zizyphus
(see JusuBe), but very different in the fruit, which
is dry, orbicular, and girded with a broad mem-
branons hy | P. aculeatus is often ealled Christ’s
Thorn, and by the Germans Jews’ Thorn (Juden-
dorn), from the faney that it supplied the
crown of thorns with which our Saviour was
crowned. It is a decidnous shrub or low tree, with
slender, pliant branches and ovate three-nerved
leaves, each of which has two sharp spines at
the base, one straight and the other re-curved.
It is a native of the countries around the Medi-
terranean, of India, and many parts of Asia. It
is often used for hedges in Italy and other coun-
tries, its sharp spines and pliant branches admir-
ably adapting it for this purpose.
-Palk Strait, the northern portion of the shallow
between the south coast of India and the
Bland of Ceylon (q.v.).
Palladio, ANpDREA, Italian architect, was born
at Vicenza, 30th November 1518, After studying
the writings of Vitruvius and the monuments of
antiquity at Rome, he settled in his native city,
and soon acquired a high reputation throughout the
country from his designs for numerous buildings in
Vicenza and the neighbourhood. He is the most
conspicuous of the architects who, following Brunel-
leschi, led the way in establishing the modern
Italian school of architecture, as distinguished
from the earlier Italian Style (q.v.) of the Renais-
sance. His style, known as the Palladian, is
modelled on the ancient Roman as apprehended
by Vitruvius, reproducing its dignity and strict
proportions, but often to the neglect of usefulness ;
and his buildings are constantly encumbered by a
superfluity of pilasters and columns, broken entab-
latures, and inappropriate ornament, even where
there is real beauty of detail. The palaces Bar-
barano, Della ione, Chierigati (now the Museo
Civico), Tiene, and the Olympic theatre at Vicenza;
the country mansions of Sons Maser, and Rotunda
in the vicinity ; and the churches of San Giorgio
Maggiore and I] Redentore, the facade of San Fran-
cesco della Vigna, and several palaces, in Venice,
are his greatest achievements. the died at Vicenza,
19th August 1580. Palladio wrote a work on archi-
tecture (I quattro Libri dell’ Architettura, 1570,
and often reprinted) which had a great influence
upon the styles of his successors, especially upon
Inigo Jones, the ‘English Palladio,” whose notes
on the book are published in Leoni’s Eng. trans.
(1715). The term Palladian was, indeed, long
practically synonymous with the beautiful an
perfect in architecture. Recent Lives (in Italian)
are those by Zanella (1880) and Barichella (1880).
Palladium, among the ancient Greeks and
Romans, an image of Pallas, who was generally
identified with Athena (q.v), upon the careful keep-
ing of which in a sanctuary the public welfare was
believed to depend. The Palladium»of Troy was
especially famous, and was the gift of Zeus to the
founder of Ilium. It has heen supposed it may
have been originally a meteorite (see METEORS).
Ulysses agai Pdecede stole the Palladium, and so
he to seeure victory for the Greeks ; and both
Athens and Argos boasted to have afterwards
secured the possession of the charm.
Palladium (sym. Pd, atom. wt. 106-2, sp.
gr. 114) is one of the so-called noble metals,
which in its colour and ductility closely resembles
latinum. It is not fusible in an ordinary wind-
rnace, but melts at a somewhat lower tempera-
ture than the last-named metal; and, when heated
beyond its fusing-point, it volatilises in the form
of a green vapour. It undergoes no change in the
open air at ordinary temperatures ; but at a low
red heat it becomes covered with a purple film,
owing to superficial oxidation. It is soluble in
nitric and iodic acids, and in aqua regia. It com-
bines readily with gold, which it has the property
of rendering brittle and white. (When it forms
20 per cent. of the mass the alloy is perfectly
white.) When alloyed with twice its weight of
silver it forms a ductile compound, which has been
employed for the construction of small weights ;
but for this purpose aluminium is superior. Pro-
fessor Miller states that it ‘has been applied in a
few cases to the construction of graduated scales
for astronomical instruments, for which, by its
whiteness, hardness, and unalterability in the air,
it is well adapted ;’ its scarcity must, however,
prevent its*general use for this purpose.
It was discovered in 1803 by Wollaston in the
ore of platinum, of which it seldom forms so much
as 1 percent. Another source of this metal is the
native alloy (termed ouro poudre) which it forms
with gold in certain mines in Brazil ; it is from this
alloy that the metal is chiefly obtained.
720 PALLADIUS
PALM
Palladium forms with oxygen a protoxide, PdO,
which is the base of the salts of the metal; a
binoxide, PdO,; and according to some chemists,
a suboxide, Pd,O. On exposure to sufficient heat
these compounds give their oxygen and yield
the metal. The salts of the protoxide are of a
brown or red colour.
Palladius, Rutimtvus Taurus A2MILIANUS, a
Roman author of the 4th century A.D., who wrote
a work, De Re Rustica (On Agriculture), in four-
teen books, the last of which is a poem of eighty-
five elegiac couplets.
Palladius, St. See ScorLanp (CHURCH OF).
Pallas, See ATHENA, MINERVA.
Pallas, Perer Simon, traveller and naturalist,
was born 22d ber 1741, at Berlin, studied
medicine and natural history at Berlin, Géttingen,
and Leyden, and, already famous, was in 1768
invited to St Petersburg by the Empress Catharine.
Appointed naturalist to a scientific expedition to
observe the transit of Venns, he spent six years
(1768-74) exploring the Urals, the Kirghiz Steppes
part of the Altai range, great part of Siberia, an
the steppes of the Volga, returning with an extra-
ordinary treasure of specimens in natural history.
He wrote a series of works on the geography,
ethnography, flora and fauna of the regions visited.
He settled in the Crimea in 1796, and there he
died, 8th September 1811.—The Sand-grouse (q.v.)
is often called Pallas’s Sand-grouse.
Pallavicino, Srorza, an Italian historian,
was born at Rome, 20th November 1607, Having
taken priest's orders in 1630, he became in 1638 a
member of the Jesuit Society, and was created a
cardinal in 1659 by Pope Alexander VII. He died
at Rome, 5th June 1667. The best known of his
writi is Istoria del Concilio di Trento (Rome,
1656-57), intended as a reply to the equally cele-
brated and liberal work of Paul Sarpi, whose nar-
rative is not altogether acceptable to Catholics. —
FERRANTE PALLAVICINO (1618-44) wrote pasquin-
ades which bitterly offended the papal curia and the
Barberini family; and being betrayed into his
enemies’ hands near Avignon, be was tried, con-
demned by a foregone conclusion, and beheaded.
Pallice, La, a new harbour A hea (1889) to
receive large transatlantic and other ocean-going
vessels bound for La Rochelle in France, whence it
is less than 3 miles distant. It consists of an inner
lasin 28) acres in extent and an outer harbour pro-
tected by two moles, each 1380 feet long.
Palliser, Sir WiLiiAM, C.B., was born at
Dublin on 18th June 1830, and entered the army
as a cavalry officer. In 1863 he invented the chilled
shot (see SHELL) that bears lis name, and a
system of strengthening cast-iron ordnance by the
insertion of a stec! tube. He retired in 1871, sat
for Taunton as M.P., and died 4th February 1882.
Pallium, the name given in the Roman Catho-
lie Chureh to one of the ecclesiastical ornaments
worn by the pope, by alm nyy and by areh-
bishops. It is worn by the pope at all times, as a
symbol of his reputed universal and abiding juris-
iction. By archbishops it cannot be worn until
it has been solemnly asked for and granted by the
pope, and even then only during the solemn service
of the great church festivals, and on occasions of
the ordination of bishops or of priests, and other
similar acts of his episcopal office. The pal-
lium is a narrow annular band of white woollen
web, about 3 inches wide, upon which black
crosses are embroidered, which encircles the neck
of the archbishop, and from which two narrow
bands of the same material depend, one falling
over the breast, the other over the back of the
wearer. It is made wholly or in part from the
wool of two lambs, which are blessed annually on
the festival of St Agnes,
Palm (Palme or Palmacee), a natural order
of endogenous plants, the products of which are of
extreme importance and utility to man. They are
arborescent, with erect stems, usually slender as
compared with the extreme height to which some
trees, by means of hooks or prickles, or trailing on
the ground with stems of almost incredible length
and extreme slenderness, as in the ease of many of
the Calami. Externally the stems are hard and
horny, often coated with a siliceous deposit hard
as flint, and finely polished; they nently are
armed with spines, and marked with sears of
dead leaves, or clothed in the upper part with the
remains of the dead Jeaf-stalks enveloped in masses
of fibre. The interior of the stem is prac 4 soft
and pithy, intermingled with bundles of tibre —_
tudinally. So soft and easily extracted is
internal substance of the stems of many palms
that the outer hard case may readily be formed
into a cylindrical tube. The leaves vary much in
form superficially, bnt all the variations belong to
two types—the fan-veined and the pinnate-veined.
In the former the general outline is that of a fan,
with veins arising from the top of the leaf-stalk
and radiating like the ribs of a fan. In the other
type the leaves are more or less elongated, with a
distinct midrib extending to within a little of the
extremity of the blade, which is always there cleft
in two down to the point of the midrib, and with
the veins springing from the sides of the midrib like
the pinnules of a feather. Leaves of this type are
sometimes entire, but more generally pinnate, and
impart much elegance and grace to the figure of
the particular species to which they belong. The
size of palm-leaves varies extremely, some
only a few inches in length, as in some species
Malortia, while in Manicaria saccifera they attain
the enormous proportions of 35 feet in length by
5 or 6 feet in breadth. The inflorescence is a simple
or many-branched spadix enclosed in a spathe of
one or several valves. The flowers are small in-
dividually, but numerous, usually of a yellow tint,
and in some species powerfully odorous. They are
unisexual, bisexual, or polygamous, the male and
female flowers ba borne in some species on
different plants. The fruit when ripe is berry-
like, drupaceous, plum-like, or, as in the cocoa-nut,
nut-like.
Palms are natives chiefly of the tropical regions
of the earth. A few are found in extra-tropical
countries extending to 36° N. lat. in America, 34°
N, lat. in Asia, and in Europe Chamerops ili.
which is the only indigenous species, extends to
44° N. lat.; no species are found beyond 38° 5.
lat. Linneus, whose knowledge of palms was
limited to the more arborescent species, very
appropriately named them the ‘Princes of the
egetable Kingdom.’ Their stately habit, the
elegant proportions of the stems, and the gun
and beauty of the leaves of the majority of the
larger species, coupled with the great variety and
utility of the products of all, mark them as a most
distinguished and valuable group of plants, gratify-
ing the eye by their adornment of the landscape
and ministering abundantly to the necessities an
the pleasures of both savage and civilised man,
Their stems when young and tender are delicious
and nutritious food ; x old and mature those
of certain species yield valuable farinaceous sub-
stances ; some are valuable as timber-trees, and the
terminal bud of several consists of a mass of tender
mucilaginous leaves, which are esteemed a
———————EE
eo i
a
PALM 721
and delicious vegetable. Many yield by incision
or otherwise an abundance of sweet sap, from which
sugar, refreshing drinks, wines, spirits, and vinegar
are obtained. Their leaves are used for thatch,
and for the making of mats, baskets, hats,
umbrellas, thread, cord, and clothing. They yield
excellent and inexhaustible materials, and they are
in some cases a natural substitute for writing-
paper, the records and writings of many eastern
peoples being inscribed upon them.
he order comprises, according to Hooker and
Bentham in Genera Plantarum, between 130 and
140 genera, and the number of species known is
variously estimated by different authorities at
from 600 to 1000.
The genus Chamiedorea is composed of about
sixty species, all of slender, graceful habit, their
smooth stems often not exceeding an inch in
diameter, though they may be twenty or more feet
high, They are in South America for making
bridges, as
the bamboo
is in China
and India.
The flowers
of several of
the species—
inecludin
those of C.
aurantiaca
(fig. 1)—are
highly es-
teemed as
a enlinary
vegetable in
some of the
countries of Central America, but for this purpose
they must be extracted from the spathe before it
bursts. The fruit of Leopoldina major, called by
the natives of Brazil Jard-assv, is collected by them
and burned, and the ash, after being washed, is
used as a substitute for salt. It is described, how-
ever, as being bitter rather than saline. Zuterpe
edulis—also a native of Brazil—produces fruit in
size, shape, and colour like that of the sloe. From
the fruit of this species a beve is made by
infusion which is much relished. JL. oleracea pro-
duces an edible and nutritious cabbage. The
Nibong of the Malays of the Eastern Archipelago
is Oncosperma filamentosa, the cabbage of which
is more highly esteemed than that of any other
palm indigenous to that region. From the fruit of
(Enocarpus batava a wholesome beverage called
Patawa-yulissé is made on the Rio Negro. The
fruit of Oreodoxa regia, an extremely Rasdsocns
alm, a native of Cuba, is too acrid for human
ood, but is used there for fattening hogs.
Areca catechu is the Betel-nut Palm (see ARECA).
The fruit enters into the masticatory of that name
so much used in India: It contains gallic acid,
much tannin, a principle analogous to catechu gun,
a volatile oil, a red insoluble matter, a fatty sub-
stance, and some salts. A spurious kind of catechu
is obtained from the nuts in two colours—one dark
or black, which is extremely astringent; the other
yellowish brown, which is less astringent and more
pure. Besides being used as a masticatory and in
medicine in cases of dysenvor, the substance is em-
ployed in tanning leather and in dyeing calico. The
terminal shoot of this palm furnishes an excellent
cabbage, as also do several other species of Areca,
But the true Cabbage Palm is A. oleracea, a noble
species indigenous to the West Indies, attaining
the height of 170 to 200 feet, with a diameter
of stem of about 7 feet. The leaves are pinnate,
about 20 feet long, the pinnules in full-sized leaves
being often 3 feet in length. The terminal bud
or cabbage is enclosed among many thin snow-
358
Fig. 1.—Chamzedorea aurantiaca,
white brittle flakes. It has the flavour of the
almond, but with greater sweetness, and is boiled
and eaten with meat. As its removal causes the
death of the tree, it is regarded as an extravagant
delicacy only rarely to be enjoyed, because of the
great importance of the other products which the
tree yields. The inflorescence is extracted from the
spathes before they open, are pickled, and esteemed
a delicate relish with meat. The nuts yield a
useful oil by decoction. The shell or outer hard
crust of the stem is employed in making gutters,
and the pith yields a kind of sago if extracted
immediately the tree is felled; but if allowed to
lie and decay on the ground, it becomes the breed-
ing ground of a peculiar grub, which is greatly
esteemed as a delicate article of food in Mar-
tinique and St Domingo.
Ceroxylon (Iriartia) andicola, a native of Peru,
growing at an elevation of 8000-10,000 feet above
sea-level, is a handsome species rising to the height
of 160 or more feet. The stem exudes from the
annular cicatrices of the fallen leaves a resinous
substance called by the inhabitants cera de palma.
It is composed of about two parts of a yellow resin
and one c= of wax, the texture of which is more
brittle than beeswax. A sub-resinous matter is
also extracted from it named ceroxylin, which
assumes the form of silky crystals, is soluble in
alcohol, and phosphorescent by friction. The exuda-
tion, mixed with certain proportions of wax or
tallow, is employed in candle-making. Besides the
resinous exudation the trunk yields a valuable and
durable timber, the leaves are excellent and durable
material for thatch, and they supply astrong, useful
fibre for the manufacture of ropes and cordage.
The Kiziuba Palm (C. exorrhiza) is a native of
Central and South America, and is a singular and
Fig. 2.—Arenga saccharifera.
interesting tree on account of its peculiar habit of
growth, ‘The roots all spring from the stem above
ground, every new root emerging from a point
somewhat higher on the stem than the one which
preeeded it. And as the old roots decay as the
new are produced and penetrate the ground, a tree
of some age presents the curious spectacle of being
supported on three or four legs long enough and
wide enough apart to enable a man to pass between
them erect. The timber is used in flooring and for
making umbrella-sticks, musical instruments, &c.
Blowpipes (q.v.) for poisoned arrows are made from
the stems of C. setigera.
The Sugar Palm ( Arenga saccharifera, see fig. 2)
is a native of the Moluccas, Cochin-China, and the
Indian Archipelago, and is of immense value to the
722
PALM
natives of these countries on account of its various
products, It yields an abundant sweet sap, from
which a chocolate-coloured sugar named jaggery is
made, The sap fermented makes an intoxicating
drink variously named by the inhabitants of the
different countries neroo or brum. From the pith of
the stem sago is obtained in great quantity, a single
stem yielding as much as from 150 to 200 Ib. 1e
leaves supply Gomuto fibre, which is celebrated for
its great strength and durability when formed into
oontage and ropes, and at the base of the leaves a
fine woolly material, named baru, is developed in
mature trees, which is employed in caulking ships,
stufling cushions, and making tinder.
Caryota urens (see fig. 3), one of the noblest
Ims of India, yields some remarkable products.
he flesh of the fruit, which resembles a plum in
size and structure, is very acrid, and corrodes and
burns the lips and month. From the terminal bud
& sweet watery liquor is obtained, which, when
“boiled, yields yaggery. The terminal bud is also
Fig. 3.—Caryota urens,
eaten as a cabbage. From the pith of the stem
sago is obtained, which is made into bread, and
prepared in various other ways, and is a valn-
able article of food to the natives. The tree is
named Kittul in Singhalese, and the fibre called
Kittul, obtained from its leaves, is most valuable
to brushmakers (see FIBROUS SUBSTANCES).
The genus Calamus and its immediate allies are
varded as forming a connecting link between the
valms and the grasses, having the inflorescence and
Fruit of the former and in some cases the habit of
the latter. Certain species—viz. C. Roxburghii, C.
Royleanus, both of which are included in C. rotang
by some authors, and C. viminalis and others—
furnish the rattan-canes employed in making
ropes and cables, chair bottoms, couches,
kets, mats, &e. The walking-sticks known as
Malacca canes are made from the stems of C.
scipionum, & species which grows not in Mal-
acea, bunt in Sumatra, and the canes are chiefly
exported from Siak in that island. The stems of
the Great Rattan (C. rudentium) and others are of
prodigious length, extending to hundreds of feet,
clinging by hooks attached to their leaves to
the trunks and boughs of neighbouring trees, or
trailing on the ground, They are extremely hard
externally, and usually smooth, with a dense sili-
ceous crust on the surface. C. draco furnishes the
finest quality of the resinous substance known as
Dragon's Blood (q.v.), although a similar substance
is obtained from various other plants. In this case
it is exuded from the surface of the fruit, and is
separated from it by rubbing or shaking the fruit
together in a bag. An inferior quality of the same
sabstance is also obtained from the tree by incision
of the stem, and hy steaming the fruit after the
natural exudation has been collected. The species
are very numerous, about 200 having been described,
but few are more singular than (
fig. 4), which resembles a creeping or twinin
rrass rather than a palm, the stems rarely exceed-
ing in thickness stont wheat straw.—Zalacca edulis
is regularly cultivated by the Burmese for the sake
of its pleasantly acidulous fruit, which grows to the
size of a walnut.
The — sueeulent
scaly pulp which
encloses the seed
is the edible
part, — Raphia
vinifera, a
nativeof Guinea,
yields a rather
abundant sap,
from which a
strongly spirit-
uous wine is ob-
tained. One of
the most beauti-
ful and singular
of palms is &.
tedigera, an in-
habitant of the
banks of the
Amazon. The
trunk of the tree
is short, from 6
to 10 feet high,
but from the
summit the
leaves rise al-
most perpendicularly to the height of 40 feet or
more, arching gracefully outward towards the apex.
The footstalk of these enormous leaves alone are
often 12 or 15 feet long by 4 or 5 inches in diameter.
The integument of these footstalks is thin, ex-
tremely hard and elastic, and light as a quill, and,
being easily split into straight strips, is made into
window-blinds, baskets, &e, by the Indians.
The true sago of commerce (see SAGO) is derived
from various species of the genus Sagus, although
other species of palms, as has already been stated,
and also plants widely different botanically, such
as Cycas revoluta, also yield a kind of sago.
Rumphii, S. levis, and S. farinifera are the species
from which the largest quantity of true sago is
Fig. 4.—Calamus adspersus.
obtained. S. Rumphit_ is a native of the Indian
ped pelago, Malacca, Borneo, Sumatra, Celebes,
and the
Toluceas being the principal places in
which it is cultivated. The tree is sont i rarely
exeeeding 30 feet in height of stem, which consists
of a hard shell about 2 inches thick enclosing a
mass of spongy pith—the sago. This pith is
nally absorbed after the tree reaches matur-
ity, fore the stem quite hollow. The proper
time to fell the trees, before the pith ins to
diminish in bulk or quality by absorption, is indi-
eated by the upper leaves becoming covered with
a sort of farina or white dust. en felled the
stem is cut into lengths of 6 or 7 feet, which are
split, the better to remove the pith. There are
various modes of extracting the fecula from the
insoluble substances with which it is combined in
the stem, but washing and straining are the prin-
cipal features of every process. A single tree, it
is said, will yield from 500 to 600 1b, of sago.—The
Bache (Mauritia flexuosa), a native of Guiana,
supplies the chief wants of the ple wherever
it grows; the stems furnish timber for building
their dwellings, the leaves thatch for the same,
and material for mats, couches, hammocks, &e. 3
the pith yields sago; the juice by fermentation
gives an excellent beverage; the kernels of
PALM 723
fruit are ground into meal and made into bread;
and the fibre is converted into cordage and cloth-
ing.—The Palmyra Palm (Borassus “Aabelliformis
is one of the most common of its tribe in India.
In some parts of the country it grows spontane-
ously, and it is found as far north as 30° ; in others
it is the subject of careful cultivation. It furnishes
the ter part of the palm-wine of India, which
Ww the cope fara” Famuls bo called vine and
oongpoo, and by Europeans Toddy. The fruit is
shoud the size of a child's bend: somenas tri-
angular, and within a thick, fibrous rind contains
three seeds about the size of a goose’s egg. The
seeds when young are eaten by the natives, bein
jelly-like and palatable. The toddy is obtain
y wounding the spathe before the inflorescence
expands. After a few days a clear, sweet liquor
exudes from the wound, and is earefully collected
in pots suspended under the wounded spathe. A
tree yields about three quarts daily. The liquor is
drunk fresh, and will only keep sweet for about three
days, when it undergoes fermentation and becomes
sour, and is distilled into arrack. Jaggery is also
made from the juice. The young plants when
a few inches high are cooked and eaten as a
vegetable. The Teaves, whieh are fan-shaped and
large, are turned to the various uses alluded to in
connection with species already described, and in
India they are almost universally used for writing
upon with an iron stylus.
The Double Cocoa-nut, or Sea Cocoa-nut as it
has been.called, is Lodoicea seychellarum. The
nuts of this tree are seen occasionally in museums
and in the cabinets of collectors of curios, often
beautifully polished and carved by native workmen,
aad formed into caskets and other ornaments. For
long their origin was shrouded in mystery. They
were f. nently found floating about in the ocean
before the discovery of the tree, and an absurd
belief was entertained by Malay and Chinese sailors
that they were the fruit of some marine tree. The
tree, a native of the Seychelle Islands, is very
elegant, attaining a height of from 50 to 80 feet
with leaves 20 feet long supported on stalks of equal
length. The fruit is one of the largest produced
by any of the palms, being a foot or a foot and
half in length. The kernel near the base is divided
into two parts—hence the name Double Cocoa-nut
—and while young part of the fleshy substance in
which it is enclosed $e edible. The chief products
of the tree are timber and fibre for cordage, and
a downy kind of fibre which envelops the young
leaves is used for filling mattresses and pillows.
The Talipat’ Palm of Ceylon (Corypha umbra-
eulifera) is notable only for the variety of uses to
which its leaves are put in Ceylon and other parts
of India to which it is indigenous. The leaves are
of immense size, and, being palmate with the leaf-
stalk attached near the middle, they are readily
formed into umbrellas and tents; the cane-like
ribs being removed and the blades neatly stitched
together, they may be folded up with great facility.
They are also very much used for the books or
colahs of the inhabitants. Many of these alleged
to be made of Egyptian papyrus are formed of the
leaves of this palm. The tree grows to the height
of 100 feet, and has a very grand and imposing
appearance.—A closely allied species (C. taliera)
is the Talipat Palm of the Indian peninsula. It
grows to abont the same height as the preceding
species, with leaves of a more durable kind for the
urposes of thatch, but not so adaptable to more
elicate and artistic uses.—Licnala peltata is the
Chittah-pat of Assam, the leaves of which are
extensively used for making umbrellas, punkahs,
and hats. The stems of L. acutifolia are made
into walking-sticks, named by Europeans Penang
Lawyers. —Copernicia cerifera, a native of northern
Brazil, produces an edible fruit ; and from the leaves,
after they have been removed from the-trees and
dried, is obtained an inferior kind of vegetable wax,
which is used in candle-making and to adulterate
beeswax.
Of the American Palmetto Palm, a native of the
Carolinas and Florida, the most important species
is the Cabbage Palmetto (Sabal palmetto), which
sometimes grows to 50 feet in height and 15 inches
in diameter, with leaves 5 feet long and broad. It
is found also in the Bermudas. Its products are
timber and the leaves, the former being exceed-
ingly durable, very porous (see MOULTRIE), and
especially valuable for wharf-building, as it resists
water and is not attacked by the teredo. The
fruit is not edible-—The Palmetto of Europe is
Chamerops humilis, which inhabits the countries
on both shores of the Mediterranean, occupying
great tracts. It rarely reaches 10 feet in height,
and usually is much less, its growth being ex-
ceedingly slow. The leaves are fan-shaped and
abound in excellent fibre, with which the Arabs,
combining it with camels’ hair, make tent-covers ;
in Spain it is made into ropes and sailcloth, and
in France into carpets, named African haircloth.
The French in Algeria make paper and pastebourd
of it, and so well adapted is it to this purpose
that its use might be more extended in other
countries, The fruit is edible, and is eaten by
the Arabs and the inhabitants of Sicily and
Southern Italy. The plant endures the climate
of London, but scarcely grows. C. Ritchiecana, a
native of Sind and Afghanistan, and C. excelsa, a
native of China and Japan, both produce excellent
fibre. The leaves of 7hrinax argentea supply the
material called chip, of which ladies’ hats and
bonnets of that name are made. The trunks of
TL. parviflora, a native of Jamaica, though of
slender diameter, are said to be very suitable for
Fig. 5.—Sabal (Trithrinax ) mauritizeformis.
piles and marine buildings subject to immersion,
as they are impervious to the influence of water,
and are not attacked by borers or worms. Sabal
(Trithrinax) mauritieformis, a native of New
Granada (fig. 5), is a low-growing but very hand-
some goles not remarkable for any products of
special utility.
The Piritu of Venezuela, the Paripou of Guiana,
and the Papinba of the Amazon are the local
names of one species of palm—Gulielma_ speciosa.
It produces fruits somewhat triangular in shape,
about the size of an apricot, and bright reddish
yellowin colour. They have a peculiar oily flavour,
and are eaten boiled or roasted, when they resemble
chestnuts. They are also ground into meal, which
724 PALM
PALMA
is baked in cakes.—The Great Macaw tree of the
West Indies ( Acrocomia sclerocarpa) is a native of
Jamaica, Trinidad, and the adjacent islands and
continent. In Brazil it is called Macahuba, and
in Guiana Macoya, The tree grows from 20 to 30
feet high, with a crown of leaves, each of which
measures from 10 to 15 feet in length. The frait
ields an oil of yellow colour, sweetish taste, and
having the odour of violets, which is employed.by
the natives as an emollient for painful affections
of the joints; and in Europe it is used in the
manufacture of toilet ae: The nuts are capable
of receiving a high polish, and are converted by
the natives and the negroes into ornaments. —The
Tucum Palm (Astrocaryum tucuma), a native of
the Rio Negro and the Upper Amazon, yields a
very superior fibre, the cordage from which is
knitted into hanmocks, which are in great demand
with the Brazilians. The fleshy outer covering of
the fruit is eaten by the natives. —The Muramuru
Palm (A. murumurn) produces a very agreeable
fruit with the fragrance of musk. Cattle eat the
fruit with avidity, but evacuate the hard stony
seeds undigested. In times of scarcity these seeds
are carefully collected and used to feed pigs, which
are very fond of them, and find no difficulty with
their powerful teeth and jaws in masticating them.
—Attalea funifera furnishes the whalebone-like
fibre now so much used in Britain for making
brooms and bruxhes. The tree attains the height
of 20 or 30 feet. At the base of the leaves
a valuable thick, dark-brown, very long fibre,
Bahia bast, is obtained, sometimes 12 feet long;
Para or Monkey bast, a softer, shorter kind,
usually about feet in length, is got from
dina pi (see Frnsrous SUBSTANCES).
The fruit of Attalea funifera is the Coquilla
nut, much used in turnery for the making of
knobs to walking-sticks and umbrellas, handles to
bell-pulls, &e. he nuts are extremely hard and
susceptible of a fine polish, and exhibit a beanti-
fully mottled surface of light and dark brown,
—The fruit of A. cohune yields from its kernel a
valuable oil called Cohune Oil, which is said to
he superior in quality and to burn twice as lon
ais the best cocoa-nut oil. It is a native o
Honduras and the Isthmus of Panama. The
trunk, which attains the height of about 40 feet
and is crowned with leaves some 30 feet long,
yields by tapping a kind of palm-wine.—The Palm-
oil of Africa is the product of the fruit of L/ais
uineensis, The tree is cultivated now in the West
ndies and tropical South America for the sake of
the oil. It attains a height of 60 to 80 feet, with
a spreading crown of pinnate leaves, each about 15
feet long, the footstalks of which are armed with
stout hooked spines. The flowers have a strong
peculiar smell, like anise and chervil in combina-
tion. The fruit forms a large head, consisting of
a great number of bright orange-coloured drupes ;
when ripe each drupe has an oily pulp with a
stone or kernel in the centre, and it is from this
pulp that the oil is obtained. To extract the oil
wine.—The ei ‘0 of Chili is Jubea spectabilis, a
tree of about 50 feet in height, with a spreading
crown of leaves. From its trunk a syrup is ex-
tracted, called miel de palma, which is much
esteemed by the Chilians and Europeans in coo
in various ways. It is obtained by cutting down
the tree and lopping off its crown of leaves, when
the sap flows from the wound, and is carefully
collected, By cutting off a fresh slice from the
wound daily, or when the flow of sap becomes
weak, it may be kept flowing for several months ;
a good tree is said to yield as much as
eels of sap, which on being boiled down assumes
the consistence of treacle.
Much information on palms and their products
will be found in the Historie Palmarum, by
Martius; in the Flora Braziliensis, by Drude;
and A Popular History of Palms, by Seeman.
See Areca, Cocoa-NuT, CHAM#ROPS, DATE
Pata, Doom PALM, Fisrous SUBSTANCES, &e.
Palm, a measure of length, originally taken
from the width of the hand, measured across the
joints of the four fingers. In Britain a palm is,
somewhat loosely, understood to be the fourth part
of an English foot, or 3 inches.
Palm, JoHANN PHILir?, a bookseller of Nurem-
berg, who has acquired historic celebrity as a
victim of Napoleonic — in Germany, was
born at Schorndorf in 1768. the spring of 1806
a pamphlet entitled Deutschland in seiner tiefsten
Erniedrigung (Germany in its Deepest Humilia-
tion), which contained some bitter truths concern-
ing Napoleon and the conduct of the French
in Bavaria, was sent by his firm to a bookseller
Anges in the ordinary course of trade. The
hook fell into the hands of Napoleon’s officers ;
they made the emperor acquainted with it, He
ordered Palm, as the publisher, to be arrested,
tried him by court-martial, and shot him at
Braunau, 26th August 1806. This murder greatly
incensed the German people against the French.
Palma, (1) the sence of the island of Majorca
(q.v.) and of the Balearic Islands, stands on the
Bay of Palma, on the south coast. The cathedral,
a Gothic edifice (1232-1601), contains the tomb of
King Jayme II. of Aragon and a valuable collec-
tion of church ornaments. The tomb of Ra:
Lully (q.v.) is in the church of St Francis. There
are, further, a beautiful exchange (1426-46), an
old’ Moorish’ palace, and a 16th-century town-hall,
with pictures. Palma is one of the most aristo-
cratic cities in Europe. Pop. (1887) 60,514, bers
weave silks and woollens, make jewellery,
various articles of common use. The port is pro-
tected by a mole, and the town by a wall and
batteries. The commerce reaches a total value of
about £1,600,000 per annum.—(2) A town of Sine
14 miles SE. of Girgenti. Pop. 11,702.—(3) The
et of one of the larger of the Canary Islands
q.¥.).
Palma, Jacopo, commonly called PALMA
Veccuio (i.e, Old Palma), painter of the Venetian
the pulp is first bruised to a paste in wood
mortars, and is then boiled in water. The oil
which rises to the surface of the water is reddish or
orange in colour, and has an agreeable odour of
violets ; it is allowed to cool, and is then skimmed
off. In warm countries it retains its oily consist-
ence, but in cooler climates it acquires the solidity
of butter. It is used by the natives universally as
butter is in Europe. quantity of palm-oil now
imported to Great Britain is enormous. It is em-
ployed in the manufacture of candles, toilet and
common soaps, and as a lubricant of railway-
carriage wheels, &e. It is com 1 of about
+ a dood rag of stearin and sixty-nine of olein.
The tree yields from its trunk abundance of palm-
hool, was born about 1480 at Serinalta, near
Bergamo, and died at Venice just about the
middle of the year 1528. At first working under
the influence of the Bellinis, he subsequently
ea in the spirit and style of Giorgione and
itian, and may be placed at the heal of the
second class of great Venetian artists. His pic-
tures are either sacred subjects or portrait groups.
Of the former the best are a series of six figures of
saints, St Barbara and others, in the church of St
Maria Formosa at Venice. The best portrait
group is three sisters, generally called the ‘Three
Graces.'—His brother's f gin ee likewise called
Jacopo (1544-1628), and nicknamed In GIOVANE ©
(the Younger), painted religious pictures of greatly
PALMA CHRISTI
PALMERSTON 725
inferior merit, thongh he modelled his style on
that of Titian, Palma Vecchio, and Tintoretto.
Except for eight years in Rome, he spent all his
life at Venice.
Palma Christi. See Casror-om PLANT.
Palmblad, Vituetm Freprik, a Swedish
historian, was born 16th December 1788, at Lil-
jested, in East Gothland, where his father held a
oped aged the government, studied at Upsala, and
me professor of Greek in the -same university
in 1835. He died 2d September 1852. Amongst
his works (which deal with geography, history,
an classical philology) are the Biografisk Lexikon
(23 vols. 1835-59) and the historical novel Aurora
Koningsmark (1847).
Paimellacez. See ALG.
Palmer (Lat..palmifer, ‘a palm-bearer’), pro-
perly so called, was a pilgrim who had performed
the pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre, and had
Saisseeds os was returning home after the fulfilment
of his vow. The Palmers were so called from their
carrying branches of the oriental palm, in token of
their accomplished expedition. On arriving at
their home they repaired to the church to return
thanks to God, and offered the palm to the priest,
to be placed upon the altar. ;
Palmer, Epwarp Henry, the ‘Sheikh Abdul-
lah,’ was born 7th August 1840, at Cambridge, and
while a schoolboy there picked up Romany (the
Gypsies’ tongue), while a clerk in the City Italian
sak Greek, In 1859 he all but died of consump-
tion ; in 1860 at Cambridge began to devote himself
to oriental studies—Arabic, Persian, and Hindi-
stani; in 1863 obtained a sizarship at St John’s ;
and in 1867, graduating with a third-class in classics,
was yet elected a Fellow of his college. During
1868-70 he was engaged for the Palestine Explora-
tion Fund in the survey of Sinai, and, with Charles
Tyrwhitt Drake, of the Desert of the Wanderings,
acquiring meanwhile a marvellous knowledge of
the wild Arab tribes. In 1871 he was appointed
Lord Almoner’s professor of Arabic at Cambridge
(his stipend £40, 10s., angmented next year by
£250); and in 1874 he was also called to the bar.
So ten years went by of work and play—he was a
wonderful conjurer—of sorrow, too, and trouble,
for he lost his first wife and got involved in money
difficulties, till in 1881 he turned London journalist,
writing principally for the Standard. Finally, in
June 1882, on the eve of Arabi’s Egyptian rebellion,
he was pitched on by government for the perilous
mission of winning over the Sinai tribes to Britain
and hindering the destruction of the Suez Canal.
He made two expeditions—the first his t ride
from Gaza to Suez (July 15-31), and the second
when, starting from Suez with Captain Gill, R.E.,
and Lieutenant Charrington, R.N., he and they on
August 11 were betrayed and murdered in the
ravine of Wady Sudr. Eight months later the
three were buried in St Paul’s.
Of a score of works by Professor Palmer may be men-
tioned his Desert of the Kxodus (1871), Arabic Grammar
(1874), Song of the Reed (1876), Poems of Beha ed Din
Zoheir (1876-77), Persian-English and English-Persian
Dictionary (1876-83), Haroun Alraschid (1880), and a
translation of the Koran (18380). See his Life by W.
Besant (1883).
Palmer, RounpveLL. See SELBORNE (LorD).
Palmer, SAMvuEL. See Encravine, Vol. IV.
p- 380.
Palmerston, Henry Jonun Tempe, VIs-
COUNT, was born at the family mansion, Broad-
lands, near Romsey, Hants, 20th October 1784, and
helonged to the Irish branch of the ancient English
family of Temple, —— name from Temple in
Leicestershire. Sir W. Temple, the diplomatist
and patron of Swift, was a member of this family,
which removed to Ireland about 1601, and which
was ennobled in 1722, when Henry Temple was
created a peer of Ireland with the dignities of
Baron Temple and Viscount Palmerston. His
grandson, Henry, second Viscount (1739-1802),
was father of the great minister, and superintended
his education at Eroadlanils, until he sent him to
Harrow. Young Temple in 1800 went to the
university of Edinburgh, where he attended the
lectures of Dugald Stewart and other professors.
In 1802 he succeeded his father as third Viscount,
and in 1803 he matriculated at St John’s College,
Cambridge. His eminent abilities were early recog-
nised, for he was scarcely of age when the Tory
party in the university selected him (1806) as
their candidate to succeed Mr Pitt in the repre-
sentation. Unsuccessful at Cambridge then and
again in 1807, he entered parliament in the latter
year for Newport, in the Isle of Wight, his
colleague being Arthur Wellesley, then Chief-
secretary for Ireland. In 1811 he exchanged New-
— for the university of Cambridge, enjoyed the
istinction of oper my his alma mater for
twenty years, and only lost hi
became a member of the Grey administration and
supported the Reform Bill. For the last two years
of the unreformed parliament he sat for the now
extinct borough of Bletchingly. At the first election
after the Reform Act he was returned for South
Hampshire, but Jost his seat at the general election
of 1835. He immediately afterwards found a seat
for the borough of Tiverton,
Having traced his representative, we now turn
to his official career. Palmerston entered life as a
member of the Tor, party, and aecepted the office
of Junior Lord of he Admiralty and Secretary at
War (without a seat in the cabinet) in 1809. This
office he held during the successive governments of
Mr Perceval, the Earl of Tiveesoeks: Mr Canning,
Lord Goderich, and the Duke of Wellington—a
period extending from 1809 to 1828. There was
ample scope at the War Office for Palmerston’s
administrative talents and activity. The military
— swarmed with abuses, and the labour
thrown upon the Secretary at War during the
Peninsular campaigns was prodigious. In 1816 an
attempt was made to assassinate Palmerston by an
insane army-lieutenant, named Davis, who fired
a pistol at him as he was entering the Horse
Guards; the bullet, however, only inflicted a
slight wound. Palmerston early attached himself
to the Canning section of the Liverpool administra-
tion, and he accepted a seat in the cabinet of
Mr Canning. His official connection with the
Tory party ceased in 1828, when the ‘Great
Duke’ insisted on accepting Mr Huskisson’s
resignation, which was followed by Palmerston’s
retirement. The Duke's ap dieses was swept
away in the reform flood of 1830; and Earl Grey,
who became prime-minister, offered the seals of
the Foreign Office to Palmerston. The European
horizon was so disturbed at this crisis that a great
plitical authority declared that if an angel from
1eaven were in the Foreign Office he could not
preserve peace for three months. Palmerston
falsified the prediction. Louis-Philippe then filled
the throne of France; and for the first time on
record England and France acted in concert, and
without jealousy, under Palmerston’s forei
ministry. He took a leading part in securing the
independence of Belgium, in establishing the
thrones of Queen Isabella of Spain and Queen
Maria of Portngal on a constitutional basis, in
endeavouring, in alliance with Austria and Turkey,
to check Russian influence in the East, and in
the war with Mehemet Ali.. In 1841 Palmerston
went out of office with the Whigs on the question
of free trade in corn; but on their return in 1846
s seat when he
726 PALMERSTON
PALMISTRY
he resumed the seals of the Foreign Office. His
second foreign administration furnished various
subjects of hostile y criticism, among which
may be mentioned the civil war in Switzerland,
the Spanish marriages (see Gu1zoT), the European
revolutions in 1848, the rupture of diplomatic rela-
tions between Spain and Great Britain, and finally,
the affair of Don Pacifico (a Gibraltar Jew living
in Athens, who claimed the privileges of a Britis
subject), and the consequent quarrel with Greece.
His strenuous self-asserting character, his brusque
speech, his frequently hasty interferences in foreign
airs, were little caleulated to conciliate op
nents at home, and secured him many enemies
abroad—the name ‘Firebrand Palmerston’ still
clinging to him on the Continent. A vote of
censure on the foreign policy of the government
was in 1850 carried in the House of Lords on the
motion of Lord Stanley (afterwards Earl of Derby ).
A counter-resolution, approving the foreign polic
of the government, was thereupon moved by Mr
Roebuck in the Lower House. The debate lasted
four nights. In a speech of five hours’ duration—
‘that speech,’ said Sir Robert Peel, ‘which made
us all so proud of him’—Palmerston entered upon
a manly and dignified vindication of his forei
policy ; and Mr buck’s motion was carried by
a majority of forty-six.
In December 1851 the public were startled
at the news that Palmerston was no longer a
member of the Russell cabinet. He had expressed
to the French aml lor in London his appro-
bation of the coup d'état of Louis Napoleon,
without consulting either the premier or the
p oengl and, as explanations were refused, Lord
ohn Russell advised his resignation. Palmer-
ston, in the general opinion, was ‘smashed ;’ but
he soon got his ‘tit for tat;’ for in the following
February, soon after the meeting of parliament, he
avenged himself by shattering the Russell adminis-
tration to pieces on a comparatively trifling ques-
tion—a Militia Bill. He refused an offer from the
Earl of Derby to join the government which he
was commissioned to form, but accepted the post
of Home Secretary in the coalition administration
of the Earl of Aberdeen in 1852. The fall of this
coalition government in the winter of 1854-55, on
Mr Roebuck’s motion for a Sebastopol committee,
placed Palmerston in his seventy-first year in the
position of prime-minister, to which he was unani-
mously called by the voice of the nation; in his
own phrase he was ‘the inevitable.’ He vigorously
prosecuted the Russian war until Sebastopol was
taken, and peace was made. His government was
defeated in March 1857 on Mr Cobden’s motion
condemnatory of the Chinese war. Palmerston
to the country, and met the House of
Commons with a ——_ increased majority. But
his administration fell in February 1858, over the
Conspiracy Bill, intended to protect the French
emperor against the machinations of plotting
refugees. A short Conservative administration
followed ; but in June 1859 Palmerston was again
called to the post of First Lord of the Treasury,
which he continued to fill up to his death, the
chief events of this premiership being the American
civil war (with its Trent and Alabama incidents),
Napoleon’s war with Austria, and the Austro-
war with Denmark. His last great
h was his defence of the policy of his govern-
ment, delivered in July 1864, in reply to the attack
of Mr Disraeli. He died at his country seat,
Brockett Hall, 18th October 1865, and was buried
in Westminster Abbey. Both his titles became
extinct with him.
It was his ambition to be considered the minister
of a nation rather than the minister of a political
party; and his opponents have been constrained to
admit that he held office with more general accept-
ance than any ae minister since the time of
the age Lord tham. As an orator he was
usually homely and unpretending, but py fhe
sensible and practical. He was a dexterous
tactician, of irrepressible spirit, and a ready,
witty, and often brilliant debater. He was lar
as a minister, because he was rey oe"! Engl hin
his ends and aims. Even his robust th, off-hand
manner, manly and usual jaunty bearing, and physi-
eal vigour were elements of his popularity,
they were regarded as a glorification of the English
sports, which he was never ashamed to patronise.
e desired nothing so ardently as to promote the
aepcrag influence, and grandeur of Great
Britain, and his national character and national
spirit were thoroughly appreciated by his country-
men.
See Life of Palmerston, by Lord Dalling (3 vols. 1870),
continued by Evelyn Ashley (2 vols. 1879); and smaller
works by Anthony ‘Trollope (1882), Lloyd Sanders
(1888), and the Marquis of Lorne (1891).
Palmerston (Australia). See Porr DARwiIn.
Palmer-worm, 4 name given to many large
kinds of grub, the larve of coleopterous
destructive to various vegetable substances.
Palmetto-leaves, the leaves of the Palmyra
palm (see PALM, p. 723), imported into Europe for
the manufacture of hats and mats. For the palm
known as Palmetto, see PALM, p. 720.
Palmieri, Lvici, meteorologist, born 22d
April 1807, taught mathematics, became in 1847
professor at Naples, and in_ 1854 director of
the observatory on Vesuvius. He invented many
meteorological instruments, and wrote on voleanoes
and seismology. He died 6th September 1896.
Palmi'pedes, also called NATATORES, or
Swimmers, the web-footed birds,*in some classi-
fications an order of Birds. See Brrp.
Palmistry, or CutroMancy (Gr. cheir, ‘the
hand, and mantiké, ‘divination’), is the art of
‘reading the palm’—the art which professes to
discover the temperament and character of any one,
as well as the past and future events of his li
from an examination of the palm of his hand, anc
of the lines traced upon it. As a considerable body
of very complicated rules and directions have
laid down by authorities, ancient and modern, to
enable the student to read the palm, palmistry
claims to be regarded as a ‘science,’ or at least as
a branch of an interpretative science of the hand in
general, to which the name Chirosophy has heen
siven. The other branch of this eral science
as been called Chirognomy, and is concerned
with the interpretation of the form and character
of the hand and fingers, while Chiromancy treats
of the palm only (see DIVINATION).
As an art palmistry ap to be of great
antiquity. Mr Nestield, in his Report on the caste
system in the North-west Provinces and Ondh
(1885), tells us that there is a caste of Brahmans,
r=
called Joshi, who profess the art of fortune-telling
ly means of marks on the palms of the hands, the
face, and the body generally; and who seem to
have practised it from remote times. Palmistry
has an ancient literature of its own in India; the
ancient Samudriki appears to have had some
acquaintance with letters, but the Joshi, his
modern representative, is quite illiterate, though
he generally carries about with him a mannal of
palmistry, of whose contents he knows nothing.
here are also a number of wandering outcasts
India who tell fortunes by palmistry.
That palmistry was to some extent at least
known to the ancient Greeks we have evidence
in the writings of the Stagirite himself. In his
*%
PALMISTRY
727
Hist. Animalium Aristotle observes (i. 15) that
long-lived persons have one or two lines which
extend through the whole hand; short-lived per-
sons have two lines not extending through the whale
hand. Other references to this subject occur in the
doubtful works, the Problemata and the Physiog-
nomika, attributed to him. Pliny, too, in his
Natural History (xi. 114) directly asserts that
Aristotle regarded numerous broken lines in the
palm of the hand as a prognostic of short life.
Of the cultivation of palmistry among the Romans
there is little evidence; but Juvenal, in showing
up the curiosity of women and their love of prying
into forbidden mysteries, describes the woman of
fashion as consulting eagerly Chaldean astrologers
and other diviners, while the middle-class woman
‘frontemque manumque priebebit vati’ (Sat. vi.
581). In the 2d century Artemidorus of Ephesus,
the author of a work on the interpretation of
dreams, is said to have devoted a whole treatise
to the subject, which, however, is not extant.
In writers of the middle ages there is much
reference to the subject, and zy: names of Para-
celsus, Albertus Magnus, and Cardanus have been
associated with it. But the most important work
on ehiromancy belonging to this period seems to
be Die Kunst Ciromantia, of Johann Hartlieb,
which was printed at Augsburg in 1475. In the
16th century we find several treatises on the sub-
ject, of which the most important seem to be those
of Johann. Indagine, and of Barthelemy Cocles ‘de
Bouloigne,’ doctor of natural philosophy and_ of
medicine. The former has been Englished by Fabian
Wither (London, 1651). In the end of the 18th cen-
tury palimistry found an important exponent in the
celebrated rie Anne Lenormand (1772-1843),
who in her Souvenirs Prophétiques d'une Sibylle
(1814) foretold the downtall of Napoleon. The
chief authorities on palmistry in recent times are
two Frenchmen—M. le Capitaine D'Arpentigny,
and M. Adrien Desbarrolles; and it is on their
works that modern English books on the subject
are chietly founded. D’Arpentigny has expounded
rincipally chirognomy, or that branch of the
interpretative science of the hand which treats of
the general form of the hand and ry ee The
observation of the fingers and joints of the hand is
quite as important to the chiromant as that of the
palm itself ; but we must refer for D’Arpentigny’s
system to the works cited below. The thumb is
enerally regarded as chirognomically the most
im nt of the hand. The first, or upper
phalange of the thumb, when well developed, shows
the presence of will and decision of character; the
second, according to its development, indicates
more or less logical power (see A and B in diagram).
What has to be considered by the chiromant proper
is the ‘mounts’ of the hand, with the marks on
them, and the lines in the palm. The ‘mounts’
are the elevations at the base of the fingers and
thumb and in the ‘ percussion ’ of the hand—i.e. the
side of the palm which extends from the root of the
little finger to the wrist: it is so called becanse it
is used in striking. They are seven in number, and
are named from the planets, by the signs of which
they are also known—viz. for Venus, 2 for
Jupiter, for Saturn, © Apollo, 8 Merenry, fi
Mars, ( the Moon (see diagram), When we
developed the mounts indicate the possession of
the quality associated with the respective planets—
e.g. Jupiter developed denotes pride and ambition ;
Saturn, fatality; Apollo, art or riches; Mercury,
science or wit; Mars, courage or eruelty ; Venus,
love and melody; the Moon, folly or imagination.
But the effect of a greatly developed mount may be
modified by the lines in the palm or by other signs.
There are four Lapras ines—viz. the line of
ife, which surrounds the thumb, and which, if long,
indicates a long life; the line of head, the line of
heart, and the rascette or the bracelets. These
last (the bracelets), if well marked, strengthen the
effect of the line of life, each bracelet indicating
thirty years of life. The line of heart (the linea
mensalis of ancient chiromancy ), if long, clear eut,
and well coloured, denotes an affectionate and de-
voted character ; and the nearer the line stretches
to Jupiter the better the character. If the line
end in a fork, so much the better. In actors and
mimics this line ascends the mount of Mercury.
A, will; B, logic; C, mount of Venus; D, mount of Jupiter;
E, mount of Saturn; F, mount of Apolio; G, mount of Mer-
cury; H, mount of Mars; I, mount of the Moon; K, the
rascette; a, a, line of life; b, b, line of head; c, ¢, line of
heart; d, d, jine of Saturn ‘or fate; e, e, line of liver or
health; f, £ line of Apollo or fortune; 9, g, the girdle of
Veuus; R, the quadrangle; m, m, m, bracelets of life.
A good line of head—i.e, a clear-cut, long, unbroken
line—indicates the presence of superior intellectual
ualities. If the line stretch to the mount of the
oon, it indicates imagination. A winding head-
line shows folly and indecision of character; a
linked line (like a chain) denotes want of con-
centration. The other lines (which are not present
in all hands) are the line of Saturn or fate (d, d@),
the line of Apollo (f, f), the line of liver or health
(e, e), and the line of Venus (g, g). A long, clear-cut
line of Saturn (see diagram) foretells a happy and
prosperous life, breaks or windings in the line fore-
tell misfortunes or obstacles ; a good line of Apollo
shows that its owner will be successful in art; a
good liver-line promises a long and_healthy life ;
while the Venus line (Cingulum Veneris), when
resent, indicates a character very liable to be
Influenced by the passion of love. Marks on the
mounts or lines, such as stars, crosses, &e., have
their respective significations. A good open space
between the lines of head and heart (the quad-
rangle) indicates a generous and noble disposition,
while a very narrow space in the quadrangle is
a sign of avarice and egotism.
The best handbooks are 8. D’Arpentigny, La Chirog-
nomie (Paris, 1843); A. Desbarrolles, Les Mystéres de la
Main (1859), and his R4vélations Completes (1874) ; Beam-
ish, The Psychonomy of the Hand (1865); A. R. Craig, The
Book of the Hand (1867); H. Frith and E, Heron Allen,
Chiromancy, or the Science of Palmistry (1883); Heron
728 PALMITIN
PALOLO
Allen, Manual of Cheiroxophy (1885); L. Cotton, Palm-
istry and its Practical Uses (1590).
Palmitin. See Fars.
Palm-oil. See PALM, and Ors.
Palm Sunday (Lat. Dominica Palmarum, or
Dom, in or ad Palmas), the Sunday before Easter,
is so called from the custom of blessing branches
of the palm-tree, or of other trees substituted in
those countries in which palm cannot be procured,
and of carrying the blessed branches in procession,
in commemoration of the triumphal entry of our
Lord into Jerusalem. The date of the origin of
this custom is uncertain; the procession cannot be
traced back beyond the 8th century, though the
name Palm Sunday is found two or three centuries
earlier, The Greeks appear to have adopted the
festival long before the Latins ; their procession is
at matins. In the Roman Catholic Church the
celebrant blesses the branches before the mass,
and they are then distributed to the people; the
clergy in procession pass out of the church, the
doors are closed, and the ancient hymn known in
English as ‘All glory, land, and honour’ is sung
by the choir within and those without, until, on
the sub-deacon’s knocking at the door, it is again
thrown open, and the procession re-enters. During
the singing of the Passion in the solemn mass
which ensues, the congregation hold the palm-
branch in their hands, and at the conclusion of
the service it is carried home to their respective
houses, where it is preserved during the year.
Afterwards it is burned, and the ashes employed,
as a rule, for Ash-Wednesday. At Rome the pope
himself distributes the palm branches to all the
churches of the city. In Moscow until 1700,
and in parts of Germany until the beginning of
the 19th century, a wooden image of an ass was
led about the streets, followed by the people bear-
ing the consecrated branches,
Palm-tree. See Pac.
Palmyra, in ancient times, from about 100
A.D. to the I4th century, more especially in the
2d and 3d centuries, a wealthy and magnificent
Arabic settlement, planted at a spot that
formed a convenient station on the great caravan
route between the Persian Gulf and the Mediter-
ranean. At all events, after the decline of Petra
(q.v.; also NABATAANS) in 105 A.D., Palmyra
took its place as the chief commercial centre in
northern Arabia. Its merchant aristocracy reaped
reat advantage from the long-protracted wars
Serween Rome and Parthia by acknowledging the
supremacy of Rome. From both Hadrian and
Septimius Severus it received special favours and
privileges. One of its chiefs, Odwnathus, husband
of the more famous Zenobia (q.v.), extended his
“tate over most of the adjoining countries, from
igypt to Asia Minor, Aurelian at length erushed
in 272 the attempt of the Palnyrenes to found an
independent empire. After the Roman empire
became Christian Palmyra was made a bishopric.
When the Moslems conquered Syria Palmyra also
submitted to them. From the 15th century it
hegan to sink into decay, along with the rest of
the Orient. Magnificent remains of the ancient
city still exist, chief among them being the great
temple of the Sun (or Baal); the great colonnade,
nearly a mile long, and consisting eee, of some
1500 ‘Corinthian columns; and sepulchtal towers,
overlooking the city. The ancient Palmyrenes,
besides conducting and controlling the caravan
trade across the desert, extrac salt, tanned
leather, and worked in gold and silver.
See Wood, Bouverie, and Dawkins, Ruins of Palmyra
(1753); Seiff, Reisen in der Asiatischen Tiirkei (1875);
a Russian work by Prince Abamelek-Lasareff (1885);
and Dr W. Wright, Palmyra and Zenobia (1895).
Palmyra Wood, properly the wood of the
Palmyra palm (see PALM, p 723); but the name
is generally used for all kinds of palm-tree wood
imported into Britain; much of which is the wood
of the cocoa-nut palm, Cocos nucifera, and the allied
species C. plumosa, :
Palni Hills, a range of Southern India,
linking the southern extremities of the Eastern
and Western Ghats; average height of the higher
ridge, 7000 feet. The climate of the Palni Hills is
eo aval 2
Portico of the Great Colonnade,
city of northern Syria, situated in an oasis on
the northern edge of the Arabian desert, about
150 miles NE. of Damascus and nearly midway
between that city and the Euphrates. The Semitic
name was Tadmor, Palmyra (= ‘city of palms’)
being the Greek and Latin equivalent. According
to the old tradition, it was founded by Solomon.
There is stronger probability that it was an
singularly pleasant and eqnable
many preferring the sanatorium of
Kodaikanal to Ootacamund.
Palo Alto, 33 miles SE. of San
Francisco, the seat of a university
founded at a cost of $15,000,000 b
Senator Leland Stanford, and open
in 1891. It is designed to provide,
entirely gratis, education from the
Kindergarten sta to the most
advanced instruction that human
teachers can supply ; the pupils are to
board on the premises, at the smallest
possible charge. Pop. (1900) 1658.
Palolo ( Palolo viridis), an edible
annelid, allied to the Lug-worm, ex-
tremely abundant at certain seasons
in the sea above and near the coral.
reefs which surround many of the
Polynesian Islands. The body is
cylindrical, slightly tapering at both
} ends, divided into peek | equal joints,
S each joint with a small tuft of gills
on each side. In thickness the palolo
resembles a very fine straw; in
length it varies from 9 to 18 inches. These an-
nelids make their appearance in great multitudes,
apparently — out of the coral-reefs, and with a
atten regularity which is very remarkable.
ley are eagerly sought after by the islande
who are on the watch for their appearance, an
go out in canoes before sunrise to take them b
means of nets; but they often occur in suc
PALOS
PAMLICO SOUND 729
numbers that the water seems to be full of them,
and they may be grasped by handfuls. After sun-
rise the creatures break
into pieces and the shoals
are not seen till the next
gabe which seems to
ave a definite relation
to the Junar time; the
two stated periods being
in October and again in
November.
Palos, a small Span-
ish port at the mouth of
a the Rio Tinto, and 5
miles SE. of Huelva.
Once an important place,
from whence Columbus
started on his great voy-
age, it has now sunk to
a village of 1200 inhabit-
ants.
°o
=
nf Palpitation is the
term used of the condi-
tion in which a person
becomes painfully aware
@, Palvlo viridis, half natural of the beating of his own
size ; b,c, anterior and pos- heart. This occasionally
terior extremities (mag-). Jjappens even when tlie
heart’s action is appar-
ently quite natural; but much more generally the
— are found to be greatly increased in
orce, and in most cases in frequency as well. It
may be either functional or a symptom of organic
disease of the heart. Here we shall merely consider
it as a functional disorder, Although it may be
persistent, it far more frequently comes on in
paroxysms, which usually terminate within half
an hour, recurring afterwards quite irregularly,
sometimes daily or several times a day, and some-
times not till after a long interval. The attack
often comes on under some mental or physical
excitement, but sometimes when the patient is
uite composed, or even asleep. If the paroxysm
a severe one the heart feels as if bounding up-
wards into the throat; and there is a sensation of
oppression over the cardiac region, with hurried or
dificult respiration. Exeluding organic diseases,
the causes of this affection are either (1) an
abnormally excitable condition of the nerves of the
heart, or (2) an unhealthy condition of the blood.
(1) Amongst the causes of disturbed innervation
may be especially noticed the abuse of tea ( especially
green tea), coffee, ee and tobacco. Any irrita-
tion of the stomach and intestinal canal may be
reflected to the heart; and hence palpitation ma;
frequently be traced to flatulence, undue acid-
ity, and intestinal worms, especially tapeworms.
Everything that causes ‘pressure on the heart, such
as tight-lacing, abdominal reek Mt or an enlarged
uterus, is also liable to occasion this affection.
(2) If the blood is abnormally rich and stimulat-
ing it may give rise to palpitation, as in Plethora
(q.¥.);. but the opposite condition, known as
Anemia (q.v.), is a much more common cause of
this affection. In anemia the blood is watery and
deficient in fibrine, and (far more) in red colour-
ing matter; and, being thus in an unnatural state,
it acts as an unnatural stimulant, and induces fre-
quent and abnormally strong pulsations.
The age at which palpitation most usually comes
on is from fifteen to twenty-five; and the affection
—especially if it arise from anzemia—is very much
more common in the female than in the male sex.
The treatment of pee must entirely depend
upon its cause. The use of all nervous stimulants
(tea, coffee, alcohol, and tobacco) should be sus-
pended or abandoned. If the patient is clearly
é
Le ik
-- = 7
plethoric, with a full strong pulse, he should take
saline cathartics, and live upon comparatively low
diet (including little snienal $052) until this con-
dition is removed. When, on the other hand, the
palpitation is due to an anemic condition, the
remedies are preparations of iron, aloetic purgatives,
an abundance of animal food, bitter ale, the cold
shower-bath, and moderate exercise.
Palsy. See Paratysis.
Paltock, RoBert, born in London apparently
in 1697, and educated at St Paul’s School, was
bred to the Jaw, and while in Clement’s Inn
secured his title to remembrance by writing the
wondrous tale of Peter Wilkins, a Cornish Man,
published anonymously in 1750, and often re-
printed. The authorship, known to some in 1802,
remained generally a mystery till 1835, and first
appeared on the title-page in 1839. Paltock died
20th March 1767. the preface to A. H.
Bullen’s edition of Peter Wilkins (2 vols. 1884),
and Atheneum, August 1884 to February 1885.
Paludan-Miiller, Freprrix, Danish poet,
born at Kjerteminde in Fiinen, on 7th February
1809, led a quiet, uneventful life, and died at
Copenhagen on 29th December 1876. Whilst still
a student at the university in that city he gained
the ear of the publie with a play, Love at Court
(1832); a poem, The Dancer (1833); and a lyric
drama, Amor and Psyche (1834; 8th ed. 1883)—all
three decidedly romantic in temper, the second
especially showing Byronic influence. But his
fame rests on Adam Homo (3 vols. 1841-49; 7th
ed. 1885), a humorous, didactic poem, full of
deep and suggestive thought, with no small share
of satiric wit and irony, and strong realistic touches,
and of the most finished literary workmanship ; on
Kalanus (1854), a contrast between Alexander the
Great and the Indian sage Kalanus, as representa-
tives of Greek culture and Hindn religion, a work
written in the loftiest spirit of idealism; and on
Adonis (1874), an exquisitely finished little mytho-
logical poem. Along with Kalanus he published
the poems Paradise, Abel’s Death, Cain, A erus,
and Benedict of Nursia; and he wrote also two
rose romances, Zhe Source of Youth (1865) and
var Lylke’s History (3 vols. 1866-73). His poeti-
cal works were published in 8 vols. in 1878-79.
See Georg Brandes, Danske Digtere (1877).
Pamir’ (‘roof of the world’), the nuclens of
the central Asian highland system, is a lofty
lateau-region, with a mean elevation of 13,000
eet, uniting the western terminations of the Him-
alaya and the Tian-Shan Mountains, and both with
the Hindu-Kush, It is traversed by mountain-ridges
that rise from 4000 to 5000 feet above the plateaus,
and the culminating points attain in some cases
25,500 feet above sea-level. Between these ridges
are a series of broad valleys, to which the generic
name ‘pamir’ is given. On the west side this
lateau-region sinks rapidly in terraces to the
eserts of Turkestan. These lofty plateaus are
exposed to great extremes of heat and cold, and
are visited by terrible snow and sand storms.
Nevertheless the Kirghiz drive up their flocks and
herds for summer pasture, and from time imme-
morial traders have crossed them along celebrated
routes. It was crossed by Marco Polo (q.v.).
Animal and bird life is plentiful, the moufflon
having its home there. iiongst the lakes are
Karakul, 120 sq. m., and Shivakul, 100 sq. m. See
the Earl of Dunmore, The Pamirs (1893); Alcock’s
Report of the Boundary Ce ission (1898); Sven
Hedin’s Through Asia (1898).
Pamlico Sound, a shallow body of water,
some 75 by 10 to 25 miles, on the coast of North
Carolina, separated from the ocean by long, narrow
islands of sand, with narrow passages.
730 PAMPAS
PAMPHLET
Pampas ( Qwichwa, ‘ plains’) is a term properly
confined to the immense treeless plains of the
Argentine Republic, which rise, almost imper-
ceptibly, in a series of terraces from the coast to
the base of the Cordilleras. Extending some 2000
by 500 miles, they differ greatly in various districts.
The north-eastern portion, in the Parand basin, is
one of the most fertile regions in the republic; and
stretching from this through Buenos Ayres and the
south of Cordova and Santa Fé is the rich grassy
mpa-land proper, supporting great hérds of cattle,
2 and sheep. ie rest is for the most part
waterless and sterile. The soil, which is a dilavium
composed of sandy clay, and abounds in the bones
of extinct mammals, is more or less impregnated
with salt, especially in the west, where strips of
desert, known as travesias, are numerous. Within
recent years great tracts of pasture have been con-
verted into farm-land, but stock-raising is still the
most important industry. The half-white herds-
men are called Gauchos (q.v.).—The name Pampas
is also given to the level districts of Peru, where
those of the Sacramento occupy an area estimated
at 180,000 sq. m., covered with primeval forest,
Pampas Grass ( Gynerium argenteum), a grass
which covers the pampas of South America. A
noble grass now well known in British gardens as an
ornamental ory it is quite hardy, and its tufts
have a splendid appearance. The leaves are 6 or 8
feet long, the ends arching gracefully over; the
}
4f)
YN
Pampas Grass (@Gynerium argenteum).
flowering stems 10 to 14 feet high; the panicles of
flowers silvery white, and from 18 inches to 2 feet
long. The male and female flowers are on separate
plants; the spikelets two-flowered, one floret
stalked, and the other sessile; the palee of the
female florets elongated, awn-shaped, and woolly.
The herbage is too coarse to be of value. The
plant is now cultivated at Goleta, California, for
the sake of its plumes, which are vended by florists
for room decoration. Their culture and prepara-
tion for market form a considerable industry,—
Another species of the same genus, G. saccharoides,
a Brazilian grass, yields a considerable quantity of
sugar.—A decoction of the root of G. parviflorum
is used in Brazil to strengthen the hair,
Pampas Hare, See Viscacna.
Pampeluna, or Pamriona, a fortified city of
northern Spain, stands on a tributary of the Ebro,
111 miles by rail NW. of Zaragoza (Sa )
and 508. by W. of Bayonne ia Frans, Tt has a
citadel (a copy of that of Antwerp), a Gothic cathe-
dral (1397), a viceregal palace, a fine aqueduct, a
natural history collection, a college of surgery, and
a bull-ring, manufactures of pottery, leather, cloth
hardware, &c., and a trade in wine. It was called
by the ancients Pompetupolis, because built by
Pompey in 68 B.c. It was taken by the Goths in
466, Ee the Franks in 542, and by Charl ein
778. From 907 it was the capital of Navarre. It was
during the siege by the French in 1521 that Loyola
(q.v.) received his wound. The town was seized
ly the French in 1808, and held by them till 1813,
when it was captured by Wellington. It again
capitulated to the French in 1823. In the Carlist
wars it was held by Queen Christina’s adherents
from 1836 to 1840, and in 1873-76 it was Myf
attacked several times by the Carlists. Pop, 25,
Pamphlet, The word is used by Hocleve in
1411, who applies the name ‘ pamflet’ to his rather
long poem De Regimine Principum, and by Caxton,
who spells it ‘pannilett.’. Beyond this we know
nothing for certain—the ultimate origin may be
Pamplala, the name of a first-century writer of
epitomes. In the 15th century the word was
applied chiefly to short poems, and the modern
meaning was only gradually assumed. Davies
(1715) in his Jeon libellorum, or Critical Hi:
of Pamphlets, detines it as ‘ any little book or
volume whatever, whether stitched or bound,
whether good or bad, whether serious or ludicrous,
whether esteemed or slighted.’ It is evident,
however, that some literary characteristics must
be added in order to exclude sermons, academic
dissertations, chap-books, broadsides, &e. The
pamphlet has a distinct aim, it relates to some
matter of current interest, religions, political, or
literary, and, whether didactic, religious, or con-
troversial, is the spontaneous expression of one
who seeks to excite or change some popular feeling
or opinion. In England the history of pane
would be the history of the oo of the people.
From the tracts of Wyclif and his followers in
the 14th century to the Zracts for the Times in
the 19th, from the heights of noble entlmsiasm in
Milton's Areopagitica and Tract on Education to
the most scurrilous of party pamphlets, all reflect,
or appeal to, some phase of popular feeling, One
of the earliest and most effective of such appeals
to the public ibag: pros the course of ecclesiasti-
cal events in the 16th century—i.e. the Supplica-
cion for the Beggars, in which Simon Fish (1523}
previ e's satiri the ‘bishops, abbots, Len
monks, and generality of the clergy; A copy
this was sent to Anne Boleyn, and ‘divers copies
scattered in the streets of London.’ To this Sir
Thomas More replied with his Si page Ne of
Soules. Then followed an unceasing flow of
Puritan pamplhilets, and in 1587 the famous Martin
Marprelate series commenced, and in 1657 the
esl 4 no Murder attracted more attention than
any other political writing of the time. The enor-
mous collection of publications, chiefly pamphlets,
le by The the bookseller, now in the
British Museum, ranging merely from 1640 to rie
yet filling 2000 volumes, tells the history of the Civi
War from day to day. The foneN ears 1813-28,
in twenty-nine volumes, contains the best pamphlets
of that period, and is full of material for history.
In our day the multitude of quarterly reviews,
monthly magazines, and weekly papers gives to
authors a more certain and a more extensive cir-
enlation ; yet the pamphlet reappears whenever
popular feeling is really aroused, or in the proj
gandism of such causes as anti-vivisection, anti-
vaccination, and the like. Some prolitie topics
have been the Bullion Question 5b 0). the Poor
Laws (1828-34), Tracts for the Times (1833-45),
the Canadian Revolt (1837-38), the Corn Laws
(1841-48), the Crimean War and the Indian
PAMPHYLIA
PANAMA 731
Mutiny (1854-59), Ireland (1868), the Franco-
German War (1870-71), the Vatican rees
{1874-75), the Eastern Question (1877-80), the
Irish Land Laws (1880-82).
Pamphylia, anciently a country on the south
coast of Asia Minor, with Cilicia on the east and
Lycia on the west. It was originally bounded on
the inland or northern side by Mount Tanrus, but
afterwards enlarged, so as to reach the confines of
Phrygia. Pamphylia is mountainous, was formerly
well wooded, and had numerous maritime cities.
The inhabitants—a mixed race of aborigines,
Cilicians, and Greek colonists—spoke a language
the basis of which probably was Greek, but which
was disfigured and corrupted hy the infusion of
barbaric elements. See Dr Lanckorowski, Die
Stidte Pamphyliens und Pisidiens (1890 et seq. ).
Pan, among the Greeks, a divinity of pastures,
forests, and flocks, usually described as eo of
Hermes. His worship originated in Arcadia, but
spread gradually over the rest of Greece, althongh
it did not reach Athens until after Marathon. Pan
is represented as having horns, a goat’s beard, a
crooked nose, pointed ears, a tail, and goat’s feet.
Sometimes he appeared to travellers, startling them
with sudden fear, whence a sudden fright was
called a panic fear. During the heat of the day he
used to sleep in the shady woods, and was exceed-
ingly wroth if his slumber was disturbed by the
Salon of the hunters. He was the patron of all
rsons occupied in the care of cattle and of bees,
in hunting and in fishing. He is also represented
as fond of music, and of dancing with the forest
nymphs, and as the inventor of the syrinx or Pan-
dean pipes. Cows, goats, lambs, milk, honey, and
new wine were offered to him. The fir-tree was
sacred to him, and he had sanctuaries and temples
in various parts of Arcadia, at Troezene, at Sicyon,
at Athens, &c. The Romans identified the Greek
Pan with their own god Faunus. Plutarch (De
Orac. Defectu) is the first to tell the baa that in
the reign of Tiberius one Thamus a pilot, when
steering near the islands of Paxw, was commanded
by a loud voice to proclaim that ‘the great Pan is
dead.’ As soon as he had reached Palodes he cried
the news aloud from the poop of his ship, where-
upon was heard a great noise of lamentation, as of
nature itself expressing its grief. The coincidence
of this story with the birth or the crucifixion of
Christ gave occasion to an explanation that it
marked the end of the old world and the beginning
of the new when the old oracles became dumb,
Rabelais has the story, there is a well-known
allusion to it in Milton’s Ode on the Nativity, and
it has been finely treated by Schiller and Mrs
Browning. The Devil of popular Christian super-
stition owes some of his attributes to Pan.
Panama, IstuMus or, formerly called the
Isthmus of Darien (q.v.), embraces the narrowest
rt (35 miles) of ntral America, pean
Josta Rica on the W. with Colombia on the E.
It now forms a department of Colombia, has an
area of 31,880 sq. m., and a pop. of 285,000, with
8000 uncivilised Indians, and is traversed by a low
chain of mountains, forming the barrier between
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Numerous
streams, the largest of which is the Tuira (160
miles long, and navigable for more than 100 miles),
fall into both oceans. Off the Pacific shore are
numerous beautiful islands, among which Las
. Perlas, so called from their pearl-fisheries (now
almost discontinued), Naos, and Taboga are the
chief. There are no good natural harbours. The
chief trading ports are Panama (see below) and
Colon (Aspinwall), The exports embrace hides,
tallow, caoutchoue, indigo, vanilla, coffee, gold dust,
cocoa-nuts, tortoiseshell, &c. Commerce is entirely
in the hands of foreigners, and is valued at less
than £1,400,000 annually. Gold, once abundant,
is still worked, and copper, iron, coal, &c., exist.
‘Panama hats’ are made in Ecuador and Peru.
PANAMA, the vt of the department, stands
on a projecting volcanic rock on the Pacitic side of
the Isthmus; the massive walls the Spaniards
built to o— their treasure city still stand in
places. Old Panamd, founded in 1518, was captured
and destroyed by the buccaneers under
(1671). Modern Panama was built two years
later, 44 miles distant from the old city. In May
1880 it had a population estimated at 15,000, the
majority of Indian and negro descent, and half-
breeds. During the zenith of canal work (see
below) the population was estimated at 25,000 to
30,000. Fires have destroyed Panama repeatedly,
as well as its sister city Colon. The principal
buildings are the cathedral (1760), a Spanish
structure, built of yellow stone; the town-hall, in
which the Colombians signed the declaration of
their independence ; and the hishop’s palace (1880).
Panama is connected with Colon on the Atlantic
by the Panama Railway (48 miles long), built by
Americans in 1850-55.
PANAMA CANAL.—The idea of connecting the
Atlantic and Pacifie Oceans by way of the central
American isthmuses is by no means new. That
for uniting them by the Isthmus of Panama is
almost coincident with Balboa’s discovery of the
Pacifie (1513). In King’s Wonders of the World
we read: ‘In the town library of Nuremberg is
reserved a globe, made by Jolin Schéner in 1520.
t is remarkable that the passage through the
Isthmus of Darien, so much sought after in later
times, is on this globe carefully traced.’ Gomera
(1510-60), the historian, was the first to advocate
a union of the oceans by means of acanal. Phili
II. of Spain proved an implacable enemy to all sue
schemes. The Tehuantepec, Nicaragua, and Darien
routes were discussed in the 16th century ; and the
Dutch, it is alleged, made complete plans for a
canal over two centuries ago. But no steps were
taken to carry ont any plan until Ferdinand de
Lesseps, of Suez fame, convened in Paris in May
1879 an international congress to discuss the plan
of er through the Isthmus of Panamé, A plan
previously prepared by De Lesseps was adopted,
and a concession from the United States of Colom-
bia to Lieutenant Lucien Napoleon Bonaparte
Wyse of the French navy, who had made a hasty
and partial survey, was sold to the prospective
Panama Canal Company. On February 28, 1881,
the first detachment of canal employés arrived at
Colon ; surveys were at once made, and the build-
ing of camps, hospitals, &c. followed. In 1882
the Canal Company pepe the Panama Rail-
way. ps’ Engineering Commission to
Panama in 1880 estimated that a canal could be
made for 843,000,000 francs. De Lesseps reduced
their figures to 600,000,000 frances, or £24,000,000,
and announced that a canal a niveau, or tide-level
canal, could be completed for that sum. Later he
invited delegates to meet him at Panama in 1888
for its opening. Loans followed year after year.
Meantime interest charges accumulated and be-
came burdensome, while little real progress was
made. In the autumn of 1888 further borrowing
became impossible. The company was forced into
liquidation, January 1, 1889; its bond and share
indebtedness was roughly estimated at £70,000,000,
interest charges over £4,000,000, with perhaps a
fifth of the real work done. There are over
800,000 holders of shares in France. Shortly after
the crash, a liquidator was named by the Court of
the Seine. In 1890 a commission of French and
other engineers was sent to the Isthmus by him.
Their report was very discouraging. Valuable
organ
732 PANAMA CRIMSON
PANCRAS
plant estimated at about £6,000,000 was rusting
away, much al y useless, The tide-level cut at
Colon was rapidly filling in, and the fine harbour
shallowing, owing to the ent, In 1891 the govern-
ment of Colombia ted to the Panamé Canal
Company an extension of ten years from 1893 in
which ts finish their contract, provided operations
should be resumed before February 1893. De
ps seems to have entered upon the plan with-
out sufficient knowledge. It is also alleged that
much money was squandered —- extravagance
and incapacity. Moreover, many hundreds of the
workmen were swept away by tropical diseases,
yellow and pernicious fevers, dysentery, Xc., the
climate of the Isthmus being pestilential and
death-dealing. Indeed the Isthmus and its towns
are hotbeds of malignant disease, distributed thence
by ing merchandise to all quarters.
the obstacles to a tide-level canal are t, such
as the swamps and volcanic ledges on the Panama
side; and the marshes and quicksands on the At-
lantic coast are apparently insurmountable. The
periodical overflow of the Chagres fills the valley of
the Isthmus, as in the flood of 1879, which swept
all before it, and covered the railway with 12 feet
of water. The wet season of nearly eight months
causes delays and dar to cuttin Earth-
quakes, too, occur, as in September 1 which did
much damage to both Isthmian cities and the Pa-
nama seg whilst a tidal wave caused great de-
struction of life and property on the islands and coast
of the Gulf of Darien ; and to natural obstacles must
be added thegreatcost of labourand living. See Nel-
son, Five Years at Panama (N. Y. 1889; Lond. 1891).
_ Panama Crimson. See Dyerne.
Panatheniea, the most famous festival of
Attica, celebrated at Athens in honour of Athena,
tron goddess of the city. All writers who men-
ion it speak of a Lesser and Greater Panathenma,
the former annual, the latter quadrennial. The
procession of the festival was sculptured by Phidias
and his disciples on the frieze of the Parthenon.
Panax, See GINSENG.
Panay, an island of the Philippines (q.v.), south
of Luzon. Area, 4540 sq.m. Mountain-chains run
rallel to the east and west coasts. It is exceed-
gly fertile, and has vast pastures. Capiz, Iloilo,
and Panay (pop. 15,484) are the chief towns.
Panchatantra, the oldest extant collection
of apologues and stories in Sanskrit literature,
This work is a compilation due to a Brahman
named Vishnusarman, who is represented as at
once the narrator of the stories and author of the
book. Com 1 of narratives, some of which are
found in different literary monuments, and of
passages borrowed from legislators, moralists, and
poets, the Panchatantra has been subjected to
many modifications. Wilson, who first gave a
detsiled analysis of the work (Trans. Roy. Asiat.
Soe. of Great Britain, i., Lond. 1827), lad three
widely varying MSS. before him. Kosegarten, the
first editor of the Sanskrit text, found the same
variety in the eleven MSS. he used. In these he
recognised two distinct redactions, one simple and
without ornament, the other more extended and
elaborated. Neither of these is, however, the first
form of the work. Benfey held that there existed
a still more ancient text, from which the lost
Pelilevi translation was made, and that the Pan-
chatantra was composed snbseqnent to that trans-
Jation, This Pehlevi version was the parent of the
Arabic Kalilah wa Dimnah, as also of the old
Syriac version of Bickel] and Benfey (1876). The
book of Kalilah wa Dimnah ditiers considerably
from the Panchatantra. It is divided into eighteen
chapters, of which only five (5, 7, 8, 9, 10) corre-
spond to the five parts of our collection. The
,
”,
literary history of this work and its extraordinary
diffusion among the languages of western Europe
are sketched in the article BipPAI.
Some of the fables contained in the Panelia-
tantra are found in the Mahabharata, others have
their source in Buddlist books, and there exist in
Sanskrit several abridgments or imitations. Of
these the most ancient forms part of the Kathasarit-
sigara (‘Ocean of the Streams of weeps & , com-
posed by Somadéva about the beginning o 12th
century. The text of this work was edited by
H. Brockhans ( Leip. 1839-62-66) ; a German trans-
lation by the same scholar was published in 1839
(Leip. 2 vols.), and one in English by Professor C.
H. Pairias in 1880 (Caleutta, 2 vols.). It contains,
of the Panchatantra, the first three books, three
fables of the fourth, and one of the fifth. Another
abridgment, in which most of the poetical quota-
tions are omitted, is entitled Kathamritanidhi
(* Treasure of the Ambrosia of Stories’). But the
most celebrated of its imitations is the Hitopadésa
(* Useful Instruction’), of comparatively modern
date. Like Somadéva, its author, Sri Narayana,
has taken only the first three books of the Indian
original; he has drawn from the last two four
fables only, and inserted them in his third and
fourth books.
The Panchatantra belongs to the class of works
designated in India as Nitisdstras (sdstra, * book
of knowledge,’ and niti, ‘conduct ”), composed for
the instruction of princes and all those called to
take a share in the direction of public affairs. The
five books of which it is com form as many
distinet ts, related to each other by an intro-
duction in which a king, after having taken the
advice of his conncillors, entrusts to a Brahman
the education of his three sons. The latter com-
poses the Panchatantra for the instruction of the
young princes, and by the reading of that work
1e succeeds in overcoming their indolence and in
developing their faculties.
The first book is the longest, and has for special
title Mitrabhéda (* The Disunion of Friends’). Its
object is to acquaint kings how dangerous it is to
lend an ear to the perfidious insinuations of those
who seek to sow divisions between a prince and his
faithful friends. The second book, entitled Mitra-
prapti (‘The Acquisition of Friends’), has for its
aim to show how advantageous it is to form
and ny tore other. The third book, Kakoloiké
(‘ The War of the Crows and the Owls’), shows
danger of trusting to men unknown or to enemies.
The fourth, Labdhapranasana (‘The Loss of Ac-
quired Good’), proves that we often lose by im-
pn gpenes what we had gained with difficulty. The
fth and last book, A hitakaritwa (‘ Incon-
siderate Conduct’), shows the danger of being too
precipitate in action. A principal logue forms
the subject, or, more correctly, the framework, of
each of the five books, Fables contained in that
apologue, and often involved the one with the
other, are related by the person introduced.
The narrative is intermingled with a multitude of
sentences, maxims, a thonghts, extracts
from codes of legislators, heroic and other poems,
and dramas,
The text of the Panchatantra has been edited by Kose-
rten (2 vols. Bonn and Greifswald, 1848-59), and G,
hier and F. Kielhorn in the ‘ Bombay Sanskrit’ series
1868-69). There is an admirable German translation
Benfey (2 vols. Leip. 1859), a French translation,
with nseful notes on the sources and imitations of the
sto by Fdonard Lanocreau (1871). Vol. i. of Benfey’s
work is entirely taken up by a masterly and e: ve
introduction, the best work that has yet appeared on the
sources and the diffusion of Indian fables,
Pancras, St, the son of a heathen noble of
Synnada in Phrygia, lost both parents whilst a
PANCREAS
PANDOURS 733
boy, and was taken to Rome by an uncle, and
there baptised, but immediately afterwards was
slain (304) in the Diocletian persecution, being
only fourteen years old. The first church that
St Augustine consecrated in England was dedi-
eated to St Pancras ; it stood at Canterbury.—The
London terminus of the Midland Railway, St
Pancras Station, is situated in the parish of St
Pancras. See G. Clinch, Marylebone and St
Pancras (1891).
Panereas (from the Gr. pan, ‘all,’ and kreas,
* flesh’) is a conglomerate gland, lying transversely
across the posterior wall of the abdomen, varying
in length from 6 to 8 inches, having a breadth o:
about an inch and a half, and a thickness of from
half an inch to an inch. Its usual weight is about
three onnees, The head of the pancreas lies in the
concavity of the duodenum. For the action of the
pancreatic juice, and an illustration of the pancreas,
see DIGESTION.
The diseases of the pancreas are few, and do
not signify their existence by any very marked
symptoms. The most common form of disease is
cancerous deposit in the head of the gland, which
sapere induces jaundice by obstructing the
common biliary duct near its opening. An accurate
diagnosis of disease of this organ is extremely
diffienlt, and cannot lead to eflicient treatment ;
all that can be done in these cases being to palliate
the most distressing symptoms. The pancreas of
ruminating animals is a favourite article of food
under the name of sweetbread.
Pancsova, a town in the sonth of Hungary,
inhabited by (1890) 17,948 Servians and Germans,
stands 9 miles NE. of Belgrade, on the Temes, not
far from its junction with the Danube. ‘The people
breed silkworms, brew beer, distil brandy, make
starch, grind flour, &c. The Austrians took the
lace from the Turks in 1716, routed them there
in 1739, burned the town in 1788, and in 1849
defeated the Hungarians under Kiss.
Panda (Ailurus fulgens), a rare and remark-
able animal in the bear section of Carnivores, It
lives among rocks and trees by the sides of streams
at great altitudes in the south-east Himalayas, and
Panda ( Ailurus fulgens).
in eastern Tibet. Like a large cat in size, it has
long, thick, brilliant reddish-brown fur, black
beneath, high pointed ears, stout plantigrade limbs,
with large, very slightly retractile claws, and woolly
soles. The bushy tail is almost as long as the
body, and has beautiful rings of red and yellow. ,
The molar teeth are very broad, with numerous
cusps; the diet consists of fruits, roots, and other
rts of plants. A ee ty panda in the Zoo in
aon sucked water like a bear, and ran like a
weasel in a jumping gallop. In its native haunts
it climbs trees dexterously. The call varies from
a curious bird-like chirp to a loud squeal. By the
large bear-like Ailwropus melanoleucus, with snow-
white fur and black legs, the panda is linked to
the bears, but in several features it is nearer the
raccoons of the New World.
Pandanacex, a natural order of endogenous
plants, wholly natives of the tropics. They are
trees or bushes, often sending down adventitious
roots, sometimes weak and decumbent, or elimb-
ing. The leaves are imbricated linear-lanceolate
and spiny, or pinnate and palmate without spines.
The flowers are unisexual, naked, polygamous, or
arranged on a spadix, and wholly covering it. The
stamens are numerous; the ovaries usually clus-
tered, one-celled, each crowned with a stigma;
the fruit consists of fibrous, one-seeded drupes,
collected or almost combined, or of berries with
many seeds. There are not quite 100 known
species. Some are valuable for the fibre of their
leaves, some for their edible fruit, &e. See ScREW
Pine. The unexpanded leaves of Carludovica
imata furnish the material of which Paname
ats ave made, The tree which yields Vegetable
Ivory (q.v.) is Phytelephas macrocarpa belonging to
this order. The flowers of Pandanus odoratissimus
are very fragrant; in India they are boiled with
meat, and are regarded as aphrodisiac. It is cul-
tivated in some parts of Japan for the sake of the
perfume of the flowers, and the adventitious roots
are used as substitutes for corks.
Pandavas. See MAHABHARATA.
Pandean Pipes, a series, fastened side b
side, of short 8 or pipes, graduated in lengtly
so as to give out different notes when blown across
their months. See PAN,
Pandects (Gr. pandectai, ‘all-containing’), or
the Dicrst, one of the celebrated legislative works
of the Emperor Justinian (q.v.).
Pandharpur, a town of British India, 112
miles SE. of Poona, on a branch of the Kistna.
It is highly revered by the Hindus on account of a
temple dedicated to an incarnation of Vishnu.
Pop. 16,910.
Pandit. See Punpir.
Pandora (i.e. the ‘all-endowed’), according
to Greek myth, was the first woman on the earth,
When Prometheus had stolen fire from heaven
Zeus instigated Hephstus to make woman out of
earth to bring vexation upon man by her graces.
The gods endowed her with every gift necessary
for this purpose, beauty, boldness, cunning, &e. ;
and Zeus sent her to Epimetheus, the brother of
Prometheus, who forgot his brother’s warning
seen accepting any gift from Zeus, A later form
of the myth represents Pandora as possessing a
vessel or box filled with every form of human ills,
on opening which they all spread over the earth,
Hope alone remaining. A still later version makes
the box filled with winged blessings, which man-
kind would have continued to enjoy if curiosity had
not pee Pandora to open it, when all the
blessings flew out, except Hope.
Pandours, a people of Servian origin who
lived scattered among the mountains of ungary,
near the village of Pandour in the county of Soli.
The name used to be applied to that portion of
the light-armed infantry in the Austrian service
raised in the Slavonian districts on the Turkish
frontier. They originally fought after the fashion
of the ‘ free-lances,’ and were a terror to the enemy
whom they annoyed incessantly. Their appearance
was exceedingly picturesque, being somewhat
oriental in character, and their arms consisted of a
musket, pistols, a Hungarian sabre, and two
Turkish poniards. Their habits of brigandage and
cruelty rendered them, however, as much a terror
734 PANDULF
PANORAMA
to the people they defended as to the enemy, and
about 1750 they were put under stricter discipline,
and gradually incorporated with the regular army.
The name is now obsolete.
Pandulf, Carpixat, the commissioner sent
by Innocent III, to King John in 1213, who
returned to England as legate (1218-21), and in
1218 was made Bishop of Norwich. Langton
strongly opposed his pretensions as legate, and
got his commission cancelled.
Pange Li a (Lat., ‘Now, my Tongne, the
mystery telling ’), one of the most remarkable of the
hymns of the Roman Breviary, and like its kindred
hymn, Lauda Sion, a most characteristic example
of medimval Latin versification. ‘The Pange Lingna
is a hymn in honour of the eucharist, and belongs
to the service of the Festival of Corpus Christi. It
was written by the great Angelic Doctor, Thomas
Aquinas, and consists of six strophes of verses in
alternate rhyme, Besides its place in the office of
the Breviary, the ‘Tantum ergo,’ a portion of this
hymn, forms part of the service called Benediction
with the Blessed Sacrament, and is sung on all
occasions of the exposition, procession, and other
public acts of eucharistic worship.
Pangenesis. See (Vol. VL. p. 676) Hereprry.
Pangolin, or SCALY ANT-EATER, a name given
to the various species of the genus Manis belonging
to the mammalian order Edentata, and confined to
the Oriental and Ethiopian regions. The most
van
Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla).
marked peculiarity of these animals is their cover-
ing of scale-like structures, which are really formed
of numerous hairs closely fused. The pangolin is
most nearly allied to the Aardvark (q.v.) of South
Africa, and like it is edentate pat feeds upon
ants. When threatened with danger these animals
roll themselves into a ball like the hedgehog.
Pango Pango. See Samoa.
Panicle, See Grasses,
Panicum, See Miter.
Panini, the greatest known grammarian of an-
cient India, whose work, equally admirable for pre-
cision of statement and analytical skill, has up to
the present day remained the standard of Sanskrit
(q.¥.) grammar. Of his life little is known save
that he was born near Attock, in the 7th century
B.C., according to Goldstiicker, while Weber and
Bohtlink give about 350 B.c.
penioat, & town of the Punjab, is situated 53
miles N. of Delhi, near the old bank of the Jumna,
and on the t military road of northern India
between Af istan and the Punjab, Hence it
has been at various times the scene of strife be-
tween the ple of India and her invaders. The first
vat battle of Panipat was fought in 1526, when
ber, at the head of 12,000 Mongols, defeated the
army, 100,000 strong, of the emperor of Delhi. The
second great battle was fought in 1556 by the Mon-
gols ander Akbar, grandson of Baber, and third of
the Mogul emperors, against Hemn, an Indian
general of the Afghan Sher Shah, the latter being
defeated. The third battle was pC on 7th Jann-
ary 1761 between Ahmed, ruler of Afghanistan, and
the till then invincible Mahrattas, who on this
oceasion sutfered a total defeat and great slaughter,
The existing town is enclosed by an old wall, and
manufactures copper utensils, cloth, blankets, hard-
ware, silver and glass ornaments. P, (1891) 27,574.
Panizzi, Sir ANTHONY, principal librarian of
the British Museum from 1856 to 1866, was born
16th September 1797, at Brescello, in the duchy of
Modena, He studied at Padua, and e an
advocate, but, sharing in the revolution of 182,
had to flee. Condemned to death in absence, he
settled in Liverpool, where the friendliness of
Roscoe procured him employment as a teacher of
Italian. Through Brougham’s help he was in 1828
made professor of Italian in University Coll
London, and in 1831 assistant-librarian in
British Museum. As keeper of the printed books
(1837) he undertook the new catalogue, and it was
he who designed the new reading-room (see BRITISH
Museum). He was long a fast friend and corre-
spondent of Prosper Mérimée, and died sis 8,
1879, having been made K.C.B. in 1 He
retained to the end a lively interest in the cause of
Italian freedom. See his Life hy Fagan (1880).
Panjab, « province of India. See Punsan.
Panjim, a city of Portuguese India. See Goa.
Panna, capital of a small native state in Bun-
delkhand, 173 miles SW. of Allahabad, Pop. of
town, 14,676; of state, 227,306.
Pannonia, 2 province of the ancient Roman
empire, bounded on the N. and E. by the Danube,
on the W. by the mountains of Noricum, and on the
8. reaching a little way across the Save; it thus
ineluded part of modern Hungary, Slavonia, parts
of Bosnia, of Croatia, and of Carniola, Sys. and
Lower Austria. It received its name from the
Pannonians, a race of doubtful origin, but who at
first dwelt in the country between the Dalmatian
Mountains and the Save, in modern Bosnia, and
afterwards more to the south-east in Mesia, The
Roman arms were first turned against them and
their neighbours, the Iapydes, by Augustus in 35
B.c. After repeated defeats the Pannonians
settled about 8 A.D, in the more northern countries,
which received their name, and of which the former
inhabitants, the Celtic Boii, had been in great part
destroyed in Ciesar’s time. The country was now
formed into a Roman province, Great numbers of
the Pannonian youth were drafted into the Roman
legions. In the 5th century it was transferred from
the Western to the Eastern Empire, and after-
wards given up to the Huns. After Attila’s death,
in 453, the Ostrogoths obtained possession of it. The
Longobards under Alboin made themselves masters
of it in 527, and relinquished it to the Avari upon
commencing their expedition to Italy. Slavonian
tribes also settled in the south, Charlemagne
brought it under his seeptre. In the reigns of his
successors the Slavonians spread northward, and
the country became a part of the great Moravian
kingdom, till the Magyars or Hungarians took it
in the end of the 9th century.
Panorama (Gr. pan, ‘all,’ and horama, ‘a
view’), a word coined by or for Barker in 1788
to mean ‘a view all round.’ The word is used
loosely for all that the eye can see at once, or by a
person’s simply turning round, from an eminence ;
also for aseries of pictures, such for example as what
is called a ‘panorama of the Rhine,’ folded up in a
kind of portfolio. The name is also given to a con-
tinuous series of {poco pictures exhibited at one
end of a room, and moved so as snuecessively to pass
into and ont of the field of view by some mechani-
cal arrangement, This when seen from a distance
PANORMUS ©
PANTHAYS 735
through an opening, and under a combination of
direct and re seta Tight (as invented by Daguerre
and Bouton), is called a diorama. But the word
peerage roperly belongs to what is now called,
y way of distinction, cyclorama—a- continuous
painting on the interior of a cylindrical surface, the
spectator standing in the centre. It is claimed
t Breising of Danzig proposed such a plan.
But Robert Barker (1739-1806), an Irish painter
resident in Edinburgh, is entitled to the credit of
having not merely conceived the method, but of
having successfully carried it out on a large scale ;
his first ‘panorama’ being a view of Edinburgh,
painted in water-colour on ere pasted on a
eylinder of canvas 25 feet in diameter, and exhib-
ited in Edinburgh in 1788. This he took to
London in 1789; and in 1793 he erected a special
building, one of the rooms of which admitted a
cireular picture 90 feet in diameter. Robert Fulton
is said to have painted and exhibited shortly after
this the first panorama seen in Paris. But on the
Continent the panorama in this sense first became
very popular after the Franco-German war of 1870-
71. Tn various towns of Germany and in Paris
panoramas of the war were exhibited in buildings
specially built for the purpose; the Parisian one
of the siege of Paris being enormously successful.
In the United States also large panoramas have
been exhibited, the subjects being battle-scenes
from the civil war. A large panorama of the
battle of Bannockburn, painted by Fleischer of
Munich, was shown in a specially erected building
in Glasgow in 1888; ea oe of the battle of
Trafalgar, by the same artist, was a feature of
the Edinburgh Exhibition of 1890. In the ‘same
year Niagara was brought on canvas to London,
and in 1891 this was succeeded by a view of
Jerusalem on the day of the Crucifixion. Georama
is the name given to a delineation of the earth’s
surface on the interior of a hollow sphere, the
spectator being in the centre of the whole (see
LOBES).
Panormus. See PALERMO.
Panslavism, 2 movement with the aim of
drawing closer together all the various races of
Slavonic stock, and combining their influence in
petites! and other directions, Some extretie
Slavophils have even pro 1 an actual amal-
gamation in nationality, language, literature, and
religion. The first literary representative was the
Slovak t Kollar (q.v.), and the movement
showed first in Bohemia (q.v.), where the philo-
logical and historical work of Schafarik and
Palicky contributed to give it impetus, The Poles
of Prussia resisted Germanisation ; Serbs, Slovaks,
and Croats asserted their rights against their
Magyar masters ; and the still less fortunate Slavs
of Turkey gladly swelled the chorus. But at the
first great Panslavie congress at Prague in 1848
the most convenient medium of intercourse proved
to be the tongue of the alien Germans! Russia,
after being called to saypreee the Hungarian revolu-
tion, came to be regarded as the protector of all
Slavs; and the papers and periodicals of Russian
Slavophils, such as Aksakoff and Katkoff, heartily
promoted this growing feeling. The growing domi-
uance of Russia caused the Poles to withdraw their
hearty support, and even the Czechs began to fear
that Panslavism, under Russian guidance, looked
like Panrussism. There were no Poles at the
second congress at Moscow in 1867; but Russia found
a most receptive field for her propaganda in Bul-
garia, Servia, and Macedonia. nd in the re-
enrrent crises of the Eastern Question (q.v.) Russia
became more pronouncedly the protector of all
Eastern Christians. The Austrian Slavs felt them-
selves put into the background by the re-constitu-
tion of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1867,
which gave so much more power to the Magyars.
The war in the Balkan Peninsula in 1875-78 was
doubtless largely due to Panslavist intrigue as
well as to Christian grievances ; but the rearrange-
ments that have taken effect since the Berlin
treaty, especially the resolute self-assertion of the
Bulgarians, have somewhat disillusioned Russian
Panslavists. See SLAvs, Russia; and Hiiusler,
Der Panslawismus ( Berlin, 1886 et seq.).
Pansy. See VIOLET.
Pantagraph, or PANTOGRAPH (Gr. panta,
‘all;’ hens, ‘to delineate’), an atentbent
invented for the purpose of making copies, reduced
or enlarged, of drawings or plans. It is made
in various
forms, one
of which is
shown in the
figure. Four
rods are so
hinged to one
another that
AE is equal
to DF, and
AD to EF;
hence ADFE
is always a
parallelo-
gram. If from
a given point
C on AE any
straight line
BH (or a, 5)
be drawn,
eutting the
other arms,
the triangle
ABC will always, no matter how the arms of the
instrument be moved, be equal to the triangle
DBH. It follows that, if the instrument be pivoted
on a point at B (usually by a weight), a pencil-
point inserted at H and a tracing-point at C, and
the latter traced over the lines of a drawing, the
yard at at H will trace a reduced copy of the
rawing. The proportion of the reduction will be
as BH is to BC. By and H are made to slide on
their respective rods, so that any proportion of
reduction can be made. By changing the places of
the pencil and tracing-point, an enlarged copy may
be made. The instrument is fitted with little castors
to facilitate its free motion. The pantagraph was
invented by the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner prior te
1631, and improved by Professor W. Wallace of
Edinburgh prior to 1831.
Enlargements or reductions can now be done so
mtich more accurately by means of photography
that the pantagraph is nearly obsolete. See Copy-
ING.
Pantellaria, a volcanic island in the Mediter-
ranean, 36 miles in circumference, and lying 60
miles SW. of the Sicilian coast. In the chief town
(Pantellaria, pop. 3600) is a great convict prison.
Panthalops. See Cuiru.
Panthays, « Mohammedan community occu-
pring the province of Yun-nan in the south-west
of China, who asserted their independence in 1855.
In 1859 they captured Talifoo, the second city of
the province, and in 1858 the capital. Their leader
Wen-soai ( King Suleiman) established his authority
over about 4,000,000 of people, of whom not above a
tenth were Siskenioedase In 1866 the Chinese
government recognised the independence of the Pan-
thays, and in 1872 their king sent his son Hassan
on a mission to Europe. Meanwhile the Chinese
again attacked the Panthays, defeated them utterly,
and finally suppressed their empire. Panthays is
A
736 PANTHEISM
PANTOGRAPH
an anglicised form of Pan-si, their own name.
They are still numerous.
Pantheism (Gr. pan, ‘all,’ and theos, ‘God’),
the name given to that system of speculation which,
in its spiritual form, identifies the universe with
God (akosmism), and, in its more material form,
God with the universe. It is only the latter kind
of pantheism that is logically open to the accusa-
tion of atheism; the former has often been the
expression of a profound religiosity. The word
Pantheist is comparatively modern, and seems to
have been coined by the Deist John Toland in
1705, and is used shortly after that date by his
opponents and orthodox writers like Waterland.
lier pantheistic systems, such as Spinoza’s, were
regularly assailed under the name of atheism. But
the antiquity of this mode of belief is undoubtedly
great; it is prevalent in one of the oldest known
civilisations in the world—the Hindu, Though it
may dimly underlie various polytheistic systems, it
is obviously in any definite shape a later develop-
ment of thought than polytheism, and most prob-
ably originated in the attempt to divest the popular
system Of its grosser features, and to give it a form
that would satisfy the requirements of philosophi-
eal speculation. Hindu theism as mism is
taught especially by the aes, the Vedanta
and Yoga philosophies, and by those poetical works
which embody the doctrines of these systems ; for
instance, the Bhagavad Gita, which follows the
Yoga doctrine, It is poetical and religious, rather
than scientific, at least in its phraseology ; but it
is substantially similar to the more logical forms
developed in Europe. The Hindu thinker regards
man as born into a world of illusions and entangle-
ments,-from which his great aim should be to
deliver himself. Neither sense nor reason, how-
ever, is capable of helping him; only through long-
continued, rigorous, and holy contemplation of the
supreme unity (Brahma) can he become emanci-
pated from the deceptive influence of phenomena,
and fit to apprehend that he and they are alike but
evanescent modes of existence assumed by that
infinite, eternal, and unchangeable Spirit who is
all in all. Hindu pantheism is thus spiritual in its
character; matter and (finite) mind are both alike
absorbed in the fathomless abyss of illimitable and
absolute being. Buddhism (q.v.) denies or ignores
the existence of God, but in many modes of regard-
ing the universe is rather akin to pantheism than
to absolute atheism. Sufism is a pantheist out-
growth of Islam.
Greek pantheism, thongh it doubtless originated
in the same way as that of India, is at once more
varied in its form, and more ratiocinative in its
method of exposition. The philosophy of Anaxi-
mander may be described as a system of atheistic
physics or of materialistic pantheism. Xenophanes,
the founder of the Eleatic School (q.v.), has been
held to be the first classical thinker who promul-
gated the higher or idealistic form of pantheism.,
Alexandrian Neoplatonism is substantially pan-
theistic; the universal reason and the world-soul
of medieval thinkers have the same tendency.
The Mosaic account of the Creation (q.v.) of
all things ont of nothing by God expressly excludes
any pantheistic cosmogony ; and Christian contro-
versialists strennonsly assert against every form of
pantheism that it involves an antichristian theory
of the origin of Evil (a.. ), subverts the personality
of God and man, renders free-will impossible (see
WILL), and destroys all real moral responsibility.
Many heresiarchs have been pantheists. Gnosti-
cism is based on an essentially pantheistic doctrine
of emanation. Dionysius (q.v.) the Areopagite
and Scotus Erigena (q.v.) were pantheists within
the Christian fold; and the later Christian
Mysticism (q.v.) has a highly pantheistic flavour
(see EcknART, BoEHME). Bruno, Vanini, and
Paracelsus were outspoken theists; and there
were various minor pantheistic sects in the middle
ages. Spinoza is perhaps the greatest, certainly the
most rigorous and precise of the whole class tha
either the ancient or the modern world has seen.
Schelling’s Nature- Eniowsly: proposed to limit the
meaning of the term pantheism to the doctrine of
See the articles on the thinkers mentioned, and those
on PHILosopHy, RELIGION, and THEIsM; the works on
Pantheisin by Jiische ( 1826-32), Bélimer (1851), Weissen-
born (1859), and Driesen (1880); Saisset, Modern
Pantheism (Eng, trans, 1863); Fellens,
(1873); Hunt, Pantheism and Christianity (1866; 2d ed.
1884); Flint, Anti-Theistic Theories (
History of Pantheism (2 vols. 1881).
Pantheon (Gr. pan'theion), a temple built in
a modified Corinthian style with a great vaulted
roof, dedicated to all the gods, The ‘Pantheon’
Half-section of Pantheon (from Fergusson),
of Rome is the only ancient edifice in Rome that —
has been perfectly preserved, and is lighted through
one aperture in the centre of its magnificent dome,
It was erected by Agrippa, son-in-law of i
27 B.c. In 610 it was consecrated as a church,
and is known as Santa Maria Rotonda, Under
Pope Urban VIIT. the architect Bernini erected
on it two little Campaniles, called in derision his
‘ass’s ears.’ Jndicious restorations were made
Pius LX., and the ass’s ears have been remo’
The church is used as a place of sepulture for great
Italians.—The Panthéon at Paris, Dnilt in 1 as
the church of St Genevieve, beeame famous as the
mausoleum of famous men, From 1851 to 1885 it
was again a church.
Panther. See Leoparp, Puma.
Pantograph. Sce PANTAGRAPH.
1877); Plumptre, —
PANTOMIME
PAPAVERACE 737
Pantomime, among the ancient Romans,
denoted not a spectacle but a person. The —
mimes were a class of actors who acted wholly by
mimicry in gesture, movements, and turings,
esponiing therefore pretty closely to t
modern ballet-dancers. hen they first made
their appearance in Rome cannot be ascertained ;
bably the Aistriones (Etruse. hister, ‘a dancer’)
ught from Etruria to Rome 364 B.c. were panto-
mimes; but the name does not once occur during
the blic, though it is common enough from the
very dawn of the empire. Augustus showed great
favour to this class of performers, and is conse-
a supposed by some writers to have been
imself the inventor of the art of dumb acting.
The most celebrated pantomimes of the Augustan
age were Bathyllus (a freedman of Mecenas),
2 enane and Hylas. The class soon spread over
Italy and the provinces, and became so popular
with the Roman nobles and knights that Tiberius
reckoned it necessary to administer a cheek to
their vanity, by issuing a decree forbidding the
aristocracy to uent their houses, or to be seen
walking with them in the streets. Under Caligula
Lex f were again received into the imperial favour ;
Nero, who carried every unworthy weakness
and vice to the extremity of caricature, himself
acted as a pantomime. From this period they
enjoyed uninterrupted popularity as long as
Ly PETRY held sway in the empire.
the oo. sock Arma no — —
was possible; everything depen on the
waovemente of the body. It was the hands and
fingers chiefly that spoke; hence the expressions,
manus loquacissime, digiti clamosi, &c. To such
perfection was this art carried that it is said the
pantomimes could give a finer and more precise
expression to ion and action than the poets
themselves. he subjects thus represented in
dumb show were always mythological, and con-
sequently pretty well known to the spectators.
The dress of the actors was made to reveal, and
not to conceal, the beauties of their person; and
as, after the 2d century, women began to appear
in public as pantomimes, the effect, as may easily
be supposed, of their costume, or lack of costume,
was prejudicial to morality. Hence tomimie
exhibitions were denoun by the early Christian
writers, as they were even by pagan moralists like
Juvenal. ©
The ] drama in medieval Italy gave birth
to the opera, and already in the 16th century we
find on the Spanish stage ballets with allegorical
figures. Into France also about the same time the
ballet was introduced. But the improvised Italian
comedy was already familiarly known far beyond
Italy, with its conventional comic figures, Panta-
lone and Arlecchino. In England the mask and
so-called ‘opera of the 17th century supplied the
place of the modern pantomime, which grew out of
an attempt to reproduce a popular light dramatic
entertainment, varied with song and dance, itself
the parent of the modern French vaudeville. Colley
Cibber mentions as the first example a piece on
the Loves of Mars and Venus. Geneste gives the
ear 1723 as the commencement of pantomime in
England, with Harlequin Dr Faustus by Jolm
Thurmond, presented at Drury Lane. John Rich
1681-1781) produced splendid pantomimes at
incoln’s Inn Fields and Covent Garden, and from
that time this form of entertainment became a
traditional institution.
In the older English pantomimes the harlequin
layed a serious as well as merely comic part;
columbine (originally his daughter) was a village
maiden whose fever was pursued by the constables
—the prototypes of the modern policemen. The
predominance of the clown seems to be a modern
359
development, mainly due to the exceptional ability
of Joseph Grimaldi. Now the chief reliance of the
manager is on scenic and spectacular effects, large
sums of money being lavished on the mise en scéne.
Pa’oli, PASQUALE DE, a famous Corsican patriot,
was born in 1726 at Morosaglia in Corsica, son of
that Giacinto Paoli who fought bravely, but with-
out success, for independence inst the Genoese
and their French allies, and died at Naples in 1756.
Thither he was carried in 1739 by his father, but
returned to take part in the heroic struggle of his
country, and in July 1755 was appointed to the
chief command in a full assembly of the people.
He struggled bravely against disaffection within
and a powerful enemy without, governed the
island with rare wisdom and moderation, and
would have achieved the independence of Corsica
had not the Genoese sold it in 1768 to France.
For a ‘ig he held out against a French army,
under the Comte de Vaux, of 22,000 men, but was
at length overpowered and forced to make his
escape to England, where he was warmly received
and ted a pension by the crown. Boswell,
who visited him in Corsica, introduced him to
Dr Johnson, who deseribed him as having ‘the
loftiest port of any man he had ever seen.’ The
two became warm friends; at Paoli’s house John-
son wrote to Mrs Thrale he loved to dine. Twenty
ears later the French Revolution recalled Paoli to
rsica, of which, as a free department of France,
he consented to become lieutenant-general and
governor; but the excesses of the Convention soon
alienated his sympathies, and he organised a fresh
insurrection. Despairing of maintaining unaided
the independence of the island, he promoted its
union with England, but failed to obtain the
post of viceroy, and returned a disappointed man
to England in 1796. He died near London, 5th
Febru 1807; and in 1889-his remains were
exhumed from Old St Pancras Churchyard, and
reinterred in his native island.
See Boswell’s Account of Corsica (1768), and the Lives
of Paoli by Arrighi ( Paris, 1843), Klose ( Brunswick, 1853),
Bartoli (Ajaccio, 1867), and Oria (Genoa, 1869).
Pa'pa (Lat., ‘father’), the Latin form of the
title now, in the Western Church, given exclu-
sively to the Bishop of Rome (see PoprE), Origin-
ally, however, meaning simply ‘father,’ it was
gen Daercantnarely to all bishops. In the
reek Church, whether in Greece Proper or in
Russia, papa is the common appellation of the
clergy.
Papacy. See Pore.
Papain is a nitrogenous body, isolated from
the juice of the tropical Papaw (q.v.). The juice
from which it is extracted is a milky, white, in-
odorous fluid, obtained by making incisions in the
ripe fruit. From this papain is isolated by precipi-
tation with alcohol after the fatty matters present
have been removed. The juice has been for a long
time used in the West Indies for making meat
tender ; but it has oy recently a shown os
papain , like sin and trypsin, the
power of digesting meat fil re; and this digestion
will on in an alkaline, a neutral, or an acid
solution. Hence it belongs to the group of diges-
tive ferments, and like them is employed in some
cases of dyspepsia, being either administered inter-
nally or employed for the pre-digestion of food.
It has also been used for the removal of warts
and for the solution of the ‘false membrane’ in
cases of diphtheria.
Papal States, See CouRcH (STATES OF THE).
Papaveracez, 2 natural order of exogenous
plants, herbaceous or half shrubby, usually with a
milky or coloured juice. The leaves are alternate,
738 PAPAW
PAPER
a Y= 7: vi the flowers on long, ae erered
stal e t is -shaped or capsular, the
seeds numerous (see Boer) The Fa ned is _
tinguished for narcotic properties. Opium (q.v.
is its most important product. The juice a Cel-
andine (q.v.) is very acrid, The Blood-root or
Sanguinaria (q.v.) is another representative of the
order. A number of species are used in their native
countries for medicinal purposes. The seeds yield
fixed oil, which, with the exception of that obtained
from A me Mexicana, is quite bland. The
flowers of many species are large and showy, most
frequently white or yellow, sometimes red. There
are in all about 130 known species, natives of all
uarters of the world, and of tropical and temperate
Sec but they abound most of all in Europe.
Papaw (Carica papaya), a small South Ameri-
can tree of the natural order Passifloraceze ( mnie
made the type of a small family, Papayaces),
which has now been introduced into many tropical
and subtropical countries. The fruit is eaten
either raw or boiled. The seeds when chewed have
in a high d the pungency of cresses, The
powdered is and the juice of the unripe fruit
are most powerful anthelmintics, The juice of the
fruit and the sap of the tree render tough meat
tender (see PAPAIN); even the exhalations from
the tree have this property, and joints of meat,
fowls, &e. are hung among its branches to prepare
them for the table. It rs fruit all the year,
a is yee ad ee ae Chamburu (C.
igitata), another species of the same genus, a
Salone Balat te Senarighie:tee in extremely
acrid and poisonous character of its juice, and the
disgusting stercoraceous odour of its flowers.—In
the United States the name Papaw is given to the
Asimina triloba, a small tree of the natural order
Anonacee, the fruit of which, a1 oval berry, 3
inches long, with soft, insipid pulp, is ee Or
n but not generally relished by others,
parts of the plant have a rank smell.
Papenbury, asmall port in the north-west of
the province of Hanover, 25 miles W. of Oldenburg
by rail and near the Ems, with which it is con-
nected by canals. Pop. 6916. In the neighbour-
hood are extensive moors.
Paper. The earliest paper was doubtless that
made from Egyptian Papyrus (q.v.), whence all
similar writing material is named. The papyrus
paper used to be described as being made of the
thin pellicles lying between the rind and the pith :
now it is known to have been made of slices of the
cellular pith laid lengthwise side by side, whereon
other layers were laid crosswise, the whole mois-
tened with Nile water, pressed and dried, and
smoothed by being rubbed with ivory or a smooth
shell. The papyrus ex was superseded in
Europe ty Pe r of other fibrous matter gradually
between the 1} and 11th centuries (see PALZO-
GRAPHY). At a remote antiquity the Chinese
made paper of the bast of a special mulberry-tree,
of sprouts of bamboo, and of Chinese (see
Barumerta). According to Fang Mi-Chih, author
of the Encyclopwdia 7’ung-ya, the Chinese at first
wrote on bamboo-boards ; but for 300 years before
and after Christ the usual writing material was
paper made of silk-waste, solidified in some way
not described. The inventor of r made of
vegetable fibre was the statesman T’s’ai Lun, born
in Kwei-yang, in the province of Hu-nan, who in
89 A.D. was in charge of the imperial arsenals.
In 105 A.D. it is expressly testified that he had
succeeded in making paper of bark, of hemp, of rags,
and of old fishing-nets. The governor of Samar-
kand, returning from a victorious expedition into
China in 751 A.D., brought back amongst his
prisoners of war artisans who enabled him to estab-
lish a r manufactory at Samarkand, Here
Persians learned the my: , and soon were
making paper of old linen cloths. The demand
rapidly increased, and new paper-works were at
work in 795 at ad, where the manufacture
was carried on till the 15th century. Soon
—< was practised in Damascus, Easpty and
along the north coast of Africa; and ere pp bee
paper, to which the names Pred pram and
were transferred, was impo’ into Europe, where
it was generally eggs a Charta sean
bombycina, cuttunea, and g ina. From
latter adjectives it has eutrintly Gown held that the
earliest paper was made of the pulp of crude cotton-
wool, and that this was only pace teh supersed
by rag pulp. But the researches of Wiesner and
Karabacek on 12,500 MSS. pete 2 to Vienna from
the Fayim in 1884 by Archduke Rainer have
proved that this is an error. There never was any
paper made by Arabs from cotton-wool ; the charta
cuttunea was all made of rags, and called ‘ cottony,’
probably only from its resemblance to fine cotton
cloth. The first manufacture of rag paper in
Europe was in Spain under the Moors; in 1154
there was a mill at Jativa. But soon after traces of
per-making are found in Italy, France, and
Games: n England there is said to have been
a paper-mill at Stevenage in Hertford in 1460, but
little is known of the history of paper-making in
England till about 1558, when there was a well-
known mill at Dartford. had, however,
been commonly in use since the 14th century.
The art of paper-making is one of the most use-
ful that has been invented, and paper has acquired
a my wis of importance with which it would not
have been credited in the 18th century. It has been
well observed that buted more
to the advancement of the human race than any
other material employed in the arts, and its manu-
facture constitutes an industry depend more
closely than any other on the march of civi
Its uses are now beyond number ; the demand for it
is so general that it has become an article of prime
necessity, and one that is daily entering more and
more Jargely into the ordinary wants and ord
life of all classes. Large as the orgie Sion ag
in the United Kingdom, it is not app so
sey and general uses as paper and paper-pulp is
th some
uro
paper has con’
i e United States, Japan, and of the
E countries. In the paper trade, as in
other mechanical industries, there has been.
posers made in the last half-century. Chemists
and mechanics have each contributed peer an
The former have furnished improved methods for
washing, bleaching, and colouring the paper stock,
which must yield a different product from what was
made by the ancients; while the mechanical im-
provements also have been many, both for boiling,
running out, drying, and finishing the pulp.
The vegetable substances from whi Ly tel ean
be made are innumerable, but the difliculties
are to obtain them at a sufficiently low price
to be used profitably and to secure a con-
tinuous supply. Many books and n
have been printed entirely of one material, such
as bamboo, straw, jute, Phormium tenaz, maize
leaves, esparto, &.: at the Paris Exhibition of
1889 a paper-maker showed more than webs
or rolls of paper, each made from a ‘erent
vegetable fibre. Books, again, have been pub-
lished which were com of several hundred
leaves, all of a different fibre. In Japan a species
of mulberry osier is grown specially for its bark
for pepee making. But the substances available
in Europe are few that can be had in quantity
at a low price.
The multitude of vegetable fibres that have
been suggested for the use of the paper-maker is
PAPER
739
bewildering, but of the number only two have come
into use to any general extent; thess are esparto
and wood-pulp. The best sources of fibre for the
paper-maker’s use are linen and cotton rags for
white paper, and hempen cordage for brown; but
the modern uses of paper have become so numerous
that rags are no longer available in sufficient
a for paper-making. Having regard to
the composition of paper, the supply would at first
seem to be illimitable, inasmuch as woody fibre is
amongst the most common of vegetable things.
ice, however, soon teaches the important
lessons (1) that not all woody fibre is equally well
adapted for the production of paper, and (2) that
many vegetable growths are built up of admirable
cellulose for the paper-maker’s use, but yield it
with such trouble and at such cost as to be wholly
unremunerative. Much caustic soda or soda-ash is
uired in the preparation of many fibres.
w fibre may be divided into four classes : (1)
that which is easily reduced and easily bleached ;
{2) that which is difficult to bleach ; (3) that which
difficult to reduce, but easily bleached ; and (4)
that wherein perfect bleaching affects the integ-
rity of the fibre. The longer the fibres and the
more intricate the mixture of them when wet, the
stronger will be the sheet of paper when dry. The
shorter the fibres, the less pliable will they become
with water, as in the case of ground wood, and the
less will be the pressure which individual fibres
exert on each other, and the more brittle will the
paper sheet turn out.
arious early attempts to employ Esparto (q.v.)
for paper-making are recorded. One patent dates
back to 1839, and paper made of it was shown at
the London Exhibition in 1851. But to the late
Mr T. Routledge is mainly due its extensive em-
loyment by the trade. He commenced with a
ew tons at the Eynsham Mills in 1856, and the
for the number of the Society of Arts weekly
journal for November 28 of that year was made
of it. For several years the makers looked very
coldly on this new material, but gradually by the
aid of Mr Pirie, Mr E. Lloyd, and others it became
universally adopted. From an import of 891 tons
in 1861 it has gradually ine as follows: in
1870, 89,156 tons; 1880, 191,229 tons; and 1890,
217,048 tons. The United Kingdom has hitherto
monopolised the supply. Esparto is treated much
like straw, but does not require as much soda-ash
and chlorine to bleach it. The fibres are easil
dissolved and bleached by chemicals. They felt
readily and yield an excellent pulp, which is em-
ployed alone, or mixed with rags, wood-pulp, or
straw. It furnishes a paper pliant, resistant, trans-
parent, and of great purity, thicker than other
papers of the same weight, and forming a good
printing and writing substance.
The culms of various cereal are employed
where obtainable; rice-straw in Asia, wheat, oat,
and other kinds of straw in Europe. Straw was
used a century ago for paper-making, but its exten-
sive use is 0 pes par recent date. For low
rs it commands a market, but as a mixer it is
inferior to esparto, the internodes or knots reer
Seceetingyy troublesome and difficult to get ric
of. The deficiency in the supply of rags and the
absence of any cheap substance to supplement
esparto have led toa airy run upon wood-pulp in
the last few years for the paper-mills in Great
Britain and most other countries, Its manufac-
ture and use dates practically back only to about
1870 ; indeed its general adoption may be referred
to the ten years later. Although not all that could
be wished for as an adjunct or filler, its introduc-
tion and employment have proved eminently useful.
The conifers giving the strongest and toughest fibre
seem to be best adapted for conversion into pulp,
although many other oe are used, The pro-
duction has centred chiefly in the two Scandinavian
countries of Norway and Sweden. From these
Britain yearly receives about 140,000 tons of wood-
ulp, besides what they ship to other countries.
hey also make a large quantity of paper and
pasteboard for export. The quantity and value of
the paper materials received by Britain in 1889
were :
Tons.
-- 42,443 value £426,322
Esparto, &e. IIIT 11217/256 1,090,266
Wood-pulp..... 11122}179 "690,692
MobMbin, 255. svdogauneSeae ate 381,878 £2,207,280
The idea of making a paper-pulp of wood was
repeatedly mooted in the early part of the 19th cen-
hee A patent was granted to some paper-makers
in taly in 1826. Some years later the idea was
revived in improvements in Great Britain by Des-
grand, Johnson, Newton, and others. Mr Houghton
took out a patent in 1857. But the mechanical
process of Volter of Heidenheim was that which
gave the principal impetus to the use of wood-pulp.
At first the wood was simply rubbed down into
pulp against the periphery of a wheel with a rough
surface ; but now b: i ape chemical appliances
a better pulp is P uced, and the manufacture has
become generally adopted in Europe and America,
adding largely to the value of their forests. Wood-
pulp is admirably oo asa pane 2p Peter
in the manufacture of cheap paper. It is deficient
in fibre, but a moderate admixture of , esparto,,
or other fibrous material strengthens it. It was
about 1873 that wood-pulp began to be introduced
in England as a paper material. At first only:
12,000 tons could be got rid of yearly, but in 1890
as much as 137,837 tons was pul chiefly from:
Sweden and Norway. Much of the paper made ix
used up a second time. Koop’s patent for nework~
ing old waste-paper was carried on in the earlier
ears of the 19th century at the Neckinger Mills,
rmondsey, The process of manufacture then
would seem to have been faulty, the ge made
being found unfit for use, and the mill was sold.
The process has, however, been brought extensively
into use of late years, old newspapers and
forming much of the material for repulping.
Cotton and linen rags are one of the mainstays of
the ee and all countries are drawing
1 y on this waste substance. In Great Britain,
unlike sunny climes, woollen clothing is more
generally worn than cotton and linen, hence
these used vegetable fibres are_not so plentiful
with us as in Asia and southern Europe.
British imports of foreign rags were 29,642 tons,
valued at 1,762, in 1880; 34,889 tons, valued
at £354,306, in 1890; and 21,055 tons, valued at
£206,772, in 1896. Much of this is re-shipped, and
British rags are also exported. Of ‘esparto and
other materials’ for paper-making 538,464 tons,
valued at £2,630,964, were imported in 1896. The
British export of 2, in 1896 had a value of
£1,304,483. In 1897 1 the imports of paper matin
materials had a value of £3,150,240; the value of
paper and ager gee exported was £2,472,429,
‘he prices of all paper-making materials have
fallen greatly since 1875; nevertheless a great im-
petus has been given to the use of straw and wood-
pulp. Thedemand for paper continues great. Some
of the London daily journals consume 100 tons
weekly ; but as they sell at low prices the paper
they use must be cheap. In order to reduce
the price many makers introduce into their pulp
sawdust and various mineral matters, such as
kaolin or china clay. Very often 25 to 30 per cent.
of such substances is introduced into these loaded
papers, which do for cheap journals, the sheets of
which have hence no solidity. But if such papers
740
PAPER
are used for book-work they have no durability,
and are also injurious to the type. Another cause
which contributes quite as mych to the bad quality
of many modern papers is the too rapid desiccation
which the sheets unde in the preparation of
machine-sized paper. Admitting that many of the
a now made are infinitely finer, more beauti-
, and above all whiter than those made in
former times, it is equally true that in general
machine-made papers possess less strength than the
old hand-made —_— _ Paper of pure and good
to
pene | ought no eave after burning more
an 2 per cent. of ash.
The question for consideration as to the future
is whether raw material enough can be obtained
in quantity to keep our mills going, since esparto
must ually fail, and wood-pulp and rags will
alone remain to us, unless some new, cheap, and
abundant vegetable fibre can be met with. About
90,000 tons of rags are collected in Britain, but they
are chiefly of cotton fabrics, and even these are
now much drawn upon for other purposes. How
much longer will Belgium, France, and Germany be
disposed to part with their rags? and without rags
wood-pulp is useless, however plentiful it may be.
The varieties of paper made are chiefly the follow-
ing four classes : (1) news and printing papers ; (2
writing-papers of various kinds, blue, cream, an
inf wg , and wove and tinted, and for account-
; (3) wrapping or packin, rs, brown
and purple, heavy manila for poser. Fn goo | bags ;
(4) miscellaneous, such as light copying, tissue, and
pone pers, blotting and filtering, tte, &e.
tly, there are all kinds of card and mill-
Pete adios The following enumeration shows the
neipal kinds of papers, made in the British
mills; but the list might be extended to one or
two thousand names of various kinds and qualities.
Account-book, backing, -papers, bank-note and
bill, blottings, boards, bowl-papers, browns (heavy
and cutting), butter, caps (brown for ), cards for
looms, carpet-felt, cartridge, casings, chart-papers,
cheques, cigarette, collar, coloured, copyings,
drawings, drying royals, duplex, enamelled, engine-
boards (glazed and milled, paste and portmanteau),
aeons a, ta eer 2 aera or sa
‘oil, grocery, gan-wadding, hosiery, lithographic,
J long elephants, maniiold, manillas, Secliok!
middles (browns), mill wrappers, music, news or
printings, parchment, _ and needle, plate, rail-
way-ticket, royal hands (gray, brown, blue, and
white), sampling, skips, small hands ( browns), tea-
paper, tissues, tobacco, tracings, tube-paper, water-
Foot, wrapping, writing. It is on record that in
772 there were sixty varieties of paper made from
as many different materials, and ten or twelve
ears later the number had been extended to 103.
n those days all wa was manufactured by hand,
each sheet separately, The rags were pu in
mortars by trip-hammers, and several days were
required to turn out a sample of dry finished paper.
The workman dipped a rectangular sieve or mould
into the vat and deposited the sheet of fluid pulp
on a piece of felt to dry.
This simple mode of manufacture, which is still
largely practised in Holland and Italy, has been
su ed very Loppson by continuous machines,
and only a small quantity of paper for owe
oooks, editions-de-luxe, and the like, besides a
superior writing, bank-note, and drawing paper is
now made by hand in England. Mill 8 (q.¥.)
and pasteboard or cardboard were formerly chiefly
made for bookbinding ; but now they are much in
demand for box-making, machine, packing, and
other purposes, Over 50,000 tons of straw and
wood are imported from Germany, Holland,
Belgium, and other countries, besides what is
¢ in Britain,
The various machines for making pe in con-
tinuous lengths are wonderful productions of
mechanical skill, being almost automatic in their
action, and they work with marvellous exactness.
These machines consist of contrivances for
an equal supply of pulp to flow upon an
wire-gauze apron, which revolves and carries on the
per until it is received on an endless sheet of
elt, ee and between large couching-
cylinders, These machines have now it
to such perfection that nepe can be made in one
continuous roll or web of any length, and before
leaving the machine is ak, dried, calendered,
hot-pressed, and cut into sheets, %
At the Edinburgh Exhibition in 1886 a web of
per was shown five miles long, and at the Pitts-
urgh Exhibition there was a roll 14 miles long, 18
inches wide, which weighed 2658 Ib. Some
machines are 75 to 100 feet long and 126 inches
wide, requiring a building to themselves, and
making a sheet of paper 7 feet in width.
Fig. 1 is a side-view of a continuous
making machine, and fig. 2 a vertical one.
principle of the machine is very simple; it contains
a pulp-vat, A, with a hog or wheel inside to
the pulp, and an arrangement for ee the pulp
over the wire-gauze mould, B, B, B, which,
instead of being in single squares, as in the
hand-process, is an endless sheet moving round
two rollers, a, 6, which keep it strete out
and revolving when in operation. nder the
part which receives the pulp there is a series of
small brass rollers, d (fig. 1); these, being nearly
close together, keep it perfectly level—a most
necessary condition; besides which there is a
shallow trough, e¢ (fig. 1), called the save all,
which catches and retains the water that always
escapes with some pulp in suspension; and an
arrangement of suction boxes and tubes, f, f, f
(fig. 1), worked by air-pumps, which draw much
of the water out as the pulp passes over them.
The pulp is kept from running over the sides by
straps called deckles, which are also endless
bands, usually of vulcanised india-rubber, carried
round moving rollers so that they travel with the
wire-gauze, and therefore offer no resistance to it.
In addition to all this the framework on which
the surface of the wire-gauze rests has a shoggling
motion, or side-shake, which has an im
effect in working the fibres ther before the pul
finally settles down. When it reaches the couake
ing-rolls, which press out most of the —
moisture, and carry it forward to the first
second series of —— by means of an end-
less web of felt which passes round them, the speed
of these rollers and the travelling sheet of felt,
CC (figs 1 and 2), is nicely calculated, so as to
prevent a strain upon the still very tender web
of paper. Sometimes the upper rollers of these
two series are filled with steam in order to com-
mence drying the web, The paper is now trusted
to itself, and passes on, as indicated by the arrows,
from the second press-rolls to the first set of dry-
ing cylinders, DD (figs. 1 and 2), where it
meets with a felt sheet, which keeps it in
contact with the drying cylinders, which are of
large size, and filled with steam. Around these it
—— drying as it goes, and is then received
tween the two smoothing-rolls, or damp calenders,
which press both surfaces, and remove the marks
of the wire and felt, which are until then visible
on the paper, This necessarily is done before the
drying is quite completed ; and from the smooth-
ing-rolls it passes to the second series of dryi
cylinders, E (figs. 1 and 2), where the drying
finished, and thence to the calenders, which are
polished rollers of hard cast-iron, so adjusted as
to give a considerable pressure to the paper, and
PAPER 741
produce a glossiness of
surface. For writing-
pers the paper passes
ugh a shallow
trough of size after
leaving the drying
cylinders, and then
f over another 7
series of skeleton cylin-
ders, with fans moving
inside, by ae % is
again dri without
heat, and afterwards
passes through the
ealenders. rinting /
and Cy rs are —
i y mix- 7
ing the sizein the pulp, ~
in which stage the -
colouring materials— 7
such as ultramarine for
the blue = of fools-
cap—are a intro-
duced. Still following
the paper web in the
drawing (fig. 1), it is
seen to pass from the
ealenders to another
machine, F; this slits
the web into widths,
which are in cross-
cut into sheets, the
size of which is regu-
lated at will. In the
United States, for fine
book-work, the paper
receives a white coat- _
ing after it has been |
made; it is the finish 7)
thus given to the sur- ¥
face that renders the
illustrations seen in the
best American mee
zines possible. e
water- mark is im-
pressed on machine-
made paper by means
of a fine light-wire
eylinder with a wire-
woven pattern; this is
placed over the wire-
uze sheet upon which
e pulp is spread, but
near the other end of
it, so that the light
impression of the
marker may act upon
the paper just when it
ceases to ulp, and °
this remains all through
its course. There are
many other interesting
points about the paper-
machine, but their in-
troduction here would
rather tend to confuse
the reader. Its pro-
ductive power is very
great; if moves at a
rate of from 20 to 200
feet per minute, spread-
ing pulp, couching,
drying, and calendering
as it goes, so that the
stream of pulp flowing
in at one end is in two
minutes passing ont
finished paper at the
“BdNOd TIVAUAVS
aNv dina
742 PAPER PAPIAS
other. It has been computed that an ordinary Cwt. Cut.
machine, making webs of paper 54 inches wide, 3870 130,050 ao
will turn out four miles a any, Woedelloet cats, 230,093
1 Paper Production of the World.—The following | ine average pice of paper, which in 1874 was
E in 1 d thelr annual Ra as high as £3, 2s. per cwt., has fallen as low as
mace des ae 30s. perewt, The superiority of the British over the
am, don | continental manufacture has obtained for Britain
— dio.coo | & steadily increasing business in the markets of
083 180,000 | Asia, South America, and her Colonies. In 1879
- 741 72,000 | the value of the British paper of all kinds exported
| {eco) | was £015,925; in 1889 it was £1,602,075, even ab
* 331 14,000 | the much lower prices ruling. In 1889 was im-
. 65 Ve periet of paper and ae : Ms bard
. 4 or} 110,000 ewt., an increase of 1 million cwt. over
ms Y 1882.
: i "9.000 In the United States equal progress has been
13 3,600 | made in the paper-manufacture as in Great
a + | Britain. The first mill was established in 1690, on
$286 1,049,800 | ground now included within Philadelphia. In 1770
Many of the mills may not be working, some pro-
duce pulp only, and the vat-made paper is included
in the estimate of production. Assuming 1 million
tons are made annually, this may be valued at
£30,000,000, of which half is the prime cost of the
raw .
It is difficult to determine with any precision
the quantity of paper now made in the United
Kingdom, as the manufacture is free from tax;
but we may form a fair estimate by looking
at the progress under the duty rate, and judging
of the advance since from the increased exports
and the stimulus now given to production. The
following are official figures of the quantity
of with duty before the abolition
of tax, which brought in £1,500,000. In 1842,
43,166 tons; 1852, 70,000 tons; 1861, 102,456
tons, In 1851 Mr Poole, in his Statistics of British
Commerce, stated that there were then ee:
mills at work in the United Kingdom; 349 in
England, 48 in Scotland, and 40 in Ireland. The
weight of paper made amounted to 62,000 tons ;
the estimated value of which was £3,000,000. The
number of mills in 1860 was 397 ; in 1870, 369. Mr
W. Arnot, in his course of lectures on the ‘Tech-
nology of the Paper Trade’ before the Society of
Arts in 1877, stated the number of paper-mills
working in the United Kingdom at 385; of which
300 were in England, 65 in Scotland, and 20 in
Ireland. The number of machines employed he
gave at about 526, producing 350,000 tons of paper,
which, with 10, tons of hand-made, gave a
total production of 360,000 tons. This = he
estimated to be worth £16,000,000 sterling. This
is, however, far too high an estimate, having
regard to the depreciated prices resulting from
the fall in value since 1880. The 400,000 tons
made at the present time cannot be valued at more
than £12,000,000. Assuming the annual production
of in the United Kingdom at present to be
,000 tons, the home consumption is evidently
and ve, for we only export in books
paper about 57,000 tons, while we import
of writing and printing papers, &c., 60,000 tons.
Newspapers, books, and periodical literature use
up fully one-half of our total make. Schools and
public offices and correspondence consume much of
the remainder, leaving but little for wrapping,
pecking, and other purposes. Judging from the
ata adduced, the British paper-manufacture has
more than quadrupled since the abolition of the
r-duty.
The Seana a of the United rag a in
paper een Ta se chon as the res i
the following table will show ; the first of its toes
columns comprising writing: r, printing-paper,
and envelopes ; and the second all other finds of
paper.
there were forty paper-mills in Pennsylvania, New
Jersey, and Delaware, and only three or four in New
England. In 1840 there were in the United States
but 426 paper-mills; in 1850, 443; and in 1860,
500, producing 60,000 tons ; in 1872 there were 812
mills, owned by 705 firms, making 200,000 tons.
At present, with over Le ye Is having 3000
machines, the quantity e greatly exceeds that
of the United Kingdom; the amount in some of
the last years of the decade 1880-90 amounting to
over 1,200,000 tons. In the other parts of America
there are 85 paper-mills, In Asia there are
19 paper-mills, ides numerous vats; in Africa,
4; and in Australasia, 7; making a total of nearl
4500 mills in the world. The production of hand-
made papers in China and Japan it is im ble to
estimate. China has made great strides in her
exports of paper of all kinds. From about 75,000
ewt. a few years ago the export advanced to 237,000
ewt. in 1890, valued at ,000. The i
of the paper now made in the world—at least three-
fourths—is believed to be used for printing on, since
the correspondence carried on in many countries out
of Europe is comparatively small.
There are works on and r-maki Hof-
mann (New York, 1873}, Munse New Yosk, 1876
Archer (1876), Dunbar (1881), Par (1886), C. T.
Davis (1886), and Cross and Bevan (1887). For old
water-marks dating from 1473, see Archologia, vol. xii.
For ancient paper-making, see Hirth, Ciinesische Studien
(1890), and Karabacek, Das Arabische Papier, WAtt-
PAPER is the subject of a separate article.
Paphlagonia, anciently a province of Asia
Minor, extending oo southern shores of
Black Sea, from the Halys on the east to the
Parthenius on the west (which separates it from
Bithynia), and inland on the south to Galatia.
Its limits, however, were somewhat different at
different times, and it successively belon: to
bag Persia, and Rome. Its capital was Sinope.
The Paphlagonians are supposed to have been of
Syrian or Semitic origin, like the Cappadocians.
Paphos, two ancient cities in Cyprus. Old
Paphos (now Kyklia) was situated in the western
rt of the island, about 14 mile from the coast.
t probably was founded by the Phoenicians, and
was famous, even before Homer's time, for a tem le
of Venus, who was said to have here risen from the
sea close by, whence her 5 eo A seg: foam-
sprung.’ “This was the home of the ‘Paphian
enus,’ and hither crowds of pilgrims used to come.
The other Paphos (Papho or @) was on the
seacoast, about 8 miles west of the older city, and
was the place in which the apostle Paul proc
the gospel before the proconsul Sergius.
Papi Bishop at Hierapolis, in Ph in
the earlier half of the 2d coneaees is ones us
only from references by Irenzus, Eusebius, and a
PAPIAS
PAPIER-MACHE 743
few others, and from fragments of his lost work
onorigeg in their writings (see especially Eusebius,
istoria Eccl. iii. 39), Irenzeus speaks of him as a
‘hearer of John’—evidently meaning the apostle.
Eusebius aptly quotes Papias himself against
Treneus on the point; but, while the quotation
justifies his criticism thus far, it does not fully
out his own view that Papias claimed to have
been a hearer of two other disciples of the Lord,
Aristion and the elder (not the apostle) John.
There is, then, no very reliable evidence of personal
intercourse with any of the immediate followers of
Jesus. On the other hand, some of the links
between Papias and the apostles are definitely
known ; for two daughters of the apostle Philip,
living in Hierapolis, related traditions to him, and
he was a ‘companion of Polycarp’ (69-155 A.D.),
Bishop at Smyrna, who in his youth had been a
disciple of the apostle John. The statement, how-
ever, in the Chronicon Paschale, that Papias suffered
at Pergamum in the year of this contemporary’s
martyrdom at Smyrna, rests on the compiler’s mis-
reading of Eusebius ( Hist. Eccl. iv. 15).
The only work which he is known to have written
is the a kyriako: ap! cong (‘Exposition of
Oracles of the Lord’), in five books, which on
various grounds, including an expression in a frag-
ment recently discovered, may be probably assigned
to the ayer 140-150. It is now generally agreed
that the signification of ‘oracles’ is not to be
absolutely limited to ‘discourses,’ and that by
‘Oracles of the Lord’ we are to understand a
record, or records, of the. Lord’s sayings, inelud-
ing at least a setting of narrative. Part of the
author’s design was to supplement his expositions
with trustworthy oral traditions. But the scanty
remains are enough to show that Papias was, as
Ensebius says, ‘of very small intellect,’ credulous,
and fond of recording the wonderful. His doctrinal
characteristic is a quaint millenarianism, with
traces of the Apocal of Baruch.
But it is in relation to the New Testament
canon, and especially to what is known as the
optic problem, that Papias is of real importance.
he fragment bearing on Mark runs thus: ‘ This
also the elder (John) said: ‘‘ Mark, having become
the interpreter (recorder) of Peter, wrote down
accurately whatever he remembered, without, how-
ever, recording in order what was either said or
done by Christ,”’ &e. Many scholars maintain
that the words suit the second gospel as we have
it, while others who deny this accept them as an
account of its groundwork. Still greater interest
attaches to the short fragment on Matthew:
‘Matthew, then, com the oracles in the
Hebrew (Aramaic) language, and each one inter-
preted them as he could.’ This statement has
often been called in question, but the best authori-
ties now hold that Papias is correct as to the
Aramaic original, and that the canonical gospel,
while evidently not a translation, is a Greek
edition, by either Matthew himself or some writer
unknown. On the whole, the two-document hypo-
thesis of the origin of the synoptics, which at
resent holds the field, coincides remarkably with
the above two fragments (see GOSPELS). As to
the rest of the canon, Papias quoted 1 John and
1 Peter, and was cited as an authority for the
‘credibility’ of the Apocalypse. There are also
some indications that he knew the fourth gospel.
For Papi nerally, see Lightfoot, Essays on the Work
entitled ‘ ipernatural ieigion * (3889) ; oF foe bere
fragments, the Patrum . Opera of Gebhardt, Har-
nack, onde Zahn ; for an Tinglish translation, the Ante-
Nicene Library, vol. i.
Papier-mAché (Fr., ‘mashed or pulp paper’).
This name is applied to a material consisting either
of paper-pulp or of sheets of paper pasted together,
which by a peculiar treatment resembles varnished
or lacquered wood in one class of articles made of
it, and in another class (chiefly architectural orna- -
ments) somewhat resembles plaster. Other sub-
stances are, however, mixed with paper, especially
for the latter class of objects. Among eastern
nations, where varnished and decorated articles in
papier-maché have long been made, the finest
work has been produ in Persia, and next to
it in Cashmere. The articles chiefly made are
eases for pens and other writing materials, as well
as boxes and trays. In Japan various objects are
manufactured by glueing together a number of
sheets of the soft and flexible paper of that country
upon moulds, when it is in a damp state. This
kind of papier-mfché, which is light, strong, and
elastic, was at one time used in that country for
helmets and other parts of armour. No doubt it
was from one or other of these eastern countries
that the art of working in papier-maché was
uired by Europeans.
rticles of papier-miché were extensively made
in France in the first half of the 18th century. Sub-
sequently the manufacture was largely developed
in Germany. The painted papier-mfché snuff-
boxes and other articles Samed Vernis Martin
work, from the fact that they were made by a
coach-painter named Martin, who had a peculiar
way of varnishing them, were in the 18th century
popular throughout Europe, and fine specimens
are still sought after by collectors. Papier-maché
appears to have been introduced into England for
the purpose of imitating Japanese trays of lacquered
wood. In 1772 Henry Clay of Birmingham took
out a nt for making papier-mfché of sheets of
specially prepared paper pasted together upon a
mould. In this way he produced panels for doors
and walls, besides cabinets, screens, tables, tea-
trays, &c., and these are still manufactured. The
best papier-maché is made by Clay’s method ; but
it is also made from paper-pulp to which glue has
been added, and this is pressed between dies to
give it the required shape. There is a third kind
made of coarse fibrous material, mixed with earthy
matters and a binding size, certain chemicals being
added to render it incombustible. Suppose that a
tray-blank of sheets has been formed upon
a metal mould. It is then heated to 120° F., and
afterwards dipped in a mixture of linseed-oil and
spirits of tar (other mixtures are used) to harden
it and make it resist moisture. It is again placed
in a stove, and when taken out it is planed and
filed to give it the required finish. The tray now
gets several coats of tar varnish and lampblack,
each of which is rubbed down with pumice, and
stoved once more. It is then ready to be decorated,
after which it receives a coat of transparent varnish,
and is finally polished with the hand.
Carton-pierre, which has been extensively em-
ployed for the internal decoration of buildings
(much in the same way as plaster), is formed of
paper-pulp mixed with whiting and glue, and
P into plaster moulds. It is next backed
with paper, allowed to set, and dried in a hot
room. Ceramic Papier-mdché (Martin’s patent
dated March 15, 1858) is a very plastic substance,
which can be readily moulded or otherwise worked
into any required form. It is composed of bic me
pulp, resin, glue, drying oil, and sugar of lead,
well kneaded together.
There are various ways of decorating papier-
mfché. For tea-trays, caskets, panels, and other
objects with a black varnished surface, what is
ealled ‘inlaying’ with plates of mother-of-pearl
shell, searcely thicker than stout jabra Se oe
has been largely practised. The pieces of shell
are stuck on with varnish, and the design painted
on them with a protecting varnish. An application
744 PAPILIONACE
PAPPENHEIM
of acid dissolves away the unprotected and
then the in’ are filled up with varnish.
When the surface is rubbed with pumice-stone the
superfluous varnish is removed, and the shell orna-
ments displayed. In a similar way the surface
can be ‘inlaid’ with cut-out metal devices. Flower
and landscape painting has also been much em-
ployed in the way of decoration, as well as borders
other ornaments in leaf gold. Owing to the
extensive importation in recent years of cheap
Japanese lacquer wares (see LACQUER), the Bir-
mingham manufacturers of papier-miché have now
largely resorted to an inexpensive decoration b;
Ceanien-puaating, which can be done by boys an
girls instead of ry mig ve artists. A change has
also taken place in the nature of the material
itself, which has recently been chiefly made of
wood- from Sweden. A limited quantity of
the igh-class papier-miché is, however, still
joe eg manufactured. The variety of —
é adopted for architectural ornaments, which
are usually more or less in relief, can be readily
painted, gilded, or bronzed. The application of
papier-maché to articles requiring t strength,
such as wheels for railway carriages, has not proved
so successful as was at one time anticipated.
Papilionacez (from Lat. papilio, ‘ butter-
fy’) a sub-order of the Lira) po scr of plants
generally called Leguminose (q.v.), the plants of
which have flowers of the peculiar structure called
popenece us, and of which the Pea and Bean
afford familiar examples. Papilionaceous flowers
have five petals, im ricated in estivation (bud),
one of which, called the vexillum, or standard, is
superior, turned next to the axis, and in estivation
folded over the rest; two, called the ale, or wings,
are lateral; and two are inferior, which are often
united by their lower margins, forming the carina,
or keel. The number of the hg re ana is very
ear ec 4800 species being known. They are
ound in all parts of the world, abounding in the
tropics. Many have superb and beautiful flowers ;
many are plants of beautiful form and foliage,
trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants; many possess
valuable medicinal properties; and many are of
great importance as furnishing food for man
and for domestic animals, others as furnishing
dyes, fibre, timber, &c. See Broom, LABURNUM,
CLover, Bran, Pea, Lucerne, Liquorice, IN-
DIGO, SANDALWOOD, &e.
Papillz. See Skin, Taste.
reps Denis, a French — was born at
Blois, August 1647, and studied medicine in
Angers, where he practised for some time as a
physician. But, becoming acquainted with Pa:
gens, he hel him in his experiments with the
ll gd, then, crossing to England, he assisted
Boyle in his physical experiments, invented the
condensing pump and the steam digester (1681)—a
sort of steam cooking apparatus, to which was
applied for the first time a safety-valve—and was
made a member of the Royal Society (1680).
Shortly afterwards he proceeded to Venice for the
— of helping to conduct a newly-founded
so! of science, but was back in London in
1684. Three years later he was —
fessor of Mathematics at Marburg, but from 1696
to 1707 worked in Cassel. Then, —s to
England, be died in obscurity, probably in 1712.
To Papin belongs the honour of having first applied
steam (1690) to produce motion by rabing a piston,
and with this he combined the simplest means of
producing a vacuum beneath the raised piston—
viz. SA em rpeeene of aqueous vapour, In virtue
of this his biographer claims that he is really the
inventor of the steam-engine. He is the inventor
of the safety-valve, an essential part of his digester;
of the siphon; and according to some, of steam-navi-
gation. See SHIPBUILDING, p. 402; also DIGESTER.
His rs were mostly printed in the Ph:
Svalietons: Acta Eruditorum, Journal des
&c. He also wrote Nouvelles Expériences du Vuide
(Paris, 1674). See Lives by Ernouf (Paris, 1874) and
Gerland (Berlin, 1881). His ce with Huy-
gens and Leibnitz was published Gerland (Berlin,
831). See Nature, vol. xxiv. (1881).
Papineau, Lovis Josern, Canadian states-—
man, was born at Montreal in October 1789. At
twenty he was elected to the Legislative Assembly,
and speedily worked his way to the head of
Radical or French-Canadian party, and in 1815 was
chosen speaker of the House of Assembly for
Lower Canada, a post that he held until 1837.
He op the union of Upper and Lower Canada,
formulated the grievances and demands of his
party in the Ninety-two Resolutions, and —
actively against the imperial government. ven
the province rose in rebellion in 1837, a warrant
was issued against Papineau for - treason,
though he took no active part in the fighting. He
esca to Paris; but returned to a, =
doned, in 1847. He died at Montebello, in Q: :
on 23d September 1871.
Papinianus, “mivs, down to the time of
Justinian the most celebrated of the Roman jurists,
lived at Rome during the reign of ins
Severus, whose second wife is said to have been
his relative. Both he and Septimius were pupils
of Scwvola; Papinianus succeeded the prince as
advocatus fisci, and afterwards held the office of
ba dnedg pretorio. The son and successor of
verus, Caracalla, caused Papinianus to be put to
death in 212. His works consist of 37 books of
eee 19 of nsa, 2 of Definitiones, and
Adulteriis ; from these works 595 excerpts were
incorporated in Justinian’s Pandects,
Pappenheim, Gorrrriep Herricn, Count
VON, an imperial general of great note in the
Thirty Years’ War, was born at Pappenheim, in
Middle Franconia, Bavaria, 29th May 1 of a
very ancient Swabian family, in which the digni
of Marshal of the Empire became hereditary about
the 13th or 14th century, and many of whose mem-
bers had greatly distinguished themselves in the
wars of the middle ages. At twenty he went over
to the Roman Catholic Church, and thenceforth
signalised himself by his fiery zeal in its cause.
ter serving under the king of Poland in his wars
with the Russians and Turks Pappenheim joined
the army of the Catholic ue, and in the battle
of Prague (1620) stayed the flight of the Austrian
ey and by a well-timed and furious charge
turned the tide of battle against the Bohemians,
In 1623 he received from the emperor the command
of a cavalry regiment of the famous ‘ Pap eimer
pengvans: In 1625 he became general of the Span-
ish horse in Lombardy; but in 1626 he re-entered
the Austrian service, and after suppressing a danger-
ous revolt of the peasants of Upper Aus in
which 40,000 of the. peasants perished, he joined
the army which was opposed to the Protestant
League, and, in ype mera i, carried -
many campaigns against the Danes, job go
Saxons. It was Pappenheim who induced Tilly to
attack Magdeburg (q.v.), and on his head rests in
measure the guilt of the ferocious massacre,
is reckless bravery involved Tilly t his
will in the disastrous battle of Breitenfeld ; but to
some extent he retrieved his character by his heroic
efforts to remedy the loss and protect the retreat
of the army. After Tilly’s death he served under
Wallenstein, who detached him with eight rai
ments to pee Cologne, but, on hearing of
advance of Gustavus, sent an urgent order for his
PAPPUS
PAPYRUS 745
return. Pappenheim arrived at Liitzen at the
moment when Wallenstein’s army was on the
point of being completely routed, and at the head
of his cuirassiers he charged the left wing of the
Swedes with such fury as to throw it into con-
fusion, and for a moment change the fortune of
the battle. He was mortally wounded in the last
charge, and died a few hours afterwards at Leipzig,
November 7, 1632, with a smile on his countenance,
after learning that Gustavus Adolphus was dead.
4 be praised!’ he said: ‘I can go in peace,
now that that mortal enemy of the Catholic faith
has had to die before me.’
Pappus. See ComposiTz.
Pappus or ALEXANDRIA flourished about the
end of either the 3d or the 4th century A.D. Which
of these dates is the more probable it is difficult to
determine, owing to conflicting evidence, but recent
opinion inclines to the former. Suidas states that
‘appus was a contemporary of Theon, thus placin
him towards the end of the 4th century, an
ascribes several treatises to him. These treatises
have not survived, and the only work by which
Pappus is now known, his Mathematical
Collection, receives no mention from
Suidas. This work consisted of eight
books, the first and the earlier part of the E
second of which are lost, and its interest
is mainly, though not exclusively, histori-
cal. From what remains of the second
book, it is conjectured that the first two
books were arithmetical. The third book §
explains some of the methods for the
duplication of the cube, treats of She pay:
ressions and the five regular polyhedra. |
he fourth book discusses the figure |
called the arbelos (‘a shoemaker’s knife’), ‘\ff
the spiral of Archimedes, the conchoid of jf
Nicomedes, and the quadratrix of Dino-
stratus. The fifth book contains some |
theorems regarding isoperimetrical figures
plane and solid, and a short account of
the semi-regular solids of Archimedes.
The sixth k comments on some of |
the works of Theodosius, Aristarchus of
Samos, and Euclid. From the seventh %
book, which is the longest and most valu- §
able of the Collection, is derived a large
on of our knowledge of Greek Revere
any of the writings here analysed are
no longer extant, and it is on the indi-
cations (in the notable instance of
Euclid’s Porisms, the very obscure indications)
which Pappus gives of the object or the contents
of them that the geometers of the 17th and 18th
centuries relied for their restorations of these
writings. The eighth book is devoted mainly to
mechanics. The mathematical interest of the Col-
lection does not equal the historical, but several of
the books contain important theorems, the dis-
covery of which is probably due to Pappus himself.
One of these has been long associated with the
name of Guldinus (1577-1643). Some others have
received a brilliant development from the mathe-
maticians of modern times. The last six books of
the Mathematical Collection were translated into
Latin by Commandinus, an Italian geometer, and
were published in 1588; another edition appeared
in 1660. Fragments of the Greek text have been
rinted at various times in England, France, and
Leecueny, but the only complete edition is that
of Fridericus Hultsch, Papyn Alewandrini Collec-
tionis que supersunt (3 vols. Berlin, 1876-78).
Papua. See New GUINEA.
Papules, or Pipes, are ‘solid small eleva-
tions of the skin,’ and may be either pale in colour
or inflammatory and more or less red. Papules
occur as an early stage in the development of the
eruption in many skin diseases—e.g. in eczema,
where they speedily become vesicles; or in acne,
where they become pustules. The papular diseases
ote where the eruption in its fully developed
orm consists of papules, are lichen and prurigo.
Papy'rus, a genus of plants of the natural
order Cyperacez, of which there are several species,
the most important being the Egyptian Papyrus or
Papyrus of the ancients (P. antiquorum, Capers
papyrus of Linnzeus)—a kind of sedge, 8 to 10 feet
high, with a very strong, woody, aromatic, creep-
ing root, long, sharp-keeled leaves, and naked,
leafless, triangular, soft, and cellular stems, as
thick as a man’s arm at the lower part, and at their
upper extremity bearing a compound umbel of
extremely numerous drooping spikelets, with a
general involucre of eight long filiform leaves,
each spikelet containing six to thirteen florets.
By the ancient Egyptians it was called papu, from
which the Greek papyrus is derived, although it
was also called by them byblos and deltos. The
Hebrews called it gomé, a word resembling the
Coptic gom, or ‘volume ;’ its modern Arabic name
is berdi. The plant is nearly extinct in Lower
Egypt, but is found in Nubia (whence it was
rape introduced into Egypt) and Abyssinia.
t eae bg in the Jordan Valley, in the neigh-
bourh of Jaffa, and also of Sidon, in parts of
the Sinai Desert, and in Sicily. It is often a con-
spicuous feature in African vegetation. It is repre-
sented on the oldest Egyptian monuments, and as
reaching the height of about ten feet. It was
grown in pools of still water, growing ten feet
above the water, and two beneath it, and restricted
to the districts of Sais and Sebennytus. The
papyrus (not merely P. papyrus, but P. dives,
which is still found in Egypt) was used for many
purposes, both ornamental and useful, such as
wreaths for the head, sandals, boxes, boats, and
eordage, but the P. papyrus was valued principall,
for a kind of paper called by its name. _ Its pit
was boiled and eaten, and its root dried for fuel.
The papyrus or Paper (q.v.) of the Egyptians,
made of strips of its pith in layers, was of the
greatest reputation in antiquity, and it appears
on the earliest monuments in the shape of long
rectangular sheets, which were rolled up at one
746 PAR
a
PARABOLA
end, and on which the scribe wrote with a reed
called kash, with red or black ink made of an
animal carbon. When newly prepared it was white
or brownish white and lissom ; but in the process
of time those papyri which have reached the present
day have become of a light or dark brown colour,
and exceedingly brittle, breaking at the touch.
Papyrus was commonly used in pt for the pur-
poses of writing, and was, in fact, the paper of the
period; bat, although mentioned by early Greek
authors, it does not appees to have.come into
general use among the Greeks till after the time
of Alexander the Great, when it was extensively
exported from the Egyptian ports under the
Ptolemies. It was, however, always an expen-
sive article to the Greeks. Among the Romans
it does not appear to have been in use at an early
or although the Sibylline books are said to
ve been written on it. It was cultivated in
Calabria, Apulia, and the marshes of the Tiber,
but the staple was no doubt im from Alex-
andria, So extensive was the Alexandrian manu-
factory that Hadrian, in his visit to that city, was
struck by its extent, It continued to be employed
in the eastern and western empire till the 12th
century, and was used amongst the Arabs in the
8th; but after that period it was quite superseded
by parchment or by paper made of rags. During
be ange perio it was no longer employed in he
of ro! ut cut up into square pages, an
honmd like modern "ei aig
The discovery in Egypt of classical Greek authors
written on papyrus began about the middle of the
19th century, and the results have been on the
whole beyond expectation. The t orator
Hyperides (q.v.), then only known by name, is
now represented by four or five pretty complete
orations ; ents of Euripides and Aleman
have been added to what we of these
authors, and early MSS. have obtained of
parts of Homer, Plato, Thucydides, Demosthenes,
and Isocrates. In 1888-89 Mr Flinders Petrie
found near Medinet el ie papyri which were
identified as fragments of Plato’s Phedo, tran-
scribed about 250 B.c., and a part of the lost
Antiope of Euripides, besides quantities of letters
and documents of the Ptolemaic period. In January
1891 more than 160 ancient mummies (dating from
the 20th and 2lst Dynasties) were found in a
subterranean at Deir el Bahari, near
Thebes; with these were many papyri, contain-
ing, as usual, arab ritual and extracts
from the Book of the Dead (q.v.); there were also
‘boxes crammed with papyri.” And at the begin-
ning of the same year the world was surprised
by the announcement that papyrus rolls obtained
from Egypt by the British Museum authorities
had been found to contain almost the whole of
a lost but famous work of Aristotle on the con-
stitution of Athens. Of these rolls there were
four, of which the longest measures seven feet,
the shortest three feet. They have been written
by four different copyists, are mainly in a small
semi-cursive hand, and date from about the end
ot the Ist century A.D. There are thirty-six
columns in all, of which the last six are badly
mutilated, The text was edited and published in
February 1891 by Mr F. G, Kenyon ; a later edition
was that of Mr J. E. Sandys.
See Paoli, Del Papiro (1878); also the articles Boox
(and works there quoted), Eayet, PALMOGRAPHY, PAPER.
Par. See SALMon.
Parad, the name which the river Tocantins
(q.¥.) receives its lower course, from Cameté
downwards (138 miles). It is 20 miles broad
opposite the city of Parad, and 40 miles broad at its
mouth. The Paranan, an arm of the Amazon,
which cuts off Marajé Island from the mainland,
pours into it part of the waters of the great river,
Para (official name Belém), a thriving city and
seaport of Brazil, capital of the state of the same
name, stands on the east bankof the river Para, 70
miles from its mouth, on a point of land formed by
the entrance of the Guandi. The harbour is near]
landlocked by wooded islands, and admits vesse!
of large size. Pari, as a whole, is a plain-looking
commercial town, compactly built, and without
straggling suburbs, the dense tropical forest coming
close up to the outskirts, The streets are narrow,
but regular, well shaded with mangoes and
and partly paved; many of the houses, with their
blue and white tiled roofs and whitewashed walls,
are very pretty, Tram-cars and telephones are in
general use, and there is a railway to Bragan
(108 miles). The principal buildings are the
theatre, the government building, custom-house,
and cathedral (1720). The city contains a small fort
Brazil nuts, the
sh, &c. The annual value of the exports
exceeds £2,500,000. Pop. 50,600. See Vincen
Around and About South America (1890); and
BRAZIL, and books there noted.—The state, border-
ing on Guiana and the Atlantic, and divided by
the Amazon, has an area of 443,650 sq. m., and a
pop. (1895) of 335,000. ‘Para Grass’ is a name
given to piassava ; see FisRous SUBSTANCES.
Pa’ra, a coin of copper, silver, or mixed metal,
= most generally of copper, in use in Turk
and Egypt; it is the 40th part of a Piastre (q.v.),
and varies much in value, owing to the de
condition of the Turkish coinage.
Parable (Gr. abolé, ‘a com *) was
originally the aoa aloon by the Foe mgt Pika
to an illustration avowedly introduced as such. In
Hellenistic and New Testament Greek it came
to signify an independent fictitious narrative,
employed for the illustration of a moral rule or
principle. This kind of illustration is of eastern
origin, and the test examples are to be found in
the Old and New Testaments, particularly in the
discourses of our Lord. The parable differs from
the fable in the probability or verisimilitude of the
story itself, and agrees with it in the essential
requisites of simplicity and brevity. It is essenti-
ally a short allegory marked by probability of
incident, and intended to convey one direct moral
or spiritual truth. In the course of time the word
parable came to lose its significance of figurative
speech, and to mean speech generally. ;
There are works on the bles of our Lord by Arch-
bishop Trench (1846), Calderwood (1880), A. B. Bruce
(1882), Goebel (trans. 1883), and Dods (1883
the articles ALLEGORY, APOLOGUE, and FABLE,
Para’bola, the section of a cone by a plane
which is parallel to a generating line. As @
particular case, when the plane through the
vertex of the cone, the parabola closes up into a
straight line. A property of the parabola is that
the distance of any point on the curve from a
certain fixed point is equal to its distance from a
certain fixed straight line. The fixed point is
called the focus of the bola, and the fixed line
is called its directriz. In the re, PAP’ ears
sents a parabola of which S is the focus and is
the directrix. The point A is called the vertex of the
parabola. The line ASO is the principal diameter
of the eurve; and any line drawn through a point
such as P parallel to AO is called a diameter,
the emporium of the Amazon river-trade, supply:
). See also. -
PARABOLOID
PARADISE-FISH 747
From the above property it is easy to prove that
PN? = 4AS:AN, where N is the foot of the perpen-
dicular from P upon OA. It is obvious that the
parabola is not avclosed curve. The centre (cor-
responding to the centre of the ellipse) is situated
: at infinity. The
tangent to the
curve at P bisects
the angle SPD.
Hence a reflecting
surface formed by
the revolution of
PAP’ about OA as
axis is such that
parallel rays falling
upon it in the
direction of OS are
reflected to S.
Conversely, rays
diverging from §
will be reflected
rallel to SO.
ence the intensity
of the reflected
beam of light re-
mains constant at
all distances from the source, except in so far as it
is affected by absorption, and the parabolic is
therefore the most perfect form of reflector (see
LIGHTHOUSE, REFLECTION). If the resistance of
f
the air were negligible, the path of a_ projectile:
would approximately be a parabola with its axis,
or principal diameter, vertical, and_its vertex at
the highest point of the path. Let PN = y,
AN =2, AS=a. The equation of the parabola
referred to its vertex as origin is y?=4ax. All
curves the equations of which are of the form
y" = px™ are classed as parabolas. Thus, the curve
represented by the equation ¥' = pa is called the
aabceat rabola ; and that one whose. equation is
¥= pat is called the semi-cubical parabola.
Paraboloid is a solid figure traced out by a
Parabola (q.v.) revolving round its principal axis.
Paracelsus, a name coined for himself by
Theophrastus mbastus von Hohenheim, was
eater
rence meant to imply that he was
than Celsus; there is no good authority for further
adding the names Philippus Aureolus. Paracelsus
was the son of Wilhelm Bombast von Hohenheim,
a a beepsase at Einsiedeln, in the Swiss canton of
Schwyz, and was born in 1490, 1491, or 1493
(it seems impossible to decide which). He owed
his early education mainly to his father; went to
Basel University at sixteen, but soon left to study
alchemy and chemistry with Trithemius, Bishop of
Wiirzburg ; and next at the mines in Tyrol belong-
ing to the Fugger family learned the physical
preperties of metals and minerals, and the dis-
tion of rock strata, and began to realise
that the observation of nature is of surpassingly
ter value to the student than academic A ie
Notions or the lucubrations of the study. Here
and in subsequent wanderings over great part of
Europe he amassed a vast store of facts, learned the
actual practice of medicine amongst various peoples,
but lost all faith in scholastic disquisitions and
disputations. He acquired no little fame as a
medical practitioner, and on his return to Basel in
1526 received the appointment of town physician.
He also lectured on medicine at the university,
but defied academic tradition not merely by lectur-
ing in German (not Latin), but by flouting at Galen
and Avicenna—burning their books in public, it was
affirmed—and denying all that was most firmly
believed by the faculty.
Bitterness, backbiting, enmities soon rose and
pursued him throughout the rest of his life,
aggravated and justified in some measure by his
own vanity, arrogance, and aggressiveness, as also
by his intemperate habits. A dispute with the
magistrates in 1528 led to his leaving Basel in
haste ; he wandered for more than a dozen years,
visiting Colmar, Nuremberg, Zurich, Augsburg,
and many other towns, but seldom sojourning
more than a few months, and at last settled in
1541 under the protection of the archbishop at
Salzburg. But he died on the 24th September of
the same year—murdered by his enemies, said his
friends; in consequence of a drunken debauch,
said his enemies.
He is said to have written some 364 works, of
which only some 230 were printed; and of these
the critics only admit from ten (Marx) to twenty-
four (Hiiser) as genuine, the others being by his
followers the ‘ Paracelsists.’ They were mainly
written in Swiss-German, the Latin versions bein
by other hands. About a dozen were translat
into English. The earliest printed work was Prac-
tica D. Theophrasti Paracelsi (Augsbur , 1529).
Collected German editions appeared at asst in
1589-91 (11 vols. 4to) and again in 1603-5 (4 vols.
folio; re-issued 1618), Latin editions in 1603-5
(11 vols. 4to) and 1658 (Geneva, 3 vols. folio).
His system was on a cosmogoniec view of
the universe, the disturbances in the economy of
the human microcosm corresponding to and being
determined by the movements of the all-embracing
macrocosm. Repudiating the current pseudo-
Aristotelianism, Paracelsus turned sympathetically
to Neoplatonism and the Cabbala; but it seems
difficult not to admit in him an element of pure
charlatanism, as well as of mysticism. Unquestion-
ably, however, his method and his influence tended
in the direction of the immediate observation of
nature, the discarding of antiquated theories, the
encouragement of independent research, experi-
ment, and innovation. He is not to be blamed
for clinging like his age to Alchemy (q.v.); he
certainly made some new chemical compounds, and
pep chemical knowledge to improve pharmacy
and therapeutics, and, in an empirical fashion, to
revolutionise hide-bound medical methods.
See monographs by M. B. Lessing (1839), Marx (1842),
Mook ( Wiirzburg, 1876); the article MEDICINE ; and the
History of Medicine by Hiser. There is an English Life
of Paracelsus by Fr. Hartmann (1886); Browning’s
famous poem on Paracelsus is well known.
Parachute (Fr. chute, ‘a fall’), a machine
for the purpose of retarding the velocity of descent
of any y through the air, and employed by
aéronauts as a means of descending from Balloons
(q.v.). The original type was a gigantic umbrella,
strongly made, and having the outer extremities
of the rods, on which the canvas is stretched, firmly
connected by ropes or stays to the lower part of
the handle. It was recommended in 1783 at Lyons
by Le Normand as a means of escape from a house
on fire, but was first used in connection with
ballooning by Blanchard in 1793. In 1887 Baldwin
claimed to have descended from a height of one
mile by means of a parachute in 3} minutes.
Paraclete. See Sprrir (HoLy), MonrTan-
ISM, ABELARD.
Paradise (Gr. paradeisos, ‘a park,’ ‘a pleasure-
ground ;’ originally an oriental, apparently Persian,
word ; ef. the Heb. pardes, and modern Persian,
Jirdaus), the garden of Eden (q.v.), Heaven (4-Y-)
—See Brrp oF PARADISE for the bird so named.
Paradise-fish (Macropodus viridi-auratus), a
Chinese species of ert often kept in aquaria
for its beauty of form and colouring. In the male
the colours increase in brilliancy at the pairing-
season, and he swims around his wished-for mate,
fluttering the long, delicate filaments of the ventral
748 PARADOX
PARAFFIN
fins, or erecting those of the tail fin like a pea-
cock’s train in miniature,
Paradox (Gr. para, ‘ beside’ or ‘ beyond,’ and
dozxa, ‘an opilion’), a term bs gra to whatever is
contrary to the received belief ; not wos werigs Bory
opinion contrary to truth. There have been bold
and happy paradoxes whose fortune it has been to
overthrow accredited errors, and in the course of
time to become ony accepted as truths. For
paradoxists who square the circle, and invent per-
tual motion, see QUADRATURE OF THE CIRCLE,
PERPETUAL Motion; and De Morgan's Budget
of Paradoxes (1872).
Paradoxides Beds (Paradozidian), a term
sometimes applied to the Harlech or Longmynd
Menevian rocks of Britain, which are charac-
terised by the presence of trilobites belonging to
the genus Paradoxides. See CAMBRIAN SYSTEM.
Paraffin (so called as being parum affinis
—i.e. having little aflinity—for an alkali) is a
name given by Baron Reichenbach (q.v.) to a
white transparent crystalline substance first
obtained by him in 1830 from wood-tar. The
honour of this discovery must be shared with
Christison of Edinburgh, who independently and
almost simultaneously obtained the same body in
making a chemical examination of Rangoon petro-
leum, and which he named petroline. Dumas, a
French chemist, obtained it also from coal-tar in
1835. But for twenty years after its discovery
opemagnes remained a chemical curiosity only.
t was not till 1850 that it began to be produced,
by Mr James Young, in quantity suflicient to
oceupy the attention of manufacturers. Since
then it has become of great importance com-
mercially, and has for years been the bos 1
material employed in the manufacture of candles
in Great Britain and Germany, having for that
purpose, to a large extent, superseded the use of
Wax, spermaceti, stearic acid, and tallow,
besides being used in many other branches of the
arts and manufactures, and in surgery.
The word paraffin, at first applied 1 by Reichenbach
to the solid body, is now used by chemists as a generic
term for the series of saturated Hydrocarbons (q.v.),
the higher members of which are paraffin-wax, lower
members are an and the lowest are gases ;
marsh-gas or firedamp being lowest ofall. Parattin-
oil was the term first — oyed by Mr Young to
denominate the mineral burning oils oatmeal by
him, and this name still applies in Britain to
all the oils associated with the manufacture of
n. In these oils, however, the olefine series
of non-saturated hydrocarbons is largely repre-
sented along with liquid paraftins. But Petroleum
(q.v.) is the term in general use to designate
the natural oils of America, Russia, and other
countries, which are for the most part mixtures
of these same two series of hydrocarbons. As the
production of ffin-wax and paraffin-oils has
now become an industry of great importance to the
world, it will be convenient to make some reference
here to the his' of its development, ey
in Scotland, which is now the seat of the industry.
To a comparatively limited extent coal and shale
or schist are made use of in Germany, in France,
in Italy, and ‘n Australia for the production of
hydrocarbon cils,
In December 1847 Mr James Young received a
letter from Dr (Sir Lyon) Playfair, calling his
attention to a dark oily liquid found in a coal-mine
at Alfreton in Derbyshire. On examining this
oil Mr Young recognised the commercial import-
ance of the products that could be obtained from it.
He erected a refinery, and produced a light oil for
burning, a heavy oil for lubricating, and paraffin.
wax. This petroleum spring, at first producing
about 300 gallons per day, had exhausted itself
at the end of two years. Meanwhile, Mr Y
reflecting on the probable origin of the oil,
after a series of experiments, su ed in —
at a low heat an analogous oil from coal. Th
process became the subject of his celebrated it
obtained in 1850, Works were erected at
in Scotland, in which neighbourhood a highly bitu-
minous cannel coal was at that time being mined
for aye It was known as Tor ill
Mineral or ead Coal (qv. ).. This mineral was
employed by Mr Young, and it yielded under distil-
lation about 120 gallons of crude oil per ton. In
1851, when the Bathgate oil-works were s'
tS endealie ar till in 1862 tt ve Rete
it un rose, ti 8 per
ton, when the supply ceased. Mr Young’s t,
which covered the distillation of oil from coal at a
low red heat, ran from 1850 to 1864. In 1859,
however, Mr Robert Bell erected oil-works at
Broxburn (q.v.), in which he distilled oil from shale.
He was the first in Scotland to use this material,
although Du Buisson had obtained a patent
in France previous to 1850 for the distillation of
schist or shale. Since 1862 this mineral has been
and now is, the only mineral employed in Scotland
for oil-making. Soon after Mr Young obtained his
tent in 1850 he granted licenses for its use in the
nited States of America, where oil for several
years was distilled from cannel-coal; but public
attention being thereby directed to the natural
petroleums which have since been found in such
abundance, the use of cannel-coal was discon-
tinued. Mr ee: was thus the — not only
of the paraffin-oil manufacture, but also of the
petroleum industries of the world.
During the progress of the shale-oil industry in
Scotland it has been frequently subject to serious
vicissitudes of fortune, more than once being threat-
ened with extinction. During one of those
elsh coal-oil trade
by. roducts, and
regarded of little value, or for which there was no
market, and products which for years were even
unknown came to be of prime importance in the
life of the trade. The first period was a brief one
(1848-50), when Mr Young utilised the petroleum-
spring at Alfreton for the production mainly of
lubricating oil, used in mills as a substitute for
sperm-oil. The second period extended over the
uration of Young’s patent (1850-64), when the
burning oil had become of the test are
to the manufacturer. The third period (1864-72)
witnessed the great development of the petroleam
trade in America, during which the price of burning
oil fell so low that about half of the works in Seot-
land were closed, The fourth period (1872-78)
was a period of severe struggle for existence. The ~
smaller and weaker works disappeared. The pro-
duction became concentrated in fewer hands with
larger ontputs. Burning oil being now less remu-
nerative, the utmost attention was paid to the
recovery of all waste-products and to the develo;
ment of the by-products; parattin-wax and sulphate
of ammonia then becoming of chief importance to
the manufacturer, Fortunately also the inventive
nins, pencipally of N. M. Henderson, of William
oung, and George T. Beilby, and others stimu-
lated by necessity, culminated in the production of
new and economical processes whereby manufac-
turing costs were reduced, and the yield of the
products that had now become of most value were
much increased. The fifth period (1878-87) was
PARAFFIN
749
in consequence a time of much prosperity, ending,
however, in a partial collapse by reason of over-
uction in Scotland combined with ever-increas-
ing imports of wax from America. The sixth
period, for a few years from 1887, was a period of
combination, the Scotch and American producers
having combined to restrict the supplies of paraffin-
wax. After 1894 the Scotch companies suffered again
from American (and also Russian) competition.
Geologically, the position of the shale in the east
of Scotland is in the Lower Carboniferous series,
but in the west of Scotland it is found in the
ordinary coal-measures. . There are some seven or
eight different seams of shale, all varying in position
and quality from each other; but the same shale
also varies from its normal character in different
districts, being thick and rich in one place, and
thin and poor in another. The Broxburn seam of
shale at its best is probably the richest and most
profitable quality to work ; but the Pumpherston
seams of shale, though poor in oil, have now be-
come of value, because they are rich in ammonia.
The shale is procured in the same manner as in
a ere A
The following summaries will indicate the
material facts in the history of the trade in Scot-
land, and the direction and extent to which the
— processes have tended—viz. diminished
yield of. burning oils, increased yield of lubricating
oils,. paraffin-wax, and sulphate of ammonia, to-
ther with reduction of loss in process of manu-
serial
SUMMARY No. 1.
= ee End of 3d Period—1872, End of 4th Period—1878,
‘umber capital employed. 51—£1,750,000 18—£1,400,000 18—£2,000,000
— of shale 800, 850, 1,869,300 tons,
oil 2 agen 25,000,000 29,000,000 52,876,700 gallons,
Burning produced 11,250,000 11,400,000 21,680,000
Lubricating oils 2,500,000 5,000,000 9,000,000
Paraffin-wax 5,800 9,200 22,846 tons.
Sulphate of ammonia 2,350 4,750 18,483
SUMMARY No. 2.
SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF PRODUCTS UNDER THE OLD AND NEW SYSTEMS OF WORKING.
Fenner eee een ee ee eee ae eeees
The first most notable improvement was the
enderson patented by N. M. Henderson in
1873. With this retort the spent shale off which
the oil had been distilled, and which still con-
tained about 12 per cent. of carbon, was allowed to
descend into the furnace beneath the retort to serve
as fuel in the distillation of fresh cha of shale.
This effected a great saving of coal and labour, and,
on account of mild temperature produced with
regularity, there was increased yield of products of
better quality and more easily refined.
In 1882 Mr William ae and Mr George
T. Beilby, combining the results of their experi-
ments, patented a new retort. It is a combina-
tion of two retorts; in the ps a one the ordinary
ok roducts are distilled off, after which the
8
below, where a higher heat is employed and in
which it is exposed to a current of steam and air;
this method gives a greatly increased yield of
ammonia; and it is therefore a form of retort of
the utmost value in the case of shales rich in nitro-
genous and poor in bituminous products.
This was followed in 1883 by Mr Henderson’s
continuous distillation process, in which the crude
oil passes by gravitation through three stills.
During the progress of the oil through these stills
the fractionation or separation of the crude oil into
naphtha, burning oil, and heavy or lubricating
oil containing paraffin takes place automatically.
. In addition to these three stills there are two or
more coking stills into which alternately the
residue of the crude oil flows and where the dis-
tillation is completed, the dry coke being removed
from each at lar intervals. The advantages
obtained from this process are pokes in first cost
of plant, saving of labour, time, and fuel; less cost
of maintenance; the fractionation of the oil is
more perfect and uniform, and the distillates purer,
iving less loss in refining. Mr Henderson also,
by a patented process, greatly simplified and
cheapened the cost of the production of sulphate of
ammonia. And his new methods of refrigeration
and refinement of the crude paraffin scale increased
the yield of wax and improved the quality of the
lubricating oils.
e is allowed to fall into a firebrick retort | of
Burning Lubricating Loss in
Naphtha, Oils, Oils. Paraffin, , process,
oRescedecds 6 40 13 8 84
dwesesenecs 4 35 17 14 30
In the distillation of bituminous minerals for the
production of gas a bright-red heat is employed in
order to obtain as much incondensable vapour or
permanent gas as possible. The aim of the oil-
manufacturer on the contrary is to minimise the
—- of incondensable gas, and to obtain the
ighest percen ible of the liquid and solid
hydrocarbons. He therefore reduces the distillation
temperature to the lowest practicable point—viz.
from 600° to 800° F.
Crude oil is composed of a very wide range of
hydrocarbons, each varying in specific gravity and
boiling-point and in the percentage of carbon
present; but in the practical operations of the
refiner the fractionation of the oil is confined within
certain definite limits which have been found
most convenience commercially—viz. Naphtha,
specific gravity, 680 to 750 (water = 1000); volatile
at ordinary temperatures ; the highest portions are
used for carburetting air gas; the heavier portions
are principally used as solvents. Burning oils—(a)
for domestic use ; specific gravity, 800 to 805 ; flash-
point, Abel test, about 100" F. (6) Lighthouse oil,
specific gravity, 810 to 815; flash-point, Abel
test, about 150° F, (c) High Test oils, specific
gravity, 830 to 840; flash-point, Abel test, about
° F.; used in special lamps for lighting railway-
carriages and in ships. Lubricating oils: These
are made of various standard specific gravities—viz.
865, 875, 885, 890-5. They are used principally
for mixing with animal and vegetable oils in the
preparation of lubricants. ‘arafin-wax, with
melting-points varying from 80° to 130° F. The
soft wax from 80° to 100° is employed instead of
sulphur in the preparation of ordinary safety-
matches, while the harder qualities are manu-
factured into candles.
The operations in the production and _refine-
ment of mineral-oil products stated briefly are:
The shale when taken from the pits is broken
into small pieces and put into the retorts. In the
retort the first chemical process, destructive dis-
tillation, takes place. The various products of the
oil-works do not exist as such in the shale; -hey
are all created by its destructive distillation. The
shale, according to quality, yields from 20 to 40
750 PARAFFIN
PARAGUAY
gallons of crude oil ton, and over 60 gallons of
ammonia water. is water, now such a valuable
product to the oil-manufacturer, was allowed for
years to go to waste; but in 1864 was for the first
time utilised by Mr Bell, who recovered ammonia
from it in the form of sulp
The operations of the oil-refinery are: (1) dis-
poe pens (2) Lei eewems t vp poo weapaaled cooling
an —e vy oil con ng n 80 as
to sipenaiie solid hydrocarbons from the liquid.
The oils are distilled several times and are frac-
tionated into the various qualities required; and
between each distillation the oil is treated with oil
of vitriol and with caustic soda. After the finishing
treatment with acid and soda some of the soda com-
unds are retained in solution by the oil; these
ave to be carefully removed by washing with
water. The absence of acid and alkaline com-
mnds, and thorongh fractionation of the oil, are
the great secrets in the refining of burning oils;
and at some of the works in tland the best
burning oils that can be obtained are now pro-
duced, and the safety of the Scotch oils can
be relied upon. ‘In lubricating oils the essential
features are high viscosity, high flash-point, and
low setting-point. The first two depend on proper
fractionation; and the third is secured by careful
refri tion, so that the lowest forms of solid
parafin may be crystallised and separated from
the oil.
The crude nscale or wax is refined either
by chemicals, by sweating, or by treatment with
naphtha. The chemical treatment is seldom used,
the greater portion being purified under the sweat-
ing process, which is simple and effective. The
temperature of the sweating-chamber is rai
from 2° to 3° above the setting-point of the paraffin
nired ; the oil then drains off, carrying most of
the other impurities with it. But the best qualities
of refined paraflin nire a treatment or two
with shale naphtha. e paraffin is melted, and
abont 30 per cent. of spirit run in, and after careful
stirring 4 4 the mixture is allowed to cool
down; it is then pressed, when ‘the naphtha runs
ont, taking the colouring matter with it. This
pressed paraffin is again melted and steam blown
thro’ it, which carries off the remainder of the
naphtha, and finally the melted paraffin is stirred
with animal charcoal, settled, and then filtered
through cloth and filter-paper, and run into pans to
solidify into cakes of convenient size.
Pardagua, Philippine Islands. See PALAWAN.
Paraguay, an important river of South Amer-
ica, an affluent of the Parand (q.v.), rises in the
Brazilian state of Matto Grosso. The sources of
the river are a number of deep lakes, and 8 miles
from its source the stream already has considerable
volume. Pursuing a south-west course, and after
flowing through a level country covered with thick
forests, the aay is joined from the west by
the Jauru in 16° 30 8. lat. It then continues to
flow south through the Marsh of Xarayes, which,
during the season when the stream rises, is an
ex ve waste of waters, stretching far on each
side of the stream, and extending from north to
south over about 200 miles. The river still pursues
a generally southward course, forming from 20° to
8. the boundary line between Brazil and
Bolivia, thence flowing south-south-west th h
the territories of Paraguay to its junction with the
Parana, a few miles above Corrientes. Its chief
affluents are the Cuyaba, Tacuary, Mondego,
and Apa on the left, and the Jaura, Pilcomayo,
and Vermejo on the right. Except in the marsh
districts, the country on both banks of the river
rich and fertile, abounds in excellent timber.
The entire length of the river is estimated at 1800
miles ; it is navigable for steamers to the mouth of
the Cuyabé. The waters of the Paraguay, which
are quite free from obstructions, were declared open
to all nations in 1852; and now Brazilian mail-
steamers ply monthly between Rio de Janeiro and
Cuyabd, on the river of the same name, and there
are several lines of steamers between Buenos Ayres
and Asuncion.
Paraguay, an inland ublic of Sonth
Amerlonliviled into two distinet pordlens hey ile
river so named, Eastern P. , or
proper, is a well-defined territory, nearly in the
shape of a Nel , extending from 22° to
and Argentine republics. Western Paragua
or the Chae : oat
between the mouth of the Pi meg and that of
the Rio Negro. On the west the only definition of
a boundary is a line of separation between the
Chaco = Rasy bet ert yet been
geographically determined, but wh supposed
to along the meridian 64° 30° w. The
total area of Paraguay is estimated at about
142,000 sq. m.—a territory considerably larger than
Great Britain and Ireland. The population of
Paraguay is composed of whites of Spanish descent,
Indians, a few negroes, and a mixture of these
several races, and in 1895 was estimated at 500,000,
exclusive of the Indians in the Chaco, A moun-
tain-chain called Sierra Amambay, running in the
eral direction of from north to south, and
ifurcating to the east and west towards the
southern extremity, under the name of Sierra
Mbaracayi, divides the tributaries of the Parand
from those of the Paraguay, none of which are very
considerable, although they are liable to frequent
and destructive overflows. The northern portion
of Paraguay is in general undulating, covered by
low, gently-swelling ridges, separated large
grass plains, dotted with palms, There are moun-
tains in the north-east and north-west corners.
The southern portion is one of the most fertile
districts of South America, consis’ of hills and
gentle slopes richly wooded, of wide sav:
which afford excellent pasture- nd, and of rich
alluvial plains, some of which, indeed, are marshy,
or covered with shallow pools of water (only one
lake, that of Ypod, deserving special mention), but
a large proportion are of extraordinary fertility
highly cultivated. The banks of the rivers Parana
and Paraguay are occasionally belted with forest ;
but in general the lowlands are destitute of trees.
The climate, for the latitude, is temperate, the
temperature occasionally rising to 100° in sum-
mer, but in winter being usually about 45°. In
geological structure the southern part capi
generally to the Tertiary formation; but the n
and east present greywacke rocks in some dis-
tricts. The natural productions are very
although they do not include the precious metals or
other minerals common in South America. Much
valuable timber is found in the forests, and the
wooded districts situated upon the rivers possess a
ready means of transport. Among the trees are
several species of dye-wood, several trees which
yield valuable juices, as the india-ruabber and its
cognate trees, and an especially valuable shrub,
the Maté (q.v.), or Paraguay Tea, which forms one
of the chief articles of commerce, being in general
use throughout great part of South America. The
shrub or tree grows wild in the north-eastern dis-
tricts, and the gathering of its leaves gives em-
ployment in the season to a large number of the
PARAGUAY
751
native population. Native orange woods are com-
mon, and more than fifty million oranges are
exported age Many trees also yield valuable
gums. Wax and honey are collected in abund-
ance, as is also cochineal, and the medicinal plants
are very numerous. The chief cultivated crops are
rice, coffee, cocoa, indigo, manioc, to! 0,
and sugar-cane,
The animal world is largely represented in
Faraguay, and game, both large and small, is very
abundant. Tapirs, jaguars, pumas, ant-eaters,
wild-boars, pecearies, and deer of many descrip-
tions are inhabitants of the forests and plains;
birds are innumerable, and for beauty and variety
of plu are perhaps unsu y any in the
world; the rivers teem with fish, and their banks
are the resort of alligators and coypus. Snakes
are numerous, but very few of them are venomous.
Some of the boas are exceedingly large, and there
is a remarkable water-serpent which is said to
sometimes attain a length of eight yards.
The commerce of the country greatly increased
during the decade 1880-90, and several banks
and other mercantile institutions have been estab-
lished. In 1880 the total value of exports was
£252,000, that of imports somewhat less ; in 1889-90
their respective values were £597,903 and £344,037.
In this latter year the total revenue was £824,935,
and the expenditure somewhat in excess. The
chief exports are yerba-maté, tobacco, hides, oranges,
timber, bark for tanning, and lace; the imports,
cotton goods, hardware, wine, grain, rice, linen,
silk, apap eg &c. Trade in the towns is almost
wholly in the hands of Italians, French, and Ger-
mans. The principal native industries are tanning
and the manufacture of pottery and bricks, laces,
ponchos, soap, food-pastes, brandy &e.
Until the war of 1865-70 Paraguay had no
national debt, but the utter ruin into which it
had then fallen compelled it to have recourse to
foreign aid. Two loans were contracted in London
in 1871-72, the nominal amount of which was three
millions sterling, but only about one-half was
laced. The republic defaulted in 1874, but at
the end of 1885 a settlement was made with the
bondholders whereby the loans were reduced to
the sum of £850,000 bearing 2 per cent. interest at
the commencement, and gradually increasing to
4 per cent. ; and furthermore, 500 paste leagues of
public lands were ceded by the republic in payment
of arrear interest. The service of the new debt
has been regularly maintained. There are also
obligations or polizas assigned as an indemnity to
Brazilian and Argentine subjects for losses sus-
tained by them during the war. The total external
indeb ess amounts to £4,704,308. There is no
internal debt. The ey force consists of 500
men. The established religion is the Roman
Catholic, the ecclesiastical head of which is the
Bishop of Asuncion. Education is free and com-
ulsory ; but of the adult Paraguayans only one in
Eve can read and write.
The history of Paraguay is highly interesting. It
was discovered by Juan Diaz de Solis in 1515,
and further explored by Diego Garcia in 1525,
and by Sebastian Cabot in 1526; but the first
colony was settled in 1535 by Pedro de Mendoza,
who founded the city of Asuncion, and estab-
lished Paraguay as a province of the viceroyalty
of Peru. The warlike native tribe of the Guaranis,
however, a people who a certain de
of civilisation, and professed a dualistic religion,
long successfully resisted the Spanish arms, and
refused to receive either the religion or the social
of the invaders. In the later half of
the 16th century the Jesuit missionaries were sent
to the aid of the first preachers of Christianity
in Paraguay; but for a long time they were
almost entirely unsuccessful, the effect of their
preaching being in a great degree marred by the
profligate and cruel conduct of the Spanish adven-
turers, who formed the staple of the early colonial
population. In the 17th century the home govern-
ment consented to place in the Jesuits’ hands the
entire administration, civil as well as religious, of
the province, which, from its not possessing any of
the precious metals, was of little value as a source
of revenue; and, in order to guard the natives
inst the evil influences of the bad example of
uropean Christians, gave to the Jesuits the right
to exclude all other Europeans from the colony.
From this time forward the progress of civilisation
as well as of Christianity was rapid. On the
expulsion of the Jesuits from Paraguay in 1768,
the history of which is involved in much contro-
versy, the province was again made subject to the
ene viceroys. For a time the fruits of the
older civilisation maintained themselves ; but as the
ancient eo ape ape fell to the ground great part
of the work of so many years was undone, and by
degrees much of the old barbarism returned. In
1776 Paraguay was transferred to the newly-formed
viceroyalty of Rio de La Plata; and in 1810 it
joined with the other states in declaring its inde-
pendence of the mother-kingdom of Spain, which,
owing to its isolated ition, it was the earliest
of them all to establish completely. In 1814 Dr
Francia (q.v.), originally a lawyer, and the secre-
tary of the first revolutionary ee was proclaimed
dictator for three years; and in 1817 his term of
the office was made perpetual. He continued to
hold it till his death in 1840, when anarchy ensued
for two years; but in 1842 a national con
elected Don Mariano R. Alonzo and Don Carlos
Antonio Lopez, a nephew of the dictator, joint
consuls of the republic. In 1844 a new constitution
was Lp ey and Don Carlos was elected sole
president, with dictatorial power, which he exer-
cised till his death in 1862, when he was succeeded
by his son, Don Francisco Solano Lopez, whose name
has become notorious in connection with the tragic
struggle of 1865-70, in which the Paraguayans
made a heroic but unavailing fight. against the
combined forces of Brazil, the Argentine Confedera-
tion, and Uruguay. The war was bronght to a
close by the defeat and death of Lopez at the
battle of Aquidaban, March 1, 1870. The results
of the war may be read in the returns of the popu-
lation—( 1857 ) 1,337,489 ; (1873) 221,079, including
only 28,746 men and 106,254 women over fifteen
years of age. Tlie sexes are now, however, again
nearly yr balanced. Paraguay has had its
share of the general emigration of recent years from
Europe to South America; and in every way the
country has made considerable progress. In June
1870 a congress voted a new constitution, which
was proclaimed on the 25th November. It is
modelled on that of the Argentine Confederation,
the legislative authority being vested in a congress
of two houses, and the executive in a president,
elected for four years. A curious feature in the
recent history of the state was the settlement here
of 500 Australian Socialist workmen, one colony of
whom was thriving in 1896.
Asuncion, the capital, had in 1895 a population
of 45,000, and has a railway 160 miles in length,
designed ultimately to connect with the Argentine
railway system.
See Histories of Paraguay by Demersay (Paris, 1865)
and Washburn (Boston, 1870); Daire, Letters from
Paraguay (1805); Robertson, Francia’s Reign of Terror
(1840) ; Graty, La République du Paraguay ( Brussels,
1861); Burton, Battlefields of Parayuay (1869); Martinez,
El Paraguay (Asuncion, 1885); Knight, Cruise of the
Falcon (1887); Criado (trans, by Winsweiler), La
République du Paraguay ( Bordeaux, 1889); La Dardye,
752 PARAGUAY TEA
PARALLELOGRAM
Le Paraguay Paris, 1889); Vincent, Around and About
South pretom AS (1890), : *
Paraguay Tea, See Mate.
Parahyba, capital of the Brazilian state of
Parahyba, on river of the same name, 10 miles
from sea. Its chief buildings are the cathedral
emery the Jesuit
‘op. 14,000.—The state, the eastern-
the republic, has an area of 28,854 sq.
Fig. L.
appease in line with some object, 8; but after the
ri) er has moved to E, M has apparently moved
to a position in line with S’; the amount of pepe:
ent motion is called parallaz, The angle E
is called the ‘angle of parallax,’ or the ‘paral-
lactic angle,’ and is the measure of the amount of
parallax. To astronomers the determination of the
— of the heavenly bodies is of the utmost
mportance, for two reasons—first, from the neces-
sity of referring all observations to the earth’s
centre—i.e. so modifying them as to make it appear
as if had been actually made at the earth’s
centre ; and secondly, because parallax is our only
means of determining the magnitude and distance
of the heavenly bodies. The geocentric or daily
pees apparent displacement of a
venly body, due to its being observed from a
t on the surface of the earth instead of from
ts centre, is called—is determined as follows: Let
P and P’ be two
pe stations on the
2 surface of the
earth (fig. 2), E
its centre, M the
respectivel of
the daacres at
P and P’ a
which, if pos-
“ sible, should
z on the same me-
Fig. 2, ridian bees f Ys
then at P and P’
let the zenith distances, ZPM and Z’'P’M, be
observed simultaneously, and, since the latitudes
of P and P’, and consequently their difference of
latitude, or the angle PEP’, is known, from these
three the angle PMP’ (the sum of the llaxes
t P and P’) is at once found; and then, by a
trigonometrical process, the a angles or
parallaxes PME and P’ME. When the parallax
of M, as observed from P, is known, its distance
from E, the centre of the earth, can be at once
found. When the heavenly body is on the horizon,
es at O, its lax is at a maximum, and is
known as the Aorizontal parallax. The
parallax is of use rt in determining the distances
of those heavenly bodies at which the earth’s radius
subtends a considerable angle.
In the case of the fixed stars, at which the earth’s
radius subtends an intinitesimal ie, it becomes
necessary to make use of a mucli larger base-
than the earth’s radius, and, as the largest we can
cungloz is the radius of the earth’s orbit, it aceord-
ingly is made use of, and the displacement of a
star, when observed from a point in the earth’s
orbit instead of from its centre, the sun, is called
the annual or heliocentric parallax. Here the base-
line, instead of being, as in the former case, 4000
miles, is about 92,000,000 miles, and the two
observations necessary to determine the parallactie
angle are made from two points on opposite sides
of the earth’s orbit, at an interval as nearly as
possible of half a year. Yet, notwithstanding the
enormous length of the base-line, it bears so small
a proportion to the distances of the stars that only
in a few cases have they been found to exhibit any
parallactic motion whatever, and very rarely does
the angle of parallax amount to 1” tece STARS
The geocentric horizontal parallax of the moon
about 57’ 4-2"; that of the sun, about 8°8"; and of
the double star, 61 Cygni, the heliocentric parallax
has been determined by Bessel to be “348”, equiva-
lent to about 15 millionths of a second of trie
eager parallax. See the articles STARS and
UN.
Parallel Forces are forces which act in
parallel lines, such for example as the weights of
the portions that make up any framework or
structure on the earth’s surface. With the
tion of a particular case (see COUPLE), —
forces have always a vas resultant, w is
readily found by the method of moments. See
MoMENT ; also FoRcE.
Parallel Motion, a name given to any link-
age by which cireular motion may be into
straight line motion. The most familiar
is Watt’s parallel motion (see STEAM-ENGINE
which is essentially a three-bar link rev
although not theoretically perfect, is sufficiently
for all practical pur; It is impossible,
indeed, to obtain a straight line motion without
the use of at least five bars in the inkaee t and till
1874, when Hart discovered the method, even this
simplest mode of obtaining a true parallel motion
was not deemed ible. The Peaucellier cell, a
linkage of seven bars, was, however, the earliest
linkage discovered for solving the problem of how
to draw a straight line. It dates from 1864, and
is, perhaps, the
most convenient
form that has
et been devised,
t is shown in
the figure. The
equal links AP, 9
AQ, BP, BQ, +
form a rhombus;
the long links
OA, OB, are also
equal, and have
the common
int O fixed. The seventh link, QC, has its end C
xed, so that Q describes a circle passing through
O—i.e. QC equals the fixed distance CO, In these
circumstances, when Q moves in its circle P moves
in a straight line. See A. B. ig How to draw
a Straight Line (‘ Nature’ series, 1877).
Parallelogram of Velocities. See Com
POSITION.
PARALLELOPIPED
PARALYSIS 753
Parallelopi‘ped (Gr. parailelepipedon), a
solid figure having six faces, the faces being in-
variably llelograms, and any two opposite
ge eq a and i oa inom es
squares, and consequent the parallel-
opiped becomes a eahen ee
Parallels, in military language, are trenches
eut in the ground before a fortress, roughly
parallel to its defences, for the purpose of giving
cover to the besiegers from the guns of the place.
See SIEGE.
Paralysis. The term paralysis, while ordi-
narily used to express loss of power of movement, is
used medically in the wider sense of loss of fune-
tion, so that there may be paralysis of motion, of
sensation, of secretion, &c. The term Paresis is
used to indicate a diminished activity of function.
Thus, paresis of a limb means diminished power of
moving the limb.
From what is said under the articles BRAIN,
Nervous SysTeM, and Sprnau Corp it will be
seen that paralysis may arise (1) from destrue-
tion of the nerve-cells in the motor area of the
surface of the brain; (2) from interruption of
the nerve-fibres in their path through the brain
to the spinal cord; (3) from interruption of the
nerve-fibres in their path through the spinal cord ;
(4) from disease of the nerve-cells in the spinal
cord; (5) from disease or injury to the nerves
ng from the spinal cord to the muscles; or
(6) from affections of the muscles themselves.
Thus, we speak of Cerebral, Spinal, and Peripheral
Paralyses.
Cerebral. Paralysis.—The most common causes
of rom from brain disease are the rupture
of blood-vessels (see APOPLEXY), or the blocking
up of the blood-vessels which to the surface
i the brain by clots or other solid particles carried
from the heart or larger arteries (embolism). Other
less frequent causes are tumours, abscesses, &c.
The most usual form of paralysis is that termed
Hemiplegia, in which there is paralysis of the
leg, arm, and muscles of the mouth and tongue
on one side of the body, often accompanied, if the
disease is on the right side, by the condition called
Aphasia (q.v.). If the original condition has been
such as merely to produce pressure upon the nerves
without their actual destruction, it may be com-
pletely recovered from. But this is obviously not
very frequent. Hemiplegia may be ekg un-
accompanied by any paralysis of sensation, but if
the fibres which carry sensory impulses to the sur-
face of the brain be also destroyed there will be a
concomitant loss of sensation on the same side as
the loss of motion (hemianzsthesia). In certain
cases, when the disease of the brain is in the pons
Varolii, the mouth may be paralysed on the oppo-
site side from the paralysed limbs. (‘This depends
on anatomical considerations.) Destruction _ by
disease of individual ‘motor areas’ will obviously
lead to paralysis of the corresponding movements.
Spinal Paralysis is usually the result either (1)
of pressure upon the spinal cord from the results
of curvature or injury of the spine, or of growths
such as tumours or abscesses ; (2) of disease of the
spinal cord itself, especially from tumours or acute
or chronic inflammations, which may lead to inter-
ruption of the nerve-fibres which pass downwards
from the brain to the nerve-cells in the gray matter
of the spinal cord; or (3) of direct injury to the
inal cord. If the conducting paths from and to
the brain are interrupted in any way, there is com-
lete paralysis of voluntary motion and of sensation
Solow the level of the affected part of the spinal
cord, because the motor impulses cannot pass down
nor the sensory impulses upwards. At the same
time, below the injury reflex movements may be
260
preserved and certain forms even increased. Such
spinal paralysis is termed Paraplegia. If the
injury to the spinal cord is localised to one side
there will be paralysis of the muscles on the same
side, supplied by the nerves arising from the cord
below the injury, and of sensibility of the opposite
side of the body below the injury (see SPINAL CorD).
In certain cases the nerve-cells in the anterior
horns of the y matter of the cord. (and the
same may be said of the corresponding cells of origin
of the motor nerves of the brain) may be diseased
without implication of any other part of the spinal
cord. The result of this is paralysis of the muscles
supplied by those nerve-cells, and consequent gradual
wasting of the muscles. Under this head come those
se pie localised paralyses in the lower limbs of
children (the so-called ‘essential paralyses’ of
children) which affect certain groups of muscles,
and lead to such deformities as club-foot and
impaired growth of the limbs. A similar disease
is sometimes observed in adults (progressive mus-
cular atrophy), which runs a very chronic course
and leads to a gradual wasting of muscles, the
direct result of a corresponding gradual wastin
of the nerve-cells in the gray matter of the cord.
The disease called ‘bulbar paralysis,’ in which
there is a slow affection of the muscles of the
tongue, of the side of the mouth, and of the larynx,
is of this nature, its more rapidly fatal termination
being due to the implication of structures so neces-
sary for organic life.
eripheral Paralyses.(a) From Affections of
Nerves.—These are of extremely frequent occur-
rence, and may be due to pressure upon, injury to,
or disease of the nerves. The most common of
these diseases are the inflammations arising from
cold, from the excessive use of alcohol, or from
pr seh to the poison of lead. If the nerve
ted be a purely motor nerve the resulting
lysis is purely motor. The typical example
is the so-called ‘Bell’s’. or ‘facial paralysis,’ from
affection of the seventh cranial nerve. ‘This arises
most commonly either from exposure to draught
or from disease of the ear, in the neighbourhood
of which the nerve passes through the bones of
the skull (see EAR). There results a complete
paralysis of the muscles of expression on the cor-
responding side of the face; the mouth is twisted
to the opposite side, the lips cannot be pursed
or retracted, the eye cannot shut, and the fore-
head can be neither raised nor depressed, while
the usual furrows on the forehead and cheek
are either obliterated or diminished. The disease
is in many cases amenable to treatment, but when
associated with disease of the ear it should always
be regarded as of grave import. If proper treat-
ment be neglected, the paralysed muscles may
waste, and recovery become impossible. ‘ Lead
palsy’ is usually indicated by a loss of the power
of extending the wrists (wrist-drop) without im-
pairment of sensation (see LEAD-POISONING). An
example of paralysis resulting from pressure on a
nerve is seen in the not uncommon result of sleep-
ing with the arms over the back of a chair (sleep-
ing or crutch palsy). As the musculo-spinal nerve
is compressed, and the muscles which it SA pec a
namely, those which extend the wrist and fingers,
and which turn the forearm outwards (supination )—
are paralysed, there is a vg like that of lead
palsy, but in addition there is loss of sensibilit
(anzesthesia) on the skin of the back of the thum
and first two fingers.
(6) From Disease of Muscles.—A very remarkable
form of paralysis—affecting mostly the oung—is
that termed ‘psendo-hypertrophic paralysis,’ in
which the onset of the paralysis, which is ‘very
gradual, is accompanied by a remarkable apparent
overgrowth of the muscles, more especially in the
754 PARAMARIBO
PARASITIC ANIMALS
calves of the legs, in the thighs, and back. Exam-
ination of the muscles shows that the special mus-
cular tissue is replaced by fat, while the nerves
themselves are ap tly not - Injury,
such as rupture or bruising of muscle, will produce
ysis, which may be only temporary.
oi ical Paralysis.—Paralysis, which may for
the time being be as complete as in any of the
cases above ibed, may occur without any
discoverable lesion. To this the term ‘hysterical’
has been applied (see Hysreria). The simulation
of organic paralysis by hysteria is frequently so
close as to deceive even expert observers, §
Gowers, Diseases of Spinal Cord and Brain;
Quain’s Dictionary of Medicine. — For ‘general
paralysis,’ see INSANITY, Vol. VI. p. 155.
Paramaribo, the capital of Dutch Guiana, is
situated on the Surinam, about 10 miles from its
mouth, It has broad, tree-shaded streets, with
clean wooden houses, painted light gray, and
numerous canals and churches. There are also a
vernor’s palace, two forts, a park, &c. The
errnhuters (Moravian Brethren) are a_ strong
body in the town. Except for the small harbour
of Nickerie, all the trade of the colony is concen-
trated at Paramaribo. See statistics under GUIANA
(DutcuH). Pop. (1895) 29,300.
Parramatta, See PARRAMATTA.
Paramecium, or SLIPPER ANIMALCULE, an
Infusorian very common in pond water or in vege-
table infusions, In shape it is an asymmetrical
oval, in length about ,}5 of an inch, If dry grass
be steeped in a glass of water for some days, the
animalcules dormant about the stems revive and
multiply very rapidly. Each ramecium is
covered with rows of cilia which lash it through
the water and drive food-particles into an aperture
which serves as mouth. As the food-particles
enter they take bubbles of water with them, and
are moved round and round in the living substance
until they are digested or got rid off. There are
two (excretory) contractile vacuoles; the large
nucleus has a small one (paranucleus) lying beside
it; beneath the thin rind there are remarkable
eversible threads. A paramecium often divides
transversely into two; these two repeat the pro-
cess, and with continually diminishing size rapid
multiplication may thus proceed for a while. It
has its limits, however, and then two individual
In conjugate, exchan some of the
material of their paranuclei, and separate. Thus
they seem to renew their youth.
Paranda, (1) an important river of South
America, rises as the Rio Grande in the Brazilian
state of Minas Geraes, about 100 miles NW. of
Rio de Janeiro. It flows north-west and west
through and along the southern frontier of Minas
Geraes, till it unites with the Paranahyba. It
then receives the name Parand, and turns to the
south-west and afterwards to the south, separating
Parana state from Matto Grosso and from Para-
y, round the southern border of which republic
t sweeps westward to its confluence with the
P ay River. It then rolls sonthward through
the Tsoantine provinces, :
t Santa Fé, below
which its channel fi soe divides and encloses
numerous islands, and finally south-eastward, till
it unites with the Uruguay, above Buenos Ayres,
to form the Rio de la Plata. The entire length
of the river is a little over 2000 miles; it drains
an area of more than 1,100,000 sq. m.~ Its chief
tributaries, besides those already mentioned, are
the Mogy Guassu, Tieté, Paranapanema, Ivahy,
Iguassu, and Salado; at San Pedro (33° 40’ S. lat.)
a delta begins. The principal towns on its banks are
Corrientes, Parand, Santa Fé, and Rosario—all
Argentinian, The river is navigable at all times
to the influx of the Paraguay (705 miles), and
except at low water to the mouth of the Iguassu
(460 miles). Immediately above this point occurs
one of the most remarkable rapids in the world.
It extends for 100 miles in a straight line up the
river, between ranges of frowning cliffs which con-
fine the stream to a narrow, rocky bed, little more
than 100 yards wide. Thro this gorge the
water pours in tumultuous fury; for above the
rapid the river, then 24 miles broad, rushes down
over the Salto of Guayra, an inclined plane 55 feet
high, and then forces its waters, tossing and churn-
ing, into the narrow channel below.—(2) A southern
state of Brazil, on the coast, with an area of 85,453
sq. m., and a pop, (1888) of 187,548, including
several colonies of Germans and Italians. The
oe is Curitiba (34,000), with a railway (69
miles) to P: 4, the port of the state (pop.
5000 ).—{3) Capital of the —— tet of
Entre Rios, stands on a high bluff overlooking the
Parana, opposite Santa Fé, 410 miles by steamer
from Buenos Ayres. The town was the capital of
the Confederation from 1852 to 1861; afterwards it
sank rapidly, but has now again a pop. of 15,000,
Parapet (Ital. para-petto, from ‘to
rotect,’ and petto, ‘the breast’), a wall raised
tigher than the gutter of a roof for protection ; in
military works, for defence against missiles from
without (see - ; ae
FoRTIFICA- | 4 | fy NII qe
uae Ar
omestic build- \
ings, churches, = ® b @, =
&e., to pre-
vent accident
by falling from
the roof. In
classic
Reo Soe tee em
En Ornamented Gothic Parapet.
archi-
tecture balustrades were used as parapets. In
early work parapets are generally Fins but in
later buildings they are pierced and ornamented
with tracery,
Paraphrase (Gr. para, ‘ beside,’ and phrazein,
‘to speak’) is the name given to a verbal expan-
sion of the meaning either of a whole book, or
of a separate passage in it. A paraphrase conse-
quently differs from Metaphrase, or strictly literal
translation, in this, that it aims to make the sense
of the text clearer by a lucid cireumlocution, with-
a actually noe x into comeeee ets The a
ed passages 0! ripture formin, e
Psalmody of the Scottish Church eg as
‘the Paraphrases,’ See Hymn, Vol. VI. p. 48.
Paraplegia. See PARALYSIS.
Parasite (Gr. from ‘beside,’ sitos,
‘food ;’ one who eats with another ; hence one who
eats at the expense of another), a common char-
acter in the Greek comedies ; a low fellow, who is
ready to submit to any, indignity that he ag be
permitted to partake of a banquet, and who lives
as much as possible at the expense of others,
Parasitic Animals are those which live on
or in other o' isms, from which they derive their
food. But this mode of life has many forms and
degrees; the hosts may be animals or plants; the
parasites may be external or internal (ectoparasitic
or endoparasitic), fixed or with the power of move-
ment; they a | be parasitic temporarily, for a
prolonged period, or for the whole life ; restricted to
one host, or requiring to pass from one kind of
animal to another if the life-cycle is to be completed.
For. the parasitic animals which infest plants,
see Corn Insects, Gauuis, &e.; and ASCARIS,
FLUKE, TAPEWORM, THREAD-WORMS, TRICHINA,
&e., and ee are separately discussed,
Grades of Parasitism.—-The grades recognised
by Leuckart are: (1) Temporary Parasitism.—
PARASITIC ANIMALS
“755
*To this category belong almost exclusively ecto-
parasites, which differ from their free-living rela-
tions only in their diet.’ (2) Eetoparasitism—an
established and invariable habit during a prolonged
age or during the whole of the parasite’s life.
his is called ‘stationary’ ectoparasitism in the
translation of Leuckart’s great work, but the term
hardly suggests the idea. ‘These parasites either
esd through all their developmental stages on the
ost, or at first lead an independent existence under
a form more or less different from that of the adult.’
(3) Endoparasitism, in which the parasites are dur-
ing a great part of their life, and almost invari-
ab during their maturity, ‘ boarders’ within the
y of their host. Moreover, all the developmental
stages are almost never passed through within one
host, a transference from one kind to another being
necessary for the completion of the life-cycle. But
of endo itism there are many varieties.
The Hosts of Parasites.—Probably no animals,
except some of the simplest, are free from the
attacks of parasites. Yet some are more liable
than others—e.g. because they offer greater. in-
ducements to those pareaitically inclined, because
they are more accessible, or because they
eat infected food. Thus, vertebrates are more
abundantly infested than invertebrates. ‘Man has
more than fifty distinct species of parasites, the
dog and the ox some two dozen each, the frog
fe aps twenty.’ Some species of parasite are
imited to one kind of host; thus, the adults of
Bothri us latus and Oxyuris vermicularis are
not known except in man, while Trichina spiralis
is found in man, pig, rat, dog, cat, ox, &c., and
Distomum hepaticum in many ruminants and other
ungulates, in rodents, in the kangaroo, and in man,
The systems most infested are the most accessible
—viz. the skin and the alimentary canal, by ecto-
and endo-parasites respectively ; but there are no
organs in which parasites may not be harboured.
Origin of the Parasitic Habit.—It is probable
that most cases of parasitism began gradually.
Animals found temporary shelter on or in others,
and the habit grew upon them. In some cases
it might es fortuitously—e.g. as the embryos or
adults wandered or were swallowed ; or it might
be a shift saving those which adopted it from
some presumed keenness in the struggle for exist-
ence; or it might simply express a sluggish con-
stitution. In many cases, however, we can hardly
doubt that the habit with the naturally
more sluggish females, prompted not by hunger,
but by the impulse to seek some conveniently shel-
tered place for the birth of the young. In fact,
there are not a few parasitic female Crustaceans
whose mates live freely. Of the evolution of
parasites from free-living ancestors the free stages
still included in the life-history of most, the close
relationships between some free and some parasitic
members of the same class—e.g. Crustaceans and
Nematodes—and the frequent occurrence of tem-
porary parasitism afford sufficient evidence. It is
also instructive to consider the three classes of
Plathelminthes—Turbellarians (Planarians, &c.),
Trematodes (Flukes, &c.), and Cestodes (Tape-
worms, &c.)—of whose genetic relationship there
seems little doubt; the Turbellarians are almost all
free-living; the Trematodes are mostly external,
but sometimes internal parasites ; the Cestodes are
all endoparasitic.
Life-history of Endoparasites.—Most endopara-
sitic animals have an eventful life-history. They
are not always parasites, or they are not always
parasites within the same kind of host. Most of
them are at some time free; many of them have
some sort of metamorphosis. But, as their life-
histories are very various, they do not readily admit
of being summed up in general statements.
Let us begin, however,-with the adult ‘sexual
animals. In this state they are always almost para-
sitie, partly because rich copious diet, warmth, and
relative quiescence favour reproductive maturity ;
partly because se probably began their parasitic
career at the reproductive period, when shelter and
readily attained food were specially advantageous ;
artly because it is not likely that animals which
nad ome parasitic would relinquish this habit
in adult and mature life. In fact, with the excep-
tion of some thread-worms (Gordius, Mermis, &e.)
and some few insects (ichneumon-flies, -flies,
&c.) which are parasitic in their youth and free as
adults, it is generally true of parasitic animals
that the eggs are produced, fertilised, and deposited
in the parasitic stage. In regard to the repro-
duction it should be noted (1) that the fertility is
often enormous, for a tapeworm may produce
42,000,000 eggs, and a female thread-worm 64,000,000
in a year; (2) that in those cases where the female
alone is parasitic fertilisation may take place
before parasitism has begun; that otherwise it
oecurs within the body of the host; that Trema-
todes and Cestodes are hermaphrodite and some-
times fertilise themselves ; (3) that in tapeworms
the fixed ‘head’ buds off a long chain of joints,
each of which is sexually complete, becomes even-
tually distended with eggs and embryos, and is
liberated singly or along with others from the
intestine of the host.
The eggs or embryos of the parent endoparasite
usually pass from the host along with the excreta,
and ‘there are no intestinal worms, at least among
the typical and constant parasites, whose embryos
come to maturity near the parent; or, in other
words, there are none which’ pass their whole life-
eycle in one locality.’ Some of the embryos ate
locomotor—e.g. those of the 'liver-fluke and of
Bothriocephalus latus, which are active mig
reed He others are passively carried along with food
and drink into new hosts. There the embryos
rarely become or remain quiescent, but wander
from the food-canal through the tissues and organs
of the host until a fit resting-place is found. But,
to state another of Leuckart’s general conclusions,
‘the quiescent s following upon the wandering
embryonic stage does not conclude the life-history
of the parasite, which requires, in order to complete
its development, a radical change in its environ-
ment—in other words, a second migration.’
But before leaving the so-called intermediate
host—which is different from that of the parent or
that of the adult—we should notice that within it
asexual multiplication may occur. Thus, several
asexual generations characterise that part of ja
liver-fluke’s life during which it sojourns in 1a
water-snail (Limneus) prior to reaching its final
or ‘definitive’ host in the sheep. In other cases,
the asexual cs Hg within the intermediate
host is of a simpler kind, being restricted to bud-
ding, as when the bladder-worm or proscolex of
Tenia echinococcus within ox or man develops
many ‘heads’ or scolices, each of which on being
transferred to dog or wolf will grow into a tape-
worm. Or there may be no true multiplication—
e.g. in the numerous bladder-worms which form only
one head, and remain quiescent until the host
happens to be devoured by another, within which
the ‘head’ of the bladder-worm may bud off an
adult tapeworm chain.
Connected with this change of host there are
two main problems :. (1) How.is the change effected?
(2) how did this extension of the life-history to: two
distinct hosts arise? In regard to the modes of
transference it will be enough to give two illustra-
tions, The young liver-fluke actively migrates
from a water-snail and from the water, encysts
on stems of grass, and is then eaten by a sheep.
756 PARASITIC ANIMALS
Rhizopoda: A few parasitic. Amoeba coli in man.
Gregarinida. All parasitic, In all sorts of animals; Coccidium | Usually intracellular parasites
oviforme in man, id of life. A few)
Infusoria. A few itic—e.g. : occur within the blood-cells of |
Ich phthirus, — soa &e.
n
Pelaardium coli, In intestine of man.
Srowags. Probably none in strict sense. Clione bores in oyster-shells, &e.,
y and cases of commensalism are
Coelenterata. Very rare instances :
Medusnid Cunina (Cundetantha)| In another Medusoid, Geryonia | A Medusa (Mnestra) on the neck
parasitica, proboscidialis. of the pelagic
Cunina (Cunoctantha) octonarta. |In the bell of the Medusoid| Phyllirhoe, and the frequent
Turritopsis. occurrence of a on
The Hydroid Polypodium hydri- | On the ova of the sterlet (Acipen-| a hermit-crab illustrate com-
Fh pie is in one stage p ti ser ruth ism.
* Mrsozoa." parasitic. 0 (Rhopalura), in a| These forms are perhaps very
britule-star (Amphiura squa-| primitive, perhaps very degen-
mata), in a Nemertean worm erate, types.
(Lineus th
(Dicyema ) in cuttle-fish.
* Worms.’
(Plan- | Mostly free-living ; a few genera | Graffilla in marine molluscs.
arians, &c.). are parasitic : Anosloniam in or on Holothu-
ns.
Trematoda All U_garesitie, many externally, | Especially on fishes. *‘ Monogenetic.’
(Flakes, &c.). usually on one host. * :
Many interially, and then re-| The first usually a mollusc, the | ‘Digenetic.
uiring two hosts. second some vertebrate.
Cestoda (Tape- parasitic; the mature sexual | All sorts of vertebrates contain | Two hosts are requisite to com-
worms, &c.). forms in vertebrates, except in| both the adults in the} plete the life-h of the}
the case of which | gut, the immature forms usu- The final usu-
becomes mature in the fresh-| ally in the flesh. But the im-| ally devours the intermediate |
water worm Tubifex. mature stages have also been| one.
found in some molluses, Ar-
thropods, and worms,
Nemerteans (Rib- | Almost all free-living. Two occur on crabs.
bon-worms). Malacobdella. In bivalves.
Nematoda Many parasitic; many free. In| The majority in the digestive | The life-histories are often bay
(Thread-worms). | man occur Ascaris lumbricoides,| tract of vertebrates; but they | complex, and may include
Oxyuris vermi Filaria| may be transferred from a| ternation of generations. Many
sanguinis hominis, med-| lower host to a higher—e.g.| infest plants.
inensis, Trichina spiralis, &c, from insect to mammal.
Acanthocephala. | The class includes one Fy Ech, proteus lives as adult in pike,
(Echinorhynchus), and is} &c., in youth in the ont
parasitic. pod Gammarus ;
angustatus of in the
isopod Asellus. Ech. gigas
oceurs in the pig.
Almost all free-living. Three or| The minute males of Bonellia | Branchiobdella, which some rank
¢ ag four marine forms are parasitic. — Hamingia live within the = pay 7 is parasitic
females. -
Myzostomidw are ectoparasitic | On Crinoids. This family Looe
and form galls. — degenera’ by
paras
Hirndinea Most are ectoparasitic (the rest | On molluscs, fishes, amphibians, | In many, however, the ecto-
(Leeches), erm tn mms &e. ed ae parasi is very temporary.
Rotifera. Mostly free-living, a few parasitic
—¢.g. Seison, On crustacean Nebalia.
Albertia, In earthworm and slug.
EcuINODERMATA. None parasitic,
Axritnoropa, These illustrate (a) many
Crustaceans, There are many parasites among of ange tras Be
O"Brboctenantth Usnall kin, gills, &c. of wt "(b) corresponding grades
racanthus. y on skin,
Caligus. Lernwa, fishes, J of degeneration.
Among Cirripedia—e.g.
ina. Beneath the tail of crabs.
Among Isopoda—e,
Bopyrus and Entoniscus, On fishes.
Iwsucts. The vast majority are free-living,
at ectoparasi us:
bir ee (atone. } Mostly on birds and mammals. .
paiptera, In bees and wasps, The females only are parasitic,
(Many =o ee the males free,
7 by the of
lpm = other ai a. + s
-flies. mammals, ca’ jorses, £0,
Arachnida. The majority are free-living, but :
parasitism is illustrated by P
Li lina Embryo in rabbit; adult in| With little trace in adult of
(Pentastomum). frontal sinuses of dog and wolf, | Arachnid appearance.
By some Acarina (mites), Demodex ion: Sarcoptes
(iteh-mite), in skin of man, &¢.
Mottusca. All free-living, except a few
Gastero
Entoconcha mirabilis, Within Holothurian Synapta.
Eulima and Stylifer. On or in various Echinoderms.
VenTennata. The hagfishes (Myxinoidei) are| They are said to eat their way | Precise details are wanting.
the only parasitic vertebrates. into cods and other fishes. 2
PARASITIC ANIMALS
757
Here, and in some other cases, the migration is in
part active. On the other hand, the bladder-worm
of the pig lies oe passive in the muscles or con-
nective tissue of that animal, and cannot reach its
final host unless ‘measly’ pork be eaten by man.
Here, and in most other cases, the migration is
passive. The second problem is very difficult. Is
the host in which the adult is found the primitive
host, and has that of the immature s been
intercalated? or is the intermediate host really the
primitive one in which the animals used to become
mature, while the final host represents a secondary
prolongation of the life-history? Leuckart ex-
presses himself unconditionally in favour of the
second theory that ‘the intermediate hosts were
originally the true definitive carriers, which for-
merly brought their intestinal worms to sexual
maturity, but have since become merely interme-
diate, because the development of the parasites
has extended itself over a ter number of stages
in the course of further differentiation.’
The Environment of Parasites.—It is at present
debated (see HEREDITY) whether the precise in-
fluences exercised on parasites by their hosts are
transmissible or not. But it can hardly be doubted
that the habits and surroundings of parasites have
been somehow influential in their evolution. It is
certain that individual parasites may vary in
different parts of the body and in different hosts,
and it is admitted by all that parasites exhibit
‘adaptations’ to their life and surroundings. It is
therefore important to take account of the precise
relations between host and eee. Ectoparasites
will experience mechanical influences due to the
movements of their bearers, they will often be
carried from one locality to another, they will
sometimes share in the warmth of their hosts, they
usually find abundant food, and they are often not
only sheltered but sedentary. Endoparasites will
experience pressure from ‘the tissues in which ey
lie, or from the peristaltic movements of the food-
eanal in which they are lodged ; their immediate
environment usually involves confined space, scant
oxygen, considerable warmth, and total darkness ;
they will be affected by abundant and rich nutri-
tion, by surrounding gases and juices, and by their
uently sedentary life. Now it is at least a
plausible theory that the usual absence of sense-
organs in endoparasites is due to the eustenlee
character of the environment, which has cau
them to degenerate, and this view is partly con-
firmed by the occasional occurrence of sense-organs
in the larve alone, and by the facts that locomotor
appendages are absent or much reduced in the
alults of many fixed ectoparasitic crustaceans,
because they have gone out of use; that a food-
canal is absent in many endoparasites, partly
becanse the superficial absorption of complex sur-
rounding juices left it functionless; that the pas-
sivity of many is increased by living in surround-
ings in which the respiratory processes must be
very sluggish; or that the prolific reproduction—
especially perhaps the budding growth of tape-
worms—is in part due to the abundant and yet
stimulating nutrition. .
Effects of Parasites on their Hosts.—In the 17th
and 18th centuries the injurious effects of parasites
were much exaggerated. All sorts of diseases,
including many which we now know to be asso-
ciated with Bacteria, were said to be due to ‘worms,’
and physicians gravely discussed ‘An mors natu-
ralis sit substantia verminosa?’ As accurate diag-
nosis began to be less unusual, a strange reaction
in favour of parasites found many et pada In-
testinal worms were called ‘the good angels and
unfailing helpers of children,’ and were said to aid
digestion and even development. But since the
middle of the 19th century, when the experimental
study of parasites began in earnest, a knowledge of
the various injuries which parasites may do, to
man and to domesticated animals at least, has
become more and more precise and complete. Only
a few illustrations need be given. Numerous large
parasites will certainly diminish the nutritive
supplies of their host ; large bladder-worms and the
like press upon adjacent organs, cause obstructions,
and give rise to many troubles; the movements
and migrations of parasites within the body of their
host produce pain and inflammation, and may even
result in the perforation and destruction of im-
portant organs. Even external parasites may do
considerable damage; witness those crustaceans
which oceur beneath the tails of crabs, and some-
times effect the virtual castration of their hosts.
On the other hand, there are many less important
rasites whose effects are very slightly if at all
injurious. It is a question of much practical im-
rtance how the endoparasites which infest man
nd their way to their host, but as details will
be given in such articles as TAPEWORM and
TRICHINA, it is enough here to say that food in
which parasites are known to lurk should be in-
spected, cleaned, and sufficiently cooked.
Historical.—Most of the ancient and medieval
naturalists and physicians who expressed any
opinion on such matters believed that parasites
were spontaneously generated within the bodies
of their hosts. It was not till the 17th century,
when Swammerdam and Redi showed how maggots,
lice, &c. developed from eggs, that the belief in
eneratio equivoca began to be seriously disputed.
t was ecaduclly replaced by the theory that para-
sites came from without, that, ceasing to be free-
living, they entered the bodies of other animals and
were there modified. But this conclusion was:
too hastily leaped at, and no care was taken to»
prove that the free-living forms in question didi
really develop into parasites. In many cases,.
indeed, it was soon shown that they did not, and?
this disappointing result helped Pallas and others:
in the latter part of the 18th century to recognise-
rightly that parasites were propagated like other
animals by means of eggs. They concluded,,
however, that these eggs were more or less:
directly carried from one host to another, there
to develop into the original form, while we know
that the life-history of parasites is rarely so simple ;
nor was there more than a slight warrant for
another favourite idea that young animals inherited
parasites from their mothers, At the beginning of
the 19th century the helminthologists, such as
re and Bremser, were very active and greatly
extended the list of known parasites, but the life-
histories remained a pes, and many naturalists
relapsed into a belief in spontaneous generation.
The increasing use of the microscope led to most
im nt results: in 1831 Mehlis discovered the
Intusorian-like embryo of certain flukes; Von
Siebold (1832) detected the six-hooked embryo
within the still unliberated ova of the tapeworm ;
Eschricht (1841) compared the life-history of in-
ternal parasites to that of ichneumon-flies and bot-
flies ; dtcensienp (1842) published his famous essay
on alternation of generations; Von Siebold (1843-
50) and Van Beneden (1849-50) worked out the
metamorphoses of several parasitic worms; Kiichen-
meister (1853), Leuckart (1856), and others showed
paras cere how infection with larval stages
resulted in the development of adult parasites.
The foundations of modern helminthology were
thus laid, and we have now a vastly increased
knowledge of the number of parasites, a precise
acquaintance with the life-history and migrations
of some of the most important, a scientific system
of medical diagnosis and treatment, and some
realisation of the general biology of parasitism.
758 PARASITIC DISEASES
PARCHMENT
See Ascaris, Bot, BoTHRIOCEPHALUS, COMMENSALISY,
Coun Insects, DEGENERATION, ENVIRONMENT, FisH-
Louse, Fiuxe, GaALus, GrecaRINtnaA, GUINEA-WORM,
Hac, Leecn, Louse, Mirr, Tareworms, THREAD-
worms, TRICHINA; also Leuckart, Parasiten des Menschen
2d ed. 1881 et seq. ; trans. by H MAYOR 3, Mein, 1888)
Schanmalchec, Poraniten des Menschen (2d ed. 1878;
trans. Ray Society); Cobbold, Parasites (1879); Van
Bened ‘ers Intesti: Paris, 1858), Animal Para-
. Series, Lond. 1876); Von
sites and Messmates (Inter.
Linstow, Com; ium der Helminthologie (1878); Moniez,
Les Parasites de U Homme (1888).
Parasitic Diseases constitute an important
sub-group in the accepted classification of Disease
(q.v.). In these diseases certain morbid conditions
are induced by the presence of animals or vege-
tables which have rand a place of subsistence
within some tissue or organ, or upon some surface
of the body of man or other animals, Plants
are not exempt from disorders of this nature
see PARASITIC PLANTS). The forms of animal
ife giving rise to parasitic diseases are described in
articles on Ascaris, Cestoid Worms, Flea, Guinea-
worm, Itch, Lice, Nemathelmia, Strongylus, Tape-
worms, Thread-worms, Tick, Trichina, Xe.
The vegetable organisms which are
with | diseases are almost all of microscopic
size, and therefore, though their effects are of much
importance than those of animal ites,
they are as yet much less perfectly understood.
Certain minute fungi have long been ised
as the causes of diseases in the skin and mucous
membranes: Favus, Pityriasis versicolor, hing-
worm, Thrash (q.v.). It was shown in 1861 by
Carter that a serious disease of the foot which
oceurs in India (Madura-foot, fungus-foot, &c.) is
due to the presence of a fungus; and in 1877 what
is now called Actinomycosis (q.v.) was put in the
same catego
ry.
But the most important and interesting of the’
v ble ites are those belonging to the
izomycetes or Bacteria (q.v.), whose eendy has
assumed such prominence that it is now almost
an independent science Coregeinne, The rela-
tions of these organisms to their host are much
more intimate than in the case of the larger para-
sites, and the problems presented by the diseases
associated with them are consequently much more
difficult of solation ; but in some cases the parasitic
nature of these diseases has been completely estab-
lished, Analogy makes it probable that some day
all ‘ ifie febrile diseases’ will have to be in-
cluded in this group. See Germ THEORY.
Parasitic Plants are those which, unable to
nourish themselves, prey upon other plants or
animals ; becoming attached, they gain access to
the tissues of their host and feed upon its juices.
They are more or less degenerate, according to the
extent of their parasitism. Any climbing plant
is so far a te, but, not drawing any nourish-
ment from its host, merely using it as a support,
it can live without it, and is perfect in all its parts.
Many parasites have probably developed from such
plants. The mistletoe, on the other hand, has no
roots in the ground; its seed is left by a bird
upon an apple or an oak tree, to which, when it
begins to grow, it becomes attached by means of
special organs called haustoria, which act as roots
and enable it to draw crude sap, water, and salts
from its host, and having green leaves it can absorb
carbonic acid from the air, and elaborate food for
its tissues. In the case of the dodder, again, which
ns life as an independent plant, the seed ger-
minates underground; when the young plant reaches
the surface it fastens upon some host, twining
round it, sending its haustoria deep into the tissues,
and drawing all its nourishment from them ; it
no green leaves, but only flowers, while the part in
the ground dies, In the Rafllesiacem, a foreign
order, remarkable for the size of the flowers of some
of its genera, the degradation has gone still further,
and the whole plant consists of haustoria, a _knob-
like mass of tissue half formed by the h and
the flowers. There are some ites w are
attached to the roots instead of the stems of their
hosts—e.g. Yellow Rattle, Cow-wheat, Eyebright.
The attachment by the haustoria is always remark-
ably intimate; their tissues are always joined to the
corresponding ones of the host, often in such a way
that it is difficult to say to which plant they be
The ovules of many ites are rudimentary,
er! a is‘small and without chlorophyll; in cases
of advanced parasitism it may even produce no
leaves. There are parasitic Oe in many orders—
eg. Corallorhiza in the Orchidex, Cuscuta in Con-
volvulacee, Orobranche in Labiatiflore, Monotropa
in Pyrolacese. The Loranthacee, of which is Viscum
the mistletoe, the Balanophorew, and the Santa-
lacew are families of doubtful affinity. Nearly
all these ites have a marked preference for a
particular species of host, and they are all flower-
ing plants. But there are many others; two whole
classes, the Bacteria and the Fungi, are either
sitic or, what is much the same thing, saprophytic
—i.e. a upon decaying organic m for
food. 1e Bacteria have animals as their hosts,
and cause in them many diseases, the species being
often recognised by the disease. When they are
saprophytic they cause fermentation and putre-
faction. The Fungi are many of them a trouble in
agriculture, causing corn, hop, and vine mildew,
potato disease (see PLANTS, DISEASES OF), ani
also tas disease - ouness like the ee om
are saprophytes. ied to parasitism is
fava sort of mutually arran pereatinn for
the benefit of both parties; as in the case of the
Lichens, which consist of Alge and Fungi in
partnership. :
Paratoluidin, Sce ToLurpry.
Paray-le-Monial, a town in the French de-
rtment of Sadne-et-Loire, 48 miles by rail W.
. of Macon, celebrated for its chapel, in whic
Mary Alacoque (d. 1690) believed herself to have
had’a vision of the Saviour, now the object of
pilgrimages by the confraternities of the
eart (q.v.). Pop. 3269.
Parew. See Fare.
Parchim, a town of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
23 miles SE. of Schwerin. Pop. 9726.
Parchment (Fr. parchemin, Lat. pergamena,
through Gr. from Pergamus), At a very early
period the skins of animals were used for writing
upon. Some authors who have written on the
subject of ancient writing materials think that
the king of Fargas brought the art of making
atnge to es ection through Ptolemy Epiphanes
1aving prohibited the exportation of peprres from
Egypt. The Romans appear to haye written chiefly
on papyrus, and this practice was continued in Italy
till about the 10th century, but parchment was also
used ; and from that time till ordinary paper be-
came available in the 14th century parchment was
almost the only material employed (see PALmo-
GRAPHY, PAPER). To a limited extent wax tablets
and leaden plates were written upon as late as the
14th and 15th centuries, and some of these are
reserved at Florence. Some of the earliest printed
hooks were done on vellum (a name 0 all
given to a parchment made of calf-skin), an
on a specially fine quality of this substance,
from the skins of calves prematurely born, some
‘of the best of the early miniature raits were
painted. Ordinary parchment is chiefly made of
sheep-skins, but those of calves and goats are
PARDOE
PARE 759
also used. Fine parchment and vellum are pre-
pared from the skins of kids, lambs, and young
calves. A coarser parchment for drumheads, tam-
bourines, &c. is manufactured from the skins
of male goats, wolves, and calves. A uliar
kind is made from asses’ skin, and for bookbinders’
use a parchment is sometimes prepared from pig-
skin. The early stages in the manufacture of
hment are the same as for Leather (q.v.).
After being unhaired and cleaned, the skins are
stretched evenly upon a stout wooden frame called
a horse. The flesh side of the skin is first gone over
with a double-ed semicircular knife (fleshing-
tool) to remove adhering particles of flesh. Wit!
the fleshing-tool inverted, to prevent any cutting
of the epidermis, the other side of the skin is then
seraped to remove dirt and to squeeze out some of
the absorbed water. For some purposes for which
stout parchment is required the skin is now merely
allowed to dry on the frame, no further treatment
being requi But fine parchment for writing or
drawing upon, some of which is made from split
skins, is sprinkled over with sifted chalk on the
_ flesh side and rubbed smooth with a flat surface of
pumice-stone. The grain side of the skin also is
rubbed over with pumice, but no chalk is used, In
these operations ot ing care requires to be taken not
to fray the surface, and certain precautions are
necessary during the drying of the parchment.
Any considerable roughness or unequal thickness is
removed by the skin being again scraped and
pumiced.
VEGETABLE PARCHMENT.—This substance, which
excited much interest and curiosity when it was
first introduced, was patented by Mr W. E. Gaine
in 1853 (no. of specification, 2834). It is made by
dipping ordinary unsized paper for a few seconds in
concentrated sulphuric acid mixed with one-half its
volume of water, and then quickly removing all
trace of the acid. The mixture is allowed to cool
before being used. This simple treatment produces
a remarkable change in the paper. It acquires a
parchment-like texture ; turns translucent, especi-
ally when thin; and becomes about five times
stronger than ordinary paper. Vegetable parch-
ment is also impervious to water, but is rendered
soft and limp when dipped into it. The acid pro-
duces a molecular change in the Cellulose (q.v.) of
which paper consists. A solution of chloride of
zine acts on paper ina similar way. In the manu-
facture of vegetable parchment a roll of paper is
by a mechanical arrangement pulled through a vat
containing the sulphuric acid (the time of immer-
sion being from five to ten seconds for thin paper),
next through water, then through a weak solution
of ammonia, and once more through water. It is
afterwards | ane through felt-covered rollers, and
then calendered. Stout Egat of vegetable
parchment have been used for book-covers and for
writing deeds upon. Thin sheets of it serve as a
convenient material for tracing designs, plans, Xe.
But it is now anety employed for covering jars of
preserves and for like purposes,
Pardoe, Jutta, born at Beverley in 1806,
published poems and a novel in her fifteenth year,
and Traits and Traditions of Portugal in 1833. A
visit to Constantinople in 1836 led to her City of
the Sultan, Romance of the Harem, and Beauties of
the Bosphorus. She next visited Hungary, and
wrote. The City of the Magyar, and a novel, The
Hungarian Castle (1842). series of works deal
with French history—Louis XIV. and the Court of
France (1847), The Court and Reign of Francis BS
(1849), The Life of Mary de Medecis (1852; new
ed. 1891), A Pilgrimage in Paris, and Episodes of
French History (1859). Others of her numerous
works are The Confessions 0,
Flies in Amber, The Jealous
a Pretty Woman,
ife, Reginald Lyle,
Lady Arabella, and The Thousand and One Days.
She received a pension of £100 in 1859, and died
26th November 1862.
Pardon, in Law, is the remission of the penalty
inflicted on an offender who has been tried and con-
victed, and is an act of grace rather than of justice.
The right should be used with great discretion in
rectifying an obvious miscarriage of justice, or
where, through the inevitable imperfection of all
laws, individual cases or offences seem to be visited
with too severe a penalty. The power to grant
pardons has usually in all monarchical states been
regarded as the prerogative of the sovereign; in
England a law of 1536 apg VIII.) expressly
denies to any other than the king the power to
pardon or remit treasons or felonies. In republican
countries the - le is sovereign, but the pardoning
power is usually delegated to the head of the execu-
tive government for the time being. The United
States constitution gives the power to the president
to grant reprieves or pardons for offences against
the United States, except in cases of impeach-
ment; and in all but seven of the states of the
Union the same power is conferred on the governor.
In Florida the pardoning power is vested in the
governor, the justices of the supreme court, and
attorney-general, or a major part of them; in
Louisiana the governor pardons only on the re-
commendation of the lieutenant-governor, the
attorney-general, and the presiding judge of the
court which tried the case—but only the general
assembly may pardon in cases of impeachment
and treason; in New Hampshire and Vermont
the governor exercises the power with the aid of
the executive council; and in New Jersey, Ohio,
and Pennsylvania there are boards of pardons—in
New Jersey the board consists of the governor,
the chancellor, and six judges of the court of
errors and appeals. In Britain pardon may also
be granted by the supreme authority of the House
of Commons; Acts of Indemnity (q.v.) are practi-
cally grants of peice. The sovereign’s power of
pardon is at all times limited. Thus, he cannot
oes certain offences seme by law (21 Geo.
II. chap. 49, excludes the power to pardon con-
victions for forms of Sabbath-breaking); the
king cannot pardon in a matter of private, as
opposed to public, wrong, though fines may be re-
mitted in such cases. The endurance of the
penalty is said to work out a constructive pardon ;
and the effect of pardon, constructive or other, is
to put the offender legally in the position of an
innocent man, so that he may proceed at law
against any one who thereafter calls him traitor
or felon. ut civil rights are not overridden by
ardon ; the injured person may recover damages
rom a pardoned offender. In modern times the
crown’s prerogative is delegated, the crown acting
not personally but on the representation of the
home secretary, the secretary for Scotland, and the
lord-lieutenant in Ireland. The pardon is by war-
rant under the Great Seal, or under the sign-manual
countersigned by a secretary of state. To those
who have been unjustly convicted, their innocence
being subsequently proved, not merely is a free
pardon granted, but compensation may also be
allowed (see IMPRISONMENT). A notable case
of a free pardon Ly, hom the condemnation is
that of the Earl of Dundonald (q.v.). See also
INDULGENCE.
Pardubitz. a town of Bohemia, on the left
bank of the Elbe, 55 miles by rail E. of Prague,
has a fine 16th-century castle. Pop. 10,292.
Paré, Ameprotse, the father of modern surgery,
was born about the beginning of the 16th century,
at Laval, in the French ig Pearse of Mayenne,
was trained at the Hétel Dieu of Paris, and in
760 PAREGORIC
PARENT AND CHILD
1536 as surgeon joined the army rene for Italy.
In a later cam he improved the mode of treat-
ment of gunshot wounds, which had up to this
time been of the most barbarous kind—namely,
cauterisation with boiling oil. It was during this
cam that he substituted ligature of the arteries
for cauterisation with a red-hot iron after amputa-
tion. Many other important improvements in
surgery were introduced by him at this time. In
September 1552 he was —, surgeon to Kin
Henry IL, and afterwards to Charles IX. an
Henry Il. He died at Paris, December 22, 1590.
His writings, of which the principal was Cing Livres
de Chirurgie (1562), have exercised a great influence
on the practice surgery in all countries. See
Stephen Paget, Ambroise Paré and his Times (1897 ).
Paregoric, or Parecoric Exrxir (from the
Gr. OFS, ors arge aw Me the Compound Tinc-
ture of or of the British Pharmacopeia, con-
sists of an alcoholic solution of opium, benzoic acid,
camphor, and oil of anise, every fluid ounce con-
tainin 2 grains each of opium and benzoic acid,
and 14 grains of camphor. This preparation is
much used both by the profession and the public.
In doses of from 30 to F drops it is an excellent
remedy for the chronic winter-cough of old people,
the opium diminishing the bronchial secretion and
the sensibility of the peasy mucous membrane,
while the benzoic acid and oil of anise act as stimu-
lating expectorants, It has also been found useful
in chronic rheumatism, and, especially in the case
of children, to relieve slight pains in the stomach
and bowels.
Pareira-Brava, a lofty climbing shrub in-
habiting the forests of Peru and Brazil, which bears
bunches of oval berries resembling grapes. The
botanical source was for some tiie obscure, but
it is now known that the plant yielding the root
of commerce is the Chondodendron tomentosum
(ord, Menispermacem). The plant has a long branch-
ing woody root, of a yellowish to greenish brown
pe oh internally, and this has attained consider-
able reputation in medicine. The root contains a
bitter principle, and is used in chronic catarrhal
affections <4 the bladder and in calculus, The
decoction and fluid extract are most usually em-
ployed, but it is sometimes given in the simple
orm of powder.—This medicinal root has been
referred, but erroneously, also to the allied Céssam-
pelos ira, a climbing shrub of the West Indies
and Mexico, and to. the Botryopsis platyphylla—
both of which plants have roots possessing similar
properties,
Parella, a name given to some of those crusta-
ceons lichens which are used to produce Archil,
Cudbear, and Litmus, but which more strictly
belongs to one species, Lecanora parella, and the
red or crimson dye prepared from it.
Parenchyma, a technical name for that kind
of vegetable tissue in which the component cells
are roundish or polyhedral, touching each other by
ag broad palieca tting -_ or = opens as in
the ‘ palisade-parenchyma’ of the upper part
ofa leaf, or leaving ie intercellular po 5 ain
the ‘spongy parenchyma’ of the lower part. See
Ceu., LEAr.
Parent and Child. The legal relation
ween parent and child is one of the incidents
or Sen i rte of the relation of husband and
wife, an flows out of the contract of marriage.
The legal is to be distinguished from the natural
re ; for two persons may be by the law of
nature tare and child, while they are not legally
or legitimately so, Hence a radical distinction
exists between natural or illegitimate and legiti-
mate children, and their legal rights as against
their parents respectively are very different. Legiti-
mate children are the children of two parents who
are recognised as married according to the laws of
the country in which they are domiciled at the time
of the birth ; and, according to the law of
if a child is illegitimate at the time of the i
nothing that can happen afterwards will ever make
it legitimate, the maxim being ‘once illegitimate
always illegitimate.’ In Scotland, on the other
hand, a child born of = who were not mar-
ried at the time of the birth is made legitimate by
their subsequent intermarri For a statement
of the law relating to illegitimate children, see
the articles BASTARD, AFFILIATION, LEGITIMA-
TION, and see also FAMILY, INFANT.
As regards the maintenance of the child, it is
somewhat singular that, according to the law of
England, there is no duty whatever on the parent’
to support the child, and consequently no mode of
enforcing such maintenance. The law of nature
was probably considered sufficient to supply the
motives which urge a parent to ma fe child,
but the municipal law of rey has not
this duty compulsory. This defect was to some
extent remedied when the Poor Law was created
by statute in the reign of Elizabeth: by that law
parents and children are compellable to a certain
small extent, but only when they have the
means to do so, to support each other, or rather to
help the parish authorities to do so. But
from the poor-law statutes there is no legal ob!
tion on the parent to support the child, nor on
child to support the parent. Hence it follows that,
if the child is found in a destitute state, and is
taken up, fed, clothed, and saved from starvation
by a stranger, it is questionable whether such a
stranger can sue the parent for the expense, or any
part of it, however gigs te to the child’s exist-
ence, In order to make the father liable for main-
tenance there must in all cases be made out
sates him some contract, express or implied, by
which he undertook to pay for such expense; in
other words, the mere relationship between the
rent and child is not of itself a d of lia-
ility. But when the child is living in the father’s
house, it is always held by a jury or court that
slight evidence is sufficient of, at least, an implied
seg x by the father to pay for such expenses.
or example, if the child order clothes or pro-
visions, and the father see these in use or in process
of consumption, it will be taken that he assented
to and adopted the contract, and so will be bound
to pay for them. So, if a
boarding-school, very slight evidence of a contract
will be held sufficient to fix him with liability,
Nevertheless, in strictness of law, it is as necessary
to prove a contract or agreement on the part of the
parent to pay for these expenses as it is to fix him
with liability in respect of any other matter. If
a child be put under the care and dominion of an
adult person, and the latter wilfully neglect or
refuse to feed or maintain such child, whereby the
child dies or is injured, such adult will incur the
penalties of misdemeanour; but offence does
not result from the relationship of parent and child;
it may arise between an adult and child in any
circumstances, as where a child is an apprentice or
servant. If a parent runs away and deserts his
children, leaving them destitute and a burden on
the mba the overseers are entitled to seize and
sell his goods, if any, for the benefit and mainten-
ance of such children ; and if the parent so desert-
ing the children be able by work or other means to
support them, such ent may be committed to
P m as a rogue and vagabond. Not only, there-
ore, is a parent during life not bound to maintain
his or her child (with the above exceptions), but
after the parent’s death the executors or other re-
presentatives of the parent, though in possession of
i
parent put a child toa «_
PARENT AND CHILD
PARIS 761
funds, are also not bound. It is true that if the
parent die intestate both the real and personal
property will go to the children; but the parent is
rane , if he nreiges to disinherit the children,
ive away all his property to strangers, pro-
ied he execute his will in due form, whieh he
may competently do on death-bed if in possession
of his faculties.
A father has the right to the enstody of his child
until majority at least, as inst third parties,
and no court will deprive him of such custod
except on strong grounds. Whenever the child is
entitled to property, the court so far controls the
parental right that, if the father is shown to act
with coger fy or to be guilty of immorality, a
guardian will be appointed. The court has often
to decide in cases of children brought before it by
eng Sag: when parties have had the custody
i father’s will. In such cases, if the
child is under fourteen, called the age of nurture,
and the father is not shown to be cruel or immoral,
the court will order the child to be delivered up to
him ; but if the child is above fourteen, or, as some
say, above sixteen, the court will allow the child
to choose where to If the parents separate by
agreement, no stipulation will be enfo: which is
pe to the child. In case of divorce or judi-
cial separation the Court of Divorce has power to
direct who is to have the custody of the children.
The law lays upon fathers the duty of providing
their children with an elementary education in
roading, writing, and arithmetic; and a father has
the right, which the court will not interfere with
except on opetal grounds, to have his children
educated in his own religious faith.
Scotland.—The law of parent and child in Scot-
land differs in some respects from the law of
England and Ireland. In Scotland there is a legal
obligation on parents and children to maintain each
other if able to do so, and either may sue the other
for aliment at common law; but this obligation
extends only to what may be called subsistence
money, although this does not mean merely relief
of the poor-law authorities, but is held to vary
according to the social position of the party. As
all maintenance beyond mere subsist-
ence, the law does not materially differ from that
of England, and a contract must be po against
the father before he can be held liable to pay.
The legal liability as between parent and child
qualified in this way “A the common law, that if
a on has both a father and a child living and
able to support him, then the child is primarily
liable, and next the grandchild, after whom comes
the father, and next the grandfather. Not only
are parent and child liable to support each other
while the party a is alive, but if he dies
his executors are also liable; and this liability is
not limited by the age of majority, but continues
during the life of the party supported. Another
advantage which a Scotch child has over an English
child is that the father cannot disinherit it—at
least so far as concerns his tpbenere ap Mec
LecITImM). With regard to the custody of children
in Scotland, the rule is that the father is entitled
to the custody as between him and the mother.
His right, however, is not absolute, but subject
to the equitable jurisdiction of the Court of Session,
which makes such orders regarding custody as are
dictated by a regard for the health, interests, and
moral education of the child. In actions for separa-
tion or divorce this court has power to make such
orders as are just and proper regarding the custody
of the children of the spouses.
By the Guardianship of Infants Act, 1886, in-
creased rights were given to the mothers of lawful
children both in England and Scotland. The
general effect of the enactment is to place the
mother of children whose father is dead in a similar
position to that which the father would have
oceupied had he been alive in regard to the guar-
dianship.
United States.—The American law closely follows
that of se ge on this head, save in regard to the
age (usually eighteen) at which women cease to be
infants. See INFANT, AGE.
Parhelion. See Hatos.
Pariahs is the Tamil name now generally
given to the lowest class of the Hindu population
of Southern India—the ‘out-castes’ 255 do not
belong to any of the four castes of the Brahminical
system (the Telugu name is Mala, the Kanarese
olia, the Malayalim Paliyar). In the Madras
Presidency they numbered, in 1881, 4,439,253, or
15°58 per cent. of the total population, or four
times as numerous as the Bralimans. Presumably
they represent the aboriginal race conquered by
the Sudras, themselves a stock vanquished by the
Vedic peoples. In the 18th century Pariahs were
slaves to the higher castes; they must still dwell
in huts outside village bounds, but are frugal,
pleasure-loving, and laborious. See CasTE.—For
the Pariah Dog, see Doc.
Paris, the capital of France, and the largest
city in Europe after London, is situated in 48° 50’
N. lat. and 2° 20’ E. long., on the river Seine,
about 110 miles from its month, It lies in the
midst of the fertile plain of the Ile-de-France, at
a point to which converge the chief tributaries of
the river, the Yonne, the Marne, and the Oise.
These streams, navigable for the small vessels for-
merly used in commerce, gave it until recent times
the advantages of a seaport, while the great trade-
routes passing along their valleys connected it with
all parts of France. It is still the centre of a
great network of rivers, canals, roads, and rail-
ways; hence its commercial importance. Paris
has oceupied since Roman times a constantly
pene Cae of concentric circles. The present
city is bounded by fortifications—a rampart
upwards of 22 miles in length, begun in 1840 and
completed twenty years afterwards. The exten-
sion of the city boundary to this line explains
the increase of population from 1,174,346 in 1856
to 1,696,741 in 1861; subsequent pop. (1866)
1,825,274 ; (1881) 2,269,023; and (1891) 2,447,957.
Paris has within the fortifications a mean eleva-
tion of about 120 feet, but it rises in low hills
north of the Seine, Montmartre (400 feet) and
Belleville (320 feet), and south of the Seine, the
Montagne Sainte Genevitve (190 feet), These
elevations are encircled at a distance of from two
to five miles by an outer range of heights, in-
cluding Villejuif, Meudon, St Cloud, and Mont-
Valérien (650 feet), the highest point in the
immediate vicinity of the city. The Seine, which
enters Paris in the south-east at Bercy, and
leaves it at Passy in the west, divides the city
into two parts, and forms tlie two islands of La
Cité and St Louis, which are both covered with
buildings,
France has long been the most highly centralised
country in Europe, and Paris as its heart contains
a great population of government functionaries.
Paris is a city of pleasure, and attracts the
wealthy from all parts of the world. These
wealthy inhabitants make it a city of capitalists
and a great financial centre. he provincial
universities of France have been deprived of their
attraction by the schools of Paris, to which flock
the youth of France. The publishing trade has
followed the same course, Paris cannot be de-
scribed as a manufacturing town. Its chief and
peculiar industries produce articles which derive
their value not from the cost of the material,
762
PARIS
but from the skill and taste bestowed on them
by individual workmen, 1 hey include jewellery,
bronzes, artistic furniture, and decorative articles
known as ‘articles de Paris.’ In consequence of
the intelligence and taste required in their trades,
the Paris workmen are in many respects superior to
the machine hands of manufacturing cities. The
absence of extreme poverty among them and their
well-to-do appearance strike the English visitor.
Before speaking in detail of the streets, boule-
vards, and places or squares of Paris, it is proper
to mention that the private houses as well as the
are built of a light-coloured lime-
stone, quarried in the neighbourhood of the city,
easily cut with the saw and carved ornament-
ally with the chisel. With this material they
are in huge blocks to a height of six or
seven stories, each floor constituting a distinct
dwelling ; access to all the floors in a tenement
being gained by a common stair, which is usually
placed under the charge of a porter or concierge at
the entrance. Very frequently the tenements
surround an open quadrangle, to which there is a
spacious entry, the gate of which (the porte cochére)
public buildin
is kept by a porter for the whole inhabitants of the
several stairs, In these respects, therefore, Pais
differs entirely from London ; for instead of extend-
ing rows of small brick buildings of a temporary
kind over vast spaces, the plan consists of piling
durable houses on the top of each other, and con-
fining the population to a comparatively limited
area, In the great new streets which were formed
in the time of the Emperor Napoleon IIL. this
general plan has been adhered to, but with this
ifference, that instead of being narrow and
crooked they are wide and straight. Among the
finest are the Rue de Rivoli, two miles in length,
the Rue de la Paix, the Rue du Faubourg St
Honoré, and the Rue Royale. The Boulevards,
which extend in a semicircular line on the right
side of the Seine, between the nucleus of the city
and its surrounding quarters, present the most
striking feature of Paris life. In all the better
parts of the city they are lined with trees, seats,
stalls, kiosques, and little towers, covered with
advertisements, Restaurants, cafés, shops, and
various places of amusement succeed one another
for miles, their character varying from the height
of luxury and elegance in the western Boulevard
des Italiens to the homely simplicity of the eastern
Boulevards Beaumarchais on St Denis, Among
the public squares or places the most notewortliy
is the Place de la Concorde, which connects the
Gardens of the Tuileries with the Champs-Elysées,
and embraces a magnificent view of some of the
finest buildings and gardens of Paris, In the
centre is the famous obelisk of Luxor, covered over
its entire height of 73 feet with hieroglyphics. It
was brought from Egypt to France, and in 1836
placed where it now stands. On the site of this
obelisk stood the revolutionary guillotine, at which
rished Louis XVI., Marie Antoinette, Philippe
igalité, Charlotte Corday, Danton, and Robespierre.
Of the other squares the following are some of the
finest ; the Place du Carrousel, including the site of
the Tuileries burned by the Commune and not re-
stored ; the Place Vendéme, with Napoleon’s Column
of Victory; the Place de la Bastille, where once stood
PARIS
763
that famous prison and fortress ; the Place Royale,
with its two fountains and a statue of Louis XIII. ;
the Place de I'Hétel de Ville, formerly Place de la
Gréve, for many ages the scene of public execu-
tions. Triumphal arches are a feature in the archi-
tecture of Paris. The Porte St Martin and Porte
St Denis were erected by Louis XIV. to commem-
orate his victories in the Low Countries, and are
adorned with bas-reliefs representing events of
these campaigns ; the Are de Triomphe de I’Etoile
was begun by Napoleon in 1806, and completed in
1836 at a cost of more than £400,000. This arch,
which bounds the Champs-Elysées, has a total
height of 152 feet and a breadth of 137. . It is
profusely adorned with bas-reliefs and alto-reliefs,
some of which, representing the departure and return
of the Grande Armée, are masterpieces of sculpture.
The great streets which radiate from the Are de
Triomphe were among the most magnificent of
those constructed by Napoleon III., and make this
monument of the Bonaparte family the most con-
spicuous in Paris. A great avenue runs east from
it to the Palace of the Louvre, in the heart of the
city.
The Seine in passing through Paris is spanned
by twenty-eight bridges. The most celebrated and
ancient are the Pont Notre Dame,
erected in 1500, and tlie Pont-Neuf,
ger in 1578, completed by Henri
IV. in 1604. This bridge, which
crosses the Seine at the north of the
lle-de-la-Cité, is built on twelve
arches, and abuts near the middle
on a small peninsula, jutting out
into the river, and planted with
trees, that form a background to
the statue of Henri IV. on _horse-
back, placed in the central open
space on the bridge. The bridges
all communicate directly with spaci-
ous quays, planted with trees, which
line both banks of the Seine, and
which, together with the Boule-
vards, give special characteristic
beauty to the city. During the
last two centuries of the ‘ancien
régime’ the Pont-Neuf was the
centre of Paris. It was a meeting-
place of showmen and charlatans,
and there popular orators addressed
the mob. Early in the 12th century
Ogival or Gothic architecture took
its rise in Paris, or the district im-
mediately surrounding it, this event
being one of the most memorable in
the history of art. Unfortunately
the Parisians, with an impatience of everythin
not in the latest fashion, long neglected their old
buildings in the style they had originated. Their
Gothic churches were disfigured by incongruous ad-
ditions and tawdry ornaments, which make them
uninteresting if not repulsive to visitors. - This
remark, however, does not apply to the first two
churches we shall mention. They have been ad-
mirably restored, and it is now difficult to say
whether their incomparable beauty is to be more
attributed to medizval builders or to the modern
architects by whom they have been renovated.
Among the parish churches of Paris (upwards of
sixty in number) the grandest and most interest-
ing, from a historical point of view, is the cathedral
of Notre Dame, which stands on a site successively
occupied by a pagan temple and a Christian basilica
of the time of the Merovingian kings. The main
building, begun in the 12th century, is 400 feet
long, 150 feet wide, and 110 high. The height of
two towers is 218 feet, that of the fléche 300 feet.
The interior consists of a principal and two flanking
naves, which are continued round the choir. It
has been said that if the pillars of Notre Dame
could speak they might tell the whole history of
France. The kings, however, were crowned at
Rheims, and the only royal coronation celebrated
at Notre Dame was that of Henry VI. of Eng-
land in 1431. There, too, was sung in 1436 a
memorable Te Deum when Paris was retaken by
the troops of Charles VII. During the French
Revolution the church was mutilated in order to
destroy what were supposed erroneously to be
emblems of royalty. In 1793, after childish and
repulsive mockeries of the ceremonies of the Roman
Catholie Church, it was converted into a ‘temple
of reason.’ In 1804 Napoleon I. at the height of his
power resolved to impress Europe by an imposing
ceremony—that of his coronation—in Notre Dame;
and there it was that he, in presence of the pope,
who never before had pea the Alps at the bid-
ding of king or emperor, rudely placed the crown
upon his own head. In 1831 the novel of Victor
ugo, Notre Dame, made the church interestin,
to all Europe. In France there was a genera
desire for its restoration, and in 1845 this great
work was undertaken by the state. Viollet-le-Duc
added to the building the great fléche, a structure
Notre Dame : from the River.
of oak and lead; and under the care of some of
the ablest architects of France the church was
converted into what is now described in Paris as
the noblest of Gothic buildings. The Sainte
Chapelle, built by St Louis in 1245-48, for the
reception of the various relies which he had brought
from the Holy Land, is perhaps the greatest
existing masterpiece of Gothic art. Restored by
Napoleon III. at a cost of £50,000, it was
threatened by the Commune, but saved. One of
the most interesting churches in Paris is St
Séverin, buried in narrow streets of the Quartier
Latin. A large part of it is in the English
Gothic of the 15th century, showing that it
was erected during the English occupation of
Paris. St-Germain-des-Prés, which is probably
the most ancient church in Paris, was completed
in 1163; St Etienne du Mont and St Germain
lAuxerrois, both ancient, are interesting—the
former for its picturesque and quaint decorations,
and for containing the tomb of St Genevieve (q.v.),
the patron saint of Paris; and the latter for it#
764
PARIS
rich decorations and the frescoed portal, restored
at the wish of Margaret of Valois. Among modern
churches is the Madeleine (1806-42), built in the
style of a Corinthian temple, and originally in-
tended by Napoleon I. to be a monument to the
Grande ée. It forms an oblong on, 328
feet long by 138 wide, independently of the y sare
of steps. The height of the columns is 62 feet,
that of the entablature 14 feet, and the entire
height from the ground 116 feet. There are in all
fifty-two columns. The roof is of iron and copper.
The interior is elaborately decorated with gold,
white marble, paintings, and sculptures; but in
spite of their religious subjects the building still
produces on northern eyes the impression of a pagan
temple rather than of a Christian church. The Pan-
théon (i764) was begun as a church, but con-
verted by the Constituent Assembly of republican
France into a temple dedicated to the t men of
the nation, next restored to the church by Napoleon
IIL. and rededicated to St Genevidve, but once
more, on the occasion of the funeral of Victor Hugo
(1885), reconverted into a monument, with the old
inscription ‘ Aux pas hommes la patrie recon-
naissante.’’ The Panthéon has been spoken of as
rivalling St Peter’s at Rome and St Paul’s in
London. The frescoes of the interior are very fine.
In the erypt are the tombs of Voltaire, Rousseau,
and Victor Hugo. Notre Dame de Lorette, erected.
in 1823, is a flagrant specimen of the meretricious
taste of the day; and St Vincent de Paul, com-
leted in 1844, is somewhat less gaudy and more
mposing in style. Among the few Protestant
churches, l'Oratoire is the largest and the best
known. For the great church of Sacré Cour at
Montmartre, see SACRED HEART.
Paris abounds in places of amusement suited to
the tastes and means of every class, including over
forty theatres, The ee ouses are the “og
the Théftre Frangais (chiefly devoted to classical
French drama; it was burned down in 1900), the
Opéra Comique, and the Odéon, which are assisted
by government. The new opera-house (1875) is
one of the most magnificent buildings of this
century, costing, exclusive of the site, £1,120,000.
Page, concerts, equestrian performances, and pub-
lie balls, held in the open air in summer, supply a
constant round of gaiety to the burgher and work-
ing classes at a moderate cost, and form a char-
acteristic feature of Paris life; while, in addition
to the noble gardens of the various imperial palaces,
the most densely-crowded parts of the city have
— gardens, shaded by trees and adorned with
fountains and statues, which afford the means of
health and recreation to the poor. Beyond the
fortifications at the west of Paris is the Bois de
Boulogne, converted by Napoleon IIL. from a wood
cov, with stunted trees into one of the most
beautiful gardens in — It takes the place
of the London parks for the fashionable world of
Paris. East of Paris is the Bois de Vincennes,
an admirable recreation ground for the working-
classes,
Paris has three large and twelve lesser ceme-
teries, of which the principal one is Pere-la-Chaise
(see LACHAISE), extenling over 200 acres, and
filled in ar with monuments erected to
the memory of the countless number of celebrated
persons buried there. The Morgue (q.v.) at the
upper end of the [le-de-la-Cité is a Tuilding in
which the bodies of unknown persons found in the
Seine are placed temporarily for recognition. The
southern parts of Paris are built over beds of
limestone, which have been so extensively quarried
as to have become a network of vast caverns,
These quarries were first converted in 1784 into
catacombs, in which are deposited the bones of the
ead, collected from the ancient cemeteries of Paris.
It has been frequently remarked that Paris con-
tains few important civil buildings of the middle
ages, which is to some extent due to the reckless
way in which improvements have been carried out.
What Paris has lost in picturesque interest and
architectural variety from this cause was brought
home to all by the imitations of the Tour de
Nesle and other buildings erected for the exhibition
of 1889. A government commission now watches
over the historic monuments of Paris, so that
further destruction is checked. Two most interest-
ing civil buildings of the 15th century still exist.
One is the Hotel de Cluny (see CLUGNY), one of
the finest existing monuments of the Gothic Flam-
boyant style. The other is the Hétel de Sens, the
old palace of the archbishops of Sens, ite
metropolitans of Paris. It is unfortunately bu
among narrow streets north of the Seine and
opposite the Cité. In 1890 its most interesting
rt was advertised ‘to let for business purposes,
t had been last used as a mp pie
The Louvre, the greatest of the ern
of Paris, forming a square of 576 feet feet,
was erected on the site of an old castle of the 13th
century (see below). The first part, the south-
west wing, was in 1541 on the plans of
Pierre Lescault. It remains a masterpiece of
architectural design and monumental sculpture.
The principal portion of the g square was
completed under Louis XIV. in the latter part of
the 17th century, the physician Claud Perrault
being the architect. The colonnade of the eastern.
facade is more admired than any other part of the
Ly ea
The Palace of the Tuileries was begun in 1566
by Catharine de Medicis, and enlarged suc-
cessive monarchs, while used as a royal residence,
until it formed a structure nearly a quarter of a
mile in length, running at right angles to the
Seine. It was connected with the Louvre, which
lay to the west, by a great picture-gallery over-
looking the Seine, and 1456 feet in length. North
of the pee eaeten: and between the two palaces,
lay the Place du Carrousel, in the midst of the
most magnificent palatial structure in the world.
The Tuileries continued to be occupied as the resi-
dence of the imperial eens” bs but the Louvre proper
formed a series of t galleries filled with pictu
sculptures, and collections of Egyptian, Greek, an
Roman antiquities. The Commune aie
to burn the whole pile, but only succeeded in
destroying the Tuileries and a corner of the Louvre,
The Place du Carrousel enclosed between them and
the Louvre is now thrown into the ot line =
e.
a mass of buildings, including the old palace of the
Orleans family, the ThéAtre Francais, and a quad-
panes of ap 5p mes Tg ap tg enclosing &
large or garden open to the public,
long by 300 feet vie With its avenues and
parterres it was long one of the liveliest and
most uented spots in Paris. Its cafés had a
world-wide reputation, which has faded, however,
since the great improvements of Napoleon III. sent
the current of life into other quarters. The most
valuable part of the palace, frontin the Rue St
Honoré, was set fire to by order of the Commune
in 1871. The Palace of the Luxembourg, on the
south side of the Seine, was built by Marie de
Medicis in the Florentine style. It contains many
magnificent rooms, and in 1879 became the meet-
ing-place of the French senate, Close to it a
lery has been constructed for the reception of
the works of living artists acquired by the state.
On the north bank of the Seine, opposite the Island
PARIS
765
of the Cité, stands the Hétel de Ville. It was
burned by the Commune, but has been rebuilt and
restored in the style of its predecessor, and is now
one of the finest buildings in Paris. On the Island
of the Cité stands the Palais de Justice, a vast pile,
also set fire to by the Commune; some parts of it
date from the 14th century, and others are modern.
It is the seat of some of the courts of law, as
the Courts of Cassation, of Appeal, and of Police.
Within the precincts of this palace are the Sainte
Chapelle, and the noted old prison of the Con-
ciergerie, in which Marie Antoinette, Danton, and
Robespierre were successively confined.
The Conciergerie, just mentioned, in which pris-
oners are lodged pending their trial, constitutes
one of the eight prisons of Paris, of which the prin-
cipal is La Force. The Nouveau Bicétre is designed
for convicts sentenced to penal servitude for life ;
St Pélagie receives political offenders, St Lazare
is exclusively for women, the Madelonnettes for
juvenile criminals, and Clichy for debtors.
The number of benevolent institutions is enor-
mous. The largest of the numerous hospices or
almshouses is La Salpétritre, probably the largest
asylum in the world, extending over 78 acres of
land, and appropriated solely to old women;
Bicétre receives only men. The Hospice des
Enfans Trouvés, or Foundling Hospital (q.v.), pro-
vides for the infants brought to it till they reach
the age of maturity, and only demands f mbreer in
the event of a child being reclaimed. The Créches
(q.v.) receive the infants of poor women for the
day at the cost of 20 centimes. Besides institu-
tions for the blind, deaf and dumb, convalescents,
sick children, &c., Paris has many general and
special hospitals. Of these the oldest and most
eg are the Hotel Dieu, La Charité, and La
itié.
The chief institutions connected with the Univer-
sity of France, and with education general] » are
still situated in the Quartier Latin. ‘The Sorbonne
(q.v-), the seat of the Paris faculties of letters,
science, and Protestant theology, has been rebuilt
and increased in size. The new building was opened
in 1889, when it was announced that a complete re-
organisation of the university system of France was
contemplated (see UNiversiTy). The Sorbonne
contains lecture-halls and class-rooms, and an exten-
sive library open to the public. There gratuitous
lectures are given, and de; are granted by the
University of France. Near the Sorbonne is the
Collége de France, where gratuitous lectures are
alao delivered by eminent scholars and men of
letters, as well as a large number of colleges and
lycées, the great public schools of France for
secondary instruction. Most of them have been
recently rebuilt, filling the Quartier Latin with
huge barrack-like buildin The Scotch College
stands as it did in the ith century, five stories
high, with eleven windows in a row, a good speci-
men of the old Paris colleges. At present, owing
to the war between the republic and the Roman
Catholie Church, the schools of the latter are in-
dependent of the university, and there is no faculty
of oman Catholic theology at the Sorbonne. The
Ecole Polytechnique, the School of Medicine and the
School of Law, the Observatory, and the Jardin des
Plantes, with its great museums of natural history,
rtly rebuilt on a grand scale and opened in 1889,
Lecture-rourie, and botanical and zoological gardens
are situated in the same quarter of Paris. The
rincipal of the public libraries are those of the Rue
ichelien, now called the Bibliothéque Nationale
(see LiBRARY), which originated in a small collec-
tion of books placed by Louis XI. in the Louvre.
It is rivalled only by the British Museum in the
number of its books and manuscripts, but its use-
fulness is impaired by the want of a proper cata-
logue, which makes its treasures less accessible than
bes should be.
o city on this side of the Alps is richer than
Paris in fine-art collections, and among these the
museums at the Louvre stand pre-eminent. Among
its chief treasures may be mentioned, in the museum
of antique miietares the famous Venus of Milo,
and in the Salon Carré the great works of the
Italian, Flemish, and Spanish masters,
possible to do more than refer to the long succes-
sion of galleries in which are exhibited Egyptian,
Assyrian, Elamitic, Greek, Roman, medieval, and
Renaissance relics and works of art. The Musée
Carnivalet or historical museum of the city of
Paris has been specially devoted to the collection
of everything interesting connected with the muni-
cipality. On the demolition of the old houses
many objects were found which formed the nucleus
of the collection, which is constantly receiving large
additions which make it one of the most interest-
ing of the Paris museums. The Palais des Beaux-
Arts is used as an exhibition of art, manufac-
tures, and architectural models. The Hotel de
Cluny, connected underground with the Palais
des Thermes, contains curious relics of the arts
and usages of the French people, from the
earliest ages of their history to the Renaissance
riod, The potteries, sculptures, paintings, arms,
irniture, and tapestries of the middle ages and of
the 16th and 17th centuries are of the highest his-
torical interest and value. The Museum of Artil-
lery at the Hotel des Invalides is devoted to arms
and armour, flags and war dresses. The Musée
Guimet, or ‘ National Museum of Religions,’ includes
objects used in religious ceremonies, savage, Indian,
Chinese, &c. The Mint deseryes ay the per-
fection of its machinery ; and the Gobelins (q.v.), or
tapestry manufactory, may be included under the
fine arts, as the productions of its looms are all
manual, and demand t artistic skill. The
Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, in the Rue St
Martin, contains a great collection of models of
machinery, and class-rooms for the instruction of
workmen in all pa oma of applied science.
The great Paris exhibitions have all left behind
them important buildings. The Palace of In-
dustry, built in 1854, now forms a permanent
exhibition. The spacious building in which the
exhibition of 1878 took place was named Palace of
the Trocadéro, and is now used for musical enter-
tainments and as an architectural and ethnological
museum. For the exhibition of 1889 was erected
one of the most striking monuments of modern
Paris, the Eiffel (q.v.) Tower.
Paris was surrounded, under Louis-Philippe,
with fortifications costing £5,500,000 sterling, and,
in addition to these, a large number of detached
forts have since been erected. The walls, 37,000
yards in length, are penetrated by sixty-nine open-
ings, fifty-six for gates, nine for railways, two for
the canals of St Denis and the Ourg. Through
the two remaining breaks passes the Seine. At
the gates are paid the octroi or town dues, a large
source of revenue to the city of Paris. Qn the left
bank of the Seine is the le Militaire, founded in
1752, and used as barracks for infantry and cavalry ;
it can accommodate 10,000 men and 800 horses. .
Near it is the Hétel des Invalides, founded in 1670
for disabled soldiers. The crypt of the church con-
tains the sarcophagus, hewn from a huge block of
Russian granite, in which lie the remains of
Napoleon, deposited there in 1840.
aris is divided into twenty arrondissements.
The prefect of the Seine is the chief of the muni-
cipal government, and is appointed by the govern-
ment. There is a large municipal council, chosen
by popular election. Each arrondissement has a
maire and two assistant-councillors. The prefect
It is im-
766
PARIS
of police is at the head of the civic guard or gens-
deraaa the fire-brigade, and the sergents de ville
or city police, who are armed with swords. The
cleaning, sewerage, and water-supplies of Paris are
under the charge of the prefect. Paris is now
abundantly supplied with pure and wholesome
water; and the sewers have been sg extended
with the street improvements. @ same may be
said in to the paving of the city, and the
street-lighting by gas and electricity. In 1818
ublic liter-houses, or abattoirs, were estab-
ished at different suburbs, where alone animals
are allowed to be slaughtered. Large cattle-
markets are held near the licensed abattoirs.
There are in the heart of the city numerous ha/les,
or wholesale, and marchés, or retail markets. The
principal of these is the Halles Centrales, near the
church of St Eustache, covering nearly 20 acres.
History.—The earliest notice of Paris occurs
in Ceesar’s Commentaries, in which it is described,
under the name of Lutetia, as a collection of
mud huts, composing the chief settlement of the
Parisii, a Gallic tribe, conquered by the Romans,
Lutetia soon acquired t strategic importance,
due to its lines of defence—the windings and
marshes of the Seine and Marne to the east and
west, and the forest-clad hills on the north and
south. It lay midway between the chief enemies
of Rome in Gaul, the Germans on the east and the
unsubdued Celts of Armorica on the west. In
53 B.c., accordingly, Cwsar assembled there the
delegates of the Gallic tribes, and it became an
important Roman town. Two ruins of this period
remain south of the Seine. One formed part of
the Palais des Thermes, the abode of the Roman
governors of Lutetia and afterwards of the Mero-
vingian kings of France. The other ruin is that
of the arénes or amphitheatre of the Roman city.
The foundations and parts of the old wall were dis-
covered in 1870, and since then excavations have
laid them bare. In 1891 they were enclosed in a
small park and thrown open to the public. The
amphitheatre was 180 feet long by 153 feet wide.
It is estimated that it could contain 10,000 spec-
tators of the gladiatorial shows. Lutetia began in
the 4th century to be known as Parisia, or Paris.
In the 6th century Paris was chosen by Clovis
as the seat of government; and after having
fallen into decay under the Carlovingian kings,
who made Aix-la-Chapelle their capital, and in
whose time it suffered severely from frequent inva-
sions of the Northmen, it finally hecame in the 10th
century the residence of Hugh Capet, and the
capital of the French monarchy. From this period
Paris continued rapidly to increase, and in two
centuries it had doubled in size and a ulation,
The reign of Philippe-Auguste (1180-1223) is the
great epoch in the medieval history of Paris. It
was then that were erected masterpieces of Gothic
art, including the nave, the choir, and the chief
facade of Notre Dame and the Sainte Chapelle.
Then was founded the University of Paris, the
sreat theological school of the middle ages, wield-
fog a power over the church second only to that of
Rome, and pecan op J from all parte of western
Europe vast crowds of students, who, on returning
to their homes, ee abroad a knowledge of the
art and culture of Paris. Philippe-Auguste built a
crenelated wall and flanking towers, one of which,
the Tour de Nesle (q.v.), stood on the site of the
Palace of the Institute. Outside the wall he
erected the castle of the Louvre on the site of
the present palace. It became the centre and
stronghold of feudalism and the citadel of Paris,
which was now, after Constantinople, the greatest
city of Europe, In the 16th century the castle was
still ised as a royal residence, but after the recep-
tion of Charles V, there by Francis 1. it was pulled
down to make way for the new palace. Luckily
the walls were’ noe levelled to their foundations.
A few years ago they were discovered to exist,
Galleries have been excavated, and extensive ruins
have been laid bare, which now form the most
interesting sight of underground Paris.
In the middle ages Paris was divided into three
distinct the Cité, on the islands; the Ville,
on the right bank; and the Quartier Latin, or
University, on the left bank of the river, and on
the Montagne St Genevitve. In 1358 broke out
the first of the long series of Paris revolutions. It
was headed by Etienne Marcel, the famous provost
of the Paris merchants, who for a time ably ruled
the town. Louis XI. did much to enl Paris
and to efface the disastrous results of its hostile
occupation by the English during the wars under
Henry V. and Henry VI. of England; but its —
was in checked during the wars of
ast of the Valois, when the city had to sustain
several si On the accession of Henri IV. of
Navarre, in 1589, a new era was opened for
Paris. The improvements commenced in his reign
were continued under the minority of his son,
Louis XIIL. A arnt ae — the old ram-
rts into public w: or evards, organised a
pagelar syle of police, established — and
sewerage works, founded hospitals, almshouses,
publie schools, scientific societies, and a library,
and thus renewed the claim of Paris to be regarded
as the focus of European civilisation.
The terrible days of the Revolution caused a
temporary reaction; but the improvement of Paris
was recommenced on a new and grander
under the first Napoleon, when new quays, bridges,
markets, streets, squares, and public gardens were
created. All the treasures of art and science
which conquest placed in his power were applied
to the embellishment of Paris, in the restorati
of which he spent more than £4,000,000 sterlin
in twelve — His downfall ri -
and in many respects Paris -
find other European cities henvession was re-
commenced under Louis-Philippe; but as lately
as 1834 much of the old style of things remained ;
the gutters ran down the middle of the streets,
there was little underground drainage from the
houses, oil-lamps were suspended on cords over the
middle of the thoroughfares, and, except in one or
two streets, there were no side-pavements. It was
reserved for Napoleon III. to reconstruct Paris.
When he commenced his improvements Paris still
consisted, in the main, of a labyrinth of narrow,
dark, and ill-ventilated streets. He resolved to
pierce broad and straight thoroughfares
the midst of these—thus putting an end to
possibility of forming barricades—to preserve and
connect all the finest existing squares and boule-
vards, especially those surrounding the monuments
of the Bona family, and, in lieu of the old
houses pulled down in the heart of the town, to
construct, in a ring outside of it, a new city in the
most approved style of modern architecture. With
the assistance of n Haussmann (q.v.), the Prefect
of the Seine, his schemes were carried out with rare
energy and good taste. With afresh supply of water,
trees, parterres, and fountains were introduced every-
where, and Paris ceased to produce on visitors
impression that it stands in the midst of a chalky
desert. It was converted into one of the greenest
and shadiest of modern cities. Two straight and
wide thoroughfares, parallel to and near other,
the whole width of Paris from north to
south through the Cité; a still greater thorough-
fare was made to run the whole length of the town
north of the Seine, from east to west. The old
boulevards were completed so as to form outer and
inner circles of spacious streets—the former chiefly
ay
PARIS
767
‘lying along the outskirts of the old city, the latter
ing through and connecting a long line of
istant suburbs. In the year 1867, when the inter-
national exhibition was opened, Paris had become
in all respects the most splendid city in Europe.
Many further improvements were then contem-
lated. Financial and political difficulties were,
wever, at hand (see FRANCE), and these schemes
had to be tponed. The siege of Paris by the
Germans, which lasted from 19th ig ose 1870
to 28th January 1871, caused much less injury to
the city than might have been expected—it was
reserved for a section of the Parisian population to
commit an act of vandalism without a parallel in
modern times. On the 18th of March the Red
Republicans, who had risen against the govern-
ment, took possession of Paris. On the 27th March
the Commune was declared the only lawful govern-
ment. Acts of pillage and wanton destruction
followed. On the 15th of May the column erected
to the memory of Napoleon and the Great Army,
in the Place Vendéme, was solemnly pulled down
as ‘a monument of tyranny.’ The government
troops under Marshal MacMahon attacked the in-
surgents, and kept them from doing further mischief.
The former succeeded in enteriug Paris on the 20th
of May, and next day the Communists began
systematically to set fire with petroleum to a great
number of the chief buildings of Paris, public and
private. The fire for a time threatened to destroy
the whole city. It raged with the greatest fury on
the 24th, and was not checked until property had
been lost to the value of many millions sterling,
and historical monuments were destroyed whic
never can be replaced. The horror inspired by the
Commune for a time drove the wealthy classes
from Paris, and it was feared that it would lose its
restige as a European capital. This, however,
as not proved to be the case. By the autumn of
1873 all the private houses burned had been rebuilt,
the monuments only partially injured had been
restored, and the streets and public places were as
splendid and gay as in the best days of the
empire.
dines the establishment of the republic improve-
ments have been executed little if at all inferior in
importance to those of the second empire. New
streets have been opened near the Paris Bourse de
Commerce and the Post-office ; the Champs de Mars,
a waste of sand, has been converted into a beauti-
ful garden, in which rises the Eiffel Tower; the
museums of the Jardindes Plantes have been rebuilt;
the Quartier Latin has been covered with educa-
tional buildings. In 1890-91 two great undertak-
ings were mooted—asystem of metropolitan railways
to connect the great Paris stations with the heart
of the city, and the conversion of Paris into a sea-
port by the deepening of the Seine, or the con-
struction of a ship-caral to the Channel. The
magnificent International Exhibition of 1900 did
not attract the vast crowds for whom preparations
had been made, and was not financially as success-
ful as was hoped.
Somewhat pg cig - opinions are expressed on
the part Paris has played in the history of the
world. After Athens and Rome, says one writer,
it is the city that has made the deepest impression
on men’s minds. Paris, says another, has carried
the torch of life and civilisation from century to
century, and done most to spread culture and
enlightenment throughout the globe. At this
moment, says a third, the inhabitants are the best
fed and best clad, the best educated of city popu-
lations. These views are generally accepted in
France. There is, however, a reverse to the pic-
ture. The Parisians are declared to be a feeble
ple, dying out, and constantly recruited b
mmigration from Belgium, Alsace, Switzerland,
and Italy. Paris is a modern Babylon; its
domestic life, described in French novels, is a
centre of corruption for Europe. There has been,
no doubt, truth in all these views at different
— of the history of Paris. Certain it is,
owever, that in England it is too often forgotten
that in Paris drunkenness is almost unknown,
that among a large section of the population
there has always been a pure domestic life, and
that the profligaey of the second empire has now
to exist.
See the guidebooks of Murray, Baedeker, Joanne, and
topographical works by Du Camp (7th ed. 6 vols. 1884),
Colin (1885), Pontich (1884), and the official Annuaire
Statistique (since 1883); G. A. Sala, Paris Herself Ayain
{ 1879) ; P. G. Hamerton, Paris in Old and Present Times
1884; new ed. 1892); Piton, Comment Paris s'est Trans-
Sormé ; Histoire, Topoyraphie, dc. (1891); Paris Guide par
les principaux Ecrivains et Artistes de la France (introd.
by Victor Hugo, and parts by Michelet, Louis Blanc,
Renan, Sainte-Beuve, Taine, Quinet, Viollet-le-Duc, Ac.
(2 vols. 1867-68); Hoffbauer, Paris 2 travers les Ayes
(1890 et seq.) ; Lebeuf, Histoire de la Ville et de la Diovése
de Paris (15 vols. 1754; new ed. by Cocheris, 4 vols,
1863); Dulaure, Histoire Civile, Physique, et Morale de
Paris (7 vols. 1821; new ed. by Leynadier, 1874);
histories by De Gaulle (1840), Gabourd (1863-65), Arago
(Paris Moderne, 2d ed. 1867); and the copious Histoire
Générale dela Ville de Paris, issued, since 1866, by the
municipal authorities ; also histories of the university, in
the middle ages by Budinssky (Berlin, 1876), and in the
17th and 18th centuries by Jourdain (Paris, 1862-66).
Some account of the siege of Paris in 1870-71 is given at
France, Vol. IV. p. 783. See also Du Camp, Les Con-
vulsions de Pavis (1875-79); Morin, Histoire Critique
de la Commune (1871); Vinoy, Siége de Paris (1872);
Viollet-le-Duc, La Defensede Paris(1872) ; books by Grant
Allen (1897), Belloc (1900), Macdonald (1900), Whiteing
(1900) ; see Lacombe, Bibliographie de Paris (1886).
. DECLARATION OF Paris.—In 1856 the repre-
sentatives of the Powers agreed to four points in
International Law (q.v.)—viz. (1) Privateering is
abolished; (2) the neutral flag covers enemies’
goods, excepting Contraband of War (q.v.); (3)
neutral goc s, with the same exception, are not
liable to be seized even under an enemy’s flag; (4)
blockades, in order to be binding, must be effective.
The United States refused to accept the first point,
because the Euro wers declined to affirm
that thereafter all private property should be
exempted from capture by ships of war. See
NEUTRALITY.
TREATIES OF PARIS.—The Peace of Paris of
1763 terminated the Seven Years’ War (q.v.) ; fixed
the territorial relations of Germany, France, and
Spain; gave to England the French colonies in
America ; and rearranged the possessions of France
and England in the West Indies, India, and Africa.
The Treaty of 1814, concluded by the Allies soon
after the abdication of Napoleon, reduced France
substantially to its old limits. That of 1815, after
Waterloo, did so more completely, levied a heavy
contribution towards the war expenses, and re-
constituted the map of Europe on the old lines.
The Treaty of 1856 concluded the Crimean War
(q.v.). A Treaty of 1857 arranged relations
between Britain and Persia.
Paris, (1) capital of Bourbon county, Ken-
tucky, on Stoner Creek, 19 miles by rail NE. of
ert It contains a military institute, and
manufactures whisky, flour, cordage, &c. Pop.
(1900 ) 4603.—(2) Capital of Lamar county, Texas,
98 miles by rail NE. of Dallas. It has manufac-
tories of brooms, furniture, sashes, wagons, ploughs,
&e. Pop. (1900) 9358.
Paris, a genus of plants of the small endogen-
ous natural order Trilliacese, of which one species,
P. quadrifolia, called Herb Paris, is not uncommon
in moist, shady woods in some parts of Britain. It
768 PARIS
PARISH
is rarely more than a foot high, with one whorl of
generally four leaves, and a solitary flower on the
top of the stem, followed by a berry. The b is
reputed narcotic and poisonous, but its juice
leen employed to cure inflammation of the eyes.
The root has been used as an emetic.
Paris, also called ALEXANDER, was, according
to Homer, the son of Priam and Hecuba,
sovereigns of Troy. His mother dreamed durin
her p cy that she gave birth to a firebran
which set the whole city on fire, a dreanbinterpre
by Aésacus or Cassandra to signify that Paris should
iginate a war which should end in the destruc-
tion of his native city. To prevent its realisation
Priam caused the infant to be exposed upon Mount
Ida by a shepherd named Agelaus, who found him
five days after alive and well, a she-bear having
given him suck. Agelaus brought him up as his
own son, and he beeame a shepherd on Mount Ida.
An accident having revealed his parentage, old
Priam became reconciled to his son, who married
(Enone, daughter of a river- But his mother’s
dream was to come true for all that. He was
appealed to, as umpire, in a strife which had arisen
among the three goddesses, Hera (Juno), Athene
(Minerva), and Aphrodite (Venus), as to which
of them was the most beautiful, the goddess Eris
(Strife) having revengefully flung amcne them, at
a feast to which she had not been invited, a golden
apple (of discord) inscribed ‘To the Most Beautiful.’
h of the three endeavoured to bribe him. Hera
promised him dominion and wealth ; Athene, mili-
tary renown and wisdom; Aphrodite, the fairest
of women for his wife—to wit, Helen, the wife of
King Menelaus, Paris decided in favour of Aphro-
dite—hence the animosity which the other two
desses displayed against the Trojans in the war
that followed. Paris now carried Helen away from
Lacediemon in her husband’s absence. ‘The rape
of Helen’ is the legendary cause of the Hp oa
war (see HELEN, TROY). Paris deceitfully slew
Achilles in the temple of Apollo, He was himself
wounded by a ned arrow, and went to Mount
Ida to be eu Wd (Enone; but she avenged her-
self for his unfaithfulness to her by refusing to
assist him, and he returned to Troy to die.
Paris, Comre pg. See BouRBON, ORLEANS,
Paris, Gaston, born 9th August 1839, succeeded
his father, Panlin Paris (1 1), in 1872 as pro-
fessor of old French at the Collége de France,
became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions
in 1872, and of the Académie Francaise in 1896.
He has written a long series of most valuable works
on old French literature (La Poésie du Moyen-Age,
1885-95; La Littérature Francaise au Moyen-Age,
21 ed. 1890, &e.), and edited many texts (Le
Roman de Renard, 1895, &c.).
Paris, MATTHEW, chronicler, who probably in-
herited his family-name (then not uncommon. in
England), was born about 1200. In January 1217
he entered the Benedictine monastery of St Albans,
grew up under the eye of x de Wendover,
and in 1248 was sent by the pope's recommendation
on a mission to repair the financial disorders in the
Benedictine monastery on Monk's Island (Holm)
near Trondhjem in Norway. In July 1251 he
was in attendance at the court at Winchester,
six months later he witnessed the marri at
York of _~ daughter to Alexander fi. of
Seotland, and March 1257 he had much con-
versation with the king during his week’s visit
to the monastery. death occurred about the
middle of 1259. Matthew Paris's principal work
is his Historia Major, or Chronica Majora, a history
from the creation down to the year 1259. The
original edition is that published in 1571: under
the authority of Archbishop Parker; but the
authoritative edition of the work is that edited
Dr Luard in the Rolls series (7 vols, 1872-83
His conclusion as to its authorship is that down to
the year 1189 it was the work of John de Cella,
abbot of St Albans from 1195 to 1214; that from
that point it was continued by of Wendover
down to the year 1235—the whole work to this
point being often ascribed to him alone, and
as the Flores Historiarum ; that Matthew of Paris
next transcribed, corrected, and extended (by im-
terpretation rather than inte ion) the
which, moreover, from 1235 down to 1259 is ent:
his own. As a historian he is vigorous, vivid,
accurate, and his pages are aglow with patriotic
fervour. His Historia Anglorum is abridged from
the greater work by the omission of what relates to
foreign affairs, It was area 2 Sir F. Madden
in the Rolls series is vols. 1 ). Other works
are the Abbreviatio Chronicorum (1100-1255); Liber
Additamentorum or Supplementorum ; the dubious
Duorum Offarum Merciorum Vite ; and the
valuable Viginti trium Abbatum S. Albani Vita.
See an article by Dr Jessopp in the Quarterly
Review (1886).
Paris, PLASTER or. See Gypsum, Stucco.
Paris Basin, in Geology, the area in which
the Cainozoic systems of France are best developed.
See EocENE SYSTEM.
Paris Bordone. See BorDONE.
Parish (Lat. parochia; Gr. paroikia, ‘
bourhood’) is a term used to donot the dates
assigned to a mapep or priest. In early times the
bishop arranged all the church work of
and the minor churches were served by cl sent
from the bishop’s church. Where the church was
established and endowed parishes were assigned
to resident priests, and tithes were, b spol
or by general rules of law, made cane le to oe
parson of the parish. In England provisions relat-
ing to this matter were included among the laws
of Edgar about 970. Parishes were formed on the
basis of previously existing manors and townships ;
the lord of the manor often held the Advowson
(q.v.) or patronage of the parish church; and the
inhabitants held their meetings in the vestry of the
church ; the parson presided, and he was
rmitted to nominate one of the Churchwardens
+Y )} The recs < originally the unit of
administration for poor-law and highwa:
but modern legislation has res 5 | abe
the functions of parish authorities to of
Guardians (see Poor-LAWs) Highway Boards (see
Roaps), and County Councils pts There are
about 15,000 civil parishes in England and 900 in
Scotland ; they vary very widely both in extent and
in ene Thus, Queensferry has an area of
only 11 acres, Kilmallie (pop. 4157) in Lochaber of
444 sq. m. (nearly as large as Bedfordshire) ; whilst
Whalley in Lancashire (180 sq. m.) has more than
250,000 inhabitants, and Skiddaw (nearly 5sq. m.) in
Cumberland only 10. The boundaries of an ancient
rish are fixed by custom, the memory whereof was
ormerly, and in some cases is still, kept alive by an
annual or periodical peranibulaiiondties Bounps,
BEATING THE). Ancient parishes have been
divided and altered in many cases in the exercise
of statutory powers ; the Local Government Board
possesses large powers of alteration. For eeclesi-
astical purposes populous parishes may be divided
and new vicarages constituted by the esiastical
Commissioners ; by the exercise of these powers the
number of ecclesiastical parishes has been raised to
about 13,000. The parson or incumbent is a cor-
ration sole; he has a freehold in his office, and
n the church and churchyard (see TiTHE). The
church is only used for the services of the Church
of England; the Churchyard (q.v.) may be used
a]
PARISH
PARK 769
by Nonconformists. The powers of Churclwardens
and Vestry have been greatly limited by the Local
Government Act of 1894, which established dis-
trict councils, parish meetings, and parish councils.
The district councils are mainly the old rural and
urban sanitary authorities under a new name, and
have charge of highways, &c. The parish meetin
in every rural ee includes all persons re aaverd
as parochial electors (all registered as parliamen-
tary or local government electors), and retains, even
where there is a parish council, the power of
adopting the Adoptive Acts (Lighting and Watch-
ing Act, Baths and Washhouses Acts, Burial Acts,
Public Improvements Act, Public Libraries Act),
and of controlling the expenditure of the parish.
When there is no parish council, the parish meet-
ing (which must take place at least once a year)
appoints the overseers, and may have some of the
powers of the ae council conferred on it by the
county council. Every rural parish with a popu-
lation of 300 in 1891 (though some parishes are
grouped, and some smaller parishes have had a
council given them by the county council) has
now a parish council of a chairman and from
five to fifteen councillors, elected annually at a
parish meeting by show of hands, or by ballot,
if demanded. The council, which is a corporate
body whose expenses are defrayed out of the poor-
rate, appoints overseers and assistant-overseers, has
the secular power once exercised by the overseer
(rating, nominating constables, &c.), the former
powers of the churchwardens, save in church affairs
and charities, the carrying out of the Adoptive
Acts by the provision of public offices and recrea-
tion grounds, the duty of looking after wells,
streams, footpaths, rights of way, and minor nui-
sances, the power of acquiring and holding land
for allotments and other local purposes, and the
appointment of trustees for parochial charities.
Both married and single women are eligible as
parish councillors, guardians, rural or urban dis-
trict councillors (not for borough or county coun-
ceils). As parochial electors women may attend
parish meetings and vote. Husband and wife can-
not be qualified in respect of the same property.
The Vestry of a parish is either a common
vestry—a meeting of all the ratepaying inhabitants,
presided over by the incumbent—or a select vestry,
elected under Hobhouse’s Act (1831). In urban
parishes it is unaffected by the Local Government
Act of 1894; in rural parishes it now exists for
ecclesiastical purposes only. The administration
of the Poor-laws (q.v.) in England is unaffected by
that act, save that now rural district councillors
act as guardians. The care of the r is almost
entirely in the hands of the guardians; the over-
seers assist the guardians. The assistant-overseers,
when not appointed by the guardians, are officers of
the parish council. woman may be an overseer.
See CHURCH-RATES, CHURCHWARDENS, CHURCH-
YARD, PooR-LAws, VESTRY.
In Seotiand the ecclesiastical parishes are of very
ancient date. The Court of Session, acting as the
Commission of Teinds, has power to unite and
divide parishes, and to erect a disjoined part into
a parish quoad sacra—i.e. for ecclesiastical purposes
only. The poor-law was formerly administered by
the kirk-session in county parishes and by magis-
trates in burghal parishes; but an act of 1845
introduced a system of parochial boards, which
since the Local Government of 1894 have been
superseded by the parish councils. The church
fabric is supported by the heritors; there are no
churehwardens in Scotland ; nor is there any meet-
ing corresponding to the vestry. In the matter of
parish schools Scotland was formerly far in advance
of England; the policy of the Education Acts is
now the same in both countries.
In the United States the term parish is not un-
commonly used to denote the district assigned to
a chureh or minister, but there are no civil parishes,
except in the state of Louisiana.
See Wright and Hobhouse, Local Government; and,
for the ecclesiastical part of the subject, Lord Selborne
on Churches and T'ithes,
Parish Clerk. See CLerx.
Park, Munco, the African traveller, was born
10th September 1771, at Foulshiels on the Yarrow,
afarmer’s youngest child in a family of thirteen.
Educated at Selkirk, he was apprenticed to Dr
Thomas Anderson, a surgeon there, and afterwards
studied medicine in Edinburgh (1789-91). He was
then introduced to Sir Joseph Banks by his brother-
in-law, James Dickson, botanist, and obtained the
situation of assistant-surgeon in the Worcester,
bound for Bencoolen in Sumatra. On his return in
1793, the African Association of London had re-
ceived intelligence of the death of Major Houghton,
who had cindartaken a journey to Africa at their
—— Park offered lis services, was accepted,
and sailed from England 22d May 1795. He spent
some months at the English factory of Pisania on
the Gambia in making preparations for his travels,
and in learning the Mandingo language. Leaving
Pisania on the 2d of December he travelled eastward ;
lut when he had nearly reached the place where
Houghton lost his life, he fell into the hands of a
Moorish king, who imprisoned him, and treated
him roughly. Park seized an opportunity of
escaping (Ist July 1796), and in the third week of
his flight reached the Niger, the great object. of
his search, at Sego, in 13° 5’ N. lat. He followed
its course downward as far as Silla; but meeting
with hindrances that compelled him to retrace his
steps, he pursued his way westward along its
banks to Bammaku, and then crossed a mountain-
ons country till he came to Kamalia, in the king-
dom of Mandingo (14th September), where he was
taken ill, and Jay for some time. A slave-trader
at last conveyed him again to the English factory
on the Gambia, where he arrived, 10th June 1797,
after an absence of nineteen months. Bryan
Edwards drew up an account of his journey for
the Association, and Park published an account
of his travels after his return, under the title of
Travels in the Interior of Africa (1799), a work
which at once acquired a high popularity. He
now married a daughter of Dr Anderson, his old
Selkirk friend (2d Angust 1799), and settled as a
surgeon at Peebles, where, however, he did not
feel at home. He told Scott that he would rather
brave Africa and its horrors than wear his life out
in toilsome rides amongst the hills for the scanty
remuneration of a country surgeon; and so, in
1805, he undertook another journey to Africa at
the expense of government. As he parted from
Scott on Williamhope ridge, his horse stumbled :
‘I am afraid, Mungo,’ said Scott, ‘that is a
bad omen.’ To which Park replied with a smile,
‘ Freits (omens) follow those who look to them.’
When he started from Pisania he had a com-
pany of forty-five, of whom thirty-six were Euro-
pean soldiers; but when he reached the Niger
in August his attendants were reduced to
seven. From Sansanding on the Niger, in the
kingdom of Bambarra, he sent back his journals
and letters in November 1805 to the Gambia, and
embarked in an unwieldy half-rotten canoe with
four European companions. Through many perils
and difficulties they reached Boussa, where the
canoe was caught in a cleft of rock; they were
attacked by the natives, and drowned as they
attempted to escape. An account of Park’s second
journey was published at London in 1815. Mrs
Park was in receipt of a government pension till
770
PARKER
her death in 1840, Two of Park's sons joined the
Indian army; Thomas, the second son, perished
in trying to penetrate the mystery of his father’s
death. Park's narratives, which are well written,
have long held their place amongst the classics of
travel, and are of no inconsiderable value,
ticularly for the light which they throw upon the
social and domestic life of the negroes, and on
the botany and meteorology of the regions through
which he ; but he was unfortunately cut off
before he had achieved the grand aim of his ex-
plorations—the discovery of the course of the Niger
(q.¥.). Park was tall and robust, and of
t hardihood and muscular vigour. * For actual
uardships undergone,’ writes Joseph Thomson, ‘ for
dangers faced, and difficulties overcome, together
with an exhibition of the virtues which make a
man great in the rnde battle of life, Mungo Park
stands without a rival.’
See the Life by Wishaw, prefixed to Journal (1805),
and Joseph Thomson's Mungo Park (1890).
Parker, Str Hype (1739-1807), a British
admiral, of a Devonshire family distinguished both
before and after him in the naval service of the
country, served in the American war and in the
West Indies, and in 1801 was appointed to the
chief command of the fleet which was sent to the
Baltic to act against the armed coalition of the
three northern states of Russia, Sweden, and Den-
mark. He had no share in the battle of Copen-
n, in which Nelson engaged contrary to his
orders; but by his appearance before Carlskrona
he compelled the neutrality of Sweden; and
he was on the point of sailing for ‘Cronstadt
when the news of the Emperor Paul's death put an
end to hostilities.
Parker, Josern, a popular preacher and
author, the son of a stone-cutter, was born at
Hexham, 9th April 1830, and like $ urgeon began
to eae in ear ?, youth. He studied at Moorfields
Tabernacle and University College, London (1852),
was ordained tor of the Congregational Church,
Banbury (1 ), and became minister of the Caven-
dish Street Church, Manchester (1858), and of
Poultry Chapel, London (1869), now City Temple
(opened 1874). He visited the United States in
1888, and received the degree of D.D. from Chicago
University. As a preacher he is wring | and vigor-
ous, with a splendid command of racy English ; he
has not unfrequently as an oracle on political
and ecclesiastical subjects.
He has published Helps to Truth-seckers (1857), contro-
versial discourses with secul at open-air meetings ;
Ecce Deus (1868; Sth ed. 1875), being a reply to Ecce
Homo; Ad Clerum (1870); City Temple Sermons (1869-
70) ; Inner Life of Christ (1881-82) ; Apostolic Life (3 vols.
884); People’s Prayer-book (1889); but his most ambi-
tions work is his People’s Bible, ‘discourses upon Holy
Scripture, forming a pastoral commentary,’ of which the
first volume, Genesis, appeared in 1885. See Z'yne
Chylde; My Life and Teaching (new ed. 1889),
Parker, Matruew, the second Protestant
_ Archbishop of Canterbury, was born son of a
ealenderer at Norwich, Angust 6, 1504, studied at
St Mary's Hostel and Corpus Christi College, Cam-
bridge, took orders, and was elected to a fellow-
a He was an arduous student of the Scriptures
and of church history, yet, in spite of his strong
leaning to the past, from an early period he was
infected by the new doctrines. In 1535 he was
appointed chaplain to the queen Anne Boleyn, and
soon after he obtained the deanery of the college
of St John the Baptist at Stoke near Clare in
Snaffolk. Here he lived mainly till 1545, his re-
tiring temper tinding pleasure enough in his studies
and the administration of the college, In 1538 he
was created D.D., next a royal chaplain and canon
of Ely, and in 1544 master of Corpus Christi Col-
] Cambridge, and the year after vice-chancellor _
of the university. Two years later he married,
He was presented by Edward VI. to the
of Lincoln and the prebend of Corringham, but on
the accession of Mary he resigned his mastership
and was deprived of his preferments, finding safety,
however, in strict retirement. e accession of
Elizabeth called him from his retirement, and he
was consecrated Archbishop of Canter in the
chapel at Lambeth, December 17, 1 The
ridiculous fable about the informality of the cere-
mony is discussed under the head of the Nag’s
Heal Consecration.
During his fifteen years’ primacy Parker strove
to define more clearly the limits of belief and dis-
cipline, and to bring albout more general conformity.
The Thirty-nine Articles were passed by conyoca-
tion in 1562, and four years later the archbishop
issued his ‘Advertisements’ for the regulation of
service, which, with the measures of repression
perinps forced upon him by the imperious queen,
provoked great opposition in the ranks of the grow-
ing Puritan party. To Parker belongs the merit
of originating the revised translation of the
tures known as the Bishops’ Bible. His wife died
in August 1570. Her on one occasion Elizabeth
insulted at Lambeth with the words, ‘Madam I
may not call you, and mistress I am loath to call
you: however, I thank you for your good cheer.’
Parker died 17th May 1575.
Parker did much for our native annals, but his methods
as an editor have not commended themselves to modern
scholars. He edited Allfric’s Anglo-Saxon Homily, to
prove that transubstantiation was not the doctrine of
the ancient English church; the Flores Historiarum, as
the work of an assumed Matthew of Westminster; the
Historia Major of Matthew Paris, the Historia Angli-
cana of Walsingham. Asser’s Gesta ag ther and the
Itinerarium of Giraldus Cambrensis, De Excidio
Britannia of Gildas was edited under his hy Jos-
selin. He was an indefatigable collector of and
the greater part of the treasures he had amassed he
ueathed to Corpus Christi College. This collection
Fuller called ‘the sun of English antiquity before it _
was eclipsed by that of Sir Robert Cotton.’ Parker estab-
lished a scriptorium at Lambeth, where he maintained
printers, transcribers, engravers. His original bhi
are inconsiderable, the chief being a Latin treatise,
Antiquitate Britannica Ecclesia et Privilegiis Ecclesia
Cantuariensis (1572). His letters fill a volume a
in the b pur prongs of the Parker a :
memorial of the vapenpy | archbish: e Society
published from 1841 till its dissolution in 1853 as
Grindal, Hooper, Grsscsar, Ooveeiiie casement
ooper, mer, mer, Je
Tyndale, Bullinger, Whitgift, and other Lithow at
the English Reformation. For Parker’s life, see the
and Acts by Strype (3 vols. Oxford, go also Hook’s
Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, (1872).
Parker, THEODORE, a great American preacher,
was born at Lexington, Massachusetts, A
24, 1810. His grandfather held a command
at Lexington, his father was an intelligent Uni-
tarian farmer and wheelwright, He uated
at the Divinity School at Harvard in 1836, and
settled the year after as Unitarian minister at
West Roxbury, now a part of Boston. The
naturalistic or rationalistic views which separated
him from the more conservative portion of the
Unitarians first attracted wide notice in an ordi-
nation sermon on The Transient and Permanent
in Christianity (1841). The contest which arose
on the anti-supernaturalism of this discourse led
him to further money his theological views in
five Boston lectures, published under the title of A
Discourse of Matters pertaining to Religion (1841),
which was followed hy Sermons for the Times.
Failing health induced him to make an extended
tour in Europe. In 1844 he returned to America,
and for the remainder of his life preached to a
HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT FROM THE THAMES, LONDON, ENGLAND.
Vol, VII., page 771.
PARKERSBURG
PARLIAMENT 771
congregation of three thousand at the Melodeon
and Music Hall, besides incessantly writing for the
a on social and theological questions. He
ectured also throughout the States, and plunged
with characteristic enthusiasm into the anti-slavery
agitation. In the midst of his work he was attacked
in 1859 with bleeding from the lungs, and made a
voyage to Mexico, whence he sailed to Italy, only
to die at Florence, May 10, 1860. His lectures,
sermons, and miscellaneous writings have been
collected and published in America and England,
and reveal vast learning, keen spiritual insight,
with great force of argument and felicity of illus-
tration. Yet the thonght is neither doniky de-
fined, profound, nor always self-consistent, while
the form is usually far inferior to the content.
The English edition of his works was edited by Frances
P. Cobbe (12 vols. 1863 et seq.). There are Lives by Weiss
(2 vols. Boston, 1864), Frothingham (New York, 1874),
Dean (Lond. 1877), and Frances E. Cooke (3d ed. Boston,
1889). See also vol. i, of Martineau’s Essays, Reviews,
and Addresses (1890).
Parkersburg, capital of Wood county, West
Virginia, on the Ohio River (here crossed by a
railway bridge 14 mile long), at the mouth of the
Little Kanawha, 195 miles by rail E. by N. of
Cincinnati. The city has a large trade in petroleum,
and contains five great oil-refineries, besides chemi-
cal works, lumber-mills, and manufactories of
furniture, barrels, &e. Pop. (1900) 11,703.
Parkes, Sir Henry, K.C.M.G., an Australian
statesman, was born the son of a yeoman at Stone-
leigh, Warwickshire, in 1815, emigrated to New
Sonth Wales in 1839, and at Sydney became
eminent as a journalist, editing The Empire from
1849 to 1856. A member of the colonial parliament
in 1854, he held various government offices and
became prime-minister in 1872, was repeatedly
head of the ministry, and was identified with free
trade. He was at the Colonial Conference in
London in 1887, and president of the Australian
Federation Council. He died 27th April 1896. See
his Fifty Years of the making of Australan History
(1892), which is largely autobiographical.
Parkesine. See CELLULOID.
Parkhurst, JoHN, an English biblical scholar,
was born at Catesby in Northamptonshire in June
1728. He was educated at Rugby and at Clare
Hall, Cambridge, and took orders, but soon after
retired to his estate at Epsom to give himself to
study. Here he died, March 21, 1797. In 1762
appeared his principal work, A Hebrew and English
Lexicon, without Points, a very creditable perform-
ance for its time, and long a standard work,
although disfigured by its fanciful etymologies.
Of course it is now entirely supe Park-
hurst also wrote a treatise (1587) against Dr
Priestley, to prove the divinity and pre-existence
of Jesus Christ.
Parkman, Francis, historian, was born in
Boston, Massachusetts, 16th September 1823,
a at Harvard in 1844, next studied law
‘or two years, then travelled in Europe, and
returned to explore the Rocky Mountains, The
hardships he endured among the Dakota Indians
seriously injured his health, yet in spite of this
and defective sight Parkman worked his way to
ition as a historical writer on the period of
rise and fall of the French dominion in America.
His books are The California and Oregon Trail
(1849), The Conspiracy of Pontiac (1851), Pioneers
of France in the New World (1865), Jesuits in North
America (1867), La Salle and the Discovery of the
Great West (1869), The Old Régime in Canada
gs74), Count Frontenac and New France under
is XIV. (1877), Montcalm and Wolf (1884),
and A Half-Century of Conflict (1892). Died
November 8, 1893.
Parlement, the name applied in France, down
to the Revolution, to certain superior and final
courts of judicature, in which also the edicts of
the king were registered before they became laws.
Of these the chief was that of Paris, but there were
no fewer than twelve provincial parlements, at
Toulouse, Grenoble, Bordeaux, Dijon, Pau, Metz,
Besancon, Douai, Rouen, Aix, Rennes, and Nancy.
These, though not actually connected with that
of Paris, invariably made common cause with it
in‘ its struggles with the royal power. The parle-
ment of Paris dated from the 14th century, and
already consisted of three chambers, the Grand
Chambre, the Chambre des Enquétes, and the
Chambre des Requétes. By 1344 it had grown in
numbers and power, and consisted of 3 presidents
and 78 counsellors, of whom 44 were ecclesiastics
and 34 laymen. In 1467 Louis XI. made the ecoun-
sellors irremovable. Its influence grew during the
16th century, and it now began to find courage to
deliberate on the royal edicts as well as merely
register them, which the king could always force
them to do by coming in person and holding a
‘lit de justice’ (see Bep oF JusTicE). Neither
Richelieu nor Louis XIV. permitted such discus-
sion of their edicts, and both the Regent Orleans
and Louis XV. followed their policy. The latter
exiled the members from Paris in 1753 for their
interference in the struggle between the Jansenists
and the Jesuits, and in 1770, on the advice of
Manpeou, abolished the old parlement altogether
and established the Parlement Maupeou. Louis
XVI., however, recalled the former counsellors.
These in the last days of their existence were
grouped as follows: The Grand Chambre, with
10 presidents and 37 counsellors, of whom 12 were
clerics; the three Chambres des Enquétes, each
formed by 2 presidents and 23 counsellors; and
the Chambre des Requétes, in which sat 2 presi-
dents and 13 counsellors,
Parley, Perer. See Goopricu.
Parliament (Low Lat. parliamentum or par-
lumentum ; Fr. parlement, from parler, ‘to talk’),
a meeting for conference and discussion (see PAR-
LEMENT). In England the name of parliament
has been given since the 13th century to the Great
Council of the realm—the national assembly which
succeeded to the powers exercised by the Witena-
gemote in Anglo-Saxon times. Under the influence
of feudal ideas the Great Council became the high
court of parliament. As the manor had its courts
in which the lord met with his tenants, so the king-
dom had its high court, in which the king met wit
the different estates or orders of his aabjeota. and
conferred with them as to the enforeement of the
good customs of the realm. At first the king
claimed to exercise a measure of arbitrary discre-
tion in issuing his writs of summons to parliament ;
but before the end of the 13th century it was settled
and clearly understood that parliament should
always consist of duly qualified representatives of
the three estates of the realm—the Clergy, the
Lords, and the Commons. The notion that_the
three estates are King or Queen, Lords, and Com-
mons is a modern misconception.
The Three Estates—The Clergy.—The clergy were
represented by the Lords Spiritual, the bishops, who
sat among the Lords by virtue of their office. At
one time proctors representing the lesser clergy sat
among the Commons; but the clergy gave up this
right in order to manage their own affairs in Con-
vocations (q.v.). When Convocation gave up its
right of taxation clergymen were permitted to vote
in the election of members of the House of Com-
mons. It would hardly be correct to say that the
PARLIAMENT
772
c still form a — estate; but the Lords
Spiritual still sit in Upper House. The Areh-
bishops of Canterbury and York, and the Bishops
of London, Durham, and Winchester are always
summoned to liament; the other bishops are
also sum » but the a members of the
episcopal bench are excluded by the acts for the
creation of new bishoprics, in which it is provided
that the number of Lords Spiritual is not to be
increased beyond the number as it stood in 1846,
when the see of Manchester was founded. The
Lords Spiritual do not vote as a separate order; if
other words, a bill may pass in the House of Lords
though all the bishops vote against it.
The Lords T: ral.—The lords or greater barons
were originally who held lands and honours
of the king by the more dignified kinds of feudal
service. ney were barons by tenure, and as such
entitled to receive the king's writ; among them-
selves they were peers or equals, In course of
time the writ became the evidence of title to a
peerage; but since the 15th century peers have
always been created by a patent from the crown,
specifying the title by which the new peer is to
be known, and the heirs to whom his dignity is to
The titles now in use are duke, marquis,
earl, viscount, and baron (on which see separate
articles); a is named as being of a ~.
lace, but it is no longer necessary that
important rule, for the right to create new peers
enables the crown—i.e. the ministers governing in
the name of the crown, and enjoying the confidence
of the House of Commons—to overcome the resist-
ance of the House of Lords. Of late years the
mere threat to create new peers has been found
sufficient, as may be seen on referring to the his-
tory of the Reform Act of 1832, The dignity of
peerage was always a hereditary dignity; the
lood of the holder was bled, Bunt the sons
ofa , though they bear courtesy titles and are
nominally ennobled, are commoners for all legal
and political purposes. This again is a most im-
—— rule, use it prevents the nobility from
ming a closely organised caste. It seems that
the crown could always create a man a peer for
his life; but it was resolved in the case of Lord
Wensleydale, in 1856, that a life peerage, even if
followed up by a writ of summons to parliament,
would not entitle the holder to sit in the House of
— peed esl Sb owe ed — _ es ~
ppeal, n to take n the judicia
ek etl of the House, have tea
made life peers
by statute. In 1830 there were 401 rs on the
roll of the Honse of Lords ; in 1890, 551, 12 being
minors, Of these 193, or rather more
than one-third, have been created since the begin-
ning of the 19th century.
In ancient times the prerogative right to create
peers was used but sparingly; there were only
some 50 or 60 Lords Temporal in the parlia-
ments of the 15th and 16th centuries. The num-
ber of Lords Spiritual was reduced by the removal
of abbots and priors at the Reformation to 26, and
has not since been increased. Four sat as repre-
sentatives of the Irish Church from 1800 down to
its disestablishment in 1869. In conferring peer-
ages the Stuart kings were more generous, or more
Jax than their predecessors. At the Revolution of
1688 the number stood at about 150. On the
accession of George I. the leaders of the House
of Lords proposed to restrain the crown from
adding to the then existing number of 178 peer-
ages; but this scheme was vehemently opposed
in the House of Commons, and finally rejected.
During the of George IIL. peers were created
very freely. It was the avowed policy of the
younger Pitt to fill the House of Lords with the
‘vealthiest traders and landowners, and so to break
down the family and personal factions into which
a small aristocratic assembly tends to divide itself.
With this object he conferred pee so la
that the number created by — TL. was 388.
In 1399 the Commons formally admitted ‘that
the judgments of parliament belong to the
and not to the Commons,’ The House of Lords is
a court of final appeal for all parts of
Kingdom; it éxereises original jurisdiction in
rage cases, in trials of ‘
foleus: and on Impeachments (q.v.) by the Com-
mons. When the House is sitting —
onl os eres ct! = or have held Sy
judicial office take part in the proceedings.
: rs formerly took part and voted on appeals;
ut this practice was justly regarded as a scandal.
In 1844 some lay peers announced their intention
to vote in the case of the
House. In its legislative capacity the House
deal with any matter affecting the aie interest,
tinte w
z
the right of the Commons to initiate money ;
they may accept or reject a money bill, but they
do not amend it in detail. Any mem Bs the
House may introduce a Dill, and ask that
be read a first time; the ‘reading’ is of a
character—the bill is laid on the table,
title is read out by the clerk. If the H
sents to read the bill a second time it sue
general principle of the measure; the bill
refe: to a committee of the whole House, or
a select committee, to be amended in detail ;
may then be reported to the House and read
third time and passed. If the bill is afterwards
1, or has already been
ze
25
arses
3
In the case of a money bill the royal assent is coupled —
with an expression of thanks for the * benevolence’
of parliament. The clerk endorses on the bill the
date of the royal assent which turns it into an act.
If the sovereign were to refuse assent the form
would be ‘Le Roy (or La Reine) s’avisera’—the
King (or Queen) will think about it. But since
the cabinet conncil became the chief power in the
state this form of refusal has never been heard.
Ministers take the lead in the business of legisla-
tion ; they obtain the assent of the sove on the
one hand, and of parliament on the other; all open
conflict of powers is avoided. Ste Anne refused
her assent to a Scotch Militia Bill; but since that
time the royal assent has been given to every bill
which passed the two Houses. Bills which await
the royal assent are usually deposited in the House
of Lords for that poreces but a money bill, after
returned to the § of the
longer olwerved,
the woolsack ; on the same side is the bench usually
PARLIAMENT
773
ocenpied by ministers. Supporters of the govern-
ment sit behind their leaders, members of the
Sma on the other side of the House, and
independent members on the cross benches in front
of the table. Whether it is sitting as a legislative
or a judicial body, the House of Lords possesses all
rivileges necessary to the safe and dignified con-
uct of business. Its members are free from arrest
on civil process in coming, going, or returning.
They are free to speak their minds without being
liable to action or indictment. They have access
to the crown to explain their proceedings, and the
crown should put the best construction on what
they do. It is a breach of privilege to reflect on
the honour of the House, or on the parliamenta
conduct of.its members. It is technically a breac
of privilege to report its proceedings; but regular
arrangements are now made for the admission of
reporters. It was formerly doubtful how far the
printers of the House were protected, but now,
under an Act of 1840, the printers of parliamentary
papers, if sued or prosecuted, may obtain a stay of
proceedings on producing a certificate that such
hee were printed by order. The House of Lords
eclares its own privileges; but in doing so it is
bound by the law ; it cannot create a new privilege
by mere declaration. Persons guilty of breach of
privilege may be attached and brought in custody,
censured, fined, or imprisoned for a time certain
or during pleasure. The privilege of the House
may be used to protect the House and its com-
mittees, and all persons having lawful business
before them, together with their counsel, solicitors,
and witnesses,
Officers. —The chief officer of the House of Lords
is the Chancellor, or Keeper of the Great Seal,
who acts as speaker for formal purposes; he does
not keep order; the Lords keep their own order,
It is not even necessary that he should be a lord
of parliament, and he sits on the woolsack, which
is supposed to be outside the House. Deputy-
speakers are appointed when necessary ; and there
is a salaried Chairman of Committees who exercises
considerable powers, especially in regard to private
bills. The Clerk of Parliaments is appointed b;
the crown; and the Gentleman Usher of the Blac
Rod is one of the Queen’s ushers, whom she permits
to act as the messenger and executive officer of the
Lords. The judges and law-officers rank as assist-
ants of the House; they are summoned to attend
in parliament, and they are present on occasions
of state; the judges also come in and sit together
on the woolsack when the Lords desire to take
their opinions on a point of law. Formal messages
to the Commons are conveyed by the Usher of the
Black Rod. Judges and Masters in Chancery
were formerly employed for the same purpose,
but the Commons came to ,treat these ceremnonions
messages with levity, and messages now pass from
one House to another by the hands of their respee-
tive clerks, except on certain important occasions,
such as the opening of parliament, &c. Formerly,
when the two Houses differed, a formal conference
was held in the Painted Chamber, the Lords sittin
with their hats on, the Commons standing an
uncovered; but the modern practice of party
government renders these conferences unnecessary.
Commons.—The Commons, or ‘ communitas
regni,’ included originally three classes of persons.
First, the proctors of the lesser clergy, who dis-
appeared at an early date. Secondly, the knights
*j the shire, who were chosen by the lesser barons
and the general body of freeholders. These free
tenants held their land by honourable tenures, but
they could not bear the expense of attendance in
parliament. As early as the time of King John
they were represented by delegates; and Simon
de Montfort gave effect to the same principle when
he ordered two knights to be sent to parliament
from each shire. Thirdly, there were burgesses and
citizens, representing the self-governing towns of
the kingdom. The burgesses also found it hard
to bear the expense of attending parliament ; they
eg received an allowance for doing so; and
some legal authorities have held that a member
may still recover his ‘wages’ if he chooses to sue
for them. No member o rliament now receives
any pecuniary allowance. Payment of members is
often advocated on the ground that the labouring
population ought to be represented by men of their
own class; it is resisted on the ground that paid
members would be officials or delegates, not free
representatives of the general body of citizens.
appily for the cause of popular government,
the knights and burgesses were soon welded
together in one body; there has never been any
legal difference between county members and
borough members, Early in the history of parlia-
ment (the date cannot be’exactly determined ) the
Commons retired to consider their own affairs in
a separate chamber ; one of their number presided,
and acted as Speaker in communicating to the
Lords the opinions of the third estate; and thus
the Commons came to be organised as a separate
House. The Lords remained in the old parliament
chamber, and there the king continued to meet
with the three estates; his throne was set in the
House of Lords, and he never went into the
House of Commons. Charles I. was therefore
acting contrary to usage when he went in person
to arrest the seven members. From about 1548
the Commons met in a room which had been
known as St Stephen’s Chapel, and the House is
still occasionally spoken of as St Stephen’s.
Within the House all members are equal ; but the
bench immediately to the right of the chair is
reserved for privy-councillors, and is now always
oceupied by ministers having seats in the House:
their supporters sit behind them, and the members
of the opposition sit to the left of the chair. Like
the members of the other House, the Commons
enjoy privilege of parliament; they are free from
arrest on civil process in attending the House, and
in coming or returning ; but no person is privileged
apaee arrest for crime or contempt of court. In
the days when arrest for debt was common the
privilege claimed by members of parliament, and
even by their servants, was sometimes used to
defeat creditors; but now an action or a bank-
ruptey petition is in no way impeded by privilege,
A member of either House who becomes bankrupt
is not permitted to sit or vote. Freedom of speech
is enjoyed by the Commons as by the Lords ; and
they may claim, as a House, free access to the
sovereign, The Commons may deal with offenders
agains’ their privileges by directing a prosecution ;
they do not claim the right to impose a fine, or
to imprison for a time certain, but they may
commit a person to prison during pleasure ; persons
so imprisoned may not be detained after the end
of the session. The House declares its own privi-
leges, but it cannot create a new privilege by mere
declaration. In the famous case of Stockdale ».
Hansard the House assumed authority to protect
its printer against an action for libel, but the
courts disregarded this resolution, and the econ-
troversy was finally settled by the passing of the
Act of 1840 which has already been cited. A
question of gig will be taken up without notice
at any moment; but it should be observed that a
member has no privilege except when he is per-
forming his parliamentary duty. If, for instance,
a meniber is arrested for a crime committed ont of
doors, no beer of privilege arises. We have
seen that the Commons claim no general judicial
authority, but they have claimed to deal judicially
774
PARLIAMENT
with cases of privilege, and with questions relat-
ing to the election and conduct of their members.
Election petitions used to be tried by committees
of the House, but this practice led to great abuses,
and in 1868 these petitions were remitted to the
judges for trial, The House may exclude, suspend,
or expel a member for misbehaviour; but it was
settled in the case of John Wilkes (q.v.) that
nalification ; the person
expulsion creates no d
te Barke and.other high
expelled may be re-elec 1
anthorities attach t importance to this rule of
the constitution. the House could disqualify a
member for re-election, the majority might be
tempted to strengthen itself by expelling the
ers of the minority. In 1711 Sir Kobert (then
Mr) Walpole was expelled the House, and there
is reason to believe that the vote in his case was
decided by considerations of party, and not by his
uilt or innocence of the charges made against
im.
As representing the whole community, and_ not
merely a limited order, the Commons have lon
been accustomed to take the lead in the financia‘
and legislative business of parliament. Since the
Great Charter the crown has frequently admitted
that taxes are not to be levied without consent of
parliament; and in the reign of Richard IL, if
not earlier, the Commons laid claim to the ‘ power
of the purse.’ It is now established beyond doubt
that the Commons have an exclusive right to vote
supplies of money, and to prescribe the ways and
means by which money may be raised. This right
is respected by the Lords; the last conflict between
the Hoests occurred in connection with the repeal
of the paper duty in 1860. Estimates of public
expenditure are laid before the Commons by
ministers, and considered in committee of men’
This is a committee of the whole House; the
Speaker leaves the chair when the committee
begins; the Mace (q.v.) is taken from the table;
the Chairman of Committees takes his seat at the
table; and the discussion which follows is of an
informal character, members being allowed to speak
more than once to the same question. When some
of the necessary votes have been taken in supply
the House resolves itself, in like manner, into a
committee of ways and means. The resolutions
adopted in committee are embodied in bills, which
are sent up for the assent of the Lords. At the
close of the financial year (i.e. about the end of
March) the Chancellor of the ee in com-
mittee of the whole House, opens his Budget (q.v.)
of expenditure and revenue for the coming year.
Legislative business is conducted with the same
forms as in the Lords; but a member must ask
leave of the House to introduce a bill. If a bill is
read a second time it is considered in detail by a
committee of the whole House, or by a select com-
mittee. A committee always reports its proceed-
ings to the House, the Speaker resuming the chair
for that — Besides performing these financial
and legislative duties, the House of Commons acts
as a ‘grand inquest’ to inquire into all matters of
public concern. It is specially bound to watch the
conduct of ministers, and to inform the sovereign
whether they | the confid of the nation
or not. In other words, the support of the
Commons is necessary to the existence of a ministry,
while a ministry may hold power thongh its
ps apc are in a minority in the Lords. Ministers
take the lead in all important business; and party
=e tends to reduce the individual private
member to comparative insignificance.
Union with Scotland and Ireland—Parliamentary
Reform—Democracy.—The functions of parliament
have been rendered more important and difficult by
the political changes of the last 200 years. In the
first place there is now only one legislature for the
United Kingdom. Down to 1707 Scotland had an
independent parliament ; the three estates of that
kingdom sat together in one house, and the conduct
of business was for the most left to a smaller
body ealled Lords of the Articles. At the Union
the Scottish parliament ceased to exist; it was
agreed that sixteen Scottish peers (elected by an
assembly of peers at Holyrood, at the opening of a
new parliament) should sit in the House of
and not less than forty-five Scottish members in the
House of Commons. The Irish parliament was an
assembly of a more or less provincial character,
sitting in two houses. Its legislative ind -
ence was conceded, under pressure, in 1 but
it never obtained effective control over the ex-
ecutive (see GRATTAN). By the Act of Union
the Irish parliament was taken away; it was
creed that twenty-eight Irish a elected for
life) should sit in the House of Lo and 100
Irish members in the House of Commons. Thus
the English parliament became the parliament of
the United iipeiham: the acts ex!
toleration to Roman Catholics (1829), Jews (1858
and Secularists—under the Oaths (q.v.) Act
1888—new elements have been introdu into
Beir rer tcp red life, and new questions have arisen
0
r legislative treatment. Successive
acts have widened the democratic basis of the
House of Commons: the Act of 1832 ris power
into the hands of the middle classes; the Acts of
1867 and 1884, by oer ome all householders and
£10 lodgers to the franchise, h:
ance of voting power to the working-classes, One
result of these successive changes is that the
Commons are now 670 in number; they yy Pe
fact, much too numerous for a deliberative assembly.
The colonies and dependencies have no direct repre-
sentation in either House ; but questions of imperial
policy oceupy no small share of the time of parlia-
ment. With the advance of democracy, the sphere
of legislation has been extended; large schemes
for promoting education and sanitary reform, for
regulating mines, factories, and shipping, and for
the creation of new executive departments and
local authorities are brought forward by all political
ies. Each party makes its power felt by push-
ing its own measures and by dilatory resistance
to the measures of its opponents ; obstruction has
been reduced to an art; the labours of those who
lead the House of Commons have become intoler-
ably heavy, and the old rules of debaté are found
unequal to the strain of political conflict. In 1882
the House adopted new rules of ure,
these rules were further amended in 1887. A
motion for the closure of a debate may now be put
at any moment, with the assent of the §) er or
Chairman. But a question for the closure of
debate is not decided in the affirmative unless it
oe that the motion is supported by more than
ported by nwre: hex: 100: Saat Ditaory
sup y more than mem
motions for adjournment have been checked ;
tedious and irrelevant speakers may now be
stopped by the chair; a member ‘named’ to the
House as disregarding the authority of the chair
may be suspended for a time from his service.
Mficers.—The chief officer of the House of
Commons is the Speaker, who is chosen by the
members from among their own number, at the
opening of a new parliament. The Speaker-elect
presents himself at the bar of the Lords for the
approval of the crown, which is given in a custom-
ary form of words by the Lord Chancellor. The
Speaker then lays claim to the ancient privileges of
the Commons: on returning to his own House he
takes the oath before the other members. Inducted
with these forms, the Speaker becomes
dent and spokesman of the House, with authority
ave given a preponder-
presi-
PARLIAMENT
775
to keep order. He refers all questions of import-
ance to the House; but his own position is one of
t influence and dignity; he is the First
Jommoner in the kingdom, and takes precedence
as such. The Chairman of Committees presides
in committee of the whole House; he is also
empowered to act as Deputy-speaker. The Assistant
Clerk of Parliaments acts as clerk of the House:
There are two other clerks; their chief duty is to
keep the Journals, which are accepted by all other
authorities as evidence of what is done by the
House. The Serjeant-at-arms is the executive
officer of the Commons.
Summoning Parliament.—When the sovereign is
advised to summon a new parliament notice of that
intention is given by proclamation. A writ of
summons is sent to each lord of parliament; the
Scottish = elect the representative peers.
writ is also sent to the returning-officer of each
constituency, commanding him to hold an election,
and to return the name of the person elected. In
counties the sheriff acts as returning-officer; in
Scotland he acts also for burghs within his juris-
diction ; in English boroughs this duty is commonly
rformed by the mayor. The lawful charges
incurred by the returning-officer are borne by the
candidates, an arrangement which is re ed
with disfavour by those who wish to make it easy
for poor men to enter parliament.
Places represented in Parliament.—The places
represented in the House of Commons are counties
and county divisions, borongls and wards_ of
borongls, and universities. By the plan of redis-
tribution adopted in 1884-85 the more populous
counties and boroughs are divided into Viaerieta,
each of which elects a single member. The plan is
fairly convenient, and will probably hold its own
in spite of the advocates of LN gabere representa-
tion. The seats allotted to the universities have
leen the cause of some controversy. In old times
a university was a kind of borough within a
borough; Oxford and Cambridge obtained at an
early date the privilege of sending burgesses to
parliament; Trinity College, Dublin, enjoyed a
similar privilege, and now sends two members to
Westminster; London University now elects one
member, and the four Scottish universities elect
two. The electors in all these cases are the
graduate members of the university. Of course
university men, if qualified, vote also for the places
where they reside or have property, and this double
representation is objected to as being inconsistent
with democratic principles. There is also a con-
siderable body of opinion hostile to all double
qualifications ; ‘one man one vote’ has been for
some time a popular cry.
Electors.—The voters entitled to take part in the
election are those whose names are on the register.
Registration was introduced after the Reform Act
of 1832; and the present law affords much more
satisfactory means of -proving and testing claims
to vote than the rough and ready methods formerly
in use. Lists of voters are made ont by local
authorities, and carefully revised, in England by
barristers appointed for the purpose, in Scotland by
the sheriff or his substitute in a registration court.
The persons entitled to be placed on the register
are male persons over twenty-one, not being peers,
not disqualified by alienage, office, or employment,
unsoundness of mind, conviction for crime or
corrupt practices, or receipt of parochial relief, and
yasessing any of the property qualifications required
law. Before 1832 ee members were elected
in England by the freeholders assembled in the
eounty court; an act of Henry VI. restricted the
right of voting to those whose tenements were of
the yearly value of forty shillings ; in some boroughs
the right of election belonged to a limited number
of a having freeholds or burgage tenements
within the boroughs; in others the inhabitants
paying scot and lot voted; in others, again, the
right was restricted to members or officers of the
corporation. In Scotland the county qualification
was a forty-shilling land of old extent, or land not
of old extent rated in valuation hooks at £400; in
Edinburgh the election was by the town-council+;
the member for each group of royal burghs was
chosen by delegates pepentee by the town-councils.
In Galt’s novel, The Provost, there is a graphic and
truthful description of a burgh election under the
old system. The Irish borough and county fran-
chises were modelled on the English system; on
the ing of the Roman Catholic Emancipation
Act in 1829 it was thought prudent to disfranchise
freeholders under £10 a year. These old franchises
have been in part destroyed and in part preserved
by successive acts of reform. The statute law on
the subject is voluminous and complicated, and
the work of simplification is beset with difficulties ;
the opposition is always ready to suspect the party
in power of what the Americans call ‘gerryman-
dering ’—i.e. of readjusting the electorate to suit
its own interests. See GERRY (ELBRIDGE).
The qualifications which now entitle a person to
be registered and to vote are classified by Sir W.
Anson as follows : (1) Property.—In England free-
hold of inheritance of forty shillings yearly value,
freehold for life of £5 yearly value, copyhold of £5
yearly value, leasehold of £5 yearly value held for
a term of sixty years or more, leasehold of £50
yearly value, if held for a term of twenty years or
more, will qualify a person to vote in counties, and
in towns which rank as counties. In Scotland
land or Pree of £5 yearly value, leasehold of
£10 yearly value held for life or for fifty-seven
ears or more, leasehold of £50 yearly value held
‘or nineteen years or more will qualify for the
county franchise. In Ireland freehold of £5 net
annual value, rent charge or leasehold for life of
£20 annual value, leasehold of £10 value held for
sixty years or more, leasehold of £20 value held
for fourteen years or more will qualify for the
county franchise. 2s tee rules have been made .
to prevent the multiplication of small freeholds for
political purposes (the process explained in article
* Faggot-votes,’ q.v.). (2) Occupation.—The oceu-
pier of land or tenements of the yearly value
of £10 is qualified to vote in any part of the United
Kingdom, but the mode of ascertaining the value
varies. In English and Seotch boroughs residence
in or within 7 miles of the borough is required ; and
in all parts of the United Kingdom this franchise
is made to depend on payment of rates. (3) Resi-
dence.—The inhabitant occupier of a dwelling-
house, or of any part of a hones occupied as a
separate dwelling, is qualified; throughout the
United Kingdom this franchise is made dependent
on payment of rates. rs occupying rooms of
the yearly value (unfurnished) of £10 are also
ualified. Certain rights of resident burgesses and
fresinet in English boroughs were preserved by
the Act of 1832, and the liverymen of the City
since ea retain the right to vote in the City of
London.
Candidates—Conduct of the Election—Election
Petitions.—On receiving the writ for an election
the returning-officer fixes a day to receive the
names of candidates. Any male British subject of
full age, not disqualified i peerage, office, convie-
tion, &c., may become a candidate. A candidate
is required to have an agent for election expenses,
and in promoting his candidature he is bound to
see that no breach of the law is committed, and
that the total expenses are kept within the limits
ee by the Corrupt Practices Act, 1883 (see
RIBERY). If more candidates come forward than
776
PARLIAMENT
there are seats to be filled, a day is fixed for taking
a poll of the electors ; rooms or booths are fitted ha
for that ; each polling-place is suppliec
with a ot box, voting-papers, &e., and presided
over by the returning-oflicer or one of his deputies.
The elector votes by placing a cross opposite the
name of the candidate of his choice ; his paper is
folded up by himself and dropped into the box;
elaborate rules are made by the Ballot Act, 1872,
to the secrecy of the vote (see BALLOT).
Any material infraction of the law in ‘eonducting
an election may be made the ground of a petition ;
the petitioners are required to find security
for the costs: the petition is tried by two judges,
who decide such questions of law and fact as may
be raised, determine whether the person petitioned
nst has been duly elected or not, and report to
© Speaker the seen of their inquiry. If there is
reason to believe that corrupt practices have exten-
sively prevailed, commissioners may be appointed
to make inquiry and report, and persons yuilty of
criminal offences may prosecuted. The fore-
going rules apply to the conduct of a general
election, and also to the conduct of an election to
fill a vacancy in the House of Commons caused by
death, ex rh mony or acceptance of office under the
crown. The law does not permit a member of
rliament to resign ; if a member wishes to retire
e applies to the Treasury for the stewardship of
the Chiltern Hundreds (q.v.), and the acceptance
of this has the effect of vacating his seat. When
a member accepts high political office, as a general
rule he vacates his seat, and must present himself
for re-election.
Meeting of Parliament—Acts of Parliament.—
When the Lords and Commons assemble at West-
minster the Commons are directed to choose a
Speaker. This having been done, and the members
of both Honses having taken the oath of allegiance,
the causes for which parliament has been called
together are declared in the King’s or Queen's
Speech, which is read by the sovereign in person,
or by the Lord Chancellor in the sovereign’s
presence, or by one of the lords commissioners
who represent the sovereign in absence. The two
Houses are free to take =p matters not laid
before them by the crown; business is usnall
begun in each House by reading a bill pro forma,
in order to assert the right of free deliberation.
Two members are chosen in each House by minis-
ters to move and second an address in answer to
the royal speech; in the Commons this motion
gives rise to an aimless and discursive debate, in
which the whole policy of the government is
attacked by the opposition. Such are the forms
with which the first session of a new parliament is
begun, Each House may adjourn at its own dis-
cretion from day to day and for the customary
holidays. The session comes to an end when
parliament is prorogued by the crown: prorogation
uts an end to all sessional orders and to all pend-
ng business, except impeaclments, writs of error,
and appeals to the House of Lords. The public
acts liament 1 in a session form one
statute, which is divided into chapters for conveni-
ence of reference. Thus, ‘ the 30 and 31 Vict, chap.
20’ means the 20th chapter of the statute law made
in a session which began in the 30th and continued
into the 3st Pt of Queen Victoria’s reign—in
other words, the session of 1867, Copies of the
statutes are engrossed for preservation among the
rolls of parliament, and printed copies are sent to
judges and magistrates ; but no form of publication
required to give validity to a statute; all sub-
jects are bound to take note of and obey the law.
n applying the rules of a statute the courts are
guided , he intention expressed in the act itself ;
they will not look at the arguments or assurances
royal assent, unless some other time has been indi-
cated in the act. It isa rule that no bill may be
introduced twice in the same session ; it has some-
times been found necessary to e parliament
in order that a rejected bill may tonal i
again without delay.
Divisions—Committees.—A division is taken
either House by the voices of those present,
Lords crying ‘Content’ or ‘Not content,
Commons ‘Aye’ or ‘No.’ If the
decision as to the result of the vote is
members pass out into the lobbies, and are ‘
or counted by members appointed for that pu
In case the numbers are equal, in the Lords
question is decided in the negative; in the Com-
mons the Speaker gives a casting vote, Matters
which cannot conveniently be dealt with
House are referred to a committee of the w
House, such as has been already described, or to
a select committee. Witnesses may now be ex-
amined before committees of both Houses on oath,
When a private bill is sent to a committee, the
promoters and opponents attend with their
and agents; the inquiry partakes of a judicial
aoe neice The expense of pronestings Dales
iamentary committees is very great, and many
stent have been made to alter the existing
S&
ze
ig
system: a bill was before parliament in 1891 by
which it was proposed to create a local cibansliee
deal with Scotch private bills. In the H of
Commons there were formerly four grand com-
mittees, for religion, for candagy for courts of
justice, and for trade. hese four were discon-
tinued in 1832; in 1882 two standing committees
were appointed for the consideration of bills relat-
ing to law and courts of justice and to trade.
These standing committees have done less to
lighten the labours of the House than was at first
expected ; it is found that time may be wasted by
reopening in the House questions which have been
already discussed at length in the committee.
Prorogation and Dissolution.—When parliament
has been prorogued it may be summoned to meet
for another session ; the new session is opened with
a royal speech, When the government «eter.
mines to ‘go to the country ’—i.e. to hold a general
election, it is customary to put an end to the
session by prorogation, and afterwards to issue a
proclamation dissolving the parliament and to give
directions for the issue of new writs of summons,
Dissolution puts an end to the House of Commons
for the time being; the members are no lon
aldressed by the title of M.P., and the §; er
becomes an ordinary commoner. The law directs
that not more than three years shall elapse between
the dissolution of a parliament and. the cane |
of a new one; but, inasmuch as the Commons wi
not vote more than an annual supply of money, it
is absolutely necessary that there id be at Jeast
one session of parliament in each year. No parlia-
ment may endure for more than seven years from
the time when it is first summoned to meet. Tri-
ennial parliaments were established by a law of
1641; in the same year the Long P. ment
the king to agree to a bill depriving him of the
right to disselve that parliament without its own
consent; the Triennial Act was led after
the restoration of Charles IL, re-enacted
in 1694. The peries of seven years was
fixed, instead of three years, the Septennial
Act, passed on the accession of rge I, (1714),
at a time when the government desired to avoid
the changes of popular opinion produced
frequent general elections. The act is praii
hy some critics and attacked by others,
it makes members more independent of the
tee
— se
PARLIAMENT ; 777
electors than they would be if they were constantly
looking forward to an election.
‘ Omnipotence’ of Parliament.—In foreign coun-
tries and in the British colonies the legislature is a
limited body, which exercises the powers conferred
upon it by a written constitution ; its acts are void
if they exceed its powers. An act of the congress
of the United States, for example, may be set aside
by a court of law if it is beyond the constitutional
competence of congress. o British court can set
aside an act of parliament on any such ground, for
Sagan defines its own powers and is not bound
’y any written constitution. In the words of Sir
Edward Coke, the power of parliament ‘is so tran-
scendent and absolute that 1t cannot be confined,
either for causes or persons, within any bounds.’
The other legislative authorities of the empire act
within the limits laid down for them by parliament.
If a colonial government, for instance, wishes to
deal with some matter outside the colony, it must,
asa general rule, obtain an act of parliament for
the purpose ; a colonial legislature has an authority
which is plenary as to causes and persons, but
limited as to territorial area. The Septennial Act,
cited above, illustrates what is meant by the omni-
potence of parliament. A House of Commons,
elected for three years under the Act of 1694, con--
eurred in prolonging its own mandate to a period
of seven years ; and its action was rfectly legal
and constitutional. Whether we should gain or
lose by bringing the powers of parliament within
legal bounds, it is not easy to decide.
Petitions to Parliament.—Petitions may be ad-
dressed to either House of Parliament by British
subjects and persons resident-in the British démin-
ions ; a petition must be presented by a member of
the House to which it is addressed, except petitions
from the corporation of London, which are presented
by the sheriffs of London at the bar. The Lord
ayor of Dublin has also been allowed to present a
petition, and the same privilege would probably be
conceded to the Lord Provost of Edinburgh. It was
formerly not unusual for the member presenting a
petition to make a speech, but the standing orders
of the Commons now forbid this to be done. There
is a committee on public petitions which reports
twice a week during the session.
Parliamentary Returns.—Each House may obtain
information from the executive departments by
asking for returns and papers. In dealing with a
subordinate doparieees or a department created
and regulated statute, either House may order
returns ; if the department is that of a high officer
of state, or if the matter inquired of concerns the
sovereign’s prerogative, it is usual to move a humble
address, praying that the documents required may
be furnis' ei: ‘Neither House will order a return
regarding the proceedings of the other; but the
members of one House have seldom any difficulty
-in obtaining Papers printed for the use of the other.
No return may be ordered from private persons and
associations, unless under the provisions of an act of
parliament. Confidential documents (e.g. cabinet
memoranda, or opinions of the law officers of the
crown) are never laid on the table in either House,
unless for special reasons the government thinks it
desirable.
Constituencies.—The following table shows tle
number of members sent to the House of Commons
by constituencies of the United Kingdom; the
names of the electoral divisions of a county or
bisoug not being generally specified when they
are all simply taken from-the points of the com-
pass, north, north-east, central, &c.
Devon —continued, Huntingdon, 2. Middlesex—continued. Stafford, 7.
ENGLAND. South Molton. Huutingdon. . Tottenham, Leek.
Barnstaple. Ramsey. Hornsey, Burton.
CousTtEs, Tavistock. Kent, 8. Harrow. West.
Bedford, 2. Totnes. Sevenoaks, Ealing. North-west.
Biggleswade. Torquay. Dartford. Brentford. Lichfield.
Luton, Ashburton. Tunbridge, Uxbridye. Kingswinford.
Berks, 3. Dorset, 4. Medway. Monmouth, 3. Handsworth,
Abingdon. North. Faversham, North. Suffolk, 5.
Newbury. st. Ashford. West. Lowestoft.
Wokingham. South. St Augustine's, South, Eye.
Buckingham, 3. West. Thane Norfolk, 6. Stowmarket,
Buckingham, Durham, 8. Lancashire, 23. North-west. Sudbury,
Aylesbury. Jarrow. North Lonsdale, South-west. Woodbridge.
Wycombe. Houghton-le-Spring. Lancaster. North. Surrey, 6.
Cambridge, 3. Chester-le-Street. Blackpool. East. Chertsey.
Wisbech. North-west. Chorley. Mid. Guildford,
Chesterton. Mii. Darwen. South. Reigate.
Newmarket. South-east, Clitheroe. Northampton, 4, Epsom.
Cheshire, 8. Bishop Auckland. Accrington, North. Kingston.
Wirral. Barnard Castle. Rossendale. East. Wimbledon,
Eddisbury. Essex, 8. Westhoughton. Mid. Sussex, 6.
Macclesfield, Walthamstow. Heywood. South. Horshain.
Crewe. Romford, Middleton, Northumberland, 4. Chichester,
Northwich. Epping. Radcliffe. Wansbeck. Grinstead.
Altrincham, *Sattron Walden. Eccles. Tyneside. Lewes.
Hyde. Harwich. Stretford, exham. Eastbourne,
Knutsford. Maldon. Gorton, Berwick-on-Tweed, Rye.
Cornwall, 6, Chelmsford, Prestwich, Nottingham, 4. Warwick, 4.
St Ives, South-east. Southport, Bassetlaw, Tamworth,
Camborne. Gloucester, 5. Orinskirk, Newark. Nuneaton.
Truro, Stroud. Bootle. Rushceliffe. Stratford-on-Avon,
St Austell. Tewkesbury. Widnes. Mansfield. Rugby.
Bodtnin. Cirencester. Newton, Oxford, 3. Westmorland, 2,
Launceston. Dean, Ince, Banbury. Appleby,
Cumberland, 4. Thornbury. Leigh. Woodstock, Kendal,
Eskdale. Hants, 6. Leicester, 4. Henley. Wilts, 5.
Penrith. Basingstoke. Melton. Rutland, 1. Cricklade.
Cockermouth. Andover. Longhborough, Shropshire, 4. Chippenham,
Egremont. Peterstield. Bosworth. Oswestry. Westbury.
Derby, 7. Fareham. Harborough. Newport. Devizes.
High Peak. New Forest. Lincoln, 7. Wellington, Wilton.
North-east. Isle of Wight. Gainsborough, Ludlow Worcester, 5.
Chesterfield. Hereford, 2. Brigg. Somerset, 7. Bewdley.
West. Leominster, Louth. vorth, Evesham.
Mir. Ross, Horncastle, Wells, Droitwich.
Ilkeston. Hertford, 4. Sleaford. Frome North.
South. Hitchin, Stamford, East, East.
Devon, 8. Hertford. Spalding. South. Yorkshire, 26.
Honiton. St Albans. Middlesex, 7. Bridgwater. Thirsk and Malton,
Tiverton, Watford. Eutield, Wellington, Richmond.
778 PARLIAMENT
Yorkshire—continued, | Liverpool—continued, Winchester, bel ee actin rer
West Derby. Windsor. Borovons.
Whitby. Scotland, Wolverhampton, 8, Aberdeen, 2 Kirkwall.
Holderness. Exchange. Worvester, Ayr Burghs. Tain,
Buckrose. Abereromby. Yarmouth (Great). Ayr.
eigen West os Farcuenge tr a
Keighley. London & Metropolitan Universities, Irvine, Gioapet and Reema e
Shipley. 62. Cambridge, 2 Oban. 4
Sowerky. City, 2 London, Dumfries Burghs, :
Elland, Bat Oxford, 2. Dunifries. —
a ae Combereell s. Kirkcudbright.
‘orman’
Colne Valley. Lochmaben, IRELAND.
Holinfirth, Clapham. ALES. Sanquhar. Counties,
Barnsley. Croydon. . Dundee, 2. Antrim, 4.
Hallamshire, pttord. Counties. Edinburgh, 4, Armagh, 3.
Rotherham, Finsbury, 3. Anglesey. Elgin Jsarghs. Carlow.
Doncaster. Iham. Brecon, n. Cavan, 2.
Ri Greenwich. Cardigan. Banff. Clare, 2.
Otley. kney, 3, Carmarthen, 2 Cullen. Cork, 7.
Barkston Ash. Hammersmith. Carnarvon, 2 Inverarie, Donegal, 4
Oxgoldcross. Hampstead. Eifion. Kintore, Down, 4.
Pudeer. Islington, 4. Arfon. Peterhead. Dublin, 2.
Spen Valley. Kensi 2. Denbigh, 2. Falkirk Burghs, 2
Lambeth, 4. Flint. Falkirk. Galway,
Borovons. Lewisham, Glamorgan, 5, Airdrie. Kerry, 4.
Ashton-under-Lyne. Marylebone, 2. East. Hamilton. Kildare, 2.
Aston Manor. Newington, 2. Rhondda, Kil , &
Barrow-in-Furness. Paddington, 2 Gower. ee: King's 2
. 2 8t Mid. G Ww, 7. Lei 2.
Bedford. St Pa ‘4 South. ton, 2
Shoreditch, 2. Merioneth. Camlachie. Londonderry, 2,
Birningham, 7. Southwark, 3. Montgomery. St Rollox. 2
Strand. Pembroke. Cen Louth, 2.
Wi Tower Hamlets, 7. Radnor. Mayo, 4.
Central. W: worth. jeston. M 2 st
North. West Haim, 2. Borovons. Blackfriars and M 2 at
East. Westininster, Cardiff district.* Hutchesontoun, 's 7» %
Bordesley. Woolwich. Carmarthen » Rosson TAS
South. Lynn Regis. Carnarvon Hawick Burghs. Bligo, 2." *
Blackburn, 2, ve. Denbigh Hawick. Tip 4
Bolton, 2 hester, Flint 4 Galashiels.
Boston. Miridlesbror Merthyr-Tydvil, 2. Selkirk. 2.
Bradford, 3. Monmouth Montgomery di s Inverness Burghs. binsreasds | 2
Brighton, 2 Morpeth. Pembroke Inverness. Wexford, 2
Bristol, 4. Newcastle-upon- wansea, eet Forres. Wicklow, 2.
Burnley. Newcastle-under-Lyme, ‘Sens laetides ‘Cassese Furtrose.
Bury. Northampton, 2. Fust, < jairn. Borovans.
Bury St Edmunds, Norwich, 2. Kilmarnock Burghs,
Cambridge, Nottingham, 3. SS Kilmarnock. Belfast, 4,
Canterbury. Oldham, 2. Dumbarton. Cork, 2.
Carlisle. Oxford. SCOTLAND, Port-Glasgow. Dublin, 4.
Speltenhoa, Plymouth. ¥ Counties. Ruther zh Dui
th, utherglen. 9
Chester. Pontefract. Aberdeen, 2. Kirkealdy Burghs, St Stephen's Green,
Christchurch, Portsmouth, 2 Argyll. Kirkcaldy. St Patrick's,
. 2. Ayrshire, 2. Burntisland. Galway.
Coventry. Readi Banff. t Kil A
Darlington. Rochd Berwick. Kinghorn. Li
Derby, 2. Bute, Leith Burghs, .
Devonport, 2 St Helen's, Caithness, Leith. Newry.
Dewsbury, Salford, 3. Clackinannan & Kinross, Musselburgh.
Dover. Salisbury. Dumbarton, Portobello.
Dudley. Dumfries, Montrose Burghs, Ustversity,
Darham. eo 6. Edinbu Montrose, Dublin, 2
Falmouth and Penryn. Brightside Pile og
mou! le. rechin,
Gateshead. Central, Forfar, Forfar.
Gloucester, Hallam. Haddi: Bervie,
Grantham. Ecclesall. Inverness. Paisley.
Ceavanend. ‘ pica I South). Seer . ae Saas SUMMARY.
rimaby (Great rewsbury. cud brigh Andrews ND
alime + Sonthampton, 2, , 6 8t Beareve. ce Counties 283
Hanley. Stafford. Govan, Easter Anstruther. Boroughs Peet
Hartlepool. Stalybridge. Partick, Wester Anstruther. Universities... 5
Hastings. Stockport, 2. North-east. Crail. Ww. a
Hereford. Stockton, North-west. Cupar. Counties, 98"
Huddersfield. Stoke-upon-Trent, Mid. Kilrenny, Boroughs... 4;
Hall, & = 2 tena Pt veep md ScotAso— +958,
ythe, nton, nlithgow, ng Burghs,
1 2 Tynemouth & N. Shields. | Orkney and Shetland. Stirling. Coenen ts 39 -
Kidderminster. ‘akefield, Peebles and Selkirk. Culross, Univeralties.. 2 4
Leeda, 5. Walsall. Perth, 2. Dunfermline. 1a
Leicester, 2, a Renfrew, 2. Inverkeithing. "Sountles 85 a
ate @ wan & Leamington. pom mand Cromarty. genes: bercumn Oe
v neabury. 6 unghs, as
Kirkdale, West Bromwich. Stirli Wick. Universtiy, .: “SF Sage
Walton. Whitehaven. 8u Cromarty. Grand total for —— — ;
Everton. Wigtown. Dingwall, United Kingdom. .670 :
x
For the of parliament, see the constitutional | found in the works of (England), Badenach Nicol- - a
histories of Hallam, and May; for its laws and | son (Scotland), and W. H. Mann (ireland See further F
customs, May's Parliamentary Practice, Anson's Law | G. B. Smith's History of the English Parlia
ment (2 vole ,
and Custom of the Conatitution, and Lucy’s Handbook
¢ eos Procedure; for its relations with
executive, see Ral ore oe Parliamentary Govern-
ment in England. The of electoral law will be
1892) ; G. L. Dickinson's The
in the Nineteenth Centur:
mentary nion, Bart
since 1837 (1880), Adam's Political State
PARMA
PARNELL 779
1788 (Edin. 1887), and the almanacs ; besides the articles
in this work on .
Ap Edward I. Reform.
Ballot. England ( Hist. of). | Reporting.
Bri Government. Representation,
Cabinet. Hausard. Sovereign.
Chartism. Impeachment, Taxation,
Commissions, Montfort. Treasury.
Congress. Nobility. Westminster,
Cromwell. Petitions. Witenagemote,
Parma, a town of Italy, formerly the capital
of the duchy of Parma, is situated on the ancient
Via Emilia, and on the river Parma, 124 miles §S.
from the Po, and by rail 56 miles NW. of Bologna
and 79 SE. of Milan. The town is surrounded by
walls and has a citadel (1591 ); the streets are
straight and wide. Of the sixty or more churches
the chief is the cathedral ( 1059-74), built mostly in
the Lombardo-Romanesque style, with frescoes by
Correggio. Other notable edifices are the baptis-
tery, one of the most splendid in Italy, begun in
1196 and completed in 1281; the clureh of Madonna
della Steceata (1521-39), containing ‘ Moses break-
ing the Tables of the Law’ and other paintings by
Parmigiano, and the tombs of the Farnese dukes ;
the church of St John the Evangelist (1510), with
frescoes by Correggio ; the ducal palace, containing
art-galleries (Correggio’s works), a library (214,000
vols, and 4500 MSS., including many incunabula
and rare works), the archives, &e.; and numerous
other palaces, public and private. There are also
‘a university (1599), with nearly fifty teachers
and more than two hundred students, a music
school, a museum of antiquities, &e. The principal
industrial products are pianofortes, silks, cast-iron
wares, woollens, earthenware, aper, soap, We.
Tliere are cattle, corn, and silk markets, Pop.
1897) 52,700. Founded by the Etruseans, Parma
me a Romun colony in 183 B.c. After the fall
of the western empire it was known as Chrysopolis
(Gold Town). =
4 =>
x pa
species of the mixture overlap and foster one
another; thus produce is increased, and quality of
herbage improved. From this point of view, a
pasture is an agricultural device for increasing the
amount of land at disposal, since from a single
acre of mixed crop as much produce may be
obtained as from, say, 1} acre laid down under
pure sowings.
The chief plants used in Britain for forming
pasture may be classified thus :
(A) Yop Grasses.—Cock’s-foot (Dactylis glo-
merata), Meadow Fescue (Festuca pratensis),
Meadow Fox-tail (Alopecurus pratensis), Timothy
(Phieum pratense), Italian Ryegrass (Loliwn
ttalicum).
(B) Bottom Grasses.—Crested Dog’s-tail ( Cyno-
surus cristatus), Fiorin (Agrostis stolonifera),
Hard Fesene (Festuca duriuscula), Rough-stalked
Meadow Grass (Poa trivialis), Smooth-stalked
Meadow Grass (Poa pratensis), Wood Meadow
Grass (Poa nemoralis), Sweet Vernal (Arthox-
anthum odoratum), Yellow Oat-grass (Avena
Jlavescens), Perennial Ryegrass (Loliwm perenne).
(C) Clovers and Leguminous Plants.—Alsike
Clover (Trifolium hybridum), Red Clover (Tri-
ops pratense), White Clover (7'rifoliwm repens),
refoil (Medicago lupulina), Bird’s-foot Trefoil
(Lotus corniculatus).
This list includes several species which are not
rmnanent, but of short duration, as Timothy,
talian and perennial, ryegrass, red and ‘Alsike
clover, and trefoil. Timothy lasts from four to
six years, and at times even longer. Perennial
ryegrass has a very misleading name, inasmuch
as it may die ont in three or four years; in other
cases, where seeding is prevented, the ryegrass
may become, to all intents and purposes, a peren-
nial plant. The reasons for iheluding short-lived
constituents in permanent pasture are obvious.
They not only give ine produce during the
first years of the lea, when the permanent species
are slow in coming forward, but hold possession
of Jand which would otherwise be bare, and thus
keep out worthless plants. Place is made for the
expanding perennials by the short-lived species
which gradually die out. This must be carefully
borne in mind when fixing the proportion of short-
lived plants in a mixture.
The following are the leading principles accord-
ing to which the various constituents of a mixture
are proportioned ; (1) To obtain maximum produce,
the land must be filled with roots as thoroughly
and completely as possible. This is accomplished
2) incorporating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted
plants in due proportions. If, for example, a soil
is 3 feet deep, and the roots oceupy merely 1 foot
of this depth, two-thirds of the land is, evidently,
lying idle and unutilised, not for one year, as
when under an ordinary crop, but for a long series
of years in the case of a permanent pasture.
(2) The nutritive value of the mixed herbage
depends upon the relative proportion of grass and
clover: the albuminoid ratio increases with the
amount of clover. For a permanent pasture good
proportions are clovers, 20 to 30 per cent. of total
area; grasses, 70 to 80 per cent.
(3) Ss many species as possible should be repre-
sented in the mixture. If one is injuriously
affected by drought, another, which revels in
drought, is ready to take its place; if one is late,
another is early; if one is not relished by the
browsin auiiaal: another is, and so on.
(4) Those species which are best and most suit-
able for the soil should be most largely represented,
(5) Certain species liable to overrun the pasture,
or to destroy other good plants, ought to be repre-
sented in pipe small proportions. his
applies more particularly to ryegrasses (especially
798 PASTURE
PATAGONIA
Italian), crested dog’s-tail, and smooth-stalked
OW grass.
(6) The short-lived components should not cover
more than one-third of the whole land.
According to these principles, a mixture suitable
for a wet clay might be proportioned as follows :
Area of the land to be covered by clovers, 20 per cent:
Red clover,......... 5 per cent. | White clover... .....5 per cent.
Alsike clover....... 5 ” Bird's-foot trefoll...6
Area to be covered by short-lived grasses, 20 per cent:
Timothy.......... 15 per cent. | Perennial ryegrass....6 percent.
Area to be co d by p tg , 60 per cent:
Cock’s-foot ........20 per cent. | Rough-stalked meadow
Mewlow feseue....15 od ee 10 per cent.
Measow fox-tall....10 4 Smooth-atalkeldo. 6 =»
The ntage area of land to be occupied by
each component being determined and known, the
percentage numbers have to be ‘translated into
pounds of seed per acre. To get the number of
pounds corresponding to these areas the covering
wer of each kind of seed used must be known.
fe assume, as a basis for calculation, that the
seed is perfect in quality—i.e. the percentage of
purity is 100, and the percentage of germination
also 100. According to Stibler, one acre of land is
covered by the following amounts of perfectly pure
and germinating seeds :
Meadow fesene.......+......56
Meadow fox-tail .
| Se tree
Italian ryegrass......
Crested dog’s-tail.
Rough-stalked meadow grass.13
Smooth-stalked " 13
In using these numbers as a basis for caleulatin
mixtures, allowance must be made for seeds which
cannot germinate on account of imperfect tillage,
and also for the overlapping of the plants when
wn in mixture. An allowance of 50 per cent.
arly in ordinary cases, to meet these require-
ments. The amount of seed
in mixtures is, accordingly,
for an acre and a half.
The mixture already given for a wet clay soil
when translated into pounds of perfect seed per
acre (making an allowance of 50 per cent.) is :
r acre actually used
1e amount calculated
Meadow fox-tail............
Rough-stalked meadow
By simple proportion pounds of perfect seed can be
iamediass ly cemvertak inte pounds of commercial
seed of any given quality.
Patagonia, the most southern on of the
South American continent, exterding from S. lat,
39° southwards to the Strait of M ee. which, for
adistance of 375 miles, separates it from the desolate
archipelago of Tierra cel why, Length, upwards
of 1000 miles ; greatest by th, about 480 miles ;
area, about 322,550 sq. m. ; population, doubtfully
estimated at about ,000, Like the rest of the
continent, Patagonia is divided by the Andes into
two very unequal and dissimilar territories. Since
1881 nearly the whole country east of the water-
shed has been formally nised as part of the
Argentine Republic; while Chili, which previously
claimed a considerable share of that area, has con-
tented herself with the country to the west and a
— along the southern coast, Thus the political
in the main agrees with the physical partition. .
Western or Chilian, Patagonia (63,000 sq. m.),
comprising the territory of Magellan, is rugged
and mountainous. Along the coast, and stretch-
ing from 42° S, to the Strait of Magellan, are
us islands, with precipitous
foes ae Peta af the Coreinoenny
ing apparently to the s:
the principal being the 10s Archipae ae
Wellington Island, the Archipelago of re ty
and Desola-
Di ueen Adelaide's yee
tion Ta and. These islands, together with several
peninsulas, notably Taytao, form a coast almost
as rugged as that of Norway; but in none of them
do the mountains rise to the snow-line. Even in |
the Cordilleras proper the summits are less lofty
towards the south; but the following are worthy
of note—the voleanoes of Minchinmavida and Cor-
covado (respectively 8000 and 7510 feet high),
Monte San Valentin (12,697), Chalten or j
voleano (7120), and Mount Stokes. F
Andes to the Pacific the strip of sh
narrow that the longest river of this di
its origin only about 13 miles from the
the Island of Chiloe (q.v.), to the north of
Patagonia, the mean temperature of
about 40°, that of summer rather above
at Port Famine, 800 miles nearer an
tudes, the mean temperature is in winter about
n2g 233
Ue
:
:
é.
33°, and in summer about 50°. This unusually
small difference in the mean temperature of the
extremes of Western Patagonia is due to the
great dampness of the atmosphere all along the
coast. The prevailing winds blow from the west; _
heavily charged with moisture from the Pacific
Ocean, they strike against the Andes, cause
almost perpetual precipitation from Chiloe to the
Strait of Magellan. uth of 47° S. lat. hardly a
day passes without rain, snow, or sleet. This
tinual dampness has proinee forests of almost
tropical luxuriance, which yield valuable timber.
Coal is mined in the neighbourhood of Punta
Arenas (Sandy Point); and here the Chilian
government has, since 1851, a colony and penal
settlement (pop. in 1882, 1291).
Eastern or Argentine Patagonia consists mainly
of high undulating plains or plateaus rising in
successive terraces, and frequently intersected by
valleys and ravines. These plateaus are occasion-
ally covered with coarse grass, but more frequentl
with a sparse vegetation of stunted bushes
sewed lynne the surface : oer with mes
voulders, and again rngged with heaps or ridges
bare, ahare-aeed rocks. Keen and often piercing
blasts sweep chiefly from the West; and as this
wind has already with its moisture on the
other side of the monntains, hardly any rain falls
in Argentine Patagonia during seven or eight
months of the year. The soil in many
is as <2 impregnated with saltpetre, and salt-
lakes and lagoons are numerous. North of the
Rio Chico, and towards the seacoast, there is a
wild, weird, desolate region called by the Indians
“The Devil’s Country.” Several wastes of this
kind fringe the Atlantic, and formerly induced
the belief that Patagonia was a barren and water-
less desert; but the interior, though not fertile,
really abounds in lagoons, springs, and streams,
and the banks of the rivers are capable of culti-
vation. Along the eastern base of the Andes, also,
there is a great tract of territory which is astonish-
ingly picturesque and fertile, with great forests to
which the Indians retire for shelter from the freez-
3
ing winds of winter. The princi rivers of
Argentine Patagonia are the Rio cero
which forms its northern boundary, the t
q.¥.
bu
(q.v.), Deseado, Chico, Santa Cruz, and Gallegos.
a these rivers rise in the Andes. To the west
of San Martin and Moreno appears the
ing summit of Chalten; and the whole >
the district, with ra mountains
from the water, with glaciers, snows, and
icebergs, is unspeakably grand and terrible. The
PATAGONIA
PATCHES 799
whole of Eastern Patagonia has probably been
raised above the sea-level in the Tertiary period,
and its most characteristic geological feature is
its boundless expanses 7 shingle. The flora is in
consequence exceptiona’ r, and a rs to be
mainly derived from the lower slopes df the Andes,
Herds of horses and, in the more favoured regions,
eattle are bred; pumas and foxes, armadillos,
skunks, and tucotucos (a peculiar rodent) are met
with; and among the birds are condors, hawks,
. and flamingoes, ducks, and other water-
owl. But by far the most important animals are
the gnuanaco or Huanaca (q.v.), sometimes in herds
of two hundred or more, and two species of Rhea
(q-v.).
Inhabitants.—The population of Western Pata-
onia, estimated at 3200 (or, including Tierra del
‘nego, 4000), consists of a number of small indi-
nous nomadic tribes of Araucanian stock who
ive by fishing and hunting, and the settlers at
Punta Arenas or Magellan’s colony, mainly immi-
~— from Chiloe and other parts of Chili. In
tern Patagonia the Argentine herdsmen are
beginning to ture their cattle in the northern
valleys, and Chilian immigrants are moving east-
wards. The Patagonians proper or Tehuelehe
Indians, who are confined to Behe Patagonia,
are perhaps about 7000 strong. They are generally
divided into two great tribes, the northern and
the southern, which speak the same language, but
are distinguishable by difference of accent. The
northern range chiefly over the district between
the Cordilleras and the Atlantic, from the Rio
Negro to the Chuwbut, and even the Santa Cruz
River. The southern, who appear to be on an
average taller and finer, and are more expert
hunters, occupy the rest of Patagonia as far south
as the Strait of Magellan. The two divisions are
much intermixed. Magellan described the Pata-
gonians as ‘so tall that the tallest of us came up
only to their waists;’ and, though such extravagant
statements have led others to deny tle claim of
the Patagonians to be considered exceptional, there
is no doubt that they are one of the tallest races on
the globe. Theaverage height of the male members
of Musters’ party was rather over 5 feet 10 inches ;
two others, measured at Santa Cruz, stood 6 feet
4 inches each; Pikehoche, who was in Berlin in
1879, was 5 feet 9 inches high, and stretched 5 feet
11 inches with his arms. The muscular develop-
ment of the arms and chest is extraordinary, and
in general the body is well proportioned, The
Patagonians are splendid swimmers, can walk
great distances and for two and even three days
on end without being tired. Their cranial charac-
teristics are somewhat disguised by the fact that
the hinder part of the skull is artificially flattened,
the custom being to strap the child’s head back to
a board to prevent it ‘waggling’ when carried
about the country on horseback. This process,
however, appears only to exaggerate a natural
tendency ; and it is asserted by the most scientific
investigators that the Rasegenin skull is, next
to that of the Lapps, the shortest in the world.
The jaws are powerful, though with no trace of
prognathism. ‘The expression of their face is ordin-
arily good-humoured though serious; their eyes
are dark brown, bright and intelligent, their noses
aquiline and well-formed, their foreheads open and
prominent. The complexion of the men, when
cleansed from paint, is a reddish or rather yellowish
brown. Thick flowing masses of long coarse, black,
glossy hair cover their heads. The scanty natural
vrowth of beard, moustaches, and even eyebrows,
is carefully eradicated, The young women are
frequently good-looking, displaying healthy, ruddy
cheeks when not disguised with paint. The dress
of the men consists of an under-garment round the
loins, a long mantle of hide with the fur inside,
and boots or buskins of skin. The dress of the
women is very similar. Both sexes are fond of
ornaments. Besides mantles of guanaco hide, their
only manufactures are saddles, bridles, stirrups,
and lassos, which often evince wonderful ingenuity
and nicety of execution.
The Patagonians believe in a great and good
spirit who created the Indians and animals. Idols
are unknown, and whatever religious acts the
natives perform are prompted by dread of demons.
Kindly, good-tempered, impulsive children of
nature, the Tehuelche take great likes or dislikes,
becoming firm friends or equally confirmed enemies.
Protestant missions have been established amongst
them. They are steadily decreasing through disease
and bad liquor supplied by traders, and before long
will be extinet. The language is quite different
from either. Pampa or Araucanian. Of European
settlements there are few in Argentine Patagonia.
The oldest, Patagones (formerly El Carmen), on
the Rio Negro, about 18 miles from its mouth, has
a population of about 2000, composed of Spanish
and other settlers (negroes), and convicts from
Buenos Ayres. There are also the Welsh colony _
on the Chubut (q.v.), and a petty station at the
mouth of the Santa Cruz.
History.—Magellan, before passing through the
strait, had in 1520 sailed along the whole of the
Patagonian coast; and it is commonly believed
that it was from the large footsteps (patagones)
observed near his winter-quarters at 8. Yalan that
the country derived its name. Another suggested
etymology is the Quichua word patacuna, ‘terraces,’
the rule of the Incas having extended hither.
The great plain was traversed by Rodrigo de Isla
in 1535. Sarmiento de Gambo (commemorated by
the mountain in Tierra del Fuego) added greatly
to the knowledge of the west and south (1579-80),
and founded Spanish settlements, doomed to early
extinction, at Nombre de Dios and San Felipe
(Port Famine). English interest in the country,
aroused by Drake’s voyage in 1577, was kept up by
Davis, Narborough, Byron, Wallis, and the Jesuit
Falkner, and at last the beginning of a real scien-
tifie acquaintance with the interior was made by
King, Fitzroy, Darwin, and Musters. Since 1870
careful explorations have been carried out by
Argentine travellers,
English works on Patagonia are Falkner’s (1774),
Snow’s (1857), Musters’ (1871), Beerbohm’s (1878), Lady
Florence Dixie’s (1880), n’s (1880); and see Fossarieu
French, 1884), Burmeister (Spanish, 1891), and Fouck
Spanish, 1896).
Patan, 2 walled town of India, in Baroda, 64
miles NW. from Ahmadabad, stands on a tributary
of the Banas, and manufactures swords, spears,
pottery, and silk and cotton goods; the capital of
native dynasties from the 8th century to the
present day, it lias many ruins ; pop. (1891) 32,646,
—Patan is also a town of Nepal, 14 mile SE. of
Khatmandu (q.v.) ; Pop. 40,000.
Patanjali is the name of two celebrated
authors of ancient India, who are sometimes
looked upon as the same personage, but apparently
for no other reason than that they bear the same
name. ‘The one is the author of the system of
philosophy called Yoga (see SANSKRIT LITERA-
TURE), the other the critic of Panini (q.v.), circa
140 B.C.
Patches. During the whole of the 17th and
beginning of the 18th century these fantastic orna-
ments were commonly worn by women and some-
times by men. In Jack Drum’s Entertainement,
or the Comedie of Pasquil and Katherine (1601;
2d ed. 1616), they are oa mentioned : ‘ For even
as blacke patches are worne, some for pride, some
800 PATCHOULI
PATENTS
to stay the Rheume, and some to hide the seab,’
&e.; and in the Artificial Changeling (1650)
there is a woodent showing the lady of fashion,
with a coach, coachman, two horses, and postillions
ummed on to her forehead, and the rest of her
ace ornamented with a star, two crescents, and a
large round spot, In the same year (1650) a Bill
against ‘painting, black patches, and immodest
dresses’ was for the first time, but got no
further. In vain were sermons preached ; in vain
did Morbus Satanicus, or The Sin of Pride, in 1666
reach the Lith edition; in vain did satirixts assail
the Metamorphosis of Fair Faces into Foul Vi tsuges
(temp, James I1.); the senseless custom was still
rife when (1712) Pope described among the treasures
of Belinda’s toilet-table ‘ Puffs, Powders, Patches,
Bibles, Billet-doux’ (Rape of the Lock, i. 138).
Attempts have been made to revive the fashion,
but without success, See Fairholt’s History of
Dress and Costume in England (2d ed. 1860).
Patchouli, a perfume derived from the dried
branches of Pogostemon patchouli (natural order
Labiate), first introduced into Britain as an article
of merchandise in 1844. The name is from the
Tamil patchei, ‘gum,’ and clei, ‘ leaf." The plant,
a low shrub 24 or 3 feet high, is a native of Silhet,
the Malay coast, Ceylon, Java, the neighbour-
hood of Bombay, and probably also of China;
but, owing to the fondness of Asiatics for the per-
fume which it yields, it is difficult to say where it
is native or cultivated. Every part of the Moree
is odoriferous, but the younger portions of the
branches with the leaves are chosen; they are
usually abont a foot long. The odour is peculiar
and diffienlt to define, but it has a slight resem-
Dlance to sandalwood; it is: very powerful, and
to many persons is extremely disagreeable. The
odour of patchouli was known in Europe before
the material itself was introdueed, in consequence
of its use in Cashmere to scent the shawls with a
view of keeping out moths, which are averse to it;
hence the genuine Cashmere shawls were known
by their scent, until the French found the secret,
and imported the herb for use in the same way.
In India. it is used as an ingredient in fancy
tobaccos and as a perfume for the hair. It is
also much prized for keeping insects from linen
and woollen articles, ‘The essence of patchouli is
a peculiar heavy brown oil, with a disagreeably
powerful odour; it is obtained by distillation, and
requires extreme dilution for perfumery purposes.
A ewt, of the plant yields alont 28 oz. of the oil.
The Arabs believe it to he efficacious in preventing
contagion and prolonging life.
Patella. See Knee, and Lore.
Paten (Lat. patina, ‘a dish’), a small cirenlar
plate ren yed for the wafers or bread in the
eucharistic service. It is always of the same
material as the chalice, often richly chased or
carved, and studded with precious stones,
Patent Medicines. In popular langnage
this term is very loosely applied; being used to
include not only patent medicines strictly so called,
but also all proprietary medicines and all medicines
liable to stamp-
chaplain to the lord-k
was
Suffolk, In 1650 he was appvinted preacher at St
Clement’s, Eastcheap, London, and here in 1659 he
published ‘his admirably learned and judicial Bz-
is still esteemed one of the very ablest works pro-
duced in the greatest of English y.
During the same year (1659) Pearson edited the
Golden Remains of the Ever Memorable Mr John
Hales of Eton, with an admirable preface ; and next
he had a share in editing the Critic’ Sacri (1660),
At the Restoration honours and emoluments e
Cambrid d chaplain in ordi i tae bee
nbridge, and chaplain in ordin =
f d’ Archdeacon of
( 182) defended songs - 4
Le i nnales Cyprianieh is a
works a sacred chrono! , his Graitows ae
Conciones ad Clerum, his erg
Theologice contain much valuable matter. He died
16th July 1686,
See editions of the ition on the Creed _
(1833) and Chevallier (1849); of the Minor Phosoniaat
Works, by Churton (1844). |
Peary, Rosert, American naval captain, has
eodestaiees five adventurous age eys along the
Greenland coast (1886-99). e further :
Greenland an island, defined the outline of the NE.
corner, and brought back the enormous meteorite
reported by Ross in 1818, See his Ni over
the Great Ice (1398), and other books by Keely and
Davia (1892), Hei ane (OS), Mrs ? (who
wice accompanii usband), and Astrup
(trans. 1898). 2
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