Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/chambersencyclop0/londuoft ip ts . SD C4457 CHAMBERS’S ENCYCLOPADIA A DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE NEW EDITION ‘VOL VII MALTEBRUN To PEARY | ; WILLIAM & ROBERT CHAMBERS, LIMITED LONDON AND EDINBURGH J. B, LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA 1902 All Rights reserved The following Articles in this Volume, originally Copyrighted in 1891, as now revised are Copyrighted by J. B. Liprrncorr Company, in 1897 and 1900, in the United States of America: MARYLAND. MASSACHUSETTS. Micniaan, MINNESOTA. Misstssipri-Missovrr Rrver. Mississtrrr (State), Missovrt (State). MonrTana. Mormons. NRURASKA. 4 Neanors. ** \ _ Nevapa. New Hampsuire. New Jersey. New Mexico. New Orveans. New York Crry, New York (State). Norra Caro.ina. Onto, OKLAHOMA. OREGON, Copyright as above epecified, 1897, by J. B. Liprtxcorr Company, Copyright a» above specified, 1900, by J. B. Lrpprycorr Company. a y 2 ———— Among the more important articles in this Volume are the following: Ma.ruus; MaRx........ Toomas Kirxup. MamMMALs; MAN......... J. ARTHUR THOMSON. . Rev. T. E. Brown. MANURBE.................... JouN Hunter, F.C.8. MakLowE; MarsTon.. A. H. BuLLEN. MARBIAGE............0-... D. MaCLENNAN, .. Water WHYTE. . Professor M. A. Nuwm, . Horace G, WaDtry, Rey. M. W. Wywxe. Professor P. G. Tarr. . Rev. Joun SuTHERLAND BLack. . THomas HuGues. « Dr Lpnvie. «- Srancey Lane-Pooe. .. JAMES Paton, .. Dr J. P. Sreere. Sir Joun Morray. J. F. Hooax, M.P. . H. Warrengap. . Rev. Jonny 8. Brack. Dr Bucnan. «. Rev, T. T. LAMBERT, . W. Dunpas WALKER. . CHaRtes WHIBLEY. .. Dr Rosert Brown. .. THomas W. Top. . Professor Sor.ey. Joun M. Gray. . Ropert Cocurane. . Ricnarp Garyett, LL.D. Epwarp B, Povutton. MINIATURE PAINTING... MINING; ORE-DEPOSITS Bennett H. Brovon. Mmaseav; Musser... ¥ MISSIONS ..scsscsssnessce Mississipi (State)..... Rev. Prof. Tuomas Surrn, D.D. J. R, Preston. Professor J. P. LAMBERTON. . IMG James MacDownacp, LL.D. . Emu. Devrscu and Rey. Joun MILne, . W. Ramsay Sairu. Professor SAINTSBURY. Professor A. H. Krave, woopD. MONEY.................02-. Professor J. 8. Nicnoxsoy. MonrTaicne; Mork..... P. Humz Brows, LL.D. MONTESQUIEU............. Professor Hastie. MonTREAL; Orrawa.. Martin J. Grim, MonTrose, "Marquis of, F. Huspes Groome, Moon; Mereors........ Rev. E. B. Kirk. Rey. WentwortH WEBSTER. .. Sir Epwarp Grey, Bart., M.P. . F. D. Ricuarps, Historiographer. .. Dr Rosertr Brown. . Professor 0. G. Kyorr. MortLey .. F. H. Unperwoop, LL.D. Moontarns. .. Professor James Grrkre. Music; Mozakv......... Franks Peterson. Mysteries.. .. Rev. 8. Baninc-Goutp. ' MyrHo.oeyv............... F. B. Jevons. Canon Isaac TAYLOR. .. Lieut.-Colonel Cuayton, R.A. . F. F. Roger. . E, P. MarHers. .. Professor J. 8. NicHoLson. . Captain Garserr, R.N. Dr D. G. Brryton. Professor J. K. LAvGHTON, Dr ALEXANDER BRUCE. W. W. Tomutnson. NEWFOUNDLAND......... J. G. Coumer, C.M.G. Professor A. H. KEANE. Ricnarp Horr Huron. Norman WALKER, Times Democrat. .. JAMES BonwiIck. JAMES BURNLEY. -- Professor Frank B. GREENE. . D, Perris and J. Histor, LL.D. .. Prince Perer KRoporKinE. «» Dr Leonarp Dossin. NITRO-GLYCERINE....... E. G. Carey. NorFoik ; Norwich... J. C. Groome. Nort Canouixa Brrr Professor N. B. WEBSTER. + J.T. BEALBY. ... Professor Haycrarr. .. J. G. Cotmer, C.M.G. . Joun OrmsBy. Dr B. V. Heap, British Museum, Lucy J. Giesoy. « J. M, Irvine. Dr R. Mitye Murray. O'CONNELL; PARNELL.: THomas Davipson. .. Professor Ruys. A. A. GRAHAM. P. L. Suumonps. FRANKLIN PETERSON. -. Dr AtrrRep DaNIELL. Grand-Chaplain G. R. BapENocH, QMORAMD, 2, siiseccsccuees R. D. BLackmore. OrperS, KNIGHTLY..... J. R. Parrman. ORDNANCE SURVEY..... Captain 8. C. N. Grant, R.E. J. F. RowBoTHam. . Rey. A. P. Davipson. Professor D. MacKinnon. Dr J. P. STEELE, OXFORD .. A. CLarK. PAciric. + Sir Jonn Murray. PAINTING P. G. Hamerrton, PALHOGRAPHY +» Canon Isaac Taytor. PALZONTOLOGY + Professor JAMES GEIKIE. PALESTINE Sir Watrer Besant and Prof. Hutt PALMISTRY . Ametia HutcHison StrR.ine, PANAMA......... .. WoLFreD NELson, M.D. PARAFFIN ; NaPuTua. Wi.1aM Love. PAaRAuar.... . A F. Battie, Consul-general, PARASITES ; PASTEUR... J. AnTHuR THomson, Paris... sseeeeeeseese GEORGE BARCLAY. PARLIAMENT... ..s0s 00 Tuomas RALEIGH. \ Parsons, FATHER....... T. G. Law. PABOAL.........006 «. THomas Davipson. PATENTS............00...... A, W. RENTON. Patrick, St Professor @. T. Stokes, D.D, Pav, St . Dean Farrar. Preach; PEAR R. D. Biackmore. PEARL.....4..-0000 000 a daoe Epwin W. Srreerer. The Publishers beg to tender their thanks, for revising or correcting articles in this Volume, to the Eart oF SovurHesk ; Miter; the Head-master of MARLBOROUGH COLLEGE; the Very Rev. the Dean or NorwicH; the President of MAyNooTH; Professor Max- E; the town-clerks of 2; Mr Jonn Murray, the Registrar of OWENS a tte a pe CHAMBERS'’S ENCYCLOPAEDIA A DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE a ieee saltebrun, Konrap (properly "ea MALTHE CONRAD RUUN), geographer, born 12th August : 775, at Thisted, in Jutland, \ studied in Copenhagen, but was ra pS re banished in 1800 because of his iS eg ae 4 having openly shown his sym- Ch Le thy with the French Revo- : ution. He sought refuge in Paris, where he supported himself by teaching aud literary labours. With Mentelle and Herbin he compiled a Géographie Mathématique du Monde (16 vols. 1803-7); and in 1808 he an Annales des Voyages, de la Géographie, et de U Histoire (24 vols.), in 1818 Nouvelles Annales. His principal work is a Précis de la Géographie Universelle (8 vols. 1810-29; latest ed, 6 vols. 1872). He also contributed to the Dictionnaire de la Géographie Universelle (8 vols. 1821), and took an active part in founding the Geographical Society of Paris. He died 14th December 1826.—His son, Vicror ADOLPHE MALTEBRUN (1816-89), was professor of History and Geography at the college of Pamiers | and moe arragd at Paris (1848-60); and from 1860 onwards he was secretary of the Geographical Society of Paris. He was the author of numerous Forgraphical works, as La France Illustré (new ed. 87: ), LT’ Allen ne Illustré (1884-86), Histoire Géographique et Historique de U Allemagne (1866- 68), &e. Maltese Cross. See Cross. Maltese Dog, a small kind of spaniel, with roundish muzzle, and long, silky, generally white hair. It is fit only for a lapdog. Malthus, Tuomas Ropert, the expounder of the theory o| pulation, was born 17th February 1766, at the kery, near Dorking, in Surrey, where his father owned a small estate. He was ninth wrangler at Cambridge in 1788, was elected Fellow of is college (Jesus), took orders, and Was appointed to a parish in his native county. In 1798 = brought out his Essay on the Principle Sf amt of Population, which attracted great attention and met with no little criticism. During the following years Malthus extended his ,knowledge of the subject both by travel and by reading, and in 1803 published a greatly enlarged edition of his essay. In 1804 he married happily, and next year was appointed professor of Political Economy and Modern History in the East India Company's college at Haileybury, a post which he occupied till his death at Bath on 2d December 1834. Personally Malthus was a kindly and accom- plished man, who followed what he believed to be the truth, and who endured without a complaint the abuse and misunderstanding to which his writings exposed him. The aim of the Essay was to supply a reasoned corrective to the theories regarding the perfectibility of society, which had been diffused by Rousseau and his school, and | which had been advocated in England by Godwin. Malthus maintained that such optimistic hopes | are rendered baseless by the natural tendency of |g rere to increase faster than the means of su ysistence. He —— out that both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms life was so prolific that if allowed free room to multiply it would fill millions of worlds in the course of a few thousand years. The only limit to its increase is the want of room and food. With regard to man, the question is complicated by the fact that the instinct of propagation is controlled by reason ; but even in his case the ultimate check to population is the want of food, only it seldom operates directly, but takes a variety of forms in accordance with the complexity of human society. The more im- mediate checks are either preventive or positive. The former appear as moral restraint or vice. The positive chess are exceedingly various, including ‘all unwholesome occupations, severe labour and exposure to the seasons, extreme poverty, bad nursing of children, large towns, excesses of all kinds, the whole train of common diseases and epidemics, w: plague, and famine.’ Malthus goes 0} ~ Seetion, of his principle by oc — >. fe , — Sia: . » of emeenter. and 120 WNW. of Lond ce the Malvern Hill _ = 3 MALTON MAMELUKES a review of the history of the different nations and showing what are the actual checks that have limited lation —celibacy, wars, infanticide, plagues, oe my joes—and pro that the popalation difficulty has affected the development of society from the ning e It cannot be said althus was original in his exposition of the tly of population. It is a theme of both Plato and Aristotle. Shortly before the time of Malthus the problem had been handled jamin Franklin, Hume, and and modern industrial development has only for a time ros the population difficulty for the world at large, while its pressure is still felt in the more thickly peopled centres both of Earope and of the East. At the present time the most interest- ing feature of Malthus is his relation to Darwin. Darwin saw ‘on reading Malthus On Population oo — a the Nag ee ep “ Increase 0! organic beings,’ for suc rap Increre necessarily leads to the struggle for e . To prevent a should be added that Malthas gives no sanction to the theories and eurrently known as Malthasi- In this reference Malthus approved only of the ; << et chest gel ‘do not ou have a fair prospect of supporting a family.’ Benides his Buey oa, the Principle of ~ : i —o eae pte are bays ” iry into the Nature a rogress of Rent and Principles of Political Economy. See Memoir Dr Otter, of Chichester (prefixed to 2d » 1836, af the Principles of Political Economy) ; also Bonar's Malthus and hia Work (1885). Malton, « town in the North and East Ridings of Yorkshire, on the Derwent, 22 miles NE. of York. It consista of New Malton, Norton, and Old Malton. The Derventio probably of the Romans, it has the Norman church of a Gilbertine & Norman castle, Iron and brass founding, tanning, brewing, &e. are carried on; and Norton ix famous for its training stables. Till 1808 Malton returned two members, and then till 1885 one. Pop, (1881) 8754; (1891) 4910. Malvacem, a natural order of exogenous plants, of which about 1000 «pecies are known, chiefly tropical and most abundant in America, although the most important species belong to the Old World. They are oe so = - : voagey AY ad and a free grammar-school, founded | 1 ly Archbishop Hol ; but no trace) remains demaleent in medicine. The seeds contain a con- siderable quantity of bland fixed oil. The inner hark of stem often yields a useful fibre, for which os Of Hibisens and Sida are partien- larly valued ; and to this order belong the cotton in—See Corrox, Hinscus, foray uoox, ALLOW, MAnsi-MALLOW, &c. Malvern, Great. one of the most fashionable in England, i« sitnated 9 miles ion, on the foot of the Worcestershire Beacon, from the summit of which (1444 feet above the sea-level) extensive views are obtained. It is irregularly ont, and has ‘a fine cruciform church, with a square em- battled tower 124 feet if rg from the centre. rebuilt in the reign of IL, and restored in 1860-1, In the centre of the town are large Assembly Rooms (1884) with winter promenade and jens, and on the outskirts is Malvern College, a loteome building in the pg of the early Decorated j, erected in 1 : the present number of boys is nearly 250, and there are several entrance scholarships, tenable during residence, of from £87 to £30 a year, and a leaving scholarship of £50 for three years, tenable at Oxford or Cambridge. Madame Goldschmidt (Jenny Lind) resided near Malvern for many years previous to her death. Pop. (1801) 819; (1881) ; (1891) 6107. See woods Magazine for August 1884, Malwa, a former kingdom of India. See CENTRAL INDIA. +» Mamelukes, properly MAMLOKs, an Arabic word signifying white slaves captured in war or purchased in the market, and especially applied to the slave-kings in Egypt. These had their o: in the importation of a | number of Turkish slaves, from the regions of the Caucasus and Asia Minor, by Es-Salih gh apts of Saladin, and sultan of Egypt, in the middle of the 13th century. They were intended to act as a bodyguard and to defend their master against his numer- ous rivals as well as against the Crusaders, and they fulfilled their duty well, as is shown by the success of their Ise of the French invasion and the capture of St Louis in 1249. In the absence of successors to Es-Silih, his Mamelukes set. up one of their own number as sultan of Egypt in 1250, and from that year to the Ottoman conquest. in 1517 that country and Syria were ruled exelu- sively ie agen se sultans. They were forty-ei in number, often retaining the throne but a few —_ or even months, in consequence of the ntrigues of rival emirs; and they fell into two dynasties, the Bahri or Turkish Mamelukes (1250- 1390) and the Burji or Circassian (1390-1517). The sultan was chosen out of the military oligarchy, and owed his throne to personal prowess and the support of the biggest battalions, rarely to heredi- tary title, The Mamelukes did not readily propa- te their race in a foreign country, and fresh importations were eer to keep up the stock. As a rule the most powerful lord of the day became king, and kept his oeng bee so long as he retained = a Violent = were om the sultan's guard was the most essential part. of the conatitation, and held a large portion of the land of Egypt on a species of fendal tenure. Each of the great lords was a Mameluke sultan in miniature, kept a bodyguar|, lived in much state, and was generally prepared to fight his way to the throne should occasion favour the attempt. The streeta of Cairo were frequently the scenes. of sanguinary conflicts, and its citadel is full of the memories of treacherous assassinations. With all their excesses, however, it may be doubted whether Egypt ever since the days of the Pharaohs pos- sessed a more swe pee series of rulers than the Mamelukes. Their system of law and police, their military organisation and naval enterprise, their postal service, their irrigation-works and engineerin, operations were far in advance of their time ; and, rough soldiers as they appear, they were munificent »vtrons of art and literature. Nearly all the exquis- te — that still adorn Cairo, essentially the Mameluke city, are of their building, educational institutions met with their unfailing su and they carried their taste for refinement into the ~ Se ee, MAMERS MAMMALS 3 smallest details of house furniture and decoration. The museums of Europe and Cairo are full of their delicate inlaid and engraved brass-work, wood carvings, ivory reliefs, enamelled glass, tiles and stone a eae work, mosaic pavements, and silk embroideries. Their court ceremonies were with the pomp of heraldry and armour ud dazzling robes; their luxury at home was stupendous. Turks as a rule, they had _ tastes beyond the ken of the Ottoman Turks who dis- possessed them in 1517, and Egypt has not yet recovered from their loss. After the Turkish conquest the government was placed in the hands of an pasha assisted by a council ; whilst twenty-four Mameluke beys were allowed to admin- ister the provinces. The beys retained most of the wer, however, and the pasha became a cipher. eir last brilliant achievements were on the occasion of Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt in 1798, when they fought the disastrous battle of the Pyramids airo ; but after the retirement of the French and British armies Egypt became a prey to disorder, rival Mamelukes a and intri i and order was not restored until Mohammed Ali | established his authority as pasha under the ' Porte, and by two treacherous massacres, in 1805 and 1811, exterminated the Mameluke princes, save a small remnant who took refuge in the Sfidan, whére their medieval armour was recently seen by } } the British forces employed against the di. See Weil, Geschichte der Khalifen; tremére, Makrizi’s Histoire des Sultans Mandouks ; 8. e-Poole, Art of the Saracens in - luke or Slave Dynasty ( ers, a town in the French dep. of Sarthe, on the Dive, 43 miles NNE. of Le Mans. Pop. 6288. della Rovere, Count TERENZIO, took a ager jf so in the accession of Gregory XVIL., and was compelled to flee to Paris, whence he to Rome in 1848 after the unconditional amnesty of Pius LX., and actually held office for three months in the papal ministry. He next with- og Re aia bag he og a Gioberti, society for “| ian unity. On the flight of Pius LX. from cine to Gaeta he Sk bn the political a = was for a — oreign minister in the revolutionary cabinet of Galetti. On the fall of Rome he retired to Genoa ; in 1856 he was returned member of the Sardinian parliament, and in 1860 entered Cavour’s ministry as minister of Instruction. He was inted ambassador to Greece in 1861, to Swit- zer’ in 1865, and died at Rome, 21st May 1885. Among his writings are Del Rinnovamento della ; antica Italiana (1836), Poeti dell? Eta media , ( Del Papato (1851), Confessioni d'un Metafisico ar Teorica della Relisione e dello Stato (1868), Relivione dell’ Avenir (1879), besides books on ! social and phi ical probl and treati ous subjects. See his Life by Gaspari (1887). Mammals (Mammalia, Lat. mamma, ‘a teat’) form what is usually considered the highest class of backboned animals, including numerous orders, of which horse, elephant, and whale, dog, beaver, and bat, an ent = man himsel — differ- ent wa nt illustrative types. mpared with birds, mammals are most Bel dhatscter- aay? Sir W. Muir, The Mame- special on vari- ised by the r development of their brains, and by the ¢ connection between mother and offspring; but in both these respects there are of excellence. Thus, the Monotremes (see ; RHYNCHUS, and EcHIDNA) have simple brains and lay CRS the Marsnpials (q.v.) have also lagged behind in cerebral development and | bring their young precocionsly after a short gestation; while in the higher orders there are Many steps in the perfecting of brains and wits, and in the evolution of the organic connection between the unborn young and the mother. The habitats are also very varied, for though the great majority are terrestriul—burrowers, runners, leapers, and climbers, a thoroughly aguatic habit is exhib- ited by the cetaceans, the sea-cows, the seals and walruses, and many genera here and there, while the bats have the power of true flight, and many swooping forms, such as the flying opossums, squirrels, and lemurs are more or less aérial (see FLYING ANIMALS). Similarly as regards food there is great variety, for fruit and insects, fish and herbs, roots and flesh, are all utilised, and the diversity of diet is associated with marked differ- ences in Dentition (q.v.). About 2300 living pig have been recorded, varying in size from the smallest harvest-mouse, which is scarcely the weight of a halfpenny, to the giant whales, which approach 100 feet in ies h. General Characters.—It will be useful to refer to the article Brrp, where the three highest classes of vertebrates are contrasted ; but a more detailed summary is now necessary. Female mammals always nourish their young for some time after birth with the milk produced by the mammary glands. Except in the oviparous Monotremes, the young are born viviparously ; and in all mammals above Marsupials the embryo in the womb is organically connected with the mother by means of a Placenta (q.v.). The skin always bears at least some hairs, and these usually cover the whole body, so that most mammals may be justly called furred quadrupeds. ‘In body-temperature, which is some index to the pitch of the life, mammals, though inferior to birds, are emphatically warm-blooded; and in this connection we may notice that a complete muscular partition (midriff or diaphragm ) separates the breast from the abdom- inal cavity. The lungs lie freely and are invested by (pleural) sacs; the heart is four-chambered and gives off a single aortic arch to the /eft side (to the right in birds); the red blood-corpuscles are non- nucleated when fully formed. e parts of the adult brain show a greater curvature than in lower forms, while the cerebral hemispheres predominate, become more and more convoluted, and are united Yd an important bridge called the corpus callosum. xcept in Monotremes, the rectal and the urino- genital apertures are separate ; and, with the same | exception, the ova are small and poor in yolk, and undergo total segmentation. The skeletal charac- teristics are necessarily more technical, but it is important to notice that the skull moves not on one condyle as in birds and reptiles, but on two as in amphibians ; the lower jaw is a single bone on . each side, and articulates not with the quadrate as in Sauropsida but with the squamosal ; a chain of three ear-ossicles (malleus, ineus, and stapes, prob- ably equivalent to the articular, quadrate, and pe or hyo-mandibular of lower forms) con- nects the drum with the internal ear; the teeth, rarely quite absent, are set in distinct sockets ; the vertebree of the neck are (with three exceptions) seven in number; the coracoid bone (except in Monotremes ) is a mere process of the scapula ; and so on. As the various systems are dealt with in special articles (see BRAIN, CIRCULATION, Harr, KULL, &c.), it seems unnecessary to expand the above summary. The Sub-classes of Mammals.—Tn 1816 De Blain- ville divided mammals into three sub-classes, which snbsequent investigation has firmly established. The two orders of Monotremes (duckmole and Echidna) and of Marsupials (kangaroo, opossum, &e.) he raised to the rank of sub-classes under the titles ee (lit. ‘ bird-wombed ’) and Didelphia (lit. ‘double-wombed’), in contrast to all the other mammals, which he termed Monodelphia. ft rs) & | i i . = i : Me it : HEEES it ( i 3 ih i i te FE raf fe g if A Scrotum, ff ps a slight cloaca. Ureters . usually one scro-| lies behind the penis. dactyle forms—horse, tapir, Proboscideans or elephants, (c) the unique Hyrax, and (d) the Even-toed or Artiodaetyle —sheep cattle, chevrotains, cam } potamus, and pigs. But with the Ungulates are many reasons for connecting two other or the CeTacea (9)—whales and dolphin: RODENTIA (10)—rats, hares, squirrels, &c. Fit along a third branch, which probably had its in a stock common to the Ungulates on t } hand, to the Carnivores and Insectivores on the other, we have to place the LEMUROIDEA (11) lemurs—and the PRIMATES (12), the latter in ing the marmosets, the New-World monkey Old- World monkeys, and man himself, Extinct Mammals,—(a) The oldest mam remains date from the Upper Trias—i, .| near the ning of the Mesozoic or Se system. 18, ents of a small ani known as Dromatherinm anggest a primitive oO une J ancestral to the notremes. orders along three definite lines, One of these is | rewarded the unwearying researches of especially marked by the Canxtvona (5)—cate, | Marsh. (d) In the beginnin ertiary and seale—to which the INseCTIVORA | period, however, most of the modern orders of mam- . (6 moles, shrews —are tly | mals have put in an appearance, and,asone would these in turn lead to the divergent expect, there are remains of many types which TF (7) or bate, and to an aberrant | form the common base of branch ni ’ genus—the flying lewur or Galeopithecus, for | divergent. Thus, the Orecdonta (cs Hynowien : ; an — MAMMALS 5 and Proviverra) are primitive Carnivora, which show skeletal affinities with Marsupials and Insec- tivores. Not = a pmaees _ the Condylarthra e.g. Phe us and Periptychus), rimitive Ungulates showing affinities Wh Asti. les and Perissodactyles, with Hyracoidea and ese the Creodonta) with Carnivores, and ( ig to Cope) even with the Lemurs. In the same way the paleontologists find transitions between Insectivorous, Lemuroid, and Creodont en Perissodactyles and Proboscidea ( ta and aro ), between Rodents and Ungulates (Mesotherium and Toxodon). So, too, a common base has been found for dogs and bears, for pigs and sheep, for deer and chevrotains ; but it is enough for our purpose to emphasise the fact, which rapidly progressive research continually corroborates, that in early Tertiary times there persisted numerous generalised mammals which = many of the e risties of our extant ers. , Distribution in —Referring to the article on GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION for the general results reached by the labours of Murray, Wallace, Sclater, and others, we shall content ourselves with a few illustrations showing the importance of the inquiry in aol tomammals. Perhaps the most striking of tl concerns the great insular region of Australasia, where, with the exception of some bats and marine mammals which transcend the usual limits, of some rats and mice, and of forms intro- duced man, the whole mammalian fauna con- sists of pials and Monotremes. As all extant Marsupials, with the exception of the American opossums, are now Aust! ian, and as fossil remains of the sub-class are found as far away as we have here one of the most remark- vont ep of grad ry Sorenoggt omy of A saving resu geologi or, whatever the precise details may be, there seems no doubt that geological insulation saved the Marsupial immi- grants to Australia from the jaws of their pursuers. In the Lemuroid group, again, we find ‘one of the most r phenomena in geographical dis- tribution.’ For out of a total of fifty species thirty are contined to the one island of Mada- guncar, the remainder occurring through tropical and in restricted portions of India and the Malay Islands—facts from which it is fairly con- eluded that in the insulated Madagascar ‘the lowly ip greeny Lemuroids diverged into specialised forms of their own peculiar type, while on the continents they have to a great extent become » or have maintained their existence in « few cases in islands or in mountain-ranges.’ The Edentata (sloths and ant-eaters) have also @ very restricted distribution in modern times, for, with the exception of the scaly ant-eaters or Manide (Ethiopian and oriental in range) and the African aardvark, the home of the order is in South America, where, moreover, in Pliocene times there flourished a giant race ‘rivalling in bulk the rhinoceros and 2 gig ome Just as naturally as terrestrial mammals are absent from Oceanic islands, so the aquatic Cetaceans have a world-wide distribution, and the Sirenians almost as wide as required conditions of temperature will admit. But it must be clearly noted that when we follow in detail the distribu- tion even of bats, whose great powers of flight free them from the limitations im on terrestrial mammals, we find that the inhabitants of special regions are usually marked off with perfect de- finiteness, The same local definiteness holds true of the world-wide (Australia always excepted ) distribution of Ungulates, Rodents, and Carni- vores, and is signally illustrated, for instance, in the complete absence of Insectivora from South America alone, or in the striking differences between Old and New World monkeys. Development.—The ova, which are small and poor in yolk except in Monotremes, burst from the ovaries into the upper ends of the oviducts, may be fertilised by ascending spermatozoa, and with the above exception develop in the lower portion of the female duct known as the uterus. In the ovi- ote Monotremes the entation is partial, ike that of birds and reptiles; in all the others the segments completely. The development roceeds in a fashion somewhat different in detail m that of the other vertebrates, but it is more important to notice that in the Placentals a close vascular connection is speedily established between the embryo and the wall of the uterus. In the hedgehog, which is a remarkably central type, this connection is first of all maintained neg RY) by the outermost layer of the developing egg; but this is soon abetted by a union between the yolk-sac and the maternal wall, which in turn gives place to the true a mainly due to the Allantois (q.v.). The final result is an interlocking of the maternal tissue with that of the foetal membranes, and the whole life of the embryo depends on the intimacy of this interlocking, by which the blood of the mother is vitally though not directly united with that of the offspring. At birth the union is severed, and the embryonic part of the placenta, with more or less of the associated lining of the uterus, is discharged. The form and structure of the placenta vary considerably in different orders, and have furnished important aid in determining relationship. Of mammals as of other animals it is true that the individual development recapitu- lates, in general outline, the history of the race, for the life begins at the beginning again in a single cell, divides into a ball of cells, acquires a layered body, and passes from stage to stage pre- senting successively the general features of a verte brate, of a reptilian (?), of a simple mammal, of an insectivore, and finally of a young hedgehog. ° Nursing remains somewhat crude in the oviparous Monotremes, which are destitute of teats, but the embryos have a considerable store of yolk which serves as preliminary capital. The eggs of the duckmole are laid in a nest, those of the Echidna seem to be borne in a temporary pouch suggesting that of Marsupials. In both cases the young lic the bare patch of skin on which the mammary lands open. The non-placental Marsupials are, in a sense, as Professor Flower says, ‘the most mammalian of mammals,’ since most of them car their prematurely-born young in an external pouch surrounding the teats, whence the milk is forced into their passive mouths. In the placental mammals the young are born in a more advanced state, though still requiring much care. They are able MAMMALS i E E iT ie io Es tiled rebeeiie PEE etl : E UEP i ‘la a | if general truth in mammals not so much new acquisitions as reconstructions and elaborations of what ix old, important mammary glands ta is chiefly all young calloeum, which forms a bridge cerebral pe net is already repre- and amphibians. So, too, there is evidence of the very gradual evolution of are and structures—witness the long * ta the E Eohi a five- three. toed magelate, about the size of a the modern wae (9,¥-1 see also Foor); of brains from the small casts skulls of some of the early giants ard to i? Fit : i F FE te rj is FF HH ai fF E F - | Mars , dak of Antlers (q.¥.) - | distribution, in eliminat- of | tion of mammals has to | to euch t as are exhibited by Monotreme pial, and from these upwards to in man; or the ual Miocene times on- wards, a history aerey recapitulated in the life Recewr, of modern stags. But Equus. | after realising the gradual development of types and structures, and appreciat- ing the influence of natural selection in determining PLIocENE, | Pliohippus. in iants, in fostering sw ig and —_— and in justifying _ bi brains, many naturalists still find the problem of the evolution of mammals incompletely solved. It seems b to follow M the school “3 a Be recognising the inheritable effects of yr and effort, and the influence of a changeful environment on the progressive growth ‘of the organism in definite directions. Furthermore, an account of the evolu- re take account of one of the most prominent char- acteristics, the — sacrifice expressed in the placental union, in the prolonged gestation (em- Fig. 2.—Fore and Hind Feet hasi many years ago of the Hose and its ex- “= Robert Chambers), and _ tinct Ancestors. in the lacteal nutrition after birth, a sacrifice which must have been one of the most important factors in the progress of mammals, After a while the encanndalaal mater- nity toutes pathological at first and always v : x fof SSS SS SS oS OS SOE ~ or justified itself ; mut its ition as ‘a subordination of xelf- preserving to species- maintaining, of nutritive struggle to reprodnetive sacrifice,’ is a necessary corrective to the preva- lent theory which tends to emphasise too exclu- sively the competitive struggle for ividual ex Intelligence and General Life.—Through | the mammalian series, from the * frog-witted duckmole to the highest of the Primates, there is “a gradual increase in complexity of brains and quickness of wits, i Bmcaciger 9 A aed ntelligence of the dog, the cleverness the rage Rb ory the ingenuity the social beavers, and the ‘humanness’ of the higher apes are crowning illus- trations which become all the more remarkable when we recall the minute brains of early mammals. A contrast between those types which excel and those which lag behind will also illustrate Spencer's : i { Se on a tt a MAMMARY GLAND MAMMOTH CAVE i conclusion that the rate of reproduction varies inversely with the de; of individuation, for in the more highly-developed forms the number of pam em | tends to diminish, while the parental care love proportionally increase. The adapta- tions to diverse habits and diets, the varying length of life and the means of avoiding death, the migra- tions of some and the hibernations of others, the struggle for mates as well as for food, the evolution of family-life and even of social. sympathies are subjects of inquiry which will well repay observa- tion and further study of mammals. .._ For general works on mammals, see British Museum Quadrupeds (2d ed. ) Lond. 1874); Vi and Specht, Mammals (trans. Edin. 1887); 's Nat. Hist., vols. i.-iii., ed. by P. Martin Duncan; The Riverside or Standard Natural History, vol. v., ed. by J. 8. Kingsley (Lond. and New York, 1888). The last mentioned has a general biblio- graphy. A treasury both of information and illustra- tion is to be found in Brehm’s Thierleben (new ed. H Hatchett Ji and Flower’s Osteology of the Mam- madlia (3d ed., along with Gadow, Lond. 1885). For his- tory and evolution of mammals, see W. K. Parker, Mam- malian Descent ( Lond. 1884); O. Schmidt, Mammalia in relation to Primeval Times ( Inter. Sc. Series, Lond. 1885) ; the rs of Cope and Marsh in the Re of the U.S. Geol. Survey; Nicholson and Lydekker, Manual of Paleontology ( Edin. 1889); the relevant works of Dar- win, Wallace, Haeckel, &c.; Huxley, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond. 1880); Cope’s Origin of the Fittest (New York, 1887). For distribution, see A. Murray, Geogr. Dist. of Mammals ( Lond. 1866); A. RK. Wallace, Geogr. Dist. of is) (Lond. 1876); Heilprin (Inter. Se. Series, Lond. Mammary Glands. See Breasts. Mammee Apple (Mammea americana), a highly-esteemed fruit of the West Indies (where it is sometimes called the Wild Apricot) and tropical America, It is produced by a beautiful tree of the natural order Guttifers, to 70 feet high. The fruit is roundish, from the size of a hen’s to that of a small melon, with a thick, leathery rind, a very delicate inner rind adhering closely to the pulp, which must be carefully removed on account of its bitter taste. The pulp is firm and bright yellow, with a peculiar sweet and very agree- able taste, and a pleasant aromatic odour.—A similar fruit is produced by Mammea africana, an African species. Mammoth, thename (originally Tartar, through the Russian ) for an extinct elephant ( Zlephas primi- genius), whose remains are sufficiently common in the recent deposits of northern Europe and Asia to afford a valuable supply of fossil ivory. In geo- logical time, it is only as it were yesterday that the mammoth ceased to live, for its remains are often found along with those of man, and it seems to have Sega in Britain until after the Glacial Period. he cave-dwellers made use of its tusks, and on these too the historic artists—the literal old masters—eut with no tyro hand the outlines of reindeer and various animals, including the mam- moth itself. But the comparatively recent decease of this monster elephant has been repeatedly evi- denced in a startling way by the discovery in Siberia of almost intact specimens, standing up- right in the ice and frozen soil, with hair and skin, muscles and vi as well as bones, all well preserved. The first fairly complete mammoth recorded was disinterred from the ice near the mouth of the Lena in 1806; the fisherman who discovered it had overcome his awe to the extent of cutting off the tusks, wild animals had gnawed the muscles, but the hair was still on the uninjured parts of the skin, the brain in the skull, and the eyes still stared from their sockets. Others have since been disinterred, or washed out in great thaws, notably one in 1846 which was so marvel- lously preserved that the stomach still showed young shoots of fir and pine, and a quantity of chewed cones. Great numbers that we know nothing of must have been similarly thawed out, and their frozen coi swept seaward to swell the accumulations of their remains found in the Arctic seas. Their disinterment after thaws ex- plains the old Siberian opinion that the mammoths were monster burrowers, which died when they came to the surface, while the upright position in which the intact forms have been found suggests that they had been smothered where they were buried by sinking heavily into the tundra marsh. Though mammoths in complete preservation are rare, their tusks, teeth, and other bones have been found in great abundance from almost every county in England to Behring Strait, and thence into North America. ‘The whole appearance of the animal,’ one of the discoverers writes, ‘was fearfully wild and strange. Our elephant is an awkward animal, but compared with this mammoth it is as an Arabian 8 to a coarse ugly dray-horse.’ It stood 13 feet high, 15 feet in length, with tusks 8 feet long ; but some other specimens seem to have been larger. The dark skin was covered with yellowish to reddish soft wool about an inch long, with inter- spersed brownish hairs of 4 inches, and much sparser and longer black bristles. ‘The giant was thus well protected against the cold.’ The mammoth was liker the Indian than the African survivor, but it is only one of a crowd of fossil Proboscidea dis- tributed in Tertiary deposits over all the great continents. Mammoth, Mastodon, and Dinothe- rium are the three most prominent types. Most of them were giant animals, but there seem also to have been pigmies no larger than sheep, Once numerous and widespread, the elephants are now represented only by the two modern species of restricted distribution. To this result many factors, such as, the voracity of Carnivores, the deforesting of countries, the changes of climate, and the expen- siveness of great bulk, have contributed. he ivory exported in large quantities from Siberia is in great part collected from the islands, some of which are almost literally heaps of mammoth bones. See ELEPHANT; also, for facts, not inferences, H. H. Howorth’s Mammoth and the Flood (1887); Norden- skiéld’s Voyage of the Vega; Boyd Dawkins, in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. XX XV. (1879). Mammoth Caye, in Kentucky, is 85 miles by rail SSW. of Louisville. The cave is about 10 miles long ; but it is said to require upwards of 150 miles of travelling to explore its mu)titudinous — 1 ~~ — 7a a — — MAN ate ey covered oe contina- incrustation of tuost beau orystals ; stalactites and stalagmites abound. There are several lakes or rivers connected with Green River with the river, hays es slowly, so that are ge mpassable fae re the year. ‘the nat is Echo River, three-fourths of a mile Jong, and in some places 200 feet wide. The air of the cave is pare; the temperature is constant at about 54°. There is an elaborate work on The Mammoth Cave of Kentucky by H. C. Howey and R. BE. Call (1897); for = woo works cited at Cave; A. S. Packard, itente of the Mammoth Cave (1872); and a memoir on “The Cave Fauna of North America’ (1588). As the races of mankind, the structure and of the human body, and the higher activities most distinctive of man are discussed in | articles, it is enough here to restrict atten- to three problema; (1) the human charac- teristics, (3) the origin or descent of man, and (3) the antiquity of the race. (1) istice,-Considered like any other » man ie strictly the highest of the from the anthropoid only in degree. In adult life he is anique in his erect ee ee of his hands from any share in His body is unusuall canine neighbours, his thumle are larger and more oppos- able than those of monkeys, and his feet are dis- tinguished by the horizontal sole which resta flatly on the ground, by the projecting heel, and by the great toe which normally lies quite to the others. His face is notably more vertical bre that of apes, lying below rather than the the orbits, and the ridges above them are relatively ler; the nose-bones project more beyond the upper jaw; and the chin ix more prominent than in other Primgtes, A — _ Lag yon characteristic, however, is involved in the fact that normal brain of an adult man is more than f twiee as heavy as that of the nearest monkeys, for this structural advance ix an index to that intellectual and emotional development which talses even the _. many degrees above the brute, and which in ite highest realisation is still | fall of Therefore, while all naturalists allow, with Professor Owen, that there is ‘an all- t that in intelligence, emotions, conduct man is pre-eminent. Bat, apart from these zoological considerations, d in on yr son to eo seelalls Brita, results to haman ( om ¥ British) charac- eee dete from the Report (1890) of the Ant Committee of the British Associa- tion, mm, the average height of man is 5 ft. St in., the Polynesians leading the way with an nna 1d 5 ft, 9°33 in., the English professional tla: following with 5 ft. 9°14 in., and #0 on, down Fpcheang <3 similitude of structure’ between the man body and that of the anthropoid apes, there ie equal con © the Baslinen, who average 4 ft. 478 in. | As to | the adalt population of Hritain, in height the Sevteh stand first (68%) in,), the Irish second is in,), the Englieh third (67-26 in.), and the leh leet (00°06 in), the avernye being 67°66 in, The Seoteh are also first in weight (165-3 Ih.), the Welsh second (1585 Ib.) the Bngliah third (155 Irish fourth (154°1 1b.), the average being a typical adult Englishman | 5 ft. 7h in, a chest girth of 4161 in, a rE ele 20 eeu 18 1b., and is able to draw, as in drw a bow, a weight of 774 lb. As to the sexes (in ), the average male stature and weight is 67°36 in. and 155 Ib., as against 62°65 in. and 122°8 1b. for the women. Moreover, the men are about twice as strong. For further results, many of which are of profound practical suggestiveness, the rt should be consulted. (2) Origin or Descent of Man.—Even when we confine our attention to the opinions of those who accept the theory of evolution as a modal explana- tion of nature, we are in fairness bound to some diversity of opinion in regard to the origin of man. (a) So unique does he appear to some that his descent from a humbler organism seems in- credible—a position in favour of which some arga- ments will be found in the cited works of A. de Quatref; (4) Alfred Russel Wallace and others. ‘reject the idea of ‘special creation” for man, as being entirely nnsupported by facts, as well as in the highest degree improbable,’ yet believe that. his progress from the brute was due to introduction of new causes, or ‘spiritual influxes,’ to which the higher human characteristics owe their origin. (ec) The majority of naturalists deem this h thesis of special spiritual inflax inconsistent with the continuity of evolution, which they regard as a ‘natural’ process, self-sufficient throughout, for the origin of man as for other grand results, The ments which go to show that man is descended from a simpler animal are, of cou the same as those which substantiate the gene theory. Thus, his structure and functions are not demonstrably different in kind from those of the nearest Primates; he develops from a fertilised egg-cell, and passes through successively higher grades of organisation in a manner which seems. only interpretable as the recapitulation of ancestral history ; he varies as other animals do, is subject to. similar diseases, and exhibits numerous reversions and rudimentary structures which are enigmas, except on the theory that he had his origin from an ape-like stock. How his evolution was brought about is a problem requiring much elucidation, but among the special factors which conduced to evolve his higher characteristics of wisdom and gentleness it seems reasonable to attach much importance to the necessity for cunning in the struggle with longed weakness of ay to the influences of | family life and of the indispensable combination | into larger aggregates. As to the future, if we dis- 1 minor changes—e.g. in hair and teeth, for which fashion and ‘civilisation’ are responsible— it seems almost certain, as Herbert Spencer has emphasised, that the progressive evolution of man must be restricted to intellectual and emotional qualities, (3) Antiquity of the Race.—From the human remains, and far more frequently from the play | tools, and other vestiges of human activity, fou in the more recent deposits on the earth’s surface, it is obviously legitimate, after due caution, to infer the presence of man at. the time—certalnl system—when these beds were formed. Cuvier and others tried, indeed, to avoid this conelusion— for instance, by exaggerating the power of floods in mixing up recent deposits; while Boncher de Perthes, who in 1836 discovered flint axes alon with mammoth bones in undisturbed strata 20-30 feet below the surface, had to wait almost twenty years for a fair hearing, and yet longer for decisive corroboration, Both were gained, however, and | the conversion of naturalists may be dated from 1863, when Lyell summarised the existing evidence in his Antiquity of Man. Since then the problem has been worked at with ever-increasing energy stronger mammals, to the consequences of the pro- not estimable in the years of any chronological ! . and that man was alive during the | | | | | : MAN 9 and there is now ee agreement ter stages of the glacial while there are indications of his presence in e and, according to a few, even in Miocene ages (see GEOLOGY). Older, er, than any indications of his Pliocene presence man must surely be, for zoolo- refer his origin not to any of the existing apes, as is sometimes popularly sup- to the common stock which included and his, and which had apparently to diverge in Upper Miocene times. In a way, our impression of the antiquity of increased when we remember that the most t human remains, such as the Neanderthal 1, do not take us appreciably nearer any low of man as the ancestral forms presum- exhibited. Moreover, the oldest distinct im- ts and artistic products suggest not the of beginners, but the work of men behind whom there already lay a long history. See ANTHROPOID ApEs, STONE AGE, Bronze AGE, IRON 3 | 4 4 3S Acs, Earrs, Fur Imp STOCENE, SKELE- TON, SKULL; the articles on the various continents, coun and races ; also the following articles : Adam. Creation. Longevity. ‘Animal Evolution. No Anthro; Family. Philology. Folklore. Religion. Art. Government. Sex. Biology. fe. Totem. (1881); Haeckel, trans. 1879), Hartmann, Anthropoid of oo (Inter. Humaines (1887); J. Ranke, Der Mensch (1886); T ‘ments ahoneghy con) ie Générale (1885); A. R. Wallace, Darwinism ys Wiedersheim, Man, Ise orf, is situated in the Irish Sea, 16 miles 8. of Burrow Head in Wigtownshire, 27 miles SW. of St Bees Head, and 27 E. of Strangford The length of the island is 33} miles, 124 miles, and area 145,325 acres (227 ), of which nearly 100,000 are cultivated, south-western extremity is an islet called f of Man, containing 800 acres, a large of which is under cultivation. A chain of ns extends from north-east to south-west, t of which is Snaefell (2024 feet). In streams trout abound, hong in many ve been destroyed by the washings from -mines. The coast-scenery from Maughold on the east, passing south to Peel on the west, is bold and picturesque, especially in the D le 25 ct Pre 5 tons of lead are extracted annually, considerable quantities of zinc, and smaller quantities of bel and iron ; the lead ore is very rich in quality. The mines are at Laxey on the east coast, and ox near the west. Great Laxey Mine is one of the most important in the United Kingdom. The climate is remarkable for the limited ran of temperature, both annual and diurnal ; westerly and south-westerly winds greatly predominate, easterly and north-easter’y winds occurring chiefl in the autumn quarter. Myrtles, fuchsias, an other tender exotics flourish throughout the year. The flora of the island is almost identical with that of Cumberland. The Manx cat is tailless (see CAT), The fisheries afford employment to nearly 4000 men and boys. More than 700 boats are employed in the herring and cod fisheries, the average annual agen being above £60,000. Large numbers of at cattle are shipped to the English markets, as well as about 20,000 quarters of wheat annually. The manufactures are inconsiderable. The revenue derived from the island amounts to about £50,000 r annum; of this the ter part is received rom customs duties, and the whole, except £10,000 a year payable to the imperial treasury, is used for insular purposes. The Isle of Man possesses nich to interest the antiquary. Castle Rushen (see CASTLETOWN), probably the most perfect building of its date extant, was founded by Guthred, son of King Orry, in 947. The ruins of Rushen Abbey (1154 are picturesquely situated at Ballasalla. Pee Castle, with the cathedral of St German, is a very beautiful rnin, dating from the 12th century (see PEEL). There are numerous so-called Druidical remains and Runic monuments throughout the island; the Runic crosses, of which there are some fort in all, are especially numerous at Kirk Michael. The Tynwald Hill at St John’s, near the centre of the island, is a perfect relic of Scandi- navian antiquity. Once a year new Acts of Tyn- wald are here proclaimed. The hill is artificial, circular, and arranged in four platforms. Both institution and use should be compared with the Icelandic Tingvalla. The island is divided into six sheadings ; these into seventeen parishes; these, again, were divided into treens (now obsolete), and, lastly, into quarter-lands. The towns, noticed separately, are Castletown, Douglas, the modern capital, Peel, and Ramsey. he principal line of communication with the United Kingdom is between Douglas and Liver- 1, by means of a fine fleet of swift steamers. here is a submarine telegraphic cable between Maughold Head and St Bees Head. In 1873 a line of railway was opened between Douglas and Peel ; in 1874 to Castletown and the south; and in 1879 to Ramsey—all on the single narrow-gauge system. Extensive improvements in the way of harbour- works, piers, and promenades have been carried out at Douglas, Ramsey, and Peel. Pop. (1821) 40,081 ; (1841) 47,986 ; (1871) 54,042 ; (1881) 54,089 ; (1891) 55,598 ; the smallness of the increase being attributable to emigration. Visitors number about 130,000.annually. The Roman Mona was not Man, but Anglesey. Previous to the 6th century the history of the Isle of Man is involved in obscurity ; from that period it was ruled by a line of Welsh kings, until near the end of the 9th century, when the Nor- wegian, Harald Haarfager, invaded and took pos- session of the island. A line of Scandinavian kings succeeded, until Magnus, king of Norway, ceded his right in the island and the Hebrides to Alexander III. of Scotland (1266); this trans- ference of claim being the direct result of the disastrous failure of the expedition of Haco of Norway against the Scots in 1263. On Alex- ander’s death the Manx placed themselves under the protection of Edward I. of England by a formal instrument dated 1290; on the strength of this document the kings of England granted the island to various royal favourites from time SS Se. re 4 a i 410 MAN MANASSEH time until 1406, when it was ted to, Down to the middle of the 19th cen the | Bir John Stanley in perpesaity, to be held of the | inland wan almost exempt from taxation, and con- crown of England, by rendering to the king, his | sequently looked upon as a cheap place of resi- heirs, and successors, a cast of falcons at their | dence, while its laws were available for the protec- coronation. The Stanley family continued to rale | tion of English debtors. All this has long ceased. the island under the title of Kings of Man, until | Taxation, ly imposed, has been introduced for 165 In the | i and, there is no poor island to Lord Fairfax ; the Derby family were On the death of James, a x Man having oe period t weat an extensive smaggling rom 8 the detriment of the imperial revenue, y of it was purchased by the British in 1765, for £70,000 ehureh age, &e. remaining interest of the Athol family in the island transferred to the British crown in 1829; the for the island independent convocation. i i attached to the province of York; the Gictop sits the House of Lords, but does not of Man has a constitution and govern- own, to a certain extent independent the imperial jament, It has its own laws, law-officer, courts of law, yislative body is styled the Court of Tynwald, consisting of “ greeny poe and Council—the latter ng com posed bishop, attorney-general, two deemsters (or judges), clerk of the rolls, water bailiff, arehdeacon, and vicar-general—and House of twenty-four Keys, or representa- tives A bill is so ly considered by both ng passed by them is trans- royal assent; it does not, however, become law antil it is promulgated in the English Manx on the Tynwald Hil. The House of Keys waa formerly self-elective; but in 1866 an act was passed establishing an election by the people every seven years; and a bill passed in 1889 to amend this act abolished the property qualification for members, granted household suff- rage in towns, £4 owner and £6 tenant franchise | | born at Lisbon in 1604, fled with his father from. Scandinavian. The language belongs to the Goidelic group of the Celtic languages («ee Cevts). It is now bat litth spoken, Church service in the Manx e has been discontinued since the middle of the 19th century. There is no literature beyond a few songs and carole, The Prayer-book was trans- lated into Manx in 1765, the Bible in 1772 A dictionary was compiled in 1835. Some account of the native superstitions will be found in the notes to Peveril of the Perak. ing in the condition has been much modified. See The Isleof Man, by the Rev. J.G. Cumming ; History of the Isle of ma Rearsaghde vet ligt o Guide; Chronica Regum Mannia, edited by ( Christiania, 1860); Surnames and Place ve’ a A. W. Moore, lace by Prof. Rhys (1890) ; Ginn, The Little Manx Nation (1891 ); and the publica- tions of the Manx Society (19 vols. 1858-68), Manaar’, Gur or, lies between Ceylon and the Madras coast, and is closed on the north by a low reef of rocks and islands called Adam’s Its extreme width is nearly 200 miles. The is famous for its pear]-fisheries. Manacor’, « town of Majorca, in a fertile plain, 30 miles E. of Palma by rail. Pop. 14,929. Mana’gua, the capital of Nica , lies ina fertile district, on the teats shore of Lake Managua, 53 miles by rail SE. of Leon, and has perhaps 10,000 inhabitants. For the lake, see LEON. Manakin, 4 name applied to various birds of the South American group of Chatterers (see CHAT- TERER), amongst others to the Cock of the Rock. See also COTINGA. Manaos, capital of the state of Amazonas, in the republic of Brazil, is on the Rio Negro, 12 miles above its confluence with the Amazon. An ugly, whitewashed cathedral rises in the centre of the town, which also boasts a custom-house, a tiny fort, and a military hospital. It is a steamboat | station, and has a considerable trade in various forest-products, but principally in india-rubber. | The population, though often stated at 25,000 | to’ 30,000, is under 12,000. | Manassas, formerly MANASSAS JUNCTION, a | village close to Bull Run (q.v.). The Confederates | called their two victories here the first-and second battles of Manassas, | Manasseh, the name of the eldest son of | Joseph. The tribe of Manasseh received land on | both sides of the Jordan (see PALESTINE),—MAN- | ASSEH was also the name of one of the kings of | Judah (the fourteenth), who succeeded his father | Hezekiah, 697 or 699 B.C., at the age of twelve, and reigned, according to the narrative, for fifty- five years, He rubel headlong into all manner of idolatry, and seduced the people to follow his example. Carried prisoner to Babylon, he re- pented, and his prayer was heard (2 Chron. xxxiii.). ~The apocryphal composition called the Prayer o Manasses, found in some MSS. of the Septuagint, was never positively received as canonical. Manassch ben Israel, Jewish scholar, was | the Inquisition, and settling at Amsterdam became chief rabbi of the synagogue there. In 1656 he | Visited England, seeking to secure (see Jews, Vol. | VL. p. 328) from Cromwell the readmission of the Jews. He died at Middelburg in 1657. He pub- lished texts of various parts of the Old Testament, with notes; De Creatione Problemata XXX. (1635); | De la Resurreccion de los Muertes (1636); De Ter- mino Viter (1639); Experanca de Israel (1650); Vin- _ dicie Judaworum, or a Letter in Answer to i propounded (Lond. 1656); and Humble Address to aoe Protector on behalf of the Jewish Nation (1656). MANATEE MANCHESTER 11 Manatee (Manatus), one of the ‘sea-cows’ or Sirenia, allied to the Dugong (q.v.) and to the extinct Rhytina. Two species, very like one another in structure and habit, are distinguished, M. australis, in the rivers and estuaries of the Atlantic side of tropical South America, and M. senegalensis, in the Senegal and other rivers of West Africa. ag are gregarious, inoffensive, sluggish mammals, browsing on alge, fresh-water weeds, and even shore-plants. In regard to their breeding and parturition information is still re- qui t we know that the mothers show much affection for the young, and protect them in danger. In h the manatee measures from 10 to 12 feet; the colour of the thick, wrinkled, hairless hide is dark bluish gray, lighter as usual on the ventral surface. The upper lip bears a rounded knob, and there are yellow bristles about the mouth; the eyes are small and deeply sunk, and the nostrils are valved slits at the end of the snout. From the dugongs they differ in having a thicker body and a st ter head, with the jaws but slightly eurved, in the rounded or shovel-like shape a the tail, and in the presence of rudimentary nails on the fore-limbs, to the hand-like form of which the word Manatee refers. They differ also in more technical characters—e.g. in the very exceptional occurrence of six instead of seven neck vertebrie, and in the Dentition (q.v.), which in the adult manatee is represented by horny pads replacin molars, of which, however, only § are in use at a time. The manatee, though ming searcer, is still harpooned or otherwise caught, being valued on account of its palatable flesh, its abundant fat, and its strong skin. Gentle and affectionate, it readily admits of being tamed, and living speci- mens have been successfully transported to the Zoo in London. See Ducone; and also the memoirs by Murie and Garrod in the T'rans. Zool. Soc., vols. viii. x. xi. Manbhum, a district forming the eastern part of Chota Nagpore (q.v.). Manby, Georce WILLIAM, inventor of life- saving or for shipwrecked persons, was born in 1765, at Hilgay, near Downham Market in Norfolk, served in the militia, and became barrack-master at Yarmouth in 1803. In 1808 he sueceeded, with apparatus designed by him, in sav- ing the lives of crew of the brig Elizabeth. A career of usefulness was thus commenced, which he followed for the remaining forty-six years of his life. He repeatedly received grants of money from parliament. He died November 18, 1854. It was estimated that, the time of his death, nearly 1000 persons had been rescued from stranded ships means of his apparatus. See LiFE-SAVING ARATUS. Mancha, LA, a district of Spain, the southern- most part of the old kingdom of New Castile, com- prising most of the present province of Ciudad ; With parts of , Toledo, and Cuenca (see CASTILE). It is the country of the ever-memor- able Don Quixote, his squire Sancho Panza, and of the peerless Dulcinea del Toboso. Manche (‘sleeve’), a maritime department in the north-west of France, formed from the old pro- vince of Normandy, derives its name from La Manche (the English Channel), which washes its rocky coasts. Greatest length, 81 miles; average breadth, 28 miles; area, 9 sq.m. Pop. (1886) 520,865 ; (1891) 513,815. The climate is mild but humid. Cereals, flax, hemp, beetroot, and fruits are extensively cultivated. Immense quantities of apples are grown, from which 28,000,000 gallons of cider are made annuelly. Horses of the true Norman breed are reared, and excellent cattle and sheep are fed on the extensive pastures. There are valuable granite quarries. The depart- ment is divided into the six arrondissements of 8+ L6, Coutances, Valognes, Cherbourg, Avranchies, and Mortain. Capital, St L6. The port of Cher- bourg and the rock of St Michel ( with its celebrated abbey ) belong to this department. Manchester (Sax. Mameestre), a corporate and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, was elevated to the dignity of a city in 1847, by bein made the see of a bishop, and confirmed by roya charter in 1853. It is situated in the hundred of Salford, on the east bank of the Irwell. Salford is on the opposite bank; and the two boroughs, connected by sixteen bridges (besides railway viaducts), may be considered one city. Manchester is the acknow- ledged centre of the most extensive manufacturing district in the world, and is remarkable from being surrounded by a ring of populous suburban town- ships formed from the overflow of its population. Within a few miles there is a second circle of towns, with populations ranging from 10,000 to 50,000. Ata radius of 30 miles is another cluster of towns, nearly all of them manufacturing, and to all of which there is easy and frequent access by tramways, canals, and railways. anchester is 187 miles NNW. of London, 31 E. of Liverpool, 51} SE. of Lancaster, 84 N. of Birmingham, 685 NW. of York, 48} SW. of Leeds, 414 NW. of Sheffield, and 40 NE. of Chester. The growth of the popula- bea of the two boroughs is shown in the following table : Salford, Total. 14,477 89,752 102,449 405,831 124,801 475,990 176,235 600,036 198,136 703,479 By the City Extension Act ot 1885 the Babes mentary boundaries were greatly extended, and later an agitation was begun in various suburban townships for incorporation. Five of these were already incorporated with Manchester in 1890, and others were expected to become incorporated. The city was made a county borough under the Act of 1888, he area of the parliamentary borough (comprising eleven townships and parts of two others) is 20 sq. m., and that of Salford 8 sq. m. Both boroughs were enfranchised by the Reform Bill of 1832, Manchester returning two members and Salford one member to parliament. The Reform Bill of 1867 gave Manchester three and Salford two members. Since 1885 Manchester returns six and Salford three members to parlia- ment. At present Manchester and Salford, and a large portion of the suburban population, are supplied with water collected on the slopes of Blackstone Edge, distant about 20 miles. The water-works possess a total og rg of 3,828,000,000 gallons, and the average daily supply is about 25,000,000 gallons. In view of the rapid increase of the population the city council purchased Thirlmere (q.v.), in Cumberland, giving a further supply of 50,000,000 gallons daily. The water is conveyed by aqueduct and tunnels (completed in 1894; see AQuEDUCT) to Bolton, and most of the remaining 60 —_— a — .. = MANCHESTER iron pipes t roads, The first contract of 6 m ger 1h mile of open cutting was let in The egpenetnd ry Pig a with = o~, t propert: he » sw Saree claims to have been first local authority to obtain powers to supply poidic light. te average £105,480, oat of whicli £25,000 is paid over for ci tinery of manor courts, boron —— con- stables, and unpai istrates, tax oll were on all adin ght into the markets. During that year (1845) these manorial privileges ue. bonehé for £200,000, In 1845-46 a public subscription founded three parks of about 30 acres each, and shortly after a fourth of 60 acres was mided. There are now in Manchester and Salford eleven *, giving seven for the former and four for the latter, with eight recreation grounds, cover- ing al her 300 acres. Manchester was also the first to take advantage in 1852 of the churehes, a Greek Chureh (q.v.), and an Armenian church. See ARMENIA, Vol. L, page 425. The principal buildings for secular are, first, the sige Se 6 A) hiss ag = com pleted in 1 original es' or - Ce was £750,000 ; it has, however, cost £1,053,000, and occupies an area of 8648 — yards, It is a Gothic structure and triangular in form, built of brick, faced with freestone, and at some parts with xranite ; and is, it is claimed, the finest building in the world devoted to purely municipal pu The great hall is decorated with remarkable ictures illustrating the history of Manchester, by Madox Brown (q.v.). The clock-tower, 286 feet high, contains a tine of twenty-one bells. In the Royal Infirmary, first used in 1755, as many as 32,000 patients are treated annually, and there is an average of 25 accident cases admitted daily. The Royal Institution is a noble Doric edifice by Barry, built at a cost of £30,000, and contains a gallery of paintings, a school of design, and a lecture theatre, it was erected in 1825-30, its object being to diffuse a taste for the fine arts by exhibit- ing works of art of the highest den) class, and to encourage literary and scientific pursuits by means of popular courses of lectures, The walls of the entrance-hall are decorated with casts of the Elgin Marbles, presented by George IV. A fine statue of Dalton by Chantrey is placed in the hall. The Royal Exchange (1864-74), an wea building in the Italian style, has a meet- ing-hall said to be the largest in the United Kingdom—area, 5170 uare yards, It is 120 feet wide without intermediate supports. Tuesdays and Fridays are the chief days for business, and on these days its immense area is densely covered. The Free-trade Free Libraries Act. Perhaps none of the great towns in Britain is better furnished with jood libraries and reading-rooms than Manchester, all ided within a few years, There are six branch libraries with reading-rooma, and also additional roome for boys, The Free Reference Library in King Street has 198,000 volumes. Salford has four | 100 feet branch |i , With reading-rooms and a museum ; | while Manchester in 1800 received a park, library, and museam from the Whitworth tees, to be incorporated with the Technical Sc and-School of Art. There are besides eighteen private libraries, some connected with other institutions. The Chetham Library, founded by Humphrey Chetham sb ld ha 1653, contains 30,000 volumes, with many rare ks and manuscripts, and was the first free library in England. The John Ryland’s Library comprises famous Althorp collection, pre- sented to the town in 1892 by the widow of a Man- chester millionaire. Mention may be made also of the Athenwum, al Exchange, Portico, and Law i . &e. The two boroughs have about 162 churches belonging to the Establishment, The Cathedral, formerly known as the Collegiate Chareh, but now ealled the * Old Church ' (built. in 1422), is ‘a fine Gothie stractare, and between 1845 and 1808 underwent complete restoration in ite style. It comprises a perfect stalled choir of exquisite beauty, a retrochoir, lady chapel, lateral chapels, chapter-house, and a tower 139 fect high, with ten belle. There are 2% Roman Catholic 398 dimenting chapels, some of which are very fine specimens of modern Gothic architec. ture, There are 5 Jewish synagogues, 5 German Hall (1856) holds 5000 le and is a memorial of the agitation which seated in the repeal of the corn laws. The ‘Peterloo — Massacre” took place on its site. The Assize Courts (1864), by Waterhouse, are a splendid ——— of Gothic architecture, and cost £100,000. he t hall is a magnificent apartment, bein long, 484 broad, and 75 feet high. A the arrangements of the court are padbor, sa as nearly perfect as possible. The Literary and Philosophical oe rer), in George Street, has a valuable scientific ibrary and a chemical laboratory, and publishes memoirs, On its roll are many distinguished names, i eluding Drs Henry and Percival, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas de Quincey, John Dalton, Eaton Hodgkin- son, Sir W. Fairbairn, Sir James Whitworth, James Nasmyth, and Dr Joule. There are about seventy other societies and institutions of various kinds in Manchester, many of them of very high standing. The statues and monuments in Manchester are | numerous, and vary considerably in order of merit. On the Infirmary Esplanade are four statues—the Duke of deg oes Sir R. Peel, Watt, and Dalton. The Al Memorial stands in Albert Square, where are also statues of ne Fraser, of Dr Joule (1891), and of John Bright (also in 1891). In front of the town-hall is one of Oliver Heywood (1894) ; there is one of Cobden in St Anne’s Square, Ham Chetham in the Cathedral, and of Cromwell near the entrance of Victoria Street, The facilities for education in Manchester have been eroetly extended and improved within recent years. The Grammar-school is the most ancient, and 1880 a al charter was of Victoria University, - the colleges, : MANCHESTER 15 was founded 1515. Its but the possession of certain mills on the Irk—a vent Ang the Irwell—soon gave the school a substan revenue. In 1825 the report of the Charity Commissioners showed that the total income of the Grammar-school Trust had reached @ sum ex ing £4000 per annum. In 1868 the igi plan the founder was altered, and the new scheme, as sanctioned by the Court of Chancery, is the admission of 100 boys at twelve guineas a year each, the remainder being on the foundation, and the school is enlar, to accommodate 350 boys, In Brasenose College, Oxford, there are four scholarships belonging to this school, and eighteen others of which it has every third turn. In St John’s College, Cam- bridge, it has, in turn with two other schools, a sc bridge, it S eaints twenty-two scholarships. There is also a ital Chetham, Hugh Oldham, Bishop of Exeter, in endowment was £39 per annum, hool, founded in 1651 by Humphrey mae ‘for oon meg mo eens: bringing up, apprenticing forty thy an r ’ By 1845 the revenue had increased euff- ciently to justify the feoffers in increasing the number of boys to 100. In 1851 was opened Owens College (q.v.). It is due to the liberality of John Owens, who died in 1846, leaving by will £100,000 to be e ed in foun an educational institu- tion of highest class. In 1870 a further sum of £90,000 was expended on new buildings, &c. In ted for the foundin which Owens is one o' * and ig erway» charter the uni- versity was entitled to confer degrees in su and medicine. As an educational institution it hes already earned a very high character, and has grown steadily in usefulness and resources. The university contains an excellent li and museum of natural The Technical School, with which in 1883 was incorporated the Mechanics’ Institute, and in 1890 the Manchester Whitworth Institute, has ed very completely how a school can be organ- Bed Gantigh technical training inthe iples and processes of great and complicated Prawat i The course of studies is acey con- fined to subjects of commercial and mechanical interest—theoretical practical engineering, de- ings spinning and weaving, printing, dyeing, ing, metallurgy and chemistry. It has lecture-rooms, Every facility is afforded the scholars for acquiring thorough know- jedge, theoretical and practical, of the various and the expert use of tools. The _ con pom of the Manchester Exhibition (1887) save contributed their surplus of £42,000, and the city council has adopted the Technical Instruction Act, and has from 1890 allotted the school the sum of £2000 per annum. In 1889-90 there were 50 schools, with an attendance of 72,167 scholars. There are evenin classes in connection with the board and technica c at a moderate rate. As regards the educa- tion of the poorer children, the persevering en- deavours of the wealthy and benevolent in this direction have been very noteworthy. The revolution in the industrial life of Eng! began here about the middle of the 18th ury—the substitution of the factory system, where numbers of men work together, for the older method of each working in their homes. New —- were also opened up by a series of remarkable inventions which increased production of manufactured goods at a far cheaper and incon- ceivably more rapid rate, combined with the new of mechanical power to the service of man in ha steam-engine. erga ar _ pioneer in opening up new means nternal communication, and to moet the rapid increase of trade and commerce many efforts were made in early times to substitute some better means for the pack- horse mode of carriage and conveyance. In 1720 the Irwell was made navigable. In 1756 the Bridge- water Canal was constructed, which put Man- chester in communication with the coalfields of Lancashire and the salt-mines of Cheshire, and made an outlet to the sea. Later it became a high- way for passengers as well as s. In 1830 Man- chester had the first perfect railway in full operation. It has been proved that conveyance by water is only one-tenth of the cost of the same distance by land, and, in order to avoid transhipment of goods, and to render Manchester an inland seaport, the gigantic engineering work of making a ship-canal ata costof about £15,000,000 sterling was carried out in 1887-93 (see CANAL, Vol. IL. p. 700). A perfect network of railways and canals radiates from Man- chester as a centre in all directions. In conse- uence of all these gradual changes Manchester is osing its character as merely a manufacturing town. A change is gradually developing in the locale of the various large industries, and the city may be rded now as the general market for the whole ale. The principal cotton-mills and other industries are being removed to the suburbs north and east of the city, and in and around Manchester and Salford two-thirds of the entire cotton-manu- factures of the United Kingdom are located. There are about 700 different industries in the district. Manchester was the first place to secure the privi- lege of inland bonding for articles charged with customs duties, and now ‘produces a large and increasing revenue from that source. The sanitary condition of Manchester is not a satisfactory one, and in consequence the death-rate, averaging 35 per 1000, is abnormally high; but it must be remembered that the corporation had long arrears of neglect and indifference to make up, while a rapid increase of population was going on. Down to 1838 Manchester and Salford were governed by a borough-reeve and constables, and from their abolition only could the real work of improvement begin. s instances of the im- mense works accomplished by the corporations may be mentioned the gas and water supplies, municipal buildings, widening and draining of the streets, removal of unhealthy courts and dwellings. The sewage main drains made since 1838 are 95 miles in length, cross drains and eyes 148 miles, whilst the area of streets paved equals a million square yards, The smoke nuisance is perha more difficult to remove now than when thie factories were within the city. The disease and death dealing river, the Irwell, flowing through a dense population, has yet to be dealt with. Besides the pollution from public works of all kinds it is the receptacle of the sewage from more than one million of a population distributed over the water- shed of the Irwell, seas es area of 300 sq. m. Great efforts are constantly being made to remedy this unfortunate state of matters. Manchester is undoubtedly an ancient city. It is mentioned as a Roman station (Mancunium ; in A.S. Manigceaster ), and spoken of at the time of the Norman Conquest in connection with Salford and Rochdale, er the uncertainty of all trustworthy information, especially as regards its origin, renders any account of its early history a matter of doubtful value. We cannot determine when Manchester became a gansta: / district, but it is probable that the introduction of Flemish artificers in the reign of Edward III. is the real starting-point. In the 13th century there was a fulling-mill, and dyeing yarns or cloth was pravtised. The 14th and 15th centuries are mentioned as periods of great progress, Camden, who visited Manchester in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, describes it as —emCUCUCC ee 4 MANCHESTER MANCHURIA : ‘ oeighwaring towns in forateannen lore,’ he says, * is a woollen manu- church, market, and college. In the last stuf called Manchester cottons and the privilege of VILL. removed to Chester.’ : describes it as ‘the oe most rich, and basy vil in En . Here are about 2400 families, and r trade, which is incredibly large, consists of fustians, tickings, girth-webbs, and ss which are dispensed all over the kingdom to {reign parts They have looms which work 24 laces at a time, stolen from the Dutch, and on the same river for the of 3 miles there are 60 water-mills" Another authority of near the same ‘ate says ‘the inhabitants are not only thrifty and inventive bat very industrious and saving —always and inventing something new. In the politica! world Manchester has taken a . The Anti-corn-law League, which after a seven years’ struggle caused the repeal of ied to a party of English Radicals, which he origin in dhe Anti- corn-law League. It identified itself with the development of free-trade principles, utilitarian- iam, the resistance to government interference (as with factory labour), su ing a policy of /aissez ire, and in foreign rs was a peace party, strongly on non-interference. See articles on Corn Laws, Free Trade, Bright, Colden, Gibson ( Milner). See Whittaker’s History of Manchester (1771); Pren- thoe's History and Sketches of Manchester (18-53); Reilly's History of Manchester ( 1861); Baine’s History dre (1870); Proctor’s Memorials of Man- (1880); Axon’s Annals of Manchester (1886); ee Manchester (1887); and M'Culloch’s Dic- tionary of Commerce ( 1887). Manchester, the largest city of New Hamp- shire, stands mostly on the east bank of the Merri- mac River, 16 miles 8. of Concord, 59 miles NNW. of Boston by rail. Its principal streets are wide and shaded with elms, and it has several public ae The river here falls 54 feet, and affords o paired to numerous factories. manufac- cottons and woollens is the chief industry ; Roman Catholic bishop, and has a Catholic orphan- and a convent, besides a state reform-school. ( 1870) 23,526 ; (1890) 44,126 ; (1900) 56,987. Manchester, Eowarp Mowracv, second BAR or, English eral and statesman, was the eon of the first earl, and was born in 1602. After leaving Cambridge—lis college was Sidney Sussex —he accompanied Prince Charles to Spain, and afterwards wat in the House of Lords as Baron Kimbolton, Bat siding with the popular party, and page Be acknowledged leader of the Pari- tans in the Upper House, he was charged by the king (44 January 1642) with entertaining traitorous along with the five independent members of the House of Commons. He succeeded his father ae carlin the same year. On the outbreak of hos- tilities he of course fought for the parliament, He eorved ander Exeex at Edgehill, then held the asso- ciated (eastern) counties avainst Newcastle, took Lincoln (1644), and routed Prince Rupert at Marston Moor—that is to may, he nominally commanded ; the real fighting was done by Cromwell and his He then marched to oppose the royaliata in the south-west, and defeated them at Newbury (the second battle), But after this battle he ayain showed elackness in following up the victory, the same fault that had here; and the Man- | been noticed after Marston | ginseng. aineery pHs ia ths Homes Commons hf H ouse and the two had a downright quarrel. The - denying Ordinance deprived Manchester of his command, and this did not allay his bitterness inst Cromwell, He opposed the trial of the king, and protested against the Commonwealth. Afterwards, having been active in promo the Restoration, be was made Lord Cham ae step des to conciliate the Presbyterians. died 5th May 1671. His grandson, CHARLES MONTAGU, fourth EARL, supported William of Orange in Ireland, was sent as ambassador extraordinary to Venice (1696), Paris (1699) and Vienna (1707), and was made Duke of Manchester in 1719 for having favoured the Han- overian succession. He died 20th January 1722. Manchineel (Hippomane mancinella), a tropi- man et te naar rae ape biaces, cele or the nous , its acrid milky juice. A of this, burns like ire if i kin, and the sore which diuretic ; and well suited for cabinet-making. Manchuria, long the north-easternmost por- tion of the Chinese Empire, is since the events of 1898 so completely controlled by Russia as to be practically the south-eastern corner of Asiatic Russia, ‘The Country of the Manchus’ (see Asia, Cutna) lies between the Yellow Sea and the Amur, egret be just beyond the limits of China proper, on Corea and the Russian Maritime Province. The first step in the Russian cecupation was the concession by China “hee the deviation of the Siberian railway Northern Manchuria ; then the events connected with the Russification of Port Arthur (q.v.) and Talienwan. Finally it was that_the Siberian railway should be connected with Kirin and Mukden, with Peking on the one hand and Port Arthur on the other, and that Cossack ——— and settlements of Russians along the ine should be sanctioned. The area of Manchuria is said to be 280,000 sq. m. ; total pop. 21,000,000. — Mere res “ecg agence Py he centre, Fe: nm or Liao-Tung in the sou and Hei-lun bag in the north. The eastern nthe Be the central ew te eovetet Tae eur regu. Tan ie Mountains, which the White Mountain itself reach 8000 feet, whilst the northern province is erossed by the Chingan Mountains. e central parts of the country are watered by the S i which rises in the crater-lake of the White Mountains, and after a course of miles joins the Amur in the north of Kirin province. The hills are rich in timber, pines predominating; in minerals, chiefly gold, silver, coal, and iron, of all which little has been ex- tracted ; and in fur-bearing and other animals, as” the sable, foxes, lynx, squirrel, tiger, , wolf, deer, &e, The Manchurian lark, a clever ; is exported rons numbers to China. rivers swarm with salmon, and trout are plentiful. The climate is temperate in summer, especially whilst the rains last (May to September), but very severe in winter, the season of traffic, when the and extensive marshy tracts are frost-bound ; the thermometer frequently falls as low as ~ 25° F, in the northern province in the depth of winter. The soil is extremely fertile, and produces in abundan millet (with vegetables the chief food of the maize, aaner Por y, beans, rice, v ild sil ple) tables, an is produced, The industry is MANCINI MANDAMUS 18 confined to the making of furniture, coffins (sent to China), and carts, the tanning of leather, the of furs, and the distilling of spirits. amount of trade is carried on at the towns and furs, &c. are exported to the annual value of 14 million sterling, and cottons, woollens, metals, sugar, silk, paper, medi- eines, , &e. imported to 1} million sterling. The ve opium is rapidly supplanting the Indian, the of which from 327,087 Jb. in 1879 to ae Ib. in 1889. Excessive floods in 1888 a severe famine. The population does not embrace more than one million Manchus, and most of these dress and speak like Chinese. Yet they are the gay iar yak the country, furnishing its magistrates and iers, its police, and its hunters, ion aor cultivate their own land. Ever since es ehus en epee China A cae ) ape Seeaae present imperial dynasty Manchuria has been the favourite recruiting-ground for the Chinese army ; there are stated to be 80,000 drilled men in the country. The rest of the population consists almost entirely of Chinese immigrants, as enter- prising, industrions, coreg ibrar as any aw os the empire. Sh ee towns are Moukden (q.v.), the capital ; in (q.v.); Tsitsihar, a con- vict settlement for the empire; Ying-tzu, commonly called New-chwang (q.v.), the chi ; and some others with populations of about 20, All Man- churian towns are indescribably filthy, worse than English towns in the 15th century, and most of them are walled. The religions current are those found in China (q.v.), though the original creed of the Manchus was Shamanism. Early in the 11th century B.C. there existed a native kingdom in the southern of the three provinces, and this was suc- eseded by other states, until in the paesing of the 17th century Nurhachu, a Manchu chief, founded a powerful sovereignty; in 1644 his ascended the throne of China, —_ thus con- of wearing the pigtail, shaving the forehead, and dressing in narrow-sleeved instead of wide-sleeved coats. Brigandage and gambling are exceedingly rife in the country. The Manchu language is a branch of the Mongol stem, as the le them- — are of the same division of the Ural-Altaic family. Mancini, Lavra. See Mazarin. Mand:eans, an oriental religious sect of great antiquity, formed ont of heterogeneous Christian Jewish, and heathen elements, and _ still found oran. formerly called Christians of St John the Baptist from their habit of baptism or ablution. In their religious system the supreme is Pird rabbd (‘the great glory’), with which is connectel the Mand which, after calling forth the first life, into an obscurity that can be penetrated the most holy after death, and that but The first life (Chayé Kadmdyé) is the active revealed, and which alone can be wor- From it, besides the ‘second life,’ emanated the Mandd d’hayyé (‘spirit of life’), the mediator and saviour of the Mandzeans, from whom they derive their name. He reveals himself to man in his three sons, Hibil, Sitil, and Anis ; of these Hilil is the most important. From the second life emanated the Uthré (‘angels’), the greatest of whom is Abatir, whose son Gabriel built the earth and formed man, save that his spirit was infused into him by Mand rabbd. There is an elaborate gh ged extending to the kingdoms of darkness, of hell, the mountains of the blessed, and the planets. The succession of false prophets from Na were Abrahim, Misha ( Moses), Shlimtin (Solomon), and Yishu M’shiha (Jesus), who had been baptised through deceit by the only true prophet, Yahya. The last of the false prophets is M’hamad. The Mandeans had three degrees in the priest- hood, with a supreme official (Rish amma) as the source of both civil and ecclesiastical authority. The priests officiate in white robes, barefooted, and women may be admitted to their order. Their principal rite is the masbatha or baptism. Their sacred ianguage is an Aramaic dialect close to the Babylonian Talmud. They have five important sacred books: Sidrd rabba (‘the great bok: called also ginza, ‘treasure;’ Sidra d’ Yahya (‘book of John’); the Qolasta, a collection of hymns; Diwdn, a ritual; and Asfar Malwasé, a manual of astrology. Brandt traces this system of religion back to the period of amalgamation of the Assyro-Babylonian religion with Greek speculation. See Chwolsohn, Die Sabier u. der Sabismus (1856); Siouffi, Les Sabéens (1880); Babelon, Les Menddites (1882); Brandt, Die Mandéische Religion (1889). Mandal, the southernmost port of Norway, 17 miles east of the Naze. Pop. 4000. Mandalay, the capital of Upper Burma, stands 2 miles from the left bank of the Irawadi, a little N. of Amarapura (q.v.), the former capital, and 410 miles by rail (1888) N. of Rangoon. Founded in 1860, it was the capital of independent Burma until its capture by the British in the end of 1885, and since the treaty by which (1886) the king lost his throne it has been the capital of Upper Burma, The city forms a square, Bre: 9 side a mile long, and is surrounded by a wide moat, a crenelated brick wall 26 feet high, and an inner earthen parapet. In the centre of the city stand the royal palaces, constructed principally of teak-wood, and enclosed by three stone walls and a teak-wood stockade. here is little of real interest or beanty in them beyond some rich wood-carving. The most famous building in Mandalay is, however, the Aracan . P. a; it contains a brazen’image of Buddha, 12 feet high, an object of veneration to thousands of pilgrims. Outside these enclosures was, until the British conquest, a crowded, dirty native town, now cleared away to make room for a British cantonment. The present native quarters lie out- side the fortified city. Beyond them, again, on the slopes of the hills that border the valley of the Irawadi, are numerous fine monasteries. Silk- weaving is the most important of the industries ; the others are gold and silver work, he # and wood carving, bell and gong casting, and knife and sword making. In 1886 (as again in March 1892) much damage was done by fire and by an inundation of the river. In 1886 a meteorological observatory was built. Pop. (1891) 187,910. Manda’‘mus is a writ, not of right but of pre- rogative, which issues from the Court of Queen’s Bench, commanding some public body, or inferior court, or justices of the , to do something which it is their legal duty to do, In the United States the power to issue writs of mandamus is vested in 16 MANDARIN MANDIBLE Supreme Court, and is also al to the cir- ctr abt mt ttn general tern to nese eitantarin, © exiern) farcigtees, derived from the Portaguese mandar, ‘to command.’ For the Chinese governmental authorities, their rank and distinctive buttons, see Curxa, Vol, ILL p. 191. He, Rexxanp pe, English satirical writer, — lawn of Dutch parent« at Dordrecht in Holland in 1670. a pe ae in medicine at Leyden, after six years of study, in 1691, and im- mediately afterwards settled in London to practise ; he died in that city las me wi An pod bes glee grog: and Search into wae a fulminant, levelled against the ethical of Shaftesbary, who set up as the standard of virtae the ultra-refined tastes of an idealistic wathete. Mandeville, writing in a vein 5 y ibengh f whee —" va we a ape its frankness, nen ng acute- oan, alice that ‘ private view ane public benefits,’ Hy E ii i Fs <. ti fi ai = : Tl Be + ‘i E if <; i J : . by nonjuror, by Berkeley, Brown, War- Hutcheson, and others. Mandeville in his that he wrote in irony for the diver- of discernment and knowledge, and i if his were not to be taken in literal earnest, ae if meant for general readers, Nevertheless, his other rage we ae i Ae Pare te Thoughts on Religion, &., detract y from the sincerity of this plea. It in w while observ- ing that his realistic habits of thought bring him in some respects curiously into touch with the exponents of modern scientific methods of inquiry. Bee’ Leslie Euaye on Prevthinking (878), or the briefer summary in vol. ii of the same writers Baglish Thought in the 18th Contury (1876). Mandeville, Jeux pe, the name assumed by a hook of travels, written pablished between 1357 and 1371. Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Walloon, German, Yoherian, Danish, and Irish are found, aml the number of MSS, amounts to at least 300. Many hare maintained the priority of the Latin text, which exiete in as many as tive independent Versions, bat it seems much more probable that the French was the earlier. The earliest edition of the French text was printed at Lyons in 1480. Iadeed, it ie moet lable that book was statement of ry was merely an ingeni- we alone was the author of the book. Bot « statement has been discovered revealed on his death- bed his real png stat to Jean a Ontremenss, ex- that be had had to flee from his native for a homicide. We are told further that this » who died in 1372, had practised ie eeeleuion’ cs Lids since 1343. And it is apparently quite certain that in the 16th and 17th > race rit tomb was shown at Liége, with a- Latin inscription stating that Mandeville died there in November 1372. An English version was made oes a or French he ; at least as early as the beginning o ho century, and rd extant independent revisions of this followed within a quarter of a century. . original defective form was printed by Pynson Wynkyn de Worde (1499); the editions of 1 and the well-known reprints by Halliwell (1839 1866) represent one of these later revisions; that first printed for the Roxburghe Club in 1889 is a admirable edition of the other. But the glari errors of translation render it impossible th it of these forms of the English version can be from the hand which wrote the original ae pite- of the statement in the preface, which been — too easily believed, that it was made by Mandeville himself. None the less it remains an le monument of pos po but the name of Sir John Mandeville should now berg oe from * of literature as the ‘ father of In the preface the French com ri er describes himself as a knight born at St Albans, who left his native country in 1322, travelled by of B' Syria, Arabia, ; nglish Turkey, Armenia, Tartary, Persia, Egypt, Libya, Athiopia, Amazonia, and India, often visited Jerusalem, and who wrote in Romance as _ better understood than Latin. In the course of — the book we are told further that he had do the sultan of Egypt against the Bedouins, and the em rof China against the king of ; he ed geen the glory of Prester John and d ; of the Fountain of Youth at Palombe (Quilon on~ the Malabar coast), and returned home unwillingly owing to arthritic gout in 1357. . By far the greater part of the book has now been proved to be borrowed, with interpolations, usually extravagant, from the narrative of Friar Odoric (written about 1330); from Hayton, an Armenian who became a P. A monk, and dictated at Poitiers in 1307 a book ; the East in the French tongue ; from the work of the Franciscan Carpini; from the well-known Epistle of Prester John, widely known in the 13th — century; from Albert of Aix, Brunetto : Peter Comestor, Jacques de Vitry, Vincent de - vais (Speculum Historiale and Speculum WN 9 rale); from the 12th-century Latin itinerai Palestine, and from the work of the German ki William of Boldensele, written in 1336. A — - the wat Born! Pree represent bs travels and person: owledge, ti part relating to the Holy Land; petra Fe) re-establish the honesty of the writer, who clai himself to have travelled in the remotest described, and to have seen with his own @} wonders enumerated, while he never Odoric, from whom he conveyed by far the 4 part of his book. Among these wonders we find stories of fabulous monsters, such as anth and men whose heads grew beneath their % the phanix, the vegetable lamb, the wee! croco- dile, the garden of transmigrated souls at sn LBsre-chee S00), and the Valley Perilous, Of = errestrial Paradise, however, the writer is enough to say that he had not been there. See the article by Colonel Yule and E. B. Nichol¥on in vol. xv, (1883) of the Encyclopedia Prien the latter's letter in the Academy for April 12, | Dr Albert Bovenschen, Quellen fir die des Johann von Mandeville ( Berlin, 1888); and the In- treduetion by G. F. Warner to his edition for the Rox- Sy ee { ee Se — the views of Dr Vogels and Mandible, » name applied to various - organs —e.g. the third pair of appendages in MANDINGOES MANFRED 17 taceans, the first pair of true appendages in Insects, | to their possessors, who accordingly dressed and the lower jaw in Vertebrates. — ey — dolls, “ kept —_ reverentially Bantu le ; enshrined in caskets, and thus obtained their services ‘wee in Reeaatda.(0;¥.). den. P poF eg Vol. for the healing of obstinate diseases of man and I. p. 85. ‘ beast, for the divination of the future, or the ensur- Mand or MANDU’, arnined city of India, formerly capital of the Mohammedan kingdom of Malwa, stands 15 miles N. of the Nerbudda and 38 SW. of Indore. The ruins stretch for 8 miles along the crest of the Vindhya Mountains, have a cireumference of 37 miles. A deep, narrow oan ———e them from the adjoinin tableland. The least injured of the ruined build- ings is the great mosque, which is reached by a handsome flight of stairs; it is said to be ‘the finest and a 5 tae of Afghan architecture extant in India.’ There are also a massive royal ya and the white marble mausoleum of the ing who raised the city to the acme of its splen- dour (early 15th century). Acecrding to Malcolm, Mand was founded 313 a.p. Mandoline, a musical instrument of the lute species. The body of the mandoline is formed of # number of narrow pieces of different kinds of wood, bent into the shape, and glued together. On the open portion of the body is fixed the sounding-board, with a finger-board and neck like @ guitar. The Neapolitan mandoline, which is the most perfect, has four double strings, tuned {beginning with the lowest) G, D, A, E. The ilanese mandoline has five double strings, tuned G, C, A, D, E. The sound is produced by a plectrum in the right hand, while the left hand ee the notes on the finger-board. The man- oline is chiefly used for accompaniment. Mandrake (Mandragora officinalis), a Solan- aceous plant closely allied to Belladonna (q.v.). There are two varieties, the vernal and the autum- nal; both are natives of the Mediterranean region and the East, and especially abound in Greece. The whole plant has a very fetid nareotie smell ; and all parts have poisonous _ proper- ties like those of belladonna, but more narcotic, for which reason a dose of the root was formerly some- times given to patients about to endure surgical operations. The ancients were well acquainted with the nareotie and stupefying proper- ties of mandrake, and it was a com- mon saying of a man that he had eaten mandrake. The large taproot grows somewhat irregularly, and often seems divided into two, throngh the development of a branch which attains more or less equal size. Hence arises a rude resem- blance to a human figure; and this is easily by a little judicious pruning or carv- and by trimming the covering of fine hair- Mandrake (Mandragora officinalis). roots. Hence Pyth speaks of the man- drake as ac. To such mannikin- figures many virtues were ascribed: by the magical __ ancient Germans they were supposed to bring luck E < 314 sleepy or indolent | ing of ped ni of money. From the most ancient times aphrodisiac virtues have been ascribed to mandrake, which was therefore supposed to cure barrenness (see Gen. xxx. 14-16); such repute is hardly borne out by the actual properties of the root (which would, however, relax the womb), but probably more commonly depended on its magical associations as a phallic figure. The extremely narcotic and poisonous properties of the plant could not but invest these figures with a more grim significance, of which the medieval imagina- tion *made the most. So large, deep, and well fixed a root needs some labour to dig out, and, if torn up by main force, breaks with more or less noise, hence the ancient legend that the mandrake shrieks when torn out of the ground. The subse- quent possibilities of accident (not to speak of misuse) can easily be imagined, not only from the sweet and attractive berries, but the leaves, root, or even juice. On the base of caution there arose a whole fantastic ritual: the P exat could only be safely dug up at midnight, and when Wowenet by careful digging should be dragged out of the ground by a black dog, which served as a vicarious sub- stitute for the herbalist, in dread of the mandrake’s vengeance. Mandrill. See BAsoon. . Mandorie, a town of Southern Italy, 22 miles E. by S. of Taranto, near the ancient town of Manduria, of which some important relies are still extant. Pop. 8865. In 1790 it exchanged its name of Casalnuovo for Manduria. —— the chief seaport of the principality of Cutch, in India, on the north shore of the Gulf of Cutch, 36 miles SW. of Bhuj, the capital. It has a good roadstead and a breakwater, but the harbour is choked with sand. The pilots are in request all through the state. Pop. (1881) 35,980 ; (1891) 38,159. Manes. See LAREs. Manet, Epovarp (1832-82), a French painter, the founder of Impressionism (q.v.). See his Life by Bazire (Paris, 1884). Manetho, a celebrated Egyptian historian, native of Sebennytus, a priest who flourished in the 3d century B.c. See Eaypt, Vol. IV. p. 238. Manfred, regent and king of Sicily, was a | natural son (afterwards legitimised ) of the Emperor | Frederick II. by Bianea, the daughter of Count Lancia, and was born in 123). n his father’s death in 1250 he received the principality of | Tarentum, and in the absence of his half-brother, | Conrad IV., acted as regent in Italy. He bravely | defended his sovereign’s interests against the aggression of Pope Innocent IV.; and after Con- ite death he was acknowledged as regent of | Apulia, in name of his nephew Conradin (q.v.). The pope, however, renewed his pretensions to Apulia, and compelled Manfred to flee for shelter to the Saracens, by whose aid he defeated the papal troops, and became, in 1257, master of the whole kingdom of Naples and Sicily. On the rumour of Conradin’s death he was crowned king at Palermo, llth August 1258, and immediately afterwards was excommunicated by Pope Alexander IV. along with his adherents ; but Manfred invaded the papal dominions, and made himself master of the whole of Tuscany. His power now seemed secure, and his government was at once mild and vigorous. But this tranquillity was not of long duration. Pope Urban 1V. renewed the excommunication 18 MANFREDONIA MANGE against him and his fri and bestowed his | minemlogists as pyrolusite, and in commerce as dominions as a Sef on Charles of Anjou, the | black manganese or ae simply. _ When brother of Lowis of France. Manfred, heated alone uric acid it gives off widow ter was fined for twenty-two years. His history has been made the subj of drama and opera. See Cesare, Storia di Manfredi (1837); Schirrmacher, Geschichte der letzten Hohenstaufen (1871). Manfredonia, « walled of Italy, on the Galf of Manfredonia, a es | the Adriatic, 23 miles by rail NE. of Foggia. Founded’ by Mahfred in 126] from the rains of ancient Sipontum, it has an old castle and a cathedral. Pop. 8324. Mangalo a and military station, and chief coma in the district of South Kanara, in the presid - is also the head- uarters in India of the 1 Lutheran Mission, members of which teach their people to weave eloth, print and bind books, and make roof tiles. The town, which was three times sacked by the ese in the 16th century, was taken by Hyder Ali in 1763, and made the headquarters of his navy. In 1784 its English garrison yielded to Tippoo Sultan after a nine months’ siege. It became British in 1799, and was burned by the Coorg rebels in 1837. James CLARENCE, a gifted but hap- leas Irish poet, who was born in 1803, and employed for many years in the dradgery of copying in an attorney's office. His heart was framed for suffer- ing, and his whole life was a tragedy of hapless love, poverty, and intemperance, until he found in death at Meath Hospital, Dublin, 20th June 1849. There is fine quality in his original verse, as well as in his translations from the Ger- man, bat more especially from the old Irish, as in impassioned ballad of Dark Rosaleen. were poblished at New York in 1859 and a Life by John Mitchel; Miss Guiney, in her and study (1897), affirmed Poe's indebtedness ‘s recurrent refrains; the Life is Oo onophae’s (1808). . i Manganese (syn. Mn; atomic weight, 55) is | one of iron group of heavy metals, It is darker than wrou, of fetes. is #0 hard as to scratch glass and steel, t is only feebly attracted by the magnet, and oxidines readily on exposure to the air, The metal iron, is capable of a high d occurs in nature in «mall quantity along with iron | in meteoric stones, but may be obtained in large amount by the reduction of its sesquioxide or car- bonate by charcoal at an extreme heat. With oxygen it forms six compounds : mangan- ous oxide, MnO; manganic oxide, Mn,O,; man- ere oxide, Mn,O,; manganese dioxide, n0,; manganic anhydride, MnO,; and perman- ganic anhydride, Mn.O,, Like iron it forms proto- salte, Matl, and persalte, MnCl, It also forms salta derived from an ow rape such as potesiam manganate, K,MnO,, and from an acid, HMn0O,, n« jum perman anate, KMnO,, The binoxide Mno,, is the chief form in which manganese is found in nature, and is the general source of the other compounds. It ix known to or with sul oxygen, and when heated with hydrochloric acid stbeins is evolved. It is largely used in the manu- facture of glass, to which it imparts a parpte colour. It z also su’ poe th Ce, a Lop —_ yst. ‘anganous oxide, MnO, is an olive-green pow- der. it, alts are —— = -- pale “5 lour, e sulphate, ” pin crystals, my | used by the calico-printer for the produc- tion of black and brown colours, kf decomposing it with bleaching powder or an alkali. Manganic oxide, Mn,O,, in octahedral tel =n forms the mineral braunite, and in the hydra form, Mn,O,,H,0, the mineral manganite. Red oxule of manganese, Mn,0,, is formed when any of the other oxides are heated in the air. It is found in nature as the mineral hausmannite. Manganic anhydride, MnOs, is not known in the free state, It forms a hydrated acid, H,MnO,, which forms salts. Manganate of po um, K,Mn0O,, is the best known of these. Tt is in green’ crystals, and on allowing its solution to stand exposed to the air it rapidly becomes blue, violet, purple, and finally red, by the gradual conversion of the manganate into the permanganate of potash; on this account it is sometimes called chameleon mineral. Permanganic anhydride, Mn,O;, is only known in solution or in a state of combination. Its solution is of a splendid red colour, but appears of a dark violet tint when seen by transmitted light. Permanganate of potash, KMnQ,, which crystallises. in reddish-purple prisins, is the most important of its salts. It is largely employed in analytical oy. and is the basis of Condy’s Disinfectant. uid, anganese is a constituent of many mineral waters, and is found in small quantity in the ash of most vegetable and animal substances. It is almost always associated with iron. Various pre- parations of manganese have been employed in medicine. The binoxide has been used as a sub- stitute for bismuth in dyspeptic affections, while various preparations have been tried as substitutes for iron in anemia, but with disappointing results. The m nate and permanganate o h poedily Baty with their oxygen, and in weak solution are used as disinfecting and astringent lotions. M e, a contagious disease in horses, dogs, and pores is, like scab in sheep, very similar to teh in the human subject, resulting from the attacks of minute mites or acari. Some of these burrow in the skin, others move about upon the skin, especially if it be dirty or scurfy, and cause much irritation, heat, and itching, and the eruption of | minute pimples, with dryness, scurfiness, baldness, | and bleaching of the skin, The treatment consists in destroying the acari, and insuring the cleanli- ness and health of the skin, both of which objects are effected by washing the parts thoroughly every second day with soft » and water, and dressing | daily with sulphar or mild mercurial ointments, or with a solution containing four grains either of | corrosive sublimate or arsenic to the ounce of water, | } | Castor-oil seeds, bruised and steeped for twelve hours in buttermilk, are very successfully used by the native Indian farriers. Where the heat and itching are great, as is often the case in dogs, a few drops of tincture of belladonna may used to | the usual dressing, or applied along with a little | glycerine. Where the general health is indifferent, | as in chronic cases, the patient should be liberally | fed, — clean and comfortable, have an occa- | sional alterative dose of any simple saline medicin such as nitre or common salt, and a course of ‘such tonics as iron or arsenic, Cleanliness and MANGNALL MANGOSTEEN 19 occasional washing and brushing maintain the skin in a healthy state, and thus prevent its becoming a suitable nidus for the acari.—The pooner mange, due to a burrowing mite, besides bein ighly con- tagious, is often fatal, and is specially legislated for in the Shetland Islands, where it is very pre- valent, under the Contagious Diseases Acts. ope ag RiIcHMAL, of Irish extraction, but born probably in Manchester, 7th March 1769, was the head-mistress of a ladies’ school at Crofton Hall, near Wakefield, and died there lst May 1820. Few of her history have been pre- served ; she survives only in her redoubtable Ques- tions, the pride and terror of several generations of school-girls. She was an amiable and excellent — rita a Podcrnd ~ Log been ont Coane? ‘the very high-priestess of the great ram.’ Of the popularity of her schoolroom encyclopedia, compi entirely by herself, there can, how- ever, be no doubt: an impression, printed in 1857 in America, was taken from the 84th London edition. It has been reprinted in England (ed. by Wright and Hodder) as recently as 1892. Mango (Mangifera indica, natural order* Ana- dy ae ot the most esteemed fruits of ,India. The tree grows from 40 to 50 feet high, with cicirmeage top and numerous branches, at the extremities of which are the densely-crowded long lanceolate leaves. When in flower it bears some resemblance to the Sweet Chestnut. The fruit, Common Mango ( Mangifera indica). which is a fleshy drupe, when fully ripe is some- what kidney-shaped or oval, varying in size from that of a small hen’s egg to a la ’s oe: in colour yellow or reddish, spec led with k, and containing a large flattened stone, the kernel of which is nutritious. There are several varieties of mango. Some have the flesh of the fruit full of fibres, and are on that account considered inferior ; those that cut like an apple, and have few or no fibres, are the most hachly esteemed. The fruit is eaten without a Lo ellies, Mangold-wurzel, or Manco.p, a German name in general use in Britain and America to designate the varieties of the common beet (see BEET) cultivated in fields for feeding cattle— Beta is of the natural order Chenopodiacez. The field beets differ from the garden beets chiefly in being larger in all their parts, and coarser. They have large roots, which in some of the varieties are red, in others greenish or whitish, in some carrot- shaped, and in others nearly globular. The cultiva- tion of mangold as a field-crop was introduced from France into England in 1786. At first, so little was its value known, that the leaves alone were used as food for cattle. Its importance, however, Was soon appreciated, and it rapidly gained favour. It ismuch more patient of a high temperature than the turnip, liable to fewer diseases, and vastly more productive under favourable conditions. In highly- manured grounds in the south of England as much as from 60 to 70 tons to the acre have been raised; throughout the south of England it is generally admitted that it is as easy to grow 30 tons of mangold to the acre as 20 tons of Swedish turnips. The lower temperature of Scotland, however, does not admit of the crop being raised there to advan- i The mode of culture does not vary materi- ally from that followed in raising turni The land in which the crop is to be planted receives a deep furrow in autumn; and, if it is quite free from perennial weeds, it is often previously well manured. Mangolds are sown both in rows on the flat ground and in drills raised by the preter former from 18 to 25 inches apart, and the latter from 25 to 28 inches wide. From 12 to 16 tons of dung with from 2 to 34 ewt. of superphosphate, 2 to 3 ewt. common salt, and 2 to 3 ewt. nitrate of soda per acre are common dressings for mangolds. Indeed, this crop can hardly be over-manured. It requires 6 or 7 lb. of seed to the acre; and, as the grains are enclosed in a hard and rough coat, they are steeped in water for two days previous to their being planted, for the purpose of promoting a quick and regular ‘braird.” The long red, the round red, and the orange and yellow globes are all favourite varieties in vane: As soon as the plants are about 3 inches above ground, they are singled out by the hand, and their cultivation is afterwards the same in all respects as in the case of Swedish turni The crop should always be stored by the end of October, and should not be consumed till the following spring, by which time the roots have lost their tendency to produce scour in animals, and have greatly improved in feeding value. Care has to taken not to injure the leaves or bulbs, as they are liable to suffer from ‘bleeding.’ The roots are stored in pits or ‘ clamps,’ covered with straw and a little earth, as a pro- tection in severe weather. Mangonel. See BALListTa. Mangosteen, produced by Garcinia mangos- tana (natural order Clusiacew), is considered the most delicious and wholesome of all fruits. The tree, which is a native of the Moluccas, grows about 20 feet high in very regular symmetrical form. The leaves are large, oval, entire, deep dark reen above with a dull lustre, olive-green below. he open flowers resemble those of a red rose, but have only four petals. The fruit, in size and shape, resembles a middling-sized orange; it is dark brown, spotted with yellow or gray, has a thick rind, and is divided internally by thin partitions into cells. The pulp is soft and juicy, of a rose colour, refrigerant and slightly laxative, with a mixture of sweetness and acidity, and has an extremely delicate flavour. It may be eaten very freely with perfect safety, and is esteemed very beneficial in fevers. It is cultivated in Java and 20 MANGROVE in the south-east of Asia; it has recently become common in Ceylon, and has been successfully intro- daced into other tropical countries, Mangrove ( Rhizophora), « genus of calycifloral dicotyledons, {retain about fifty species, of which the indistinct atlinities have constituted a separate order (Rhizophoracew). They are trees and shrubs, all tropical (especially South Ameri- can), and natives of coasts, particularly about the mouths of rivers, where they grow in the mud, and form a close thicket down to and within the margin of the sea, even to low-water mark, forming the characteristic mangrove-swamps so often described A Mangrov.-swamp, by travellers and naturalists. Most species send down roots from their branches, and rs rapidly extend over large spaces, forming secure retreats for multitudes of aquatic birds, whilst crabs and shell-fish are also to be found in them in vast numbers. Their interlacing roots retain mud, sea- weed, &c., and thus rapidly form soil and encroach upon the shallow sea; on the north coast of Java and elsewhere their geological importance is speci- ally marked. The seeds have the peculiarity of germinating before the fruit has fallen, a long thick radicle proceeding from the seed, piercing its cover- ing, and extending rapidly downwards, When the fruit drops, the stout heavy radicle pierces the mud, and the young tree is thus planted in the proper position forthwith. The fruit of the com mon mangrove (2. Mangle) is sweet, eatable ; and its juice, when fermented, yields a light wine The bark is sometimes imported for the sake of its tannin, in which all the species are rich. Man. we wood is also imported from the West Indies, The Chinese and East Indian species (2. qTymno rhica, &e.) are of similar habit and properties ; some of the latter are separated as a distinct genus, Braguiera.—The so-called White Mangrove is Avicennia (q.v.). Manhattan Island, the island on which the great part of New York city stands. Mania. See INsanrry. Manica, 4 gold-field long worked by the Portn- | guess, 190 miles NW. of the port of Sofala, and now mostly included it. che British sphere of influ- ence a4 an eastern section of Mashonaland (q.v. ). It is intersected by the railway from the Pungwe River (near Beira) to Fort Salisbury. Manichius, or MAN, the founder of the sect of the Manichmans, who, according to the Moham- medan and most trustworthy tradition, was born at Ecbatana about 215 A.p., and educated at Otesiphon under his father Futak, who joined the MANICH2ZUS seet of the Moghtasilah ( Baptists) in which his son was brought up. This sect was connected with the Mandeans (q.v.), and most probably also with the Elkesaites and Hemerobaptists, and may also have borrowed something from Christianity. At about the age of thirty Mani began to proclaim his new religion at the court of the Persian king, Sapor L, and then undertook long nbsionary eae ys, re- turning to the court about 270. rsued by the enmity of the Magians he was obliged to flee, was wrotected by the next king, Hormuzd, but under iis successor, Bahram L., was abandoned to the hatred of his enemies, who crucified him in 276 and flayed his lifeless body. His numerous epistles and writings are lost, and we know of them only from the Arabic catalogue, the Fihrist, and from allusions in Epiphanius, Augustine, and Photius. MANICHAISM was a t religious system that sprung up in western Asia about the close of the 3d century, and which, although it utterly dis- claimed being denominated Christian, yet was reckoned among the heretical bodies of the Church. It was not an offshoot from Christianity, but was based on the ancient Babylonian religion, and was thus really a Semitic religion of nature modified by Christian and Persian elements, systematised and, elevated into a gnosis, and made applicable to human life by a deduced system of ethion But, while it borrowed nothing from Christianity proper, it derived part of its terminology and some of i conceptions from Christianity as developed among the sects of the Basilidians, Marcionites, and Bar- desanites, The Western Manichwans adopted many Christian elements which were not present in the original system of its founder nor in its purer Eastern development. It is possible, al- though it has not yet been satisfactorily roved, that it borrowed some elements from Buddhism Baur was the first to work out the theory of a Buddhist element, and was followed b Neander, Hilgenfeld, and other scholars; but his argument has been assailed by Le Page Renouf, Zeller, Lightfoot, and Harnack. Manichwism was essentially a complete dualism, materialistic in so far as the physical and ethical were con- founded, and its success, says Harnack, was due to the fact that it united an ancient mytholo and a thorough-going materialistic dualism with an exceedingly simple spiritual worship and a strict morality. As has been said, it assumed two chief principles, whence had sprung all visible and invisible creation, and which—totally antagonistic in their natures—were respectively styled the Light, the Good, or God, and the Darkness, the Bad, Matter, or Archon. They each inhabited a region akin to their natures, and exclading each other to such a degree that the region of Darkness and its leader never knew of the existence of that of the Light. Twelve wons—corresponding to the twelve signs of the zodiac and the twelve s' of the world--had emanated from the Primeval Light; while Darkness, filled with the eternal fire, which burned but shone not, was peopled by demons, who were constantly fighting among themselves, In one of these contests, pressing towards the outer edge, as it were, of their region, they became aware of the neighbouring region, and forthwith united, attacked it, and succeeded in carrying captive the Ray of Light that was sent against them at the head of the hosts of Li ht, and which was the embodiment of the Ideal or Primal Man. The God of Light himself now hastened to the rescue, and with the help of new wons defeated Darkness and set free the primal man in his greater and better part. The smaller and fainter portion, however—the Jesus patibilis of the Western Manichwans—remained- in the MANICHAUS hands of the powers of Darkness, and out of this they formed, after the ideal of the Man of Light, mortal man. Bat even the small fraction of light left in him, broken in two souls, would have pre- vailed against them, had they not found means to further divide and subdivide it by the propagation of this man. Thus man was originally formed in the image of Satan, but contained within him a Parte of the heavenly light, which awaits its final eliverance by separation from the enveloping dark- ness. The demons sought to obscure it further b sensuality and dark forms of belief and faith, suc as Paganism and Judaism; but the spirits of Light are constantly en in drawing out the dimmed and buried light hidden in the world, by opening up to men the true gnosis of nature, and weaning them away from sensuality and error. Thus there ap in the world a succession of teachers, as A Noah, Abraham, and probably Zoroaster and Buddha. Jesus also was such a teacher, but he was neither the historical Christ of Christianity, nor the Messiah of the Jews, but a phantasmal Jesus (Jesus impatibilis), who did not actually suffer, as he seemed, on the cross, but only allowed himself to become an example of endurance and passive pain for his own, the souls of light. Since even his immediate adherents, the apostles, were not strong enough to suffer as he had commanded them, he promised them a Paraclete, who should complete his own work. This Paraclete was Mani, who surrounded himself, like Christ, with twelve apostles, and sent them into the world to teach and to preach his doctrine of salvation. The end of the world will be fire, in which the region of Darkness will be consumed. To attain to the region of eternal light, it is necessary that Passion, or rather the Body, should be utterly subdued ; hence rigorous absti- nence from all sensual pleasures—asceticism, in fact, to the utmost degree—is to be exercised. The believers are divided into two classes—the Electi oe ipeed ) and the Catechumeni ( Auditores). The ect have to take the oath of abstinence from evil rofane speech (including ‘religious terms such as Christians use respecting the Godhead and religion’), and from flesh, milk, fish, wine, and all intoxicating drinks; from the ion of riches, or, indeed, any property whatsoever ; from hurting any —animal or vegetable; from he their own family, or showing any pity to a Ag a is not of end preserves Eaaperd and , from breaking their chastity by marriage or pikorvio, The Cinditore were comparatively free to partake of the good things of this world, lmt they had to provide for the subsistence of the Llect, and their highest aim also was the attain- ment of the state of their superior brethren. In this Mani worship, the Visible Representa- tives of the Light (sun and moon) were revered, but only as representatives of the Ideal, of the Good or supreme God. Neither altar nor sacrifice was to be found in their places of religious assem- blies, nor did they erect sumptuous temples. Fasts, prayers, occasional readings in the supposed writ- on of Mani, were all their outer worship. The Old Testament they rejected unconditionally ; of the New Testament they ee certain = - tions, as revised and redacted by the Paraclete. Sunday, as the day on which the visible universe was to be consumed, the day consecrated to the sun, was kept as a great festival; and the most solemn day in their year was the anniversary of the death of Mani. “The later Manichzeans cele- brated a analogous to the Christian sacra- ments Baptism and the Lord’s Supper. St ine belonged to the sect for about nine years, is our chief authority on this subject. The outward history of the sect is one of almost MANILA 21 continuous persecution. Yet it spread rapidly from Persia and Mesopotamia to Syria, northern Africa, and even Constantinople and Rome, drawing ad- herents from the remnants of the old Gnostic sects, especially from the Marcionites, and on the other hand from men of a rationalistic temperament who were repelled by such dogmas as that of the Incar- nation. Both the Roman and Byzantine emperors enacted stringent laws against the Manichzans, the most severe being Valentinian III. and Jus- tinian. Pope Leo the Great persecuted them in Rome, and in northern Africa they were exter- minated by the Vandals. But their peculiar doc- trines lingered on into the middle ages, and influenced many sects, as the Priscillianists, Pauli- cians, Bogomiles, Catharists, and Albigenses. See Beausobre, Hist. critique de Manichée et du Mani- chéisme (1734); Baur, Das Manich. Religionssystem (1831); Flugel, Mani (1862); Kessler’s Untersuchung zur Genesis des Manich. Relivionssystem (1876), and his excellent articles, ‘Mani’ and ‘Manichiier, in vol. ix. of Herzog-Plitt’s Real-Encyclopddie; Geyler, Das Syste: des Manicheismus (1875); also Harnack’s admirabio article in the Encyclopedia Brit i Manihiki Islands, a group of low, wooded atolls, scattered over the central Pacific, between the Marquesas and Union groups ; total area, 55 sq. M. ; ng ». 1600. Most of them (Caroline, Malden, Starbuck, Penrhyn, &c.) belong to Britain. Manila (by English people often spelt Manilla), chief town of the Philippine Islands (q.v.) and, till the blockade by a United States fleet in May 1898 and the subsequent. American occupation of the Philippines, capital of the Spanish possessions in eastern Asia, stands on the east side of a wide bay on the SW. coast of Luzon, 650 miles SE. of Hong- kong, with which it is connected by telegraph (1881). It is divided into two portions by the little river Pasig. On the south bank stands the pene old town (founded in 1571 by Legazpi), surrounded by crumbling walls, with tolerably wide straight streets crossing each other at right angles. Here are the archbishop’s palace, numerous churches and monas- teries, the cathedral, mint (closed in 1889), univer- sity, Jesuit observatory, arsenal, and the barracks of the Spanish garrison. On the north bank are the modern suburbs, Binondo, &c., the commercial and native quarters, with the palaces of the governor- eneral and the admiral of the station. The city is lable to visitations of earthquakes, typhoons, and thunderstorms of exceptional violence : for instance, a violent earthquake did great damage in 1880, whilst a hurricane in 1882 ruined half the city. For this reason many of the old stone houses and churches are in ruins, and most of the newer houses are built of wood above the ground floor. The native houses are generally constructed of bamboo and thatched with the leaves of the nipa palm. Glassis not used in the windows, but the flat shell of a large oyster, and the window-frames all slide horizontally. is is to exclude the great heat, the mean for the year being 82° F. ; but during the rainy season (May to November) it ranges from 65° to 68°. Since 1893 the city and suburbs have been lighted by elec- tricity. The total population is estimated at about 300,000, for the most part native Tagals, though there are some 25,000 Chinese, large numbers descended from these two races, and about 5000 Spaniards. The people are fond of dancing and music ; but the predominant passions of the native population are cock-fighting, carried on in licensed cockpits, which yield a large revenue to the govern- ment, and betting and gambling. Almost the only inductry is the manufacture of cigars, which employs 21,000 women and 1500 men. The harbour is not very safe during south-west and north-east winds, although shelter is afforded by a small breakwater, and improvement works were in operation for ten MANIN MANITOBA in 1889, me ocean: naval station of Cavite, gn Papa anchor at to the south-west. A railway waa com- menoed from Manila to Dagupan, a distance of 120 to in 1887, and was A in November 1892. Them the Philippines, Manila has an of export wale veel approximately at £3,400,000 import trade that falls but little re, , hemp, and lee account three-fou of the cotton goods, rice, wine, silk, and nently the imports. ¢ is carried on under the one-fourth under the Spanish, and one- the Uni Ree. _ The were very jealous of foreigners Manila, Iyot Chinese. The city from a = in 1893, shared in the Heth is ; Ff f ! ; i that in 1896, and saw in its harbour the destruction of the Spanish fleet by the American commodore Dewey in May 1898. For Manilla Hemp, seo ABACA. i F y starch separated in the ordinary manner from : known - commerce as Brazilian rom it oca is made, heating plates, ced elite with By Be rod ; rains burst, some of the starch a into dextrine, and the whole = jomerates Nicg Tapioca of the oe * Cassava or Seer ei Aipi, said to bea native of Africa as well as of America), has the root of longer shape than the common or bitter cassava, s and smaller —The manioc is easily propageece by. cuttings of the stem, and is of rapid growth, attain. ing maturity in six months. The produce is at iv least six times that of wheat. _ har. From 183] he became a ised leader of mountain- Bur liberal in Venice. Previous to the outbreak | 4, Assam, Weng inp ia Cachar ; 221,000, of 1848 Manin was imprisoned for presenting a | Collected most thickly in one valley, &q. m., somewhat outspoken petition to the authorities ; | Situated 2500 feet above sea-level. men are but on the promulgation of the news that P. lazy, but very fond of Polo (q.v.). The Manipuris N Tuscany were in revolution he was | Combine Mongolian and Aryan ch es, and Nee in triumph * the populace, and was at | “re mainly Hindus, A British political agent was once in with su power. From the | established at the rajah's court in the town of Mani- his election to the presidency of the enetian republic Manin's energies were devoted isation of the inhabitants for self- annexation of Lombardy to he laid down his Lasgenge f bat on ov. | ger aame of Venice during the heroic defence of the city for five months against ng Austrian army. On the 24th of enice capitulated ; but Manin, with forty ipal citizens, being excluded from the » quitted the city. ¢ retired to Paris, where t Italian, and where he died of heart-disease, September 1857. The bones of this truly great and noble man were bronght to free Venice in 1868, and a statue of him was erocted in 1875, See Lives by Henri Martin (Paris, 1859), Finzi (1872), and Errera (1875). Manioc, MAxptoc, or Cassava (Manihot utiliesima), a plant of the natural order Euphor- biacem, a native of America, and much cul. tivated there, in Africa, and in other tropical countries, Manioe, or Mandioca, is the Brazilian name, Caserea the West Indian ~ and in Peru and some other parts of South America the name is Juca or Yucca. The viant is shrubby, with brittle store 6 to 8 feet hi and crooked branches, at the extremities of which are the palmate leaves and green flowers. ‘The root is taberous, of immense size, weighing often as much as 30 Ib. The milky, acrid juice which tes every part of the plant is a ly poiso.. in ite frech state, owing to the presence of hydrocyanic acid, which is quickly dis- sipated by heat. @ juice, inspixeated by boiling, forms the excellent sauce called Casareap (q.v.), and fermented with molasses yields an intoxi- cating beverage called Onyconw ; whilet the root, oe = ge on hot metal pote, Ba roughly wee an article of food, In: zely used in Soath America, and there very generally as (Port., ‘meal'). It is made into thin like the oatmeal-cakes of Scotland, are er, not by mixing it with pur or gone (pop. 40,000) in 1835. In March 1891 Mr Quinton, chief-commissioner of Assam, j accompanied by an escort of Ghoorkas, mh hither in March on a mission; and he and Mr Grimwood, the resident, were overpowered and killed. A British mili expedition reached the capital before the end of April; and after trial, the = Regent and a prince were transported for life, and = the ‘Senaputty’ and chief-general executed. See — Mrs Grimwood, My Three Years in Manipur (1891). Manis. See PANGouiy. Manissa, Asia Minor. See MAGNESIA. Manistee’, capital of Manistee county, Michi- ge is on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the ; anistee River, 135 miles NW. of Lansing. It has several foundries, ten salt-works, and a num- ber of lumber-mills. Pop. (1900) 14,260, Manito’ba, a province of Canada, bounded on the W. by the district of Assiniboia, on the NW. and N. by the districts of Saskatchewan and Keewatin, on the E. by the province of On- tario and the unorganised territory east of Kee. watin, and on the S. by Minnesota and North Da. kota, The province is traversed by several rivers, ; among others the Assiniboine, with its many tribu- taries, the chief of which are the Souris, the Pem- ., bina, and the Red River, The Winnipeg River flows for 60 or 70 miles through the eastern portion of the province into Lake prin- to cipal la! good deal Seta PASIG RIVER, MANILA, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Vol, VIL., page 22 a MANITOBA z 2 MANITOULIN ISLANDS 23 the prairies, the average depth being about 18 to 24 inches; the native Species, nee out of doors all the winter. Ploughing generally i ape, April. The harvest takes place in August an ber. Trees are found along the rivers and streams, and in abundance in the eastern and northern parts of the province; but Manitoba is not well wooded. The ion in 1891 was 154,442—Presby- terians, 39,001 ; Church of England, 30,852 ; Metho- dists, 28,437; Roman Catholics, 20,571 ; Baptists, 16,112. in 1886, 108,640, classified as fol- lows: of ish origin, 25,949; Irish, 21,180; ; Indians, 5575; half-breeds, 7985; Scotch, 25,67 French, 6821; Germans, 11,082; Icelanders, 2468. Among the principal cities and towns are Winni- (1891), 25,642; P. la-Prairie, 3363 ; Bran- 3778; and Selkirk, 1 The chief industry is ture; the soil is of remarkable depth and fertility, and in favourable seasons the crops are large, considering the imperfect methods of eculti- ractised. Manitoba wheat and flour are an as the finest in the continent. Much of it is bought up by American millers, the product being mixed with flours made from grain produced in the United States. Other grains succeed admir- ably, and an endeavour is being made to encourage pore weg of flax. Vegetables and roots are un- ly prolific and of great size. Wheat-growing was for some few years the staple industry ; but the farmers are now en more in mixed farm- ing, including dairy-farming and the raising of cattle and sheep. Frnit-growing is not carried on to any extent, although many of the smaller varieties—such as the strawberry, black and red currant, berry, gooseberry, and cranberry— appear to be indigenous. In minerals the province is not very rich, but coal is found in southern Manitoba, although it is not yet worked to any extent. Manufactures of various kinds are increas- ing; and Winnipeg is to a large extent the distrib- uting centre for the western part of the Dominion. Big game is still found in the less accessible rae of t ge ng te bear, and some kinds of deer, Small game is | yee pe hemes 2 prairie chicken and wild duck. Close times are provided for the protection of all the principal wild animals and birds. A considerable fishing industry is ne on in the a lakes, er white-fish kerel are caught in uantities. Of the imports a Sr ror ines: nearly half comes from the United States. The exports, animals and their produce, are sent to Britain and the United States. The government is administered by a lieutenant- ler so appointed by the governor-in-council. He assisted by an Executive Council and a Legislative Assembly of forty members elected by the people. There is only one House of Parliament in Mani- toba. The province is represented by four members in the Dominion Senate and by seven in the House of Commons. Serious difficulty arose between the government and the provincial adminis- tration in rd to education. The Catholics of Manitoba had till 1890 separate schools, but in that ear denominational schools were abolished by the 1 Act, which established free non-sectarian schools supported by rates. Agitation for their res- toration was vi, ly carried on; the Dominion ernment interfered to protect the privileges of Catholie minority, and ultimately in 1896 a compromise was arrived at. In Manitoba the Dominion government offers free grants of land—i60 acres—to every male settler above eighteen years of age, and to every female who is the head of a family. There is still a considerable quantity of government land undis- posed of in the north-western and north-eastern parts-of the province. The Canadian Pacific Rail- way Company, the Canada North-west Land Com- pany, the Manitoba and North-western Railway mpany, and the Hudson Bay Company have a con- siderable quantity of land for sale in different parts of the province, the price ranging from $2.50 up to $7 or $8 per acre, according to locality and contiguity to railways and settlements. A large land t has also recently been promised to the Hudson Bay Railway Company. Improved farms are to be had on reasonable terms at moder- ate prices. The Dominion Lauds Commissioner is established in Winnipeg, and there are land and immigration agents in different parts of the province. Manitoba is in communication by rail with the Atlantic seaboard and the Pacific, and with all parts of Canada and the United States. The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway— completed in 1885—has naturally been of immense advantage to the province. The first railway to Manitoba was a continuation of the United States system from Pembina to Winnipeg, and was ~~ in 1879. The Northern Pacifie Rail- way direct connection with Winnipeg and Brandon ; and a railway is projected from Winni- to Hudson Bay. Jntil 1868 what is now known as Manitoba formed a portion of the territory under the control of the Hudson Bay Company. The first agricul- tural settlement in the country was formed in 1812, under the auspices of the Earl of Selkirk, who took out a party of Highlanders in that year. They were located at Kildonan and Selkirk, on the Red River, about 20 miles north of the site of the present city of Winnipeg. In 1868 the company gave up their exclusive rights to the vernment of the territory, on certain con- tions—among others a money yoreeet of £300,000 and a considerable grant of land. The province of Manitoba was constituted by an Act passed in 1870. One of the first events of importance that happened in Manitoba was the Riel rebellion in 1 70. It arose out of a feelin: of some of the inhabitants that their position an rights had not been sufficiently considered in the transfer already mentioned. The rebellion col- lapsed in 1870 on the arrival at Fort Garry, the site of the present city of Winnipeg, of the expe- dition under Colonel (afterwards Lord) Wolseley. Most of the leaders in the rebellion were subse- uently amnestied. The progress of Manitoba rom an agricultural point of view has been some- what remarkable, but its political history has been comparatively uneventful, excepting for the exist- ence of occasional friction between the provincial and Federal authorities since 1880, in connection with railway extension in the province, After pro- tracted negotiations these differences have, how- ever, been disposed of. References may be made to the following works: Bryce’s Manitoba: Its Infancy, Growth, and Present Condition (1882) ; Christie’s Manitoba Deseribed (1885) ; Macoun’s Manitoba and the Great North-west (Lond. 1883); Grant’s Ocean to Ocean (1873); Fream’s Cana- dian Agriculture (1885); ial Handbook to Canada (Lond. 1890); Haydon and Selwyn’s North America (1883); A Canadian Tour (1886); The Statistical Year- book of Canada (Ottawa, 1890). Manitou. See ANIMAL-worsutP, Vol. I. p. Manitou, a summer-resort at the base of Pike’s Peak, Colorado, 6296 feet above the level of the sea. It is the Saratoga of the west, with soda springs and several large summer hotels. Pop. 1303. Manitoulin Islands, 2 chain of islands in ke Huron, separating it from Georgian Bay. The principal are Grand Manitoulin (0 miles long 24 MANITOWOC MANNING and 28 wide), Cockburn Isle, and Drummond Isle ; the last to the state of apeniees, the reat to Ontario. "All are irregular and striking in their natural featares, and Grand Manitoulin and Cockburn are covered with large forests of pine. Pop. about 2000, ital of Manitow mouth of the county, jitowoe ing is actively carried on. Li niture, machinery, casti and leather are manu- factured. Pop. (1890) 7710; (1900) 11,786. ‘to, capital of Blue Earth county, Min- nesota, on the t bank of the Minnesota River, 86 miles SW. of St Panl. Three lines of railway pass, and small steamboats can ascend as far as i The town contains a state normal , Roman Catholic college, &c., and has varied manufactures, Pop. (1890) ; (1900) 10,599, M Horace, American educationist, was born at Franklin, Massachusetts, 4th May 1796, gradu- ated at Brown University in 1819, and commenced the stady of law. He was elected to the legislature of Massachusetts in 1827, and succeeded in found- he became president. After editing the revised the state, he was for eleven years secretary of the Board of Education. He gave up business and politics, and devoted his whole time to the cause of education, working usually fifteen hours aoe In 1843 he made a visit to educa . in Euro — ma Bape was reprinted both in England and America. 1848 he was elected to conyress, as the successor of John Quincy Adams, whose example he followed in energetic opposition to the extension of slavery. In 1853 he accepted the presidency of Antioch College, at Yellow Springs, Ohio, where he laboured until his death, Auyust 2, 1859. See his Life and Works (5 vols, 1898), and Hindale's Horace Mann and the Common School System (1898). a concrete saccharine exudation ob- tained by making transverse incisions into the stems of cultiv trees of Fraxinus Ornus. The manna ash is cultivated chiefly in Sicily and Cala- men, ben tee pappesn of obtaining manna. In July August collectors make deep cuts throug’ k to the wood near the base of the tree; the weather be warm and favourable, the begins to ooze out of the cuts slowly, and in lumps or flakes, which are from time to the collectors. Manna is a light usually in stalactiform pieces, long, érptallio friable, yellowish in ey-like odour and a sweetish, It is used in medicine as a _—- for young children. It consiate of to 80 per cent. of mannite, about 10 per it. moistare, a bitter substance, and other leas portant constituents, There are several other manna- yielding plants besides the ash, expecially the er Eucalyptus of Australia ( Eucalyptus mannifera), which non-purgative, and in a te aweetmeat with ‘he children of that country. Small quantities are found on the com- mon larch in some districta; thia kind is known under the name of manna of Briangon. The manna of the Israelites, which they ate . was duce! in that — ashrab, Tamariz manni- Sera, a species of me ein from the branches nd, It does not, how- ever, contain any mannite, but consists wholly of EFS ie £ et i i es Fe E iH mueilayvinous sugar. The exudation which con- cretes into this manna is caused by the punctures made in the bark by insects of the genus Coceus te manniparus), Which sometimes cover tho ranches. It is a kind of reddish syrup, and is eaten by the Arabs and by the monks of Mount Sinai like honey with their bread. Others have supposed that the manna of the Jews was pro- duced by a species of Camel’s Thorn (q.v.). Manners, « noble family of Northumbrian extraction, their ancestor, Henry de Maners, having in 1178 been lord of the manor of Ethale, or Etal, in that county. His descendant, Sir Robert de Manners, was governor of Norham Castle in 1327. In 1454 another Sir Robert de Manners was sheriff of Northumberland ; in 1525 his grandson was raised to the earldom of Rutland ; and in 1703 the tenth earl was raised to the duke- dom. The eldest son of the third duke was the celebrated Marquis of Granby (q.v.). The chief seat of the family is Belvoir Castle, 7 miles W. by S. of Grantham, a | castellated structed by Wyatt, and commanding view. Crabbe was chaplain here. See Eller (1841) and Allen (1874). Mannhe the capital formerly of the Rhenish Palatinate, and now the chief trading-town in Baden, lies low in a fertile plain on the right bank of the Rhine, here 400 yards wide and joined the Neckar, 53 miles S. of Frankfort and 38 N. of Carlsruhe. The fortifications have been converted into ens, and the town is remarkable for its cleanliness and regularity, the whole of it pers 3 laid out in quadrangular blocks. The in 1720-29 ‘ the Elector-Palatine Charles Philip, is one of the largest in Germany, covering 15 acres, with a facade 580 yards long, and 1500 windows, The Schillerplatz is adorned with colossal statues of Schiller, Dalberg, and the actor and dramatist Iffland (1759-1814). A great and increasing river- trade is carried on, the harbour having been opened in 1875, The manufactures also are important, of iron, cigars, ts, india-rubber, &e. Bop. : 1875) 46,453 ; (1885) 61,273 (26,904 Catholics, 4: ews) > (1890) 79,058. Mannheim is heard of as early as 705, but remained a mere village till 1606, when a castle was built by the elector-palatine, around which a town grew up, peopled chiefly by Protes- tant refugees from the Low Countries. It was several times taken and retaken during the wars of the 17th century, totally destroyed by the French in 1689, rebuilt and strongly fortified, and in 1795- severely bombarded by the Austrians. See works. by Fecht (1864) and Feder (1875-77). Manning, Henry Epwarp, a cardinal of the Catholie Church, was born 15th July 1808, at Totte- _— in Hertfordshire, was educated at Harrow and Balliol College, Oxford, and, after taking a double first in 1830, was made a Fellow of Merton. He soon came to the front as an eloquent preacher and as a leader of the Tractarian party. In 1834 he was appointed to a country rectory in Sussex, and married a lady whose sisters were the wives. of Samuel and Henry Wilberforce, ing died after afew months of married life. In 1 her husband became Archdeacon of Chichester. But in 1851, deeply moved by the final decision in the *Gorham Case’ ( ot ), he left the Church of England and joined the Church of Rome. His advancement: in that communion was rapid from the first; having been ordained priest, he studied for some years in Rome, and in 1857 he founded the con- tion of the Oblates of St Charles Borromeo at Bayswater, London. He was made provost of Westminster, and in 1865, on the death of Cardinal Wiseman, was promoted to be Archbisho of Westminster. At the Gicumenical Council pile, recon- — a splendid works by repre MANNING MANSEL 25 - 1870, Manning was one of the most zealous sup- porters and promoters of the infallibility dogma; and, named cardinal in 1875, he continued an influential leader of the Ultramontane section of the church. Besides being the foremost spirit in most Catholic movements in England, he took in many non-sectarian good works designed better the social life of the people, such as the tem movement; and he was a member of the Royal Commissions on the Housing of the Poor (1885) and on Education (1886). Before his secession to Rome, he published several volumes of powerful sermons ; his subsequent writings were mainly polemical. He revised a number of articles in this work. A devont prelate, a churchly states- man, and a practical reformer, he died 14th Jan 1892. The Life nee 8. Purcell (2 vols. 1896) was considered hardly fair to his seg te provoked controversy. A short Life by A. W. Hutton had are in 1892. Manning wrote on infallibility, Vatican Council, Ultramontanism, the Four Great Evils of the Day (2d ed. 1871), Internal Mis- coo Sire oly Ghost (1875), The Catholic Church and Se ee eras athood (1208), Characteristics (ed. by W. 8. Lilly, 1885), &e. Manning, Rozerr. See BruNNE( RoseERT OF). Mannite, C,H,(OH),, is a peculiar saccharine matter wine, forms the ciineipa! constituent of Manna (q.v.); it is also found in several kinds of in asparagus, celery, onions, &e. It is most readily obtained by digesting manna in hot alcohol. Manoa. See Et Dorapo. Man-of-war. See Navy. Man-of-war Bird. See Fricate Birp. Manometer (Gr. manos, ‘thin,’ ‘ rare’) is pro- perly an instrument for measuring the rarity of the air or of other gases; but the name is most frequently applied to instruments for indicating the elastic pressure of gases, which is always, for each kind of inversely proportional to its rarity, or directly proportional to its density. The several kinds of Hes le, (q.¥.) are really mano- steam-gauge of a Steam- to legal theory, the lord derives or from some superior lord. lly-organised manor the local customs are by three courts: a Court Baron for the free tenants, who are op, rama the barones or men of the manor; a Customary Court for the copyholders, who hold by base or customary tenure; and a Court Leet, in which officers are elected and minor offences punished. The lord’s demesne includes lands oceupied by himself and by his tenants-at-will, including customary tenants. Free- hold lands do not form part of the lord’s demesne ; but free tenants are essential to the existence of a manor. Where the services of free tenants have been allowed to pass into desuetude, the manor survives as a ‘manor by reputation,’ but the Cus- Court is kept alive for the purpose of ang acts and events which affect the title to copyhold lands, and of collecting the quitrents, fines, &e., which are payable to the lord. No new free tenure can be created in England since the statute Quia Emptores, passed in 1290 ; all existing manors, therefore, ust trace their origin from before time. The king himself was lord of many Manors in right of his crown; and these are called manors of ancient demesne, to distinguish them from lands which fell casually into the king’s hands by forfeiture or otherwise. Manors closely resemble the feudal estates known to the law of Scotland. In the United States there is no institution corre- sponding to the manor. See FEUDALISM. Manrent (or properly, MANRED), Bonps or, ments which used to be entered into in the Highlands of Scotland between the greater and lesser magnates, where protection on the one hand was stipulated in return for allegiance on the other. Manresa, a town of Spain, on the Cardoner, 41 miles by rail NW. of Barcelona. It has a fine ehurch (1020-15th century), the cave of Ignatius Loyola, and manufactures of cotton, broadcloths, barr &c. In 1811 it was fired by Marshal Mac- donald—an outrage avenged by the Catalan knives uary| of the townsfolk. Pop. 16,526. Mans, Le, a Pitacoas city of France, the capital formerly of the province of Maine, and now of the department of Sarthe, on the left bank of the river Sarthe, 132 miles SW. of Paris by rail. The cathedral, 390 feet long, has a Romanesque nave of the 11th and 12th centuries, and a match- less Pointed-Gothic choir of the 13th century, 104 feet high, with splendid stained glass. In the right transept is the monument of Berengaria, Coeur-de- Lion’s queen. There are two other interesting churches, and both préfecture and seminary occupy old conventual buildings, the former comprising also a.museum and a Yibrary of 55,000 volumes. Le Mans does a large trade in poultry and clover- seed, and manufactures candles, woollens, lace, soap, &c. Pop. (1872) 42,654; (1891) 57,412. The Cenomanum of the Romans, and the birthplace of Bont IL. of England, Le Mans witnessed in. 1793 the dispersion and massacre of more than 10,000 Vendéans ; and in January 1871 the defeat, after a stubborn resistance, of 100,000 Frenchmen under Chanzy by Prince Frederick-Charles. A statue of Chanzy was erected in 1885, and one of Belon (q.v.) in 1887. See Hublin, Le Mans Pittoresque (1885). Mansard Roof, a form of roof invented by Francois Mansart (1598-1666), a distinguished French architect. It is constructed with a break in the slope of the roof, so that each side has two planes, the lower being steeper than the upper. The fiainewock ou ht oes be arranged so that its parts are in equilibrium. This kind of roof has the advantage over the common form of giving more space in the roof for living-rooms. Manse, in Scotch law, is the designation of a dwelling-house of the minister of the Established Church, and in popular use the term is often applied generally to the dwelling-house of any minister of a dissenting congregation, though no legal right exists in the latter ease. In the Estab- lished Chureh every first minister of a rural parish is entitled to a manse, which the heritors or landed proprietors in the parish are bound to build and uphold; and he is also entitled, as part of the manse or dwelling-house, to a stable, barn, and byre. The manse must, by statute, be near to the church, When a manse has been built or repaired by the heritors it becomes a free manse, and all ordinary repairs have to be done at the charges of the minister. Decree to the effect that a manse is ‘free’ may be given by the sheriff ; and such decree stands | for fifteen years, or until the appoint- ment aa new minister. It has been judicially decided that a minister has a right to let his manse at a rent for two months in summer, Mansel, Henry LONGUEVILLE, Dean of St Paul’s, was born at Cosgrove rectory, Northamp- Mansard Roof. MANSFIELD from in immediate cogni- tion of the conscions ego ; and he went beyond his master in emphasising the relativity of knowledge of theology—alleging that we have i einer of God ve conception of the see CONDITION). The agnostic tend of this eins poked violent controversy. His pub- lished works are Aldrich’s Logic, with Notes (1849); na Logica (1851); article ‘ Meta- physics’ in edition of the Encyclopedia Brit- annica (1857), afterwards published separately ; The Limite of Religious Thought (Bampton Lec- tures, 1858); The Philosophy of the Conditioned in to Mill's Recteo of Hamilton's a & z i rely lectures on The Gnostic Heresi: Lightfoot in 1874, with Life of Manse of Carnarvon. He was co-editor, with Veitch, of Sir William Hamilton's Lec- tures. See Dean Bargon's Lives of Twelve Good Men (1888). z Counts or, an old German noble he was made by the cg vernor of the d of Laxembarg. But in 1552, whilst raiding in Champagne, he was taken prisoner b the French, not ransomed until 1557. He t net them os at St Quentin. On the pin aod er the revolt in the Low Countries he of the cleverest generals in testants, he covered himself with glory at Mon- contour oh, a1 ages sea age - in man military operations in the Nether- pe em for a while as governor of the Low Countries. In 15097 he retired to Laxembarg, where he had ered a valuable of antique art, died there on 22d ae illegitimate son, Peren Enwest I1., usually called Count Ernest von Mansfeld, waa one of the most prominent wilitary leaders during the Thirty Years’ War (q.v.). Born at Luxemburg in 1580, he served his apprenticeship to war in the — artis mrt af yoo ole 1 Se the nes a rew, was promise of father's A ~ — it ane to pinch, t were teed to him. is con. verted Stanutoll into an implacable enemy, and over to the side of the Protestant He assisted the Duke of Savoy against jards (1613-17), and in 1618 waa de. to Bohemia, to aid the Count-Palatine and captured Pilsen and other strong. t the dienater of the Weissenberg him to retreat to the Palatinate, from eartied on for nearly two years a semi. war on the imperialists, defeating Tilly (April 16022), When Frederick aban- stroggle, Mansfeld, with his chosen ally of newick, a swashbuckling adven- himeelf, fought his way through the F tty i i ‘ FSF Spanish-Austtian forces to take service for the nited Netherlands, beating Cordova at Fleurus — a 29th August). At the bidding of his new masters ansfeld chastised the Count of East and then, dismissing his army, retired into private — life at The Hague. But in 1624 he resumed active work again at the solicitation of Richelieu, an army of 12,000 men, raised mostly in Eng- land, he renewed the struggle on the Lowe till on 25th April 1626 he was crushingly q by Wallenstein at the bridge at Dessau. more raising a force of 12 with these and 5000 Danes he marched by way Silesia to join hands in Moravia and Hw with Bethlen Gabor of Transylvania. But the for Venice with a few officers to raise when he fell sick and died, standing, clad in full oply and supported by two attendants, at ees Ag near Serajevo in Bosnia, on 29th November 1626. Count Ernest, a soldier of for- tune, was the idol of his lawless perce whom — id to their he frequently allowed to plunder and heart's content, so that they were a terror to friends as well as foes, Mansfield, a market-town of Nottinghamshire, in Sherwood Forest, 17 miles N. of Nottingham. Its grammar-school Heroes has been rebuilt at a cost of £10,000; and there are a memorial cross (1850) to Lord George Bentinck, a town-hall (1836), an interesting parish church, &e, Mans- field stands in the centre of a manufactu and mining district, and has manufactures of lace psec PR: iron. Pop. (1881) 13,651 ; (1891) 15,925. See Harred’s History of Mansfield (1801), Mansfield, capital of Richland county, Ohio, stands on an elevated site, 179 miles by rail NE. of Cincinnati, and contains iron-foundries and manau- factories of flour, a implements, stoves, tiles, &c. Pop. (1880) 9859 ; (1900) 17,640. Mansfield, Witt1AmM Murray, Eart or, Lord-chief-justice of the King’s Bench, was the — fourth son of Andrew, Viscount Stormont, and was’ born at Perth, 24 March 1704. From Westminster he P opane- to Christ Church, Oxford, uated M.A. in 1730, and was called to the bar the follow- ing year. He soon acquired an extensive practice —mainly, it would seem, on account of his facility and force as a speaker, for neither then nor at any subsequent period of his career was he reckoned a very erudite lawyer—and was often employed on appeal cases before the House of Lords. 1743 he was — Solicitor-general, entered the Honse of Commons as member for Boroughbridge, and at once took a high position. In 1746 he acted, ex officio, as counsel against the rebel lords, Lo Balmerino, and Kilmarnock; was appoin Attorney-general in 1754; and at this time stood so high that, had not the keenness of his ambition been mitigated by a well-founded distrust of his fitness for leading the House, he might have aspired to the highest political honours. He became Chief: justice of the King’s Bench in 1756, and, contrary to usage, also a member of the cabinet ; and entered the House of Lords under the title of Baron Mans- field of Mansfield, in the county of Nottingham, Although he was impartial and tolerant as a judge, his opinions were not those of the popular side, and accordingly he was expos to much abuse and party hatred. Junius bitterly attacked him, and during the Gordon riots of 1780 his house, with all his books and papers, was burned. The judge declined with much dignity to be indemnified vy parliament. In 1776 Murray was made Earl of Mansfield. Age and ill-health forced him to resign the Chief-justiceshin in 1788. He died, With — in Brandenburg, _ rench — and English subsidies failing, on which he relied — pay for his men, he was perry way to | a ‘Sa m1 —- = s MANSION HOUSE MANTELL 27 20th March 1793, when the title devolved upon his nephew, Viscount Stormont. Mansion House, the official residence of the Lord Mayor of London, was built on the site of the Old Stocks Market in 1739, at a cost of £42,638. It is an obl building, and at its farthest end is the tian _ Four hundred a ne Sine be grand ueting-room, which was desi by the Earl of Darlington from the duatiplina of an tian chamber given by Vitruvius. All the frat mets, public and private, given by the Mayor take place fine ball and reception rooms. At the close of the exhibition of 1851 the Corporation of London voted £10,000 to be expended on statuary for the } adornment of the Mansion House; and there is also a fine gallery of portraits and other pictures. | Among its curiosities may be mentioned a state ; bed, w eost 3000 guineas, and a kitchen and ) cgay Mh meg extraordinary for their vast size. Lord Mayor's jewelled collar of gold | and diamonds, his silver-gilt mace, his sword, and . his seal are described, together with his coach and ; ancient barge, in Thornbury’s O/d and New London, 1 here, and there are also vol i. pp. 436, 443. The establishment and expenses connected with the office cost an ann sum of £25,000; and it is said that only one Lord Mayor ever saved anything out of his salary. The ; Mansion House is too modern to possess much historical interest; but the Wilkes riots fre- ged took place in its neighbourhood during mayoralty of Wilkes’ friend, Brass Crosby. The Mansion House is often a centre of benevolent enterprise in the collection of money for sufferers by war, famine, flood, pestilence, and earthquake a , or by colliery explosions, shipwrecks, and lack of employment at home ; and Mansion House ie are also raised for memorials to heroic Manslaughter is the crime of unlawful homicide without malice aforethought. Homicide, | or the infliction of death, is not a crime when it is , done in self-defence against unlawful violence, or when it is done in the execution of the sentence of ) a@ court of justice. Thus one whose life is en- dangered by the violent attack of a madman, and kills the madman, commits homicide, but is inno- cent of manslaughter. So, too, is the executioner who hangs a convicted murderer. Homicide is unlawful, and amounts to manslaughter when, without being justified in any such manner as has been exemplified above, it is committed with the intention to cause physical injury ; or is the result of culpable negligence or omission to perform some legal duty; or is the result of an accident occa- j sioned by some unlawful act. Thus, if one man strike another without intending to kill him, and the blow prove fatal, the striker is guilty of man- q slaughter ; or if, where it is the duty of the master of a ship to keep a lookout for small boats in the ship’s way, a boat is run down and its occupants q drowned in consequence of the absence of a look- out upon the ship, the master of the vessel is guilty of manslaughter; or if a man is engaged in an unlicensed manufacture of dynamite, and by an accidental explosion of the dynamite another is killed, the manufacturer is guilty of manslaughter. When manslaughter is accompanied by malice aforethought, it becomes murder. See Sir James Stephen's Digest of the Criminal Law. Manson, Grorce, a Scottish water-colour — was born in Edinburgh on 3d December 850. He served five years as a wood-engraver in the establishment of Messrs W. & R. Chambers, readying art in his spare hours morning and even- by > be first picture which attracted attention, ke % Time,’ was painted at Craigmillar Castle CE ————— near Edinburgh, between four and eight o'clock of the mornings of a whole summer. In 1871 he de- voted himself to painting altogether, but his youth- ful hard study had permanently injured his health, and he died at Lympstone, Devonshire, 27th Febru- ary 1876. His pictures, which have increased largely in value since his death, are mostly from humble life ; beauty and refinement of drawing and colour are their t charm. A memoir of him, with hotographs of his principal pictures, was pub- ished in 1880. See P. G. Hamerton’s Graphic Arts, p. 311. Mansourah, a town of Lower Egypt, on the Damietta branch of the Nile, 30 miles SW. of Damietta by rail. Pop. (1897) 34,997. The place was founded in 1220, and here St Louis of France was iniprisoned in 1250. Mant, RicHArD (1776-1848), divine, was born in Southampton, educated at Oxford, and after holding cures in England, became successively Bishop of Killaloe (1820) and of Down and Connor (1823), with Dromore attached (1842). He wrote with D’Oyly a famous annotated Bible (1814), an annotatec of Common fk (1825), and a History of the Church of Ireland (1841). See his Memoirs by Berens (1849) and W. Mant (1857). Mantchuria. See MANCHURIA. Man ANDREA, Italian painter, born in or near Padua in 1431, was the favourite pupil and adopted son of that tailor Mecends of painters, Squarcione. By studying the antique collections gathered together by his patron, especially from the study of the sculpture, Mantegna became imbued with the spirit of ancient art, and all his works bear the impress of the severe dignity and precision of his models. Grace and beauty were not the ideals that he aimed at ; some of his pictures are positively ugly. A precocious genius, Mantegna set up an independent atelier when only seventeen years of age. Amongst his earliest works, done at Padua, are frescoes of saints in the chureh of St Antony, an altarpiece for St Justina, and most of the frescoes of St Christopher, and some of those of St James, in the church of the Hermits. Having married the sister of Giovanni and Gentile Bellini, he seems to have become estranged from Squarcione, and left Padua (1459). He painted an altarpiece, the ‘Madonna and Angels,’ for St Zeno’s church at Verona, and was induced by Lodovico Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, to settle in his city. There he remained, with the exception of a visit to Rome (1488-90) to paint a series of frescoes (now destroyed) for Pope Innocent VIII., until his death on 13th September 1506. His greatest works at Mantua were nine tempera pictures representing the ‘ Triumph of Cesar’ (his masterpiece). ‘The Madonna of Victory with Gonzaga,’ ‘Parnassus,’ ‘Defeat of the Vices,’ ‘Triumph of Scipio,’ and ‘Madonna between St John the Baptist and St Magdalene.’ Like Leonardo da Vinci, Masterns was something of a universal genius. He was an engraver and an architect, as well as a painter, and is said to have written ms and wielded the sculptor’s chisel. He introduced into North Italy, though he can hardly have invented, the art of engraving with the burin on copper. His best plates bear the titles ‘A Bacchanal Feast,’ ‘Descent from the Cross,’ ‘ En- tombment,’ ‘ Resurrection,’ ‘ Battle of the Titans,’ and ‘Roman Triumphs.’ Mantegna’s technical excellencies, his skilful foreshortening, masterly rspective, and austerity of form exercised a great influence upon subsequent Italian art. Mantell, GIDEON ALGERNON, an eminent British paleontologist and geologist, was born at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1790; studied medicine, and practised successively at Lewes, Brighton, and 38 MANTES MANTUA Clapham, London ied be gees the long prothorax and the saffering beedeeeen, ‘i cy “ng en nt lige which are Atted for grasping. note of an accident, he pursued his stadies with | They are entirel carnivorous in habit, but do not unabated zeal. He dra actively pursue their prey; the insect waits patiently weathed his geological draw- ings to Yale College. Mts collections be sold to the ie gee ar ec apae Dagatiy ony Append He was a very voluminous writer, no less t sixty- seven works and memoirs of his being enumerated in Agassiz and Strickland’s Bibliotheca Zoologia et care ngal His claims to a acragen yt ge hDhan history seience rest mainly on his rious inv: ions into the fossils of the Wealden beds. To him we owe the discovery and description of the four great Dinosaurian reptiles, the Jguanodon, Hyleosaurus, Pelorosaurus, and Regnosaurus. Man 4 town in the French department of Seineer One on the left bank of the Seine, 36 miles rail WNW. of Paris. It has a striki tower (1344) and a beautiful church, a red of Notre Dame at Paris. The ancient 4 town of the Celts, Mantes in 1083 was sacked William the ueror, who here received the injury that death ; and here too og V. was converted from Protestant- ism. Pop. 4 Manteuffel, Eowix Hays Karu, Fremerr Vor, and admini bureau at Berlin, a which he held pom Ay Having been appetite commander of the wick, he protested 'y i icane 7, 1866), On the outbreak of hostilities Manteuffel com. manded a division of the army of the Main, which th German in the battle of (27th June), w brought about the Hanoverian Main army, and by winning the batt berbischofsheim, Helmstiidt, and over the Bavarians and others he brought He eeait of the campai to @ successful issue, He entered the war 1870 as commander of the bat was soon oted to the command army, which fonght successfully at Amiens and other places. Transferred in appointed im viceroy of the newly-organised provinces, Alsace-Lorraine. His administration wae not a ¥ one: his endeavours to help on the process Germanisation by direct efforts and upper classes, both ¢ died at Carlsbad, 17th June 1885. See Life by Keck (Bielef, 1889). an ancient city of Arcadia, in the midst of a broad plain, Here Epaminondas fell in moment of a great victory over the Spartans, Berea a rt ta of the insect order Orthoptera. They are chiefly to tuated on the river Ophis, in the designs until a fly comes within reach, and then seizes it with its fore-limbs (see the illustration), come within reach has given to one species, plenti- ful in the south of pth the name of praying tly th fol I i esl ek the uietly among foli t is su ae lance to an erehid-like Pent may delude smaller insects into roaching near enough for the mantis to take advantage of its ‘alluring’ colours and shape. Mantling. See Heraupry. Man-traps, engines for the terrifying of tres- eget and poachers (formerly —_ ty e warning notice ‘ man-traps an ring-guns here’), resembled gigantic rat-trape four fest 5 They may be seen in museums; it is, since ] illegal to set them save indoors between sunset and sunrise, as a defence against burglars, Mantua (Ital. Man’tova), a fortified | of Northern Italy, formerly capital of the duchy of the same name, 38 miles by rail N. of Modena and 25 8, by W. of Verona, oceupies two islands formed by the Mincio, and stands in the midst of a district, which, combined with its artificial fo: fications, make it perhaps t fortress in Italy. But at the same time its situation makes it liable | to malaria. It forms one of the four fortresses of | the Quadrilateral (q.v.). | the squares numerous, and the population compara- The streets are spacious, tively small, 28,048 in 1881 ; so that for this an use of the numerous massive meaiaral: buildings, the town has a lifeless and gloomy appearance. Chief amongst the buildings are the fortress of the Gon erected in 1393-1 and adorned with paintings by pogo st! close the dueal palace, begun in 1302, which contains 500 rooms, rp has them ornamented with paintings and of Giulio Romano; the Palazzo Te, outside the city walls on the south, the greatest monument to the skill of Giulio Romano as architect, painter and sculptor ; the cathedral of San Pietro, restored from designs by G. Romano; and the church of San Andrea, one of the finest Renaissance churches in Italy, containing the tomb of Mantegna, whose pupils MANU MANURE 29 adorned the walls with frescoes. The public institu- tions include an academy of arts and sciences, a library with 80,000 vols. and 1000 MSS., a museum of antiquities, an observatory, archives, a botanical a large military hospital, &e. Virgil was at Pietole (anc. Andes), now a suburb of Mantua. The industries include weaving, tanning, and saltpetre-refining. Some 3000 Jews live in ‘oma ts. an a groigey ue foan, bs nee vely in ion of the Romans, Ostrogoths, sit ork before falling into the hands of the emperors, who gave it to the Marquis of Canossa. From him it passed to the Countess Matilda of Tuscany in 1052. After her death it was a free jeipertal city and joined the Lombard leagues against the H. enemperors. The Buonacolsis made themselves masters of the city in 1247, but were ousted from power by the head of the Gonzaga (q.v.) family in 1328. This dynasty, the head of which was created duke by Charles V. in 1530, not only maintained themselves against their great rivals, the Visconti of Milan, but raised the city to the height of its splendour and renown. The last duke died childless in 1708, and his duchy was con- fiseated by Austria, who kept her hold of it down to 1866, except for two short periods (1797-99 and 1801-14), when it was in the ion of France. Mantua has endured at least three ost Soe, b the Emperor Ferdinand II. in 1630, by the Frene in 1797, and by the Austrians in 1799. During the years 1830-59 it was the headquarters of much age persecution by the Austrian government. Arco’s History, in Italian (7 vols. 1871-74). The ince has an area of 911 sq. m., and a ‘ (1880) of 321,872. ¥ “se Manu (from the Sanskrit man, ‘to think,’ lit. ‘the thinking being’) is the ted author of the most renowned law-book of the ancient Hindus, and likewise of an ancient Kalpa work on Vedic rites. It is matter, however, of considerable doubt whether both works belong to the same individual, and whether the name Manu, especially in the case = ae ——, of wn petonin 7 intended hes te an historical personage; for, in seve’ — of the Vedas (q.v.), as well as the Maha- irata (q.v.), Manu is mentioned as the progenitor of the human race; and, in the first chapter of the law-book ascribed to him, he declares himself to have been produced bn Page an ~—- of the , and to have created all this universe. knows, moreover, a succession of whom created, in his own od, the world anew after it had perished at the end of a mundane age. The word Manu—akin to our ‘man’—belongs therefore, properly speaking, to ancient Hindu mythology, and it was connected with the reno law-book in order to impart to the latter the sanctity on which its authority rests. This work is not merely a law-book in the Euro- pean sense of the word, it is likewise a system of y; it propounds roe ti fgnere octrines, the art of government, and, amongst other treats of the state of the soul after death. chief topics of its twelve books are the follow- 1) creation ; (2) education and the duties of 1, or the first order; (3) marriage and the householder, or the second order; (4) bsistence and private morals; (5) diet, , and the duties of women; (6) the an anchorite and an ascetic, or the duties and fourth orders; (7) government of a king and the military caste; (8) — and law, private and criminal ; (9) con- ion of the former and the duties of the com- servile castes ; (10) mixed castes and the duties of the castes in time of distress; (11 —- and expiation; (12) transmigration an beatitude. Biihler has proved that Max d te sea ai i F Miiller was right in regarding the extant work as a versified recast of an ancient law-book, the manual of a particular Vedic school, the Manavas; and holds that the work, the date of which used to be given at 1200 B.c., was certainly extant in the 2d century A.D., and seems to have been composed between that date and the 2d century B.c. There are many remarkable correspondences between this work and the Mahabharata, suggesting the use in both of common materials. The laws of Manu were translated by Sir William Jones (1794). See also The Ordinances of Manu, trans- lated from the Sanskrit, with introduction by Burnell, completed by Hopkins (1886); The Laws of Manu, trans- lated with extracts from seven commentaries by G. Biihler (in ‘Sacred Books of the East,’ 1888). Manure, Any material, whether of animal, vegetable, or mineral origin, which adds to the fertility of the soil has been generally regarded as manure. The application of stable and farmyard manure, as also the ashes of plants, &c., to the soil has been practised probably in all ; but the scientific principles involved in this ancient practice were but little understood until more recent times, when chemists, botanists, and physiologists set themselves the task of explaining to the agricul- turist the changes which are ever taking place in the soil and in the plant itself. On virgin soils crops may be grown for years without much evident diminution in quantity or quality ; but a period must come when there will be an exhaustion of one or more of the constituents of plants, and the soil can then be no longer regarded as fertile. That_is to say, soils contain certain proportions of certain in ients ; and when these are abstracted by the plant and carried away in the form of crops, the soil must in time become exhausted. It then becomes necessary to add to the soil in the form of manure such constituents as the crops have removed in order that the land may regain fertility. When we consider that Soils (q.v.) are formed mainly from the weathering of rocks, it will at once be understood how it is generally unnecessary that manures should contain such things as magnesia, iron, alumina, &c. eo jar peal the con- stituents which are removed by plants from soils, the loss of which brings about that condition of ‘exhaustion,’ are compounds of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash ; oad hence it is, in part at least, that farmyard manure is so universally regarded as the ‘stand-by’ of the agriculturist, for that material contains all those ingredients, and in a form easily assimilated by plants. It must not be overlooked, however, that ibly the chief advantages derived from the use of fennpata manure are that it makes the soil porous, and that the conditions which result from the decomposition of the organic matter are favourable to the development of those micro-organisms which bacteriologists are en- deavouring to prove are of as much importance as the manure itself (see NITRIFICATION). Manures containing large proportions of organic matter, such as stable manure, wrack or seaweed, fish offal, &c., have value as plant-food; but the heat ryan ae during their decomposition, or rotting, and the fact that the carbonic acid resulting from that change acts as a solvent on the mineral constituents of the soil and otherwise, are of still greater moment. The first artificial manure systematically used was probably bones, applied in the earlier periods, either in an unground condition or simply bruised. About the beginning of the 19th century, however, it was proved that fineness of division rendered bone more easily assimilated by plants ; and further pro- still was made when Liebig introduced the treatment of bone with sulphuric acid, whereby chemical division was realised. There are about 50,000 tons of bone imported into Britain annually, MANURE MANZONI 3% while of home-collected done not less than 60,000 tons are employed in the manufacture of manure, and of this quantity London alone produces fully 23,000 tons annually. om Nig ‘Mano. — vian was at one time im- ported from the Ch Islands in enormous quantities; bat the old deposits are_ practicall exhausted, and the quality of the now available fe eeneee sss a ee ( south-west still im ' in somewhat limited quantity; but it is much the richest available guano. these guanos lies in the percentages of nitrogenous ic matter, ammonia salts, phosphates of the alkalies and of lime, and the potash salts which they contain. Some of the islands in the South Pacific yield supplies of guano, but these are almost purely phosphatic, owing to the abundant rainfall of region having washed out all the ammoniacal salts, Liebig's Guano and Liebig's Meat Meal are by-products from the preparation of Liebig’s extract of meat. They are in a fine state ope geo enang division, and are Sapam} sources of nitrogen phosphates. -guano is largely produced in Norway and the north of Scotland from fish offal (see GUANO). The process ora is essentially steaming to remove the oil, wi is run off with the water; the solid residue is soo and dried. The manurial constituents of material are nitrogen and phosphates. Dried Blood is another valuable source of nitro- gen. Horn powder, shoddy and wool waste, leather saaplngs, &e. are also employed for the same pur- pose, but they are of much less value. ‘hosphatic Substances.—The coprolites of Cam- bridge, Norfolk, and Suffolk come under this classification, as does also the land phosphate from the Ash Basin of South Carolina, and the di from the Ashley and Cooper rivers, In ition to these we have Canadian te, Sombrero, Navassa, Somme, Belgian, Spanish, Curacao, numerous other These are of little value as manure in their natural and ground state, and are almost wholly converted into superphosphate by the action of pa uric acid, whereby the natural or tricalcic —Wwhich is insoluble in water—is con- verted into the monocalcic phosphate, which is soluble, and therefore readily available to plants, Sul, of Ammonia is principally derived from the destractive distillation of coal and shale (see GAS-LIGHTING, Vol. V. p. 98, and PARAFFIN), Its value depends upon the percentageof ammonia which it contains, is salt sometimes contains sulpho- cyanide of ammonium, a substance which is in- imical to plant-life. Some experimentalists assert with all confidence that ammonia salts must under- go nitrification before they can enter the plant ; but that contention is scarcely now tenable, because nitrification is possible in some cases within the plant itself. Nitrate of Soda or Chili Saltpetre is very exten- sively imported, and is sold on a basis of 95 per cont, nitrate, or ‘5 per cent. refraction’—i.e. not more than 5 per cent. of impurities, It is found native in several districts of th America in an impure state, and is rendered marketable by a process of solution and re-crystallising. Its action as & manure is comparable to that of nitrate of lime, nitrate of potash, or sulphate of ammonia. It» only valuable constituent is nitric acid, while in the other nitrates mentioned the base Potash Salts are of the utmost service to ly contain a sufficiency Caree or ~~. lands of potash, while um and light soils require it to be added. Nitrate, sulphate, and muriate are all more of lew employed in compounding potash is also lanta, he value of | salt | iy poe al from Germany the most gene only is desired. 5 ; iquid Manure may be classed with manure, as it is now very commonly absorbed the ‘courts’ by the straw, &c, Occasi used in the liquid form on grass or stubble land, — Lime is one of the most necessary conten soils and manures, It is geesey i ‘fresh burned’ to newly-broken land, or where there is an excessive amount of or similar m : Lime is the great carrier into p lants of er ‘stafls’ which fe to form their organic com s and during this elaboration organic heahall formed, many, if not all, of which would the plants themselves but for the presence with which these organic acids combine to insoluble non-poisonous compounds. : The study of the Prd ine F sie and manuring —can be most profitably followed in the works ot Lawes ons an rt. Yet most of Race cmon ages or cultural—experiments are but gs gy ; they are ree misleading he inconclu- icnown Bittle hing of the changes snown little or nothing of the ¢ on in the plant itself, or of the variations tn, ae changes caused by the amount and intensity of light and heat. Until we know more about the micro- organisms in the soil, their life-history and fune- tions, but little progress can be made; and until we have experimentalists capable of demonstrating the functions, chemical and physical, of plants, and the variations in those functions with the ever- varying climatic conditions, so-called icultural research must lead to disappointment. AGRI- CULTURE, ComposTts, ROTATION, and SEWAGE. Manuscripts. See PaLzocrarny, CopEx, Papyrus, ILLUMINATION, WRITING. Manuzio. See ALprve Epitions. Manx. See MAN (ISLE OF). Manyplies. See Dicesrion. Manzanillo, (1) a fine port of Mexico, on the Pacitic coast, 31 miles by rail WSW. of Colima. It exports agricultural products and silver ore. surrounding country is fertile, but unhealthful. Pop. about 2000.—(2) A port on the south coast of Cuba, in a fertile but unhealthful locality, 37 miles W. of Bayamo. Ithasa harbour, and exports sugar, Yara tobacco, and lumber. Pop, (1899) 14,464. Manzoni, ALESSANDRO, a great Italian writer, was born at Milan, March 7, 1785, of noble ts, and through his mother grandson of the celebrated Marquis ria. He published his first in 1806, married happily in 1810, and spent the next few years in the composition of the Jnni Saer?, sacred lyrics, and a treatise on the religious basis of morality, by way of reparation for the unbelief of early youth, In 1819 he BP sxssgroae his first tragedy, 12 Conte di Carmagnola, a trumpet-blast of romanticism; the second, Adelchi, followed in 1822, Manzoni’s first tragedy had the honour to be defended by Goethe, ‘one genius having divined the other.’ But the work whighe ve Manzoni Euro- pean fame is his historical cover F Promessi Sposi, a Milanese story of the 17th century (3 vols. Milan, 1825-6-7). The tale abounds in interesting sketches - national —¢ — — customs = — of le, portrayed with unflagging spirit and humour, while various grave historical’ wae are narrated with force anc ewan of style, episode of the yosee in Milan. ode, Jt Cinque Maggio, was inspired by the death of the great Napoleon. His last years were dark- ened by the frequent shadow of death within his oe a lime, » L * : ) “ y 2 * form a Be use the experimentalists have — MAORIS MAP 31 “ye 7s himself _ at Milan, ~ May ‘187. ving posteri mem not alone Garat orie, Bee tuavlady natie ao8 sincere man. A complete edition of his works, in 5 vols., was pub- lished by Nicolé Tommaseo (Florence, 1828-29). His Letters were collected by Sforza (1875); and a post- work on the French and Italian revolutions of 1789 and 1859 was edited by Bonghi (Milan, 1 Bismara’s Bibli Manzoniana (Turin, 1875) will are Lives (Italian) by Balbiani be found useful. biani (1873 ), Bersezio (1873), Prina (1874), and i ( 1876 ). Ma’‘oris, the native inhabitants of New Zea- land (q-v.). Maormor. See EArt. ofa thereof, exhibiting the lines of latitude and tude, &e., the forms and relative positions of the countries, mountain-ranges, rivers, towns, &c.; or it may be of the starry heavens, or of stars and constellations. As it is manifestly impossible correctly to represent a spherical upon a lane surface, phers are consequently necessi- tated to resort to expedients in order to minimise or distribute the unavoidable distortion and dis- proportion. Hence the use of the various map projections or arrangements of the lines of latitude longitude. The only true representation of the 's surface, it is clear, is to be found on the terrestrial globe. This is inconvenient in form and ydrographical map,

ae east and west, is represented by a curved line, er Sees Sees | ee Fig. 2.—Conical Projection of Europe. - that on such a map the course of a vessel almost always be laid down in a curve, w with the meridian by the point of the con:pass ¢ which the ship was sailing. If the vessel steer in a direct north-east course by one vious projections, she would, if land did intervene, describe a spiral. The mariner, ever, requires a chart which will enable him to his course by compass in straight lines . valuable instrument is supplied by _ ‘ chart, a cylindrical projection in which { meridians are straight lines perpendicular to equator, and all the Nels straight lines to the equator. It is constructed thus (fig. ) ; Fig. 3.—Mercator’s Projection. line, AB, is drawn of the required length for the equator. This line is divided into 36, 24, or 18 equal parts, for meridians at 10°, 15°, or 20° apart, and the meridians are then drawn through these —— | dicular to AB. From a table of meridional parts | (a table of the number of minutes of a degree of | longitude at the equator comprised between that | and every parallel of latitude up to 89°) take distances of the parallels, tropics, and arctic from the equator, and mark them off to north and a of it. Join these points, and the projection e. ; | | direction either of the north and south, os hich : only be described by continually la: off , he niiion a line at an angle antes tak te to of the EN ———— — = MAP 33 This projection, of course, does not give a natural representation of the earth, its effect being to exaggerate the polar regions immensely. The dis- tortion in the form of countries and relative diree- tion of places is rectified by the degrees of latitude being made to increase ‘ome farsa to those of de. There are other cylindrical praeions of the sphere, but this is the most generally valu- able and best known. It gives an unbroken view of the earth’s surface with the exception of the poles, which are infinitely remote. Historical.—The ancient Greeks considered Anaximander (560 B.c.) as the inventor of carto- graphy; but there is evidence that about 1000 ears earlier some attempts in that direction had n-made amongst the Egyptians. Necessarily these efforts were of the ecrudest, and were made upon the supposition that the earth was a plane. After Aristotle the spherical theory was adopted, and the application of astronomical observations to geography was first made by Pytheas of Massilia (326 B.C. ), and the first attempts at projections by Dicearchus of Messana (310 B.c.). | Ptolemy's (150 A.D.) rational teaching had an ultimate valu- able influence in the treatment of cartography, although the Romans made little progress in the art, which during the middle ages also showed almost no advance. In the 14th and 15th centuries a gratifying improvement is observable in Italian nautical charts. In the 15th century the revivals of Ptolemy’s teaching produced a revolution in the construction of maps, and laid the foundation of modern earhearsnhy: There was great increase in the number and importance of maps. The first attempts to improve and increase the methods of pein known to the Greeks were made by ermans, viz. Johann Stiffler (1452-1536), and Peter Apianus (1495-1552), &c. In the same period that Mercator (Gerhard Kremer, 1512-1594) made his invaluable contributions, the Italians, 32 2 au [az J es [ge [wT se f 22 | 20 ze | we] se Map of British Islands, reduced from the Latin Ptolemy of 1478, Germans, and Dutch were active competitors in geographical work. Amongst the increasing host of names connected with the subject are fonnd that of Sebastian Cabot (1544), who produced his map of the world. In Germany, Johann Baptist Homann (1644-1724) and Tobias Mayer (1723-86) occur; in France, Nicolas Sanson (1600-67), Guillaume de lIsle (1675-1726), and Jean ag erty Bougignon d’Anville (1697-1782); and in Italy, P. Vincent Cornelli ( . 1718). In the 18th century France led the way in cartography by state survey resulting in the Carte Géometrique de la France.’ The British Ordnance Survey was begun in 1784. recent cartographers are—German: Kiepert, Berghaus, Petermann, Hassenstein, Habenicht, Justus Perthes, &e,; Italian: Guido; Coro; British: Arrowsmith, Hughes (educational), Ravenstein, and the ical firms “ Wi & A. K. Johnston, E, Stanford, and Bastholo- mew & Co. See also the articles Contour LINES, Decree, Eartu, LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE, MERIDIAN, ORDNANCE SURVEY. Map (less correctly, MAPES), WALTER, a great 12th-century writer, was born on the Welsh marches, perhaps in Herefordshire, about 1137. He studied at the university of Paris, became an_intimate friend of Becket, was a justice-in-eyre at Gloucester assize in 1173, ettended the king the same year to Limoges, and for many years later, probably as chaplain, and was sent on missions to Paris and to Rome. He enjoyed the living of Westbury in Gloucestershire, where he had a long feud for his rights with the monks of a neighbouring Cistercian convent, and became canon of St Paul’s and pre- eentor of Lincoln, but still continued his attend- ance on the king. In 1197, under Richard L, he became archdeacon of Oxford, and died before 1210. Map, who was Welsh, was a frank, open-hearted man, with a quick wit, bold humour, and an in- dignant contempt for hypocrisy. All these qualities MAP MAPLE connected (and apparently on good grounds name. (Of these the chief are the Golias Apocalypsis Golia, Predicatio, Confessio, bettas tether Gatien ths fisnoes ‘Mason oct in taberna mori,’ which is far more a by self-revelation than a jovial drinking- In Golias t creative imagin&tion a type and upon his head he pours out wrath and scorn, with humour rich, eet eee t te ae io ‘t f ! , = i! F i - g , as we him, with the church- dislike to see the humorist point this cloth, denouncing Golias if ty t Christian spiritualisa- and gave a meaning to the romances. He wrote most west of the Saint is confines his Lancelot of the Lake, the ‘ort Artus. M. opening of Merlin. eames Wie edited for the Camden Soctiy, Maas Latin Poems ( se fF poke ae it yin (1 ”), an interesting kind of note-book cou fantasticer, inst sent by Valerius to the philosopher Rufinus. Maple (Acer), the typical and the principal genus of ue natural rat iy Aceracew. The epecies are numerous, all are ae a _ a the temperate parts e-northern hemisphere, a numerous in North Asics and L Common A nm b See gh Cle ee) Common (A. cai ), a small tree, is a native of Britain, and ay vont of Enrope and Asin. The wood is compact, fine grained, and takes a polish; hence it is much used by for carved work, frequently sub- stituted for the wood of the H y Base Bo mathematical instrament makers. America, where it often forms great wth in woods, is so named ~ ot thane ae bark of the two-year-old branches are beautifully varied with green and white stripes; its eau” whloh is very white, is used for in- laying in cabinet-work.—The Greater Sycamore (A. pseudo-platanus), commonly Fig. 2.—Greater Maple (Acer pseudo-platanus): a, fruit. Plane-tree in Scotland, is a native of various parts of Europe, but a doubtful native of Britain, in which, Coeur! it has — been common. attains a height of 70 to 90 feet, has a spreading umb us head, and large, palmate, apr serrated leaves on long stalks. It is of q growth, and succeeds well near the sea and in other exposed situations. The wood is white, compact, and firm, though not hard; it is e of a fine polish, and is used by wheel ts, turners, &c. It is not apt to warp. Stair- are often made of it, and app eco e n> for m tories, as well as bowls, bread-plates, &e. is sometimes made from the sap of this tree, as from that of several other maples ; but the which yields it most abundantly is the Sugar le (A. sa inum) of North America, a c which much resembles the sycamore, and abounds in the northern parts of the United States and in the British possessions, where large quan of sugar are made from it, although only for domestic use. To obtain the sap, the trees are in February, March, and April, according to the locality and the season, and when warm days frosty nights occur, which favour its flow. An incision is made in the trunk with an auger or axe, at first half an inch deep, and is ine a to twa inches. A spout of sumach or elder is then inserted, through which the sap flows into a trough, whence it is conveyed dai larger receiver; from this, after being strain it is carried to the boiler. Being liable to ferment, it cannot be kept long after being collected. The boiling and refining processes are the same as those in the manufacture of cane-sugar. A single tree yields from two to six pounds in a season. Good vinegar is made from it, and a kind of molasses much superior to that from the sugar-cane, much used in America with buckwheat cakes, &e. The wood of the Sugar Maple has a satiny appear- ance, and is used for cabinet-making; it is some- times finely marked with undulations of fibre, and is then known as Bird's-eye Maple, and is used for veneers, The Sugar Maple is not so hardy in the climate of Britain as the sycamore, and seems to it lo ae Maple or i a ;. It ~ toa MAQUI MARANHAM 35 Tequire a dry and sheltered situation.—The Nor- way Maple (A. platanoides), a native of the north urope, although not of Britain, is also found in North America; it much resembles the syeamore.— A Himalayan species (A. villosum), a noble tree, found with pines and birches at great elevations, is sometimes grown in Britain. A large number of interesting and remarkably beautiful forms of several Japan species of Acer, such as A. dissectum and A. pata have been introduced within the last few years; they have prered hardy in many favoured districts of England and Ireland, but are unsuited to Scotland generally, though they are occasionally seen there in conservatories cultivated in pots. Maqui (Aristotelia Maqui), the only known species of the genus, which belongs to the natural order Tiliacew, and has been made the type of a proposed order. It is an eve mn or sub-ever- shrub, of considerable size, a native of Chili. he Chilians make a wine from its berry, which = administer in malignant fevers. The wood is for making musical instruments, and the tough bark for their strings. The Maqui some- times ripens fruit against a wall in Eng and, and is frequently cultivated as an ornamental shrub. Mar, an ancient district of Scotland between the Dee and the Don, Spas eer nearly the south half of Aberdeenshire, and subdivided into Brae- mar, Midmar, and Cromar. In 1014 a Mormaer of Mar was present at the battle of Clontarf; and in 1115 another figures in the foundation charter of Scone priory as ‘comes’ or earl. The male line of these Celtic Earls of Mar expired in 1377 with Thomas, thirteenth earl, whose sister Margaret married William, first Earl of Douglas. heir daughter, Isabella, in 1404 married Alexander Stewart, the ‘ Wolfe of Badenoch,’ who, after her death in 1419, was designated Earl of Mar. The earldom by right should have gone to Janet Keith, great-granddaughter of Gratney, eleventh Celtic earl, and wife to Sir Thomas Erskine; but it was not till 1565 that it was either restored, or else granted by anew creation with limitation to heirs male, to their sixth descendant, John, sixth Lord Erskine, who at his death in 1572 had been for a twelvemonth regent of Scotland. John, Earl of Mar 1675-1732), who began life as a Whig, and by his uent change of sides earned the nickname of ‘Bobbing Joan,’ headed the rebellion of 1715 (see JACOBITES), and died in. exile at Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1824 the reversion of his attainder was procured by his grandson, John Francis Erskine, but his grandson dying without issue in 1866, the question arose whether the earldom of Mar could pass Lage his sister to her son, John Francis Good- eve-Erskine (né Goodeve), or must: go to his first cousin, Walter Coningsby Erskine, Earl of Kellie. And the strange solution of that question has been that in 1875 Walter Henry Erskine, thirteenth Earl of Kellie, was declared by the Committee of Privi- - also eleventh Earl of Mar, and that in 1885 the Earldom of Mar Restitution Bill declared Mr Goodeve-Erskine twenty-sixth Earl of Mar, claim- ‘ing creation before 1014, but allowed precedence 1 See the Earl of Crawford’s Zarl of Mar in Sunshine and Shade (2 vols, Edin. 1882). Marabou Feathers. See ApsuTant. _Marabouts, a name derived from the Arabic word morabit, and used to Caan a religious , or ascetic. They have always been found chiefly in north Africa, and have at times exercised ble political influence, as in encouragin, ‘ ition to the French conquests in Algeria an in the 19th 2 pe and in former centuries as the a and mainstay of the Almoravid dynasty, which held Morocco and Spain for a long period. These devotees are held in great veneration by the Berbers; they frequently officiate at mosques and chapels, and are believed to possess the power to prophesy and work miracles. The dignity is general deanery The name is also applied to the tombs of the devotees, ; Maracaybo, a fortified city of Venezuela, is situated on the west shore of the strait which connects the lake and gulf of Maracaybo. It is a handsome town, with many gardens and squares, a college, hospitals, a theatre, a German club- house, the usual government buildings, a custom- house, wharves, and a number of manufactories. The climate is hot, the soil sandy, and the place unhealthy, owing mainly to the unsanitary domestic arrangements, The trade is chiefly in the hands of Germans, Danes, and North Americans. The staple export is coffee (£1,367,291 in 1889); box- wood, ligunm vitae, cedar, and other woods, besides divi-divi, hides and skins, and some cocoa, gums, and fish sounds, are the other exports, the value of which (including coffee) in 1889 reached about £1,500,000. Fully seven-eighths of these go to the United States, although most of the merchandise imported comes from Great Britain, Germany, and France. Pop. (1888) 34,284. The Gulf of Maracaybo is a wide inlet of the Caribbean .Sea, extending from the peninsulas of Paraguana and Guajira to the strait by which it is connected with the lake. The latter forms the floor of a great valley, shut in by lofty mountains. Its waters are sweet, and deep enough for the largest vessels; but the bar at the mouth, where a swift current runs, makes entrance difficult: The gulf and lake were discovered in 1499 by Ojeda, who found here houses built on piles, and so gave the district the name Venezuela (‘Little Venice’), which was afterwards extended to the entire country. Maragha, a town of western Persia, 55 miles S. of Tabriz and 20 miles E. of Lake Urmia. It is celebrated as the capital of Hulagu Khan, grand- ‘ son of Genghis ‘Khan, and as the site of the observatory which Hulagu built for the astronomer Nasr ed-Din. Pop. 13,260. Maraj, an island situated between the estu- aries of the Amazon and Para, with an area of nearly 18,000 sq. m. It is for the most part low and covered with grass and bush, but in the east and south with dense forest. The soil is fertile, and large herds of cattle are reared in the north-east. Maranham’, or MARANHAO, a maritime state of Brazil, bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, with, an area of 177,566 sq. m. and a é (1888) of 488,443. The surface is uneven, but there is, no range of mountains. There are numerous rivers falling into the Atlantic, large forests, ex- tensive plains where cattle are reared ; the climate is fine, the soil fertile. Agriculture, however, has not prospered here, and the emancipation of the slaves, on whose labour it had depended, was followed by a period of great depression. Cotton and sugar are the principal products.—The chief city is y 7 re or San Luiz de Maranham, on an island between the mouths of the Mearim and the Itapicurti. It is a well-built town, clean, gay, hospitable, and has a pop. of 35,000. It contains a cathedral and bishop's palace, a hospital, a techni- cal school, some sugar and spinning and weaving factories, and docks that admit ships drawing 14 feet. The chief exports (varying from £250,000 to near £500,000 in some years) are cotton and sugar ; then come hides and goat and deer, skins, gum, balsam, cotton-seed, india-rubber, &c. Portugal is the largest customer, followed by Britain, which sends Three-fourths of the total imports (about £520,000 annually ). MARANON MARBLE Maraiion. See Amazon. Maraschi'no. See Liqueur. Marat, Jean PAUL, one of the most prominent in the French Revolution, was born at Jean Paul Mara, a married recommendation of certain Edinburgh Beirne M.D. of St Andrews University; and i admits of doubt that he was not the John Peter Maitre, alias Maire, alias Mara, who got tive years at Oxford assizes in March 1777 for stealing coins and medals. For in June 1777 his character and vsician and oculist stood so high e brevet-physician to his guards the Comte d’Artois, afterwards King Charles X.— an office which he held till 1786. Meantime he con- tinued his scientific work in optics and electricity, the attention of Franklin and Goethe, but the émie des Sciences refused him admis- sion on acconnt of his attack on Newton. Further were his anonymous Plan de Législation Criminelle (1780), a translation of Newton's Optics 1787), Mémoires Académiques, ou Nouvelles wertes sur la Lumiére (1788). Bat all Paris was now infected with the fever of revolation, and Marat flung himself with charac- teristic ardour into the war of pamphlets, and at in September 1788 established his famous paper, L'Ami du Peuple. Through- ont he fought ever for his own hand, with blear- honesty and indomitable raistence, con- + deo onkin Mi of treachery in high places, and neing with feverish ousness in turn Necker, Bailly, Lafayette, the king, Dumouriez, and the Girondins, His virulence provoked the most vehement hatred, and covered his own head with calumnies which survived for generations ; but it made him the darling of the scum of Paris, and placed great power in his hands at some of the Scere ee se nting-prens to be cunningly con rom ette's police, twice at least ie had to flee to pes ey was foreed to hide for a time et was tended with affec- imonne Evrard, whom he formal accusation of Marat failed before the tribunal. Bat it was the tribune’s last triumph. He was dying fast of the disease he had contracted in the sewers, and could only write sitting in his bath. There his destiny reached him through the knife of Charlotte Corday (.v-) in the evening of the 33th July 1703. His body was committed to the Panthéon with the greatest public honours, to be oT aed but fifteen months later amid popular Paul Marat, esprit politique, ac umé de scientifique, politique, et privée (2 vols. ‘1881). Marathi. See Manratras, INDIA. pa Marathon, « village on the east 4 ancient Attica, 22 miles NE. of Athens, long su to be the modern Marathona. It stood in a plain 6 miles long and from 3 to 14 miles broad, with a background of mountains in the west, and a marsh both on the north and south; eastward it reached the sea—‘The mountains look on Marathon, and Marathon looks on the Recent investigations b: Prussian officers tify the historic village with that of Brana, pera : plain between the mountain Stavrokoraki and the = miles to the south, and locate the battle sea, nearly 3 miles north-east of Brana. The name of Marathon is gloriously memorable as the scene of the great defeat of the Persian hordes of 1 by the Greeks under Miltiades (490 B.c.)—one of the decisive battles of the world, ; Marave'di, an old Spanish copper coin in use from 1474 to 1848, was worth “ahoak vath of a penny. There were also, at an earlier period, maravedis of gold and of silver. Marbeck, or Mersecke, JOHN, nist of St George's Chapel, Windsor, was pry to the stake about 1544 for favouring the Re coast of — ¢ lut pardoned by favour of Bishop Gardiner. In 1550 he published his famous Booke of Praier Noted, an adaptation of the plain —s the earlier rituals to the first litargy of Edwar VL. He wrote several theological works ; and a hymn for three voices and eo ct mass by him are extant. He died about 1585, Marble, in its strict and proper sense, is a rock crystallised in a saccharoidal manner, ha the fracture of loaf-sugar, and composed I ate of lime, either almost pure when the colour is white, or combined with oxide of iron or other impurities which give various colours to it. many other kinds of stone are popularly included under this title. Indeed any limestone rock suffi- ciently compact to admit of a polish is called marble, It is only in this vague sense that the indurated amorphous rocks used in Britain can receive this name, Such are the black, red, gray, and variegated limestones of the Devonian system, which are ve beautiful from the numbers of ex visite preserved corals which abound in them; the of the Carboniferous series from Flintshire, De’ re, and Yorkshire, so full of encrinites; marbles from the Oolitic rocks at Stam- ford, and Yeovil; and the dark Purbeck and Pet- worth marbles, beautifully ‘figured’ with “Hy from the Wealden strata, which were so much by the architects of the middle > Saccharine or statnary mavihe is a white fine- grained rock, resembling loaf-sugar in colour and texture, working freely in every direction, not liable to splinter, and taking a fine polish. Of the marbles used by the ancients, the most famons was Parian marble, a finely granular and very durable stone, with a waxy appearance polished. Some of the finest Grecian seulptures were formed of this marble, among others, the famons Venus de Medici. The marble of Pen- telicus was at one time preferred by the Greeks to Parian, becanse it was whiter and finer ed. The Parthenon was entirely built of it, many But é of carbon- — ~ MARBLEHEAD MARCELLUS 37 famous statues still remain which were executed in this marble, but they are always more or less weathered, never retai the beautiful finish of the Parian statues. The quarries at Carrara (q.v.) were known to the ancients, but they have been more extensively wrought for modern sculptors, who use this marble chiefly. It is a fine-grained, pure white marble, but is so often traversed by y veins that it is difficult to get large blocks os from these. Of coloured marbles, the best known are the Rosso Antico, a deep blood-red, sprinkled with minute white dots; Verde Antico, _a clouded produced by a mixture of white marble 2 Le Minor jase ; Giallo pen a yellow, wi ack or yellow rings; and Nero ro a deep black marble. A true marble is a crystalline ular te of caleite, the granules being of remarkably uni- form size. Not infrequently scales of mica or tale occur seattered through the rock. Such a rock is of metamorphic origin: it is simply a limestone which n rendered entirely crystalline from the effects of heat under pressure, as in the vicinity » ag erga poe of igneous rock. Marble ma be of any geo logical age. Many pectirw | line limestones, which are sometimes entitled to name of marble, occur associated with gneiss and mica-schist, and are often rich in such minerals as garnet, actinolite, zoisite, mica, &c. Marblehead, a seaport town of Massachusetts, on a rock ontory, 18 miles NE. of Boston. Its share the fisheries is no longer important, and the manufacture of boots and shoes is the chief industry. Pop. (1890) 8202; (1900) 7582. Marburg, © quaint old town in the Prussian vince of Hesse-Nassau, on the Lahn, 59 miles rail N. of Frankfort and 64 SW. of Cassel. It is built on a terraced hill, whose summit is crowned by a stately castle, dating from 1065. In its Rittersaal (1277-1312) was held in 1529 the con- ference between the Wittenberg and the Swiss reformers a pry Pr Lord’s Supper. The fine Gothie church of Elizabeth with two towers 243 feet high, was built in 1235-83 by the Teutonic ts over the splendid shrine of St Elizabeth (q.v.), and was thoroughly restored in 1850-67. The university occupies new Gothic buildings of 1879. It was founded in 1527 in the Reformed interest by Philip the Magnanimous, Landgrave of Hesse ; and among its earliest students were Patrick Hamilton and William Tyndale. It has about 80 professors and teachers, 800 to 1000 students in ceophy medicine, theology, and jurisprudence, and a library of 120,000 volumes. Pop. (1875) 9600; (1885) 12,668; (1890) 14,520. three works by Kolbe (Marburg, 1871-84). Marcantonio, or in fall, M. Ratmonor, an Italian engraver, born at Bologna late in the 15th century. A goldsmith by trade, he early turned to engraving, and received his first great stimulus from woodcuts of Albrecht Diirer, which he saw at Venice about 1505. He copied on copper two sets of plates from the German master's designs for the ‘Life of the Virgin’ and the ‘Passion of Christ’ (see DUrer). At Rome, where he worked from 1510, he was chiefly engaged in engravin Raphael’s works, as ‘Lucretia,’ the ‘Massacre o' the Innocents,’ the ‘Three Doctors of the Chureh,’ *Adam and Eve,’ ‘Dido,’ ‘Poetry,’ the ‘Judg- ment of Paris,’ &c., and subsequently those of ’s pupil, Giulio Romano. On account of the power of his drawing and the purity of his a apie paewnspe the nm. amongst ~ engravers great nter. ‘The capture o Rome by the Constable Bourbon in 1527 drove Marcantonio back to Bologna, where he probably Temained until he died, some time before 1534 came to an end. See the essay by Fisher pre- fixed to the catalogue of his engraved works ex- hibited in London in 1868, and Delaborde’s mono- graph (Paris, 1887). ; ecematt, an iron ore, a variety of Pyrites q-V-). ; Marceau, FRANcoIs SEVERIN DESGRAVIERS, French general, was born at Chartres on 1st March 1769. On the outbreak of the Revolution he was appointed inspector of the national guard in his native town, and in 1792 helped to defend Verdun with a body of volunteers till its surrender. His brilliant military career was ended in four years from this time ; but they were four years of stirring activity. Sent in the following year to join the republican army in La Vendée, he was, for his services in the engagements before Saumur and Le Mans, promoted to the rank of general of division. Then, proceeding to the north-east frontier, he commanded the right wing at Fleurus, and after the allies retreated occupied Coblenz. During the campaign of 1796 he was given command of the first division of Jourdan’s army, and sat down to invest Mainz, Mannheim, and Coblenz. But whilst covering the retreat of the French at Altenkirchen he was shot, on 19th September, and died four days later. His body was buried in the entrenched camp at Coblenz, but was trans- ferred to the Panthéon in Paris in 1889. He ranks next after Hoche amongst the French generals of the early years of the Revolution, not only for military genius, but also on acount of the nobility and uprightness of his personal character. Lives by Doublet de Boisthibault (1851), Maze (1888), and Captain T. G. Johnson (1896). Marcello, BENEDETTO, musical com r, born in Venice on Ist August 1686, was a judge of the republic, and a member of the Council of Forty, and afterwards held important administrative offices at Pola and Brescia, where he died on 24th July 1739. He had a passion for music, and is remembered as the composer of music for Giustiniani’s version of the Psalms (8 vols. 1724- 27), of numerous concertos, canzoni, cantatas, a toral, an oratorio, and other pieces, distinguished or their simple yet elevated style, and as the author of a satirical work, J/ Teatro alla Moda (1720). Marcellus, the name of two popes, of whom the second deserves special notice, as having, when Cardinal Marcello Cervini, taken a te 2 eewgnrrs part in the discussions of the Council of Trent, over which he was appointed to preside as legate of Julius III. He was elected pope 10th April 1555, and survived his elevation but twenty-two days. He did not follow the usual custom of laying aside his baptismal name and assuming a new one. Marcellus, M. CLavupivus, a famous Roman neral, of one of the most eminent plebeian, amilies. In his first consulship (222 B.c.) he defeated the Insubrian Gauls, and slew with his own hand their king, Britomartus or Viridomarus, whose spoils he dedicated as spolia ye to Jupiter —the third and last occasion in man _ history. In the second Punic war Marcellus took command after the disaster of Canne, and put a check upon the victorious Hannibal -at Nola, in Campania (216 B.c.). Again consul in 214 B.c., he gave a fresh impulse to the war in Sicily, but all his efforts: to take Syracuse were rendered unavailing by the skill of Archimedes, and he was compelled to regu- larly blockade the city. Famine, pestilence, and ultimately treachery on the part of the Spanish auxiliaries of the Syracusans, opened its gates (212 B.c.), after which the remainder of Sicily was soon brought under the dominion of the Romans. MARCET MAREMMA In his fifth consu’ 208 n.c., he fell in a skir- Marcet, JAN, known as Mrs Mancet, the author of a very popular elementary introduction enti as a doctor in the last of the 18th century, and later in life dev himself to experimental racer” Besides the book on chemistry, which reached the 16th ed. in 1853, she wrote Conversations on Political Economy (1816 ; 7th ed. 1839), which 1 praised by J. B. Say, by M'Culloch, Lord lay; Conversations on Natural 19; 13th ed. 1858), and similar (9th ed. 1840), Vegetable Physi- besides numerous charming Stories for Children, in the estimation of many her died in London on 28th June 1858. Harriet Martineau’s Biographical Sketches FESET TEE Tae etfs -_ E _ March (Slav. Morava), the principal river of Moravia, rises on see eeamnaty beeen hat count and Prussian Silesia, and flows 214 miles sou to the Danube, which it joins 6 miles above Pres- burg. It receives on the right the Thaya. In its lower course it forms the boundary between Austria and ming HE It is navigable for small boats from Géding, 50 miles from its mouth. a market-town of Cambridgeshire, on , Pop. oni; (1881) 6190 ; (1891) 6995. the first month of the Roman year, and the third according to our present calendar, consists of ~ome days. It was considered as the first ear in England until the cones of and the legal year was reckoned from March. Its last three days (old style) ay i supposed to have been borrowed rom April, and are proverbially stormy. March, « musical composition, chiefly for itary bands, with Wied destramsente, intended ow Apa marching of os, There are 4q marches, and uliar to different countries. Marches are also introduced 2 4 Fa: Fale: EF iH ei Marchantia. See Liverworts. Marchena, « town of n, 47 miles by rail E. by 8. of Seville, with a ducal (Arcos) palace, and sulphur-baths. Pop. 13,768. Marches, the border districts that ran contigu- each side of the boundary line between and Scotland, and between England and The Lords of the Marches were the nobles to whom estates on the borders were given, on condition that they defended the country against the aggresions of the people on the other side, Under the Norman and Plantagenet kings of England there was almost chronic war between the English Lords of the Marches and the Welsh. For the Scottie. English Marches, see Borpers,— Mortimers, Earle of March, took their title trom March in Cambridgeshire, —The corresponding German word Mark was in like manner applied to the border ome or Soviets of the German empire, conquered from neighbouring nations—the marks of Austria, of Brandenburg, Altmark, Steier- mark, &e. The governors entrusted with the charge of these marks were called mark-grafs or margraves, ding to the English and Scottish Wardens — iy. of the Marches (see MARQUIS). The ancient Ger- "j a man tribe of Marcomanni were ‘Marchmen.” In Italy The Marches include the march of Ancona = (q.¥.) and three other provinces (see ITALY). i iw Marchetti, Frirro, an operatic composer, born at Rome’ in 1835, became in 1881 president <- of a musical college in Rome. His best- a operas are Romeo ¢ Giulietta (1865) and Ruy las (1869). : iain as Marcianisi, an icultural town of Italy, situated in a marshy district, 12 miles by rail N. of ie Naples. Pop. 11,083. : ee Marcion, the fotinder of the Marcionites, a rigorously ascetic sect which attained a greaj- importance between the years 150 and 250 A.D, He was a native of Sinope in Pontus, became wealthy as a shipowner, and about 140 repaired to Rome. There he laboured to correct the p Ye views of Christianity, which he considered to tee. a corruption of Jewish errors with the gospel of Christ as expounded by Paul, its best interpreter. — The opposition which he encountered drove to found a new community about 144, and he laboured earnestly propagating his theology until his death — about 165. Marcion was hardly a Gnostic, al he had been intimate with Cerdo, and 8 snag nerenies iniyenter = ioe the Marcionite theology. Failing Hg crs the New Testament God of love in the Old Testa- ment, and profoundly influenced by the : Pauline antithesis of law and gospel, he con- structed an ethico-dualistic philosophy of reli m and proceeded to cosmological speculations w are not free from contradictions. He set aside as spurious all the gospels save Luke, and it, as well as the Pauline epistles, he purged of Judaising interpolations. He was thus the earliest to make a canonical collection of New Testament . From about the beginning of the 4th century the Marcionites began to be absorbed in the Mani- cheans. Marcion’s doctrines can be discovered from the controversial writings of Fathers, as Ter- tullian, Hippolytus, Epiphanius, &. See works of Baur, Méller, Lipsius, and Harnack quoted under GNOSTICISM. ‘ f Marco Polo. See PoLo. | Mardi Gras, See SHRovE-TIDE. Mardin, a town of Asiatic Turkey, is i situated on the southern slopes of the Manta Hae, 60 miles SE. of Diarbekir. Pop. 12,000, of whom half are Moslem Kurds, Maree’, Locn, a beautiful lake of Ross-shire, 40 miles W. of Dingwall. Lying 32 feet above sea-level, it is 124 miles long, 3 furlongs to 2} miles broad, 360 feet deep, a 11 sq. a area. It is overhung by mountains, 3000 feet high; sends off the Ewe, 3 miles long, to the sea; and contains twenty-seven islets, one with remains of an ancient chapel and a graveyard. Queen Victoria’s residence _ at Loch Maree in 1877 is described in her More Leaves (1884). : Maremma (corrupted from Marittima, ‘situ- ated on the sea’), a marshy region of Italy, extend- ing along the sea-coast of Tuscany from the river Cecina to Orbitello, and embracing an area of about 1000 #q. m. The Pontine Marshes and the Cam- pagna of Rome are similar districts, In Roman times and earlier the Maremma was a fruitfal and populous plain; but the decay of lture, con- sequent upon unsettled political history, fostered the encroachments of malaria, which now reigns supreme in great part of these stricken districts. Leopold IL. of Tuscany directed especial attention ieee) to the drainage and amelioration of the aremma, and his efforts and subsequent measures MARENGO MARGARET 33 have been attended with considerable success. _ Crops are now grown in the summer on the fertile soil of the infected area by the inhabitants of the adjoining hill-country, who go down only to sow and to reap their cro During winter the Mar- emma is healthier and yields good pasture. Marengo, 2 vill of Northern Italy, in a marshy district gar the Bormida, 3 miles SE. of Alessandria. Here on 14th June 1800 Napoleon, with 33,000 French, defeated 30,500 Austrians under Melas. It was the cavalry charge of the younger Kellermann that turned what looked like certain defeat into a decisive victory, though the French lost 7000 in killed and wounded, the Austrians only 6400 (besides 3000 prisoners). a etage, or MARETA, LAKE, the modern El Mariét, a salt lake or marsh in the north of Egypt, extends southward from Alexandria, and is separated from the Mediterranean, on its north- west side, by a narrow isthmus of sand. In the 15th _and 16th centuries it was a navigable lake ; in 1798 it was found by the French to be a dry sandy plain; but in 180i the English army cnt the dikes of the canal that separated the Lake of Aboukir from Mareotis, to cut off the water-supply of the French, and Mareotis became once more a marsh. The like happened again in 1803, in 1807, and in 1882, when the sea was let in by a cutting 15 feet wide and half a mile long; but ‘ Marifit been partly drained again. Mare’s Milk. See Koumiss. Mare’s Tail (Hippuris vulgaris), a tall erect marsh-plant, with vs of narrow leaves and inconspicuous flowers, Margaret, St, Scottish queen, was born about 1047 in , and from 1057 was brought up at the court of her great-uncle, Edward the Canines with Lanfrane for her spiritual instructor. In 1068, with her mother and sister and her boy brother, a ede Atheling (q.v.), she fled from Northum- ber’ to Scotland. Young, lovely, learned, and _ she won the heart of the rude Scottish king, leol who next year wedded * says Skene, ‘ there recorded in history For purity of motives, for an earnest desire to benefit the people among whom her lot was cast, ue yard so Fo align and great personal piety, unse ormance Sehr lteter, ead fr ete a 8 unsu ie e did mue' to civilise the northern realm, and still more to assimilate the old Celtic church to the rest of Christendom on such points as the due commence- ment A Lent, pod poem Maer aT A the hem ab ance of Sunday, and marriage within the prohibi degrees. She built, too, a stately chu at Dun- fermline, and re-founded Iona, She bore her hus- six sons and two daughters, and died three after in tare Castle, on 16th Innocent IV. canonised her in 1250. Her head, which had found its way from J line to Douay, was lost in the French Revolution; but her remaining relics are said to have been enshrined by Philip Il. in the Escorial. See the Latin Life by her confessor Turgot, Bisho St Andrews (Eng. trans. by Fr. Forbes-Leith, 1884) ; Celtie Scotland | vol. ii. 1877); and Bellesheim’s ed of the Catholic Church of Scotland (Eng. trans, t, the ‘Semiramis of the North,’ — of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, was second daughter of Waldemar IV. of Den- and wife of Hacon VIII. of Norway, and was 1353. On the death of her father without male heirs in 1375, the Danish nobles offered her the erown in trust for her infant son Olaf. By the death of Hacon in 1380 Margaret became ruler of Norway as well as of Denmark. When Olaf died in 1387 Margaret nominated her grvand-nephew, Eric of Pomerania, as her successor. The Swedish king, Albert of Mecklenburg, having so thoroughly alienated the affections of his subjects that the nobles, declaring the throne vacant, offered in 1388 to acknowledge Margaret as their ruler, she sent an army into Sweden, which defeated the king's German troops, near Falképing, and took Albert and his son ear pgs Albert remained in prison seven years, during which time Margaret, in spite of the efforts of the Hanseatic pangue and its allies, wholly subjugated Sweden. In the following year (1396) Eric of Pomerania was crowned king of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, and though he was proclaimed king de facto next year, the power still remained in the hands of Margaret. In May 1397 was signed the celebrated Union of Calmar, by which it was stipulated that the three kingdoms should remain for ever at under one king, though each should retain its own laws and cus. toms. Before her death at Flensborg, on 28th October 1412, Margaret had enlarged the territories she held for her grand-nephew by the acquisition of Lapland and part of Finland. ‘She was a woman of masculine energy and strong will, and ruled her subjects with a firm hand. Margaret of Anjou, the queen of Henry VI. of England, was daughter of René of Anjou, the titular king of Sicily, and of Isabella of Lorraine, and was born at Pont-i-Mousson, in Lorraine, 24th March 1429. She was married to Henry VI. of England in 1445; and her husband being a person whose naturally weak intellect was sometimes darkened by complete imbecility, she exercised an almost unlimited authority over him, and was the virtual sovereign of the realm. A secret contract at her marriage, by which Maine and Anjou were relinquished to the French, excited great dissatis- faction in England, and the war with the French which broke out anew in 1449, in the course of which all Normandy was lost, was laid by the English to the charge of the already unpopular neen. In 1450 occurred the insurrection of Jack ade, and soon after the country was plunged in the horrors of that bloody civil war known as the Wars of the Roses. Margaret took an active part in the contest, braving disaster and defeat with the most heroic courage. At length, after a struggle of nearly twenty years, Margaret was finally de- feated at Tewkesbury, and hong into the Tower, where she remained four years, till Louis XI, redeemed her for fifty thousand crowns. She then retired to France, and died at the chateau of Dampierre, near Saumur, in Anjou, 25th August 1482. Mrs Hookham’s Life (1872) is not altogether satisfactory as history. Margaret of Navarre, in her youth known as Marguerite d’Angouléme, sister of Francis I. of France, and daughter of Charles of Orleans, Comte d’Angouléme, was born at Angouléme, 11th April 1492. She was carefully educated, and early showed remarkable sweetness and charm added to unusual strength of mind. In 1509 she was married to Charles, Duke of Alencon, who died in 1525; and in 1527’ she was married to Henri d’Albret, titular king of Navarre, to whom she bore Jeanne d’Albret, mother of the great French monarch, Henry IV. She encouraged agriculture, the arts, and learning, and sheltered with a cour- ageous generosity such advocates of freer thought in religion as Marot and Bonaventure des Périers. Accusations entirely unfounded have been brought by interested bigotry against her morals. She died 2ist December 1549. Her writings include a series of remarkably interesting Letters (ed. by Génin, > MARGARIC ACID MARGINAL CREDITS _ 1842-43), a miscellaneons collection of entitled Les Marguerites de la by Frank, 4 vols, 1873), and Heptaméron des Nouvelles Leroux de Lincy, 3 vols. 1855), Decameron of Boccaccio, but bn out in an original manner. A com Oo ies returning from Deorets are by bad weather, and beguile the time by weber | -two in number, which are by interl introducing the persons. subjects of the stories are similar to those Decameron, bat the manners delineated are refined ; and they reflect closely the strange combination of religious fervour with religious free- and refined voluptuousness so character- of the time. Most critics believe the work to be partly by Des Périers {9.¥-) Her Derniéres Poésies, discovered in the Bibliothtque Nationale in 1895, were pablished in 1896. See Lives by Durand (1848), Miss Freer (1854), and Lotheisen (Berlin, 1885); and Saintsbury’s introduction to the new translation of the Heptaméron (1894). Margaric Acid is now known to be a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids. See Fats. Margarine, or OLEO-MARGARINE. See the paragraph on Butterine in the article BurTEr. I pn an mason i the Banas Fate ng to Venezuela. sq.m. Dis- covered by Columbus in 1498, Ma. ta was lon famous for its pearl-fisheries, but now its chie export is salted fish, The island forms the great part (the smal) Blanquilla, Los Hermanos, &c. nake the rest) of the Nueva Esparta section of Guzman Blanco state, of which the pop. in 1886 was 41,893. Margary, Avovstus Raymonp, traveller, was born 26th May 1846, at Belgaum, in the presi- dency of Bombay, the son of an English officer. Educated in England at Brighton College and University College, London, he qualified for a student-interpretership in China, and went out in 1867. During the next six years he served at Peking, in Formosa, at Chefoo, and at Shanghai. In August 1874 he was ordered to cross south-west China to Burma to meet a British mission under Colonel Browne, the object of which was to open the overland route between Burma and China. Margary was to act as interpreter and guide to the m He successfully accomplished the perilous » and set out k again with Colonel bat was murdered by the Chinese at a called Manwyne on 2ist February 1875. The lournals and Letters of his journey, together with a biographical face, and a concloding chapter by Sir Tuthertced Alesck, were pablished in 1876. & seaport and municipal borough of En in the Isle of Thanet, hens miles Ww. of the North Foreland and 74 E. by 8. of London, has for many years been the favourite seaside resort of cockney holiday-makers, who, during the season, rail and by steamer, pour into the town in their da, fF lof many natural advantages in ite bracing air, good bathing, and excellent firm sands, Margate offers besides all the customary attractions of a watering-place, with its pier (900 feet long), jetty (upwards of a quarter of a mile in length), theatre, assembly-rooms, baths, zoological &. It contains also two interestin areches—ane exhibiting traces of Norman an Early English work, and the other with a tower of 135 feet, forming a conspicuous landmark; the — Sea-bathing Infirmary, founded 1792 and en 1882; a town-hall (1820); and an exten- sive deaf and dumb asylam (1875-80-86). For- merly the port was the scene of the embarkation or landing of many tg and other persons, amongst the latter being wounded brought back from the field of Waterloo. Queen Victoria visited the town in 1835, where too for a short time Turner the painter (one of whose earliest known sketches: is a view of Margate church) was at school. (1801 ) 4766 ; (1881) 18,226 ; (1891) 18,419. Margaux, a village 15 miles by rail Bordeaux, near the left a number of white villas, half-hidden trellised vines. The chiteau (a handsome Italian Poa, villa) and its celebrated vineyards are a mile distant. Pop. 1619. | Margay (Felis tigrina), a species of cat or deernek 4 native of the forests of Brazil and Guiana, smaller and less handsome than the ocelot, which in general appearance it_much resembles, bank of the Gironde, with — 4: nf NNW. of | ‘ty though its spots are smaller. It is lige than the domestic cat. It is capable of d c tion, and of being made very useful in rat-killing. Marghilan, capital of Ferghana (q.v.). Marginal Credits, a term applied to business joo in which bankers | : the credit of their names, as it were, to their customers, thus enable them to carry out important com- mercial transactions which otherwise could not be so conveniently undertaken. A merchant in a land, for instance, desires to import tea or sil but his name is not so well known on the Chinese Exchanges that bills drawn upon him by a mer- chant in China can be sold there at a reasonable rate of exchange. The tea or silk cannot be pur- chased without the money being on the spot to buy it with, and were the merchant to send out s) for that purpose he would involve himself in heavy charges for freight and insurance, and lose the interest of his money while on the voyage. More- over, before the remittance (silver proba’ iy) could arrive, the market prices of tea and sil have so altered that a purchase might not be —h ‘ ie: 4 re et 7 t able, and the money would Raptr tos where it was not wanted. But, while ts by the mer- chant in China on the merchant in England would not sell, or only at a heavy sacrifice, the drafts by the merchant in China on a banker in En will sell at the best price. The merchant in this country therefore pe ee with his banker cash or securities equal to the amount to which he desires to use the ker’s name, and receives from him Marginal Credits for the amount. These are bill- forms drawn > age the banker, but neither dated nor signed, with a margin containing the banker’s obligation to accept the bills when presented. The bills are dated, drawn, and endorsed by the mer- chant abroad before being sold, so that the obliga- tion runs from the date on which the money was actually paid ; and the tea or silk is most pean the merchant's warehouse before the bill is payable. For the transaction, the banker charges the mer- chant a commission to remunerate himself for the — risk involved. In recent years the use of ——_ , bills has largely fallen off in consequence of the development of electrical communication. Mer- chants now prefer to arrange with their bankers for a ‘telegraphic transfer,’ by which an immediate cash payment is effected throngh a foreign bank. Many transactions between merchants abroad and in England can only be carried bers | the acceptances of a London banker being tendered in payment, but the transactions are intrinsicall the same as when Marginal Credits are wet Bankers in the country obtain the acceptance of London banker for bills to be drawn against their customers are importing. Bankers—usually in London—also accept bills to a great amount for the exchange operations of fore’ banks. A banker in, say Canton, buys from his customers bills drawn upon merchants in —— for a given amount, and sends them to corre- 5 7 & MARGRAVE MARIA THERESA 41 spondent in London, who holds them for him and ts a credit in his favour on the security of The Canton banker operates upon this eredit by drawing upon the London banker, and sells his drafts at the most favourable rege With the money received he purchases other bills, and remits them also, to be again drawn against. When these operations are made with caution and ' sound judgment they are beneficial to all con- cerned; but when en; in without sufficient knowledge or recklessly they involve most disas- trous consequences. Margrave. See Marcues, Marquis. Marguerite. See MArcareT. Marguerite. See CHrYSANTHEMUM, Marheineke, Puttiere Conran, Protestant theologian, born at Hildesheim on Ist May 1780, began to teach at Gittingen in 1804, was appointed at ical professor and university preacher at in 1805, and subsequently held theological chairs at Heidelberg (from 1807) and Berlin (from rtd He died on 3lst May 1846. After Hegel’s d Marheineke was the chief figure among the ight of that philosopher's disciples. His egelian views found expression in Grundlehren der ik (2d ed. 1827) and Vorlesungen iiber die Christliche Moral, Dogmutik, &e. (4 vols. 1847-49). He also wrote Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (4 vols. 2d ed. 1831-34), Institutiones Symbolice (3d ed. 1830), System des Katholizismus in seiner i ntwickelung (3 vols. 1810-13), other works, Maria Christina, queen of Spain, born at oa Ce 27th April 1806, was a daughter of Francis 1., king of the Two Sicilies. In 1829 she became the fourth wife of Ferdinand VIL of Spain, and in October of that year gave birth to a daughter, Isabella IL. Ferdinand died 29th September 1833, and by his testament his widow was appointed guardian of her children—the young Queen Isabella and the Infanta Maria Louisa, Duchess de Mont- pensier—and also regent, A civil war broke out (see CARLISTS); but the queen-mother seemed indifferent to everything except the comely of Don Fernando Mniioz, whom she made her chamber- lain, and with whom she was united, in December 1833, in a morganatic marriage. She had ten children by him, A conspiracy, which broke out on the night of the 13th August 1836, led the ee: to e a constitution to Spain. n 1840 a popular commotion ensued, and she gave to the new prime-minister, Espartero, a renuncia- tion of the regency and retired to France, whence she returned in 1843. Her participation in the schemes of Louis-Philippe as to the marriage of her ters in 1846, and the continual exercise of her influence in a manner unfavourable to consti- tutional liberty, made her hateful to the patriotic in Spain. At length, in July 1854, a revolu- expelled her from country, and she again took refuge in France, but returned to Spain in 1864, only to retire again in 1868. She died at Le Havre, Augnst 1878. See CARLISTS, and SPAIN. Maria Louisa, the second wife of Napoleon L, born 12th December 1791, was the daughter of Emperor Francis I. of Austria. She was married to Napoleon after the divorce of Josephine, 2d April 1810. On 20th March following she bore a son, who was called King of Rome. At the be- pinning of the cam of 1813 Napoleon appointed on pany in absence, but under many limitations. On the abdication of Napoleon, not tted to follow him into exile, she went with son to Schénbrunn, where she remained till 1816, when she received the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla. In 1822 she contracted a morganatiec marriage with Count von Neipperg. She died at Vienna, 17th December 1847. - it See Lives by Helfert (1873) and Imbert de Saint- Amand (Eng. trans. 1886), her Correspondance (1887), fs35). Memoires of Mme. Durand, her maid of honour Mariana, JUAN, a Spanish historian, was born at Talavera in 1536, entered at eighteen the then rising order of the Jesuits, and afterwards taught in the Jesuit colle; at Rome (where Bellarmine was one of his scholars), in Sicily, and finally in Paris. After seven years of labour in Paris he was driven by ill-health to Toledo, and there he lived in unbroken literary labours till his death, at an extreme old age, in 1624. His Historie de Rebus Hispania: first ea Penge in 20 books in 1592, and was supplemented by 10 additional books, carrying the narrative down to the accession of Charles V., in 1605. Its admirable Latinity and undoubted historical merits give it an abiding value. Mariana himself publish a Spanish translation (1601-9), which still remains one of the classics of the lan- His Tractatus VII. Theologici et Historict (1609) roused the suspicion of the Inquisition. But the most celebrated of the works of Mariana is his well-known treatise De Rege et Regis Institu- tione (1599), which raises the question whether it be lawful to overthrow a tyrant, and answers it in the affirmative, even where the tyrant is not a usurper but a lawful king. This tyrannicide doc- trine drew much odium upon the entire order of Jesuits, especially after the murder of Henry IV. of France VB Soneee in 1610; but it is only just to observe that, while, upon the one hand, precisely the same doctrines were taught in almost the same words by several of the Protestant contemporaries of Mariana, on the other, Mariana’s book itself was formally condemned by the general Acquaviva, and the doctrine forbidden to be taught by members of the order. Mariana Islands. See LADRONEs. Marianna, an episcopal city of Brazil, 3 miles E. of Ouro Preto. The neighbouring gold-mines are exhausted. Pop. 5000. Marianus Scotus (1028-82), an early Irish chronicler, who, quitting his country in 1052, he- came a Benedictine at Cologne in 1058, and settled in the monastery at Fulda. Ten years later he removed to Mainz, where he taught mathematics and theology. He left a Chronicon Universale, which began at the creation and came down to 1082. It was published at Basel in 1559, and by Waitz in ‘Monumenta Germaniz.’—Another Marianus Scotus, famous as a copyist and calligrapher, was abbot of St Peter’s at Ratisbon in 1088. ‘ Maria Theresa, empress, the daughter of the Emperor Charles VI., was born at Vienna, 13th May 1717. By the Pr. atic Sanction (q.v.), for the fulfilment of which the principal Euro- powers became sureties, her father appoin er heir to his hereditary thrones. In 1736 she married Francis of Lorraine, afterwards Grand- duke of Tuscany, to whom she gave an equal share in the government when, on the death of her father, 2lst October 1740, she became queen of Hungary and of Bohemia, and Archduchess of Austria. At her accession the monarchy was exhausted, the finances embarrassed, the people discontented, and the army weak ; whilst Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Sardinia, abetted by France, ut forward claims to the whole or to portions of her dominions. Frederick II. of Prussia claimed Silesia, and poured his armies into it; Spain laid hands on the Austrian dominions in Italy ; and the Bavarians, assisted by the French, invaded Bohemia, and, passing on into the archduchy of Austria, threatened Vienna, the Elector of Bavaria MARIE ANTOINETTE series begun by Due de Broglie in 1882 ( Eng. trans, 1883), and races parte. Mariazell, the most famous place of pilgrim- age in Austria, is situated in the extreme north of Styria, 25 miles N. of Bruck and 60 SW. of Vienna. It is visited by thousands of pilgrims annually, besides numerous visitors a ’ its romantic scenery. The image of the (brought here in 1157), the object of the ‘ - | ages, is enshrined in a magnificent ahem it in | 1644 on the site of an older one. Pop. 1065. Four | miles from the village are important ironworks, 42 MARIA THERESA } = ow Bo eenma and emperor as VIL. (1742). neen Was 8a by the 2 hn fidelity of the Hungarians, to loyalty she . with her infant son in her arms, in a stirring speech at the diet held in | Presburg, and she was supported by the assistance of Brita’ but most of by her own resolute > mg The war of the Austrian succession, seed by ti pease of Aixle-Chapelle in 1768. peace -la- e , The ss ueen lost Silesia and Glatz to Prussia, the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to Fae , and some Milanese districts to Sardinia. n the other hand, her titles were fully , as well as that of her husband, who had nominated emperor (1745), Charles of Bavaria having in the meantime died. During peace that Maria Theresa portant financial reforms, did her utmost to foster agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, and improved and nearly doubled the national revenues, whilst the burdens were dimin- ished. At the same time she charged Marshal Daun to reorganise and rediscipline her armies. In Kaunitz (q.v.) she had a minister possessed of isdom and energy, and in his hands she left for the most part the management of the foreign rela- tions of the em But the loss of Silesia, espe- cially the conduct of Frederick the Great, which had t — her that loss, rankled deeply in her mind; and, France having been gained as an ally through the address of Kaunitz, she renewed the with the Prassian king. But the issue Years’ War (q.v.) was to confirm the ae of Silesia. On the hostilities the empress renewed her the national prosperity, amelior- ition of the peasantry, mitigating , founding schools, organising Sn societies, in short promoting the welfare bj all the wise arts of peaceful Joseph, elected king of the associated, after the death of with herself in the government states, but in reality committed only of military affairs. She Prussia in the first i- Poland (1772), whereby Galicia and 0- to her dominions. She also Porte Bukowina (1777). On childless Elector of Bavaria her claim to the Inn’ and one or two other dis- Theresa died 20th November 1780. Personally a woman of majestic and winning she was animated by truly | sen- ta an undaunted spirit; and by this rare union of feminine tact with masculine energy and restless activity, she not only won the affection and even enthusiastic admiration of her subjects, bat she raised Anstria from a most wretched con- dition to a tion of assured power, Her reign marks the transition of Austria from a medieval to a modern state; and by her efforts the beginning was successfully made of fusing into one sovereignty the heterogeneous lands ruled over by the House of ae see a zealous Roman Catholic, Maria maintained the rights of her own crown against the court of Rome, and endeavoured to correct some of the worst abuses in the church. her ten surviving children, the eldest son, Joseph IL, succeeded her; Leopold, Grand-duke of Tus- cany, followed his brother on the imperial throne as IL. ; Ferdinand became Duke of Modena; Antoinette was married to Lonis XVI. See History by Arneth (10 vols. 1863- 79, an Austrian version), other works by the same writer, by Duller, Ramshorn, and A. Wolf, the ui Z F : g z z ah Fi Ht Guide by Frahwirth (1882). Marie Amelie, queen of Louis-Philippe (q.v.). Marie Antoinette, Joseruze JEANNE, the’ most ill-fated among the queens of Hranee: ee born on the day of the great earthquake at Lisbon, 2d November 1755, the fourth daughter of Maria Theresa and the Emperor Francis I. From her cradle she was destined by her ambitious mother to be queen of France, and to that end was edu- cated, although but indifferently, by the Abbé de Vermond. e marriage was ne; by the Due de Choiseul early in 1770, and took place on May 16, but was darkened a fortnight later by an ill-omened panic during the great féte of fireworks given in its honour by the city of Paris, in which some hundreds of people perished, The beautiful young dauphiness soon found her poses of difficulties, and the stiff and stately etiquette of the old French court wearied her to death, A mere child in bey married to a dull, decorous, and heavy husband, who was, moreover, for some years indifferent to her person, she found relief in a capricious recklessness of conduct and a dis- regard for conventions, and so from the commence- ment laid herself open to serious scandals for which there never was any real ground but her own indiscretion. Her night drives to Paris, her appearance at masked balls, her extray: ce undisguised love for the card-table, and her open favour to handsome and profligate young men, were misread into shameless immoralities, and she had lost her reputation long before she awoke to a sense of her responsibilities. In May 1774 the death of Louis XV. made her actual queen of France, and she soon deepened the distrust and dislike of her a by her undisguised devotion to the interests of Austria, as well as her thought- less opposition to all the measures devised Turgot and Necker for relieving the financial dis- tress of the country. The miseries of France be- came in the popular imagination identified with the extravagant pleasures of the queen, the miserable affair of the Diamond Necklace her nilt was at once taken for granted, not only vy. ‘aris but the whole country, and ‘the Austrian came the object of the frenzied hatred of a starving pore The act of accusation against Calonne was n the eyes of the mob that of the court and of the queen. Showers of virulent pamphlets rained from all sides, and ‘ Madame Déficit’ and ‘ Madame Veto’ were some of the names in which a maddened © people shrieked their hatred against their sovereign, eantime the joyous frivolity of the girl had changed into the cou and obstinacy of the woman who made herself a centre of opposition to all new ideas, and prompted the poor vacil- lating king into a retrograde policy to his own undoing. She was capable of strength rising to the heroic—as Mirabean once said, the only man the king had about him was his wife. And she possensed the power of inspiring enthusiasm in all noble souls with whom she came into contact, as is evidenced by the personal influence she exercised over Fersen, Mirabeau, and Barnave. Amid the horrors of the march of women to Versailles (Octo- under FREDERICK IL MARIE ANTOINETTE MARIE DE’ MEDICI 43 ber 5-6, 1789) she alone maintained her courage, and she showed herself on the balcony to the raging mob with a serene heroism that for a moment over- awed the fiercest into respect. That same day the royal family and the Assembly left Versailles for Paris amid the oeupeta of all the rascaldom of both sexes within the city. But Marie Antoinette lacked consi even in the part she essayed to play, and to the last she failed to understand the nature of the troublous times into which she had been flung. She had an instinctive abhorrence of the liberal nobles like Lafayette and Mirabeau, and, if she professed to consult them, she also con- sulted with other men, and refused to trust them altogether. Again the indecision of Louis and his dread of civil war hampered her plans, and the intrigues of the emigrés did her cause more harm than all her domestic enemies together. he queen was at length prevailed on by Count de Merey-Argenteau, at the instigation of Count de la Marck, to make terms with Mirabean, and she gave the great tribune an interview at Saint- Cloud, July 3, 1790. But she was too self-willed and “ana frankly to follow his advice, for she abhorred his dream of a constitutional monarchy based on the free consent of an en- franchised = His death in April 1791 re- moved the last hope of saving the monarchy, and less than three months later occurred the fatal flight to Bouillé at the frontier, intercepted at Varennes, against which Mirabeau had ever pleaded as a fatal step. The storming of the Tuileries and slaughter of the brave Swiss guards (10th August 1792), the transference to the Temple, the trial and execution of the king (2lst January 1793), quickly followed, and ere long her son was torn from her arms, and she herself sent to the Conciergerie like a common criminal (2d August 1793). fter eight weeks more of sickening insult and brutality, the ‘Widow Capet’ was herself arraigned in her ragged dress and gray hair before the Revolu- a Tribunal. nder the torture of her trial she bore herself with the calm dignity and resignation of the martyr: one truthful ‘touch stands out with infinite pathos across the centnry between—‘she was sometimes observed moving her fingers, as when one plays on the piano. Her answers were short with the simplicity of truth : ‘You persist, then, in denial ?’—‘ My plan is not denial: it is the truth I have said, and I ist in that.’ One charge unspeakable in its my was tendered by Hébert, which he had got wrete son eight years to sign. ‘A mother can make no answer to such questions; I appeal to every mother: here present,’ was her only Tents deep murmur ran through the court— . ble fool,’ said Robespierre, ‘he will make our enemies objects of compassion.’ After two days and nights of questioning came the inevitable sentence, and on the same day, October 16, 1793, she left the world and all its madness behind her, under the axe of the guillotine. It was just three- and-twenty years since she had left Vienna amid universal grief, in all the brightness of beauty and See the Histories of the French Revolution by Thiers, Mignet, Michelet, Louis Blanc, Carlyle, Von Sybel, and Morse a passim ; also Madame Campan’s Mémoires sur la Vie privée d+ Marie Antoinette (1 23) ; De _Lescure’s La vraie Marie Antoinette (1863): in’s Correspond. inédit Marie An- toinette (1864) ; Feuillet des Conches’ Louis XVI., Marie Antoi et di Eli: Lettres et Docwments ette, et Mi U , inédites (1865); Arneth and Geffroy, Marie Antoinette : mM Argenteau (1874) hace tpl pod reek M. e fe, UL ; e re’ 8' jes ~<=. de Nolhac (1800 ; trans. 1808) and 'M. de la Rochoteric (1890 ; trans. 1893 vee by emae Bieksell (2508) and Clara Tschudi ( ); M. C, Bishop, The Prison Life = of Marie Antoinette (1893); and for the affair of the Diamond N. G. C. D’Est Ange’s Marie Antoinette et le Procés du Collier (1889). For an account of her portraits, about'500 in number, see Lurd Ronald Gower’s Leonographie de Marie Antoinette (Paris, 1883); and for the closing scenes in her life, Campardon’s Tribunal Révo- lutionnaire (vol. i.) and Marie Antoinette a lu Concier- gerie (1863), Lord Ronald Gower’s Last Days of Marie Antoinette (1885), and L. de Saint-Amand, Les derniers Annies de Marie Antoinette (1889). Marie de France, a poetess of whom but little is known with any degree of certainty, save that she lived in England under Henry III., and translated into French from an English’ version of a Latin translation of the Greek the Ysopet, a collection of 103 moralised fables, in octosyllabice couplets, ‘for the love of Count William’ (sup to William Longsword of Salisbury). hese fables are natural and happy, as well as graceful in versificatior’, and give their authoress a place in that line of descent which ended with La Fontaine. But her greatest work was the twelve (or fourteen) Lais, delightful and genuinely poetic narrative poems, mostly amatory in character, in octosyllabic verse, the longest nearly twelve hundred lines, the shortest just over a hundred. The word Lai is of Breton origin, and most probably referred originally to the style of music with which the harper accom- panied his verse. The titles of Marie’s lais are Guigemar, Equitan, Le Fraisne, Bisclavret, Lan- val, Les Dous Amanz, Yonec, Laustic, Milun, Chaitivel, beat Eliduc ; and to these most add Graalent and L’Espine.. Of the lais the best edition is that of Karl Warnke (Halle, 1885), forming vol. iii. of Suchier’s Bibliotheca Norman- nica, enriched with invaluable comparative notes tt eee Kéhler. They were paraphrased rather than translated by the late Mr O'Shaughnessy as Lays of France (1872). A third work sometimes ascribed to Marie is a m of 2300 verses on the purgatory of St Patrick. The best edition of the lays and fables together is that of Roquefort (2 vols. 1820). Marie de’ Medici, wife of Henry IV. of France, was the daughter of Francis I., Grand- duke of gag and was born at Florence, 26th April 1573. She was married to Henry, 16th December 1600, and in the following September gave birth to a son, afterwards Louis XIII. The union, however, did not prove happy. Marie was an obstinate and ionate woman, and her uarrels with the king soon became the talk of aris. She was wholly under the influence of her favourites, Leonore Galigai and her husband Con- cini, and was by them encouraged in her dislike to her husband, The murder of Henry (May 14, 1610) did net greatly grieve her, although it is not true that she was privy to the plot. For the next seven years she governed as regent, but proved as worthless a ruler,as she had nm a wife, After the murder of Concini (24th April 1617), whom she had created Marquis d’Ancre, a domestic revolution took place, and the young Louis XIII. assumed royal power. The queen was confined to her own house, and her son refused to see her. Her ar- tisans tried to bring about a civil war, but their attempts proved futile; and by the advice of Richelien, then Bishop of Lucon, she made her submission to her son in 1619, and took her place at court. Marie hoped to win over Richelieu to her party, but she soon found out that he had no eel y to be ruled by her, whereupon she tried to undermine his influence with the king, Her in- trigues for this purpose failed ; she was imprisoned in Compiégne, whence she escaped and fled to Brussels in 1631. Her last years were spent in ufter destitution, and she is said to have died in a hayloft at Cologne, 3d July 1642. She loved the MARIE GALANTE MARINES and Paris owes to her the Luxembourg. the by Miss Pardoe (2d ed. 3 vols, 1852). Marie Galante, a French island in the West Indies, icerend ee Columbus in 1493, lies 17 miles SE. of Gu pe. Area, 58 sq.m. It is covered for the most part with wood, and surrounded by coral reefs. Sugar, coffee, cocoa, and cotton are Soy the Pop. 15,000. Chief town, Grandbourg, or Marigot, on the south-west coast. Marienbad, one of the most f Bohemian spas, 47 miles rail NW, of Pilsen, at an elevation of 2057 root above sea-level. The oping ae - been used by the people of the nity, but it become nented of the only since 1807-5 that it has __— of resort for persons from distant parts of world. The springs are numerous, varying in temperature from to 4° F. They are saline, containing sulphate of soda and various alkaline ingredients, but differing considerably in their composition and ee They are used both internally and in the form of baths. Great quantities of the waters of some of the springs are ex to distant places. Marien is sur- rounded by wooded heights, has a population of 2009, is visited every season by upwards of 14,000 patients, See Fraser Rae's Austrian Health Resorts (1888). Marienberg, 4 mining town of Saxony, 38 miles SW. of Dresden. Pop. 6139. Marienburg, a» old town of Prussia, on the Nogat, 30 miles by rail SSE. of Danziz. It was re A the seat of the Grand Masters of the Teutonic Order (q.v.), who removed from Venice hither in 1309. fortress of the Knights, however, was founded here about 1274. Marienbuarg remained in their hands till 1457, when it was taken by the Poles, and by them it was held till 1772. The castle, in which seventeen Grand Masters resided, a noble edifice in a style of Gothic peculiar to the vicinity of the Baltic, was st | ly restored in 1817 Pop. (1875) 8538; (1893) 10,7; See works by Witt (1854) and Bergan ( 1871 ). werder, a town of West Prussia, is ee yg gd situated 3 miles E. of the Vistula and 55 by rail 8S. of Danzig. It was founded in 1233 by the Teutonic Knights, and has an old castle and a domkirche (1384). Pop. (1890) 8552. Marietta, capital of Washington county, Ohio, on the Ohio River, 115 miles SE. of Columbus. Founded in 1788, it is the oldest town in the state, * is the seat of Marietta Coll (1835), and has varied manufactures and a t in the petroleum found near ie Remarkable traces of the earth- builders are visible here. Pop, (1900) 13,348. Mariette Pasha, Fx,xcors Avousre Frror- NAND, explorer, was at Boulogne, lith Febraary 182], and was educated at the municipal college of the town, He became French master at a ac at Stratford-on-Avon in 1839, and in 1840 «4 pattern-designer at Coventry. But he soon returned to Boulogne, and after taking his degree at Douay (1841) was appointed professor at his native col His connection with Nestor T' Hote, the companion of Champollion, directed Mariette's attention to the hieroglyphic monn- ments; in 1849 he entered the Egyptian depart- ment of the Louvre, and in 1850 was despatched to Egypt in search of Coptic MSS. Whilst there he a his famous peprng | of the Serapenm, the -baried cemetery of the Apis bulls, and brought to ta host of in t monuments and inserip- tions in Memphis, kara, Gizeh, and the neigh- bourhood. In 1858 he was appointed Keeper of Monuments to the Egyptian governmont, and thenceforwari his life was devoted to archwological exploration in the Nile valley. With indefatigable industry he dug out the Sphinx and the temples os — Dendera and fa ane fu, rev the marvellous sculp-: tures of Meydm and Gizeh, and the courts and- inscriptions of Medinet Habu, Deyr-el-Bahvi, Karnak, and Abydos, and ig the excavation of Tanis, since pursued by the Egypt Explora- tion Fund. Nor was he less active with pen and pencil. In 1856-57 ap) his Serapéum et ‘emphis (also ed. Maspeéro, 1882); four editions: of his Apercu de U'Histoire d’Egypt came out between 1864 and 1874, and six of the du Musée de Boulak (which he founded and which is full of the results of his labours) from_ 1864 to 1876; he published sumptuous descriptions in many volumes, with folio plates of the chief temples-—Dendérah (1870-75), A (1869-80), ‘arnak (1875), Deir-el-Bahart (1877), Monuments Divers (1872, ff.) ; while his Itinéraire de la Haute " has been translated by his brother (Monu- ments of U; Egypt, 1877), and his Mastabas edited by Maspéro (1882). Besides the Boulak (now Gizeh) Museum, which owes its existence to its first director, Mariette founded the French School of Egyptology and the Egyptian Institute. He was raised to the rank of a in 1879; he died at Cairo, 19th Jannary 1881, and was: buried in the garden of his museum. See E. Deseille, Aug. Mariette (1882); H. A. Wallon, Notice, Inst. de France (1883); A. B, Edwards, Academy (January 1881). Marignano, See MELEGNANO. Marigold, a name given to certain plants of the natural order Composite, chiefly of the genera Calendula and Tagetes. Pot Marigold (Calendula officinalis) is an annual, a native of France and the more southern stem, 1 to 2 feet high, the lower leaves obovate on long stalks, and large, deep yellow flowers. It has long been very common in British ens 5 there are varieties with double flowers. The whole plant has a slight aromatic odour and a bitter taste. It was formerly in great repute as a car- minative, and was regarded also as an aperient and sudorific. The florets were the part used, and they were dried in autumn to be Povccreaht for use, They are often employed to adulterate saffron, and sometimes for colouring cheese. They were formerly a frequent ingredient in soups, and are still so used in some parts of England. The genus Tagetes consists of annual and perennial herbaceous plants, Boe i: of the —, parts of cee thoug . erecta, one of those most uen cultivated in Britain, bears the name beg ener Marigold; and 7. patula, another annual well known in British flower-borders, is called French Marigold. Both species are Mexican. They have been Jong in cultivation, are much admired, and require the assistance of a hotbed in spring in the colder parts of Britain. Corn Marigold is a Chrys- anthemuim (q.v.). Marsh Marigold ( .v.) has no botanical aflinity with the true marigolds, ’ Marine Engine. See SreAM-ENGINE. Marines, or the Royal Marine Forces, are that body of the military forces of the crown which is under the control of the Admiralty, for service in the navy. They were first raised in 1664, the orig- inal aim, since modified, being to form a nursery whence to obtain seamen to man the fleet. The commerce of England was then too limited to pro- cure from out of the merchant fleet sufficient sea- men for the public service ; and, as those obtained by the system of impress were not easily amenable to discipline, the presence of some marines as dis- ciplined troops had to be relied on to check or sup- ye the frequent tendency to mutiny. The force * now composed of two branches, with separate lists for the promotion of officers, styled respec- er arts of Europe, with an erect | MARINES MARION 45 tively the Royal Marine Artillery and the Royal Marine Light Infantry. The artillery consists of one division quartered at Eastney, near Ports- mouth ; the uniform, blue with red facings, is almost identical with that of the land artillery. The in- fantry consists of three divisions, quartered at Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Chatham; their uni- form, scarlet with blue facings, is much the same as that of the line regiments. The officers rank according to seniority with officers of like rank in the army, and are promoted by seniority up to the rank of major, beyond which S speopgcae is governed by selection. The strength of the marine forces is now about 14,000. When serving on board ship they are employed as sentries, and keep regular watch like the blue-jackets when not on guard, ing in all the duties of the ship, except going aloft; in action both the men of the marine artillery and of the light infantry are now stationed at the guns conjointly with the blue-jackets, those not eure at the guns being used as a rifle on deck ; they always form part of all naval igades landed for service on shore. With a view to their efficient training in gunnery, batteries with heavy guns mounted as on board ship have been constructed at all the marine barracks, where the men are regularly drilled by qualified officers and instructors, All the marine artillery officers have to undergo a special course of training, and_since 1887 probationary lieutenants for the light infantry have to pass through a course at Greenwich similar to those for the marine artillery, and after joining headquarters undergo a course of instruction in orrongy. Combining the handiness of the sailor with training of the soldier, the marines are justly regarded as a most valuable body of ser es ir officers - co here u : nm courts-martial and to perform genera i duties, such as field-officer of the day, ie but they ab es des oer Seats, cess pone Sey se upon by the genera in command take part in field-days and reviews, yet, being entirely under the Admiralty, they occupy a position quite distinct from the re; troops in ison with them. Marines, like blue- jackets, have the privilege, which the army does not enjoy, of wearing their beards, in barracks as well as when afloat; and, like the blue-jackets, but again unlike the army, they remain a long- service corps. Under the short-service system, which obtains in the army, it would be impossible to give marines the necessary training; they are the opti to serve im — years, with 0 nm re-engagin ‘or another seven years, they obtain a Genaion. One result of this is that the Admiralty can always obtain an un- limited supply of recruits; they are thus able to carefully pick their men, and their standard is much than that of the line. For physique, ly training, and efficiency no regiment in the army, not even the Guards, can approach the Marine Light Infantry. The marine artillery are oo — ol picked a than Tt ene of , and the uire a higher educa- deanfotendend? it is admitted that no other army in the world can put on parade so magnificent a body of men as the Marine Artillery Division. One of their battalions in line covers a third more oar than a corresponding line battalion. The mds of the Marine Artillery and Infantry Divisions a among the oo military bands - = ; * ng only, rhaps, ae FEC the omens the Goards. The Marine ight inohtey takes precedence in the army immediately after the 50th regiment of foot. The original number of marines was 1200. The third regiment of the line was called the Maritime Regiment, also the Admiral’s Regiment. In 1702 nm to sit on’ the force of marines had increased to six regiments ; from 1714 to 1739 no marine force existed ; in the latter year it was reconstituted in six regiments, and in 1741 numbered ten. Once more disbanded in 1748, it was in 1755 placed wholly under the Admiralty. Su uently, however, on the sudden expansion of the fleet for the wars with France, several line regiments were at times called upon to serve as marines. The land artillery was also re- resented in the bomb-vessels, and were so serving in 1804, when their duties were taken over by the Royal Marine Artillery, then first formed. This branch, more than once disbanded since then, according to the views of the Admiralty of the time, and even since 1870 again threatened with disbandment, is now recognised as a cheap, reliable, and most valuable reserve of apecially-teaihed gunners. In the United States the marines serve five years, receiving $13 a month; if they serve beyond the five ape they are paid $18 a month, See Nicolas’s book (1845); and Edge, The Historical Records of the Royal Marines (vol. i. 1893). Marini, GiAmBarrista, an Italian poet, born at Naples in 1569, Abandoning jurisprudence for seg against his father’s will, he was befriended xy various noble patrons, and was carried by ‘ardinal Pietro Aldobrandini to Turin, where a poem, J/ Ritratto, procured him the office of ducal secretary. At Paris he enjoyed the patronage of Catharine of Valois, and after her death of Marie de’ Medici. Here he wrote his best work, the Adone (1622), and after its publication revisited Italy, and died at Naples in 1625. The licentious- ness that mars his verse was but an echo of his life. His imitators form the so-called Marinist school, of which the essential features are florid hyperbole and false overstrained imagery. See GonGora, and LYLy. Marino, a town on the Alban Hills, 12 miles SE. of Rome, has a castle belonging to the Colonnas, who took it from their rivals, the Orsinis, in 1424, and a cathedral and churches with pictures by Guido, Domenichino, and Guerecino. It grows lar. wine and manufactures soap, leather, &c. Pop. 6071. Mario, Givusrrre, the famous tenor, was b; birth the Cavaliere di Candia and son of General di Candia. He was born at Cagliari in 1808 (not at Genoa or Turin in 1812), and served in the army for some years. But a youthful escapade led to his forsaking Italy for Paris, where he quickly won his way into the most exclusive circles both by the charm of his manners and his exquisite voice. Having contracted debts, however, he accepted the appointment of first tenor of the Opera, with a salary of 1500 francs per month, changing his name at the same time from De Candia to Mario. After two years’ study at the Conservatoire Mario made his début, on the 2d December 1838, as Robert in Robert le Diable, and achieved the first of a long series of operatic triumphs in Paris, London, St Petersburg, and America. His i ret aeae embraced all the great works of Rossini, llini, Donizetti, and Verdi. By the famous singer Giulia Grisi (q.v.) he was the father of six daughters. In rivate he was esteemed for his large-handed iberality and for his noble assistance to struggling artists. In his later years after his retirement from the stage he lost his fortune through disastrous speculations. In May 1878 a benefit concert in London yielded him as much as £1000. He died at Rome, llth December 1883. See Engel’s Musical Celebrities (1886). Mariolatry. See Mary. Marion, capital of Marion county, Ohio, 46 miles by rail N. of Columbus, with manufactures of machinery, farming implements, and wooden wares, Pop. (1900) 11,862. 46 MARIONETTES MARIUS little jointed of wood eeeenaites: soe jointed puppets of wood or ngs by a con- In modern times it has chiefly prevailed in Italy, where it was known yee 2h pe has there reached a res legree of artistic per. fection. is was onorien to France under Charles 1X. by an Italian named Marion, whence it passed quickly to England, where it became known as a motion, or motion of puppets, or puppets only. The favourite resort uppet-plays in London seems to have been mew Fair, and in Elizabethan times appear to have played set pieces. We find allusions so frequent-as to prove wide popu- larity in Shak Ben Jonson, Pepys's Diary, Swift, the Essayists. Marionettes are exhibited occasionally, but the only ve familiar marionette-play we have is the Punch A marionette Faust gestion of his greatest st pe are very frequently HY (avwssd and it is a “ ing fact —_ ae stil wate pe gogeoead Germany, an y are en of as actors in Scotland in the 16th “+ a igi Mariotte, Eve, a French physicist, born in Burgundy during the first half of the 17th century —the is not known—was = St Martin- sous- ne, and died at Paris, 12th May 1684. He was one of the earliest members of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and wrote original papers on percussion, the nature of air and its pressure, the movements of fluid bodies and of pendulams, on colours, &. What is on the Continent called Mariotte’s Law is rather Boyle’s Law, and is an empirical law stated by Boyle (q.v.) in his ence of the Doctrine touching the Spring and Weight of the Air (1662), and by Mariotte in his Discours sur la Nature del Air (1676). See GAS AND GASES. Mariotte’s collected works were Published at Ley- den in 1717, and at The Hague (2 vols.) in 1740. Mariposa, a central county of California, oes c~ ley ary eles It ae the osemite (q.¥.), es a grove of giant trees (see SEQUOIA). ison, 1510 aq. 1. ; pop. 4720. Mart, JAKOB (1837-09), born at the Hague, stadied in F was one of the > on] modern Duteh painters of landscape and genre. Only less famous is his brother Matthijs (born 1835 ; 1 in London), a genre-painter; and a younger brother Willem is a landscapist, Marischal. See MAgsuar, Kerrn. Marista, a modern French Catholic Con tion {9-¥.) The Marist Fathers date from 1815; the Marist Brothers from 1817; and the Marist Sisters from 1834, enormous area of 730,000 aq. m. eri 34 , The v ¥ of climate productions is of course great. See AMUR, goon | Sogo te ape we The Mari- mur inces are under one governor- general, whose headquarters are at Khabarovka, tza (anc. Hebrus), a river of European », ties in the Balkans, and flows E. by S. past is to Adrianople, where it bends and flows 8S. by W. to the Gulf of En AZgean. It is 270 miles long, and is na small boats to Adrianople. Mariupol, or MariAmpot, the seaport south iacien coalfield, stands on the Sea of 65 se a! “ Le prac the Cri 1779 by Greek emi ts from the Crimea, ant ext ie oak. Wheat. Mansel, &e. to the annual value of £425,000. Fish-curing, soap-boiling, and tanning are carried on. Pop. 18,607. Marius, Caius, a famous Roman general who was seven times es Pes born of an pba family at the vi of Cereate, near 157 mc. He served with great distinction at the siege of Numantia (134) under the younger Africanus, who is said to have hinted that in the Romans would find a successor to himself. 119 he was elected tribune of the plebs, and al he had made himself a esc pular leader by vigorous opposition to the nobles. In 114 he went Azov, In to Spain as propretor, and cleared the country of i the robbers who infested it. He now Julia, the sister of the father of the t Ceesar. He served’ in Africa as legate to Ceecilius Metellus during the war against Shay re and was elected consul two years after. He took for his province Numidia, and closed the Jugurthine war in the beginning of 106. The honour of the beaten king fell to his questor L, Su from this period dates the birth of that jealousy out and fifth time in the even years, 103-101, for it was felt that he alone could save the republie. The war against the Teutones in Transalpine occupied him for more than two years; but final ny Ancibheies them in a terrible battle two days’ duration at Aque Sextiw, now Aix, Provence, where 200, ee to others, 100,000—Teutones were slain. ter this he turned to the Cimbri in the north of Italy, and them he also overthrew at — Randii near Vercella, with a like destruction (101), The of Rome knew no bounds to their joy. us was declared the saviour of the state, the third founder of Rome, and was made consul for the sixth time in 100. It has often been remarked that, had he died at this period, he would have left behind him one of the greatest reputa in Roman history. But to perpetuate his power he Sones to the basest arts of the unprincipled em ne, When Sulla as consul was entrusted with the conduct of thé Mithridatic war, Marius, who had long manifested an insane jealousy of his patrician rival, attempted to deprive him of the command, and a civil war began (88). Marius was soon forced to flee, and, after the most frightful hard- ships, and numerous hairbreadth escapes, made his way to Africa. Two romantic incidents stand out among these days of peril. His place of hiding in the marshes of Lists 1 had been dis- covered, and he had been flung into prison at Minturne, when a Cimbrian shve was sent to despatch him, ‘Wretch, darest thou slay Caius Marius?’ said the old hero as he g upon him out of the gloom. Tile slave fled in terror saying, ‘I cannot kill Marius,’ and the citizens ereanng the omen allowed the exile to escape. ne ogg A he reached the shore of when the Roman governor sent him a summons to leave the country. Said Marius, ‘Go, tell the pretor that you have seen Caius Marius a ' os in the — ble for for the r: It was founded in ie MARIVAUX MARK 47 fugitive, sitting on the ruins of Carthage.’ Here he remained until a rising of his friends took place under Cinna. He then hurried back to Italy, and, along with Cinna, marched against Rome, which was obliged to * meat Marius was delirious in his revenge upon the aristocracy ; a band of 4000 slaves earried on the work of murder for five days and nights. Marius and Cinna were elected consuls together for the year 86, but the former died after he had held the office seventeen days. On the triumph of Sulla his body, which had been buried, not burned, was torn from its grave on the banks of the Anio, and cast into the stream. Lucan tells us how the troubled ghost haunted the spot and seared the peasants from the plough on the eve of impending revolutions. Marivaux, Prerre CARLET DE CHAMBLAIN DE, was -born at Paris, February 4, 1688. He belonged to a good Norman family and devoted himself to letters. He received but a slight educa- tion and in his early writings affected a disdain of the Greek and Latin authors, declaring, for example, that he preferred Gregory of Tours to Tacitus and Vincent Ferrier to Demosthenes. He published L’Homére Travesti, a burlesque of the Iliad, in‘ 1716, and brought out his best comedy, Le Jeu de ' Amour et du Hasard in 1730. He received. a pension from Helvétius, and another, of 1000 crowns a year, from Madame de Pompadour. His romance of Marianne came out in 11 parts between 1731 and 1741, but was never concluded by him, the twelfth part being added by Madame Riccom- boni. He followed up his first dramatic success b: numerous comedies: L’Lprenve, Les Fausses Conf. dences, Le Legs, Les .Sincéres, La Méprise, Le Triomphe de V Amour, &c, They are the work of a clever analyst rather than a dramatist; the dialogue, says Sainte-Beuve, is a perpetual ‘ moral skirmish ;’ the writer sacrifices character and situation to an ingenious playing with words. Marivaux, said Voltaire, knew all the bypaths in the human heart, but he did not know the highway. He died at Paris, February 12, 1763. His title to fame rests on Marianne, one of the best novels of the 18th et Its interest does not lie in exciting adven- tures, but in the subtle analysis of character and the delicate pic- turing of contem- pe manners. ‘rom the peculi- arities of Mari- vaux’s finicking 7 the term arivaudage was at one time cur- rent as @ syn- onym for affected or ‘precious’ writing. His other romances, Pharamond and Le Paysan hes venu, are t inferior reer: anne. See Sainte- Beuve’s Causeries du Lundi 1X., and Arséne Hous- saye’s Galerie de yy ) Mr Portraits du diz- 1 oo huitiéme Siecle. Common Marjoram locaeuawcers| (Origanum), «a genus of plants of the natural order Labiate. Several of the specics are familiar as pot and sweet herbs in gardens. 0. vulgare is the Common Marjoram, a native of Britain, and is aromatic with a bitter and slightly acrid taste. The dry leaves have been used instead of tea, and they are also used in fomenta- tions. The tops of the plant have been used to dye woollen cloth purple; and, by a process of macer- ating the material first in alum water and then ina decoction of crab-tree bark, they also dye cotton cloth a reddish brown. Oil of Marjoram is obtained from this and other species by distillation, The oil of marjoram is so caustic as to be used b farriers as a stimulating liniment. A little cotton moistened with it pl in the hollow of an aching tooth relieves pain. 0. heracleoticum is the Winter Sweet Marjoram of gardeners ; 0. onites is the Pot Marjoram ; and the Knotted Marjoram is 0. Mar- ee The dittany of Crete, a plant with round eaves clothed with thick white down and purple trailing stems, which is frequently cultivated as a window-plant in Britain, is é. Dictamnus. Mark, the standard weight of the money system in yarious countries of Europe, especially in Ger- many, where in the middle of the 11th century the Cologne mark = kalf a Cologne pound, or 283812 grammes, was adopted as the standard, and as such continued in use till 1857. The mark gradu- y acquired a monetary value as well ; as such it has been since 1875 the standard of currency in the German empire, being equivalent to 7.45, of a pound (500 grammes) of fine gold, and equal to 113d. English and 24 cents United States currency. But there are only 5, 10, and 20 mark pieces in gold. The silver mark (= } thaler) is divided into 100 pfennigs. The Liibeck mark or mark current, a coin formerly in use at Hamburg, was worth Is. 2d.; the mark banco there, a money of account, was worth Is. 6d. In England -marks are first heard of in the treaty between Alfred and Guthrum the Dane, and are supposed to have been then a Danish reckoning. But these marks were not coins, only money of account, or rather a weight. In 1194 the coined mark had the nominal value it ever after retained, 160 pennies or 13s. 4d., two-thirds of the nominal ‘pound.’ The gold noble, first struck by Edward IIL, was worth half a mark—6s. 8d. As late as 1703 Defoe was fined 200 marks. In Scotland the mark or merk was a weight for gold and silver, or common money reckoning, and also a coin. The coin, like the other Scotch coins, had only one- twelfth of the English value: nominally 13s. 4d., it was worth Is. 1}d. English. There were two-merk, one-merk (44 to the oz.), half, and quarter merk ieces. The French standard weight mark weighed ‘75 grammes and the Dutch mark 246-08 grammes, Mark, a signature. See DEED, ILLITERATES. Mark. See Marcues. Mark, also called Joun (Acts, xiii. 5, 13), or, more fully, ‘ John, whose surname was Mark’ ( Acts, xii. 12, 25), is named by unvarying tradition from the close of the 2d century as the author of the second canonical gospel. Of Mary, his mother, nothing is known except that her house in Jeru- salem was visited by Peter and the other disciples. Barnabas the Levite was his cousin (Col. iv. 10, R.V.). By some Mark has been supposed to be the young man mentioned in Mark, xiv. 51, 52, and it has also been conjectured that Mary’s house may have been the place where the Lord’s Supper was instituted. »Mark accompanied Paul and Barnabas on their first missionary journey from Antioch in Syria as far as to Perga in Pamphylia ( Acts, xii. 25; xiii. 13); here he quitted them on grounds which, whatever they may have been, did not approve themselves to Paul, who at a later date peremptorily declined to have him as a companion on his second journey, even though this involved his parting company with Barnabas also, That a reconciliation afterwards 48 MARK took place from Col. iv. 10; Phil. 24; 2 Tim. iv. 11, where Mark is referred to by the apostle as a useful fellow-worker. Another chapter in Mark’s life is indicated in 1 Peter, v. 13, where he is mentioned as a companion of the apostle Peter in Babylon, unless indeed, as has been done by some interpreters, we take ‘Marcus my son’ in a literal sense, in which case, of course, a diffenent person is referred to. We should not naturally think of petepesting Babylon here as meaning Rome, were it not for subsequent ecclesiastical tradition which usually speaks of Mark as the ‘disciple and inter- ter’ of Peter, and mentions Rome as the scene of Their labours till the martyrdom of the latter about Sous a tradition, a —_ is not a t into agreement with the very generally accepted statement of Eusebius, that “Mark from Rome went to Alexandria, where, after proclaiming the gospel he had written, he was succeeded in the toral office by Ammianus in the eighth year of ero (62A.D.). This last date is given as his death year in the Roman breviary. A further tradition a. of Mark as having preached in other parts Italy besides Rome, and especially at Aquileia. On the strength of this ition the Emperor Heraclius in A.D. sent the patriarchal chair from Alexandria to Grado, whither the Aquileian triarchate had previously been remov The Venetian legend of the translation of the relics of St Mark from Alexandria to Venice (q.v.) in the 9th century is denied by Tillemont, and rests on very inadequate evidence. He is sometimes spoken of as having suffered martyrdom, but by none of the older authorities nor by the Roman brevi His feast day is April 25. In medieval art Mark is symbolised by the lion. Various New Testament books have been attributed to him by individual modern critics (Epistle to Hebrews, Epistle of Jude, and, more recently, the Apocalypse, in whole or in part). For the traditions, both earlier and later, regarding Mark, see Molinus, De Vita et ners S. Marci Evangelista: (Rome, 1864). HE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO MARK,—T wo distinct accounts of the origin of this gospel, both of them developments from earlier tradition, were formulated ao tag te i | Augustine and by Jerome; both — general currency throughout the Western hurch, and no difficulty with regard to either of them was expressed for many centuries. Augus- tine’s view {ie GosPELs) was that Mark merely followed and abridged Matthew, Jerome’s that he wrote at the direct dictation of Peter. Modern criticism accepts neither. (1) The germs of Augus- tine’s account are found in Irenzus (end of 2d cen- tury), who says that Matthew had already written his ken ore Mark began his, and in Clement of Alexandria (circa 210 A.D.), who has it that the two gospels containing the genealogies were com- first, and implies that Mark seen them th. Mark's dependence on Matthew was first controverted towards the end of the 18th century (Koppe, Storr), and his priority to both Matthew and Luke was argued for and illustrated with much cogent detail by Wilke and Weisse in two independent works in 1838. Baur and his school continued to defend the traditional view so far at least as to maintain that the second gospel was a late conciliatory combination of Matthew and Luke, with the Ebionitism of the one and the Paulinism of the other left out. But Ewald again claimed ey for Mark, and his view, supported at the time by Ritechl and by many others since, a now be ed as, subject to certain qualifi- ca eee y accepted on all hands, Among the —_- —_ —— to this conclusion are certain peculiarities o! and phrase- ology in which Mark is confessediy Lane refined and classical than Luke or even Matthew. It is held to be unlikely that in course of borrowing the more the more polite. Again, the graphic, vivid, vulgar style of expression should be substituted bn abrupt style of Mark (characterised by use of the historical present and by other features) is not that of a mere abbreviator or ong Farther, the pe. of the narrative, which materially differs rom that in Matthew and in Luke, is now held to represent, probably, the actual order of the facts more eae The natural course of a oe development in the life and work of Jesus, in’ own self-consciousness, and in the estimation of others, can be traced more clearly in Mark than in any of the other gospels. The manner and di ; in which the supernatural element is presen also held to segs a — pram at ‘ expressions too, which might be supposed stumbling to faith, are present in Mark, but absent from the others, having either been struck out altogether or modified so as to bring them more into accordance with accepted views. (Compare, e.g., Mark, vi. 5 with Matt. xiii. 58; also Mark, i, 32-34 with Matt. viii. 16 and Luke, iv. 40, 41.) In short, its naiveté, directness, and simplicity prove the compan originality of Mark. (2) Jerome’s account can be traced back in its beginnings to Papias (circa 140 A.D.), who we learn from Eusebius was once told by John ‘ the presbyter ’ (not the apostle John), perhaps about 90 A.D., that ‘Mark, having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately everything he remembered of the things that were either said or done by Christ, not, however, in order, For neither did he hear the Lord, nor did he follow Him; but afterwards, as I said, [followed] Peter, who adapted his instructions to the needs [of his hearers}, but had no design of giving a connected account of the oracles of the * *So then,’ adds Papias, ‘Mark made no mistake, while he thus wrote down some things as he remembered them ; for he made it his one care not to omit any- thing he had heard, or to set down any false state- ment therein.’ It is here clearly implied that Mark had only his memory to rely on at the time of his bshraes 9 Peter being no longer within Clement of Alexandria ag by Eusebius) is the first who knows that Mark wrote before death, but also informs us that he wrote without teat knowledge. Eusebius in another place, ro Plemen say that Peter afterwards gave the work his sanction. Origen states that Mark wrote, ‘ Peter showing him the way,’ but the phrase does not necessarily imply dictation. Modern critics readily ise a certain basis of truth in the ecclesiastical tradition as to Peter’s con- nection with Mark’s gospel. Clearly all that makes for its first-hand character makes for its Petrine origin. Much of what it contains, both in sub- stance and in manner, betokens the eye-witness, and such an eye-witness as Peter, or at least one of the three most intimate disciples. The earlier part of the narrative centres mainly round Capernaum and Peter's house there. Among the most in turning-points in it are Peter's call and Peter's confession. But the gospel is not all equally pre: ary. A large portion of what seems in it to be secondary might indeed be explained in some degree were it permissible to hold that Peter’s own recollections had been modified in the course of thirty years’ brooding reflection on the real signifi- cance of the great personality he had followed during those brief months of earthly discipleship, and (as he would in later years feel) had at first so imperfectly understood. The history when looked back upon might well assume to him a different mo in memory and imagination from that which it had worn while he was actually passing mos the scenes with mind and heart only half-opened ‘ ‘o are! by a lapse of memory, seems to make AA MARK ANTONY MARLBOROUGH 49 its ideal and figurative elements and its deepest religious meanin That such was the case with his early companion John at least is a theory that has found considerable acceptance with Christian apologists. See JOHN (GOSPEL ACCORDING TO). But even so, there are passages in Mark in which the narrative is so brief and vague as to make it difficult to believe that they rest on the authority of an eye-witness only once removed. This is con- ly the case with Mark, xvi. 9-20, and partly also with the history of the closing days in Jeru- salem, thongh even this abounds with many pictur- esque touches, such as that in xi. 4. Instances are frequent in which the exegete feels constrained to suppose some dislocation or derangement of a con- text, or misunderstanding, perhaps mistranslation, of asaying. See, in particular, chap. xiii. The general conclusion of the critical discussion is that in the second gospel on the whole we hear the language of a reporter who had often listened to one who claimed to have been present at the scenes he described. The weight of traditional as well as of internal evidence goes to shew that it was produced in Rome about 70 A.D., perhaps rather after than before that date. Apart from what he had heard in Petrine circles, the author doubtless felt himself at liberty to make use of whatever he may have gleaned elsewhere from wiat he deemed trustworthy sources for the Galilean and Jerusalem tradition. It is even a question whether he may not actually have seen or heard read, in whole or in part, the ‘logia’ of Matthew. That the second Mpeg was by the authors both of the first and of the third may be regarded as now made out. On the assumption that the ‘logia’ of Matthew contained absolutely no narrative mate- rial, it used to be argued that the second page must originally have been somewhat fuller than it now is (‘ original’ Mark, ‘Ur-Mareus’). But this is now very generally given up. A more likely supposition is that the original form was shorter than the present. Mark, xvi. 9-20, is con- fessedly late. It is not improbable that the preface, i, 1-3, was at one time absent. Some have thought that vii. 24-viii. 26 did not occur in the copy of Mark used by Luke. Reuss has long held that the original Mark consisted only of i. 21-vi. 48 and viii. 27-xiii. 37. It is not unlikely that editorial ions and alterations have been made through- ont. Critical investigation into the genesis of the “4 gee gospels, though far advanced, cannot be said to have reached completion, and there is good reason to hope that scholarship may yet succeed in reaching still more definite results. Mark is printed, and its relations to Matthew and graphically exhibited, in Abbott and Rushbrooke’s Common Tradition of the Synoptic Gospels (1884). A ve reconstruction of the supposed first redaction of is given in Solger’s Urevangelium (1890). Mark Antony. See ANnTonrvs (Marcus). ’ Market-Drayton, or Drayron-1x-HAtEs, a wn of Shropshire, on the Tern, 18 miles NE. of habe It has a mmar-school (1554) and @ church dating from the 12th century, up whose Clive (q.v.) clambered as a hoy. At Blore- , 3 miles to the east, the Yorkists won a j 1459. Pop. of parish, 5188. See two > ori J. R. Lee (1861) and T. P. Marshall Market-Harborough, «a market-town of hire, on the river Welland and the Union Canal, 16 miles SE. of Leicester, 18 N. of North- ese 84 NNW. of London. It has traces of a Roman camp; a fine Perpendicular church, built by John of Gaunt as an atonement for his intrigue with Catharine Swynford, with a broach spire 154 feet high ; a corn exchange (1858); and agrammar- school (1614; restored 1869). Charles I. slept here before Naseby. Situated in a rich grazing country, it is a famous hunting-centre, and gives title to one of Whyte-Melville’s novels. Pop. (1851) 2325; (1881) 5351; (1891) 5876. See works by John H. Hill (Leicester, 1875) and J. E. Stocks (Lond. 1890). Markets. See Farrs. Markham, Sir CLEMENTs ROBERT, F.R.S., and since 1896 K.C.B., poe her, is a son of the Rey. D. Markham, canon of Windsor. He was born 1830 at Stillingfleet, near York, educated at Westminster, from which school he entered the navy in 1844. Immediately on passing as lieutenant in 1851 he left the navy, and in 1855 became a clerk in the Board of Control. In 1863 he was elected secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1867 me assistant-secretary in the India Office. In 1868 he was placed in charge of the geographical depart- ment in that office. He served in the Arctie expedition (1850-51 ) in search of Sir John Franklin. He explored (1852-54) Peru and the forests of the Eastern Andes ; he introduced (1860) the cultiva- tion of the cinchona plant from South America into India; served as geographer (1867-68) in the Abyssinian expedition, and was present at the storm- ing of Magdala. Of his numerous publications, which include many translations from the Spanish, and several antiquarian and genealogical works, mention can only here be made of his Grammar and Dictionary of the Ynca Language (1863-64) : The Threshold of the Unknown ih jon (1874; 4eds.); Zhe War between Chili and Peru (1879; 3 eds.); Missions to Thibet (1877; 2 eds.); his Reports on the Moral and National Progress of India for 1871-73 ; and his Life of John Davis, in the ‘Explorers’ series (1889). He edited the Geographical Magazine from 1872 to 1878. Marking Ink. See Inx. Markireh (Fr. Ste-Marie-aux-Mines), a town of Upper Alsace, on the Leber, 40 miles SW. of Strasburg by rail, with important cotton and woollen mills, Pop. (1890) 11,870. ’ Marl, a mixture, naturally existing, of clay and carbonate of lime. Marls are found in very different geological formations, but everywhere seem to owe their origin to deposition by water. The name is sometimes applied to friable clays, or mixtures of clay and sand, in which there is almost no trace of lime; but the presence of a notable proportion of carbonate of lime is essential to marls, properly so called. This proportion varies from 6 to 20 per cent. Marly soils are in general of great natural fertility. Mar! is ve aa ney ously used as a manure, acting both chemically and mechanically ; but different kinds of marl are of very different value in this respect. The use of marl as a manure has been practised from ancient times. An English statute of 1225 (10 Henry III.) gave every man a right to sink a marl-pit on his own ground, and there is other evidence that the application of marl to land was common in ngland in the 13th century. The quicker action and greater efficiency of lime have led to its use in many cases instead of marl, although some kinds of marl are extremely useful in some soils. The bulkiness of marl confines its use to the neigh- bourhood in which it is found. Marl is some- times indurated into a rock; a slaty variety, containing much bitumen, is found in Germany. See also LAs. Marlborough, an old and interesting market- town of Wiltshire, pleasantly situated in the valley MARLBOROUGH Kennet, near Savernake Forest, 75 miles London and 11 SSE. of Swindon. Its broad Street contains some picturesque houses, and east end is St Mary’s Church with the town- 1790); at the west St Peter's with the college. latter is a British mound, on which earl 12th century Bishop Roger of Salisbury built castle. This afterwards became a royal residence ; and here in 1267 Henry III. held the parliament enacted the ‘Statutes of Marleberge’ for re- storing good government after the Barons’ wars. An i ipal borough, Marlborough, till 1867, returned two members liament, and till 1885 one. Pop. (1851) 3460; (1891) 3012.—Marlborough was incorporated in 1845, and obtained an addi charter in 1853; the number of pupils is between 500 and 600, of whom about 70, sons of clergymen, are on the foundation. There are some scholarships worth from £15 to £80 annually, and fourteen leaving exhibitions for Oxford, Cam- , and Woolwich, The nucleus of the college was cree bt famous coaching-house ; and their special ¥ 2x22) 2 fier ge Waylen (1854) and Hulme (1881). Marlborough, « provincial district of New in the north-east corner of the South Island, 130 miles long by 30 broad ; area, 3,000,000 acres, of which 200,000 are agricultural land and 1,300,000 suitable for pastoral occupation. Amongst the minerals are gold, antimony, copper, and coal. See NEw ZEALAND. Marlboro Joun Cuurcui.y, DUKE oF, the ablest veneral and diplomatist of his time, was born on the 24th June 1650, at Ashe, in Devon- shire, an old manor-house, which can still be seen between Axminster and Seaton. His father, Sir Winston Churchill, had been an enthusiastic adherent of the Stuarts, and on the accession of Cromwell to power his estates had been consequently sequestrated. At the Restoration, however, Winston recovered possession of his lands, but his poverty ted him from giving his children an educa- heayeon Sayer position, so that young Churchill and his George had to face the world with little Latin and less Greek, and a knowledge of English history gathered from the plays of Shake- ane During his engagement as a page to the ot York, John was fortunate enough to secure a commission as ensign in the Guards, and at the age of sixteen, in the your 1667, he was sent to Tan- Es then | ny the Moors. It is said that was sent to Tangiers on account of the king's y of his favour with the Duchess of Cleve- ; and the eet Ay | told that on one occasion, being nearly surprised by the king, he leapt out of a window and was presented by the duchess with £5000, £4500 of which he invested in an annuity of £0ayear. The a7 with regard to the annuity transaction are «till in existence. At Tangiers Churchill had little ceprventiy of distinguishing himself. Recalled to England by the Duke of York, he was promoted to a captaincy, and in command of a grenadier com at he was despatched to join Turenne, to assist Lonie XIV. in the reduction of the fortresses on the Dutch frontier. Here his brill- fant courage and ability at once gained him a coloneley, although his promotion would not have been so he not called into requisition the influence of his sister, Arabella, mistress of the Dake of York. His prosperity was further ad- vanced by his marriage with Sarah Jennings, a lady as remarkable for her talents and imperious disposition as for her beanty. In 1682 he was created Baron Churchill of Eyemouth, in Scotland. On the accession of the Duke of York to the throne as James II., the services of Colonel Churchill to— his master were not forgotten, as he was the English rage under the title of Baron Churehill of Sendridge, in Hertfordshire, Promoted to be general, Churchill took an active part in— quelling the rebellion of Monmouth; but, on the landing of the Prince of Orange, he stole away to the side of the invader, leaving a letter in which he endeavoured to explain = nis treachery by say- ing that only the inviolable - and a ry James's daughter, the Princess Anne, accom’ by Lady Churchill, also fled to join the rebels in the north. William, on his accession, his gratitude for the assistance given him by Churchill by creating him Earl of Marlborough. Notwithstanding the conspicuous service rendered by Marlborough and as commander of the troops employed ge the French in the Netherlands, in 1689-91, m III. could not rid himself of a certain not a 1692 he ungrounded suspicion of his new earl, till in fell into disfavour, and was dismissed from all his offices. As the result of the discovery of a plot with which a clever forger named Young associated the name of Marlborough, the earl was arrested and lodged in the Tower. In ten days he was released, however, but for five years he was with- out sgh caning employment, till the death of Mary, when he was restored to the favour of the king, and he retained it till the death of William in 1 At the accession of he was entrusted with the command of the British army in the Netherlands on the declaration of war of the Spanish succession, in which was to show his unrivalled st ical genius during one of the test series of military opera- tions in which England has ever been e Anne showered honours on the head of the tunate earl and his wife, her closest friend. Marlborongh was made a knight of the bie a Commander-in-chief, and Master General of Ordnance, while his lady was appointed Groom of the Stole, Mistress of the Robes, and Keeper of the Privy Purse. Marlborough, in fact, became regent in all but name. His wife gov: the — and he himself directed Godolphin, the ord High Treasurer, whose son had married his daughter. At the opening of the campaign, Marl- borough, on his arrival at The Hague, was named commander-in-chief of the combined En and Dutch forces, with a salary of £10, The campaign was one long series of triumphs for the allies. In 1702, for driving the French out of Spanish Guelders, the reward was a dukedom and £5000 per annum ‘from the post-office.’ The year 1703 was made memorable to the duke by the death of his only surviving son, the Marquis of who succumbed to an attack of smallpox. Marl- borough had little time to grieve over his loss, as le was summoned at once to the cam in the Low Countries, in which he was so much dis- gusted with the Dutch that he returned to England, seriously thinking of bagpehis up his command. Next year, however, we see him supporting the Emperor of Germany, and joining Prince Eugene of Savoy, in July of that year storming suecess- fully the French and Bavarian lines at Donau- worth, and on the 13th August gaining a but bloody victory over the enemy at Blenheim, Of 56,000 men, the French and Bavarians lost 40,000, and the victors’ killed and wounded numbered fully 12,000. The result of this decisive battle stamped Marlborough as the first’ general in Europe. Parliament bestowed upon him the estate of Woodstock, the queen caused Blenheim Park (q.v.) to be built for him, and the emperor raised to n for his religion could have induced him to desert his master, — in reducing Ireland to subjection, — MARLBOROUGH MARLOWE 51 ereated him a prince of the Holy Roman Empire. Diplomatic tiations occupied the principal part of 1 ’s time and attention in 1705, but in 1706 he resumed that career of victory which broke the force of the spell surrounding the great power of France under Louis XIV., who gloried in calli himself the ‘Invincible.’ On the 23d May 17 the battle of Ramillies was fought, when the French were obliged to desert the line of the Scheldt and evacuate the whole of Spanish Flanders. The campaign of 1707 was an almost wholly inactive one; but in 1708 the ee by the French under Vendéme to recover Flanders led to the battle of Oudenarde—the et battle of Marlborough’s engaged in front of a fortified town—fought on July 11, and resulting in the total defeat of the French forces. riborough then laid siege to Lille and Ghent, and the surrender of these two towns ended tle long and, arduous cain- poign. The year 1709 was distinguished by the ttle of plaquet—in Marlborough’s words, ‘a very murdering battle.’ The numbers were practically equal, t the French had an infinite superiority o! ition. There are few battles in history of which it can so certainly be said that the best men won. The carnage was tremendous— 20,000 on the side of the allies and 8000 on that of the French. The blood of Malplaquet—the last of the four engagements which gave lborough’s name a unique pain in the roll of generals— did not bring about peace; and in 1711 he was afield again, taking town after town from the French. This eventually led to the treaty of ——— which gave thirt y years of peace to _ Meanwhile important events were taking place in Britain. The queen, tired of the tyrann exercised by the Duchess of Marlborough, shoo off the yoke, dismissed her ministers, olphin and Sunderland, mide. the way for the elevation to power of the 1 of Oxford and the Tories. nm a was preferred against Marl- of having embezzled public money, and he was deprived of his offices, till the accession of George 1, when, in a day, he was restored to A coop in which he stood after the battle of eim. A stroke of apoplexy on 28th May he although it impaired his h, did not preclude his attendance in parliament till within six months of his death, which occurred on 16th June 1722. His funeral obsequies in West- minster Abbey were celebrated wit t magni- ficence, and all ranks and all parties in the state joined in doing him honour, Charges of avarice and peculation have been brought a Marlborough —among others, Hallam, Mahon, Macaulay, and Thackeray. ite this, and the certainty that he t t more of his own interest than the cause in w’ he was en , his character had many elements of excellence. He was generous in action, gentle in temper, a devoted husband, and a man of religious fervour. His wife, SARAH JENNINGS, was born on 29th May 1660, and when about twelve years of age entered the service of the Duchess of York, and be- came the chosen and most intimate friend of her step- danghter the Princess Anne. Like Marlborough himself, Sarah came of an ancient but ruined royalist family. On the accession of Anne to the var the duchess exercised over the young queen the influence due to a superior and singularly active —oliboped wer was # almost eran J the Whi, upon support, and she di of or and offices at her pleasure, and is to have accumulated money by the trans- actions. Her fair fame, however, apart from this, Was never, even in those days of scurrilous lampoon, tarnished the breath of scandal. Her rule, which lasted for a considerable time, at last became unbearable, and she was supplanted in the favour of the queen by her own cousin, Mrs Masham, whom she herself had introduced to court. She retired from the queen’s service in January 1711; and for nearly a quarter of a century she survived her husband, living in complete retirement. She was of a very pugnacious disposition, only happy when quarrelling with her friends or eng: in lawsuits, such as those arising out of the comple- tion of Blenheim. She died on 29th October 1744, leaving a fortune of three millions sterling, of which she bequeathed £10,000 to William Pitt. As the beay 8 of Blandford, the only son of the Duke and hess of Marlborough, died young, the title was inherited by the descendants of one of their daughters, the Countess of Sunderland. See the Memoirs by Coxe (1819), the short Life, b; Sain (1885), Leslie Stephen in Dict. Nat. Biog. (vo x.), and the early life by Lord Wolseley (2 vols. 1894). Marlinespike, an iron pin, with a large head and taper point, used on shipboard for separating the strands of rope preparatory to splicing or marling ; also employed as a lever in tightening rigging, &c. See KNOTS AND SPLICES. Marlitt, EvGEeNntE£, the pseudonym of E. Jonn, a German novelist, born at Arnstadt in Thuringia, on 5th December 1825. Her beautiful voice and musical talent gained her the favour of the Princess of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, who sent her to Vienna, where, after three years of study, she appeared on the s But a successfully-begun career was cut short by an affection of the ear, and Friiulein John acted as reader to her patroness till 1863. Retiring in that year into private life, she spent her time in st romances, interestin enough, but with strong didactic tendencies an somewhat unreal. Of these the most successful was Goldelse (1866; 18th ed. 1885); others, such as The Old Maid’s Secret (1867), Princess of the Moor (1871), Second Wife (1873), Countess Gisela (1869), and Thuringian Stories Bod a except the last translated into English, 1870 to 1873— have also passed through many editions. She died at Arnstadt on June 1887. A collected edition of her Romanzen und Novellen was issued in 5 vols. in 1889. Marlow, GREAT, a town of Buckinghamshire, on the Thames, 29 miles W. of London by rail, has manufactures of lace and paper, an iron suspension bridge, a house where Shelley lived in 1817, and a grammar-school (formerly a blue-coat school). It sent two members to parliament down to 1867, and one till 1885. Pop. oF parish (1891) 5283. : Marlowe, CurisTorHer, Shakespeare’s great- est predecessor in the English drama, a shoemaker’s son, was baptised at Canterbury, 26th February 1563-64. From the King’s School, Canterbury, he was sent to Benet College (now Corpus Christi), Cambridge ; proceeded B.A., 1583, and commenced M.A., 1587. How he employed himself after tak- ing his bachelor’s degree is not known. A ballad printed from MS. by J. P. Collier asserts that he was an actor at the Curtain Theatre, and ‘brake his leg in one lewd scene when in his early age ;’ but the ballad is evidently spurious. Colonel Cunningham suggests that he may have served as a soldier in the ie Countries. ; The earliest of Marlowe's extant plays is Tam- burlaine the Great, in two f pri first rinted in 1590, and probably produced in 1587. In spite of its bombast and violence it is infinitely superior to any tragedy that had yet appeared on the English stage. By his energy and fervour, his aspirin imagination and majestic utterance, he confounde his rivals and won immediate supremacy. Very 52 MARLOWE : noticeable proud self-confidence displayed The Tragedy of Dido is stated on the title-page - senaensionbing gtepie mag puis of the fret edition (1504) to have boon wrlttent y ssa 5 ‘Christopher Marlow and Thomas Nash, Gent,’ astounding terms. Earlier dramatists had employed blank verse, but it had been stiff and ungainly: Marlowe was the rst to discover its strength and variety. The of Tamburlaine was extraordi Fe A line in the thian conqueror's address ve ee he has harnessed to red jades of Asia !'— to the capti his chariot—*‘ Holla, ye was constantly or ood “4 a a ane pag 1G less the extravaganza y contributed to i success, The of Manbatcies was original y taken by the famous actor, Edward Alleyn, who Diirg of Dr Porcine won protall The r Faustus was probably yt free Wemburlates The. earliest but it also appears to preserve some genuine pass- some of these scenes are evidently not by Marlowe. Ses eye after another was employed to additions.” But the nobler scenes are marvellously impressive; nowhere is Marlowe's shown more vividly than in Faustus’s — description of Helen’s beauty and in the ible soliloquies that prepare us for the catas- trophe. Faustus held the and was revived at the Kestoration. Edw: Phillips, Milton’s nephew, quaintly remarks that ‘Of all that Mar- made the arr tien his devils and such like ical sport.’ A man version was acted phy players at Gratz iy ee carnival in 1 and at Dresden in 1626. the expressed admiration for Marlowe's work. The Jew of Malta, uced after December 1 was first publ in 1633, with a prologue wy Mawel Hag weed. It is ane d unequal play. first two acts are condu with masterly skill and vigour; but the last three are absurdly extra t, degenerating into vulgar caricature. if we's hand had not fal , if the later had been equal to the earlier, Barabas would ve been worthy to stand alongside of Shylock. Edward I1., uced about 1590, is the matorest ‘of Marlowe's plays. It has not the magnificent that we find in Faustus and in the first two acts of The Jew of Malta, but it lanned and executed with more firmness and solidity—in a more temperate and —— spirit. The various characters are skilfully discriminated, the action is never allowed to flag. Many critics have preferred it to Shakespeare's Richard JI. ; it is certainly no whit inferior. Charles Lamb declared that ‘the reluctant pangs of abdicating royalty in Edward furnished hints which Shak scarce improved in his Richard II. ; and the death-scene of Marlowe's king moves pity and terror 4 any scene, ancient or modern, with which I am acquainted.’ The Massacre at Paris is the weakest of Mar- Fe = E lowe's *, and has descended in a mutilated state. It was written after the assassination of Henry IIL of France (2d Angust 1589), and was ly one of the latest plays. An early MS., a fragment of an original playhouse transcript, preserves part of scene xix.; and a com of the MS. text with the text of the printed copy that the play was mangled in passing the presa, Probably it was left in a fragmentary Freee Marlowe and was finished by Nash. It is slight value; but contains some (and extraordinary bombast), There can be doubt that Marlowe had a hand in the three parts: _ VI. ; and it is probable that he was con-— cerned in the authorship of 7itus Andronicus, Ay of Henry wild, shapeless tragedy, Lust’s Dominion, was A lished in 1657 as the work of Marlowe. It delat with historical events that happened after Mar- lowe's death, but may nevertheless have been adapted from one of Marlowe's lost plays. he unfinished poem, Hero and Leander, in heroic couplets of consummate : was first published in 1598 ; a second edition, with’ Chapman's continuation, followed in the same year, Ben Jonson is reported parallel. From a in the Third Sestiad it. the task of finishing the poem ; but neither : man nor any other poet could have taken u story with any hope of success, Hero and Leander 1 through numerous editions, and won univer- sal applause. Shakespeare wh cess in As You Like It = line, i ihe oe] lov: a not ae first sight?’ and feelingly apostrophi as Dead Shepherd.’ Nash, in Lentil Stuffe, speaks» of ‘divine Museus, and a diviner poet than him, Kit Marlowe.’ The watermen couplets from it as they plied their sculls on the Thames, Henry Petowe, a poor versilier but enthusiastic admirer of Marlowe, tells how Men would shun their sleep in still dark night re: To meditate upon his golden lines. - Marlowe's translations of Ovid’s Amores and of. the first book of Lucan’s Pharsalia add nothing to” his fame. The pastoral ditty * Come, live with me — and be my love,’ to which Sir Walter Ral an Answer, was imitated, but not = led, by Herrick, Donne, and others. Izaak Walton pro-— nounced it to be roca | good.’ It was F printed in 7he Passionate a er (1599), without the fourth and sixth stanzas, In England's Helicon (1600) it are complete, with the author's name, ‘oN arlowe,’ oubenthed, that Marlowe had enjoined upon My : P Another anth-. ology, Allot’s Hngland’s Parnassus (1600), serves a fragment by Marlowe, beginning ‘I wall along @ stream for pureness rare.’ In May 1593, at the age of twenty-nine, Marlowe met a violent death in a quarrel (about a courtesan, it is stated) with one Francis Archer, a serving- man, The burial-register of the parish church of St Nicholas, Deptford, has the entry : ‘ Christopher Marlow, slain ri oo clear in tl e register), the 1 of June 1593.’ ighly-coloured accounts of his death were given — by Puritanical writers. Thomas F i Theatre of God's Judgement, declares that ‘ hee even: cursed and blasphemed to his last gaspe, and to- gether with his breath an oath flew out of his mouth.’ There can be no doubt that Marlowe had led an irregular life. In Harleian MS. is. a note ‘contayninge the opinion of one Cristofer Marlye concernyng his damnable opinions and judgment of Relygion and scorne of Gods worde,’” drawn ep (shortly before Marlowe's death) by a certain Richard Baine, who was hanged at Tyburn,. 6th December 1594, This scandalous document, which in parts is — unfit for publication, was, ng in full by Ritson. There is evidence that sir Walter Raleigh and Thomas Kyd the drama- tist were accused of sharing Marlowe’s views. Had his life been lengthened, Marlowe would doubtless have written more perfect tragedies, but to have said that Marlowe's _ verses were examples fitter for admiration than for — b wrniet i* nd pAP wt rst francis Archer {the name pen MARMALADE MARMORA 53 he could hardly have left a better poem than Hero and Leander. Comedy he would never have attempted; he had no humour. In tragedy he the way for Shakespeare, on whose early work his influence is firmly stamped. _ Dyce’s scholarly edition of Marlowe’s works has not been superseded. It was issued in 1850, 3 vols. by Pickering ; revised edition, 1 vol. 1858. Cunningham's edition (1 vol.) is useful but inaccurate. In 1885 the me writer b: ¢ out an edition (3 vols.). Marlowe’s lays are included in the ‘Mermaid’ series, ably edi by Mr Havelock Ellis. Dr Faustus has been elaborately edited by Professor A. W. Ward. In Ger- many Messrs Hermann, Breymann, and Albrecht Wagner at in roducing the old texts, with the origi orthography and exhaustive lists of varie lectiones, In 1 it was resolved to erect a monument to Marlowe’s memory on the Dane John, Canterbury. No authentic portrait is extant. Marmalade (Port. marmelada, from mar- melo, ‘a quinee;’ which, again, is from Mid. Lat. malomellum, Gr. melimélon, ‘honey-apple’ or ‘sweet ae) is a semi-liquid preserve, made by boiling pulp of thick-rinded fruits, such as oranges, cacig dm quinces, &c., with portions of the rind. The most common kind of marmalade is made from the bitter or Seville oranges, the com- mon or sweet sorts being. stanidlered. inferior for this purpose, though also occasionally used. The woolly coating on the interior being removed, the rind is cut up into thin ry and boiled along with the expressed juice of the pulp and a quan- tity of sugar equal in weight to the other in- gredients. The preserve is now made on a com- mercial scale in factories at London, Dundee, Paisley, and elsewhere. Marmion, SHACKERLEY, minor dramatist, was born in Northamptonshire, January 1602, studied at Wadham College, Oxford, and took the degree ‘of M.A. in 1624. He squandered his fortune, et in the Low Countries, and joined Sir John Suckling’s troop for the expedition against the Scots, but fell sick at York and returned to London, where he died early in 1639. He left behind an epic, = Psyche (reprinted by Singer 1820), and three comedies, Holland's _ Leaguer, A Fine Companion, and The Antiquary. The last form a volume (1875) in Maidment and : ’s Dramatists of the Restoration. The ancient family of the Marmions of Scrivelsby were the former hereditary champions at English corona- tions. They came in with the Conqueror and settled at Tamworth, but became extinct with the fifth-baron under Edward I. Scott says of the hero of his poem, ‘I have not created a new family, but only revived the titles of an old one in an personage.’ ; Marmont, Avcuste Frépéric Lovts Viesse for eighteen months governor of the provinces ; and in 1811 succeeded Massena in the chief command in Portugal, where he showed skilful strategy in the presence of Wellington. A severe wound, received at the defeat of Salamanca, compelled him to retire to France. In 1813 he commanded a corps d’armée, fought at Liitzen, Bautzen, and Dresden, and maintained the con- test with “ spirit in France in the beginning of 1814, till further resistance was hopeless, when he concluded a truce with Barelay de Tolly, which compelled Napoleon to abdicate, and earned him- self from the Bonapartists the title of the traitor. The Bourbons loaded Marmont with honours. On the return of Napoleon from Elba he was obliged to flee. After the second restoration he lived in retirement till the revolution of 1830, when, at the head of a body of troops, he endeavoured to reduce Paris to submission, and finally retreating with 6000 Swiss, and a few battalions that had continued faithful to Charles X., conducted him across the frontier. From that time he travelled much and resided chiefly in Vienna and Venice, where he died, 2d March 1852. He was the last survivor of the marshals of the first French Empire. His chief work is his Esprit des Institutions Militaires (1845). His Mémoires fill nine volumes (1856-57). See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du Lundi, vol. vi. Marmontel, Jean Francois, a famous but hardly a great French writer, was born of an obscure family at Bort, in the Limousin, 11th July 1723. He made his studies in a Jesuit college, and found employment in a seminary at’ Toulouse, but early turned to literature, and went to Paris in 1745 by advice of Voltaire. Here he wrote suc- cessful tragedies and operas, and was fortunate enough in 1753 to get a secretaryship at Versailles through the influence of Madame Pompadour. Soon after he received a more lucrative appoint- ment, the official journal, Le Mercure, jr entrusted to his charge. In its columns he com- menced the publication of his finished and oft- translated Contes Moraux (1761). Marmontel was elected to the Academy in 1763, and became its secretary in 1783, as well as Historiographer of France. After the Revolution he retired to the vill of Abbeville, near Evreux, where he died, 31st ember 1799. His most celebrated work was the well-known Bélisaire, a dull and wordy political romance, containing a chapter on tolera- tion which excited the most furious hostility on the es of the theologians of the Sorbonne, to which Marmontel replied in Les Incas by ascrib- ing the cruelties in Spanish America to religious fanaticism. In 1787 appeared his interesting and valuable, but completely uncritical, Eléments de Littérature, consisting of his contributions to the Encyclopédie, His Mémoires is an_ interestin, survey of his whole life, pis, decry by glimpses o all the great figures he had seen cross the stage from Massillon to Mirabeau. His own edition of his complete works fills 17 volumes (1786-87), to which must be added 14 volumes published thumously. Good editions are those of Villeneuve 1819-20) and Saint-Surin (1824-27). See Sainte-Beuve’s Causeries du Lundi, vol. iv. Marmora, La. See LA MARMoRA. Mar’mora, S£A or, the Propontis of the an- cients, separating European from Asiatic Turkey, and connecting the AZgean Sea by the Dardanelles (anc. Hellespont) with the Black Sea by the Strait of Constantinople (anc. Bosporus). It is of an oval form, is 175 miles in length by 50 in breadth, has an area of 4499 sq. m., and a maxi- mum depth of 4250 feet. The Gulf of Ismid extends about 30 miles eastwards into Asia. The sea contains several islands, the largest of which is Marmora or Marmara (area, 50 sq. m.), famous for its quarries of marble and alabaster. 54 MARMOSET MAROCHETTI Marmose n American monkeys which are always of small size, and which differ in various particulars from other American monkeys (see Monkey). The popular name of Ouistiti has been given to these monkeys on account of the sharp whistling sound which they make when frightened \or irritated. a name given to a group of ater ~ ~' as Marmoset ( Hapale jacchus). There are a good many species of marmosets which are placed in two genera, Midas and Hapale, both confined to Central and South America. These creatures are easily kept in captivity, and are usually of an affectionate disposition. Marmot ( Arctomys), a genus of rodents, belong- ing to the family Sciuridw, resemble squirrels in their dentition, although in form and habits they more closely resemble rats and mice. They have two incisors and two premolars in each jaw, four molars on each side above, and three below.—The Common Marmot, or Alpine Marmot (A. marmotta), is a native of the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the more northern mountains of Europe, up to the limits of tual snow, and is found also in Asia. It ba bout the size of a rabbit, grayish yellow, brown The Alpine Marmot ( Arctomys marmotta), towards the head; feeds on roots, leaves, insecta, &e. ; and is gregarious, often living in large societies, Marmots spend the winter in their burrows, in one chamber of which is a store of dried grass; but the greater part of the winter is passed in a torpid condition. The Alpine Marmot is easily tamed. There are three kinds of marmots in North America, all popularly termed ‘ Wood- chucks.’ The ‘Prairie Marmot’ (see Prairie Doe) is nearly allied, but does not belong to the same genus. Marne, a river of France, the most consider- able tributary of the Seine, rises in the platean of Langres, flows north-west past Chalons to Epernay, and thence west, joining the Seine at Charenton, a few miles above Paris. Its length is 326 miles, and it is navigable for 126 miles up to St Dizier. Its stream is rather rapid, and in most places has a wide bed. It is connected by canals with the Rhine, the Aisne, and the Seine. Marne, a department in the north-east of France, formed out of the old province of Cham- e, is traversed by the river Marne, and to a less extent by the Seine and the Aisne, Area, 3159 sq. m. ; pop. (1891) 434,692. It is in the dry and chalky soil of the north that the best varieties of Champagne Wine (q.v.) are grown, of which two-fifths are exported. The rearing of — is an important industry, and extensive woollen manufactures are carried on. Cereals, beetroot, and potatoes are grown; honey and wax are pro- Sasol building stone is quarried; and metal works, tanneries, &c., are in operation. Marne is divided into the five arrondissements of Chalons- sur-Marne (the capital ), Epernay, Rheims, Sainte- Ménéhould, and Vitry-le-Frangois. Marne, Havre, a department in the north- east of France, formed chiefly out of the old rovince of Champagne, and embracing the land in the upper basins of the Marne and the Meuse. It rises in the south into the plateau of Langres and the Monts Faucilles (1500 to 1600 feet). = 2402 sq. m.; pop. (1891) 243,533, a decrease _11,343 since 1881, Cereals, wine (12 million gallons annually), frnits, and potatoes are the principal »roducts, The department yields 200,000 tons of iron ore annually, and there are numerous furnaces, The cutlery is in high repute. There are three arrondissements of Chaumont, Langres, and Vassy ; capital, Chaumont. Marnix, Puiiie VAN, Lord of St Aldegonde, Dutch writer and patriot, was born at Brussels in 1538, A pupil of Calvin and Beza at Geneva, on his return home he took an active part in promot- ing the Reformation, and in 1566 a no less active part in the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain. An intimate friend of William of Orange, he was appointed by this great man to be his representa- tive at the first meeting of the Estates of the United Provinces, held at Dort in 1572, and on subsequent occasions was sent on special missions to the courts of France and England. After help- ing to cement the Union of Utrecht and visitin the diet at Worms, he was nominated in 1 burgomaster of Antwerp. This city he defended thirteen months against the Spaniards; but, hay- ing then capitulated, he incurred so much ill-will that he retired from public life. The leisure of his retirement he utilised for literary work, besides taking an active interest in the newly-founded university of Leyden. From his pen came the Withelmus song, the hymn of Dutch liberty and Protestantism ; the epoch-making prose satire on the Roman Catholic Church, entitled The Roman Bee-hive (1569); a metrical translation of the Psalms from the Hebrew (1580); and the begin- ning of a prose translation of the Bible. Marnix died at Leyden, 15th December 1598. His works were edited in 7 vols. (Brussels, 1855-59); his religions works in 2 vols, (1871-73). See Lives in Dutch by Broes (1840) and Frédérieq (1882), and the French monograph by Juste (1858). Marocco. See Morocco. Marochetti, Carto, Baron, an Italian sculptor of respectable talent, was born at Turin in 1805, and trained in Bosio’s studio. Settling . MARONITES MARPRELATE 55 at Paris in 1827, he produced ‘Young Girl sport- ing with a Dog,’ ‘Fallen Angel,’ relief on the Are d’Etoile, an altarpiece for the Madeleine, a memorial work for Bellini’s tomb, a statue of d'Auvergne, &c. On the outbreak of the revolution in 1848 he repaired figures Philibert and Charles Albert of Savoy were chiselled by him for — Italy. He died at Paris on 4th January Maronites, a Christian sect of Syria, generally regarded as the descendants of a remnant of the Monothelite sect (see MONOTHELISM), who settled on the slopes of Lebanon in the 7th century. They take their name from a monk Maro, who lived in the 5th century, or more cbeggeerd from their first patriarch Moro (701). These ple maintained their independence against the followers of Islam; but in the 12th century, on the establishment of the Latin kingdom of Jernsalem, they abandoned their distinctive monothelite opinions, and - nised the authority of the Roman Church. In 1445 they entered inte a formal act of union with the Roman Chareh; in 1584 a college was founded in Rome by Pope Gregory XILL for the education of the Maronite clergy; and in 1736 they formally subseribed the decrees of the Council of Trent. Nevertheless, they retain their distinctive national rites and , and use the ancient Syriac lan- in their liturgy; their clergy, if married ordination, are permitted to keep their wives; and they have many festivals and saints not recognised in the calendar. The Maronites, a sturdy, warlike race of mountaineers (see LEBANON), number about 250,000. Their patriarch, who is elected by their bishops, subject to the approval of Rome, resides in the convent of Kanobin on Lebanon. Many convents for both sexes are spread over the country, especially in the neighbourhood of Bsherreh, above gy te the in- mates follow the rule of St Anthony. The relations of the Maronites with their implacable foes, the Druses, have been already detailed under Druses and LEBANON. See Baedeker’s Palestine, by Socin (2d ed. 1880). _Maroons, the name (derived from the Span. cimarron, from cima, ‘a mountain top’) given in Jamaica and Guiana to fugitive negro slaves, When the British conquered Jamaica from the Spaniards in 1655, numbers of slaves took refuge in the uplands. They and their descendants, called Maroons, saiabeined aconstant warfare with the colonists for 140 years ; but in 1795 they were sub- ned, and a portion of them removed to Nova Scotia, and afterwards to Sierra Leone. The rem- nant fraternised with their manumitted brethren in 1834-35. The Maroons of Guiana, who are generally called Bush Negroes, about 4000 alto- gether, orm a number of independent communities. Dallas, History of the Maroons (1803). Maros-Vasarhely, capital of the Szekler districts in Transylvania, stands on the Maros, 28 miles SE. of Klausenburg. It contains a fortified castle, an old Gothic church ( Reformed), a library of 70,000 volumes, and a collection of minerals and antiquities, and has a trade in timber, tobacco, wine, corn, and fruits (particularly melons). Pop. (1881) 12,883 ; (1890) 14,212, 3 Marot, CLément, a distinguished French poet of the time of Francis I., oe at Cabow in 1496 (7). pareely owing to the influence of his father, who was both poet and courtier, he began at an early to write verses, and, abandoning his legal studies, entered the service of Margaret, Duchess of Alencon, afterwards Queen of Navarre, to whom many of his poems are addressed. He was wounded at the battle of Pavia in 1525, and at the end of the year was imprisoned on a charge of heresy, but was liberated in the spring of 1526. Having a witty pen and a satiric turn, and not being particularly prudent either in wie or conduct, he made many enemies and gave his royal paces considerable trouble. During his absence rom Paris in 1535 his house was searched, and compromising literature was found in his library. His claim that a poet should be permitted to read everything being disallowed, he fled, first to the court of the Queen of Navarre, and later found refuge with the Duchess of Ferrara. He returned to Paris in 1536, and in 1538 began to translate the Psalms, which in their French dress became very popular, especially at the court, where they were sung to favourite secular airs, and helped to make the new views fashionable at least. He was encouraged by the king to continue his translation, but the published in 1541 having been con- demned by the Sorbonne, he had again to flee in 1543. He made his way to Geneva, but, finding Calvin’s company uncongenial, he went to Turin, where he died in 1544. His poems consist of elegies, epistles, rondeaus, ballads, songs, sonnets, madri- gals, epigrams, nonsense verses, and longer pieces of a general character ; and, though he himself tells us that love was above all his master, his special gift lay in the direction of badinage and graceful satire. Marot has a singularly light touch, and a great power of simple natural expression, and in all his poems—if we except some early rhetorical exercises—there is the distinctive style Marotique which has had an important influence on French literary langu: Though he was persecuted for his religious views, he expressly declares that he was not a Lutheran, and probably like many of his friends—Dolet for instance—he had no very definite theological beliefs. See uvres Completes (4 vols. Paris, 1873-75) ; Quvres Choisies, an admirable selection (Paris, 1826); Life by Vitet (1868); Douen, Clément Marot et le Psautier Huguenot (2 vols, 1879 ). Of Guiffrey’s costly edition only two volumes had appeared in 1890. Marozia, a Roman lady of noble birth, but of infamous reputation in the scandalous chronicles of her age, daughter of the equally notorious Theo- dora, was born in the close of the 9th century. As the mistress of Pope Sergius III., and mother and grandmother of three popes (John XI., John XII., and Leo VII.), she exercised the greatest influence on the political affairs of her time in Italy. She was married three times, and, if we may credit the narrative of Luitprand, had skill and address enough to procure the deposition and death of Pope John X., and subsequently the elevation of her son as John XI. Marozia’s later years brought on her the punishment of her crimes. She died in prison at Rome in 938. Marprelate Controversy, a bitter war of vigorous and often homely pamphlets, waged against official Episcopacy by the Elizabethan Puritans. Many of these were written by de- prived ministers, but were published under the comprehensive name of Martin Marprelate. The time of greatest activity was about 1589, and the books were printed in spite of severe government repression, successively at Moulsey near Kingston- on-Thames, Fawsley in Northamptonshire, Norton, Coventry, Welstone in Warwickshire, and in or near Manchester. The names of the chief writers were John Penry (hanged), John Udall (left to rot in jail), Fenner, John Field, and Job Throck- morton who wrote Hae ye any Work for Cooper? One of the best attempts to answer the Marprelate writers was Bishop Cooper of Winchester’s Admoni- MARQUE MARRIAGE os 4 : th touching the Con- Church of England, an admirable moderation and mutual concession in Pit i ir lately entertained, the style the rey aah uded a reprint of the Mar- his * English Scholar’s Library.’ - Maskell’s History of the Marpre- it : 4 E Marque, Lerrer or. See Lerrer oF MARQUE. - Marquesas or MENDASAS, are a group in Polynesia, N. of Tuamotu or Low Archi- a between 8" and 11° 8. lat. and 138° and 141° ° . The name strictly applies to four or five islands discovered by Mendafia in 1595, but usually includes now the Washington group of seven islands, to the north-west, which were discovered the American I in 1797, Total area, is volcanic, islands. Nearly all are shaped into several narrow valleys, in which the bulk of the population, 5216 in 1885, live. In Cook's time there were 100,000 inhabit- ants, but in 1838 they had decreased to 20,000. They are the finest race of the brown Poly- nesian stock, and, though courteous, are cruel and Prangetel. Since 1842 the islands have been a F protectorate. A little cotton is grown by Chinese immigrants. Marquetry. See INLayina. Marquette, capital of Marquette county, Mich is on the southern shore of Lake Su + 430 miles by rail N. of Chicago. It has blast-furnaces, Xc., besides sawmills and machine-shops, and a slate-quarry. Iron ore in very large quantities is mined in the county and shipped from here. aronmeetes is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. Pop. (1900) 10,053, Marquis, or Marquess, the degree of nobility which in the England ranks next to duke. Marquises were originally commanders on the borders or frontiers countries, or on the sea-coast, which they were bound janpol In there were uises or lords-marchers oie borders of Scotland ‘and Wales in the reign of Henry IIL, and the forei equivalent Mark- was common on the Continent; but the English — in the modern sense was Robert Vere, of Oxford, who was created Marquis of Dublin by Richard Il. in 1385. The tithe was first introduced into Scotland in 1599, when the Marquises of Huntly and ‘Hamilton were created. For the coronet of a marquis, sce Conoxsr. The mantle ix scarlet, with three and a half doublings of ermine. A marquis is styled * The Most Honourable ;’ his wife isa marchioness ; his eldest son takes by courtesy the next lower title in the except where that is identical with the title of marquisate, in which case he must next lower still, The younger sons of a are styled ‘Lord,’ and daughters * Lady,’ addition of Christian name and surname. See Mar. : Marriage denotes the union of man and woman in the legal relation of husband and wife on te may be defined by local Jaw or custom. The h properly applied to connections be- sexes which to civilised Ye eo seem t and loose, provided that they are founded on contract, are intended to and are approved of, or at least permitted, by or p opinion ; but these are conditions tial to marriage. It is not strictly applicable eases in which the wife is essen- = | = t by capture ; relations or consequences that can be can arise out of an act of violence which resentment and provokes to retaliation ; captor's tribe approve, there may be. hy | marti in such cases, and true hy addition, the tribe of the woman the capture when effected, in wh case an approach is made to marri with the form of capture—i.e. marriage proceeding upon a contract, but carried out through a form or pretence of eap- turing the bride. ia Many nations have had traditions of a time when marriage was unknown among their own Ks cessors, and of some lawgiver to whom its institu: — tion was ascribed, who was, for example, ome: ; the Egyptians, Menes ; among the Chinese, Fo-hi; among the Greeks, papel vel am the Hindus, Svetaketu. And (if man had to wor! institutions) it is plain that societies ev would need time for arriving at those ative customs, in the absence of which there would be no — marriage, and neither right nor wrong in matters of sex; much time, indeed, wherever there pre- vailed that law of incest (exogamy) which ent off men from marrying all women of their own kin- dred, however remote the relationship, the women among whom their connections must have been made at first. Darwin, founding upon 0 of the higher animals, was of opinion that, before the springing up of marriage custom, the jealous rage of the male would determine that there would be no general promiscuity of the women, and that there would at first be a prevalence of polygyny. It should, however, be remembered that early peoples and backward peoples, with y fully defined, jealousy has often been practi: unknown. Observation of men, savage and ci ‘ would perhaps suggest that, before some notion of right in matters of sex had sprung up, there would be no uniform behaviour in those matters, that men would do as they could, as passion prom opportunity offered, and that they wo ifthe i and bea over-scrupulous in their connections—i.e. that they ig might be polygamists, polyandrists, or mon } according to circumstances, and that there would os as much promiscuity as there was opportunity or. An atnees to show in outline the history of marriage and of kinship has necessarily been made under the head of Family (q.v.), and to that refer- ise hone must re be made. In that ge the veginnings of marri are traced to predom- inance of a modificabon of promiscuity, to Nair — polyandry, or something equivalent to it, which — could yield a system o} cage through females only—a limitation of kinship which can onl 2 become established when there was ly no father in the household, and fatherhood was un- curtain, Ba, thoughs % - not eae ake 5 mately, in advanced societies everywhere, c came to be regarded as not to be duly constituted without a religious sanction. While the law of exogamy forbids a man to marry any woman of his own kindred, a law which has been named endogamy forbids a man (where it prevails) to marry any woman who is not of his indred. Endogamy ‘has been widely prevalent, and not among rather advanced ulations only, Imt among many which are decile, ] back but there are indications, often conclusive, of ita having been preceded by exogamy, and it may be taken to have been preceded by it at least in most cases, Exogamy, if this be conceded, has % 7 a . have - ~~. - MARRIAGE 57 eet at one time or arother nearly everywhere. known cases in which peoples have depended for their wives upon capture, or have, after a con- tract for marriage, gone a the form of cap- turing the bride (which undoubtedly is a relic of capture), are a most extensive class; and exogamy gives the explanation of allsuch cases. Exogamous men having unfriend] ay eter might have to without wives if they id not capture women their neighbours ; and when these also were rs, a we may believe that in time captures be easy—that reciprocal captures would be more or less arranged, until at length there were contracts made for exchange or pur- chase of women, and the capture became a form only. Asa form re has in fact lingered on, more or distinct, in the marriage —_ modern ee Some For an attempt to show origin the law, which he remarkable effect of interdicting marriage between all men and women of the same blood or kindred, see The English Historical Review, No. 9, Jan 1888; and The Origin of Exogamy, by J. F. M‘Lennan. This account of ex y takes it to have been in the first instance an interdict upon wiving only ; but the difficulty is rather to see how men came to abstain from marrying their own women than how, that point reached, they afterwards went on to abstaining from them altogether. Of course, it had to be kept in view that the law of exogamy must have been, in fact, a practice which became prevalent and then obligatory, and that, while it was growing up, the practice must have been the same that it was after it had got the force of law, so that, if exogamy at first necessitated @ practice of capturing wives, it must have been @ practice of capturing wives that became con- solidated as exogamy. Groups composed of a single totem kindred, when exogamous (see FAMILY), could only get wives by capture. And thus it was a practice (1) of capturing women of Stranger groups for wives, and (2) of taking for wives only stranger or foreign—i.e. captured— women that had to be accounted for. A long-con- tinued a women (which infanticide es on account for) is suggested as the explanation of a tic practice of capture, and the position men relatively to captured women on the one hand, and their own women (these being scarce) on the other, as the explanation of marriage being ultimately confined to captured or foreign women. What is searee is of importance, and the position of women their own kinsmen must have to become the type of marriage of the captive, nnd of the kinswoman. ‘To subject the la to it would have been an ontrage, an offence against her and the kin, indeed, even at first what we call a sin; and the practice which at first exempted her, when it became consolidated as eustom, excluded her from the condition of wife to po of her kinsmen, with the feeling remaining, tel wide intense, that it would be a shocking and thing for them to have her in that condition. The from this to the disuse of the Nair or -Nair connections between men and their own women which would nae —. Ley marriage was growing u ly until after con- venience aude eaphene easy, i.e. more or less _ of aform, when there would be practically exchange of women—and then to the interdiction of such connections, time being given, does not appear to present much difficulty. Moreover there are a few eases known in which all marriage between rela- tives yen forbidden, other connections seem not to be excluded. This account of exogamy is, at anyrate, founded at every point upon human nature and its observed tendencies. The scarcity of women which is the basis of it is also the basis of the history of marriage which traces that institu- tion back to polyandrous beginnings. See works cited at FaMmILy, and in addition, Darwin, Descent of Man (1870); Fison and Howitt, Kamilarot and Kurnai (1880); A. Lang, Custom and Myth (1884) ; Max. Kovalevsky, De l’Oriyine de la Famille et de la Propriété (1890). The solemn and binding nature of marriage is recognised by all civilised peoples ; and, although in various countries there is vast difference in details, both as to legal obligetions and public ceremonies, there is much substantial agreement. Thus the restrictions as to age, consanguinity, &e. which prevail in England and other modern countries were nearly the same in the Roman law, where, however, the consent of the paterfamilias was an essential. The canon law regards marriage as a sacrament and not as a contract; but it recognises the validity of marriage by mere consent, and with- out ecclesiastical sanction, in countries where such marriages are treated as valid. England.—A promise of marriage, given in ex- change for the promise of the other party, is bind- ing in English law. Performance is not enforced, but damages may be recovered for breach of promise. It is not necessary that the promise should be proved by writing. The parties may give evidence, but the intiff cannot recover unless his or her testimony 1s corroborated by some other material evidence. If either party discovers that the other has been guilty of misconduct, or of serious misrepre- sentation in regard to his or her circumstances and revious life, breach of promise may be justified. t has been held that a lily infirmity, rendering it dangerous for the defendant to marry, is no defence to an action. Males of fourteen and females of twelve, not subject to any physical or mental incapacity, are permitted to contract marriage; but for the marriage of a minor the consent of parents or guardians ought previously to be obtained (see INFANT). Persons already married are, of course, incapable of marry- ing again, unless set free by death or by Divorce (q.v.). A man may not marry his mother or other ascendant, his daughter or other descendant, or any woman within the third degree of consanguinity. He is also precluded, by reason of affinity, from marrying any woman related as ascendant, descend- ant, or blood-relation within the third degree toa d wife. Since 1835 marriages within tlie prohibited degrees are wholly void ; it is not neces- sary that proceedings should be taken to annul any such union. The policy of the law which forbids a man to marry his eased Wife's Sister (q.v.) has been much questioned ; and bills for legalising such marriages have several times been passed by the House of Commons. : ; Persons intending to marry are required to give notice of their intention; the forms commonly used for this pu are banns, and the certificate of a superintendent-registrar. Banns (q.v.) are the subject of a separate article. Instead of giving notice to the parish minister, the parties may apply to a registrar or superintendent- registrar of the district in which they have resided seven days: if they reside in different districts application must be made in both. After twenty-one days the Co erage, heh issues a certificate for the marriage; one shilling is paid MARRIAGE entry of notice, and one shilling for certificate. Parties desiring to be married without delay must g with the ordinary forms. The Archbishop of Canterbury may grant a ial is issued by his vicar-general) for License for a ned from a surrogate at time or in church is ob an affidavit as to residence, absenve of lawful pediment, and (if either party be a minor) con- sent of nts or guardians. A license may also be obtalned on giving one mas notice to the , and making a declaration &e, The fees payable for licenses ly higher than those paid for banns and for the ordinary certificate. It is to be observed that the registrar cannot give a license for ma) in church. His ordinary certificate is usually accepted in lieu of banns; but a clergyman may insist on banns or episcopal license when the marriage is in church, In the actual celebration of marriage the law requires that the ceremony take place between 8 A.M. and 3 P.M. (12 A.M. until 1886), that the iment Deed ag ef le ggg pr Sheet v8 the marri u ristered. e marriage is in one the i k service is used, and registrar and two other witnesses. Persons so may afterwards go through a religious y, but such ceremony is not a mamlags, in the legal sense of the word, and therefore must not be registered. In 1868 a Royal Commission moperted on the merrage laws of the United ngdom, pointing out the grave inconveniences resulting from the maintenance of different laws in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and from the uncertainty of the English law. The excessive formality of the statute law is in some degree neutralised by the rule that a marriage is not avoided unless for some frand or irregularity of which both parties are cognisant. Thus, a man who is m in a false name is duly married, unless the wife is a party to the deception ; and it has been held that a in church, without banns or license, is valid, if the wife is under the belief mes Foe nang - St gona ola ~ necessary lorms. For further particulars regard to forms, see Hammick's Martinps Law of England ; and for the legal effects of marriage, see the article HusBAND AND WIFE. A celebrated in church by a person pro- fessing to be in holy orders, and not known by both to be an impostor, is valid. If both parties tuiiesce in the celebration of marriage by a pre- tended clergyman, the mar is void. M by proxy is not known to English law, and if it were thought desirable to permit such a marriage in the case of a sovereign or other person of exalted 4 p special act of eens would Pebaliy be lor purpose. When one party is a Pro- testant and the other a Roman Catholic, it was formerly not unusual to arenas for two religious ceremonies; but the Roman Catholic clergy now decline to officiate in such cases, unless the parties ise that 7 —_ no ples eo ceremony. Anglican clergy being no lon the sole authoritative registrars, the repetition of the Catholic coer in an oe church ai not now tolerated. For pa nsations to Catholics, see DisPExsation. es In regard to marriages celebrated abroad, and il marriages in England where the parties, or one of them, may be of torelan nationality, it is im t to observe that the law of the parties’ domicile governs the essentials of the marriage (capacity of — ' the part: ies to contract marriage, &ec.), and that the law of the place of celebration governs the forms with which the marriage must be solemnised, except — in the case of a coms celebrated in an ambassa- dor’s house, or other place enjoying the privilege of ex-territoriality. It is not always | say what are the essentials of a marriage, what rules and ceremonies are to be considered merely formal, French law, for example, requires persons about to marry to obtain, or at least to apply for, the con- sent of their parents, A Frenchman is » in England without asking his parents’ consent, It may be said that he has only omitted a formality not required by English law ; but the French courts hold in such cases that an essential requisite of valid marriage is wanting. It is obviously most incon- venient that persons deemed to be married in one country eat oe considered unmarried in another ; the ‘conflict of laws’ as to marriage and divorce is the cause of much hardship and injustice. Scotland.—The law of Scotland regards uge as a contract constituted by the consent of parties alone. In its effects it differs from other — contracts in respect that it confers upon the parties > certain — status, and i —— as et uration anc consequences cannot be chan at the will of the parties. This is what is referred to when marriage is said to be an institute or some- ~ more than a contract. As the free consent of the parties is necessary, marriage is impossi/ when ada elements are present which the law rds as involving incapacity to give consent. Thus idiots and mad persons cannot marry, and a marriage to which the assent of one or other of the parties has been gained by fraud, force, or fear, or error as to some essential matter, will. be void. Intoxication, if the person is so drunk as not to know what is Le, done, also invalidates a mar- riage. Pupils—i.e. females under twelve and males under fourteen—cannot marry ; but, if the parties are of marriageable age, the consent of their parents or guardians is not necessary. Besides these in- capacities, specially affecting the nature of consent given, and attaching to marriage in com- mon with all other contracts, there are others peculiar to marriage only. Thus, impotency renders a marriage void, and a previous marriage, while it subsists, prevents either of the parties from lawfully contracting another; marriage between adulterers. is forbidden by an old statute ( ing which, however, doubts have been exp its force is not ~— by desuetude), and relationship within cones > mal ie marrying. ne forbidden degrees, as in land, are drawn from the Jewish law as set ath in the Book of Leviticus (see above). liminary requisite to a valid marri th or other of the parties shall have resided in Scot- land for a term immediately preceding the mar- riage. This term varies according to the form which the marriage takes. An irregular marriage is not good unless one of the parties either had his or her usual residence in Scotland, or lived there for twenty-one days before the marriage. In the case of a marriage after proclamation of Banns fae? the session-clerk cannot proclaim banns until the portion have resided in his parish for six weeks, Vhere publication of notice by the takes the place of banns parties must reside for fifteen days in the district before intimating to the be trar their intention to marry, and seven fu days must elapse before the marriage takes place. regards the manner of contracting m the law of Scotland is peculiar among those of revents the relations from _ A further pre- is that one MARRIAGE 59 other nations for the freedom which it allows to the contracting parties. If their present consent to marry is proved, the law requires no special form of Geoo, imposes no restrictions as to time and place, and enjoins no meet! mode of cele- bration. The blessing of the church is not required 1 Rested the land to make a marriage good ; though all marriages celebrated without the assistance of a clergyman are called irregular marri It is enough that the parties give their free consent to marry each other. If a man and woman have lived together as husband and wife, and have had the reputation among their neighbours of being cemeien to one another, and this reputation is general in the neighbourhood, uncontradicted by any one and of considerable duration in point of time, these parties will be held to have exchanged by nte la, Cases of marriage by it and repute or by promise sub. cop. are very rare. In the general case, the fact of the interchange of consent to marry is not left to be presumed law, but is proved in the most unequivocal way either by writing or witnesses. These cases are distinguished as marriages by words of present consent per de presenti. According to this form persons may marry by declaring, with or without witnesses, that they then consent to m and do marry, or by mak- ing a written declaration to that effect, and acting = their declaration. This method of inter- ge of words of present consent was the one followed in the Gretna Green (q.v.) or ‘over the border’ runaways from England. They were checked by Lord Brougham’s Act of 1856, re- quiring residence in Scot} for twenty-one days as a pre-requisite to the validity of an irregular m nt if this condition be fulfilled they are still possible. Persons who marry in this way may be convicted before a magistrate or justice of the peace of having contracted an irregular marriage; and, as the conviction is recorded in the books of the court and stands as evidence of the marriage, this way of getting married—by declaration and a police-court conviction—has been thought to be the cheapest known way of securely tying the bonds of wedlock, since it eutails no necessary fees to any functionary. But persons convicted of an irregular marriage are required to register their marriage, and the i nee is =n Ba a fee of twenty eget ‘arties to an marriage may a) within three months after its date to rae sheriff for a warrant to register their aera ze, The _— grants warrant upon proof of the marriage by written dielaresion.; oad a certified copy of the entry in the register is declared by statnte to be evidence of the marriage. The proceeding of applying to the sheriff for warrant to register is < believed by b ge — « he a civil cy ag marriage, an ular language s a) couples having pea ge matzo 4 the sheriff, By a mistaken notion and confusion with the English forms of i this ‘ by the sheriff’ is sometimes referred to as ‘marriage by special license,’ sometimes as ag ag, before the registrar,’ while the truth is that the parties have married themselves, and only apply to the public functionaries to make their marriage a matter of public record. Cases of irregular marriage by interchange of words of consent, though much more common than those of marriage by habit and repute or by promise and pores. are rare in comparison with marriages celebrated by clergymen. These are forms of marriage by the interchange of words of consent; the law not regarding the presence of a clergyman or the sanction of the church as necessary to marriage. If a clergyman officiates at a marriage he may do so only after the publi- cation of Banns (q.v.) or publication of notice by a registrar as in England. WF he do so without these preliminaries the marriage becomes a clandestine marriage, and the clergyman and the parties are subject to penalties. 1en notice to the registrar of an intention to marry takes the place of banns, the notice is entered in a Marriage Notice Book, and publicly posted on the registrar's office for seven days, after which time, if no objections are taken, the registrar issues a certificate of publication of notice which authorises a clergyman to marry the pers producing it. There is now no provision of aw restraining clergymen of other churehes than the Established Church of Scotland from celebrating regular casera While regular marriages are always treated in Jaw as marriages ‘in the face of the church,’ it is not the practice to solemnise Presbyterian marriages in church, nor is such a solemnisation necessary to make a marriage regular and lawful. The ceremony is usually con- ducted by a clergyman at the house of the bride’s father; although of late years there have been signs that Presbyterians may come to adopt the custom of marrying within the church walls. The proceedings ought to include, and usually do in- clude, an express inquiry whether the parties con- sent to marry; a declaration by them, given generally by a nod or a curtsy, that they do consent; a solemn admonition by the clergy- man; a declaration by him that the parties are married ; and the nuptial benediction. The cere- mony should take place in the presence of wit- nesses who know the parties, and who are capable of giving evidence. After the marriage is solem- nised (which may take place any hour of the day), a schedule, which is given out to the choy along with the certificate of publication of banns, or of publication of notice by a registrar, has to be presented, filled up, to the ikl rege He signed by the parties, the clergyman, and at least two witnesses, and delivered to the parties, who must transmit it within three days, under penalties, to the registrar of the parish in which the marriage is solemnised. See HUSBAND AND WIFE, DIVORCE. Ireland.—The law of Ireland as to the constitu- tion of marriage is substantially the same as that of England. The form of celebration may. differ according as the marriage is solemnised in the Disestablished Church of Ireland, the Roman Catholic, or the Presbyterian Church ; or between rsons of different religious persuasions ; but the lewal rights and duties of the several churches with reyard to marriages are now practically the same —to provide for publication of a marriage and for its solemnisation between certain hours in a build- ing set a) for divine service. ni States.—In the United States the general rule in almost all the states is that no specific form is necessary to the constitution of marriage if the consent of the spouses is proved. But marriage differs from contract in that it cannot be modified or dissolved by consent, nor rescinded on proof of fraud. The law in some states requires that mar- riages be authorised by taking out a license, and solemnised before a magistrate or a clergyman. Pennsylvania provides that marriages must 60 MARROW MARRYAT solemnised before twelve witnesses. But a mar- riage good at common law is good notwithstanding statute on the subject, unless the statute con- ex words of nullity. The original law of the ibited degrees has modified ; and the cmap of marriage with a deceased wife's sister all but unknown. See the articles Adultery, Concu! Jodieial Sepa on aires. ’ timation. Hosbaod ant Wife. | Settlement Sanezy. ' Illegitimacy ing Ceremonies, vity mam- There are two varieties, which are known red or watery marrow and yellow or oily marrow. some of the short bones, as the bodies of the vertebre and the sternum, the marrow has a reddish colour, due to the presence of cells which have this colour and are supposed to be transition forms between r marrow cells and red blood On analysis it is found to contain 75 cent. of water, the remainder con- ibuminons and fibrinous matter, with salts and a trace of oil. In the long bones of a healthy adult mammal the marrow occurs as a yellow, oily fluid, contained in vesicles like those of common fat, which are imbedded in the inter- spaces of the medullary membrane—i.e. a highly vascular membrane lining the interior of the bones. This marrow consists of 96 per cent. of oil and 4 of water, connective tissue, and vessels, Marrow Controversy, one of the most strenuous and memorable struggles in the religious history of Scotland, took its name from a book en- titled the Marrow of Modern Divinity, written by a Puritan soldier in the time of the Commonwealth. The highly evangelical character of this work, and ly its doctrine of the free grace of God in the deposi of Ebenezer Erskine, and gination of the ‘Secession’ body. Marrum, See Reep. Marryat, Frepenick, was born in West- minster on July 10, 1792. He was the second son of — Marryat, M.P. for Sandwich and colonial agent for the island of Grenada, In 1806 he went to sea a4 & midshipman under Captain Lord Coch- rane board the Jinpériewse frigate. He spent some years of active and dangerous service under his famous captain on the north-west coasts of on the north coast of Spain, and in the iterranean, poking pers in many of the inci- ta which he afterwards described in Frank Mild- and Mr Midshipman . ‘The cruises of mptricuse,’ he wrote in his private log, ‘ were of continued excitement from the hour in she hove up her anchor till she dropped it in ; the day that passed without a shot anger was with us a blank day; the ly secured on the booms than they and out again.’ After visiting in the £olus and Spartan ny 5 i cit He i he received a lieutenant’s commission 1812, and was soon after inted to the Eepiagte, in which he ass on the north sak of South America. He was twice invalided but was appointed commander at the age of twenty- three, in 1815, at the close of the great war, 1819 he married Miss mone the daughter Scotch gentleman, and was then appoin' Beaver sloop, whieh bys kept = SE Helena to guard against the escape apoleon, After doing good work in suppressing the ciaabilk smugglers in the Rosario he was sent out in com- man rewarded by the Companionshi : the command of the Ariadne, of twenty t guns. He resigned in 1830 and never afte 8 applied for a ship, but settled in Sussex House, Hammer- smith, and thenceforth led the life of a man of letters. Frank Mildmay, his first novel, a) oor in 1829, and the King’s Own in 1830. In 1832 he became editor of the Metropolitan Magazine, to which he contributed Newton Forster (1832), Peter Simple ged 6 Jacob Faithful, Japhet in Search of a Father, and Mr Midshipman Easy (1834). After living for some time abroad he severed his connee- tion with the Met: itan Magazine, and wrote for the New Monthly at the rate of £20 a sheet. Snarley Yow and The Pasha of Many Tales came out in 1836, and in 1837 Marryat set out for a tour through the United States, where he remained for two years, and where he wrote Zhe Phantom Ship (1839) and a drama, The Ocean Waif, which was produced at a New York theatre. His literary work was fairly remunerative : he received £1200 for Mr Midshipman Easy, £1600 for his Diary in re bee and similar —_ = ~~ _ books, ut he was extravagant and unlucky in his tions, and he lost heavily through his Pe ar Langham in Norfolk. During his later years his means were tly narrowed, and his life seems to have been shortened by overwork. His Diary in America was issued in 1839, and was followed before the close of 1842 yd Poor Jack, Masterman Ready, The Poacher, and Percival Keene. In 1843 he settled on his Norfolk property, where he spent his days in farming and in writing stories for chil- dren. He published Settlers in Canada in 1844, The Mission in 1846, The Privateer’s Man in 1846, and the Children of the New Forest in 1847. Valerie was only part ny Marryat's ; and Rattlin the Reefer, though included in the list of his novels, was written by E. Howard, his sub-editor on the Metropolitan Magazine. His health broke down in 1847, and, after rupturing several blood-vessels, he died at Langham on August 9, 1848. He was an_ excellent officer and a generous man, though quick-tempered, extravagant, and over-eager in pursuit of enjoyment. As a writer of sea-stories Marryat has no re te He cannot, it may be, bring fully home his readers the beauty and the terror of the deep, But for invention, narrative skill, and grasp of character, and es lly for richness of humour, he stands first of all those who have dealt with the sea and sailors in prose fiction. No doubt his fun often descends to farce; still, setting Dickens aside, there is no English novelist who has awakened heartier and honester laughter. His happiest creations, Mr Chucks, for example, and Terence O’Brien, and Mr Easy and Mesty and Equality Jack would not ene fill place in the gallery of the greatest novelist. His best books are thoroughly sound in workmanship. They betray no sign of straining after effect ; the prose is direct, clear, and vigorons, an ideal, in its way, of the narrative of venture. Nothing, for example, could well be MARS MARSEILLES 61 more vivid, yet nothing conld well be simpler and more reserved in style, than such a passage as the ee ening of the Diomede (in Peter Simple), where —as is in Marryat—the excitement and peril of the moment are brought home to you in the tersest phrase, by dramatic flashes and apt touches of dialogue. His sea-fights, his chases and cutting- out expeditions, are told with irresistible gusto, The aot ag as unpretentious as it is spirited You have only to com the ‘e and the three schooners (in Peter Simple), or the fight between the Aurora and the Trident (in Midshipman Easy), with Fenimore Cooper’s attempts in the same line to be convinced of at’s immense superiority as an artist. His books have been the delight of boy- hood since they first appeared; and you can turn to them in after years confident of a renewal of past enjoyment. The sailors of the Great War live in his pages as vividly as certain ranks and classes of Londoners live in pages of Dickens. See Life and Letters of Captain Mai 1872), his iter Florence Mac ryatt be pyar A mle LP ife of Captain Marryat, by David Hannay (‘Great W: ’ series, 1889). Mars (archaic and tic Mavors ; in the song of the Arval Brothers, Marmar ; the Oscan form is Mamers), an ancient Italian divinity of war and of hus! , identified by the Grecising Romans with Ares (q.v.). As the father of Romulus he was specially the progenitor of the Roman race, and he shared with Jupiter the honour of being styled Pater, the forms Marspiter and Maspiter being common for Mars Pater. Other titles were Mars Gradivus, as the warlike god; Silvanus, as the Tustic ; and Quirinus, from his relation to the state, and his especial care for Roman citizens in their civil capacity as Quirites. His priests, the Salii, danced in complete armour. The wolf and the woodpecker were sacred to him. He had many temples at Rome, the most celebrated of which was that outside the Porta Capena, on the Appian Road, and that of Mars Ultor built by Augustus in the forum. The us Martius, where the Romans practised athletic and military exercises, was named in honour of Mars; so was the month of March (Martius), the first month of the Roman year. The Ludi Martiales were celebrated every year in the cireus on Ist August. See PLANETS. Mars, MADEMOISELLE. Anne Francoise Boutet- Mouvel, a great favourite at the Théitre Francais ee first forty years of the 19th century, was in Paris on 5th February 1779, the illegitimate ter, of an actor Moutet and an actress Mars. She began to act before she was thirteen, joined the Théatre Frangais in 1799, and died at Paris on 20th March 1847. She was equally mistress of naive parts as of those of the coquette, and was especially successful in Molitre’s master- i Her Mémoires were published in 2 vols. in 849, and her Confidences in 3 vols. in 1855. Marsala, a seaport on the westernmost point of Sicily, 102 miles by rail and 55 as the crow flies SW. of Palermo. Pop. of town (1881) 19,750; of commune, 40,250 (45, in 1893). It is defended by a citadel, has a cathedral and an academy of sciences, and carries on a large trade in wine, the well-known Marsala, which me popular from having been supplied to the British fleet in 1802. It resembles sherry, and is exported principally to and the West Indies. ‘The town occupies site of Lilybwum, the ancient capital of the Carthaginian settlements in Sicily, and was selected by Garibaldi as his landing-point for the Sicilian ' campaign of 1860, It obtained its present name from the Saracens, who oceupied it in the 9th cen- tury, but were driven out by the Normans in the llth. The harbour was filled up by Charles V. in 1567 to prevent a Turkish attack; it was recon- structed during the 19th century. On an average some 1960 vessels of 165,300 tons burden (one-fifth British) enter every year, bringing chiefly staves, in, and spirits to the annual value of £58,960. he total exports reach an annual value of £434,750, of which £431,720 is for wine. Marseillaise, the stirring song or hymn of the French republicans, was com ; 8ix-sevenths of it, in 1792, by a young officer, Rouget de Lisle (q.v.), then stationed at Strasburg. e composed both words and music under one inspiration one night in April after dining with the mayor of the city ; Chant de V Armée du Rhin was the name he gave it. The song was speedily carried by enthusi- astic revolutionists to the chief cities of France. It was brought to Paris by the volunteers of Mar- seilles, who sang it as they entered the capital (30th July ) and when they marched to the storming of the Tuileries. Hence the Parisians called it La Marseillaise, and as such it has become the official hymn of the republicans of France. More than one writer has called in question Rouget de Lisle’s claim to have com the music ; but his origin- ality seems to have been proved. Interdicted under the Restoration and the Second Empire, the Mar- seillaise became again the national song on the outbreak of the Franco-German war. See Le Roy de Sainte-Croix’s monograph (1880) and Loth’s inquiry into its real author ( Paris, 1886). Marseilles, in point of* population the third city of France, ang su 8 by Paris and Lyons only, is the chief town of the depart- ment Bouches-du-Rhéne, and is situated on the south coast, about 27 miles E. of the mouth of the Rhone, The principal commercial port of France, if not of the entire Mediterranean, Marseilles is entered annually by 7500 vessels (average for the period 1885-95) of 4,500,000 tons burden ; of this commerce nearly three-fourths is French, the British being more than one-seventh. The total tonnage of Spain, Italy, Greece, and Holland together is only a little more than the British. The imports and exports ther reach an annual value of 65 to 70 millions sterling, three-fifths being for im- ports. Wheat, oil-seeds, coal (300,000 to 345,000 tons), wine, spirits, and beer, sugar, maize, oats, barley, coffee, olive, palm, and cotton oils, pepper, flour, and tallow figure most ee: in the order named, —— the imports; whilst the exports consist chiefly of clay tiles, wheat, oil- cakes, flour, sugar, oil, wine and spirits, soap, and candles. Marseilles is the headquarters of the M ries Maritimes, Générale Transatlantique, Mareellaina, and other great French commercial companies, An ave of 29,790 emigrants, of whom only 1500 are French, embark from this port every year. The harbour accommodation consists of the old harbour, a natural basin of nearly 70 acres, running into the heart of the city; a series of new docks, quays, and warehouses (La Joliette, &c.) extending fully a mile along the shore to the west of the old harbour, and covering about a hun- dred acres;.and an outer roadstead between the dams to these docks and a breakwater constructed in deeper water; besides dry-docks, wet-docks, slips, &e. The industry of the place is very considerable, the first place being taken by soap, vegetable oils, and oil-eake; soda, sugar, macaroni, iron, lead, zinc, tiles, and leather are manufactured. Several hun- dreds of men are employed in the flour-mills and in the wine-vanlts. There isa poppercns fishing fleet. The city of Marseilles is built on the slopes that overlook the old harbour, and at the foot, and has of late years extended to the south-east. Although greatly improved since 1853, the sanitary condition - 62 MARSH MARSHALL still leaves something to be desired. Its memor- able buildings include the new Byzantine basilica, which serves as a cathedral ; the pilgrimage chureh, Notre Dame de la Garde, with an in of the ly venerated by sailors and fishermen, with innumerable ex-voto offerings, built in 1864 on the site of an old of 1214; the church of St Victor (1200), with subterranean cliapeél and cata- combs of the 11th century ; the health office of the port, with fine tings by Vernet, David, Gérard, and Guérin ; museum of antiquities, in the ChAteau Borély ; the ae a very fine Renaissance buildin (1870), which shelters in one wing the Eavb-qniiory, and in the other the natural h museum ; the public library, with 95,000 volumes and 1530 MSS. The public institu- tions embrace a botanical and a zoological garden, 4 marine and an astronomical observatory, a faculty of sciences, and schools of medicine, fine arts, Oriental languages, music, commerce, hydrog- raphy. Pop. (1861) 260,910 ; (1881) 360,099 ; { 1886) 376,143 (including a colony of 40,000 Italians); (1891) 403,749. illes was the birthplace of Petronius, Thiers, and Puget. One of the oldest towns in France, Marseilles was founded by Phoceans from Asia Minor six hundred —— before Christ. It was for many centuries, lown to 300 A.D., a centre of Greek civilisation. Greeks called it Massalia, the Romans Rome. It su or 4 against Cesar, but was taken by the latter in 49 B.c., after an obstinate defence, During subsequent ages it fel! into the hands of the Saracens (9th century), Charles of ? devastations of the plague in the port, when nearly half the lation of 100,000 perished, and for the id of Bishop Be and the Chev- ier Kose, It was the scene of stirring events in 1792 and 1 and sent. bands of cut-throats to Paris, keeping sufficient at home to carry has grown rapidly since the conquest of Algiers and the opening of the Suez Canal. Sontiny ead of Mashioe (209 mad Sar ternal » account of Saurel (1884), eee Marsh, Grorok Perkins, an American philo- logist, was born at Woodstock, Vermont, March 15, 1801; graduated at Dartmouth College, New Hampehire, in 1820; «tadied law in Bur ington, Vermont; was elected to the Supreme Executive Council of the state in 1835, and to congress in 1842 to 1849. Whilst United States minister at Constantinople from 1849 to 1853 he was charged with a special mission to Greece (1852); in 1861 he was ted the first United States minister to died at Vallombrosa in Italy, July 23, 1882, Marsh English philology, and his chief works are valued equally on both ‘sides - the ree my a ~ Lectures + the nglish Language | ) ¢ Origin and His. of the English Language (1862). Other works are The Come! his Orpemincee Habits, and Uses (1856), and Man and Nature (1864; largely re- written, 1874 aes Life and Letters by his widow } Marsh, Mrs ( »¢e Anne Caldwell), was bornin _ 2. 1791 = Lindley Wood, eo —— in! > 1817 the junior er of the forger Fauntleroy; and between 1 and 1857 produced a score of novels, of which the best were /wo Old Men’s Tales, Emilia YA gad (1846; new ed. 1888), and Nor- man’s Bridge. In 1858 she came into the Lindley Wood property, where she died 5th October 1874, Marsh, OTHNIEL CHARLEs, paleontologist, was ohne Lockport, New York, 29th October = __ 1831, graduated at Yale in 1860, and studied r zoology, geology, and mineralogy for two years further at New Haven, and for other three years in Germany. He became the first professor of Palwontology at Yale in 1866, and thenceforward devoted himself to the investigation of extinet American vertebrates, of which in various expedi- vmaliad, the Rocky Mountains he rescuing Se thoi new species, some representi © new orders, They include a new sub clas of odon- tornithes, a new order o’ rodactyles (pterano- dontia), the tillodontia cal dinocerata, fossil mon-. keys from the Eocene of Wyoming, and several new families of Dinosauria (q.v.). Professor Marsh described many of his discoveries in the American — Journal of Science, and issued a series of valuable monographs ( published by government) on Odontor- nithes (1880), Dinocerata (1884), erties: 1888), &c. He was LL.D. of Harvard, PhD. of Heidel, ‘ berg, and in 1877 received the Bigeby medal of the —_ logical Society, London. ied 18th March 1899. Marshal (Fr. maréchal ; Old High Ger. marah, ‘a battle-horse,’ and schalh, ‘a servant’), a term meaning originally a groom. or psers of the horse, though eventually the king’s marshal beeame one of the principal officers of state. The farrier rose in dignity with the increasing im ance of the chevalerie, till he became, conj ly with the Constable (q.v.), the judge in courts of chivalry, When the king headed his army in feudal times, the assembled troops were inspected by the constable and marshal, who fixed the spot for the encampment of each noble, and examined the number, arms, and condition of his retainers, With these duties was naturally combined. the regulation of all matters connected with armorial’ bearings, standards, and ensigns, In England the earl-marshal is now head of the Heralds — (see HERALD), and the dignity is hereditary in family of the Duke of Norfolk. In Scotland the office of marischal was hereditary in the family of Keith (q.v.). In 1716 George, tenth Earl Marischal, was attainted in consequence of his share in the rebellion of the previous year, and the office has since been in abeyance. ‘In France the highest military officer is called a marshal, a ity which originated early in the 13th century. was at first only one Maréchal de France, and there were but two till the time of Francis I. Their number afterwards became unlimited. Napoleon’s marshals are celebrated. From the title of this class of general otticers the Germans have borrowed their Feld-marschall, and the British (since 1736) their Field-marshal (q.v.). cn Marshall, capital of Harrison county, Texas, stands at the junction of three railways, 40 miles W. of Shreveport, Louisiana. It contains a ladies” college, and has railway machine-shops, foundries, anda trade in cotton. “Pop, (1900 ) 7855. Marshall, Joun, chief-justice of the United tates, was born in Fauquier county, Virginia, 24th September 1755, and was studying law when the Revolution hegan. He served as an officer— for a time under his father, Colonel Thomas Marshall (1730-1802 )—from 1775 te 1779; in 1780 he received, while in Richmond, @ license to practise. MARSHALL MARSTON 63 faw; and in 1781, after a final campaign,. he settled down to his profession. He quickly gained distinction, and eventually rose to be head of the Virginia bar. From 1782 he sat in the Virginia House of Bu , the state council, the legis- lature; in 1788 he was elected to the state con- vention, which ultimately—mainly owing to his and Madison’s (q.v.) arguments—adopted the new eee ergmang Aa, & 797 = Geny jin joint envoy, with Pinckney an (a) to France, where he and Pinckney, as ‘ederalists, were ordered to leave the ye after the envoys had indignantly declined Talley- rand’s overtures for a personal and a public loan. His conduct in this matter only made Marshall more respected and popular at home, and in 1799 he was elected’ to congress; on 12th May 1800 he was inted secre’ of state, which office he held March 1801. In January 180] he was inted chief-justice of the United States, and t 8) sere he oecupied until his death, at Philadelphia, 6th July 1835. Chief-justice Mar- f series of im t decisions are recognised as standard authority on questions of constitutional law; a selection was published at Boston in 1839. He prepared a Life of Washing- | thi vols. ee ie clisposal “b es 1832) papers p' at his di y the presi- dent’s family. See John Marshall, by B. a (‘American Statesmen’ series, Boston, Marshalling of Arms. See Heratpry. Marshall Islands, a group in the western Pacific, bisected 10° N. lat., and having the Caroline p to the west, consists of two parallel chains of low coral-reefs—one, the Ratak group, consisting of fifteen islands, and measuring in all 48 sq. m.; the other, the Ralik group, eighteen islands, with a total area of 107 sq. m. The cocoa- nut and us palms and the bread-fruit tree are the pal sources of food, besides fish. Co is the only export (2800 tons annually). prah The inhabitants, 11,600 in number, belong to the Micronesian division, and are an ngly but good- natured and hospitable race, fond of song and dance, and skilful weavers of bast mats. The Boston (U.S.) Mission Society have a branch here. These islands were annexed by Germany “ <6) See Hager, Die Marshallinseln (Leip. Marshalltown, ital of Marshall county, Towa, near the Iowa River, 50 miles NE. of Des Moines, at the crossing of two railways. It has a large trade in wheat,.&c., has foundries and mach , and manufactures flour, oil, soap, and fencing-wire. Pop.(1890) 8914; (1900) 11,544. Marshalsea, the jail attached to the Marshal- sea Court, originally established under the earl- marshal of England for the trial of servants of the al household. Later on it came to be used as a “prison for debtors and defaulters, as well as persons convicted of piracy or other offences on the high seas. It stood near the church of St George, Southwark, and existed in the reign of Edward Til. It was abolished as the Palace Court in 1849. Bishop Bonner was confined here for nearly ten rs, till his death in 1569, and George Wither in 613; he obtained his release by his Satyre to the ori most excellent Majesty. But the Marshalsea will be longest remembered as the home of Dickens's Little Dorrit. Marsh-gas. See CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. Marsh-mallow (A/tiza), a genus of plants of the natural order Malvacew. The species, which are not numerous, are annual and perennial plants, with showy flowers, natives of Europe and Asia.» Only: one, the: Common Marsh-mallew (A. officinalis), is an undoubted native of Britain, and is common only in the south, grow- ing in meadows and marshes, espe- cially near the sea. The whole plant is whole- some, abounding in fibre, mucilage, starch, and sac- charine matter. It is in the roots chiefly that the mucilage_ a- bounds, The emollient and de- mulcent qualities of marsh-mallow are well known in medicine, and in seasons of scarcity the inhabitants of some eastern countries often have recourse to it as a principal article of food. Lozenges made from it (Pédtes de Guimauve) are in use. It is said to be palatable when boiled, and afterwards fried with onions and butter. The Hollyhock (q.v.) is commonly referred to this genus. Marsh-marigold (Caltha), a genus of plants of the natural order Ranunculacew, having about five petal-like ot but no petals; the fruit spreading, compressed, many- C. palustris is a very common Common Marsh-mallow ( Althea officinalis): a, a flower; b, fruit. consists of seve: seeded follicles, Marsh-marigold ( Caltha palustris ). British plant, with kidney-shaped, shining leaves, and large yellow flowers, a principal ornament of wet meadows and the sides of streams in spring. It partakes of the acridity common in the order ; but the flower-buds, preserved in vinegar and salt, are said to be a substitute for capers. It is often called Cowslip in the United States. Marsilio. See Fictno. Marsivan’, a town of Asia Minor, in the vilayet of Sivas, 23 miles NW. of Amasia, with a silver-mine and a pop. of 11,000. Marston, JAmMEs WEsTLAND, LL.D., dramatic t, was born at Boston, Lincolnshire, on 30th Dianary 1820. He was articled to his uncle, a London solicitor, but soon gave up law for litera- ture; and in 1842 his Patrician’s Daughter, a, 64 MARSTON blank -verse of the day, was brought out oq ivaey Laws ty Mawenty. Kew the first, and also the most successful, more than a dozen lays (Strathmore, Philip of France, &c.), all Bieridan-Knowlesian, and all forge , though a collective edition of them and his poetic works appeared in 2 volumes in 1876. Besides these, he wrote a novel (1860), a good book on Yur Recent Actors (1888), and a mass of poetic criticism. Alth his house had once been the gathering- place of several of the most prominent literary men in London, Marston died in that city alone (wife, children, grandchildren, all dead before him) on Sth January 1890.—His son, Paruie Bourke Marston, the blind poet, was born in London, 13th August 1850, and died there on 14th February 1887. His life was a series of losses—of eyesight at three, and afterwards of his sister, his ae egg bride, and his two dear friends, Oliver Madox Brown and Rossetti. His memory will survive through his friendships—with the last and with Watts and Swinburne—rather than through his sonnets and lyrics. They are exquisite some of them, but too sad for a world that sees. Sougtide, AU in AU, and Wind Voices were the three volumes of poetry that he pub- lished in his lifetime, between 1870 and 1883; to a posthumous collection of his stories is prefixed a memoir by Mr W. Sharp. Marston, Joun, dramatist and satirist, a son of John Marston, of Gayton (or Heyton), County mea by his wife Maria, daughter of Andrew , an Italian surgeon, who had settled in London, was born about 1575, egy = at Coventry. He matriculated at Brasenose College, Oxford, 4th Febru: 1591-92, and was admitted B.A. 6th February | From the elder Marston's will (dated 24th October 1599) it may be gathered that, after adopting the profession of the law, he aban- doned it t his father’s wish. He married but the date of marriage cannot be fixed) Mary, daughter of Rev. William Wilkes, chaplain to James Land rector of St Martin's, County jilts, Ben Jonson wittily observed to Drummond of Hawthornden that ‘ Marston wrote his father- in-law's preachings, and his father-in-law his jes,” contrasting the asperity of Marston's comedies with the blandness of ‘the chaplain’'s sermons. With the exception of The Insatiate Countess (which is of doubtful authorship), all Marston's plays were published between 1602 and 1607. He gave up play-writing about 1607, but the date at which he entered the church has not been ascertained. In 1616 he was peseented to the living of Christ Church, Hampshire, which he ed in 1631. He died 25th Jane 1634 in Aldermanbury parish, London, and was buried beside his father in the Temple Church, ‘under ‘s first work was The Metamorphosis of Pyqmalion’s Image: and Certain Satires (1598). Another series of satires, The Scourge of Villany, ry gn later in the same year, a second edition (with an additional tenth satire) following in 1599. Pyqmation, « somewhat licen poem, may have owed its inspiration to Shakes 's Venus and Adonis, Marston renee that it was written with the object of bringing discredit on amatory ey: but the apology cannot be accepted. Arch- hop Whitgift condemned it to the flames with other works of a similar tendency. The satires, which agg) ne mp under the nom de plume of * William Kinsayder,’ are uncouth and’ obscure, There was a fend between Marston and the satirist Joseph Hall (the future bishop of Norwich), and many hard knocks were dealt on either side. A Cambridge man, one ‘W. J.’, intervened with his Whapping of the Satire, in which he handled, Marston ro . ) effectively, Og of Marston's friends in the anonymous Whipper of the Satire. The con- troversy raged hotly and excited lively interest, — 4 4 but the allusions in these various satirical are not very intelligible to-day. In September 1 that he advanced forty shillings to ‘Mr the new poete (Mr Mastone),’ in an unnamed play. This ‘new poete’ was ; but there is no other mention of him in the ae Two gloomy and ill-constructed tragedies, Antonio — and Mellida and Antonio's Revenge, were entered in the Stationers’ Register, 24th October 1601,~ and were published in the following year. H contain passages of striking power, and a of intolerable fustian. In 1604 was pu , The Malcontent, a second edition, augmented by — Webster, appearing in the same year. It is more skilfully constructed than the two parts of Antonio — — ellida, Marston's comioenm ae — and vivid imagery is offectively displayed in the de- scription of ‘the hermit’s cell, iv. 2. He “cliente. The Mailcontent in very cordial terms to Ben Jon- son, and in 1605 prefixed some constneae ve verses to Sejanus. There seem to many quarrels and reconciliations between Jonson. and Marston. Jonson told Drummond that ‘he had many quarrels with Marston, beat him and took his pistol from him, wrote his Poetaster on — him; the beginning of them were that Marston represented him on the stage in his youth given to Mn or The original quarrel began in or about 598, ; The Dutch Courtezan (1605) is full of life and spirit, the character of the vengeful courtesan ranceschina being drawn with masterly a Eastward Ho (1605), from which Hogarth is said to have taken the plan of his prints ‘The Indus trious and Idle Prentices,’ was written in conjune- tion with Chapman and Jonson. It is far more genial than any comedy which Marston wrote single-handed, Some satirical reflections on the Scots were introduced, for which offence the authors were committed to prison at the instance of Sir James Murray, and the report went that their ears were to ome seis of Boies nol attractive pa ee the tragedy of Sophonisba (1606) a us its horrors, the description of the witeh Erichtho and her cave being gruesome to the last degree. What You Will, published in 1607, but probably written some years earlier, has many flings at ' Jonson, The Insatiate Countess was published in 1613 with Marston’s name on the title-page, but in a copy (belonging to the Duke of Devonshire) of the 1631 edition the author’s name is given as William Barksteed, a poet of some ability and an’ actor. that we find in Marston's undoubted works. Prob-_ ably Marston left the play unfinished when he entered the church, and Barksteed took it in hand. An indifferent anonymous comedy, Jack Drum's Entertainment, written about 1 may be safely assigned to Marston from internal pax dence ; and he appears to have had some share in another poor play, Histriomastiz. Tn 1633 William Sheares, the publisher, issued 1 vol. sm. 8vo, The Works of Mr John Marston, comprising the two rts of Antonio and Mellida, Sophonisha, ou Will, The Fawn, and The Dutch Courtezan. Marston's works were edited by the late Mr Halli-. well-Phillipps (then Mr Halliwell) in 1856, 3 vols, and by the present writer in 1887, 3 vols. hly ; and he was answered, not very p the io of Henslow records in his Diary _ bn Bod ? cut and their noses slit. Parasitaster, or the Fawn (1606), in spite of occa-— The rich and ful try scattered through The Insatiate Coundens iefunlike any ine i z i ; LA ee = a MARSTON MOOR MARTEN 65 Marston Moor, in the West Riding of York- shire, 7 miles W. of York, the scene of a great One reemangiert victory, 2d July 1644. The royal- army, about 22,000 strong, was led by Prince Rupert ; the parliamentary troops numbered 15,000 foot and 9000 horse, consisting of a Scotch army under the Earl of Leven, a Yorkshire army under Fairfax, and one from the eastern counties under the Earl of Manchester, with Cromwell and Craw- ford. The battle began about seven o’clock in the evening. On the king’s left flank the horse under Goring scattered the forces of Fairfax ; on his right the troopers of the fiery Rupert were broken for the first time by Cromwell's ‘ Ironsides.’ Hastily recalling his men from the chase, Cromwell saved the day by supporting Manchester and the Scotch infantry against the king’s foot under Newcastle, and routing Goring’s horse flushed with their vic- er Before nightfall the suecess was complete, and the king’s army fled in utter rout to York, leaving 4000 men dead on the field ; among them all Newcastle’s ‘Whitecoats.’ This victory gave the whole north to the Parliament, and first brought into prominence Cromwell’s military genius. See 8S. R. Gardiner's History © the Civil War (1886), and Edward Lamplough’s Yorkshire Battles (1891). wae enpials, lit. ‘ponched animals’ (Mar- supialia, Didelphia, or Metatheria), a sub-class of mammals, the members of which, with the exception of the American opossums, are now restricted to the Australian and Austro-Malayan ions. They are in many ways simpler than the higher mammals, notably in the structure of the brain and in the absence of a close connection between the unborn young and the womb of the mother. The young are born very helpless, after a short gestation, and are usually stowed away in an external pouch or marsupium, where they are fed from the enclosed teats. From the wide oceur- rence of fragmentary marsupial remains in Triassic. and Jurassic strata both in the Old and the New World, it seems that the pouch-hearers have been once widely distributed. Before the stronger mam- mals which rose up after them they have, however, sucenmbed, except in the case of the above-men- tioned refugees in neo-tropical forests, and those saved by the insulation of the Australasian regions before any higher mammals gained a foothold. In the retreat thus afforded the marsupials have de- veloped along numerous lines, as it were prophesy- ing the carnivores, insectivores, rodents, and herbi- vores among the placental mammalia. Thus, apart from the carnivorous and insectivorous American ( wenegrd (Didelphyide), of which one is strictly orth American and the rest neo-tropical, there are five Australasian fatnilies: the Dasyuride or ‘native cats,’ carnivorous and insectivorous mar- supials as large as wolves and as small as mice, of which = pronounced types are the Tasmanian ‘tiger’ (Thylacinus) and the native ant-eater nlf ae ei ; the rodent-like Peramelide or dicoots; the herbivorous kangaroos and kan- garoo-rats (Macropodide); the very varied family of arboreal Phalangers (Phalangistide), including the flying opossums (Petaurista, &c.), the native sloth or koala, the honey-sucking Tarsipes, and other curions forms ; and finally the Phascolomyide or wombats, rodent-like root-eating forms about the size of badgers. See Mamas; also the well-known works of Owen, Huxley, and others on Vertebrates; the relevant parts of "s and the Standard Natural History ; Chisholm’s trans. of Vogt and Specht’s Mammals (1887); Water- house, Natural History of Mammalia, i. (1846); and Gould’s Mammals of Australia (3 vols. 1845-63). Marsyas, a Phrygian satyr, who, having found a flute that played of itself, which Athena had oxadr ow was rash enough to challenge Apollo 1 to a musical contest, subject to the condition that the victor should do what he liked to the van- quished. Apollo played upon the cithara, Marsyas upon the flute, and the Muses decided in favour of the god, who punished his rival’s temerity by bind- ing him to a tree and flaying him alive. From his blood sprung the river Marsyas ; his statue stood in many ancient cities, a monument of the folly of presumption. Martaban, a town in Burma, on the right bank of the Salween, opposite to Maulmain (Moul- mein). It is reputed to have been built in 576 by the first king of Pegu, and was down to the end of the first quarter of the 14th century the capital of the kingdom. It was taken by the king of Siam two centuries and a half later, and has been twice - captured by the British, in 1824 and in 1852. Pop. 1781. The Bay of Martaban receives the rivers Irawadi and Salween. Martel, Cuaries. See CHARLES MARTEL. Martello Towers are round towers for coast defence, about 40 feet high, built most solidly, and situated on the beach. They were so called because at Mortella Point in Corsica a small round tower stood admirably an immense cannonade from an English fleet under Lord Hood in 1794. They were mostly erected at the end of the 18th century as a defence against French invasion, and are now regarded as obsolete. Marten (Mustela), a genus of digitigrade car- nivorous quadrupeds of the family Mustelide, dif- fering from weasels in having an additional false molar on each side above and below, a small tubercle on the inner side of the lower carnivorous cheek-teeth, and the tongue not rough—characters which are regarded as indicating a somewhat less extreme carnivorous propensity. The body is elon- gated and supple, as in weasels, the legs short, and the toes separate, with sharp long claws ; the palms and soles are generally, but not always, furry. The ears are larger than in weasels, and the tail is bushy. The martens exhibit great agility and gracefulness in their movements, and are very expert in climbing trees, among which they gener- ally live. There are nine or ten species in this genus, which are distributed over Europe, Asia, Malaya, and North America. The American ‘Pekan’ (M. pennanti) is the largest species, measuring as much as 46 inches from the snout to the tip of the tail. The most valuable species of marten is the European Sable (/. zibellina). Two species of marten, closely resembling one another, oecur in Great Britain—the Common or Beech Marten (M. foina) and the Pine Marten (©. martes). They are often hunted with foxhounds ; for this and other reasons they are getting much less plentiful, though still to be frequently met with in certain localities, 66 MARTENSEN MARTIAL - Martensen, HANs LASSEN, metropolitan bishop of Denmark her most prominent theologian in the 19th century, was born at Flensborg on 19th August 1808, and studied at the university of After shaking off the influence of » by which he was dominated in teers Ragertland in 1848 aided to Phil at , and in to these da those of court preacher. In 1840 he published a valuable monograph on Meister Eckhart, the German mystic, and nine years later laid the foundation of a European fame by a masterly work, from the conservative Lutheran standpoint, istian Dogmatics (Eng. trans. 1866). This gained him in 1854 the primacy of Denmark again was the cause of a powerful satirical attack upon him by Kierkegaard, which started a i Martensen suffered severely. from the blow, so that, after the ‘ another great work, in 3 vols., on Christian Ethics (1871-78; Eng. trans. 1881-82), his influence in the country was more dominant than ever. With a mind wonderfully acute and powerful, he was deficient in intellectual sympathy. Nevertheless he stood for many years a bulwark of defence to conservative theology. He died on 3d Februa 1884. See his care ey in Danish (1883), London Quarterly (1883), and Brit, and Foreign Evang. jew, vol. Xxxv. Martha's Vineyard, an island on the south const of Massachusetts, 21 miles long, 6 miles in average width. It is noted as a summer health- resort, Martial. Marcus Valerius Martialis, one of the finest among the few original Latin poets, and still the first of epigrammatists in verse, was born Ist March 38 or 41 A.D., in Celtiberian Spain, at Bilbilis, famed as a steel factory, for which its iron- mines and ice-cold Salo torrent specially fitted it— a centre, too, of Roman culture, which afforded him the good education he got under the eye of oe ts, Fronto _ x ene ES ror — gift vincials, he repai to me, where (84 ab.) he became a client of the influen- tial Spanish house of the Senecas, through which he found other patrons, among them L. Calpurnius Piso, the lead man of his day. The ee failure of the ian plot lost Martial his warmest friends—Lucan, and still more Sen from whose heirs, however, he doubtless deriv the small wine-growing estate at Nomentum. Of his life till Domitian me emperor we know little, except that he never maintained himself by the steady professional work to which his com- a pea Quintilian seems to have exhorted him, t rather courted imperial and senatorial patron- by his rare social gifts and his genius for vers circonstance. When (80 a.p.) Titus, by a series at intorial spectacles, dedicated the Colosseum to amusement of Rome, Martial signalised the by epigrams which brought him the jus trium liberorum and the equestrian rank—probably eer by Titus, and afterwards confirmed by itian. Substantial independence, however, he did not obtain from either emperor, though his venal flattery of Domitian of that despot’s corrupt retinue was grows enough to leave a stain on his memory. In request as a diner-out, he divided his 4 A between the baths, the theatres, the recitation-halls, and the composition of epi- grams, and so far saw his ambition gratified as to count the most distinguished senators of the time among his friends, and all the /iterati in city or ince among his readers. Of envy and detrac- oa he had, of course, his share; bat what he His life, indeed, was not a happy one— continually shadowed by that ‘ignoble me which arises from —_ that we find him ag eke a patron even a toga ora mantle. From 86 to 90 he had a lodgin three stories high, at the sign of the ‘ Pear’ on the Quirinal, and in 94 a house of his own in the same quarter; while his Nomentan fi -a-terre, W i under better husbandry, might have yielded living, was prized by him mainly as a retreat from the bores (or duns) of the city. During his thirty. four years of Roman life he seems to have made an excarsion from it only once (in 87)—to Forum Corneli and other resorts in the Amilia. But, by degrees, the capital, its cares and its pleasures, became irksome to him; bad poe years bereft him of Domitian and his friends of the palace ; and the austere Nerva and Trajan had to be coneiliated by other and less congenial arts than the adulatory his admirer, the younger Pliny, the means of revisit- ing those haunts of childhood he had never for- the headlong Salo, the snowy peaks of the Sierras, the golden Tagus, the rich orchards, the awe- inspiring oak-forests—his home, with its frugal ; y¥ meals and simple joys. Here again his good found him patrons—among them the highly-cul- tured Marcella, who presented him with an on which, with its grove, its fountain, its vin and rosary, its kitchen-garden, its fish-pond and dovecot, he led an idyllic life. But the vta muni- cipalis palled on him once more, and.even in such surroundings we find him fretting for the vita urbana and angling for patrons in that distant world of theatres and libraries, cultured connoisseurs, and social dissipation he was never again to see. Baulked of his wish to attain his seventy-fifth year, he died, at latest, in 104, aged sixty-three or sixty-six. ; artial possessed, for and evil, the artistic temperament, its lack of steady purpose, its love of hand-to-mouth independence. This latter he — enjoyed by humouring the contemporary vices he could not reform, though, conscience-stricken, he excuses himself on the ground that if his apage were wanton, his life was honest.’ Much of hi best work, unfortunately, is his least pure, and this has pera an exaggerated impression of his moral turpitude. If, however, we excise 150 epigrams from the 1172 of the first twelve books, his collective writings (including his early ‘spee- tacular’ epigrams and his Xenia and A a) are free from licentiousness. On the other hand, his genius and skill in verse it were hard to over- estimate. An improvisatore in readiness, he could attain to the most fastidious finish; with his love of antithetic shocks and electric surprises, h e the true poet's eye for nature; he could alternate the organ-note of a masterful eloquence with minor tones of the most tremulous pathos—witness his epigrams on ‘ Arria and Petus,’ on ‘Pompeii,’ on his little slave-girl ‘Erotion,’ and on ‘ Formis’ with its lovely seaboard, But it is as an epigram- matist, even in its modern and reseeiaiel sense, that he remains without a peer, wielding a weapon uliarly his own, bright and pointed as a rapier rom the anvils of his native Bilbilis, chastened in the rushing Salo. Unequal, of course, he often is, bat never vulgar—rarely (it has been well observed ) with all his sense of the ridiculous degenera into caricature. He lifts the veil from the Rome of Domitian and exposes it mainly on its seamy e * MARTIAL LAW MARTIN 67 side, with « Hogarthian vividness not outdone b Juvenal himself. f Martial has had to wait long for an adequate commenta- tor, and has found him in the author of the Stittengeschichte Roms, Ludwig Friedlinder, who alone combined the criti- cal power the es knowledge necessary for the task. The same writer's M. Valerii Martialis Kpiyram- maton Libri mit erkldrenden Anmerkungen (2 v ae 1886) furnishes the student of Martial with nse P aaa beth of hie seotecomears aed cntecnin dae con I H ‘the illustrious i scholar, net, to whom the edition appropriately is dedicated. Martial Law is the exercise of arbitrary power by the supreme authority in a district or country where the ordinary administration has ceased to be ive, either on account of civil disturbance or of the presence therein of a hostile force, though, in the latter case, the country would be more correetly described as being grreae by the ‘Laws of War.’ Martial law was former synonymous with military law, and is often still confounded with it, perhaps because in the above- mentioned circumstances the supreme authority often avails himself of courts-martial and of the under his command to maintain order. yg 4 Law (q.v.) is the law contained in the Army Act of 1881, which governs the soldier at all times, but affects civilians only when accom- panying a force on active service; while martial w has been defined as ‘no law,’ but simply the will of the supreme authority. It is not recognised hy British jurisprudence, and no rules are Jaid down for its application. It is assumed that, when the ordi civil tribunals fail, the supreme authority will do his best to maintain order. He may therefore, if he thinks right, announce his intention of treating the civil population as though under military law, or in any other way that com- mends itself to him; but if they are British sub- jects he will have afterwards to justify his action by showing that it was absolutely necessary, and so obtain an indemnity from parliament for conduct which is in itself illegal. Military tribunals have several times been oF tips power by Act of Parlia- ment to try offe t the public peace in Treland, as in 1798, but the proclamations on these occasions merely justitied the use of arms inst rebellious subjects, not against ble citizens, They were announcements of the existence of a state of things in which force would be used against wrong-doers for the protection of the public i and were always followed by Acts of Indemnity. On the Continent the tice is different, and when ni a ‘state of siege’ is proclaimed i the disturbed ai sled sinstbery, und tua istrict or oecupied territory, and the inhabitants are thereby brought to a certain extent under military law. , Martigny, or MArTINACH (the Octodurus of the Sommes); three united hamlets in the Swiss canton of V; , is situated on the Simplon rail- way, 24 miles SE. of the Lake of Geneva. Two noted routes, one to the vale of Chamouni by the Téte Noire or the Col de Balme, the other over the eens St Bernard to Aosta, branch off here. Pop. Martigucs, « town in the French department of Bouches-du-Rhone, is situated on several islands, eng | bridges, at the entrance to the Etang de miles NW. of Marseilles. From its posi- tion, it has been called the Provengal Venice. Pop. 4783, ore in catching and curing fish and in ship Martin. See SwALLow. _ Martin, the name of five popes, of whom the fourth and fifth deserve a brief notice.—MARTIN IV., a native of Brie in Touraine, was born about - returned to his native 1210, made cardinal in 1261, and elected pope in 1281. He was a mere tool of Charles of Anjou, and degraded himself even by employing the weapons of spiritual censure in his behalf. But all his efforts to buttress the French power in Sicily proved futile, and three years after the atrocity of the Sicilian Vespers he died, 1285.—MARTIN V. must be noticed as the pontiff in whose election was finally extinguished the t Western Schism (see ANTIPOPE, CHURCH History). He was originally named Otto di Colonna, of the great Roman family of that name. On the deposition of John XXIII, and the two rival popes Gregory XII. and Benedict XIIL, in the Council of Constance, Cardinal Colonna was elected (1417). He presided in all the subsequent sessions of the council, and the fathers having separated without discuss- ing the questions of reform, at that period earnest] ed for in the church, Martin undertook to éall a new council for the purpose. It was summoned to meet at Siena, and ultimately assembled at Basel in 1431, but the pope died suddenly just after its opening. Martin, St, Bishop of Tours, was born at Sabaria in Pannonia about the year 316. He was educated at Pavia, and at the desire of his father, who was a military tribune, entered the army, first under Constantine, and afterwards under Julian the Apostate. The virtues of his life as a soldier are the theme of more than one interesting legend. On obtaining his discharge from military service, Martin became a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers. He ‘annonia, and converted his mother to Christianity, but he himself endured much persecution from the Arian party, who were at that time dominant; and in consequence of the firmness of his orthodoxy, he is the first con- fessor, rather than martyr, honoured in the Latin Church with an office and a feast. On his return to Ganl abont 360 he founded a convent of monks near Poitiers, where he himself led a life of great austerity and seclusion; but in 371 he was drawn by force from his retreat, and made Bishop of Tours. The fame of his sanctity, and his repute as a worker of miracles, attracted crowds of visitants from all parts of Gaul; and in order to avoid the distraction of their iniportunity, he estab- lished the monastery of Marmoutier near Tours, in which he himself resided. He died between 397 and 401, and St Ninian, who had visited him at Tours and ever preserved the greatest veneration for him, dedicated to his memory the church he was then building at Whithorn in Galloway. His life by his contemporary, Sulpicius Severus, is a very curious specimen of the Christian literature of the ,and in the profusion of miraculous legends with whieh it abounds might take its place among the lives of the medieval or modern Roman Church. The only extant literary relic of Martin is a short Confession of Faith on the Holy Trinity, which is blished by Galland, vol. vii. 559. In the Roman Jatholie Church the festival of his birth is celebrated on the 1lth November. In Scotland this day still marks the winter-term, which is called Martinmas. Formerly people used to begin St Martin’s Day with feasting and drinking; hence the French expres- sions martiner and faire la St Martin, ‘ to feast,’ and the fact that St Martin is the patron of drink- ing and of reformed drunkards. . See the books by Reinkens (Gera, 3d ed. 1876), Cha- mard (Poitiers, 1873), Cazenove’s St Hilary and St Martin (1883), and Scullard’s Martin of Towrs (1891). Martin, Bon Louis HeEnrI, a great French historian, was born at St-Quentin, 20th February 1810, and educated for a notary, but already at twenty had determined for a literary career. His first book was an historical romance, Wolfthurm MARTIN MARTINEAU ~ 1830), followed by three others treating of the De page He rege ed Paul —<— 7 2 ~ acob,' vast project for a of France in 48 volumes, ting of from histories and chronicles from the — to 1830. He published the first he wee and ges aig pe“ ae at ertaking, which was com ona le in 1836. He now set himself to a still t Histoire de France rd and much improved vols, 1837-54) earned the Gobert prize ; edition (17 vols. 1855-60) was awarded titute in 1869 the t prize of 20,000 magnificent work comes down only continuation to the author's own time less admirable Histoire de France ed. 5 vols, 1878-85). Martin acted for of one of the arrondissements of chosen deputy for Aisne in 1871, in 1876. He was elected a member of the French Academy in 1878. He wrote several minor such as the Histoire de Soissons (1837), Manin (1859), Jeanne d’ Are (1872); and Paris, l4th nber 1883. Martin was last of the giants of French history influenced An Thierry, peenenpegttre a fu s iH rt 43 : ~ the - god value. The — eee mek ialit insight, is excellently arranged, sey cieirch written—the work of a ies patriot, and if a Chauvinist, a Chanvinist of genius. It is beyond doubt the best work dealing in detail with the history of France as a whole. Martin, Joun, painter, was born at Haydon near Hexham, Northumberland, 19th July 1789. In 1806 he went up to London, in 1808 married, and, after a struggling youth as an heraldic and enamel painter, in 1812 exhibited *Sadak in search of the Waters of Oblivion’ at the Royal Academy, with which body he soon afterwards quarrelled. It was the first of his sixteen ‘sublime’. works, whose ‘immeasurable innumerable multitudes, and gorgeous prodigies of architecture and landscape’ divided the suffi of the many between Martin and Turner ; lwer-Lytton indeed pronounced him *more original, more self-dependent’ than Raphael and Michael Angelo! Even yet their memory is kept lurid by the coloured engravings of the ‘ Fall of lon” (1819), ‘Belshazzar’s Feast’ (1821), ‘ luge ’ (1826), &c. For twenty-seven years Martin also been busied with projects for the improvement of London, and for four had been working on four pictures illustrative of the ‘ Last Judgment,’ when he died at Douglas, in the Isle of Man, 17th Febraary 1854, Martin, Sim THeopone, born in Edinburgh in 1816, was educated there at the High School and university, and in 1846 settling in London, ¢ & prosperous parliamentary solicitor. Among his earliest writings were the well-known ‘Bon Ganitier’ ballads, written in conjunction with Profesor Aytoun. This was followed by translations of Goethe's Poems and Ballads, Haat * schligers Corregio and Aladdin or the Wonderful schiiiger’s Corregio an ‘in or ' Lamp. Further metrical translations Horace’s Odes (1860), of his whole works (1 Catallus (1861), the Vita Nuova of Dante (1 Faust (i. and ii. 1865-86), Heine (1878), d the Aneid (ivi. 1896). In 1863 he issued a volume of original and translated poems, 1870 an admirable little book on Horace ‘Ancient Classics for English Readers.’ In} he was made C.B., in 1880 K.C.B., and in Nov. ber of that year was elected Lord Rector of Andrews University. He has written a series ve , the Prince ; (5 vols, 1874-80), Lord Lyndhurst (1883), and the rincess Alice (1885). Lapy MARTIN, well known as an Sih dt maiden name, Helen Faucit, was born 11th st 1820, and made her professional début as Julia in’ the Hunchback at Covent Garden in January 1836, — She was at once successful, took a | b in Macready’s Shakespearian revivals Se the first L zee ak 26 biographies of Aytoun in 1851 she left the stage, oreeee only at ublic or charitable pores. as. espeare Portia, Desdemona, Juliet, Imogen, , and Martina, a town of Southern Italy. half-way between Taranto and Monopoli. Pop. 14,454. Martineau, Harriet, born at Norwich, 12th June 1802, was the daughter of Thomas M an, a Norwich manufacturer. She received a classical education, and worked diligently and conscientiously, but did not in her school-days show promise of anything remarkable. Increasing deaf-_ ness and constant ill-health made her often anxious and cake? as a girl, uncertain in temper, and silent in habit. Her first appearance in it was in 1821, when = wrote an Siete we! Mo Me ; Repository, a religious periodical. In the next fe years she wrote Devotsonal Exercises, cles for the Monthly Repository, and short stories about machinery and wages. In 1829 the failure of the | house in which she, and her mother and sisters, had laced their money obliged her to earn her living, n 1830 she wrote Traditions of Palestine, and gained three prizes for three Theological Essays for the Unitarian Association. In 1831 she resolved to bring out a series of stories as Jil i f Political Economy, knowing that the work be wanted. Notwithstanding repeated refusals discouragements from publishers, she persevered in her plan, and in 1832 the first number ap A fortnight after publication the demand for this number reached five thousand, and from that da the way was open to her for life, and she never any other anxiety about employment than A to choose, nor any real care about money. He popularity was extraordinary during the appearance of I/lustrations of Political Economy. She removed to London in 1832, the better to carry on her work, In 1834 she went to America for two years, and soon after her return piblnet Society in America and & novel, Deerbrook, in 1839. She went abroad the samme year, returned ill, and settled at Tynemouth, where she remained, a complete invalid, till 1844 During her illness she wrote The Hour and the . = = =e iw a re Marx is natnrally associated his _ ° “6 MARY MARY TI. 73 Fathers, tions from of the first centuries, and or modern legendaries. The genealogy of our Lord in St Matthew is traced X oseph (q.v.); and, as it is plainly assumed was of the same family with her husband ie evidence of the descent of the latter from David is equivalently an evidence of the origin of Mary from the same royal house. But the ge of Christ as t in St Luke is commonly held to be the proper genealogy of his mother in the flesh, Mary. The incidents in her eee recorded in Scripture are few in number, and almost entirely refer to her relations with our Lord. They will be found in Matt. i., ii, xii. ; Luke i., ii; John ii., xix.; and Acts, i., where the last notice of her is of her ‘persevering in nee with the disciples and the holy women at Jerusalem after our Lord’s ascension ( Acts, i. 14). The gospels entitled ‘ The Gospel of the Nativity of Mary,’ and the ‘ Protevangelion of the Birth of Christ,’ contain some additional, but, of course, unauthentic particulars as to the lineage, birth, and early years of Mary, among which is the miraculous story of her betrothal with Joseph, immortalised by the pencil of hael. As to her history after the ascension of her Son the traditions — widely, ig magl aaa ge nee —_ of pliesus speaks of her as having lived with John at that city, where she died, and was buried. Another epistle, nearly contemporaneous, tells that she died and was buried at Jerusalem at the foot of the Mount of Olives. Connected with this tradition is the incident which lias so often formed a subject of ‘sacred art, of the apostles coming to her tomb on the third day after her interment, and finding the tomb empty, but exhaling an ‘exceeding sweet f * On this tradition is founded the belief of her having been assumed into heaven, which is celebrated in the festival of the Assumption (q.v.). The date of her death is commonly fixed at the “year of our Lord 63, or, according to another account, the year 48. Another tradition makes wre retest, Beech yp fa yobs ‘lege avi 1 questions ing the -M. (Beata Virgo Maria), one is treated at Immacu- LATE Conception. The ral sag virginity of Mary is not explicitly attested in Scripture, and there are even certain ambiguous plirases which at first sight seem to imply that children were born of her after the birth of Jesus, as that of his being called (Matt. i. 25; Luke, ii. 7) her ‘first-born son,’ and that of James and others being more than once called ‘ brothers of tle Lord ;’ for which see JoserH. The perpetual virginity of a is held on a firm article of belief in the Roman chu Catholic worship of the Virgin is the supreme worship of latreia or adoration, which Catholics disclaim, although, from her relation to our they hold her worship, which they style ulia, to be higher than that of all other ts. Many examples of prayers addressed to Mary (such as the ‘ Litany of the Sacred Heart of Mary i of acts of worship done in her honour, and pening her, are alleged the of 0 of showin (ate Chureh is in effect ‘adoration.’ To these and similar allega- undoubtedly liable to misinter- pretation; but they further insist that all such prayers, however worded, are to be understood, and are, in fact, understood by all Roman Catholics, even ordinarily acquainted with the principles of their faith, solely as petitions for the intercession of Mary, and as expressions of reliance, not on her ae power, but on the efficacy of her prayers to her n. Although no trace is found in the New Testa- ment of any actual worship of the Virgin Mary, yet Roman Catholic interpreters regard the lan- guage of the angel Gabriel, who saluted her as ‘fall of grace,’ or ‘highly favoured,’ and as ‘blessed among women,’ ae her own prediction in the canticle of the Magnificat, that ‘all nations should call her blessed’ (Luke, i. 48), as a foreshadowing of the practice of their church; and they rely equally on the language employed by the early Fathers, as, for instance, Irenzeus, regarding the Virgin, although Protestants consider it as having reference to the Incarnation. But it seems quite certain that during the first ages the invocation of the Virgin and the other saints must have held a_— subordinate place in Christian worship ;-the-reason for which, according to Roman Catholics, was peenik the fear which was entertained of reintro- ucing among the recent converts from paganism the polytheistic notions, of their former creed. But from the time of the triumph of Christianity in the 4th century, the traces of it become more apaetens St Gregory Nazianzen, in his panegyric of the virgin martyr Justina, tells that in her hour of peril she ‘implored Mary the Virgin to come to the aid of a virgin in her danger.’ But it was only after the heresy of Nestorius that the worship of Mary seems to have obtained its full development. His denial to her of the cliaracter of mother of God, and the solemn affirmation of that character by the ecumenical council of Ephesus (430 A.D.), had the effect at once of quickening the devotion of the ple and of drawing forth a more marked mani- estation on the part of the church of the belief which had been called into question. The 5th and 6th centuries, both in the t and in the West, exhibit clear evidence of the practice; and the writers of each succeeding age till the Reformation speak with ually increasing enthusiasm of the privileges of the Virgin Mary, and of the efficacy of her functions as a mediator with her Son. St Bernard, and, still more, St Bonaventura, carried this devotional enthusiasm to its greatest height. The institution of the * Rosary of the Virgin Mary,’ the appointment of a special office in her honour, and, more than all, the fame of many of the sanctuaries which were held to be especially sacred to her worship gave a prominence to the devotion which Protestants find it difficult to reconcile with the honour which they hold due to God alone. The chief festivals of the Virgin, common to the Western and Eastern churches, are the Concep- tion, the Nativity, the Purification, the Annuncia- tion, the Visitation, and the Assumption. The Roman Church has several other special festivals, with appropriate offices—all, however, of minor solemnity. For accounts of representations of Mary in Art, see MADONNA, PrieTA. Mary I., queen of England, daughter of Henry VIIL. by his first wife, Catharine of Aragon, was born at Greenwich on 18th February 1516. She was in her youth a great favourite with her father, and at the age of seven was betrothed to the Emperor Charles V. In her tenth year she was sent with certain commissioners and a species of viceregal court to the marches of Wales to carry out measures for the better government of the country. She was well educated, a good linguist, and fond of music. She was virtuous and pious, devoted to her mother, and devoted to her church, ™~ i 4 74 MARY I. MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS 4 With the divorce of her mother her troubles bezan. | lessness, and with disappointment at her childless- em ‘ Henry treated her with great harshness, and even forced her to sign a declaration that he was supreme head of the church, and that her mother's marriage hid been * by God's laws and man’s law incestuous and unlawful.’ During the reign of her half- brother Edward she lived in retirement, and no threats could induce her to conform to the new religion. On the death of Edward (6th July 1553), she became entitled to the crown by her father's testament and the parliamentary settlement. The Duke of Northumberland had, however, induced Edward and his council to set Henry's will aside in favour of Lady Jane Grey, to whom the duke had married his son Guildford Dudley. Lady Jane was proclaimed on 10th July, but the whole country suspected Northumberland and favoured Mary, who, supported by her friends, was able without blood- to enter London on 3d Angust in triumph. The queen now showed remarkable leniency towards her opponents. Northumberland and two others were executed as traitors, but Lady Jane and her liuxhand were, for the present, spared. She had promised the mayor of London that she would not strain consciences, and she proceeded very ually and cautiously to bring back the old religion. She reinstated the Catholie bishops and imprisoned some of the leading Reformers, but dared not restore pope’s supremacy, and she herself retained, under the advice of Gardiner, the title of supreme head of the church. Cardinal Pole was immedi- ately on her accession designated papal legate, but prudence and the counsel of the em pre- vented his entering England. The question of the hour upon which all turned was the queen's mar- riage. Some thought of Courtenay, Earl of Devon ; s, of *Cardinal Pole, then. only in deacon’s orders ; but the queen, in the face of the fears and protests of the nation, obstinately and morbidly set her heart on Philip of Spain. The unpopularity of the proposal brought abont the rebellion of Wyatt and an attack upon London. The rebellion was quelled mainly through the courage and cool- ness of the queen, but the consequences of her easy trinmph were fatal to her. The hapless Lady Jane, who had seemingly been detained as a for the good-behaviour of her friends, was with her husband and father brought to the block. The Princess Elizabeth was suspected, but without proof, of complicity in the treason, and was committed to the Tower. Injunctions were sent to the bishops to restore ecclesiastical laws to their state under Henry VIIL In July 1554, twelve months after her accession, Philip landed and was married to at Winchester. In the November follow- ing Pole entered Enyland, and parliament, havin made it sure that restitation woul! not be exac from the owners of the confiseated church property, consented to petition for reconciliation to the holy see, and the realm was solemnly absolved from the censures. Soon after, the savage persecution which _ to the queen the name of * Bloody Mary’ began. In 1 Ridley, Latimer, and other martyrs were brought to the stake. Cranmer was burned in March 1556, and Pole was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury in his place. In Angust 1555 Philip had left England, to return only once mare ork few weeks, and Gardiner died in Novem- ver cation raged ; 7 the last three years of her ‘tims perished in the flames. How ¥ ag M aay Sea! res maine for the cruel penstioel oulytfal, uring this period ered almost helpless with ill-health, tantly deluded with the belief that to amother. Broken down with sickness, with grief at her husband's heart- ness, she became a prey to the deepest melancholy, Finally the evils whieh the nation predicted from the Spanish alliance came about. ueen was ] induced by Philip to enter upon war with France, The consequence was the loss of Calais to England. Mary died 17th November 1558, 7 See the histories of Linvard and Froude; England under the reigns of Edward VI. and Mary, by P. F, Bo hse : Privy Purse of the Princess Mary, 4 memoir by Sir F. Madden; and other books cited at Henuy VIL, Evizaperu, Gaey (Lavy Jang), wy, Toes ary I (1662-94), wife from 1677 of William « (q.¥.). Mary Queen of Scots was the daughter of James V, of Seotland by his second wife, Mary of Lorraine, daughter of Claude, Duke of Guise (q.v.), and widow of is of Orleans, Duke of Longueville. She was born at Linlithgow on the 8th of December 1542. Her misfortunes “itogs ‘ A 1% a said to have begun with her birth. The a reached her father on his death-bed at Falkland, but brought him no consolation. ‘The deil go with it!’ he muttered, as his thoughts wandered back to the marriage with Bruce’s daughter, which brought the crown of Scotland to the Stewarts—‘it cam With ane Jass, and it will pass with ane lass? Mary became a queen before she was a week old. Within a year the Regent Arran had promised her in marriage to Prince Edward of England, and the — Scottish acorn had declared the B ssi null. War with England followed, and at Pinkie Cleuch the Scots met a defeat only Jess disastrous than _ Flodden. But their aversion to an English match — was unconquerable; they hastened to place the young queen beyond the reach of En arms, on the island of Inchmahome, in the Lake of Men- teith, and to offer her in marriage to the eldest son of Henry IL. of France and Catharine de’ Medici. The offer was accepted ; and in July 1548 a French fleet carried Mary from Dumbarton, on, the Clyde, to Roscoff, in Brittany, whence she was at once conveyed to St Germain-en-Laye, and there affianced to the Dauphin. 3 Her next ten years were passed at the French court, where she was carefully educated along with the king’s family, receiving instruction in art of making verses from the famous Ronsard. On — the 24th of April 1558 she was married to the Dauphin, who was six weeks younger than her- self. It was , on the of Scotland that her husband should have the title of King of Scots; but Mary was further betrayed into the sgnasers of a secret deed, by which, if she died childless, both her Scottish realm and her right of succession to the English crown (she was the A ies, cranddaughter of Henry VII.) were con- veyed to France, On the 10th of July 1559 the death of the French king called her lusband to the’ throne by the title of Francis II. The government missed into the hands of the queen’s kinsfolks, the Juke of Guise and the Cardinal of Lorraine; but their rule was short-lived, The feeble and sickly king died on the 5th of December 1560, when the : reins of power were grasped by the queen-mother, Catharine de’ Medici, as regent for her next son, Charles IX. Mary must have been prepared, under almost any circumstances, to quit a court which was now swayed by one whom, during her brief reign, she had taunted with being ‘a merchant’s daughter,’ But there were other reasons for her departure from France. Her presence was urgently needed in Scotland, which the death of her mother, a few months before, had left without a government, at & moment when it was convulsed by the throes of the Reformation, Her kinsmen of Guise had ambitious projects for her marriage ; great schemes 4 MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS 75 were based on her nearness of succession to the English crown; and both these, it was thought, might be more successfully followed out when she was seated on her native throne. She sailed from Calais on the 15th, and arrived against the law of God. She is said to have re- nape the violent counsels of the Roman Catholics ; t is certain that she surrourided herself with Protestant advisers, her chief minister being her illegitimate brother, James Stuart, wliom she soon afterwards created Earl of Moray. Under his guidance, in the autumn of 1562, she made a pro- gress to the north, which, whatever was his design, ended in the defeat and death of the Earl of Huntly, the powerful chief of the Roman Catholic party in Scotland, For the Chastelard episode, see CHASTELARD. Meanwhile the courts of Europe were lusy with schemes for Mary’s_marri The kin of Sweden, the king of Denmark, the king of France, the Archduke Charles of Austria, mn Carlos of Spain, the Duke of Ferrara, the Duke of Nemours, the Duke of Anjou, the Scottish Earl of Arran, and the English Earl of Leicester were proposed as candidates for her hand. Her own preference was for Don Carlos, the heir of what was+then the greatest monarchy in Christendom; and it was not until all hopes of obtaining him were quenched that she thought seriously of any other. Her choice fell, somewhat suddenly, on cousin, Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, son of the Earl of Lennox, by his mar- lle a daughter of King Henry VII. of England. He was thus among the nearest heirs to the English crown, and his claims to the sue- cession were believed to have the support of the great body of English Roman Catholics. But except this and his good looks he had no other recommendation. He was weak, needy, insolent, and vicious; his religion, such as it was, was Roman Catholic; his house had few friends and many enemies yee xa io he was frie younger s er t friends, eth Homan Catholic Dae Viekatnatl cornea her against him, but in vain. The marriage was cele- brated at Holyrood on the 29th July 1565. It was the for an insurrection by Moray and the Hamiltons, who hoped to be joined by the whole t party. But their hope was disappointed ; and the queen, taking the field in person, at once peop des revolt, and chased the rebels beyond weed. Her triumph was scarcely over when mis- understandings to arise between her and her husband. Darnley’s worthlessness and folly became only too apparent; she was disgusted by his , and alarmed by his arrogance and ambition. She had given him the title of king, but he now demanded that the crown should be secured to him for life, and that, if the queen died without issue, it should descend to his heirs. Mary hesitated to comply with a demand which would have set aside the settled order of succession ; and what she refused to grant by favour the king pre- pared to extort by force. Mary’s chief minister, since Moray’s rebellion, had been David Rizzio, a manan jacking Italian, of great astuteness and many accomplishments, but generally hated beyond the palace walls as a base- rn foreigner, a court favourite, and a Roman Catholic. The king and Rizzio had been sworn friends, ae the same table, and even sleepin in the same ; but the king was now persuaded that it was Rizzio who was the real obstacle to his designs upon the crown. In this belief, he entered into a formal compact with Moray, Ruthven, Morton, and other chiefs of the Protestant party, undertaking, on his part, to prevent their attainder, or procure their on, and to support and advance the Protestant religion; while they, on the other part, bound themselves to procure the settlement of the crown upon him and his heirs, and to take and slay, if need were, even in the queen’s palace and presence, every one who opposed it. The result of this sen ip was*the murder of Rizzio on the 9th of March 1566, the king leading the way into rs! Sey herrea — rola her Rais , while the murderers dragged the r Italian nto ‘ait ante-chamber, and, mangling his body with more than fifty wounds, completed what they deemed a justifiable act. When Mary learned what had been done she broke out in reproaches against the king as being the chief cause of the deed. ‘TI shall your wife no longer,’ she told him, ‘and shall never like well till I cause you have as sorrowful a heart as I have at this present.’ As had been beforehand among the con- spirators, Mary was kept prisoner in Holyrood ; while the king, of his own authority, dismissed the parliament which was about to forfeit Moray and his associates in the late insurrection. The plot was thus far successful ; but Mary no sooner perceived its objects than she set herself at work to defeat them. Dissembling her indignation at her husband’s treachery and the savage outrage of which he had been the ringleader, she succeeded by her blandishments in detaching him from the con- spirators, and in persuading him not only to escape with her from their power by a midnight flight to Dunbar, but to issue a papkteination in which he denied all complicity in their designs. The con- spiracy was now at an end; Ruthven and Morton fled to England, while Moray was received by the queen ; and the king, hated by both sides, because he had betrayed both sides, became an object of mingled abhorrence and contempt. It was an aggravation of the murder of Rizzio that it was committed, if not in the queen’s presence, at least within a few yards of her person, onl three months before she gave birth (on the 19th June 1566) to the prince who became James VI. As that event drew near, the queen's affection for her husband seemed to revive ; but the change was only momentary ; and before the boy’s baptism, in December, her estrangement from’the king was ater than ever. Divorce was openly discussed in her presence, and darker designs were not obscurely hinted at among her friends. The king, on his part, spoke of leaving the country; but before his preparations were completed he fell ill of the smallpox at Glasgow. Tlis was about the 9th of January 1567. On the 25th Mary went to see him, and, travelling by easy stages, brought him to Edinburgh on the 3lst. He was lodged in a small mansion beside the Kirk of the Field, nearly on the spot where the south-east corner of the university now stands, There Mary visited him daily, and slept for two nights in a room below his bedchamber. She passed the evening of Sunday the 9th of February by his bedside, ta king cheer- fully and affectionately with him, although she is said to have dropped one remark which gave him uneasy forebodings—that it was much about that time twelvemonth that Rizzio was murdered. She left him between ten and eleven o'clock to take part in a masque at Holyrood, at the marriage of 76 MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS a favourite valet. The festivities had not long ceased in the palace, when, about two hours after midnight, the house in which the king slept was blown up by gunpowder ; and his lifeless body was found in the neighbouring garden. The chief actor in this tragedy was undoubtedly James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell (q.v.), an un- scrupulous noble, who, since Moray’s revolt, and still more since Rizzio’s murder, had enjoyed a large share of the queen's favour. But there were suspi- cions that the queen herself was not wholly ignorant of the plot, and these suspicions could not but be strengthened by what followed. On the 12th of April Bothwell was brought to a mock-trial, and acquitted; on the 24th he intercepted the queen on her way from Linlithgow to Edinburgh, and carried her, with scarcely a show of resistance, to Dunbar. On the 7th of May he was divorced from the young and comely wife whom he had reg reg roe weed =e a che ye age betste ) 68 el Mary icly oned his seizure of her person, and pe Bre Mar luke of Orkney ; and on the I15th—only three months after her husbani's murder—she married the man whom every one nied as his murderer. is fatal step at once arrayed her nobles in arms nst her, She was able to lead an army against , but it melted away without striking a blow on the field of Carberry (15th June), when nothin was left to her but to abandon Bothwell an surrender herself to the confederate lords, They lel her to Edinburgh, where the insults of the rabble and grief at parting with Bothwell threw her into a frenzy that she refused all nourish- ment, and, rushing to the window of the room in which she was ay prisoner, called for help, and showed herself to the people half-naked. From Edinburgh she was hurried to Lochleven, where, on the th of July, she was prevailed yee to sign an act of alxlication in favour of her son, who, five days afterwards, was crowned at Stirling. Escaping from her island-prison (where she was confined of still-born twins) on the 2d of May 1568, she found herself in a few days at the head of an army of 6000 men. On the 12th it was met and defeated by the Regent Moray at Langside, near Glasgow. Four days afterwards, in spite of the entreaties of her best friends, Mary crossed the Sol- way, and threw herself on the protection of Queen EI , only to find herself a prisoner for life. From Carlisle, her first place of captivity, she was taken, in Jaly, to Bolton; from Bolton she was carried, in February 1569, to Tuthbury; from Tuthury she L in succession to Wing- field, Coventry, Chatsworth, Sheffield, Buxton, Chartley, and last of all to Fotheringhay. The presence of Mary in England was 4 constant source of uneasiness to Elizabeth and her advisers. A minority in the country were still Catholic, naturally looked to Mary as the likely restorer of the old faith. Plot followed plot, therefore, to effect her deliverance, and to place her on the throne of Elizabeth. Of these plots the most famous is that of Antony Babington, which had for its object assassination of Elizabeth and the deliverance of Mary. The conspiracy was discovered; cer- tain letters of Mary approving the death of Elizabeth fell into the hands of Walsingham; and, mainly on the evidence of copies of these letters, Mary was bronght to trial * September 1586. Sentence of death was pronounced against ‘her on the 25th of October; but it was not until the lat of February 1587 that Elizabeth took —_- to sign the warrant of execution, It was into effect on the Sth, when Mary laid her head upon the block with the dignity of a queen and the constancy and resignation of a martyr, evineing to the last her devotion to the church of her fathers. Five months afterwards her buried with great pomp at Poser Sonne in 1612, it was removed to King ee a + Chapel at Westminster, where it still ina sumptuous tomb erected by James VI. es, The character of Mary was long one of the n fiercely-vexed questions of history, and is in debate, although the great pr authority seems now to be on the side of those wl ayers i pe eelnel tos for Bothwell and her guilty know of his conspiracy against her heeds life. Her beauty and aeccomplish- — ments have never been disputed. She was con- by every one to be the most ing princess of her time. Her large sharp ares might perhaps have been thought handsome rath than beautiinul, but for the winning ine : high joyous spirit which animated them. i been questioned whether her eyes were haze) dark gray, but there is no question as to their star- — like brightness. Her complexion, al fresh and clear, would seem to have been t brilliance so common mg our island beauties. ce anged with her years gray long time. Her bust was full and oats shaped, carried her large stately figure with ma; grace. She showed to advantage on horse still more in the dance. The charm of her voice is described as irresistible ; accompanying herself on the harp, and still oftener on the lute, which set leauty of her long, consciousness how ti have made it more diligent in knittin embroidery, in both of which she excelled. H manner was cg: , affable, kindly, frank te es nae to excess, if judged by the somewhat Brg rule already begi P 1 inning to prevail among Scottish subjects, She spoke three or four gu was well and variously informed, talked — admirably, and wrote both in prose and in verse, — always with ease, and sometimes with . vigour, In the ring of which she was the centre were statesmen like Moray and Lethington, sol-— diers like Kirkaldy of Grange, men of letters like Buchanan, Leslie, Sir Richard Maitland, and Sir James Melville. The first poet of France published — verses deploring his absence from her brilliant court; Damville, the flower of French chivalry, repined at the fate which called him awe ee it sp soon; Brantéme and the younger i delighted to’ speak, in old age, of the days wi 5 ey passed beneath its roof. ; Mary's prose-writings have been collected by the enthusiastic devotion of Prince Alexander Labanoff, in his Lecueil des Lettres de Marie Stuart (7 vols. 1844). Setting aside the twelve so-called ‘sonnets’ which she is said to have written to Bothwell, and which survive only in a French version of an English translation, no more than six pieces of her ry containing in all less than 300 lines, are now known. They have no remarkable merit. The best is_ eet of eleven stanzas on the death of her vasband, Francis IL, printed by Brantéme. — longest is a Meditation of a hundred lines, wri in 1572, and published two years afterwrarae er ever faithful follower, Bishop Leslie of Ross. All are in French, except one sonnet, which is in Italian, The sweetly simple lines beginning ‘ Adieu, plaisant pays de France,’ so often ascribed to her, are pee the work of A. G. Meusnier de Querlon, a rench journalist, who died in 1780. A volume of French verse on the Institution of a Prince, which she wrote for the use of her son, has been lost since 1627, along with a Latin speech in vindication of learned women, which, when no more than thirteen, 2 : —— “wu Creer, aad o K*e Ae ''S w a T) “' S&B Yr yy SCALES. Matate Miles, 16—1 Inek. . . ” ~~ ~“-—=— = = Kilometres, 26-1 Inch. : = * a bo w « 10 so | tense —— i: ee eee Coqyeigha, DH, by Rant, MeKely & Co, wen a «< — ix | med KING *CEORGE | ) } WESTERN PORTION } MARYLAND. Reale, Same as Matn Map. | || “Longitude West from Greenwich 77° ey ‘ [Maryland and Delaware. ] 41) vy for © Leigsie *\, Cheswold )))))) ene, 2 Cowgitt)/// I o Little) VER 2 \T ree hi af Caneel anders Frederica, bs fetta Masten o 2. Draw Bridge £ . “age pep bbins ity ape Millsbor Oy, _Zndian Repeater) , Carey ater!) Mission, — Dagsboro omar "3H i) Mo Frankford i\\ "ard o eS WilgeS—Hiebros fo Cokdland sf eth are ee L Quentico o Salisbu: ‘ FP alsbary eal ‘Wayland, s! SWaipfin Pretend a ‘Hoorres f), Hoopersvitias MARYBOROUGH MARYLAND q7 she delivered in the hall of the Louvre, in presence of the French court. To enumerate all that has been written on Mary would the chief works are Jebb's De favice Scotorum Regine (1725); J. 's Collections Relating to the History of Mary, Queen of Scotland (1727-23); Bishop Keith’s History of the Affairs of Church and State in Scotland (1734; new ed. 1814-50); W. Goodall’s Examination of the Letters said to be written by Mary, Queen of Scots, to James, Earl of Bothwell (1754); Principal Robertson’s History of Scot- land; W. Tytler’s Inquiry into the kvidence ayainst of Seots (1759, 1790); M. Laing’s History of ; G. mers’s Life of Mary, Queen of prc 1822); P. F. Tytler’s History of Scotland ; Prince banoff's Recueil des Lettres de Marie Stuart (1844); David Laing’s edition of John Knox's History of the Reformation (1846-64); the Life by Miss Strickland in her Lives of the Queens of Scotland (1850-59; new ed. 1873); A.de Montaiglon’s Latin Themes of Mary Stuart ee ; Prince Labanvif's Notice sur la Collection des riraits de Marie Stuart (1356); Mignet’s Histoire de Marie Stuart (1852); Teulet’s Letires de Marie Stuart {Ta58 ; Cheruel’s Marie Stuart et Catherine de Medicis M at, teresting document a! Nau, her secretary Father Stevenson, 1883); Leader, Mary Stuart (1881); Baron Alphonse de Ruble, La de Marie Stuart ae ; Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove, Marie Stuart (2 vols. 1889), dealing with only the last Ligh oy of her life ; Hender- son’s Casket Letters (Edin. 1890), giving for the first time Morton’s Declaration regarding the manner in which the Casket is said to have fallen into his hands ; Phi 's Histoire du Régne de Marie Stuart (3 vols. 1891-92) ; Skelton’s sumptuous Mary Stuart (1893 and D. Hay 's Mary Queen of Scots (1897 ). The best ntations of Mary are the contemporary portraits by the French paimtor, Francis Clouet, more commonly called Jehannet or Janet, and the statue, b an unknown sculptor, on her tomb at Wes minster. A portraits which canuot be reconciled with these types inay safely be rejected as spurious. Maryeoreugh, a port of Queensland, on the Mary River (here spanned by a wooden bridge), 25 miles from its mouth and 180 N. of Brisbane, with which there is communication by steamer and coach, The wharves admit vessels drawing 174 feet. Gold from Gympie (61 miles by rail) and copper from Mount Parry and other mines, with sugar anid timber, form the chief exports. There are two dozen sugar-mills at work in the neighbourhood, and three iron-fonndries, and brewing, tanning, and shipbuilding are carried on. Pop. (1891) 9700. Maryland, « state of the American Union, lying letween 37° 53’ and 39° 44’ N. lat., and 75° 4’ and 79° 33’ W. long. It contains | copyrigue 101, 1897, and 12,210 sq. m.—very nearly thie | 1900 in the U.S. by J.B. size of Holland—of whieh about ! “rr'vee't Company one-fifth is water. The length from east to west is 196 miles, and the breadth 128 miles. On the north and east it is se from Pennsylvania and Delaware by ‘Mason and Dixon’s Line’ (q.v.) ; the south-western border follows the course of the Potomac River, the whole of which, with the excep- tion of about 12 miles in the District of Columbia (q-¥.), is ander the jurisdiction of Maryland, down to the low-water mark on the Virginia side. The surface elevation varies greatly, from sea- level to an altitude of 3500 feet. In the west it is mountainous (see BLUE RipGe); in the middle hilly and rolling; in the east and south-east low undulating. A line drawn from the month of the Susquehanna to the city of Washington will cut the state into two nearly equal parts, and divide the mountain and hill country from the low lands on both sides of the Chesapeake Bay. The roductions and occupations are largely determined y the physical features—in the west coal and lumber; in the middle corn and wheat; in the east fish, fruit, and vegetables. The climate is generally regarded as unusually healthful. The mean summer temperature is 75°, the mean winter temperature 34°. The annual rainfall varies from 38 inches in the mountains to 46 inches near the Atlantic coast. The mountain air is regarded as a ific for hay-fever. The prevalent diseases on the shores of the Atlantic and the Chesapeake Bay were formerly bilious and intermittent loves of a mild form, and they still exist to some extent in these districts. The geological formations vary with the surface elevations. The southern section of both the eastern and western shores is alluvial; north of the alluvial deposit is a tertiary formation; north- west of this come metamorphic rocks; west of them a wide belt of Silurian and Devonian formation; and still farther west Carboniferous strata beginning at Cumberland. In the Tertiary we find marl in abundance; in the metamorphic rocks gneiss, granite, limestone, and iron; in the Carboniferous extensive veins of bituminous coal of the best quality. One remarkable vein in the George’s Creek district is 14 feet thick. Over 200 kinds of marble have been found in the state, some of them equal to the Italian marbles. Copper- mines are extensively worked in the middle dis- trict ; and almost all the chrome used in the United States comes from the same location. Near Baltimore are large beds of clay, from which bricks of peculiar excellence and beauty are manu- factured; and in an scale 9 g county valuable quarries of soapstone are worked with profit. The soil is well adapted to cultivation, with the exception of the mountain tops in the west, and a small proportion of marsh land in the east, which might, however, be easily and profitably reclaimed. The forest-trees are principally pine, chestnut, and oak; hickory and walnut are becoming scarce. The staple it-tree is the peach, which covers many thousands of acres: Maryland peaches, pre- served in air-tight cans, are exported to all quarters of the world. Tobacco is the principal crop in the peninsula between the Chesapeake and the Poto- mac, as it was the main reliance of the early settlers, constituting even their ordinary medium of exchange. Tomatoes, melons, small fruits, and all kinds of vegetables are cultivated on the eastern shore and sent to the markets of Baltimore and Philadelphia. The mountains still contain many deer; and wild geese, swans, and turkeys are found in considerable numbers at the proper season, as ‘vell as woodcock, grouse, and quail (locally called tridge). Immense flocks of wild ducks of various species throng the estuaries of the Chesapeake on the approach of cold weather: the *canvas-back’ is found nowhere else in perfection. The Chesapeake Bay (q.v.) divides Maryland into two unequal portions, the Eastern and the Western Shore. ith its estuaries it gives the state a coast- line of more than 500 miles, and almost that number of steamboat landings: on the Eastern Shore there is scarcely a farm more than 5 miles distant from a navigable river, accessible to steamboats of light draught. Shad and herring are caught in large numbers, and the average annual supply of oysters reaches 20 millions of bushels, giving employment to more than 30,000 persons. For the leading manu- factures, see BALTIMORE, where most are located. Baltimore is also the principal port and great com- mercial centre of the state. aryland has about 1300 miles of railway, and two canals (from Cum- berland, in the west, to Washington, 1844 miles, and between the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, 124 miles). 78 MARYPORT MASAT Maryland has a well-developed system of free blicsehools. In 1895-06 there were in attendance 19,362 pupils, with 4616 teachers (salaries $1,790,- 740.82), the total expenses for public school rl cre being for the year $2,650,265.59. There is in Balti- more a state normal school, and in every county a high school or academy. The colleges oe in whole or in — by the state are Sd John’s Col- lege, Annapolis (originally King William's School) ; Washi College, Chestertown, Kent county, to the foundation of which George Washington contributed £100 sterling; the Agricultural Col- lege, near Bladensburg; and the Western Mary- land Coll Westminster. There are also several denominational coll The foremost of the edu- cational institations of Maryland is the Johns Hop- kins University, in Baltimore. There is a school for the feeble-minded at Pikesville; a school for the deaf and dumb at Frederick ; and in Baltimore a school for the blind, and a school for coloured blind children and deaf-mutes, all supported by the state at an annual expense of about $60,000. The asylum for the insane at Catonsville is admirably managerl, Maryland returns six members to congress. The Legislature is styled the General Assembly, and consists of two houses—the Senate and the House of Delegates. The Senate is com of one member from each of the twenty-three counties and three from the city of Baltimore, elected by the people. The House of Delegates has ninety- one members, eighteen from. Baltimore city, and the remainder from the counties in proportion to their respective population. The seat of govern- ment is at Annapolis. Baltimore had in 1900 a pop. of 508,957. The other peeeeel towns are Sumberland, wn, Frederick, Westminster, on the western shore ; Salisbury, Easton, and Cam- ge, on the eastern. i" (1830) 447,030 ; (1860) 687,049 ; (1830) 934,943 ; (1900) 1,188,044. History.—In 1632 Charles 1. of England issued a — to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, granting im all the land ‘from Watkins Point on the Bay, northward to the 40th rg of latitude, and from the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay on the east to the Potomac River on the west.’ This grant included not only the present Maryland, but also parts of Pennsylvania and Delaware, which led to many vexatious disputes, some of which were settled only in 1890. The district was named in honour of Henrietta Maria, Charles's queen. In March 1634 Sey of English gentlemen and their servants retainers, under the command of Leonard Calvert, a brother of Lord Baltimore, landed on the shore of a river now called St Mary’s, a branch of the Potomac, and bought from ‘the Indians @ tract of land. The friendly relations thus com- meneed with the Indians, and but rarely inter- rupted, together with the toleration and protection —- - — ape renee beliet, Led to the rapid and peaceful growth of the new colony. Mary- sand was one of the first of the colonies to take i active partin the Revolution. During the civil war popular sentiment was divided, but the state held to the Union; the battle of Sh msburg (or An- tietam ) was fought (1862)in Maryland. See J. T. lee History of Maryland (3 vols. Baltimore, Maryport, a seaport of Cumberland, at th mouth the Ellen, 28 miles SW. of Carlisle railway (1837). The town gets its name. from fact that Mary Queen of Scots landed here in her flight from Scotland, though it was called Ellenfoot down to 1750, when its harbour was con- structed. A new dock was openel in 1884. Ship- Wuilding and ite kindred employments are carried on, and there are iron-foundries and iron-furnaces, sawmills, flour-mills, tanneries, breweries, &e, The annual value of the total ex H chiefy coal, and iron, varies from £70,000 to 000 ; im- rts of foreign and colonial merchandise range rom £70,000 to £150,000. The ave: of vessels entering the harbour is about 1550 fie. annum, of some 220,000 tons burden. Pop, (1851) 5698 ; (1891) 8784, Marysville, capital of Yuba county, California, on the Yuba Bice as the head of navigation, 52 miles by rail N. of Sacramento, It is a great resort of gold-miners, and though somewhat declining, has an extensive trade, and contains flour-mills, a foundry, woollen factory, &c. Pop. (1900) 3497. Masaccio, a Florentine painter, whose proper name was ‘lomMMASO GuUIDI, was born in 1401 or 1402 in the Arno valley, probably at Castel San Giovanni. He was aeneneee mpc eno 5 Tommy’) because of his ungainly appearance ; phe manners. A reputed pupil of Masolino, he was enrolled in the Florentine guild of painters — in 1424. Whilst still a young man he seems to have executed a fresco of the Crucifixion and scenes illustrating the lives of some of the later saints in the church of St Clement. But his greatest achievements were wrought on the walls of the Carmine church, especially in the Brancacci chapel. It has been matter of controversy as to which ictures precisely were from the brush of Masaccio ; asolino worked at the same walls before him and Filippino Lippi after him. Those whieh are assigned to him beyond doubt or question are ‘Expulsion from Paradise’ (greatly admired by Raphael, who repeated the design in the loggie of the Vatican), ‘Peter and the Tahoe eae ‘Temptation of Adam and Eve,’ ‘Peter Preach- ing,’ and the same saint ‘Baptising,’ ‘ Healing the Sick,’ ‘Giving Alms,’ and (in part) * Restoring the Young Man to Life.’ These works mark an advance in Italian painting, in that they exhibit ®& more vigorous and correct represen tation of nature, with improved perspective and harmony of —_—— between the figures and the back- ground, painters of Italy were greatly influenced by the study of them. Towards the end of 1428 Masaccio suddenly left Florence, and is reported to have gone to Rome and to have died there before the year 1429 ran out. Masai, a le of East Equatorial dwelling in a istrict that stretches from 1° N. to 5° S. lat., and from 34° to 38° E. long., and includes Kilimanjaro, Kenia, and Lake ngo. southern half of the district is low an barren, with no rivers and little rain, whilst in the north it rises into a plateau-region (5000 to 9000 feet), rich in running streams, forests, and grass-land. The Masai are not a Negro or Bantu race ; they resemble the Gallas, being men of magnificent stature and Apollo-like forms, though their faces are ugly and ferocious in expression. This is due to the warlike habits of their youth, when, for nearly a score of years, they live in military kraals, spending their time in alternate idleness and on the se » eat- ing nothing but beef, drinking nothing but milk, and having indiscriminate intercourse with married girls of the tribe. After hea ba 2 which takes place when. they lay aside the habits of the warrior, they settle down as cattle-breeders. The arms of the warriors consist of an ox-hide shield, a spear with a blade 2 to 24 feet long and 3 inches broad, affixed to a shaft of 15 inches, a sword, a knobkerry. They are an aristocratic race, clever public speakers. The work is done by slaves and by the women and boys. a Hamitic language. See Joseph Thomson, Through Masai Land (1885), and com Johnston, Kilimanjaro Expedition (1886). number Many of the subsequent 15th-century i } MASK MASANIELLO 79 Masaniello Lpmaenty TOMMASO ANIELLO), a | and mode of life as the Mashona. The Banyai fisherman of Amalfi, born in 1623, was the leader | tribes—likewise refu from the Matabele—live of the revolt poeple 1647 inst the Spanis Arcos. The people had been exasperated by oppression, great excitement had been pro- duced by a new tax upon fruit. Masaniello him- self was ieved by the harsh treatment which his wife had received after being detected in an attempt to smuggle a little flour. Taking advan- tage of a quarrel between the fruit-sellers and the tax-collectors on 7th July 1647, Masaniello stirred up the multitude to a revolt. Their triumph was piarlete! palaces and public buildings were plundered, mostly for arms, a bloody popular Justice was executed, and the viceroy was forced into a jar treaty with Masaniello in the church of the Carmelites on 13th July. But success and the weight of his responsibilities turned the fisher- man’s head ; he gave himself up to excess, and his capricious despotism immediately became terrible to his own associates. He was assassinated by agents of the viceroy on 16th July. Mascagni, Pierro, composer, born 7th Decem- ber 1863, at Leghorn, produced, after a somewhat lar musical education, the brilliantly success- ful one-act o Cavalleria Rusticana in 1890, in competition for a prize, the plot being taken from a story by as ah y.). Later operas were L’ Amico Fritz (1891, on Erekmann-Chatrian), J Rant- zau (1892), Nerone, besides songs and ballads. Maseara’, «a town of Algeria, 50 miles SE. of Oran, on a slope of Atlas. Pop. 14,76? Mascarenes, See MAvRIrTIvs. Masham, Mrs. See MARLBOROUGH. Mashonaland, or MAsHUNALAND, is the name of the region lying north-east of Matabeleland, between 16° 30’ and 19° 10’ S. lat. and 30° and 32° E. long. It embraces the peas (4000-4600 feet ) whose backbone is formed by the Umvukwe Mountains, and in which some of the chief feeders of the Zam- besi, Limpopo, Sabi, and Mazoe have their origins. It is reported to be the healthiest part of South Africa, with rich soil, grass all the year round, an abundance of rnnning streams. A constant cold sonth-east wind tempers the heat, and renders the air strong and bracing. When their land was invaded by the Matabele, those of the Mashona who massacre took refuge in the mountain- ous districts, and there they have ever since main- tained themselves, building their vill on almost ble crags. A peaceful and industrious people, of Bantu race, they live in perpetual fear their fierce neighbours. They are the best husbandmen in South Africa, and before being dis of their country owned large herds of cattle. They now grow rice, Katflir corn, maize, ground-nuts, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and cotton; this last they weave into blankets. They are also good iron-wor Iron, copper, and gold (in quartz and river sand) exist in immense quantities in_the country. Mauch, a German traveller, in 1871 discovered many old mines that had at one time been worked with some d of scientific skill, especially at a place called Zimbabye, which the identified with the Ophir (q.v.) of the Bible, thus gave some support to Milton’s identifica- tion of region with Sofala. Mashonaland was put under British protection on 11th February 1 and was taken actual ion of by the British South Africa Company in August 1890. The MAKALAKA are a people closely allied to the Mashona, and have had nearly the same his- . Those who escape the Matabele live chiefly _ in the monntain fastnesses in the southern part of Matabeleland, and follow the same occupations lace in Naples in July viceroy, the Duke of south-east of the Makalaka, along the middle course of the Limpopo. See books quoted under MATABELELAND. Masinissa, king of the Eastern Numidians, was born about 238 B.c., and brought up at Car- th Having helped the Carthaginians to subdue Syphax, king of the Massylii or Western Numi- dians, he accompanied his allies to Spain and fought valiantly and successfully against the Romans. But about 210 the Carthaginians gave his promised bride to Syphax; and for this and other reasons he became henceforward the bitter foe of Carthage, and zealously backed up the Romans in their struggle against their African rival. He received as his reward the kingdom of Syphax, together with large portions of the territory 0! h . But before he died, in 149 B.c., he saw that he had fostered a most dangerous enemy for his own people, the Massylii, and the kingdom he left to his sons, and slackened his zeal for Rome. Mask (through the medium of Fr. and Span. from the Arabic maskharat, ‘a sete) is an arti- ficial covering for the face, worn by many different peoples for different purposes. Masks are common amongst the inhabitants of New Britain, New Ireland, New Guinea, and the adjoining islands, amongst the North American Indians and the Eskimo, the Chinese, the aborigines of Australia, and some Negro tribes. The masks these peoples use are generally very hideous and repellent in aspect, being designed expressly to inspire terror in the mind of the beholder. The primary object is to scare away the demons and spirits who bring misfortunes, diseases, national calamities, or other evils upon the tribe; the exorcism is usually prac- tised by processions of masked men, who dance and utter loud’ cries calenlated to frighten the enemy away. Where totemistic beliefs prevail, it is customary for the people to celebrate dances clad in the skins of wild animals, and on such occasions masks are worn sha to resemble the animals represented in the dance. It is highly probable that practices of a similar nature were current amongst the primitive Greeks, Egyp- tians, and other peoples. The myth of the snaky- haired Gorgon is traced back to this origin; so too is the practice of covering the faces of the dead with a mask, intended to keep the demons away from them whilst they were on their journey to the abode of shades, a practice common to the ancient Greeks and Egyptians, and the ancient Pernvians and Mexicans. Death-masks of gold have been found in tombs of Mycenz and Kertch ; those of the Peruvians were made of silver and wood; some found at Carthage were of clay, painted in divers colours; and copper and wood were used in Mexico. Masks, besides being worn by living men, were sometimes attributed to their gas, as in ancient Egypt and Greece, and in ndia, or were put on over the faces of the gods’ images, as in ancient Mexico. The Greeks, more- over, in their theatrical performances, employed masks shaped to represent the expression of a particular emotion or passion, as rage, grief, sly ennning, &e. These, made of linen, tree-bark, leather, or even wood, had large funnel-shaped mouth-openings, for the purpose of giving the voice of the actor a penetrating sound (whence Lat. per-sona = ‘a mask’), so that it might be heard all over the vast theatres in which he had to act. Passing on to the Romans, the custom of putting masked actors on the stage was transmitted by them to the Italian theatres of the middle ages; nearly all the actors in the Commedia dell’ Arte wore masks, The custom was also practised in the 80 MASEELYNE MASONRY English Masque (q.v.) of Elizabethan and subse- quent times, The Masquerade (q.¥.) or masked ball is a survival of the same observance ; but in them the mask is worn for the purpose of disguising the identity of the wearer, as it was in the case of the Man with the Iron Mask (see InoON MASK). Reo Del, Masia, Labres, and Certain Aboriginal Customs ( Washington, 1555); Sand, Af ab 1860); Ficoroni, De is Secnicia (1 eyer, Masken con Neu-Guinca (1889). Maskelyne, Nevin, D.D., F.R.S., astronomer and physicist, inventor of the prismatic micrometer, was in London, 6th October 1732. From West- minster School he to Catharine Hall, and subsequently to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship in 1756, In 1758 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and resolved to devote himself to astronomy. In 1763 he went to Barbadoes for the Board of Longitude to test the newly-invented Harrison clironometers, and after his return was (1765) appointed astronomer- roval. During the forty-six years that he held this othice he acqu universal respect by his diligence and the accuracy of his investizations, made several improvements the arrangements and employ- ment of the instruments, and was the first to mark the time to tenths of a second. In 1774 he visited Schiehallion, Perthshire, to make observations determining the density of the earth in connection with that hill (see Earru). The first of his ve numerous publications was the British Mariner's Guide (1763). In 1767 he commenced the Nautical Almanac. His Tables for computing the Places of the Fixed Stars, &c. were published by the Royal Society in 1774. In 1776 he produced the first volume of the Astronomical Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, — 1665—an invaluable work still continued. He was rector from 1775 of Shrawanline, Salop, and from 1782 of North Rancton, Norfolk, and died 9th February sil. Mason, George Hemaina, A.R.A., was born in Staffordshire in 1818. He studied for the medical profession, but in 1844 abandoned it and travelled on the Continent studying art till 1858, His best works were ‘The Evening Hymn’ (1868), *Girls Dancing by the Sea’ (1869), and ‘The Harvest Moon’ (1872). He died from heart disease on 22d October 1872. His pictures show great and rich effects of colour. margin f after his a collection of his pictures was exhibited by the Burlington Club. Mason, Sim Jostan, manufacturer and philan- thropist, born at Kidderminster, 231 Febraary 1795, began life by selling cakes on the street, and after turning his hand to various employments (1822) at oy age He began to make pens in 1o., and his business increased till he became the | t pen-maker in the world. Partner with Elkington in the electro-plating trade (1842-65), he vave Dr (afterwards Bir) Cc, W. Siemens his first start in life by paying him £1600 for a patent; and he paid Krupp, founder of the works at Ewen, £10,000 for the patent for machinery to roll the metal ‘blanks’ from which and forks are made. Mason erected and endowed almshouses, and an orphanage at Erding- ton, at a cost of £260,000, and was the founder of the Josiah Mason College at Birmingham. He died at Erdington, June 16, 1881. See the Memoir by J. T. Bance (1890), Mason, WILttAM, minor poet, but more famous aa the literary executor of Gray, was born son of a Yorkshire clergyman in 1725, studied at St John's College, Cambridge, nated B.A. in 1745, and was soon after elected Fellow of Pembroke College throngh the influence of Gray, who had been attracted to him by his Museus (1747), @ lament for the death of Pope (1744), in im of Lycidas. He published later two absurd but ainbitious tragedies, E/frida and Caractacus; the English Garden (1772-82), a long and tedions in blank verse ; and the Memoirs of Gray in 1775, the serious defects of which have at length been demonstrated to all readers through the painstak- ing and honest labours of Mr Gosse. Mason took pa tes in 1754, and became vicar of Aston, in York- shire, and later also precentor and canon of York, where he died 7th April 1797. Mason and Dixon's Line is nepeaay sup: to have been a line dividing the slave' rom the non-slaveholding states, and to have run due east and west. In reality it ran for more than one-third of its length between two slave states, Maryland and Delaware, and a small ipe it isan arcof acircle. It was run by two English engineers, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, between the years 1764 and 1767, for the purpose of settling the disputed boundaries between Maryland on the one side and Pennsylvania and Delaware on the other, Their instructions were to begin at the most easterly point on the Atlantic Ocean, and run due west to a point midway between the Atlantic and the Chesa- peake Bay; thence northward, so that the line should become a tangent to the north-western boundary of Delaware, which was a circle described from New Castle Court-house as centre, with a radius of 12 miles. The line was then to follow the curve in a westerly direction until it a point due north of the point of tangency ; thence due north until it intersected a line run due west from a ae 15 miles south of Philadelphia; and thence due west until it inversected a line i dune north from the most western source of bed Potomac River. The work was done with su skill and accuracy that a revision in 1849, with instruments of much greater precision, disclosed no error of importance, Masonry, the art of construction in stone. The earliest existing examples are among the most magnificent specimens of the art. No nation has excelled the ancient Egyptians, who did not use mortar in their important structures, such as the pyramids, the joints being all carefully polished and fitted, Cyclopean masonry, of which remains exist in many parts of Greece and Italy, also ex- hibits stones of great size and with carefully- adjusted joints. 1e walls of Mycenm are amon, the earliest examples. These are built wit luge irregular blocks, the spaces between being filled up with smaller stones, The Etruscan speci. mens are more carefully executed ; the stones are not squared, but they are all carefully fitted to- yether. The masonry of the Greeks and ans very closely resembled that of the present day: Rubble-work (opus incertum), in which the stones are not regularly coursed ; Conrsed-work, where the joints are all level, and the stones of equal height; Ashlar, resembling the latter, but built with larger stones carefully dressed on the joints. The early medieval masonry was of very construction, being, in fact, little better than com: mon rubble, with an occasional use of Herring-bone Work. The Normans improved upon this kind of work, but their masonry was also so bad that m of the towers built by them either fell or had to be taken down. The art gradually improved with the advance of Gothic architecture, and ashlar was re- introduced for all important works. The ashlar- work so constantly used in Renaissance buildings has given place to the hammer-dressed and squared masonry. Special materials sometimes produce special kinds of work ; thus, in Norfolk and vuttalle, \\ \ \\ ENVIRONS OF BOSTON. A" $ose OF MILES. 41 2 td “Userrs\. 7 fi Severn Peayytee i Migmix Pasprpen! ier Dagdartd/ / ol Wee / [ Massachusetts. | 3 wal 7,0 a "Ai Massabesic Lake 0 | a dooter er , ry Pk’ nA OR. 2 sg ¥, af % 24 a ¥ Wewton Jc, i Ya . 3 "ond sf 3. Ne es My uc \ => = e* g 0) es Rene eAA\\\ Poa WO hon np iis, a . oe | ae Gs a o D aiaeh te gs \\\\\\ / e/ 7 < 4, 2 2 Sairaat ite \\\ |) \~ > life p *Lay*ige" ‘oa eld HU) || AN Wie J”. 3 2 SARS Rate Pt. 7 “5 nHarboa\ “ if ti\) Y. - Eaeten| < o Dryantetlle 1 wry NY , \| Provinte! Gee 7 A wate. SX Bho Ia ar) : z He it “a f cs > hy ymouth 2 m 7 4 jath—— x Baty Ys oF ntowy | Cx. carve® A Zi * ar AOSP- oO S tS Damaiahia RG °- ufiale | Pm ument | _ We ss) armouth = \¢ Beach eS Pocassetg y Barnstable x Ay. others are as solid as a treatise on political philo- sophy. His versification is peculiar. He seems to have taken the metrical style of Shakespeare’s latest plays.as his model; but his verse, though it is fluent and flexible, lacks the music and magic of Shakespeare’s. _No writer repeats himself more frequently than Massinger ; he had a set of favour- ite phrases that he constantly introduces. This trick of repetition, joined to his metrical manner- isms, helps us panirialiy 34 distinguish his work from Fletcher's. Mr Robert Boyle (in papers con- tributed to Englische Studien) and Mr i G. Fleay have discussed the difficult question how far Mas- singer was concerned in the authorship of plays that pass under the name of ‘Beaumont and Fletcher.’ Massinger’s Psy were edited by William Gifford in 1808, 4 vols.; 2d ed. 1816. There is also an edition in.the volume (from the text of Gifford) by the late Lieutenant- colonel Cunningham. - Two volumes of selected plays, edited by Mr Arthur Symons, are included in the ‘ Mer- maid’ series. See S. Gardiner, ‘The Political Ele- ment in Massinger’ in Cont. Rev. 1876. Masson, Davin, an eminent Scottish author, born at Aberdeen, 2d December 1822, educated at Marischal College in that city, and at the univer- sity of Edinburgh. At nineteen he became editor of a Scotch provincial paper, and later joined the literary staff of W. & R. Chambers. In 1847 he settled in London, writing for the reviews, the Encyclopedia Britannica, and the English Encyclo- pedia. In 1852 he succeeded Clongit in the chair of English Literature in University College; in 1865 he became professor of English Literature in the University of Edinburgh, a t he re- por in 1895. Masson edited ‘acmillan’s azine from 1859 to 1868. His first published work was his Essays, Biographical and Critical (1856), reprinted with later essays in 3 vols. (1874- 76) entitled respectively Wordsworth, Shelley, and Keats; The Three Devils—Luther’s, Milton’s, and Goethe's ; and Chatterton, a St of the Year 1770. His great work is his ponderous Life of John Milton, narrated in connection with the Political, Ecclesias- tical, and Literary Hi: of his Time (6 vols. 1859-80), the most complete biography of any Englishman, and of great value for the contempor- ary history. Other works are British Novelists and their Styles (1859); Recent British Philosophy (1865); Drummond of Hawthornden: the Story of his Life and Writings (1873); the ‘Cambridge edition of Milton, with introductions, notes, and an essay on Milton’s English (3 vols. 1874; new ed. 1890), the ‘Golden Treasury’ edition (2 vols. 1874), and the ‘Globe’ edition (1877). Later works are De Quincey (1878) in the ‘Men of Letters’ series, and his edition of De Quincey’s works (14 vols. 1889-91), besides some volumes of Sketches and Essays (1892 and 1894). He was Rhind lecturer in 1885, after 1879 he edited the Register of the Privy-council of Scotland, and in 1893 became Historiographer Royal for Scotland. Masso’'rah, or MaAsora (‘tradition’), a collection of critical notes on the text of the Old Testament, its divisions, accents, vowels, mmatical forms, and letters (see HEBREW UANGUAGE, Vol. V. p. 614). The Massorah, like the Halacha and Haggada, was the work of many and centuries, as, indeed, we find in ancient authorities mention made of different systems of accentuation used in Tiberias, Babylon (Assyria), and Palestine. It was in Tiberias also that the Massorah was first committed to writing between the 6th and 9th century A.D. Monographs, memorial verses, and glosses on the margins of the text seem to have been the earliest forms of the written Massorah, which gradually expanded into one of the most elaborate and minute systems, laid down in the 86 MASSOWAH MASTER AND SERVANT * Great Massorah ‘(about the 11th century), whence an extract was made known under the name of the *Small Massorah.' The final arrangement of the Massorah, which was first oeogra in Bom 's Rabbinical Bible (Venice, 1525), is due to Jacob- ben-Chayim of Tunis, and to Felix Pratensis. The of the Massoretic writers is Chaldee, and the obscure abbreviations, contractions, symbolical signs, &c., with which the work aboun render its study exceedingly hard. Nor are all its dicta of the same sterling value; they are not only some- times utterly superfluous, but downright erroneous. See Dr Ginsburg’s t work on the Massorah (4 vols. folio, 1 ) Massow: or MASSAUA, a town built on a coral island the west coast of the Red Sea, in 15° 36° N. lat., 39° 28’ E. long. It was seized by Turkey in 1557, but in 1866 given by her to Egypt ; and in 1885 it was occupied by Italy. The island is only about 1} mile in circumference, and is con- th the mainland by a causeway, 1610 ards in length, resting on an intervening island. The pop. number 16,350, of whom 15,000 are natives, 500 Italians, 700 Greeks, and 100 Ban- yans, Fishing for pearls and mother-of-pearl is the principal industry, but there is also a little erred and weaving of palm-fibres. Next after Sufikin, Massowah is the most important harbour and trading-port on the African coast of the Red Sea. Its

; Istria. After the ~ MAURY MAXIMILIAN 99 dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, he with- drew from public life, and even from France. The pope, ing his devotion to Louis XVL, sum- moned him to Rome, made him Archbishop of Nicwa in partibus, then cardinal (1794), and, besides bestowing upon him a valuable living, sent him as his nuncio to witness the coronation of the Emperor Francis II. In spite of his zeal for the Bourbons, Maury made his submission to Napoleon in 1804, and Napoleon in return appointed him grand almoner to his brother Jerome, and in 1810 chose him to be Archbishop of Paris. This step cost Maury the favour of the pope; that of the eo serch a ar 4 course gyre He consequently died in disgrace on 111 ay 1817. Maury wrote Essai sur (Eloquence de la Chaire (2 vols. 1810), ‘one of the best books in the lan- ;’ his @uvres Choisies were published in 5 vols. in 1827. See Lives by his nephew, L. S. Manry (1827), Ponjoulat (1835), and Ricard (1887); also ite-Beuve, Causeries de Lundi, vol. iv. » MATTHEW FONTAINE, an American naval r, astronomer, and hydrographer, was born near Fredericksburg, Virginia, January 14, 1806. In 1825 he was pm midshipman in the United States navy, and during a voyage round the world in the Vincennes commen is well- known = greg (1834), which was adopted as a text-book in the navy. After thirteen years’ service he became lieutenant in 1837, but an acci- dent two years later lamed him for life. He devoted himself to study and the promotion of naval reform, and in 1842 was i, oonigaes super- intendent of the Hyd hical Office at Wash- ington, and two years later of the observatory. Here he carried out a system of observations on Phyeeat t currents, vr he enabled him te his i a9 g the 0, Sea (1856), and to pro- duce in 1844 gn EA on the Gulf Stream, Oeena Currents, and Great Circle Sailing. In 1855 he was promoted to the rank of commander, but ed his commission on the secession of Vir- an officer of the Confederate navy, and as such was sent as commissioner to Europe. After the war he lived some time in Mexico, but finally accepted the chair of Physics in the Vir- ginis Military Institute at Lexington, where he ied February 1, 1873. He was a member of the scientitic ties of Paris, Berlin, Brussels, St Soaheaal 2 and may be considered almost as the founder of a new and im nt science. There is : aay by his daughter (New York and Lond. _Mausoleum, « sepulchral monument of large size, containing a chamber in which urns or coffins are deposited. The name is derived from the tomb at Halicarnassus to Mausolus, king of Caria, by his widow, Artemisia, in 353 B.c. It was esteemed one of the seven wonders of the world. Although apparently in good condition as late as the 12th century, it fell into decay during the following two centuries. The ruins were ransacked for building materials by the Knights of St John in the 16th century. The site was rediscovered in 1857 by Newton, who was instrumental in getting the remains carried to the British Musenm (q.v., Fol. IL. p. 463). The mauso- leum consisted on 1 a basement 65 feet high, which stood an Ionic colonnade 234 feet high, sur- mounted by a pyramid, rising in steps to a similar height, and on the apex of that stood a colossal gow, arr 14 feet in —. of Mausolus = ein the quadriga; these statues are suppose: to have been the work of the celebrated Sanne. Later instances of large and magnificent mauso- leums are Metella’s tomb, Hadrian’s (Castle of San Angelo), and that of Augustus at Rome, the mausoleum of Frederick-William III. and Queen Louisa at Charlottenburg near Berlin, that of the House of Hanover at Herrenhausen, of the Prince Consort at Frogmore in Windsor Park, of Napoleon III, at Farnborough, and of A. T. Stewart at Garden City (q.v.), in the United States. The neighbourhood of San Francisco is studded with the mausoleums of American millionaires, one instance being the Lick (q.v.) Observatory ; while magnificent structures mark the burial-places of such prominent men as Lincoln, Grant, and gine g See BURIAL, and other articles referred to t 3 Mauvaises Terres, or Bap LANps. See Dakota (NORTH AND SOUTH), WYOMING. Mauve. See Dyerna. Maw-seed, a name by which -seed is sold as food for cage-birds when il 456 Maxim Gun. See MAcuInE Guns. Maximilian I., German emperor, the son of Frederick IIl., was born at Vienna-Neustadt, 22d March 1459. In his nineteenth year he married Mary, the heiress of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, whereby he acquired Burgund and Flanders. But this involved him in war with Louis XI. of France, the French kings having for many years had covetous longings towards Flanders. After the early death of his wife (1482) Maximilian was forced to give Artois and the duchy of Bur- gundy to Louis. Nevertheless he continued to war against his enemy, in spite of the disaffection of his Flemish subjects. In 1486 he was elected king of the Romans. In 1490 he drove out the Hungarians, who, under Matthias Corvinus had sei (1487) great part of the Austrian territories on the Danube; and at Villach in 1492 he routed the Turks, who had been raiding in Carinthia, Car- niola, and Styria. Charles VIII. of France having rejected Maximilian’s danghter for Anne of Brit- tany, whose great possessions the emperor hoped to secure by marrying Anne himself, war was only averted by Charles ceding to his exasperated rival the county of Artois and Franche-Comté. On the death of his father in 1493, Maximilian became emperor. He subsequently married Bianca Sforza, daughter of the Duke of Milan, and turned his ambition towards Italy. But his schemes failed : after various changes of fortune, and years of war, he was compelled (1515) to give up Milan to France and Verona to the Venetians. Nor was he more suc- cessful inst the Swiss, who in 1499 completely separa’ themselves from the German empire. The hereditary dominions of his house, however, were increased during his reign by several peaceful additions, chief amongst these being Tyrol ; and the marriage of his son Philip with the Infanta Joanna united the houses of Spain and Hapsburg ; whilst the marriage in 1521 of his grandson Ferdi- nand with the daughter of Ladislaus of Hungary and Bohemia, brought both these kingdoms to Austria. Two years after his accession the new emperor put an end to the intestine feuds of his nobles by proclaiming at Worms the Eternal Peace. le also improved the administration of justice by establishing the Imperial Tribunal and the Imperial Aulic Council, and by admirable police regulations. The empire was divided into six (afterwards ten) circles, each ruled by a separ- ate governor. Maximilian greatly encouraged the arts and learning, and especially favoured the universities of Vienna and Ingolstadt, and caused at least two works to be written under his own rsonal direction, Theuerdank in verse and Weiss- pe in prose, of both of which he himself is the hero. He died at Wels, in Upper Austria, 12th January 1519, Besides being excellently schooled in mental and artistic accomplishments, Maxi- 100 MAXIMILIAN MAXWELL milian was well versed in all magne, acne yp and these advantages were further enhanced by a kingly presence, a chivalrous disposition, and a manner, so that he has been called ‘the fret knight of his age.’ Like Henry VIII. of England, he loved to take part in yee games of archery, &c. See Lives by Kliipfel (1864) and Ulmann (1884), and a history of his reign by Hegewisch (1782). Maximilian, Emperor or Mexico. Ferdi- nand Maximilian Joseph, Archduke of Austria, was born on July 6, 1832, and was the son of the Archduke Francis-Charles, and the younger brother of Francis-Joseph I. He became an admiral of the Austrian navy, and in 1857-59 he was popular as governor of the Lombardo-Venetian territory. In 1862 the French were induced to interfere in the affairs of Mexico, and in 1863 called together an Assembly of Notables, which offered the crown of Mexico to Maximilian. After deliberation he solemnly accepted it; and in June 1864 he entered Mexico. For a time all went well; but he vainly tried to reconcile the Mexican parties. Juarez (q.v.) again raised the standard of inde- dence ; and soon after 1188) Louis Napoleon to contemplate the withdrawal of his troops. In vain the Empress Charlotte, a daughter of Leopold I. of Belgium, went to Europe to enlist support for her husband; her reason gave way under the continued grief and excitement brought on by disappoint- ment. The French were most anxious that Maxi- milian should leave with their troops; but he felt bound as a man of honour to remain, and share the fate of his followers. At the head of 8000 men he made a brave defence of Queretaro against a Liberal army under Escobedo, In May 1867 he was betrayed and tried by court-martial, and on June 19 he was shot. His body was conveyed to Europe in an Austrian frigate. His death was directly due to his own fatal edict of October 3, 1865, that all Mexicans taken in arms against the empire should be shot without trial. After the death of Maximilian, his writings were published under the title of Aus Meinem Leben ; Reiseskizzen, Aphoris- men, Marinebilder (7 vols. 1867). See MEXIco. Max-Miiller, Friepricn, philologist, was born at Dessau, in the duchy of Anhalt-Dessau, 6th December 1823. His father, Wilhelm Miller, dis- tinguished not only for his worth as a man and his extensive and thorough scholarship, but as one of the first German lyric poets, was librarian of the ducal library, but died prematurely, October 1827. Max-Miiller received the elements of his education at Dessau, and then went to Leipzig, where he studied Greek and Latin under Hermann and Haupt, and took his degree in 1843. He began the study of Sanskrit under Professor H. Brockhaus, and soon chose it as his special pursuit. The first fruits of his labours appeared in a translation of the Hito padesa ( se 1844). In 1844 he went to Berlin to study under Bopp and Schelling, and consult the Sanskrit MSS. to be found there. In Paris, whither he repaired in 1845, he began, at the instigation of Burnouf, to prepare for an edition of the Rig-Veda, with the commentary of Sayan4- cirya. With this view he came to England, June 1846, to examine the MSS. in the East India House, London, and the Bodleian Library at Oxford; and, on the recommendation of Professor H. H. Wilson, the East India Company com- missioned him (1847) to edit the Rig-Veda at their expense (6 vols, 1849-74; new ed. 1890). In 1850 Max-Miiller was appointed Deputy Taylorian fessor of Modern Languages at Oxford; in 1854 succeeded to the professorship; in 1858 he was elected a Fellow of All Souls; and in 1866 was sande professor of Comparative Philology. Max- Miiller has published treatises on a variety of philo ] topics, which have done more than the la of any other single scholar to awaken in England a taste for the science of in its modern sense. Inheriting the poetic and fire of his father, Max-Miiller has at command such a felicity of illustration that subjects under ordinary treatment become in his attractive. He has published a translation into German of KaAlidasa’s sag (1847); The Languages of the Seat of War in the East (1854); Comparative Mythology (1856); History of Sanskrit Literature (1859) ; tures on The Science of Language (1861-63); Lectures on The Scierice of Religion (1870). Other works were Chips P ibe a ee es Ohags vols. i grote the 5 meres tures on The Origin and Growth ©, igi (1878), Selected Essays (1881), and Blogeaphocat Essays (1883). A novel written in German, Deutsche Liebe, which has gone thro’ many editions, is attributed to him. He edited the im- portent series of 7hs feet Det te n 1888-92 he delivered at Glasgow the Gifford Lectures published as Natural Religion, Physical Religion, Anthropological Religion, Psychical Re- ligion. He was one of the eight foreign members of the Institute of France ; D. of Cambri Edinburgh, and Bologna; a Commander of ion of Honour (1896); and a Member of the Privy Council (1896). He died at Oxford, 28th October 1900. See his Auld Lang Syne (1898-99). Maxwell, James CLERK-, one of the greatest of modern natural philosophers, was the only son of John Clerk-Maxwell of Middlebie, in Dunifries- shire, and was born at Edinburgh, June 13, 1831. He was educated in boyhood at the Edinburgh Academy. His first published scientific paper was read for him by Professor Forbes to the a Society of Edinburgh before he was fifteen. He spent three years at the university of Edinburgh; and during this dees he wrote two valuable papers, ‘On the gag of Rolling Curves,’ and ‘On the Equilibrium of Elastic Solids.’’ He went to Cambridge in¢1850, obtained in 1854 the position of second w ler, and was declared equal with the senior wrangler in the higher ordeal of the Smith’s prize. In 1856 he became a professor in Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1860 in King’s College; London. He had been successively Scholar an Fellow of Trinity, and was elected an Hono Fellow of Trinity when he finally became in 187 professor of Experimental Physics in the university of Cambridge. He died November 5, 1879. The great work of his life is his treatise on Elec- tricity and Magnetism (2 vols. 1873). His great object was to construct a theory of electricity in which ‘action at a distance’ should have no place ; and his success was truly wonderful. € be little donbt that he succeeded in laying the basis of a physical theory of electric and magnetic phenomena, quite as securely founded as is the undulatory theory of light (see Nature, vol. vii. p. 478). Another subject to which he devoted much attention was the perception of colour, the three Forel colour-sensations, and the cause of colour- blindness. He was the first to make colour-sensation the subject of actual measurement. He obtained the Adams prize for his splendid discussion of the a conditions of stability of the ring-system of Saturn. But he was perhaps best known to the public by his investigations on the kinetic theory of gases. His Bradford ‘Discourse on Molecules’ is a classic in science. Besides a great number of sapers on various subjects, mathematical, optical, « fang oe! he published an extraordinary text-book of the Theory of Heat and an exceedingly tive little treatise on Matter and Motion. 1879 he edited, with copious and very valuable origina) There can — 2 MAXWELL . ‘ MAYAGUEZ 101 notes, The Electrical Researches of the Hon. Henry Cavendish. He took a prominent part in the con- struction of the British Association Unit of Electri- eal Resistance, and in the writing of its admirable reports on the subject ; and he discovered that vis- cous fluids, while yielding to stress, possess double refraction. He iy by me ihe Bre, me rotten tration, especially by means of diagrams, an sessed a singular power of epigrammatic versihes- tion. Some of his last and very best scientific work adorns and enriches the ninth edition of the Ency- clopedia Britannica. He was, in the full sense of the word, a Christian. His Seientific Papers were edited ha D. Niven (8 vols. Camb. 1800 ); and his Life been written by Lewis Campbell and William Garnett (1882). Maxwell, Sir Wit.1Am Srreuinc., the son of Archibald Stirling of Keir, in Perthshire, was born at Kenmure House, near G w, in 1818. Hav- 4 el wegmui from Trinity Co , Cambridge, in 1839, he spent some time travelling in Italy and sa one onteome of which was Annals of the rtists of Spain (3 vols. 1848). He always retained his interest in Spanish subjects : in 1852 was pub- lished from his pen Cloister Life of the Emperor Charles V., in 1 Velazquez and his Works, in 1856 Notices of the Emperor Charles V. in 1555 and 1556, and in 1883 the sumptuous Don John of Austria ( previously printed for private circulation). He also issued privately several other books, got up in a very sumptuous style, some dealing with les V. and two with the anatomist Vesalius. In 1866 he succeeded to the baronetcy and estates of his uncle, Sir John Maxwell of Pollok, adding the name of Maxwell to his own patronymic. Sir William’s second wife (1877) was the Hon. Mrs Norton (q.v.). Besides representing Perthshire as a Conservative from 1852 to 1867, and again in 1872, he was a trustee of the British Museum and the National Portrait Gallery, and was chosen Lord Rector of St Andrews in 1863, of Edinburgh in 1871, and in 1875 Chancellor of Glasgow University. He died at Venice on 15th January 1878. A new edition of his Works was published in 6 vols. in 1891. May. From a primitive period the revival of vegetation, which marks nature at this period, has been celebrated with various ceremonies. Hence the first of ea Aon from time immemorial been a ere day in Britain, although like most of the estivals of the calendar it Nes suffered from the hand of time. It is no doubt a survival of the Floralia of Romans, who in their turn, it has been suggested, derived their festival from India. The anniversary. is still kept up by the Italians under the title of ‘Calendi di aggio; bey people sallying forth at daybreak to collect with which to decorate the doors of their relatives and friends. A remnant of the May festival, as observed by the Druids, survives in the fires formerly ted on this occasion—the day having been led by the Irish and the Scotch Highlanders Bealtine or Beltane (q.v.). In England, as we learn from Chaucer and Shake- 8 = and other writers, it was customary during e middle for all, both high and low—even the court itself—to go out on the first May morning at an early hour ‘to fetch the flowers fresh.’ Hawthorn (q.v.) branches were also gathered ; these nt home about sunrise, with accompaniments of horn and tabor and all possible signs of joy and merriment. The people then aoe ceeded to te the doors and windows of their houses with the — By a natural transition of ideas they gave hawthora bloom the name of ‘May ;’ they called the ceremony ‘the bringing home the May ;’ they spoke of the expedition to the woods as ‘going a-Maying.’ The fairest maid z of the vill was crowned with flowers as the ‘Queen of the May,’ and placed in a little bower or arbour, where she sat in state, receiving the homage and admiration of the youthful revellers, who danced and sang around her. How thoroughly recognised, too, the May-day games, with the accom- panying morris-dance, became in England may be illustrated by the fact that in the reign of Henry VIII. the heads of the corporation of London went out into the high grounds of Kent to gather the May—the king and his queen, Catharine of Aragon, coming from their palace of Greenwich, and meet- ing these respected dignitaries on Shooter’s Hill. Another conspicuous feature of these festive pro- ceedings was the erection in every town and village of a fixed pole—called the Maypole—as high as the mast of a vessel of 100 tons, on which each May morning they suspended wreaths of flowers, and round which the people danced in rings pretty nearly the whole day; the earliest representation of an English Maypole heing that reproduced in the Variorum Shakespeare, as depicted on a window at Betley, in Staffordshire. A severe blow was given to these merry customs by the Puritans, who caused Maypoles to be uprooted, and a stop put to all their jollities. They were, however, fevivel after the Restoration, and held their ground for a long time; but they have now almost disappeared. In France and Germany too, Maypoles were common, and in some places are still to seen, and festive sports are even yet observed. See Chambers’s ‘ook of Days, vol. i. pp. 569-582. With Catholics, since 1815, the month of May has been speciall celebrated as the Virgin’s month ; and in Scotland, from some time at least before Mary’s marriage to Bothwell (1567), as long before with the Romans, it has been deemed an unlucky month to marry in. May, IsLe or. See Forru. May, THomas, dramatist and historiographer, was the son of Sir Thomas May of Mayfield in Sussex, and was born in 1594. Educated at Cam- bridge, he became a member of Gray’s Inn and a courtier. He produced several dramas ( Antigone, Cleopatra, Agrippina, &c.) and comedies, ms, and translations of the Georgics and Lucan’s Pharsalia. During the Civil War he was made secretary and esathe Jeng to the Parliament, and in that iy east produced a History of the Parlia- ment o ngland, 1640-1643 (1650; several times republished), and a Breviary of the same history (1650). He died 13th November 1650. May, Sir THomAs ErskINE, Baron Farn- borough, born in 1815, was educated at Bedford School, became assistant-librarian of the House of Commons in 1831, clerk-assistant in 1856, and clerk of the House in 1871. He was called to the bar in 1838, was made in 1860 Companion, in 1866 Knight Commander of the Bath, and shortly after his retirement from office in 1886 was raised to the rage as Baron Farnborough, but died on 18th Na y of that year. His most important works are A Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament (1844), which, acknow- ledged as the parliamentary text-book, had ke through six editions before his death and n translated into German and Hungarian; Con- stitutional History of England since the Accession of George III., 1760-1860 (1861-63; 3d ed., with supplementary chapter, 3 vols. 1871), a continuation of Hallam’s work to our own times, and of which French and German translations have apoenret? and Democracy in Europe: a History (2 vols. 1877), a work of great learning and impartiality. Mayaguez, a city and seaport of Porto Rico, on the cate aes 70 eat SW. Me San Juan. It ex- ports sugar, molasses, coffee, hides, fruit, and turtle- shell. Pop. (1899) 15,187, 102 MAYAS . MAYNOOTH Mayas. See American INDIANS. bole, a town of Ayrshire, 3} miles inland, and 9 by rail 8S. by W. of ie. In feudal times it was the capital of Carrick, and has been a h of barony since 1516. It has several baronial mansions, a town-hall,.and a fine Roman Catholic church. Shoemaking is the staple industry. Nearby is the el(q.v.)abbey. Pop. (1891) 5470. Mayence. See MAINz. Mayenne (Lat. Meduana), a French depart- ingah feonned out of the old provinces of Maine and Anjou, now containing the arrondissements of Laval, Chateau-Gontier, and Mayenne, has an area of 1996 sq. mm. and a pop. of (1886) 340,063 ; (1891) 332,387. The valleys of the Mayenne, Vilaine, and Sarthe are fairly fertile, and yield wheat, barley, flax, potatoes, hemp, and fruit (especially apples for p Rg ). Cattle-breeding, coal and slate mining, and cotton spinning and weaving are the other chief industries. Chief-town, Laval.—The river Mayenne, after a course of 127 miles in a southerly direction, joins the Sarthe at Angers to form the Maine, a tributary of the Loire. It 1s navigable up to Laval.—The town of Mayenne, on the river Mayenne, 78 miles by rail S. by W. of Caen, has a picturesque ruined castle (taken by the English in 1424), steep narrow streets, and manu- factures of calico and linen. Pop. (1872) 8790; (1886) 9940 ; (1891) 10,428. Mayer, Jutivs Ropert von, physicist, was born at Heilbronn, 25th November 1814, studied medicine at Tiibingen, Munich, and Paris, life as a ship’s surgeon, and settled in his native town to practise his profession in 1841. Whilst at Batavia in 1840 his attention was first attracted to the studies he afterwards pursued in every interval of leisure. In 1842 he published in Liebig’s Annalen a prelimi statement of the mechanical theo of heat, in which he clearly determined the numen- cal relation between heat and work. Three years later he restated his views with admirable clearness and with a great wealth of illustration, and at the same time gave a forecast of his theory of the meteoric origin of the sun’s heat, elaborated in 1848. case 7 ocergea with Mayer the mechani- | eat was worked out independently | cal theory of by Joule (q.v.) in England. troversy arose as to the priority of discovery. The Royal Society gave him the seg 9a medal 1871, and he was ennobled by the king of Wiir- temberg two years before his death, on 20th March 1878. ayer's papers were collected under the title Mechanik Correspondence appeared in 1889. See Tyndall in Nature (vol. v.; of. vol. xvii.), and monographs by Dithring (1879) and Weyrauch (1889), Mayflower, May-fly, May Laws, See Pivorim Faruers, EPHEMERA, FALK. Mayhem, See Assavtr. Mayhew, Aveustus (1826-75), author, wrote in conjunction with his brother Henry (‘the Brothers Mayhew’) several notable works of humorous fie- tion, the best of which are named in the article below. In addition to this, the better-known part of his work, he wrote several stories which were ener at the time—Paved with Gold (1857), The inest Girl in Bloomsbury (1861), Faces for Fortunes (1865), &e. Mayhew, Henry, journalist and littérateur, was in London in November 1812. He ran away from Westminster School in consequence of unjust treatment, was sent on a voyage to Calcutta, and on returning was articled to his father, a solicitor. Mayhew's first adventure in literature was the starting, in conjunction with Gilbert & Beckett, of The Cerberus, the production of which was Nevertheless a con- ler Warme (2d ed. 1874), and his) sto by A Beckett’s father, The two youths in d t left their homes, and with but fifteen shillings between them walked to Edinburgh, hoping to make fortunes there as actors and authors at the theatre of which Mayhew’s brother Edward was lessee ; this failed, for they were at once sent back. In 1831 they started Figaro in i proto- Good that turned Everything to Gold (1847), The Greatest Plague of Life (1847), The Image of His Father (1848), Whom to Marry (1848), 7! Be ff coc ness (1849), mange fr Appearances (1855). One of the originators and first London. The work by which Mayhew will perhaps be best remembered is his t London Labour and the London Poor (1851, Ke). Henry Mayhew, who had married in 1844 the elder daughter of Douglas Jerrold, died on July 25, 1887.—Horace MAYHEW (1816-72), brother of the two foregoing, also made some mark in literature, more especially of a humorous and ephemeral kind. He was a constant contributor to Punch, of which he was at one time sub-editor. Maynooth’, a village of Co Kildare, Tre- land. 1p miles NW. of Dublin by rail; p. (1881), including the college, 1174. It is o torical interest as the seat of the Geraldines, of whose castle striking ruins still remain; and as the scene of more than one struggle with the English power, especially the * Rebellion of Silken Thomas,” in the reign of Henry VIII., and in the war of the Con- federates (1641-50). But its chief modern interest arises from its Roman Catholic college, established (1795) by an act of the Irish parliament during Pitt’s ministry, to meet a necessity created by the destruction, through the French Revolution, of the places of education in France, upon which the Irish Catholic clergy, excluded by the penal laws from the opportunity of domestic education, had been driven to a The original endowment, an annual vote of , was continued, although not without controversy and keen opposition on the part of zealous Protestants, by the imperial parlia- ment after the act of union. In the year 1846 Sir Robert Peel carried a bill for a permanent endow- ment of £26,000 a year, to which was added a grant of £30,000 for building tad icon The build- ing erected under the original endowment is a plain quadrangle. The new college is a very sti iothie quadrangle by Pugin, containing roftaioe and students’ apartments, lecture- , and a singularly fine lib and refectory. Under the Act of 1845 the college was to receive 500 students, all destined for the priesthood. The patronage of the 500 a was divided in the ratio of population among the bishops of the several sees of Ireland; the candidates were sub- jected, before matriculation, to a comprehensive entrance examination. The full collegiate course was of eight years, two of which were given to classics, two to philosophy, and the remaining four to divinity, scripture, church history, canon law, and the Hebrew and Irish lan The divini students, 250 in number, received a money stipen of £20 annually ; and at the close of the ordina’ course, 20 ‘Dunboyne Scholarships’ were assign MAYO MAYOR 103 by competition to the most distinguished students, and might be held for three years. The legislative authority was vested in a board of seventeen trustees, and the internal administration in an a body, —— of a pene a spe ice-president, together with a numerous yo ——— and deans. Of a board of eight visitors, ve were named by the crown, and t elected by the trustees. In 1869, by the Irish Church Act, the Maynooth endowment was withdrawn—a capital sum, four- teen times ifs amount, being granted to the trustees for the dise of existing interests. The college, however, is still maintained on the same footing ; and although the number of pupils, owing to co joe of free studentships and exhibitions, off somewhat for the few years immediately ing the disendowment, the diminution was only tem’ . In recent years the ave num- ber of ents in residence has been The visitorial powers created under the act of parlia- ment are now exercised by visitors appointed b the trustees, and all state connection is at an end. The college also possesses some landed and funded property, the result of donations and bequests, the most considerable of which is that of Lord Dun- Roman Catholic Bishop of Cork. The new igi included in the design supplied by Pugin in 1846 the new college, was (with the exception of a tower and Sues 275 feet high) com- _— at the cost of ,000, and dedicated in 890. i by the late J. J. M‘Carthy in the Decorated Gothic style, it consists of a great nave, choir, and sancti , ending in a five-sided apse, from which radiate five chapels. The entire length is 220 feet, the width 40 feet, the height from floor to groined ceiling 70 feet. The sides of the chapel are flanked by cloisters which exteriorly present the appearance of aisles. The interior is richl See Maynooth : a Centenary History, by the Most Rev. Father Healy (1895). :i Mayo, « maritime county of the province of Connaught, Ireland, is bounded on the N. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean, E. by Sligo and Roscommon, and 8. by Galway. The greatest length north and south is 68 miles; the test th, 57 miles. Area, 1,360,731 acres, of which nearly 26 per cent. is bog and 18 per cent. barren. Of the remainder about 170,000 acres are cropped, cereals covering 50,000 to 60,000, — and other green somewhat more, the rest being in ture. (1841) 388 887 ; (1861) 254,769 ; (1881) 245,212, of whom 238,262 were The chief towns are Castlebar (3885), Westport (4469), Ballina (5760, including 1442 in County Sligo), and Ballinrobe (2286), The coast-line o' Mayo is about 250 miles, and is gg indented, Killala, Blacksod, and Clew Bays, Killary Harbour, and Broad Haven re | on this coast. Off Mayo, too, lie the islands Ac (35,283 acres), Clare (3959), and others. Loughs Mask and Corrib lie on the southern border, and Loughs Conn, Castlebar, Cullen, Carragh, Corramore within pees A valuable salmon- exists in the river , and Lough Mask is the home of the ‘gillaroo’ trout. Irish language was in 1881 spoken by 8808 persons who did not know English, and ee 138,930 who did. Four members are returned to the House of Com- mons. Mayo formed. part of the extensive territory . by King John to Hubert de Burgh; but illiam, the third earl, seizing Galway and Mayo, threw off the English allegiance and adopted the ‘customs of the Irish,’ together with the Celtic name of Mac-William. The district was not sub- dued until 1586. The antiquities of Mayo are chiefly ecclesiastical, there being many ruins of monasteries. Four round towers exist, and at Cong the remains of a splendid abbey of the 12th century. The celebra ‘Cross of Cong,’ now in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy, was made at Roscommon in 1120. Mayo, RicHARD SOUTHWELL BouRKE, EARL or, Indian statesman, was born in Dublin on 2lst February 1822, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He entered the House of Commons as a Conservative in 1847, and was appointed Chief- secretary of Ireland by Lord Derby in 1852, 1858, and 1866. In 1868 he was sent out to succeed Lord Lawrence as Viceroy of India. He discharged the duties of his office with earnest zeal and uniform courtesy, maintained friendly relations with the por girs states, treated the fendatory princes and the native ie with impartial justice tem- red by great ness, and effected considerable improvements in the economic management of the Indian government, in gaol discipline, in irrigation works, and in providing educational facilities for the native Mohammedan population. Whilst in- specting the convict settlement at Port Blair on e Andaman Islands, on 8th February 1872, he was fatally stabbed by a Punjab fanatic. See Life by Sir W. W. Hunter (2 vols. 1875). Mayonnaise, « thick cold sauce for salads, cold meat, poultry, fish, vegetables, &c., made of the yolk of eggs, salad-oil, and vinegar, with a little salt, cayenne pepper, and meat-jelly ; it is sometimes coloured with powdered lobster coral, or green with spinach or parsley. Mayor (Fr. maire, Lat. major; see MAJOR), originally a steward, bailiff, or overseer, thence the chief-magistrate of a city or corporate town in England or Ireland. The mayor is the head of the local judicature, and the executive officer of the municipality ; he is elected by the council from the aldermen or councillors, and holds office for a year only. His duties include those of returning officer in all boroughs except those cities and towns which, being counties of themselves, have sheriffs of their own. The first Mayor of London was appointed in 1189, the first Mayor of Dublin in 1409. The mayors of London, York, and Dublin, and since 1890-95, of Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield, and Birmingham, are called ‘Lord Mayor.’ The Lord Mayor of London (q.v.)—since 1354 ‘ Right Honourable ’—is the representative of royalty in the civil government of the city, the chief-commis- sioner of lieutenancy, the conservator of the river Thames, and on the demise of a sovereign is sum. moned to attend the Privy-council. o sustain the hospitality of the city he receives an allow- ance of £8000 a year, with the use of the Mansion House (q.v.), furniture, carriages, Ke. He is chosen by the Livery (q.v.) on the 29th September, being commonly the senior alderman who has not already ‘ the chair.’ Although the office is still one of dignity, it is only in the eyes of foreigners that the Lord Mayor of London is one of the most important public functionaries of the realm. The Mayor of Dublin was first styled Lord Mayor by Charles II. in 1665. The title of Mayor is used to denote the chief officer of a city in the 104 MAYOTTE United States and the British colonies, In France the Maire is first officer of a town, commune, or district. For the Mayor of the Palace, see PEPIN. See also Provost. Mayotte, one of the Comoro Isles (q.v.). Maysvill ital of Mason county, Kentucky, on the Ohio River 69 miles by rail NE. of Lexing- ton. It is the river-port of a rich territory, and contains many mills, distilleries, &c. Pop, 6423. Mayweed, or Stinking Camomile (q.v.). Mazamet, a town in the French department of Tarn, on the Arnette, 43 miles ESE. of Toulouse, and 12 by rail SSE. of Castres. It has extensive woollen manufactures. Pop. (1891) 14,151. Mazanderan, a province of northern Persia, fringing the oan for some 200 miles and lying between the provinces of Ghilan and Astra- bad, consists of a belt of low marshy coast-land, 10 to 20 miles wide, backed by the well-wooded northern slopes of the Elburz. The climate is very changeable, in summer both rainy and unhealthy, but on the uplands fairly salubrious. Owing to the fertility of the soil, which is watered by numer- ous small rivers, the Persians call the province the ‘Garden of Iran.’ Rice, wheat, and other cereals, cotton, mulberry-trees, and a variety of fruits are produced. Horses, asses, and camels are exten- sively bred. Area of province, 10.400 sq. m.; pop. 300,000. The chief town is Sari, though Barfurush see BALFRUSH) is the seat of the trade with Russia, ron ores and mineral oils are very abundant. Jutes (Giulio Mazarini), cardinal and chief-minister of France during the minority of Louis XIV., was born l4th July 1602, at Piscina in the Abruzzi. He studied under the Jesuits at Rome, and later at Alcala in Spain, where he relieved the tedium of study with love-making. He next entered the military service of the pope, but his ability for diplomacy was early recognised. Having accompanied a papal legate to the court of France, he became known about 1628 to Richelieu, who divined his promise and en him to main- tain French interests in Italy, which he did while still aoe by the pope as vice-legate to Avignon 1632), and nuncio to the French court ( 1634-36), n 1639 he openly entered the service of Louis XII. and was naturalised a Frenchman; and two years later he received a cardinal’s hat through the influ- ence of Richelieu, who before his death (4th Decem- ber 1642) recommended Mazarin to the king as his successor. His position was one of t difficulty amid the intrigues and jealousies of the time, and the first necessity was that he should make himself eo sae ae to the qneen, who became regent on her husband's death in May 1643. But Mazarin was one of the most supple courtiers that ever bowed the knee before a throne, and moreover he knew how to touch a woman's heart by his romantic devotion. So he kept his place as minister, and it is certain, from his famous carnets and many of the Brihl letters, that the queen gave him her love, if it cannot with certainty be proved that there was a private marriage between them. It should be remembered that this was perfectly pos- sible, for M. Chéruel has discovered that the car- dinal had never taken more than the minor orders, of which a man could easily divest himself. Mazarin possessed admirable faculty for affairs and so much personal charm that he raled with greater smooth- ness than Richelieu, although with almost as unlimited a sway. The airliament, thinking to —_ Spm power, i the istration of — — ; Les a oe the leaders ion to be arrested ( August 1648), upon which the d rome | * isturbances of the Fronde (q.v.) began. The court retired to St Germain, but at length tri- MAZARIN umn by the aid of Condé, and the truce of Ruel, while it removed the obnoxious taxes, left Mazarin and his subordinates in office. The hatred him, however, blazed out anew in the pro’ when at his instigation the queen-regent Condé, Conti, and Longueville in January 1650. Mazarin triumphed at Réthel, but soon had to succumb to the strength of the combination against him and arr se —_ = rayne Meantime As ress teemed wit ets and satires against a famous Macoriundien few of which, however, attained the dignity of literature. The cardinal now perceived the fatal consequences of his policy of ieclating himself and the queen from every party in the state, and bent all his masterly powers of intrigue to form a new royal party. renne was gained over, and his military genius proved more than adequate as a counterpoise to the 0} of Condé. After one year's absence Mazarin re- turned to court in January 1652, but eight months later again retired to an to admit of a recon- ciliation with the parlement of Paris. At length in February 1653 he returned in triumph to Paris, and thereafter his power remained secure, while he quickly regained all his popularity. Under his rule the influence of France abroad was greatly increased. He gained the alliance of Cromwell at the price of Dunkirk; secured the preponderance of French influence in southern Germany by the treaty of Rebne army (1648), and the league of the Rhine, formed in 1659; and by the treaty of the Pyrenees (November 7, 1659), and the marriage of Louis XIV. with the Infanta Maria Theresa, brought the succession to the throne of Spaim within the range of French ambition. Mazarin died at Vincennes, 9th March 1661, leaving an immense fortune, variously stated at from 18 to 40 million livres. His magnificent library, which had long been placed freely at the disposal of the public, was bequeathed to the Collége Mazarin. His name survives characteristically in the ‘Mazarin Bible,’ one of the most priceless treasures of Bibliomania (q.v.). is cele nieces whom he brought from Italy to the French court present all the ible contrasts of character and destiny. The the seven, the virtuous Laura Mancini, married the Due de Mereeur, son of Henry IV. and Gabrielle, and died young. Anne-Marie Martinozzi, her cousin, married the Prince de Conti, an austere and gloomy hunchback, and also died young. Laura Martinozzi mounted a throne by apr did the Duke of Modena, and became mother of the second queen of James II. of England. Olympe Mancini, who became Comtesse de » was a woman formed for great crimes, whose true would have been in the palace of the Cresars or the Vatican of the Borgias. She plunged dee into a series of discreditable intrigues, and foun herself obliged to flee from France to escape the penises: of a poisoner, After flitting awhile ike an evil genius over the face of Europe, she died poor and obscure at Brussels, Hortense Man- cini, the most beautiful of the seven, and her uncle’s favourite, inherited his fortune, and was sought in marriage by the Duke of Savoy, the Prince of Portugal, and the King of England. The cardinal married her to the Due de la Meilleraie, who took the name and arms of Mazarin. He was a gloomy bigot, who mutilated with the fury of a Byzantine iconoclast the magnificent antique statues which Mazarin had collected with all an Italian’s love for art, shut up his wife, and treated her with a jealous severity which afforded in the morality of the time ample justification for her misconduct. She found at once a refuge from his pursuit in England, and a characteristic recreation in an in e with Charles II, Marie-Anne Mancini became Duchesse L, vip) arity of the rhythm, wh MAZARRON MAZZINI 105 de Bouillon, and was the Lafontaine and other men See the Mémoires of such contemporaries a3 De Retz, Madame Motteville, La Rochefoucauld, Turenne, Gram- Bazin’s Hist, de France sous Louis XIII. et ‘azarin (4 vols. 1846); but especially the works which have superseded all others: ist. de France pendant la Minorité de Louis XIV. (4 vols. 1879-80), and its sequel, Hist. de France sous le Ministdre de Card, Mazarin (2 vols. 1881-82), also Chéruel’s edition of the Lettres du Card. Mazarin pendant son Ministre (4 vols, 1879-87). asson’s Mazarin (1886) in the ‘Home Library’ series. The Mazarinades were enumerated by Moreau in his hoy nee ps des Mazarinades (3 vols. 1850-51; containing a list of no fewer than 4082), and collected in Choix de Mazarinades (2 vols. 1853). Mazarron, or ALMAZARRON, a seaport town of Spain, 27 miles WSW. of Cartagena. Pop. 11,002. Mazatlan’, a fortified seaport of Mexico, at the entrance of the river Mazatlan, which falls into the Gulf of California, 230 miles SE. of Sinaloa. It is a well-built and picturesque town, the houses nearly all of one story, and possesses a cathedral, custom-house, barracks, a cotton factory, foundries, &c. The chief exports are gold and silver, archil, and mother-of-pearl. Pop. (1890) 17,495. IVAN STEPHANOVICH, hetman of the Cossacks, was born in 1644, descended of a poor but noble family of Podolia. He became a at the court of John Casimir, king of Poland. A Polish nobleman, having surprised him in an intrigue with his wife, cansed him to be stripped naked, and bound upon his own horse, lying upon pa and ee Le to its ge a to an joose, vin azeppa to his fate. e horse carried him enpelsad from exhaustion, to its native wilds of the Ukraine, according to the usual account. A more credible story is that his horse carried him through woods and thickets and brought him back torn and bleeding to his own home. eg now joined the Cossacks, became secretary to their hetman, Samoilovich, and in 1687 was elected his successor. He won the confidence of Peter the Great, who loaded him with honours, and made him Prince of the Ukraine ; but, on the curtailment of the freedom of the Cossacks by Russia, Mazeppa conceived the idea of throwing olf the sovereignty of the czar, and for this pu entered into negotiations with Charles XII. of Sweden. His treason was revealed to Peter the Great, who long refused to credit it, but after Pultowa ordered his effigy to be hanged upon the lows, and his capital, cand to Ag po ground. ’s ho perished in the disaster of Pultowa if T709 ), and he tled with Charles to , where he died miserably the same year. His story is the subject of a famous poem by Byron, of a novel by Bulgarin, and a drama by Gottschall, of two paintings by Vernet, and of a masterly historical work by Kostomaroff (1882). Mazur’ a lively Polish round dance, the music of which is generally in 2 time. The peculi- ich has a pleasing effect, is what characterises the music of the Mazurka. Itis danced by four or eight couples, and is much prac- tised in the north of Germany, as well as in Po d, from whose province Masovia it gets its name. Mazzara, a walled cathedral city of Sicily, 32 miles by rail S. of Trapani, stands in a fine plain on the seashore. Pop. 13,074. Mazzarino, a town of Sicily, 15 miles SE. of Caltanisetta. Pop. 12,964. Mazzini, GiusEpre (English; JoserH), Italian — and republican, was born at Genoa, 22d une 1805. A clever, precocious boy, he began to study at the university of his native town when only thirteen, and before he was nineteen was practising as an advocate. In April 1821 his heart’ was deeply stirred and his imagination fired through seeing any ere from the unsuccessful oo in Pied- mont, and from that moment he conceived the idea of the liberation of his country. At first he assailed the domination of the classical school of literature, and its ‘monarchical ’ tyranny of rule and prescrip- tion. But the earnestness of his nature soon pushed him on to make ‘the first great sacrifice of his life,’ by renouncing ‘ the career of literature for the more direct path of political action.’ In 1829 he joined the Carbonari (q.v.), although he mistrusted their aims, their methods, and the character of their organisation. He was betrayed in July 1830 to the Sardinian police, and imprisoned in Savona. In his prison cell he matured those thoughts which became the ruling principles of his life and work, and shortly after his release, early in the follow- ing year, organised at Marseilles the Young Italy Association. The first and last duty of its mem- bers was to labour to create a free, independent, and united nation of Italians. The great mass of the people were to be educated to understand their rights, and taught to obtain them, if need were, through insurrection. But Italy must first be freed from the yoke of the foreigner. Nothing but a republic could serve her political needs in the future. Once Italy were regenerated, she ‘was destined to arise the initiatrix of a new life, and of a new and powerful unity to all the nations of Europe’—the selfsame rdle that Heine and Youn Cennaite assigned to regenerated Germany. The ultimate goal was the governance of the world by the mo. sf , through the effective ncies of association, man with man and nation with nation, ‘The labour to be undertaken was not merely political, but above all a moral work ; not negative, but religious.’ It was essentially the preckios of a faith, the living of a creed, a religion. t was in this spirit that Mazzini laboured to his life's end—unwaveringly, disinterestedly, through the bitterest humiliations of exile, and at the cost of the greatest personal sacrifices. Shortly after Charles Albert ascended the throne of Piedmont ( April 1831) Mazzini addressed to him a manly appeal, urging him to put himself at the head mr the struggle for Italian independence, and to grant needful concessions to his people’s ery for liberty. His answer was a sentence of perpet banishment, Metternich having forced the new king to take a commission in the dragonnades of reaction. Further, in August 1832 the French authorities expelled him from the country. _But he outwitted them, and lay hidden at Marseilles. From this time he led for more than twenty years ‘a life of voluntary imprisonment within the four walls of a little room.’ But no confinement could uell his spirit or restrain his activity. Hence- orward he was the most untiring fies tg agitator in Europe, the man most dreaded by its absolute governments ; with Lassalle he was one of the most conspicuously successful of the century. He wrote incessantly, in a strain of such fervid eloquence, 106 MAZZINI and with such an intensity of conviction, that his words kindled in the hearts of those that read them the enthusiasm to do and dare all things. Though by nature frank, open, and bold, no man perhaps learned to understand better the tortuous arts of secret conspiracy. He was driven to adopt this underground method of warfare ly the power and vigilance and unscrupulous charaéter of the enemies he contended against, and the close and united front they presented to every revolutionary assault. In } he organised an invasion of Savoy, which failed ignominiously, chiefly through lukewarmness, if not treachery, of the soldier placed at its head. The next two years Mazzini tin Switzerland, incessantly active, extending his organisation throughout Italy, instigating his countrymen to insurrection, and scattering broad- east th Europe the bursting seeds of repub- lican revolt. In the year of the Savoy fiasco he drew up, at Bern, for Young Europe—i.e. Youn Italy, Young Germany, and Young Poland uni —the Pact of Fraternity, a code of abstract doc- trines dictating to humanity a faith and rules of life. Being in the last days of 1836 banished from Switzerland, he found a refuge in London. Although for some years (1841-48) he struggled hard against poverty, he nevertheless contrived to help his rer, ignorant countrvmen, the organ-boys of London, by gathering them round him in night-classes and teaching them and civilising them. In 1844 he ch the English government with opening his letters, and com- municating their contents to the rulers in Italy, and made good his accusation. This raised a great storm of indignation throughout the country, and drew from Carlyle a spirited testimonial to os in The hese Sir ronal ip apsam the ome Secretary, even felt constrained to a ogise in the House of Commons for having vablicly repeated the calumnies of his enemies. On the outbreak of the Lombard revolt in 1848 Mazzini hastened to throw himself into the thick of the struggle. The king of Sardinia sought to win him over by the promise to make him first minister in the new Piedmontese-Lombard state, and to grant him as large a share as he might desire in the framing of a constitution for it. But Mazzini’s aims were not of personal ambition, and he would be no party to the agyrandisement of the dynasty of Savoy at the expense, or to the detriment, of a united Italy. After Milan capitulated, he tried with Garibaldi to keep the war alive in the valleys of the Alps; but, when he saw that all was over in corey A he made his way to Tuscany. horn received him with wild enthusiasm on 8th February 1849, the day before the republic was proclaimed at Rome, and elected him her deputy to the republican assembly in the papal city. On 29th March Mazzini, Salli, and Armellini were appointed a triumvirate with dictatorial powers ; they chose as their motto ‘God and the People.’ But on 25th April the French arrived before the city to reinstate the pope, and after a tough struggle were admitted within the walls. The republic fell, and the triumvirs indignantly resigned on the last day of June. Mazzini made his way back to London. Not how- ever to rest: he planned the attempted risings at Mantua (1852), Milan (1853), Genoa (1857), and Leghorn (1857). Meanwhile in London he had founded, along with Kossnth and Ledrn-Rollin, the European Association, and with them issued in September 1855 its republican manifesto. The Society of the Friends of Italy was organised about this time in England. In 1859 Mazzini condemned the alliance Piedmont had made with Napoleon IIL; and the cession of Savoy and Nice to France not only ustified his ——- warning, but filled him (and baldi) with the patriot's sorrowful indignation. He supported Garibaldi in his expedition against Sicily a Naples with all his influence and all his resources; and when Piedmont step in to reap the fruits of the soldier's heroic ex and even scattered his followers and took oe at Aspromonte (1862), Mazzini broke ly with the —— : party. . The. king — rons his fulminant by again passing sentence upon him—the third time. But this did not deter him from stigmatising the Convention of September (see ITALY) as a base compromise. In 1866-67 Messina in protest elected him its deputy to the Italian parliament four times in su n. Two ears later he was in expelled from Switzer- and, and in the following year (1870) was arrested ‘at sea, whilst on his way to Sicily, and carried prisoner to Gaeta. After being detained two months he was set at liberty. He settled at Lugano, but died at Pisa, 10th March 1 and was buried in his native city, mourned by entire nation he had done so much to create. Although from one point of view a ult 2 idealist and political dreamer, the apostle of the new democratic evangel, and from another point of view a restless demagogue, a dark consp , and disturber of the peace of Europe, Mazzini must be acknowledged by both parties alike to have been a man of immense energy resouree, and of great organising power, who unquestionably had the full courage of his convictions, and was con- sistent and thoroughly sincere and disinterested in his aims. His temperament and the constitution of his mind made him feel impatience and scorn of the moderates, the calm, cautious watchers and waiters for opportunities. He was averse to nib- bling advantage after advantage, and had no sym- pathy for the comyeonner and half-measures of statesmen and diplomatists. His was the spirit that burns the bridges behind it, stakes all on one critical throw, and puts forth all its energy to bring about a decisive and final result, Cavour was of an opposite tem ent: he was essen- tially the cautious, calculating statesman. Hence the fundamental antagonism between the two men. Cavour was a man of aristocratic birth and training, and the levelling doctrines of the new republicanism were in the highest rg reps: oe to rapes bina — rr pews azzini, the ardent apostle of equality, and humanity, the cnoonprontise See of action. And no wonder too that Mazzini failed to sympathise with the methods of Cavour: he saw in them no ruling principle beyond advan the House of Savoy, no desire to labour for the peopls, no plan, no promise for their ress, and nothing like faith in their future. le on more than one critical occasion he abstained from embarrassing the Sardinian go when he did not approve of its own ability to govern is best evid cessful organisation of the diffieu insurrection ; his brief tenure of ¢ mettle. Italian unity, Garibaldi its knigh Cavour the riveter of the bolts that fi 5 the disjecta membra of the nation togethe haps it would be more correct to say that prepared the soil, sowed the seed, and foste : xrowing plants, that Garibaldi did the work gathering in the ripe fruit, but it was Cavour who gained the final advantage of the harvest. All Mazzini’s writings are, like Heine's, desultory in character, some few literary and critical, but most of them renee germane to the questions of the hour. is longest productions are On the Duties of Man, « noble outline of ethical theory, MEAD MEAN 107 rominent schools of economics and ialism. part from his eloquence, the features of his writing that most forcibly arrest attention are his manly, outspoken tone, his candid fairness —except sometimes when he is speaking of the moderates—his sterling love of justice and of free- dom, but above all things else his keen and accurate insight into the historical tendencies of modern Europe. and hts upon Democracy in Europe, a discus- socialism for the press by t (1877-89 Aureli 5 Ny A vols. of the Scritti. See alsu Memoir by (2d ed. 1877); Marriott, Makers of 3; and Clarke, Selected Essays of The Latin name is Hydromel. Meade, Greorce Gorpon, an American general, was born 3lst December 1815, at Cadiz, in Spain, where his father was a merchant and United States neve SS gps till 1816. He graduated at West Point in 1835, served for a time against the Seminoles and in the Mexican war, but was mostly employed on survey duty and in the construction of light- houses until the civil war, becoming captain of engineers in 1856, and major in 1862. In 1861 he obtained a brigade of volunteers, and during the peninsular cam received a severe gunshot wound. He distinguished himself at Antietam and at Fredericksburg, and was promoted major- general in November 1862. In June 1863 he was placed in command of the Army of the Potomac, superseding Hooker (q.v.) on the night of the 27th. A week later Gettysburg had been fought, and Lee’s effort to carry the war into the country north of the Potomac ha er aco eg sponge os e ier-general in regular army on uly, major-general in 1864. After the war he com- manded various military departments, until his death, which oceurred at Philadelphia, 6th Novem- ber 1872. There is an equestrian statue of him (1887) in Fairmount Park there. Meadow Saffron, See Coicuicum. Meadows-Taylor. See TAaytor (PHILiP M.). peeavilie, eapital of Crawford county, Penn- sylvania, on French Creek, 113 miles by rail N. of Pitts . It manufactures woollens, paper, fis.. machinery, agricultural implements, Xe., ias oil-refineries railway-shops, and is the seat of Alleghany College (Methodist, founded 1815), and of a Unitarian theological school. Pop. (1900) 10,291. M r, THOMAS FRANCIS, Irish patriot, was born in Waterford, 3d August 1823, son of a wealthy merchant who represented Waterford for several years. He had education at the Jesuit college of Clon Wood in Kildare, and at Stonyhurst, and early devoted himself to root pat cause as a prominent and fearless member of the Young Ireland party. In 1848 he was sentenced to death under the ‘'Treason-felony’ Act, but was sent for life to Van Diemen’s instead. He made his escape in 1852, studied law in the United States, but on the outbreak of the war volunteered into the national army. In 1861 he paenaee the ‘Irish brigade’ for the Federals, and distinguished himself by his courage in the seven days’ battles around Rich- mond, at the second battle of Bull Run, Fredericks- burg, and Antietam. After the war he became secretary of Montana territory, and while taking measures as temporary governor to keep the hostile Indians in check, fell from the deck of a steamboat into the Missouri, near Fort Benton, and was drowned, 1st July 1867. Meal. See BREAD. Meal-tub Plot, a conspiracy fabricated in 1679 by Thomas apr aang to gain credit as an informer ual to that of Titus Oates and Bedloe. The son of a Roundhead farmer, he was born abont 1650 at Waltham in Essex, and he had first started with the baseless assertion that the Presbyterians were conspiring to destroy the government and set up a republic. When this was discovered to be a lie he was flung into Newgate, whereupon he rounded at once — the Roman Catholies, declaring that the pretended Presbyterian plot was only a cover for their own design upon the king’s life, and that the papers would be found concealed at the bottom of a meal-tub in the house of one Mrs Cellier, who, together with Lady Powis, was actually tried and acquitted for the plot. Dangertield himself was a and pilloried in June 1685, and on his way back from Tyburn was killed by a blow in the eye from the cane of a barrister, Robert Frances, who was executed for the murder. Meal-worm, tlie larva of a small black beetle, Tenebrio molitor, allied to the common Blaps (q.v.). Both adults and larve are too common about bakeries, granaries, and stores, for the eggs are laid in meal, flour, and similar food-stuffs, on which the emerging larve feed voraciously. The adult resembles Blaps, and is about half an inch long; the larva is decidedly longer, thin and round, yellowish in colour. An American species, 7. obseurus, has also become common in_ Britain. The preventive is thorough cleanliness. The meal- worms are often used as food for cage-birds. Mealy Bug (Coccus adonidum or Dactylopius longispinus ; see Us), an insect naturalised in our hothouses, and very commonly found on such plants as Stephanotis and Camellia, orchids and peneenpies he young appear like small reddish- rown moving specks on the leaves and small branches, to which they afterwards affix themselves by the beak. As they grow older they become darker in colour, and are covered over with a white powdery-looking substance. After fertilisation, which usually takes place in spring, the female, remaining in the position described, lays her eggs between her body and the surface of the plant, after which her body shrivels up until it forms a covering for the mass of eggs, rendered more effec- tual by the large amount of cottony material formed over it. The young can be seen covets in scores in the midst of this material, from which they afterwards free themselves, and run about on the plant. The Mealy Bug is disliked by gardeners chiefly on account of the amount of dirt that collects round it on the leaves and branches, and the injury it does to the flowers and fruit. Lightly syringing the plants with soft soap and quassia solutions with a little paraffin oil in addition is roa sufficient to check the ravages of this ittle pest, especially if put on before the larve acquire their mealy coats. On valuable plants this may be painted with brushes. Tobacco smoke proves useful in the early stages. Mean, in Mathematics, is a term interpolated between two terms of a series, and consequently intermediate in magnitude. The Geometrical Mean (q.v.) of two numbers is always less than 108 MEANEE MEATH their Arithmetical Mean (q.v.) and greater than their ic Mean, and the geometric mean is itself a geometric mean between the two others, Meanee, See MEEANEE. Mearns. See KINCARDINESHIRE. Measles (known also as Rupeota and Mor- BILLI) is one of the group of blood diseases termed Ezxanthemata (q.v.), although, from the eruption which appears on the surface of the body, it is sometimes classed with the skin diseases. It is communicable from person to person, not least so in the early s' when it is indistinguishable from an cold ; and it seldom occurs more than once in the same individual. Its period of incuba- tion—i.e. the time that elapses between exposure to the contagion and the first appearance of the febrile symptoms which precede the eruption—is usually about a fortnight; then come lassitude and shivering, which are soon followed by heat of skin, increased rapidity of the pulse, loss of appetite, and thirst. The respiratory mucous membrane is also affected, and the symptoms are very much the same as those of a severe cold in the head, accom- panied by a dry cough, a slight sore throat, redness and watering of the eyes, and sometimes tightness of the chest. The eruption which is characteristic of the dis- ease usually appears upon the fourth day from the commencement of the febrile symptoms and the catarrh—seldom earlier, but occasionally some days later. It is a rash, consisting at first of red penaics of various sizes, which, as they multiply, coalesce into crescentic patches. It is two or three days in coming out, inning on the face and neck, and ually travelling downwards. The rash fades in the same order as it appears ; and, as it begins to decline three days after its sage its whole duration is about a week. xe red colour gives way to a somewhat yellowish tint, and the cuticle crumbles away in a fine bran-like powder, the process being often attended with itching. There are two important points in which it differs from Smallpox (q.v.), with which in its early s it may be confounded; these are: (1) that the fever does not cease or even abate when the erup- tion ney lt sometimes increases in intensity ; and (2) that the disease is not more severe or more dangerous because the eruption is plentiful or early. The character of the eruption, after the first day, will serve to remove all doubt regarding these two diseases ; and the comparative prevalence of either disease in the neighbourhood will materially assist in ba J the diagnosis. It is distinguished from Searlet Fever (q.v.) or scarlatina (1) by the pres- ence at the outset of catarrhal symptoms, which do not occur in the latter disease, at anyrate prior to the eruption; (2) by the absence of the characteristic throat-affection, which always accom- panies well-marked cases of scarlet fever ; (3) by the character of the rash, which in measles is said to present somewhat the tint of the raspberry, and in scarlet fever that of a boiled lobster; which in measles appears in crescentic patches, and in scarlet fever is universally diffused over the parts affected ; which in measles usually appears on the fourth day, and in scarlet fever on the second day of the disease. n ordinary uncomplicated measles, the prognosis is almost always favourable. The chief danger is from inflammation of some of the textures that com the lungs; and in scrofulous children it often leaves chronic pulmonary mischief behind it, No age is exempt from the disease, but it is much more common in childhood than subsequently. The reason probably is that most persons have it in early life, and are thus protected from an attack at a later period. In mild forms of the disease, nothing more is requisite than to keep the patient on a low diet, attend to the state of the bowels, and prevent exposure to cold, which is best accomp! by keeping him in bed with the ordinary warmth to which he is accustomed in health. While the eyes ny — —< a 44 be is bar — he should 8! rom the nt. chest-sym toms become urgent, they must be treated prs be io to their nature. Bronchitis (q.v.), sometimes extend- ing into Pneumonia (q.v.), is most to be feared. If the eruption disappear ponenne ye it may some- times be brought back by placing the patient in a warm bath. In such eases stimulants are often required, but must, of course, only be given by the advice of the physician. The patient must be~ carefully protected from exposure to cold for a week or two after the disease has apparently disappeared, as the lungs and mucous coat of the bowels are for some time very susceptible to in- flammatory attacks. In some cases considerable debility remains for a long time after the attack ; and both the eyes and ears are vi liable to injury from inflammations accompanying or suc- ceeding it. German Measles is a name somewhat loosely used of a disease, or possibly several diseases, resemb! measles, but for the most less prolon, an severe. The cases grou under this title, how- ever, require further elucidation, as descrip given by different authors differ very widely from each other. Measures. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Meat. For the dietetic value of meat, and the amount of meat imports, see Foop. For extract of meat, see EXTRACTS, and see also PRESERVED Provisions. The sale of unsound meat is pro- hibited under heavy penalties by the Public Health Act of 1875, which regulates the powers of medical officers and inspectors of nuisances to examine game, flesh, milk, &e., and to have such meat or other food, if unfit for human food, destroyed by order of a justice. See PTOMAINES, PY 2MIA. Meath, a maritime ag A of Leinster, Ireland, hounded on the east a rish Sea, for 10 miles, and the counties of blin and Louth; area, 906 sq. m., or 579,861 acres, of which 34,300 are waste, bog, &e. Maximum length, north to south, 40 miles; maximum breadth, east to west, 47 miles, Pop. (1841) 183,116; (1861) 110,373; (1891) 76,616, of whom 71,389 were Roman Catholics and 4772 Protestant Episcopalians. The soil is a rich loam, and extremely fertile ; but close upon 67 per cent. of it is devoted to pasture, the extent under ¢ (chiefly oats and potatoes) being about one-fou of the total. The surface is for the most part un- dulating, being the eastern part of the great lime- stone plain of Ireland. The chief rivers are the Boyne and Blackwater; the Royal Canal passes along the southern border of the county, The prin- elpat’ towns are Trim, Navan, and Kells. A little linen and coarse woollen ismanufactured. Anciently Meath, which included West Meath, Longford, an rts of the adjoining counties, formed one of the ingdoms into which Ireland was divided, the royal seat being Tara (q.v.), Where ancient earthworks still remain. After the English invasion it was occupied by Strongbow, and was erected into a county — by Henry I1., who conferred it on Hugh de Lacy. In the end of the reign of Henry VIIL it was separated into East and West Meath. Celtic remains abound along the Boyne and Black- water. John’s Castle at Trim is one of the most extensive monuments of English rule in Ireland. There are a round tower and sculptured crosses at Kells, and a round tower at Donoughmore. Monastic ruins survive at Bective, Clonard, and MEAUX MECCA 109 Duleek. Meath returns two members to parlia- ment. Meaux, 4 town in the French department of Seine-et-Marne, on a height above the river Marne, 28 miles NE. of Paris. It is a bishop’s see, and in its noble Gothie cathedral (12-16th century, but still unfinished ) is the grave of Bossuet (q.v.), who was bishop for twenty-three years. There isa large trade with Paris in corn, flour, cream-cheeses, &e. Meaux was besieged by the serfs of La Jacquerie (1358), and captured from the Leagne (1594). Pop. (1872) 11, ; (1886) 12,201; (1891) 12,704, See Carro, Histoire de Meauzx (1865). Mecca (also anciently called Becca), the Mako- raba of Ptolemy, is one of the oldest cities of Arabia and the capital of the Hedjaz, and as a holy city and | focus of pilgrimage it may be called the metro- polis of Islam. It is situated in 21° 30’ N. lat. and 40° 8’ E. long., 245 miles S. of Medina and 65 E. of Jiddah, its port on the Red Sea, in a narrow barren valley, surrounded by bare hills penetrated by two passes, and so secluded from observation that it is not visible until closely approached, The satisfy the natives, who fleece them without remorse, and are too idle to supplement their ex- tortions by any industry more vigorous than the manufacture of sacred relics. The temple of Mecea, or the Great Mosque, stands in the broadest part of the valley, and consists of a large quadrangle, capable of holding 35,000 persons, surrounded by arcades or cloisters, with pillars of marble and granite, &c., and entered by nineteen gates surmounted by seven minarets. In the centre is the Kaéaba (i.e. cube), which was the temple of Mecca ages before the time of Mohammed, and then attracted pagan dogs just as now it draws thousands of Moslems. t has been twice rebuilt in historical times, but the old form has been preserved. It is not quite square, nor properly orientated ; and it measures about 18 paces by 14, and 35 or 40 feet high. When Mohammed converted the heathen shrine into a Mohammedan focus, the original notion of an idol temple with a miraculous fetish was abandoned, and the legend was invented that the Kaaba was built by Abraham on the occasior of the outcasting barrenness of the soil compelled the inhabit- ants to go outside for provisions, and the com- mand of the principal caravan roads, both from north to south and from the coast to the high- lands, gave the Meceans | unusua yer ae ra com- merce, and thus from a very early period the city Ronee was a notable trading centre, But the chie cause of its prosperity was its reputation as a holy place, possessin sacred objects, which wel repaid a pilgrimage ; thongh whether the original attraction was the Black Stone or fetish of the Kaaba, or the medicinal spring Zemzem, is a matter of dispute. The city itself, which is mainly modern owing to the ven pyr devastations eaused by the winter tor- rents from the hills around, is about 1500 paces long and 650 broad, and is divided into more than twenty chief Se Along and beyond it runs the cele- brated sacred course, a broad road extending from Safa to Marwa, which is run over by all pilarians, and also forms a frequented bazaar. The streets _are broad and airy, but unpaved and filthy, and the houses, climbing the hills on either side, are of stone, and well Imilt, sometimes three or four stories high, with flat roofs and overhanging lattice- windows. The interiors are well kept, since the greater part of Mecca is devoted to the annual “a = _ LAAN ) ‘mt | pilgrimage which is the main support of a multi- | £ Pr tude of lodging-house keepers, guides, and the other attendants of a fashionable sanctuary. There are charitable lodgings for the poorer pilgrims, and also public baths, and a hospital. Drainage there is none, though there is plenty of water. Provisions, meat, fruit, &ec. are readily procured from neighhour- ing partsof Arabia, The population, which is noto- rious for its vice and corruption of every sort, is probably under 60,000; but these are annually reinforced by at least an equal number of pilgrims. The latter, however, are not numerous enough to of Ishmael. The celebrated fetish, or Black Stone, is apparently a meteorite, about a span long, built into the south-east corner at the proper height for kissing. There is also a ‘Southern Stone,’ of only inferior sanctity. The pilgrim cirecumambulates the Kdéaba seven times, kisses the Black and touches the Southern Stone, and also goes round the Hijr or semicircular enclosure containing the so- called graves of Hagar and Ishmael. The Kéaba has always been richly decorated, and has long been annually re-covered (leaving only apertures for the two stones) with handsome brocaded hangings presented by the Sultan of Turkey, and brought with much state, along with the traditional Mahmal or Holy Carpet, by the Egyptian Hajj (q.v.), or caravan of pilgrims. The other chief decorations are the silver-gilt door, seldom opened, the marble inlay and silver-gilt plating and silk hangings of the interior, which contains little of interest. Hard by, and also within the court, is the celebrated well of Zemzem, a deep shaft covered by a cupola; the tepid water of which may once have been mineral, and is still regarded as miracu- lous, although the largest item in its present 110 MECHANICS MECKLENBURG analysis consists of sewage matter. This important attraction for pilgrims was long lost, but was re- diseovered by ictammed's (father. Another object of veneration is ‘A ‘s Stand,’ the stone of which, with the imprint of his foot, is concealed from view, Outside the Kdaba are no sacred or antiquarian buildings of importance, though several houses are pointed omt by the guides as dwellings of b sagen famous in the early days of Islam. In the time before Moham- med Mecca was under the control of the Kosaites, and then of the Koreish, from whom the Pro- »het reconquered it in 627, five years after his ‘light or ‘Tage (q.v.) therefrom. It long re- mained under the rule of the califs, who spent large sums in its adornment. In 930 it was sacked by the Karmathians, who carried off the Black Stone, and kept it for twenty-two years, Mecca afterwards fell under the iniluence of whatever dynasty—Fatimite, Ayydbite, or Mameluke— happened to rule in pt; and thus finally it came into the ion of the Ottoman sultans, whose power, however, is nominal, whilst the real vernor is the sherif, or reputed head of the Seacondents of the Prophet, who has long held the chief authority in the Hedjaz, and has the snpport of a large following of retainers. Burckhardt, the first Christian to visit Mecca, has, owing to native fanaticism, found but few successors, See Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka, mit Bilder-Atlas 1888); W. Robertson Smith in . Brit. (1883); tistenfeld, Chroniken d. Stadt ekka (1857-59); Sir Richard Burton's Pilgrimage (1855; new ed. 1880); Burckhardt’s 7ravels in Arabia (1829). echanies is the science which treats of the nature of forees and of their action on bodies, either directly or by the agency of machinery. See Force, Enercy, Dynamics. The action of forces on bodies may be in the form of pressure or of impulse, and may or may not produce motion. When the forces are so balan as to preserve the bod affected by them in a state of equilibrium, their actions are investigated in that branch of mechanics called Statics ; when motion is produced, they are considered under the head of Kinetics (q.v.). See also the articles on Kinematics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, and Pneumatics. achines are instruments interposed between the moving power and the resistance, with a view of changing the direction of the force, or otherwise modifying it. Machines are of various degrees of complexity ; but the simple parts, or elements of which they are all com » are reducible to a very few. These tary machines are called the Mechanical Powers, and are usually reckoned as six in number, three being primary—viz. the lever, inclined plane, and pulley ; and three secondary, or derived from the others—viz. the wheel-and-azle (derived from the lever), the wedge, and the screw (both derived from the inclined plane). What is special to each machine will be found under its name. Mechanics’ Institutes are voluntary un- chartered associations of mechanics or working- men for the purpose of providing themselves, at small individual cost, with instruction in element- ary and technical branches of knowledge, by means of a library, reading-rooms, classes, and lectures. The management is wholly or in great part in the hands of a committee or committees elected by the members of the association. The earliest germ of the Mechanics’ Institute was a class for journeyman mechanics formed by Dr Birkbeck (q.v.) at Glas- gow in 1800; but the first Mechanics’ Institute, fe mow A so called, was o ised by the same phi ropist in London in 1824. The original aim of the first institutes was to teach mechanics the correct knowledge of the principles of their respective trades. Subsequently the basis was en- rm and the teaching of the elements and prin- ciples of a general education aimed at, Out of these organisations have grown, through the intro- duction of means of recreation and tem - = joyment, the Working-men’s Social ucational Institutes. ‘ Mechitar'‘ists, a congregation of Armenian Christians who entered into communion with the Church of Rome, when Clement XI. was pope, in 1712. They derive their name from Mechitar (i.e. the Comforter) da Petro (1676-1749), who in 1701 founded at Constantinople a religious society for raising the intellectual and spiritual condition of his countrymen, and for the purpose of a knowledge of the old Armenian language literature. Two years later, however, the sectarian ae | of the Armenian patriarch in Constantin- ople led to their removal to the Morea, and thence, on the conquest of that portion of Greece by the Turks in 1715, to Venice, which in 1717 granted them the island of San Lazzaro. Their most use- ful occupation is printing the classic writings of Armenian literatire, as well as valuable transla- tions of works by Ephraem Syrus, Philo, Eusebius, and other writers, the originals being lost. At San Lazzaro they possess a arge and valuable library of oriental works, and at Vienna (since 1810) an academy, with a printing-office, &c., to which non- Armenians are admitted, See Langlois, Le Convent Arménien de Saint-Lazare de Venise (1863). Mechlin. See MALINEs. Mecklen® my the boyy rs a, of two grand-duchies y, distinguis respec- tively as MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN and MECKLEN- BURG-STRELITZ, and situated between the Baltic on the N. and Brandenburg on the §., whilst Pomerania lies on the E. and Sleswick-Holstein and Liibeck on the W. The former is a compact territory, abutting on the Baltic for 65 miles, its area being 5197 ee (much less than Yorkshire). Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1144 sq. m.) consists of two detached portions, the d-duchy of Strelitz, lying SE. of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and the rincipality of Ratzeburg, wedged in between hwerin and Liibeck. The region indicated forms rt of the t North German plain, but is crossed »y a low ridge from the south-east to the north- west, the water-parting between numerous small rivers that drain to the Elbe and to the Baltic. Along the line of this ridge there are more than 500 lakes, some of fairly large size. Canals too connect many of the lakes and navigable rivers, especially towards the Elbe. Except for sandy tracts and turfy moors the soil is fertile; agriculture is the chief occupation. The merino sheep are the finest in Germany. There is some iron-founding, making of agricultural implements and tiles, manufacturing of beet-root sugar, distilling, brewing, and tanning. Amber is found on the coast and some of the lakes, aud turf is dug. The chief ports are Wismar and Rostock (Warnemiinde). The population of Schwerin was 578,342 in 1890, 1287 more than in 1880; of Strelitz (1890) 97,987, against 100,269 in 1880, its diminution being chiefly due to ar, pion The rural population are almost entirely an~ ised Slavs, the nobility and the inhabitants of the towns for the most part of Lower Saxon stock. The popular dialect is Platt-Deutsch or Low Ger- man; the religious confession Lutheran. Rostock (q.v.), the largest town in Schwerin, has a univer- sity. The capital of each pe is a town of the same name as itself. Society in Meck- lenburg is still organised on a feudal , and in the early part of the 19th century was not so advanced as England in the 13th century; serf- dom was abolished only in 1824. At the head of eae : OO MECONIUM MEDAL 111 each grand-duchy stands a d-duke ; but both -duchies are represented in one and the same national assembly, which meets every autumn at Sternberg and Malchin alternately. This body poamconys bead os areal eine vanaf — also nz resent the peasantry and agricultural labourers, an x resentatives of forty-eight towns. The princi- ity of Ratzeburg, and the towns of Wismar and eustrelitz, have each an independent administra- tion. A ent college of nine members, repre- sentin, assembly, sits all the year round at Rostock. The executive is in the hands of four tation in the ein assemblies, see GERMANY, Vol. V. p. 179. the evils under which the eng 6 workmen suffered fifty years ago, of which Fritz Reuter, the great Platt-Deutsch writer, gives a mpen deseription in his poem Kein Hiisung, have greatly mitigated, still the fact that large numbers emigrate because they cannot find houses to live in, and the relatively high pro- portion of illegitimate children, owing to the restraints imposed upon marriage by the land- owners, prove that they have not been altogether abolished yet. Fritz Reuter’s great novel Stromtid (Eng. trans. My Old Farming Days, 1878-80) and other works give admirable pictures of the semi- patriarchal, semi-feudal life of his native country. In the 6th century Slavie races settled in the districts now called Mecklenburg, which had just been left vacant by the Vandals. From the 9th to the 12th century the German emperors and the Saxon dukes attempted at different times to convert the inhabitants to Christianity. The country was only definitely i in the German empire in 1170. It was divided over and over again, from 1229 onwards for more than five hundred years, amongst different branches of the descendants of the original Slavic princes. Of these dukes (dukes after 1348) the only one deserving special mention is Albert IIL, who, called to ascend the throne of Sweden in 1363, was kept a prisoner for many years by Margaret, queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, The Thirty Years’ War ruined the in- dependent peasant proprietors. Wallenstein cast- covetous eyes og the duchies, they were sold (1628) to him by the emperor, but were restored to their rightful rulers in 1635. The two lines of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz date only from 1701; in 1755 they that the line which survived longest should inherit the terri- tories of the other, and when both became extinct Prussia should be heir. The title of grand-duke was assumed by both reigning dukes in 1815. The ear 1848 t disturbances and tumults in ecklenburg ; @ representative assembly was called together, and other reforins initiated ; but the re- action of 1850 and following years restored things to their original condition. The two states were again agitated by reform questions in 1871-78; but nothing came of the agitation. See books by Geinitz on the geology, soil, lakes, &c. of Mecklenburg (1884-86); Boll, Geschichte Mecklenburys (1855-56); and various works on the hi and social condition of the people by Wiggers (1840 to 1865). Meconium (Gr. méén, ‘a poppy’), the inspis- “sated jnice of the poppy; and Meconic Acid is an . acid present in poe to the extent of about 4 per cent. in combination with the alkaloids (see OpruM ), Meconium is also the name given to the matter first soeeerund from the bowels of a new-born Medal (the same word as metal, through a Low Latin medalia), a piece of metal in the form of a coin, not issued or circulated as money, but struck to preserve the portrait of some eminent person or the een A of some illustrious action or event. Large medals are termed medallions; and works rectangular in form are known as plaques or plaquettes according to their size. The study of Fite: which forms a branch of the science of numismatics, is interesting in a historical and anti- uarian point of view, and important as illustrating the contempo' state of art. Like coins, medals are made in gold, silver, and copper, and some also consist of lead and alloys of other base metals. As they are generally produced in very limited num- bers only as compared with coins, other methods of preparing them than by striking are available; and while all classical medals, and the bulk of those of modern times, are made in the same way as panvemeerery coinage, many of the most import- ant and valuable of the medieval medals were cast by the cire perdue process. Important medals have also been made by striking-up or répoussé work, and highly esteemed works are also made simply by engraving. The earliest medals are medallions of ancient me, existing examples of which are principally in bronze, though some are in silver and in gold. They vary in size, being mostly about 14 inch in diameter, but in weight they are so diverse as to exclude the notion that they were ever circulated as money. Medallions, prior to the time of Hadrian, are rare and of great value, one of the most beautiful and most famous being a gold medallion of Caesar Augustus; from Hadrian to the close of the empire they are comparatively numerous, In some of them a ring or rim of lighter-coloured metal (brass or orichalchum) sur- rounds the centre of bronze, and the inscription extends over both metals. ; From the fall of the Roman empire till the end of the 14th century there is a blank in the produce- tion of medals. The revival of the medallic art was one of thie first fruits of the Renaissance move- ment, and practically its earliest, as for all times its greatest exponent was Vittore Pisano (c. 1380- 1456), the painter of Verona. His medallions, gener- ally marked Pisani Pictoris, and those of his numerous followers, including Matteo de Pasti, Guacialotti, ie psa Sangallo, and many others, are distinguished by their vividness of sculptur- esque portraiture, and their singular breadth and simplicity of treatment. Figures 1 and 2 show to a scale of one-half the original size the obverse and reverse of one of the most famous medals of Pisano. It celebrates the visit of the Eastern emperor, John VILL. Palzologus, to the Council of Florence in 1439; the legend on the obverse being in Greek, and the reverse inscription, Opus, Pisani, Pictoris, being also repeated in Greek. Generally speaking, it may be said that all medieval medals, previous to the 16th century, were made by —F in the cire perdue process; and it was not till the beginning of the 16th century that medals struck from engraved dies, like coins, were issued, the first so roduced being the medal of Pope Julius II., by rancia, struck about 1506. The larger medals of the 16th century, however, continued to be cast. The most elaborate and beautiful of the struck medals of the 16th century were the work of Ben- venuto Cellini; and it may be remarked that with the introduction of dies for medal-striking the’ work passed into the hands of gem-engravers and jewellers, whose methods and excellences lie in quite a different direction from those of the 15th- century artist-medallists. Next to Italy, Germany was the country in which the medallic art flourished in medieval times, Nuremberg having been a centre from which many important works were issued. 112 MEDAL MEDELLIN Of the German school, Albert Diirer was the most famous of the early exponents. In Holland a remarkable series of jettons or medalets were issued in the 16th and early ps of the 17th centuries, which give a record of the important events of which that country was then the theatre, In the 16th century the most important medals of French origin were produced by Jacques Priniavera and Germain Pilon, and in the succeeding century Briot and Dupré were the great medallic portrayers of contemporary personages and events. English medals begin only with Henry VIIL, and from Edward VI. onwards there is an unbroken succes- sion of coronation medals. The earlier medals are cast in a very inferior manner, and are certainly not the work of native artists ; indeed, it is not till the period of Elizabeth that we find native talent developed in the direction of medal-working, and even thereafter it was largely to Dutch, French, and Italian artists that the principal English medals were due. The Scotch coronation medal of Charles L. is the first medal struck in Britain with a legend on the edge. The medal is the work of Briot, and around the edge it reads, Ex Auro ut in Scotia reperitur. ‘Che medals of the Common- wealth and Charles IL. are principally by Rawlins and the brothers Simon, and under Charles IL the three brothers Rottier did important medallic work in England. In the I8th century J. A. Dassier, a native of Geneva, executed a series of medals of English monarchs from the time of William I., and other important works were the production of Croker, Richard Yeo, and Thomas Pingo. Of 19th-century English medals the best are due to the Italian Pistrucci and to Thomas and William Wyon and their successors. Official medals at the present day are prin- cipally issued for naval or military services. The first war medal given in England was the ‘Ark in flood medal’ bestowed by Queen Eliza- beth in 1588 on naval heroes. The first Eng- lish military medal was granted by Charles 3 in 1643, and in 1650 an oval medal was executed by order of parliament for distribution amongst Crom- well's officers and soldiers engaged in the battle of Dunbar. Medals have been distributed to the troops in every victorious engagement and cam- paign since 1793 till the present time, but previous to the reign of Queen Victoria the Waterloo medal was the only one of this series struck. It was issned by order of the Prince Regent in 1816, and conferred on every officer and soldier present at the battle. The medal is of silver, with the head of the Prince Regent on the obverse, and on the reverse a figure of Victory seated on a pedestal, inscribed ‘ Waterloo,’ with, beneath, the date June 18, 1815, and above, ‘ Wellington.’ The Penin- sular medal, for military services between 1793 and 1814, was issued only by the Queen in 1847. and conferred upon every surviving officer an private present at any battle or siege during these years. It carries no fewer than Moti Ss, ht clasps for as many separate engagements, t! rst of which is Egypt, 1801. Long-service and good- | conduct medals of silver were instituted in 1830 and 1831, and rules then formed for their distri- bution among meritorious soldiers, sailors, and marines. On the edge of each of these medals is engraved the name, rank, and regiment or ship of its recipient. The Victoria Cross (q.v.) was insti- | tuted in 1856. Similar medals for military and | naval services are issued by foreign powers. . See A, Heiss, Les Médail- leurs de la Renaissance (vol. viii. 1890); Grueber’s Guide tothe English Medals in King’s Library, British Museum (1881); Cochran- Patrick's Catalogue of the Medals of Scotland (1884); Lonbat’s Medallic History of the United States (2 vols. 1878); D. Hastings Irwin’s British War Medals and Decorations (1890); T. Carter’s British War Medals (new ed. 1890); and a two-page illustra- tion of medals of the preceding fifty years in apts en for l4th June Mede’a, in Greek legend, a famous soree- ress, the daughter of Aétes, king of Colchis, and of the Oceanid Idyia, or of Hecate. When Jason, the leader of the Argonauts, came to Colchis in search of the Golden Fleece, she fell in love with the young hero, helped him to obtain the Fleece, and fled with him. She prevented her father from pursuing by killing her brother Absyrtus and strewing the sea with his limbs, She avenged her husband upon the aged Pelias by persuading his daughters to cut him in pieces and boil him in order to make him young again. Being deserted by Jason for Glauce or Creu daughter of Creon, king of Corinth, she revenged her wrongs by sending to her rival a poisoned robe or diadem which destroyed both her and her father. Medea then slew the children she had borne to Jason, and fled to Athens in a chariot drawn by dragons, which she obtained from Helios. There she was received by Adgeus, to whom she bore Medos; but, afterwards being compelled to flee from Athens, she took Medos to Aria, the inhabitants of which were thenceforth called Medes. She finally became immortal, and the spouse of Achilles in the Elysian Fields. The story of Medea was a favourite theme of the tragedians, but only the masterpiece of Euripides has come down to us. It was treated by Corneille and Grillparzer, and gave Cherubini the theme for an opera, Medellin, (1) a town (pop. 1250) of Spain, on the Guadiana, 66 miles by rail E. of Badajoz. It is worth mention as the birthplace of Cortes.— (2) The second city of Colombia, capital of the ji age so of Antioquia, lies in a lovely mountain- valley, 4850 feet above the sea, and 150 miles NW. - | of Bogota. It is a handsome town, and garency a cathedral, college, seminary, technical school, four printing establishments, and manufactures of pottery, tote ware, and jewellery. It has a | considerable trade, exporting gold and silver. Pop. | 40,000, MEDIA MEDICI 113 Media, in ancient times, the name of the north- western of Iran or Persia, was bounded by the Caspian and Parthia on the E., and by Assyria and Armenia on the W. It corresponded approxi- mately to the modern Persian provinces of Azer- bijan, Ghilan, and Irak-Ajemi, and the eastern part of Kurdistan. The Medes were an Aryan le like the Persians; their state religion was roastrianism, and the Magi (q.v.) its priests. They were at first a bold and warlike race, very skilful with the bow, and noted horsemen. The Median tribes who seem to have been in part subject to the king of Assyria, began towards 700 B.C. to be cemented together under a chief named Deioces (Dajaukku), who chose as his capital Eecbatana (q.v.), identified with the modern Hamadan. Their power grew stronger under his son Phraortes, who subdued the Persians, but perished in war with the Assyrians. Cyaxares, the son of Phraortes, renewed the war against Assyria, but it was mar gy Spa by an invasion of Media by the jians. oving treacherously murdered their chiefs, he expelled their warriors. Then, in alliance with Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, he overthrew the Assyrian empire by capturing Nineveh about 607 B.c. Having annexed the north- ern provinces of the Assyrian empire, he be a War against Lydia; but the eclipse of 28th May 585, the same which had been foretold by Thales, terrified both parties into peace. Cyaxares was succeeded by his son Astyages. Against him the Persians, under their prince Cyrus, revolted about 550 B.c., and, being joined by a partion of the Median army under a chief named Harpagus, they took Ecbatana and deposed the Median king. From this time the two nations are spoken of as one ape pe Ecbatana became the summer resi- dence of the Persian kings. After the death of Alexander the Great (324 B.c.), the north-western oer ( Atropatene ) of Media became a separate ingdom, which existed till the time of Augustus. The other portion, under the name of Great Media, formed a of the Syrian monarchy. In 147 B.c. Mithridates I. took Great Media from the king of —— and annexed it to the Parthian empire. About 36 B.c. it had a king of its own, named Artavasdes, against whom and his ally, Phraates IV. of Parthia, Mark Antony engaged in a disas- trous or Under the Sassanian dynasty the whole of Media was united to Persia (q.v.). See G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World (3 vols. 1879); Duncker, History ye Atienity (6 vols, ; Eng. trans. 1877-83) ; Lenormant, Sur la Monarchie des Médes (1871); Oppert, La Peuple et la Langue des Médes (1879); A. von Gutschmid, Neue Beitriige zur Geschichte dex alten Orients (1876); and the lar Media, Babylon, and Persia, by Miss Ragozin (1889; ‘ Stories of tle Nation’ series ). Mediatisation. See Germany, Vol. V. p. 177. Medical Jurisprudence, also called Forensic Medicine, is the branch of medicine which ie medical science to bear on legal questions, in determining criminal and civil responsibility. It has regard mainly either to civil rights or to injuries to the Among subjects in its province are those connected with birth, pregnancy, murder, natural death, rape, insanity, monstrosity, accidental or intentional injuries, the action of drugs, &e., all of which are dealt with in their several places. As specially belonging to this subject may be noted the articles on BLOOD-STAINS Potsontnc. Good general handbooks are Dr Taylor's Manual and Principles and Practice, and Dr C. M. Tidy’s Legal Medicine (2 vols. 1882-83). Medical Staff Corps. See Army, I. 438. Medici, a distinguished Florentine family which = to sovereign power in the 15th century, owed its earliest distinction to the success with which its members pursued various branches of com- merce, and the liberality which they showed in devoting their wealth to the public good. Their well-known arms, representing six balls (from whence their war-cry of ‘ Palle’), were popularly but without reason believed to represent pills, as their name to show that they had been original] apothecaries. In 1465 Louis XI. f France honoure: the Medici by conferring on them the right to wear the French fleur-de-lis on one of the balls. From the beginning of the 13th century the Medici took in the government of their native republic, and from the period (1378) when Salvestro de’ Medici was elected gonfaloniere the family rose rapidly in greatness. It was, however, Giovanni (born 1360) who amassed the immense fortune, and a his generosity and affability gained the position of influence hitherto unparalleled in the republic, to which his sons Cosimo and Lorenzo succeeded. With Cosimo (1389-1464), surnamed I] Vecchio (‘the Ancient’) and ‘Pater Patrie,’ began the lorious epoch of the family; while from his »rother Lorenzo was descended the collateral branch of the Medici which in the 16th century obtained absolute rule over y: Cosimo’s life, except during the brief period when the Albizzi and other rival families succeeded in successfully = the Medici influence in the government and exiling him from Florence, was one uninterrupted course of prosperity. He was successful in his political alliances, and procured for Florence security abroad and e from civil dissensions within her walls. e employed his t wealth in areca ty art and literature. e made Florence the most brilliant centre of the revival of classic oe which distinguishes the 15th century, he enriched her with splendid build- ings, and gave unrivalled treasures to the great libraries which he founded. Although his all- powerful influence was not explicitly recognised in the state, and the form of government remained republican, Cosimo in reality was entirely master of the town, and filled the public offices with his partisans. He was succeeded by his son Pietro I., surnamed II Gottoso (‘ Gouty *), who, feeble in health and in character, was assisted in the government by the precocious talents of his son Lorenzo (1448- 92), afterwards famous in history as Lorenzo il Magnifico. On his father’s death (1469) Lorenzo and _ his brother Ginliano were recognised as ‘ principi dello stato.’ The growing power of the Medici had roused much envy amongst other great Florentine families ; and in 1478 these malcontents, headed b the Pazzi and in league with the J , Sixtus IV. (Della Rovere), who saw in the Medici a powerful obstacle to his schemes of temporal aggrandise- ment, formed a plot to overthrow their power, known as the conspiracy of the Pazzi. Only Giuliano was victim of the assassins who were to have killed both brothers during service in the cathedral, and the popularity of Lorenzo was in- creased by the courage and judgment shown b him in this crisis. Lorenzo was a worthy descend- ant of his famous grandfather, just in his govern- ment, magnanimous to his enemies, and not only a munificent patron of art and literature, but himself a man of wide culture and a distinguished lyric poet. To enlarge on the institutions, universities, and schools founded by him, and on the famous names of painters, sculptors, architects, philosophers, and ts who surrounded him would be to write the istory of the Renaissance. He was one of the most zealous promoters of the art of printing, and established under Cennini a printing-press in Florence. Although he used his power in the state well, yet he sapped the existing forms 114 MEDICIL MEDICINE of government; and, in seeking only the advance- ment of his family to more absolute power, left Florence at his death weakened and ready to be the prey of her enemies during the troublous times which began with the 16th century. Lorenzo left three sons, Pietro, Giuliano, and Giovanni. His eldest son, Pietro IL. (born 1471), neither capacity nor prudence, and showed imself treacherous alike to friend and foe. He allied himself with the king of Naples against Lodovico Sforza of Milan, and the latter in 1492 called to his aid Charles VIL of France and his army (see Iraty). Pietro, terrified at the advance of the powerful invader, hastened to meet the French troops on their entrance into the Florentine domin- ions, and surrendered to them Pisa and Leghorn. The magistrates and people, incensed at his coward- ice and treachery, drove him from Florence and declared the Medici traitors and rebels, and soeet them from participation in the government. Pietro was drowned (1503) in the Garigliano, near Gaeta having joined the French army in their attempted conquest of the kingdom of Naples. All etforts of the Medici to regain their power in Florence were yain until in 1512 the pope, Julius IT., consented to send the Spanish a to invade beer | Prato, near Florence, was taken and sacked, and the Flor- entines, helpless and terrified, drove out their gon- faloniere, Piero Soderini, and recalled the Medici, headed by Giuliano II. (born 1478). In 1513 the elevation of Giovanni de’ Medici to pace 1 chair under the name of Leo X. (q.v.) completed the restor- ation of the family to all their former splendour and reduced Florence to a papal dependency. Giuli- ano II. at the pope’s desire surrendered the govern- ment to Lorenzo II., son of his elder brother Pietro IL. Giuliano, created Duke of Nemours on his marriage with a relative of Francis I. of France, died in 1516. The young Lorenzo IL, born 1492, and the last legitimate male descendant of Cosimo ‘Pater Patri,’ on whom the pope had also conferred the duchy of Urbino, was feeble, ar t, and licentions. He died in 1519 leaving only one legit- imate child, a daughter, Catharine (q.v.), afterwards wifeof Henry II. of France, who played a conspicuous role as regent during her son’s minority. An ille- mad son, Alexander, born 1510, was afterwards uke, The power now passed into the hands of the Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici, a natural son of the elder Giuliano, assassinated in the conspiracy of the Pazzi; and Giulio was created pope in 1523 under the name of Clement VII. During the invasion of Italy by the Emperor Charles V. in 1527, and the consequent weakening of the papal power, Florence rebelled against the regents mposed on her by the pope, and expelled them along with the young Prince Alexander. The pope and emperor, however, soon made peace, and their united forces were directed against Florence, which, during the famous siege lasting ten months, made her last desperate and un- successful stand for liberty. After the surrender of the town, August 1530, Alexander de’ Medici was proclaimed hereditary Duke of Florence. His was one of unparalleled license and tyranny. He was assassinated in 1537 by his cousin Lorenzino, a descendant of the collateral branch which had its origin in Lorenzo, brother of Cosimo ‘Pater Patrie.’ To this younger branch belonged also the next ruler of Florence, Cosimo I. (born 1519). He waa son of the famous captain of free-lances, Giovanni delle Bande Nere( ‘of the Black Bands’). Cosimo, sometimes called the Great, pos- sessed the astuteness of character, the love of art and literature, but not the frank and generous spirit of his ter predecessors, He was cruel and relentless in his enmities, but a just ruler. He extended his territories, and in 1570 was created Grand-duke of Tuscany, and crowned by P Pius V. He died in 1574, and was succeeded his son Francesco [. (born 1541). This duke sessed few of his father's abilities and many of his faults. He became a tool in the hands of his mistress, the unscrupulous Bianca yf whom he married in 1578. The almost ultaneous death of Francesco and Bianca (October 1587) raised suspicions that they had been poi 7. the duke’s brother and heir, the Ferd nando. Maria, daughter of Francesco L, became the second wife of Henry IV. of France. Ferdi- nando I, and his son imo IL, were popular, and contributed to the ppc of their country. But at the beginning of the 17th century the race rapidly degenerated ; and, after several of its repre- sentatives had suffered themselves to become mere puppets in the hands of Austria or Spain, the amily became extinct in 1737 at the death of its last male representative, Gian Gastone, the seventh nd-duke. His only sister, the Electress Palatine, e last of all the Medici, expired in 1743. See, besides the works cited at FLorENcE, Roscoe’s two works on Lorenzo and Leo X.; Reumont’s monograph (trans, 1876); and a work by E, Armstrong (1896). - Medicine. Lucretius imagines for us the first ro attempts of prehistoric man to repair juries received in conflict with wild beasts ; and, according to Celsus, the most backward tribes have never been withont their remedies for wounds and generalailments. The healing art, indeed, iscoeval ~ and co-extensive with humanity; but of its two great divisions—surgery and metiokans tie former, as will be shown in its paar place, was incom- parably the earlier, and, in practice, the more effective. t furnishes the earliest indications of medical art. The Papyrus-Ebers was written 3500 B.c., and is entitled Book of the Preparation of Medicines for all the Corporeal Parts of Individuals. In it formal invocations of a blessing on those medicines are followed by prescriptions and the names of the maladies they cure—disordered evacuation, intes- tinal worms, &c., while pone is given to an obseure wasting-fever called ‘uchet.’ Anatomy, in its strict sense, was unknown to the Egyptians ; and their medicine, while empirical, was highly specialised. Every physician belonged to a sacer- dotal college, and the. sick had recourse to the nearest temple, whence they procured the practi- tioner best suited to their case. The fees took the form of gifts to the temple, from the revenue of which its medical staff was maintained, Till Hippocrates appeared the physicians of tf were the most famous; but with her subjection by Alexander the Great, and the sway of tle Ptolemies, her medicine gradually succumbed to the Greek, which for centuries had one of its chief schools at Alexandria. The Israelites were in medical practice followers of the Egyptians, and, as with them, the priesthood attend the sick. Cleanliness was the distinctive note of their medicine, till like the Egyptian it became merged in the Greek, and, later, in the Arabian. The sacred books of the Indians containing their oldest records of the healing art—the Vedas—date from about 1500 B.c. In them sickness appears as the work of hostile, recovery of friendly deities —the remedial nts being propitiation, prayer, and the sacrificial drink Soma (q.v.). The next or Brahmanie period is very prolific in medical litera- ture, its most celebrated authors being Charaka and Susruta. To what age their works belong is much debated, some orientalists placing Susruta’s ol Veda long before Christ, others as late as the 8th or TY rs — MEDICINE 115 9th centuries A.D. Just as difficult is the question whether the Indian medicine is an aboriginal pro- duct or an im i But its earliest position was an exalted one, and its young votaries were drawn from the higher castes. Their curriculum lasted from the twelfth to the eighteenth year; decorum, piety, benevolence, unselfishness were ene on them = duties 3 and the a7 aa practice they took an oath significantly resem- bling the Hippoeratic. Dietetics and bodily clean- liness play an eat part in Indian medicine. From the v , mineral, and animal rae it draws remedial ts innumerable, including many antidotes to poisoning, snake-bite especially. The old Persian medicine, as revealed in Zoro- aster’s Zend-Avesta, stood in the closest connection with religion. But Greece made her medical supe- riority felt in Persia, as in ype and India, and in later times the schools foun by the Nestorians were i centres whence Greek medicine was diffused th t the East. Chinese icine meets us historically only in the 5th century B.c. Elaborate rules for noting the pulse and a portegtous array of vegetable, mineral, and animal remedies are its chief char- ae Old Japanese medicine was borrowed rom it. Greece is the mother-land of rational medicine. lemigods—Aésculapius and his daughter ieia; but these were abou and outside the ical art, while the sick who repaired to their temples were healed, not by treatment, but by such i exercises as the ‘temple-sleep,’ in which dreamt the dreams from which the priests di their malady and prescribed the rene sacrifice. The service of Aisculapius nothing to do with medicine or its practi- tioners, and was in the time of Hippocrates resorted ba | by the superstitious among the lower orders. Early in the Greek mainland and islands medi- cine had rounded itself off as a distinct science became eluded two classes—the qualified and the amateur. Its votaries in boyhood with the study of re- medial plants, t tion of unguents, draughts, and plasters, the practice of blood-letting and minor a a he and finally treatment at the bedside. Duly qualified, the physician took the celebrated ‘oath ’—and thereafter received patients in a house of his own (iatreion), or visited them under their own roofs, or went on circuit. The fee included the cost of prescriptions when made up—the humbler practitioners receiving it in advance; but many towns kept a physician for the public service; and in some cases physicians of eminence became at- tached to foreign courts. Such was the position of the medical profession when Hippocrates (460 B.c.) | sere up all that was sound in the floating octrine and practice, and not only ee it, but gave it a character and direction of In medicine his method was threefold: to ascertain ’ the —_ to examine the present, and to forecast the future of the patient. After carefully noting tient’s hysician’s faculties and senses were at their best, included the general nutrition, the bodily, particu- larly the facial, complexion, the temperature, the respiration, and the state of the digestion and genito- urinary systems. The pulse received quite second- ary consideration. The Hippocratic diagnosis was seen to special advantage in thoracic and abdominal diseases. Percussion was not neglected; and suc- cussion (i.e. shaking the patient to induce internal movements which were carefully listened to) was also among the aids to diagnosis. Prognosis, the third and last step in dealing with a patient, was likewise based on minute examination, and grew naturally out of the peculiarly Hippocratic doctrine of ‘critical days.’ Among the favour- able signs were tranquil sleep, the setting in of perspiration, ease of ily movement ; while of eae import were the facies Hippocratica (still the classie description of approaching dis- solution ), sinister revelations of the eye, the breath, the sputum, and the abdomen, with those of the excretions, particularly the urine. Dietetics hold the first place in the Hippocratic treatment. In acute cases the sustenance was the barley-ptisane, the drinks water mixed with honey, with acid, or with wine. External agents were oil, water, bay- salt in acid solution, wine, and acidulated lotions ; in chronic cases diet and Leeparering with vocal exercise in singing and declamation, sometimes the artificial production of obesity were employed. Venesection was sparingly employed— cupping more frequently. Drugs of indigenous and Egyptian, even of Indian origin, mostly in solution, were used with discrimination. See also SURGERY. ‘or at least a century after Hippocrates medicine advanced but little. is Greek successors, Diocles, Praxagoras, and Chrysippus, supplemented him by theorising and in a less degree by independent observation, and were for the former characteristic called Dogmatics by Galen, The break-up of the Macedonian empire into kingdoms gave rise to so many foci of medical culture. The Alexandrian school, purely Greek in personnel and character, was represented by Herophilus and Erasistratus, both of them great anatomists. The former took account of the immediate causes of disease and such symptoms as the pulse and anatomical changes, while in treatment he relied mainly on drugs and_vene- section. The latter, much less loyal to the Hippo- cratic name, found in excess of nutrition with its results, dyspepsia and plethora, the chief causes of inflammation and fever. Herophilus and Erasis- tratus each headed a school, both called Dogmatic from their tendency to supersede their sound anatomical traditions by premature generalisation. Out of the conflict of Herophilite and Erasistratean sprang the Empirics, whose professional ‘tripod’ was clinical observation, previous history of the tient (anamnésis), and ‘transition from like to ike’ (analogical inference). Rational medicine entered Rome with the Grecising wave that followed the expulsion’ of the learned from Alexandria and the subjection of the Hellenic world, and received a great impetus from the dictator Julins Cwsar, who extended the Roman citizenship to all in the city who pro- fessed the healing art. Among these was Ascle- iades of Bithynia, recommended to the Romans y his philosophy, rhetoric, and reliance on the gymnastic already in favour with them. Regarding the human body as composed of countless atoms divided from each other by invisible interspaces (pores), he made health consist in the normal behaviour of these atoms, by which the pores retained their proper calibre, and illness in their derangement, whereby the pores were widened or narrowed. He enjoined observance of the Stoic 116 MEDICINE maxim, to live conformably to nature, bodily exer- cises, including the manipulations of the bath- attendant (‘ *), and dietetics a his chief remedies, His immediate follower, Themi- son, simplified his etiology, and, ignoring the atoms, insisted on the abnormal condition of the pores as the one cause of disease, finding health in the methodus or ‘middle ’ (as) Hiiser ex- plains it) of these channels, and the loss of health in their constriction or relaxation, or in the partial co-existence of both conditions, His therapeutics aimed at inducing a state opposite to that in which the patient was found, and so relaxation was treated with astringents, constipation with laxa- tives. The Methodies had the merit of ignoring mere authority, even the Hippocratic ‘humor- alism’ still dominant, and studied the patient’s general condition as the safest ground of diag- nosis, Despising etiology, even in local affec- tions, their therapeutics me an unreflecting routine. But their skill in dietetics amply ex- plains their acceptance with the Roman world, ensuring the patient fresh air, and a pure and healthy skin, while rejecting all drastic or lowering medicines. Aulus Cornelius Celsus, an adherent of no school and perhaps not a professional man at all, is yet the highest name in the Roman healing art, for his treatise De Medicina, which formed of his encyclopedia—a sort of ‘ Whole Duty of the Roman Patrician.’ Himself one of the order, he had doubtless to interest himself in the ampla valetudinaria, or infirmaries for slaves attached to every country-seat or urban palace. His experience of such hospitals enabled him to test the practice of the profession, and from the knowledge thus acquired, we te in dietetics, vy, and surgery, he compiled his elegantly written book. Historically its value is priceless, as the source from which we have distinct know- ledge of the Alexandrian period. He bases medi- cine, with Hippocrates, on anatomy, physiolo; y and the scientific investigation of the causes of ae. ease, while, without excluding the hypothetical, he allows no hypothesis to influence practice. The whole work forms a compendium which, since its Scasns to light in the 15th century, has held the first place in Latin medical literature. In the next generation to Celsus, Pliny the Elder deserves notice for his valuable, though incidental, allusions to medical authors. But to return to the Methodics, In the reign of Nero, Thessalus of Tralles was their most popular representative ; half a century later Soranus of Ephesus took his place in Rome as the most distinguished of the school. His masterwork, written in Greek, is on obstetrics, while in medi- cine proper his treatise on acute and chronic dis- eases (lost in its Greek original, but preserved to us in the African Latinity of Coelius Aurelianus, who lived about the end of the 4th or beginning of the 5th century) exhibits the Methodic practice in its most favourable light. This, though with diminishing strength, resisted even the influence of Galen, till in the middle ages it took a fresh start. An offshoot from the Methodic school had already appeared in the Ist century—viz. the Pnenmatie, which sought to reconcile it with the Hippocratic humoralism. Its originator, Athenwus, derived its central doctrine from a hypothetic pneuma or soul wiling the universe; but in practice he com- ned the empirie and methodic therapeutics. About the same time arose the Eclectics, whose chief representatives were Rufas of Ephesus and the much abler Areteus of Cappadocia, who, for culture, moral worth, and professional skill, to say nothing of the purity of his Ionic Greek, comes next to Hippocrates. We have now reached the epoch-making born at Pergamus in 131 A.D., who, pe studies in the Hellenic schools of the Levant, = ring and physiology the value withheld from them by Empiries and other words, to make diagnosis scientific by basing it on anatomy and physiology, and to reconstruct therapeutics by an unprejudiced clinical experience. His guide was Hippoerates—the treatise on Prog- nostics in particular ; but unhappily he abandoned the sound Hippocratic method, and tried to unite professional to scientifie medicine with a philo- sophie link, This he found in a hyper-idealistic Platonism, from which he evolved a teleological system which provided qvery question with an answer and every riddle with a solution. Hence arose a plausible ap ce of infallibility, which kept medicine in chains till the 17th and 18th centuries. Adopting the Hippocratic view of the corporeal elements as consisting of the solid, liquid, the warm, and the cold, he found them blended Peete in the blood, while in the bile the warm predominated, in the phlegm the cold. His vivifying principle, the pnewma, reaches in man its highest development as the ‘ psychical,’ the ‘ vital,” and the ‘natural’ spirit, and manifests itself in ‘spiritual,’ ‘ pulsating,’ and ‘natural’ force. The processes lating nutrition and structure he explained by attractive, secretive, pone and expulsive powers. Recognising, however, that these do not cover all physiological processes, he added to them the occult powers of the ‘whole. substance,’ the ‘specific qualities’ of his later followers; thus opening the sluice-gates to every kind of superstition. Disease he ascribed, first, to immediate causes (such as plethora and corruption of the juices) ; next, to the disturbance thence arising; next, to the abnormal structural processes started by such disturbance; and finally, to the symptoms, Maladies he distributed according to their ana- tomical substratum ; (1) those of the elementary substances (blood, phlegm, yellow and black bile) ; (2) irregularities of homogeneous substances (tissues), which, in, fall into anomalies of the physical condition (strain and atony), and of the primal — (warm, cold, &¢.); (3) ailments of special organs. For the Hip tie ‘ erudity,’ * coction,’ and ‘crisis,’ manifested only in acute disease, he substituted the ‘beginning,’ the ‘progress,’ the ‘culmination,’ and the ‘decline ;’ but retained the doctrine of erises and critical days; and he agreed with Hippocrates that the recuperative principle is nature, working necessarily through the attractive, transforming, and expulsive powers. He originated the doctrine of ‘indications’ in ne bearing on the prevention of peer ps on its character, stage, type, symptoms; on the idiosyn- crasy of the patient poss the aap of the affected organs—even on his dreams. Diet, —— baths, friction, and blood-letting formed his main therapeutics. Consistently, with his theories he classitied medicines, according to the prevalence of one or more elements, into simple, compound, and those operating through their ‘whole substance’ (emetics, for instance, purgatives, poisons and their antidotes). In his own practice he preferred simples, and set peculiar value on opium, introduced by the Alexandrian school. . It was not till after MEDICINE 117 his death that his influence to prevail. | on ‘health and the means of maintaining it,’ which and into Latin, ae studied in the West, till in the 6th and 7th centuries they were much in vogue. But it was the oo of the Nesto- rian creed, led from Byzantium, who became his true aj Revering him for his teleology ears. After Galen may be noticed the Byzantine school—viz. the compilers Oribasius (physician to Julian the Apostate), Aetius, the abler Alexander of Tralles, and the yet more independent Paul of i In the West Celius Aurelianus, above deterioration it had reached in the hands of her- balists and receipt-mongers. Arabian medicine arose out of the Greek in those Hellenic cities which had under Moslem sway. Its im ce ns with the Persian Rhazes Na b a ae of Galen, though mn unacquainted wi ippocrates, practising in - dad. After him was ake min Mesua the ounger, of Damascus, w materia medica, g from the 11th century, was much in vogue and was used by the London College of Physicians in framing their imrews sees in the reign of L, and Abnieasis, author of a medical cyclopiedia. , compiler of the ‘ Royal Book,’ was the stand. Arabian writer till Avicenna, who, famed also as a philoso; her, is the highest — as scenes oe His . Aisa peed — in style and method, is an encyclopedia of the healin art, based on Aristotle, Galen, and his suphaesn J Greek as well as Arabian, but evincing no clinical experience or research. His 0} ents were Aven- zoar and the latter's pupil Averrhoes, compilers mainly, as was also the great Rabbi Maimonides, the last noteworthy writer on Arabian medicine. No advance was made by this school on the Greek, a in the description of smallpox and measles ; more distinctly, in see and the virtues of drugs. The Arabs owed this su ity to their chemical skill, which origi- afterwards circulated so widely through Europe. The Salernitan school had many students, and, pro- portionately, a considerable staff of teachers, some of whom were women, their wives and daughters ; the best known of them is Trotula (11th century ), wife of Joannes Platearius, first of a medical family bearing that name, and author of Practica, a manual of medicine which long held its ground. But none of the Salernitan writers are other than compilers, chiefly from Hippocrates, Galen, and their successors. Diet was their sheet-anchor, though their pharmacy improved on the previous Euro) standard, and their clinical teaching was also favourable to rational medicine. But the Arabian wave swept over the school, and, after the 13th century, almost obliterated it. It survived, however, though but the shadow of a name, till its suppression in 1811 by Napoleon. tin renderings of the Arabian compilers were — _ the main channel through which Europe recovered erred to, alone redeems medicine from the | its knowledge of the classical medical writers— Constantine Africanus (1050) being the earliest of _ these translators. Transmitted through the Arabic, new or modified old remedies, and also to | their more familiar relations with the East, im- perfectly gleaned by thei ecessors. Apothe- caries’ , and even -the pharmacopeia, are among the innovations medicine owes to them. —- medicine, however, manifests no real break from its rise under Hippocrates. In the early middle ages the religions orders were the custodians of the degenerate knowledge and tice of the healing art transmitted from the Roman authors till the curious mixture of ancient science with the black art, characteristic of monastic medicine, was superseded by the Bene- dictines, whose house at Monte-Cassino in Cam- pania was the seat of the Hippocratico-Galenic revival, afterwards extended by the school of Salerno. This latter was a non-religious establish- ment, in which law as well as philosophy was taught, while the preponderance it gave to medi- cine as early as the 9th century earned for it the name of ‘Civitas Hippoeratica.’ It attracted pro- minent men of the time in quest of health, among them the Norman invaders of Southern Italy. William the Conqueror was one of the visitors, and his con Robert is supposed to have been the king of England for whom was written the famous _ Regimen Sanitatis Salerni, the rhyming Latin poem the Greek medicine wore an eastern dress, and in such guise it found its way to Montpellier, a school which developed as that of Salerno waned. Bologna and Padua, too, derived their medical teaching from this oriental travesty of the Greek ; but no great independent authority arose in any of these seats of learning. Hiiser points out that the practical tenor of the treatises they put forth —notably the Montpellier school—was due _ to British authors, who, like Gilbert the English- man, and Gordon the Scot, had graduated there. But the fall of Constantinople and the immigration of Greek scholars into Europe reopened the foun- tains of ancient learning. Hippocrates and Galen now became known in the original, and the master- work of Celsus, till then a forgotten book, was once more read with profit. Rational medicine had returned to its parents. To the writings of Galen was due the revived study of anatomy, and with it physiology ; to Dioscorides the resuscitation of medical botany. The discovery of America, followed up by inland exploration, led to the introduction of new medicines, vegetable and mineral. The reaction against the Arabian masters was completed by ‘authorised versions’ of the Greek originals—versions chiefly the work of physicians who were also Hellenists, and by the middle of the 16th century Galen was re- enthroned in the schools. The downfall of Arabian medicine was of earlier date in Italy and — than in France, while Germany was under the temporary sway of Paracelsus, a meteorie genius who follow no school, but vitiated his independence of judgment and great acuteness by the haughtiest arrogance. He had a positive as well as a mystical side, and, while regarding disease as ‘spiritual,’ with which, un- assisted, nature herself could often cope, he also relied on chemical agencies for its cure. These owed their virtue to their secret power over dis- ease, whence he called them ‘arcana.’ Opium, in the form of tincture, and antimony were among these. Beyond compelling a closer study of chemistry and showing an example of independ- ence amid the universal belief in Galen, Paracelsus did no good to medicine, and indeed, outside Ger- many, was held in little account. Meanwhile, the outbreak of disease on an aet seale, in forms unknown to the Greeks, threw the medical art on its own resources, and started that revolt against authority to which it owed its next advance. The sweating sickness was minutely described hy Kaye (Latinised, Caius) in England, and syphilis by physicians on the 118 MEDICINE Continent. Hospitals, moreover, the special contri- | text-book, but now, like his Aphorisms, super- bation of Chris’ ty to the relief of the sick or | seded by the juster Speers of which he was physically injured, now became seats of clinical | the pioneer. Among his pupils was Van 8 study, Italy leading the way in her celebrated school of ua, which then began to attract students from all countries. i ser which re- ceived a fresh impulse at the Renaissance, had also its effect on biology and medicine—Galileo and Cesalpinus representing in Italy what Bacon and Harvey represented in England—a sounder scientific method on the one hand and a more etrating physiological research on the other, ike to the discovery by Harvey of what Cesalpinus and others had dimly adumbrated, the circulation of the blood. Concurrently with the mechanical contribution to biological and medical study, that of natural history was equally important, pharmacy in icular receiving new accessions, notably cinchona bark, which found a lace in the dispensatories or pharmacopwias now bagtanin to multiply. Love of system, however, a perennial hindrance to medical progress, was no less prolific than inductive research, and so, con- temporaneously with Harvey, we have mystics such as Van Helmont, who, like Paracelsus, left no enduring mark on sound medicine beyond en- couraging independence of authority and innova- tions in treatment. The Iatro-mechanical school was another development in the theorising direc- tion, its most prominent names being the Nea- litan Borelli, the Roman Baglivi, and the Scottish teairne. Physiology is more indebted to these quasi-scientitic systematisers than therapeutics, which, however, is under distinct obligations to another school, the Iatro-chemical, whose Dutch founder, Sylvius, applied to treatment the results of the improved biology and chemistry. He had many followers in Germany as well as Holland ; bat his ablest disciple was the ane Willis, who worked anent good in the examina- tion of secretions, to say nothing of his still classic account of diabetes and of nervous maladies, Reaction against the theorising tendency was led by Sydenham, whose guide in practice was Hip- rates, with his ‘natural history of di f ature he held to have a self-restoring power, which it was the physician’s duty to watch and assist. As a practitioner Sydenham was especially great, while his descripti of di gout, for example--are those of an artist in medicine. But it was in his rejection of theory and as an observer and utiliser of facts that his influence was soundest, Coming as it did after the anatomical, physiological, and chemical work of the previous generation, it gave practical direction to so much of it as had stood the clinical test. Theory, however, is too attractive for ingenious minds to be long idle, and again we find medicine turning into ‘the high priori road.’ The Jatro- mecnanical school underwent something like a re- vival, thanks to the brilliant astronomy of Newton and the able advocacy of Pitcairne and his pupil Cheyne. Sydenham's example, however, was still powerful enough vo curb the theorising tendency, #0 that enthusiastic mathematicians like Mead did not allow their love of hypothetical symmetry to vitiate their practice. The next great name in medicine is that of Boerhaave of Leyden, a disciple of Hippocrates aud Sydenham, familiar with all that was valuable in other schools, but strenuous in his pursnit of anatomical and physiological fact, in which he worked assiduously with the micro- scope. Asa clinical lecturer he was the forerunner of the most refined teaching of the modern day, and his clinique was resorted to by aspiring students of every country. The love of system which he shared with so many of the master-minds of medicine is seen in his Jnstitutiones, long a founder of the Vienna school, while contempo- rary with him were Hoffmann and § beth of them professors at Halle, in advance of time as chemists, and enthusiastic systematisers, the former r to reconcile the ‘spiritual’ with the ‘materialistic’ view of nature, the latter bent on eliminating the ‘material’ from man and the * psychical’ the essence of his being. Physiology and rational medicine made a new start under the all-accomplished Swiss Von Haller, whose teaching prevailed for good in — spite of recurrent outbreaks of the 8 tising tendency. Muscular irritability, to the exclusion of the hypothetical anima, and as dis- tinguished from nervous sensibility, was a dis- covery of his which threw fresh light on living movements, while medicine proper owes to him a series of experiments, better appreciated by later science, on the influence of drugs on the healthy sen Morgagni of Bologna laid practic medicine under yet more lasting obligations Ae his elaborate work in morbid anatomy, of wh he may almost be “a as the creator. His De Sedibus et Causis Morborum may still be con- sulted with advantage, followed up as it was and its results extended by other aa na the feuling. of Von. Hall and Morgagn a. pati ing of Von Haller 0 a deflection was made by Cullen of Edinburgh, an expositor of rare ability. His Lines of the Practice of Physic and his larger Nosology were a skilful adaptation of the new physiology and yeas to classifieation and therapeutics, and from their attractive clearness were long in favour with teacher and student alike. A more brillian though far less judicious systematiser was his pupi John Brown, father of the Brunonian system, of which the keynote is the part played by ‘excit- ability’ in health and disease. To maintain this property at its normal strength was the object of the physician, who, indeed, in 97 cent. of the diseases brought before him, had to make his treatment a ‘stimulating’ one. The superficial simplicity of the system explains its wide accept- ance and tenacious vitality, hone its popularity was always greater in Italy and any than in Great Britain. Another exemplar of the systema- tising spirit in the same century was Hahnemann, the creator of the Hommopathic school. Dwelli chiefly on the symptoms of disease, he constru an elaborate scheme of therapeutics (see Homao- PATHY), and benefited practical medicine, even as Brown did, by favouring a milder than the so-called heroic treatment. Before Re the 18th century, its contribu- — tions to special departments of medicine must be noticed. In Italy Valsalva and Lancisi did service, the latter by his observations on the causes of sudden death, including cardiae and aneurismal lesions, while Albertini was also meritorious in the same walk. Germany produced Auenbrugger of Vienna, author of direct ‘percussion,’ In Britain state-medicine owes its start to Baker, followed up by Jenner, whose discovery of vaccina- tion is memorable not only for its prevention of smallpox, but for its influence on the study of in- fectious disease. Pringle, ably preceded by Hux- ham, enlightened the profession on fevers, especial as occurring in prisons and camps; and Fothergi on putrid sore throat (‘diphtheria’) and tie- doulonrenx, and Heberden in therapeutics did honour to the English school. The 19th century opened with a sound preference for inductive research over premature generalisa- tion, and France, in the background for many MEDICINE MEDINA 119 ears, now cane to the front with Bichat and the former a great anatomist and physi- ist, the latter 2 a pmo in pathology. i anatomy had contribu much to localise disease, and diagnosis was made still more precise Corvisart and Piorry in perfecting the cs ns of Auenbrugger. By | eae. ad- ‘vance w this—auscultation to wit—the move- ments of the lungs and heart are heard through the thoracic walls by the steth Concurrently with this ‘mediate auscultation,’ morbid anatomy yonnected the lesions of the intra-thoracie viscera with the sounds so transmitted—a twin-source of nedical know! rich in results on diagnosis and treatment. Bayle, Chomel, Louis, Cruveilhier, and Andral, poe 6 in his own way, did memorable work in scientific and practical medicine, founding the great clinical school which, ¢ontinued under Bretonneau, Rostan, D’Alibert, Rayer, and Trous- seau, made Paris the resort of aspiring young ysicians from both hemispheres. In Great ritain medical education was steadily improved hy sonnder chemical and physical, as well as anatomical and physiological knowledge, while the preference of rati observation to theory was admirably illustrated by Willan on the skin, Bright on the kidney, and Addison on the supra-renal capsules. The Paris school found ” pupils in the British Islands—the Scottish ‘orbes and the Irish Stokes, with the English Hope, Latham, and Watson, doing much to diffuse a sounder di is and treatment of chest diseases ; while , in particular, maintained the tradi- tional celebrity of her clinique by Gregory, Aber- crombie, and Alison in Edinburgh, to whom worthy Seokes Paiva were produced in Dublin by Graves, Stokes (already mentioned ), and Corri In the northern capital Christison, the Beg ies, father and son, Hughes Bennett, and Laycock upheld the fame of the school, and south of the Tw Parkes, Murchison, Hilton F , and Jenner have be- queathed a rich harvest of practical doctrine to their successors. Italy, with Galvani, Volta, Nobili, and Matteucci, is the parent of electro-therapeutics ; but it is to Germany that recent medicine owes its greatest and most productive achievements. Vienna, under Van Swieten and Auenbrugger, had already won a European name for clinical research when a enhanced it by improving on Laennec’s discovery, and Rokitansky and, quite recently, Bam earried Viennese teaching to the highest pitch of academic effici Romberg is another representative name ; but Schénlein, by the unani- mous voice of Germany, has placed her in the van of medical progress. Founder of the modern ‘natural history school,’ his teaching has led u to bacteriology, which already in the hands of sue men as Pasteur and Koch has for cholera, malaria, lupus, and tuberenlosis (see TUBERCLE) become one of most powerful instruments of which medicine, in diagnosis and even in practice, has been able to The marvellous advances cerebral physiology, from Broca to Hitzig and Ferrier, have had t results in practice, surgi- cal as well as medical; and the Americans have done splendid work, especially in therapeutics. Hiiser’s Grundriss der Geschichte der Medicin (Jena, 1884) and Puschmann’s Geschichte des medicinischen Unterrichts (Leip. 1889) have been closely followed in the foregoing article. The student who wishes to pursue the history of medicine into minuter detail should consult the larger work of Hiiser, in 3 vols. (Jena, 1875-79); Daremberg’s Histoire des Seiences Médicales (2 vols. Paris, 1870); and Puccinnotti’s Storia della Medicina (3 vols. Pisa, 1359). Fora key to the very numerous articles on diseases, see Disease, and the list to ANATOMY. See also Suncery, Hyatene, acterta, Geam THeory, and the notices of Hippo- RATES, GALEN, and other great physicians. Medick (Medicago ), a genus of plants of the natural order Leguminosee, sabconion apilionaceze, nearly allied to Clover (q.v.), but distinguished from that and kindred genera by the rsecrstgey or, in most ies, spirally-twisted legume. he species, which are very numerous, are mostly annual and perennial katiicces plants, with leaves of three leafiets like those of clover, and are natives of temperate and warm climates. A number of them are found in Britain, and many more in the south of Euro’ They generally afford good green food for cattle, and some of them are cultivated like the clovers for this use, amongst which the most important is the Purple Medick, or Lucerne (9.¥-s . sativa). Besides this, the Black Medick, onsuch, or Lupuline (M. lupulina), is one of the most generally cultivated. It is a common native of Britain, where it is very generally sown mixed with Red Clover and Rye-grass, and is useful where a close turf is desired. Medi’na, Eu- (Arabic for ‘The City’), or, more fully, Medinat en-Nebi (‘City of the Pro- phet’), or Medinat Rasuli-elah (‘City of the tle of God’), because it was there that ohammed took refuge after his Hegira or Flight from Mecca in 622, and there that he lived till his death. Formerly called Yathzib, and mentioned y Ptolemy as Iai rippa, the holiest city of the ohammedan world after Mecca, and the second capital of the Hedjiz in western Arabia, it is situ- ated about 270 miles N. of Mecea, and 132 N. by E. of the port of Yanbu’ on the Red Sea, and con- tains about 16,000 inhabitarits (Burton), chiefly engaged in agriculture. It consists of three prin- cipal parts—a town, a fort, and suburbs of about the same extent as the town itself, from which they are separated by a wide pone (the Munakha). It is about half the size of Mecca, and forms an irregular oval within a walled enclosure, 35 to 40 feet high, flanked by thirty towers, and enclosing the castle where the Turkish garrison is lodged— a fortification which renders it the chief stronghold of the Hedjaz. Two of its four gates are massive buildings with double towers. The streets are narrow but partly paved, The houses are flat- roofed and double-storied, and are built of stone, brick, and palm-wood. The principal eee is the Prophet’s Mosque El-Haram (‘the Sacred’), supposed to be erected on the spot where Moham- med died, and to enclose his tomb. It is of smaller dimensions than that of Mecca, being a parallel- ogram, 420 feet long and 340 feet broad, with a spacious central area, surrounded by a peristyle with numerous rows of pillars. The present build- ing is, however, “Cray last of many reconstruc- tions, of which the best was that of Kait Bey, the Mameluke sultan, in 1481, whose dome and pulpit still stand. The Mausoleum, or Hujrah, is an irregular doorless chamber, 50 to 55 feet in extent, situated in the south-east corner of the building. It is surmounted by a large gilt crescent above the ‘Green Dome,’ springing from a series of globes, and hedged in with a closely-latticed brass railing, in which are small apertures for prayer. The in- terior is hung with costly curtains embroidered with large gold letters, stating that behind them lie the bodies of the Prophet of God and of the first two califs—which curtains, changed whenever worn out, or when a new sultan ascends the throne, cover a square edifice of black marble, in the midst of which is Mobammed’s tomb. Its exact place is indicated by a long pearly rosary—-still seen in 1855 —suspended from the curtain. The Prophet’s body is believed to lie undecayed at full length on the right side, with the right palm sup pare the right cheek, the face directed towards Mecca. Close behind him is placed, in the same position, Alm- bekr, and behind him Omar; and. Fatimeh’s house 120 MEDINA SIDONIA MEDITERRANEAN SEA is represented by a modern erection hard by, There comes ie teehee On beet. Aas: the het was buried in the space (originally Ayeshah’s hut) now enclosed in the mosque; nor is it likely that the grave was ever That his coffin, said to be eovered with a marble slab, and cased with silver (no European has ever seen it), rests suspended in the air is of course an idle Christian fable. Of the treasures which this sanctuary once contained, little now remains. It is a meritorious act to form the pilgrimage to Medina, though there no fixed season for it. As in Mecca, a great number of ecclesiastical officials are attached in some capacity or other to the Great Mosque; and not only they, but many of the towns-people live toa t extent on the pilgrims’ alms and custom. There are few other noteworthy spots in Medina, save the minor ae of Abn-bekr, *Ali, ‘Omar, Bilal, &e. Thirty Medressehs, or public endowed schools, represent what learning there is left in the city, once famed for its scholars and theologi n the 7th century Medina was the capi of Islam; but since then it has under the rule of emirs, sherifs, Turkish pashas, and Wahabis, though the internal government of the city is still Arabian. Medina Sidonia, « city of Spain, 25 miles SSE. of Cadiz, stands on an isolated hill overlook- ing a wide plain, and has the ruins of a castle, the ancestral seat of the dukes of Medina Sidonia, descendants of Guzman the Good, conqneror of Tarifa (1292). It was a member of this house who commanded the ‘invincible Armada’ (q.v.). Pop. 12,397, who make pottery. Medinet-el-Fayyum, See Fayy0M. Meditatio Fugie. See Dest, Vol. IIL. p. 717. Mediterranean Sea, so named from lying in the midst between the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It is the largest enclosed sea in the world, and is connec with the open ocean only by the narrow Strait of Gibraltar, 9 miles in width at the Pillars of Hercules. Since 1869, however, it has been artificially connected with the Red Sea and Indian Ocean by means of the Suez Canal (q.v.). From its great size the Mediterranean might be ranked with the oceans, but from being so completely cut off it presents distinctly local characters when compared with the reat ocean-basins, and is consequently of special interest to the student of physical science. The Mediterranean, in a nearly east and west direction, is abont 2200 miles in length from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Syrian coast; its width varies from 500 or 600 miles in some places to less than 100 miles between Sicily and Cape Bon, where it is divided by relatively shallow banks into two distinct hydrographic basins, the eastern one being the larger. It is connected with the Black Sea through the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, and the Hoaphorna, The African and Syrian coasts are comparatively even and unindented, the wide gulfs of Gabes and Sidra scarcely presenting an exception ; on the other hand, the shores of Europe and Asia Minor a.e cut up into numerous galfs and bays, the largest of which is the Adriatic Sea. Various parts of the Mediterranean have been known by special names, such as the Tyrrhenian and Iberian Seas in the western, and the Levant, Aigean, and Ionian Seas in the eastern basin. The principal islands in the western part are Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic and Lipari Islands, the two latter groups being of volcanic origin. The continental islands of Sicily and Malta are situated on the banks dividing the two basins; Pantellaria, Limosa, and Graham Island (now reduced to a shoal) are, however, volcanic though situated on the same banks. In the eastern regions there are thettacge inlanda of rus and Crete, with the Ionian Islands and ths Plans of the The Mediterranean is uently subject to 5 quakes, and Vesuvius, Stromboli, and Etna are among the most famous of its active volcanoes. The scenery of the shores of this inland sea is varied, mountain-ranges and file tablelands racer Although there is considerable iversity between the climates of Northern Italy and the desert shores of North Africa, still the terrestrial fauna and flora are not markedly distinet in the different regions of the Mediterranean basin, many of the plants and animals being identical on the northern and southern shores, and there is abundant evidence that this similarity was much more pro- nounced in recent geological times. The countries bordering the Mediterranean have been the cradle of civilisation, Phoenicia, Greece, and Italy having been successively the homes of knees pro- gress, and at the present time this inland sea is pr tiga the most important waterway of the world. The area of the Mediterranean is estimated at about 900,000 sq. m., or, including the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, at 1,053,000 sq. m. The area of land draining into the Mediterranean is estimated at 2,969,350 sq. m., or nearly 3,000,000 sq. m. of the richest country on the earth’s surface. The annual amount of rain that falls on this land is estimated by the writer at 1598 cubic miles, and of this amount about 226 cubic miles reach the Medi- terranean through the annual dischar ae principal of eye = the Rhone, ieper, nm, and the Nile. The bas about 50 miles to the west of Gibraltar, where there is a ridge with a maximum depth of about 200 fathoms. There is a similar depth on the ridge between Sicily and Africa which yy Fo the Mediterranean into two basins; 2040 fathoms is the greatest depth recorded in the western, and 2187 fathoms the greatest in the eastern basin ; the mean depth of the whole sea is 768 fathoms. The area of the sea-bottom with a less depth than 100 fathoms is estimated at about one-fourth of the whole area ; the area with a depth of from 100 to 1000 fathoms is estimated at 300,000 sq. m., and with a depth of from 1000 to 2000 fathoms at 15,000 sq. m. The bulk of water is estimated at 709,800 cubie miles. The greatest depth in the Black Sea is 1070 fathoms, the average depth being 412 fathoms. On the whole seers! winds prevail over the Mediterranean, due chietly to the influence of the anticyclonic region of the North Atlantic, although in the eastern portions the alternate cyclonic anticyclonic area of northern Asia has a d of rivers, ‘0, Danube, influence on the direction of the winds. The — Mediterranean lies wholly between the annual isotherms of 60° F. in the north and 70° in the south. The temperature of the surface waters may Laogemreso | reach 90°, but is usually much less, the mean of the winter months being between 53° and 57°. Generally the temperature of the sea is higher than that of the air, especially in winter, but in some of the summer months the reverse is the case. Whatever the temperature of the surface water may be, at a depth between 100 and 200 fathoms a temperature of 54° to 56° is met with, and this persists without sensible variation to the greatest depth. The temperature of the bottom water in the western basin is about 54°°5, and in the eastern basin a little warmer, 56°°0, these temperatures being fully 20° higher than the temperature of the bottom water of the Atlantic at corresponding depths. From recent observa- tions it would appear that the deep water of the Mediterranean is subject to slight annual varia- tions, dependent on the temperature of the previous. in of the Mediterranean commences” MEDJIDIE MEERSCHAUM 121 winter. The evaporation from the surface of the Mediterranean exceeds both the precipitation and the annual of the rivers flowing into it a shoot surrounding catchment basin, for we find ifie gravity of its waters (1°02800 to 1°0300) to be than that of the Atlantic on the west (1-026 to 1°027), or that of the Black Sea on the east (1012 to 1-014). There is even an outflow of warm dense Mediterranean water into the Atlantic beneath the lighter Atlantic water which flows in at the surface through the Strait of Gibraltar. There is a similar state of things at the entrance of the Black Sea, where there is an inflow of fresh water from the Black Sea at the surface, and an outflow in the opposite direction of salter Mediter- ranean water by an undercurrent. Were it not for the inflow of Atlantic water the Mediterranean would slowly become salter, and shrink till reduced to two salt like the Dead Sea. The Mediter- ranean is usually called a tideless sea. At Algiers there is a rise of 34 inches at springs and half that amount at neaps ; at other places the rise and fall is about 18 inches, and in the Gulf of Gabes the range reaches 5 feet, but the solilunar tides are as a rule completely masked by the rise of level and the surface currents produced by the action of the winds. The deposits now forming in the Mediterranean in deep water are all blue muds, with a yellowish upper layer, containing usual] from 10 to 30 per cent. of carbonate of lime, which principally consists of the shells of pelagic Fora- minifera. The mineral icles and clayey matter are derived from the disintegration of the neigh- bourin, In some of the shallower depths ~ there are glauconitic and more caleareous deposits. The deep-sea dredgings show that life, though present, is much less a t in deep water than at similar depths in the open ocean, in which respect the Mediterranean agrees with enclosed seas in general. There is an extensive red coral fishery and tunny fishery on some parts of the coasts. The Mediterranean region appears to have been covered by the sea from early geological times, and during Tertiary times must have had much wider communication with the open ocean. Medjidie, an Ottoman decoration, instituted in 1852 by the Sultan Abd-ul-Medjid as a reward of merit either civil or military. It was conferred after the Crimean campaign, to a considerable extent, on British officers. The order consists of five classes, and the decoration is a silver sun of seven triple rays, with the device of the crescent and star alternating with the rays. Medlar ( Mespilus), a genus of trees or shrubs of the natural order . , sub-order Pome, having a 5-cleft calyx with leafy segments, nearly round petals, a large honey-secreting dise, and 2-5 styles, united ther in the flower, but widely on the fruit, the upper ends of the bony cells of which are exposed. The Common Medlar of (M. germanica), a small tree, spiny in a wild state, but destitute of spines in cultivation, is a native of the south of Europe and of the temperate parts of Asia, but is a doubtful native of Britain, although it is to be seen in hedges and thickets in the southern parts of England. It has lanceolate, undivided leaves, solitary large white flowers at the end of small spurs, and globular or pear-shaped frnit. The medlar is much cultivated in some of Europe, and is common in gardens in ngland, but it does not generally ripen well in Scotland without a wall. It is very austere, but when biletted, or its tough pulp has become soft and vinous by incipient decay, it is relished by many. Medmenham, « vill of ae oma sh near the Thames, 3 miles W. of Marlow. Here stood a Cistercian abbey (1204); and here, soon after the middle of the 18th century, Sir Francis Dashwood, afterwards Lord le Despencer (1708-81), founded his mock brotherhood of ‘ Franciscans,’ whose motto was the familiar inscription on Rabelais’ abbey of Thelema, ‘ Fay ce que voudras,’ and two of whose twelve members were John Wilkes and Paul Whitehead the t. Pop. of aya 336. See W. Fraser Rae’s Wilkes, Sheridan, ‘ow (1874). Médoe, a district in the French department of Gironde, famed for the by oer and excellence of the wine it yields, some of the most famous growths of Bordeaux (q.v.), such as Chiteau-Margaux, Chiteau-Lafite, and Chateau-Latour. The district lies on the left bank of the estuary of the Gironde, being se) ted from the Landes by low hills, and is 40 miles long by from 5 to 10 wide. See Cham- bers’s Journal ( 1890). Medulla Oblongata. See Bram. Medusze. See JELLY-FISH. Medway, a river of Kent, Being in three head- streams in Sussex and Surrey, and flowing 70 miles north-eastward (including 12 miles of estuary), past Tunbridge, Maidstone, Rochester, Chatham, and Sheerness, until it joins the estuary of the Thames. It is tidal and navigable to Maidstone, but large vessels do not ascend above Rochester bridge. See CHATHAM. Meeanee, or MIANI, a village in Sind, India, on the Indus, 6 miles N. of: Hyderabad, was the scene of a battle between Sir Charles Napier with 2800 men and a Baluch army, 22,000 strong, on February 17, 1843. The latter were totally routed, losing 5000 men; the British loss was 256. The result of this victory was the conquest and annexa- tion cf Sind. Meerane, a prosperous manufacturing town of Saxony, 43 miles by rail 8. of Leipzig. From an unimportant, small country town, it has increased zaphiily in size and importance through the de- velopment of its woollen manufactures and the large export trade which it carries on with England, France, and America. Pop. (1849) 7345; (1890) 22,446. See Leopold’s Chronik: von Meerane (1863). Meereat ( Cynictis), a South African carnivore akin to the Ichneumon (q.v.). Meerschaumi (Sepiolite), a mineral existing in many parts of the world. In pels it is found chiel at Hrubsehitz in Moravia, and at Sebastopol and Raffa in the Crimea ; and in Turkey in Asia it oceurs abundantly just below the soil in the alluvial beds of several districts—especially at Eski-shehr. It is also found in Spain and South Carolina. Meerschaum, from its having been found on the seashore in some places, in peculiarly rounded snow-white lumps, was ignorantly imagined to be the petrified froth of the sea, which is the meaning of its German name. Its composition is silica, 60°9; magnesia, 26°1; water, 12°0.. Almost all the meerschaum found is made into tobacco- ipes, in which manufacture the Austrians have n for a long time pre-eminent. Vienna contains many manufactories, in which some very artistic productions are made; and pipes worth 100 guineas, from the beauty of their design, are by no means uncommon. The French pipe-makers have lately used meerschaum, and have displayed great taste in their works. When first dug from the earth, meerschaum is quite soft and soap-like to the touch, and as it Jathers with water, and removes grease, it is employed by the Turks as a substitute for soap in washing. Similarly in Algeria it is sometimes used in place of soap at the Moorish baths. The waste in entting and turning the pipes was formerly thrown away, but it is now 122 MEERUT MEGRIMS reduced to powder, mixed into a paste, and com- into hard masses, which are carved into inferior pipes. Meerut, or more correctly MERATH, a town, district, and division in the North-western Pro- vinces of British India. The town lies 40 miles NE. of Delhi, about half-way between the — and the Jumna. Its most important edifice is the English church, with a fine spire and an excellent organ. There are also several ruins of native edifices, Here in 1857 the great mutiny broke out (see INDIA, in Vol. VL. p. 119). Pop. (1881) 99,565 ; (1891) 119,390, of whom 40,000 were in the canton- ment. The district has an area of 2370 sq. m., pop. 1,391,458; the division, 11,326 sq. m., pop. 4,834,064. Megaceros. See ELK. Megalichthys (Gr., ‘ t fish’), a genus of extinct Ganoid fishes. heir remains found in Carboniferous strata testify to fishes of large size, completely bucklered by big strong smooth scales, The jaws bear large conical teeth suggestive of predacious carnivorous habits. Megalithic Monuments. See DoLMEn, STANDING STONES, STONE CIRCLEs, &c. M onyx, “ large fossil edentate of the United States, smaller than the Megatherium (q.v. ). Megalopolis, founded by Epaminondas after the battle a Leuctra (371 B.c.), and made the capital of Arcadia, stood in the valley of the Helisson. Plundered and mostly destroyed by the Spartans in 222 B.c., it was the birthplace of Philopcemen and Polybius. Here the British school at Athens conducted excavations in 1892-93. Megalosaurus (Gr., ‘great lizard’) a gigantic axtinct reptile, whose remains are found in urassic and Cretaceous strata. The huge sg seems to have measured about 30 to 50 feet in length, and the formidable teeth suggest a carnivorous diet. See REPTILEs. Megapodidz. See Mounp-nirbs. Megaris, « small mountainous region of Hellas, or Greece proper, lying between Attica and the Isthmus of Corinth. The people were excellent sailors, and founded several colonies, of which the most famous were Byzantium (667 B.c.), Chalcedon, and Megara (Hyblea) in Sicily. They were generally regarded as guilty of deception and dis- simulation, hence the phrase ‘ Megarian tears.’ The capital was Megara, long an important com- mercial city, and famous for its white shell marble, and for a white kind of clay, of which pottery was made,—From Euclid (q.v.) the philosopher, who, as well as Theognis the poet, was born at Megara, the Megarie school took its name. Megas'thenes, « Greek ambassador stationed by Selencus Nicator (306-298 B.c.) at the court of Sandrocottnus (q.v.), or Chandra Gupta, in the valley of the Ganges. Here he gathered materials for his work Jndica, from whieh Arrian, Strabo, and others borrowed. The fragments that remain have been edited by Schwanebeck (1846) and Miiller ( 1848). Megatherium (Gr., ‘ great beast’), a gigantic extinct quadruped of the order Edentata, nearly allied to the sloth, found in the Pleistocene deposits of South and North America, but more particularly in those of the South American pampas. In structure it is very near its modern representative, except that the whole skeleton is modified to suit the re of an immense heavy-boned and heavy-bodied animal, fully equal in bulk to the largest species of rhinoceros. The appellation tardigrade, which Cuvier applied to the sloth, cannot be given to the Megatherium: its limbs were comparatively short and very strong, and the feet adapted for walking on the ground, approach- ing in this respect nearer to the allied ant-eaters, but with this peculiarity, that the first toe of each of the hind-feet was furnished with a and werful claw, which was probably as a cleser to loosen roots from the soil, and enable the creature the more easily to overturn the trees on Skeleton of the Megatherium. the foliage of which it browsed. The enormous development of the bones of the pelvis, the hind- legs, and the tail, gave the animal great power when, seated on its hind-legs and tail, as on a tripod, it raised its fore-legs against the trunk, and applied its force a, eared a tree that had already been weakened by having its roots dug up. The structure of the lower jaw seems to indicate that the snout was prolonged and more or less flexible, and it seems probable that the Megatherium was furnished with a prehensile tongue like that of the giraffe, with which it stripped the foli from the trees, The remains of several allied genera of huge Edentata are associated with the Megatherium in the deposits on the pampas. They form the family Megatheriide of Owen, which includes Mylodon, Megalonyx, Scelidotherium, &c.—genera which are separa’ from Megatherium chiefly from uli- arities in the dentition. The modern sloth is a native of South America, and the fossil remains of these immense creatures, which represented it in the newer Tertiaries, are found only in the American continent. Meghna, the estuary of the Ganges (q.v.) and Brahmaputra (q.v.). See Map at CALCUTTA. Megiddo, an ancient city of Palestine, the site of which is somewhat uncertain, in the plain of Esdraelon. In the battle there Josiah (q.v.) was slain in 609 B.C. Megilp. See Mair. Megrim. See HEADACHE. Megrims and Vertigo are the terms usually applied when a horse at work reels, and then either stands for a minute dull and stupid, or falls to the sround, lying for a time rtially insensible. hese attacks come on suddenly, are often pene - eal, and are most frequent during hot weather and when the animal is drawing up a hill, or exposed a heavy work to the full rays of a hot sun, Liability to megrims constitutes unsoundness, and usually depends upon the circulation through the brain being temporarily disturbed by the presence of tumours, or by weakness of the heart's action. Horses subject to megrims are always dangerous ; if driven at all, they should be used with a heenst: MEHEMET ALI MELA 123 plate or pipe-collar, so as to prevent, as much as pressure on the veins carrying the blood the head; they should be moderately and carefully fed, and during hot weather have an occasional laxative. Mehemet Ali, better Monammep ’ALI, Viceroy of Egypt (1805-49), was born in Albania in 1769, and was sent to Fevpt with a Turkish force in 1799. See Eeypt, Vol. IV. p. 242. Méhaul, Ettenne NIco.as, operatic composer, was born at Givet, 22d June 1763, studied in Paris, and in 1795 became professor at the Conservatoire. He died 18th October 1817. Among his best-known works are the operas Une Folie (1801), Les Aveugles de Toléde (1806), and Joseph (1807); and the patriotic sag thong du Depart, Chant de Victoire, Chanson de nd. See Life by Pougin (1889). Meilhac, French playwright, born in 1832 in Paris, was trained as an artist and published his first dramatic work in 1855. He has subsequently produced a long series of light comedies—some in conjunction with Halévy. Some are well known through Offenbach’s music. His chef-d’euvre is Frou- Frou (1869). Meinam. See SiAm. Meinhold, JouHann W1LHELM (1797-1851), a native of the island of Usedom, and Lutheran pastor at Usedom, Krummin, and Rehwinkel, published ag and dramas, but is best known as author of Amber Witch (trans. by Lady Duff Gordon, 1844) and Sidonia the Sorceress (trans. 1893). Meiningen, the capital of the German duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, lies in a narrow valley on the banks of the Werra, 43 miles by rail NW. oft Coburg. The ducal castle (1682), the most prominent build. ing in the town, contains libraries, a picture-gallery, lection of coins, &e. There is a fine ‘English garden’ here. The town has been in great part rebuilt since 1874, when a tire destroyed the old streets. It was an pe of the see of Wiirz- conn hg 1008 to 1 and in 1583 came into the of the Saxon ducal family. Pop. (1875) 9521 ; (1890) 12,029. The Meiningen Court Company of Actors gained the highest reputation in Germany about 1874, ap at Lane, London, in 1881, but was dissolved in 1 Meissen, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, is situated in a beautiful district on the left bank of the Elbe, 14 miles by rail NW. of Dresden. Its chief building is the cathedral (c. 1266-1479), one of the finest Gothie churches in any, surmounted by an exquisite spire (263 feet) of open work, and con- taining many fine The castle was built in 1471-83, and in 1710 was converted into the porce- lain factory over which Béttger presided (see PorTery). In 1863 the castle was restored, its walls being adorned with frescoes by modern painters, porcelain factory having been re- moved in 1860 to other premises ; 800 men are em- ployed. Other mannfactures are iron, machinery, inte, and cigars. Here is the celebrated school of ti where Gellert and Lessing were educated. Tt was founded by Duke Maurice in 1543, and until 1879 occupied the former Afra monastery (built in 1205). issen was founded in 928 by Henry I. of Germany, as a stronghold against the Slavonians, and was long the capital of the margraviate and burgraviate of Meissen, which was subsequently merged in the duchy of Saxony. The town was burned down by the Swedes under Banér in 1637. Pop. (1875) 13,002 ; (1885) 15,474 ; (1890) 17,875. Meissonier, Jean Lovis Ernest, figure- nter, was born at Lyons, 2ist February 1813. he was still a child his father established as a druggist in Paris; and the son, having resolved upon art as a profession, studied under Jules Potier and Léon Cogniet. His draw- ings were praised Hs & Johannot, and about 1833-34 he was employed Curmer the publisher on desi for the Sivvrananenst Bible and other works. He first made a distinct mark in 1838, by his illustrations to Paul and Virginia and t Chaumiére Indienne; many other volumes were enriched by his pencil, and his career as a book-illustrator closes with his spirited designs to the Contes Rémois of the Comte de Chevigné. Meanwhile, he had been steadily practising paint- ing. In 1834 he began to contribute to the Salon with a water-colour and an oil-picture, the latter strongly suggestive of the work of the figure- inters of Holland, who powerfully influenced eissonier during his whole career. Two years later he exhibited the first of his various groups of ‘Chess-players,’ and here his accurate precision of draughtsmanship and quietly dramatic truth of attitude and expression first became clearly visible. It was followed by a long series of elaborate and successful genre-pictures, in whieh, with the most careful and finished—if sometimes rather hard and unsympathetie—execution, and with the most per- fect verisimilitude of costume and local colouring, the artist depicted the civil and military life of the 17th and 18th centuries, passing—in such works as the ‘Napoleon L,’ a small single-figure picture which Mr Ruskin sold in 1882 for £6090 ; the ‘Campaigne de France, 1814’ (1864); ‘Solferino’ (1866), now in the Luxembourg Gallery ; ‘ Cuiras- siers or 1805’ (1871); and ‘Friedland or 1807,’ bought by M. Sécrétan in 1878 for 400,000 franes— to subjects of genre or history taken from the 19th century. Among the most celebrated of his other military scenes may be named ‘La Rixe’ (1854), purchased by Queen Victoria; and not less fasci- nating are his simpler ups of students, artists, collectors, &c., such as ‘La ture chez Diderot’ (1859), ‘ Les Amateurs de Peinture’ (1860), and ‘ La Lecture du Manuscrit’ (1867). He also executed some striking portraits, including ‘Dumas fils’ (1877) and ‘ Victor Lefrane’ (1883). The car- toons of his design for the decoration of the Pan- théon—‘ the apotheosis of France’—were exhibited in 1889. He etched some dozen plates ; and on of his pictures are familiar from engravings. He e a Commander of the Legion of Honour in 1867, Grand Cross 1889, and a member of the Insti- tute in 1861; and he was an honorary member of the Royal Academy. He died 31st January 1891. See works on him by Clarette (1881) and Larroumet (1893), and the Art Annual for 1893. An exhibi- tion of his works was held at Paris in 1884. His son Jean Charles (born 1848) paints in his father’s manner. Meistersanger. See GeRMANY, Vol. V. p. 197. Mekhong, or Mekon (also called Cambodia), the test river of the Siam peninsula, since 1894 mainly controlled by the French (see SIAM), is usually identified with the Lan-tsan, which rises in the neighbourhood of Chiamdo in Tibet—its exact sources are not known. It pursues a gener- ally southerly direction to the China Sea, which it enters by several mouths in Cochin-China. This country indeed is formed by its deltaic depo- sits. The river has a total length of 2800 miles ; but is not navigated higher than 14° N, lat. owing to rapids and cliffs which beset its bed in the mountainous regions. Meklong, a town of Siam, near where the Meklong River runs into the Gulf of Siam. Among its 10,000 inhabitants many are Chinese. Mela, Pompontvs, the first Latin writer who com 1 a strictly geographical work, was born at Tingentera in the south of Spain, and lived in 124 MELALEUCA MELBOURNE the time of the Emperor Claudius; nothing else is wn concerning him, His work, an unsystematic compendium, is in three books, and is entitled De Situ Orbis. The text is tly corrupted, The editio prin peared at Milan in 1471; the best aden edition & that by Parthey (Berlin, 1867). Melaleuca, See Caserur. Melancholia. See INsANrry. Melanchthon, Puitir, Luther's _fellow- labonrer in the Reformation, was born, February 16, 1497, at Bretten, in the Palatinate of the Rhine, now in the grand-duchy of Baden. His name was originally Schwarzerd (* black earth’), of which Mel- anchthon is a Greek translation. He was educated at the university of Heidelberg, where he took the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy in 1512. In the same year he went to Tiibingen, studied theology, took the degree of Doctor, fos. §75 1514 gave lectures on the Aristotelian philosophy and the classics. About this time he published a Greek grammar. On his relative Reuchlin’s recommendation he was appointed in 1518 professor of Greek in Witten- berg. Brought into contact with Luther in that town, he at once became his fellow-worker in the great religious revolution with which Luther's name is identified. Melanchthon brought to his aid an extent of learning that made Riss to be led as another Erasmus, and a gift of Incid exposition and purity of Latin style unrivalled among his contemporaries. The natural sweet- ness of his temper and the habitual modera- tion of his views also advan usly tempered Luther's vehemence. In 1521 he published his Loci Communes Rerum Theologicarum, the first great Protestant work on dogmatic theology. It passed through more than fifty editions in the course of the author's life. In 1530 he made a most important contribution to the cause of Pro- testantism, in the Augsburg Confession (q.v.). In 1541 he went to Worms, and soon after to Ratisbon, to conduct the cause of the Protestants in the conferences there. But the influence of the papal legate counteracted all his efforts for a peaceful accommodation, and his own party were much dissatisfied on account of the concessions which he male. After Luther's death, Melanchthon lost in some measure the confidence of some of the Pro- testants by those concessions to the Catholics which his anxiety for peace led him to make; whilst the zealous edarnae were no less dis- pleased because of his approximation to the doc- trine of Calvin on the Lord's Supper. His consent, conditionally given, to the introduction of the Augsburg Interim (q.v.) in Saxony, in, 1549, led to painful controversies, which filled the latter years of his life with disquietude. He died at Witten- berg, 19th April 1560. By his calm wisdom and the reputation of his genius, Melanchthon did much to save the Reformation from those e schneider al Bintvelt haat pt Ps Perk an n in ‘ torum (28 vols. 1834-60). See Lives of Melanchthon by his friend 1566 ) ; by Cox, Matthes ( Altenb. 1841), Nitzsch, Schmidt Elberf. 1861), Meurer ( 2d ed. Leip. 1869), Schaff ( Lond. 1887 ), Hartfelder ( Berlin, 1889), Bailey Saunders (1897), George Wilson (1898), and A. Harnack ( 1898). Melanesia (Gr. melas, ‘black’) is a name given to those Pacific islands near New Guinea which are inhabited by the Papuan race. See POLYNESIA, Melaphyre. See Basar. Melbourn, in Derbyshire, 7 miles SE. of Derby by rail; pop. 3123. It is noted for its market-gardens, and has some manu Melbourn Hall, formerly seat of Lord Melbourne, belongs to Earl Cowper. Melbourne, the metropolis of the Australian colony of Victoria, and the most important city of Australasia, stands at the northern extremity of Port Phillip Bay, and is bisected by the river Yarra; it is in 37° 49'S. lat. and 144° 58’ E. long. To facilitate navigation and enable large v is to discharge their cargoes almost at the doors of the warehouses, a canal was cnt from a point near the mouth of the river to the Melbourne quays and opened in 1888. Williamstown and Port Melbourne, built on the shores of the bay, give extensive pier accommodation, and are thriving ports. Melbourne is a chessboard city, built on strict. mathematical lines, its streets intersecting at right angles, the principal oe being of sniogeipcys f necessary or greater width (99 feet) than is esirable in such a warm climate. that would have made its progress impossible, In the performance of this task he ineurred much ve per from Luther himself, and still more from the enthusiasts who came to the front after Luther's death ; but the subsequent religious history of Ger- many is conclusive proof of the wisdom of ‘his action. By his labours as a scholar and public teacher, Melanchthon ranks with the very highest names in the history of learning and education. Alike by his ext and intellectual interests, he is to be regarded as blending in the happiest proportion the humanist and the reformer. ‘The most complete edition of his works (which comprise a Greek and Latin Grammar, editions of and commentaries on several classics and the Septuagint, biblical com- mentaries, doctrinal and ethical works, official documents, declarations, dissertations, responses, and a very extensive correspondence with friends Collins Street is architecturally imposing, being lined on either side by tall, massive, aan ornate buildings, chiefly banks, offices, warehouses, and hotels. Bourke Street corresponds to the London Strand; but it is three times as wide and four times as long. Here most of the theatres, music- halls, and retail shops are situated. An extensive system of eable tramway locomotion was inaugur- ated in 1886. Melbourne has a flourishing university, founded in 1853 largely through the instrumentality of Mr Childers, its first vice-chancellor. There are three affiliated colleges in its immediate vicinity— Trinity (Episcopalian), Queen's (Wesleyan), and Ormond (Presbyterian). The Jast—one of the finest educational structures in the sonthern hemi- sphere—was built at the expense of the Hon. MELBOURNE 125 Francis Ormond, to whom Melbourne is indebted also for its working-men’s college, which is doin noble work in technical education, and its endow chair of music in the university. The Wilson Hall, the gift of Sir Samuel Wilson, M.P., is also a noteworthy adjunct of the university. The Exhibition building in the Carlton Gardens and the General Post-office are two of the most conspicuous and ornamental of Melbourne’s public buildings. The Houses of Parliament, completed in 1891, have cost nearly a million of money. They form a magnificent pile of buildings, the western f. e being poses decd striking and effective. he Trades Hall, a quadrangular structure founded in 1857, stands on the northern boundary of the city ! r. Melbourne an excellent and well-appointed public library of about 200,000 vols., and associated with it on the same reserve are a national art gallery and a technological museum. The three institutions are ipa by a ne of trustees, and are supported by a large state endow- ment. The town-hall has an immense assembly- room, largely used for concerts and public meet- ings, and also an organ of fine tone and colossal size. Crowning the summit of the western hill of Melbourne are iad cried ggg as an extensive square, to a lofty and grace- ful dome. Close by Pees aileoarne branch of the Royal Mint, established in 1872. Other not- able public institutions are the Melbourne and Al jitals, the Benevolent Asylum, the Immigrants) Home, the Orphan Asylums, thie Custom-house, the Treasury, and the Public Offices, the last-named being a vast and labyrin- thine pile in which most of the government depart- ments are . St Patrick’s Roman Catholic cathedral, close to the Houses of Parliament, is a towering Gothic structure and the most conspicu- ous esiastical edifice in Melbourne. The Anglican cathedral of St Paul suffers in appear- ance by its depressed site and by the fact that it is hemmed in clustering warehouses, The Seots Church is the architectural gem of Collins Street. Its soaring spire, of more than 200 feet, is peculiarly graceful and harmonious in design. Melbourne supports three morning and two evening journals, besides a host of weeklies and monthlies. Railways have been pushed on with energy in Victoria (whose railway-system connects with those of South Australia, New South Wales, and Queensland ), and, as Melbourne is the converg- ing point of all the systems, the western end of the city, where the railway department is quartered and the central station has been built, is a scene of incessant activity. Melbourne has grown with remarkable ne gia In 1841 its at ome was 11,000 ; in 1851, the year of the gold discoveries, it was less than 25,000; in 1861, 191,000; in 1871, with suburbs, 206,780; in 1881, 282,907 (of whom 65,800 were in ‘the city’); at the census of 1891, 490,986 (of whom 73,361 were in the city proper), This estimate includes all the suburbs with- a radius of 10 miles from the General Post-office. During the commercial crisis of 1894-95 the city suffered severely, and its population was reduced by 60,000 or more. Protection to native industry licy of the colony, and Melbourne into a considerable centre of manu- facturing ong ope Foundries, flour-mills, boot and rage ries, &c, are numerous in the suburbs, Royal Park, the Carlton, Fitzroy, Botanical, and Flagstaff Gardens are the principal Kopeler recreation reserves. The water-supply of elbourne, which is abundant, comes from the Yan-Yean reservoir in the Plenty Valley, and had cost up till 1876 about 14 million sterling. The tary condition of Melbourne is not so good as might have been expected from the general mildness of its climate and the high average of are Sed of the inhabitants. phoid fever notably has been excessively prevalent, and of late years there has been increase rather than the steady diminution which has been the rule in the cities and towns of Europe and America. It is recognised that this is mainly due to defective drainage, and an unsatisfactory method of night soil disposal. An eminent London engineer reported in 1890 on the subject, suggesting a scheme for a complete apr of underground drainage at a cost of over ,000, 000. Port Phillip Bay, the maritime approach to Melbourne, is a spacious land-locked inlet of the South Pacific covering 800 sq. m., and mostly available for anchorage. The entrance, known as ‘The Heads,’ is very narrow, and strong fortifi- cations were begun by the Victorian government in 1875. A well-equipped pilot station is main- tained here. Melbourne was first oceupied by white men in 1835, and the infant settlement was originally known as Doutta-Galla, that being the name of the tribe of blacks who inhabited the neighbour- hood. In 1837 it was christened after the reigning premier, Lord Melbourne, in 1842 it was incor- porated, and in 1851 it was advanced to the dignity of a capital when the Port Phillip province was separated from New South Wales and erected into the autonomous colony of Victoria. Simultane- ously with this latter event the Victorian goldfields were opened up, and the history of Melbourne has since mainly been one of marvellous strides in material progress and prea: On the centenary of the colonisation of Australia, an International Exhibition was held in Melbourne in 1888. It cost the colony a quarter of a million. A great conflict between labour and capital took place in 1890, and a strike by the labour-unionists took place on a very extensive scale both in Victoria and New South Wales. In 1892-93 Melbourne suffered severely from commercial depression, financial crises, and banking disasters. Wool and gold bulk most largely amongst the exports. See Victoria and its Metropolis, Past and Present (Melbourne, 2 vols. 1889). Melbourne, WititAm Lamps, VISCOUNT, statesman, was second son of Penistone Lamb, first Viseonnt Melbourne, and was born in London, 15th March 1779. His education he received at Eton, at Trinity College, Cambridge, and at Glasgow. He entered the House of Com- mons for Leominster in 1805 as a Whig, a follower of Charles James Fox. But, having become a convert to Canning’s views, he accepted in 1827 the chief-secretaryship of Ireland in his govern- ment, and continued to hold the post under Lord Goderich and the Duke of Wellington. In 1828 the death of his father transferred him to the Upper House. Returning to his allegiance to the igs, in 1830 he took the seals of ‘the Home Office in the government of Earl Grey, and in July 1834 succeeded his chief as prime-minister, but only remained at the head of affairs until the following November. Peel, however, gave way to Melbourne again in 1835; and he continued in office when Victoria ascended the throne (1837). He succeeded by his uncommon tact in introduc- ing her pleasantly to the various duties of a constitutional monarch. In 1841 he once more passed the seals of office to Sir Robert Peel, and thenceforward took little part in stig affairs. He was ineffective as a speaker, but uspleves aptitude for affairs and common sense in the order ing of them. His easy cheerful temper and cordial frankness of manner gained him many friends. Sydney Smith, in his second letter to Archdeacon Singleton, has described his character with an 126 MELCHITES MELON exquisite mixture of sarcasm and compliment. Melboarne died November 24, 1848. He married (1805) a daughter of the Earl of smrag per who, under the title of Lady Caroline Lamb (1785- 1828), attained some celebrity as a novel-writer besides notoriety from her relations with Lo Byron. The charge brought against him by the lusband in 1836 of seducing the famous Mrs Norton was thrown out by the jury without leav- ing the box. ; See Memoirs by Torrens (2 vols, 1878); Lord Mel- bourne’s Papers, edited by L. C. Sanders (1889); The Greville Memoirs (parts i. and ii. 1875-85); and Life by Dunckley (1890). Melchites, the name given to a body of Chris- tians in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, who acknow- lodge the authority of the popes and accept the doctrines of the Church of Rome, but use the liturgy and ceremonies of the Greek Church. They conduct divine service in the vernacular tongue, receive the Lord's Supper in both kinds, and follow the Eastern Calendar. Their priests need not be celibate, but must not marry after ordination. They number close upon 80,000, and are ruled by a patriarch at Damascus, and twelve bishops. The name Melchites (lit. Royalists, from Syriac melcha, ‘a king’) dates from the 5th century, and was ven to those members of the orthodox Eastern hurch who supported the emperors against the Monophysites (q.v.) and Nestorians (q.v.). Melchizedek (‘ king of rightéousness’), in the story of Genesis, king of Salem and priest of ‘Supreme El." He met Abram on his return from the” victorious expedition against Chedorlaomer, ve him his blessing, and received tithes from fim. The ante-legal Tin -priest stands in Psalm ex. as a figure typical of the vicegerent of Jehovah, and in Hebrews, vii. 3, of the kingly priesthood of Jesus. The chapter in Genesis containing his story stands alone in character in the Pentateuch, and according to Wellhausen is one of its latest additions. As to his being ‘without father and without mother,’ it may be noted that Abd-Kiba, king of Jerusalem, in the Tell-el-Amarna tablets says of himself : ‘ Neither my father nor my mother appointed me in this place’—i.e. he was elective, not hereditary king. Melcombe Regis. See Weymouru. Mel os $0 erly MARIGNANO, a town 12 miles SE. of Milan. Pop. 5438. Here Francis I. of France defeated the Swiss in 1515, and the French routed the Austrian rear-guard in 1859. Melfi, a town of Southern Italy, 30 miles N. of Potenza. The once magnificent cathedral (1155) was ruined by earthquake in 1851. Melfi was the Norman capital of Apulia. Pop. 11,765. Melford, Lone, a pictu ue village of Suf- folk, 13 miles 8S. of Bury St Edmunds by rail. It has a very fine Perpendicular church 260 feet long. Pop. of parish, 3253. See two works by Sir Ww. Parker (1873) and E. L. Conder (1888), Melilla, « Spanish ‘Presidio’ (q.v.) and convict station on the coast of Morocco, 8 miles SE. of Cape Trea Foreas, defended not without mishap and difficulty against the Berbers of the Riff in 1893. It has been held by Spain since 1496. Melilot (Melilotus), a genus of clover-like lants of the natural order Leguminose. The mmon Melilot, a yellow-flowered annual, com- mon in Britain, has when in flower a peculiar sweet odour like Tonka Bean, which increases in dryin The flowers and sceds are the chief ingredient in flavouring Gruytre cheese.—The Blue Melilot (M. carnlea), a native of the north of Africa, with short racemes of blue flowers, is cultivated in many parts of Europe, particularly | in gene igre Ga epee melilot odour in a high degree. The name Clover has been given to one or more species, Melinite, an explosive obtained from Picrie Acid (q.v.), itself a powerful explosive, by the admixture of some other substance. The fabulous pores attributed - ae ae laste ee for artillery purposes (for shells) enera’ in 1886 have not been ventiaad ¢ it was found to be neither stable nor reliable, and caused some bal accidents. Lyddite (q.v.) is similar, but safer. Meliphagidz. See Honry-E£aTEr, Melissic Acid, See Wax. FE a i Abbey, a ruin standing 4 miles” W. of Drogheda, was the first Cistercian founda- tion in Ireland, founded by St Malachy (q.v.) in 1142. In 1539, when it surrendered to Henry VIII.’s commissioners, it had 140 monks, Its remains were excavated during 1884-85. See Mellifont Abbey, by K. F. B. (1886). Melo, a town of Cerro Largo in Uruguay, on the Tacuari, here crossed by a stone ind ‘built in 1865 " a Frenchman who was murd for collecting toll’ (Mulhall). Pop. 5000. Melodeon, an instrument of the type of the Harmonium igs): on poneae by the American organ. In 1859 over 20,000 melodeons were made in the United States. The name is also applied to an improved variety of the Accordion (q.v.). Melodrama (Gr. melos, ‘a song,’ and drama strictly denotes a half-musical drama, or that ki of dramatic performance in which declamation is interrupted from time to time by instrumental music. he name, however, which was first applied to the opera by its inventor, Ottavio inuecini, has come to designate a romantic play. depending mainly on sensational incidents, - ling situations, and an effective dénouement. Great sums are spent in the staging of such pieces, and the costumes. scenery, and mechanical effects are often very striking. The expression ‘ transpontine drama’ refers to a time when such plays were identified with houses on the Surrey side of the Thames; nowadays the home of melodrama in London is to be found in such theatres as Drury Lane and the Adelphi. Melon (Cucumis melo), a plant of the same yer with the Cucumber (q.v.), much cultivated ‘or its fruit, which is sweet, with a delicions though peculiar flavour and smell. The melon is an annual, with trailing or climbing stems, lateral tendrils, rounded angular leaves, small, yellow, monecious flowers, and large round or somewhat ovate fruit. It is supposed to be a native of the subtropical parts of Asia, although it has never been discovered ina wild state. Its English name was originally Musk Melon. The varieties in cultivation are very numerous, some of them distinguished by a - thick and warty rind, some by a rind crac’ in a net-like manner, some by ribs and furrows, some by a perfectly smooth and thin rind; they differ also in the colour of the F ag of the fruit, which is green, red, yellow, &c.; and in the size of the fruit, which varies from 3 or 4 inches to a foot or more in diameter. The melon is eaten either by itself or with sugar, and some- times with Dag eae? or ginger. Its cultivation in hotbeds and in specially constructed hothouses is extensively carried on in all parts of Britain, and very great care is bestowed on it. A loamy soil is best suited to it. The setting of the fruit by dusting the female flower with the pollen of the male flower is constantly practised rdeners, Warmth and bright sunshine are requisite to the oSeketgea of fruit of good quality.—The Water felon or Citrul (C. citrullus), although rarely —-_ = 7 - ’ Egypt and Arabia.—The Kaukoor MELOS MELTON-MOWBRAY 127 cultivated in Britain, is highly esteemed and much cultivated in almost all warm countries. It is a native of the warm parts of the Old World. It has deeply lobed and gashed leaves, and a large round fruit with smooth dark-green spotted rind, and pink or white flesh, less sweet than the melon, but much more juicy or watery, and therefore much prized in many warmcountries. In America it is only the water melon that is ever called simply melon; for the other the old Eng- lish name is retained where ‘ canta- loupe’ is not used. In South Caro- lina the water melon has reached 45 lb.—South Africa has another species of Water Melon (C. Caffer), | very valuable to the inhabitants.— The Chate (C. Chate) is a native of (C. utilissimus) is a native of India, and much cultivated in some parts } of that country; it has oval fruit, smooth, variegated with different | shades of yellow, and abont 6 inches long, with much the flavour of the melon. The fruit will keep for several months, and is much used both raw and in curries. The half- grown frnit is pickled. The seeds contain much farina and oil, and are ground into meal; the oil is also expressed, and used both for food and in lamps. ne seeds of others of this genus may be used in the same way ; and they are said to be useful as a diuretic medicine. Melos (Ital. Milo), a Greek island, the most south-westerly of the Cyclades, 13 miles long by 8 broad, with 4200 inhabitants. The island is volcanic, and produces sulphur, salt, pumice-stone, stucco, millstones, and a little oil and wine. Amongst the ruins of the ancient city of Melos, and near its theatre, was found the priceless antique, the Venus de Milo, now one es the chiefest treasures of the Louvre. See VENUS. micipomicne (‘the singing one’), one of the nine Muses, the representative of Tragedy. Melrose, a pleasant little town of Roxburgh- shire, on the south bank of the Tweed, and at the north base of the triple Eildons (q.v.), 37 miles SSE. of Edinburgh by rail. At Old Melrose, 24 miles farther east, was founded about 635 the Columban monastery, of which St Cuthbert (q.v.) became a monk. It was burned by Kenneth MacAlpine in $39, and had been quite deserted for upwards of fifty years, when in 1136 the great Cistercian abbey ef Melrose itself was founded by David I. Twice burned by the English, this was slowly rebuilt on a seale of increased magnificence between 1322 and 1505, only forty years after which date two fresh English invasions commenced the destruction that was speedily completed by the Reformers. The abbey was in the nd Pointed style, with approaches to Third Pointed, and was beyond doubt the most beautiful structure of which Seot- land could boast in the middle ages. What now remains is the ruined conventual church, 215 feet long by 116 across the transepts, with some frag- ments of the eloister, which seems to have been a square of 150 feet. The carvings and traceries, hewn in a stone of singular excellence, are scarcely surpassed by any in Reciaed, Melrose shines in Scott's pages with a splendour its meagre histo fails to sustain. The second abbot, St Waltheof, the royal founder’s stepson; Alexander II. and Johanna, his queen; the heart of Robert Bruce ; the good Sir James, the Knight of Liddesdale, the: hero of Otterburn, and others of the Douglas line ; the ‘wondrous Michael Seott;’ and Sir David Brewster—all these are buried here; else, the annals of Melrose have little to record. A burgh of barony since 1609, the town possesses a market- Melrose Abbey. cross (1642), a suspension foot-bridge over the Tweed (1826), a hydropathic, (1871), and half a dozen hotels, it being a great tourist centre, as well for its abbey as from the vicinity of Abbots- ford, Dryburgh, &c. Pop. (1841) 893; (1891) 1432. See the Chronica de Mailros, 731-1275, ed. by Joseph Stevenson (Bannatyne Club, 1835); the Liber S. Marie de Melros, ed. by Cosmo Innes (Bannatyne Club, 1837); Seott’s Abbot and Lay of the Last Minstrel ; and works by Wade (1861) and Pinches (1879). Melting-point, The following are some of the most important melting-points, which may also be regarded as the freezing-points of the corresponding liquids : Cent. Fah. Cent. Fah. Alcohol,pure —130 —202 Sulphur. ....... 115 239 Hydrobro- | Lithium........ 180 356 mic acid, -120 -—184 Solder....about 180 356 Strongest |Tin 228 442 sulphuric | Bismuth 267 513 Ce ee -116 -177 | Lea .. 884 633 Sulphuretted | Antimony -. 430 806 hydrogen.. — 85 -—121 | Zine 450 842 Ammonia....— 75 —103 | Magnesium Ralphareee. 8 Gi. 04 Wh wernbesn about 750 1882 acid.. .... — 7 —103 Bronze » 900 1652 Chlorine....— 75 -—103 | Silver » 1000 1832 Carbonic ac..—~ 70 — 94 | Brass...... 1015 1860 Chloroform..— 70 — 94 Copper.... » 1100 2012 Mercury.. .. — 39-88 — 88-88 Iron, white Olive and cast..... » 1100 2012 linseed oil. — 20 -— 4 Iron, gray Bromine....— 7-3 + 19-86) cast..... » 1225 2287 166. i 56dse 0 82 | Gold, pure. » 1250 2282 Glacial acetic | Steel...... n 1350 2462 ES 17 62-6 |Softiron.. » 1550 2822 Phosphorus, 44-2 111 Manganese, » 1600 2912 Potassium. . 62-5 144-5 | Platinum.. » 1800 3272 Sodium..... 95-6 204 Iridium.... » 1950 3542 Todine...... 113 235 Osmium... « 2500 4582 Melting-points beyond about 900° or 1000° F. are merely approximate and relative. Melton-Mowbray, « town of Leicestershire, in the centre of a great hunting district, is seated on the river Eye near its junction with the Wreak, 15 miles NE. of Leicester, and 104 NNW. of London. It has a fine cruciform church, mainly Early English, and is famous for its manufac- tures of pork pies and Stilton cheese, chiefly for retail in the London, Manchester, and Leeds markets. Near the town in February 1644 a severe engagement took place between parties of royalist 128 MELUN MELVILLE and parliamentary troops, resulting in the defeat of the latter; and amongst its natives have been Archbishop de Melton, who lies buried in the church, and ‘Orator’ Henley. Pop. (1801) 1766; (1881) 5820 ; (1891) 6392, Melun, the capital of the French department of Seine-et-Marne, on the Seine, near the Forest of Fontainebleau, 28 miles SE. of Paris. It has two interesting churches, and manufactures of leather, ttery, Ke. Melun, the Melodunum of Cesar, ell into the hands of the English after a six months’ ings. in 1420, and was held by them for ten years. Pop. (1872) 11,098; (1891) 12,792. Melusine, or MELUSINA, the name of a fairy lady who figures prominently in the celebrated medieval French romance so called, the motif of which is similar to that of the legend of Eros (Cupid) and Psyche, is of far-reaching antiquity, and has many parallels and analogues in the legen and popular fictions of most countries, Asiatic as well as European. Briefly stated, Melusine con- sents to marry a knight called Raymondin, or Raymond, on the condition that he should never see her on a certain day every week, to which he binds himself by solemn oaths. She bears him eight sons, the warlike exploits of seven of whom occupy the greater portion of this entertaining romance. At length Raymond is induced by his brother to break his promise, and on the usual day of Melusine’s seclusion he discovers her in a bath, the lower of her body being like a t t. m after this ymond, en at the cruelty of one of his sons, upbraids the inno- cent Melusine as ‘a false serpent,’ whose offspring could never come to any permanent Melusine forgives him, but her doom cannot be averted, and, after a touching scene, she takes her flight through the window in the likeness of a monstrous dragon; and in this form she afterwards appeared hovering near the castle of Lusignan—erected by her own fairy power for her beloved lord Kaymond—when- ever one of her descendants was about to die, thus acting the part of the Irish Banshee. In the myth of Cupid and Psyche the mortal maiden is not to behold her celestial spouse ; but, incited by her envious sisters, she takes a lighted lamp to look upon him one night as he lies asleep, and, in her agitation at beholding his marvellous beanty, a drop of oil from the lamp falls on him, whereupon he and the splendid palace vanish, and Psyche finds herself on a desolate heath. She is reunited to him, however, after performing a number of seemingly impossible tasks by order of her vindictive mother-in-law, Venus. This myth has ee penetrated European folklore. In a Sicilian tale a girl is married to a green bird, who changes to a handsome young man on bathing in a pan of milk. She is not to ask his name, In a Norse tale a prince is bewitched by his step- mother, so that he is a white bear by day and a man by night; in a Danish tale, a well in a Chilian tale (of European origin doubtless), a hideous black man; anc in all three, and many other analogues and variants, the bride loses her enchanted spouse for a time in the same manner as in the Greco-Roman myth, which several learned scholars have endeavoured to interpret as typifying the natural phenomenon of the Dawn. One of the oldest legends of this class is the Hindu myth of Urvasi and Purtiravas, the con- dition which the celestial nymph im on her husband being that she is not to see him naked— which Mr Andrew Lang (Custom and Myth) con- siders, with good reason, as signifying ‘a custom of women.’ Pressine, the mother of Melusine, imposes on her husband, the king of Albany, the condition that he should never see her in child- bed. He forgets his promise and loses his fairy spouse. Fuad ope po sboatg Fas 52> nd of the princely family of Haro, a lord of » While chasing the wild boar, meets with a fairy, who consents to wed him if he promise never to nounce a holy name in her presence.—In Hindu legend, Bheki, the , isa en who consents to marry a king on the condition that he never shows her a drop of water: being faint one day, she asked her husband for water, which he gave her, forgetting his promise, and she dis- a F Lee strikin is found in a water, with the lower part of her body like that of a fish, the result being that he finds himself near his native village, where nobody knows him, for he is now an old man, and all his relatives are dead. Undine is also a daughter of the stream, and she makes her husband promise that he will never k angrily to her when on or near any water, Be. toa, in the Persian tale of King Ruz ah and the Turkish tale of the king of Yemen, both of whom espouse Snare of the genii; the condition is that the husband must not question or complain of anything his wife should do, however strange it might appear. Such conditions occur so frequently in the fairy tales of almost every people (see also LOHENGRIN ); and it may be added that tales of Forbidden Chambers, familiar to readers of the Arabian Nights, of which many examples are current in Europe, are closely allied to legends of the Urvasi and Purtravas, Eros and Psyche, and Melusina cycle. See Max-Miiller’s Chips from a German Wi vol. ii.; Baring-Gould’s Curious Myths of the Mid Ages; Cox's Mythology of the Aryan Nations (1870); Grinum’s Teutonic Mythology (trans. Stalybrass); Clous- ton’s P. Tales and Fictions (1887 ; Clouston’s Group of Eastern Romances and Stories (1889); and the lish version of the romance of Melusine, from the French of John of Arras (1387), printed for the Early English ‘Text Society (1891), from a unique MS. of the 1 century, with full appendix notes = the present writer on the Cupid and che and Melusina cycle of legends. Melville, the name of an island, a sound, and a age rery in the polar regions of North America. The island is crossed by 75° N. lat. and 110° W. long., and is separated on the west by Fitzwilliam Strait from Prince Patrick Island. Greatest ge 200 miles; greatest breadth, 130 miles. In 1819 Parry, who yave the island its name, passed the winter here with his crews. The sound, about 250 tiles long by 200 broad, extends south-east of the island, and communicates with the Arctic Ocean on the west by Banks Strait, and with Baffin Ba; on the east by Barrow Strait and Lancaster Soun The peninsula projects from the continent at its north-eastern corner, and has on the N. the ia and Hecla Strait, and on the E. Fox Channel. It is 250 miles in length by about 100 in ave breadth,—Another Melville Island lies across t} entrance to Van Diemen Gulf off the shore of the northern territory of South Australia. . m. It is hilly and covered with vegetation. 1¢ earliest British settlement on this coast was made here in 1824. Melville, ANDREW, a champion of Scottish Presbyterianism, was born Ist August 1545, at ~*~ 7 = 4 lit i i i i MELVILLE MEMLING 129 Baldovy, near Montrose. He was educated at the agrees Herne of Montrose, whence he removed in is fourteenth year to the university of St Andrews. Here he ed four a, and left it with the reputation of being ‘the best philosopher, poet, and Grecian of any young master in tlie land.’ -He then gga aed ‘aris, Where he continued his studies two years. His reputation must have been already considerable, for in his twenty-first year he was ¢ regent in the college of St Marceon, Poitiers. Some time afterw: he proceeded to Geneva, where through the influence of Beza, with whose opinions in religion and politics he already - Senearnae he was, appoin to the chair of umanity in the Academy. On his return to Scot- land Fal hvbe: say Principal of the college of G , Where did the highest service to the cause of learning throughout the country. He had a | important share in drawing up that charter the Presbyterian polity, the Second Book of Discipline (see DiscipLiNe). In 1580 Melville was chosen Principal of St Mary’s College, St Andrews. Here, ‘besides giving lectures on theo , he ry the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, and Rabbinical pgn wo In 1582 he preached the opening sermon before the General Assembly, and boldly ‘inveighed against the bloody knife of absolute authority, whereby men intended to pull the crown off Christ’s head and to wring the sceptre out of his hand.’ Two years later Melville was summoned before the Privy-council on account of a sermon preached at St Andrews; and to escape imprisonment he removed to London. Here he re- mained till the downfall of Arran in the following year, and then after an absence of twenty months returned and resumed his oflice at St Andrews. He was tedly elected moderator of the General Assembly and rector of the university. At Cupar in 1596. Melville headed a deputation to ‘remon- strate’ with the king ; and when James reminded the zealous remonstrant that he was //s vassal, ‘Sirrah !’ retorted Melville, ‘ye are God's silly vassal ; there are two kings and two kingdoms in Scotland : there is King James, the head of this commonwealth, and there is Christ Jesus, the King of the chureh, whose subject James the Sixth is, and of whose kingdom he is not a —- nor a lord, nor a head, but a member.’ In 1606 Melville, with seven other ministers, was called to England to confer with the king. Having ridiculed the service in the Chapel Royal in a Latin epigram, he was summoned re the English Privy-council, when he broke out into a torrent of invective against the Archbishop of Canterbury for encouraging popery and superstition, profaning the Sabbath, ae The king, violating ev: rinciple of justice, imme- diately sent him to the Tower, where le remained for more than four years. In 1611 he was rel on the solicitation of the Duke of Bouillon, who wanted his services as a Saya in his university at Sedan in France. elville, now in his sixty- sixth year, would fain have returned to Scotland, but James would not listen to his request. Melville died about 1622, but neither the date of his death nor the events of his last years are ascertained. See M‘Crie’s Life of Melville (2 vols. 1819). JAMES MELVILLE, nephew of Andrew Melville, was born near Montrose in 1556. After receiving the best education that Scotland could then offer, he me regent or tutor in the college of Glasgow, and afterwards professor of Oriental Languages in the university of St Andrews. In 1586 he settled as minister in Kilrenny, Fife, taking an active t h not a commanding part in the affairs of the church at large. He is mainly remembered, how- ever, for his so-called Diary, extending from 1556 to 1601. Ejected in 1606, he died in 1614 at sos “ae weed, Melville sees all the persons and events of his day from his own point of view as a Presbyterian minister. Nevertheless his record is of real interest and importance for students of the riod which it covers. There are editions in the natyne Club (1829) and Wodrow Society (1842). Melville, Herman, an American author, was born in New York city, August 1, 1819. He be- came a sailor, but in 1842 he deserted from a whal- ing-ship, owing to the captain’s harsh treetment, at the Marquesas Islands. There he was kept four months as the prisoner of a savage tribe in the Typee Valley, whence he was rescued by an Australian whaler. Returning to the United States in 1846, he published Typee, a spirited account of his residence in the Marquesas, in 1847 Omoo, a continuation of his adventures in Oceania, - and a number of tales and three volumes of poetry. Died in New York 28th September 1891. Melville, Sir James, of Halhill, born in 1535, was sent as page of honour to the young Queen Mary in France, and subsequently undertook numerous missions to the court of England and of the Elector Palatine. He died Ist November 1607, leaving interesting Memoirs, of which the standard edition is that of the Bannatyne Club (1827). ‘ Melville, Viscount. See DuNpDAs. Melville, Wuyte-. See WHyTE-MELVILLE. Membrane, in Anatomy. This term is applied to designate those textures of the animal y which are arranged in the form of lamin, and cover organs, or line the interior of cavities, or take part in the formation of the walls of canals or tubes. The structure and special uses of some of the most important of the animal membranes are noticed in separate articles, such as Mucous Mem- brane (see DIGESTION), Serous Membrane (q.v.), &e.; and the membranes in which the foetus is enclosed are described in the article Placenta. Memel, a Prussian seaport, defended by a citadel and two forts on the sea side, lies at the northern eran ay MT the Kurisches Haff, at its opening into the Baltic, 70 miles NNE. of Danzig. It has a large harbour, and exports from Lithuania and Russia timber, flax and linseed, coal, manure, grain, and herrings to the annual value of £900,000 to £1,000,000, timber constituting half the value; Great Britain takes one-third of the total. The imports, which generally exceed a million sterling, include the exports in transit, and textiles, colonial produce, and wine and spirits for local use. The town possesses manufactories of brandy, soap and chemicals, saw-mills, iron-foundries, breweries, and shipbuilding-yards. There is a good school of navigation, Pop. (1875) 19,796; (1890) 19,282. © Memel was founded in 1252 by the Livonian order, who gave it to the Teutonic Knights, by whom it was fortified in 1404. It suffered severely in the Lithuanian wars (13th to 15th centuries), Here in 1807 Frederick-William III. of Prussia took refuge, and a treaty with England was signed. Having been almost wholly destroyed by fire in 1854, it was rebuilt in modern style. For the river Memel, see NIEMEN. Memling, or more correctly MEMLING, HANs, Flemish painter, was born at Mainz in the first half of the 15th century, of Dutch parents, and died at Bruges, where most of his life was spent, on llth Angust 1494, His painting gained him a wide reputation, extending even to England and Italy. is principal works are sacred py be such as ‘The Last Judgment’ (at Danzig), ‘Seven Sorrows and Seven Joys of the Virgin,’ ‘ Marriage of St Catharine,’ ‘ Adoration,’ several Madonnas, and the fourteen small paintings that adorn the shrine containing St Ursula’s relics at Cologne; and portraits, as of Sir John Donne, of Burgo- MEMPHIS 130 MEMMINGEN master Moreel, and of Moreel’s daughter. See Lives by Weale (in Dutch, 1871) and Michiels (in French, 1883); also Art Journal (1885, p. 318). Memmingen, an old town of Bavaria, 33 miles SSE. of Ulm, played a prominent tt in the religious wars of the 16th century. Here Moreau defeated the Austrians under Kray, 9th and 10th May 1800. Linen, cloth, &c. are manufactured. Pop. 8688. Memno a hero of Greek mythology, son of Tithonus an Es (the Dawn), who led to Troy a host of Ethiopians to aid his step-uncle Priam after the death of Hector, slew Antilochus, Nestor's son, in single combat, and was himself slain by Achilles. Various legends are told of his supposed rule at Susa, where he was said to have built the acropolis, and of his vassalage to the Assyrian Tentamus. His corpse was removed from the battlefield b Eds, whose early tears for her son are by mortals called dewdrops, and his followers the Memnonides were turned into birds. Memnon is chiefly a post- Homeric hero, and attained his test celebrity in very late times, when the Greeks discovered the two famous colossal statues of Amenoph IIT. stand- ing in front of his now vanished temple on the left bank of the Nile at Thebes, and regardless of history dubbed the eastern one Memnon. It is an imposin throned figure, aeeeehy about 60 feet high, carv in breccia, but broken in ancient times and repaired with sandstone blocks. Its special uliarity, which procured it the name of the ‘ Vocal Memnon’ and the honour of forming one of the seven wonders of the world, was the property of emitting a metal- lic sound, like the snapping of a chord, especially about sunrise, whence the imaginative Greeks con- eluded that it was the voice of Memnon hailing his newly-risen mother the Dawn. Considerable differ- ence of opinion has “vii as to the real cause of this phenomenon, which has been variously ascribed to the artifice of the priests, who struck the sonorous stone of which the statue is composed, to the pass- age of light draughts of air through the eracks, and to the sudden expansion of aqueous particles under the influence of the sun's rays. This remarkable quality of the statue is first mentioned by Strabo, who visited it in company of ALlius Gallus about 18 B.c. ; and up of a hundred inscriptions of Greek and Roman visitors incised upon its legs record the visits of ancient travellers to hearken to Memnon when he Softly sings beneath the Libyan hills, Where aprending fle parts pantie gated Thebes, from the ninth year of Nero, 63 A.D., to the reign of the Emperor Severus, when it became silent. Amongst visitors whose names are recorded are the Emperor Hadrian and his wife Sabina. Sep- timius Severus also visited the statue, and is believed to have restored it in its present shape ; for Juvenal mentions it as broken in half (dinudio magice resonant ubi Memnone chorde), and no notice of it occurs under the Pharaohs or Ptolemies see Edinburgh Review, July 1886).—The name of emnoneum was given to the sepuichral quarter of Thebes, and there were Memnonea at Abydos. — Besides the mythical Memnon two historical per- sonages of this name are known—one a Rhodian commander of the mercenaries of Artabazus in the war against Artaxerxes-Oclius, who subsequently fled to Macedon, and afterwards entering the Persian service defended Persia against Alexander (336 B.C.), and finally died at the siege of Mitylene (333 B.c.): the other a Greek historian, who wrote a history of Heracleia Pontica in 16 books, which have been epitomised by Photius. Memoirs, See Brocrarny. Memory. See Myemonics, Psycnovocy. Memory, » DISEASES OF. Memory, or bea i of reproducing mental or sensory impressions, is im- nds, or injuries to the head or paired by age, wou nervous system, fevers, intemperance, and various physical conditions, It is affected in most kinds — of mental derangement, but is in a most si manner obliterated or enfeebled in Dementia. T are, however, examples of memory surviving all other faculties, and preserving a clear and exten- sive notion of long and complicated series of events amid general darkness and ruin of mind. Inco- herence owes some of its features to defective or irregular memory. Cases of so marvellous an ex- altation of this faculty as where a whole parlia- mentary debate could be recalled, or a whole play of Shakespeare’s recited by a man at one time, which would be ordinarily ——— for him, are common in the beginning of attacks of mania, and always should suggest disease. There are, however, special affections of the faculty. It may be suspended while the intelligence remains intact. Periods of personal or general his may elude the p, and even thit continuit; impressions which goes far to constitute the feeling of pa identity is broken up, and a duality or multiplicity of experiences may appear to be conjoined. The converse of this may happen, and impressions that — had completely faded away may, under excitement or cerebral disease, return, There are, ides, states in which this power is partially affected, as in the instances where the numbers 5 and 7 were lost, and where a highly-educated man could not retain any conception of the letter F; secondly, where it is perverted, recalling images inappro- priately and in an erroneous sequence of order or time, and different from what are desired; and thirdly, where, while the written or printed signs of ideas can be used, the oral or articulate signs are forgotten. Such examples of diseased memory are now classified as amnesia, simple loss of mem- ory ; amnesic aphasia, loss of memory of spoken words (see APHASIA); and amnesic agraphia, loss of memory of written words. Most of these special deviations from health depend upon morbid chan in a very limited portion— Broca’s convolution ’— of the left side of the brain. The discovery of this fact by Broca was the first of the brilliant discoveries as to the localisation of function in the brain cortex. See Feuehtersleben, Medical Psy- chology 5 and Ribot, Les Maladies de la Mémoire (1881). Memphis, a celebrated Egyptian city, situated at the Soa of the Delta, or Lower t, the ancient capital of the country, call y the Egyptians Men nefer, or ‘the Good Station,’ by the Hebrews M and by the Arabs a It was founded by Menes, the first monarch of the Ist dynasty, who, according to Herodotus, ch the bed of the Nile, and made an embankment 100 stadia above Memphis to protect the new city — inundations, the remains of which still exist about 14 miles above Mitrahenny, the centre of old Memphis, and the site of the temple of Ptah. Menes fortified the city, and laid the foundations of the temple. The site was well chosen; pro- tected alike by the Libyan and Arabian chains of mountains against the river and the incursions of the sand, defending the approach of the country from the incursions of Asiatie nomads, and com- municating with the Red Sea and the Mediter- ranean. The city, which at one time had a cir- cumference of 150 stadia, was composed of two por- tions—one built of crude bricks, the other, on which was the citadel, of caleareous stone, The — built by Menes, was enlarged by his son Athothis, and was always inhabited either by a monarch or by his viceroy. After the 6th dynasty the city de- clined in importance, and was apparently held by * MEMPHIS MENCIUS 131 the Hyksos after the 13th and before the 18th 1500 B.c.). At this period Memphis was ruled a viceroy, a prince of the blood, and still re- mained a religious capital. It rose again to great importance under the Saite monarclis, about 600 B.C., who restored it ; and it was conquered by Sen- nacherib. Its temples were magnificent, and com- Sure the Iseum, a large temple of Isis, completed y Amasis II. just prior to Cambyses (525 B.c.); a temple dedicated to Proteus, in the foreign quarter; the temple of the Apis, having a peri- style and court ornamented with figures, opposite the south prety earn of the temple of Ptah, where the sacred resided ; the Serapeum, or temple of Serapis, discovered by M. Mariette ; the Nilo- meter; a temple of Ra; and the shrine of the Cabiri. Here were the statues of Rameses IIL., one of which is known as ‘the fallen colossus,’ at Mitrahenny. Still more remarkable was the great necropolis of the city, in the centre of which towered the pyramids (see PyRAMips). During the attempts of the native rulers to throw off the Persian rule, Memphis was an important strategic om Ochus inflicted severe injury on this town, ving plundered the temples and thrown down the walls after he had driven out Nectanebes. Alexander the Great here worshipped the Apis, his corpse was brought to this city by Ptolemy before it was finally transferred to Alexandria. The first Ptolemies were ‘crowned in the Serapeum. Ptolemy VIIL destroyed the city, and it fell with the rest of Egypt under the Roman rule, and after- wards was conquered by ’Amr ibn el-Asi (640 A.D.). Its ruins, which served as quarries for later buildings, were large and important in the 13th century, when they were seen by Abd-ul- Latif; but little is now to be seen beyond deeply- buried walls. See works cited at Ecypr. jis, a city and of entry of Tennes- see, on ali Bluffton the att bank of the : ppi River, 826 miles above New Orleans, and 230 miles by rail WSW. of Nashville. The river to this point is navigable for the largest sea- poing vessels, and — lines of railway terminate ; the trade of Memphis is accordingly very large. It is a handsome town, with wide, regular streets, and great warehouses bordering the esplan- ade that extends along the bluff. The public build- ings include a custom- cotton exchange, a large ital, a Roman Catholic college, and numerous churches. Mem is one of the first cotton marts in the United States, and has numerous manufac- tories. The city was visited by fearful epidemics of yellow fever in 1878 and 1879, since when its d has been reconstructed. A great steel cantilever iit bridge across the Mississippi was opened in 1892; it = five spans, and a total of 1886 feet. Pop. (1850) 8841; (1870) 40,226 ; (1880) 33,592; (1900) 102,320. Menado. See Cetezes. Ménage, Gives, a French writer, born at Angers in 1613, gave up the bar for the church, but chiefly spent his time in literary pursuits. He founded, position to the Academy, a salon, the M les, which gained him a European reputation, and the ridicule of Molitre as Vadius in Femmes Savantes. His Dictionnaire Etymologique de la po ge Francaise (1650; best ed. by Jault, 2 vols. 1750), and his Origini della Lingua Italiana {iv0), are erudite works, but contain many fanci- 1 etymologies. He died in 1692. See Life by Baret (Paris, 1859). Menai Strait, a channel between Carnarvon- shire and the island of Anglesey, running east- north-east from its southern extremity to Bangor, a distance of 14 miles, where it ens ont into Bay. Its width varies from about 200 yards to 2 miles, whilst the scenery on both sides is very picturesque. The navigation is hazardous, but for the sake of expedition vessels under 100 tons, and occasionally some of larger size, pass through the strait. At its entrance the tides some- times rise to a height of 30 feet; ordinary neap- tides, however, do not rise more than from 12 to 154 feet. Communication between the mainland and Anglesey was formerly solely maintained by radi dong at different points, but since 1825 access has been afforded by a suspension bridge, and since 1850 by the Britannia Bridge. See BRIDGE. Menam. See Sram. Menander, the most famous Greek poet of the New Comedy, was born at Athens in 342 B.c., and was drowned at the Pireus in 291. He was the friend, if not the pupil, of Theophrastus, him- self a disciple of Plato and Aristotle ; and he was the intimate of Epicurus, and the favourite of Demetrius Phalereus and Ptolemy the son of us. His comedies seem to have been more suc- cessful with cultured than with popular audiences, for we are told that only eight out of a hundred comedies gained the prize. nhappily we possess but fragments of his work, but we may safely take our estimate of the ‘mundus Menander’ from his close yp and imitator, Terence, and from the words of such writers as Ovid, Propertius, and Pliny. The Attie New Comedy was essentially domestic rather than political in character, and its chief figures are conveniently summed up in the lines of Ovid ; Dum fallax servus, durus pater. improba lena Vivet, dum meretrix blanda, Menandros erit. His most famous comedy seems to have been the Thais, and it is interesting that of the five lines preserved one is quoted by St Paul (1 Cor. xv. 33). Of the Georgos, hitherto known but by five small fragments, Professor Nicole published 87 lines, newly recovered, in 1897. See the edition of the Georgos by Granfell and Hunt (1898). Menchikoy. See MeNscuixkorr. Mencius, the Latin form of MENG-TsE, the name of a Chinese sage, a contemporary of Plato and Aristotle, who was born in the province of Shan-tung in 372 B.c. He was brought up by his mother—the pattern of all mothers ever since in the eyes of the Chinese—and founded a school on the model of that of his great predecessor Con- fucius, for whom Mencius entertained a feeling of reverent admiration. When forty years of age he led out his disciples and travelled from one princely court to another during more than twenty years, seeking a ruler who would ye into pence his system of social and political order. But, findin none, he again withdrew into retirement, and di in 289 B.c. After his death his disciples collected his conversations and exhortations, and published them as the Book of Meng-tse. The aim of Mencius’ teaching was essentially ecg how men, especially the rulers of men, shall best regu- late their conduct, both public and private. The philosophic root of his system is belief in the ethical goodness of man’s nature, which quality he takes to be the essential characteristic of the humanity of men. From this root grow the cardinal virtues of benevolence, righteousness, moral wisdom, and propriety of conduct. It should be the aim es the individual to perfect himself by practising these virtues in all the relations of his social and political life. The flowering of this goodly plant which Mencius lanted for the ordering of the lives of men, both dividual and collective, assumed the form of a liberal and enlightened system of political economy. Amongst other things he advocated freedom of 132 MENDE - i MENDELSSOHN trade, the deposition of unworthy rulers, division of labour, inspection of work by the government, encouragement of markets, maintenance of good roads and bridges, &e:, condemnation of war, care for the poor and neglected, but above all the pro- motion of education—the summary of the whole being that the welfare of the people should be the chief. consideration of the state. There is also an aristocratic element in his teaching. The highest types of individual character are exhibited by the rg the great man, the superior man or sage, and the holy or ideal man ; their personal example is the best educator the people can have. The fruits of Mencius’ teaching have always been highly valued by his countrymen from his own times to the present. ‘The chief dicta of modern Chinese ethics and politics are mostly taken literally from Mencius, or adhere closely to his teaching.’ See Legge, Life and Works of Me (1875 ; ‘Chi Classics’ ae and Peer” iMbadd of Mencius (kng. trans. 1882). Mende, capital of the French department of Lozére, on the Lot, in a valley surrounded by high hills, 66 miles NW. of Nimes, has a cathedral, and manufactures serges and coarse cloths. Pop. 6740. Mendeans, See MAND#ANS. Mendeleéff, Darrer Ivanovitcn, chemist, was born at Tobolsk, 7th February 1834, studied at St Petersburg, and, after having taught at Simferopol, Odessa, and St Petersburg, ame rofessor of Chemistry in the university of St Putersband in 1866. He has enriched every section of chemical science, but is especially distinguished for his contributions to physical chemistry and chemical philosophy. See Aromic THEory; and Nature (vol xl. 1889). Mendelssohn, Moses, philosopher, was born 6th September 1729, at Dessau. From his father, whose name was Mendel, a Jewish schoolmaster and seribe, he received his first education; and in his thirteenth year he proceeded to Berlin, where, amid very indigent circumstances, he contrived to learn Latin and modern languages, and to apply himself to the study of philosophy, into which early readings, chiefly of Maimonides’ Moreh Nebochim, had initiated him already. After many years of com tive poverty he became the partner of a rich silk-manufacturer, whose children he had edu- cated. The intimate friend of men like Lessing, Sulzer, Nicolai, he, directly and indirectly, con- tributed in a vast yon to the abolition of the disgraceful laws and bratal prejudices against the Jews. On the other hand, be acted in the most beneficial manner on his own co-religionists, by rousing them from the mental ~y ores with which they regarded in his day all that had not a distinct reference to religion, and by waging fierce war net their own religions and other prejudices, e died 4th January 1786, and Ramler wrote the following epitaph on him : * True to the religion of his forefathers, wise as Socrates, teaching immor- tality, and becoming immortal like Socrates.’ He was the eres of Lessing's Nathan, and was called a ‘second Moses.’ He was a diligent student of Locke, Shaftesbury, and Pope: a zealous defender of enlightened Monotheiam, and, in spite of Lessing, strongly anti-Spinozist. His principal works are a volume on Pope as a philosopher, along with Lessing (i786), on the Sensations (1755), on Evidence in etaphysies (1763); Phaedon (1767), a dialogue on the immortality of the soul in the manner of Plato; Jerusalem (1783), a defence of Judaism as a reli- gions Morgenstunden, esanys in refutation of Pan- m Spinoziem. His works were edited in 1845 (8 vols.), and rire in 1880 (2 vols.). See the Life by Kayserling (2d ed. 1887). Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, FeLrx, composer, was born at Hamburg on chester 3, 1808 ~The family name was already remarkable by the fame of his grandfather, Moses Mendelssohn. Abraham the second son of Moses Mendelssohn, had entered a banking business in Paris, but subsequently, on his marriage with Lea Salomon in 1804, settled in Hamburg. The French Seip we in 1811 forced him to with his family to Berlin, where he founded the eminent firm of bankers known by his name. He resolved about this time to bring up his children as Protestant Christians, and added the name of Bartholdy to that of Mendelssohn in order to distinguish his own from the Jewish branch of the family. The education he bestowed on Felix appears to have been as liberal as it was systematic. In his eighth year we find the child studying com : um under Zelter and the pianoforte under Berger, besides receiving lessons in drawing the violin. Two years later he made his first public appearance, playing the pianoforte part in a trio at a concert in Berlin. ith 1820 that period of prolific production which lasted almost till his death. At the same time he entered upon a ceaseless round of gaiety and activity which largely determined his character. The home-life of the Mendelssohn family was eminently suited to the musical tendencies of the boy. A concert was given at the house on alter- nate Sunday mornings, when some of Felix's com- re generally found a place in the p me, ithin the next few years he formed the acquaint- ance of such men as Goethe, Weber, and Moschel and had composed his Bymeony in C minor an the B minor Quartet. short visit to Paris with his father in March 1825 did not impress him favour- ably with the French musicians. he following A t saw the completion of his opera, Camacho’s Wedding, which was destined to be the beginning of his unpleasant relations with the Berliners; and his well-known Octet for strings was finished in October. With the composition of the Midsummer Night’s Dream overture, in A t 1826, Mendelssohn may be said to have attained his musical majority, and his lessons with Zelter ceased. On April 29, 1827, the opera Camacho's bbe. 4 was produced in Berlin, Though received wi vehement applause it never reached a second per- formance, owing, among other reasons, to illness of one of the principal singers, and the per- sonal criticisms on the work in the press. after this Mendelssohn commenced the formation of a small choir of sixteen voices, which met at his - house for the purpose of studying Bach’s Passion Music ; and, in spite of the difficulties of the work and the determined opposition of Zelter, the scheme culminated in the famous performance by the Sing- akademie on March 11, 1829, the first since Bach's death. For some reason, however, his suecess did not improve his relations with Berlin musicians. Accordingly, being now twenty years old, he resolved to leave home and to visit the different countries of Europe. England, afterwards the land of his most pleasant associations, was his first destination. Ke arrived in London on April 21, 1829, and was warmly welcomed by the - harmonic Society. He made his first appearance at one of their concerts, when he conducted his Symphony in C minor. A tour through Scotland in the summer inspired him with the Hebrides overture and the Scotch Symphony. During the next year he visited Munich and Vienna. By October he had reached Venice, and the ae winter he spent in Rome. Returning to Munich he proceeded thence to Paris, paying his second visit to London in April 183%, He shortly afterwards returned to Berlin, having been am MENDES MENDIP HILLS 133 absent three years. In the spring of 1833 he was invited to conduct the Lower Rhine festival at Diisseldorf, where his success led to his being offered the entire direction of the music for three years. He at once accepted the post and com- menced his new duties in September. His work at the theatre, however, proved uncongenial, and was accordingly relinquished. His stay at Diissel- dorf was full of responsibilities and worries, and he ultimately left the town in October 1835 to conduct the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipzig. A su nent visit to Frankfort bronght him in con- taet with Rossini, and was also the occasion of his first meeting with Cecile Jeanrenaud, who after- wards became his wife. The marriage took place in 1837, and was followed by a visit to Birming- ham, where he conducted his S¢ Paul, which had been first heard at Diisseldorf the previous year. His attention was now chiefly devoted to Leipzig, but September 1840 found him again at Birming- ham conducting the Lobgesang. About this time Mendelssohn was uisitioned by the king of Prussia to go to Berlin to assist in the foundation of an Academy of Arts; and, though loth to leave a poe where he was so much appreciated and beloved as in Leipzig, he removed to Berlin in May 1841, on the understanding that his stay there should not exceed one year. The king’s idea of yh, the ancient Greek tragedies Jed to the composition by Mendelssohn of the music to the Antigone and Edi In 1843 he had the satisfaction of seeing his favourite scheme carried into_effect by the opening of the new musie-school at Leipzig, with Schu- mann and David among his associates. He was in London the vets | year to conduct the last five concerts of the Philliarmonic season ; and in 1846 he paid his ninth visit to England for the uction of Elijah, which took place at Birming- on August But his hard work was now beginning to tell on him, for, although his Berlin duties and his position as chief of the Leipzig Con- servatorium entailed constant labour and anxiety, he persisted in g out all his engagements. He had scarcely returned from his tenth and Inst visit to a aaa in May 1847, when the news of his sister Fanny’s death reached him. Periods of illness and. de; rapidly followed; and on November 4, 1847, he expired at his house in Leipzig. The body was conveyed to Berlin, and was interred in the family burial-place in the Old Trinity Churchyard. In stature Mendelssohn was short, and his hand- some countenance was of.a decidedly Jewish cast. He was eminent both as pianist and organist, lly in his rendering of the works of Bach, nd Beethoven. He moreover comneaien is gifts a a remarkable facility of improvisation. also included a talent for landscape-drawing ; and he has left behind him a whole series of sketches illustrating his different journeys. His music dwells almost exclusively on the sunny and gay side of life. Rarely, if ever, does he touch the innermostdepths of passion and feeling. But hewas, like Handel, one of the few composers who appealed to English audiences; for eal years his Elif _ has been almost as popular as the Messiah itself. See two collections of Mendelssohn’s Letters (1861 and 1863; trans. by Lady Wallace, 1862-63), those to the Moscheles (1888), and ‘the selection edited by W. F. Alexander and Grove (1894); the Lives b Benedict (1850), Moscheles (1873; trans. ee Coleridge ” Reissmann (3d ed. 1892); Remi- Devrient (1869; trans. by Mrs Macfarren ), 4); and Die Familie Mendelssohn trans. 1882), Mendés, Carutte, born at Bordeaux of Jewish parentage 22d May 1841, has since 1859 written a long series of poems, romances, dramas, and libretti, as well as journalistic articles and criticisms on bE ath &e. Mert novels may be are Le Rot ierge ( 1880), istophela (1890), and La Maison de la Vieille (1894). Mendicancy. In spite of the stringency of the laws against vagrancy and. begging, and the numerous aid societies in every town in Britain for the relief of the poor and un- br og quite an army of men, women, and children wander from place to place, and pick bs a living from the thoughtless benevolence of their better-off and more industrious neighbours. This class is largely recruited from the lazy, idle, drunken, and vicious, though there is always a certain percentage who are really the victims of misfortune. Though the law is against begging—English statutes for the repression of men«icaney date from the 14th century—there is no law against giving to be: But indis- criminate charity only feeds the evil it seeks to remove, and the weak-willed, shiftless poveleScn continues to be a problem to the benevolent. The trnest charity consists in helping people to help themselves, and those societies and individuals are most useful that aid the fallen to gain work and self-respect, and so rise in the social scale. There are no fewer than 83 societies in Great Britain for improving the condition of the poor, 42 of which are in London and 11 in Scotland. The relief given may consist in supplying immediate necessities, helping the poor into hospitals and convalescent homes, to emigrate, or to secure temporary work. Tickets are in some cases supplied to subscribers, which entitle the party to whom they are given to one meal. Tickets for a night’s shelter can also be had, to be given instead of money. The Mendicity Society in London (established for the suppression of public be; ging in 1818), whose work hes been much aided fo the Charity Organisation Society (see CHARITIES), has pee | some 25,000 vagrants to be convicted as impostors, and relieves some 13,000 or 14,000 cases in a year. » was king of Lacedemon, the younger brother of A, memmon, and husband of the famous Helen (q.v. Menes. See Ecyrr (Chronology and History). Menevian, one of the subdivisions of the Cambrian System (q.v.). Mengs, ANTON RAPHAEL, artist and writer on art, was born at Aussig, in Bohemia, March 12, 1728. His father, Israel Mengs, was himself a inter, and from him young Raphael received his rst instructions in art. At the age of thirteen he went to Rome, where he remained three years. On his return to Dresden, in 1744, he was appointed court-painter to the king of Poland and Saxony, but was not prevented from ch at Rome, where he became a Catholic and married. In 1754 he became director of the school of painting of the Capitol. After three years he visited Spain. To this period belongs his most celebrated effort ; it repre- sents the Apotheosis of the Emperor Trajan, and is executed on the dome of the grand saloon in the royal palace at Madrid. He returned again to Rome in 1776, where he died 29th June 1779. He was a learned and scholarly painter, but his works, though lofty in their subjects, seldom exhibit more than a correct and cultivated taste. His writings were edited in 1780. Meng-tse. See MENcIUs. Menhaden (Clupea menhaden), the name, especially in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, of a species of herring or shad, abundant off the eastern coast of the United States. Other local names are Whitefish and Hardhead (in Maine), Bony Fish and Mossbunker (in New York). It is much used for bait and is very rich in oil, while the refuse furnishes valuable manure. Economically it is one of the most important North American fishes. G. B. Goode’s Natural History of the Menhaden (Washington, 1879). Menhir. See STANDING STONEs. Ménier, EwiLe Justin, French manufacturer and writer, was born at Paris on 18th May 1826, and died at Noisiel-sur-Marne, 17th February 1881. He established at Noisiel the celebrated chocolate factory, with a branchin London, chemical works at St Denis, and a sugar manufactory at Roye, besides a caoutchouc factory, and in Ni a & cocoa plantation. A warm advocate of free trade, he expounded his views in Keonomie Rurale (1875), L’ Avenir Economique (2 vols. 1875-79), &e. Menin, a town of West Flanders, Belginm, 7 miles by rail SW. of Courtrai, stands on the left bank of the Lys, which separates it from France. It was fortified by Vanban, but its works have been demolished, Pop. (1890) 14,116. MENINGITIS MENNONITES 135 Meningi tis (Gr. méninz, ‘a membrane’) is the term employed in medicine to designate inflamma- tion of the membranes investing the brain and spinal cord, of which in this relation the innermost—the ja-mater—is the most important. Far the most uent form of meningitis in Britain is the tubereular, already described under Hydrocephalus (q.v.); and, as the main symptoms o' eee are similar, it is unnecessary to repeat them here. Epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis, or Cerebro- inal fever.—Outbreaks have occurred from time to time during the 19th century in the northern hemisphere, less frequently in the British Islands than in most of the other countries where qualified observers are found, of an epidemic disease affecting ae the membranes of the brain and cord. It usually begins suddenly with fever and violent ; vomiting, giddiness, stupor, delirium, and other nervous symptoms succeed, the most distinctive of which is a peculiar rigidity of the muscles of the neck and back. The disease is extremely variable in severity; sometimes it is fatal in less than twenty-four hours ; sometimes so slight as only to confine the patient to bed for a few days. The majority lie between these extremes, improvement in favourable cases beginning after a week or two. Convalescence is often very slow. It oceurs chiefly in children and young adults. It is not clearly distinguishable from other forms of meningitis except by its mode of occurrence, gener- ally in somewhat localised and timited outbreaks. If contagious, it is only feebly so. ‘Treatment must be conducted on general principles, as no specilic is yet known. Simple meningitis (i.e. not traceable to tubercle or to the epidemic form) is most often caused Ww injury, but may result from disease of the skull, pywmia, and other diseases, and has even been by excessive ee of the head to the sun. Tt usually begins, unlike the tubercular form, quite suddenly ; and it too is an extremely fatal disease. But the outlook is not quite so hopeless in simple meningitis ; and even cases which appear desperate do sometimes recover. The essentials of treatment are rest and quiet in a darkened room, and little food of the lightest kind. Ice to the head, blister- ing, blood-letting, local or general, and free pur- gation sometimes seem beneficial. Meningocele, See ENcCEPHALOCELE. Menippus, a satirist who lived in the first half of the 3d century B.c., was born a Pheenician slave, and became a Cynic philosopher. His works in Greek have perished, and he is known only through the imitations of Marcus Terentius Varro (q.v.), whose own fragments bear the title of Menippean Satires.—The name was adopted as title for a famous French collection of political satires in prose and verse, the Satire Ménippée, which appeared in 1594 at the erucial period of the League. Mennonites, a Protestant sect, combining some of the distinctive characteristics of the Baptists and the Quakers. Their principal tenet is the administration of baptism only upon confession of faith; consequently they do not baptise infants. They attach more import- ance to the ordering of the Christian life than to doctrinal | xan ranking discipline and rectitude of life before learning and the scientific elabora- tion of dogmas. They refuse to take oaths, to bear arms, condemn every kind of revenge and divorce (except for adultery), and object to fill civie and state offices, holding all kinds of magis- ig Pag be necessary for the present, but foreign to the kingdom of Christ. The church is the com- munity of the saints, which must be kept pure by ‘strict discipline. Grace they hold to be designed for all, and their views of the Lord's Supper fall in with those of Zwingli; in its celebration the rite of feet-washing is retained in most congregations. They have bishops, preachers, and deacons. © The first Spay aes to profess these principles was formed at Zurich in 1525 by three men, Grebel, Manz, and Blaurock. Thence the sect spread rapidly through Switzerland and the south of Germany and Austria, establishing itself in ——— strength at St Gall, Augsburg, and trasburg. But a bitter persecution, in which 3000 persons perished, caused many to move into Moravia and into Holland. _Contemporaneously with the formation of the Zurich congregation and its first years of propagandism was the appear- ance in Westphalia of the Anabaptists (q.v.), a sect professing some similar views, but guilty of most reprehensible fanatical excesses, in which the Swiss y had no share and with which they showed no sympathy. After the fanatical party had been suppressed, with much sheddin of blood, in Minster, there arose a man of soun piety and great moderation, Menno Simons (1492- 559), who denounced the blasphemous zealots of Westphalia, and organised the scattered members and congregations of the more sober-minded throughout Holland and north Germany. His influence became so paramount that his name has been used ever since to designate the sect as a religious body. Dissentions broke out amongst them at a later time both in Switzerland and Holland, chiefly as to the degree of strictness of discipline to be enforced.» In 1620 the stricter Ammanite or Upland Mennonites separated from the more tolerant Lowland Mennonites in Switzer- land. In Holland the first disruption occurred in 1554; the more liberal section in North Holland were called Waterlanders, though they exchanged the name of Mennonites for Baptist Com- munities. The advocates for ter strictness showed much want of cohesion, the various parties being known by such titles as Old Flemings, Ukewallists, Dompelers, Jan Jacob Christians, Apostoolites, Galenists, &ec. All the Dutch Mennonites were, however, reunited in 1801. At the present time they number about 32,000, divided among more than 100 congregations. The German and Swiss Mennonites probably number nearly 25,000, In 1783 Catharine of Ticiguta introduced colonies of German Mennonites into south Russia ; others joined them after 1867. But in 1871—at which time they numbered close upon 40,000—the Russian emperor decreed that they should be liable to conscription for the army, and should he deprived of certain others of their privileges. This caused many of them to emigrate to the United States, where they settled principally in Minnesota and Kansas; others have proceeded of late years to Brazil. But Mennonite refugees from Alsace, the Palatinate, and Holland had already reached America as early as 1683, in which year the first Mennonite church in the States was organised at Germantown in Pennsylvania. At the present time there are about 100,000 professing this form. of religious life in the United States and Canada. The most important groups into which they are divided are known as Old Mennonites, Reformed Mennonites or Herr’s People, New Mennonites, Evangelical Mennonites, and Amish or Omish Mennonites, also known as Hookers and as Button- ites. Nearly all Mennonites throughout the world are farmers; for culture, integrity, and philan- thropie enlightenment they stand everywhere high in the regards of their neighbours. See Bloupet ten Cate, Geschiedenis der Doopsgezinden (5 vols, 1839-47); J. A. Starck, Geschichte der Taufe und der Taufgesinnten (1789); N. Browne’s Life of Menno (Phila. 1853); [Mrs Brons] Ursprung, Entwickelung, und Schicksale der Taufycsinnten (1884); aud Hoop Scheffer 136 MENOPOME MENTANA in H -Plitt's Real-Encyklopddie (new ed.), who gives | his death on 2d May 1869 one of the most prominent a full bibliography. members of the old Russian party. Menopome (Protonopsis horrida), a large North Maen amphibian in the Malema er order, It is widely distributed in the rivers of the Mississippi basin, and is well known as the *hell- bender,” ‘ allizator,’ ‘ water-dog,’ &c., names which suggest its fierce characteristics. It resembles the Menopome or Hell-bender ( Protonopsis horrida), salamander in form, has four well-developed limbs, and a persistent gill-aperture. It attains a length of 18 inches to 2 feet, and has extraordinary powers of voracity and vitality. Menschikoff, ALEXANDER DANILOviTCH, a Russian field-marshal and minister of state, was born at Moscow, 16th November 1672. Lefort, the favourite of Peter the Great, saw him selling tarts in the street, took him into his own service, and introduced him to the notice of his imperial master. Rising rapidly in the Czar’s favour, he distinguished himself at the siege of Azov, and afterwards accompanied Peter in his travels to Holland and England. On the death of Lefort (1699) he was a chief favourite. During the years (1702-13) of the war with Sweden he played important parts at the siege of Schliisselburg, the battles of Kalisch and Pultowa—on the field of Pultowa Peter made him field-marshal—the capture of Riga, in the occupation of Courland and Pomerania, and at the capture of Stettin. At the capture of Marienburg the woman who afterwards became the wife of Peter, Catharine L., fell into Menschikoff’s hands, an was th h him introduced to the ezar. ‘Towards the end Peter's reign Menschikoff lost favour owing to his extortions and suspected duplicities, But when Peter died he secured the succession of Catharine, and during her reign and that of her successor, her youthful grandson, Peter IL, he verned Russia with almost absolute authority, is ambitious schemes—he was about to marry his daughter to the young czar—and the dislike of the old nobility led to his overthrow by the Dolgoroukis, who banished him to Siberia (Septem- ber 1727) and confiscated his immense estates and treasures. He died 2d November 1729.—His great- ndson, ALEXANDER SERGEIEVITCH, was born n 1789. He served in the campaigns of 1812-15, and rose to the rank of general. In the Turkish cam of 1828 he took Anapa after a short siege, but before Varna received so severe a wound as compelled his retirement. After his recovery he was made head of the Russian navy, which he raised to a high state of efficiency. In March 1853 he was sent as ambassador to Con- stantinople, where his overbearing behaviour pro- duced a speedy rupture between the Porte and the ezar, and brought about the Crimean war. In this war he commanded at the battles of Alma and Inkermann, and displayed great energy in defend- ing Sebastopol ; lut in 1855 he was recalled because ot a severe attack of illness. Menschikoff was till Menstruation is the term applied to the dis- charge of blood which issues every month the generative organs of the human female during the period in which she is capable of p i The first appearance of this discharge, to which the terms menses and catamenia (each — reference to the monthly period) are ind nately applied, is a decided indication of the arrival of the period of commencing womanhood, and is usually accompanied by an enlargement of the mammary glands and other less chan: mong Teutonic races menstruation usually commences between the fourteenth and the sixteenth years, and terminates between the forty-eighth and fifty-second years. The inter- val which most commonly ela between the successive appearances of the discharge is about four weeks, although it is often shorter; and the duration of the flow is usually three or four days, but is er ie - bp ape on a -The first appearance of the discharge is usually pre- led rae panied by pain in the loins and general disturbance of the system, and in many women these symptoms invariably accompany the disch As a general rule there is no m flow during pregnancy and lactation, and its cessation is one of the first signs that conception has taken place. Anomalies and disturbances (retention, suppression, undue copiousness, &c.) of the menstrual discharge are a frequent cause or symptom of illness. Mensuration, the name of that branch of the application of arithmetic to geometry which teaches, from the actual measurement of certain lines of a re, how to find, by calculation, the length of other lines, the area of si and the volume of solids. The determination of lines is, however, generally treated of under Trigonometry (q.¥.), and surfaces and solids are now understood to form the sole subjects of mensuration. To find the length of a line (except in cases where the length may be calculated from other known lines, as in trigonometry ) we have to apply the unit of length (in the my of a footrule, a yard measure, a chain ), and discover by actual trial how many units the line contains. But in measuring a surface or a solid we do not require to apply an actual square board, or a cubic block, or even to divide it into such squares or blocks; we have only to measure certain of its boundary lines or dimensions; and from them we can calculate or infer the contents. For example, to find the area of a rectangle it is sufficient to measure two adjacent sides and find the product of these in terms of the unit of length chosen ; 7 feet x 3 feet = 21 square feet. The areas of other figures are found from by the aid of certain relations or properties those figures demonstrated by pure geometry ; for instance, the area of a paralle’ m is the same as the area of a rectangle having the same base and altitude, and is therefore equal to the base multiplied by the height. Asa triangle is half of a parallelogram, the rule for its area can be at once deduced. Irregular quadrilaterals and polygons are measured by dividing them into t les, the - area of each of which is separately calculated.” For the area of the circle, see CircLE. The volume of a rectangular parallelopiped is found in enbic inches by multiplying together the length, breadth, and depth in inches ; and the oblique paralielopiped, wrism, or cylinder, by multiplying the area of the by the height. Mentana, «© small village 12 miles NE. of Rome, where, 8d November 1867, the Garibaldians were defeated by the papal and French troops, MENTEITH MERCADANTE 137 Menteith, Lake or, a beautiful sheet of water in south-west Perthshire, 17 miles W. by N. of Stirling. Lying 55 feet above sea-level, it has an utmost length and breadth of 14 and 1 mile, and a depth in places of 80 feet. It sends off Goodie Water 9 miles east-south-eastward to the Forth, and contains three islets—Inchmahome, Inchtalla, and Dog Isle. Inchmahome has remains of an Augustinian priory (1238), the refuge in 1547-48 of the child-queen Mary Stuart before her removal to France; whilst on Inchtalla is the ruined tower 1427) of the Earls of Menteith. That title was e by a Celtic line in the 12th century, and afterwards by a Comyn, Stewarts, and Grahams (1427-1694). See Dr John Brown’s Hore Sub- secive (1858), and Sir W. Fraser’s Red Book of Menteith (2 vols. Edin. 1880). Menthol is a camphor obtained from oil of ———— by cooling. It has been used by the for 200 years and is known by them as Hakka-no-Hari; indeed, native gentlemen always went about till recently with a medicine-box con- taining this drug. The chief source is the Mentha arvensis purpurescens, the oil of which yields more menthol than that of peppermint. In many nervous affections, such as neuralgia, toothache, headache, &e., menthol in. the form of cones often -gives instant relief. When the cone is rubbed on the skin a twofold action results. The menthol rapidly evaporates, giving a sensation of cold ; but if evapo- ration be Spear it acts as a rubefacient, pro- ducing a ing of warmth. Menthol has also antiseptic oe and is used with success. in solution in dip theria, &e. It has an odour resem- bling but differing from that of oil of peppermint. It is liable to be adulterated with thymol, euca- lyptol, &c., and then is often irritating to the skin. Mentone (Fr. Menton), a town in the depart- ment of Alpes Maritimes, France, is pleasantly situated on the Mediterranean, 14 mile from the Italian frontier and 14 miles by rail NE. of Nice. Owing to its southern exposure, and the fact that spurs of the Alps shelter it on the north and west, it enjoys a beautiful climate—average for the year 61°—and so has become a favourite winter-resort of invalids and health-seekers from England, Germany, and other countries. The town stands on a promontory that divides its bay into two portions ; the native town clings to the mountain side, whilst the hotels and villas for the visitors extend along the water’s edge. The harbour is rotected on the south and west by a sea-wall 1889). There is a trade chiefly in olive-oil, wine, mons, skins, which finctuates between £75,000 and £211,000 a year. Great damage was done to od ges by an earthquake in February 1887. Pop. 8433. In the 14th century it was purchased. by the lords of Monaco, and, except during the period of the revolution and down to 1815, when France seized it, the princes of Monaco kept possession till 1848. In that year the inhabitants voluntarily ie themselves under the protection of Sardinia, t that power yielded the town to France twelve years later. See Dr Bennet, Winter and Spring on the Shores of the Mediterranean (5th ed. 1874) and Maritime Alps and their Seaboard (1888). Mentor, the son of Alcimns, and trusted friend of U , who, on setting out for Troy, left him the ec! of his household. By him the young Telemachus was educated, and his name has become a synonym for an instructor and guide. Mentz, See MAINz. Menu, See MANU. Menura, See Lyre-prep. M ‘Teh, LAKE, a const lagoon of Egypt, yg east from the Damietta branch of the Nile, is separated from the Mediterranean by a narrow strip of land, with several openings. Its surface, 460 sq. m. in extent, is studded with islands, the most interesting of which is Tennees, the ancient Tennesus, with Roman, remains of baths, tombs, &c. Its waters are full of fish, and its shores abound in wild-fowl. The Suez Canal passes through the eastern portion. The lake has an average depth of not more than 3 feet, except when the Nile, mouths of whose delta reach it, is in flood ; and it is being gradually drained. Menzel, Avotr, painter, lithographer, illus- trator, and engraver, was born 8th mber 1815, at Breslau, and is best known for his drawings and oil-paintings illustrative of the times of Frederick the Great and William I., emperor—pictures char- acterised by historical fidelity, strong realistic con- ception, originality, and humour. His ‘Adam and Eve,’ ‘Christ among the Doctors,’ and ‘ Christ expelling the Money-changers’ are also notable pictures. See Life by Wessely (1873), and the critical work of Jordan and Dohme (1885 e¢ seq.) Menzel, WoLFGANG, an eminent German author, was the son of a medical practitioner, and was born at Waldenburg, in Silesia, 2Ilst June 1798. He studied at Jena and Bonn, was for four ears schoolmaster at Aarau in Switzerland, and in 825 returned to Germany. He first made himself known in the literary world by his witty Streck- verse (1823). He subsequently lived mainly in Stuttgart, where he died 23d April 1873. He edited and contributed to literary magazines, and wrote a very large number of works—poems, romances, histories, literary criticism, political polemics, and Christian theology. The most important were a history of Germany (1825; Eng. trans. 1848), of German literature (1827; Eng. trans. 1840), of German poetry (1858), of Enrope (1853-57), and of the world (Ad/gemeine Welt eschichte, 16 vols. 1862-72), on Prussia’s place in Germany (1866 and 1870), mythological researches (1842), the pre- Christian doctrine of immortality (1869), and auto- biographical Denkwiirdigkeiten (1876). He was almost constantly involved in controversy, attack- ing with equal zeal theological rationalists and po itical icals, all whose tendencies seemed dangerous’ to the Christian religion or the German monarchies, such as ‘the Young Germany party’ after 1830. Borne (q.v.) retaliated in the Franz- osenfresser (‘ Frenchman-eater’ ). Mephistopheles, the name of one of the best- known personifications of the principle of evil. The word has been very variously explained, but is probably of Hebrew origin, like most names of devils in the history of magic, confounded with, and approximated in form to, the Greek unpworopidns, ‘one* who loves not light.’ Mephistopheles owes all his modern vitality to Goethe's Faust (q.v.). Meppel, a town in the Netherlands province of Drenthe, 18 miles N. by E. of Zwolle, has a trade in butter and linen manufactures. Pop. 8418. Me’quinez. See MiKnas. Meran, a town of Austria, in Tyrol, at the south side of the Alps, 100 miles by rail S. by W. of Innsbruck, is a celebrated winter-resort, especi- ally for sufferers from chest diseases, has an old 15th-century castle, a 14th-century Gothic church, an English girls’ school, &c. Pop. 7334, more than doubled in the season. See Fraser Rae’s Austrian Health-resorts (1888). Mercadante, SAVERIO, musical composer, was born at Altamura in Southern Italy, 26th June 1797, studied music at Naples, and began his eareer as a violinist and flutist. In 1818 he pro- duced the first of some sixty operas, of which the 138 MERCANTILE LAW ane MERCHANT more noteworthy are L'Apoteosi d'Ercole (1819), Auacreonte (1820), Elisa e Clawdio (1821), Donna Caritea (1826), I Briganti (1836), [1 Giuramento (1837), and La Vestale (1842). From 1827 to 1831 he was in Spain; in 1833 he was appointed musical director in the cathedral at Novara, and in 1840 of the conservatory of music at Naples. He died in that city, 17th December 1870—blind since 1861. Mercantile Law, the branch of municipal law which is similar, and in many respects identical, in all the trading countries of the world. An understanding was earliest established in the department of maritime law, the history of which ins with such codes as the Consolato del Mare, published at Barcelona in 1494, and includes such a series of regulations as the English Merchant Ship- ping Acts (1854 to 1888), which consolidate and amend the law as to seamen and their contracts with employers, desertion, provisions, unseaworthy ships, sistas, signals, deck cargoes, the load-line, life-saving apparatus, &c. Mercantile and mavi- time law is dealt with in this work under a large number of heads, as Apprentice. Debt. Master and Servant. Bankruptcy. Employers’ Liability. | Partnership. Bill. Insurance, Plimsoll. Company. International Law. Weights and Measures. Mercantile System, that system in political economy which regards it as a government's chief end to secure a favourable balance of trade—to get the country to import as little as possible of the produce of other countries, and export as much as possible of its own, so that more money is received than is am away. ‘The policy of the Emperor Charles V. was regulated by this aim, as was that of Henty VIIL. and Queen Elizabeth ; and the Navi- gation Laws (q.v.) of Cromwell founded the English empire of the seas. Colbert (q.v.) was regarded as the most systematic mercantilist. Among English exponents of the system were Sir Josiah Child and Sir William Temple. See BALANCE OF TRADE, Po.iricaL Economy. Mercator (the Latinised form of KREMER), a Flemish mathematician and geographer of German extraction, 1512-92. See Map, Mercedes, in Argentina, (1) a city 61 miles by rail W. of Buenos Ayres, with a free library and hospital, soap-factories and steam-mills, and 8000 inhabitants (many Irish); and (2) a town 55 miles by rail ESE. of San Luis city, with 6000 inhabit- ants. (3) Mercedes is also he name of the capital (4000) of Soriano province, in Uruguay. Mercenaries, or StrreNnDIARIES, men who re- ceived pay for their services as soldiers, especially as distinguished from the feudal and general levies owing military service to the crown. Such men were often foreigners, and the name has come to mean only foreign auxiliaries. Hired professional soldiers appear very early in the history of military organisation (see ARMY). Foreign mercenaries sprees in the armies of Alexander the Great and the Romans. They were common in all armies, hat generally engaged for a single campaign only. In England, Harold had a body of Danes in his army when he defeated the Norwegian king— the Ausearle, a body originally established by Canute. William If. had for some time a body of Dateh troops in his pay after he became king of ere ; and thronghout the 18th century Hessian and Hanoverian regiments were constantly in the pay of the British government for temporary pur- poses. Hessians fought for great Britain in the first American war; and the Landgrave of Hesse, who sold his at so munch a head, received upwards of half a million for soldiers lost in that campaign. During the Irish rebellion, again, in 1798, many Hessian troops were employed. On the outbreak of the continental war in 1793 it was determined to increase the British ee the addition of a large body of foreigners ; accordingly in 1794 an act was passed for the em- bodiment of the * King’s German Legion,’ consist- ing of 15,000 men. These troops, who were in- creased in the course of the war to nearly double that number, distinguished themselves in various engagements, and formed some of the most reliable regiments. It was common during the Peninsular war to enlist deserters and prisoners of war into the British army, but such recruits were not reli- able when opposed to their fellow-countrymen. Corps of French émigrés, as the Chasseurs - niques, which served through the Peninsular war and in America, the York Cl in which some Turks were enrolled when at ta, and others, were also organised. The whole of the foreign legions were disbanded in 1815, the officers being placed on half-pay. During the Russian war in 1854 the British government again had recourse to the enlistment of foreigners. The numbers authorised were 10,000 German, 5000 Swiss, and 5000 Italians, with the same pay as British troops, About h were enrolled, and had become very efficient, when hostilities ceased, and they were disbanded at a great cost for gratuities, &c. Foreigners may enlist into the British army, but the Army Act of 1881 provides that the proportion of aliens in any corps at one time shall not exceed one to every ey British subjects, except in the case of ne and persons of colour, and that no alien shall be eligible to hold a commission as an officer, British- born soldiers have often served abroad. There was a famous Scots Guards (q.v.) in France from the days of Charles VI. down to 1759; many Scotsmen fought for Gustavus Adolphus; and lishmen,, Scotsmen, and Irishmen, singly and in ies, have served during troublous times in most European countries ; see GORDON ( PATRICK ), KEITH, HOBART PasHa. A British legion was raised in 1836 by Sir De Lacy Evans to support the queen of Spain against the Curlists (see EVANS), The Swiss auxiliaries used to form a regular con- tingent in many of the armies of Europe, especially of France and Italy, Over 1,000,000 served in France from the time of Louis XI. to that of Louis XIV. (1465-1715). The Swiss usually served only on condition of being commanded by their own officers, and occasionally these officers obtained distinction and fame. But the privates returned home poor and often demoralised; and the cantons which supplied most mercenaries suffered severely by their absence. After the French Revolution the cantons ceased publicly to hire out their subjects ; and after 1830 most of the cantons forbade foreign enlistment. In 1859 the Confederacy a severe law grad recruitment for service abroad. There is still, however, a large contingent of Swiss mercenaries in the Dutch t Indian Colonies, The Papal Swiss troops have shrunk to a body- guard of about 100 men, See CONDOTTIERI, FREE- LANCES. Merchandise Marks, See TRADE MARKS. Merchant Taylors’ School, This great London day-school, with 500 boys in 1890, was founded, and is still governed, solely by the master, wardens, and company of Merchant Taylors. The first school-house was built in 1561 in Suffolk Lane. This building was destroyed in the great fire of 1666, but it was in 1671-74 rebuilt on the same site. When the Charterhonse School was removed into the country, the Merchant Taylors bonght land from the governors of the Charterhouse for a ‘ MERCIA MERCURY 139 £90,000, and in 1873-74 erected, at a cost of £30,000, their * eye school-house on the site of the old gown boys’ quarters of the Charterhouse. Richard Mulcaster was the first master of the school, and corey a scholars have been Edmund §) , Bi rewes, James Shirley, Arch- 4 Juxon, Titus Oates, Lord Clive, Charles Mathews, and Sir Henry Ellis. See the Rev. C. J. Robinson’s ister of the Scholars admitted to Merchant Taylors’, 1562-1874 (2 vols. 1882-83). Mercia, the great Anglian kingdom of central England. ie name, originally limited to the dis- trict around Tamworth and Liciifield and the Upp Trent valley, refers to a ‘march’ or frontier that had to be defended against hostile Welshmen. The first settlements were most probably made in the second half of the 6th century, but Mercia first rose into real importance, and indeed grew into Middle England, under the vigorous rule of Penda (626-655). His nephew, Wulfhere (659-675), pushed back the Northumbrians, and extended the southward to the Thames, and Ethel- bald (716-755) spread his uests round all the neigh states. But the mightiest kings of Mercia were Offa (757-795) and Cenwulf (796-819), and after their time its power rapidly declined before the invasions of the Danes on the one side, and the spread of the West Saxon hase res on the other. t length it beeame one of the great earldoms, and Elfgar, Leofric, Edwin, and Morcar retained at least the shadow of past power. See ENGLAND ( History); also DIALECT. Mercury. See Hermes, PLANETS. Mercury, or QUICKSILVER (sym. Hg; atomic t= 206 ; sp. gr. 13°6), one of the so-called noble metals, wh a. as being the only metal that is fluid at ordinary temperatures. It is of a silvery white colour, with a striking metallic lustre. Whien pure it runs in small spherical drops over smooth surfaces ; but when oan only pure the drops assume an elongated or tailed form, and often leave a gray stain on the surface of glass or porce- lain. - Moreover, the pure metal, when shaken with air, presents no change upon its surface; while if impure it coy. It is sli gitly All mercurial compounds are either volatilised or decomposed by heat; and when heated with car- bonate of soda they yield metallic mereury. Native or in quicksilver only oceurs in panes: uantity, usually in cavities of mercurial ores. Of these as, for example, with slaked lime or iron filings. mercury as imported is usually almost chemi- cally pure. If the presence of other metals is sus- pected, it may be pressed through leather, redis- led, and then digested for a few days in dilute nitrie acid, w exerts little action on the mereury if more oxidisable metals are present; or better, in a solution of mercuric nitrate, which de- posits mereury and takes up the more oxidisable metals. The mercury, after being washed with water, is chemically pure. Mercury is first spoken of by Theophrastus (3d century B.C.); the name hydrar, Ys ( whence comes the symbol Hg) dates from Dioscorides. Greeks and nicians procured cinnabar from Almaden in Spain. After the discovery of the New World, the mercury of Peru was famous. California now produces the great bulk of the mereury of com- merce, and most of it comes from the New Almaden mine. The total produce of California was 60,851 flasks (of 764 Ib. each) in 1881; in 1888 it had sunk to 33,250 flasks (value $1,413,125). There are two oxides of mereury, the black sub- oxide, HgsO, and the red oxide, HgO. Both of these lose all their oxygen when heated, and form salts with acids. The black subowide, althongh a powerful base, is very unstable when isolated, being readily converted Ww gentle warmth, or even by mere ex re to light, into red oxide and the metal : Hg,O = HgO + Hg. The most important of its salts is the nitrate, Hg.(NO,), + 2Aq, from whose watery solution ammonia throws down a black precipitate known in pharmacy as Mercurius solubilis Hahnemanni, from its discoverer, and con- sisting essentially of the black suboxide with some ammonia and nitric acid, which are apparently in combination. Of the red owide the most important salts are the nitrate, Hg(NO,), + 8Aq; the sul- phate, HgSO,, which is employed in the manufac- ture of corrosive sublimate ; and the basic sulphate, HgSO,,2Hg0, which is of a yellow colour, and is known as Turpeth Mineral. The haloid salts, of mereury correspond in their composition to the oxides. Of the most important of these—the chlorides—there are the subchloride, Hg.Cl,, well known as Calomel (q.v.), and the chloride, HgCl,, or corrosive sublimate. The chloride, HgCl,, when crystallised from a watery solution occurs in oe white glistening prisms; but when obtained by sublimation it occurs in white transparent heavy masses, which have a crystalline fracture, and chink with a Seton metallic sound against the sides of the ttle in which they are contained. This salt melts at 509° F., and volatilises unchanged at about 570°. It has an acrid metallic taste. It is sol- uble in sixteen parts of cold, and in less than three parts of boiling water, and dissolves very freely in alcohol and in ether. Corrosive sublimate enters into combination with the alkaline chlorides, form- ing numerous distinct compounds. (A double chloride of ammonium and mercury, represented by the formula CH,NCI,HgCl, + Aq, has been long known as sal alembroth.) It combines with oxide of mercury in various proportions, forming a class of compounds of great interest in theoretical chemistry, termed oxychlorides of mercury. On adding a solution of corrosive sublimate to a solu- tion of ammonia in excess, a compound, which from its physical characters is termed white preci- itate, is thrown down, the composition of which HgN,H,Cl. Chloride of mercury coagulates albumen, and combines with the albuminous tissues generally, forming sparingly soluble com- pontiin tiesion, in cases of isoning with the salt, the white of raw eggs is the best antidote ; and for the same reason corrosive sublimate is a powerful antiseptic, and is employed to preserve anatomical or era ; Amongst the most important tests for this sub- stance, which is not unfrequently used as a poison, may be mentioned (1) iodide of potassium, which, when added to a crystal or to a watery solution of chloride of mercury, gives rise to the formation of 140 MERCURY MEREDITH a bright scarlet iodide of mercury. (2) The galvanic test, which may be applied in various ways, which the simplest is the ‘guinea and key test,’ devised by Wollaston. He placed a drop of the fluid suspected to contain corrosive sublimate on a guinea, and simultaneously touched it and the sur- face of the guinea with an iron key ; metallic mer- cury was deposited on the gold in a bright silvery stain. (3) Precipitation on copper, and reduction. To apply this test we acidulate the suspected fluid with a ee drops of hydrochloric acid, and intro- duce a little fine copper gauze, which soon becomes coated with mercury. On heating the gauze in a reduction tube the mercury is obtained in well- defined globules. With iodine and bromine mercury forms two iodides and bromides, corresponding in composition to the chlorides. Both the iodides are used in, medicine ; the bromides are of no practical import- ance. The subiodide, Hy, is a green powder formed by triturating 5 parts of iodine with 8 of mereury, and is of far less interest than the todide, Hgl, which is most simply obtained by pre- eens a solution of corrosive sublimate by a solution of iodide of potassium. The precipitate is at first salmon-coloured, but soon changes into a brilliant scarlet crystalline deposit. Salphur forms two compounds with mereury— viz. a subsulphide, Hg.S, a black powder of little importance, and a sulphide, Hes which oceurs naturally as Cinnabar (q.v.). Sulphide of mercury is thrown down as a back precipitate by ing sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of a per- salt of mereury (corrosive sublimate, for example). When dried and sublimed in vessels from which the air is excluded, it assumes its ordinary red colour. The well-known pigment vermilion is sul- phide of mercury, and is sometimes obtained from pure cinnabar, but is more frequently an artificial prodnet, Mercury unites with most metals to form Amal- gams (q.v.), several of which are employed in the arts. Of the numerous organic compounds of mereury it is unnecessary to mention more than the Fulminates (q.v.) and the cyanide, HgCy, which may be prepared by dissolving the red oxide of mercury in hydrocyanic acid, and is the best source from which to obtain cyanogen. The uses of mercury are so numerous that a very brief allusion to the most important of these must suffice. It is Fe extensively in the extrac- tion of gold and silver from their ores by the process of amalgamation. Its amalgams have been largely nt ot oe in the processes of silvering and gilding, and some (as those of copper and cadmium) are employed by the dentist for stopping teeth. It is indispensable in the construction of philosophical instruments, and in the laboratory in the form of the mercurial bath, &c. It is the source of the valuable pigment vermilion. The use of its chloride in anatomical preparations has been already noticed ; it is similarly found that wood, cordage, and canvas, if soaked in a solution of this salt (1 part to 60 or 80 of water), are better able to resist decay when exposed to the combined destrue- tive influence of air and moisture. MEDICINAL Uses oF MercuRY AND MERCURIALS. —Metallic mercury is used in medicine in a state of very fine division in the form of gray powder, blue y , mercurial ointment, and other preparations. t is also used as mercurous and mercuric oxides and salts. As with other metals, the mercurial preparations have a local action and an action after absorption into the blood. The intensity of the loéal action varies, however, with the indi- vidual preparation; the persalts being soluble in water, and hence capable of precipitating allumen at once, are very irritating, while the mercurous salts and uncombined mercury, being insoluble in water, exert an effect only in so far as they are dis- solved in the secretious. These differences in local action have a very great influence in de their applications in medicine. : Local y, the various ointments, liniments, and plasters are used as stimulants, astringents, anti- septics, and parasiticides, the persalts are used as antiseptic lotions, while the protosalts are little ge (seo ree except Calomel (q.v.) in powder. bsorption of mercurial preparations from _the intestinal canal or skin takes place very readily, and in an hour or Jess the mereury may be detected in most of the secretions. After absorption into the blood all the preparations have the same action. In minute doses they act as alteratives, improvi nutrition. In. larger doses, such as are inarily used, they also exert profound alterative effects; but care must be exercixed in their administration, otherwise symptoms of chronic poisoning are apt to ensue. These consist in excessive salivation, inflammation of the mouth and gums, and dys- pepsia, while in severer cases caries of nervous symptoms, a watery condition of the blood, albuminuria, cachexia, and other serious complications may occur, The mercurial p tions are given internally in syphilis, in serous inflammations, and in dropsy as diuretics. Certain of them, such as gray powder, blue pill, and calomel, are used as purgatives and as intestinal antiseptics, The doses of the different Prepaesane greatly, those of the persalts being very muc smaller than in the case of the other preparations. Some persons are peculiarly susceptible to the action of mercurials, and show symptoms of chrorie poisoning after very small amounts. With regard to acute mercurial poisoning, this is due to irritation of the intestinal canal, and is only seen with the soluble salts when taken in over- doses. The perchloride (corrosive sublimate) has been most uently employed for the purpose of poisoning. The symptoms come on immediately, with a burning pain in the throat and violent ons in the abdomen, with severe vomiting and purging. There is always a good deal of collapse. Albumen, in the form of white of egg, is the best antidote. Mercury, Doe's (Mercurialis), a genus of lants of the natural order Euphorbiacee. The Jommon ’s Mercury (M1. perennis) is very com- mon in woods and shady places in Britain. It has a perfectly simple stem, about a foot hi with rough ovate leaves, and axillary loose spikes of greenish flowers. It turns a glaucous black colour in drying, and the root contains two colour: ing substances, one blue and the other carmine: Its very poisonous, The mereury which some old writers mention as a potherb is not this plant, but — Mercury, or Wild Spinach (Chenoz podium bonus-Henricus). Annual ’s ef (M. annua) is a much rarer a ee an less poisonous. The leaves are ind eaten in Germany as spinach. A half-shrubby species (J/. tomentosa), found in the countries near the Medi- terranean, has enjoyed an extraordinary reputation from ancient times; the absurd belief mentioned by Pliny being still retained, that if a woman after conception drink the juice of the male plant she will give birth to a boy, and if of the female plant her offspring will be a girl. Mercy, Sisters or, See SisrerHoops, Mer de Glace, See ALps, GLACTERS, Meredith, GreorcE, novelist and poet, was born in Hampshire, 12th February 1828, and made his first appearance as a poet with ‘Chillianwallah’ in Chambers's Journal for July 1849. This was fol- lowed in 1851 by a little volume of Poems, and in MEREDITH MERIDA 141 1855 by The Ere of Sh : an Arabian Entertainment, a highly original tale, in burlesque imitation of the manner of the Eastern story-teller. Tt shows a rich and brilliant imagination, and abounds in of tender feeling as well as of boisterous humour, but the incidents are involved and the machinery complicated, and reading is also made diflicult by soaeleing suggestions of hidden meanings which constantly elude one’s p- In 1857 appeared Farina: a Legend of a short mo, reflecting the influence of German romance, which it partly imitates and partly parodies. The series of Mr Meredith’s greater and more characteristic works 7 in 1859 with The Ordeal-of Richard Feverel: A Hist ofa Father and a Son,a tragic romance, dealing with larger problems of education, especially in its ethical aspects. The novel of Evan Harrington, an ponies ceaiy of social ambitions, followed in 1861. M Love, and Poems of the English Roadside, with Poems and Ballads, was published in 1862, ‘ Modern Love’ being the title of a sequence of fifty sonnet-like poems which tell their story in a somewhat dark and fragmentary manner, but with great truth of observation and strength of pathos. Emilia in England (1864), now known as Sandra Belloni, has for its subject one of Meredith’s most fascinating and original characters ; it is con- tinned in Vittoria (1866), the scene of which is laid in Italy at the time of the political risings of 1848. In 1865 had appeared Rhoda Fleming, like Richard Feverel a tragedy; the romantic Adventures o, Harry Richmond followed in 1871. Beauchamp’s Career (1875) is perhaps the most ‘ectly con- structed of all the series. Zhe Eqoist (1879) is a searching and remorseless study of a angie aspect of refined selfishness. The Tragic Comedians (1881), originally published in the Fortnightly Review, is a somewhat close rendering of the well- known painful story of Lassalle’s tragic end, founded upon the reminiscences ‘of the Countess Racowitza. Diana of the Crossways (1885) is also based on actual history. Other novels are One of our (1891), Lord Ormont and his Aminta (1894), and The Amazing Marriage (1895). Mr Meredith, who was literary reader for Chapman & Hall for over thirty years, began to issue a revised edition of his novels in 1896. He is LL.D. ay, and one of the most invigorating and stimulative thinkers of his genera- tion, it can by no means be said that he is the most widely read. This distinction he has, that ‘among the crowd of persons of taste and under- pons ay who agree to crown Meredith a royal writer, his most resolute partisans are those of his own household—journalists, poets, and novelists, students of the art of fiction and practitioners of the noble English e.’ Among the elements his power may be enumerated his wide, accu- rate, and pathetic observation both of nature and of life, his inventive resource, his analytic and synthetic power, and his mastery of words. His descriptions of scenery are varied, vivid, and Il of ry, his delineations of phases of feel- especially of tender feeling, those of a r. Few writers have created so many char- acters of ideal beauty, who are at the same time 80 thoroughly human and marked by the strong- est individuality—real, breathing, talking person- tite, whom the reader feels ita joy to have : . Among the ‘defects of his qualities’ may be mentioned a certain intricacy of plot, or . rather perhaps want of clearness in working it out, arising from an exaggerated reticence ; also a fre- quent over-elaboration of style and strainedness of wit that fatigues rather than exhilarates. And, though he is never ‘sensational,’ there is often a certain disregard of probability in the situations he invents. It is believed that Mr Meredith is, for the present at least, more extensively read by men than by women; and this, if a fact, may perha; be soa accounted for by the purpose which he has so deliberately expressed, and so consistently eartied out, of bringing philosophy into the domain of fiction. Much of his writing deals more or less directly, in a serious manner, with the most import- ant problems of aegyey sociology, and ethics. It is in his poetry that his deepest views of life really find their directest and most elementary expres- sion. ‘There is a study by Le Gallienne, George Meredith: some Characteristics, with a biblio- graphy by John Lane (1890), Merganser (Mergus), a genus of birds of the family Anatide, having a long, rather slender, straight bill hooked at the tip and notched at the The genus embraces six species, nearly all inhabitants of the seas and coasts, and distributed over the northern regions of the Old and New World, and in Brazil and the Auckland Islands. The Goosander (q.v.) is the largest and best-known British species. The Red-breasted Merganser (J. serrator) is resident in Scotland, where it breeds not only on the coasts of Ross, Sutherland, and the Hebrides, where it is abundant, but also on inland lochs and rivers. Its migrations extend southward to the lakes of Algeria and to Egypt. The Hooded Merganser (M. cucullatus), a smaller species, is a very rare visitor of Britain. It is found in North America, from the St Lawrence to Alaska, where it migrates as far south as Mexico, Cuba, Bermudas, and the Carolinas. The Nun or Smew (M. albellus) is a smaller species, passin the summer in the northern parts of the Old an New World, and ranging in winter as far south as India. Another species (M. australis) has as yet been found only in the Auckland Islands. Mergui, a seaport of Burma, on an island in the Tenasserim River, 2 miles from its mouth, with a harbour admitting vessels drawing 18 feet of water. Its trade is worth altogether close upon £100,000 a year. Exports, rice, timber, dried fish ; imports, cotton s, silk, and tea. Pop. 9737. —The district of Mergui, 200 miles long by 40 wide, is the southernmost in Burma. Area, 7810 sq. m.; pop. about 60,000. Me Archipelago, a group of islands in the Gulf of Bengal, lying off the southern pro- vinces of Burma; they are mountainous, some rising to 3000 feet, of picturesque beauty, and sparsely inhabited by a race called the Selungs, who barter edible birds’-nests with the Burmese and Malays for rice and spirits. Caoutchone abounds. Snakes and tigers, rhinoceros, deer, &c. are plentiful. Merida (anc. Augusta Emerita), a decayed town of Spain, on the right bank of the Guadiana, 36 miles by rail E. of Badajoz. It is remarkable for its Roman remains, which include a bridge of 81 arches, 2575 feet long and 26 feet broad, erected by Trajan; the ruins of half a dozen temples, of an aqueduct, a circus, a theatre, a naumachia, a castle, and the Arch of Santiago, 44 feet high, built by Trajan. There is also an old Moorish lace. Merida was built in 23 B.c., and flourished in great splendour as the capital of Lusitania. In 713 it was taken by the Moors, who lost it to the Spaniards in 1229. Pop. 7390. Merida, (1) capital of the Mexican state of Yucatan, is situated on a barren plain, 25 miles 8. of Progreso, on the Gulf of Mexieo, and 95 miles 142 MERIDEN MERIMEE NE. of Campeachy. It occupies the site of a former native city, and was founded by the Spaniards in 1542. Merida has a cathedral and thirteen churches, a university, seminary, girls’ high school, and conservatory of music, an anti- quarian museum, a public library, hospital, alms- house, and foundling asylum. Its trade is not extensive. Pop. 32,000.—(2) A town of Venezuela, capital of Los Andes state, lies 5290 feet above sea-level, at the foot of the Sierra Nevada de Merida, and 70 miles S. of the lake of Maracaybo, Founded in 1558, it was almost wholly destroyed by earthquake in 1812 and 1894. It is the seat of a bishop, contains a university and several higher schools, and has manufactures of carpets and woollen and cotton stuffs. Pop. 10,7 Meriden, « city of Connecticut, 19 miles by rail N. by of New Haven, with a number of mannufactories of metal wares, cutlery, firearms, woollens, &c. Meriden contains the state reform school. Pop. (1880) 15,540; (1900) 24,296. Meridian ( Lat. mridies, ‘ mid-day’), the name given to the t circle of the celestial sphere which passes through both poles of the heavens, and also through the zenith and nadir of any place on the earth’s surface. Every place on the earth's surface has co uently its own meridian. The meridian is divided by the polar axis into two equal portions, which stretch from pole to pole, one on each side of the earth. It is mid-day at any place on the earth’s surface when the centre of the sun comes upon the meridian of that place ; at the same instant it is mid-day at all places under the same half of that meridian, and midnight at all places under the opposite half. All places under the same meridian have therefore the same longitude (see LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE, where the question of the First Meridian is discussed), Stars attain their —— altitude when they come upon the meri- dian ; the same thing is true approximately of the sun and planets; and as at this point the effect of refraction upon these bodies is at a minimum, and their apparent motion is also more uniform, astronomers prefer to make their observations when the body is on the meridian, The instruments used for this purpose are called meridian circles. See MURAL CIRCLE, Meridian Measurement.—Two stations, havin nearly the same longitude, are chosen; their latitude and longitude are accurately determined (the error of a second in latitude introduces a con- siderable error into the result), and the direction of the meridian to be measured ascertained ; then a base line is measured with the greatest accuracy, as an error here generally becomes increased at every subsequent step; and then, by Triangulation (see references at TRIANGLE), the length of the are of the meridian contained between the parallels of latitude of the two stations is ascertained. As the previously found latitudes of its two extremi- ties give the number of degrees it contains, the average length of a degree of this are can be at onee determined. This operation of meridian measurement has been performed at different times on a great many ares lying between 68° N. lat. and 38° S. lat., and the results show a steady though irregular increase in the length of the degree of latitude as the latitude increases, On the supposition that this law of increase holds to the poles, the length of every tenth degree of latitude in English feet is as follows : of wf of oe dl v 302.7 50° 864,862 wv 262 848 60" 365,454 20" 363,158 7 965.937 oe 3,041 a 866,252 “ 364,253 w 366,361 This result shows that the earth is not spherical, as in that case the length of at pee latitude would be alike, but of spheroidal form—its curva- ture becomes less as we go from the extremity of - greater or equatorial diameter to the pole. See ARTH. Meridian, Mt of Lauderdale county, Mississippi, 135 miles by rail N. by W. of M contains a foundry and machine-shop, a cotton factory, and manufactories of blinds and sashes, furniture, &c. Pop. (1900) 14,050. Mérimée, Prosper, a great French writer, was born at Paris, 28th September 1803, the son of a well-known painter. He was educated at the Collége Charlemagne, and tried law, but soon aban- doned it. He was in Spain during the revolution of 1830, and after his return became ai ed to the government, and held office successively in the ministry of Marine, of Commerce, and of the Interior, becoming finally Inspector of Historical Documents, in which capacity he visited the south and west of France, Auvergne, and Corsica. He had been i an intimate triend of Countess Montijo, mother of the Empress Eugénie, and con- sequently enjoyed the closest intimacy with the imperial family at the Tuileries, Compitgne, and Biarritz, yet without surrendering his independence of spirit and frankness of speech. Admitted to the Academy in 1844, he became a senator in 1853, and in 1858 president of the committee for is- ing the Bibliotheque Impériale. His last years were clouded by ill-health and melancholy, and the misfortunes of his country and the downfall of the imperial house hastened on his death, at Cannes, 23d September 1870. Mérimée began his career as a writer at twenty- two by an audacious literary espiéglerie, entitled Thédtre de Clara Gazul, a collection of Spanish lays of singular maturity, represented as trans- ated by Joseph L’Estrange, with his own portrait in female dress as frontispiece. A volume of pre- tended translations of Illyrian folk- an imaginary Hyacinthe Maglanoviteh, followed in 1827, under the title Guzla. His more important. works embrace novels and short stories, logical and historical dissertations, and travels, all of which display wide and exact learning, keen observation, strong intellectual grasp, grave irony and real humour, and withal a style t attains an exquisiteness of perfection rare even among the best French writers. Ever the refined and elegant scholar, he wrote, rather than affected to write, as a dilettante—‘le gentleman auteur’ as he was styled by his own countrymen. Of his more erudite works it may here be enough to name his Histoire de Don Pédre 1., Roi de Castille (1848; Eng. trans. 1849); Etudes sur 0 Histoire Romaine (1844); Les fava Démétrius (1852); Monuments historiques (1843); and Mélanges historiques et littéraires (1855). But his greatest work is his tales, about twenty in number, some of which are among the rarest ree gs of the story-teller’s art: Colomba, Mateo Falcone, 3 Venus @Ille, Lokis, Arséne Guillot, La Chambre Bleue, and L'Abbé Aubain, One of the most remarkable merits of some of these stories, as La Venus d’/lle and Lokis, is the dexterous manner in which an uncanny superstition is turned to artistic use. Mérimée’s character remains somewhat of an enigma, with its outward mask of cynicism, its inward capacity for the most tender and devoted friendship, its longing for the love of little children. In his constant struggle against impulse and enthusiasm he succeeded, but, as he himself says of Saint-Clair in the Vase Btrusque, the vietory - cost him dear. Few lives have been more solitary and unhappy than Mérimée’s, at once from a- MERINO MERLIN 143 paralysing distrust of himself and of others, and | cells. Meristem forms the tissue of embryo plants, the constitutional melancholy of the sceptic | and of apexes of stems and roots, to whom the world is only a series of incompre- | Werivale JOHN HERMAN, an English scholar rigger) 7 sage ane who a and translator, was born at ‘Exeter in 1779, the se eat alike. He was one of the few ndson of Samuel Merivale (1715-71) a worthy men who have drawn their unbelief from mother Erestytevian minister at Tavistock. He was sent and father alike. No great writer has left a| to gt John’s College, Cambridge, and was called more remarkable monument than the famous | ¢, the bar in 1805.’ He contributed largely to b @ une Inconnue vent Eng. trans., edited | Bland’s Collections Jrom the Greek Anthology y RH. Stoddard in Scribner's ‘ Bric-a-Brac (1813), and brought’ ont a second edition him- ccpantaten ce yelation of a heart throughout an | self iy lea, ee 1831 to his death in 1844 he acquaintance, first of love, then of friendship, held the office of Commissioner of Bankruptcy. extending over thirty years, Here we find no Works of no little merit were his Poems, Orig- selfish cynic, but a man gracious, affectionate, inal and Translated (1841), and Minor Poems delicate, tonched with poetry despite his scepti- of Schiller (1844).—CHARLES, son of the ett cism, faithful and loyal unto death—his last words ing (b. 1808, d. 1893), was educated at aera: were written but two hours before the end. The Haileybury, and St John’s College, Cambridge, unknown lady’s actual existence has been ques- | where he took his degree in 1830, and became in tion and she has been doubtfully identified due course fellow and tutor. He wie succesaivel with the Countess Lise Przedrzerska, sister of the select preacher at Cambridge (1838-40) and m4 Marquis de Noailles. What, professed to he her | Writebit (1839-41), Hulsean lecturer (1861), and letters in reply were published in 1888, but without Boyle lecturer (1864-65). From 1848 to 1869 atk explanation ae offered ; ty ar das trans- | rector of Lawford in Essex, he was chaplain to the ation of these followed in a volumes in 1889. | Speaker from 1863 to 1869. He was dean of Ely from Fe eoratin Space tpe R and the rene | 1869 ) till his death, 26th December 1803. His Fall ee A ; of the Roman Republic (1853) is a brilliant sketch, to rye (edited by pe Fagan, 2 vols, 1881), marred by its over-indulgence to imperialism, the full of lively gossip and clever criticism. sole fault of his admirably learned and eloquent See the Studies by Tamisier (Mars. 1875) and Haus- | History of the Romans under the Empire (7 vols. sonville (1888); also Tourneaux, Prosper Mérimée, ses | 1959 66 ). Later books are a serviceable General Portraits, ses Dessins, &e. (1879). History of Rome (1875), Early Church History Merino (Span.), an important breed of Sheep | (1879), and The Contrast between Pagan and (q-v.). See also Woon, Christian Society (1880).—Another son, HERMAN, ’ r, born in 1806, was educated at Harrow and Trinity 0 ’, with mat lng and eu of 9 College, Oslo elected Yeliow of Bali called 4 e ov 385 219 Bathe mond rep the N mes — Political Economy at Oxford in 1837, and, later, counties of Carnarvon and Denhi h, E. and 8, by | Permanent Under-secretary of State first for the Cardigan Bay. Bop (1801 Se Soy TSA oy | Cae tienen, India Tn 1850 he waa made (1891) 49. on. Clie ilesfashing Juin Leeigthe HERMAN CHARLES, born in 1839, has written @ sands akirt the coast, which at some distance out | Dumber of successful lays, including Forget-Me- to sea is by dangerous sandbanks. Inland, | “ot, The Butler and The Don, and The Master of the surface, although nowhere attaining such an | Zavenswood. Besides a novel, Faucit of Balliol altitude as that of Carnarvonshire, is rugged and | (1882; in its stage form, The Cynic), he has pub- monntainous in the extreme interspersed in places | lished The White Pilgrim and other Poems (1883), with picturesque valleys, lakes, and waterfalls, | 2nd other works, _ See the privately rinted Family Aran Mowdidy (2970 feet), Cader Idris (q.v., 2914), Memorials, compiled by Anna W. Merivale (1884), and Aran erseen & (2902) are the highest peaks;| Merle D’Aubigné, See D’Aupicne. Bala the largest lake; whilst of rivers the principal Merlin, the name of an ancient British prophet are the Dee, which flows north-east, and the and magician, who is supposed to have flourished Dovey and Mawddach, which reach the sea after a during the decline of the native British power in south-west course. The soil generally 1s poor, and | its contest with the Saxon invaders. The prophetic tracts are unfit for profitable cultivation, the | child Ambrosius first mentioned by Nennius in his total extent of land in ‘op in 1889 only amounting | Fstyria Britonum was confounded with Ambrosius to 160,817 acres, of which 128,021 acres were ™ | Aurelianus, the conqueror of Vortigern, and subse- | — ture. Great numbers of sheep are quently the resulting Merlin Emerys or Ambrosius | ‘fi regnnels and woollens to some extent | dae etree ey ine the Merlin called Silvestris _ manufactured, but the principal wealth of the or Caledonius. It is as the snbject of one of the ; finest arises from its oe oe eg Slate and cycle of Arthurian romances that Merlin’s name Limestone are largely quarried, much manganese | {c'°, of Arthurian Cambrian Merlin is said by ore is Peodeod, and from mines in the vicinity of | Geoffrey of Monmouth, in his Historia Britonum and Dolgelly and Bala 3890 oz. of old of the value | Pirq erlini, to have lived in the 5th century, to Of £13,227 were in 1889 obtained. Merioneth, have sprung from the intercourse of a demon with _ Which contains no municipal boroughs, is divided | , Welsh princess, to have been rescued from his _ into five hundreds, and thirty-three civil parishes, | malignant destiny by baptism, and to have dis- Partly in the diocese of Bangor, and partly in that played the ssion of miraculous powers from Of St Asaph. For jadicial purposes it is in the infancy. The adventures of Merlin were taken, ; North Wales circuit, Dolgelly being the assize with additions from Armorican and other sources, town, and it sends one representative to the Honse | from. the Latin of Geoffrey, and made popular in _ of Commons. The County Council numbers fifty- the French language by Robert Wace aeds Robert _ Six members, and the principal towns, other than | de Borron. Henry Lonelich’s English verse trans- | oe foregoing: are la, Barmouth, Corwen, lation is in the library of Corpus Christi College, estiniog, Harlech, and Towyn. Cambridge. The analysis of the romance of Mer- Meristem, the formative tissue of plants, is | lin in Ellis’s Specimens of Early English Metrical distinguished from the permanent tissues by the | Romances was made from the MS. in Lincoln’s Inn ; Power its cells have of dividing and forming new | Library. There is a MS. in the Advocates’ Library, 144 MERLIN MERSEY Edinburgh, and one in Bishop Perey’s folio MS, (printed in 1867). The prose romance is longer and more important than the metrical one. Merlin, en Prose du XIII" Siécle, was cgay f the Société des Anciens Textes Francais in 1886, and the Early English Text Society published under the editorship of the present writer in 1865-69 Merlin, or the Early History of King Arthur about 1450-60, printed from the MS. in the Cambridge University Library. Merlin is frequently alluded to by our older poets, especially by Spenser, and his gg? occupies a prominent position in Tennyson's /dylls of the King. A collection of prophecies attributed to Merlin ap- in French (Paris, 1498), in English (Lond. 529 and 1533), and in Latin ( Venice, 1554); and their existence is traceable at least as far back as the middle of the 14th century. The Strathelyde, or—if we may be allowed an_ expression which anticipates history—the Scottish Merlin, called Merlin the Wyllt, or Merlin Caledonius, is placed in the 6th century, and “as as a contemporary of St Kentigern, Bishop of Glasgow. His grave is still shown at Drummelzier on the Tweed, where, in attempting to escape across the river from a hand of hostile rustics, he was impaled on a hidden stake. A metrical life of him in Latin, extending to more than 1500 lines, professedly on Armoric materials, and incorrectly ascribed to Geoffrey of Monmouth, was published by the Roxburghe Club in 1833. His prophecies—pub- lished at Edinburgh in 1615—contain those aseribed to the Welsh Merlin. Merlin, See FAvcon. Mermaids and Mermen, in the popular folklore of Europe, a class of beings more or less like men, living in the sea, but in some cireum- stances capable of social relationships with men and women, The typical mermaid has the head and body of a lovely woman to the waist, ending in the tail of a fish with fins and scales. She has long and beautiful hair, and is often seen above the surface of the water, combing it with one hand while in the other she holds a mirror. She often discloses what is abont to happen, and not sellom gives supernatural knowledge and powers toa favoured mortal—a thing in perfect keeping with primitive notions of sorcery, which easily attributed exceptional Fede to beautiful women, as Lilith and Circe. Again, she sometimes exer- cises a special guardianship over an individual, and avenges his wrongs; but her relation to man most often brings with it disaster. There are man stories of mermaids who have fallen in love with men, or been detained through the possession of the skin which they had stripped to dance on the shore, and who have been faithful wives and mothers until they found an opportunity to return to the sea. And there are examples of the converse ease of a mermaid falling in love with a man and enticing him to go and live with her under the sea, as well as of a merman bewitching and carrying off a mortal maiden. Such are the principal forms of mermaid stories found everywhere, with more or less artistic elabo- ration. The Danish Hafmand or Maremind, the Irish merrow or merruach, the Breton Marie- Morgan, the Russian rusalka ov stream-fairy and vodyany or age i rte some forms of the Teutonic nizxies, and the enchanting Sirens of classical mythology have all close affinities with each other in the dangers they bring to men, the beauty and joyousness of their lives, and yet the gloom of sadness that overhangs them. In their malignant aspect they touch the general doctrine of Demonology (q.v.), and may be explained on an animistic theory of its origin. To the beauty of the conception and the elaborations of which it is ble in the popular imagination we owe some of the loveliest of our folk-tales as well as such delightful artistic tales as Undine and many fine | poems of the ages of literary culture. One of the most detailed stories of this class is that of Melusine (q.v.). The mermaid had a firm hold of the imagi- nation of our fathers, and, besides the witness of heraldry, we have stories supported by excellent evidence of their appearance and capture. One caught at Edam in 1403 was carried to Haarlem and kept there many years, She learned to spin and showed a becoming reverence for the cross. See Baring-Gould’s Popular Myths of the Middle Ages, and Sébillot’s Contes des Marins (1882). Mermaid’s Purse, the popular name of the egy-case of the skate (or of Phe other cartilag- inous fish), which is often cast up empty on the shore.—Mermaid’s Gloves is a very common British sponge, Chalina oculata. Merodach. See Bany.onta, Vol. I. p. 687. Meroé. See Erniopta. Meropidie. See BEE-EATER. Merovin or MERWINGS, the first d of Frankish’kings in Gaul. The name is deri from Merwig or Merovesk, king of the western or Salian Franks from 448 to 457. His n Clovis (q.v.) established the fortunes of the vie which gave way to the Carlovingians (q.v.) in 7 See FRANCE, FRANKS. Merrimac, a river rising among the White Mountains of New we flowing south into Massachusetts, and falling into the Atlantic near Newburyport, after a course of 150 miles. It has numerous falls, affording immense water-power. The principal manufacturing towns on its ks are Manchester, Nashua, and Concord in New Hampshire, and Lowell and Lawrence in Massachusetts. It is navigable to Haverhill. Merseburg, 2 town of Prussian Saxony, on the Saale, 8 miles 8. of Halle. Its Domkirche is a four-towered pile, with Romanesque choir (1042), transept (circa 1274), and 16th-century nave—the whole restored in 1884-86. The organ (1666) has 4000 pipes; and there is a very early bronze efligy in low relief of Rudolph of Swabia, who here was defeated and slain by Henry IV. in 1080. The castle, a picturesque edifice, mostly of the 15th century, was once the bishop's palace, and afterwards (1656- 1738) the residence of the dukes of a Merseburg. _ Beer, iron, per, &c. are manu- factured. Pop. (1875) 13,664; (1890) 17,669. Henry the Fowler in 934 gained his victory over the Hungarians near Merseburg, which suffered much in the Peasants’ War and in the Thirty Years’ War. Mersenne, MArrn, a constant friend of Des- cartes, was born in 1588, and died at Paris in 1648. He was a fellow-student of Descartes at the Jesuit college of La Fléche, and took the habit of a Minim Friar in 1611; his life thereafter was spent in study, teaching in convent-schools, and travel. He did valiant battle with numerous clerical con. troversialists on behalf of the orthodoxy of the philosophy of Descartes, and wrote rously against atheists and other unbelievers. His pro- found knowledge of mathematics is seen in a number of books, and in his Harmonie Universelle ( cin an invaluable contribution to the science of music, Mersey, an important river of England, separ- ates, in ie lower erat the soecitian of Chester and Lancaster, and has its origin in the junction of the Etherow and Goyt, on the borders of Derby- shire, east of Stockport. It flows in a west- south-west direction, and is joined on the right MERTHYR-TYDVIL MESEMBRYACEZ 145 the Irwell 6 miles below Manchester, from w it was made navigable to Liverpool for 1 vessels in the year 1720, and has had great influence on the subsequent pr of the two towns. Besides the Irwell the chief affluents are the Bollin and the Weaver from Cheshire. At its —. with the Weaver the Mersey expands to a wide estuary which forms the Liverpool channel. The estuary is about 16 miles lon and from 1 to 3 miles broad ; opposite glen ose it is a mile and a quarter in width, with a considerable depth at low-water. In this estuary on the Cheshire side is the entrance to tle Man- chester Ship-canal. The estuary is much obstructed by sandbanks, but the excellent system of pilo in practice, combined with the skilful and admirable tonstruction of the sea-walls, renders the naviga- tion comparatively secure. Entire length, with the es . 70 miles. A tunnel connecting Liver- pool and Birkenhead by railway carried beneath the estuary has been in successful operation since January 20, 1886. The alluvial meadows on the banks of the Mersey are famous for their fertility, and in recent years, by embanking the river at ts where it overflowed after heavy rains, many uds of acres of the most valuable land in the two counties have been reclaimed. The basin of the Mersey extends over an area of 1706 sq. m., which includes the larger portion of Lan- eashire Cheshire. Merthyr-Tydvil or Tydfil (so called from the martyrdom here of a Welsh princess of that name), a parliamentary borough and market-town of South Wales, on the confines of the counties of Glamorgan and Brecknock, 24 miles N. by W. of Cardiff, its port, and 178 W. of London. Pop. (1801) 7705 ; (1891) 58,080, Surrounded by lofty and bleak hills, the town stands on the banks of the river Taff, and is partly built on slag founda- tions, the refuse of mines in the vicinity. Its streets are for the most part narrow and irregu- larly built, and the public buildings of little archi- tectural interest, but of late years—since the formation of a Local Board of Health in 1850— great improvements have been effected in the widening of thoroughfares, the supply of pure water, and the construction of effective sewage- works : previously all sanitary arrangements were entirely sk hte 8 and as a result epidemics of great severity were of uent occurrence, The civil government of the town (which extends over the ay districts of Dowlais and Penydarran ) is vested in a high constable, who is elected annu- ally. The sole industries, upon which the whole Eeeetion is more or less directly dependent, from the numerous collieries and iron anc steel works in the vicinity; Merthyr being the centre of the Glamorganshire coalfield, and as such having excellent railway communication with all With Aberdare it is noted for the excellence of its steam coal, and the quantity of iron and steel annually turned out from the great works of Dowlais, rthfa, and Plymouth is enormous, In 1816, and again in 1831, the town was thie scene of severe riots, on the latter occasion the disturb- ance not being quelled by the military without a loss of twenty-three lives. For the parlia- mentary borough (1867), which embraces Aberdare and two other outlying districts, and in 1891 had a ation of 104,008, two members are returned. erton, Lower, a vill of Surrey, 10 miles ow of London by rail, stands on the Wandle, and has several factories. Only a fragment remains of the Augustinian priory (1115) in which the parlia- ment met which passed, in 1235, the Statute of (see LeGITIMATION). Here were educated pene, Becket and Walter de Merton, Bishop of Rochester and Chancellor, who in 1264 founded Merton College, at Oxford. The church is mainly of the same date as the priory. Pop. of parish, Meru, in Hindu Mythology, a fabulous moun- tain in the centre of the world, 80,000 leagues high, It is the most sacred of all mythical mountains, and the abode of Vishnu. Mery, an oasis of Turkestan, lying between Bokhara and the north-eastern corner of Persia, 512 miles by rail (opened in July 1886) from the Caspian and 118 from the Oxus. The oasis con- sists of a district 60 miles long by 40 broad, watered by the river Murghab, grows wheat, sugar grass, cotton, and silk, has a hot, oxy ciueste; and is inhabited by half a million (O'Donovan; the Russians say less than a quarter million) Tekke Turkomans. The le live scattered over the country. But there is an old citadel, Kaushid Khan Kala, and adjoining it a new Russian fort rrisoned by nearly 3000 men; on the opposite sank of the Murghab a new Russian town is grow- ing up, several Armenian merchants having settled on the spot and monopolised the trade, worth about £150, a year. The men are clever workers in silver, and breed horses, camels, and sheep; the women weave silk and make carpets. Merv or Mourn is mentioned in the Zend Avesta. There Alexander the Great built a town. The oasis was held successively by the Parthians and the Arabs, who made the city of Merv capital of Khorassan. It was the seat of a Nestorian archbishop in the 5th century, and of a Greek archbishop in the 14th; and in the 8th it was the headquarters of Mokanna (q.v.), the ‘ Veiled Prophet of Khorassan.’ Under the Seljuk Turks Merv enjoyed its period of greatest splendour, especially under Sultan ae Arslan. It began to fall into ruin after being taken and sacked by the Mongols in 1221. From the Uzbegs it passed: in 1510 to the Persians, who lost it in 1787 to the emir of Bokhara. In 1856 the Turkomans made themselves masters of the oasis ; but they in turn submitted to the Russians in 1883, who Yuilt the railway from the Caspian to the Oxus, passing through the oasis. ery occupies an important strategic position at the intersection of the routes Bokliara-Meshhed and Khiva-Herat. See Marvin, Merv (1880); O'Donovan, Merv Oasis (2 vols. 18"2); Lansdell, Russian Central Asia (1885), and Russians at Merv and Herat (1883). Méryon, CHARLES, etcher, was born at Paris, the son of an English physician, in 1821, and died insane at Charenton Asylum, 13th February 1868. His sombre and imaginative etchings of streets and buildings in Paris are highly esteemed by con- noisseurs, oneal the ‘Abside de Notre Dame,’ ‘Rue des Mauvais Garcons,’ and ‘Stryge.’ See Wedmore in Nineteenth Century (1878) and Art Journal (1881), and Burty’s monograph (1879). M a, a town in Southern Italy, 12 miles SW. of Brindisi, grows good olive-oil. Pop. 9601. Mesembryacew, or Ficomex, a natural order of calycifloral dicotyledonous plants, com- prising succulent shrubs, herbaceous perennials, and annuals with opposite leaves, Im many species the latter are of curious and fantastic shape, especially in those of the typical genus Mesembry- anthemum. The order contains sixteen genera and over 400 species, the larger number of the latter belonging to Mesembryanthemum. They are inhabitants of warm regions chiefly, most of them being found at the Cape of Good Hope and in the South Sea Islands. The typical genus is also the most important in regard to utility and beanty. It furnishes the Ice Plant (q.v.) of ovr gardens, and many other beautiful and curiovs 146 MESENTERY MESOPOTAMIA species are to be met with in our greenhouses. Jf. nodifiorum is employed in the manufacture of Morocco leather, and furnishes abundance of alkali. The Kou of the Hottentots is M. emar- cidum, the roots, stems, and leaves of which they oe er none and sitgg las ther, and cme erment, for the purpose of chewing to allay thirst. If chewed Docctiatshs after fermentation it ix narcotic and intoxicating. It is the Canna Root of the Cape colonists. The Hottentot’s Fig (M. edule) is abundant on the sandy plains of the Cape of Good Hope, and the fruit is eaten when ripe. The leaves are eaten also when young and fresh, and when somewhat older are pickled in vinegar. The juice of the plant has some reputa- tion as a cure for dysentery and thrush in children, and as an external application for burns. The fruit of M. eguilaterale is named Pigs’-faces in Australia, and is eaten by the natives; that of J/. genicultiflorum is ground into flour in Africa and made into bread, as is that of the Ice Plant. The Flower of Crete is the seed-vessel of M. tripolium, which in the rainy season expands in the form of a star, allowing the seeds to escape. The name should be spelled Mesembriacese, as it is from the Gr. mesémbria, ‘ mid-day,’ because the flowers bloom usually at mid-day. Mesentery (Gr. meson, ‘middle;’ enteron, ‘the intestine’) is the broad fold of peritoneum (the great serous membrane of the ne which attaches the intestines (strictly the smal intestine; for special names have given to the corresponding structure in connection with the different parts of the large intestine) posteriorly to the vertebral column. It serves to retain the intestines in their place, while it at the same time allows the necessary amount of movement, and it contains between its layers the blood-vessels anil nerves which pass to them, the lacteal vessels, and mesenteric glands. These glands are 100 to 150 in number, and are about the size of an almond, They exert an organising action on the contents of the lacteals, the chyle being more abundant in fibrine and in corpuscles after it has passed through them. The only disease of any importance affect- ing these glands is Tubercle (q.v.), which, when extensively developed in them, is sometimes called tahes mesenterica, Meshhed (‘the place of martyrdom,’ also re Meshed and Mashhad), the princi city north-eastern Persia, the capital of Khor- assan, and the centre of important trade routes. The city stands on a tributary of the Hari- Rud, miles E. by N. from Teheran and 200 NW. of Herat, and has a beautiful appear- ance when seen from a distance. Above the walls, which are of great circuit, shine the gilded dome and minarets of one of the most splen- did mosques of the East, that built above the tomb of Imam Riza, a follower of Ali, and the eighth imam of the Shiite sect. Meshhed is the sacred city of the Shiites, and is held in as much veneration by them as Mecea is by the Sunnite Moslems ; it is visited every year by nearly 100,000 pilgrims. The city is bisected by a wide tree- shaded street, down the middle of which flows a muddy current between low stone walls, There is another handsome mosque, and several colleges and caravanserais, The people make excellent felt-rugs, carpets, swords, turquoise jewellery, velvet, and cotton and silk goods. Opium (£37,200), woollens and cottons, dried fruits, turquoises (£17,200) are exported to Russia, India, and Afghanistan, to the total value of £169,000. The imports consist of textiles, sugar, &c. from Russia (£110,400), textiles, &c. from Britain (£84,300), tea (£142,850), &c. from India (total, £184,600), and miscellaneous cong from Afghanistan (£17,300) and from Turke rauscaspian Railway vid Merv is giving Russia the dominance in trade wit! xed population is about 50,000. Owing to its elevated situation (3055 feet), the city has a cold climate in winter; the summer temperature ranges from 76° to 92° F. Close by are the ruins of Tus, the old capital of Khorassan, where celebrated Firdansi, Haroun-al-Raschid, and the Imam were buried. See O'Donovan, Merv Oasis (1882), and J. Bassett, Persia (1886). Meskoutin, or HAMMAM MeEskouTIN (‘the Accursed Baths’), a place in Algeria, 48 miles (77 by rail) E. by N. of Constantine, with remark- able hot baths (203° F.), known to the Romans as, Aque Tibilitine. They and the adic ferrugin- ous and sulphureous springs (170°) are still used medicinally. The incrustations of carbonate of lime and clouds of steam, &e. give the region a very singular appearance. Mesmer, FRrreprich ANTON or FRANZ, the founder of the doctrine of Animal Magnetism (9-v-), was born near Constance, 23d May 1734. e was bred for the priesthood at Dillingen and Ingolstadt, but took up the study of medicine at Vienna, and took his doctor’s degree in 1766 with — a treatise De planetarum influxu. About 1772 he began with a Jesuit, Hell, to investigate the cura- tive powers of the magnet, and was led to adopt the opinion that there exists a power, similar magnetism, which exercises an extraordinary influ- ence on the human body. This he called animal magnetism, and published an account of his dis- covery, and of its medicinal value, in 1775. In 1778 he went to Paris, where he created a great sensation. His system obtained the mes of members of the medical profession, as well as of others ; but he refused an offer of an annual pension of 20,000 livres (about £800) to reveal his secret; and this, combined with other circumstances, gave rise to suspicion, and induced the government in 1785 to appoint a commission, com of physicians and scientists (Bailly, Franklin, Lavoisier, &e.), whose report was unfavourable to him. He now fell into disrepute, and, after a visit to England, retired to Meersburg, in Switzerland, where he _— the rest_of his life in complete obscurity. e died 5th March 1815. See his Life by J. Kerner (Frankf. 1856), and P. Anderson Graham's Mesmer the Magnetiser (1890). Mesoderm, See Empryovocy. Mesolongion, See MissoLoncut. Mesopotamia (‘between the rivers’), the district between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, extending from the foot of the Armenian motn- tains south-eastwards to near the neighbourhood of Bagdad. The name is the Greek equivalent of the old Aramaic (Syrian) Aram-Naharaim, and became current after Alexander's Asiatic con- quests ; the Arabs call the district El-Jezira (‘the island’). It has an area of about 55,000 sq. m. ; the surface is level and falls from an altitude of 1100 feet in the north-west to 160 feet in the south- east, where the alluvial region of Babylonia (Irak ins. The soil is sandy, but, when well wate: or, as it was in ancient times, well irrigated, it develops extraordinary fertility. Yet since the Turks (Seljuks) made themselves masters of the region (1515) it has fallen more and more a prey to barrenness and neglect. Having been in the possession successively of the Assyrians, Baby- onians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Turks, and many a time and oft the battle-ground between the armies of these mighty empires, its records are full of stirring events and changes and vicissitudes. Amongst the cities of MESOZOA MESSAGERIES MARITIMES 147 historie fame may be quoted Harran, Serug (Sernj), Apamea, Edessa, Nisibis, Nicephorium ( ) it (Is), Mardin, Mosul (Nineveh), Amid (Diarbekr), and Thapsacus. In_ biblical times this ion was inhabited by prosperous Aramzean ulturists. At the present time the population consists chiefly of semi-nomad Arabs and Kurds, who keep herds of camels, sheep, and goats, and grow wheat, barley, rice, millet, sesamum, besides cotton, tobacco, safflower, hemp, cucumbers, melons, and other fruits. There is little timber on the plains. Wild hogs, jackals, hyenas, foxes, and cheetahs, antelopes and gazelles, are common ; but lions and wild asses, so numerous in antiquity, are now scarce. In summer excessive heat (up to 122° F.) prevails, whilst the winter is com vely cool—the thermometer may go down tol’ F. A hie f summary of the work of explor- ing ancient sites, and of sites still to be excavated, is given in the Academy, 12th June 1886. See art- icles on empires and towns mentioned above; also TiGRIS, EUPHRATES, and works quoted there. Mesozoa, a term applied by Van Beneden to a number of extremely simple animal parasites, found in enuttle-fishes, brittle-stars, and some worms. Their cells are in two layers, the inner forming reproductive elements; they have no mouth or gut, and are sometimes — like the larval forms (planula) of some jelly-tish and other stinging animals. The name refers to their ps median position between the single- Protozoa and the many-celled Metazoa. See DicYEMID. Mesozoic (Gr., ‘middle-life’), a term introduced by Professor Phillips to designate the group of sectogienl systems, the fossil remains of which iffer equally from those of the Palwozoic (‘ancient- life’) and Cainozoic (‘newer-life’) eras. It is syn- onynious with the term Secondary, and includes the T ic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous systems. Mess (Fr. mets, Old Fr. mes, Ital. messo, ‘a dish,’ missum, ‘sent,’ or ‘served up’) original] signified a dish or portion of food. In the British army and navy the men are divided into ‘ messes’ of whatever number is most convenient for taking ir meals together. Officers and sergeants also have their ‘ messes,’ which, in addition to being ‘common rooms’ in which they take their meals, are much of the nature of clubs, having smoking, billiard, and reading rooms attached to them, and often libraries. In the army each man, unless married, or for other reasons allowed to live out of mess, pays a daily rate of 5d. a day to his mess, which is managed by a non-commissioned officer under the su paper of an officer. oe — is — v w groceries, vegetables, puddings, an plates and mugs. A knife, fork, and spoon is rb of his kit which he must always have with im. His rations (? lb. of meat, including bone, and 1 Jb. of bread per day) are given him free, but are drawn in bulk for the whole mess, the meat rations being cooked together and only distributed at dinner, which is eaten in the barrack-room where ae Mae members of the mess live. Tea and breakfast are similarly served. The men’s wash- ing is also managed by messes, and charged in the monthly mess accounts. One of the mess is told off as cook each day. He cleans the room, sets the table, and carries up and divides the dinner, but the actual cooking is done by trained cooks. Messes are by one of them- selves under a committee of se ts supervised by an officer, the adjutant if possible. There is a small entrance fee (usually three days’ pay) and a monthly subscription for newspapers, &c. Some furniture is provided by government, but kitchen and table requisites, carpets, pictures, &c. are purchased out of the mess funds, oii Messes ave very similar, but on a larger seale. Every officer on joining is charged an entrance fee of thirty days’ pay towards the main- tenance of the mess, and thirty days’ difference of pay on promotion. Unless married or ially exempt, he must be a ‘ dining’ member of the mess of his regiment—i.e. he pays the regulated price for his dinner whether he eats it or not; other meals, as well as wine, cigars, &c., are only charged if taken. All officers also pe, a monthly subserip- tion of two-thirds of a day’s pay for single, and half that amount for Aas EA 9 officers, towards keeping up the mess establishment, such as furni- ture, liveries, wages of servants, table-linen, &c. The only assistance received from government is £25 a year for each troop, battery, or company connected with the mess; but this 1s only at home and in some colonies. This sum was originally intended to allow each officer a glass of wine a day, but may be applied towards reducing the general expenses of the mess. The affairs of the mess are managed by a committee of officers presided over by the senior member. The usual cost of the meals is 2s. 4d. for dinner, without wine, 1s. for lunch, and Is. for breakfast. The bills are paid monthly, and will generally amount to some £7 or £8, without wine, for each officer. In the British navy there are in all ships as a rule, except in the smaller ones, four messes for officers: the ward-room, the gun-room, the engineers’ mess, and the warrant-oflicers’ mess. The ward-room includes all officers, below the captain (who messes by himself), who are above the rank of sub-lieutenant. The gun-room com- prises the sub-lieutenants, midshipmen, cadets, junior assistant-paymasters, and clerks; the engineers’ mess, all engineers not entitled to mess in the ward-room ; the warrant-officers’ mess, the gunner, boatswain, and carpenter. In troopships there is one general mess for all officers, naval and military, ineluding the captain of the ship. The system of having one general mess has been tried in other ships, but it has been found impossible so far to seraogt for a mess-place suf- ficiently large to allow of all the officers sitting down to their meals together. The separate mess-place for the engineer officers is, however, being gradually done away with, those engineers not entitled to mess in the ward-room messing in the gun-room, Among the ship’s companies the chief petty-officers, first-class petty-officers, and the engine-room artificers have respectively their own mess-places, while the rest of the crew are divided off into messes, according to their numbers, the marines and stokers forming messes by themselves, Flag-oflicers and officers in com- mand of ships can draw all their plate, glass, china, and linen from the dockyard, paying the Admiralty a poroe for the use of it. The officers of the other messes are supplied on os with a complete set of mess-traps, linen, &c. free of charge, which they have afterwards to keep up at their own expense. All officers and men, admiral and second-class boy alike, are entitled to the same daily rations. Officers, however, are not com- pelled to take up their rations, but can take up as much or as little of it as they please, receiving instead a money allowance, which is paid into the mess-fund. Tle men, however, must take up two- thirds of their rations, but they can receive money in lieu of the remaining third. Rum is no longer served out to the officers, but the men still con- tinue to receive their half-gill. Messageries Maritimes, or in full, ‘La Compagnie des Services Maritimes des Messag- eries,’ a great French shipping company of Mar- 148 MESSALINA METALLURGY seilles, its headquarters, trading with the Levant and Black Sea, with eastern Asia and Australia, by way of the Suez Canal, and with Spain and Algiers, Messalina, VALERIA, the danghter of Marcus Valerius Messala Barbatus, and wife of the Roman emperor Claudius, a woman infamous for her avarice, her lust, and her atrocious cruelty. Taking advantage of the weakness and stupidity of the emperor, she played the harlot without restraint, penderel | who murmured at her gilded shame, The best blood of Rome flowed at her pleasure: among her victims were the daughters of Germanicus and Drusus, Justus Catonius, M. Vinicius, Valerius Asiaticus, and her confederate Polybius. During a temporary absence of the emperor she went so far in open shamelessness as icly to marry C. Silius, one of her favourites. The blinded emperor's eyes were at last opened by his freedman Narcissus, and he was persuaded to ry orders for her execution. She was put to leath by Euodus, a tribune of the guards, in the gardens of Lucullus, 48 A.D. Messapians. See Aputa, INSCRIPTIONS. Messengers, Ktnxo’s (QUEEN’s), officers em- ployed by secretaries of state to convey valuable cad confidential despatches at home and abroad. Messenia, in ancient Greece, the western of the three peninsulas that project southwards from the Peloponnesus, was bounded on the E. by Laconia, and on the N. by Arcadia and Elis. It was com- posed chiefly of fertile plains, separated by moun- tain-chains and watered by the Pamisus and other streams, and yielded abundant corn and wine. The original Pelasgic inhabitants were conquered by the Dorians, but soon absorbed their conquerers and rose to great prosperity. This excited the envy of the Spartans, who waged two long wars (743-724 and 685-668) on ag the brave Mes- senians, Most of those who survived the second war em to Sicily, where they took possession of Zancle, and chan its name to Messana, the present Messina. Those who submitted to Sparta were made helots ; but they revolted and waged a third war of ten years’ duration (from 464). The survivors settled in Naupaktos. After the battle of Leuctra 1S) Epaminondas invited the descend- ants of the Messenians back to Greece, and they joyfully responded to his invitation, Their inde- pendence continned till the Roman conquest in 146 B.C. Messenia is the name of a nomarchy of the modern kingdom of Greece. Messiah (Heb. Mashiach, equivalent to the Greek Christos, ‘the Anointed’) designates, in the Old Testament, the great Deliverer and Saviour, whom the Jews expected to be sent by God, not only to restore their country to the power and splendour which it exhibited in the days of David, bat even, by compelling the Gentiles to acknow- ledge the supremacy of the theocratic people, to taise it to the summit of universal dominion. See Bieter, Vol. LL p. 118; and for the New Testament Messiah, see articles BipLe (p. 123), Curist, and Jesus Curist. See also Jews, and MAHDI. Messina, the second city of Sicily, stands on the western shore of the straits of the same name, 110 miles E. by N. of Palermo and 195 SSE. of Naples. The city occupies a narrow strip of coast between the harbour and the hills behind; the opposite or eastern side of the harbour is formed by a sickle-shaped tongue of rock, that only leaves & narrow entrance on the north. Although a ve ancient city, Messina few antique bnild- ings or remains. ‘The destructive hands of enemies, and the still more destructive ney of earth- quakes, are zesponsible for this, The greater part of the city was laid out, regularly, with handsome houses, pfter the earthquake vf 1783. The cathe- dral was begun by Count Roger the Norman in 1098, but has been almost wholly rebuilt since then, This and the churches of St Gregory and St Niecolo are adorned with magnificent mosaics. The cathe- dral has alsoa high-altar and baldacchino, anda venersibel Mieatane in a reputed letter of the Virgin to the townsmen. The citadel was built by Charles IL. of Spain im 1680, the anes Castle in 1540, and another castle in 1547-57. hand- some theatre, the palaces, and official buildings are for the most modern. There are here a university, founded in 1549, with fifty teachers and two hundred students, a college of the fine arts, an academy of the sciences and arts, scientific collections, and technical schools. Messina is an archbishop’s see. The industry is confined chiefly to muslin, linen, and silk goods, the working of coral, and the preparation of fruit essences, harbour, which is very deep and well protected, is — emeey hy some 3370 bao: of 1,277,000 tons burden, bringing imports (wheat, cottons, flour, hides, coals, ‘ined fish, woollens, iron, &e.) to the annual value of £1,094,280. The pool i embracing principally fruits and their manufactu roduets, such as wine, essences, olive-oil, seed re,, average £1,264,720 annually. More than the shipping is Italian, and about one-third British. Pop. (1881) of the city 78,438, and of the com- mune, 126,497 (1896, 146,400). Founded in 732 B.c. by the people of Cum, the place was first called cle (i.e. a sickle), and throngh the commercial enterprise of its ple rapidly grew in prosperity. In 495 Anaxilas of 1egium seized the town and changed its name to Messana isons The Carthaginians con- nered it an asap rs it in 396, and in 288 it ell into the hands of the Mamertines, who changed its name to Mamertina. The in al quarrels of these people gave occasion to the out- break of the Punic war between Carthage and Rome, on the conclusion of which (241 B.C.) the city became Roman, and in due time 1 to the Eastern Empire. The Saracens took the city in the 9th century, and were only expelled in the llth century by the Normans. Here the Sicilian Vespers’ massacre raged in 1282, and from that year down to 1713 Messina belonged to Spain. he ple revolted in 1671 and were backed up by resem but were reduced to submission in 1678, and at the same time deprived of their privileges of self-government. Then in 1743 the plague, and forty years later an earthquake, came © to complete the ruin of the city. It was, more- over, bombarded by the Neapolitans in 1848, and in 1861 it was the last place in Sicily to yield to the Sardinian (Italian) troo The province of Messina has an area of 1 Sq. m., and a pop. (1881) of 460,924 and (1894) 518,430. Messina, Strait or (Lat. Mamertinum tum, or Fretum Siculum), separates Italy im. Sicily, is 24 miles in length, and varies from 23 to 14 miles in breadth. Since 1879 a scheme for making a railway tunnel under the strait has been under discussion, but as yet it has come to no practical result. See ScyLLA AND CHARYBDIS. Metabolism, a general term for the chemical changes of living matter. See FuNcTION, PHysI- OLOGY, PROTOPLASM, Metacentre, See Hyprostatics. Metallurgy. A brief account will be given here of ancient metallurgy and of that department of modern metallurgy relating to the mechanical treatment of ores, For the specific treatment of the ores of copper, gold, iron, silver, tin, zine, &e., see the articles on ase metals, : METALLURGY 149 Ancient Metallurgy.—From an ethnological point of view one of the most interesting questions con- nected with the origin of the industrial arts is when, and under what circumstances, man first began to work metals by softening or melting them by means of a high heat. The art of my rege” ores was prob- ably discovered by observing the effect of a big fire on some rich ore that happened to be in the way. Gold is always found native, and silver and mel ep sometimes. ient Egyptians worked in gold, silver, and bronze with a degree of skill that could only have been reached by gradual steps extending over thousands of years. the notes to his edition of Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, Dr Birch says that it is uncertain whether metallic tin was known to them, as Bronze (q.v.) may have been made by the use of tin ore along with copper. He also states that the question of the use of iron among them has been red doubtful by the few specimens of that metal found in the monuments and sepulchres. — examples, however, have — — with, though only in one case apparently is the approx- imate age of the object poopy It is iron 54 in a bronze statue of the time of the Ramesids. In India and some other parts of Asia malleable iron is made directly from rich ores in furnaces scarcely bigger than chimney-cans, by a process in use from time immemorial ; and by a similar process savages in ty Lagpi of Africa : anes iron. It is _— posed some archeologists that most parts 0 Africa directly from the stone to the iron but there seems to be evidence that in some articles of the copper of the country has been long practised yo army tribes. popes fe remains found in the lake-dwellin: of cen - Europe an sae for melting metals, ingots tin, n one crucible traces of raioige. Bronze implements are abund- ant, but the considerable number of copper hatchets which have now been discovered has raised the question as to whether in prehistoric times a copper age has not ed those of bronze and iron. Copper is more ly smelted than iron; and bronze, being an alloy of copper and tin, must somewhere have in its application to hatchets or other by unalloyed copper, although this may not have been the case in Europe. Some copper and other implements of this metal, are the only evidence we have that the ancient Mexicans made any use of metal tools; though their artilicers were skilled in casting gold and silver, and in hammered work and chasing, and tin as well as sopecr ore was mined, and the two combined as ze. The early tribes inhabiting ments of the by hammering it cold, in some it is believed, with stone implements. Small chisels, rings, idols, and other objects made of gold and of ancient date, some of which are of thin, beaten plates, have been obtained in the re- publie-d Galonshin, Bouth America. Silver articles of a rude archaic character to be rare. It is at that the stg ed these native metals in in n w the certaii ited areas preceded the art of aonenieins any metal by heake See Lubbock’s Prehistoric Times, Munro’s Lake-dwell- ings of Europe, Nadaillac’s Prehistoric America, and in the volumes of Contributions to Know- ledge by the Smithsonian Institution. Modern Metalkurgy.—As now understood this is aaa of ———s — oom Pet ct ‘land ons are partly, mechanica partly chem- ical. Those which depend principally on eal. teasticees Soe taee retaies Lave ratartece chiefly to the roasting and smelting of ores, and are described under the heads of the different metals. But there are certain preliminary operations of a mechanical kind which metallic ores undergo, such as crushing, jigging, washing, &c., which we shall deseribe here, as they are essentially the same for the ores of lead, copper, tin, zinc, and indeed most of the metals. Until comparatively recent times ore, or rather ore-gangue, as it came from the mine was in the first instance broken by hammers before being on to crushing-rollers or stamps to be red to smaller pieces or grains. In the year 1858 Mr E. W. Blake of New Haven, Connecticut, invented a stone or ore crusher which has become so extensively used that it has, except in special cases, superseded hand-labour for breaking up large pieces of ore. Fig. 1 shows in section a modifica- tion of Blake’s ore-crusher, made by Marsden of Fig. 1. Leeds. The shaded portion shows the fixed jaw, A, and the movable jaw, B, between which the ore or stone is crushed. To the movable jaw a rapid biting movement (reaching 250 strokes per minute) is given by means of an eccentric lever and togule, jennie. C is the rod connecting the eccentric with the toggle-plates, DD. The machine is driven by a shaft and pulley, and has a. balance- wheel. A spring or lever near the base of the machine aids the return movement of the jaw, B. The vein-stuff or impure ore is next taken either to the crushing-rollers or to the stamping-mill. Fig. 2 shows a section of a crushing-mill of German Fig. 2.—Ore-crushing Mill: End view of the crushing-rollers, sieves, and bucket-wheel. design, but nearly resembling that in use in Corn- wall for treating copper, lead, and zine ores. The ore, already reduced by the Blake jaw-crusher to 150 METALLURGY METALS ieces roughly 1} inch in diameter, is raised to the joor or platform, 6, b, and by means of an opening ate down to the crushing-rollers, r, r. These are usually from 10 to 30 inches in diameter and at least 10 inches long, made of chilled cast-iron or steel, and with a lever at d to keep them in posi- tion. Below the rollers a shoot conveys the crushed ore to a series of sieves increasing in finehess from the top to the bottom, and what is separated by each sieve falls into a separate pit. Such pieces of ore-stuff as are too ee et laa tp the top sieve or riddle fall into the -wheel or bucket- wheel, and are by it raised again to the floor to be recrushed. In Cornwall a sieve or riddle cylin- drical in shape is used, and it slopes so that stuff too large to go through its meshes is by the raff-wheel to get a second crushing. Only about 13 per cent. of the ore-stuff crushed in the Cornish mill exceeds 74 millimetres in size. For pulverising some ores—tinstone and anrifer- ous quartz, for example—a stamping-mill is used. It consists of a series of upright shafts with a weighty piece of iron at the bottom of each. They are rai y means of an axle with projecting cams, and then falling by their own weight act like hammers. Except in chlorination and amalgama- tion works (see GOLD), the wet process of stampin, is generally adopted—that is, the cast-iron or stee shoes of the stamps work upon cast-iron or quartz bottoms placed in stamp-troughs filled with water. raoon a us or sorting machines are em- ployed for dividing the crushed ore-stuff into grains of several sizes. A common hand-riddle is the simplest form of sizing implement. One kind of apparatus in use consists of a series of flat-hottomed sieves with graduated meshes placed on different levels and mechanically — so as to the stuff across the perforated bottoms. The first sieve separates the largest grains, the second the next in size, and soon. A rotating dram-sieve or trommel is, however, more frequently employed. It is placed horizontally, and is to some extent conical in shape. Sometimes it is one long continuous trommel in sections, in which case the finest stuff passes throngh the first section, the next larger through the second, and so on through, say, five or six divisions to the largest grains. In other cases a system of separate conical trommels, in which the sizing takes place from large to small grains, is employed. With the trommel water is used, and, although its axis may be quite level, the falling angle of its shell together with its motion impels the ore-stuff from the smaller to the larger end. Trommels are used for clearing off earthy matter and for draining off water from ore as well as for oe After the ore-stulf has been sorted according to the size of the grains, the next step is to separate by specific gravity the pure ore from the gangne or non-metallic minerals associated with it. If the reduced particles be those of vein-stuff containin — oe ny tpt oe these _ abe se ate iy gravity. equal-sized grains of galena, blende, anednatte whose respective densities are 7°5, 4, and 2-7, are allowed to fall freely in some depth of water, the three substances will separate into layers at the hottom, in which case the lead ore (galena) will form the lowest, the zine ore (blende) the middle, and the quartz the top layer. But in hydraulic jiggers (some are pneumatic) the column of water, at most under 3 inches, is too shallow to ad- mit of separation by simply dropping the grains. oe eae these are placed in a sieve im- me in water, and subjected to a repeated up- and-down motion, in which the ascent of the jigging stuff takes place by jerk4, but in the descent it falls freely. In this way the pure ore, or at least the best ore, accumulates at the bottom, and is usually sufficiently rich for smelting. The gangue on the surface is skimmed off or otherwise removed. In hand-jigging the sieve is vigorously jerked in a tub of water; in the brake-jigger the jerking motion is produced by a hand-lever and connecting rod; and in continuous jiggers mechanical contrivances are used to carry into different receptacles the mineral ins separated upon the sieve in layers without interrupting the jigging process. The dressing of fine sandy, mealy, or cape! ore- stuff, which is not suitable for jigging, is effected on buddles or sloping tables. Buddles are inclined planes, often circular, or rather conical in over which the fine stuff suspended in water de- scends. In doing so the heavier metallic particles fall at the top of the table or cone while the lighter waste is carried down to the foot. Fordetailed descriptions and illustrations of ore-dressing es, see Hunt’s British Mining (1884) ; an exhaus- tive report by E. F. Althaus in the of the Phila- delphia Exhibition, 1876 ; and works on Metallurgy by rts-Austen (1891) and A, J. Hiorns (1896). Metal Mountains. See ErzGEesirce. Metals. Although each metal is considered in a separate article, there are various points - ing the general physical and chemical characters of these bodies, and the method of classi them, which require notice. A metal, from the chemical point of view, is an element which can replace hydrogen in an acid and thus form a salt. Hydrogen itself is, chemically, considered to be a metal. Those elements which are non-metallic in this sense are called metalloids, Amongst the chief chemical properties of metals we notice their strong affinities to certain of the non-metallic elements. All the metals, withéut ex- ception, combine with oxygen, sulphur, and chlorine, and often in several proportions, forming oxides, sulphides (formerly termed sulphurets), and chlor- ides. Many of them combine with bromine, iodine, and fluorine. The other compounds of this nature, excepting carbide (formerly carburet) of iron, or steel, and the hydrides of arsenic and antimony (commonly known as arseniuretted and antimoniu- retted hydrogen), which are of importance in toxi- cology, may be passed over without notice, The metallic oxides are, without exception, solid bodies, white or coloured, and usually present an earthy appearance. Hence the ol name of metallic applied to these oxides. Those oxides which are termed basic the property of directly uniting with the so-called a (such as sulphuric, nitric, carbonic, and silicic acid), and of forming new chemical compounds of the second order, termed Salts (q.v.). The compounds of the metals with chlorine, iodine, bromine, and fluorine—such, for instance, as chloride of sodium, or common salt, ClNa—are termed haloid salts, The same metal may often combine both with chlorine and with oxygen in more than one pro- portion. For example, we have subchloride of mercury, Hg,Cl,; suboxide of mercury, Hg,0 ; chloride of mercury, HgCl,; oxide of mereury, H For the compounds of the metals wi su H Cobar see SULPHUR. he following are the most important of the physical properties of the metals: (1) All metals, unless when they are in a finely-pulverised form, exhibit more or less of the characteristic lustre termed metallic. Two of the non-metallic ele- ments, iodine and carbon, in some forms also pre- sent a metallic lustre. (2) All metals are er conductors of heat and electricity, although in very unequal degrees. (3) With the exceptiats of mereury, all the metals are solid at ordinary temperatures. With the exception of gold, copper, calcium, and strontium, the metals are, when Tone is only once reflected from them, more or less white, METALS METAL-WORK 151 with a tendency to blue or gray. Most’ of them have been obtained in crystals, and probably all of them are capable of crystallising under certain conditions. (4) homer are emer terete —_ opacity, except when they are chemically reduced to Seenaly thin films. (5) All the metals are fusible, although the temperatures at which they assume the fluid form are very different (see MELTING- POINT); and some of them, as mercury, arsenic, everest aiigh &e., pri also volatile. (6) — weight, or a high specific gravity, is popularly but qroneouily regarded as olasncneeintes of a metal ; while platinum, osmium, and iridium (the heaviest bedies known in nature) are more than twenty times as heavy as water, lithium, potassium, and sodium are actually lighter than that fluid. (7) Great differences are observable in the hard- ness, brittleness, and tenacity of metals. While —— and sodium may kneaded with the nger, and lead may be marked by the finger-nail, most of them possess a considerable degree of hard- ness, Antimony, arsenic, and bismuth are so brittle that they may be easily pulverised in a mortar; while others, as iron, gold, silver, and copper, require great force for their disintezration. Taking iron and | as representing the two extremes of tenacity, it is found that an iron wire will bear a weight twenty-six times as heavy as a leaden wire of the same diameter. See DucTILiry, MALLEABILITY. Metals enter into combination with one another when they are fused together, and such combina- tion is termed an Alloy (q.v.), unless when mer- cury is one of the combining metals, in which case the resulting compound is termed an Amalgam It is doubtful whether all alloys are true (q.¥-) abonicdl compounds, Definite compounds of the metals with each other do, however, certainly exist, and are sometimes found native, as, for inden the erystallised silver and mercury com- pound represented be the formula AgHg. In consequence of their strong affinities for the metalloids the metals are seldom found in a free or uncombined state, even in the inorganic kingdom, and never in animals or plants. Tlie more common metals, in eens of their strong affinity for oxygen and sulphur, are very rarely met with in tle uncombined state ; but some of those which are less abundant, such as gold, silver, and platinum, are found uncombined, in which case the terms native and virgin are applied to them; and other metals, as mereury and copper, occur both in a free and in a com state. y native alloys are found, but the ordinary sources of the metals are oxides, re yeoree chlorides, and carbonates, sul- phates, other salts. These are termed the ores of the metals. The methods of obtaining the metals from their various ores fall under the head of METALLURGY. Various classifications of the metals have been —— by different chemists, The following is probably one of the most convenient : (1.) The Light Metals, subdivided into— (1) The metals of the alkalies—viz. potassium, sodium, csesiuin, rubidium, lithium. (2) The metals of the alkaline earths—viz. barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium. (3) The metals of the true earths—viz. alumi- nium, glucinum, zirconium, yttrium, erbium, ter- m, thorinum, cerium, lanthanum, didymium., (IL) The Heavy Metals, subdivided into— (1) Metals whose oxides form powerful bases— iron, manganese, chromium, nickel, cobalt, _ cadmium, lead, bismuth, copper, uranium, thalliam. 2) Metals whose oxides form weak bases or Is—viz. arsenic, antimony, titanium, tantalum, niobium (or columbium), tungsten, molybdenum, tin, vanadium, osmium. (3) Metals whose oxides are reduced by heat— noble metals—viz. mercury, silver, gold, platinum, palladium, iridium, ruthenium, rhodium, osmium. (Several of the rare metals are here omitted. ) Another classification is that by which the metals are arranged in six groups, each group being named after a metal which es the common charac- ters in a well-marked degree: viz. (1) the sodium group, (2) the calcium, (3) the iron, (4) the copper, (5) the platinum, and (6) the antimony groups. Metal-work, Artistic. Leaving celebrated statues and groups cast in bronze to be described under the head SCULPTURE, we shall briefly notice here a few important pa as of artistic work in metal which are rather classed as specimens of decorative art than of pure sculpture. Of early gold and silver work one of the most renowned objects is the altar made of these two metals in the church of St Ambrose at Milan. It was executed by Wolvinus in the 9th century, and contains figures in relief of Christ and the Apostles with ornamental borders in enamel. Another very fine example of work in gold and enamel is the Pala @ Oro (altar front) of St Mark’s, Venice, by Byzan- ° tine artists of the 10th or 11th century. Some specimens of Celtic art, partly in precious metal, such as the Tara Brooch and the Ardagh Chalice— the latter ay sr to be of the 10th century—are of exquisite uty (see BroocH). The shrine of the Magi in Cologne Cathedral is a magniticent reliquary of the 12th century, in which the figures are of gold and the architectural decorations covered with enamels and precious stones. A considerable number of specimens of ecclesiastical gold and silver work of the 13th century remain, including a few of great interest. Of 14th-century examples—a time when the goldsmith’s art ceased to be employed exclusively in the service of the chureh—the splendid silver reliquary in the church of Orvieto, by Ugolino of Siena, is very remarkable. Perhaps the two most important monuments of the gold- smith’s art made in the middle ages are the altar of St James, Pistoia, and that of the Baptistery of St John at Florence. They were begun in the Ith century, and a number of the most famous Italian artists were in succession engaged upon them for a rier of 150 years. Both are of silver, one of them ing decorated with subjects from the life of St James, and the other with scenes from the life of St John. Giglio of Pisa, Pietro Tedesco, Ricciardi, Cipriano, and Filippo were among the artists en- gaged on the St James’ altar; and Cioni, Ghiberti, enni, Verrocchio, and Pollainolo worked at that of St John. Some of the greatest artists in Italy in the 14th and 15th centuries practised to some extent the goldsmith’s art, including Lucea della Robbia, Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, Donatello, and Jacopo della Quercia. In the 16th century Cellini’s is the test name, although well-authenticated works »y him in the precious metals are few in number. here are some very artistic productions in pewter W the French artist Frangois Briot, who lived in the 16th century. Bronze is a metal in which many fine works have been executed, and these are often of large size, Few early examples exist of which the artists are known. ‘Stanracius of Constantinople cast in the 11th century the bronze gates of St Paul’s-without- the-Walls at Rome, destroyed in 1823, but of which drawings exist. A century later an artist named Barisanus made the fine bronze door of the cathe- dral of Monreale in Sicily. One of the most artistic productions in this metal of the 13th century is the candelabrum in Milan Cathedral, 15 feet high. The east door of the Baptistery at Florence, 152 METAMORPHOSIS METAPHYSICS upon which Ghiberti was engaged from 1425 to 1452, is considered a marvellous work of art. Another door in this building, by A. Pisano, com- pleted in 1430, after being in progress for twenty years, is also an admirable production. P. Vischer's shrine of St Sebald at Nuremberg is a beautiful monument which, though quite different in form from the objects named above, resemblés them in the design being an intimate combination of small works in sculpture and architectural ornament. A fountain in the Maximilian-strasse, Augsburg, executed by H. Gerhard in 1593, has been much admired, For want of s we can only name two more bronzists—B. Morel, who did the great candelabrum in Seville Cathedral, and L. Bernini, who in the 17th century executed many clever works in Italy. : There is a no class of metal objects in which artistic skill is more marvellously displayed than in some of the rich suits of armour made in the end of the 15th, but chiefly in the 16th century. These are for the most part of iron or steel, with ornament in repoussé or engraved ; sometimes with both combined, and occasionally with damascenin in gold and silver. Among those who practi the armourer's art in Italy the most famous names . are Michelangelo, Filippo Negrolo, Romero, and some members of the Piccinini family. In Germany Kollman of Augaburg, and in France Antoine Jacquard stood high. Some of the finest suits of armour made at this period are in the Museum of Arms at en, and in the Louvre and Musée d'Artillerie, Paris, Wrought-iron work, rude but effective, appears on the wooden doors of some Romanesque churches of the 12th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries the work in this metal became more refined, and among admirable examples of the latter period may be mentioned the screens round the tombs of the Scala family at Verona, and a screen in the church of Santa Croce, Florence. Screens, grilles, and other objects with open wrought-iron ornament, beautifully designed, and ranging over a peri from the 13th to the 16th century, but especiall those e during the 15th and 16th, are foun in ame, churches in Germany, Spain, France, and England. In the latter country the early grille over Queen Eleanor's tomb, Westminster, and the later screen to Edward IV.’s at Windsor are fine examples; so also are the still later (18th century) railing-panels made for Hampton Court Palace by Huntington Shaw. The canopy of a draw-well at Antwerp by Quentin Matsys is one of the best works of its kind in hammered iron. Many of the elaborately chiselled iron locks and hinges made at Nuremberg and Augsburg in the 15th and 16th centuries are wonderfully beautiful. The National Museum at Munich is especially rich in specimens of these. m See eee TB Metal-work ( persll the jews ng ngton Museum [Descriptive] Catalogue of Bronzes, Fortnum, and of Gold nod yey ork, by J. rd Pollen; Hefner-Alteneck, Serrurtrie (1870) ; Atbildungen Deutscher Schmiedewer: tle Richard de Lalonde; E. Plon, B. Cellini, Recherches mur sa Vie et sur son Giuere (1883); G. W. Yapp, Metal- work (chiefly modern). Metamorphosis, « term applied in ancient mythology to the frequent transformation of human beings into beasts, stones, trees, and even into fire, water, or the like, whith are essential parts of arp folklore everywhere, These metamorphoses ‘orded a subject to Greek poets and writers of the Alexandrine period, and to Ovid among the Romans. See BEAST-FABLES and FoLKLore.—In Zoology the term Metamorphosis is applied to such marked changes as those from caterpillar to insect, or from tadpole to frog, where the young form or larva is seienaly different from the adult. See the articles on Amphibia, og Crustacea, Echin- odermata, Frog, Insects, ; and for Metamor- a in Botany, see MORPHOLOGY, FLowER.—In seology the term roa ay yd is applied to the alteration undergone by rocks under heat, pressure, and other influences, so that they assume a line or semi-crystalline structure, See GEOLOGY, Vol. V. p. 151. Metaphor (Gr. metaphora, ‘a roger a figure of speech by means of which one thing vut for another which it only resembles. Thus, the salmist speaks of God’s law as being ‘a light to his feet and a lamp to his path.’ e racic is therefore a kind of comparison implied but not formally expressed, in which the s er or writer, easting aside the circumlocution of the ord similitude, seeks to attain his end at once, by boldly identifying his illustration with the hing illustrated. It is thus of necessity, when conceived and expressed, graphic and striking in the highest d , and has been a favourite figure with poets and orators, atid the makers of proverbs, in all ages, Even in ordinary language the mean- ings of words are in great part metaphors ; a3 when we speak of an acute intellect, or a-bo/d promontory. The metaphor is false if the simile involved cannot be intelligibly evolved from it; and, to avoid what are often called mixed metaphors, it is well that the implicit simile should be conceived psa asina picture. Such cases of confusion as Cromwell’s ‘God has kindled a seed in this nation’ are obvious. enough, but most often the mixed metaphor is wrapped up in a cloud of rhetoric, as in De Quincey’s sentence : ‘The very recognition of these or any of them by the jurisprudence of a nation is a mortal wound to the very keystone upon which the whole vast arch of morality re * Ruskin in his Pre- terita, describing rs's cold reception of him asa boy, says: ‘The cultivation of germinating see was never held by Mr Rogers to be an industry altogether delectable to genius in tts zenith.’ Metaphysical Poets, a term first applied Dr ictaphys his life af Duadey to the feet which Donne is the most outstanding example. They were men of learning, and to show their learning was their whole endeavour; they neither copied nature nor life, hence their thoughts are often new but seldom natural; the most hetero- geneous ideas are yoled by violence together, nature and art being ransacked for ‘illustrations, com- soksgece and allusions ; they failed, as might have n expected, in moving the affections or attain- ing the sublime, but what they wanted they en- deavoured to supply by rf wg e—their amplifica- tions had no limits, they left not only reason but fancy behind them, and produced combinations of confused magnificence that not only could not be credited but could not be imagined. Yet, if they frequently threw away their wit upon false conceits they likewise sometimes struck out unexpected truth: if their conceits were far-fetched, they were often worth the carriage. Such is Jolinson’s ex- planation of the phrase and its meaning, and it must be admit that the name is to a cei extent appropriate enongh, for the philosophising and analytic spirit pervades the works of the whole school, and intellect rather than emotion is ever the stuff out of which their phantasies are fram Their constant weakness is the tendency towards conceits and similes that are merely fantastic and ingenious, Which mars a modern reader’s pleasure* in almost every poem of Donne and Cowley. Metaphysics, a word first applied to a certain group of the philosophical dissertations of Aristotle, containing what Aristotle (q.v.) called ‘first philo- sophy,’ and Plato ‘dialectics,’ The phrase meta q METAPHYTA METEOROLOGY 153 ta physika means probably ‘the books after the Rg but has Suen interpreted ‘the matters above or beyond pliysics.’ e branch of philo- sophy so called is the highest department, and deals with ss ones questions as to the nature and limit of human consciousness and the possibility of establishing truths beyond empirical consciousness. The term been sometimes used, as by Mansel, to comprise Psychology along with metaphysics proper or Ontology. See PHILOSOPHY. Metaphy many-celled plants, in contrast to the single-celled Protophytes. Metastasio, the Greek form of the surname of Pierro TRAPASSI, an Italian poet, who was born of humble parents at Rome, on 6th January 1698. A precocious boy, hie improvised verses and recited them to crowds on the street. This gift gained him a patron in his ninth year, one thatien a cele- brated Roman lawyer, who educated him, and on his death (1718) him his fortune. In 1722 Metastasio wrote his first libretto at Naples, which so charmed the t Roman singer Bulgarini, called La Romanina, that she took him into her house, and launched him on his successful career as a writer of opera-libretti—libretti which some real cette, qualities. These dramas, all with classical subjects, were set to musie by some of the greatest composers then living, as Pergolese, Scarlatti, Durante, Hasse, Paesiello, Marcello, and others, and su by some of the greatest singers who have ever ved, Farinelli and Caffariello. In * 1729 Metastasio was appointed court-poet to the theatre at Vienna, for which he wrote several of his best pieces. His reputation spread rapidly and stood high throughout Europe, but from 1825 to 1865 his name was ana’ in Italy. He died in Vienna on 12th April 1782, having for nearly forty qeere suffered from ‘mental and moral ennui.’ collected editions of his dramas were pub- lished at Genoa (1802) and at Padua (1811); and his Letters were edited by Cardueci (Bol. 1883). See Vernon Lee’s Studies of 18th Century in Italy (1880), and Lives by Burney (1796), Mussatia 1882), and Falconi (1883), the first in English, the t two in Italian. Metaurus, a river of Central Italy, still called the Metauro or Metro, emptying into the Adriatic near Fano. On its ake the Romans defeated the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal in 207 B.C. Metayer 8 Laws, Vol. VI. p. 505. Metaxen, many-celled animals, in contrast to the single-celled Protozoa (q.v.). Metellus, the name of a Roman family of the ‘am or. METAIRIE. See LAND plebeian Fc Cecilia, which rose to be one of the first ilies of the Roman nobility.—One of the most distinguished members of the family was Quintus Cwecilins Metellus Macedonicus, who received his surname from his victory over Andris- cus, an aspirant to the throne of Macedonia (148 B.C.). His life was considered by ancient writers an example of the test felicity: before his death in 115 three of his sons had been consuls, one censor, and one was a candidate for the con- sulship. Another was Quintns Cvcilius Metel- Ins Numidicus, who twice defeated Jugurtha in Numidia (109 B.c.), and was celebrated for his integrity of character, but was superseded in his command by Marius. His son, Quintus Cecilius Metellus, surnamed Pins, joined Sulla in 83 B.c., but sought to moderate the severity of his pro- seriptions. Quintus Cecilius Metellus Creticus conquered Crete, and reduced it to a Roman pro- vince (67 B.c.). Quintus Ccilius Metellus Pius Scipio, sometimes called Quintus Scipio, and some- times Scipio Metellus, was a son of Scipio Nasica, who was adopted by one of the Metelli, and be- came the father-in-law of Pompey, and his zealous partisan. He commanded the centre at Pharsalia, maintained war on his behalf for some time in Africa, and, after the battle of Thapsus (46 B.c.), died by his own hand. Metempsychosis. See TRANSMIGRATION. Meteorology (Gr. metedra, ‘meteors, or atmo- spheric phenomena’) was originally applied to the consideration of all appearances in the sky, both astronomical and atmospherical; but the term is now confined to that department of physics which treats of the phenomena of the atmosphere as regards weather and climate. Owing to the com- plosty of the Encte, meteorology is the most ifficult and involved of the sciences, and may seem, at first sight, Se = of being reduced to a science at all. this account, the only procedure admissible in the first place is a faithful recording of facts by long and patient observation. From the nature of the subjects which make u the science, it may be inferred that they occupi men’s minds from a remote antiquity. From the time dee in the open air in the early ages, and from the imperfect protection afforded against the inclemency of the seasons, those appearances which experience proved to precede a change of weather would be eagerly recorded and handed down. In this way many valuable facts were ascertained and passed current from hand to hand; and perhaps there is no science of which more of the leading facts and inferences have been from so early a period incorporated into a pe language. Aris- totle was the first wlio collected, in his work On Meteors, the current ct a of the weather. Some of these were derived from the ptians, while a considerable number were tlie result of his own observation. Theophrastus, one of Aristotle's pupils, classified the opinions commonly received regarding the weather under four heads—viz. the prognostics of rain, of wind, of storm, and of fine weather. The subject was discussed only in its popular and practical bearings, and no attempt was made to explain plenomena whose occurrence appeared so irregular and capricious ; but still the treatise of Theophrastus contains about all that was known down to comparativel recent times. No real progress was made till instruments were invented for making observations with regard to the temperature, the pressure, the humidity, the purity, and the electricity of the air. The discovery of the weight or pressure of the atmosphere made by Torricelli in 1643 was un- doubtedly the first step in the progress of meteor- ology to the rank of a science. As this memorable discovery discloses what sin the more elevated regions of the atmosphere, it follows that the eleva- tions and depressions of the barometric column largely extend our knowledge of the subject. In- deed, nearly all of the more important of the dis- coveries of modern meteorology lave been made through the barometric observations, The invention and gradual perfecting of the thermometer in the same century formed another capital advance; as without it nothing beyond vague impressions could be obtained regarding temperature, the most important of all the ele- ments of climate. Fahrenheit constructed small and portable thermometers, which, being carried by medical men and travellers over every part of the world, furnished observations of the most valuable description. By such observations alone the com- eoeers temperature of different countries became nown, and the exaggerated accounts of travellers with regard to extreme heat and cold were reduced 154 ieee METEOROLOGY to their proper significance. Searcely less import- ant was the introduction of the liygrometer, first systematically used by De Saussure (died 1799), and subsequently improved by Dalton, Daniell, August, and Regnault. From the period of the invention of these instruments the number of meteorological observers greatly increased, and a large body of well-authenticated facts of real value was collected. The climates of particular parts of the earth were approximately determined, and the science made t and rapid advances by the in- vestigations into the laws which regulate the changes of atmospheric ph The theory of the tradewinds was first pro- ompnae by George Hadley in the Philosophical ransactions for 1735; and it may be mentioned as a remarkable fact that for about half a centur it remained unnoticed, and then was independ- ently arrived at by Dalton. The publication of Dalton’s Meteorological Essays, in 1793, marks an epoch in meteorology. It is the first instance of te principles of science being brought to bear on the explanation of the intricate phenomena of the atmosphere. The idea that vapour is an inde- pendent elastic fluid, and that all elastic fluids, whether alone or mixed, exist independently ; the great principles of motion of the atmosphere; the theory of winds, their effect on the barometer, and their relation to temperature and rain ; observations on the height of clouds, on thunder, and on meteors ; and the relations of magnetism and the aurora horealis—these are some of the important questions discnssed in these remarkable essays, with singular acnteness, fullness, and breadth of view. One of the most interesting and fruitful subjects of inquiry that engaged the attention of meteor- ologists was dew. The olservations on this subject were first collected and reduced by Dr Wells, and the theory he advanced, Sag pe gmgo hy the recent researches of Mr John Aitken, gives a com- plete explanation of the phenomenon (see DEw). In 1823 Daniell published his pel mabe: (503 Essays and Observations, which, while adding largely to our knowledge in almost every depart- ment of the subject, are chiefly valuable as bearin on the hygrometry of the atmosphere, Though the practical advantages which he anticipated to flow from it have not been realised, yet this diffi- cult department of meteorology still stands in- debted to him perhaps more than to any other physicist. The law of the diffusion of vapour through the air, its influence on the barometric pressure, and its relations to the other constituents of the atmosphere are among the least satisfac- torily determined questions in meteorology. Since this element is so important in originating changes of weather and as an indicator of storms, and since so much remains still to be achieved, it is to be hoped that it will soon be more thoroughly investi- gated, particularly in its relations to solar and terrestrial radiation. As the humidity to some extent obstructs solar and terrestrial radiation, it follows that if the air were quite drained of its aqueous vapour the extremes of heat and cold would be so intense and insufferable that all life would perish, as there would be no screen shield- ing the earth from the scorching heat of the sun hy day, and from the equally seorching and blight- mee ects of its own radiation by night. lectrical observations have been, of all meteor- ological observations, perhaps the least productive of results advancing the science, partly owing to their scantiness, and from the expense and trouble attending them. Humboldt’s treatise on Isothermal Lines (1817) constitutes a notable epoch in practical meteor- ology. Dové and, more recently, the present writer have continued the investigation, and given charts of the world, showing the temperature for each month and for the year. In 1868 another series of important charts were published ly the writer, showing, by isobaric lines, the distribution of the mass off the earth's atmosphere, and by arrows the prevailing winds over the globe for the months and the year. These charts, since revised by him, and published in one of the Challenger reports, show the movements of the atmosphere and their imme- diate cause. It is thus seen that the prevailing winds are the simple result of the relative distri- bution of the mass of the earth’s atmosphere; or that the direction and force of the poorailine winds are simply the flow of the air from a region of higher towards a region of lower pressure, or from where there is surplus to where there is a deficiency of air. On this bread and vital principle meteor- ology rests, and it is of universal ication throughout the science in explanation not only of prevailing winds, but of all winds, and of weather and weather chan gene: Further, it supplies the key to the clhuasonnee of the globe; for climate is determined by the tem) ture and moisture of the air, and these in ir turn by the prevailing winds, In 1882. Loomis published a map representing in colours the mean — rainfall of the globe. This map and others that have been construeted for separate countries show that the rainfall is everywhere determined by the prevailing winds, considered with respect to the regions from which they have immediately come, and the physical configuration and temperature. of the part of the earth's surface over which they blow. The highest rainfalls are precipitated ) winds which, having traversed a large breadt' of ocean, come up against and blow over a high ridge lying across their path; and the amount is still further increased if the winds pass at the same time into regions the temperature of which constantly becomes‘colder. Of this the winter rains of north-western Europe and the summer rains of Japan are good examples. On the other hand, the rainfall is very small, or ni/, where the prevailing winds have not previously traversed some extent of ocean, but have cro: a high ridge and now advance into lower latitudes, or into regions the temperature of which is markedly higher. Good examples of this are the summer rains of California and adjoining regions, and those of the Indus valley. The establishment of meteorological societies rg the last half of the 19th century must also be commemorated as contributing in a high d to the solid advancement of the science which, more than any other, must depend on ex- tensive and carefully conducted observation. A special oy of meteorological societies is to ascertain the degrees of temperature and moisture in various localities, and the usual periods of their occurrence, together with their effects on the health of the people and upon the different agricultural products; so that, by a knowledge of the laws which the growth of such products is regulated, it may be ascertained with some degree of certain whether any given article can be profitably enlti- vated. But perhaps none of the arts have benefited to so large an extent by the results arrived at by roaster tion. The knowledge thus acquired of the prevailing winds over the different parts of the earth during the different seasons of the year, the oy ote of storms and calms, and the laws of storms has both saved innumerable lives, and, by pointing out the most expeditious routes to be followed, shortened voyages to a remarkable degree. In this department the name of Maury (q.v.) deserves special commendation. Another fruit of the multiplication of meteor- ological stations is the prediction of storms and METEOROLOGY 155 ‘forecasts’ of weather, first oii in the United States about the middle of the 19th century. As s the British Islands these ‘forecasts’ are on telegrams which are received every morning from about sixty selected stations in Great Britain and Ireland, and on the Continent, which give the exact state of the barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, and rain- with the direction and force of the wind, nee of the sky, at each of these stations at eight in the morning. In the event of there being any storm or other atmospheric dis- turbance at one or more of these places, a full and_aceurate description of it is thus conveyed to London; and it is the duty of the officials there to consider the direction in which the storm is moving and is likely to move, so as to enable them to give warning of its approach at different se by special signals But in addition to warn- ngs of storms, dai Bede ak of the weather likely to oceur in the different districts of Great Britain for the following two days are also issued. As regards storms the problem to be ccncyinat worked out is this: Given telegrams showing the exact meteorological conditions prevailing over the area embraced by the stations, with indications of a storm approaching in a certain direction, to deter- mine, not the probable area over which the tempest will sweep, but the precise localities which will altogether escape, the places where the storm will rage, its continnance, its violence, and the particular directions from which the wind will blow at places visited by the storm. Weather-registers extend- ing over long periods give no countenance to the notion that there are arly recurring cycles of weather on which prediction sufficiently precise and particular to be of service to agriculture and na ion may The manner in which and bad seasons occur in different places with res to each other shows clearly that they have little direct immediate dependence on any of the ane Bcpaee but that they depend directly on causes, Owing to its proximity to the Atlantic, Great Britain is not so favourably situ- ated for the issue of warnings as the countries of Enrope to the eastward. Since 1870 this branch of science has been prosecuted with remarkable energy and success by General Myer (familiarly known as ‘Old Probability’) and his successor in charge of the signal ice of the United States War Department. American meteorologists were the first to undertake the representation of isothermals over the ocean; and to the United States science is also indebted for magnificent eteorology has of late benefited largely by the establishment of high-level meteor- i in the United States, France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, India, Australia, Scotland, and many other countries. The nine arctic expedi- tions in 1882-83 devoted themselves largely to meteorological observations. Many first-class mete- orological observatories are now established in all Loita ray countries at which hourly observations are e. On the diurnal phenomena the more important principles of the science are based. Of the sun's vo arrive at the earth’s surface, those w fall on the land are wholly absorbed by the thin surface layer, the temperature of which conse- uently rises. A wave of heat is thence propagated nward through the soil, the intensity of which rapidly lessens with the depth at a rate dependin, on the conductivity of the soil, till at a depth a about 4 feet it ceases to be measurable. Part of the heat of this surface layer is conveyed upwards into the atmosphere by convection currents. But as regards the surface of the ocean the case is totally different. Here comparatively little of the heat is arrested at the surface, but it penetrates, as shown by the observations of the Challenger expedition, to a depth of about 500 feet. Hence in Le waters the temperature of the surface is but little heated by the direct rays of the sun, though in shallow waters, owing to the heating of the bottom, the water has a considerable daily ran of temperature. Thus, in mid-ocean, from 30° N. lat. to 30° S. lat., the temperature of the surface of the sea does not vary during the day quite so mucli as one d Fahrenheit. Off the coast of Scotland the daily variation is only 0°3°, and in higher latitudes still less. On the other hand, the daily variation of the upper layer of the surface of the land is frequently 50°, and in many cases very much greater. Hence the enormously different results which large masses of land and sea respec- tively exercise on climate. The temperature of the . air over the ocean is about three times greater than that of the surface of the open sea over which it lies; but on nearing land it is nearly five times ter. The least daily variation on land is in insular situations, being at Rothesay about 5°; and the test in the Sahara regions of tropical and subtropical countries, where it is in many places 30°, rising on occasions to 40° and upwards. The daily minimum temperature occurs some time before dawn; and as regards the maximum, it occurs from 1 to 4 P.M., according to season and geo- i pie situation, the earlier hour obtaining in arid climates and at true high-level observatories, and the later in climates characteristically humid. The absolute humidity of the air, or, as it is usually termed, the elastic force of vapour, is seen in its simplest form on the open sea, as disclosed by the Challenger observations. The minimum occurs at 4 A.M. and the maximum at 2 p.M., thus approxi- mating closely to the diurnal march of the tem- perature ; on nearing Jand a secondary minimum prevails from 10 A.M. to 4 P.M., due ‘Gonbtless to the drier deseénding aérial currents which take the place of the currents that ascend from the heated surfaces of the land. The relative humidity is widely different from the vapour pressure, and presents features of the simplest character. The maximum occurs from midnight to 4 A.M. ; or when the temperature is lowest the air is nearest to saturation. On the other hand, the minimum is about 2 P.M.; or when temperature is highest the air is furthest from saturation. This feature of the humidity characterises all climates. When the air is by terrestrial radiation cooled below the dew- point dew is deposited, and when the temperature 1s below 32° hoar-frost is the result. The diurnal oscillations of the barometer show two maxima and minima—the maxima oceurring about 9 to 10 A.M. and 9 to 10 P.M., and the minima from 3 to 4A4.M. and 3 to4 P.M. Since the tem- perature of the surface of the sea does not vary quite one degree during the day, and since these oscillations occur equally over the open sea as on land, it conclusively follows that hey are independ- ent of the temperature of the part of the surface of the globe on which the air rests. Generally speak- ing, the amount of the oscillations decreases with latitude. Taking latitude with latitude, the amounts are test over land surfaces which are greatly heated during the day and cooled during the night, and least over the anticyclonic regions of the great oceans lying to the westward of the continents from about 20° to 40° N. and §, lat. The characteristics of these anticyclonic regions is a vast descending current down their central spaces. This air necessarily increases in tem- rature with its descent, and consequently is her removed from saturation; and it is prob- 156 METEOROLOGY METEORS ably due to this circumstance that the amount of the barometric oscillation is here reduced to the minimum for the latitude over all anticyclonic ions. t has been further shown from the Challenger cbservations that the force of the winds on the open sea is subject to no distinct and uniform diur- nal variation, but that on nearing larid the force of the wind gives a curve as pronouncedly marked as the orlinary curve of temperature ; the minimum occurring from 2 to 4 A.M. and the maximum from noon to4 P.M. Each of the five great oceans gives the same result—the differences between the hours of least and greatest force being Southern Ocean, G4 miles ; South Pacific, 4} miles ; South Atlantic, 24 miles ; and North Atlantic and North Pacific, 3 miles. This diurnal peculiarity of the wind’s force is even still more pronoun over all tolerably open and extended surfaces of the land. But at true high-level observatories, situated on ks, such as Ben Nevis, the reverse everywhere holds, so that the daily minimum velocity occurs during the warmest hours of the day, and the maximum at ight during the coldest hours. hunderstorms have well-marked periods of diurnal variation over land and over the open sea respectively. In climates where rain falls equally et all seasons they are of most frequent occnr- rence during the hottest portions of the day and of the year, so far as concerns the land surfaces of the globe. Taki Ekaterinburg in the Urals as repre- senting inland climates, observations show that there, during the twelve hours from 9 A.M. to 9 P.M. when temperature is above the daily mean, 717 occurred, but only 139 during the other twelve hours when temperature is under the mean. Thus the great majority oecur during the time of the day when the ascensional movement of the air from the heated ground takes place, and attain the absolute maxi- mum when the temperature and this upward move- ment are also at the maximum. On the other hand, the Challenger observations on the open sea show that the maximum occurrence is from 10 P.M. to 8 A.M., 22 having been observed during these ten hours pay 10 during the other fourteen hours of the day. This remarkable result suggests that over the ocean terrestrial radiation is more power- ful than solar radiation in causing those vertical disturbances in the equilibrium of the atmosphere which give the thunderstorm. Atmospheric vapour and ascending currents, and the descending currents which necessarily accom- pany them, play an important part in the develop- ment, course, and termination of thunderstorms. Where the climate is dry and rainless, like that of Jerusalem in summer, thunder is altogether un- known ; and where an anticyclone with its descend- currents rests over a region, as happens over the centre of the Europeo-Asiatic continent in winter, thunder is equally unknown during that ‘season. The diurnal periods of hail, whirlwinds, waterspouts, dust-storms, and tornados have their origin in substantially the same atmospheric con- ditions as the thunderstorm, and occur approxi- mately at the same hours of the day. See Kaemtz’s Meteorology (trans. 1845); Drew's Mete- orolagy (24 od. 5 Herschel’s Meteorology 1861) 5 Buchan’s Handy of Meteorology (1868); mi’ Trentise on ays (1868) ; R. H. Scott’s Elementary Meteorology (1883); Mohn’s Elements of Meteoroloyy ; Hann's Climatological Atlas, and Climatology ; Buchan’s At Cireulation (‘ Challenger’ ition ) ; Blandford's Meteoroloyy of India, &e. The leading points of this wide subject will be found under such heads as Atmosphere. | Dust, Hail. Rain. Aurora. rth, Halos. Snow Marometer, Electricit Hygrometer, | Storma, Climate. Evaporation. | Lightning. Temperature, Clouds, ‘OG Magnetiam, Thermometer, Dew. Frost Juservatory. | Wind, Meteors cre small bodies travelling in vast numbers, and in various directions, through space. Our earth continually encounters them in its orbital path, and they are then revealed to our observation as aérolites, fireballs, and alcoting se falling stars, Every night, if the sky be > some may observed, on the average five to seven every hour, while on certain occasions they are sO numerous as to present the s of a perfect rain of fire. Besides those visible to the eye, there are numbers unseen, some of which are ionally noted in the conrse of telescopi observation. The total number encounbaa tae the earth in one day has been estimated by Pro- fessor Newton, of Yale College, United States, at 7,500,000. Their total mass, however, he estimates at only 100 tons, so that individually they must in eral be exceedingly minute. y dissipate, 1owever, & quantity of dust in the upper regions of the air, which in its slow descent and fall uw the earth is easily detected by proper means. air in this case acts as a shield, so that, instead of frequent showers of stones descending with dead force, we have this quiet falling of impalpable du pe conclusions regarding oe -“" reached y @ proper interpretation of various phenomena, long Saidired ns having no mutual connection, but now pace coherently under one sim explanation. In order to appreciate the reaso which has led to this result, it will be convenien to consider first the observed facts regarding (1) aérolites, (2) fireballs, and (3) shooting-stars. The first group, aérolites, includes all stony er metallic masses actually falling to the earth from the sky. They have classed as (1) aéro- siderites, or siderites, chiefly consisting of meteoric iron ; (2) aérosiderolites, or siderolites, conglomer- ates of stone and iron; ($3) aérolites, almost en- tirely consisting of stone, The common title aérolites embraces, however, all kinds. The descent of such bodies, though rare, has occurred with ter frequency than would be imagined. The British Museum alone has specimens of more than three hundred, of which nearly two hundred were seen to fall. Some sacred stones, as the black stone worshipped at Emesa in Syria, the holy Kaaba of Mecca, and the great stone of the pyramid of Cholula in Mexico, owed their sanctity to a report, probably true, that they had fallen from heaven, It has been suggested that the earliest image of Diana of the aaa, which ‘fell down from Jupiter,’ had taken the place of an actual meteorite. Livy mentions the falling of a shower of stones on the Alban Mount near 2, about 654 B.c. A Chinese catalogue records the fall of an aé#rolite on January 14, 616 B.c., which broke several chariots and killed ten men, Plutarch and Pliny mention a great stone, as pa as & wagon, the latter says, and of a burnt eolour, the — fall of which, at ae og on the Hell ty) about 467 B.C., is recorded in the Parian Chronicle, In 1492 A.D., ‘on Wednesday, November 7,’ a stone bie ap 260 Ib. was seen to fall near Ensisheim in Alsace ; part of it is still preserved in the vi chureh there. In 1510 about 1200 stones, one weigh- ing 120 1b., another 60 1b., fell near Padua in Italy. We are told that the Emperor Jehangir caused a sword to be — from a mass of meteorie iron which fell at Jullunder in the Punjab in 1620. On November 27, 1627, the astronomer Gassendi wit- nessed the fall of a stone weighing 59 Ib. at Mount Vasier in Provence. At Wold Cottage, Yorkshi December 13, 1795, a ploughman saw a stone 56 lb. weight fall near him in a field. But the most interesting of such modern observations was made on April 26, 1803, near L’Aigle, in Normandy. About 1 P.M. a brilliant fireball was seen traversing the air ata great speed. Violent METEORS 157 s explosions followed, apparently proceeding from a small and lofty et, foDowsd by a Showee of thousands of stones, one 8 lb. in weight. A large meteorite exploded with prodigious noise over Madrid on 10th February 1896. On April 20, 1876, a mass of meteoric iron more than 7 Ib. weight fell at Rowton in Shropshire, pa = ey be by an explosion. On September 4, , @ large aérolite fell at Krasnoslobodsk, in the government of Penza. It was accompanied by a loud explosion, and in it (as in some others) were found crystals having all the chemical properties of the diamond. In nearly every one of these and other cases are noticed the following features—(1) a noise, often an explosion ; (2) cloud or smoke; (3) fusion of the mass or masses, especially on surface. These indicate that the aérolite by some means is brought to a very high temperature, at least above the melting-point of iron, which often causes it to burst into ents. Pieces of one which fell in India in 1861, though pened up miles apart, were found by Maskelyne to fit together into one whole, the fractures coinciding. This high jer os weg on the surface of the mass, would iy be produced by the compression and friction of the in the case of a body moving with sufficient velocity. There is no observed connection between aérolites and volcanoes, nor can voleanic agency account for their velocity, and so this simple exp’ ion of aérial friction is now universal! accepted. A sufficient velocity is at once guaran when we consider a#rolites as simply fireballs whose mass and course are such as to bring them entirely through our atmosphere into contact with the earth. Meteoric iron is se alloyed with ae ges manganese, magnesium, copper, carbon, and tin, in a manner in which it is hot yet found alloyed in terrestrial minerals ; and this also points to its cosmical ge ine Altogether twenty-four of the terrestrial chemical elements have been found in aérolites—viz. oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, silicon, iron, nickel, cobalt, esinin, povcen Pes manganese, copper, tin, antimony, aluminium, calcium, orange sodium, lithium, titanium, arsenic, and vanadium. No new element not found on earth has been found in The second class of meteors form fireballs, which Fe ip as brilliantly luminous bodies, traversing sky, often with noise, and always with great velocity. Aérolites before their fall have often been seen as fireballs, and the substantial unity of the two classes is now almost pesrorsalty accepted. Fire then, are regarded as aétrolites whose mass course are such that they escape actual contact with the earth. They are much more numerous than aérolites, and are of great variety in velocity, size, and brilliance. On August 18, 1783, one of size traversed the air over En from Shetland to Rome, at a height of 50 and with a speed of 30 miles per second, iving off a greater light than the full moon. Store recently, on November 17, 1887, a splendid , seen first over the Irish Sea, crossed westwards over Ireland, at a height of probably about 20 miles, and disappeared above the Atlantic. Many hundreds of such, though usuaily less brilliant, have been observed. Arago enumerates 813. More are constantly being seen. Their height is obtained by comparison of observations at stations widely separated, and from it and their observed speed the actual velocity is computed. From a careful comparison of many observations pe by yoy pad se! a British see appears that in general they a rata height of between 20 and 130 miles, an faire a velocity of between 17 and 80 miles per second, with an average of 34°4 miles per second. Their actual size has been enormously overestimated, at 12,000 to 100 feet in diameter. The effects of irradiation and the luminous gases discharged during their course no doubt give them an apparent diameter enormously greater than the ity. It is prob- able that in most cases they are much smaller than aérolites. They generally leave behind them in their track a luminous train or ‘tail’ which some- times disap at once, and at other times persists for some minutes after the fireball itself disappears. These ‘ tails’ are variously coloured, according prob- ably to the different chemical constitution of tho ‘heads,’ That these bodies originate altogether beyond our earth is evident from several considerations. First, no sufficient terrestrial cause has been assigned. It has never been shown that volcanic explosions can communicate to ejected masses the n velocity. No proof has been advanced of the theory that aérolites and fireballs are con- densed in the atmosphere itself. There is no vcl- canic activity on the moon, which might project such masses beyond the influence of her feebler gravity so as to enable them to fall upon our earth. ven if there were such activity in our satellite, the velocity of projection required is so great as to place such a cause outside consideration. Secondly, no good reason can be advanced against the theory of cosinical origin. That numerous masses, of various sizes, are in motion through hed bere space is not in itself ca at tapes and is establish by the investigation of the paths and velocities of shooting-stars. Thirdly, the velocity of fireballs, averaging 34°4 miles per second, is only comparable with such velocities as that of the earth in its orbit, which is 18-2 miles per second, or of Sirius (see STARS) in its orbit, and those of other planets and stars. It is a velocity not on the terrestrial but on the cosmical scale. Fourthly, there is no special line to be drawn between fireballs and nreteors, luminous bodies of all degrees of size be- tween the smallest meteor and the fireball havin, been observed. It is in fact sometimes a matter o' doubt to the observer to which class. he should relegate an observed example. To regard all as of common extra-terrestrial origin is then reasonable, and this view is now adopted almost universally. We are then led onwards to the consideration of shooting-stars, as both the most numerous class of these appearances, and that class by observing which a satisfactory explanation of them all has ultimately been reached. On any fine night a watcher who is careful and patient for a sutficient time will see some of these, but occasionally they are much more numerous, On these occasions they are noted as esiginaine all in one or more distinetly marked parts of the sky. From their point of origin they appear to radiate, and if it be overhead, and the meteors very numerous, the appearance is like an ‘umbrella of fire’ above the earth, But this point may not be overhead. It may even be below the horizon. In the latter case the meteors appear to come up over the horizon like rockets and ascend into the sky. ‘This ‘radiant,’ as it is technically called, remains fixed among the stars, so that if at the beginning of an observation it be overhead, it will perhaps be below the horizon before the observer ceases his work. It is either named from the constellation in which it is placed, or indicated by its north polar dis- tance and declination on the sphere of the heavens. Meteors from more than one radiant are frequently passing at the same time, but usually each radiant sends forth a particular kind. Leonids (i.e. the meteors whose radiant is in Leo), or the famous November meteors, are bright and swift, leaving very durable tracks of light. The Taurids (from constellation Taurus) give us many fireballs. Other 158 METEORS . a t¢ om METHODISTS radiants give meteors of special tints, or more or less disposed to giving off sparks in their course, so that each radiant is evidently the source of a family of meteors, whose characteristics are recognised at each period of activity. Such a radiating motion implies that the meteors from one radiant move all in llel courses, the curvature and radiation of their tracks being due to perspective and to projection on the sphere which the eye naturally assumes as the background of all celestial appearances. On the occasion of a meteoric shower the earth, therefore, is ing throngh a crowd of small bodies, themselves in motion, meeting or passing it on a definite track. We have then to ask what is the form of this meteor track—whence come and whither go the meteors we encounter in such numbers. Usually there is a tolerably definite time, recurring annually, during which a radiant is active. “This was first broad fact impressed upon observers, Al- thongh at such yearly periods the number of meteors may be very large or very small, there are at least a few almost always seen, From this it was early seen that certain parts of space, through which the earth passed every year, were come at the date of such passage, by meteors travelling past with planetary velocities. That the meteors, as well as the earth, were in orbital movement round the sun, was soon noted (in 1834) by Pro- fessor Olmsted of Yale. He considered that the November meteors (or Leonids) revolved in a narrow ellipse in a period of about 182 days, and that each November the earth in its orbit i across the outer end of this — encountering there what meteors might be in tha’ part of their path. This theory, however, though ible in perhaps one case, could hardly be —— $0 the great number of meteor tracks which the earth crosses, as it is exceedingly improbable that so many meteor orbits would just touch the earth’s orbit at their aphelion. It was proposed, then, to regard the meteors as travelling in a ring round the sun, which ring the earth crossed in two parts of its annual track in August and November. Both these theories re- garded the meteors as gathered into a cloud or swarm at one particular part of their orbit. When the earth chauced to cross the place of intersection at the same time as the main swarm of meteors, then a vivid display was produced, but a difference in period between the earth and main swarm caused such meetings to take place only at long intervals, Meteors, however, being distributed all along the meteor track, the earth encountered some at least in August and November every year. This investigation received its impetus from the great display of Leonids in 1833, chiefly noted in America, and for some time remained the ‘text-book explanation.’ Professor H. A. Newton of Yale, showed, however, in 1864 that other great Leonid displays had taken place on twelve occasions between 902 A.D. and 1833, separ- ated by periods of either 33°24 years or multiples of that number. He therefore predicted a grand display on November 13-14, 1866, which was duly observed. But the date of the earliest display in 902 A.D. was October 13 (0.8.), so that it was evident that the earth encountered the main swarm of Leonids about three days later in each century. From these facts Professor Newton deduced for the meteors an elliptic orbit, with a period of 354°57 days. Other explanations were possible, and that ven by Schiaparelli of Milan in 1866 finally satis- all the conditions. He treated the Leonids as revolving round the sun in a period of 33} years, the earth passing their orbit every year, but only encountering the main swarm when it also was passing the point of intersection. He also noted a remarkable coincidence between this orbit and that of Tempel’s comet seen in 1866. In fact, they were identical, within the errors of calculation. Other similar cases were soon discovered. The Lyraids of April 20 move in the track of a comet of 1861; Biela’s comet agrees with the Andromeda meteors of November 28; the August Perseids agree with the bright comet of 1862; and now more than seventy such cases of agroemens are known, which led Professor Tait of Edinburgh to publish the theory now pemeelly accepted which regards comets as consisting of meteoric swarms (see Comet). Lockyer in 1887 showed by experiment that the fragments of fallen meteors, glo in a very rare atmosphere gives off by ves when heated, give spectra closely resembling those = ee lt vei also been sows ae mong observer that what are ti nebulz can be obtained ny the pie. Begs So that he regards the feeble meteors of our nights as the material of nebule and stars—as the earliest known form of matter (see Srars). This assumes that our meteoric swarms are either remnants of the a ager of the tag Beer (q.v.), or ortions of the greater swarms of whi space a full, which have been drawn within our solar system by planetary influence. Leverrier has shown that this latter explanation probably applies to the aagest and November meteors already referred to, and that ae Uranus has most likely ecap- tured these bodies and added them to our system. The action of gravity would tend to draw out a meteor swarm so that it would gradually spread backwards and forwards until finally it would be distributed all along its track and form a closed ne Ee ring. As, then, the August meteors form such a ring, while the November Leonids are a marked swarm, Leverrier concluded that the former had entered our system through the action of Uranus much earlier than the latter. Some hundreds of ‘radiants’ are now known, a few of which we name, and the dates on which they are active: (1) The Lyraids, April 19-20; (2) the Pegasids, August 10; (3) the Perseids, August 9- 11; (4) the Aurigids, September and October ; (5) the Orionids, October and November ; (6) the Taurids, November 1-15; (7) the Leonids, ovem- ber 13-14, For further information readers may consult ae ‘8 Pop. Astronomy ( French edition only), The of the Brit, Assoc. Committee on Meteors, Che paikaraie Descriptive Astronomy, or Herschel’s Outlines of Astronomy. x Meter, GAs. See GAs-LIGHTING. Methane. See Dyer, Vol. IV., page 140. Methodists, the name originally given, about the yor 1729, by a student of Christ Chureh to the brothers Wesley and several other young men of a serious turn of mind, then members of different colleges of Oxford, who used to assemble ther on particular nights of the week chiefly for religious conversation. The term was selected, it is believed, in allusion to the exact and methodical manner in which they performed the various engagements which a sense of Christian duty induced them to undertake, such as meeting together for the pur- pose of studying Scripture, visiting the poor, and prisoners in Oxford gaol, at regular intervals. Sub- sequently it came to be applied to the followers of Wesley and his coadjutors, when these had acquired the magnitude of a new sect; and though their founder himself wished that ‘the very name,’ to use his own words, ‘might never be mentioned more, but be buried in eternal oblivion,’ yet it has finally come to be accepted by most, if not all of the various denominations who trace their origin mediately or immediately to the great religious movement commenced by John Wesley. For an METHODISTS 159 account of the origin and earlier development of Methodism, see articles on the brothers WESLEY and on WHITEFIELD; we confine ourselves here to a brief notice of its organisation, doctrine, and present condition. (1) Organisation.—This appears to have been partly improvised by Wesley to suit the exigencies of his position. It was not a theoretical and premedi- tated, but a practical and extempore system. In the Rules of the Society of the People called Methodists, drawn up by himself, he says : ‘In the latter end of the tg 1739 eight or ten persons came to me in London, who appeared to be deeply convinced of sin, and earnestly groaning for redemption. They desired (as did two or three more the next day) that I would spend some time with them in prayer, and advise them how co flee from the wrath to come, which they saw continually hanging over their heads. That we might have more time for this great work, [ appoin hag when they might all come together, which from thenceforward they did every week—viz. on Thursday, in the evening.’ This he calls ‘the first Methodist Society.’ Its numbers rapidly increased, and similar ‘societies’ were soon formed in different pokes of England where the evangelistic labours of the Wesleys had awakened in many minds ‘a desire to flee from the wrath to come, and be saved from their sins ’— the only condition required of any for admission into these societies. In order to ascertain more minutely how the work of salvation was progress- ing in individual cases, Wesley sulxlivided the societies into ‘classes,’ according to their respec- tive places of abode, each class containing about a dozen persons, under the superintendence of a ‘leader,’ whose cuties are partly religious and partly financial. He has (1) to see each person in his class once a week, ‘to inquire how their souls prosper,’ and to encourage, comfort, or censure, as the case may require ; and (2) to collect the volun- tary contributions of his class, and pay them over to the ‘stewards’ of the society. Each society has its stewards, who take charge of the moneys con- tributed in the classes and congregation, and who see to their pee distribution. The leaders and stewards are the local echurch-council, which is invested with disciplinary fanetions. A circuit is an aggregate of the societies for a particular neigh- bour ; and, according to its size, having from one to five ministers appointed for a period of not less than one or more than three years. The senior minister is superintendent of the cirenit. The administration of the spiritual affairs of each society is vested in the leaders’ meeting, and that of the general business of the circnit in the quarterly ineeting, composed of the ministers, stewards, local oe, leaders, and trustees. These bodies vite the ministers, fix their stipends, approve or reject candidates for the ministry, review all the interests of the circuit, send memorials to the district meeting or Conference, have the right to appoint a court of appeal from the findings and verdicts of a leaders’ meeting in certain cases of discipline, and to suspend for one year the operation of any new Conference law intended to be binding on the cirenit or societies, until it shall have been re- considered by the Conference. The annual assembly which governs the whole Connection is called the erence. Down to 1784 it consisted of such of Wesley’s preachers as he chose to call together to counsel with himself; but in that year he gave it a legal constitution defining its rights over the cbape 8, the disciplinary control of the ministers, and their appointments. Until 1877 the Conference was composed of ministers only ; but in that year a scheme of lay representation was , and was eee into operation the year So now Conference is in part an assembly of co-pastors, exercising mutual discipline and taking mutual counsel on all subjects specilic- ally pastoral, and in part an assembly of 240 ministers and 240 laymen convened to satiberahe on the general interests of the Connection. The pastoral session extends over a fortnight, while the mixed session finishes its business in a week. ‘The legal Conference’ is a body of one hundred min- isters constituted and perpetuated by Wesley’s Deed of Declaration, which as a matter of neces- sary legal form adopts and endorses all that has been done in the general Conference. Intermediate between the Conference and the circuit are the district meetings, which are in effect rovincial synods. Like the Conference itself, uring the transaction of pastoral business they are composed of ministers only, while for all other business they are mixed assemblies, the ministers being joined by the cirenit stewards and the lay- men who have charge of foreign missions, home missions, education, chapel, and temperance affairs. In the district meeting a searching inquiry is made by the pastors into the character and administra- tion of each, candidates for the ministry and pro- bationers are examined, the spiritual and financial condition of the cireuits is considered, and sug- gestions or recommendations on the points which come under review are sent up to Conference. All new legislation is sent down by the Conference to the district meetings, nor can it become law for the Connection till it has been ratified by a majority of the district meetin The district meetings are also courts of appeal from the circuits. (2) Doctrine and Worship.—Under this head not mueh uires to be said. Methodism is regarded by its friends as a revival of primitive Christian doctrine, fellowship, and discipline. In the begin- ning it set itself to combat Calvinism on the one hand, and tne doctrine of baptismal regeneration on the other. Its founders held that the predes- tinarian element in Calvinistie divinity is opposed to the experimental theology of primitive Christi- anity. The Methodist preachers taught a full, free, and present salvation as the glorious privilege of every man—a theology at once experimental aud evangelical, quite unlike the theology of the decrees. They taught, moreover, this conscious renewal and sanctification through faith alone in Jesus Christ. The Methodist doctrine of regenera- tion is through ‘repentance towards God and faith towards our Lord Jesus Christ’ (not through baptism); sanctification is through the saving truth spiritually received and applied by faith and obedience. The Wesleyan Methodists are evangelical Arminians. Holding the freedom of the human will, and the responsibility of man, they also maintain his total fall in Adam, and his utter inability to recover himself. They believe in the universality of the atonement, and ‘that a dispensation of the Spirit is given to enlighten every man that cometh into the world. hey insist on the necessity of men who profess to be Christians feeling a personal interest in the blessings of salvation—i.e. the assurance of forgive- ness of sins and adoption into the family of God. This, however, is not to be confounded with a certainty of final salvation. They believe the Spirit of gives no assurance to any man of that, but only of present pardon. In harmony with this view, they reject the doctrine of the necessary perseverance of the saints, and hold that it is fearfully possible to fall from a state of grace, and even to perish at last after having ‘tasted of the heavenly gift,’ and having been ‘made par- takers of the Holy Ghost.” They also maintain the perfectibility of Christians, or rather the possi- bility of their entire sanctification as a privilege to be enjoyed in this life. But Wesley ‘explains 160 METHODISTS that ‘Christian perfection does not imply an exemption from ignorance or mistake, infirmities or temptations ; but it implies the Ley, Segre with Christ as to be able to testify, ‘1 live not, but Christ liveth in me.”" He 8 the sins of a * perfect’ Christian as ‘involuntary tran sions, and does not think they should be called ‘sins’ at all, thongh he admits that they need the atoning blood of Christ. The mode of worship is elastic, ranging from the full and stately liturgical service of the Church of England, and Wesley's abridgment, to the free, spontaneous utterance of extempore rayer, the singing of four hymns, and a sermon. Tis more elaborate services are found Xora oi in the large cities, the more simple in the country towns and villages. The ‘love-feast’ is for members only, and is held in each society once a quarter ; it is a narration of vivid and oe experience, mingled with praise and prayer. The Covenant Service is held on the first Sabbath of the New Year. In this service the members of the church solemnly reconsecrate themselves to God, ‘ heartily contented that He appoint them their work and station ;" covenanting to endeavour to order and vern their whole Tlife according to the divine irection, and not to allow themselves in the neglect of anything they know to be their duty. The service eoheldies with the Lord’s Supper. (3) History.—The history of Methodism is for many years the history of Christian effort to evan- lise the neglected ‘masses’ of England. The ) aed of Wesley, and of those whom he inspired to imitate his example, were of the noblest deserip- tion, and met with remarkable success. The refor- mation of life which his preaching produced, for example, among the Kingswood colliers and the Cornwall wreckers, is a testimony to the power of religion which cannot be too highly estimated. The which has inspired the body in regard to forei missions, although in the highest degree honourable, is only the logical development of their efforts at home—for they originally regarded their society in England as simply a vast ‘home mission,’ and neither Wesley rtor his followers desired to consider themselves a ‘sect,’ a new church, in the common of the term, but were warnily attached to the old national church, and considered themselves among her true children. When Wesley died ee his ‘societies’ had spread over the United Cingdom, the continent of Europe, the States of America, and the West Indies, and numbered 80,000 members. Since then they have largely increased (see below ). The Wesleyan Methodists have four theological colleges for the training of ministers—at Kichmond Hill, Surrey ; Didsbury, South Lancashire ; Head- ingley, in Yorkshire; and Handsworth, Birmingham, They have, besides, numerous secondary schools, and also (in 1889) 841 day-schools, with 179,578 scholars; the total income of the schools bein £246,478. The Methodist Book-room is situa in the City Road, London, and issues hundreds of thousands of religions publications (tracts, &c.) monthly. The newspapers and other periodicals professedly in connection with the body include four quarterlies, and about 150 journals in English and other langnages, Among the more eminent Metho- dist authors may be named the two Wesleys, Fletcher, Benson, Clarke, Moore, Watson, Drew, - Sr gen — Tse vs ei 5 Rule, Vichols, Smith, Etheridge, Rigg, Pope, G Sete. ana Paton. gs eg pe, Gregory, THe Mernopist Episcopa. Crurcn is the society of Wesleyan Methodists in the United States of America, where the first members-of that body—immigrants from Ireland—established them- selves as a religious society in New York in the year 1766. In the course of a year or two their | South. numbers had considerably increased, and they wrote to John Wesley to send them out some competent preachers. Two immediately offered themselves for the work, Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmoor, who were followed in 1771 by Francis Asbury and Richard Wright, The agitations preceding the war of independence, which soon afterwards broke ont, interrupted the labours of the English Methodist preachers in America, all of whom, with the excep- tion of Asbury, returned home before the close of the year 1777 ; but their place appears to have been supplied by others of native origin, and they con- tinued to prosper, so that at the termination of the revolutionary struggle they numbered 43 preachers and 13,740 members. Up to this time the American Wesleyan Methodists had laid no claim to being a distinct religions organisation. Like Wesley - self, they regarded themselves as members of the English Episcopal Church, or rather that branch of it then existing in America, and their ‘ preachers’ as a body of irregular auxiliaries to the ordained clergy. * Episcopal Shanclen” we are informed, ‘are s standing in New York and elsewhere, at whose altars Embury, Pilmoor, Boardman, gis Asbury, and Rankin, the earliest Methodist preachers, received the holy communion.’ But the recognition of the United States as an independent country, and the difference of feelings and interests that necessarily sprang up between the con tions at home and those in America, rendered the formation of an independent society inevitable. Wesley became conscious of this, and met the emer- cy in a manner as bold as it was unexpected, 25 himself was only a presbyter of the Church of England, but having convinced himself that in the primitive church a presbyter and a bishop were one and the same order, differing only as to their official functions, he assumed the office of the latter, and, in September 1784, with the assistance of some other presbyters who had joined his movement, he set a and ordained the Rey. Thomas Coke (q.v.), of Oxford University, bishop of the infant church. Coke immediately sailed for America, and appeared with his credentials at the Conference held at Baltimore in December of the same year. He was unanimously a a by the assembly of preachers, appointed Asbury coadjutor bishop, and ordained several preachers to the offices of deacon and elder, Wesley also granted the preachers per- mission (which shows the extensive ecclesiastical wer he wielded) to organise a separate and independent church under the Episcopal form of government. Nevertheless, there were not a few who were dissatisfied with the Episcopal form of government, This feeling grew stronger and stronger, until in 1830 a secession took place, and a new eccl tical organisation was formed, called the ‘Methodist Protestant Chureh.’ In 1842 a second ion took place, chiefly on the question of slavery—the seceders pronounc- in 1 slave-holding sinful, and exclu slave- holders from chure membership and ristian eal and in 1843 a meeting was held at Utica, New York, where a new society was con- stituted and named the ‘Wesleyan Methodist Connection of America.’ It has continued up to the present a small and unimportant body. But in 1844 a far larger and more important secession took lace on the same question, when the whole of the ethodist societies in the then slave-holding states, conceiving themselves aggrieved by the Potee instituted at the general Conference of New Yo (1844) inst the Rey. James O. Andrew, D.D., one of the bishops, and a citizen of G who ad married a lady px of slaves, resolved to break off connection with their northern brethren. Hence originated the Methodist Episcopal Church, In 1869 a movement (unsuccessful) began METHODISTS METHYL 161 in favour of the re-union of the northern and south- ern Methodist main finally in the way, having been abolished. There are now 10 theological schools, by a ar above 200,000,000 of ks and tracts in a year; its ign missions more than 3000 Ameri- can missionaries are omerere. Returning to the Engli Viesleres Methodists, we mention the various secessions from the parent same, the only diffi and spiritual. These laymen by the circuits or by ‘guardian tatives’ elected for life by the Conference. (2) Primitive Methodists, vulgarly designated , were first formed into a society in 1810, though the founders had separated from the old society some years before. The immediate cause of this separation was a disagreement as to the pro- priety of camp-meetings for religious purposes ; and of women being permitted They are chiefly distin- i by their rejection of a paid ministry. (4) ible Christians, also called Bryanites, were formed by a local preacher named an, who seceded from the Wesleyans in 1815. The only distinction between them and the original body appears to be that the former receive the eucharistic elements in a sitting wectng a (5) United Free Church Method- ists have formed by the amalgamation of two sects of nearly equal numerical strength. The older of these, called the Wesleyan Association, Fined in 1836 in the removal of one or two influential ministers from the original Connection. Points of difference subsequently a with regard to the constitution of the Conference.—The younger sect, called the Wesleyan Reform Associa- tion, took its rise in 1849 through the expulsion of several ministers from the nt body on a char, of insubordination, and, being founded on the same principles as the last-mentioned community, arrangements were entered into for their union, which was eae effected in 1857. Church independency an frectona of representation in the annual assembly are two of the most prominent distinctive traits in the organisation of the United Methodist Free Church. The WELSH CALVINISTIC METHODISTS are not a ee Vga followers o Sipe ba be sin- ated partly in Beers re fend en ellow- evangelist, Whitelield and. partly in that of Howel Harris. Whitefield was a Calvinist; Wesley, as we have seen, was on some points decidedly Arminian. A difference arose between them on the subject of election. Henceforward their paths at in different directions. Whitefield, however, did not form a religious sect; and after his death (1770) his followers, being left without any dis- tinct or organisation, either followed the leading of the Countess of Huntingdon.(q.v.), or became distributed among other denominations, a large portion, especially in Wales, becoming absorbed in the new society ually formin itself through the hing of Howel Harris an his — They became a separate body in 1810, have now about 130,000 communicants. The total number of members and adherents of Methodist churches is estimated at 25,000,000; the following table shows the distribution of ministers and members in 1889-91 : Great - Treland,........ 2384 25,960 Foreign Mission 875 37,778 Conference........ 30 1,541 South African Conferences 173 86,876 West Indian Conferences.... 89 48,082 Australasian Conferences... .. ++. 605 78,060 Methodist New Connection— WGN Sc, So saticaaseccisectsvesvasecss) - SOL 33,439 BROINGA yi s a des ued duce vawets conmeseyse 8 1,013 Mies: . 6... 5 acc beds teen venwsoceeveen 7 1,495 179 89 033 340 69 4 Methodist Lome oo Church, South, .,.. 4.530 1,102,926 African Methodist Episcopal Church .... 2,550 405,000 African Methodist Epis. Chureh.... 2,110 314,000 Coloured Meth. Epis. Church of America... 1,729 165,000 Evangelical Association.........++s00+0« 1,121 137,697 United Brethren Church.............+++ 1,566 195,278 Union American Meth, Epis. Church..... 40 3,660 United States, Non-Episcopal Churches— Methodist Protestant: Church..........+. 1,570 129,268 Other non-Episcopal Churches.......... 2,502 61,314 Canada, Methodist Church of....... enue sy 1,558 212,770 BOOM: vo0ss cacnseonsvacess 88,817 5,926,863 See, besides the works and the Lives of the Wesleys and of Whitefield, George Smith’s History of Methodism (1862); Abel Stevens’ History of the Religious Movement called Methodism (New York, 1861); Daniel’s Short History of the Methodists (1882); and works on the lity, constitution, and economy of Methodism by ierce, Williams, and Rigg. For Methodist missions, see MISSIONS. Methodius. See CyriL. Methuen Treaty, a commercial treaty nego- tiated in 1703 by Paul Methuen, the English am- bassador in Portugal, with that country, to admit Portuguese wines to England at a duty one-third less than that on French wines, the Portuguese undertaking in return to admit English wool, im- posing on it, however, the old duty of 23 per cent. ad st, Sat It was annulled in 1835, Methyl is an organic radical homologous with Ethyl (q.v.). Its formula is CH, but, as it cannot exist in the free state, two such froups of atoms unite together to form ethane, CH,—CH;. As in the case of ethyl, methyl is the centre of a whole up of substances known as the methyl-group. hus, the hydride of methyl, CH,H, known as light carburetted by drogen marsh-gas, or fire- damp, is well known as the cause of explosions in coal-mines. It is a light, inodorous gas, half as heavy as air; non-poisonous and very inflammable, forming an explosive mixture with seven volumes of air. ethyl alcohol, CH,OH, is obtained as a by- product in the manufacture of beet-root sugar, and also by the dry distillation of wood. It is a colour- less, mobile liquid, resembling ordinary alcohol in many of its properties. Methyl oxide or methyl ether, (CH;),0, corresponding to ethyl ether or common ether, is a gas at ordinary temperatures, very soluble in water and alcohol, and capable of being condensed to a liquid by pera and cold. It is largely prepared for use in freezing-machines, owing to the intense cold which results when the liquefied gas is allowed to evaporate. It is pre- pared by the action of sulphuric acid on wood spirit. 162 METHYLATED SPIRIT METRE Besides the above, methyl enters into the con- stitution of many ethereal ‘salts and amines, such as methyl chloride, acetate, and salicylate, as well as methyl amine, dimethyl amine, &c. (see Amines). The salicylate, CH,C;H,0,, is interesting as being the eth oil of Gaultheria procumbens, from which pure methyl alcohol and pure salicylic acid can both be e. For Methyl] Violet, see DYkING ; and for Methylene, see ANASTHESIA. Methylated Spirit consists of a mixture of 9 parts of alcohol, of specific gravity 0°920, with 1 of Pyroxylic (q.v.) or wood-spirit. This addition of ea ap renders it unfit for drinking, although it scarcely interferes with its power as a solvent. It is allowed by the excise to be sold duty-free for manufacturing purposes, and for pre- serving specimens in museums. Metonic Cycle, See CuronoLocy, GOLDEN NuMBER. Metope. See ENTABLATURE. Metre is that regulated succession of certain groups of syllables in which Poetry (q.v.) is usually written. greater or less number of groups forms a line or verse, and in modern languages the verses usually rhyme with one another; but this is not at all essential to the notion of metre. In the classic | ages metre depended upon the way in which long and short syllables were made to succeed one another. English metre depends, not upon the distinction of long and short, but upon of accented and unaccented syllables. Thus, in the lines, The cur’ |few tolls’ | the knell’ | of part’| ing day’— War'riors and | chiefs’, should the | shaft’ or the | sword’— the accents occur at regular intervals; and the groups of syllables thus formed constitute each a metre or measure. The groups of long and short syllables composing the metres of classic verse were called feet, each foot having a distinctive name. The same names are sometimes applied to English measures, an accented syllable in fen lish being held to be equivalent to a long syllable in Latin or Greek, and an unaccented syllable to a short. Every metre in English contains one accented lable and either one or two unaccented syllables. s the accent may be on the first, second, or third syllable of the group. there thus arrive five distinct measures, two dissyllabic and three trisyllabic, as seen in the words—l, com’fort (corresponding to the classic Trochee); 2, agree’ (Iambus); 3, murmuring ( Dactyl); 4, confu’sion (Amphibrach) ; 5, colonnade’ (Anapmest). These measures are arranged in dines or verses, varying in length in different pieces, and often in the same piece. The ending measure of a line is ee oped ncomplete, or has a supernumerary ny Ram e; and sometimes one measure is substituted for another. All that is necessary is that some one measure be so pre- dominant as to give a character to the verse, Constant recurrence of the same measure produces monotony. The following lines exemplify the five measures : qa) Rich’ the | treas‘ure, Bet’ter | six’ty| years’of | Eu’rope | than’a | cy’cle | of’ Cajthay’. (2) Aloft’ | in aw’ \ful state’, The prop’ \er stud’) y of | mankind’ | is man’, Bird’ of the | wilderness, Bright’est and | best’ of the | sons’ of the | morning. The dew’ of | the morn'ing. O young’ Loch;invar has | come out’ of | the west’. As they roar’ | on the shore’. The Aasyr’ jinn came down’ | like a wolf’ | on the fold’, It is instinctively felt that some of these measures are better suited for particular subjects than others, (3) (4) (5) Thus, the first has a brisk, abrupt, energetic char- acter, agreeing well with lively and subjects, —, with the intensity of och pieces on leshd wha é. langusge, It is smooth, ily adapting itself to easy narrative, and expression of the gentler feelings, or to the treat- ment of severe and sublime subjects. The trisyl- labic metres, owing to the number of unaccented syllables in them, are eo! in their movement, with a tripping lightness that suggests the of music in triple time. They are all less and monotonous than the dissyllabie metres. of them is frequently substituted for another, as in the opening of Byron’s Bride of Abydos: Know’ ye the | land’ where the | ¢ and | myr’tle refi nth of deeds’ that | ph grt in | their clime’ ; Where the rage’ | of the vul’!ture, the love’ | of the tur’) tle— where each of the three lines is in a different metre, the first dactylic, the second am hibrachic, the third anapestic. In addition to irregularity, one of the unaccented syllables is often wanting ; as in Mrs Hemans’ poem, The Voice of Spring: T come’, | I come’! | ye have called’ | me long’ ; 1 come | o'er the moun’ |tains with light’ | and song’— the first line has only one measure of three 4 lables, although the general character of versification is trisylabic. z In a kind of verse introduced by Coleri and oceasionally by Byron and others, un- accented syllables are al ther left out of account, and the versification is made to depend upon having a regular number of accents in the line ; There is’ not wind’ enough’ to twirl’ The one’ red leaf’, the last’ of its clan’, That danc’es as oft’en as dance’ it can’ On the top’most twig’ that looks up’ at the sky’. Here there are four accents in each line, but the number of syllables varies from eight to eleven. The variety of combinations of metres and a that may be formed is endless; but a few of the more usual forms of English versification have received special names, and these we may briefly notice. Octosyllabics are verses made up each of four measures of the second kind of metre, and therefore containing eight syllables : With fruit’ |less la’ | bour, Cla’) ra bound’ And strove’ | to stanch’ { the gush’|ing wound’. Scott’s and Byron’s romantic poems lone Lara and the Corsair) are mostly in octosyllabics, and so are Hudibras, Lalla Rookh, and many other pieces. Heroic is a term applied to verses containing jive metres of the second kind, or tensyllables. Heroics either rhyme in couplets, or are without cigdee= | constituting blank verse. Many of the narrative and didactic poems in the English language are in } AGS _— / ~~ Fi , yy . /i* Aonuy) yi tysous yy AY /////) “on molarity ouppry ae { | {( ( q \\\\\ \ wet foqoqs {i {\} i @ j, 2 x st yo or | Somonntigd rs conh - aot 1 —-— se. OL ae & fa : MICHELET MICHIGAN 177 i and Leclere, he became at twenty-three a professor of History in the Collége Rollin. Later he lectured at the Collége Sainte-Barbe and the Ecole Normale, and after the revolution of 1830 was given an im- ¢ post at the Archives, became assistant to uizot at the Sorbonne, and tutor to the Princess Clémentine. In 1838 he was elected to thie Academy, and at the same time became professor of History at the Collége de France. Already he had made his name known by admirable hand- books on French and on modern history, and com- menced the monumental work which was to give him an illustrious place among great historians, his Histoire de France (18 vols. 1833-67; new ed. 19 vols. 1879), the labour of about forty years. Other works were Origines du Droit Francais cherchées dans les boles et Formules du Droit Universel (1837), Mémoires de Luther (1845), and Procés de Ti iers (1841-51). Michelet had a t dislike for priests, but especially for the esuits, and he now plunged into controversy with all the impetuosity of his nature and eloquence, bringing to bear upon the enemy at once all his powers of sarcasm and all his unrivalled knowledge of history. Three books were the fruits of his lemic : Des Jésuits, written in conjunction with _ Quinet (1843); Le Prétre, la Femme, et Famille (1845); and Le Peuple (1846). Next followed his famous Histoire de la Révolu- tion (7 vols. 1847-53; centenary ed. 5 vols. 1889), which is not a good history with all its eloquence and enthusiasm. Before its conclusion Michelet had lost his oftice Ld refusing to take the oath of allegiance to Louis Napoleon. Henceforth he lived mostly in Brittany and in the Riviera, buried in his gigantic literary labours. A series of books of a novel kind, full of rhapsodic eloquence and more valuable as literature than as science, were L’Oiseau (1856), L’Insecte (1857), La Mer (1861), and La M (1868). Other books of unusual interest were L’ Amour (1858), La Femme 1860), La Soreiére (1862), and La Bible de 'Humanité (1864). The little book, Nos Fils 1869), was a ex for compulsory education. ichelet’s t ey brings down the story of France to the outb of the great Revolution. The second instalment continues it to the close of the Revolution. In the last years of his life he set himself to complete his task, and thus es ere a great continuous history to France, but he did not live to carry it bey Waterloo (3 vols. 1872- 75). He died at Hyéres, 9th February 1874. Michelet ever treats history from a personal point of view, and his imagination is prone to bring into undue relief striking figures and dramatic scenes and incidents. Thus his work is a series of tab- aren as —_ oo a ~ the eyes of a pre! genius, fu prejudices for and against his puppets, and destitute of the sense for historical pe ve. Yet the whole stands out a master- piece of genius, instinct with life, and the wide range of historical literature must be ransacked for Dae ner red nypeens bors treatment of Joan of Are or the Templars, or the luminous geographical survey of France with which the work opens. See the books by G. Monod (1875), Noél (1878), Corréard (1886), and Jules Simon (1889). Michigan (Chippewa-Indian Mitchi Sawgye- qn ‘Great Lake,’ originally — to both Takes uron and te ), the third in size of the five great fresh-water lakes of North America, and the only one lying wholly in the United States, having Mich on the N. and E., and Wisconsin on the W. It is about 335 miles long, and from 50 to 88 broad ; the mean depth is 325 feet, the maximum 870. It has the same elevation as Lake Huron with which it is connected by the Strait of hata feet above the sea-level ; this is 20} feet lower than Lake Superior, and 8, feet above Lake Erie. Its surface area is 22,450 sq. m., or 1350 less than that of Lake Huron; but its drainage area—37,700 sq. m.—is 6000 sq. m. greater than its neighbour's. There is a neap-tide of 13 inch, and_a spring-tide of about 3 inches. The shores of Lake Michigan, which are guarded by a number of lighthouses, are for the most part low; the annual erosion amounts to about 5 feet. Its principal harbours are those of Chicago, Milwaukee, and Racine. See Crosman’s Chart of the Great Lakes (Milwaukee, 1888). Michigan, a state of the American Union, the pare eer aitheh and ninth in population, and aving a pop. of 36 per sq. m., is in 41° 42 to 48° 20"'N. lat., and | 900i ibe 3. oy 3 Be 82° 25’ to 90° 32’ W. long. It has | MPPiveott Company. an area of 58,915 sq. m., or more than thatof England and Wales; 1114 sq. m. are occupied by 5173 small lakes, while the surface of 179 islands and islets, from one acre upwards, measures about 633. ‘The coast-line in navigable lake waters is 1624 miles. The state is bounded on the S. by Indiana and Ohio; on the E. by Lake Erie, Detroit River (properly Strait), Lake St Clair, St Clair River, Lake Huron, and St Mary’s River, beyond all which lies the province of Ontario, Canada ; on the N. by Lake Superior, on the SW. (upper peninsula) ry Wisconsin, and on the W. by Lake Michigan. rom its north-western point at the mouth of Mon- treal River to the extreme south-east on Maumee Bay is about 500 miles. It is sometimes called the Peninsular State, from its formation in two great peninsulas, the upper and lower, or northern and southern. The upper has an extreme length of 318 and width of 164 miles, the lower of 277 and 197 miles; the latter includes the Huron Peninsula, or the ‘thumb’ of the ‘mitten,’ in eastern Michi- gan, and the small Leelanaw Peninsula in the north-west. The eastern part of the other, looking toward St Mary’s River, is sometimes called St Mary's Peninsula. Keweenaw Peninsula, bearing the great copper-mines, stretches far north into the waters of Lake Superior; and on the south, near Mackinac Island, is the little but picturesque St Ignace Peninsula. The upper region is mostly rugged, broken, rocky, and comparatively barren, though teeming with mineral wealth ; but hopeful beginnings of agriculture have been made in the eastern half of it. In the north-west, near Lake Superior, is the highest land in the state, among the hills known as the Poreupine Mountains (1830 feet above the sea). The famous Mineral range passes scuth of this, from Keweenaw Point south- westward into Wisconsin ; but it is merely a gentle swell from both sides, nowhere really mountainous. No part of the lower peninsula is more than 1780 feet above sea-level ; and the mean height is only 160 feet above the environing waters of the lakes. The highest part of Detroit is but 73 feet above the river at this point, and the uplift of a few feet in the adjacent river and lake beds would flood a thousand square miles of Michigan soil. This soil is mainly formed by the glacial drift, in alternated clay, sand, and gravel beds, supplying all the chemical constituents of a good soil, and enabling the growth of all crops adapted to this climate. The mean annual temperature of the state is 46°1° F. (summer, 68°5° ; winter, 23°8°) ; the annual rain- fall is 35°8 inches. Both peninsulas, with occa- sional exceptions of swamps or small prairies, were originally covered with dense forests, the products of which have proved exceedingly valuable. The geology of the state is highly interesting ; it repre- sents every rock series known, from the oldest strata to the top of the Carboniferous. In the west of the upper peninsula, on the Wisconsin border, are the Lesisntinn, and on either side and 178 MICHIGAN MICKIEWICZ eastward the Huronian formations, in which are the great deposits of iron ore. The Mineral range is of eruptive or volcanic rock, with older strata tilted upon its sides. Farther eastward are the long belts the Lower Silurian, curving from Green Bay through the St Mary’s Peninsula. The lower peninsula is com , geologically, to.a nest of wooden dishes, Its centre is a coal-bearing area of about 5000 sq. m., carrying, however, comparatively little coal of economic value in workable place and shape ; though 58,099 tons were raised in 1889. In succession beyond, and in mighty sweeps around the central tract, are the upturned edges of other Carboniferous strata, then the Devonian formations, and finally the Lower Helderberg group of the Silurian. In the Michigan salt group are the rich brine wells of the Saginaw valley ; in the Marshall or Waverley are the Huron grindstones, quarried on the shore of Lake Huron; and other groups yield valuable mineral products. The output of salt for 1889 was 5,950,000 barrels, the number of wells 254. In salt and timber Michigan leads the United States, and in iron and copper the world. The great Calumet and Hecla copper-mines, the largest acne with perhaps one exception, are on the Keweenaw Peninsula, The annual copper output in 1890-95 averaged over 45,000 tons, of a quality nowhere surpassed, and for some purposes unequalled. In 1896, 5,856,169 long tons of iron ore were mined, mainly in Marquette county. Some gold is found in the upper penin- sula, and silver and lead in small amounts. OP: sum appears in immense deposits at Grand Rapids, in the lower peninsula, where 19,823 tons of land- plaster and 206,380 barrels of stucco were produced in 1889. Building-stones abound in both penin- sulas, and in the upper there are also statuary and other marbles, and such ornamental stones as agates, ee chalcedony, chlorastolites, and others. Glass sand is found in the extreme south- east of the state; and lime, brick, tiles, and the like are made easily and cheaply in many parts. Of the many mineral springs nineteen have become popular resorts, and the waters of four have a com- mercial value. Lumbering is the second t industrial interest of the state. The forests of northern Michigan are mostly pine, much of it, as the cork pine, of superior quality and tly in demand; and for many ears the lumber product has been enormous. In 890-95 it was: lumber, 5,500,000 feet; shingles, 3,000,000,000 a year. In places this industry is beginning to decline, from the extensive destruc- tion of the forests. Other leading manufactories, in order, are t-mills, foundries. and machine- shops, iron and steel works, and those of agricul- tural implements and of furniture. But agricul- ture remains the chief industry, employing about half the population. This is one on the greatest wheat states, its average yield per acre 194 bushels, The next most important crops are maize, oats, and barley; and in the ‘ fruit belt,’ a narrow strip of about 200 miles in length on the shore of Lake Michigan, peaches, plums, grapes, and other fruits are grown in great quantity. It ranks among the chief states in the production of wool; the yield of scoured wool in 1898 was 4,162,377 lb. The commerce of the state is very great, and is promoted by three ship-canals—one among the shallows at the head of Lake St Clair, another near the head of St Mary's River, at the Sault de Ste Marie, and another on the Keweenaw Penin- sula, known as the Po Lake Canal. For the year ending June 30, 1896, the imports at Detroit amounted to $3,383,163; domestic exports, about 66,000,000 ; foreign exports, $50,000. ° There are three other ports of entry, at Port Huron, Grand Haven, and Marquette. The railways in the state have about 8000 miles of track, and reach nearly every one of the eighty-three counties. Popular and higher education has been liberally developed, and the illiterates form only 4 per cent. of the popula- tion. Besides the state university at Ann Arbor, there are nine denominational colleges, a state normal school at Ypsilanti, a mining-school at Marquette; the agricultural, the school for the blind, and reform school for boys at Lansing; the deaf and dumb institute at Flint, an industrial home for girls at Adrian, and a school for neglected and dependent children at Coldwater. Other prin- cipal state charities are four asylums for the an asylum for insane criminals, and the Soldiers’ Home at Grand Rapids. There are state prisons at Jackson and Marquette, and houses of correction at Detroit, Marquette, and Ionia, History.—The Michigan country was probabl visited by Jean Nicolet in 1634, at the t Ste Marie, where the first permanent white settle- ment was made by Father Marquette in 1668 for a Jesuit mission, Detroit was founded in 1701 by a French colony under Cadillac. The country passed to the English in 1760, and to the United States in 1796; it was again oceupied by Great Britain in 1812, but was recovered by the Americans the next year. It formed a pares the North-west territory, erected in 1787; ea of the Indiana territory in 1802, was organised as Michigan terri- tory in 1805, and admitted as a state in 1837. Pop. (1800) 551 ; (1840) 212,267 ; (1880) 1,636,937, including 7249 Indians ; (1890) 2,093,889; (1900) 2,420, Detroit (285,704) has always been the chief city; Grand cm age (87,565) is second, and Saginaw (42,345) third. Other cities are Sault Ste. Marie, Marquette, Bay City, Muskegon, Jackson, siess, Soest tec (the capital), West Bay City, Manistee, Is' ng, Muccostane Flint, Ann Arbor, Adrian, he. See J. M. Cooley, Michigan (Boston, 1885). Michigan City, a city of Indiana, on Lake Michigan, 38 Fa eg Be water (57 by rail) ESE. of Chicago. It has a harbour, contains a coll a state prison, and railway-shops, and man tures cars, refrigerators, furniture, boots, &e, Pop. (1890) 10,776 ; (1900) 14,850. Mickiewicz, ApAm, the greatest of Polish poets, was born near Novogrodek in Lithuania ne ), on 24th December 1798, and educated at ilna. In 1822, whilst teaching Polish literature at Kovno, he published his first collection of poems, full of the inspirations of Polish national life. Two years later he was banished to the interior of Russia for being concerned in the formation of a students’ secret society. In 1825 he paid a visit to the Crimea, whose beauties he celebrated in a series of exquisite sonnets. Before quitting Russia in 1829 he published three epic poems, Dziady (1823-27), on the religious commemora- tions of their ancestors by the Slav races, and Konrad Wallenrod (1828; Eng. trans, 1841) and Grazyna (1827), the last two drawn from the struggle between the Lithuanians and the Knights of the Teutonic Order, and both glowing with patriotic feeling. From Russia Mickiewiez passed through Germany (where he visited Goethe and awakened the old Olympian’s warm admiration) and France to Italy and Rome. In 1834 his masterpiece, the epic poem Pan Tadeusz ( Master Thaddeus; Eng. trans. 1886)—a most admirable delineation of Lithuanian customs and manners, traditions, ideas, and beliefs, and Lithuanian character, including fine poetical. descriptions of the gloomy primeval forests and of the scenery of the country. After teaching for a while at Lausanne, Mickiewicz was appointed professor of the Slavonic Literatures at Paris in 1840; but three MICKLE MICROPHONE 179 years later he was deprived of his chair, having given offence to the government of the day by political utterances in his lectures. For some ears he lived a hard and unsettled life—in 1848 was in Italy, helpin to organise the Polish legion that fought side side with the Italian republicans at Rome—until in 1852 Louis Napoleon appointed him a librarian in the Arsenal Library at Paris. He died 28th November 1855 at Con- stantinople, whither the French government had sent him to o ise a Polish legion to fight against Russia. His body was taken to France and buried at Montmorency; but in 1890 his bones were trans- ported to his native country and laid beside those of Kosciusko in the cathedral of Cracow. Mickie- wicz is pre-eminently the national poet of the Poles, and next after Pushkin the greatest of all the poets of the Slavs. His collected works were issued at Paris in 11 vols. (1860-61), at Leipzig in 5 vols. (1862-69), and at Lemberg, a popular edition, in 4 vols. (1885 et seg.). See Life by his son Ladislas Mickiewicz (1888), Fontille (Mainard ) (1862), both in French, and an anonymous one in German (1857); also the Memoirs of Herzen. Mickle, WILLIAM JvLius, translator of the Lusiad, was born in Langholm manse, Dumfries- shire, in 1734. He was educated at Edinburgh High School, failed in business as a brewer, and next went to London to make a living by writing. In 1765 he published his would-be Spenserian poem, The ine (in its next edition entitled Syr Martyn), and so prepared the way for his version rather than translation of the Lusiad of Camoens (1771-75), which he completed during four years’ seclusion in a farmhouse. In 1779 he went to Lisbon as secretary to Commodore Johnstone, but his last years were spent in London, where -he died in 1788. Of his other works none are now of im His ballad of Cumnor Hall, which suggested to Scott the romance of Kenilworth, is poor stuff, but the delightful song, ‘There’s nae luck about the house,’ is long since safely assured of its immortality. An attempt has been made to ascribe this song to the ill-fated Greenock poetess, Jean Adam (1710-65), but her claim will not bear serious examination. See A for January 27, 1877. The best edition of Mickle’s poems is that edited, with a Life, by the Rev. John Sim (1806). Micmaes, 4 tribe of Algonquin Indians, the first with whom the English pa in contact; they remained hostile to the English and their colonies till 1760. They now number from 3000 to 4000, and are mostly in Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and New Brunswick, There is an English-Micmac ae (Halifax, 1888), compiled by the late Microbe, Micrococcus. See BAcTERIA, GERM. Microcline. See Fe.spar. Microcosm and Macrocosm. The belief of the ancients that the world or cosmos was animated, or had a soul (see ANIMA MuNnp1), led to the notion that the parts and members of organic bones must have their counterparts in the members of the cosmos, Thus, in a hymn ascribed to Orpheus, the sun and moon are looked upon as the eyes of the animating godhead, the earth and its mountains as his y, the ether as his intellect, sky as his wings. The natural philosophers of the 16th century—Paracelsus at their head—took up this notion anew in a somewhat modified shape, considered the world as a human organism’ om the large scale, and man as a world, or cosmos, in miniature; hence they called man a microcosm (Gr., ‘little world’) and the universe itself the macrocosm |‘ world’). With this was associ- ated the belief that the vital movements of the microcosm exactly corresponded to those of the macrocosm, and represented them as it were in copy. From this it was an easy transition to the further assumption, that the movements of the stars exercise an influence on the temperament and fortunes of men (see ASTROLOGY). Heylin gave the title Microcosmus to a work on cosmograph in 1621, and Lotze entitled his great work delini- tive of man’s position in the universe Mikrokosmus (1856-64 ). Microcosmie Salt is used in blowpipe an- piers and may be prepared by mixing concentrated solutions of phosphate of soda and chloride of am- monium. It has the composition NaNH,HPO,,4H,0. Microlestes, the name given to the earliest known mammalian form—a marsupial; it is dis- covered in the Trias of England and of Wiirtemberg. Only the teeth, which are of small size, have been met with, Micrometer (Gr. mikros, ‘little;’ metron, ‘measure ’) is an instrument used for the measure- ment of minute distances and angles. Its different forms, depending on different principles, may be divided into two sections, according as they are applied to physics or astronomy. Of the former section are the Vernier (q.v.) and the Micrometer Screw, the latter instrument being merely a screw with a very regular thread, and a large round head, which is carefully graduated, generally to sixtieths, and furnished with an index. It is easily seen that if a complete turn of the screw advance its point Fu of an inch, a turn sufficient to pass the index rom one graduation to another will only advance it ys0 Of an inch, &e. This is the micrometer used in the construction and graduation of instru- ments. Of those applied to astronomical purposes the most simple is a short tube, across the openin of which are stretched two parallel threads, which are moved to or from each other by screws. These threads are crossed by a third perpendicularly, and the whole apparatus is placed in the focus of a lens. The distance of two stars is found by adjusting the two parallel threads, one to pass through the centre of each star, taking care that the threads are placed pope snes to the line joining the stars, and inding how many turns and parts of a turn of the screw are required to bring the wires to coincide. The angle of position of two stars is also obtained by turning round the instrument till the third wire, which is normally horizontal, bisects both stars, and reading off on the circumference the are passed over. Fraunhofer’s suspended annular micrometer consists merely of a steel ring surrounded by a flat rim of glass, and the position of the star is deduced from. the time when it crosses the ring and its path while within it. The Abbé Rochon substituted for the wire micrometer one made of two prisms of rock-crystal or Iceland spar, capable of double refraction. . Microphone. This instrument, invented in 1878 by Professor Hughes, does for faint sounds what the microscope does for matter too small for sight ; the fall of a bit of tissue-paper or the tread of a fly being rendered audible at many miles’ distance. One of the most sensitive substances for microphonic action is willow-charcoal, plunged in a state of white heat into mercury. The theory is that in a homogeneous conductor of electricity the compressions and dilatations of the molecules balance each other, and no variation of current ensues; while, with a state of fine grained non- homogeneity of the conductor, variations of pres- sure in the conductor produce variations in its conducting power, and thus induce variations in the strength of the electric current traversing it; and these variations of current, when the current passes through a second similar conductor, induce corresponding variations in its molecular stresses, 180 MICROPHONE MICROSCOPE which may act upon the surrounding air and ive rise to sonorous waves; or the variations the current may be detected by the Telephone (q-v.). One form of microphone consists of a piece of mercury-tempered carbon, an inch long, nro vertically between two carbon-blocks hol- wed to receive its ends ; wires connectthe blocks with the battery and with the receiver by which the sounds are to be heard. ‘A piece of willow- ,’ says the inventor, ‘the size of a pin’s head is sufficient to reproduce articulate speech.’ Two nails laid parallel, with wire connections, and a third nail laid across them, make a simple form of microphone. A few cells of any form of battery may be used. Many useful applications of the microphone have been made or suggested. Microscope (Gr. mikros, ‘small ;’ and skopeo, *I see’) is an instrument for enabling us to examine objects which are so small as to be almost or quite undiscernible by the unaided eye. Its early history is obscure; but, as it is quite evident that the property of magnifying pos- by the lens must have been noticed as soort as it was made, we are quite safe in attributi its existence in its simplest form to a peri considerably anterior to the time of Christ. It is generally believed that the first compound micro- scope was made by Zacharias Jansen, a Dutchman, in the year 1590, and was exhibited to James I. in London by his astronomer, Cornelius Drebbel, in 1619. It was then a very imperfect instrument, colouring and distorting all objects. For many years it was more a toy than a useful instrument, and it was not until the invention of the achromatic lens by Chestermoor Hall (1729) and John Dollond tel ), and its lication to the microscope by ter and others, that it reached the advanced position it now occupies among scientific instru- van t to be ified i imply that n objec magni uires sim a it be brought nearer to the ae than hea first examined ; but as the focal distance of the eye ranges from 6 inches to 14 inches—10 inches being the ave: focal distance—it follows that a limit to the magnifying power of the eye is attained when- ever the object to be examined is brought too near. If, however, we blacken a card, and pierce a hole in it with a fine needle, and then examine a minute object, as, for instance, the wing of an insect held about an inch from the card, we shall see it dis- tinctly, and that, too, = gets about ten times its size. This is explained by the fact that the pin- hole limits the divergence of the pencil of rays from each point of the object, so that the eye can con- verge it sufliciently on the retina to produce a distinct impression, which is faint; and did not the blackened card exclude all other light it would be lost. If we now remove the blackened card without either moving our eye or the object under examination, it will be found that the insect’s wing is almost invisible, the unassisted eye being un- able to see clearly an object so near as one inch; thus demonstrating the blackened card with the needle-hole in it to be as decided a magnifying instrument as any set of lenses. In fig. 1 AB is a double convex lens, in front of which, between it and its focus, K, but near that focus, we have drawn an arrow, EF, to represent the object under inspection. The cones drawn from its extreme points are representative rays of light, diverging from these points and falling on the lens. These rays, if not interrupted in their course by the Jens, AB, would be too aeons for the eye to bring them to a foeus upon the retina (see Eye). But after traversing the lens, AB, they travel, if the object be sufficiently near the focus, K, in lines which are nearly parallel, or which apparently diverge from points, such as C, D, not nearer to the eye than the least distance of distinct vision, which is, for most individuals, about ten inches. Sup- pose the lens is as close as may be to the eye, and that the object, EF, is brought up to it to sucha distance that the virtual image, CD, is at 10 inches’ distance from the eye; and let us further suppose that the focal length of the lens is such (see LENS) that the image, CD, is ten times, linearly, as great as EF; then the eye, instead of vainly striving to see the small object, EF, near K, will seem to per- ceive distinctly an image ten times as linearly, and situated at the convenient distance, H. The magnification of the lens is independent of the eye, and is the relation between the size of the image and that of the object. When one of these is at an infinite distance and the other at a principal focus, the magnifying power depends on the position of the eye, and is the ratio between the apparent size of the object at any given dis- tance and that of the virtual image as seen with the aid of the lens; this may be seen to increase as the eye is withdrawn to a greater distance, especi- ally when the one eye is used to look at the object, say a page of print, and the other to look through the lens; but the gap: retinal image is formed when the lens is close to the eye. We have supposed the whole of the light to enter the eye through the lens, AB (fig. 1); but so la a pencil of light passing ee a single lens would be so much distorted by its spherical figure, and by the chromatic dispersion of the glass, as to produce a very indistinct and imperfect image, his is partly rectified eA applying a stop to the lens, so as to allow only the central portion of the pencil to pass. But, while such a limited pencil would repre- sent correctly the form and colour of the ohio so small a pencil of light is generally unable to illu- minate the whole of the magnified picture with any adequate degree of brilliancy, and is therefore in- capable of displaying those organic markings on animals or plants which are often of so much im- portance in ¢ on ewe one class of objects from another, Dr Wollaston was the first to overcome pg Korat Lara citer by constructing a doublet (fig. 2), which consists o two plano-convex lenses, having their <—\ f a3 yes in the proportion of 1 === som to 3, and placed at a distance best <=. ascertained by experiment. Their <-@ plane sides are placed towards the Fig. 2 Keser and = — of — focal Pe ength next the object. By this arrangement distortion caused by the first lens is corrected the second, and a well-defined and illam image is seen. Dr Wollaston’s doublet was further improved by Mr Holland, who substituted two lenses for the first in Dr Wolla- ston’s doublet, and retained the ~~ stop between them and the third. . This combination, though generally called a triplet, is virtually a doublet, inasmuch as the two lenses Fig. 3. only accomplish what the anterior lens did, although with less precision, in Dr Wolla- ston’s doublet. In this combination (fig. 3) of MICROSCOPE 181 lenses the errors are still further reduced the close approximation of the lenses to the object, which causes the refraction to take place near the axis, and thus we have a still larger pencil of light transmitted, and have also a more distinct and vivid image presented to the eye. Simple Microscope-—By this term we mean an instrument by means of which we view the object through the lens directly. These instruments may be divided into two classes—those simply used in the hand, and those provided with a stand or frame, so arranged as to be a og of being adjusted by means of a screw to the exact focal distance, and of being moved over different parts of the object. The single lens used may be either a bi-convex or a plano-convex. When a at power is wanted a doublet, such as we have already described, may be employed, or a Coddington lens, which consists (fig. 4) of a sphere in which a groove is cut and filled up with opaque matter. This is perhaps the most convenient hand lens, as it Page little, from its s) 2 ne = in what position it is held. In the Hig. 4 simple A sacs single or combined lenses may be employed, varying from a quarter to two inches. There are many different kinds of stands for simple microscopes made, but, as they are principally used for dissection, the most import- ant point next to good glasses is to secure a firm, stage for supporting the objects under exam- ination. When low powers alone are used the stage-movements may be dispensed with; but when the doublet or triplet is employed some more delicate adjustment than that of the hand is necessary. Compound Microscope.—In the compound micro- scope in its simplest form the observer does not view the object directly, but an inverted real image or picture of the object is formed by one lens or set of lenses, and that image is looked at through another lens. The compound microscope consists of two lenses, an object and an eye lens; but each of these may be compounded of several lenses play- ing the part of one, as in the rie microscope. ne eye-lens, or ocular, is that placed next the eye, and the object-lens, or objective, that next ie object. The objective is generally made of two or three achromatic lenses, while the eye-piece geray consists of two plano-convex lenses, with heir flat faces next the eye, and separated at half the sum of their focal lengths, with a diaphragm or stop between them. Lenses of high power are so small as to admit only a very small beam of light, and consequently what is gained in magnify- ing power is often worthless from deficient illumina- tion. Various devices have been employed to over- come this difficulty. The light may be concentrated by achromatic condensers Sloaed beneath the stage, or the curvature of the lens may be such as to allow as large a number of divergent rays as possible to -impinge upon it. Such a lens is said to have a ‘angle of aperture,’ the angle of aperture being that made by two lines converging from the margins of the lens to its focal point. Recently lenses, termed ‘immersion lenses,’ have been con- structed, of such a curvature that when immersed in a drop of a placed over the object light is admit Hong Loe With an permaen lens is hi ifyin, wer with sufficient Ghiminetion.° The accompanying diagram (fig. 5) explains the manner in which the complete compound micro- scope acts. We have here represented the triple achromatic objective, consisting of three achro- matie lenses combined in one tube, in connection with the eye-piece, which now consists of the field- glass, FF, in addition to the eye-glass, EE. The function of the field-glass, FF, is that the rays of light from the object tend, after traversing the objec- tive, to form an image at AA; but coming in contact with the field-glass, FF, they are bent, and made to converge at BB, where a real image is formed, at which place a stop or diaphragm is placed to intercept all light, except what is required to form a distinct image. From BB the rays proceed to the eye-glass, EE, exactly as they do in the simple microscope. The real image formed at BB is there- fore viewed as an original object waa the eye-glass, EE. The lens, FF, is not essential to a com- pound microscope; but as it is quite evident that the rays pro- ceeding to AA would fall exterior to the eye-lens, EE, if it were removed, and only a part of the object would thus be brought under view, it is always made use of in the compound microscope. A mirror is placed under the sage for reflecting the light through the object under observation. This method of illumination by trans- mitted light is used when the object is transparent. When ore light is reflected on the object by a bull’s-eye lens, called a condenser. The best instru- ments are supplied with six or seven object-glasses, varying in magnifying power from 20 to 2500 diameters, The eye-pieces supplied Fig. 5. are three in number, each of which consists of two plano-convex lenses, between which a stop or diaphragm is placed, half-way between the two lenses. As the magnifying power of a compound microscope depends on the product of the magnifying powers of the object-glass and the eye-piece, it follows that its power may be in- creased or diminished by a change in either or both of these glasses. In the mechanical ar- rangements it is of import- ance to have the instrument so constructed that, while eve facility is afforded for observation and easy ad- justment, there should also be great steadi- ness, These ends are achieved in various ways, of which fig. 6 is one of the simplest: a, brass stand, Fig. 6. three feet; 0, i mirror supported on trunnions; ¢, diaphragm, ierced with circular holes of various sizes, to regu- fate the admission to the object of reflected light from the mirror; d@, stage-plate, on which the object is placed ;. e, serew, with milled head for fine ad- justment ; f, the object-glass or objective ; g, brass tube in which the body of the instrument is moved, 182 MICROTOME MIDDLESEX so as to effect the coarse adjustment; A, the eye- piece, or ocular. ED x lekeeoypheay lete account of the — ae of croscopes, the various to whi are applied, pee Quakes On the a (1885) ;- Car- penter, The Mier (1802 ; 6th ed. 1880); works on the microscope by Hogg and Beale; The Microscopist, by Wythe ( 3d ed. 1877). Microtome, an instrument for cutting thin sections of portions of plants and animals prelimin- ary to their microscopic examination. The objects to be cut are imbedded in some material such as paraffin or celloidin, or frozen in gum, which makes the slicing of minute or delicate objects readily feasible. The cutting used to be done by holding the prepared object in one hand and wielding a razor in the other, but this method, apt to yield sections of unequal or insufficient thinness, has given place to the use of some form of microtome, which is at once quicker and more effective. These instruments are quite simple devices by which a sliding razor slices a fixed but adjustable object, or by which the object is made to move up and down across the edge of a razor. As typical forms may be noted the freezing microtomes of Ruther- ford and others ; the sliding microtomes common on the Continent; the ingenious ‘Rocker’ of the Cam- bridge Instrament Company—a favourite instru- ment in British laboratories; and more elaborate and automatic machines manufactured by the same company. Midas, a common name of the ancient Phrygian kings, most famous of whom is Midas, son of Gordius and Cybele, and pupil of Orpheus. For his kindness to Silenus he was promised by Dionysus whatever he should ask, and in his folly he asked that everything he touched should become gold ; but, as the very food he tonched was at once changed into gold, he was soon fain to implore the god to take back his fatal gift. He was told to bathe in the sources of the Pactolus, and from that day to this its sands have yielded grains of gold. Once, when Apollo and Pan were en; in a musical competition on the lyre and the flute, Midas was called in to decide between them. He gave the palm to Pan, whereupon Apollo changed his ears to. those of an ass. e concealed the deformity under his Phrygian cap, but could not hide it from his barber, who felt so heavy the burden of a secret he dared not reveal that he dug a hole in the ground and whispered into it, ‘ King Midas has ass’s ears.’ He then filled up the hole, and his heart was lightened ; but out of the ground sprung up a reed which ever whispered the shameful secret to the breeze. Middelburg, capital of the Dutch province of land, in the island of Walcheren, and 44 miles by rail NE. of Flushing. In former times it was one of the leading mercantile cities of the United Provinces, sending many ships to the East and West Indies, and the Levant (Thomas Cromwell was one of its merchants); but its commercial importance has tly declined, except for an active inland trade in corn, potatoes, and madder. Cotton-factories represent its only industry of note. The town-house, founded by Charles the Bold in 1468, is adorned with twenty-five statues of counts |: and countesses of Holland and Zealand. sixteen and nineteen. On production of satisfactory certificates and references, a youth's name se eee by the commander-in-chief to be placed on the list of candidates for the entrance examination. These examinations were held half-yearly, and the list of subjects included English composition, modern _ and temper. MILITARY SCHOOLS MILITIA 191 languages, mathematics, history, geography, na- tural and experimental. sciences, and drawing. The examination was competitive, and those who had the most marks were admitted as cadets as soon as vacancies occurred in the college. The course of study lasted two years, and embraced a variety of subjects connected with military science. The friends supplied clothing, books, and instru- ments, and annually for education, board, and lodging from £20 to £100. The highest sum was paid for ‘the sons of private gentlemen,’ the lowest for ‘the sons of officers of the army or navy who had died in the service, and whose families were proved to be left in pecuniary distress.’ Twenty were ‘Queen's cadets,’ sons of officers ‘who fallen in action, or had died from the effects of active service, and had left their families in reduced ney arene These ven ed on passing a qualifying examination, an uca gratuitously \ In 1870 different system was tried, t, the results not being satisfactory, it was very nickly condemned and old system reverted to. The 1 of the course of study has, however, been uced to one year, and the cadets have much more freedom than formerly, when they were in all respects like soldiers in barracks. See CADET. Admission to the Royal Military College, Sand- hurst, is obtained by open competition at ex- aminations held each half-year under the direc- tion of the Civil Service Commission. Candidates must first have the same ‘preliminary’ examination as for the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, or one recognised as equivalent to it, and the medical examination, hey must be between the ages of seventeen and twenty, un- less uates of the universities, when they may as old as twenty-two. The number of trials is three for ordinary candidates, but only two for university graduates. The ‘further’ ex- amination includes mathematics, classics, modern English history and composition, experi- men , geology, and drawing—divided into twelve subjects, of which seven may be taken ve Suecessful candidates for the Royal Military liege remain there for one year, and, subject to passing the — examinations in fortilica- tion, tactics, military administration, law, and pie becoming proficient in drills and exercise (including riding, gymnastics, and mus- ketry), are then given commissions as_ second- lientenants in the cavalry or infantry. They are liable, however, to removal for grave misconduct or oe BF At the Army Medical School, Netley, South- ampton, medical candidates already professionally qualified are further instructed in pathology, milt- surgery, medicine, and hygiene. All invalid soldiers from abroad are sent to the hospital at Netley, to which the Army Medical School is contiguous. After passing the prescribed course and examinations, the candidates are commissioned as surgeons in the medical staff of the army. Entrance to the Staff College, at Camberley, near Sandhurst, is obtained by competitive examination. The first twenty-eight officers who qualify at the aunual examination are admitted, with certain limitations. These officers must all qualify at the examination, held every summer, in simple mathematics, one modern language, fortification, - omar topography, and tactics, A service of at least five years is also required, and candidates must be under thirty-seven years of age, be cap- tains or have Paco 4 the qualifying examination for that rank, and have been selected by their commanding officers as fit for the staff in physical qualifications, military knowledge, conduct, habits, he college course commences in February of each year, and includes the study of modern languages, military history and geography, fortification and artillery, tactics, staff duties, mili- tary administration, topogra hy,andlaw. Thereis an examination at the en ir eack year, and officers must also pass in military equitation. If success- ful, they leave the college at the end of the second year, and, after being attached for a month to each of those branches of the service with which they have not hitherto served, rejoin their iy, ong until Se jacmeegctan oceur for appointing them to the statt. At the School of Gunnery, Shoeburyness, officers and men of the Royal Artillery are put through a course of gunnery and artillery exercises, and ex- periments with new guns, shells, fuses, armour- plates, &c. are carried out in connection with the ordnance committee ; while at the Artillery College, Woolwich, officers are instructed in the manufacture of ordnance, laboratory work, chemistry, metallurgy, electricity, &c. The School of Military Engineering, Chatham, is for the instruction of engineer officers and men in construction and estimating, practical fortifica- tion, surveying, submarine and military mining, bridging, ballooning, electricity, chemistry, photo- graphy, &c. Young officers on appointment from the Royal Military Academy remain under instruc- tion and ‘on probation’ at this school for two years. For officers of other branches of the service there are classes for instruction in ‘field-works’ and surveying; for cavalry soldiers, a ‘cavalry- jioneers’’ course (hasty demolitions, obstructions, ve.) ; and a class for infantry pioneer-sergeants. The School of Musketry at Hythe (q.v.) is for the other arms what the School of Gunnery is for the artillery. For the Royal Military School of Music, Kneller Hall, see BAND. At the School of Gymnastic Instruction, Alder- shot, officers qualify for the appointment of super- intendent of gymnasiums, and non-commissioned officers or men for that of gymnastic-instructor. The course includes fencing with foil, sword, or bayonet. Recruits are put through a three months’ course of gymnastics here and in every garrison where there is a gymnasium. Army Schools (q.v.) are provided for the general education of soldiers and their children; and ‘ gar- rison classes’ under specially qualified staff-officers, generally uates of the Staff College, for the technical instruction of officers studying for the examinations which they must pass before promo- tion to the ranks of captain and major. For the United States Military Academy, see West Point. Other military schools in the United States include the Virginia Military Insti- tute at Lexington (founded in 1839), the Kentucky pee y Institute (1846) at Farmdale, and the school for subalterns of artillery at Fortress Monroe, in Virginia, for infantry and cavalry officers at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and for engineers at Willet’s Point. Moreover, there are forty com- missioned officers detailed to act as professors of eit ri science and tactics at certain colleges which have received from the United States grants of land.—In Canada there is a Royal Military College at Kingston (1876). Militello, a town of Sicily, 21 miles SW. of Catania. Pop. 10,505. Militia (Lat. miles, ‘a soldier’) is the name sometimes given to the troops of the second line of a national army. Thu’, an Italian or Russian soldier, after serving in the active army and its reserve, passes into the militia available as garrison troops or to form a field army. The corresponding troops in Germany and Austria are called dandwehr and dandsturm, and in France the territorial army. 192 MILITIA Though at first intended for home defence only, those troops are freely used to reinforce the regular army if the ex es of the cam ign require it. In several respects the militia of Great Britain differs from that of other European nations. It can only be sent out of the country if it volunteers and with the consent of parliament, and. with a few individual exceptions the men composihg it have never served in the regular army. It is a constitutional force raised under the sanction of parliament for the defence of the country against invasion. Organised by counties and cities, it is essentially a local force. Under the Anglo-Saxons all men were required to bear arms as a sort of body-rent for the land they held, but there was no special organisation until Alfred's reign. That great king organised the militia or fyrd, making land the basis of num- bers, but the family system that of discipline : so many familiés were a tything, ten tythings a hundred, and hundreds were united into county wers, each under its Aeretoga, dux, or duke. Fach section of the community had not only to furnish its quota in time of war, but also to /pro- vide arms, keep them in repair, and train its men for so many days every year. This arrangement subsisted in more or less vigour until the Conquest ; then the feudal troops rendered the militia unneces- sary ; but it never ceased wholly to exist, and when the crown to contend with the Norman barons it naturally found its most powerful instru- ment in the Saxon militia. Henry II. established ‘an assize of arms,’ at which every holder of land was bound to produce one or more men fully equipped, and capable of fishting in the national defence, This annual assembly of the fyrd or militia is first recorded after the Conquest in 1181. Further alterations to suit the advances in the art of war took place in 1558. In 1604 James I. abolished the fyrd, and substituted ‘Trained (commonly called rain) Bands,’ to the number of 160,000 men—a force partaking of the nature of both the militia and volunteers, but deficient in discipline and drill. toate | the Civil War the train bands for the most part sided with the Parliament. Up to that time the command had never by any law been definitely assigned to the crown, but after the Restoration the loyal parliament of Charles IL. declared ‘the sole supreme government, command, and disposition of the militia to be the undoubted right of his majesty and his royal predecessors.’ As, however, the crown from this time began to depend for its support upon a mercenary army, the militia was much neglected until 1757, when, a large portion of the regular army being absent in the Seven Years’ War, it was care- fully organised for the defence of the kingdom, Several militia acts have been subsequently passed. In 1871 the control of the militia was transferred to the War Office from the lords-lieutenant, who may, however, still recommend ntlemen for commissions. Various laws for the consolida- tion of the national defences by bringing the army, militia, and other military forces into closer con- nection were completed in 1876, and the United Kingdom was divided into 69 infantry regimental districts. To each belongs a territorial regiment, consisting generally of two line battalions, and two to nine militia battalions, besides the regimental dept, volunteer battalions, and the men in the Army Reserve and Militia Reserve. The latter are militiamen who by taking a double bounty ise at the end of each training render themselves iable in time of emergency to be drafted into the ee army. The Militia Reserve numbers about 30,000. The number of militiamen to be provided by each territorial district—known as its ‘quota ’—is fixed by government in proportion to the number of battalions in each such district. These numbers. are raised by voluntary recruitment, serve six and may re-enlist for six more; but should volun- teering fail, a levy by ballot would be made upon all the inhabitants of the locality between the ages: of eighteen and thirty to serve five years. The power of making this ballot always exists, and wench have by law to be enforced, but for the annual Militia Ballot Suspension Act. Many classes are exempt from the ballot, as peers, soldiers, volunteers, yeo- manry, resident members of universities, clergymen, parish schoolmasters, articled clerks, apprenti seafaring men, crown employés, free watermen the Thames; in England any poor man with more than one child born in wedlock; in Scotland any man with more than two lawful children and not possessed of property to the value of £50; in Ireland any poor man not worth £10, or who does not pay £5 “ annum for rent, and has more than three lawful children under the age of fourteen. Large barracks have been built at the head- quarters of regimental districts where there were none silage so that militia when pay need no longer be billeted. Camps are constantly formed for their occupation. The officers are often employed with regular troops, both infantry and artillery. Militia recruits are if possible trained at the head- quarters of the regimental district, and everything possible done to increase the efficiency of the force and assimilate it to the regular army. Young officers, after serving two trainings in the militia and passing an examination in tactics, fortification, military topography, and law, as well as a literary examination similar to that for cadetships at the Royal Military College (see MILITARY SCHOOLS) are given commissions in the line and cavalry, or, if they pass the entrance examination for the Royal Military seer! at Woolwich, in the artillery. ener in 1890 it was decided that the militia should no longer be styled part of the ‘auxiliary’ forces of the empire. The militia assembles annually for not more than fifty-six days’ training (recruits for not more than six months’), and the government can embody the whole or of the foree at any national crisis. In November 1813 a brigade of three militia bat- talions was formed, and embarked for France in March 1814, serving in the Marquis of Dalhousie’s division till the By 1815 the militia had been embodied for nearly twenty years; ogain, during the Russian war of 1854-56 several battalions served in garrison at Gibraltar and Malta; and many were embodied during the Indian Mutiny, 1857-59. The quota of the United Kingdom (including the Channel Islands) is 143,459 men, of which number 121,000 may be considered as effec- tive, costing the country about 14 millions. A militiaman receives a bounty of £1 (£1 10s. if re-enlisted) after each training. When out for training or embodied, the officers and men receive the same pay as regular troops of corresponding arms of the service, and are then all under the Army Act of 1881. The officers rank with, but junior to, those of the regular army, and are at all times subject to hegroey| law. The only distine- tion in uniform is the letter M on the shoulder- strap. The celebrated Local Militia is the old eral levy ; it was instituted in 1808, and suspended but not abolished in 1816. It consisted of a force for each county six times as numerous as the regular militia quota, The men were drawn by ballot from those between the ages of eighteen and og served four years, and were not paid bounties or allowed to find substitutes. The counties were liable to a fine of £15 for every man short of the quota. These troops could only be marched beyond their res tive counties in the event of invasion, but MILITIA MILK 193 were liable to be called out in case of rebellion. Their numbers reached in 1811 to 213,000 men. The militia of Scotland was not organised until 1797, eee before that year corps of fencibles had been embodied. It was to be raised by ballot among men between the of nineteen and thirty. In 1802 it was brought under the same rules as the English militia. The Irish militia dates from 1715, when all Protestants from sixteen to sixty were bound to serve or find substitutes. Several subsequent acts of parlia- ment altered the conditions of service, introduced the ballot, &e., and finally in 1809 it was organised in asimilar manner to the English force. Besides the infantry and artillery militia there are in England four companies of engineer militia, fortress troops, in Monmouthshire, and three in Angiesey ; also six divisions of submarine miners (dating from about 1884) at Portsmouth, Plymouth, Chatham, Har- wich, Milford Haven, and the Severn month. The Channel Islands Militia, dating from 1201, consists of four of garrison artillery and six battalions of infantry (in all about 4000 men), and is recruited by conscription. All youths between the ages of sixteen and eighteen are liable to drill to being enrolied in the ranks of a regi- ment. Each man to serve ten complete train- ings, and then passes into the reserve, in which he remains up to the of sixty years. A sum of £6570 is voted by parliament in aid of this force. In Canada there are artillery and infantry militia for home defence, and similar troops in all important British colonies. The Royal Malta Fencible Artil- lery is declared by the Army Act of 1881 to be part of the ar army, thongh not liable to serve out of Malta except with their own consent. For the militia of the United States, see Army, Vol. L p. 437, and UNITED STATES; see also LANDWEHR, - and the articles on the several countries. Milk is an ue white fluid secreted by the mammary glands of the females of the class Mam- malia, after they have brought forth their young, and during the period in which their offspring are too immature oy live upon ordinary ‘i. it is devoid of odour, except for a short time after its extraction ; is of @ slightly sweet taste, most com- monly of a pane, rare reaction (except in the Carnivora, in which it is acid); and its average specific gravity (in the case of human milk) is 1032. When examined under the microscope milk is found to consist of numberless transparent globules, very minute size, floating in a clear colourless fluid, the milk plasma. These globules are com- posed of fat, they are each apa a thin envelope of an albuminous material termed casein, When milk has stood for some time, the larger globules rise to the surface and form a layer of cream, which is therefore rich in fat and poor in other nutritive substances ( presently to be described ) that are found in the milk plasma. When the cream is removed skimmed milk remains. If this, or better still the unskimmed milk, be agitated in a churn, the envelopes which surround the fat _ are broken, the fat runs together, and we ve milk fat or butter. The albuminous casein, which to some encloses the fat glolules, but according to other observers exists in solution in the plasma, is an albuminous substance combined with calcium phosphate. This calcium phosphate is necessary for its solution, and if its union with the albumen be interfered with, as by the addition of an acid, the casein separates out in microscopic filaments which interlace, enclosing the milk glolmles, and forming a more or less solid clot. If milk be allowed to remain in an open vessel and in warm weather, a few hours will produce this result ; the casein clots in little masses, and we say ‘the milk has turned.’ It is acid or sour to the taste, and —— micro-organisms (bacterium lacticum), by whose agency these changes are brought about. ese little microbes have the power of converting the milk sugar into lactic acid, which in its turn lates the casein. These microbes do not exist in milk 7, = from the mammary glands ; they must find their way into the milk, awe they rapidly analtioly 3; and, as their germs are very freely distributed, this occurs sooner or later. The dairy- keeper, by efficient ventilation and scrupulous clean- liness, endeavours to keep his couch and his milk as free from these organisms as possible, and the care- ful nurse scalds out the infant’s bottle in order that they may not nape as they will readily do, in any stale milk, rapidly infecting the fresh milk each time the bottle is used. The casein is not only clotted by acids, but a secretion of the stomach called rennet has a similar action. A teaspoonful of a commercial infusion of rennet will cause half a rece of milk, at a summer temperature, to form a veautiful white clot, which subsequently contracts, expressing the whey.. This occurs in the stomach when we drink milk, and this is one reason why milk may di : in order to render it more digestible it may be ‘sipped’ or it may be taken with lime-water, for in this way the formation of large clots within the stomach may be avoided. The curds which form after the addition of rennet can be made into cheese. In cheese, therefore, we have a rich supply of nitrogenous matter (casein) together with fatty matter derived from the milk globules held fast in the curd. Milk contains a sugar—imilk sugar—in solution, and in addition a rather large proportion of inorganic salts. It contains all that a child requires for the wth and nourishment of its soe and is manu- actured at great oo eine of the mother’s strength. The first milk that flows from the breast at the beginning of a lactation period is termed the colostrum, and is rich in fat but poor in casein. After a few days, during which time the child feeds chiefly on its own tissues and loses weight, the secretion becomes thoroughly established. In a healthy, well-fed woman this continues for some months, after which time the drain upon the energy of the mother’s body renders the milk rer and less nutritious. The milk contains the salts, chiefly of lime, from which the infant builds its skeleton. Where the children are ill nourished and cage doctors often recommend the dilution of the milk with lime-water, ignorant of the fact that milk con- tains a considerably 1 r quantity of lime than the lime-water itself. “The ime-water diminishes prim and renders the milk digestible, but hardly adds lime; rickets is generally due not to lack of lime-salts in the food, but to want in the child’s system of the power to assimilate them. It is well known that many medicines taken by the mother are excreted in the milk, and this point must be borne in mind by mothers suckling their infants ; much nonsense is, however, believed in regarding the fatal and sudden injury done to children as a result of severe mental excitement on the part of the wet-nurse. Owing to inability of the mother either to nourish her o cada hevens or to provide it with a wet-nurse, it may necessary to bring it up on the milk of an animal; see INFANT ( FEED- ING OF), BREASTS. The following table, which is based on researches of Vernois an uerel, show the density and composition of 1000 parts of milk : mae Sugar. Fat. Salts, Density. 194 MILK-FEVER MILKWORTS It is preferable to use the milk of one animal and not the mixed milk of a dairy, as in that way we minimise the chances of infection, It should be diluted with about one-third of water, and perh a pinch of sugar added. It then forms a good su stitute for the mother’s milk. But disease is very frequently transmitted by milk, not << from usin; contaminated water for washing the milk cans an for adulterating it, but also from the cow itself (see TypHorp Fever, SCARLATINA). It is not improb- able that many obscure tubercular conditions are thus acquired by children. Condensed milk is 2 grag prepared from that of the cow, sweetened by the addition of ordinary cane sugar, and evaporated to about jth of its bulk. While hot it is poured into tins and sealed up. When used for food the milk may be diluted with six or seven times its volume of water, but in the case of infants the dilution must be more liberal. During the first month it may be diluted with twelve or fourteen volumes, and later on with ten volumes of water. It is often found to with children better than cow's milk, but it is a fatal mistake to rear an infant on condensed milk entirely, as the diet will suffer from too great uniformity. It is a safe rule when a child has to be bronght up on animal milk, and when the household milk does not , to change the dairy. If this does not succeed, the ordinary cow's milk may be tried, say for the morning or after- noon feeding, with condensed milk at night. In all cases it is better to err in freely diluting milk, for nothing is so apt to disagree with a child as a surfeit of rich milk ; dilution will do no particular harm. Milk is frequently adulterated, chiefly with water (see ADULTERATION). In this case a given volume of milk will contain an abnormally small number of milk globules. As these milk globules are the cause of the Capac of milk, a thin layer of the adulterated milk will be less opaque than a similar layer of unadulterated milk. Many forms of lacto- scopes have been invented for testing the opacity and consequent dilution of milk (see LACTOMETER). Unskimmed milk should yield in standing 12 to 24 parts per cent. of cream, and its specific gravity should be 1028 to 1034. Skimmed milk is heavier—1 032 to 1°040 (see also Dairy),—Milk- weed is a local name for the genus Asclepias ; for Milk-tree, see COW-TREE. Milk-fever. The establishment of the secretion of milk about two days after delivery is occasion- ally the cause of considerable constitutional dis- turbance, with all the symptoms of the feverish State. This oceurs especially when the infant is not ay lied soon enough to the breast, and especially when the mother is kept on too low a diet; a fact which probably explains the much greater frequency of the condition in former times, when such treatment was considered 'y. The disturbance of health is not serious, and passes off when the breasts are emptied. In the lower animals, also, milk-fever comes on within a few days after parturition. One variety, common to most animals, consists in inflammation of the membranes of the womb and bowels, and is produced by exposure to cold, overdriving, or injury during labour; it is best treated with oil and laudanum, tincture of aconite, fomentations to the belly, and antiseptics such as carbolic acid (largely diluted ) injected into the womb itself. The other variety to which alone the term ‘milk-fever’ should be applied, is almost peculiar to the cow. It attacks animals in high condition, that are good milkers, and have already borne several calves, and consists in congestion of the brain and large nerv- ous centres, and impairs all the vital functions, leading to dullness, loss of sensation, stupor, and complete unconsciousness. Blood must be drawn cari phils fon wn ia _ vie pres ter it only hastens death, re dose sic, such as a pound each of salts and treacle, ‘rae of calomel, an ounce of gamboge, and two ounces of ginger, should at once be given, solid food withheld, clysters of soap, salt, and water thrown up every hour, cloths wrang out of hot water applied along the spine, the teats drawn several times daily, and the animal frequently turned. Although treatment is uncertain, prevention may be ensured by milking the cow larly for ten days before calving feeding sparing My on laxative, unstimulating food, giving several doses of physic before and one immediately after calving, and when the animal is in very high condition and srone to milk-fever, bleeding her a day or two fore calving. Milkworts (so called from the milky juice are various species of pees belong 68 the natu order Polygalese or Polygalacese, The order com- prises about 20 genera and 500 species which are widely distributed over the tropical and subtropical oe of the world ; several species are natives of orth America and of Europe. They are herbace- ous plants or shrubby, occasionally in the latter case being of climbing habit. The leaves are usually prea. and destitute of stipules; the flowers are oe Sg Their qualities are generally tonie and slightly acrid ; and some, as rameria, are ve astringent.—The Common Milkwort ( Polygala vulgaris) is a small perennial plant, growing in dry hilly pastures, with an ascending stem, linear-lance- ‘ olate leaves, and al a terminal raceme of small but very beautiful flowers, having a 4 cres' keel. It varies _ consider- ~ ably in size, in the size and even ie shape of the 1 leaves, and in the =) LN size and colour of “SS the flowers, which are sometimes of } a most brilliant Ven A blue, sometimes RS of AY purple, pink, or . DAN Vhite.—P. Senega 4 % \ 7 ‘““ is a North Ameri- \f ese can species, with Nv i erect simple tufted Vy a> stems, about one A/ SYN or foot ‘high, and SYA terminal racemes — SK : of small white as flowers. The root, Common Milkwort which is woody, ( Pelygala vulgaris). branched, con- torted, and about half an inch in diameter, is the Senega Root, Seneka Root, or Snake Root of the United States, famous as an imaginary cure for snake-bites, but really possessing im t medicinal virtues—stimulating, diuretic, hor- etic, emmen — in la —— emetic and murgative—employ 8, onary affec- tons recite ie Bolygal “fevers bd ran active principle yaaliec > a1 1e root of P. Seniee has been eateret ee eure for snake-bites by the American Indians from time immemorial, and it is a curious fact that P. crota- larioides is employed in the same way in the Himalayas. P. vulgaris is tonic, stimulant, and diaphoretic ; and P. amara, a very similar Euro- pean species, possesses the same properties in a MILKY-WAY MILL 195 higher degree, as does P. rubella, a small North American species. The root of P. poaya, a Brazilian species, with leathery leaves, is an active emetic, and in a fresh state is employed in bilious fevers. P. tinctoria, a native of Arabia, furnishes a blue dye like indigo. P. venensoa is by the natives of Java dreaded on account of its noxious heavy odour, which they say causes severe head- ache and violent sneezing. Another medicinal are of the order is Rattany (q.v.) Root. The k of the roots of Monnina polystachia and M. salicifolia is used in Peru as a substitute for soap ; and Mundia spinosa, a South African shrub, pro- duces an eatable fruit. Milky-way. See Gataxy. Mill. This word is now used in a general way as a name for almost all kinds of manufactories, as well as for machines used for grinding; but in this article we shall describe only a floar-mill. For other mills, see SPINNING, WEAVING, CoTTON, Fiax, Woo., ce. From time immemorial, until quite recent times, wheat has alway’ been ground between two stones, At first land-mills were used such as are so often mentioned in the Bible, and are still met with amongst uncivilised peoples (see QUERN); but the mill subsequently through many mechanical developments up to the large merchant mills now found in every civilised country, some of which recently contained upwards of 100 pairs of large millstones. These were made of ‘buhr,’ a very hard silicate, the best stones coming from the valley of the Seine. The millstones were circular, usually about four feet in diameter, formed of wedge-sha pieces strongly cemented together, and bound by iron hoops. The surfaces were ent into a series of radiating ridges and furrows, by which means the wheat was pushed from the centre to the cireumference of the stones, as well as broken between the edges of the ridges. Great care had to be taken that the surfaces of the two stones were a level and perfectly parallel to each other. Only the ve ra stone or runner’ revolved, the lower or ‘ bedstone’ being fixed. The first successful steam flour-mill was erected in London in 1784. Tron rollers in place of millstones were first ractically tried at the roller mill in Pest, founded in 1840 by the patriot Count Szechenyi. This new system, called ‘the high grinding or gradual reduction roller system,’ rN spread throughout Hungary, and made Budapest for man ears the greatest flour-milling centre in the world. +4 1875 this system had been adopted by the millers of the north-western states of America, and has enabled them to outstrip their teachers : Min- neapolis is now the largest flour-milling centre in the world, and its mills send a great quantity of flour to England. Since 1880 this system has been universally ce by large mills, and is being gradually introduced into small mills also. The great vantage of rollers over millstones is found be that the former avoid the rasping of the out- side of the wheat berry which was inseparable from millstones, and produced a small quantity of very dark powder which necessarily mixed with the flour and greatly deteriorated its colour. following is a description of the different processes which together form the ‘ high-grinding’ or ‘ ual reduction’ system of flour-milling. (1) wheat is cleaned or ‘smutted,’ as it is termed, by means of sifting, winnowing, and being put through a cylinder of wire-cloth, with raplly revolving arms inside, which combines the actions of sifting and polishing the wheat. A furnished with hard brushes is often employed to scrub the wheat. (2) The cleaned wheat is sent to grooved chilled-iron rollers (see fig. 1), and slightly broken between them; the product is sifted by means of cylinders covered with wire-cloth or silk-gauze, by which means a proportion of flour is separated, mixed with a sub- stance composed of small pieces of the floury part of the wheat berry, and called usually ‘ middlings,’ sometimes ‘semolina.’ The pieces of broken wheat are sent to other rollers to be again broken, and the — sifted as before. This process is repeated rom four to seven times, according to the ideas of the miller and the nature of the wheat, until, as far as possible, all the floury part has been sera from the husk or ‘bran,’ which is sold for fodder. Fig. 1.—Roller Mill. We are thus left with the mixture of flour and ‘middlings’ from the four to seven breaking pro- cesses. The products from the different breaking processes are generally mixed together and then sifted as before described, in order to separate the flour which is then ready for use from the ‘middlings,’ which are then put through the pro- cess called ‘ purification.’ It may here be mentioned that the making of a large quantity of ‘ middlings’ is the princi difference between the former ‘low-grinding’ and the present ‘h A es system, and is the chief advantage of the latter. y the former process it was sought to reduce the wheat at one grinding as far as possible into flour and bran: it was, however, found to be impossible to keep the two separate, a portion of finely-powdered bran being inevitably mixed with the flour, atly to the detriment of the latter. By high-grinding, the floury part is reduced in the first instance pansy to a granular state, and, though bran particles are mixed with the flour granules, they may be almost entirely separated, owing to the difference in their specific gravity, by means of this process of purification, (3) The size of the granules of the middlings varies from that of fine sand to that of a pin’s head. The middlings are therefore first separated by sifting into as many sizes as may be thought desirable, and each size is sent to one or more machines called ‘middlings’ purifiers.’ These are of two types, called ‘gravity’ and ‘sieve’ purifiers. In the first type, which is om used for the large sizes of middlings, the material is direetly acted on by a draught of air. The machine usually takes the form of a series of sloping boards, or of revolving discs, by either of which devices the middlings are caused to fall repeatedly in a thin even stream through a current of air produced by a revolving fan. As the specific gravity of the flour granules is greater than that of the bran particles, it is obvious that the current of air may be so regulated as to carry away the par- ticles of bran, leaving the flour granules to fall to the bottom of the machine. The sieve purifier generally takes the form of an oblong box, or case, of wood ; occupying the centre 196 MILL plane of this case a sieve formed of silk-gauze is suspended by springs from the top of the case, and is made to oscillate by means of a crank. A re- volving fan is placed at the top of the machine, which draws air through the meshes of the sieve, the current of air being so regulated that the branny particles are either carried away by the. draught to a suitable receptacle, or are kept suspended on the top of the sieve until they are carried over the end of it, while the heavier flour ules fall through the sieve. This type of machine is we used for the smaller sizes of middlin, It is the dust drawn from these machines by the fans that, when mixed in a certain proportion with air and acci- dentally ignited, has caused several very serious explosions in flonr-mills, In consequence of this, whereas it was formerly usual to send this dust- laden air to a large chamber where the dust was allowed to settle by its own weight, and where the explosions generally occurred, within recent years many ingenious contrivances called ‘dust collectors’ have been invented for separating the dust in small quantities, and thus minimising the danger. These are now generally used. The ren o after being thoroughly cleaned (by repetition of the pro- cess when necessary), are ground between smooth chilled-iron rollers and the product sifted; the flour thus produced is of fine quality, and is usually called ‘patent’ flour. Miullstones may still be profitably employed to grind the finest sizes of middlings, but this is the only use to which they are put in a modern mill. Fig. 2 represents one type of cylinder used for sifting (technically, ‘dressing’) the products in flour manufacture, to which we have several times had to refer. These cylinders are of two kinds, Fig. 2.— Centrifugal Dressing Reel, the ordinary ‘reel’ or cylinder being a framework covered round with wire-cloth or silk-gauze, and made to rotate, thus setting in motion the en- closed material. The other type is called a ‘ centri- fugal dressing’ machine (see fig. 2). In this machine, in addition to the rotating cylinder, there is a frame with long pieces of wood or iron attached, made to revolve independently inside the cylinder. By this means the material is thrown against the circumference of the cylinder, so that a much smaller surface is required than in the ordin: reel to do the same amount of work. The* sichter,’ introduced in Budapest in 1888, which, as its name implies, is a horizontal sieve, has a ial contrivance for keeping the material in aoetion, and the meshes clear. This machine has made considerable progress in Hungary, but it is as yet too early to predict that it will supersede the cylindrical ‘dressing’ machines. Almost all modern mills are constructed on what is termed the automatic system, which means that all the convey- ance of the material from one point in the mill to another .is done by mechanical means; so that of the great bulk of the flour it may be said that it is never stopped or touched on its journey from the time it leaves the wheat sack until it reaches the flour sack. The conveyer generally used to move material in a horizontal direction is a helical serew (sometimes called an Archimedean screw); and to lift to a higher level Elevators (q.v.) are used. See Fairbairn, Mills and Mill-work (1878) ; Kick, Flour- manufacture (trans. 1878) ; Voller, Modern Flour Milli (1889) ; Bennett and Elton, History of Corn Milling (1898). Mill (Lat. mille, ‘a thousand’), in the United States, is the tenth part of a cent, the thousandth part of a dollar, As a coin it has no existence. Mill, JAmMEs, was the son of a shoemaker, and was born in Logie-Pert Facies near Montrose, Seot- land, 6th April 1773. He studied, with a view to the church, at the university of Edinburgh, where he in tr himself in Greek and in Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy. He was licensed to preach in 1798 ; but instead of following out the solnbaley: he went to London in 1802, where he settled as a lit man. He became editor of the Li Journa which after a time was discontinued ; and wrote for various periodicals, including the Kelectic and the Edinburgh Review. In 1 he commenced his History of British India, which he carried on along with other literary work, and published in the winter of 1817-18. The impression produced by this masterly history on the Indian authorities was such, that, in 1819, the Court of Directors of the Company appointed him to the high post of Assist- ant-exanfiner of Indian Correspondence, notwith- standing the then unpopularity of his well-known radical opinions, The business —— to his care was the revenue department, which he continued to superintend till four years before his death, when inted head of the examiner's office, ad the control of all the departments of Indian administration—political, judicial, and financial—managed by the Secret Committee of the Court of Directors. Shortly after his appointment to the India House, he contributed the articles on Government, Edueation, Jurisprudence, Law of Nations, Liberty of the Press, Colonies, and Prison - Discipline to the Encyclopedia Britannica, These essays were reprinted in a separate form, and became widely known. The powers of analysis, of clear statement, and of the thorough-going appli- cation of principles, exhibited in these articles, had probabl never betoke been brought to bear on that — o 87 he saree his li ts 0 Litii , a work prepared primarily with a view to the education of wis eldest son, John Stuart Mill. In 1829 his Analysis of the Human Mind appeared. His last published ~ book was the Fragment on Mackintosh, brought ont , in 1835. He was also a contributor to the West- minster Review and to the London Review, which merged in the London and Westminster. j Not long after he settled in London, he made the acquaintance of Jeremy Bentham, and for a number of years lived during the summer in Bentham’s country-honse, Although he must have derived much benefit from his intercourse with the eg law-reformer, he was not a mere disciple of Bentham but a man of profound and original thought, as well as of great reading, in all the departments of moral, mental, and political philosophy. His conversation was impressive to a remarkable degree, and he gave a powerful intellectual stimulus to a number of young men, some of whom (including his own son, and Grote, the historian of Greece) have since risen to eminence. He took a leading part in the founding of University College, London, He died at Kensington, 23d June 1836. See the Autobiography of J. 8. Mill; and Professor Bain's James Mill Cissay he was ap where he In 1821-22 LE ' MILL 197 Mill, Joun Stuart, the eldest son of James Mill, was born in London on 20th May 1806. He was educated by his father, by whom he was sub- jected from his earliest years to a careful and systematic training, which was to fit him to cai on the work and champion the opinions with which the elder Mill was identified. Almost from infancy his intellect was on the strain. He is said to have n Greek at the of three, and before he was fourteen he had extensively in Greek, Latin, mathematics, and English, had begun logic and political economy, and already the intellectual nirements of a well-educated man. But he was secluded from companions of his own ge. As he himself says, he ‘never was a boy.’ is nearest approach to recreation was the long walks—in reality peripatetic oral examinations—for which he was ey “ond taken by his father. In 1820 he went to France on a visit to the family of Sir S. Bentham (Jeremy Bentham's brother), and was thus removed for more than a year from his father’s immediate influence. His studies were never intermitted. His residence in France not x | gave him a keen interest in French politics social conditions, but stimulated his botanical enthusiasm, and the love for scenery and travel, which became the chief relaxations of his arduous life. After his return home he worked at history and law, and read the English and French philo- sophers. His first published writings appeared in the Traveller newspaper in 1822. In the following year a career was secured for him by an appoint- ment under his father at the India Office, from which he retired as head of his department in 1858, on the transfer of the Company’s government to the crown. At the same time he declined a seat in the new India Council offered to him by Lord Derby. During the years 1823-26 he was a member of a small Utilitarian society which met for the epee of disenssion at Jeremy Bentham’s house. e name ‘Utilitarian’ was suggested by an expression in one of Galt’s novels, and seized upon by him ‘with a boy’s fondness for a name and a banner,’ to describe himself and others of like opinions. In the Speculative Society, which was founded in 1825, and of which lhe remained a member till 1829, he met men of a ter variet of creeds, and formed an intimate friendship with Maurice and Sterling, Liberals of a different type from those he had met at his father’s house, and influenced by Coleridge, not by Bentham. Before he was ia Teg was recognised as the champion and future er of what may be called the Utilitarian School in. philosophy and _politics, and had become the most frequent contributor to the newly-established organ of the party, the Westminster Review. But the ‘mental crisis’ through which he passed at this time (1826-27) led to a modification of his attitude. Bentham’s Treatise on islation, which he had read four or five years ore, formed the keystone of his revious position. It gave him ‘a creed, a Srotring, a philosophy; in one among the best senses of the word, a religion; the inculcation and diffusion of which could be made the principal out- ward purpose of a life.’ The crisis under which his enthusiasm for his old creed and opinions broke down was attributed by himself not merely to a dull state of nerves, but to the purely intellectual education which weakened his sympathies at the same time as it taught him to analyse and trace to their origin. He ultimately emerged from the state of depression by discovering that feeling was not dead within him. The experiences of this pe left, he tells us, two very marked effects on i and character. In the first place, the Jed him to a new theory of life in relation to Suppl. ness- The conviction was forced upon him that happiness—although the test of all rules of conduct and the end of life—was only to be obtained by not making it the direct end, but by having one’s mind fixed on some such ideal end as the improvement of mankind, or even some art or pursuit. His ‘mental crisis’ further led him to see the necessity for human well-being of the internal culture of the individual. He ee to attach almost exclusive importance to the ordering of outward circumstances, and to the forced eshacpg: oA the human being for thought and action. d soon after this time he pa in Wordsworth’s poems ‘the very culture of the feel- ings’ he was in quest of. e wider appreciation of speculation and litera- ture brought about 4 this new attitude may be seen in his reviews of Tennyson’s poems (1835), and of Carlyle’s French Revolution (1837), as well as in his article on Coleridge (1840). His article on Bentham (1838) made clear the extent of his diverg- ence from his inherited creed, and gave rise to the ‘admiration mixed with fear’ with which Grote and others of the school regarded him. In this article can be traced the lines along which, in his subsequent writings, he modified the traditional creed of Bentham and James Mill. Perhaps the reaction from Benthamism would have gone further had it not been for the friendship with Mrs John Taylor (whom he first met in 1830, and whom he married in 1851), which formed the romance of his life. It is indeed veri ries to estimate her influence so highly as Mill did himself. All his leading opinions were formed before he made her acquaintance, and some of his most important works were completed without her assistance. But she did exert great influence on the expression of his views, and apparently had a steadying effect on his philosophical position. Mill never forsook, though he modified, the lead- ing principles of the philosophy in which he was educated. He held that knowledge could be analysed into impressions of sense, and that the principle of association was the great construc- tive foree which combined these sensations and their copies, or ideas, into systems of thought, modes of feeling, and habits of acting. is System of Logic (1843)—perhaps the most original and important of his works—traces, and gives a rationale of, the way in which the real, disjointedly iven in sensation, is combined into scientific nowledge. Its treatment of the methods of inductive science—in which it owes much to Her- schel, Whewell, and Comte—has become classical. His Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's Philosophy (1865), and edition of James Mill’s Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind (1869), contain a polemical defence and exposition of the association- psychology, notable for their clear recognition of the mental elements which that psychology assumes without explanation. His essay on Utilitarianism (1861) defends the greatest-happiness theory, but suggests modifications inconsistent with it (see Eruics, p. 435 6.). He held that government was to be purified and made into a utilitarian instru- ment by means of representative institutions; but he had less confidence than Bentham and his father had in the effect of reason and argument upon men, disapproved of an equal suffrage, distrusted the ballot, and argued eloquently for individual liberty of thought and action against the tyranny of the majority (Considerations on Representative Govern- ment, 1861; Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform, 1859; On Liberty, 1859). His Principles of Politi- eal Economy (1848) is a systematic treatise, which does not depart in its main teaching from the theory laid down in abstract fashion by Ricardo ; but it recognises more clearly the hypothetical character of this theory, and it discusses the social applications of economic doctrines. Mill was M.P. 198 MILL MILLBOARD for Westminster from 1865 to 1868, In parliament he voted with the advanced Radical party; and his advocacy of women’s suffrage in the debates on the Reform Bill of 1867 led to an active movement for placing the legal and political rights of women on an equality with those of men. Mill died at Avignon, 8th May 1873, and was busied in the cemetery there. In addition to the works =< mentioned, Mill was the author of Essays on some unsettled Questions of Politi- eal Economy (1844), Aususte Comte and Positivism (1865), England and Ireland (1868), Subjection of Women (1869). After his death were published Autobiography (1873), and Three Essays on igion (1874). His more important occasional writings are collected in four volumes of Lis- sertations and D ions (1859-75). For his life and pater! see biographies by A. Bain (1882) and W. L. rtney (1889), and a study by C. M. Douglas (1895). Mill, Joun, a New Testament critic, was born about 1645, at Shap in Westmorland, entered Queen’s College, Oxford, as servitor in 1661, and was successively fellow and tutor of his college, rector of Blechingdon in Oxfordshire (1681), prin- cipal of St Edmund's Hall (1685), and prebendary of oometaage | (1704). He died 23d June 1707, just fourteen days after the publication of his great Novum Testamentum Grecum, with its thirty thou- sand various readings, the labour of thirty years. Millais, Six Joun Everett, P.R.A., painter, was born at Southampton, 8th June 1829, the descendant of an ancient Jersey family. In the winter of 1838-39 Millais began to attend the drawing academy of Henry Sass, ing, two years later, into the schools of the Royal Academy. At the age of seventeen he exhibited at the Royal Academy his ‘ Pizarro seizing the Inca of Peru,’ ranked by competent crities of the day as on a level with the best historical subjects then shown. Till now his work had been upon the lines of art generally current in England at the time; but there followed a phase of revolt from accepted standards, a period of search for new paths. He became associated with the knot of young artists known as the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, of whom the other chiefs were Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Holman Hunt; and undoubtedly he was markedly influenced by the powerful personalities of both of these men, and by Mr Ruskin their literary ally. From them, in particular, his art received an impetus towards imagination and symbolism, which—as has been proved by the curious absence of such qualities from his later and more independent productions—were to a great extent foreign to his native genius. His marvellous technical skill enabled him to embody in visible artistic form conceptions that were essen- tially those of others with far greater adequacy than their own less trained hands could possibly have done. His first Pre-Raphaelite picture, a scene from the Isabella of Keats, strongly recall- ing the manner of the early Flemish and Italian masters, figured in the Academy in 1849, where it was followed in 1850 by the striking ‘Christ in the House of his Parents,’ known as ‘The Car- ter's Shop,’ in 1851 by ‘The Woodman’s ghter,’ in 1852 by ‘The Huguenot’ and Op elia,’ and in 1853 by ‘The Order of Release’ and ‘ The Proscribed Royalist.’ In_ 1856 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, and soon afterwards he exhibited three of the richest and most poetic of the productions of his Pre-Raphaelite period —the ‘ Autnmn Leaves’ in 1856, the ‘Sir Ixumbras at the Ford’ in 1857, and * The Vale of Rest’ in 1859. In the finer of the works which followed, such as ‘Charlie is my Darling’ 1864)—the year in which the painter received tall academic honours—‘The Minuet’ (1866). and *‘ Rosalind and Celia’ (1868), the precision and clear definition of Pre-Raphaelite methods still survive; but in the exquisite ‘Gambler's Wife (1869) there became visible a and method of handling, which is yet more fully estab- lished in ‘ The Boyhood of Raleyh * (1870), a picture which, retaining a measure of the imaginative charm of his earlier su Ujects, marks the transition of his art into its final and, technically, most masterly phase, displaying all the brilliant and effective ou > the effortless power of brush-work, and the d of flesh-painting. The interest and value of his later works lay mainly in their splendid technical qualities. In great part they are actual or portraits, varied by a few important landscapes, of which in many ways the finest is ‘ Chill October’ at and by such an occasii re-piece as * The North-west Passage’ (1873) and ‘ Effie Deans’ (1877). Millais executed a few etchings, and his innumerable illustrations, dating from about 1857 to 1864, and most of them published in Good W Once a Week, and the Cornhill M ine, pl him in the first rank of woodeut designers. He was D.C.L. of Oxford; in 1885 he was created a Baronet; he was elected P.R.A. in February 1896, and died 13th August of the same year. A collec+ tion of nearly twenty of his works was brought together by the Fine Arts Society, London, in 1881, and 159 examples of his art formed the Grosvenor Gallery Winter Exhibition in 1886. See Ruskin’s Notes on that exhibition; Armstrong’s Life and Work of Millais (1885); Sir W. Richmond, Leighton, Millais, and William Morris (1898); M. H. Spielmann, Millais and his Work (1898). Millau, a town of Aveyron, France, on the Tarn, 52 miles NW. of Montpellier. During the 16th and 17th centuries it was a Calvinist stronghold. Leather and gloves are manufactured, and in wool there isa trade. Pop. (1872) 13,879 ; (1886) 14,705 ; (1891) 15,871. Millbank Prison, or The Penitentiary, de- molished in 1891, was situated in the parish of St John’s, Westminster, facing the Thames. It was erected at an enormons cost to bk out the plans of the philanthropists Howard and Bentham; the latter’s contract with the Treasury was signed in 1794, but the building was not actually commenced till 1812, and not completed till 1821. It had accommodation for 1100 prisoners, and was so con- structed that, from a room in the centre, the vernor was able to view every one of the cells, in which solitary confinement was rigid enforced. Convicts condenined to penal servitude used to undergo first a term of soli confinement in Millbank; but the prison to be a convict establishment in May 1886, and was finally closed in November 1890, See Griffiths, Memorials of Millbank (2d ed, 1884). ; Millboard is the name given to ‘ board’ made of paper material, and varying in thickness from Math to }th of an inch. It is of a gray colour, as the various kinds of waste substances—viz. old ro old sacking, scraps of paper and of cardboard— which it is usually made are not bleached either separately or when mixed and reduced to a polp as in the manufacture of white paper (see PAPER). best millboard, such as that employed for binding ledgers, is made on moulds by hand ; but by far the larger quantity of millboard put on the market is machine made, In the machine commonly used a revolving wire-cloth cylinder dips into a cistern containing the pulp, and takes on a layer of it about the thickness of stout brown paper. This pulpy layer is by pressure taken continuously off the wire cylinder by a felt blanket gg over a wood roller. The felt carries the single layer, in the wet state, to a pair of rollers 7 feet eis from — upon the wire cylinder, Here the layer is woun - doctors—such as Pa MILLBURY MILLENNIUM 199 the upper or wooden roller till the required thick- ness is made ee The lower or iron roller presses by means of a lever and weights against the upper one with sufficient force to consolidate the layers of pulp. The hollow cylinder of millboard on the wood roller is then cut longitudinally with a knife, and opened out into a flat sheet. It is afterwards dried by steam heat or otherwise, calendered by chilled iron rolls, and cut to size by strong circular cutters. Millboard is used for bookbinding and for making boxes, but has been largely superseded by Straw- board (q.v.). It is still employed for jointing flanged pipes and other engineering work ; but for this pu asbestos millboard (see ASBESTOS) is now preferred. Millboard or thick cardboard made from straw or wood is used for many miscellaneous rposes. Mounting board consists of several ers of paper pasted together. A few years ago a mill on a large scale was in operation near London for the manufacture of millboard from stable manure, but the process was not a success com ly. Millbury, Massachusetts, on the Blackstone River, is 39 miles by rail W. of Boston, and has several cotton and woollen factories. Pop. 4460. Milledgeville, the former capital of og (q.v.), 32 miles ENE. of Macon. Pop. (1900) 4219. Millenary Petition. See Hampron Court. Millennium (Lat., ‘a thousand years’), a long indefinite — during which the kingdom of the Messiah l, ing to the belief of many Christians, be visibly established on the earth. The idea originated proximately in the Messianic ex- er of the Jews; and the Christians’ belief the Parousia, or Second Coming of Christ, was developed by the oppression and persecutions to which they were long subjected. The chief basis of the millenarian idea, in Judaism as well as in Christianity, is the ardent hope for a visible divine rule upon earth, and the identification of the church with that of which it is merely asymbol. In the Ist century of the church, chiliasm (the Greek equivalent ‘of millenarianism, from chilioi, ‘a tl *) was a widespread belief, to which the books of Daniel and the Ppoealy pee (chaps. xx. and xxi.) gave authority; while various hy writings, com at the end of the st and the inning the 2d century—sueh as the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Christian Sibylline , the Epistle of Barnabas —lent it a more vivid colouring and imagery. Not only the heretic Cerinthus, but even orthodox pias of Hierapolis, Irenzus, and Justin Martyr—delighted themselves with dreams of the Fog and magnificence of the millen- nial kingdom, Sibylline Books, for instance, hold that the earth will be cultivated throughout its length and breadth, that there will be no more seas, no more winters, no more nights; everlasting wells will run honey, milk, and wine. Papias in- dulges in monstrous re} ntations of the rebuild- ing of Jerusalem, and of the colossal vine and grapes of the millennial reign. According to the general opinion, which was as —_ pear deer as a the ga = to preced y great calamities. @ personifica- tion of evil Sevres in Antichrist tar, the pre- eursor of Christ (identified during the Ist century with Nero), who would provoke a frightful war in the land of Magog (Ezek. xxxviii. and xxxix.) against the si! ae (og, after which the Messiah would a r, heralded by Elias, or Moses, or Melehizedek, or Isaiah, or Jeremiah, and would bind Satan for a thousand years, annihilate the less heathen, or make them slaves of the , and overturn the empire. From its ruins a new order of things would spring forth, in which the ‘dead in Christ’ would arise, and along with the surviving saints enjoy an incom- parable felicity in the city of the ‘New Jerusalem,’ which was expected to descend literally from heaven. With the innocence which was the state of man in Paradise there was associated, in the prevalent notions of the millennium, great physical and intellectual pleasures. The lapse of time, chilling the ardour of the rimitive Christian belief in the nearness of the arousia, had without doubt also the tendency to give a more shadowy, and therefore a more spiritual aspect to the kingdom over which the expected Messiah was to reign. The influence of the Alex- andrian philosophy contributed to produce the same result. rigen, for example, started the idea that, instead of a final and desperate conflict between Paganism and Christianity, the real presen and victory of Christianity would consist in the gradual spread of the truth throughout the world, and in the voluntary hom id to it by all secular powers. Yet even in the Ee to-Alex- andrian Church millenarianism, in its most literal form, was widely diffused. The Montanists (q.v.) generally were extreme millenarians or chiliasts, and, being considered a heretical sect, contributed largely to bring chiliasm into discredit, or, at all events, their own carnal form of chiliasm, which Tertullian himself attacked. Lactantius, in the beginning of the 4th century, was the last im- rtant Chureh Father who indul in chiliastic reams. In the 5th century, St Jerome and St Angustine expressly combated certain fanatics who still hoped for the advent of a millennial kingdom whose pleasures included those of the flesh. From this time the Church formally rejected millenarianism in its sensuous ‘ visible form,’ al- though the doctrine every now and then made its reappearance, especially as a general popular belief, in the most sudden and obstinate manner. Thus, the expectation of the Last Day in the year 1000 A.D. reinvested the doctrine with a transitory im- portance, At the period of the Reformation, millenari- anism once more experienced a partial revival, because it was not a difficult matter to apply some of its symbolism to the bn ge the pope, for ex- ample, was Antichrist. Yet the doctrine was not adopted by the great body of the Reformers, but by some fanatical sects, such as the Anabaptists, as also by various theosophists in the next century. During the civil and religious wars in France and England it was also prominent; the Fifth Monarchy Men (q.v.) of Cromwell’s time were millenarians of the most exaggerated “iy The extravagances of the French Mystics and Quietists culminated in chiliastic views. During the Thirty Years’ War en- thusiastic and learned chiliasts flourished. Among the foremost chiliastic teachers of modern centuries are to be mentioned Ezechiel Meth and Bishop Comenius in Germany ; Professor Jurieu of Sedan, and Poiret ; Serarius in Holland ; and in England Joseph Mede (Clav. Apocal. 1627), while Thomas Burnet and William Whiston endeavoured to give chiliasm a geological foundation. Most of the chief divines of the Westminster Assembly were millen- arians; so were Sir Isaac Newton and Bishop Horsley. Bengel revived an earnest interest in the subject among orthodox Protestants. Spener and Joachim Lange held chiliastie views ; and Sweden- borg employed apocalyptic images to set forth the eunmrared world of the senses. Bengel’s millen- arianism was adopted by the Swabian theosophist Oetinger (died 1782), and widely spread through. out Germany by Jung Stilling, Lavater, and Hess, Charles Wesley and Toplady were millenarians. Modern miilenarians or pre-millennialists (as 200 MILLEPEDE MILLER believing in the pre-millennial advent of Christ) differ in many minor points from one another, but in holding that the millennial age will be heralded by the personal return of the Lord Jes to establish a theocratic kingdom of unive righteousness, during which time sin will remain on earth but be greatly diminished. Immediately on Christ's appearing will take place the resurrection of the righteous dead and the translation of living Christians, who will be rewarded according to their works. The judgment work of Christ will occupy the whole millennial period. The Jews, restored to their own land, will repent and be converted. All the hosts of Antichrist will be destroyed, Satan bound, and the Holy Ghost poured out. At the end of the millennial age Satan released will make a last vain attempt to regain his power, but he and the wicked, who now have their resurrection, will he finally judged and cast into the lake of fire. The earth will be renewed by fire, and be the scene of the everlasting kingdom of Christ over all sanctified mankind. Attempts to fix the date of the advent are aged is- approved. Dates that have been fixed for the beginning of the millennium have been 1785 by Stilling, 1836 by Bengel, 1843 by Miller in America, 1866, 1867, and 1868 by Dr Cumming, and 1890 by the Mormon Church. Some adventists teach the doctrine of A tastasis (q.v.), others the final annihilation of the impenitent. See ADVENTISTS (Seconp), and HELL. Many of the greatest modern German theologi have been more or less pronouncedly pre-millen- nialists; such as Rothe, Hofmann, Nitzsch, Ebrard, Lange, Delitzsch, Christlieb, Luthardt, as also Oosterzee, Gaussen, and Godet. The Free Church of Italy and the Plymouth Brethren collectively hold these views. The Irvingites expect the speedy appearance of Christ. Pre-millennial views appear in the works of many eminent Anglicans—such as Archbishop Trench, Bishops Ellicott and Ryle, Canons Fremantle and oare, Dean Alford, Amongst Presbyterians Dr John Cumming and Dr Horatius Bonar are conspicuous names, Great conferences of pre-millennialists were held in London and New York in 1878. the Pre-millennial Essays of the Prophetic Conference (Chicago, 1879); and, against Millenarianism, David Brown, Christ's Second Cominy (1846). Millepede, a popular name for the members of one of the orders of Myriapods, of which Julus is a good type. See CENTIPEDE, MyRiopopa. Millepore,. See Corat. Miller, Hucn, a Ghtingeished self-taught geo- logist and journalist, was born at Cromarty, in the north of Scotland, October 10, 1802. He was descended from a family of sailors, and lost his own father by a storm at sea when he was only five years o} In consequence of this mis- fortune he was brought up chiefly under the eare of two of his mother's uncles, one of whom (" Uncle Sandy ') imbued him with a taste for natural history, and the other (* Uncle James’) for traditional lore. He acquired a good knowledge of English (the only language he knew) at the Dronerty mar- school. Before his eleventh year he had read the usnal romances of childhood, besides other works of higher literary pretensions. As he grew older he became extremely fond of the great English poets and prose-writers. From his seventeenth to his thirty-fourth year he worked as a common stone-mason, devoting the enforced leisure of the winter months to writing and reading, to inde- pendent researches in natural history, and to the extension of his literary knowled: In 1824-25 he worked at Niddrie, near Edinburgh. In 1829 he gained the friendship of Robert Carruthers, editor of the Inverness Courter, and published a volume entitled Poems written in the Lei: Hours of a Journeyman Mason (1829), which was followed by Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland (1835). His attention was soon drawn to the ecclesiastical controversies which were agitating Scotland, and his famous Letter to Lord Brougham on the ‘Auchterarder Case,’ brought him i- nently into notice. In 1834-39 he acted as bank- accountant; in 1839 he was invited to Edinburgh by Dr Candlish and Robert Paul, who had read his famous letter, as editor of the Witness, a news- paper started in the interest of the Non-intru- sion party in the Church of Scotland ; and in 1840 he published in its columns a series of geological articles, which were afterwards collected under the title of The Old Red Sandstone, or New Walks in an Old Field (1841). These articles were very remark- able, from both a scientific and a literary pole of view. They contained a minute account of the author’s agra ing of fossils in a formation believed, until then, to be destitute of them, and were written in a style which was a harmonious combination of wg kn beauty, and polish. At the ing of the British Association in the same year (1 » he was warmly praised by Murchison, Agassiz, an Buckland. Agassiz pro’ that one of the fossils should be named Pterichthys Milleri, and said that ‘he would give his left hand to such powers of description as this man.’ Miller’s editorial labours during the heat of the Disruption struggle were immense, and educated the people for the climax in 1943. He used the term ‘Free Church’ before the Disruption. In 1847 he had to vindicate his position as editor in a private pamphlet against clerical interference, and may be said to have come off triumphant. But, after years of hard, earnest, fagging toil, his brain gave way, and, in a moment of aberration, he shot himself at Portobello, near bree on the night of the 23d December 1856. iller contributed several tales to the series known as Wilson’s Zales of the Borders (1835), and was also a contributor to Chambers’s Journal. He was not a ready writer; Chalmers said of him that when he di & off he was a reat gun, bnt he required a deal of time to load, Yet he contributed at least a thousand articles to the Witness; Peter Bayne terms them ‘complete journalistic essays, symmetrical in plan, finished in execution, and of sustained and splendid ability.’ Miller’s works, besides those already mentioned, are First Impressions of England and its’ People 1847), the record of a journey to England in 1845; ootprints the Creator, or the Asterolepis of Stromness, in which he combated the evolu- tion theory (1850) ; 5 freee and Schoolmasters, or the Story VA my uoation (1854); and Testi- mony of the Rocks (1857), an attempt to reconcile the cosmogony of Genesis with the geol of nature, by the hypothesis that the days mentioned in the first chapter of Genesis do not represent the actual duration of the successive periods of creation, but only the time occupied by in unrolling a panoramic vision of these periods before the eyes of Moses, To the above list was afterwards added the following posthumous volumes ; Cruise of the Bet. (1858), bei logical investigations stots A the islands o Scotland ; Sketch ‘Book: of Popular Geology, with preface by Mrs Miller 1859); Headship of ist, ‘wi reface by yne (1861); Essays, Historical and Biog | | MILLER MILLET 201 (1862); Tales and Sketches (1863); Edinburgh and ats Neighbourhood (1863); Leading Articles, with by Rey. John Davidson (1870). Miller's services to science have undoubtedly been great, but he is even more distinguished as @ man than as a savant. Honest, high-minded, earnest, and hugely industrious, he was a true Scot, a hearty but not a sour Presbyterian (for he loved Burns as much as lie revered Knox); and there are few of whom Scotland has better reason to be proud than ‘the stone-mason of Cromarty.’ Miller was married to Lydia Mackenzie Fraser in 1837. She assisted him in literary work, and ed good taste and ability. She wrote on Cuts and Dogs —_— , and her eldest daughter, Harriet Miller vidson, —avee several — tales. Besides his autobiography, see the Life by Peter Bayne (2 vols. 1871), ana sees one by W. K. Leask (1896). Miller, Joaqury, the pen-name of Cincinnatus Hiner Miller, an American poet, born in Indiana, in 1841. Removing with his parents to Oregon in 1854, he became a miner in California, was with Walker in Nicaragua, and afterwards lived with the Indians till 1860. He then studied law in Oregon, and set up in practice in 1863, after a Democratic paper that he edited had been sup- for dis ge He was a county jud 1866 to 1870, and then visited pact nd in England his first volume of verse was published. He afterwards settled as a journalist in Washing- ton, and in 1887 in California. In 1890 he revisited England. His poems include Songs of the Sierras (1871), of the Sunlands (1873), of the Desert (1875), of Italy (1878), and of the Mexicun Seas (1887); his prose works, The Danites in the Sierras (1881). Shadows of Shasta (1881), and 49, or the Gold-seekers of the Sierras (1884). He also wrote The Danites, a successful play, and My Life amony the Modoes (1873). Miller, Jor. See Jest-sooxs. Miller, Witu1Am. See ADVENTISTS. Miller, Wii11am Hatows (1801-80), professor of Mineralogy at Cambridge, is especially dis- tinguished for his system of Crystallography (q.v.). Miller’s Thumb. See BuLiuean. Millet, a grain, of which there are several kinds, the produce of species of Panicum, Setaria, and allied genera. The genus Panicum contains many species, natives of oer and warm temperate countries, and some of which, as Guinea Grass -v.), are amongst the largest fodder grasses. ie flowers are in spikes, racemes, or panicles; the glumes very unequal, one of them often very minute ; each spikelet containing two florets, one of which is often barren. The genus Setaria has a spe ube panicle, with two or more bristles under glumes of each spikelet—Common Millet ( Pani- cum miliaceum) is an annual grass, three or four feet high, remarkably covered with long hairs, which stand out at right angles. It has a much-branched nodding panicle ; the spikelets are oval, and contain only one seed. It is a native of the East Indies, but is extensively cultivated in the warmer parts of Europe and other quarters of the world. The grain, which is very nutritious, is only about one-eighth of an inch in length. It is used in the form of groats, or in flour mixed with wheat-flour, which makes a good kind of bread; but bread made of millet alone is brittle and full of cracks, Poultry are extremely fond of millet.—Other species, P. miliare, P. mentaceum, and P. pilosum, are enltivated in different parte of India, chiefly on light and rather dry soils, yielding very abundant ero) Millet of various species is the staple food- n of India as a whole, and not rice, as is often t.—German Millet, or Mohar (Setaria ger- manica), and Italian Millet (S. italica)—regarded by ar as varieties of one species, and probably originally from the East, although now naturalised in the south of Europe—are cultivated in many of the warmer parts of Europe, in India, and other countries, Italian millet is three or four feet in — ; German millet is much a and its spike com - neh 2 ne compact, and erect; it is less valuable as a corn-plant, The grains of both are very small, only about half as long as that of Common Mil- let; but they are extremely prolific, one root producing many stalks, and one spike of Italian millet - often yielding two ounces of grain. The produce is estimated as five times that @, Common Millet (Panicum milia- of wheat. The ceum); 6, German Millet (Setaria grain of these germanica). millets is im- ported into Britain for feeding cage-birds. It is used for soup in the south of Europe. To the same tribe o belong the genera Paspalum, Pennisetum, Ponicillaria, igitaria, and Milium pea ey: exile is common in Africa; and P, zculatum is cultivated on poor soils in India. Penicillaria spicata or Pennisetum typhoideum, often called Egyptian Millet and Guinea Corn, is cultivated in Africa and India, and the south of Europe.—Pennisetum distichum causes much incon- venience to the traveller in Central Africa, the little bristles which are attached to its seeds making them stick to the clothes and pierce the skin.—Digitaria sanguinalis, or Polish Millet, is cultivated in Poland, where the grain is used like rice. It is a common grass in tropical and warm countries, and in many parts of Europe; in Britain it occurs in the south of England, where it is probably only an_ intro- duced weed of cultivation. The spikes in this genus are compound, and from their appearance ive it the names Digitaria and Finger-grass.— he Millet Grass (Milium effusum) of Britain, oceasionally found in shady woods, is a very beautiful grass, three or four feet high, with a spreading pale panicle of small flowers. Another species of the same genus (JM. nigricans) is the ‘aize de Guinea of Peru, where its Ss are con- verted into a very white flour.—The name Indian Millet is sometimes given to Durra (q.v.). Millet, Jean Francois, painter, was born in ° the village of Gruchy, near Gréville, on the 4th of October 1814, The son of a farmer, he owed much in his childhood to his grandmother, a woman of great piety and individuality, and to her brother, who had been a priest ; and he was taught enough Latin to enjoy the Vulgate and Virgil. For a time he aided his father as a farm-labourer ; but, having manifested great taste for drawing, he was at length, in 1832, placed under Monchel, a painter in Cherbourg, whom he assisted in the execution of two sacred subjects now in the church of the Trinity there, and who induced the municipality 202 MILLIARD MILNE-EDWARDS of Cherbourg to t an annuity to aid his pupil in his studies, the sum being afterwards supple- mented by the council of La Manche. In_ 1837 Millet came to Paris, and worked in the studio of Paul Delaroche, learning, however, more from his study of the works of ) ichelangelo, Poussin, Cor- reggio, and the Venetians. Next he painted and drew in pastels little subjects in the popular style of Boucher and Watteau, selling them to the dealers for a few francs; and in 1840 a portrait which he sent to the salon was accep and hung. In the same year he returned to Normandy, where he painted portraits and even signboards. In 1841 he was again in Paris; and he struggled hard amid the revolutionary troubles that fol- lowed to maintain himself and his family by his art. In 1848 he fought at the barricades of the Quartier Roche-chouart; and in the following year he settled in Barbizon, near the Forest of Fontainebleau, along with Charles Jacque, and there made the acquaintance of Theodore Rousseau. At Barbizon, where he remained for the rest of his days, living much like the peasants around him, he began in good earnest to paint the life of rustic France, entering on his task with a sympathetic power such as no other painter has chown. Here the famous ‘ Sower’ was: completed in 1850, mainly, however, from recollections of Normandy. In 1855 his ‘ Peasants Grafting’ won Gautier’s praise, and was bought by an American for 4000 franes. It was followed by ‘ The Gleaners’ in 1857, ‘ The Angelus’ (1859), ‘ Waiting’ and ‘The Sheep-shearers’ (1861), ‘The Man with the Hoe’ and ‘Women Carding’ (1863), ‘Shepherdess and Flock’ (1864), works in which, without any depar- ture from the most absolute truth, he im a lar; and a, pathetic dignity to his res of the men and women who labour in the fields, and to their environments of ordinary nature. In addition to paintings, he produced many charcoal drawings of a very high quality, and he etched a few plates. All his life long he struggled against the pressure of poverty, though he was awarded medals at the salons of 1853 and 1864, and a first- class medal at the Paris International Exhibition of 1867, when he also received the ribbon of the Legion of Honour. He died at Barbizon, 20th January 1875. Since his death he has been fully recognised as one of the greatest of French ters ; and the productions of his brush have realised very large prices. At the Sécrétan sale in Paris, in 1889, his most, celebrated picture, ‘The Angelus,’ sold—along with the government commission of 5 per cent.—for £23,226; it was afterwards ex- hibited for a year in the United States. See works on Millet by Piedagnel (1876), Sensier (Eng. trans. 1881), Yriarte (1884), Ménard (1890), s Milés (1895); D. C. Thomson, The Barbizon School (1890); and his Life and Letters by Julia Cartwright (1896). Milli the French collective name for a thousand millions ; familiar in connection with the five milliards of france (5000 millions of franes, or £200,000,000) paid by France as war indemnity to Germany in 1871-73 (see France, Vol. LV. p. 783). 2 Millom, a town of Cumberland, on the west side of the Duddon estuary, 30 miles SSE. of Whitehaven. It has mines and ironworks. Pop. (1851) 1070; (1881) 6228 ; (1891) 8895, Millport, See Cumprag. Millstone Grit. See CAarponirerous Sys- TEM, and MILL. Milman, Henry Hart, dean of St Paul's, poet and ecclesiastical historian, was the youngest son of Sir Francis Milman (1746-1821), physician to George IIL, and was born in codee 10th February 1791. He was educated at Greenwich under Burney, at Eton, and at Brasenose College, Oxford, where in 1812 he won the Newdi- te with his Belvidere A ¥ best of all wy ag ms, In — he — elected rhe fellow ; in was ordained priest, and appoin' vicar of St Mary's, Readin 4 from 1821 to 1831 was professor of Poetry at Oxford, where in 1827 he delivered the Bampton Lectures, on The Char- acter and Conduct of the Apostles considered as an Evidence of Christianity ; in 1835 became rector of St Mary's, Westminster, and a canon of West- minster ; and in 1849 was promoted to the deanery of St Paul's. He died at Sunninghill, near Ascot, 24th September 1868, and was buried in St Paul's. The collected edition of Dr Milman’s Poems and Dramatic Works (3 vols. 1839) comprises Fazio, a ragedy (1815), which, without his consent, was acted first at Bath, and then in 1818 at Covent Gar- den, with Charles Kemble and Miss O’Neil in the leading parts; Samor, Lord of the Bright City, an heroic poem (1818); The Fail of Jerusalem (1820 a beautiful dramatic poem, with some fine lyrics interspersed ; three other dramas, The Martyr 4 Antioch (1822), Belshazzar (1822), and Anne yn (1826); and Nala and ge | with other Poems translated from the Sa it (1834 Forgotten as a whole, the poems live, and w live, through three or four much p hymns— “When our heads are bowed with woe,’ ‘ Brother, thou art gone before us,’ and ‘ Ride on, ride on in Majesty.’ The complete edition of Dean Milman’s Historical Works (15 vols. 1866-67) includes his History of the Jews (1829), History of Christianity to the Abolition of Paganism in the n Empire 1840), and History of Latin Christianity to the ontificate of Nicholas V. (1854-56). The last—‘a complete epic and philosophy of medicval Christen- dom ’—is Milman’s masterpiece ; it is really a great work, great in all the essentials of history—sub- ject, style, and research. But, though vastly in- erior, the History of the Jews was in a way more important. For ‘it was,’ in Dean Stanley’s words, ‘the first decisive inroad of German theology into England; the first = ble indication that the Bible ‘‘could be studied like another book ;” that the characters and events of the sacred his could be treated at once critically and reverently.’ Milman also edited Gibbon and Horace, and wrote much for the casey, Review. After his death epneered the delightful Annals of St Paul’s Cathe- ral (1868), and Savonarola, Erasmus, and other Essays (1870), See an article by Dean Stanley in Maemillan’s Magazine for January 1869. Milne-Edwards, Henn, naturalist, was born at Bruges, 23d October 1800. His father was an Englishman, Milne-Edwards studied medicine at Paris, where he took his degree of M.D. in 1823, but devoted himself to natural mt After having for many years taught natural history at the Collége de Henri IV., he was elected in 1838 meniber of the Académie des Sciences in the place of Cuvier. In 1841 he filled the chair of Ento- mology at the Jardin des Plantes, and in 1844 became also professor of Zoology and Physiology. He was a member of the Académie de Médecine and of most of the learned academies of Europe and America, and held several orders—amongst others, since 1861, that of Commander of the ion of Honour. He published numerous original memoirs of importance in the Annales des Sciences Natur- elles, a journal he himself assisted in editing for fifty years. His Eléments de Zoologie (1834), when reissued in 1851 as Cours Elémentaire de Zoo- logie, ad an enormous circulation at home and abroad, and long formed the basis of most minor manuals of zoology published in Europe. His Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés (1834-40) and Histoire Naturelle des Coralliaires ate were almost equally noteworthy. The ures on ees ii ti ei MILNER MILTON 203 Pi 'y and Comparative Anatomy of Man and the Animals (14 vols. 1857-81) have a great per- manent value for their immense mass of details, and copious references to scattered sources of information. He also had an important share in a splendid quarto of Anatomical and Zoological Researches on the Coasts of Sicily. Other works were researches on the natural history of the French coasts (1832-45) and on the natural history of the mammalia (1871). In some of his later works he was assisted by his distinguished son Alphonse. Milne-Edwards must always hold high rank amongst the naturalists of the 19th century. is researches in the distribution of the lower invertebrates led him to the theory of centres of creation ; and to this he adhered throughout life, in spite of the acceptance of the newer and Jom! ge views of Darwin by his fellow-scientists. He died on the 29th July 1885. His elder brother, Frederick William, was almost equally celebrated. He founded the Ethnological Society in Paris, and is considered the father of ethnology in France. Milner, Josern, an ecclesiastical historian, was born near Leeds in 1744. He studied at Catharine Hall, Soe ahim 5 and afterwards became well known as head-master of Hull grammar-school. He was vicar of North Ferriby, 7 miles from Hull, and lecturer in the principal church of the town, and in 1797 became vicar of Holy Trinity ee meet a i ahaa of the we year. ilner’s work is his History of t Church of Christ, at which he lived to complete three volumes, reaching to the 13th century; a fourth volume coming down to the 16th century, was edited from his MSS. by his younger brother, Dr Isaac Milner, dean of Carlisle, who also_pub- lished a complete edition of his brother’s works in 8 vols. 1810. The principles on which the history is written are of the narrowest kind; the scholar- ship, literary style, and critical insight are alike poor. Milnes, Richarp Monckton. See Hovcuron. Milngavie (pron. Mil/quy), a town of Stirling- shire, 7 miles NNW. of Ghawow. Pop. 2636. : Milo. See MELos. Milo, of Crotona, in Magna Grecia, an athlete famous for his great strength. He was six times victor for wrestling at the Olympic games, and as often at the RD gr my and commanded the army which defea the Sybarites in 511. On one oceasion he is said tp have carried a live ox upon his shoulders through the stadium of Olympia, and yards to have eaten the whole of it in one day ; and on another, to have upheld the poe of a house in which Pythagoras and his scholars were assembled, so as to give them time to make their sore when the house was falling. In old age he lost his life through too great confidence in his own strength, in attempting to split up a tree, which el upon his hands, and held him fast until he was devoured by wolves. Milrei, or Mitrea, a Portuguese silver coin and money of account, contains 1000 rees, and is valued at 4s, 5d. sterling. The coin is commonly wn in Portugal as the corda, or ‘crown,’ and is (since 24th April 1835) the unit of the money- system in that country. It is also used in Brazil. of the values of a half-corda, or half-milrei, as well as the one-fifth, one-tenth, and one-twen- » are current in both countries as money of account. Milt. See Fisues, Vol. IV. p. 654. Miltiades, a celebrated Athenian general, who was tyrant of a colony in the Thracian Chersonesns, took part with Darius Hystaspes against the Seythians, and, when Attica was threatened by the great Persian invasion, was chosen one of the ten generals. He prevailed upon the polemarch Callimachus to give his casting vote in favour of risking a battle, and when his turn came to com- mand drew up his army on the famous field of Marathon. The victory of the Athenians and one thousand Plateans over the Persian host of Datis and Artaphernes is justly counted one of the decisive battles of the world. Miltiaces, being entrusted anew with the command of an arma- ment, made an attack on the island of Paros in order to gratify a private enmity, but, failing in the attempt, was on his return to Athens con- demned to pay a fine of fifty talents as an indem- nity for the expenses of the expedition. Being unable to do this, he was thrown into prison, where he died of a wound received at Paros. The fine was exacted after his death from his son Cimon. Milton, Jonny, after ny ask the greatest English poet, was born in Bread Street, Cheapside, on December 9, 1608. His father, John Milton, was a prosperous scrivener, a Puritan but a musician, and composer of several pieces much admired by his contemporaries. He was descended from a family of yeomen settled in Oxfordshire, and had come to town npon being disinherited for his religious convictions by his father, a Catholic recusant. He appears to have from the first discerned the promise of his son, and to have determined to give him the best education he could. After sted under private tutors, young Milton was admitted about 1620 into St Paul's School, where he distinguished himself not only as a scholar, but as a poet. In February 1625 he entered Christ’s College, Cambridge. His academi- cal course was not wholly smooth; he seems to have been chastised—not, as the legend says flogged—by his tutor, and was certainly rusticated for a short time in 1626. After his return, how- ever, he went through the university course with credit, graduating as Bachelor at the proper time, and proceeding Master of Arts in July 1632. The condition of the church, over which Laud then ruled supreme, deterred the young Puritan from taking orders ; he felt no vocation towards any other pro- fession; and at Horton, in Buckinghamshire, where his father had retired upon the fortune he had acquired in business, he settled rod down with the distinct purpose of making himself a poet by study and self-discipline. His poetical genius had already been attested by two noble productions, the ‘Hymn on the Nativity,’ and ‘At a Solemn Music,’ as well as much Latin verse of the highest quality ; but it is remarkable how little stimulus he seems to have felt to occasional composition. During his six years’ residence at Horton he pro- duced, so far as known, only two English poems of importance which can aseri to direct tical impulse from within, the Ad/e and the enseroso. Comus was written at the instance of his friend, the musician Henry Lawes, to cele- brate Lord Bridgewater’s assumption of the wardenship of the Welsh marches, and was per- formed at Ludlow before a select assemblage in September 1634. Lycidas was evoked by the death of his friend, ward King, shipwrecked on his passage to Ireland in 1637. There is, per- haps, not another instance in literature of a great t so entirely dependent upon circumstances for inspiration, and, while meditating the highest things, so content to bide his time in calm reliance upon his ability to do what he pleased when he i a The four productions of this Horton period were indeed of theniselves sufficient to place him in the first rank of English poets. Their most individual characteristic is perhaps chastened exuberance—boundless poetical wealth severely controlled, and splendidly displayed without lavish- 204 MILTON ness or ostentation. Comus and Lycidas tell us much of the man ; in the former we see the scholar’s disdain, perhaps slightly tinged with moroseness, for all save intellectual pleasures; in the latter the pencees and the Puritan speaks his bitter scorn of the ruling faction in the church. Perhaps he had spoken too freely ; at all events very shortly after the publication of his elegy, about the begin- ning of 1638, as of an obituary collection in memory of Edward King, he left England for a tour in Italy. Milton’s visit to Italy is one of the most agreeable chapters of his life. He was cordially received by the Italian literati, 5 oncom 5 at Florence, where he made not only pleasant ac- naintanceships, but permanent friendships. At me, notwithstanding his undaunted profession of Protestantism, he was treated with especial attention, and at Naples the venerable Marquis Manso, half a century earlier the protector of Tasso, gave him hospitality and presents, which Milton requited with an elegant Latin poem. The impres- sion which Milton tone produced upon foreigners is a proof of something imposing and attractive in his personality, for all his solid claims to fame were of course a sealed book to the Italians, His journey home was hastened by news of the out- reak of hostilities between Charles I. and the Scots, and his return was saddened by tidings of the death of his friend Diodati, whom he celebrated in his elegy ‘Damon,’ the finest and the last of his Latin poems. He settled in St Bride’s Churehyard, afterwards in Aldersgate Street, and devoted him- self to the education of his widowed sister’s children, the two young Phillipses. Unconscious of the long farewell he was about to bid to poetry, he oceu- pied his leisure with schemes for ms mostly dramatic and scriptural, of which numerous skeleton outlines are preserved. The conception of Puradise Lost as a mystery or miracle pla gradually dawned upon his mind, and Satan’s address to the Sun was actually written about this time. But the Civil War came, and for lon silenced Milton’s muse, except for an occasio sonnet, It has been mueh debated whether the world has lost or pra more by Milton's absorption in eg mr The question is somewhat idle: to wish ‘or Milton other than he was is to wish for a succession of Comuses rather than a Paradise Lost. No man capable of conceiving such a work as Milton’s epic could be unaffected by the situation of his country at that tremendous crisis, and with Milton’s poetical temperament lively interest in any- thing signified total occupation by it for the time. The tracts which he now poured forth are as truly lyrical inspirations as any of his poems; by no means masterpieces of reasoning, but dithyrambic eestasies of love or hate. Three appeared in 1641, two in 1642. All five relate to church government : never was diction so magnificent called forth by a theme so unpromising. In fact, however, the writer’s thoughts are much higher and deeper than his subject, and, stripped of what is temporar: and accidental in the latter, they appear magni- ficent idealisations of the possibilities of a far-off future, which to Milton seemed ever at the door. The great drawback to their enjoyment at the present day is the scurrility of their invective, which passed comparatively unperceived anid the excitement of revolution. In 1643 Milton's activity as a public writer was diverted into a new channel by private affairs, which, however, he so handled as to render of universal concern. In June of this year, after a very short goarsehip, he married a young lady, pec! Powell, danghter of an Oxfordshire squire, previously known to him as a debtor to his father for money advanced on m The bride's family were cavaliers, and she would seem to have been as little suited to her husband in every other respect as by her education and connections, The idealising imagination of the must in all probability have been at work, the thoughtless presipliency of ee whole transaction would a show how tly in many respects the estimate of Milton's ceseiine needs sovielents Phe poor girl was naturally shocked at the sudden transfer from a jovial country household to the apartments of an austere scholar, whose intellect and character she was utterly unable to appreciate, and whose principles ran counter to all an prejn- dices, After a few weeks’ trial of matrimony she went back to her friends, under a pro Milton's nephew says, to return at Michaelmas; but doubt- is cast upon this statement by the fact, discovered ly Professor Masson, that Milton’s first tract on divorce was written and printed at the very time of the separation, She certainly did not return, and early in the following year Milton put forth another edition of his Doctrine and Discipline of Di greatly extended, and enriched with erudition argument. It brought many attacks upon him, mainly from the Presbyterians, from whose views on church and state he had been more and more dissociating himself. He replied to his opponents in three supplementary pamplilets, and a threat of prosecution by a parliamentary committee, which came to nothing, occasioned the production (Novem- ye’ 1644) of t! eo Pagrag tens 53 3 reopagitica, a Spe or the li 7) i Printing, which has come to be teparial as almost the gospel of freedom of speech, and, if less elo- quent than his tracts on church gevernmen nevertheless contains the best known his prose-writings. It must be remembered that even here Milton does not contend against the prosecution of published ari deemed _perni- cious, but merely against the right to forbid publi- cation through the instrumentality of a licenser. A few months previously he had com and ublished, at the instance of his friend Samuel artlib, a Tractate of Education, of little practical agogic value, but full of inspiration and sugyvestion. ilton was not the man to permit his opinions to remain enipty speculations, and in the course of 1645 he was taking serious steps towards carrying the most obnoxious of them into — by paying his addresses to ‘a very handsome and witt; gentlewoman,’ when the absent wife thought time to return. Her repentance may probably have been further stimulated by the overthrow of the _ cause, which had occasioned the total rhin of her family. Conscious, probably, of his own failings in temper and considerateness, Milton did not prove obdurate; and by September his house- hold was re-established in the Barbican. She further induced him to receive her mother and other members of her impoverished family, persons whom he had little reason to love, and of whose incompatibility he complains in a letter to an Italian friend. Little else can be said of her, except that she brought him three daughters, and died in 1652. He lost the father to whom he owed so much in 1647, a year after the fruits of his education and the partial accomplishment of the purpose of his life had been manifested in a collected edition of his poetical works, English and Latin, During all this time Milton’s calling, apart from his studies and polemics, had been educational ; other epee mostly sons of friends, had been gradua ly added to his nephews, and he seemed to the world a schoolmaster. He was now to enter ublic life. The execution of Charles L., January 50, 1649, was followed within a fortnight by his al Pro P MILTON 205 defence of the deed, The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates. Having thus definitively cast in his lot with the ruling paity, he was appointed on Marelh 15 to a post which no other man in England was so competent to fill, that of ‘Secretary of Foreign Tongues,’ whose duty it was to draft diplomatic correspondence with foreign powers, then carried on in Latin. Milton had few equals in that age as a Latinist, whether in prose or verse, and his public letters were an honour to himself and his country, but there is no reason to suppose that he was ever much more than the mouthpiece of the vernment. His services were more conspicuous in another department, his justification of the king’s execution in his reply to Salmasius’s Regii uinis Clamor ad um, a pamphlet whose ion had been a European event. Milton’s ulo Anglicano Defensio (1651) was pro- nou , even by those who condemned it, a great controversial victory. In erudition, Latinity, and, it must be added, seurrility, the combatants were well matched, but Milton spoke from the heart, and Salmasius from a brief. This work, now so little read, made Milton famous all over , and is memorable as the immediate occasion of the loss of his eyesight, deliberately ielded up by him in the canse of his country. By 652 the impaired vision had wholly failed, and it was necessary to provide him with an assistant in his official duties. His domestic life at this period was tranqnil, distinguished chiefly by his second marriage and the loss of his wife (1656-58), and the pleasing intimacy of fous friends, reeorded in his sonnets. The magnificent sonnet on the massacre of the Vandois was written in 1655. Several contro- versial pamphlets with Alexander Morus followed his contest with Salmasius, chiefly remarkable for the fortitude and dignity of his references to his affliction, and for his flattering portraits of the great men of the Commonwealth, especially Cromwell. Always leaning to the more raical side, he had supported Cromwell in all his extra-legal measures, th the disappointment of his early republican ideal must have cost him many pangs. He re- tained his secretaryship until the abdication of Richard Cromwell, when the condition of public affairs again made hima phleteer. His writings of this period, greatly inferior in splendour of diction to his a productions of the kind, are = mer interes’ as passionate protests, conclusive o his entire lack of tical statesmanship and his essentially poetical temperament. The Restoration drove him into concealment. Few more bitterly exasperated the Royalist party; but the new government was not bloodthirsty, and about the inning of 1661 he found himself settled in Jewin Street (afterwards in Artillery Walk, Bunhill Fields), honourably released from politics with the ying consciousness of having done his duty and his best, and free to devote himself entirely to the permanent purpose of his life. Paradise Lost was probably commenced some time before the Restoration, and completed about 1663—a striking instance of rapid composition, con- sidering the magnitude and perfection of the work, the interru by political revolution, and the fact that Milton’s poetical vein only flowed freel between the autumnal equinox and the vernal. It was chiefly composed at night, and necessarily dietated to some amannensis, usually one of his ters. e and fire for a time warred nst the publication, which at length, after some difficulty on the licenser’s part had been surmounted, took place in August 1667. Every one knows that the copyright was sold for five pounds : it is not always remembered that that sum repre- sented three times its value at the promos day. and that there were contingencies which, had Milton lived to benefit by them, would have raised his emolument to about £70 of our money. The sale of thirteen hundred copies within twenty months is certainly no discredit to the taste of the age. Milton’s claim to a place among the great poets of his country seems to have been admitted from the first, though in the absence of reviews his fame travelled slowly. The year 1671 witnessed the pub- lication of Paradise Regained, probably written in 1665-66, and of Samson Agonistes, written later still. The former was com at the suggestion of the Quaker Ellwood, working on the suspicion Milton could not but entertain that he had after all made Satan the hero of Paradise Lost. Samson Agonistes, dramatic in form, is lyrical in substance, a are lament over the author’s forlorn old age, and the apostasy, as he deemed it, of his nation. Both pieces evince the continued tendency of his style towards simplicity, which sometimes de- generates into baldness, They are noble pendants to Paradise Lost, but the more their relation to this mary work is studied the more one feels that it and it alone places him among the supreme poets of the world. Milton’s domestic life during this period had not been fortunate. The great cause of sorrow was the undutifulness of his danghters—very ordinary young women, it would seem, who felt no sympathy or admiration to counterbalance their natural impatience of their heavy task as his readers and amanuenses. The blind poet on his part was no doubt often stern and exacting; and on the whole the history of his household is one of sordid sadness up to his marriage (1663) with Elizabeth Minshull, a pretty and domestic woman of twenty-five, the daughter of a Cheshire yeoman. She restored comfort to his house, but failed to conciliate his daughters, who, after being taught embroidery at their father's expense, left to set up for themselves. The accounts we have of him in his later years convey a generally ger picture of a not un- cheerful retirement solaced hy music and the atten- tion of friends. When the tie impulse had departed he addressed himself vigorously to other unfulfilled bmp. br of his youth, writing the early history of England and endeavouring to amend men’s conceptions of grammar and logic. These writings are indeed of little value; but his Latin Treatise of Christian Doctrines, though devoid of all pretensions to eloquence, is a memorable work. His theology had become profoundly modified in the course of his life; he is now an Arian as pe yee the person of Christ ; he is indifferent to all rites and ceremonies ; he is as anti-Sabbatarian as Luther ; he would even tolerate polygamy. The charm of the treatise consists in its dignified candour, and the absence of all polemic viru- lence. The tranquillity of evening was indeed closing around him as he penned this last legacy, the . of which, confiscated and mislaid, was not to see the light for a hundred and fifty years. Reduced still further in means by losses through the great fire of 1666, but still above want; exe- crated as a regicide by the re pig of his country- men, but already acclaimed by the discerning as the first poet of his age; worn by attacks of gout, but cheerful and even joyous in the intervals of pain, he closed his chequered life on November 8, 1674. He was interred in St Giles’s, Cripplegate. Milton is one of the poets respecting whose place in literature there has been least question, whether as regards the literature of their own country or that of the world. He stands at the head of those epic whose themes have not, like Homer's or irgil’s, been national, or have not, like Dante’s, condensed the essence of the belief of ages. He is indebted for this superiority partly to his felicitous choice of the finest subject which yet remained for 206 MILLVILLE epical treatment, ae to his exceptional qualifi- cations for treating it, but most of all to the actual superiority of his genius, After Homer there is no t to whom the sublime is so much a native element, who rises into it with so little apparent effort, and remains in it for so long ther. Another cireamstance which would alone make him a poet for the world is that im him and in him alone the Hebraic and the Hellenic spirit appear thoroughly at one. His theme and his c con- nect him with the Scriptures, but his literary tastes and models are the tastes and models of the Renais- sance. As an English poet he fills up the great gap which would otherwise yawn between the age of Shakespeare and the age of Dryden, and, like Wren in architecture, proves that the classical style need not necessarily be synonymous with peey or inanity. In the artful harmony of lank verse he surpasses every English poet, though he may not have caught the ‘ wood-notes wild’ of Shakespeare and his contemporaries. His magna- nimity as a man matched his sublimity as a poet ; but he had perhaps more than a usual share of the failings attendant upon the magnanimous character, and at first sight appears t and unamiable. It is not until we consider that the circumstances of his life forced these characteristics into prominence, and that biographers have too commonly thought the softer and more familiar traits unworthy of record; until we remember that the company of this austere idealist was frequented by the young, and that the pleasures of the social hour have been exquisitely sung by him; above all, until we note his almost entire dependence for composition upon external impulse, the rashness of some of his actions and the chivalry of others, that we perceive him to have is full share of the emotional tem- perament common to poets. The principal contemporary authority for Milton’s life is his nephew, Edward Phillips. Toland has added some interesting noti S , Mitfurd, Todd, and others wrought usefully in their day in collecting and investi- gating culars, but tueir labours have been entirely superseded by Professor Masson (6 vols. 1876-79), who has left nothing unexplored, and whose verdict is in most cases decisive. Johnson's short biography, however, must always be read for its literary merit, and as a remarkable inst of insuperable antipathy striving to be just. Milton’s Life has been written on a small scale by Mark Pattison (‘Men of Letters,’ 1880) and by Richard Garnett (‘Great Writers,’ 1889, with full bibliography ), ‘there is an excellent and comprehensive German bio- graphy by Alfred Stern (2 vols. Leip. 1877-79). Addison, Johnson, Channing, and Macaulay are especially dis- tinguished among Milton's critics. Millville, a city of New Jersey, on the Maurice River, 41 miles by rail 8. by E. of Philadelphia. It has manufactures of cottons and glass. Pop. (1890) 10,002 ; (1900) 10,583. Miiwaukee, county seat of Milwaukee county, Wisconsin, and the largest city in the state, is healthfully situated on the west shore of Lake Michigan, 85 miles north of Chicago, It stands at the mouth of the Milwaukee River, which, with its confluents and a number of channels, furnishes 25 miles of dockage. The eastern division of the city ocenpies high bluffs along the shore of Milwaukee Bay, an arm of Lake Michigan having a width of seven miles, and constituting a capacious harbor of refuge for the largest lake vessels, Milwaukee's residence streets are wide and well shaded, and her residences comprise many palatial homes, The pub- lic parks, eight in number, have an aggregate area of over 400 acres. ‘The street railway system em- braces sixteen electric lines with 158 miles of track, and ro the city with electric light. It is connected with an electric line running to Wauke- sha, twenty miles westward, and another to Keno- sha, thirty-five miles southward, to be eventually MIMICRY extended to Chicago. The water supply is drawn from Lake Michigan through a tunnel and a series of pipes extending out two miles into cool and un- disturbed water. The city is well drained by an extensive sewe system, and Milwaukee River is flushed with lake water forced into it two miles from its mouth, through a tunnel, by a serew-wheel pump having a capacity of 450,000,000 gallons per day. The public institutions of Milwaukee include a National Soldiers’ Home, 20 asylums and eleemosy- nary establishments, 11 hospitals, 3 convents and a Capuchin apreace 152 churches, 51 parochial schools with about 20,000 pe 52 public schools with an te enrolment of 34,000 pupils, a public library containing 80,000 volumes, a public museum, an art gallery, 11 banks, including five national banks, and life and fire insurance compa- nies. Eight daily newspapers are published here, and there are many weeklies printed in various lan- guages. Milwaukee is essentially a manufactu city, although the i and lake shipping interests are quite large. ides the lake lines which pro- vide connections for the trunk rai there are eleven lines of passenger and freight steamers run- ning to various ports on the lakes, and a car plying across Lake Michigan. Eleven railroad lines radiate from the city. ilwaukee’s shipments of — during 1897 egated 19,591,000 bushels. he coal received during the same year amounted to 1,492,000 tons. The value of Milwaukee’s manu- factured products during 1897 was $126,676,112, in- eluding $30,467,283 in the metal-working industries, $15,797,250 in brewery products, and $15,419,333 in xttgimcrens ates | “synch Beer badah dan is the largest industry, the output in 1897 ‘in 2,271,448 barrels. Population of the city (18905 204,468 ; (1900) 285,315, MimAansA (from the Sanskrit mén, ‘to investi- gate ;’ hence, literally, nehenge cel is the collec- tive name of two of the six divisions of orthodox Hindu philosophy. It is distinguished as Pirva- and Uttara-mimédnsdé, the latter being more com- monly called Vedanta, while the former is briefl styled Mimdansd. Though the Miménsé is ranked, by all native writers, with the five other philoso- phical systems, the term philosophy can scarcely be ss to it in the same sense as to them; its object is merely to lay down a correct gg tion of such Vedie as refer to the - manic ritual, to solve doubts wherever they may exist on matters concerning sacrificial acts, and to reconcile discrepancies—according to the Mimfnsa, always apparent only—of Vedic texts. See SANs- KRIT, VEDAS. Mimes, the name given by the ancients to certain dramatic performances, in which, with little attempt at art, scenes of actual life were a sented, sometimes in improvised dialogue. The Greek mimes ap to have been invented by the Greeks of Sicily and Southern Italy. They were a favourite amusement of convivial ies, the guests themselves being generally the performers. Sophron of Syracuse (about 420 B.C.) com many in the Dorie dialect, which were much admired, and which Plato was accustomed to read.—The Roman mimes were not borrowed from the Greek, but were of native Italic growth. They were not only far ruder and coarser, but in some respects they were essenti- ally different—the dialogue occupying a smaller lace, and mere gesture and mimicry predominating. The humour and satire, however, were often genuine, though rough and even indecent, and they were fly relished by all classes; even the patrician ulla was fond of them. Their most famous mimic poets were Decimus Laberius and Pub. Syrus. Mimicry. The fact that insects belonging to very different groups often bear an extremeiy MIMICRY 207 close superficial resemblance to each other has been known for a long period of time. The names given to various species of British motlis are suffi- cient proofs of this. Such names as Bombyli- formis, Apiformis, Bembeciformis, &c. imply a recognition of the resemblance between these species and others belonging to an entirely differ- ent order. The meaning of such likenesses was, however, unknown until the appearance of H. W. Bates’s classical paper in 1862. In this essay the author shows that the species which has coperses from the normal type of its group (the mimicker) is far rarer than the form which it resembles, while the latter (the mimicked) is abundant and well defended by some special protection, such as the ion of an unpleasant taste or smell or the paves of stinging. Bates’s observations were con- ucted in tropical America, where abundant, con- spicuous, slow-flying, nauseous buttertlies (Heli- conidee and Danaidse) are closely mimicked by Pieridz (the family containing our common garden white butterflies ) and other butterflies, and in many cases by day-flying moths. Subsequent observation has confirmed Bates’s suggestion. Wallace found numerous instances of mimicry a the Lepi- doptera of India and the Malay Archipelago, and Trimen directed attention to similar facts amo South African butterflies. The latter include the most remarkable instance of mimicry yet discovered. The male of a South African swallow-tailed buttertly pene cenea) is typical in a) and possesses the characteristic ‘tails’ on the hind-wings : the female is utterly unlike the male in the colouring and form of, the wings, the ‘tails’ being entirely absent. While the female is so different from the male of its own species it appears in three well-marked varieties mimicking three different species of the nauseous genus Danais brown-spotted D. —viz. the bl cheria, the black and white D. niavius, and the black reddish- brown and white D. chrysippus (see fig. 2A). In West Africa a closely related swallow-tail (P. merope) has a very similar male, and females mimicking D. or us and the West African form of D. niavius. tile such remarkable changes have occurred on the mainland of Africa, the an- cestral form from which these mimetic species have been developed has been preserved comparatively unchanged in the island of Madagascar, as the ooey related Papilio meriones in which the female much resembles the male and is non-mimetic. Similar species with sexes almost alike have been found in the Comoro Islands (P. humbloti) and in Abyssinia (P. antinorii). This example strongly enforces a conclusion also arrived at by Bates and Wallace—viz. that the females are far more fre- quently mimetic than the males. Wallace has explained this because of the especial dangers incurred by the female during her slow flight when laden with eggs, and her exposure to aitack during oviposition. ‘he examples selected for illustration were lent by Colonel Swinhoe; the figures are about half the natural size. Fig. 1 represents the male of the Indian and African Hypolimnas misippus : it is non-mimetic and very unlike the female, being distinctly marked with a large iridescent blue spot on each of the four wings. The iridescent spots on the right wings appear to be larger than those on the left, , en they are seen at a different angle. The male remains unchanged in the localities where its female alters in correspondence with the form it mimics. Fig. 2 is the commonest form of female, which mimics the above-mentioned Danais chrysippus (fig. 2A), oceurring nearly all over the Old World. In Aden and some parts of Africa the latter butter- - fly is represented by a variety or sub-species with white hind-wings (Danais alcippus); see fig. 3A. In the same localities there is a similar variety of the female Hypolimnas (the aleippoides form), shown in fig. 3. Finally, in Aden and certain African localities there is another variety or sub- — of the Danais (D. dorippus) without the black and white marks at the tip of the fore-wing, shown in fig. 44; while the Hypolimnas follows with a similar form of female, seen in fig. 4. This latter is also common in the south-west of India, where it has been stated that the mimicked form (D. dorippus) does not oecur, Colonel Swinhoe, however, felt sure that the existence of the mimicker implied the former presence of the mimicked —— He tested this hypothesis by examining large numbers of the Danais, and he found that the dorippus form does exist in that part of India, although it is extremely rare: he came across about a dozen in four or five years, It is probable that dorippus has been nearly sup- planted by the dominant form chrysippus, the resemblance between the two being sufficiently close for the mimic of the former to be mistaken for the latter. The case forms a most interesting exception to Wallace’s third law quoted below. The butterflies which afford models for mimic chietly belong to the two families Danaide (includ- ing Sapln: anais, and Hestia) and Acreide, in addition to the Heliconide of tropical America. There is some direct and much indirect evidence to show that all mimicked species are specially pro- tected by an unpleasant taste or smell. Wallace has concisely stated the conditions under which mimicry occurs, as follows; ‘(1) That the imitative species occur in the same area and occupy the same station as the imitated. (2) That the imitators are always the more defenceless. (3) That the imitators are always less numerous in individuals. (4) That the imitators differ from the bulk of their allies. (5) That the imitation, however minute, is external and visible only, never extending to internal characters or to such as do not affect the external appearance,’ xamples of mimicry are also well known in other orders of insects. The formidable Hymen- optera (including the hornets, wasps, bees, and ants) are frequently resembled by defenceless insects belonging to other orders, such as moths (Lepidoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), flies (Diptera), &e. The most remarkable example yet described was discovered by W. L. Sclater in tropical America. The leaf-cutting ants (Cicodoma) are extremely abundant in this part of the world, and present a 208 MIMICRY MIMULUS very characteristic appearance, each homeward- hound ant carrying a piece of leaf vertically in its jaws. Sclater found a homopterous insect which aithfully resembled an ant together with its piece of leaf. The latter was suggested by the thin com- pressed n body of the insect, and its profile was precisely like that of the jae red edge of the frag- ment of leaf held over the < of the amt. The mimicking may be separated from the mimicked species by a still wider interval. Spiders in many parts of the world are defended by resem- bling the pegrensive and justly respec ants. Again, many caterpillars intimidate their foes by resemblance to snakes. The extraordinary pre- valence of mimiery among insects is probably to be explained by their usual defenceless condition, and by their immense fertility and the rate at which the generations succeed each other—conditions which strongly favour the rapid action of natural selection. Hones it is that other forms of protective resemblance are also especially characteristic of insects (see articles BUTTERFLY and CATERPILLAR in this work). Mimicry is, however, by no means unknown in other animals. Thus, the gaud colours of the deadly coral snakes ( Elaps) of tropical j America are mimicked by harmless snakes; and the powerful friar-birds are resembled by defence- less orioles in various Malayan islands, All the instances cited above illustrate protective mimiery —a resemblance which serves to defend the imitator from attack. But there are other although far rarer examples of aggressive mimicry, in which the resem- lance favours the attack of the imitator upon the mimicked species or upon species which accompany the latter. Thus, the larvie of certain flies ( Volu- cella) feed upon the larve of humble-bees and wasps. The parent fly resembles the humble-bee or wasp, and is thus less likely to arouse suspicion when engaged in laying its eggs in or near the nest. Mimetie appearances are often combined with other methods of defence; thus, many large cater- pillars are well concealed by protective resemblance, and only assume the terrifying snake-like appearance environment, or to mimic the appearance of some species (ApaTEtic CoLouRs ). I, Colours which cause an animal to resemble some part of its A. Colours which conceal an animal by causing it to resemble some normal surroundings (pro- tective and aggressive resem- blance ; Cryptic CoLours). colours ; CoLours). B. False warning and signal- ling colours deceptively sug- mrt of its eening cee See bape - gear sents to prey ( protective and aggrea- sive mimicry and alluring PsEuDOsEMATIC Il, Warning and signalling | III. Colours dis- er colours which 3 in court- something unpleasant to ship (Eprcamic an enemy, or aid in the CoLours). escape of other individuals | Ex.—Bright colours of the same species (Sema- | of male birds, Tic CoLouRs). . 1. Concealment as a defence |. against enemies (protec- tive resemblance: Pro- 1. Colours which deceptively suguest something unpleas- ant or dangerous to an 1. Colours which warn an enemy off by denoting some- thing unpleasant or danger- cryptic CoLours ). Ex.—Colours by which palatable insects are concealed (see arts. Butterfly and Caterpillar ). enemy (protective mimicry: PSEUDAPOSEMATIC CoLouRS). Ex.—Hornet-like moth, snake- like caterpillar. ous (warning coluurs: Aposematic CoLouRs). Ex.—Gaudy colours of nauseous or dangerous insects, 2. Concealment enabling an enemy to catch its prey (aggressive resemblance ; * Anricryrtic CoLours). Ex.—Colours of tiger, lion, &c. Ex.— Mantis 2. Colours which deceptively suggest something attractive to prey, or enable an enemy to approach without exciting suspicion (alluring colours and aggressive mimicry : pat mag a CoLours). ( Hymenopus), which attracts the other oak on which it feeds by resembling 2. Colours which enable indi- viduals of the same species uickly to recognise and ‘ollow each other (recog- nition marks: Episematic CoLours ). Ex.—White tail of radbit, a pink flower, Volucella, when alarmed. It is of the relation of mimicry to the other uses of colour in animals, This relationship is shown in the above table. The difference between mimicry and rotective resemblance (with which it is often con- sed) will be seen when A is compared with B. The term mimicry has been criticised as seeming to Pay conscious volition on the part of the imita- tor. Such a misapprehension is unlikely to arise in any one who has read the literature of the subject. Authorities are agreed that the resemblance has been ually produced by the operation of natural selection which has ensured the persistence of all variations tending in the direction of some well- defended insect avoided by foes, See H. W. Bates, ‘ Butterflies of the Amazon’ ( Trans. Linn. Soc., xxiii.); A. R. Wallace, ‘Malayan Butterflies’ om Linn, Soc., xxv.), Essays on Natural Selection, ical Nature, Darwinism ; K. Trimen, ‘South African Butterflies’ ( Trans. Linn, Soc., xxvi.); Belt, ‘ Naturalist in Nicaragua ;’ Poulton, ‘Colours and Markings of Insects’ sn ga Soc., 1887), Colours of Animals (Inter, Se. es Mimosew, a sub-order of Leguminose, distin- guished by regular flowers and petals valvate in bud. Over 1500 ies are known, all natives of warm climates, a few only extending beyond snb- tropical regions in the southern hemisphere. The t interest to trace nera Acacia (q.v.) and Mimosa are the best nown, To the latter nus belong the sensitive Plants (q.v.), also a great variety of trees usually of beautiful foliage (though their leaves, as in i may be phyllodia) and often also of valuable timber. The fruits are often esteemed but the roots and s not unfre- quently possess dras- tic or even poisonous properties. They are also rich in tannin and gums, Mim‘ulu & a genus of plants of the natural order Scro- phulariacee, havin a prismatic 5-tooth Mimulus maculosus—var, Arlequin. yx, a somewhat bell-shaped corolla, of which the ~ which close ther upon irritation. “ae, waned MINA MINERALOGY 209 lip is bifid and the lower lip trifid, two long two short stamens, and a stigma of two lamella, The species s plants, natives of America, are very uent in flower-gardens, and many fine varieties have resulted from cultiva- tion. They sometimes receive the name of Monkey- flower. One species, M. luteus, a native of Peru and Chili, and there used as a omae’ has become naturalised in many parts of Britain. The little yellow-flowered Musk Plant, now so common in gardens and on window-sills in Britain, is M. mos- chatus, a native of and other north-western parts of America. Mina, a Greek weight and money of account, the sixtieth part of a Talent (q.v.), containing 100 Drachme (q.v.). Mina Bird, See Myna. Minzans. See SAbxans. Minaret, Minar, a tall turret used in Sara- cenic architecture. It contains a staircase, and is divided into several stories, with balconies from which the muezzins summon the Mohammedans to prayer—bells not being nitted in their religion —and is terminated with a spire or ornamental finial. The minarets are amongst the most beauti- ful features of Mohammedan architecture, and are an invariable accompaniment of the Mosques (q.v.). For an illustration, see ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE. In India Minars, or pillars of victory, are fre- quently erected in connection with mosques ; some of these are lofty and splendid monuments, that of Kutab, at Old Delhi (q.v.), being 47 feet in diameter at the base and 238 feet high. The form of the minaret was derived from the Pharos (q.v.), the ancient lighthouse of Alexandria; and ee name is from the Arabic mandrat, ‘a light- nse.’ Minas, capital of a wild, mountainous province area, 4844 sq. m.; pop. 23,000) of the same name southern Uruguay, 75 miles by rail NE. of Montevideo. Pop. 7000. Minas the most nlons state of Bracih lies iinet fons Eapitito Kanto and south of Bahia, and has an area of 222,160 sq. m. Pop. grad, 3,018,807. Lying wholly in the tableland, its su is ocenpied with and bush-covered campos, rising, however, in the Serra do Espinhaco to 5900 feet. ‘The principal rivers include the navi- gable Sao Francisco and the Rio Grande, which unites with the Paranahyba to form the Parana. = ay peta and stock-raising are the chief indus- Some gold is still obtained, and diamonds, iron, and lead are mined. The inhabitants include very few whites ; among the Indians the Botocudos (q.v.) are met with. Mince-pies, an important item of English Christmas fare, com of very numerous in- gredients (suet, raisins, apples, lemons, currants, figs, almonds, flavoured with nutmeg, cinnamon, nger, &c.) variously compounded and baked in pastry. Formerly mutton or neat’s-tongue was an essential ingredient. The shape of the crust was not originally round, but is said to have been intended to represent the manger in which the Holy Child was laid. Minch, the channel separating the island of Lewes from the mainland of Scotland. It is 24 to 40 miles wide, and has a rapid current. The Little Minch, rating asye from North Uist and the neighbouring islands in the Outer Hebrides, is 14 to 20 miles wide. Minchinhampton, a market-town of Glouces- re, 34 miles SSE. of Stroud. James Bradley is aa the churchyard. Pop. of parish, 4561. Mincio, a river of Italy, rises as the Sarca in South Tyrol, flows 80 miles to and through Lake Garda, and thence as the Mincio through a southerly course of 93 miles past tua, joining the Po from the left. It is part of the Quadrilateral ( q.v.) forti- fication of North Italy; several great battles have been ee nearby, as Castiglione (1796), Solferino (1859), tozza (1849 and 1866). Mind, See Psycnooey. Mindanao, the southernmostand second largest island of the Philippines (q.v.). Area, about 34,000 sq.m. Itis very in outline, and the coasts have many bays and headlands. It has high and well-wooded mountains, and numerous rivers, some of t volume. The soil is fertile ; the vegetable and mineral products are those of the archipelago. Zamboanga, in the south-western part, is the chief town. Pop. 611,300, less than one-third Christians. Minden, a Prussian town in Westphalia, on the Weser, 40 miles W. of Hanover. ‘Till 1873 a fortress of the second class, it was already a town in Charlemagne’s day, and suffered much in the Thirty Years’ War, and again in the Seven Years’ War, when, on Ist August 1759, the French were defeated here by an Anglo-Hanoverian army under Ferdinand of Brunswick and Lord George Sack- ville. It has a fine new bridge (1874), a Gothie town-hall, a Catholic church (till 1811 cathedral), built between the 11th century and 1379, and restored in 1864-85, manufactures of tobacco, beer, brandy, glass, &c., and a considerable trade. Pop. (1885) 18,592 ; (1890) 20,223. See also MUNDEN. Mindere’rus Spirit, or Soturion or AcE- TATE OF AMMONIA, 1s a valuable diaphoretic, much used in febrile d It is prepared by hobs | ammonia or the carbonate of ammonia to acetic aci till a neutral liquid is obtained. It is sometimes applied hot on flannel in cases of mumps, and has been used as an eyewash in chronic ophthalmia. Mindoro, an island of the in seem (q.v.), south of Luzon. , 3087 sq.m. The coasts are rugged and dangerous ; the interior has dense forests, anti but little known. Capital, Calapan. Pop. 106,170. Mine. See Mrntna, Mrves ( MILITARY). Mineral Kingdom, the inorganic portion of nature, not indlidtog: laaaven) shes innvgease prod- ucts of organic beings, as sugar, resins, &c., although substances more remotely of vegetable or even ani- mal origin are reckoned aes, | minerals, as naph- tha, bitumen, asphalt, &e. iquid and gaseous substances, such as water, atmospheric air, &c. are included, as well as solids. All the chemical ele- ments are found in the mineral = from which vegetable and animal organisms derive them. Mineralogy, the science which treats of mine- rals, does not embrace all that relates to the mine- ral kingdom, but simple minerals alone, or homo- geneous mineral substances ; rocks formed by the aggregation of simple minerals, and their rela- tions to each other, are the subjects of Geology (q.v.). This limitation of the term mineralogy is comparatively.recent. Geology or geognosy was formerly included in it. The arrangement and description of simple minerals according to their external characters has been called by Werner and others Oryctognosy, but the term has for- tunately fallen into disuse. Nor is the study of mere external characters sufficient in mineralogy. The chemical composition of minerals equally de- mands attention. In the classification of minerals some mineralogists, as Mohs and Jameson, have regarded only the external characters, and some, as Berzelius, only the chemical composition ; but the results have been unsatisfactory, and the pres- ent tendency is in favour of a system which seeks 210 MINERALOGY — a - MINERAL WATERS - Smid natural groups by having regard to th. Some minerals any of great use, and others highly valued for their beauty, have received much attention from the earliest agés. But the ancient naturalists describe few minerals, The first attempt at scientific srreraigea was by George Agricola in the 16th century. he systems of the Swedes Wallerius and Cronstedt, in the later half of the 1sth century, were the first worthy of the name. That of Werner followed, and was extensively adopted. The discoveries of Hauy in crystallo- graphy, and the progress of chemistry, gave miner- alogy a new character; and then sprang up two schools of mineralogists, one resting chielly on external characters, and the other on chemical composition. The chemical classification of minerals is rendered difficult by the endless variety of combination and proportion in the elements of which they are com- posed, the presence of substances not essential to the mineral, and yet more or less affecting its characters, and the frequent impossibility of deter- mining what is to be deemed essential and what accidental. Chemical purity is almost never found innature, Even the purest diamond, when burned, leaves some traces of ash; and the various colours of diamond, quartz, and other minerals are due to the presence of substances which are often in so small quantity as not to affect their crystalline forms or other physical properties. Again, some minerals of identical chemical composition differ in their crystallisation, so that an arrangement founded upon it would separate them too widely. There are also aay minerals which are often found in an uncrystallised state, and others which are always so. In the arrangement of minerals into natural groups, their chemical composition, although not alone to be regarded, is of the first importance, so that the place of a new mineral in the system can never be determined without analysis; and in determining the nature of a mineral chemical tests, such as the ae of acids, are continually resorted to. It is also necessary to know its specific gravity, and how it is acted upon both by a moderate heat and by the blowpipe. An examination of the crystalline forms, with measurement of the angles of the crystals, is often sufficient to distinguish minerals which have otherwise much resemblance. The cli of erys- tals is also important—a readiness to = in planes parallel to certain of their faces only, by which the rimitive form of the erystal may be ascertained. inerals not crystallised exhibit important varieties of structure, as laminated, fibrous, ular, &e. Certain peculiarities of form are also freq ently characteristic of uncrystallised minerals, as mamiel- lary, botryoidal, &c. Minerals exhibit, when broken, very different kinds of fracture, as even, conchoidal, splintery, &e, Opaqueness, translucency, and transparency are more or less characteristic of different kinds : electric and magnetic properties demand attention ; and very important characters are derived from /ustre, which in some minerals is metallic, in others semi-metallic, in others pearly, vitreous, &e. Colour is not generally of much im- »rtance, but in some minerals it is very character- tic. The colour of the powder formed when a inineral is scratched often differs from that of the solid mass. This is the strea of the mineral, and is frequently very characteristic. Hardness and tenacity are very important, and are of all various degrees. Unctuosity and other peculiarities to be ascertained by the touch are very characteristic of some minerals, and peculiarities of taste and smell belong to others. Mineral has very important relations with geology, which cannot be studied without regard to the mineral constituents of rocks. The mineral composition of soils greatly affects v: and culture. The economical uses of minerals are so very important and various. It is enongh merely to allude to salt, sulphur, borax, alum, sraphite, cryolite, native metals, metallic ores, Ke, aphtha, petroleum, bitumen, asphalt, are of well-known utility; and a high value has always been aiaenes to gems ane Baxi canna stones, vere are special han ”y erman, Dana, Wéhler, Brush, and Erni. See GEOLOGY, CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. Mineral Oil. See Baku, Napnrua, Par- AFFIN, PETROLEUM, Mineral Tallow, or HATcHETTINE, a remark- able substance found in several places in Britain, Germany, Siberia, &c., soft and flexible, yellowish white, yellow, or En yellow, resembling wax or tallow, often flaky like spermaceti, inodorons, melting at 115° to 170° F., and composed of about 86 per cent. carbon and 14 per cent. hydrogen. The salnernl is closely related 8 if it be not identical with, ozokerite or native paraffin. Like other hydrocarbons, such as naphtha, petroleum, asphalt, &c., Hatchettine appears to have resulted from the chemical alteration of organic matter. Mineral Waters, spring waters which ualities in relation to the animal body different rom those of ordinary water, have been used as remedial agents from a very early period. The oldest Greek physicians had great faith in their curative power, and the temples erected to Aéseu- lapius were usually in close proximity to mineral springs; the warm baths of Calirrhoe, near the Dead Sea, are mentioned by Josephus as having been tried by Herod in his sickness. We are indebted to the Romans for the discovery not only of the mineral thermic springs in Italy, but of some of the most beam in other parts of Europe, amongst which may be named Aix-la- Chapelle, Baden-Baden, Bath, ee in Belgium, and many others; and Pliny (Natural History) mentions a very large number of mineral springs in almost all parts of Europe (see BATH, Hypro- PATHY), The therapeutic action of mineral waters or spas depends chiefly upon their chemical composi- tion and their temperature, though other ciream- stances, as situation, elevation, climate, geological formation, mean temperature, &ec., have an import- ant bearing upon the success of the treatment. The best time for undergoing a course of mine! waters is, in the majority of cases, the months of June, July, August, and September, There are, however, exceptions depending upon climate ; for example, at Gastein, celebrated for its thermal springs, the weather is changeable and stormy in une and July, but pleasant in May, Augnst, and September. Early rising is usually advisable dur- ing a course of mineral waters, and, as a general rule, the water should be drunk before breakfast, at intervals of about a quarter of an hour between each tumbler, moderate exercise being taken in the intervals, In many cases bathing is of even ter importance as a remedial agent than drink- Baths are generally taken between breakfast and dinner, and should never be taken soon after a full meal. The time daring which the patient should remain in the bath varies very much at different spas, and the directions of the local physician should be strictly attended to on this point. As a general rule, the treatment should not be protracted beyond the space of six weeks or two months, but on this point the patient must be solely guided by the piyeiciae resident at the spa. Indulgence in the pleasures of the table, and excesses of any kind, uently counteract the salutary effects of the waters, while perfect mental MINERAL WATERS 211 relaxation is an important auxiliary to the treat- ment. Spas are only suitable for patients suffering from chronic disorders. No classification of mineral waters based upon their chemical composition can be strictly exact, because many springs are, as it were, intermediate between tolerably well characterised rt The following classification, adopted by Althans, is ans the most convenient : (1) Alkaline Waters ; Po) itter Waters; (3) Muriated Waters; (4) Earthy Waters ; (5) Indifferent Thermal Waters ; (6) Chalybeates ; (7) Sulphurous Waters. (1) The Alkaline Waters are divisible into (a) i Alkaline Acidulous Waters, of which the chief contents are carbonic acid and bicarbonate of soda. The most important spas of this class are the thermal springs of Vichy and the cold springs of Fachingen, Geilnau, and Bilin. These waters are useful in certain forms of indigestion, in jaun- dice arising from catarrh of the hepatic ducts, in gallstones, in renal calculi and gravel, in gout, in chronic catarrh of the respiratory organs, and in abdominal plethora. Vichy (q.v.) may be taken as the representative of this class of sprin (b) Muriated Alkaline Acidulous Waters, which difter from the preceding sub-group in additionally con- taining a considerable quantity of chloride of sodium. The most important spas of this kind are the thermal springs of Ems, and the cold springs of Selters and zbrunn, They are useful in chronic catarrhal affections of the bronchial tubes, the stomach and intestines, and the larynx ; while the Ems waters possess a high reputation in certain chronic diseases of the womb and adjacent organs. (c) Alkaline Saline Waters, of which the chief eontents are sulphate and bicarbonate of soda, such as the warm springs of Carlsbad and the cold ca os of Marienbad, serviceable to patients suffering from abdominal plethora, if unconnected with diseases of the heart or lun These waters, especially those of Carlsbad, afford an excellent remedy for the habitual constipation which so er Ko arises from sedentary occupations. (2) The chief contents of the Bitter Waters are the sulphates of magnesia and soda; and the best- known spas of this class are those of Sedlitz, Friedrichshall, and Kissingen ; although two valu- able English examples are the bitter water of Ch k, near Kingswood, in Gloucestershire, and the Purton Spa, near Swindon, in Wiltshire. These waters act both as purgatives and diuretics. (3) The Muriated Waters are divisible into (a) Simple Muriated Waters, of which the chief con- tents are a moderate quantity of chloride of sodium or common salt. The chief spas of this class are Wiesbaden and Baden-Baden, which are hot ; those of Soden (in Nassan), of Mondorf (near Luxem- bourg), and of Canstatt (near Stuttgart), which are tepid; and those of Kissingen, Homburg, and Cheltenham, which are cold. The muriated saline springs of Saratoga in the United States are some of them chalybeate, others sulphurous or iodinons ; all of them being rich in carbonic acid gas. The Ballston saline spring near peeing has a very high proportion of carbonic acid. They are chiefly employed in cases of gout, rheumatism, scrofula, and abdominal plethora. (b) Muriated Lithia Waters, of which the chief contents are the chlorides of sodium and lithium. In gout they first aggravate the pain, mt then give relief; and in he they have been found service- able. (c) Brines, whose chief contents are a large amount of chloride of sodium, such as the spas of Rehme in Westphalia and Nauheim in Hesse, are mostly employed for bathing, and are often of much service in scrofula, anemia, rheu- matism, certain forms of bay an and catarrh of mucous membranes. (d) lodo-bromated Muri- ated Waters, in which, besides a moderate quantity of chloride of sodium, the iodides and bromides of sodium and magnesium are contained in an appreci- able quantity. The Kreuznach waters are used both for drinking and besbing: and are of service in scrofulous infiltrations of the glands, in scrofu- lous uleers, in chronic inflammation of the uterus and ovaries, &e. The waters of Hall, in Austria Proper, have a high reputation in cases of broncho- cele or A hanhe (4) Earthy Waters, of which the chief contents are sulphate and carbonate of lime, as at Wil- dungen, Leuk, Bath, Lucca, and Pisa. The Wil- . dungen water is ‘a capital diuretic, and not only promotes the elimination of gravel and renal caleuli, but, 4 its tonic action on the mucous membrane of the urinary passages, serves to pre- vent the formation of fresh concretions. It is also much used for chronie catarrh of the bladder, neuralgia of the urethra and neck of the bladder, dysuria, and incontinence of urine.’ The baths of Leuk, in which many patients remain nine hours daily (viz. from 4 A.M. to 10 A.M., and from 2 P.M. to 5 P.M.), until an eruption appears, are chiefly used in chronic skin diseases. The waters of Bath, Pisa, and Lucea, which are thermal, are useful in chronic skin diseases, gout, rheumatism, &c. (5) Indifferent Thermal Waters, which usually contain a small amount of saline constituents. Of the s of this class the most important are Gastein (95° to 118°), Teplitz (120°), Wildbad (96°), Warmbrunn (100°), Clifton (86°), and Bux- ton (82°). Their most striking effects are to stimulate the skin and excite the nervous system. ‘They are especially used in chronic rheumatism and atonie gout; in diseases of the skin, such as prurigo, psoriasis, lichen ; in neuralgia and paraly- sis due to rheumatic and gouty exudations, to rturition, or to severe diseases, such as typhoid ever and diphtheria ; in hysteria; and in general weakness and marasmus.’ (6) Chalybeate Waters, which are divisible into (a) Simple Acidulous Chalybeates, whose chief con- tents are carbonic acid and bicarbonate of protoxide of iron; and (b) Saline Acidulous Chalybeates, whose chief contents are sulphate of soda and bi- carbonate of protoxide of iron, The quantity of iron present is very small—from ‘08 to ‘15 in 1000 rts. Many of the chalybeate springs, especially in Germany, contain also much carbonic acid ; carbonate, sulphate, and chloride of sodium is frequently present, and may help in the cure. Ha. te, TRippoldsan, Homburg, and the Put- nam Spring at Saratoga are examples of ve beate wells which are very seldom thermal. Strath- nn has both chalybeate and sulphurous springs. halybeate waters are valuable in anemia, enlarge- ment of the spleen, and many female disorders. (7) Sulphurous Waters, which contain sulphu- retted hydrogen or metallic sulphides (sulphurets), or both. The most important sulphurous thermals are those of Aix-la-Chapelle, Baden (near Vienna), Baréges, Eaux-Chaudes, and Bagnéres de Luchon ; whilst amongst the cold sulphurous springs those of Nenndorf (in Hesse-Nassau) and Harrogate are of great importance. They are extensively used in chronic diseases of the skin, and are of service in many cases in which exudations require to be absorbed, as in swellings of the joints, in old gun- shot wounds, and in chronic gout and rheumatism. In chronic laryngeal and bronchial catarrh they frequently give relief, and in chronic Le eepape | by lead or mereury they favour the elimination of the poison, although to a far less degree than iodide of potassium taken internally. The ofc) Ste waters are employed paca and internally, and mineral mud-baths are believed by many physicians to form a valuable auxiliary to this treatment. 212 MINERVA MINES See Althans, Spas of Europe (1862); Glover, Mineral Waters (1857); Tichbourne and Prosser James, Mineral Waters Europe (1883); Bradshaw's Dictionary of Mineral Waters (new ed. 1886); Walton, The Mineral Waters of the United States and Canada (1875); Ger- man works by Herschfeld and Pichler (1875-76), Lehmann (1877), Flechsig (1882) ; and the works cited at HEALTH- RESORTS. . Minerva, the name of a Roman goddess, identified by the later Grecising Romans with the Greek Athena (q.v.). Her name is thought to spring from the same root as mens (‘mind’); and the ancient Latin scholar and critic, Varro, ed her as the impersonation of divine thought —the plan of the material universe of which Jupiter was the creator and Juno the representative. Hence all that goes on among men, all that con- stitutes the development of human destiny—itself but the expression of the divine idea or intention —is under her care. She is the patroness of arts and trades, and was invoked alike by poe painters, teachers, physicians, and all kinds of craftsmen. She also guides heroes in war; and, in fact, every wise idea, every bold act, and every useful design owes something to the high inspira- tion of this virgin goddess. Her oldest temple at Rome was that on the Capitol, but she had another on the Aventine. Her festival was held in March, and lasted five days, from the 19th to the 23d inclusive. Minerva-press, the name of a printing-office in Leadenhall Street, London, from which issued in the later part of the 18th and the earlier part of the 19th century a long series of highly senti- mental novels, with remarkabl intricate plots and an ample measure of tribulation and tears before the happy denouement was reached. These were ually laughed out of existence as a_ taste ‘or more humane and healthy fiction spread over | gal England. Minervino, an agricultural town of Southern Italy, 44 miles W. of Bari. Pop. 14,972. Mines, MILirary, are underground passages by means of which explosives are lodged in such a position as to destroy the enemy’s works or to gain cover for lodgments from which the besieger may continue his advance, They are generally but a few feet below the surface, never driven through rock for any distance, and require lining with wooden cases. Before the invention of gunpowder, mines were constantly used to effect an entrance into a besieged place or to breach its walls by underpinning them with timber, which was then set on fire. By means of them Alexander the Great breached the walls of Gaza. Cwsar found the Gauls skilled in their use, and even able to arrest the progress of his own miners. Powder mines began to be largely used early in the 16th century. At the siege of Padua in 1509 the breaches were ruined and the mines exploded under the feet of the storming parties. Countermines, too, behind the walls near their base, and then long galleries from them under the diteh with transversals and listeners were added to the es fortifications of the 17th century, hese enabled the besieged to ascertain the direction of the besiegers’ mining approach and to destroy his galleries by timely expicaion. Thus at the siege of Candia by the Turks, which lasted two years and a half (1667-69), more than 1300 mines were exploded by one side or the other. Systems of countermines became very elaborate during the 18th century, radiating from the salients sometimes in several tiers; the length of the galleries for a single front in some cases amounted to 3 miles or more. Modern systems are perhaps less elaborate, but their importance is fully recognised. When the can no longer advance by surface approaches he has recourse to mining, sink- ing a vertical shaft (4’ x 2’ inside measurement) or an inclined gallery (6' 8” x 6' 6" or 4’ 10” x 2’), generally from the third el, and from it working his way forw Branch - galleries (3’ 6” x 2') are broken out wherever n , and speciall constructed frames fitted throughout as the work progresses. In such a confined space only very small tools can be used, and only one man can work at the head of a gallery at one time doing about 12 inches an hour, Small tracks and bellows, or other ventilating appliances, are also necessary. At the head of the gallery a clamber is constructed to hold the charge, which is then eo gate is to say, the gallery in rear is filled with earth, for a distance greater than the | of the dine of least resistance, or distance to nearest surface, and fired by electricity, powder hose, or Beckford’s fuse. If the circular opening made by the explosion has a diameter equal to the line of least resistance it is called a one-lined crater ; if double that line, a two-lined crater, and so on. Mines producing two-lined craters are called common mines ; those so lightly charged as to produce no craters are called ets. The latter are used by the defender to destroy the assailant’s mines without forming craters which he might utilise as lodgments. Gunpowder is preferred to other explosives if the gallery is to be used again, as the fumes are not so noxious. Mining tactics require very t coolness, judgment, and resolution, especially on the part of the besieged. He must from his es galleries estimate the distance of the enemy an avoid exploding his countermines too soon or he will only injure his own galleries. If he ceases to hear the miner’s truck running in the enemy’s lery he will know that tamping has commenced and that, if within ve, the time has come to explode his acon he defender is restricted to small charges for fear of making craters, unless his countermine galleries are very deep, while the besieger can advantageously use ag large ones, Thus the former may be said to fight with a short-range weapon against an adversary using one which is effective at a greater distance. The chief int in his favour is that he can prepare before- and a network of galleries, and by using boring tools he can place charges some distance in advance of their heads; but the besieger will ascertain their disposition and extent by means of plans or spies, and will place heavily ch mines on a line as nearly as possible parallel to the ends of the countermines, but not nearer than 14 yards, the distance at which work is audible to the enemy. These are fired and lodgments formed in craters from which the same tactics are phi mere as peetarsainge eer: phages are occu , and thus ground is ually and the Nielender driven back step by step unti the counte is reached. This wall is broken through by a mine, the ditch crossed, the breach reached and occupied. Under the breach the defender will have placed mines which he will spring at the moment of assault, Somewhat akin to these latter are the ground torpedoes placed in front of a work close under the surface of the ground over which the enemy must pass to the assault, and fired by the pressure of his weight upon them. These are chiefly of use against sav: and were largely employed by General Gordon in the defence of Khartoum. Another similar form of defence called a fou- gasse is an excavation in the form of the frustrum of a cone with its axis inclined at about 40° with the horizon. The a is placed in a recess at the bottom, covered with a strong wooden’ MINGHETTI MINIATURE-PAINTING 213 platform on which rough stones, bricks, or shells are placed. .On being fired these are projected forward and cover a large surface of the ground in front. Eighty — of powder would throw 5 tons of bricks and stones over a space 160 yards long and 120 broad. A shell fougasse is simply a box buried in the ground, the lower part filled with powder and the upper with shells. It is generally self-exploding, like the ground torpedo. Ss ine mines are char; of explosive material (usually gun-cotton or dynamite) sunk in roadsteads to prevent the They are either observa- tion mines, fired by electricity from an observing station; controlled electro-contact mines, fired by the defender when a vessel striking them gives notice of its being over them ; uncontrolled mines, mechanical, electro-mechaniecal, or chemical, which are exploded when struck with adequate force by friend or foe; or mt mines, which, sunk at yrs can at any time be caused to rise and obstruct e Submarine mines are usually Lwrres chequerwise in several rows and groups and often at varying depths. Observation mines cannot be relied upon at greater distances than one sea mile in fog; weather, and at night must be watched by electric search-lights. With contact mines there is the of friendly ships mistaking the channel. All mine fields must be defended by heavy guns placed in batteries secure against landing parties, otherwise the enemy’s boats will creep for the mines or clear a through them by explod- ing countermines. It is so difficult to arrange a system of mines which will not interfere with the of friendly ships and yet can be relied to sere that of an enemy’s vessels at all and in all weathers, however disguised, that they are only unobjectionable when used for the absolute cl of comparatively narrow channels ye forts ha rped sages f hich e sea-forts have torpedo rom whic Whitehead fish oes eaiiretentiar ee can be discharged ; but these can hardly be classed as submarine mines. rivers, estuaries, or of hostile shi M rine Marco, Cavour’s most distin- fs disciple and successor as leader of the talian ht, was born 8th September 1818 of a comm: family in Bologna, and supplemented a brilliant course at its university Bel prolonged tour in France, , and Great Britain. Free trade as vindicated by Richard Cobden found him prepared for its acceptance, by familiarity with the teaching of its Tuscan anticipator Bandini. With the election in 1846 of Pope Pius IX. young Italy’s aspirations for national unity and constitutional a seemed nearing their fruition, and Minghetti started a journal in aid of his country’s neration. He enjoyed Pio Nono’s favour, and was made member of the ‘Consulta della Finanze’ and minister of Public Works. But under the pressure of Austria, backed Radetsky’s forces, the pope’s reforming zeal was ort-lived, and Minghetti, like others of his school, abjured the papal government and enrolled in the Sardinia army to fight for his country’s cause under King Charles Albert. He served with dis- tinction in the Lombard campaign ; was promoted , then major; and on the field of Custoza earned the cross of the Knights of St Maurizio. After the fatal defeat at Novara he settled at Turin, an ardent student of economics and devoted friend of Cavour, whose confidences he shared during the diplomatic meetings at Paris which pre- ceded the Crimean war, the war of 1859, and the si of Austria from Lombardy. In the event- ears 1859-60 he was Cavour’s secretary for foreign affairs, till he resigned with his chief over the treaty of Villafranca, His next post was that of minister of the Interior, and on Cavour’s death in June 1861 he was regarded as his ablest repre- sentative in the Italian chamber. In 1863 he be- came prime-minister, in 1864 he coneluded with the oo bt Napoleon the ‘September Convention.’ In 1868 he was Italian minister in London, and there- after minister of Agriculture. In 1870 the colla of the Second Empire brought with it the dissolu- tion of the September Convention, and Rome be- came the capital of Italy and seat of government. From 1873 to 1876 Minghetti was prime-minister for the second time, and among many useful measures earned his country’s gratitude by effect- ing the ‘ paraggio’ or financial equilibrium between ler outlay and income. For the next ten years pr “ep was still the most prominent member of the Italian parliament. His lectures and essays on Raphael and Dante illustrate on the «esthetic side a eatholicity of culture which in the sphere of practical lities can point to his treatises on Economia ublica (1859) and La Chiesa e lo Stato (1878). He died in Rome, 10th December 1886. See his Miei Ricordi (Turin, 1888). Mingrelia, See GroraiA, Caucasus. Minho (Span. Mifo, anc. Minius), a river of in and Portugal, rises in the north-east of alicia, flows south-west through the Spanish provinces of Lugo and Orense, and, after forming the boundary between Portugal and Spain, falls into the Atlantic Ocean. Its total length is 174 miles, and it is navigable for small craft 25 miles above its mouth; a bar at the entrance prevents the passage of large vessels, Area of basin, 157,000 sq.m. Its chief tributary is the Sil, which joins it from the left. Miniature palatine. or the painting of por- traits on a small seale, originated in the practice of embellishing manuscript books (see ILLUMINA- TION OF MANuscripTs). As the initial letters were written with red lead (Lat. minium), the art of illumination was expressed by the Low Latin verb miniare, and the term miniatura was applied to the small pictures introduced. After the inven- tion of printing and engraving this delicate art entered on a new phase ; copies in small dimensions of celebrated pictures came to be in considerable request, and, in particular, there arose such a de- mand for miniature-portraits that a miniature in popular Janguage came to signify ‘a very small portrait.’ Soon after their introduction miniature- ade were executed with very great skill in Sugland. Holbein (c. 1495-1543) painted exquisite miniatures, and having settled in London, his works had great influence in calling forth native talent. The works of Nicholas Hilliard (born at Exeter 1547, died 1619) are justly held in high estimation. Isaac Oliver (1556-1617) was Repl be ba by Queen Elizabeth and most of the distinguished characters of the time; his works are remarkable for careful and elaborate execution ; and his son, Peter Oliver 1601-47), achieved even a higher reputation. homas Flatman (1637-88) painted good minia- tures. Samuel Cooper (born at London 1609, died 1672), who was with his brother Alexander a pupil of his uncle, John Hoskins, an artist of reputation (died 1664), carried miniature-painting to mF excellence. Cromwell and Milton sat to him; he was employed by Charles II., and obtained the highest patronage at the courts of France and in Holland. Jean Petitot (1607-91) was the first to bring to perfection the art of enamelling as ap- plied to portraiture. There are as many as fifty- eight examples of this at artist in the Jones Collection at the South Kensington Museum. Richard Cosway (1740-1821) was one of the most famous miniaturists of the 18th century. 214 MINIE MINING Robert Thorburn (1818-85) first made _ his name ‘as a miniaturist, and many others might be mentioned; but the last famous miniature- inter was Sir William Ross (1794-1860), who fived to see his art superseded by photography. The number of his miniatures in existence is said to number over 2200. Of late years public interest in the work of the miniaturist has revived, and several exhibitions of miniatures have been held. Prices have advaneed, and it is parks es difficult to obtain examples. The works of Cosway are especially sought after. Photography may be said to have killed the art, although miniatures have continued to be painted; but enthusiasts hope from the interest now taken in historical specimens that the art may yet be revived. As to technical details, the early artists painted on vellum and used body-colours—i.e. colours mixed with white or other opaque pigments, and this practice was continued till a comparatively late period, when thin leaves of ivory fixed on card-board with gum were substituted. Many of the old miniature- painters worked with oil-colours on small plates of copper or silver. After ivory was substituted for vellum transparent colours were employed on faces, hands, and other delicate portions of the icture, the opaque colours being only used in raperies and the like; but during the 19th century, in which the art has been brought to the highest excellence, the practice has been to execute thé entire work except the high lights in white drapery with transparent colours, See Walpole’s Anecdotes ; G. C. Williamson, Portrait Miniatures from Holbein to Ross (1898); J. J. Foster, British Miniature Painters and their Work (1898); Russell, Art of Miniature (4th ed. 1878); er, Miniature Painting ( Philadelphia, 1876) ; Foster, ‘Some Miniature Painters,’ in Antiquary (vols. xiii.-xiv.) J. W. Bradley, Dictionary of Miniaturists (3 vols. 1888-89) ; and J. L. Propert, History of Miniature Art (1889). Minié, CLAvbE ETIENNE, inventor of the Minié rifle, was born in Paris in 1814, enlisted in the army as a private soldier, and quitted it as colonel in 1858. He devoted his principal thought to the per- fecting of firearms, and in 1849 invented the Minié rifle (see RirLes). In 1858 the khedive of Egypt appointed him director of a small-arms factory and musketry school in Cairo. He died in 1879. Minims (/ratres Minimi, ‘ Least Brethren’— so called, in token of still greater humility, by contrast with the Jratres Minores or Lesser Brethren of St Francis of Assisi), an order of the Roman Catholic Church, founded by another St Francis, a native of Paula, a small town of Cala- bria, about the middle of the 15th century. See FRANCESCO DI PAULA. Mining. The art of mining comprehends all the processes whereby the useful minerals are obtained from their natural localities beneath the surface of the earth, and the subsequent operations by which many of them must be prepared for the purposes of the metallurgist. The art has been practised from the remotest times. It is referred to in the 28th chapter of the Book of Job; and an Egyptian papyrus, drawn in 1400 B.c., pre- served in the museum at Turin, depicts the work- ings of a gold-mine. The first writer who treated mining systematically was Georgius Agricola. In 1556 he published in Latin an exhaustive treatise on the subject. The introduction of gunpowder as a blasting-agent in 1620 completely changed the conditions under which mining had up to that time been carried on, and the enlarged scale on which mining operations are now conducted has led to the invention of new methods of working, and to the introduction of machines of greater precision and power, mineral deposits are divided into two very broad divisions, The first includes the beds or seams of iron ore, coal, and salt. These are deposits laid out more or less horizontally and parallel to the stratification of the surrounding rocks, The second class includes mineral veins or lodes (see ORE-DEPOSITS). Various names havé been given to these deposits. In the British colonies, for example, they are termed reefs (seé GoLp), a somewhat misleading name. A lode may be defined as a repository of mineral matter which fills more or less completely a former fissure in the earth's surface. The mining a employed are very differ- ent in the two classes of deposits. In the first class, it is desirable to make a hole of the shortest pos- sible depth from the surface of the ground to the bed of mineral. A shaft is therefore sunk throu valueless beds until the mineral is reached, Machin- “7 of the best class is then used to extract the whole of the mineral, due precautions being taken to avoid danger from falls of roof and from noxious In the second class of deposits, the inclina- tion of the mineral vein has to be taken into account, as the deposit varies considerably in in- clination and in size. The vein must therefore be studied foot by foot, downwards from the top. The miner does not look favourably on vertical veins. Certainly in most cases it would appear that the chance of vertical lodes being productive is much less than in inclined ones. In some cases a vertical shaft is sunk, and A eet known as cross-cuts, are driven from this to the vein at a 4 A vertical = ro vantages of greater ease in sinking, hauling, and pumping. At the Comstock odes te Nevada, thousands of pounds were wasted in sinking a per- pendicular shaft, the advan of which were urged with considerable plausibility. A deep shaft may cost from £10,000 to £50,000. In the case of an inclined shaft the ore obtained from the shaft itself enables some of the charges to be recouped. In a well-known Cornish copper-mine, Tresevean, after an inclined shaft had n used for many years, a new shaft, 1800 feet in depth, was sunk at a cost of £20,000; but success had already been assured before this great outlay was contem- plated. The best arrangement for an extensive mine is to have a main vertical shaft and several secondary inclined ones, With inclined shafts it is out of the question to put in the highly-perfected engines at collieries, the object being not the removal as quickly as possible of large quantities of material, but the exploration of the vein b slow and careful degrees at many points and wi a moderate number of men. In searching or prospecting for mineral deposits large sums of money are spent, sometimes in vain, The surface of the rock is usually covered by deposits of sand and gravel, vegetable matter, vege- tation, and, in some cases, peat bogs. In conse- quence, many notable mines have been discovered by accident. Thus, the observation of the pellets picked up by birds led to the discovery of veins of gold ore in Lower Hungary. The famous silver- mines of Potosi are said to have been discovered by an Indian who, taking hold of a bush to pre- vent his falling, pulled it up by the roots and thereby discl ittering masses of native silver. in, gold was etove in California by James . Marshall, in 1848, while cutting a small mill-race. In ancient times the search for mineral deposits was based on the indications given by the Divining-rod (q.v.); and there still exist intelligent miners who believe in this curious myth. In the search for mineral deposits, the best evi- dence is obtained by putting down bore-holes. These are made by various methods, and are put down to a depth of a few feet when required for MINING 215 testing the charactér of the foundation subsoil, or. in other cases, to thousands of feet when requi in seeking for or estimating the valne of deposits of coal, salt, and ironstone. Ages ago bore-holes were put down by the Chinese to a depth of 3000 feet. Recently, in Europe and America, depths of 2000 feet have not unfrequently been attained. At Schladebach, near Merseburg, the deepest bore- hole in the world has been put down by the Prussian government in search of coal. The sink- ing oecupied several years (1880-86), and the depth attained amounted to 5834 feet. Bore-holes may be made by a circular borer moved by a lever. The rods are of iron, with square , and are turned by a cross-head worked by a couple of men. In this way an anger- like cutting action is effected. With harder rock it is usnal to advance by means of percussion: A chisel-headed tool is employed, which cuts holes of 3 to 4 inches in diameter. At each stroke the bore-master causes the tool to turn slightly. When sufficient debris has accumulated the rods are withdrawn, and an instrument put down to extract the powdered material and water. With a length of rods amounting to 400 to 500 feet the weight is enormous, and, in consequence of the concussion, difficulties arise. Men are not sufficient to raise the load. In some cases a lever is used to raise the rods a few inches or feet, and to let them fall suddenly. In other cases the rods are replaced by a rope. This, however, from being wet and dry alternately, is apt to snap suddenly, and the ons remaining in the hole are difficult to recover. The rods, too, may get twisted or the nature of the iron itself be altered by the vibration. In putting down a bore-hole, a tower or shears is Saas | over the hole. By making this 60 to 70 feet high, the rods may be extracted in lengths of 60 feet, and thus the 6 to 8 hours a day usnally spent in unscrewing the rods are saved. In some cases it is necessary to tube or line the whole bore- hole. See Bortne. The Chinese method of horing with ropes has been imitated in Europe with great economy, but with t liability to fracture and consequent loss. his has been done by Messrs Mather & Platt of Salford, who employ a chisel-bit with circular sides so as to keep the bore-hole true. This is raised and allowed to fall a few inches or feet, according to the nature of the ground. It is attached to a weighty mass of iron with rings sk Mg guides. The whole mass is suspended by a hempen rope. This rope passes over a pulley to a drum on which a mass of rope can be accumulated. The pulley is attached to the piston- rod of a steam- e. The action of the steam behind the piston lifts the pulley, and consequently the tool, the rope being clamped. The steam then causes the tool to fall, and on falling it automati- eally turns, A cylindrical tool can easily be inserted, and a core obtained that shows the nature of the rock and its inclination. At the Paris Exhibition of 1862 ecrsen was made to drill with a tube in which diamonds were fixed. This was merely intended for use on a sinall scale; but it was soon applied to deep bore-holes. For this drill black diamond is employed, a substance with the full ness of the ordinary diamond and a certain amount of toughness. Though very expensive, this method of boring is found advantageous when £ speed is required, The fall of rock in bore- oles is apt to cause serious interruption on account of the jamming of the rods. The sudden strain o to release them is liable to cause fracture, es which the full work is not done by the rods. ' This difficulty is obviated in several ways, notably acing the iron rods by wooden ones, 30 to 32 feet , With iron connections. The free-falling cutter proposed by Kind and the hollow rods of Von Oeynhausen may be instanced as having rendered good service in the execution of great works. In order to open up a mine, tunnels or adit-levels are driven on the lode or to cut it whenever the contour of the mgt allows it. Shaft-sinking involves a larger outlay of capital and greater working costs. In the ordinary method of sinking shafts, the workmen standing upon the bottom of the pit blast out the rock, and send the excavated material to the surface by means of an engine, rope, and bucket. The sides of the shaft are supported by timbering or walling. In water- bearing strata many difficulties are encountered. Brunel, the father of the t engineer, pro ad to obviate these by employing a circular frame with a cutting ring. On this, with hydraulic mortar, a wall was built and held firmly together by ties. In a second method, largely used in modern collieries, beams of cast-iron are employed, and 10,000 to 20,000 wooden wedges driven in, a succession of cast-iron ents or rings, known as tubbing, being built in. The shaft is thus sunk and the water pumped out. Tubbing a shaft is a very difficult operation, and the method has fre- quently been known to fail after £20,000 to £30,000 has been spent. In order to get over the difficulties and dangers, Kind, a German engineer, thought of sinking a bore-hole with sufficiently large tools consisting of solid masses of iron with sharp steel teeth. The shaft having been bored, rings of east- iron could, he thought, be fixed in and the water air out. This was tried in 1840 in a very ifficult case and was found impracticable, and not until 1860, when Chaudron, an eminent Belgian, took the matter in hand, was the method successful. A watertight bottom was made, half a dozen work- men at the surface doing all the work. The method has been —— in the United cimry S in a few instances. One remarkable case may be mentioned. At the mouth of the Tyne are coal-measures of great value, and at South Shields attempts were made to work the coal under the sea. Difficulty, however, was caused by a band of magnesian lime- stone highly charged with water. The enterprise promised to be very costly. Tubbing was totally unsuccessful, notwithstanding the fact that enor- mous pumps were employed raising as much as 11,000 gallons of water per minute. The shaft was 14 feet in diameter, and if the pumping ceased the water rose in the shaft 12 feet in two minutes. Recourse was then had to the Kind-Chaudron method, which had previously been successfully tried on the Continent. The t¢répan or cutter of the boring tool was 3 or 4 feet in diameter, and the hole was bored to a certain depth. A larger cutter was then used. In this way the sides were formed into inclined planes, so that the fragments rolled into a suspended bucket in the smaller hole, the bucket being raised from time to time. When a lace was reached where a watertight joint could made, Chaudron’s tubbing was applied and the shaft successfully completed. In this tubbing the bottom ring has a sliding case in which is placed a quantity of moss, which, when the whole length of tubbing comes to rest on the watertight bed cut for it under water by the borer, packs together and forms a tight joint. This method of sinking shafts is practically self-acting. It is economical and simple, and eliminates risk to human life. In ordinary shaft-sinking accidents are frequent, as a serew or a hammer falling down the yawning gulf is likely to produce a fatal injury. An ingenious device for overcoming the difficulties of shaft-sinking was invented by a French engineer, Triger. This consists in damming back the water by employing a constant resisting force; that is to 216 MINING say, in pumping into the iron cylinder that forms the shaft such an amount of air that the pressure on the bottom from within should be equal to that from without. By means of a flooring in the cylinder, a lower air-tight compartment is formed, in which it is found t men can work under a pressure of 3 atmospheres. In order that the men may enter or leave their working-plaee without disturbing the equilibrium of the forces, the prin- ciple of the eanal-lock is applied, a second chamber being formed above the working one with trap- doors communicating with the shaft above and with the chamber below. One of these doors sr, always closed while the other is open, the excava' material can be drawn up without any appreciable loss of compressed air, This method has been successfully applied at a number of shafts on the Continent. Another ingenious process of sinking through quicksand is that devised by H. Poetsch. This consists in freezing the water contained in that portion of the water-bearing ground which oceupies the position of the intended shaft into a solid mass of ice, and then sinking through it by hand without having to pump any water. This method has proved successful at several Continental collieries and at the em mine in Michigan. The average depth of coal-mines before the intro- duction of the steam-engine did not exceed 100 yards, whilst a near approximation for the present time would be 400 yards. The deepest shaft in Great Britain is that of the Ashton Moss Colliery, near Manchester, which has attained a depth of 2850 feet. The seams dip at the rate of 9 inches ad yard, so that parts of the workings are 3000 eet deep. The deepest shaft in the world was until recently that of a silver-lead mine in Bohemia, at Przibram, where the Adalbert shaft is 3432 feet in depth. This depth has, however, been exceeded in the Lake Superior copper-mining district, where = 1890 the Caluniet shaft attained a depth of 3900 eet. The cutting of a path through the harder rocks, as carried on by the ancient miners, was particu- larly laborious. The work was executed in con- fined spaces, and a large amount of dust was produced. The miners’ vocation was excessively unhealthy, inasmuch as they were obliged to inhale large quantities of dust; they thus became subject to disorders of the lungs to which they fell victims at an vag: | age. Previous to the introduction of blasting the implements used were of the nature of wedges and hammers, Bit by bit pieces of rock were broken away, the operation being aided by natural fissures in the rock and by the brittleness of the hard material. In this way the ancient miners cut coffin-shaped galleries 5 feet in height. At the present time the galleries or levels are usually 74 feet high and 5 feet wide, thus affording freat facility for travelling and for ventilation. he ene of gunpowder is of mnch greater antiquity than its application to mining pu In the 14th century it wes largely used for Smakotey and cannon, and even for blowing down defences ; but, curiously rr it was not applied to mining purposes until the beginning of the 17th century, and even then made its way so slowly that it was not largely employed until the 18th century. In the operation of blasting use is made of a borer or drill of iron, or, as is more usual, of cast-steel. This is struck with a hammer. A borer of larger diameter may be used, held by one man and struck by another, Of late years mechanical rock-drills driven by steam or by compressed air have eome jexmely. Sato use; see BorinG, with illustration. The bore-hole, when finished, is then ch % The gunpowder is enclosed in a little bag of cloth lipped in pitch and provided with a fuse. Instead of using a cartridge of this kind, foreed down the hole by a clayin Isa to lt eed off feeders of water, and the hole will enough to receive a ¢ of powder. A needle of iron or steel is placed in the midst of the with the ring at its end protruding, and enue is introduced. For this purpose it is best to pu’ up. is compressed, and the temperature augmented sufficiently to explode the powder. These dis- van are set aside by Messrs Bickford & und it is covered with a waterproof composition, nsiderable attention has been paid to the whee of consolidating the ch Excellent work been done with comp powder ; dynamite has become quite indispensable; and R siyrinsscee is also employed, the best form being the compressed variety invented by Abel. Nitrated gun-cotton or tonite has also given admirable results. The fullest benefit of these modern explosives can Fe | be obtained by the use of strong detonators fi by electricity, by which it is possible to place a number of bore-holes in such a manner that when fired simultaneously they shall help each other. — For removing coal these ne explosives are too quick in their action, and blasting-powder con- tinues to be used. Millions of tons of coal are still obtained by its aid. In order to obviate the danger of explosions in fiery collieries, many i ious substitutes for blasting have been pro . For example, a hole is bored, and wedges inserted to foree down the coal which has previously been under-cut with the pick. Another plan of great promise is that devised by Smith and Moore, in which cartrid, of caustic lime are employed, water being forced into mere a force-pump. The pressure of steam generated by the usual charge of seven cartridges is 2850 Ib., the car- tridges themselves expanding to about five times their original size. he efficiency of these car- tridges varies with the nature of the coal, the best pas, having been obtained in the Derbyshire collieries, The work of the miner engaged in under-cutti the coal-seam is very arduous, and various - cutting machines have been invented with a view to lessen the labour and expense, They work with compressed air or electricity, and have the cutters arranged on the periphery of a rotate dise, or on a travelling pitch-chain. Though largely employed in America, they have not_yet come into extensive use in Great Britain, The coal, when broken down, is placed in wagons, and drawn by horses or en, +4 e-power to the bottom of the shaft and raised to the si The actual ago of gr the con, at varyin tly in every district, ma; I divided Fito () the t-and-stall, ve bord-and- pillar, or (in Scotland) stoop-and-room, method where the first stage of excavation is accompli with the roof sustained by coal; (2) the long-wall method, where the whole of the coal is allowed to settle behind the miners, no sustaining pillars of coal being left. The latter method, when well planned, is the safer both as facility of ventila- tion and less liability to accidents from falls. Ata Durham colliery, working the Harvey seam, which is 34 feet in thickness, 5185 tons of coal were obtained when working by the long-wall system and 5052 tons when working by the post-and-stall — are cay MINING » 217 system. In thick and highly-inclined beds it is usual to remove the coal by horizontal slices, and to fill the excavation with waste material. In some instances blast-furnace slag is used for the 1 y es wena of working metalliferous veins differs greatly from that followed in the case of the more or less horizontal coal-beds. Horizontal galleries, termed Jevels, are driven a the lode usually 10 fathoms (60 feet) apart. . They are rarely perpen- dicularly above one another, as they follow the inclination of the vein. The levels are connected by means of small shafts, termed winzes. Re- presented on a vertical plane, the vein will thus be seen to be cut up into pillars which are worked by the method of stoping. Of this there are two varieties—underhand and overhand stoping. In the former the ore is gradually worked away downwards from the floor of one level, the ore and worthless mineral being taken out through the level next below. In most districts underhand stoping has been superseded by the more econo- mical overhand method, in which the miners stand on timber platforms and break down the mineral above them, The great depth and size of modern collieries necessitate the raising of greater quantities of coal through a single shaft than was ever contemplated in former times. The winding-engines of modern erection are consequently of extraordinary power. Thus, at Harris’ Navigation Colliery the engines have cylinders with a diameter of 54 inches, and le of raising 6 tons of coal, or, with ropes and the cages containing the coal-trucks, a total load of 154 tons, at a speed of 32 feet per second. The quantities which can thus be raised are enormous. It is by no means uncommon for 900 to 1400 tons to be raised from one pit in the day. In collieries both coal and men are raised in the cages, but in the metalliferous mines the man- engine is largely used. This consists of a reciprocat- rod or pair of rods fitted with steps, by which the miner is raised 8 to 14 feet at a stroke. Al- though this method obviates the tax on the energies of the men entailed by the climbing of ladders, it is by no means free from danger. Prussian stat- isties show that where man-engines are employed there are four times as many accidents as where se and ropes or where ladders are used. t the Epinac collieries in France a remarkable pneumatic system of raising coal and men is em- yee An air-tight wrought-iron tube, 5 feet nr ectig diameter, is placed in ba ae and a piston-cage carrying nine -wagons, The air being exhausted ‘above the piston, a load of 3 tons of coal is raised at a rate of 19 inches per second. The great cost of the installation has pre- vented the method from being generally adopted. In almost all mines the surrounding rock contains water which rapidly accumulates in the workings. Where the contour of the district is suitable, the best method of ening the mine is by means of an adit-level—i.e, a tunnel driven iu the hillside. In some cases extensive areas are drained by adits, Thus, the great Gwennap adit in Cornwall, which is with its branches 40 miles in length, drains 30 sq. m. As further examples of long adits may be cited the Ernst-August adit in the Harz Mountains, which has a total length of 14 miles and cost £85,500, and the Rothschin- berger adit at Freiberg in Saxony, which is 25 miles long. In cases where adits are unavail- able, recourse must be had to pumps either of the ing or forcing type. The principal type of engines is that known as the Cornish pumping- engine, which is a single-acting condensing beaim- engine working expansively. Some of these engines are of enormous size, the cylinders in some cases being as much as 100 inches in diameter. Their t cost and ponderous character have led to the introduction of cheaper direct-acting engines which placed underground force columns of water to vertical heights of as much as 1000 feet. At a silver-mine at Klausthal, in the Harz Mountains, a pair of direct-acting rotary engines have been erected, driven by hydraulic power, with a head of 1959 feet. At twelve revolutions per minute these pumps force 330 gallons of water up 750 feet. The ventilation of subterranean workings is a problem of the greatest importance. The air is contaminated by the respiration of men and horses, by the combustion of lights, by the smoke of explosives, and by deleterious dust. Added to which, in the case of collieries, the insidious fire- damp or carburetted hydrogen exudes from the coal. Mingled with air this gas forms the explosive mixture to whieh so many miners owe their death (see FrrREDAMP, CHOKE-DAMP, SAFETY-LAMP). It is obvious that the venti- lating current must be sufficient to dilute this mixture below the firing-point and to sweep it away. The general mode of ventilating a colliery is to have two-shafts, a downcast and an upcast. The pure air entering by the downcast shaft traverses the roadways of the colliery. By means of doors and stoppings, the current is caused to travel in the required direction so as to reach the innermost workings of the mine. It then passes to the upeast shaft and returns to the surface. The motion of the air-eurrent is caused by furnaces or by mechanical ventilators. In the former case, a large furnace is kept burning at the bottom of the upeast shaft, the air in which it heats and causes to expand. In this way a volume of air is obtained suitable for very extensive workings, as much as 120,000 to 250,000 cubic feet of air being passed through the shafts per minute. In the case of mechanical ventilators, the vitiated air is with- drawn from the colliery by the exhausting action of centrifugal fans, which may be made either of large diameter to run at low velocity, or of small diameter to run at high velocity. At several important collieries these fans attain enormous dimensions, in some cases as much as 45 feet in diameter and 14 feet in width. Almost as important as ventilation in relation to the safety of human life is the accurate construe- tion and the preservation of mine-plans. In many cases the plans are laid down without any reference to the phenomenon of the variation of the magnetic needle. Trusting to old plans constructed in this way, the miner may drive straight into old work- ings filled with water, the tapping of which would be death to all employed in the colliery. The progressive legislation in connection with mines (e.g. the Coal-mines Regulation Act of 1872, amended 1886, which prescribes for the inspec- tion of mines by duly appointed inspectors, Xe.) has proved beneficial in diminishing the pro- portion borne by the accidents to the number of miners employed ; for whereas in 1850, when the output of coal in the United Kingdom did not exceed 50,000,000 tons, the number of miners em- ployed being about 200,000, the deaths slightly exceeded 1000 in the year, in 1877, when the out- put of coal was 134,000,000 tons and the number of miners double that in 1850, the deaths were only 1200 in number. The deaths from explosions of firedamp during the eleven years 1875-1885 formed but 23°57 per cent. of the total deaths, the re- mainder being due to falls of roof and other causes. For statistics of mineral production, see GREAT BrITAIN, UNITED STATEs, Ke. In England and Ireland the crown has the right to all mines of gold and silver; but where these metals are 7 Rate y in mines of tin, copper, iron, or 218 MINISTER MINNESINGER other baser metal, then the crown has only the right to take the ore at a price fixed by statute. In Scotland gold-mines belong to the crown without limitation, and silver-mines when three-halfpence of silver can be extracted from the pound of lead. As a general rule, in the United States as well as in Britain, whoever is the owner of freehold land has a right to all the mines undernéath the sur- face, for his absolute ownership extends to the centre of the earth; but under special grants and contracts it is not uncommon for one person to be owner of the surface of the land and another to be owner of the mines beneath ; or several persons may be owners of different kinds of mines lying one above the other in the different strata. On the public lands of the United States, a title or license may be obtained by any citizen from the general land office at Washington, at the rate of $5 per acre of surface pre-empted ; no royalty is paid, but the claim must be worked in accordance both with local regulations and with the general mining laws, which prescribe as one condition the performance of a certain amount of work annually. If this con- dition is not falfilled, the mine may be ‘denounced,’ and any other person secure the claim. Breviograpay.—The literature of mining is very extensive, but the following may be cited as useful works of reference: Callon’s Lectures on Mining, translated by Dr C. Le Neve Foster and W. Galloway; Sir Waring- ton Smyth, Covd-mining (7th ed. Lond. 1890); J. J. Atkinson, Practical Treatise on the Gases met with in Coal-mines ( Lond. 1879); R. Hunt, British Mining (1884); H. M. Chance, Report on Coal-mining (Philadelphia, 1885); B. H. Brough, Mine Surveying (2d ed. Lond, 1889); Arundel Rogers, Mining Law (Lond. 1876); Report of the Accidents in Mines Commission (1886). The principal sources of information on mining matters are the Transactions of the Mining Institutes, the tech- nical journals, and the annual reports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines. See also articles CoaL, Copper, Gop, Inon, Leap, Dtamonp, &e. Minister, « public functionary who has the chief direction of any department in a state, the ministry being the body of ministers to whom the sovereign or chief-magistrate commits the execu- tive government (see CABINET, PARLIAMENT, TREASURY). Minister is also a term for a delegate or representative of a sovereign at a foreign court (see AMBASSADOR). Christian preachers and priests are ministers of the word of God or of Jesus Christ in Catholic ; minister, a name, was adopted hy French-speaking Protestants for their clergy, and was formerly so used by Anglicans, as it still is by Presbyterians and many Nonconformists. Minium, or Rep Leap. See Leap, Vol. VI. Miniver. See Furs. Mink (/Pwtorius), a name applied to several carnivores in the same genus as weasel, polecat, ferret, and ermine, and with essentially similar characteristics, The body measures from 12 to 18 inches im length, not including the bushy tail. The colour of the valuable fur is chestnut-brown, The Siberian Vison (P. sibericus), the European Vison (P. lutreola), and the American Mink r (P. vison) are very nearly related, if iadeet they are not wer, varieties of one cireumpolar species, They all live by rivers and lakes, in which they swim and dive, feeding chiefly on fishes, frogs, mussels, and the like; though not refusing any small mammals which come in their way. They are keen-scented, bold and persistent, but are readily tamed when caught young. See Furs. Minneapolis, the largest city of Minnesota, ns the capital, St Paul, and is situated on both sides of the Mississippi, which is here crossed by twelve bridges. The Falls of St Anthony, with 4 perpendicular descent of 16 feet, afford a water- Pp ye power which has been a chief source of the city’s prosperity. The streets are wide and handsome, and there are beautiful public parks. ak the “ most notable buildings are the masonic hall, the t-oftice, the Exposition Building, and the iuarantee Loan edifice. This last is twelve stories high, built of ite and sandstone; it contains 400 offices, and on the roof is a garden concerts are given. The churches number over 150, and the public schools had in 1897 more than 750 teachers and 34,462 pupils; while the state university here has five departments and about 2500 students, of both sexes. There is a public library of over 40,000 volumes. The lumber and flour mills of Minneapolis are among the largest in the country. In the latter, stones Sane been dis- earded, and the Hungarian or ‘ roller’ MILL) is employed. The total dail of the mills is 35,000 barrels. The rallwa facilities of Minneapolis are very great, and the growth of the city has been remarkably rapid. Pop. (1870) 13,066 ; (1880) 46,887; (1890) 164,738; (1900) 202,718.—Five miles by rail SE. of Minneapolis are the Falls of Minnehaha (‘Laughing Water’), celebrated in Longfellow’s Hiawatha. Minnesinger, the collective name given to the lyric poets of Germany who flourished during a period marked approximately by the years 1170 and 1250. For the most part the singers were of knightly birth and belonged to the inferior nobility, thongh men of the very highest rank, reigning princes and even emperors, wrote these lyric effusions, and a few were of burgher birth. They get their name from the principal theme that inspired them, minne = ‘love,’ the love of fair women. Thus they were so far akin to the troubadours of Provence and France. The move- ment, however, though it certainly received sug- gestions from the singers beyond the Rhine, was essentially of native origin. The difference be- tween the two schools is most clearly seen in the spirit of their work. The German singers wrote of love in a more refined and delicate spirit, and with a greater reverence for woman, than the troubadours. The best of them treated of the inner life of the soul, the feelings and emotions of the heart, rather than of the gallantries and adven- tures of a sensual love; they move in the world of imagination and idealism, shunning the real world and its leasures ; the shy, speechless, rever- ent attitude of ingenuous youth that characterised — them was closely akin to the reverent homage In a! to the purest and holiest of women, the V Mother of Christ. Yet they did not altogether lose touch of the world. They loved to sing the raises of nature, especially of spring, the perennial inspirer of poets’ hearts and tongues. Often, too, there is a decided strain of sadness and melancholy, — prin, touches of true naiveté, and frequently of arch humour, and on occasion the sterner note of moral indignation and contempt of the follies and vices of the time. Thus, the best of the minne- singer, like Walther von der Vo; velweide, the most illustrious of them all, Heinrich von Ofterd i. Wolfram von Eschenbach, Hartmann von Aue, a fried von Strasburg, Heinrich von Veldeke(theearli- est), and others, were distinguished on the one hand — J ‘a from the poets of the monasteries, who cele the deeds of martyr and saint, and on the other hand from the wandering gleemen, whose subjects were suited to the coarse and ignorant x who formed their usual audiences. But it is not in subject only, and their spirit of treating it, that — the minnesinger differ from all their contemporaries; they also paid great attention to poetical form, striving after melodious and sonorous langu a4 regularity of verse-structure, and smoothness and correctness of versification, in all which they = +o S8 Sz c= oz — we — =< - fow \ o1F-RESERVAT ae 3 wh o i | SAIHSANNIM 26 VIVVTTV | ‘ jo av: * | wna boat 6 > on Meme AVANT LIOM ODYEINNIM F6] Hf 1/0 S $0 a - - 5 96 L6 rahi > mK nie See Law i Rockstar a vaomoso Jeti IVA Woe) On te t oe 2 _ : seg on SN aioe x SS Te ee = oem é me | = = =e 2 oie Be ey ae cape bi ies bill Sa sc bas, | Prahe Wert NO |S WON AS en - ots “ 0/308 1 : Orne 1d x > o. c Pm gic 3 u wei? 4 “3 ra = : Ebay oepHo Vig we Ka gs ° : d a -! : ra: ¢ A ere ; aes ja “ony ark’ "es te petal b 2 Ae “ a ¢ a ? 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N O|S, wee o aes TY orn < ¢ J i, Naqeon A Les “Steele fen cr} 37 in” c~¢ a ° ” . f.) bd » ‘A y | = Ww Croaket Covad © c 2) é MINNESOTA MINNOW 219 attained a high degree of skill. Their art was, however, wider than the poet’s at the present day : they not only wrote the text but com the air to which the text was to be sung, for ‘all their lyrics were written with the express gd of being sung to the accompaniment of viol or One class alone was exempted from musical accompaniment—viz. short didactic or sen- tentious poems called spriiche = ‘sayings,’ which were recited. As it was incumbent upon a ‘singer’ to invent his own combination of text and melody, and was considered dishonourable for him to appro- priate those of his predecessors or contemporaries, their poems are remarkable for a great variety of forms, tic and musical. This in course of time, when the fresh inspiration of the movement to wane, was the fruitful cause of much artificial writing, and eventually of the decay of the art. But there were still deeper causes of decay inherent in it. The less refined of the ‘singers’ were unable to keep the levels of exalted sentiment of their superiors, and degenerated into false sentimentality, lifeless conventionality, and above all a gross and vulgar sensualism. The minne- r wrote principally in the Swabian dialect of Middle High German. Their use of this language was due to the great encouragement they received from the Hohenstaufen emperors. Next to these rulers their chief patrons were the dukes of Austria, and especially Hermann of Thuringia, at whose court of Eisenach the semi-mythical Wartburgkrieg occurred (c. 1207). This was a poetical contest between the chief minnesinger as to the merits of the patrons of the art: Heinrich of Ofterdingen was outsung by Walther von der Vogelweide, and Heinrich's ally, the magician bar wd of Hu , by Wolfram von Eschenbach. When men of knightly birth began to neglect the writing of lyric poetry, and the minnesinger were no longer held in hononr in the halls of the great, the art took refuge-with the burghers and craftsmen of the cities. -But with the exception of Hans Sachs of Nuremberg, those meistersinger or meistersinger, as they called themselves, . little real poetic feeling. They formed themselves into guilds and wrote poems as they plied their trade, by purely mechanical rules, and bound them- selves by a multitude of puerile restrictions and tie regulations. Their subjects were pain- ‘ully commonplace, and their treatment destitute of all artistic feeling. Yet these singers’ guilds flourished from the 13th to the 16th century; the last was not dissolved until 1839, at Ulm. - Wagner's opera, Die Meistersinger zu Niirnberg, perpetuates their memory. The lyrics of the 160 Minnesinger, of whom alone Gesten survive, were published by Von der Hagen in 1838 (4 vols.). Modern versions have been made by Tieck (1803), Simrock (1857), and others. See A. Schultz, Das hifische Leben zur Zeit des Minnesangs (2 vols. zd ed. 1889); Uhland in Schriften zur Geschichte der Dichtung und Sage (vol, v. 1870); and Lyon, Minne- und Meister-sang (1882). Minnesota (Indian, ‘sky-tinted water’), the nineteenth in pop. and tenth in area of the states of the American Union, and | copyright 1991, 1897, and the northernmost in the Mis- | 1900 in the U5. by’. B. seine valley, extends froin | “i?Piveott Company 43° 30/ to 49° N. lat., and from 91° to 97° W. long. It is bounded on the N. by Manitoba and Ontario, E. Lake Superior and Wisconsin, 8. by Lowa, and W. by North and South Dakota. Its area - is 83,530 sq. m., or nearly as large as Great Britain. In Minnesota are the remote sources of the great rivers Mississippi, Red River of the North, and St Lawrence, whose waters, flowing in different directions, reach respectively the Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, and the Atlantic Ocean. Within the state the Minnesota River is the largest tribu- tary of the Mississippi. Between the St Croix River and Red River of the North are hundreds of clear lakes, the largest of which are Red Lake (580 sq. m.), Mille , and Leech Lake. About two-thirds of the state is prairie, but in the northern portion there are extensive pine-forests, and in the north-east t marshes, bearing a scanty growth of tanareuke and fir. The minerals include iron (which is profitably worked), slate, granite, and other rocks, and the red pipestone. The climate is bracing in winter, very dry and equable; the mean for the year 1889 was 45°. The rainfall is sufficient and well distributed throughout the year. Minnesota is an agricultural and especially a wheat-produeing state ; its manufactures as yet are principally flour and lumber. The reiacigad crops are: wheat, averaging about 50,000,000 bushels; oats, 55,000,000 bushels ; corn, 25,000,000 bushels ; potatoes, 7,000,000 bushels. The facilities for com- merce are t. The Mississippi is navigable as high as St Paul ; the lakes, with Duluth for a port, open a waterway to the Atlantic ; and in 1897 there were 6198 miles of railway in the state. The permanent school fund exceeded $11,000,000 in 1896, during which year over 354,000 pupils were on the roll. A system of free-school libraries is in operation. There are four state normal schools, and*a state university at Minneapolis, besides Macalester College (Presbyterian) and Hamline University (Methodist) at St Paul, Carleton Col- lege (Congregationalist) at Northfield, Episcopal schools at Faribault, and a Presbyterian college for women at Albert Lea. History.—Minnesota was visited by French ex- plorers in 1659-60, and the portion west of the ississippi was part of the province of Louisiana ourchanan wy the United States from France in 1803. Fort Snelling, at the mouth of the Minnesota River, was built and oceupied in 1821, In 1837 the Chippeway Indians surrendered all the land east of the Mississippi; immigration then began, and Minnesota became a territory in 1849, a state in 1858. It claims the distinction of having, through its governor, offered the first regiment for the defence of the Union; and during the civil war, out of 40,000 citizens able to bear arms, it sent 24,000 into the army. In August 1862 occurred a terrible massacre, by the Indians, who attacked the frontier settlements and in ten days killed some 800 men, women, and children. As a consequence, the Sioux and Winnebagoes were removed from the state, and their hunting-grounds are now occupied by farms and prosperous towns. The principal cities are St Paul, the Lge (163,065), Minne- eT ier and Duluth (52,969). Pop. (1860) 172,023 ; (1890) 1,301,826, including « large propor- tion of Seandinaviansand Germans ; (1900) 1,751,394. Minnow (Lewciscus phoscinus), a small fish of the same genus as the roach, dace, chub, &c. It is widely distributed in Europe, from Norway to Italy. It is usually 3 or 4 inches long, but it ocea- sionally in favourable localities may attain to as much as 7 inches. The minnow varies its colour ; it is more brilliant when taking food, and brighter during the day than at night. The colours are most brilliant at spawning time, particularly in the males, The back is olive-brown in colour, becom- ing lighter at the sides with a metallic lustre. The fins are silvery gray, often rose tinted at the base. The colours become paler after spawning. The minnow is an active little fish found in large swarms, generally in shallows in summer or near the surface; in winter it conceals itself under stones and muddy banks. It is a voracious feeder, living on aquatic plants, worms, insects, small snails and fresh-water molluscs, and even its own kind; and in turn it is preyed upon by nearly 220 MINOR MINT every fish in the stream. Minnows have the peculiar habit of arranging themselves like the spokes of a wheel or the petals of a flower, with their heads towards the centre and their tails at nearly equal distances from one another when any- thing that can serve as food is thrown into the water. They may be caught by small hand-net or by hook and line, baited with worm or paste. They are very prolific ; they breed in June, and the eggs hatch in a few days. As food they are much esteemed, cooked in various ways or dressed as ‘white bait.’ They are used as bait for eels, or as spinning bait for trout, perch, pike, or chub. Some fish-breeders advocate stocking rivers with minnows to feed the young salmon, but the wisdom of this proceeding has been questioned on various grounds. Minor ‘is, in Scotch law, the term describing a person who, if a male, is between the of 14 and 21; and if a female, is between 12 and 21. In England the technical term is an Infant (q.v.). Minor. See ScaLe. Minor Barons. See Baron. Mino the second largest of the Balearic Isles (q.v.), lies 25 miles NE. of Majorca. It is 28 miles long, by an average of 10 wide, and has an area of 284 sq. m. Pop. 34,173. Its coast is rocky and inaccessible, but broken by numerous inlets, and its surface low, undulating, and stony. Its productions and climate are similar to those of Majorea, though the soil is less fertile. The chief towns are Port Mahon (4-¥) and Ciudadela (8000). The island is remarkable for its great number of ancient megalithic remains (called talayots) and its stalactite caves (at Prella). See BYNG (JOHN); Pegged Balearic Isles (1876), and Sir R. L. Play- air. book series ) Minorites, See FRANCISCANS. Minority. See REPRESENTATION. Minos, the name of two mythological kings of Crete. The first is said to have been the son of Zeus and Europa, the brother of Rhadamanthus, the father of Deucalion and Ariadne, and, after his death, a judge of the shades in Hades.—The second of the same name was a of the former, and son of Lycastus and Ida. To him the celebrated Laws of Minos are ascribed, in which he is said to have received instruction from Zeus himself. Homer and Hesiod know of only one Minos, the king of Cnossus, and son and friend of Zeus. Minotaur, one of the most repulsive conceptions of Greek Mythology, the offspring of Pasiphaé and a bull, for which she had conceived a passion, grati- fied through the contrivance of Poseidon. The queen placed herself in an artificial cow made by Deedalus, and so became the mother of the monster, half-man half-bull, a man with a bull’s head. Minos, the husband of Pasiphaé, shut him up in the Cnossian Labyrinth, and there fed him with the seven youths and seven maidens, whom Athens was obliged to supply at fixed periods as a tribute, till Theseus, with the help of Ariadne (q.v.), slew the monster. Minquiers, See CHANNEL ISLANDS, JERSEY. Minsk, chief town of a Russian government, stands on an affluent of the Beresina, 531 miles by rail ENE. of Warsaw. Pop. (1893) 80,070, man of whom are Jews. The town existed in the 11th century ; was Lithnanian in the 13th and Polish in the 15tly; and was annexed by Russia in 1793. The government of Minsk has an area of 35,282 sq. m., and a pop. (1895) of 1,993,475, embracin White Russians (67 per cent.), Lithuanians (4 per cent,), Poles (11 per cent.), and Jews (10 per cent.), with Tartars and Germans. Seventy per cent. of the soil is covered with marshes, swamps, Mediterranean (3d ed. 1890, Murray’s Guide-~ moors, lakes, and forests; less than 24 per cents of the total area is actually cultivated. Minster (Lat. monasterium, ‘a monastery’), the church of an abbey or priory; but often applied, like the German Miinster, to cathedral churches without any monastic connection, as especially to York Minster. Mint ( Mentha), a genus of plants, of the natural order Labiate, with small, funnel-shaped, quadrifid, penely red corolla, and four straight stamens. he species are perennial herbaceous plants, vary- ing considerably in appearance, but all with ing root-stocks. The flowers are whorled, t whorls often grouped in spikes or heads, species are widely distributed over the world. me of them are very common in Britain, as Water Mint (M. aquatica), which ws in wet grounds and ditches, and Corn-mint (M. arvensis), which abounds as a weed in cornfields and gardens. All the species contain an aromatic essential oil, in virtue of which they are more or less medicinal. The most important Ba are Spearmint, Pi mint, and Pennyroyal.—Spearmint or Green Mint (M. viridis) is a native of almost all the temperate of the globe; it has erect smooth stems, from one foot to two feet high, with the whorls of flowers in loose cylin- drical or oblong —_ at the top; the leaves lanceo- late, acute, smooth, serrated, destitute equally wide distri- bution in the tem- perate parts of the world, is very similar to spearmint, but has the eaves stalked, and the flowers in short spikes, the lower spearmint (Mentha viridis). whorls — somewhat distant from the rest. It is very readily recog- nised by the peculiar pungency of its odour and of its taste.—Pennyroyal (M/. pulegium), also very cosmopolitan, has a much-branched prostrate stem, which sends down new roots as it extends in length; the leaves ovate, stalked; the flowers in distant globose whorls. Its smell resembles that of the other mints.—All these species, in a wild state, grow in ditches or wet places. All of them are cultivated in gardens; and peppermint largely for medicinal use and for flavouring lozenges. They are naturalised in America, where, however, the common species is M. canadensis, the Wild or Horse-mint. Mint Sauce is generally made of spearmint, which is also used for flav soups, &c. Poy i l the more brightly by reason of —_ of the darkness which it had to pene- trate. the Scottish Patrick might fitly be called the apostle of Ireland, and the Irish Columba in some sort the apostle of Scotland, Aidan, one of the Iona ‘family,’ is entitled in like sort to be ed as the apostle of Northumbria; and St Cuthbert was a spiritual descendant of Aidan. Moreover, as Se yee enge Tpe “fc the great evangelists of a large part of the European Scatiemat “Keeard has shown the magnitude and the im ice of the work undertaken and accom- plished by Columbanus and Gallus and a host of others, ‘numerous as swarms of bees,’ who, in the midst of innumerable difficulties, introduced agri- eulture and civilisation, learning and religion, into France and Switzerland and Italy and Germany, of which last country the English Boniface became the ‘apostle.’ Not that the externals of Christianity were non-existent at an earlier time. In France, for example, these noble missionaries had to do with the So a introduced by the Romans; but the pure faith was now represented by a corrupt clergy ministering to dissolute nobles and neglecting an enslaved people. Then they had to do with the recent invaders, who were partly heathen and partly Arian. Sad to sa , the missionaries seem to ve suffered less from the heathens than from the Arians, less from the Arians than from the ortho- dox, and, among the orthodox, less from the arcae enh than from the nobles, and most of all the clergy, or from others at their instigation. What the Irish and Scots did for Europe in the earlier middle ages the Nestorians about the same time attempted, with no less zeal, though with less success, for Asia. Condemned as a heretic by a council held at Ephesus in the 5th vervaeet h estorius (q.v.) was banished from Constantinople to Egypt. rom that time onwards, for five cen- turies the Nestorians carried on extensive and not unsuccessful missionary operations in central Asia, and founded churches, some of which exist in a lan- guishing condition to this day, whilst others recog- nised papal authority in the later medieval cen- turies. The Nestorian Tartar Church seems to have subsisted under a succession of ecclesiastics (see PRESTER JOHN) until the country was devastated is Khan. The Nestorians either intro- Boca eae c rea res = ous ed, i by the apostle Thomas. There can be Ga teameable doubt that in the 7th century they through Tartary into China, that founded churches there, that they were at least tolerated and probably subsidised by successive emperors till the end of the 9th cen- tury, when, with a revolution or change of dynasty, the system of intolerance was introduced. In the later medieval centuries the missionary work was mainly in the hands of the great Roman orders, the Dominicans (q.v.) and the Franciscans a , especially the latter. Their work was sly among the Mussulmans of Spain, North and western Asia, Las Casas (q.v.) earned the title of ‘apostle of the Indians.’ (ce) Modern Missions.—The Jesuit order was immediately after the Reformation, avowedly for the purpose of retrieving the disaster which great event had caused to the Church of Rome. By far the most distinguished of the early Jesuit missionaries was Francis Xavier (q.v.). Unquestionably Xavier was no ordinary man; it is, however, evident even from the eulogies passed on him by his admirers that he did not make any spiritual impression on the minds of the people of India and Japan, though he consolida the Portuguese mission in India and helped to open China and Ja to missionary effort. After the labours of Ricci and Schall there are said to have been in China 300,000 Catholics in 1663. For the Jesuit 18th-century missions in Paraguay, see JESUITS, PARAGUAY. Notes on the Catholic missions in Japan and Corea will be found in the articles on these countries. There is a separate article on the Propaganda (q.v.). The Missiones Catholice states that the number of European missionaries belonging to the Roman Catholic Church in 1886 was 2800, of mission adherents nearly 2,800,000; in India there being 1,180,000, in Indo-China over 500,000, nearly 500,000 in China, 210,000 in Africa, and over 100,000 in Oceania. The Reformation was a great preparation for evangelistic work, but the Reformation period was not distinctively a missionary period. This was not merely, though it might be in part, be- cause the hands of the Reformers were full of the work which they had to do at home. It is to be remembered that the nations which had foreign relations, foreign traffic, and foreign pos- sessions were Spain and Portugal, in which the Reformation got no firm hold. But it must be admitted that the Reformers did not rightly appre- hend the commission to preach the gospel to every creature. When Luther, therefore, has occasion to refer to that text, he tacitly assumes that its re- quirement is fulfilled when the gospel, as distin- guished from Romanism, is preached to the nations of Europe. In the 16th and 17th centuries, there- fore, we find no more than sporadic and ill-sustained efforts after mission-work among Jews or heathens. Leibnitz, indeed, anticipated the conception of a later age, and may welts regarded as the har- binger of modern missions, even as, along with Newton, he is honoured as the harbinger of modern science. It was natural that the needs of the English colonies should first attract the interest of Englishmen to foreign parts; the life labours of Jolin Eliot, ‘the Indian apostle’ (1604-90), were carried ont under the auspices of the Corporation for the Sea of the Gospel in New England. The on. Robert Boyle, first governor of that society, contributed to the translation of the gospels into Malay, and left a bequest for foreign missions. Bishop Berkeley laboured for the foundation of a missionary —— in Bermuda; and it was mainly for the spiritual wants of the American colonies that the Roeiety for the Pro tion of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was founded in 1701; its first missionary to India sailed in 1818. Early in the 18th century the first Protestant mission was sent to India. It was projected by the king of Denmark, having probably been suggested to him by his chaplain, Dr Liitkens. At first, and for a long time, Germany supplied the missionaries; but the pecuniary support of the mission soon devolved upon England, Prince George of Denmark, the husband of Queen Anne, having recommended the object to the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Among many noble men who have been engaged in this mission the most notable is Schwartz, who probably ob- tained an influence over all classes of the people of India such as no other European ever possessed. While all the Protestant churches of Europe and America are now engaged in missionary work, there is one chureh which is distinguished from all 232 MISSIONS the rest by this, that it is simply a missionary institute. Other churches make their missionary work subordinate to their pastoral functions; the Moravians or Unitas Fratrum have lon the conduct of missions as the end of their being. There is not in the history of human enterprise a more interesting chapter than that which relates the missionary works of the Moravians from their first beginnings in St Thomas and in Greenland to their latest undertaking in the Tibetan Hima- layas. To William Carey belongs the high distinction of having been the first to inculcate effectually “upon British Protestants the duty and the privi- lege of missions, and the first English Protes- tant to engage personally in the work. He and his coadjutors were noble men, and had to contend not only with heathen prejudices, but also with the timid policy of the rulers of India. The battle which fell to them to fight had to be fought once for all; and it is due to their singular discretion and their inflexible determination that it was fought so well. These men made Serampore a classic spot, and amid all the henge material and spiritual, which have come over India in these t years, and the greater changes which a near future will certainly effect, the names of Carey and Marshman and Ward will be held in ever- Frowing, veneration. Carey went to India in 1793; enry Martyn’s labours lay between 1805 and 1812. In 1795 the London Missionary Societ; was formed, and began its work by the despatch to the South Seas of the ship Duff with a large body of missionaries, For a long time the mission was not successful; but after a time it met with t success, and now there are many of the islands in which heathenism has long been extinct. The London society cordially welcomed numerous fellow- labourers from England, Scotland, Germany, and America, and most presets f consented to a division of the islands which they could not have been much blamed if they had claimed as their own. It may be noted in passing that these small islands have contributed to a disproportional extent to the enrichment of mission literature. It is t of the common creed of mankind that truth i is stranger than fiction, but is not generally so attractive. Yet in our day there have not ap more fascinating books than Williams's Missionary Ley awe Miss Yonge’s life of Bishop Patteson, and Mr Paton’s narrative of his own work and that of his brethren in the New Hebrides. The societies of the Church of England are the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, High Church (1701), and the Church Missionary Society (1799). The English Nonconformists are repre- sen in the mission-field all over the world by agents of the London (1795), the Baptist (1792), and the Wesleyan Missionary Societies (1817). The Americans are not behind in the good work. The American Board of Missions (1810) and the ‘American Presbyterian Board are great organisa- tions, whose agents are doing most effective work in many fields; while the Baptists have good reason to rejoice in their Burmese Mission (1813), The Methodist er al Church came more recentl into the field (1819), but set about its work wit characteristic energy. Zenana missions are a special department of Indian missions. The efforts of the Salvation Army (q.v.) in the foreign field deserve mention. Missions to the Jews have a’ peculiar interest for many Christians; and home missions are an integral part of church work at home, The Evangelical body in Germany is, in propor- tion to its strength, most creditably evangelistic. By means of many institutions they have trained and sent forth a large number of missionaries, some of whom have been men of extensive scholar- ship, but the ter proportion men of earnest piety, able and willing to endure hardness, as yood soldiers of Jesus Christ. The Rationalisti party in Germany have not shown much zeal in the mission cause. The Scottish missions differ from the others in this, that they are conducted by the churches as such, without the intervention of societies. The Established, the Free, and the United Presbyterian Churches have extensive missions in India, Afri China, the South Seas, and Japan. Presbyterian Church has an extensive and suc- cessful mission in China. The Presbyterian bodies cherish the memories of Duff and Wilson and Anderson in India, and of William Burns and Carstairs Douglas in China. The following table, based on the calculations of the American Board, will give an idea of the extent of Christian missions (other than Roman Catholic) in 1890. « or Mi Chri Income in Churches, r £ Sterling. Great Pritain........ 23 2053 1,361,028 £932,156 Ss ae 3u 2127 742,832 781,393 Switzerland f-=""-37 bas sures: UT Countries. Fv 8 9% 25,427 tal os ote. 78 5440 2,448,629 £1,879,399 The Chureh Missionary Society’s income is more than twice that of any other English society. The mode of carrying on missionary operations by the various bodies is essentially one, though, of course, modified by circumstances. f recent years ‘medical missions’ have been found to be a valuable, and in some cases an_indispensab adjunct to the other agencies. The missions o the Scottish churches have employed education as an evangelistic power to a greater extent than the other bodies. Such institutions as the Christian College at Madras, the mission station at Blantyre, and the Free Church Institution at Lovedale in South Africa are producing a great effect on the minds of the people. The success of missionary work in our day is not such as either to elate or to discourage the friends of missions. : The actual 8 aa of the world may be taken as fifteen hundred millions, of whom about four hundred millions are _professedly Christians. Thus, not so much as a third part of the world is evangelised. But then it should be considered that an immense amount of preparatory work has been accomplished ; and also that great national movements often reverse in a few years the aspect of affairs. In our own time we have seen such reversals in Madagascar and the Fiji Islands and Japan. In China we have seen a change, in the freedom with which the gospel can be preached, which our fathers, and indeed onr- selves at one time, would have considered simply impossible. All are convinced that in India there must come ere long a mighty change; and the friends of the gospel earnestly hope that that change will be favourable to the cause of Christ. Some account of mission operations are given in the articles on the countries where missions have had con- spicuous success (Fist, JAPAN, &c.); there are also bio- graphical notices of the most eminent missionaries reat Carey, Livinestone, Durr, Hannineron, &e.). works on missions by Marslall (1863), Rufus Anderson (Yew York, 1869), R. Grundemann’s Afissions- atlas (Gotha, 1867-70; and Calw, 1884), Christlieb (2.1 ed. 1880), Young (1881), P. sowie Seer York, 1883), H. Gundert (2d ed. Calw, 1886), Warneck (Eng. trans. by T. Smith, 1884), George Smith (1884; new ed. 1890); on Catholic missions, Henrion’s Histoire des Missions Catholiques, and Durand’s Missions Catholiques Fran- ¢aises ; works on special missions ; the numerous mission- ary journals and year-books ; and the lives of the notable English — “oe a ale i ™ ; i, ea” Le \@ - v 8 ORS 3 ° B! 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A HAL * MISSISSIPPI MISSISSIPPI-MISSOURI 233 missionaries. Buddhism (q.v.), especially in its earliest wera, ose Mohammedanism (q.v.) have been grouped with Christianity as missionary religions, in contradistine- tion to Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and Brahmanism. See Max-Miiller’s papers on missions in Chips from a German Workshop, vol. iv. Mississippi, a state of the American Union sham on = re a Mexico, lies west of Ala- a south of Tennessee, and is bounded W. by the Missis- | 1900 tn the 0.3. oy 3: bs sippi. Length N. toS.,335 miles; | MPrineott Company. width, 150 miles. Area, 46,810sq.m. The surface, except in the Yazoo delta, is generally hilly, though now mountainous, the highest hills being only 800 feet above the sea-level. There are three distinct watersheds; the eastern counties are drained by the eaitence and its tributaries ; the Pearl, Pasea- goula, Escatawpa with their affluents drain central and south-eastern portion; and the Homochitto, Big Black, and Yazoo carry the water of the western and northern counties into the Missis- — The Orange-sand formation ( Post-Tertiary, to 60 and even 200 feet thick) characterises the | sere portion of the surface of the state, and i the main body of the hills and ridges. It is “oa ihaigeeo aay with hydrated peroxide of iron, or yellow ochre, and presents an endless variety of tints. Ferruginous sandstones, capping the tops of hills and thereby preventing denudation, are found in all sections covered by the Orange-sand formation. Gravel beds also abound, as’ well as beds of pipeclay, and of ochreous elays used for paints; and there are also vast beds of lignite of excellent quality, and marls which are used as ingredients of commercial fertilisers. There are inineral springs in different portions of the state. eee is essentially an agricultural state. The north-eastern prairie region, 70 miles long and from 15 to 20 wide, with its fertile, black, caleareous soil, contains much of the best farming and grazing land in the state. There are no springs here, but cisterns dug in the rotten lime- stone, bored wells, and artesian wells furnish ample water. In the north the bottom lands lee numerous creeks and rivers especially are wel adapted to agriculture; while in the central portion stock-raising is carried on, and in the “pkg pe region large herds of sheep are raised. ellow pine ranks first among the forest trees of Mississippi; it extends northward from the coast for 150 miles. The Yazoo Delta, em- bracing the elliptical area of alluvial bottoms between the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers, extend- ing from Vicksburg to the state line on the north, has until within recent years been subject to inundations ; but levees now protect the lands, and the rise in the Mississippi in 1890—the highest and most prolonged ever known—left the levees un- broken except in four places which together were less than a mile in extent. Less than 15 per cent. of the delta was overflowed. The delta’s drainage flows into lakes, small but numerous, which form the head-waters of other bayous, and through them after miles of meandering find outlets into the Yazoo and other streams. The delta contains 44 millions of acres of alluvial land, only 500,000 acres of which are under cultivation. Virgin forests of hardwoods cover the rest. For the state, the an- nual production of cotton is about 1,150,000 bales, of corn 28,000,000 bushels, and of oats 4,000,000 - bushels. The fruits and vegetables shipped in 1890 were valued at $1,000,000. This industry flourishes in the central and southern portions. The winters in Mississippi are short and mild, the mean temperature 45° F. ; the summers are devoid of intense heat, the mean 81°, seldom reaching 100°, Ice from one to two inches thick forms in the part of the state. The elevation of the surface and the Gulf breezes render the climate oo eae most of the year. The annual rainfall ran, rom 48 to 58 inches. The death- rate is very low—12°9 in 1000. Mississippi sends eight representatives to con- gress. The state legislature is composed of 145 representatives and 45 senators, elected quadren- nially. There are three supreme judges, ap- pointed for nine years by the governor, and cirenit and chancery judges, appointed for four years. The public schools are maintained four months annually by the state, but forty towns and cities maintain graded schools for ten months a year. Separate schools are maintained for the coloured race. There are enrolled 148,435 white and 173,552 coloured children: average daily attendance— white, 90,716; coloured, 101,710. The state supports the university at Oxford (1844), agricultural and mechanical coll at Starkville (1878), industrial institute and college at Columbus (1884; for white girls), a college for coloured youth at Rodney, and anormal school at Holly Springs, for training coloured teachers. There are also private uni- versities and colleges, for both white and coloured youth, besides 155 high schools and academies. Institutions for the deaf and dumb (100) and the blind (50) are at Jackson, the capital; there also are the state penitentiary (500) and the lunatic asylum (550). 3 History.—Mississippi was first settled by the French, and constituted a part of Louisiana. ° Iber- ville planted the first colony at Biloxi in 1699. It was ceded to Great Britain in 1763; was ad- mitted into the Union as a state, December 10, 1817; seceded January 9, 1861 (principal battles during the civil war, Corinth, Baker’s Creek, Holly Spring, Iuka, siege of Vicksburg); was re- admitted into the Union, 1869. In 1897 there were 2595 miles of railway in the state. Vicksburg, Greenville, and Natchez are principal ports on the pag oo River, and Pascagoula and Biloxi on the Gulf. Cotton-factories are located at Wesson (value 3 millions), Columbus, Natehez, Enterprise, Meridian, Water Valley, Carrollton, and Corinth; wood-factories at Jackson and Meridian. Pop. (1820) 75,448 ; (1880) 1,131,597 ; (1890) 1,289,600, over one-half of African blood ; (1900) 1,551,270. Mississ i-Missouri. The Mississippi River (Algonkin, Missi Sipi, — ing ‘Great River’) is the largest river of North | copvrignt 1901, 1897, and America, and is wholly within | 1900 in the .'s. bys. 8. the boundaries of the United | “Prizcett Company. States. It drains most of the territory between the Rocky and Alleghany Mountains, embracing an area of 1,257,545 sq. m., or more than two-fifths of the area of the United States. This basin in- cludes the minor basins : Lower Mississippi, 65,646 . m.; Red River, 92,721; Arkansas, 184,742; issonri, 527,690; Upper Mississippi, 179,635 ; Ohio, 207,111. There are 41 other navigable tribu- taries, and 200 more of moderate size. The total length of the Mississippi is 2960 miles, of which 2161 are navigable ; but the Missouri afiluent is longer than the Upper Mississippi, and with the lower river aggregates 4200 miles, the longest river in the world, and in commercial facilities the greatest. The total navigable waters amount to 16,090 miles. The source of the Mississippi is Lake Itasca in the north-west central part of Minnesota, about 7 miles long by 1 to 3 wide, which has, however, several feeders, the principal being Elk or Glazier, Lake. The remotest springs of Itasea rise in 47° 34’ N. lat. and 95° 20’ W. long., and are 1680 feet above sea-level. As it issues from this lake the Mississippi is about 12 feet wide and 18 inches deep. Through pine-forests and swamps for hun- Seeds of miles it winds from lake to lake, with frequent rapids and picturesque falls, until, 1200 234 MISSISSIPPI-MISSOURI MISSISSIPPI SCHEME feet wide, at the city of Minneapolis it plunges over the Falls of St Anthony. This point is the head of river-navigation, though in various reaches above small steamboats ply. After receiving the St Croix, the Mississippi mes the boundary between the states of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana on the right, and Wis- consin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missis- sippi on the left. Its frequent rapids within Minnesote are due to the granite bed, but sand- stone prevails farther down, to Rock Island, Illinois. On the Wisconsin boundary the river expands into Lake Pepin, and thereafter, fully a mile wide, flows between bluffs 200 and 300 feet high, and sometimes through dense forests. At Roek Island there are rapids with 22 feet of fall, and 125 miles farther down are the Des Moines rapids with 24 feet of fall. Around these obstruc- tions to navigation the United States government has constructed ship-canals, The entrance of the turbid Missouri produces a marked change in the character of the river; for several miles the diverse waters refuse to mingle, the Missouri's muddy tribute taking the mght bank and the Upper Mississippi’s clear stream the left. When the union is complete, the whole river has henceforth a light yellowish colour, modified somewhat by the Ohio's nish water and more by the reddish water of the Arkansas and Red. From the mouth of the Ohio the trongh of the Mississippi is about 4470 feet wide, but as it approaches the Red it is narrowed to 3000 feet, and at New Orleans is 2500 feet. The usual depth of the channel southward from the Ohio is from 75 to 100 feet, and its surface is sometimes higher than the country beyond its banks. In fact, from the Missouri to the Gulf the Mississippi rolls in serpentine course through vast alluvial tracts or ‘bottoms,’ whose width varies from 30 to 150 miles. Their total area, including those along tributary streams, is variously esti- mated from 29,790 to 41,193 sq. m. Though of unsurpassed fertility, scarcely one-tenth of these lands are cultivated owing to the dangers of the annual overflow. The melting of the ice and snow in the upper basin swells the lower current from Mareh to June. Levees or embankments, largely built by the government, now extend for more than 1600 miles. Between the Ohio and the Red rivers extraordinary floods, rising from 47 to 51 feet, occur about once in ten years, making ‘ crevasses’ in the levees, and doing immense damage. In these great floods the river has been known to spread over a tract of 150 miles. Below the Red River the waters are discharged through numerons ‘ bayous’ into the Gulf of Mexico, 1e main channel runs south-eastward, and finally divides into five or six passes, the power a being the south, the north- east, and the south-west; the last is in 28° 58°5’ N. lat. and 89° 10’ W. long. The mean velocity of the Lower Mississippi is 24 miles per hour. The yearly discharge into the Gulf is — 145 cubic miles; the sedimentary ‘matter carried with this would form a prism 1 mile nare and 263 feet high, while the amount pushed long the bottom of the channel would make another 1 mile square and 27 feet high. These vast deposits and the constant changes caused by floods tend to embarrass the entrance to the great river. To keep an open channel, at least 20 feet deep Captain Eads (q.v.) contracted with the United States government to erect and maintain a system of jetties at the South Pass, The construction was begun in 1875, and has proved highly successful, a depth moray J 30 feet having been maintained, The month of the Mississippi is essentially tideless. The principal cities on the great river are Minne- lis, St Paul, La Crosse, Dubuque, Keoknk, Saieey, Hannibal, St Louis, Memphis, and New Orleans, at several of which the river is crossed by railway nodes Two of these have been con- structed (1867-74 and 1889-90) at St. Louis, and one was opened at Memphis in 1892. See Humphreys & Abbot’s Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River ( Phila. 1861), and Commerce and ‘avigation of the Mississippi (Washington, 1888). Missourt River (‘ Big Muddy’), the ne branch of the Missiscipnt River is formort ne confluence of the Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison rivers, at Gallatin City, Montana, 4132 feet above the sea-level. These rivers rise in the Rocky Mountains, close to the sources of the Columbia and Colorado rivers, and to the Continental Divide. The Madison has the remotest source in a small lake of the same name in Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, 44° 19’ N. lat. and 110° 50’ W. long., at an elevation of 7632 feet. This river flows north-west and north to the junction of the Three Forks. The Missouri then flows northward, skirting the main range of the Rocky Mountains, and, after passing through a gorge called ‘ The Gate of the Mountains,’ turns to the north-east and reaches Fort Benton, the head of navigation, 225 miles from Gallatin City. About 40 miles above Fort Benton are the Great Falls, where the river descends 327 feet in 15 miles by a series of cata- racts, the highest having a perpendicular fall of 87 feet. From Fort Benton the course is easterly, the river being flanked by bluffs about a mile — until it passes the rapids 400 miles below, when the valley opens to a width of 10 miles. The Milk River is its first large tributary, but at the boundary of North Dakota the still larger Yellow- stone joins it. The Yellowstone also rises in the National Park, and flows at first over cataracts and through cafions until it emerges in a more level country. It is 1152 miles long, and has the general characteristics of the Missou From its junction, which is the head of navigation in the low-water season, the Missouri flows through North Dakota, east and then south-east to Bismarck (1610 feet above sea-level), where it is crossed by the splendid bridge of the Northern Pacific Railroad, irough South Dakota the south-easterly course continues to Sioux City, whence flowing south the river lecomes the boundary between Nebraska and Kansas on the right and Iowa and Missouri on the left. On receiving the tributary Kansas the stream turns to the east, and flowing across the state of Missouri pours its muddy waters into the channel of the Mississippi, 20 miles above St Louis. The Missouri is 3047 miles long, of which 2682 are called navigable, but owing to its tortuous, treacherous, and obstructed channel navigation is attended with t risks. The growing cities on its banks forsake the use of the river for commer- cial purposes and depend on the railways. In 1866 there were seventy-one steamers in active service in that part within the state of Missouri, but twenty years later the number had diminished to seven steamers and three tow-boats. The chief towns on the banks are Bismarck, Yankton, Sioux City, Omaha, Council Bluffs, Nebraska City, St Joseph, Atchison, Leavenworth, and Kansas City. Mississippi Scheme, projected in France by John Law (q.v.) of Lauriston in 1717, pores to develop the resources of the province of Louisiana and the country bordering on the a The company, incorporated as Com, ie des Indes Occidentales, started with a capital of 200,000 shares, of 500 livres each, Shares were eagerly bought ; and when, in 1719, the company obtained the monopoly of trading to the East Indies, China, the Sout fees, and all the ions of the French East India Company, the brilliant vision opened up to the public gaze was irresistible. The z ey ° T. “auf ‘Gr , cER ; e | soit e Aly A aS HA HR IS 0 eto ! » hae ®) x : 2 iy ney vas S oe sfapicnart 9] tains o I Steriogtt ri ai vy 7 _ ND, Ss iv en LR tee a — iN Chy Rute q 6 phi h..] peti Cad es Deine comes ©. ~ : ow - ? Sta’ my ve Vv ry fi °, ES ~~ ” DE KAL oN ellat: au / e Hiawatha at pe : ~ ae i 5 tN i > Tro, \Water W _ . ." ® b | © ot. 9 a7 ~ me) Mo. 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CAAT oa aye . | & 2 y “ =e SOUTH EAST CORNER EXTENSION. Ly Edwards V, od . > o° f4 rr 3 ES ul of } “#3 sue Mies y) x Mo Zo f Lg Bh Ob 8 St Francis eee A ts MT , [O'Fallon ve Belleville ig / Boe ‘ i ¢ 4 4 He z, fl " A” Ke ae ) . |B 2x . we fe) = < § 7; r ie és 4 foNpsbit } 0°? a ¥. a D ih, — sy " ‘ , v lee © STE: " Upaerlave ‘o" OH ) HE 7m” Sivek 3 os % oe sta 2 ° a, Y“GENEVIEVE ~~ . Ki Dry Chane Cr? nt ¥ ingttne ng Murphysboro ice a ae i eat, mer Drude, th-siz 8 . ss ¥ fle ? a . a ‘Warrena “ Hance’ ™] *\ibtton, > ‘i . 5 oCrer} MA OTS ON A CAPE s\een, ite Necowret “T BIRARDE , ‘Oovar Safes eo teu Trace 7 5 +g K Ss Grove Sinkin 2 f . 7 ole Glen Al a " * O Hons f EYNOLD Az a a Ink * ° ° ay ‘ -Bigh SHAN NWO i i a : i? “tale Ai ws his con Dates}, ‘ Sr «@, eyeon ae is ‘ i TS “ye WTS Kees pee ry : atin (Prone , MISSING Cc AIR @s\EXR ba Ay Ash 5 % a tuft : “Attia ‘Aiton e 4Q Pieasan d ‘ RBeGO ey : Meny Spre. 1 P E % 4 ( : = = uN 4 aan 2 : Ta = sve ir Ice - . . y Icing da [ Missouri. } 7 Uses or ea MISSIVE MISSOURI 235 Compagnie des Indes, as it was now called, created 50,000 additional shares, but a rage for speculation had seized all classes, and there were at least 300,000 applicants for the new shares, which con- uently went up to an enormous premium. The public enthusiasm now rose to absolute frenzy, and w’s house and the street in front of it were daily crowded with applicants of both sexes and of all ranks ; and while confidence lasted a factitious impulse was given to trade in Paris. But the regent had meanwhile caused the paper circulation of the national bank to be increased as the Mississippi stock rose in value, and many wary tors, obese a crisis, had secretly con- verted their paper and shares into gold, which they transmitted to England or Belgium for security. The increasing scarcity of gold and silver becoming felt, a general run was made on the bank. The Mississippi stock now fell considerably, and despite sundry pana: efforts, which were attended with momentary su to keep up its credit, it con- tinued to fall steadily and rapidly. In February 1720 the National Bank and the Compagnie des Indes were amalgamated, but, though this gave an oes turn to the share-market, it failed to put the public credit on a sound basis. Several useless attempts were made by Law, now controller- neral of the finances, to mend matters; and ose ny arg of having more than a limited amount (fixed by a law passed at the time) of gold and silver in their possession, or of having removed it from the country, were punished with the utmost rigour. The crisis came at last. In July 1720 the bank stopped payment, and Law was compelled to flee the country. A share in the Mississippi Scheme now with difficulty brought twenty-four livres. An examination into the state of tue accounts of the company was ordered by govern- ment; much of the paper in circulation was cancelled ; and the rest was converted into ‘ rentes’ at an enormous sacrifice. See LAw (JOHN), and books there cited. Missive, in Scotch law, is a memorandum. Missolonghi ( Mesolongion), a seaport town of Greece, in the nomarchy of #tolia, on the northern shore of the Gulf of Patras, 24 miles W. of Lepanto. A modern place, built on a swampy flat, it is suffering, its garrison, reduced from 5000 to through the ranks them a great number of the women and children. The Turks then entered the town, which was all but totally destroyed. There is a statue (1835) over the grave of Bozzaris, and another (1881) of Lord Byron, on the spot where his heart is interred. Pop. 6324. Missouri, a central state of the American Union, which for three decades has ranked fifth in | pd population, lies between and 30’ N. lat., and 89° | 1900 in the v.'s. by J.B. 2’ and 95° 51’ W. Jong., and oc- ! Lippincott Company. en a commanding position in the Mississippi eater. It is 280 salles long from N., to §., cad gradually increases in width from 208 miles in the north to 312 miles in the south. Area, 69,415 sq. m., or nearly that of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. The Missouri River divides the state into two unequal sections, designated ‘North Missouri’ and ‘South Missouri’ respectively. That part of the state lying north of the Missouri River is epeeaey level or mcs wh undulating, con- sisting of rolling prairies and level bottom lands, Copyright 1891, 1897, and diversified with a luxuriant growth of timber along the streams. The southern section has a more diversitied surface, deriving its distinctive features from the Ozark Mountains, which cover about one- half of this division. These mountains enter the state from north-western Arkansas, and extend across the state to the Mississippi River; through- out the greater part of their length they may very propery be classed as tablelands, reaching their ighest altitude (1500 feet) in Greene and Webster counties, and gradually breaking up into narrow ridges, spurs, knobs, and peaks farther east. The entire eastern limit of the state is washed by the Mississippi River, with a water front of 560 miles, while the Missonri River forms the boundary from , the extreme north-west corner to Kansas City, and thence across the state to the Mississippi, with which it unites just above St Louis. Many smaller tributaries flow into these two majestic rivers— into the Mississippi the Fabius, Salt, Cuivre, Meramec, St Francis, Current, and Black; and into the Missouri the Nodaway, Platte, Grand and Chariton on the north, and the Osage an Gasconade on the south. The general drainage of the surface is indicated by long gentle slopes toward the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, except in the extreme south-west, where the streams flow into the Arkansas. The climate is genial, agree- able, and healthful. All the extremes of heat and cold peculiar to this latitude are experienced ; but the mean annual temperature is about 54°, and the mean average rainfall is 41 inches. Missouri is pre-eminently an agricultural state. Of the 44,000,000 acres of her land surface more than 42,000,000 are me to agricultural and horticultural purposes. The soils are rich, deep, and unsurpassed in variety and productiveness. The principal crops are Indian corn (200,000,000 bushels), oats (30,000,000 bushels ), wheat (28,000,000 bushels), potatoes, rye, barley, hemp, flax, cotton, sorghum, buckwheat, and hay (1,600,000 tons). Of tobacco a fair crop is 15,000,000 Ib. ; and orchard pro are grown in great abundance. In the ecade 1880-90 there was a great increase in the number of grazing animals, though sheep are not largely raised. ie immense quantities of dressed beef and pork shipped annually to home and foreign markets are constantly increasing. The mineral resources of Missouri are exceedingly rich, eee hye extensive coalfields, that cover more than 20,000 sq. m. ; also vast deposits of iron ore, lead, and zinc; while copper, cobalt, nickel, fireclays, fine marble, granite, and limestone of excellent quality abound in different localities. The coalfields are capable of yielding 100,000 tons of bituminous coal a day for several thousand years ; the actual product for the decade 1887-97 ave about 2,420,000 long tons. The supply of excellent iron ore is inexhaustible. The iron belt south of the Missouri River and extending from the Mississippi River on the east to the Osage River on the west has an area of 25,000 sq. m. ; but the richest deposits worked are those in Iron and St Frangois counties in the south-east. In 1897 23,883 long tons were raised. The Mississippi River on the eastern border and the Missouri across the state afford excellent transportation facilities; the rail- roads aggregated 6649 miles in 1897, Missouri returns two senators and 16 representa. tives to ose ey The general assembly (34 state senators and 140 representatives) meets every two years. The public-school system is very complete and very efficient, embracing the state university, the school of mines, four state normal schools, and city, town, village, and country schools. All public schools are supported by state appropria- tions, local taxation, and interest on the state, county, and township school funds. Missouri has 236 MISSOURI RIVER MISTRAL a larger permanent school fund than any other state | plants. The berries are about the size of currants, of the American Union. The corps of teachers | white, translucent, and full of a very viscid juice, number 15,000. In addition to the state system of education there are 30 private academies, semin- aries, denominational coll and universities, several of which are of a high order of excellence. The metropolis of Missouri is St Louis (pop.- 1900, 575,238), One of the greatest railroad, manu- pace | and commercial centres in the country ; Kansas City (163,752), St Joseph, S ringfield, Joplin, Hannibal, alia, Chillicothe, Seine, Moberly, Boonville, Nevada, Marshall, Kirksville, Carroll- ton, Lexington, &e., are all thriving cities. Pop. (1820) 20,845; (1840) 140,455; (1860) 1,182,012; (1880 ) 2,168,380 ; (1890) 2,679, 184 ; aed] 3,106,665. History.—Missouri was first explored by De Soto in 1541-42, and in 1673 Marquette and his followers visited its eastern border. It formed part of the ‘ Louisiana Purchase’ (see LOUISIANA ), the northern portion of which in 1805 was organised as the ‘ District of Louisiana.’ It was not till 1812 that a part of this territory took the name of Missouri. Tn 1821 Missouri was admitted into the Union, but the —— limits of the state were not estab- lished till 1836. Its admission was preceded by a long and bitter political controversy between the representatives of the North and South, the former resisting its entrance as a slave-state. The dis- cussion resulted in the famous ‘Missouri Com- promise,’ under which compact it was agreed that slavery should be for ever excluded from all that art of Louisiana north of 36° 30’ lat., except issouri. During the four years of the great civil war the citizens of Missouri suffered terribly. The people were nearly equally divided in sentiment, and both sides prepared for the conflict. The state furnished 109,111 men for the Union army, and about three-fourths as many for the other side: Death and the destruction of property everywhere prevailed. But when the war ended the people commenced to build up the waste places; improvements were extended in all direc- tions, bitter feelings soon died away, and the state entered upon an era of singular prosperity. Missouri River. See Mississippi. Mist. See Foa. Mistassini, LAKE, in Labrador, some 300 miles N. by W. of Quebec, is strictly speaking an expan- sion of the river Rupert, which flows into the southern extremity of Hudson Bay. It is 100 miles long from north-east to south-west by 12 in average breadth. Mistletoe. This mystic plant, with its thick, succulent, yellow-hued foliage, and white, viscous berries, was ee | a puzzle to botanists, its peculiar mode of growth having given rise to the most curious fancies, Its name is most probably from the Anglo-Saxon mist-el, from mist, ‘ mist,’ ‘ gloom’ (Ger., ‘dung’), and tan, ‘twig.’ The only British species of this genus of parasitical shrubs is the ‘ommon Mistletoe (Viseum album), a native also of the greater part of Europe (not of north England, Scotland, or Ireland), growing on many kinds of trees, particularly on the apple, and others botanically allied to it, as the pear, service, and hawthorn ; sometimes, also, on sycamores, limes, ge locust-trees, and firs, but very rarely on oaks (contrary to the common belief), In the Himalayas the mistletoe grows abundantly on the apricot-tree, on the vine and loranthns in Italy, on spruce-firs in France and Switzerland. The ever- en leaves of the V. album of English woods, with their yellowish hue, make a wr py newer. appear- ance in winter among the naked branches of the trees. The flowers are insignificant, and grow in small heads at the ends and in the divisions of the branches, the male and female blossoms on separate which serves to attach the seeds to branches, where they take root when they germinate, the radicle always turning towards the branch, whether on its Mistletoe (Viscum album). upper or under side. It may be easily made to won suitable trees even where not native—as in Seotland, for example. The mistletoe was intimately connected with many of the superstitions of the ancient Ger- mans and of the British Druids. In the northern mythology, Balder (q.v.) is said to have been slain with a spear of mistletoe; and in Holstein * opts P agianas gy or be of s) ro 4 whieh confers upon its r the power to see ghosts. ap the Eclts the mistletoe which grew on the oak was in peculiar esteem for magical virtues. According to an old tradition the mistletoe supplied the w for the cross, which until the time of the crucifixion had been a forest tree, but was henceforth condemned to exist only as a mere parasite. Traces of the ancient regard for the mistletoe still remain in some old English Christ- mas customs, as kissing under the mistletoe. The mysterious surrounding of the mistletoe in- vested it with a widespread importance in old folklore remedies, the Druids having styled it Yost as — an ee ~: all eg = u rs s of it as ‘good for the grief of the ig Teh, Arann and toothache, the biting of mad dogs and venomous beasts;’ while Sir Thomas Browne alludes to its virtues in the cure of epilepsy. In Sweden a finger-ring made of the mistletoe is an antidote against sickness, and in France amulets made of its wood were formerly much worn (see H. Friend, Flower-lore).—Loranthus Europeus, a shrub very similar to the mistletoe, but with flowers in racemes, is plentiful in some parts of the south of Europe, and very frequently grows on oaks.—L. odoratus, 2 Nepalese species, has very f t flowers.—The American mistletoe, of which there are some half-dozen species, is similar in general ap ce and habit to the Euro; » yet differs in so many points as to justify its being called by a different name, Phora- dendron. The commonest species is P. flavescens, found from New Jersey to Mexico. Mistral (also Mistraou and Maestral), a north- west wind which at certain seasons of the year revails on the south coast of France. Its approach i heralded by a sudden change of the temperature, from the most genial warmth to piercing cold; the air is felt to be purer, and more easily inhaled, the azure of the sky is undimmed by cloud, and the stars shine by night with extraordinary and spark- ling brightness. The mistral then comes in sudden sts, struggling with the local aérial currents, but its fast-increasing violence soon overcomes all opposition. Ina Few hours it has dried up the soil, dispersed the vapours of the atmosphere, and raised MISTRAL MITFORD 237 a dangerous tumult among the waters of the Mediterranean. The mistral blows, at intervals, with its greatest force from the end of autumn to the beginning of spring. Mistral, Freperick, Provengal t, was born a peasant’s son near Maillaune (dept. Bouches- du-Rhone), on 8th September 1830, and studied law at Avignon; but for law he had no liking and went home to work on the land and write poetry, as Burns did before him. In 1859 he published the epic Miréio (7th ed. 1884; Eng. trans. 1890), written in his native Provencal dialect. This charming representation of life in southern France made tral’s name famous throughout the country, Pet omg for him the poet’s prize of the French Academy and the cross of the Legion of Honour. It also led to the formation of the society called Lou Felibrige, which set itself to create a modern Provencal literature. In 1867 Mistral published a second epic, Calendou, and in 1876 a volume of poems entitled Lis Iselo d’Or (‘Golden Islands’), songs steeped in the golden sunshine of the Mediter- ranean and its vine-clad shores. Since then he has written a novel, Nerto (2d ed. 1884), and issued a dictionary of the Provencal dialect fe vols, 1878-86), the preparation of which occupied him many years. See an article by A. Daudet in the Century (1885). Mistretta, a town of Sicily, near the north coast, half-way between Palermo and Messina, Pop. 12,235. Mitau, the capital of the Russian government of Courland, on right bank of the Aa, 27 miles by rail SW. of Rife. Founded in 1271 by the grand-master of the Teutonic Knights, and annexed to Russia in 1795, it has a castle, begun by Biron in 1738, and now the seat of the governor of the province, six churches, a museum, &c., with some very important manufactures, and a trade in grain and timber. From 1798 to 1807 Mitau offered an asylum to Louis XVIII. Pop. 29,615, of whom more than one-half are Germans, and nearly a fourth Jews. Mitcham, a village of Surrey, 84 miles by rail SW. of Victoria Station, London, and callwne between Wimbledon and Croydon (3 miles from each), lies in the centre of a district in which flowers and aromatic herbs (roses, lavender, camo- mile, &c.) are extensively grown. Pop. 8960. Mitchel, Joun, an Irish patriot, was born the son of a Presbyterian minister at Dungiven in County Derry, 34 November 1815. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin, and practised several years as an attorney at Banbridge. Soon after the for- mation of the Young Ireland party, and the start- ing of the Nation in 1842, Mitchel began to con- te, and after the death of Thomas Davis in 1845 he became assistant-editor. But his language was too violent for the r, and three years later he started the United Irishman, for his articles in which he was tried on a charge of ‘treason-felony’ and sentenced to fourteen years’ transportation. He was sent to Bermnda, and next to Van Diemen’s Land, whence he made his escape to the United States in the summer of 1853. In New York he blished his Jail Journal, or Five Years in British risons (1854). Next followed a series of short- lived newspapers, the Citizen, the Southern Citizen, the Richmond Inquirer, and the Irish Citizen, which eost him the confidence of many of his American friends ee hare rgr ee defence of slavery and the Sou In 1874 he returned unmolested to Treland, and was elected to parliament for Tip- Berary, but declared ineligible. Again elected, he ied at Cork, 20th March 1875. Of his books may be mentioned a Life of Hugh ONeill, Prince of Ulster (1845); and History of Ireland from the Treaty of Limerick (1868); besides editions of the poems of Thomas Davis (1856) and James C, Mangan ot See the Life of him by William Dillon (2 vols. ). Mitchell, capital of Davison county, South Dakota, 70 miles by rail W. of Sioux Falls, has a foundry and machine-shop, flour-mills, packing- house, &e. Pop. 4055. Mitchell, Donatp Grant, an American author, many of whose works have appeared under the pen-name of ‘Ik Marvel,’ was born in Norwich, Connecticut, 12th April 1822, was in 1853 appointed consul at Venice, in 1868-69 editor of the Atlantic Monthly, but is better known as the proprietor of a farm—Edgewood—near New Haven, about which he has written several: delightful books. Amon his other works are Revertes of a Bachelor an Dream Life (1850-51 ; new eds, 1889) ; a novel, Dr Johns (1866); and English Lands, Letters, and Kings, from Celt to Tudor (1889). Mitchelstown, a market-town of County Cork, Ireland, 11 miles N. of Fermoy, became for a time a familiar name in the political war-cry ‘ Remember Mitchelstown.’ On 9th September 1887, at a Nationalist meeting, the le refused to allow the government shorthand-writer to approach the speakers. The police endeavoured to make a way for him, but were resisted by the crowd. A riot ensued, on which the police fired, and two men were shot dead. In the immediate vicinity of the town is Mitchelstown Castle, the mansion of the Earls of Kingston, and 74 miles to the north- east there are extensive stalactite caves, discovered in 1853. Pop. 2367. Mite. See AcARINA, CHEESE-MITE. Mitford, Mary Russet, born at Alresford, Hants, 16th December 1787, was the only child of a physician, a selfish, extravagant man, who spent several fortunes, and was always in debt. A few years after his marriage he moved to Lyme Regis, and thence to London. On Mary’s tenth birthday he took her to a lottery office, and bought her a ticket. She chose a particular number which drew a prize of £20,000. hile this money lasted she was sent to a good school in Chelsea, and Dr Mitford built himself a large house near Reading. Here Mary returned when she was fifteen, a clever, accomplished girl, devoted to her parents, a great reader, and fond of gardening. Her first volume of poems Feo in 1810, and was followed in 1811 and 1812 by two other poems. In 1820, as the family became more and more impoverished, they were obliged to move to a cottage at Three Mile Cross, near Reading, and at length the need came for Miss Mitford to write to earn money. She wrote for magazines, and ody for the stage. Four of her t ies, Julian, The Foscari, Rienzi, and Charles I., were acted; the three first met with success, but they have not kept the stage. Her true line was describing what she saw around her in a series of sketches of country manners, scenery, and character. These little essays were rejected by several London editors, but at length found a ace in the London Magazine, and were published in a collected form in 1824 under the name of Our Village, the series of five volumes peng completed in 1832, Few would think, as they read this ‘ play- ful prose,’ with what toil and anxiety it was written. Dr Mitford died in 1842, leaving his affairs in such a state that a subscription was started to enable his daughter to pay his debts; which was soon followed by a pension from the crown. In 1851 Miss Mitford moved to a cottage in Swallow- field, a vill close by, where she spent the rest of her life. pn 1852 she published Recollections of a Literary Life, and in 1854 a novel, Atherton and other Tales. She died 10th January 1855, and was buried at Swallowfield. Her sketches are 238 MITFORD MITHRIDATES charming ; she describes homely scenes and people with the skill of an artist, and the humour and kindliness of a clever, true-hearted woman. See Life by L’Estrange (3 vols. 1878), and his Friend- ships of Mary Russell Mitford (1882). Mitford, WiL.1AM, was born in London, 10th February 1744, entered Queen’s College, Oxford, but left without adegree. In 1761 he suceeeded to the family estate of Exbury near the New Forest, and in 1769 became a captain in the South Hamp- shire Militia, of which Gibbon was then major. By Gibbon’s advice and encow ment he was induced to undertake his History of Greece (5 vols. 1784- 1818). It is a pugnacious, opinionative, one-sided, and even fanatical production. The author is an intense hater of democracy, and can see in Philip of Macedon nothing but a great statesman, in Demosthenes nothing but a noisy demagogue. Yet his zeal, which so often led him astray, also urged him, for the very purpose of substantiating his views, to search more minutely and critically than his predecessors into certain portions of Greek history, and the result was that Mitford’s work held the highest place in the ee of scholars until the appearance of Thirlwall and Grote. He sat in parliament from 1783 to 1818, and died at Exbury, 8th February 1827. See the Memoir prefixed to the 7th edition of his History (1838), by his brother John Fr Mitford Ey age — was cert gag ony of Ireland poe 1806, and was raised ie peerage as Redesdale. Mithras, or MirHra, a Perso-Iranian divinity whose worship, after passing through several changes and transformations, spread itself for a time far beyond the limits of its native seat. In the Zendavesta, or sacred writings of the ancient Persians, Mithras appears as chief of the Izeds or d genii, the god of the heavenly light and the ord of all countries. Protector and supporter of man in this life, he watehes over his soul in the next, defending it against the spirits of evil. In the dualism of Zoroaster he fights as an invincible hero on the side of the principle of good, Ahura- Mazda or Ormuzd, in his eternal struggle with his rival BS edigstoes tr or Ahriman. At this — the qualities attributed to Mithras had probably only a moral signification. Afterwards, as the political power of the Persians increased and their religion grew, by the natural processes of develop- ment and absorption, more ritualistic and com- posite, Mithras me the sun-god and was re- presented by the orb of day, which was wor- shipped in his name. By degrees his importance increased till he had scarcely a rival in the Persian pantheon. Unfortunately, owing to the almost entire destruction of the early religious literature of the East by the fanaticism of the followers of Mohammed, our knowledge of Mithraism as the dominant religion of its day is indirect and vague. Too great reliance is not to be placed on the specu- Jations in which some modern writers such as — indulge regarding it. But it would seem to have been, in its ultimate form at least, a system of secret rites and mysteries. For admission to these the aspirant was prepared by a series of trials of a severe description. He then underwent initia- tion, which, when duly and completely performed, comprised seven, or according to others twelve, degrees or successive steps, symbolically marked by the names of certain birds and animals. Baptism and the partaking of a mystical liquid, consisting of flour and water, to be drunk with the utterance of sacred formulas, are also said to have been among the inaugurative acts. Most of the ceremonies through which the devotee had thus to pass were of an extraordinary and even dangerous character. In spite, however, of all this rigour, Mithraism must have had attractions of no ordinary kind. Intro- duced into Rome in 68 achat | some Cilician pirates whom Pompey had captured and whose national religion it was, it rapidly spread gat the greater part of the empire. The well-known taurine tablets sculptu in bas-relief are the most interesting of its monuments that have come down to our time, There is a fine example in the British Museum, and others are to be seen in the principal museums of Europe. Mithras now appears as a tiful youth, dressed in Bhd mer garb, kneeling upon a bull, into whose neck he plunges a dagger, Surrounding the group are various emblems, a scorpion, a serpent, a dog, a raven, a crescent, and others, to which an astronomical or an allegorical meaning has been variously assigned. Caves in the living rock were often the scene of this sacrifice of the bull; but it was also per- formed in small temples or Mithreums, one of the most perfect of which was discovered in Ostia by the Cavaliere Lanciani (see Atheneum, Nov, 6, 1886). The floor and walls of this chapel are lined with mosaics representing the twelve signs of the zodiac, and the course of the planets, and containing allusions to the rites of Mithras. Tablets found at Housesteads in the Roman wall and at York are proof of the presence of Mithraism in Britain, to which it had doubtless been brought by the legionaries. Having come into collision with Christianity, it was formal] rid zheng by the prefect Gracclius 378 A> me St Jerome speaks of it as being still practised in his time. See Montfancon, L’Antiquité Expliquée (Paris, 1719); Hammer-Purgstall, Mithriaca ou les Mithri (1833); Wellbeloved, Kburacum ( York, 1842); Lajard, Recherches et les Mystéres de Mithra (atlas sur le Culte Publi of plates in 1847, letterpress not till 1867); Windisch- mann, Mithkra (1857). Mithridates (more properly MITHRADATES; Persian, ‘ren by Mithras’), the name of seve’ kings of Pontus, Armenia, and Parthia, all of whom have sunk into insignificance, with the ex- ception of Mithridates VI. of Pontus, surnamed Eupator, but more generally known as Mithridates the Great, He succeeded his father, probably about 120 B.c., while under thirteen years of and soon after subdued the tribes who bordered on the Euxine as far as the Chersonesus Taurica (Crimea), The jealous behaviour of the Romans, and the romptings of his own ambitious spirit, now incited fim to invade oF ef gens and Bithynia, but a wholesome fear of the power of the great republic induced him to restore his conquests. The First Mithridatic War was commenced by the king of Bithynia (88 B.c.), who, at the instigation of the Romans, invaded Pontus. The generals of Mithri- dates re ly defeated the Asiatic levies of the Romans, and he himself took possession of Bithynia, Cappadocia, Phrygia, and the Roman possessions in Asia Minor, He also sent three powerful armies to aid the Greeks. He was, however, driven from Per- gamus (85 B.C.) by Flavius Fimbria, and reduced to the necessity of making peace with Sulla, re- linquishing all his conquests in Asia, giving u 70 war-galleys to the Romans, and paying talents. The wanton aggressions of Murena, the Roman legate, gave rise to the Second Mithridatic War ( 1 B.c.), in which Mithridates was wholly successful, In 74 B.c. he invaded Bithynia, com- mencing the Third Mithridatic War. He obtained the services of Roman officers of the Marian party, and his arms were at first prosperous; but after- wards the Roman consul Lucullus compelled him to take refuge with Tigranes of Armenia (72 B.C.) Lucullus then conquered Pontus, defeated Tigranes Ny B.C.) at Tigranocerta, and both T es and ithridates at Artaxata (68 B.C.). ithridates, however, recovered possession of Pontus. After MITRAILLEUSE MNEMONICS 239 the war had lingered for some time, Pomee com- leted the work of Lucullus (66 B.c.), sleating ithridates on the Euphrates, and compelling him to flee to his territories on the Cinmerian Bosporus. Here his indomitable spirit prompted him to fon a new scheme of vengeance, which was, however, frustrated by the rebellion of his son, Pharnaces, who ae him in Panticapzeum. Deeming his cause hopeless, Mithridates put an end to his own life (63 8.c.). Mithridates was a specimen of the true eastern despot, possessing great ability and extraordi energy and perseverance. He had received a Greek education at Sinope, is said to have ken the twenty-two languages and dialects of his subject-peoples, and made a great collection of pictures, statues, and engraved gems. Mitrailleuse. See Macuine Guns Mitral Valve. See Hearr. Mitre (Lat. mitra, also infula), the head-dress - worn by bishops in solemn church services. The 2 name, as probably the ornament itself, is borrowed ; from the orien’ is, although, in its peas form, it is not in use in the Greek Church, or in any other of the churches of the various eastern rites. The western mitre is a tall, tongue-shaped cap, terminating in a twofold point, which is sup- ‘ to symbolise the ‘cloven tongues,’ in the form of which the Holy Ghost was imparted to the aponiiee, and is fur- nished with two flaps, which fall behind over the shoulders. Opinion is much divided as to the date at which the mitre first came into use. Eusebins, Gregory — of Nazianzus, _ Epiphanius, k of an ornamented head-dress, in the church; but the cleft mitre does not H seem to have heen known till the 12th century. 4 4 a The material used in the manufacture of the mitre is very various, often consisting of most costly stuffs, studded with gold and precious stones. The mitre of the pope is of quite a different form, and is called by the name Tiara (q.v.). Although the mitre properly belongs to bishops only, its use has been permitted by special privilege to certain abbots, to provosts of some distinguished cathedral chapters, and to a few other dignitaries. In the English Church, since the Reformation, the mitre was no longer a of the episcopal costume till 1885, when it was resumed by the Bishop of Lincoln ; but it:is placed over the shield of an archbishop or bishop, instead of a crest. The Bishops of Durham surround their mitre with a ducal coronet, in consequence of their having been till 1836 Counts Palatine of Durham. Mitscherlich, E1mHanrp, chemist, was born at Neuende, near Jever in Oldenburg, Germany, on 7th January 1794, and died at Schineberg near Berlin on 28th August 1863. At the university of Heidelberg (1811-13) he devoted himself to phil- especially to Persian. At this time of his life his ambition was to go to Persia, and for this end he visited Paris and to study medicine in een after 1814. ut whilst studying medicine, his deepest interest was arrested by the sciences of frology and mineralogy, chemistry and ork in the Berlin laboratory in 1819 him to discover the law of Isomorphism {< a¥e)s Berzelius invited the young chemist to Stoc boi (ten). from which city he returned (1822) to fill the of Chemistry at Berlin. One of his earliest discoveries after his appointment was that of the double crystalline form of sulphur, one of the first observed cases of Dimorphism (q.v.). His i dy agua regarding the production of artificial minerals, and his memoirs on benzene and the formation of ether, must also be noted. His princi- pal work is Lehrbuch der Chemie (2 vols. 1829-35 ; 4th ed. 1840-48 ; 5th begun in 1855, but not com- pleted). See Memoir by Rose (Berlin, 1864). Mittweida, a town of Saxony, 11 miles by rail . by E. of Chemnitz, has an engineers’ and a weavers’ school, and manufactures linen, woollen, and cotton goods. Pop. (1890) 11,298. Mitylene. See Leszos. Miv St GrorGe, F.R.S., born 1827, was educated for the bar, but devoted himself to the biological sciences. In 1874-84 he acted as rofessor of Zoology and Biology at the Roman atholic University College in Kensington, and in 1890 was appointed to the chair of Philosophy of Natural History at Louvain. He was an able and zealous opponent of the ‘ Natural Selection’ theory. Among his works are The Genesis of Species (1871), Manand Apes(1873), Contemporary Evolution(1874), Lessons Nature (1876), The Cat (1881), Nature and Thought (1883), The Origin of Human Reason (1889), Birds (1892), Types of Animal Life (1893), Introduction to the Elements of Science (1894). He died Ist April 1900. Mixed Marriages. See Marricg, p. 58. Mizen, the sternmost of the masts in a three- masted vessel. See SHIPBUILDING. Mnemonies (Gk. mnémon, ‘ mindful’), the art of assisting the memory. Even ordinary recollec- tion, according to Cicero, is not purely spontaneous or natural, but has some element of artificial sug- tion, something to prompt the mind. To recall in the future a fact or fi , We associate it now with something else which is more to our hand; and afterwards the mental reproduction or actual presentation of the latter will give a suggestion of the former, in accordance with the psychological ‘law of — The number 31415926536 seems to a schoolboy hard of recollection till he is shown its importance in connection with certain ratios—when measuring a circle, ellipse, sphere, or cone, &c,—and then taught the phrase But I must awhile end tor right the ratios. Each word in that mnemonic sentence supplies, by the number of its letters, a corresponding figure ob the ratio to be remembered. What association has the date 871 with King Alfred? None what- ever, directly; but if those digits immediately appear as ami by a scheme which the pupil has ready accepted or invented, then a clue or link- word is furnished to serve for a lifetime: a = 8, m=7, t=1. Of the surface of our globe 734 thousandths are water, and by the same mnemo- techny 734 becomes mer, so that the fact is per- manently registered for ready use. The earth’s diameter and circumference measure 7926 and 24,900 respectively, which numbers to that mnemo- technist read mnts and trn, suggesting the phrase ‘minutes turn’ and the association that time is measured by the earth's rotation. The list bijou, joujou, chou, genou, caillou, hibou, in French grammars, gives another familiar instance where recollection would to many be impossible without some artificial association. The following serves that purpose by stringing the words to- gether—‘ Finding a jewel in the garden, he made a toy of it, and jumping about he tripped against a cabbage and hurt his knee on a flint, whilst the owl overhead hooted derisively.’~ Some rhythmical mnemotechnic contrivances have been used for : one, for example, which, notwithstanding the enormous multiplication of printed calendars, still survives is—‘ Thirty days hath September,’ &c. 240 MNEMONICS MOA The Latin student is thankful for the mnemonic rhyme In March, July, October, May, The ides are on the fifteenth day, The nones I on the seventh lay ; The rest thirteenth and fifth alway; and for centuries no text-book on logic has omitted the five hexameter lines renin Celar- ent, &c.) which compress the doctrine of the syllogism into a marvellous minimum of space. In these, however, as well as in the case of those numberless Latin verses over which so much time was till recently spent in our grammar- schools, the only help afforded is from the associa- tion of the sounds of certain barbarous dactyls and spondees in the ear. The perfection of mnemotechny is when there is an association by sense or natural s tiveness. The thought of A will frequently bring Z to the mind sooner than B, because there is something not only not similar but grotesquely dissimilar in the ideas they awaken. Whoever practises the art of memory with success always selects unconsciously such associations as are best suited to the situation from his own point - reg and thus the art cannot be imparted in e The value of mnemotechny under certain aspects is incontestable, considering that many in every class of life are constantly applying some method of storing and then utilising their knowledge. The art is, however, to be distinguished from the general faculty—memory, which is the essential and dis- tinctive faculty of ‘mind.’ As such it depends not only on attention (as philosophers have ever taught), but on the healthy action of the nervous system and general physique, assisted perhaps in some individuals by a certain plastic and assimi- lative brain-power. Cicero = pee of the art of artificial memory, and probably applied the topical method (to be mentioned presently) in some of his elaborate speeches; but Quintilian implies (Jnst. xi. 2, 40) that to remember a subject properly we must master it in all its details, Practice and labour, he affirms, constitute the real mnemotechny : the best method of learning much by heart is i long, and if possible, daily study. The aim in sue a case, however, was widely different from that which is now generally sought by using artificial memory. The topical mnemonics (Gr. topos, ‘ place’) of the ancients is adapted for recalling in order the pk ments and illustrations of a public s h, or the succession of ideas in a poem or narrative. Besides the Roman writers, it is referred to by Plato and Aristotle, and was attributed to Simonides the Greek poet, who died 469 B.c. The speaker having selected, for example, a house with which he is so familiar as to remember well the position, not only of each room and passage, but of all the prominent objects in every room, associates as vividly as pos- sible the introduction of his discourse with the entrance-hall, and systematically assigns thought after thought to the chief points there visible. The first main division of his ope may then be iden- tified, as it were, with the dining-room; and every piece of furniture, every picture, &e., be judiciously utilised for recalling the succession of arguments with their illustrations and results, The second main division may then be associated in like manner with the drawing-room, and everything in it if need be; and thus for the rest of his discourse, till the successive rooms, statues, and windows, &c. are pressed into service, and all the series of his thoughts passed under review. The — is that to recall a series of ideas they can associated more easily with familiar (and, as it were, visible) objects or places than with each other, Another form of topical mnemotechny was based on imagining the four walls of each room, and its floor, to be each divided into nine places, and a distinct object—such as a particular ena picture, or —to be inseparably with each place. When these objects are thoroughly known so as to be promptly and fault- lessly recalled, then the mnemotechnist who has a succession of things to be remembered assigns them to a particular room and compels himself to detect some association, no matter how incongruous, be- tween each of them and one of the ‘ hieroglyphs’ which are to serve as memorial links. Many minor systems for learning dates and detached numbers have been on that of Gregor von Feinaigle, a German who lectured in London, 1811. His scheme was 1 S- 8) 4/28) Ce renee eae t¢ a m & ¥F 16 -3. 7984S Forth was founded in 547, and by Feinaigle’s scheme that date becomes irk, , inserting vowels we form the mnemonic words lark, lurk, large, lyric, Alaric, &e., any one of which the historical student may choose to suit his notions of King Ida the Flamebearer, so as to remember the date of his landing in Yorkshire. Another student, for the same date, might la race, la rage, &c., or Lat. lorica (* cuirass’ The following system (1730), that of Richard Grey, D.D. (1 1771), does not require, like Feinaigle’s, the insertion of arbitrary vowels, and is therefore not so elastic : 2 Se. Se Oe SE, Be 0 | ee Oe eee oa) “Ee, See Zz a e i o uu au oi ei ou Yy A recent mnemotechnist, Dr Pick, has improved Feinaigle’s method by introducing a principle not unlike that which we have noted in describing the topical systems, Given a list of detached words— e.g. ‘garden, hair, watchman, philosophy,’ &¢.— they can be recalled in order by inserting between each pair a connective word which links them or forms a bridge. Thus, garden, maidenhair fern ; hair, bonnet ; watchman, wake, study ; philosophy, &c. Other mnemoteclinists have Schenkel, 1547; Aimé Paris, 1833; Karl Otto, 1840; Gour- aud, 1845; and Loisette. ms fs — was reall a modification of that of Winckelmann, whic attracted the notice of Leibnitz and gave him the suggestion of a universal alphabet. Mnemo’'syné, in Greek Mythology, the dangh- of Uranus, and mother of the nine muses by Zeus, The principal seat of her worship was at Eleuthere, in Bootia. Moa(Dinornis, ‘ monstrous bird’), the name given by the Maoris to a genus of extinct ostrich-like birds that inhabited New Zealand and, to a Jess extent, Anstralia, It is supposed that none has been seen alive since about the middle of the 18th century, but the Maoris have many traditions relating to them, and moa-hunting was a ised sport. Their bones have been found in t numbers imbedded in the sands of the shore, and of lakes, swamps, and river-beds. A few remains of have also been found, and one nearly complete one containing a young bird ; the were about 10 inches long and 7 broad. Feathers and a part of the neck with muscles and skin attached have been discovered, There were several species of various size, the smallest about 2 feet, the | t about 14 feet in height. Their chief peculiarity was the entire absence of wings, not even the smallest rudiments having been found ; associated with this MOABITES MOBILE 241 was the great size and weight of the legs, the bones | Moab, mentioned in 2 Kings, iii., referring to his of which and of the toes were in one species almost | successful revolt against the king of Israel. The elephantine. There was an allied — Z ealled Palap- teryx which the rudiments of wings and a fourth toe, which was ab- sent in moa, They are most nearly repre- sented at pres- ent by the genus Ap- teryx, whose relative size may be seen in the figure. Moabi a agp e, who Pihabited the bleak and mountainous country east of the lower part of the Jordan and of the Dead divided into two portions by the deep bed of the Arnon. Their capitals were Ar-Moab and Kir-Moab, both south of the Arnon, but their kings often resided in their native nates as Mesha in Dibon. Their sovereign | ivinity was Chemosh, and patriotism was an ry essential part of their oo They were ethno- ly cognate with the Hebrews, and were com- to become tribu to David, but about B.c. shook off their allegiance to the Jewish kings, and afterwards took part with the Chaldeans pi against the Jews. Their name no longer exists, and the remnants of the people have long been included among the Arabs. The most striking feature about the country in modern times is the immense number of rude stone monuments with which it is covered. Major Conder found no fewer than a thousand of these of the usual varieties dolmens, menhirs, circles, and alignments) familiar the British Isles and Brittany, occurring in dis- tinct centres, usually with a cairn at the top of the nearest hill. He rejects the sepulture theory, and ‘ believes the dolmens to have been altars. The menhirs were anciently objects of worship, anointed with oil, or smeared with blood, and such a series of ali ge = Genes — = those = - may be sup; to be offerings of pil- grims to this shrine. For the po-natied Moniits pottery, which Shapira sueceeded in selling to the government for nearly £3000, see an account by M. Clermont-Ganneau, who detected the imposture, in Les Fraudes archéologigues en Palestine (1885); see also Conder’s Heth and Moab: E. tions in 1881-82 (1883). MOABITE STONE, a stone bearing an inscription of thirty-four lines in Hebrew-Phcenician letters, was discovered by the Rev. F. Klein in 1868 among the rains of Dhibén, the ancient Dibon. The stone was id of black basalt, rounded at the top and bottom, 2 | 5 feet broad, 3 feet 10 inches high, and 144 inches in ___ thiekness, but was unfortunately broken up by the _ Arabs, whose cupidity had been aroused by the ad indisereet eagerness to nire it shown by M. _ Clermont-Gannean. The nents were after- wards collected and laborionsly fitted into their rte places by means of imperfect squeezes made ; the stone was broken, and the monument now stands in the Louvre at Paris. The inseription was — to be a record of Mesha, king of ee ry = . _ 7 etme me ot i lmeeinae emls) ee VIDOWVII* 44 boy ly 2ak14792 S1AWAPS 7, PF EKY IAW! KZ IFAW AZ pitty 9 zy asyiyen &Y pry azy ow 43°79 TIF EY HAY PEAt INH OTE YB ICGt LAD EATVNSED RY 7 OFFADT AEBS AJ OK A Yi ate x¥AA YO WHA y Coe F OFA 2 Y14*99 189 ty x 724 AAS LIT AS -SYZY 4954445 £Y MIE Aad ve FY po 4 x44 Ig Crab paar Sog X naga awratwan tang prog A OY mE MAAR ARH APS YH ORY 0 x eS 4W Y.. REYW IS WISE rm y 6 x2ZA49q Kx Tw eee asdw¥liH24 99 “2 ZY 709M) 16 FAw 4.09 ayn sey lw yg yAla wey) FY AA Soma WH 4°949 AS Dx CHR 6 4.ysa DI MIP MOAT EIEIA IHX 4G AIG WL bad q lazn+t.naasAe~ Fr wy WEY ET IID FE SPAY JACLYN GT? ZH 7 IPH 9 A9- C0 x7 HL FYIAXC OV AXIISIF IA ZUM AISI FNC 0 HATELY A x wOX HT YOIXG.Z”IISY fy £4 KY AHATIAP A 9994. DE AIPA PE xx 4 9m 2x4 yy KYIAXAIIAGM FY FyAt* w OyytyAoqe x 74¥ PEICHA we GALS YIFIEAES BAYH YI HD AX DOY The Moabite Stone. (From Dr Ginsburg’s monograph.) characters of the inscription are Phcenician (see ALPHABET), and form a link between those of the Baal Lebanon inscription (10th century) and those of the Siloam text. See Dr Ginsburg’s Moabite Stone (2d ed. 1871); Héron de Villefosse’s monograph, Notice des Monuments provenants de la Palestine (1876), contains a biblio- aphy of books and papers written on this subject. adings are given by Clermont-Ganneau in the Revue Critique for 1875, by Profs. RK. Smend and A. Socin of Tiibingen in their monograph, Die Inschrift des Kinigs Mesa von Moab fiir Akademische Vorlesunyen (Freiburg, i. B., 1886), and Dr A. Neubauer in Records of the Past (new series, vol. ii. 1889). Moawiya. See Cauir, Vol. II. p. 648. Moberly, a city of Randolph county, Missouri, 148 miles by rail WNw. of St Lonis, is an im- portant railway junction, and the dep6t of a rich coal country. It has large railway-shops, rope- walks, and foundries. Pop. (1900) 8012, Mobile, the principal city and only seaport of Alabama, is situated on the west side of Mobile River, and at the head of Mobile Bay, which opens into the Gulf of Mexico, and is defended by Fort Morgan. It is 141 miles by rail ENE. of New Orleans, and is built with broad shaded streets on a sandy plain, rising gradually from the river. It has a fine custom-house and post-oflice (1859), a city hall and market-house (1857), a Roman Catholic cathedral and over thirty other churches, several asylums and hospitals, a medical college, a Jesuit college, and a convent and school. Mobile contains 242 MOBILIER MOCKING-BIRD a floating dry-dock and several shipyards, foundries, cotton and cottonseed-oil mills, a tannery, a manu- factory of chewing-gum, numerous cigar-factories, &e. Before the war the chief business was the export of cotton; but since then this trade has shrunk almost to one-third of its former propor- tions, while the export of timber has increased. Mobile was settled by the French in 1702, and was a Spanish town until 1813, and its population still shows traces of this Latin origin. In 1879 the city limits were curtailed somewhat. Pop. (1870) 32,034 ; (1890) 31,076 ; (1900) 38,469. Mobilier, Créprr. On the 18th November 1852 the French government sanctioned the statutes of a new bank under the name of the Société Générale de Crédit Mobilier. The name was intended as a contrast to the Sociétés de Crédit Foncier (see Crépir Foncrer), which are of the nature of land banks, and advance money on the security of real or immovable property ; while the Crédit Mobilier proposed to give similar aid to the owners of movable property. The declared object of this bank is especially to promote industrial enterprises of all kinds, such as the construction of railways, sinking of mines, &e. Various privil were conferred upon it under its charter; in especial, it was allowed to acquire shares in public com- panies, and to pay the calls made upon it in a, 1 of such shares, by its own obligations (or bonds) ; also to sell or give in security all shares thus acquired. The operations of the society were con- ducted =m a very extensive scale, In 1854 it subscribed largely to the government loan on account of the Russian war, to the Grand Central Railway Company, to the General Omnibus Com- pany of Paris, and to various other important undertakin The dividend for this year was 12 per cent. in 1855 it lent two sums to the govern- ment—the one of 250 and the other of 375 millions of francs. Its operations were vast during this year, and the dividends declared amounted to 40 per cent. The directors had not hitherto availed themselves of their privilege of issuing their own obligations, but this they now resolved on doing. They proposed to issue two kinds—the one at short dates, the other at long dates, and redeemable by instalments. The pro issue was to amount to 240 millions of frances, but the public became alarmed at the prospect of so vast an issue of bonds, so that, in March 1856, the French govern- ment deemed it necessary to prohibit the carrying out of the proposed scheme. This was a severe blow to the institution. In 1856 its dividends did not exceed 22 per cent. ; in 1857 they were only 5 per cent. Several attempts had been made to resuscitate its credit, but failed. On 12th Novem- ber 1871 it was reorganised, the assets of the first society being reported at 48 million francs. In 1878 the capital was reduced from 80 millions to 32, and in 1879 raised in to 40 millions. Another reduction of capital was made in 1884— "30 million franes.—On the model of the Crédit Mobilier, companies were organised in England, Holland, America, and elsewhere. The Crédit Mobilier, Limited, was established in London on 29th March 1864. It amalgamated on 30th September of the same year with the Crédit Foncier as the Crédit Foncier and Mobilier of England, Limited; and on the reorganisa- tion of that company in 1866 the words ‘and Mobilier’ were dropped. The Crédit Mobilier has undoubtedly been useful, but its operations have been hazardons, public advantages being gained at the expense of private losses. Mobilisation, a word for the act of making an army ready for taking the field. The process consists in bringing the various units to war strength by calling in reserve men, in organising the staff of bi es, divisions, and army corps, constituting the commissariat, medical, and trans- port services, and in accumulating provisions and munitions. As the work of mo illsing an army causes great and inevitable expense, it is only resorted to when hostilities appear imminent, Moceasin, the shoe of the North American Indian, made all of soft hide, and often ornamented. —The Moceasin Snake (Toxicophis piscivorus) of North America is a brown-coloured poisonous swamp snake ; the skin is marked with black bars. Mocha, a seaport, and once the capital of Yemen in Arabia, is situated on the Red Sea, 130 miles WNW. of Aden. From early in the 16th century until the middle of the 17th Mocha was the pote from which the coffee of Yemen was rincipally exported; hence called Mocha coffee. t is now a decayed place. Pop. 5000. Mocha Stones are pieces of agate or of chalcedony, containing dendritic infiltrations, ofter assuming appearances very like finely ramified con- fervie, kc. They were first brought to Europe from Mocha. Of the same nature with Mocha stones are Moss Agates. Mocking-bird, or MockinG-THRUSH (Mimus), a venus of birds of the family Turdide, order Pas- seres, having a more elongated form than the true thrushes, a longer tail, shorter wings, and the a= se =i wens = Mocking-bird (Mimus polyglottus). upper mandible more curved at the be Twenty species are known, ranging from Canada to Pata- nia, and from the West Indies to the Galaj slands, The best-known species, the mocking. bird of the United States (JM. polyglottus), is about the size of the song-thrush ; the upper of a dark brownish ash colour, the wings and tail nearly black, the under parts brownish white. The mocking-bird is common in almost all pe of America, from the south of New England to Brazil; north of the Delaware it is only a sum- mer visitant, but in more southern regions it is found at all seasons. It is one of the most common birds of the West Indies, and its exquisite son fills the groves with melody by night, for whic reason it is there very generally known as the nightingale. By day the mocking-bird is generally imitative, excelling all birds in its power of imita- tion, now taking up the song of one bird, and now of another, and often deceiving the most practised ear by its perfect: performance. By night its song is for the most part natural. It does not confine itself, however, to musical strains: it seems to take equal pleasure in repeating the harshest cries of the feathered tribes, and in domestication readily adds to its accomplishments the imitation of almost any sound which it is accustomed to hear, passing from one to another with great rapidity, so as tc re re ae meats) ns gt ee Te wen ety Me re ee ee MOCK ORANGE MCSIA 243 Ce pe an incomparable medley. The mocking- ird readily learns to whistle a tune, even of con- siderable length, but there is no well-authenticated instance of its imitating the human voice. The barking of a dog, the mewing of a cat, the crowing of a cock, the cackling of a hen, the creaking of a wheel-barrow are all within the compass of its powers. During its performances it spreads its wings, expands its tail, and throws itself about, as if full of enthusiasm and enjoyment. The mocking-bird is vocal at all seasons of the year. It enjoys almost everywhere the protection of man, and often makes its nest in a tree or bush close beside a house. The nest is rudely constructed of dried sticks, withered leaves an , and lined internally with fibrous roots. ne eggs are of a short ovoid form, and of a light-green colour spotted with amber. For the first brood from four to six are laid; for the second, four or five; and when there is a third brood, seldom more than three. The first brood is hatched about the middle of April. The male is extremely attentive to his mate, and manifests extraordinary con in driv- ing away enemies from the nest. Mocking-birds often assemble on such occasions, and birds of prey, far superior to them in size and strength, are compelled to retreat. Snakes are killed by reiterated blows on the head, and cats learn to consider the vicinity of a mocking-bird’s nest un- safe. The food of the mocking-bird consists chiefly of berries and insects. The mocking-bird is easily reared by the hand if removed early from the nest, but it is said that it never attains in captivity the same wealth of song as in its free state. Another pie of mocking-bird is found in the Rocky untains, and ies of the same genus are among the finest song-birds of the temperate parts of South America. Mock Orange, 4 name applied in England to the Syringa (4-v. ), and in the United States to the Prunus caroliniana, a small evergreen resembling the cherry-laure.. Mode, a name given to the ecclesiastical scales formulated ly St Ambrose and St Gregory (see HARMONY, PLAIN-SONG). For Major and Minor Modes, sec SCALE, DORIAN and LYDIAN, HARMONY. Modelling. See Clay, Porrery, ScuLPTURE. Mod’ena (anc. Mutina), capital of the former duchy of Modena, stands on a broad plain in Rinthece Italy, 23 miles by rail NW. of Bologna. FoR (1881) 31,053; of commune (1893), 64,900. It extensive ramparts, long since converted into promenades, and has fine streets, many of them areaded both sides. The ancient Via AZmilia divides it into the old and new city. The cathe- dral of St Geminianus, a Romanesque building, was begun, at the instance of the famous Countess ti in 1099, and has a fine facade; its cam- — is one of the great towers of Italy. The ucal (now royal) palace, a picturesque struc- ture of the 17th century, has an infinity of galleries, courts, and marble arches, and contains the Este library of 90,000 volumes and 3000 MSS., the Este archives, collections of coins, and the sant hg ictures, ineluding works by Guido, the racci, Guercino, Correggio, and other great Italian masters. Modena possesses besides a uni- versity (1678), with 35 teachers and 287 students, an emy of sciences and arts, an observa- io, a botanic garden, and military schools. The manufactured products are silk, leather, , and cast metals. There is a very lively trade in agricultural products. Originally an Etruscan town, Modena was conquered successively by the Gauls and the Romans, and destroyed by Constantine the Great, the Goths, and the Longobards. Charlemagne made it the capital of a line of counts, The family of Este (q.v.) became its masters in 1288 ; and in 1452 the reign- ing marquis was created duke by the Emperor Frederick HI. During the first half of the 19th century its dukes pursued a tyrannous reactive policy against liberalism, and were on more than one occasion expelled their dominions, finally and definitively in 1860. The duchy was then incor- — in the kingdom of Italy, and afterwards ivided into the provinces of Modena, Reggio, and Massa-Carrara. Area of province, 994 sq. m.; pop. (1881) 279,254 ; (1896) 290,446. Modieca, an inland town of Sicily, 45 miles SW. of Syracuse, with trade in fruit, oil, wine, and grain. Pop. 38,390. Modjeska, HELENA, Polish actress, was born in Cracow, Toh October 1844, and began to act ina travelling company in 1861. Four years later she made a great name at Cracow, and from 1868 to 1876 was the first actress of Warsaw. Then she settled, with her second husband, near Los Angeles, California, to try farming; but the enterprise not succeeding, she returned to the stage, and won a complete a" 7; as Adrienne Lecouvreur at San Francisco in 1877, although she acted in English, of which lenguage she had known nothing seven months before. She was acknowledged one of the best of modern emotional actresses, achieving triumphs, both in the United States and in Great Britain, in Juliet, Rosalind, Beatrice, and in the Dame aux Camélias ; but ere long she returned to farming and bee-keeping in California. Mod an Indian tribe of Northern Cali- fornia, which in 1872, after firing on the United States forces, retreated to the neighbouring lava- beds, and there defended themselves desperately till June 1873, killing or wounding 132 of the troops. Their chief, Captain Jack, and three others were hanged in October; about a hundred who had not followed him were permitted to remain in California, the rest (145) were transferred to Indian territory. Modulation, in Music. When in the course © of a melody the keynote is changed, and the original scale altered by the introduction of a new sharp or flat, such change is called modulation. Much of the pleasure of music is derived from a judicious use of modulation. The art of good modulation from one key to another consists in the proper choice of intermediate chords. Sudden transitions, without intermediate chords, should be employed but sparingly, and in peculiar cireum- stances. Moe, JORGEN (1815-82). See AsBJORNSEN. Mien, a Danish island in the Baltic Sea, at the south-east end of Zealand. It is 20 miles in length, and has 13,000 inhabitants. Meeris, Lake, the ancient Greek name of a sheet of water in Egypt, now in the province of Fayyim (q.v.), about 50 miles SW. of Cairo; extreme length from north-east to south-west, 35 miles. The waters are brackish. In the time of the Pharaohs the revenue derived from the fisheries was applied to the maintenance of the queen’s wardrobe and perfumes. Moero, or Merv, LAKE, lies SW. of Tanga- nyika in Central Africa, on 9° 8. lat. and 29° E. long., and is traversed by the Luapula (see ConGo). This lake was discovered by Livingstone in 1868. Its shores yield salt. Meesia, an ancient Roman province, divided 4 the river Cibrus (Zibritza) into two parts, the eastern corresponding to the present Bulgaria, and the western (Mcesia Superior) to Servia. Its original inhabitants were mostly of Thracian race. In 75 B.C, the Romans first came into 244 MC&SO-GOTHS ' MOHAMMED conflict with the Ganlish or Celtic invaders of the land, who had settled in Western Mesia two hundred years previously; but they did not con- uer Western or Upper Mesia until 29 B.c. and Kastern or Lower Mesia until 15 B.c. To protect these. provinces from the Dacians and Sarmatians Bayaud the river, a wall was built and fortified ts erected — the Danube. The Emperor Valens permitted the Visigoths to settle in Mesia in 875 A.D. From the 5th to the 7th century Western Meesia was colonised by the Slav races who still occupy it, and Eastern Meesia by the Bulgarians. Meeso-Goths, the name given to the Goths (q.v.) who in the 3d century and in the 5th settled in Lower Meesia. It was for them that Ulfilas (q.v.) translated the Scriptures. Moffat, a pleasant watering-piace and burgh of barony (1635) in a 3 il Annandale, Dumfriesshire, 51 miles SSW. of pra ee road, and 64 by a short branch (1883) of the Caledonian Railway. It lies 370 feet above sea-level, engirt by round grassy hills (the loftiest, Hartfell, 2651 feet), and in the midst of delightful scenery, chief features of which are ‘dark Loch Skene,’ the Grey Mare’s Tail, and the Devil's Beef-tub. Its mineral springs, the principal of which, like that of Harrogate, is saline and sulphurous, have been celebrated since 1653; and its visitors have included Home, Hume, Carlyle, ‘ Ossian Macpherson,’ Boswell, Blair, Burns, and William Black. Pop. (1841) 1413; (1881) 2161; (1891) 2291. See Turnbull’s History of Moffat. Moffat, Ropert, missionary, was born at Ormiston, East Lothian, 2lst December 1795. While following the occupation of a gardener at High Leigh, Cheshire, in 1815, he offered himself for the mission-field. His services were accepted by the London Missionary Society, and he sailed for South Africa in 1816. He arrived at Capetown in January 1817, and proceeded northwards beyond the boundaries of Cape Colony and began his labours (January 1818) in Great Namaqualand at the kraal of Afrikaner, a chief who from being a terror to the neighbouring districts of the colony had embraced Christianity, and now showed a desire for its pro- motion. On December 27, 1819, Moffat married cof Smith (1795-1870), daughter of his former employer at Dukinfield near Manchester, who proved a worthy helpmate. He made several journeys and laboured at various stations before he settled at Kuruman (1826-70) in Bechuanaland, north of the Orange River. There he wrought a marvellous work in reforming the habits of the natives, and Kuru- man became a centre of Christian light and civil- isation. Wherever he went he preached the gospel, and guided the — in the arts of civilised life. He learned the Sechwana lan , and printed in it the New Testament (1840), the Old Testament (1857), and several religious works, Moffat spent about five years in England (1838-43), where he had an enthusiastic reception, and published his Labours and Scenes in South Africa (1842), which gave a oa description of his missionary tours and remarkable adventures. In 1843 Moffat returned to his labours reinforced by other mission- aries, remaining till 1870, when he finally returned to England after fifty-four years spent in Africa, In 1873 he was presented with £5000 in recog- nition of his great services. He lectured on African missions in Westminster Abbey in 1875, and in 1881 was entertained at a banquet by the Lord Mayor of London. He died at the village of Leigh, Kent, 9th Angust 1883. It may be said that Moffat’s influence drew Livingstone to Africa ; it was to Kuruman Livingstone went first, and he married Mary Moffat. See Lives of Robert and Mary Moffat, by J. 8. Moffat (1885). Mofussil (from an Arabic word meaning € rate’), a term commonly used by Anglo- Indians for the rural part of a district as to the administrative headquarters. Thus in Bengal the Mofussil means ically the whole province beyond the city of Caleutta. Mogador, or Sveira, a seaport 130 miles WSW. of the city of Morocco. Pop. about 19,000, of whom 8000 are Jews and 200 Europeans. It stands on a rocky promontory Sppears a small island, the channel between which forms the somewhat indifferent harbour. It is the best built and most modern town in the empire, having been laid out in 1760 by Cornut, a French engineer. On its landward side the place is sur- rounded by agg sandhills, but the climate is salubrious, dry, and temperate. In the Kasbah or Castle, extended in 1865 by the ‘New Kasbah,’ live the governor and other Moorish officials. nearly all the Christians, the consular corps, and a number of prover Jews: here also are the government offices. The Medinah is ae a Moorish quarter, while the Mellah is allot to the sorely oppressed Hebrews. M or is the seat of a considerable trade with the interior, and next to Tangier is of all the Moroccan ports the one frequented by most shipping. Caravans reach it from Timbuktu, and it is the outlet not only for the cities of Morocco and Demnat, but for the whole of the Sas country. It ex- ports almonds, olive-oil, wool, goat-skins, hair, gum-arabic, beans, lemons (citrons), &e. - merce is mainly in the Jews’ hands, The chief ar plas are woollens, cottons, glass, candles, tin and copper sheets, and hardware generally. Its manufactures are brass trays, d rs, furniture of frar wood, woollen cloth, &c. 1e total imports are on an average worth about £197,000, and the exports £175,000 per annum, of which — three- fourths are sent from or taken to Great Britain. See Brown’s edition of Pellow’s Adventures (1890 ). Mogileff. See MontLerr. Moguer, a town and small port of Spain, on the Rio Tinto, near its mouth, and 8 miles E. of Huelva, with some trade. Pop. 8322. Mogul, also spelt Moghul and Mughal, is really but another form of Mongol. The term ‘great Mogul’ is the popular designation of the emperor of Delhi in India. The first Great Mogul was Baber (q.v.), @ descendant of Timur the Tartar or Tamerlane (q.v.); he founded the empire in 1526. The dynasty lost its power and territories to the English in 1765. The last emperor, having joined the rebels in 1857, died a prisoner in Ran- goon (1862). See Keene, Moghul Empire (1866). Mohaces, a market-town of Hungary, on_ the western arm of the Danube, 37 miles by rail ESE. of Fiinfkirchen. It is a station for steamboats on the Danube, and the seat of considerable trade in wine, coal, timber, and cultural produce, Pop. 14,403. Here, on 29th August 1526, Louis IL. of Hungary, with 25,000 Hungarians, met the Sultan Soliman at the head of 200, Turks. The battle resulted in the disastrous defeat of the Hungarians, who lost their king, seven bishops, many nobles and dignitaries, an "tekapes of 22,000 men. Ina second battle fought ere on August 12, 1687, the Turks in their turn were defeated by an Austro- Hungarian army under Charles of Lorraine. Mohair, the wool of the Angora Goat (q.v.). Few animals have so beautiful a covering as the fine, soft, silky, long, and always pure white wool of this goat. See WooL. Mohammed (Muhammad, and less correctly Mahomet ; Arab., * Praised *), the founder of Islam. He was born about the year 570 A.D., at Mecca, MOHAMMED 245 and was the son of Abdallah, of the family of the Hashim, and of Amina, of the family of Zuhra, both of the powerful tribe of the Koreish, but of a side-branch only, and therefore of little or no influence. His father, a poor merchant, died either before or shortly after Mohammed's birth, whom his mother is then supposed to have handed over to a Bedouin woman, to be brought up in the healthy air of the desert; but in consequence of the repeated fits of the child, which were ascribed to demons, the nurse sent him back in his third ear. When six years old he lost his mother also. is grandfather, Abd-Al-Muttalib, adopted the boy; and when, two years later, he too died, : Mohammed's uncle, Abu Talib, though poor him- , self, took him into his house, and remained his best friend and protector throughout his whole life. It seems that he at first — a scanty livelihood by tending the flocks of the Meccans. In his twenty- fifth year he entered the service of a rich widow, named Khadija, likewise descended from the Koreish, and accompanied her caravans—in an inferior capacity, per oe as a camel-driver—thus p tot visiting Syria. U at time his cireumstances were very poor. Suddenly his fortune changed. The wealthy, but fifteen years older, and twice widowed Khadija offered him her hand, which he accepted. She him a son, Al-Kasim—whence _ Mohammed adopted the name Abn|-Késim—and four daughters : Zainab, Rukaija, Umm Kulthdm, and Fatima; and afterwards a second son, whom he called Abd Manff, after an idol mg among his tribe. Both his sons died early. Moham- med continued his merchant’s trade at Mecca, but long added to the A black mole between terwards among the faith- ful ‘the seal of prophecy.’ In his walk he moved 10 ya body violently, ‘as if descending a moun- Abont Lees = re eebie cee had pense trated into the heart rabia, through Syria on the one hand, and Abyssinia on the other. Jodnines no less played a prominent in the peninsula, chiefl in its northern parts, which were dotted over with Jewish colonies, founded by emigrants after the destruction of Jerusalem ; and round about Yath- rib (Medina) remnants of the numerous ancient sects, dating from the first Christian centuries, such as Sabi and Mandeans, heightened the réligious ferment which, shortly before the time of Mo! med, had begun to move the minds of the tful. At that time there arose several men in the Hedjaz who preached the futility of the ancient creed; with its star-worship, its OS qr and festive ceremonies, its temples its fetiches. It had in reality long ceased to be a living faith; but the great mass of the perle clung to it as to a sacred inheritance. y unity of God—the ‘ancient religion of Abraham “—human ener and judgment _ t) come were the doctrines porniptes b these Hanifs (‘converts’), forerunners of Moham- med; and many, roused by their words, turned either to Judaisin or to Christianity. The principal scenes of these missionary labours were Medina, Taif, and Mecca; this last was then the centre of pilgrimage to most of the Arabian tribes, and there, from times immemorial, the KAaba, Mount Arafat, the Valley of Mina, &c. were held sacred he Koreish, Mohammed's tribe, having had the eare of these sanctuaries ever since the 5th century. It was under these circumstances that Mohammed felt moved to teach a new faith, which should dis- pense with idolatry on the one hand, as with narrow Judaism and corrupt Christianity on the other. He was forty years of age when he received the first ‘divine’ communication in the solitude of the mountain Hiré, near Mecca. Gabriel appeared to him, and in the name of God commanded him to preach the true religion. That he was no vulgar impostor is now generally recognised. What part his epilepsy, or rather hysteria, had in lis visions — eee not i to neteoneees — it is-that, after long an inful soli roodings, some- thing at times Saoead hin with such fearfully rapturous vehemence that, during his revelations, he is said to have roared like a camel, and to have streamed with perspiration ; his eyes turned red, and the foam soak on his li The voices ‘he heard were sometimes those of a bell, sometimes of a man, sometimes they came in his dreams, or they were laid in his heart. Waraka, one of his wife’s relatives, who had embraced Judaism, spoke to him of the Jewish doctrine, and told him the story of the patriarchs and Israel, not so much according to the Bible as to the Midrash; and the gorgeous hues of the legendary poetry of the latter seem to have made as deep an impression on Mohammed’s poetical mind as the doctrine of the unity of God and the morale of the Old Testa- ment, together with its civil and religious laws. Christianity exercised a minor influence upon him. All his knowledge of the New Testament was con, fined to a few apocryphal books, and with all his deep reverence for Jesus, whom he calls the greatest prophet next to himself, his notions of the Christian religion and its founder were excessively vague (see KorAn). His first revelation he communicated to no one, it would appear, except to Khadija, to his Pers hee his stepson Ali, his favourite slave Zaid, and his friend the prudent and honest Abu Bekr. His other relatives rejected his teachings with scorn. Abu Lahab, his uncle, called him a fool; and Abu Talib, his adoptive father, although he never ceased, for the honour of his family, to rae him, yet never professed any belief in ohammed’s words. In the fourth year of his mission, however, he had made forty proselytes, chiefly slaves and people from the lower ranks; and now first some verses were revealed to him, commanding him to come forward publicly as a ee and to defy the scorn of the unbelievers. e now inveighed against the primeval supersti- tion of the Meccans, and exhorted them to a pious and moral life, and to the belief in an all-mighty, all-wise, everlasting, indivisible, all-just, but merciful God, who had chosen him as he had chosen the prophets of the Bible before him, so to teach mankind that they should escape the Sheena of hell, and inherit everlasting life. ’s mercy was principally to be obtained by prayer, fasting, and almsgiving. The belief in the sacredness of the Kéaba and the ceremonies of the pilgrimage was too firmly rooted in his and the people’s minds not to be received into the new creed ; but certain barbarous habits of the Bedonins, such as the killing of their new-born daughters, were unsparingly condemned by Mohammed. The prohibition of certain kinds of food also belongs to this first period, when he as yet entirely stood under the influence of Judaism; the prohibition of gambling, usury, and wine coming after the Hegira. Whether he did or did not understand the art of writing and reading at the commence- ment of his career is not quite clear; certain it is that he pretended not to know it, and employed the services of amanuenses for his Koranic dicta, 246 MOHAMMED which at first consisted merely of brief, rhymed sentences in the manner of the ancient Arabic soothsayers. The Meccans did not object to his doings ; they considered him a common ‘ poet’ or ‘soothsayer,’ who, moreover, was not in his right senses, or was simply a liar. Gradually, however, as the number of his converts increased,they to more and more attention to his proceedings ; nik nally, fearing mostly for the sacredness of Mecca, which the new doctrine ae abolish, they rose in fierce opposition against the new prophet and his adherents, who dared ‘to call their ancient gods idols, and their aneestors fools.’ The Koreish now demanded that Abu Talib should silence or surrender his nephew. Abu Talib refused. Many of the converted slaves and freedmen had to under- terrible punishments; and others suffered so much at the hands of their own relatives that they were fain to revoke their creed. A hundred believers, on the prophet’s own advice, emigrated to Abyssinia. Mohammed himself, although pro- tected by the strong arm of Abu Talib, was yet at that time so low-spirited and fearful that, before an assembly of the Koreish, he raised three of the idols to mediatorial beings between God and man —a dictum, however, which he next day revoked as an inspiration of Satan, thereby increasing the hatred of his adversaries. All the Hashimi family were now excommunicated, and all except Abu Lahab retired to Abu Télib’s ravine in the moun- tains east of Mecca. After two years they were restored when on the brink of starvation. A great grief befell Mohammed at this time—his faithful wife Khadija died, and, shortly afterwards, his uncle Abu Talib; and, to add to his misery, the vicissitudes of his career had reduced him by this time to poverty. An emigration to Taif proved a failure ; it was with great difficulty that he esca) with his life. Shortly after his return from Tait he married Sauda, and he afterwards so increased the number of his wives that at his death he still left nine, of whom Ayeshah, the daughter of Abu Bekr, and Hafsa, the daughter of Omar, are best known. In the midst of his vain endeavours to find a hear- ing in his own city, he sueceeded, during a pilgrim- age, in converting several men from Medina, whose inhabitants had long been accustomed to hear from the numerous Jews there the words Revelation, Prophecy, God’s Word, Messiah. The seed sown in the minds of these men bore a fruitful harvest. While he waited for the next pilgrimage he had in vision his night journey to heaven, the relation of which caused even his staunchest adherents to smile at his hallucination. The next pilgrimage brought twelve, and the third more than seventy adherents to the new faith from Medina, and with these he entered into a close alliance. Mohammed now conceived the plan to seek refuge in the friendly city of Medina, and about June 622 A.p. he fled thither. About one hundred families of his faith- ful flock had preceded him some time before, accompanied by Abu Bekr, and reached, not with- out danger, the town, called thence Medinat An- nabi (‘City of the Prophet’), or Medina (‘City’), om way of eminence; and irom this flight dates the Mohammedan Era, the Hegira (q.v.). Now everything was changed to the advantage of the prophet and his religion; and if formerly the incidents of his life are shrouded in comparative obseurity, they are from this date known often to their most insignificant details. Formerly a despised ‘madman or impostor,’ he now assumed at once the position of highest judge, lawgiver, and ruler of the city and two most powerful Arabic tribes. His first care was directed towards the consolidation of the new worship, and the inner arrangements in the congregation of his flock ; his next chief endeavour was to proselytise the numer- ous Jews who inhabited the city, to whom he made many im t concessions in the outer ob- servances of Islam, but he was sorely disappointed in his hopes to convert them. They ridiculed his php to be the Messiah, and so enraged him vy their constant taunts that he soon abrogated his concessions and became their bitterest adversary up to the hour of his death. The most important act in the first year of the Hegira was his permission to go to war with the enemies of Islam in the name of —a kind of manifesto chiefly directed pees the Meccans. Not being able at first to fight his enemies in open field, he endeavoured to weaken their — by attacking the caravans of the Koreish on their way to Syria, Being successful enough to disturb their trade and to conclude alliances with the adjoining Bedouin tribes, he at last dared to break even the peace of the sacred month of Radjab, and with this the signal to open warfare was given. A battle, the first, between 314 Moslems and about 600 Meccans was fought at Badr, in the second year of the Hegira, Decem- ber 623; the former gained the victory and made many prisoners. A great number of adventurers now flocked to Mohammed, and he successfull continued his expeditions against the Koreish pm the Jewish tri chiefly the Beni Keinnka, of a suburb near Medina, whom he sent destitute into exile; and the Beni Kureidhah of another suburb, 700 of whom he beheaded after the victory, while the women and children were.sold. In January 625 the Meccans. defeated him at Ohod, where he was dangerously wounded. The siege of Medina by the Meccans in 627 was frustrated by Moham- — ge _ beth pb - 6 —— Be claimed a public pilgrimage to Mecca. ti the Meccans did not allow this to be cartialoun he arr] the still greater advantage that the concluded a term of peace with him at Hudaibiy for ten years. He was now allowed to send his missionaries all over Arabia, and even beyond the frontiers, without any hindrance; and in the follow- i ng year he had the satisfaction of celebrating the pi grimage with 2000 followers for three days un- istur at Mecca. Short) tg gos durin his expeditions against the Jews of Chaibar an Fadak, Mohammed very nearly lost his life: a Jewess, Zainab by name, a relative of whom had fallen in the fight inst him, placed a poisoned piece of roast meat before him, and although he merely tasted it he yet up to his death suffered from the effects of the poison. His missionaries at this time began to his doctrines abroad. He wrote letters demanding the conversion of Chosroes II., of Heraclius, of the king.of —s the Viceroy of Egypt, and the chiefs of seve Arabic provinces, me received the new gospel, but Chosroes IL, the king of Persia, and Amru the Ghassanide rejected his proposals with scorn, and the latter had the messenger executed in Moab. This was the cause of the first war between the Christians and the Moslems, in which the latter were beaten with great loss by Amru. Some Meccans having taken part in a war between a tribe in their alliance and another in Mohammed's alliance, he marched at the head of 10,000 men against Mecca before its inhabitants had had time to prepare for the siege. It surrendered, and Moham- med was publicly recognised as chief and prophet. With this the victory of the new religion was secured in Arabia. While employed in des all traces of idolatry in the captured city Mohamm heard of new armies which several warlike Arabic tribes had concentrated near Taif (630). There in he was victorious, and now his dominion and creed extended farther and farther every day. From all parts flocked the deputations to do h to him in the name of the various tribes, either as ee ee” oe ae ee MOHAMMED 247 the messenger of God or at least as the Prince of Arabia, the year 8 of the Hegira was therefore ealled the year of the Deputations. Once more he made most extensive Ss pene for a war against the Syrian subjects of Byzantium; but, not being able to bring together a sufficient army, he had to be satisfied with the homage of a few minor princes on his way to the frontiers. Towards the end of the tenth year of the Hegira he undertook his last solemn i to Mecca, and there on Mount Arafat fixed for all time the ceremonies of the ilgrimage (Hajj); and he again solemnly ex- Sorted his Laven to righteousness and piety, and chiefly recommended them to protect the weak, the poor, and the women, and to abstain from usury. : Returned from Mecca, he occupied himself again with the carrying out of his expedition against Syria, a necessary aid to religion and patriotism in keeping his people together, but fell dangerously ill very soon after his return. One night while suffering from an attack of fever he went to the cemetery of Medina and prayed and wept upon the tombs, ceyperes the dead, and wishing that he him- self might soon be delivered from the storms of this world. For a few more days he went about; at last, too weak further to visit his wives, he chose the house of Ayeshah, situated near the mosque, as his abode during his sickness. He continued to take part in the public prayers as long as he could, until at last, feeling that his hour had come, he once more preached to the people recommending Abu Bekr and Osima the son of Zaid as the generals whom he had chosen for the army. He then asked whether he had wronged any one, and read passages from the Koran preparing the minds of his hearers for his death and exhorting them to _ among themselves. A few days afterwards he asked for writing materials, probably in order to fix his suc- cessor as chief of the faithful; but Omar, the most influential of his followers and friends, fearing he might chose Ali while he himself inclined to Abu Bekr, would not allow him to be furnished with them. In his last wanderings he spoke only of angels and heaven. He died in the a of bs sg about noon of Monday the 12th (11th) the third month in the year 11 of the Hegira (8th June 632). His death caused an immense excitement and distress among the faithful; and Omar, who himself would not believe in it, tried to persuade the people that he was still alive. But Abu Bekr said to the assembled multitude: ‘Who- ever on has served Mohammed let him know that Mohammed is dead; but he who has served the God of Mohammed let him continue in service, for He is still alive and never dies.’ While his corpse was yet unburied the quarrels about his successor, whom he had not detinitely been able to appoint, commenced; but finally Abu Bekr received the — of the principal Moslems at Medina. Moham was then buried in the night between the 9th and 10th of June, after long discussions, in the house of Ayeshah, where he had died, and which afterwards became part of the eR | mosque, A man o} as prephet, preacher, and t also his —— character, his amiability, his faithfulness ards friends, his tenderness towards his family, and the frequent readiness to forgive an enemy must be taken into consideration, besides the extreme nee, simplicity of his domestic life; he lived when already in full power in a miserable hut, mended his own clothes, and freed all his slaves. And, to do him full justice, his melancholic temperament, his nervousness, which often bordered on frenzy and brought him to the brink of suicide, and his poetic temperament must not be forgotten. Altogether his mind contained the strangest mixture of right and wrong, of truth and error. Although his self- chosen mission was the abolition of superstition, he yet believed in jinns, omens, charms, and dreams— an additional reason inst the now gescrely abandoned notion that he was a vulgar designer, who by no means deceived himself about those revelations he pretended to have received. And though the religion of Islam may rightly or wrongly be considered the bane of eastern states and nations in our day, it should be remembered that it is not necessarily Islam that has caused the corruption, as indeed its ethics are for the most part of a high order; and in the second place, that Mohammed is not to be made responsible for all the errors of his successors. Take him all in all, the history of humanity has seen few more earnest, noble, and sincere ‘ prophets,’ men irresistibly impelled by an inner power to admonish and to teach, and to utter austere and sublime truths the full purport of which is often unknown to themselves. See the Lives in German by Weil (1843), Sprenger (1861-65), Néldeke (1863), Krehl (vol. i. 1884); in French by Delaporte (1874); .and Sir W. Muir, Life of Mahomet 4 vols. 1858-61; new ed. 1877), and Mahomet and Islam 1887); also Syed Ameer Ali, C.LE, The Life and Teach- ings of Mohammed (1890). 2 MoHAMMEDANISM, the religion founded by Mohammed, or, according to him, the only orthodox creed existing from the beginning of the world, and preached by all the prophets ever since Adam. It is also ed Islam, * Resignation,’ entire Sub- mission to the will and precepts of God. In its exclusively dogmatical or theoretical part it is Iman, ‘¥aith;’ in its practical, Din, ‘ Religion.’ The fundamental principles of the former are con- tained in the two articles of belief: ‘There is no God but God; and Mohammed is God's Apostle.’ The Mohammedan doctrine of God's nature and attributes coincides with the Christian, in so far as He is by both declared to be the Creator of all things in heaven and earth, who rules and pre- serves all things, without beginning, omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent, and full of merey. But, according to the Mohammedan belief, He has no offspring : ‘ He bo organ. not, nor is He begotten.’ Nor is Jesus called anything but a prophet and apostle, although His birth is said to have been due to a miraculous divine operation ; and as the Koran superseded the Gospel, so Mohammed super- seded Christ. The crucifixion is said to have been carried out upon another person, Christ having been taken up unto God before the decree was put into execution. Christ will come again upon the earth to establish everywhere the Moslem religion, and to be a sign of the coming of the day of judg- ment. Next to the belief in God, that in angels forms a prominent dogma. Created of fire, and endowed with a kind of uncorporeal body, of no sex, they stand between God and man, adorin. or waiting upon God, or interceding for and guarding man, The four chief angels are Gabriel, ‘The Holy Spirit’ or ‘Angel of Revelations;’ Michael, the special protector and guardian of the Jews; Raphael (Azraél, Azrafl), the ‘ Angel of Death ;’ and Uriel (Israfil), whose office it will be to sound the trumpet at the Resurrection. Islam borrowed its ideas of the unseen world from the Persians or from the Jews, who had borrowed them from the Persians (see ANGEL). To each human being are appointed two guardian angels, Besides angels, there are good and evil genii, the chief of the latter, who are 248 MOHAMMEDANISM generally called Ifrit, being Tblis (‘ oer, a once called Azazil, who, refusing to pay homage to Adam, was rejected by God. These jinn are of a r fabric than angels, and subject to death. hey are, in almost every respect, like the Shédim in the Talmud and Midrash. 264 MOMIEN a ee Ye he MONACHISM tendency of the action of such a force is to cause rotation about an‘axis perpendicular to the plane ing through the point and containing the force. lus, in the case of a pendulum, the effectiveness of the force in causing rotation is measured by the moment W/—where W is the weight of the pendulum, and / is the distance of the line of action of the foree W from the centre of rotation C, or (what comes to the same thing) the distance of the centre of mass G from the vertical line through C, The term moment enters into several other eae all of which relate either directly or in- irectly to rotation. Thus, there is the moment of momentum, or angular momentum, whose rate of change is the measure of the moment of the force eaters the change. To obtain it for any given ody rotating with angular speed w about an axis, we first imagine the body broken up into a great many small portions of masses ,77%,%,, &e, at distances 1,,r2,73, &c. from the axis, multiply the momentum (mrw) of each mass by its distance, and then take the sum of all these products. The angular speed w being the same in every expres- sion, the moment of momentum takes the sal w (myr*,+mz*,+ &e.), which it is usual to write in the symbolic form w2mr*. The quantity 2mr’, which is the sum of the products of each mass into the square of its distance from the axis, is called the Moment of Inertia about that axis. It is the factor in the moment of momentum, which depends upon the distribution of matter in the body. It enters into all questions of mechanics in which rotation is involved, from the spinning of a top or the action of an engine governor to the stability of aship. By an obvious extension, the word moment is also used in such combinations as moment of a velocity and moment of an acceleration. Such phrases correspond to nothing truly dynamic, unless we regard velocity as meaning the momen- tum of unit mass, and acceleration as the rate of change of that momentum. See DyNAMICS, FORCE, InertIA, Roratron, &e. MoMENTUM is our modern equivalent of Newton's uantity of motion (quantitas motus), which in Definition II. of the Principia is stated to be meas- ured by the product of the velocity and the mass. Its dynamic importance is sufliciently discussed under FORCE. Momien, a Chinese frontier-town in the ex- treme west of Yunnan, 135 miles NE. of Bhamo. See Anderson’s Mandalay to Momien (1876). Mommsen, THEOpOR, the most learned his- torian of Rome, was born the son of a pastor at Garding, in Sleswick, 30th November 1817. He studied at Kiel, next spent three years traversing France and Italy in the study of Roman inserip- tions under commission of the Berlin Academy, edited awhile the Schleswig-Holsteinische Zeitung, and in the autumn of 1848 was appointed to a chair of Jurisprudence at Leipzig, of which two years later he was deprived for the part he took in litics. In 1852 he was appointed to the chair of man Law at Zurich, in 1854 at Breslau, and in 1858 to that of Ancient History at Berlin. Here he was engaged for many years in editing the monu- mental Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, projec’ by the Berlin Academy, and commenced in 1863 ; and in 1873 he was elected perpetual secretary of the Academy. In 1882 he was tried for slanderin, Bismarck in an election speech, but was cl both in the lower court and in that of appeal. His fine library was burned in 1880, whereupon a number of English students presented him with a collection of books to make good at least part of his loss. Mommsen took a share in the work of editing the Monumenta Germania Historica, and has made his name illustrious by a series of works of vast range and profound erudition, His work rometeaiiie imische Geschichte, teonghh aaa to the battle of Thapsus (3 vols. 1854-56; 8th ed, 1889; Eng. trans. by W. P. Dickson, 4 vols, 1862- 7). These three volumes form books i.-v. of Mommsen’s plan; vol. v., forming book viii., was issned in 1885( Eng. trans. by Dickson, The Provinces of the Roman Empire from Casar to Diocletian, 2 vols, 1886). Freeman characterises Mommsen as ‘the greatest scholar of our times, well-nigh the greatest scholar of all times... law, mythology, customs, antiquities, coins, in- scriptions, every source of knowledge of every kind = - pani: of pee all.’ veg he rok admitting ily his wide and sure grasp of histori the reader finds Mommsen defective in political ond moral insight, and prone to fall down in worship before mere force and success. Other important works of Mommsen’s are Oskische Studien (1845); Die Unteritalischen Dia- lekte (1850); Corpus Inscriptionum piping 3 (1851); his monographs on Roman Coins (1850) ; the edict of Diocletian, De Pretiis Rerum Venalium (1851); Die Rechtsfrage zwischen Cisar und dem Senat (1857); Rdémische Forschungen (1864-79); Res Geste Divi A 4 (1865); Romi. Staats- recht (1871-76; ed. 1887); and his Digesta Justiniani Augusti (1866-70). Of his brothers, two have achieved distinction : Tycuo, born‘at Garding, 23d May 1819, studied at Kiel, traversed Italy and Greece, and held educational appointments at Eisenach, Oldenburg, and Frankfort-on-Main until his retirement in 1885 ; he died in 1900. He produced a great critical edition of Pindar in 1864 (an edition of the text in 1866), Scholia (1861), a translation (1846), and Parerga Pindarica (1877). AuGust, born at Oldesloe, 25th July 1821, studied at Kiel, and tanght in schools at Hamburg, Parchim, and Sleswick. Most of- his works be- long to the field of Greek and Roman chronology. Among them are Rémische Daten (1855), Beitra, zur Griechischen reper Ay 1856-59), Griechi: Jahreszeiten (1873), Delphika (1878), and Chrono- logie Untersuchungen tiber das Kalenderwesen der Griechen (1883). ' Mompox, or Mompos, a town of Bolivar in Colombia, on the M rdalena, 110 miles SE. of Ca ma. Founded in 1538, it contains a good secondary school and a distillery. Pop. 8000. Monachism, or Monasticism (Gr. monachos, ‘a monk,’ from monos, ‘alone’), may in general be described as a state of religious retirement, more or less complete, accompanied by contempla- tion, and by various devotional, ascetical, and nitential practices. It is, in truth, Asceticism .¥.), with the element of religious solitude super- added The institution of monachism has, under different forms, entered into several religious sys- tems, ancient and modern. That it was known among the Jews before the coming of our Lord appears from the example of the proakes Elijah and from that of the Essenes; and it is probable that religions seclusion formed part of the practice of the Nazarites, at least in the later periods of Jewish history. In the Brahmanical religion it has had a prominent place; and even to the present day the damaseries of Tibet may be said to rival in number and extent the former monasteries of Italy or Spain. The Christian advocates of monach- ism find in the exhortations to voluntary poverty (Matt. xix. 21) and to celibacy (1 Cor, vii. 37) at once the justification and the origin of the primitive institution. Its first form appears in the practice of asceticism, of which we find fre- quent mention in the early part of the 2d century, MONACHISM 265 The primitive ascetics, however, lived among the brethren, and it is only in the following century that the peculiar characteristic of monachism begins to appear. The earliest form of Christian monachism is also the most complete—that of the Anchorites or Hermits (q.v.)—and is commonly believed to have in part originated in the persecu- tions, from which Christians were forced to retire into deserts and solitary places. The hermits maintained from choice, after the cessation of the persecutions, the seclusion to which they had nes pear resorted as an expedient of security ; and a later development of same principle is found in the still more remarkable psychological lhenomenon of the celebrated ‘ Pillar-saints.’ (See TYLITES.) After a time, however, the neces- sities of religious life itself—as the attendance at public worship, the participation in the sacra- ments, the desire for mutual instruction and edifica- tion—led to modifications of the degree and of the nature of the solitude. First came the simplest form of common life, which songht to combine the seclusion of individuals with the common exercise of all the public duties ; an aggregation of separate cells into the same district, called b the name Laura, with a common church, in which all assembled for prayer and public — From the union of the common life with personal solitude is derived the name cenobite (Gr. koinos bios, com- mon life), by which this class of monks is distin- guished from the strict solitaries, as the hermits, and in which is involved, in addition to the obliga- tions of poverty and chastity which were vowed by the hermits, a third obligation of obedience to a superior, which, in conjunction with the two former, has ever since been held to constitute the essence of the religious or monastic life. The first origin of the strictly cnobitical or monastic life has been detailed under the name of St Antony -v.), Who may be regarded as its founder in the either by himself or by his disciples. So rapid was its os that his first segs e, Pacho- mius, lived to find himself the superior of 7000, In the single district of Nitria, the country of the Natron Lakes (q.v.) in the Egyptian delta, there were, according to Sozomen, no fewer than fifty monasteries, and before long the civil authorities judged it e ient to place restrictions on their excessive multiplication. It seems to be admitted that in the East, where asceticism has always been held in high estimation, the example of Christian monasticism a powerful influence in forwarding the of Christianity; although it is also certain that the admiration which it excited occa- sionally led to its natural ese among the members, by eliciting a spirit of pride and osten- tation, and by provo sometimes to fanatical excesses of austerity, sometimes to hypocritical simulations of rigour. The abuses which arose, even in the early stages of monachism, are deplored kd the very Fathers who are most eloquent in eir praises of the institution itself. These abuses og chietly in a class of monks ealled Sara- , Who lived in small communities of three or four, and sometimes Jed a wandering and irregular life. On the other hand, a most extraordinary picture is drawn by Theodoret of the rigour and mortification practi in some of the greater monasteries. The monks were commonly zealots in religion; and much of the bitterness of the controversies of the East was due to that unrestrained zeal; and it may be added that the opinions which led to these controversies origin- ated for the most part among the theologians of the eloisters. An order was called Acwmete (Gr., ‘sleepless’), from their maintaining the public services of the church day and night without in- terruption (see GREEK CHURCH). 4 It was in the ecenobitic rather than the eremitic form that monachism was first introduced into the West, at Rome and in Northern Italy by Atha- nasius, in Africa by St Augustine, and afterwards in Gaul by St Martin of Tours. Here also the institution spread rapidly under the same general forms in which it is found in the Eastern Church ; but considerable relaxations were gradually intro- duced, and it was not until the thorough reforma- tion and, as it may be called, religious revival effected by the celebrated St Benedict (q.v.), in the beginning of the 6th century, that western monachism assumed its peculiar and permanent form. In some of the more isolated cliurches, as, for instance that of Britain, it would seem that the reformations of St Benedict were not introduced until a late period ; and in that church, as well as in the church of Ireland, they were a subject of considerable controversy. One of the most import- ant modifications of monachism in the West regarded the nature of the occupation in which the monks were to be engaged during the times not directly devoted to prayer, meditation, or other spiritual exercises. Tn the East manual labour formed the chief, if not the sole external occupa- tion prescribed to the monks; it being held as a fundamental principle that for each individual the main business of life was the sanctification of his own soul. In the West, besides the labour of the hands, mental pea ea was also prescribed—not, it is true, for all, but for those for whom it was especially calculated. From‘ an early tee there- fore, the monasteries of the West, an rticularly those of Ireland or those founded by Irish monks eee COLUMBA, CULDEES), as Iona and Lindisfarne, me schools of learning, and training-houses for the clergy. At a later period most monasteries somentad a scriptorium, or writing-room, in which the monks were employed in the transcription of MSS. ; and, although a arse de rtion of the work so done was, as might naturally be expected, in the department of sacred learning, yet it cannot be doubted that it is to the scholars of the cloister we owe the preservation of most of the masterpieces of classic literature which have reached our age. In the remarkable religious movement which characterised the church of the 12th century (see FRANCISCANS) the principle of monachism under- went a further modilication. The spiritual egoism, so to speak, of the early monachism, which in some seuse limited the work of the cloister to the sancti- fication of the individual, gave place to the more comprehensive range of spiritual duty, that, in the institute of the various bodies of Friars (q.v.) which that age produced, made the spiritual and even the temporal necessities of one’s neighbour, ot with, if not more than, one’s own, the object of the work of the cloister. The progress of these various bodies, both in the 12th century and since that age, is detailed under their several titles. The monastic institutes of the West are almost all offshoots or modifications of the Benedictines (q.v.); of these the most remarkable are the Carthusians, Cistercians, Clugniacs, Premonstratensians, and, above all, Maurists. In more modern times other institutes have been founded for the service of the sick, for the education of the poor, and other similar works of mercy, whose members are also classed under the denomination of monks, The most im- See of these are described under their several 8. The enclosure within which a community of monks reside is called a Monastery (q.v.), and some- times convent. By thé strict law of the church, called the law of cloister or enclosure, it is forbidden to all except members of the order to enter a monas- tery ; and in almost all the orders this prohibition is rigidly enforced as regards the admission of 266 MONACHISM females to the monasteries of men. To such a iength is this carried in the Greek Chureh that in the celebrated enclosure of Mount Athos not only women, but all animals of the female sex are rigorously excluded. The first condition of admis- sion to a monastic order is the approval of the superior, after which the candidates remain for a short time as postulants. After this preliminary trial, they enter on what is called the novitiate, the length of which in different orders varies from one to three years; and at its close they are admitted to the profession, at which the solemn vows are taken. The age for profession has varied at differ- ent times and in different orders; the Council of Trent, however, has fixed sixteen as the minimum age. Originally all monks were laymen ; but after a time the superiors, and by degrees other more meritorious members, were admitted to holy orders. Amongst the mendicants, those in priest’s orders were called ‘father,’ the lay brothers ‘ brother’ only. In either case, where the order is one of those solemnly approved by the church, the engage- ment taken at the final profession is life-long and The iionastery, in its most strict accepta- | tion, is confined to the residences of monks, pro- | perly so called, or of nuns of the cognate orders (as the Benedictine), and as such it comprises two sreat classes, the Abbey and the Priory. The ormer name was given only to establishments of the highest rank, governed by an abbot, who was commonly assisted by a prior, sub-prior, and other minor functionaries (see AnBoT). A Priory sup- l a less extensive and less numerous com- munity. It was governed by a prior, and was originally, aichonsb by no means uniformly (at least in later times), subject to the jurisdiction an abbey. y ally among the Benedictine wens Inthe military orders the name of Commandery and Pre- ceptory corresponded with those of abbey and priory in the monastic orders. The establishments of the mendicant and, in general, of the modern orders are sometimes, though less properly, called monas- teries. Their more characteristic appellation is Fri or Convent, and they are commonly dis- tinguished into Professed Houses (called also Resi- dences), Novitiates, and Colleges or Scholastic Houses. The names of the superiors of such houses differ in the different orders. The common name is Rector, but in some orders the superior is ealled Guardian (as in the Franciscan), or Master, Major, Father Superior, &ce. The houses of females enabling him to suppress certain religious houses and appropriate their funds for other purposes. Henry's proceedings were, however, as unworthy as his motives. He appointed PR pe agents to visit and report upon the state of all the religious houses in the kingdom. These men_perfoi their work in indecent haste, and upon obviously insufficient evidence brought against the monks generally ch of gross immorality which were embodied in the so-called Black Book, now lost. The king at first acted with considerable craft. He appealed to the selfishness of the abbots who had seats in the House of Lords, and silenced their opposition by declaring that in the larger monasteries ‘religion was right well kept,’ and proposed the confiscation only of the osontiee honses (376 in number) with a revenne of less than £200 a year. This ensured the passing of the Act the 645 greater monasteries soon came. Certain abbots implicated in the rising of the ‘ Pilgrimage of Grace’ were convicted of treason and their houses seized. Then followed another general visitation, } and, by bribes, intimidation, and violence; the re- maining monastic communities were one by one induced in 1539 to ‘surrender’ their property to the king. The revenue accruing to the crown by the confiscation is estimated at over £130,000. ith this fund six new episcopal sees and certain collegi- ate churches and grammar-schools were founded, and a few castles built for the defence of the coast, But the greater part of the property fell through purchase or gift into the hands of the nobility and ntry ; and the policy which thus interested power- ul laymen in maintaining the new order of things effectually barred. the way to the restoration of monasticism in the reactionary reign of aor Fresh light has been thrown upon this whole su ject by Canon Dixon in his recent History of the Church of OY «nee and again more fully by Father Gasquet, O.8.B., in Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries (2 vols. 1889; 4th ed. 1890), In some of the German states the temporalities of the suppressed monasteries were retained at the Reformation, and were ponte at pleasure by the sovereign, to be enjoyed together with the titular dignity. Some of the German churches, however, in later times, have revived the institution, especi- ally for women (see DEACONESSES). In England there was the religious community of Little Gid- ding (1625-47), founded by Nicholas Ferrar (q.v.); aa in 1865 a sort of Anglican mission order, the Cowley Fathers, was established at Oxford; but —except in the Benedictine or Cistercian orders— are called indifferently Convent and Nunnery; their head is styled Superior or Reve Mother. 1@ ie ins ; @ very ime, ineluded women as well as men, The former were called in Greek by the name nonis or nonna, and in Latin nonna (from which the English Nun), as also sanctimonialis. The general char- acteristics of the monastic institute for females are substantially identical with those of the male orders. It was to be expected that the monastic founda- tions in me pr 8 would not long survive the national rejection of the papal power which was their main support. The monasteries had mostly outlived their days of usefulness, and very inadequatel fulfilled the objects of their institution. A general, though not universal decay of religious fervour, and the revelation from time to time of grave scandals within their walls disposed many prudent men to regard them with little favour, But the immediate cause of their downfall was their accumulated wealth with which Cromwell tempted the covetons- ness of Henry VIII. The dissolution of monasteries was indeed no new idea, for Cardinal Wolsey several here, too, Sisterhoods (q.v.) are far more numerous, In all these Protestant revivals of monachism, the engagement is revocable at the will of the in- dividual. At the French Revolution the monastie establishments of France were utterly suppressed and in most of the other Catholic countries o! Europe the example has been followed to a er or less extent. After the Restoration a revival of many of the orders took place in France. In 1835 Spain supp 900 monasteries, and the rest soon thereafter ; Portugal dissolved all its religious houses in 1834, In Belgium, Austria, and Switzer- land, monasteries are numerous—in Belgium there are 200 communities, in Austria (without Hungary) 450, in Switzerland 88. In Italy, Sardinia put an end to the monasteries in 1866, and the same meas- ure was extended to the whole kingdom after 1870, ‘the orders being expropriated, and their houses made national property; in all upwards of 2200 houses were suppressed, In 1875 Prussia dissolved all orders save those devoted to sick-nursing (at that date there were in all Germany 2588 monks and 16,846 nuns), but in 1887 readmitted all those orders engaged in pastoral duty, Christian eharity, or the years before had obtained bulls from the pope contemplative life. The French decree of 1880, of Suppression in February 1536. But the turn of - aS MONACO MONAGHAN 267 breaking up ‘unauthorised orders,’ dealt with 384 houses with 7444 monks, and 602 houses with 14,003 nuns, there were in all at that date some 25,000 monks and nuns in France. In England and Ireland and America, on the contrary, and largely as a consequence, monastic institutions have made rapid pro; of late years. Most of the orders introdu are active, not contemplative. In the United States some fifty orders are represented. The following list gives the name and date of founda- tion of the chief orders ; reference is made to the articles on them throughout this work, and to works cited there ; as also to other articles quoted above, to RomAN CaTHOLIC Cuurcu, Concrecation, &c.; and to Helyot, Histoire des Ordres Réligieux (8 vols. 1714-21; new ed. 1860); Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum (new ed. 1817-30); Tauner, Notitia Monastica (1744); Mdhler, Geschichte des Ménchthums (1336); Hill, English Monasticism (1867); Milman, History of Latin Christianity (1854); Montalembert, Monks of the West (Eng. trans. 1861-79); Harnack, Das Minachthum: seine Ideale und seine Geschichte (1832); and Handbook to the Convents and Religious Houses in the United Kingdom (1885). Hieronymites. .... Brethren of Comm Monks of Iona (q. Bernardins ....... Canons Oblate Nuns...... Clugniacs.......4.....22++ Minims .......... Austin Canons., Barnabites........ Carthusians Theatines........ Cisvercians... Capuchins. ....... Hospitallers .. Recollets......... RDUATE, on ded ncteNbe ov's¢ Feats... cececeses Premonstratensians ...... 1120 | Ursulines........ Trapp Oratorians........ Jacobins. Maurists.. Lazarists. Sisters of Charity. Passionists....... yc i Redemptorists ........... 1732 i Ladies of the Sacred Heart.1800 Olivetans .. Marist Fathers............ 1813 Brigittines...............- 1 Sisters of Mercy.......... 363 1827 Observantine Franciscans .1368 | Little Sisters of the Poor. .1840 Mon’‘aco, a small principality on the Mediter- ranean, 149 miles ENE. of Marseilles, and 9 from Nice. Area, 8 sq. m.; pop. (1873) 5741; (1890) “Sboa were in the town of Monaco, 13,304, of whom to the family of Grimaldi. Originally of Geno- ese extraction, they first held lands in France, between ie 3: and Toulon, where the name of the bay of Grimaud still commemorates their sway. hey acquired Monaco in 968, Men- tone and Roquebrune and Castillon about 1230, and Antibes in 1237. In Enuropean politics they sided with the Guelph party. Honoré II. put his country under a. French protectorate in 1644. In 1715 the heiress of the Grimaldi of Monaco married Matignon, Comte de Thorigny, and her descendants continued to reign over their small kingdom. It has, however, suffered at the hands of its great neighbours. In 1846 Mentone and Roquebrune were annexed by Sardinia, and after the war of 1859 the whole territory belonged for a short time to King Victor Emmanuel. The protests of its lawful owner were loud, but he was none the less ready for another arrangement, since in 1861 he sold Mentone and Roquebrune to Napoleon III. for 4,000,000 frances. His capital Monaco is now under French protection. Prince Albert (born in 1848, succeeded 1889), the present sovereign, has one son, Louis, by a marriage, dissolved in 1880, with Lady Mary Hamilton. About 1000 of the inhabitants are employed in the rooms and gardens of the celebrated Casino. These puatiiner built at Monte Carlo on ground eased (to 1913) from the Prince of Monaco, belon toa joint-stock company or Société Anonyme, which pays £50,000 a*year for the concession, and sets aside about £360,000 a year for working expenses. Some £200,000 is paid to the army of croupiers, volice, detectives, theatrical and operatic companies, arge sums go for the upkeep of the gardens and houses and management generally ; and the com- pany is held bound to defray the municipal expendi- ture as well. In 1895 the clear profit was said to be 13,000,000 franes: it is quite usual to pay 9 or 10 per cent. on the present value of the shares, and 30 or 40 per cent. on their original value. In 1895 1,160,000 francs were paid for ‘ publicity ’—i.e. as hush-money, to many newspapers (chiefly Parisian ) to suppress hostile criticisms, unpleasant facts, suicides, &c. The climate of Monaco is milder than that of any other place in the Riviera; palms and aloes grow most luxuriantly, 6218 in Condamine, and 3794 in Monte Carlo. The territory, which is encircled by the French depart- ment of Alpes Maritimes and the sea, consists mainly of the rocky promontory on which the capital is built, and a small strip of coast. For more than nine hundred years it has belonged and rare wild-flowers are found on its rocky promontory. See Métivier, Monaco et ses Princes (2d ed. 1865); Pemberton, Monaco Past and Present (1867); and Boyer de Sainte-Suzanne, La Principauté de Monaco (1884). Monad. See the articles LEIB- NITZ, INFUSORIA. Monaghan, an inland county of Ulster reland, situated between Tyrone and Meath; area, 319,741 acres (496 sq. m.), of which 140,000 are under tillage. Pop. (1841) 200,442; (1881) 102,748; (1891) 86,206 (of whom 73 per. cent. were Catholic). The principal towns are Monaghan, Carrickmacross, Clones, and Castle-Blayney. It returns two members to parlia- ment. Monaghan, granted by Henry II. to De Courcey, speedily fell back into the hands of the native chiefs of the sept MacMahon, by whom (with some alternations of re-conquest) it was held till the reign of Elizabeth, when it was erected into a shire. The county possesses two round towers, one, very complete, at Clones, the other at Inniskeen ; aaa thet are several raths and Danish forts. The name Monaghan is derived from 268 MONALDESCHI MONASTERY the Irish Muinechan, ‘ Monkstown,’ a monastery having stood here at a very early date. | MONAGHAN, the county town, is 76 miles NNW. of Dublin by rail. The town, which returned two members to the Irish parliament, is still the centre of some trade in agricultural produce, and can boast several public buildings of considerable pretensions, among which are the Catholic coll and church, the infirmary, and national model school. Pop. (1861) 3910; (1891) 2938. See Evelyn P. Shirley's History of the County of Monaghan (1877-80). Monaldeschi. See CHRISTINA. Monarchy (Gr. monarchia, from monos, ‘alone,’ and arché, ‘1 govern ;’ literally, the government of a single individual) is that form of government in a community by which one person exercises the sovereign authority ; see GOVERNMENT. For Monarchianism, see UNITARIANS. Monastery, a class of structures which arose in the middle ages to meet the requirements of the *proved by documents that these buildings were at first constructed somewhat after the plan of a villa or country- Records of abbeys as early show that the arrangements were similar then to those of the 12th century. The cloister, . eee eed Cistercian Abbey—Model Plan, which formed the inner court appropriated to the monks, resembles the peristyle of the Roman mansion. The latter was the part of the dwelling communicating with the private apartments of the family, just as the cloister communicated with the refectory, dormitory, and other apartments used by the monks and not entered by the public. here was also in the monasteries, as in the Roman villas, an outer courtyard, in which were situated the various stores, granaries, workshops, and other places required in connection with both these edifices. There was, however, one entirely new element in the monastery—viz. the church. This was the largest and most important building, and regu- lated the position of all the rest. The conventual buildings of every abbey in Britain, France, and Germany are so much destroyed that a complete - we plan cannot be obtained. The annexed plan is a model one made by Mr E, Sharpe, and con- tains the results of his careful investigation of the Cistercian monasteries throughout Europe (see Trans. Roy. Inst. of British Architects, 1871). In northern climates the cloister was usually situated on the south side of the church, for the sake of the sunshine and warmth, It was composed of an o} courtyard, square or oblong in shape, surrounded by an open arcade, or covered way. The church formed the north side, and on the east side was situated the chapter-house, with the monks’ dor- mitory over it. The latter was thus in immediate communication with the church, and conveniently laced for the monks’ attendance at the services uring the night. The chapter-house in the Cistercian monasteries was usually divided into three compartments by the pillars bearing the arches. The abbot’s seat was opposite the entrance door, and a stone seat all round accommodated the monks. The doorway was not closed, and to- gether with an open arch or window on each side of it allowed those in the cloister to hear the dis- cussions in the interior. The sacristy is placed on the north side of the chapter-house, with a door from the church. A similar cell or ‘parlour’ occupies the south side; then comes a passage or ‘slype’ leading from the cloister to the fa ens, &ec. Beyond this is the fratry or day-room of the monks, a long vaulted apartment run- ning southwards, hav- ing a row of columns in the centre and open windows, The south side of the cloisters generally gave access = the — tory, a large, rather ornamental chamber, usually with an open wooden roof. It was sometimes placed par- allel and sometimes at right angles to the cloister. Opposite the door to the refectory and in a vaulted recess stood a fountain or basin where the monks might wash. Adjoin- ing the refectory were the kitchen and offices. The former was fre- quently a detached building with a large number of _ hearths, each having a separate chimney in the roof, Along the west side of the cloister, and some- times extending much farther, lay the hospitium or guest-house, where all travellers were received, and the lay-room above, where they were lodged, A very important room in the monastery was the scriptorium or library, in which the MSS. were written and illuminated ; this was situated on the second floor of the chapter-house, The abbot’s lodge formed a separate edifice, as also did the infirmary. The whole establishment was sur- rounded by a wall, and provided with proper gates and defences. The outer gate gave access to the onter court, in which were situated the work- shops of the various tradesmen connected with the abbey, and the buildings required in connection with the agricultural employments of the lay brethren. Such were the arrangements of the Cistercian " ay BUFFINGTON-CROZIER CARRIAGE. 1. Loading Position. 2. Firing Position. Vol. VIL, page 269. MONASTIR abbey in the 12th and 13th centuries. In later times the simplicity of the plan was broken in upon. The monks, desirous of more comfortable quarters, divided the dormitory and made it into cells, The o windows were glazed, and even the arches of the cloisters were sometimes enclosed. The early simplicity of the architectural style was also from, and the monastic buildings of the 15th century are as rich in decoration as the cathedrals and parish churches, The arrangements of the monasteries of the other orders were, gener- ally speaking, similar to those of the Cistercian, except in the case of the Carthusians. In their convents, where absolute solitude and silence were required, each monk had a small house and garden to himself. These were arranged round the cloister, which, when the number of monks was large, were greatly extended in dimensions. See Viollet le Due, Dicti ire and Architecture Monastique; De Caumont, Abécédaire d’ Archéologie ; Monasticon ; and Mackenzie Walcot’s works on English and Scottish Churches. For Monasticism, see MONACHISM. Monastir, called also Brroxra, the second town in Turkish Macedonia, is situated in a broad mountain-valley, 90 miles NW. of Salonica. It manufactures carpets and silver filigree, and trades in corn and agricultural products. The Turks, re- cognising its strategic importance, have made it the uarters of an army corps. Under its ancient name of Pelagonia it gives title to a Greek arch- ae Here the Albanian beys were massacred inl Pop. 45,000. Monboddo, James Burnett, Lorn, Scottish lawyer and author, was born at Monboddo House, in Fordoun parish, Kincardineshire, in 1714, and was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh eal afterwards studyin law for three years at Gréningen, in Holland. In 1737 he was called to the ttish bar, and soon obtained considerable practice ; but the first ing that t him prominently into notice was his connection with the celebrated Douglas case, in which he acted as counsel for Mr pike In 1764 he became sheriff of Kin- card ire, and in 1767 was raised to the bench the title of Lord Monboddo. He died in burgh, 26th May 1799. Monboddo’s Origin and Progress of Language (6 vols. 1773-92) is a very learned, heretical, and eccentric production ; yet in the midst of its grotesque crotchets there occasionally flashes out a wonderfully acute obser- vation, that makes one regret the distorted and misapplied talent of the author. Its evolution theory and its assertion of a close relation between man and the orang-outang seems less laughable now than it did to Monboddo’s contemporaries ; and in his study of man as one of the animals, and of civilisation by the light of savagery, he certainly anticipated the modern science of anthropology. Monboddo published, also anonymously, another work, Ancient Metaphysics (6 vols. 1779-99). Monbuttu, a N stock in the basin of the Upper Nile the Upper Welle. See Arrica. Moncalieri, a town of Italy, on the Po, 5 miles §. of Turin, with a royal palace (1470). Pop. 3463. Moncontour, a village in the French depart- ment of Vienne, situated 48 miles SW. of Tours, was the scene of the defeat of the Huguenots under Coli by the troops of the king of France, 3d October 1500. . Moncrieff Pits (named after the inventor, Sir Alexander Moncrieff) are excavations in which heavy — Re cpeetal aaa batteries or other w t is speci n to protect from hostile artillery fire. The Moncrieff system of mounting utilises the force of recoil to MONEY 269 bring the gun down into the loading ition at the bottom of the pit. It is returned into the firing position (shown in the figure) either, as in the early patterns, by means of a heavy counter- weight in front of the breast of the gun-carriage, or, as in later designs, by hydro-pneumatic machinery. When the counterweight is used, the side brackets of the carriage on which the dis- appearing movement takes place are made on a ially designed curve, so that this movement may be and without any violent shock. The figure represents a diagrammatic section of this arrangement. A is the rotating side bracket revolving on teeth; BC are two inclined planes keeping the gun horizontal as it descends into the ition shown by dotted lines. The same result is obtained in the hydro-pneumatic system of mounting by means il presses, which also store up the force of the recoil and enable it to be to elevate the gun into the firing position. The invention belongs to the years 1868-72. Moncton, a town and port of entry of New Brunswick, on the Petitcodiac River, 89 miles by rail NE. of St John. It has important railway- shops, a large sugar-refinery, a cotton-factory, Ke, Pop. (1881) 5032 ; (1891) 8765. Mondovi, « cathedral city of Italy, 58 miles 8. of Turin by rail. Pop. 10,302. Here, on 22d April 1796, the Sardinians were totally defeated by Napoleon. Mone'ra, a class of Protozoa (q.v.) proposed by Haeckel to include the very lowest organisms supposed to be destitute of a nucleus. As this structure has been shown to exist in forms where it was formerly denied, the title is now being abandoned. See PRoTOzOA. Money. ‘The term money is used, both in matters of business and in economic theories, in such very different ways that it is impossible to cover them all with a simple definition. Standard coins, bars of bullion which can at once be con- verted into standard coins, token coins, convertible bank-notes, inconvertible notes, are all included under ‘money,’ although they present essential differences. In modern societies one of the most important forms of money is ‘ bank money,’ or the money of tlhe money-market, which for the most part consists of neither coin nor notes. The whole of the banking system of the United Kingdom, for example, as well explained in Bagehot’s Lom- bard Street, really rests upon the reserve kept by the Bank of England, and every bank receives deposits of ‘money,’ and makes advances of ‘money,’ with the use of a very small proportion of coins or bank-notes. A brief survey of the develop- ment of the complex monetary system of modern societies from its rudimentary forms will give the best explanation of this uncertainty in the mean- ing of this familiar word, and also bring out in the clearest way the principal functions of ‘ money.’ Exchanges first take place by means of barter, but the difficulties of simple barter are obviously very 270 MONEY great. A coincidence of mutual wants at the same time and place is the first condition of any ex- change, and it is plain that a common medinm - exchange will obviate one of the principal difticul- ties of direct barter. If there is some one thing which every one is willing to take, it follows that anything else can be bought or sold against this particular commodity. Accordingly the first func- tion of ‘money’ is to provide (1) a medium of exchange, and its first forms consist of things which ‘are generally desired in simple states of society. Skins, cattle, shells, corn, pieces of cloth, mats, salt, and many other commodities have at different times and places been used as ‘money,’ in the sense of a common medium of exchange. The commodity chosen, however, will be of little advantage unless it can be used both in large and small quantities. This consideration leads to another primary function of money—viz. (2) as a measure of value. Not only is it necessary that things can be exchanged against a common sub- stance, but the rates of exchange must be measured. Finally, as society advances, a basis for (3) deferred ts, and also a method of (4) storing ‘ values’ without deterioration, become of importance. In order that these four primary functions may be fulfilled, the substance chosen for money must have certain properties, of which the principal are portability or great value in small bulk, durability, sameness of quality, divisibility, stability of value, and cognisability. It was soon discovered that these qualities are possessed in the highest degree by gold and silver. Other metals have been used at different times even for standard money, but all of them fail in one or more of these particulars. Iron is liable to rust, lead is too soft, tin too brittle, and copper too heavy. It may be. observed that the importance of the qualities varies according to circumstances. Thus, when, as in modern societies, the greater part of wholesale transactions are effected without the intervention of material money, portability is of comparatively small im- portance, whilst on the other hand stability of valne is of the greatest importance in all kinds of deferred payments, It is not prem that all the primary functions of money should be fulfilled by the same thing. In Saxon times, for example, and for long after in England the standard measure of value was the pound-weight of silver, but the actual medium of exchange consisted of silver pennies. At present the actual medium of ex- change consists to a great extent of bits of paper— bank-notes, cheques, and various instruments of credit—whilst the standard measure of value is a piece of gold. So long as the attention is directed to material money, the principal questions that arise are in connection with coinage. At first, after the introduction of the precious metals, it was left to the parties concerned to test their weight and fineness with caveat emptor for the rule, and the present unsatisfactory state of the English gold coinage is mainly due to the survival in lew of the presumption that it is the duty of the receiver of money to see that it is of full value. But the essential object of coinage is that a responsible authority should affix its stamp to small ingots of metal, in such a way as to signify their weight and a. me and important as this duty appears, 1istory is full of examples of the debasement and deterioration of coins by governments with the view of making a petty gain. It is worth noting, however, that from the earliest times (with the exception of the reign of Henry VIII.) the English silver was kept of the same fineness. It is true tliat the weiglit of the coins became gradually less, but it was probably in most cases the recognition of an accomplished fact (through ordinary wear half-sovereigns free of charge; 20 and tear), and was not an attempt to defrand. The evils which arise from the natural or artificial debasement of coins have been well described by Macaulay in‘his account of the recoinage in — of William III. Since the aber pir geo of - age was simply to furnish a mar weight and fineness, all metallic money was at first — what it professed to be. Thus, the old silver pound was coined into 240 pennies; and this fact is preserved in the Troy table—20 penny- weights = 1 oz., 12 0z.=1 pound. In process of time the actual weight of the penny became less than a pennyweight, but the same numbers were still supposed to go to the pound. Finally, a certain amount of gold of a certain fineness was declared to be equal in value to a ‘ pound of silver,’ or rather to 240 nies. This is historically the answer to Sir Robert Peel's famous question, ‘What is a pound?’ The technical answer to the uestion is now given by the Coinage Act of 1870 (in substance the same as that of 1816). The act declares the precise weight of the sovereign in grains, and the proportion of alloy in standard gold, Nominally, any one can take standard gold to the mint and get it coined into sovereigns or pounds-weight Troy being coined into 934 sovereigns and one half- sovereign. Practically the time and trouble in- volved in going direct to the mint induced people to sell their gold in preference to the Bank of England, and at first (within certain narrow limits) the price varied. Now the bank is com- pelled to purchase all standard gold at £3, 17s. 9d. te oz., and, as it obtains from the mint £3, 17s. l., there is a small en by way of brokerage.’ Allowing for this small difference, it will be seen that the mint price of weapon £3, 17s. 104d,— simply refers to the number of standard coins made out of a certain amount of standard metal. It follows that this mint price is fixed and invariable so long as the Jaw remains uncha Thus, if gold became as plentiful as blackberries, or as scarce as diamonds, the mint price would remain unaffected. At the same time, however, the value of gold in the sense of its purchasing power over commodities would ecb according to the varia- tions in the quantity, though the precise nature and extent of the change would depend upon other elements. In some cases government makes a definite charge for coinage—that is to say, practi- cally the weight of the coins returned is so much less than the weight of the bullion brought. This charge is called seigniorage. So long as this ch is paid, however, there is no restriction on the quently of metal which may be converted into ull standard coin, It is necessary now to notice the distinction between standard money, in the proper usage of the term, and token money. The chief charac- teristics of the former are that, as just explained, it is coined to an unlimited extent, and further, that for any money contracts it is unlimited legal tender. In ‘token’ money these two charae- teristics are absent. The nature and uses of token money are also best explained oes In the middle beet was very scarce, and prices were extremely low. The silver penny was origin- ally about the size of the present threepenny- piece; consequently for the low range of prices then current it was inconveniently rip and valu- able. In a petition of the date of 1330 it was pointed out that ‘beer is one penny for three gallons,’ and that a penny is the smailest coin, and the petitioners pray that smaller coins may be struck to pay for their little purchases, and ‘for works of charity.’ The great practical difficulty, however, was to make very small coins of full standard value. So much was the need of small MONEY — MONGOLS 271 change felt, however, that by the time of Eliza- beth the poe had resorted largely to ‘tokens’ of lead, tin, and even leather. These ‘tokens’ were first private issues, and practically were like very small promissory-notes. It was soon found that they were forced into circulation by unfair means, and then the issuers refused to change them for goods or sterling money. The remedy adopted in 1613 was to give a monopoly of striking copper or brass farthings to certain persons for a cousideration. This privilege, however, was so much abused, that in many parts of the country, including London, there was hardly any gold or silver left—the whole circulation being brass far- 5 thin The patentees tried to force these farthings on the American colonies, but it is recorded of Massacliusetts—‘ March 4, 1634, at the General Court at New Town, brass farthings were for- bidden, and bullets were made to pass for far- things.’ These ‘royal’ tokens were no sooner sup , owing to the abuses which they had caused, than they were again replaced by private tokens, and it is said that over 20,000 different apes were in use Lier rey and oe “saan Diary speaks of the tokens issu eve tavern, tome through the nalghbombonds though seldom reaching farther than the next street or two.’ From this slight historical sketch the principles which should late the issues of ‘ token’ money stand out clearly. The smallest coins cannot be made of the precious metals of full valune—e.g. pred one would be less de-gpe eee the present threepenny-piece—and, accordingly, baser material must be Lense Here, Riverce, the danger arises of going to the other extreme and ing the coins too | But this is only a minor diffieulty com with the neces- sary condition that the token coins must bear a fixed relation to the standard coins in value. Thus we arrive at the fundamental principles of ‘token’ coins; they should be issned in limited quantities, be | tender to a limited extent, and their so- called intrinsie value should be less than the nominal value. Even those nations which use both gold and silver as standard money (see B1- METALLISM) are compelled to use token coins for small values, whilst nations which have a gold 8 must make all their silver coins ‘ tokens.’ With the hy oy of civilisation ‘representative’ money, as it happily been styled by Jevons, hecame of more and more importance. The Romans, for example, had a highly-developed banking system, which, however, was broken up on the disruption of the empire. In the early medieval period bills of exchange were used_ for foreign payments; and that they were considered as ‘representative money’ is shown by the fact that in England, up to the Tudor period, their value was regulated hy the Royal Exchanger, a high official connected with the mint. The develop- ment of banking in the modern sense was very slow. The earliest banks in Italy were finance companies which provided governments with loans, but the great banks of the north of Europe were expressly designed to rir good money to meet the pay- ment of bills of ne (see Adam Smith's account of the origin of the Bank of Amsterdam, Wealth of Nations, book iv.). The money in the great t ing centres was drawn from various eyo Dag was in ee debased and worn. The banks took this lad money from the mer- chants and gave them good bank money in return. The merchants, however, allowed the money to remain in the bank, and handed one another transfers. It was soon discovered that a small amount of actual coin was sufficient to meet all liabilities, and, accordingly, the remainder was lent. In this manner ‘ bank money’ has in process of time come to consist of a large mass of repre- sentative money supported on a metallic basis. See BANKING. Compare, on the difficulty of defining ‘money,’ Sidg- wick’s Principles of Political Economy, book of cat iv.; on the history of material money, Ruding’s Annals of the Coinage, Dana Horton’s Silver Pound, Kenyon’s Gold Coins of England, Hawkins’ Silver Coins of Eng- land; on tokens, Boyne’s Tokens in the Seventeenth Century; on the ‘money market,’ Bagehot’s Lombard Street ; on the Hosea principles, Jevons’ Money, Pro- fessor F, A. Walker’s Money, Professor Nicholson’s Money and Monetary Problems, Ridgeway’s Origin of Metallic Currency (1892). See also BULLION, CURRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEasuRES, CrowN, DoLLaR, GROAT, Guinea, NuMISMATICS, SHILLING, VALUE, &e, Money-lending. See Usury. Money-wort, a name given to various plants— Dioscorea, Lythracee, Thymus, &e. Monge, GAsPARD, a French mathematician and physicist, was born of humble parentage at Beaune, in the department of Cote d’Or, 10th May 1746. When only fifteen, he went to study natural philosophy at the Oratorian College of Lyons, and afterwards obtained admission into the famous artillery school at Méziéres, where he invented the method known as ‘ Descriptive Geometry.’ In 1780 he was chosen a member of the French Academy, and was called to the Paris Lyceum as professor of Hydrodynamics. During the heat of the Revolution he became minister of Marine, but soon took charge of the great manufactories for supplying republican France with arms and gun- powder. After he had founded the Ecole Polytech- nique, he was sent by the Directory to Italy. Here he formed a close friendship with Bonaparte, and, following him to Egypt. undertook the manage- ment of the newly-founded Egyptian Institute. On his return to- France, he resumed his functions as — in the Ecole Polytechnique, and, though iis reverence for Napoleon continued unabated, he hotly opposed his aristocratic and dynastic views. The title of Count of Pelusium was conferred on him by Napoleon. He died 28th July 1818. His artes works were Traité Llémentaire de ique (1788), Legons de Géométrie Descriptive (1795), and Application de lV’Analyse a la Géo- métrie (1795). Monghyr, a picturesque city of Bengal in India, on the right bank of the Ganges, 80 miles E. by 8. of Patna, consists of the fort, a rocky crag ee ing into the river, and the native quarters. From the 12th century onwards it was a place of consider- able strength ; in the 18th century Mir Kasim made it his headquarters. He established an arsenal, and its armourers are still famed. Pop. (1891) 57,077.—The district has an area of 3921 sq. m., with a pop. (1891) of 2,036,021. Mongols, an Asiatic people belonging to the Ural-Altaic branch of the human family, derive their name from a word mong, which means ‘brave,’ ‘bold.’ ‘Their origin and early history are lost in a dim antiquity. Chinese annals first speak of them as dwelling, 6th to 9th century, in what is now Mongolia north of the desert of Gobi, and in the regions south of Lake Baikal. The origin of the royal house is enshrouded in hot the maternal ancestor being by tradition a she-wolf; probably the house was descended from a ruling family of the Turks (Hiung-nu). The cradle of the Mongol ple seems to have been on the plains between the river Onon, the Orkhon, and the Kerulon, the latter a tributary of the Argun. It was in that region that Genghis Khan was born, and in that region that he fixed his permanent camp or capital, at a place called Karakorum. An ancestor of the great conqueror ruled in the middle of the 12th 272 MONGOLS MONITEUR century over a confederation of Mongol tribes op ul enough to be a serious menace to the in empire of North China; and at the same time he was able to carry on a bitter contest against the Tartars. That the confederation was loose—prob- ably the only tie was the compelling will of the energetic chieftain—is indicated by . Temujin’s (i.e. Genghis Khan’s) early struggies It was only by dint of hard fighting and tenacious persist- ency that he was able to maintain undiminished the power by his father, and his father’s father before him. But the conqueror’s genius was in him, and he died supreme monarch of all central Asia (see GENGHIS KHAN). By his will his con- quests and territories were divided amongst his sons; the third, Ogotai, sueceeded him as khakan or chief khan of all the Mongol people. Batu and Orda, the sons of the eldest son’ (Juchi), were invested with Khwarezm, the region watered by the rivers Ural, Oxus, and Jaxartes; Jagatai, the second son, received the territories between Bokhara, the Irtish, and the Gobi; the region between the Irtish and Lake Baikal was assigned to Ogotai; and to the youngest son, Tuli, was given the home country south of the Baikal. The first care of Ogotai was to complete, in conjunction with his brother Tuli, the conquest of North China. The capital of the Kins was taken in 1234, and, the last emperor of the dynasty having hanged himself, the Mongol ruler became emperor in his stead. North China having been thus subdued, Ogotai proceeded to conquer China south of the Yellow River, then eter by the Sung dynasty, and to reduce ‘orea. Meanwhile another army, commanded by Batu, attacked and subdued the principalities of what is now Russia—Bulgaria on the Volga, Riazan, Moscow, Vladimir, Kieff. The force then divided ; one division under Batu entered Hungary erushed the Hungarians at Mohi near Tokay, and captured Pesth and Gran (1241); the other division overwhelmed the Poles near Liegnitz, and pushed on into Moravia. During the same edocs yet another Mongol army was assailing Klwarezm, which the son of the former ruler had recovered. This army drove Jelal ud-Din out of his kingdom, overran Azerbijan, and in 1236 Armenia and Georgia, in all of which campaigns their path was marked by terrible cruelties and atrocities. Ogotai died in 1241. Kuyak, his son and snecessor, reigned seven years, and he was followed by his cousin Mangu, a son of Tuli. Both princes favoured Christianity. During Mangu’s reign his brother Hulagu won great hws as the punisher of the Assassins ere in Persia, and as the destroyer of the califate of Bagdad. Moreover, he subjugated Syria, and captured Alep and Damascus, and threatened Jerusalem. Invested with these countries, he founded the kingdom of the Ilkhans in Persia (q.v.). Mangu’s successor was his illustrions brother Kublai (q.v.) Khan, whose descendants ruled over China (q.v.) from 1294 to 1368. This eastern division of the Mongols was expelled from China, and its power finall crushed by the Chinese, in the end of the 14th century. The same people gradually absorbed in the following centuries the various small bodies of Mongols scattered over the centre of Asia, from the Great Wall to the Altai Mountains on the west and Tibet on the sonth-west. In the west of Asia and the east of Europe were formed the Kipchak (q.v.) states—in Russia, the Golden Horde, which subsequently broke up into the Tartar (q.v.) khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and the Crimea; in Turkestan, the Uzbeg (q.v.) principality, out of which grew the khanates-of Bokhara and Samar- cand. Towards the end of the l4th century Toktamish made himself chief of the eastern Kipchaks, and united thereto the chieftainship of the Golden Horde; but his power was crushed by the greater Tamerlane (q.v.). In 1519 Baber (q.v.), a descendant of Genghis’ son Jagatai, founded the Mogul empire in India, The Ka wueks (q.v.) also belong to the western branch of the Mongols. The total number of Mongols now under Chinese rule is estimated at two millions, They live for the most part in the immense plateau of central Asia called Mongolia (area, ['288,.000 sq. m.), which is yirdled on all sides by lofty mountain- chains (Altai, Thian-Shan, Chingan, &c.). Its southern portion consists of the vast desert of Gobi. These people are still nomads, as their historic ancestors before them always were. Their wealth consists in flocks of sheep, herds of horses (small, but very enduring), cattle, camels, and They are mostly Buddhists, though those in the west are in part followers of 5S ism, as all Mongols were before the days of the — con- queror. As a rule they are hospitable, tho indifferent to personal comfort, addicted to cattle- stealing and to drink, but when sober good-h and friendly; on the whole, life being easy and their wants few and simple, they display a lack of foresight, and are lazy and dirty. They dwell in tents, which are their only protection against the violent sandstorms of summer and the still more terrible snow-hurricanes of winter. They are fond of making religious pilgrimages to Urga (q.v.), the religions capital of the country, and_to various other shrines in China and Mongolia. Kalgan and Kiachta are the principal commercial centres. It is difficult to estimate the numbers of the western Mongols, as they have in many parts commingled with their Turkic neighbours ; ‘but see such articles as Kipchaks, Kirghiz, Russia, Siberia, Tartars, Turkestan, &c. The Buriats (q.v.), almost entirely subject to Russia, are a branch of the Mongol race. The term Mongolic is used by ethnologists to describe the group of cognate languages which con- stitute one division of the Turanian (q.v.) family of speech, What Mongol literature there is con- sists for the most part of translations of religious works from Tibetan and Chinese, historical works (notably the chronicles of Ssanang Setsen in the middle of the 17th century), of folk and fairy tales, and a few poetic productions. Perhaps the best known of the folk-tales are the collection entitled Siddhi~Kir (ed. Jiilg, 1868). Others have been ublished by him (186669), by Bergmann (1804-5), . J. Schmidt (1839), and Russian savants. See Turks and Astra, p. 463; Howorth, History 7 Beveg Mongols (1876-88) ; Gilmour, Among the Mongols (1 » More about Mongolia, More about the Mongols (1893 and his Diaries (ed. Lovett, 1892). Mongoose. See IcHNEUMON. Monica, See AUGUSTINE. Monier-Williams. See WILLIAMs. Monism, a eens! theory that all being may ultimatel, referred to one category, Thus idealism, pantheism, materialism are monisms, as op to the Dualisin (q.v.) of matter and spirit. See PHILOSOPHY. Moniteur, Le, a French journal, started by the publisher Panckoucke, 5th May 1789, under the title of the Gazette Nationale, ou le Moniteur Universel. During the Revolution its reports, &c. were of very great importance, and its value was immensely ine when, in 1800, it was made the official organ of the government. _ It re- tained the privilege (without the first title, Gazette Nationale, which was dropped in 1811) down to 1869, when it was supplanted by the Journal Offciel. Afterwards it was issued as an Orleanist or private Conservative paper. MONITOR MONKEY 278 Monitor, 2 name given to a genus of Lizards somewhat isolated from other lizards in structural characters; in some respects they approach the Crocodilia, which are the highest of existing reptiles. They are the largest of existing lizards ; a specimen acquired by the College of Surgeons in London measured 6 feet 10 inches. The tail of the greater number is omens compressed, the better to adapt them to aquatic habits. They have received the | name Monitor from a notion that they give warn- ing by a hissing sound of the approach of a croco- dile or alligator. There is only one genus, with many species.—The Monitor or Varan of the Nile Monitor (Varanus niloticus). (Varanus niloticus) is of a rather slender form, and has a long tail. It is olive-gray, mottled with black. It attains a length of five or six feet. : Crocodiles’ or young crocodiles form the chief rt of its food. Tt is a curious superstition in ndia, that the young of the monitor is more deadly than the most venomous serpent. Monitor. See Navy. Monitorial System, or Mutua. Instruc- tion. It first oceurred to Dr Andrew Bell (q.v.), when superintendent of the Orphan Hospital, Madras, in 1795, to make use of the more advanced hoys in the school to instruct the younger pupils. These youthful teachers were called Monitors. The method was eagerly adopted by Joseph Lan- easter, who in the first years of the 19th century did so much for the extension of popular education ; and, from him and the originator, the system was called “pang the Madras and the Lancastrian, as well as the Monitorial or Mutual System. See Epucation, Vol. IV. p. 210. The monitorial system is not, as is commonly supposed, a method of teaching; it is simply a method of organising schools, and of providing the necessary teachin power. At a time when the whole question primary education was in its infancy, the state refusing to promote it on the ground that it was dangerous to society, and the public little disposed to contribute towards its extension, it was of great - importance that a system should be adopted which recommended itself as at once effectual and econo- mical. But its value as an educational agency was universally overrated, and in the end broke down. Monk, See Monacuism. Monk, Grorcr, Duke of Albemarle, soldier of fortune and restorer of the English monarchy, was the second son of Sir Thomas Monk of Potheridge, near Torrington, North Devon, and vas born either there or at Lancross on 8th December 1608. He saw service first in the expe- ditions to Cadiz and Rochelle (1625-27), and then for nine Ee in Holland, returning to Eng- land in 1639, in time to take part in the two gt Aad with the Scots. In 1642-43 he com- manded a regiment against the Irish rebels, in 1644 was taken prisoner at Nantwich by Fairfax. He lay two years in the Tower, where he solaced himself with frail, ugly Nan Ratsford or Clarges his future duchess), and whence he freed himself y taking the Covenant—Clarendon hints that he did so for arog h As major-general in Ulster he so commended himself to Cromwell, still more by his brilliant conduct at Dunbar (1650), that next oe he was left to complete the subjection of tland. In 1653 he was associated with Blake and Deane in naval operations against the Dutch, and won two great sea-fights over Tromp (q.v.) ; in 1654 Cromwell sent him back to Scotland as governor, in which difficult office he acquitted him- self with vigour, moderation, and equity. Even the Highlands were reduced to order. His home for five years was Dalkeith, where he ‘was ever engaged in business or in planting, which he loved as an amusement and occupation.’ After Crom- well’s death, seeing everything in confusion, and a splendid chance open to him who dared seize it, on ew-year’s Day 1660 he crossed the Border with 6000 men, and five weeks later entered London un- opposed. So far he had kept his intentions pro- foundly secret. Still every one felt that the decision lay with ‘Old George ;’ every party courted him ; the Republicans even offered him the protectorate. But, while he offended nobody, he declined to con- nect himself with any of the sectaries, and waited patiently the course of events. From the first, his own wish, dictated by no hight motive, had been to bring back the Stuarts; and before long he saw that the nation at large was with him. The freeing of the Rump parliament from the army, the re- admission of the excluded members, and the elec- tion of a new a rae he were his wary steps towards the Restoration; on 23d May he welcomed Charles IT. on the beach at Dover. Monk now was made Duke of Albemarle, and entrusted with the highest offices in the state. But he soon retired from political affairs. In 1665, when thie plague ravaged London, and every one fled that could, as governor of the City he stuck bravely to his post, and did his best to allay the panie and confusion. Next year he was employed as second in command of the fleet sent under the Duke of York against the Dutch, and was defeated by De Ruyter in a sea-fight off Dunkirk, but soon after ined a bloody victory over him off the North oreland. He died, sitting in his chair, at New- hall, his Essex seat, on 3d January 1670, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. ‘A man,’ says Guizot, ‘capable of great things, though possessing no greatness of soul. See, besides works cited at CHARLES I., CROMWELL, and Cuarves II., the Lives of Monk by Gumble, his chap- lain (1671), Skinner (1723), Guizot (Eng. trans. 1851), and Corbett (1889), the last a eulogy. Monk, Marta (c. 1817-50), a woman of bad character who pretended in 1835 to have escaped from the Hotel Dieu nunnery at Montreal, and who, coming to New York, found a food many credulous adherents, and published Awful Dis- closures and Further Disclosures, which had an enormous sale. Monkey, This term may be conveniently re- stricted only to all the Primates exclusive of the Anthropoid Apes (q.v.). It has been sometimes applied to the tailed forms only, the rest being spoken of as Apes. This use of the words monkey and ape is ill-judged, inasmuch as it implies that the non-anthropoid Primates are divisible into tailed and tailless species. The real distinction is not to be found in this character. The quadru- mana as a whole are divisible into three great grou (1) Anthropoid Apes; (2) Platyrrhini, the New-World monkeys; (3) Catarrhini, the 274 MONKEY MONMOUTH Old-World monkeys. It is the two latter divisions that are dealt with in the present article. In the Platyrrhini the nostrils are far apart; the tail is prehensile, and the number of premolar teeth is in excess of that of the Catarrhini, the dental formula being (for the molars and premolars) p-m. §=$, m. §=3. In the marmosets dhe formula is p.m. §23, m. $73; this, coupled with some other peculiarities in their anatomy, led to the institution of a distinct Pap Aes re- garded as equivalent to either the Platyrrhini or Catarrhini. They are now, however, more usu- ally referred to the Platyrrhini, though placed in a separate family. a, Platyrrhine face (Mycetes villosus); b, Catarrhine face ( Macacus leoninus). In the Old-World monkeys, or Catarrhini, the nostrils are near together; the number of teeth 32, and these arranged as in the anthropoid apes and man; the molars and premolars being p.m. 3_3, m. §-§—the reverse of the condition seen in the Marmosets. The tail, when present, is never prehensile; and three are frequently ischial callosities developed, which structures are entirely unknown among the American monkeys. The two divisions of the monkey tribe based upon those characters are absolutely distinct in their geographical distribution. The Platyrrhini are only found in America, the Catarrhini are limited to the Old World ; further than this, the fossil species, which have not been found in strata earlier than of the Miocene period, show the same rigid correspondence between structure and distri- bution. No Platyrrhine has been met with in the Old World, end no Catarrhine in the New. Whether this indicates that the monkeys of the two hemispheres have had an independent origin or not, is a matter for further inquiry; it must indicate in any case the remoteness of the period during which there was a passable land connection between Asia and America. In both the Old and New Worlds monkeys are almost confined to the more tropical districts ; and yet this is not entirely due to an_ incapacity for yearing a rigorous climate, for monkeys oceur high up on the sides of mountains in India. Monkeys do not occur in the tropical parts of Australia. During the Miocene and Pliocene periods these animals inhabited Europe and even England, for the remains of a Macaque have been described from the county of Essex. At present the only trace left in Europe of these inhabitants is the Macacus inuus or Barbary Ape, which occurs on the Rock of Gibraltar as all as on the opposite coast of Africa, But this animal is perhaps not truly indigenous ; it may have been introduced. In the New World monkeys are most abundant in South America. The forests of the Amazon and the Orinoco may be regarded as their headquarters. There are only ten species which occur north of the Isthmus of Panama, and only one of these extends 5 range into Mexico; this is a Spider Monkey. The West Indian islands contain no indigenous monkeys. The American monkeys are all arboreal; and this of course limits their range to forest-cl districts. The prehensile tail has an obvious relation to their mode of life. But it is a most singular fact that the long-tailed monkeys of the Old World, which might often gain considerable advantage from being able to use their tail as a grasping organ, are totally unable to do so, Some of the more remarkable kinds of monkeys are noticed in separate articles (BABOON, BARBARY APE, ENTELLUS, HOWLER, MARMOsET, Xc.). Monk-fish, another name for the Angel-fish (q.v.), Was also applied in the 16th century to a large specimen of the Loligo or Squid family. Monk’s-hood,. See Aconire. Menk’s Rhubarb. See Dock. Monmouth, the county town of Monmouth- shire, stands, girt by wooded hills, at the influx of the Monnow to the Wye, 16 miles N. of Chepstow, 18 S. of Hereford, and 26 WSW. of Gloucester. Its chief features are the ruined castle of John of Gaunt, in which Henry V. was born; the parish church, dating from the 14th century, and restored in 1882 by Street at a cost of £7000, with a cae spire 200 feet high; the bridge over the onnow (1272), with its ‘ Welsh gate,’ and near it, a small Norman chapel ; a fragment of a Bene- dictine priory, with ‘Geoffrey of Monmouth’s study ;’ the new town-hall, built in 1888 at a cost of £10,000; and a grammar-school (1614). In the neighbourhood are the temple-crowned Kymin (800 feet), commanding a glorious view ; the Buckstone, a rocking-stone, displaced by tourists in 1885, but since re-poised ; and, 7 miles SW., the superb ruins of Raglan Castle, defended for ten weeks in 1646 rainst Fairfax by the old Marquis of Worcester. irst chartered by Edward VI., Monmouth unites with Newport and Usk to return a member. Pop. (1851) 5710; (1881) 6112; (1891) 5470. See Charters of Monmouth (1826), and works by Heath (1804) and Greene (1870). Monmouth, capital of Warren county, Illinois, is 179 miles by rail WSW. of Chicago. It is the seat of Monmouth College (United byterian, 1856), with about 400 students, and manufactures agricultural implements, sewer pipes, and cigars. Pop. (1900) 7460. Monmouth, James, Duke or, was born at Rotterdam, 9th April 1649, the son of ‘browne, beautiful, bolde, but insipid’ Lucy Walters (1630- 83), by Charles II., she said, but more likely by Colonel Robert Sidney, to whom and to whose brother Algernon she had lately been mistress. When in 1656 she came with her son to London, she was treated as the king's wife, and by Crom- well was sent to the Tower, and then back to Paris. Charles sought out the boy and committed him to the care of Lord Crofts, who gave him his own name. In 1662, after the Restoration, ‘Mr James Crofts’ came to England with the queen-dowager, and was handsomely lodged at Hampton Court and Whitehall. In 1663 he was created Duke of Mon- mouth, and wedded to a rich heiress, Anne, Coun- tess of Buccleuch (1651-1732) ; in 1670 he succeeded Monk as captain-general of the forces, and in 1673 received the additional title of Duke of Bucclench. A poor, weak libertine, he yet became the idol of the populace, thanks to his beauty and his affa- bility, to his humanity towards the Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge (1679), to the agitation of the Popish Plot and the Exclusion Bill, and to his two semi-royal progresses in the west and the north of England (1680-82). There were rumours of his legitimacy, the proofs in a certain ‘black box ;’ and Shaftesbury knew well how to pit the ‘ Protes- ee ea eee x i j ; ~ Monmout! MONMOUTHSHIRE MONOCOTYLEDONS 275 tant Duke’ against the Popish heir-presumptive to the throne, how to caine hich in the Rye-house Plot (1683), on whose discovery Monmouth fled, as four years before, to the Low Countries. There he remained until Charles’s death, when, in concert with ll’s Scotch expedition, with eighty-two followers he invaded England. On 11th June 1685 he landed at Lyme-Regis, and issued a manifesto branding James as a murderer and popish usurper, and asserting his own legitimacy and right to the crown. He was received with acclamations at Taunton, where he was himself proclaimed King James II. ; and on the early morning of 6th June, after a roundabout march to near Bristol and Bath, he attempted with 2600 foot and 600 horse ( peasants mostly and miners), to surprise the king’s forces, 2700 strong, which under the Earl of Feversham were encamped on Sedgemoor, near Bridgwater. His men conld not cross a broad drain, and were wed down by the royal artillery, 300 falling on field, 1000 more in the pursuit. Monmouth himself had fled, but on the 8th was taken, dis- pees as a shepherd, in a ditch near Ringwood, is pecan Leng bLip roy was dastardly. He wept; he crawled to his feet; he even offered to turn Catholic. No: on 15th July he was bunglingly beheaded upon Tower Hill, and buried in the chapel of St Peter-ad-Vineula. His duchess had borne him six children; but his last thoughts were all with his mistress, Lady Henrietta Wentworth, who died of sorrow nine months after him. In the * Bloody Assize’ that followed the rebellion, ge Jeffreys hanged 331 rebels, transported 849 to the plantations, and whipped or fined 33 others. See G. Roberts, Life of Monmouth (2 vols. 1844), with works cited at CHARLES II. and James II. Monmouthshire, » county in the west of England, bounded NE. by Hereford, E. by Glou- cester, 5. the estuary of the Severn, and W. and NW. by South Wales. With a maximum length and breadth of 32 and 28 miles, it contains Ai i ay 370,350 acres, of which oar — one- under nt ture, and about one- twelfth in woods. Pop. (18013 45,582; (1841) 134,368; (1891) 252,260. Its surface is for the most part hilly, ially in the north and north- west (the Sugar f is 1954 feet high), but the Caldicot and Wentloog Levels, which for a distance of 25 miles skirt the southern coast, are so low as to require in places the protection of sea-walls and earthworks. The Wye, with its tributary the Monnow, the Usk, Ebwy, and Rumney, all flowing south into the estuary of the Severn, are the rincipal rivers. In the rich valleys of the three hee wheat is the principal crop raised, whilst on the poorer soils on the west side of the county oats and barley are chiefly grown. There are also ex- tensive orchards, The great wealth, however, of Monmouthshire is derived from its minerals, coal and ironstone abounding in the region of Pontypool and Rhymney. In 1889 coal weighing 6,751,308 tons and in 1894 the amount of 8,213,156 tons were raised; some 400,000 tons of pig-iron are annually made, and much limestone and other building stone, as also fireclay, produced. The county com- Saeed six hundreds, the municipal boroughs of onmouth and Newport, and 147 civil parishes, Three members are returned to parliament for the sooner aud one for the combined borough of , Newport, and Usk; the County numbers 64. Towns other than the above are xy ee arog, 4 Blaenavon, Caerleon, C Ww, and Tredegar. Monmouthshire, which until 1535 formed part of Wales, is noted for its beautiful scenery and for the many remains of feudal castles, &e. seattered throughout it. Of these the finest examples are the castles of ae Caldicot, and tow, and the abbeys of Llanthony and Tintern. See the county histories by Williams (1796) and Coxe (1801). Monochlamydez. See CALYx, FLowER. Monocho an apparatus constructed to exhibit the mathematical proportions of musical intervals. It consists of a flat board of 4 or 8 feet long, or better 16 feet, where space can be spared. The breadth of the board is according to the number of the strings, which are from two to six. The hoard is covered with fine white pore A straight line is drawn from end to end ow each ear and each line is accurately divided into the different proportions into which the full length of the string, as a fundamental sound, harmonically divides itself (see HARMONICS). The string is fixed at one end, and rests on a bridge; while at the other end, where it also rests on a bridge, it is stretched by a tuning-peg, or by a weight. The sounds from the strings are produced by a violin-bow. The monochord is chiefly used in illustrating acoustical experiments in the proportion of intervals and temperament. Monoclina! Strata. See the article GEoLocy (Vol. V. p. 152), MOUNTAINS. Monocotyle'dons, The higher phanerogams are distinguished from the Gymnosperms by their closed ovary as Angiosperms, and there fall into two main alliances, recogni by Ray and other red rs of Linneus as monocotyledons and dicoty ledons. The former are readily distinguished, as the name implies, by the single cotyledon of the embryonic plant, but also by a number of other important structural characters. Thus, the primary root (ian it may develop strongly in ger- mination, as in palms, lilies, maize, &c.) soon ceases to grow, and is replaced by lateral (adventitious) roots, The axis of the embryo also often dies away after producing lateral shoots, which may die in turn, and so on (e.g. sympodial rhizome of Solomon’s Seal, tubers of orchids, &c.), but fre- uently also lengthens into the primary stem of ull-grown plant (e.g. palms, aloe, maize, &c.); while young it grows (as in ferns) in the form of an inve’ cone, each successive section being longer than the preceding until the adult size is reached, when the stem becomes cylindrical, taper- ing off only at the extreme point. There is thus usually no secondary growth in thickness (see, however, DRACHNA). The leaves are seldom whorled, and the ea ge in two alternating rows is commonest. e leaf-bores are usually sheathing, and stipules are absent. The lamina is usually entire, the venation not ridged on the under side, and usually parallel. The fibro-vascular bundles of the stem do not anastomose nor form a ring, but are distributed throughout the whole stem, which thus does not exhibit the pith nor separable bark so familiar in many dicotyledons. The flower consists of alternating and isomerous whorls, outer and inner perianth, outer and inner stamens, and usually only one carpellary whorl ; but from this type many characteristic specialisa- tions arise, The endosperm is usually large and persistent, but some orders are exalbuminons. The systematic study of the monocotyledons is most easily undertaken by clearly familiarising one’s self with the Liliacew and their immediate allies, Amaryllidaces, Iridacesw, &c.; and next by studying the progress of the floral specialisation, through Scitaminee to its extreme in Orchidacer. Starting ayain from the lilies and their scarcely distinguishable allies, the rushes (Juncacex), we easily distinguish one series of degenerative (or more accurately vegetative) types, culminating in the sedges (Cyperacee) and grasses, commonly grouped as Glumiflore. Another somewhat analo- gous line of change gives us the palms and Aroidew, 276 MONOD MONOPOLY ya at Spadiciflore, The Helobiwe (including uncaginer, Alismacerw, Hydrocharidacew) are also of special interest, as representing in some respects more primeval forms, and pointing back to a common ancestry with dicotyledons. See VEGETABLE KINGDoM, and minor special articles ; also Goebel’s, Van Tieghem’s, or other text-books of botany. For systematic details, see Engler’s Pflanzenfamilien or the Genera Plantarum. Monod, Abo-PHE, an active theologian of the Reformed Church, was born in 1802 at Copenhagen, the son of a preacher, himself a native of Geneva. He studied at Geneva, and laboured as a preacher at Naples and Lyons, as a professor at Montauban, and againas a preacher in Paris until his death, 6th April 1856. He published sermons and many religious works which were widely popaler ee brother, FREDERIC, born 17th May 1794 at Monnaz, in the canton of Vaud, was thirty years a prominent astor in Paris, and founded in 1849, together with unt Gasparin, the Free Reformed Church of France. He edited until his death, 30th December 1863, the Archives du Christianisme. See Adolphe’s Life and Letters (Eng. trans. 1885). Monodon, See NARWHAL. Moneecious (Gr. monos, ‘one,’ and otkion, ‘a habitation’), a term introduced by Linneus to describe those plants which have the stamens and pistil in different flowers, but upon the same plant —e.g. hop, box, birch, beech, alder, oak, hazel. Such plants formed one of the classes (Moneecia) of the Linnean system, but were obviously a specially artificial alliance, since that partial or complete separation of the sexes to which we apply the terms moneecious or dicecious respectively arises continually among the most unrelated plants or animals, See FLOWER, Sex. Monogenists. See ErHno.ocy. Monogram (Gr.), a character composed of two or more letters of the alphabet, often interlaced with other lines, and used as a cipher or abbreviation of aname. A perfect monogram is one in which all the letters of the word are to be traced. They are found on early Greek coins, medals, and seals, and on the family coins of Rome, but not on the coins of the earlier Roman emperors. Constantine placed on his coins one of the earliest of Christian monograms, composed of the first and second letters of XPIzTOz (Christos), a monogram which also appeared on the Labarum (see Cross, Vol. IIL. p. 582; and CONSTANTINE) ; we often find it combined with the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet ( Rev. i. 8). Another well-known monogram is that of the name of Jesus, IHS, from the first three letters of IHz0T2, Popes, emperors, and kings of France during Fig. 1. the middle ages were in the practice of using a monogram instead of signing their names, Fig, 1 represents that of Charlemagne, a perfect monogram, in which all the letters of Karolus can be traced, Painters and engravers in Germany and Italy have used monograms to a large YD)\\ extent as a means of distinguishing their works, Fig. 2 is the monogram of Albert Fig-2 Diirer, The first typographers made use of monograms or ciphers, a series of which, well known to the bibliographer, fixes the identity of the ancient editions, German, Italian, and Eng- lish, from the invention of printing down to the middle or end of the 16th century. Those of William Caxton and Gaspard Philippe, an old Paris printer, will be found at Book, Vol, II. p. (1894); Duplensiay Dictonmatresies Mercgues Peres ; lessis, Dictionnaire es ( 1887). Potters’ marks will be found as PorvEs Mon Ih (Gr.), a work in which a - ticular sabjoet in any science is treated by iteelf, and forms the whole subject of the work—‘an all-sided and exhaustive study of a special or limited sub- ject.’ The term is often loosely used for a small k on miscellaneous topics. Monolith, See STANDING-STONES. Monomania, See INsANrry. Monometallism. See BimeraLusM. Monomotopa. See Arnica, Vol. L. p. 87. Monongahe'a, a river which rises in West Virginia and flows north to Pittsburgh, where it unites with the Alleghany to form the Ohio. Mono ’physites, Christians who hold thatChrist has only one nature (Gr. monos, ‘one ;’ physis, ‘nature’), See GREEK CuuRcH, Vol. V. p. 398. Monopoli, a town of Southern Italy, on the Adriatic, 43 miles by rail NW. of Brindisi, with a cathedral, ancient walls, and a castle built in 1552 by Charles V. Pop. 13,154. Monopoly is properly definable as the sole or exclusive right of selling or trading enjoyed by an individual or group of individuals, In its strict’ sense monopoly belongs to an economic era which has passed ays 9 During mediwval times and the period that followed, exclusive rights prevailed in almost all departments. There were manorial rights which cireumseribed individual action. The ae and the guild had their spheres of production and of trade more or less clearly defined, and more or less thoroughly recognised in practice. The central governments which arose on the ruins of the medieval system continued to recognise such ex- clusive rights, sometimes conferring on favoured individuals the sole privilege of selling the most necessary articles of life, in other cases granting to great companies the monopoly of trade over immense regions of the world, It is with these instances that the name ee is most strictly associated in history. The last liament of Elizabeth, held in 1601, pronounced an emphatic condemnation of the monopolies nted by that to the storm, neen, and even she had to yiel galt and coal were among the articles whose sale was thus subject to monopoly. One of the mem- bers made a sensation by asking: ‘Is not bread among the number?’ Curiously enough, the pre- vious year saw the foundation by royal charter of the greatest of the companies which were based on the exclusive right of trade in an immense foreign market, the East India Company. The opposition to monopolies at home continued under the Stuarts, and their abolition may be regarded as one of the important results of the great parliamentary struggle of that time, The spread of freedom has tended to the abolition of such monopolies, whether vested in individuals, in trade corporations, or in great companies en- gaged in foreign commerce, But, while the mono- poly of law has so far passed away, new tendencies towards a monopoly of fact have been setting in. Under the prevalent system it is still the aim of the competitor to secure as far as possible the ex- clusive sale of the commodity in which he deals, either in the world-market or over a given portion of it; and when the single competitor is not stron enough to accomplish this, he seeks to attain his object by combination with a group of those en- in the same business, The modern trust syndicate or union is the onteome of such efforts; and the t danger attendant on such gigantic combinations is the establishment of a monopoly MONOTHEISM MONROE 277 injurious to society. The trust considered in its social and economic aspects offers a wide problem for discussion ; there can be no doubt that it estab- lishes or seeks to establish a monopoly of fact. As s the United States it may be maintained that such a monopoly is favoured by Protection ; bnt in view of the fact that the same tendency is observable in England, where free competition with all the world exists, it should be considered whether such combinations are not a ‘natural’ outcome of the prevailing economic system. We have here merely to point ont that in all such com- binations, whither operating over the whole world- market or over a portion of it, the tendency towards a emir § of fact is involved. In conclusion, reference should be made to monopolies, as in tobacco, retained by certain governments, but pavly for revenue pu It was part of the fiscal policy of Bismarck to establish such a state m y in spirits. See GENERAL. Monotheism, the term usually employed to denote a belief in the unity of the Godhead, or belief in and worship of one God. It is thus the opposite of Polytheism. The doctrine of the _ Trinity is thought some (e.g. the Unitarians) to be incompatible with the monotheism taught by Jesus Christ, and is therefore rejected as no part of His teaching. Mohammedans and Jews, of course, reject with vehemence the least approach to a Trinitarian conception of the Deity. Monothelism (Gr. monos, ‘single,’ and thelein, ‘to will’), the doctrine that Christ had only one will. It is a modification of Entychianism. Evutycues; Greek Cuurcu, Vol. V. p. 398. Monotrem‘ata (Gr. monos, ‘single ;’ tréma, ‘an opening’), the lowest order of mammalia, in many of their characteristic points indicate an | gewoon to reptiles. The skull is smooth; brain-case very small as compared to the face ; the snout much prmenees, and the jaws unpro- vided with soft movable lips, and not furnished with teeth, except in the young Ornithorhynchus, where they have been discovered by Poulton and Thomas. The cranial bones esce, as do a bird’s, at a very early period, and leave no signs of sutures, The external ear is altogether absent ; ih wae the eyes, though small, are perfectly de- ve . e bones of the shoulder, forming the scapular arch, are unlike those of any other mammals, and resemble those of iles. At the top of the sternum is a T- bone, formed by the union of the two clavicles, ing to the furculum in the bird’s skeleton, and to the clavicles and interelavicle of the ile. The coracoid bones, which in other are mere processes of the scapula, are here extremely large, and assist in strengthening the r arch ; they are produced beyond the socket of the humerus (the glenoid cavity), so as to articulate with the sternum. The pelvis is provided with marsupial bones. The ovaries are analogous to those of the Saurop- sida (reptiles and birds), the right ovary being comparatively madoveioped; while the left forms a racemiform mass. e orifices of the urinary canals, the intestinal canal, and the generative canal open, as in birds and reptiles, into a common cloaca, from which circumstance the order Monotremata derives its name. The ova (as has been shown by Poulton for Ornithorhynchus, and by Beddard and Caldwell for Echidna) are of large size, and con- _ tain an immense amount of yolk, as in the reptile or bird. Caldwell has discovered also the important fact that the early stages of development are like those of a ares has confirmed the earlier that these mammals lay eggs furnished FARMERS- with a thick shell. The Echidna carries its eggs in its pouch, but the Ornithorhynchus deposits them in its burrow. The mammary glands, of which there is only one on each side, are not pro- vided with ig ape but open by simple slits on ° each side of the abdomen. It has been proved, moreover, that the mammary glands are altogether different from those of other mammals, and only functionally resemble them. This order includes only two or three species, all natives of Australia or Van Diemen’s Land, which, however, form two families—the Ornithorhynchide (see ORNITHORHYNCHUS) and the Echidnide (see EcHIDNA). It appears probable from what is now known of the teeth of Ornithorhynchus that some of the Mesozoic mammalian remains which were formerly referred to the Marsupialia are really those of Monotremata. The literature of the group is fully referred to in Zhe Catalogue of ‘arsupialia and Monotremata ( British Museum). Monreale, a city of Sicily, 5 miles SW. of Palermo. The ‘royal mount,’ from which it gets its name, is 1231 feet high, and on it stands the famous cruciform Norman cathedral (1176), which measures 333 by 132 feet, and within is entirely covered with mosaics. Pop. 13,898. Monroe, ALEXLNDEE, founder of the medical school of Edinburgh, styled primus to distinguish him from his son and successor, was born in London, September 8, 1697. His grandfather, Sir Alexander Monro, a colonel in the army of Charles IL at the battle of Worcester in 1651, was alterwards an advocate at the Scottish bar. Alexander studied at London under Hawksbee, Whiston, and Cheselden, at Paris under Bou- quet, and at Leyden under Boerhaave, and after 1719 lectured at Edinburgh on anatomy and surgery. His lectures, with those of Alston on botany, led to the foun ling of the medical school, when Monra was appointed professor of Anatomy in 1721. Hé was received into the university in 1725. For forty years he lectured regularly on anatomy and surgery from October to May, students coming from all parts of Britain to hear him. Of the establishment of the Royal Infirm of Edin- burgh he was one of the two principal promoters, and he there delivered clinical lectures. In 1759 he resigned the anatomical chair to his youngest son, Dr Alexander Monro, but continued his clinical lectures at the rece His _princi- pal works are Osteology (1726), Essay on Com- parative Anatomy (1744), Observations Anatomi- cal and Physiological (1758), and an Account of the Success of Inoculation of Smallpox in Scotland (1765). He died July 10, 1767. e was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and of various foreign societies. A collected edition of his works, with Life, was issued by his son (1781). ALEXANDER MONRO, secundus (1733-1817), ae son of the | shana studied at Edin- urgh, Berlin, and Leyden, and succeeded his father in the chair of Anatomy, and as secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He published works on the nervous system (1783), on the physiology of fishes (1785), and on the brain, the eye, and the ear (1797).—He again was succeeded by his son, ALEXANDER Monro, tertius (1773-1859), who wrote on hernia, and on the stomach, and an Anatomy of the Human Body (4 vols. 1813). Monroe, a city of Michigan, on the Raisin River, 2 miles by a ship-canal from Lake Erie, and 40 miles by rail SSW. of Detroit. It contains a number of flour-mills, a woollen-mill, and other manufactories. Pop. (1900) 5043. Monroe, James, fifth president of the United States, was born in Westmoreland county, Vir- ginia, April 28, 1758, the descendant of a family 278 MONROE MONSOON of Scottish extraction which had emigrated to Virginia a century before. He entered William and Mary Coleg a8 the age of eighteen, but soon threw aside his books, with a number of his fellow- students, to join the army under Washington. He was present at several battles, and was wounded at Trenton; he afterwards attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel as an aide-de-camp and military commissioner, but was disappoin in his efforts to obtain a commission in a Virginia regiment, and attached himself to Jefferson, with whom he studied law. In 1782 he was elected to the assembly of Virginia and appointed one of the executive council. Next year he was returned to congress, where he sat for three years, and in 1785 was chairman of a committee whose report ulti- mately led to the conventions at Annapolis and Philadelphia in 1786 and 1787, at which the con- stitution of the United States was framed. Monroe himself was a member of the Virginia convention held to consider the ratification of the proposed constitution, which, along with Patrick Henry and other States’ Rights men, he opposed, fearing the power and encroachment of the Federal govern- ment. He was a member of the United States senate from 1790 to 1794, and offered a determined fate to Washington and the Federalists ; yet the government appointed him to succeed Gouver- neur Morris as minister to France, where he made himself very acs with the revolutionary govern- ment, until he was recalled in 1796 for displaying too decided French sympathies. On his return he published (1797) an attack on the executive for their treatment of him, and, although Washington himself, who had then retired, took no notice of it, the book brought on a bitter controversy and made Monroe the darling of the Democrats. He was governor of Virginia from 1799 to 1802, and then Jefferson sent him as an extra plenipoten- tiary to France, where in 1803’ he and Robert R Livingston effected the purchase of Louisiana (q.v.). The next four years were spent in less successful diplomacy at London and Madrid; he failed in his negotiations with Spain for the cession of Florida, whilst a treaty which he finally concluded with Great Britain provided neither against the impressment of American seamen nor for an indemnity for American losses by seizures at sea, and Jefferson refused to refer it to the senate. Monroe promptly returned home and drew up another defence, and the Virginians endo his conduct and policy by a third time electing him to the assembly, In 1811 he was again chosen governor of Virginia. In the same year Madison made him secretary of state; this post he retained till 1817, and during 1814-15 he acted also as secretary of war. In 1816 Monroe was elected president of the United States, and four years later he was re- elected almost unanimously; the acquisition of Florida from Spain (1819), and the settlement of the vexed question respecting the extension of slavery by the Missouri Compromise, by which, after the reception of Missouri as a slave-state, the institution was prohibited above the line of latitude 36° 30’, he!ped to secure this result. His most popular acts, perhaps, were the recognition of the independence of the Spanish American re- publics, and the »romulgation in a m to congress (1823) of what has since been called the ‘Monroe Doctrine.’ This utterance embodied the eueiee. ‘in which the rights and interests of the nited States are involved, that the American continents . . . are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonisation by any European power, . . . With the existing colonies or de- eateene of any European power we have not terfered, and shall not interfere. But with the ence and inaintained it, and whose inde ence we have . . . acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressin bee _ ee in any other -pyonaed th estiny, by any European power, any other light than as the mani festesion of an wniclondit disposition towards the United States.’ In 1825 Monroe retired to his seat at Oak Hill, Loudon county, Virginia, where he acted as justice of the peace, a nt of the university of Virginia, and member of the state convention; but a_ profuse generosity and hospitality caused him to be over- whelmed with debt, and he found refuge with his relations in New York, where he died in 1831— like his predecessors, Adams and Jefferson, on the 4th of July. In 1858 his remains were removed to Richmond. Monroe was an upright and con- sistent statesman, and a faithful servant of his country, though he had not the brilliant talents of some of his great contemporaries. See the Lives by J. Q. Adams (1850) and D. C. Gilman 1883); G. F. Tucker, History of the Monroe Doctrine {188 | really formulated ree Q. Adams (q.v.); W. . Reddaway, The Monroc rine (1898). Monrovia. See Liseria. Mons (Flem. Bergen), the capital of the Belgian rovince of Hainault, on the Trouille, 38 miles W. of Brussels. Its fortifications, renewed and strengthened since 1818, were demolished in 1862; but the country around can be laid under water. The Canal de Condé connects Mons with the Scheldt. The church of St Waudru (1450-1589) is a masterpiece of Gothic; and there are a town- hall (1458), a belfry (1662) 275 feet high, a library, &e. The manufactures include woollen and cotton goods, cutlery, and sugar; whilst the vicinity forms an extensive coalfie Pop. (1875) 24,539 ; (1895) 25,350. Mons, occupying the site of one of Cwsar’s camps, was made the capital of Hainault by Charlemagne in 804. France, Spain, and Austria often contended for its possessior. See Boussu’s Histoire de Mons (2 vols. 1868). Monsignore, « title of honour given to pre- lates of the Roman Catholic Church. Formerly in France the corresponding title of Monseigneur was allowed to all high dignitaries of the church, to the princes of the blood-royal, to the higher nobles, and to the presidents of the su But from the time of Louis XIV. Monseigneur without further addition was appropriated as the title of the Dauphin. Monsoon is derived from the Arabic Mausim, ‘a set time,’ ‘season,’ and was for long applied to those winds prevailing in the Indian blow from the south-west from April to October, and from the op ite direction, or north-east, from October to Ap The monsoons, in common with all winds whether oa, ger or irregular, depend pri- marily on an unequal distribution of temperature and moisture over that portion of the earth's surface where they occur, which in their turn give rise to an unequal distribution of atmospheric pressure. From this unequal distribution of the mass of the earth's atmosphere winds take their rise—winds being simply the flow of the air from a region of higher towards a region of lower be sure, or from where there is a surplus to where there is a deficiency of air. The term monsoon has in recent years come to be used with a wider significance than formerly; it is now generally applied to the winds connected with all continents which are of regular occurrence with the periodical return of the seasons. The winds of Australia are thus strictly monsoonal ; over the ter part of North America the prevailing winds have a well- marked monsoonal character ; similarly, monsoons governments who have declared their eehened rior law-courts, - cean which MONSTRANCE MONTAGU 279 occur on the coasts of Brazil, Peru, North Africa, and all other regions that happen to lie between regions whose temperature, and necessarily their also, differ markedly from each other at different times of the year. See WIND. Monstrance (Lat. monstrare, ‘to show’), ealled also OSTENSORY, the sacred utensil em- ployed in the Catholic Church for the purpose of presenting the consecrated host for the adoration of the people, as well while it is carried in proces- sion as when it is ex- posed upon the altar on occasions of special solemnity and prayer. It consists of two parts, the foot or stand upon which it rests, and the repository or case in which the host is ex- hibited. The latter con- tains a small semi-cir- cular holder called the lunula, or crescent, in oa the host is roe ; ita) rs ancient! to larg toms of a pe drical or tower-shaped form, in the central portion of which, con- sisting of a glass or erystal cylinder, the host was placed. At present it is more com- monly in the form of a star or sun with rays, the central portion of which is of glass or crystal, and serves to permit the host to be seen. This portion, or at least the crescent, is of gold or of silver gilt; the rest is generally of the precious metals, or at least gilt or silvered, although the lower portion is occasion- ally of bronze artistically wrought. Monstrosity is the term applied in human and comparative anatomy to an aberrant formation of the body consequent upon early disturbances in the developmental processes in the embryo. Teratole (teras, logos), the special and very interesting branch of biology which deals with the causes of such occurrences and with the classification of the ‘monsters’ so Pex rie has been advanced by the researches of roy Saint-Hilaire, Férster, and others to the position of a ial science, and one that throws a valuable sidelight on that of normal embryology. The malformations to be dealt with may affect the whole organism or portions only of its structure. Monsters are, however, usually classified under three headings: (1) Those with exaggerated or supernumera rts (monstra per EXCESSUM ) 5 (2) those lacking” e (monstra oar defectum); and (3) those with abnormally arranged (monstra per fabricam alienam). Those of the first-class, where ey limbs or a double head or trunk exist, are generally recognised as due to Kes more or less complete — we or more embryos, ori y separate, during the pro- cess of development. Cases of this kind which have from time to time been carefully described, figured, or eben in museums show that almost every possible d of fusion of separate embryos may oceur, resulting in a correspondingly great variety in the shapes of the monsters produced. Two otherwise complete bodies may be attached by an external bond, as in the case of the Siamese ‘twins; or the one may be wholly or partially en- ‘closed by the tissnes of the other. A case of snch tomplete inclusion is found in the Hunterian Museum. Much more frequently, however, but imperfect relics of the one remain attached to, or fused with, the fully-develo structures of the other. Thus arise two-headed monsters, those with double trunks or double sets of limbs, and those in which a shapeless mass representing the blighted embryo remains attached to the fully-formed body of the twin organism. In this same class of mon- sters by exaggeration must be placed also cases of ery or local gigantic development, due not to usion of bp ag embryos but to general or local precocity of growth in the tissues of a single organism. Not less interesting are monsters of the second class, where entire parts of the body may be suppressed during development. Here again it is shown that the non-development may occur in any region and to any extent: consequently numerous and widely separated varieties of monster are found in this class. The suppression of parts varies like- wise in degree, and in its effect upon the viability of the organism. For instance, a headless or brain- less monster is of ity incapable of living ; whereas one with suppression of a limb is viable, and might more properly be described as a case of congenital deformity. In the third class are the cases of transposition of viscera, malposition of limbs, congenital dislocations of joints, &e. See DEFORMITIES, CLUB-FOOT, and, for monstrosity in plants, TERATOLOGY. Montagnana, a town of Northern Italy, 32 miles SW. of Padua, Pop. 3200. Montagnards, or simply MoNnTAGNE, ‘the Mountain,’ the name given sf the extreme demo- cratic politicians in the first French Revolution, because they seated themselves on the highest benches of the hall in which the National Con- vention met. The body included both Jacobins and Cordeliers; its principal members were Danton, Marat, Robespierre, St Just, and Collot d’Herbois, the men of ‘the Reign of Terror.’ The antagon- istic party were ‘the Plain,’ the Girondists (q.v.), who sat on the lowest benches, on the floor of the house. After the overthrow of the Girondists this part of the house was styled ‘the Marsh or Swamp,’ and included all the members whose votes were under the control of ‘the Mountain.’ In 1848 the extreme party in the National Assembly, composed of revolutionary democrats and communists, some- times flattered itself by assuming the title of ‘the Mountain.’ Montagu. The illustrious family of Montagu seeing from D de Montacute, who came from ormandy with the Conqueror. Sixth in descent from him was Simon de Montacute, grandfather of the William de Montacute created Earl of Salisbury in 1337, many of whose successors have been great historical personages. The subsequent family of Mon descended from Simon (younger brother of the third Earl of Salisbury), who was the ancestor of Sir Edward Montagu, Speaker of the House of Commons and afterwards Lord Chief- as. who died in 1557. His son, Sir Edward Montagu of Boughton, had six sons; Edward, the eldest, was made Baron Montagu of Boughton ; and his grandson Ralph, third baron, was (1689) created Earl of Montagu, and in 1705 Duke of Montagu. In his son John the male line of the first Baron Montagu became extinct. The third son of Edward of Boughton was Sir Henry Montagu, the famous lawyer and orator, who was Lord Chief-justice, and created Lord Montagu of Kimbolton, and after- wards (temp. Charles I.) Earl of Manchester (q.v.). His son (second earl) was a general in the pariia- mentary army, who gained distinction by his victory over Prince Rupert at Marston Moor, but subse- quently gave in his adhesion to Charles II, on his restoration. The fourth Earl of Manchester was 280 MONTAGU MONTAIGNE an enthusiastic follower of William IIL, fighting with him at the battle of the Boyne, and taking part in the siege of Limerick; he was eventuall created Duke of Manchester in 1719 by Geo: a His descendant, the eighth duke, succeeded in 1890. The sixth son of Edward of Boughton was Sir Sydney Montagu, whose son, Edward, was a considerable mathematician, and serving first in the army, then in the navy, became the first sole commander of the English navy, and was created by Charles II. Lord Montagu of St Neots, Viscount Hinchinbroke, and Earl of Sandwich, His descend- ant, the eighth earl, succeeded in 1884, Montagu, Lapy Mary Wort .ey, born about 1690 at Thoresby, Nottinghamshire, was the eldest daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, Earl (afterwards Duke) of Kingston. She was a clever, attractive child, the pride and delight of her father, who, hav- ing lost his wife in 1694, and continuing a widower, introduced his daughter to society, and made her preside at his table at a very early age. When she was only eight years old he introduced her to the famous Kit-Cat Club, and she was formally ad- mitted a member, In 1712 she married, without the consent of her father, Edward Wortley Mon- tagu, eldest son of the Hon. Sydney Montagu, and grandson of the first Earl of Sandwich. For more than three years after her marriage she lived at Wharncliffe Lodge, near Sheffield, where her son was born, her husband during this time being kept principally in London by his parliamentary duties. On the accession of George I. Mr Montagu obtained a seat at the Treasury Board, and from this time Lady Mary lived in London, where she gained a Lrilliant reputation by her wit and beauty, and was on terms of intimate friendship with Addison and Pope, and other literary men of the day. In 1716 Mr Mon was appointed am or to the Porte, and in August of that year he set out for Constantinople, accompanied by his wife. They remained abroad till 1718, and during this time Lady M wrote the well-known Letters to her sister, the Countess of Mar, Pope, and other friends. The Letters give a true description of Eastern life and manners, and are written in a clear, lively style, sparkling with wit and humour. While in Turkey she witnessed Inoculation (4.v.), and introduced it into England on her return, having so much faith in its safety that she tried it first on her own son. The next twenty years of her life she eps in England, and fixed her abode at Twicken- am, where she renewed her intimacy with Pope, and then quarrelled with him, the immediate cause of the quarrel being the publication by Lady Mary of six satirical sketches entitled Zown Ecloques. Yn 1739, for reasons which are not well known, she left England and her husband, from whom, however, she parted on very good terms, though they never met again. She lived in Italy, first on the shores of the Lake of Iseo, and after- wards at Venice till 1761, when, at the request of her danghter, the Countess of Bute, she returned to England, She died Angust 21, 1762. A col- lected edition of her works, with Life, was pot lished by her great-grandson, Lord Whavrneliffe (3 vols. 1837; 3d ed. 1887). Montague, Cuaries. See HALIFAX (LorD). Montaigne, Micner Eyquem pe, was the third son of Pierre Eyqnem, Seigneur de Mon- taigne. He was born in 1533 on the family estate in Perigord. His father had ideas of his own on the subject of education, and his third son was to have the full benefit of them. The first novel step was the putting of Michel ont to nurse in a village on the estate, that he might be early inured to simple habits of living, and learn to sympathise with the lot of the poor, Whether or associat es it is a ontaigne always spoke geen neighbours with a respect asc) Kkindli: tone remarkable in the and class to not the result of this ag A fact that in his after life of his ness 0 which he a It was the received opinion at the period of Montaigne’s childhood that no boy could grow into a creditable citizen without a severity of discipline which would now be called brutal terrorism. It was the distinctive feature of Pierre de Montaigne’s system, however, that boyhood should be made as happy as pares and teachers could make it, and in the upbringing of his famous son he was even whimsically humane. Every morning he had the boy awaked by the sound of some musical instrument, because he had heard ‘ that it disturbs the tender brain of children to awake them suddenly.’ As he wished to make his son a scholar, and Latin was, therefore, an indispensable acquisition, he had the idea of con- verting a task into a natural pleasure. Till the age of six the boy was taught to speak no language but Latin, his tutor (a German), his parents, and even the domestics addressing him in that language. The result was that in the conversational command of Latin Montaigne had from boyhood the advan- tage of the best scholars of the day. His father was less successful in a novel method he also adopted in having him taught Greek. hen Montaigne reached the age of six his father ‘allowed himself to be won over to common opinion,’ and sent him to a school in the neigh- bouring city of Bordeaux—the Collége de Guienne, then, he himself tells us, the best in all France. His father, who as a former mayor had considerable influence in the city, ‘made several stipulations against the rules of colleges, thongh, all the same, it still remained a college.” At this school Montaigne remained for seven years, boarding in the rooms of his successive teachers, among whom were two scholars of European celebrity, George Buchanan and Mare-Antoine Muret, The course of study in the college was almost exclusively the reading of Latin authors, and in after life Montaigne aftirmed that, so far as he could judge, all these years were lost. As a third son he had to choose between law and the church—only the eldest naring the privilege of wearing the sword. All his life Montaigne had an insuperable difficulty in making u on this occasion his father saved him the trouble by setting him to the study of law. In what school he pursued his legal studies has not been discovered, all that we know of them mere summed up in his own sentence—‘ While a child I was plunged up to the ears in law, and it succeeded.’ From the age of thirteen to twenty-four Montaigne is almost lost sight of, Casual references in his Zssais ae that during this period he was frequently in Paris, that he knew something of court life, and that he took his full share of its R pyrene His legal studies received their reward in ‘his appointment as member of the Court of Aids in the district of Perigord; and in 1557, by the consolidation of his mind, and this court with the Parlement of Bordeaux, Mon- — e hecame a city counsellor, The office was an honourable one; but it was little to Montaigne’s taste, who, in truth, is never weary of telling us that every form of restraint was against all his natural inclinations. It was during his tenure of this office, however, that he formed his famous friendship with Etienne de la Boétie, a relation which he always ed as the happiest and most memorable of his life. To Montaigne La Bottie seemed in gifts of soul and intellect the equal of the greatest characters of antiquity. From the writings La Boétie left behind him (a series of sonnets, and a political pamphlet advocat- ing extreme republicanism ), it seems probable that a a res MONTAIGNE MONTALEMBERT 281 Montaigne ex: ted his friend’s powers. How- | did him the unusual honour of re-election. Of his ever this may es. the memory of Boétie, who | last years the only circumstance deserving special died at the age of thirty-two, was the one thought that never failed to raise Montaigne above him- self, and that adds the one romantic touch to his epicurean temper. Montaigne held the office of counsellor for about thirteen years; but of this period of his life, also, no definite history has been recovered. From ental remarks of his own we gather that he wes familiar with the court of Francis II., that he saw and greatly admired Mary Queen of Scots, and that at some time or other he was ‘gentleman of the bedechamber in ordinary,’ an office that did not necessitate residence at court. From Charles IX. he received the order of St Michel, instituted by Louis XL, and once a coveted honour, but in Montaigne’s day somewhat faded in its lustre. At the age of thirty-four he married Francoise de la Chassaine, the hter of one of his fellow-coun- sellors in Bordeaux, though in taking the step he assures us that he merely yielded to convention, as of his own inclination ‘he would not have married Wisdom herself.’ As the times went, Montaigne was a faithful and considerate husband; but he makes no secret that his wife held but a sub- ordi lace in his.thoughts. He lost ‘two or three’ children (the expression is his own) in their infancy, and was survived by cne daughter, of whom, as he speaks little in his writings, it may be concluded that she was bound to lim by no peculiar tie of affection. A year after his , at the request of his father, he translated the Natural History of Raymond de Sebond, a Spaniard, who in the preceding century had professed theology, te y, and medicine at Toulouse. This traus- ion is noteworthy as being Montaigne’s first effort in literature, and as having afterwards sup- the text for one of his most famous essays, he Apologie de Raymond Sebond, in which he exhibits in all its bearings the full scope of his sceptical philosophy. Two years later he published certain literary remains of his friend La Boétie. In 1571, his two elder brothers being dead, Mon- succeeded his father in the family estate, here till his death in 1592 he lived the life of a country gentleman, varied only by a few visits to Paris, and by flee 4-7 months’ travel in Germany, Switzerland, Ital It was during this period that he achieved his immortality. Finding on his — to his 20 ga that some ea ig was imperatively necessary to save him from morbid fancies, he those Essais which were to give him a place among the first names in literary history. If we know few incidents regard- ing this period of his life, we have at least the minutest record of his entire surroundings, of his daily manner of life, of his tastes, his habits, his ons and inings. In June 1580, partly on account of his th, and partly from his strong natural enri to know strange countries, he set out on the p course of travel above men- tioned. His of this journey, dictated to his secretary, and ly written in his own hand in French and I , Was discovered in his chAtean, and first published in 1774. While at the baths of Lucea, the announcement came to him that he had been unanimously elected mayor of Bordeaux. In accordance with his distaste for practical life, he at first refused the appointment, but at the instance of his friends and on the command of Henry III. he withdrew his declinature. The office, which had been held by his father before him, was of high vee well as civil rank, his immediate ving been the Due de Biron, one of marshals of France. In spite of his natural indolence and indecision, he must have performed his duties to the satisfaction of the citizens, as they record is his relation with Mademoiselle de Gournay, who won his heart by her enthusiastic admiration of his essays when she was only nineteen. After a meeting in Paris a romantic friendship sprang up between them, which lasted till Montaigne’s death ; and it is to Mademoiselle de Gournay, his fille dalliance, as he called her, that we owe a valuable edition of his Lssais, inscribed by her to Cardinal Richelieu in 1635. Montaigne in his later years suffered much from stone and gravel, but at the last he died of quinsy after a few days’ illness in his sixtieth year, 13th September 1592. Notwithstand- ing the expression of scepticism in his writings, he devoutly received the last offices of the chureh. The conclusive attestation to Montaigne’s varied power is the fact that three centuries after his death the circle of his readers widens every year, and that he has now almost as large a following of anti- quaries as Shakespeare himself. Of his admirers in every generation it has also to be remarked that they are of all nL of mind and creed, and that among them are found men like Pascal, who, while separated from him as by an abyss on all the funda- mental —- of life, have acknowledged their debt to his fearless and _all-questioning criticism. To have thus commanded the attention of the acutest intellects of every age since his own by haphazard remarks, devoid of all method, and seemingly inspired by the mere caprice of the moment, could be the privilege only of a mind of the highest originality, of the very broadest sym- pathies, and of a nature capable of embracing and realising the largest experience of life. In achiev- ing this distinction, what are reckoned among his chief defects have doubtless stood him in as stead as his merits. His inconclusive philosophy, his easy opinions on many points of morals, his imperfectly developed sense of duty, the total absence of any heroic strain in his nature, were but the necessary conditions of that general attitude towards men and things which make him the unique figure he is in the history of European literature. There are _— translations of Montaigne by Florio (q.v. ; new ed. by Saintsbury, 1893), and another by O. Cotton (q.v.), revised b: itt (1865; new ed. 1893). See Lives by St John and Lucas Collins ; Emerson, Represen- tative Men ; Mark Pattison, Essays (1889) ; Dean Church, Miscellaneous Essays (1888 ); Alphonse Griin, Vie Publique de Michel Montaigne (1855); Payen, Documents Inédits (1847-56) ; and monographs by Bonnefon (1893) and Paul Stapfer (Grands Ecrivains, 1895). There are admirable editions of the Zssays by Courhet and Royer (5 vols. 1873-— 91), and by Moutheau and Jouaust (7 vols. 1886-88). Montalcino, a cathedral city of Central Italy, stands on a hill (1900 feet), 22 miles SSE. of Siena, Pop. 2353. Montalembert, Cuares Forbes RENE DE, born in London, May 15, 1810, was the eldest son of a noble French émigré and his English wife. His grandfather, Mr Forbes, a retired Indian merchant, living at Stanmore, near Harrow, had charge of him from an early age, as his father went back to France with the restored Bourbons and was rewarded for his zeal in their service by being named a peer of France and minister-plenipoten- tiary to Stuttgart. When Charles was eight years old he was sent to school at Fulham, but was there for a very short time, as the following year his grandfather died, and he went to his parents in Paris. He was fourteen when the head of the Col- lége St Barbe induced them to place him under a lar course of study. At sixteen he entered the sates, and left it at nineteen to join his father, then ambassador at Stockholm. He returned to Paris in 1829, and during a period of uncertainty as to his future career occupied himself by writing an 282 MONTALEMBERT MONTANA article upon Sweden, which ey ome in the Revue Francaise. In 1830 he went to Ireland, and, return- ing full of enthusiasm for religious freedom, at once eagerly joined himself to the Abbé Lamennais and Lacordaire in their enterprise of the Avenir, the well-known High Church Liberal newspaper. In 1831 Montalembert and Lacordaire opened a free school in Paris, which was immediately closed by the police, and a prosecution commenced “<— the schoolmasters. The death of Montalembert’s father at this time having raised him to the peerage, he appealed to be tried by his peers, and pleaded with great eloquence the cause of the church and the common interests of religious liberty. Though he was reprimanded and fined 100 francs, this de- feat had the effect of a victory. In the same year the Avenir was temporarily suspended, and finally given up, being condemned by the pope. After this Montalembert for a time withdrew from France and lived in Germany, where he was inspired with the idea of writing the eit of St Elizabeth which was published in 1836. In 1835 he returned to Paris, and made his first speech as a member of the Chamber in defence of the liberty of the press. He married a daughter of Count Felix de Mérode in 1836. The winter of 1842 he spent in Madeira for his wife’s tiealth, and while there wrote a pamphlet entitled Devoir des eee dans la Question d Enseignement, in which he protested inst the monopoly of education by the French University, and pleaded for free education, or, in other words, religious education guaran common liberty. For this cause he fought un- weariedly in parliament till it was won. His protests against tyranny, however bane fr came to a climax ina t speech in January 1848 upon Switzerland. The Revolution took place a month later; and in April Montalembert was-elected a member of the National Assembly. When the coup détat of December occu he supported Louis Napoleon till the confiscation of the Orleans property. Then he at once resigned his post asa member of the Consultative Gomistinaden, and lecame from henceforth a determined opponent of the imperial régime. He was elected to the Academy on February 5, 1852, and from that time occupied himself with literary work. After a visit to England in 1855, he wrote L’Avenir politique de U Angleterre. Three years later he published an article in the Correspondant, called ‘Un Debat sur V'Inde au Parlement Anglais,’ in which he made such exasperating allusions to the imperial govern- ment that he was prosecuted and senten to six months’ imprisonment and a fine of 3000 frances. The sentence was, however, remitted by the emperor. He published the two first volumes of his great work, Les Moines d’Occident, in 1860, and completed it in 1867. He also wrote Une Nation en uil: la Pologne (1861), L’Eglise libre dans U Etat libre (1863), Le Pape et la Pologne (1864), &e. During the last ten years of his life he suffered from the malady of which he died in Paris on 13th March 1870, sixteen days after writing his cele- brated letter on papal infallibility. Montalembert was one of the best French orators of his day, a great statesman and author, an aceom- plished man of the world, and a devoted, noble- minded son of the church. He loved freedom more than all the world, and the Catholic religion more than freedom; and thus, while he fought all his life for freedom, in questions of faith he submitted his will and intelligence to the judgment of Rome. See the Memoir by Mrs Oliphant (2 vols. 1872), * Montana, one of the en states of the merican Union, extends from 104° to 116° W. long., and from 1000 ts the UB oyaee 44° 15 to 49° N. lat., and is | “rplncott Company, bounded N. by the Canadian districts of Alberta and Assiniboia, E. by North and South Dakota, S. by Wyoming and Idaho, and W. by Idaho. In area—146,080 sq. m., or nearly five times the size of Scotland—it ranks third among all the states and territories, but in population on fap tle te ; the density of the population is but 1.7 persons per square mile. The Rocky Mountains, with their subsidiary ranges, oceupy fully one-fifth of the surface, in the south and west; the rest of the state is made up of valleys or high, rolling prairies, treeless, but yielding nutritious grasses. The head-waters of two of the largest rivers in North America—the Columbia and Missouri—have their sources in Montana. The mean elevation of the state is about 3000 feet; the average height of the Rocky Mountains—whose sides are covered with dense forests of pine, fir, and cedar—is about 6000 feet, while the highest peaks rise to 10,000 or 12,000 feet. The Yellowstone National Park (q.v.) forms part of the southern boundary of the state. In the south-east the Bad Lands extend into the state from Wyoming (q.v.). The climate of Montana is more moderate than that of the Dakotas and Minnesota, since the warm westerly winds prevail more than the north winds in winter here; there are but few excessively cold days, and, as there is little moisture in the air, the winters are less-chilly and more exhilarating than in the east. The atmosphere is remarkable for its clearness, and cyclones are unknown. The soil of Montana contains all that is needed for sustaining vegetation, but it is almost value- less without irrigation; with that, however, the yield of grains and vegetables is enormous. There are already hundreds of irrigating ditches within the’ state, and the federal government is locating storage reservoirs all along the Rocky Mountain range, to store water for this purpose from the melting snows in spring-time. It is calculated that 20,000,000 acres of land can thus be brought under cultivation. Placer mining being practi- cally exhausted, a large part of the population has turned its attention to stock-raising, for which Montana is better suited than for agriculture. The prairies produce several varieties of bunch grass, which cures on the stalk in August, and re- tains all its nourishing qualities throughout the year; stock on the range receive no other feed, sum- mer or winter, and very little shelter is required, But the industry of Montana is the mining and reduction of her gold, silver, lead, and copper ores. Her minerals first attracted emigration, and have hitherto been her principal wealth. The first systematic working of placer mines for gold commenced in 1862; in 1863 the first gold-quartz mill was built. A report issued by the state (1898) ives the total value of gold and silver produced in ontana from 1862 to 1897 ( both inclusive) at: gold, $257,533,727 ; silver (coinage value), $273,033,393 ; total, $530,567,120. The output for 1897 was: gold, 217,515 ounces; silver, 16,307,346 ounces ; copper, 237,158,540 Ib., nearly one-half the total product for the United States ; lead, 25,794,974 lb. ; with a total value of $53,954,675. Hi .—The portion of Montana east of the Rocky Mountains was part of the Louisiana Purchase ; that lying to the west formerly com- — a of Oregon and Washington states. t was first visited by the French in 1742-43, and by Lewis and Clarke in 1804-6; these were followed by fur-traders and trappers, and by Jesuit missionaries, who established schools for Indian boys and girls, Gold was discovered in 1861, and minin, mg in earnest the following year. In 1864 the territory was organised, and on 8th November 1889 Montana became a state of the Union. Education, for a frontier state, is well + i, ie ) renurony wetwees | m)| BUTTE »*o HELENA. | © Mues, 22—1 nom, I k | - : ri Sundance ‘corcroft SCALES. Statute Miles, 49 —1 Inch. os 20 bo) 40 1 60 Kilometres, 781 Inch. 6610 2% 3° % 4 70 80 90 100 Band, McNally & Co.'s Now 1) «14 Mop of Montana’ MeNally & Co, Oopyright, 1806, by Rand, McNally & Oo, < “ee ' f -MONTANISM MONTCALM 283 ised, there being (1896), besides the district schools, the State University at Missoula, the Agri- cultural College at Bozeman, the State Normal at Dillon, and the State School of Mines at Butte City. Only three cities have over 10,000 inhabitants,— Butte (30,470), Great Falls (14,930), and Helena (10,770), the capital. Pop. (1880) 39,159; (1890) 132,159 ; (1900) 243,329, including 10,746 Indians. Troubles with the latter have been frequent: in 1876 General Custer (q.v.) and his command were all killed on the Little Big Horn by the Sioux. Montanism, 2 heresy which grew up within the Christian church in the second half of the 2d century ; its founder was Montanus, a religious enthusiast who ap at Ardaban in Phrygia in the year 156, with a mission to purify and re- ise the church. Christianity had now become opted by men in all classes, and already it had to a great extent ceased to be what it was origin- ally—a society of enthusiastic devotees shut off from the world. At the same time the church to her use wastage d of value in the social and political arrangements of the world around her, and thus fitted herself for the réle of a great world- religion. Side by side with this growing secularism there sprung up a natural reaction in favour of the old discipline and severity, and nowhere was this so strong as in Phrygia, where it was linked with a belief in a new and final outpouring of the Spirit. Here eae yo ora phe Neveeg wes scents of iri ristians who y hailed the a) r- ae. of the ‘ Paraclete,’ and were fon ed to withdraw from the church, branded as ontanists and Kataphrygians. Montanus selected the small Phrygian towns of Pepuza and Tymion as the Jerusalem of the church, and for twenty years his movement was limited to Phrygia and the sur- rounding district. He himself enjoyed a continu- ance of the rophetic gift, as well as the two women Prisca and Maximilla; his most zealous mission- aries were Alcibiades and Theodotus. The per- secution that began after the year 177 spread the movement wider by deepening the earnestness of Pusgietey those —_ Id Masco es pene In rygi were sternly rep y the bishops, and Srmally éxtommmanioanted but elsewhere ahaa in Asia Minor did not at once leave the church, but formed conventicles within it. In Gaul and Rome it was long held that communion should be maintained with them. But gradually separa- tion became necessary, as the Montanists became stronger in their demand for a return to primitive discipline, for more fasting, the prohibition of second marriages, and a severer life generally, Denunciation and exclusion produced their natural effect in making them still more narrow, severe in their judgments, and t in their asceticism. At Carthage a numerous y of Montanists had wn up, and from 202 to 207 they strove hard, t in vain, to remain within the church, but at length quitted it because it refused to recognise the new outpouring of the Spirit. It was now that the great Tertullian joined their ranks, having be- come profoundly convinced of the necessity te a return to primitive Christianity in order to heal the secularism of the chureh. Montanism sur- vived in the East till the 4th centu ; in the West it was ever less ive, and did not grow up until the Catholic Church had firmly estab- lished its organisation. Therefore it never became more than a mere sect; and from a genuine desire for reform and simplicity it degenerated into an artificial strictness and mere legalism. Yet down to 400 A.D. there were still Tertullianists at Carthage. See Ritschl’s Entstehung der Altkatholischen Kirke (2d ed. 1857); De Soyres, Montanism and the Primitive Church (1878, ; Bonwetsch, Die Geschichte des Montanis- mus (1881); Weizsiicker in Theol. Lit,-Zeitung (1882); and Harnack, Das Ménchthum, seine Ideale Geschichte (2d ed. 1882). Montargis, a town in the French department of Loiret, 47 miles E. by N. of Orleans, with a fine church (12th century—1868) and ruins of a vast castle, once ‘le berceau des Enfans de France.’ Here in 1371 is said to have oceurred the famous: judicial combat between ‘the dog of Montargis’ and Macaire its master’s murderer. The dog not only showed the spot in the forest of Bondy where its dead master was buried, but singled out the murderer, and, when Charles VI. granted the ordeal of battle to test his guilt, the dog flew at his throat and so proved its charge upon his body. Pop. (1872) 8196 ; (1886) 10,984; (1891) 9789. Montauban, the capital of the French depart- ment of Tarn-et-Garonne, on the river Tarn, 31 miles N. of Toulouse. A well-built, handsome place, it has a modernised brick bridge (1335), 224 yards long; a fine cathedral (1739) in the Italian style; and a monument (1871) to Ingres, the painter, a native. Besides considerable woollen manufactures, it carries on a great trade in wine, grain, leather, &e. Montauban was founded in 1144 by Count Alphonse of Toulouse, became the seat of a bishop in 1317, embraced the Reformation in 1560, and acquired historical celebrity as the t stronghold of the Huguenots, being vainly ieged for three months by De Luynes for Louis XIII. in 1621. It suffered much in the Dragon- nades; but nearly half the inhabitants still are Protestants, and maintain a theological college. Pop. (1872) 18,855 ; (1886) 22,431; (1891) 24,504. Montbeliard (Ger. Mémpelgard), a town in the French department of Doubs, 48 miles NE. of Besancon. It lies in a valley between the Vosges and Jura Mountains, is surmounted by an old chateau (now a prison), and carries on manu- factures of watch-springs, watchmaking tools, and cotton. A possession of the House of Wiirtemberg from 1397, it was a Protestant centre from 1525, was formally ceded to France in 1801, and suffered much in the Franco-German war. Cuvier was a native; and there is a statue of him, as also of Colonel Denfert, the heroic defender of Belfort. Pop. (1872) 5865; (1891) 8810, mostly Lutherans. Mont Blane, the highest mountain in Europe (if we regard the Caucasus, q.v., as Asiatic), 15,782 feet above sea-level, is situated in France, close to the Italian frontier, 40 miles S. of the Lake of Geneva. The waters which spring from its western slopes are drained off to the Rhone, those which originate on the east side to the Po. It rises into several sharp peaks (aiguilles) and forms grent laciers—the Glacier du Géant, Mer de Glace, cc. In 1760 Saussure offered a prize for the dis- covery of a practicable route to the summit of Mont Blane, which was gained, in June 1786, by Balmat and Paccard, guides. Saussure himself ascended the mountain the following year; and since Albert Smith published a description of his ascent in 1851 the mountain has been ascended by several hundreds; indeed, more than fifty parties climb it annually. It has been the most conspicu- ous for accidents of all Alpine peaks ; twenty-four — had perished in accidents on it down to 886. There is an observatory (1890) at a height of 14,470 feet. See ALPs ; and Whymper’s Guide to Chamouni and the Range of Mont Blane (1896). Montbrison, a French town in the department of Loire, 35 miles SW. of Lyons, with mineral wells and some ribbon manufacture. Pop. (1891) 6226. Montcalm. Louis Joseph, Marquis de Mont- calm Gezan de Saint Véran, was born in the chateau of Candiac, near Nimes, 29th February 1712. At fifteen he entered the army. In 1746 und seine 284 MONT CENIS MONTECUCULI he was severely wounded and made prisoner at the battle of Piacenza. In 1756 he assumed command of the French troops in Canada, and soon after his arrival captured the Bite of Oswego. The succeeding summer he ke George with about 8000 neh and Indians, and captured Fort William Henry. After the French had taken possession of the fort, the deéfenceless prisoners, comprising men, women, and children, were massacred by the Indians. Montcalm has been blamed even by his apologists for not fore- seeing the danger, and taking effectual measures to avert it. In 1758 General Abercromby advanced on Ticonderoga with 15,000 regulars and provin- cial troops. The place was defended by Montcalm with a much sinaller force of regular troops. The British troops displayed heroic daring and courage, but after repeated attempts to force the defences, which were in themselves almost impregnable, and were defended with great gallantry, they withdrew with a loss of about two thousand men. This French success was, however, much more than counterbalanced by the loss of Louisburg and Fort Duquesne about the same time. Montcalm then removed to Quebec, and prepared to defend it against a British attack. Of the 16,000 troops under his command the egy were militia and Indians. In 1759 General Wolfe ascended the St Lawrence with about 8000 troops, and a naval force under Admiral Saunders, After repeated attempts to scale the heights of Montmorency, and a severe repulse about the end of July, he surprised a French outpost before dawn on 13th September, scaled the heights with about 5000 men, gained the plateau of Quebec, and formed in line of battle on the Plains of Abraham. In the battle that ensned the French ultimately broke in disorder and retreated on the city. ontcalm tried in vain to rally his force, and, aris been borne back by the pressure of the retreat, le was mortally wounded at the St Louis gate, and died the following morning, 14th September 1759. See the article WoLtre; Parkman’s Montcalm and Wolfe ( Boston, 1884); and Falgairolle’s Montcalm devant la Posterité ( Paris, 1886). ; Mont Cenis, or Monte CENIsIO, an Alpine peak and between Savoy and Piedmont. eight of the mountain, 11,792 feet; of the pass, 6884 feet. Over the pass a road was constructed (1802-10) by Fabbroni, under Napoleon's orders, at an expense of £300,000. Thirteen miles west of the — a railway tunnel, 74 miles long, was in 1857 on the Italian side, and in 1863 on the French, and was finished in 1870 at a cost of £3,000,000. Through this tunnel passes one of the main continental overland routes from London vid Paris to Brindisi, for Asia, Australia, and East Africa. Mont-de-Marsan, capital of the French de- partment of Landes, at the confluence of the Midou and Douze, 92 miles by rail S. of Bordeaux. It has a mineral spring and manufactures of chemicals, iron, &e. Pop. (1872) 7441; (1891) 9790. Mont de Piété, called in Italy MonTE DI Prera, a charitable institution the object of which is to lend money to the poor at a moderate rate of interest. It was closely modelled on the ‘ Monte,’ a precursor of the modern bank, in which the creditors, or the parties who supplied the capital, formed a close corporation, with privileged claims upon certain sources of income, These conditions were designed to avoid the laws against usury. But the Monte di Piet& did not at first levy regular in- terest, only a small percentage to cover the expenses of administration. The earliest of these institu- tions was established at Orvieto in 1463; and another followed at Perugia, 1467; yet the right to levy for the expenses of management was only conceded in 1515. The system was introduced in Spain, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and Mexico. There exists at Paris a national pawn- broking establishment, called Mont de Piété, which charges 9 per cent. on all loans to pay the working expenses, The a gain is handed over to the ublic charity fun Blaize, Des Monts de été (2 vols. 1856), and PAWNBROKING. Mont-Dore-les-Bains, a village of Auv in the department of Puy de Dome, 26 miles SSW. of Clermont-Ferrand. It lies 3412 feet above the sea-level, in a picturesque valley, through which the river Dordogne flows, and which is bordered on both sides by rugged voleaniec hills, and closed to- wards the south by a semicircle of jagged mountains, the highest point of which, the Pic de Sancy (6188 feet), is the loftiest mountain in central France, The Mont Dore mineral springs, which were used by the Romans, are of — value in affections of the throat and most diseases of the respiratory organs, as also in the earlier stages of rheumatism. There are eight powerful springs in full operation, seven of these having a temperature which varies between 102° and 114°, while La Source Sainte Marguerite is comparatively cold. The water con- ‘ tains bicarbonates of soda, iron, and arsenic. The ordinary population of the village is about 1400, but the Pathe, which are every year becoming better known, are thronged during the short season (July to September) with visitors from all parts. Montebello Cast 0, a village of Northern Italy, 14 miles S. by W. of Pavia, where the Austrians were defeated by a French army under General Lannes (afterwards Duke of Montebello), after a desperate conflict, 9th June 1800. In May 1859 the Austrians were again defeated here by the united French and Piedmontese army. Monte Carlo, a small town in the territory of Monaco (q.v.), 1 mile NE. of the town of Monaco, notorious on account of its gaming-tables, and the numerous suicides of ruined gamblers. Monte-Casino, the monastery built (529) by St Benedict, founder of the great Benedictine order, stands on beetling cliffs, in a magnificent situation, 70 miles by rail NW. of Naples and 92 SE. of Rome. It has been four times destroyed— in 589 by the Longobards, in 884 by the Saracens, in 1030 by the Normans, and in 1349 by an earth- quake. It was dissolved in 1866; but a few monks still remain. In 1313 the abbot was elevated to pti ys rank, and from 1504 he was official ‘ head of all the abbots of the Benedictine order.’ The existing church, replacing one erected in 1066, was built in 1727, and possesses an 11th-century Byzantine bronze portal, mosaics, , cary: ings, kc. The former monastic buildings contain valuable archives, a picture-gallery, @ iibears of 40,000 volumes, 30,000 charts, 500 incunabula, and a seminary. See Tosti, Storia della Badia di Monte Cassino (1843), Archivio Cassinese (1847), and Mackey’s Life of Bishop Forbes (1888). Monte Catini, a watering-place of Italy, by rail 30 miles NW. of Florence and 19 E. of Lucea, Its mineral springs are saline, range between 82° and 86° F., and are eflicacious for abdominal com- laints, scrofula, and dysentery. The season lasts rom May to September. Near here the Floren- tines were defeated by the Pisans in 1315, Monte Cristo, an uninhabited islet of ite off the Italian coast, 26 miles 8S. of Elba. For the novel whose hero bears this name, see DUMAS. Montecu culi, RAtmonpo, Count, was born at Modena in 1608, and entered the Austrian service, distinguishing himself during the Thirty Years’ War (especially at Breitenfeld and Nérdlingen), in ee MONTEFIORE MONTENEGRO 285 a campaign against the Turks (1664), and against the French under Turenne on the Rhine (1672-75). He was made a Prince of the Empire and Duke of Melfi, and died at Linz, 16th October 1681. A second edition of his e Complete appeared in 1823 ; there is a Life by Campori (1876). Montefiore, Sir Moses, a Jewish philanthro- pist, descendant of a wealthy family of bankers, was born in Leghorn, October 24, 1784, where his parents peupenes to be sojourning. His grand- ts emigrated from horn to London in 750. In 1812 he married Judith Cohen (1784— 1862), a lady who went hand in hand-with him in all his many schemes of philanthropy. As a stock- broker he soon achieved great success. In 1818 he was elected president of the Spanish and Portuguese community. From 1829 onwards he took a promi- nent part in the struggle for removing the civil dis- abilities of English Jews (see Jews). In 1835 he was one of the parties to the contract for the £15,000,000 given as compensation to the slave- owners. He was for a time High Sheriff of Kent, and, after long exclusion and repeated re-election, was legally admitted as Sheriff of London in 1837. In that year he was knighted, and in 1846 was raised to a baronetcy in recognition of his meri- torious public services. He distinguished himself by his practical sympathy with his oppressed countrymen in various parts of the East, chiefly in Poland, Russia, Roumania, and Damascus. He made seven eg to the East, the first being in 1827 and the latest in 1874, chiefly for the amelioration of the condition of his countrymen. At Bucharest, during an anti-Jewish ferment, he boldly faced the mob at the risk of his life. He was nted with the freedom of the City of London 1873, and an address in 1883. In memory of his wife he endowed a Jewish college at Ramsgate in 1865. In his hundredth year he was still hale and well, but died 29th July 1885. See Diaries of Sir Moses and Lady Montefiore (2 vols. 1890). Montego Bay, a port on the north coast of Jamaica (q.v.). eg Montégut, Enix, a clever French critic, was rm at , June 24, 1826, and early made a reputation by a series of brilliant studies on Eng- lish literature. He contributed to the Revue des Deux Mondes and other journals, and published books of travel, a study of Marshal Davott, and translations of Shak , Macaulay, and Emer- son, and a work on the Duke and Duchess of New- castle. He died 18th December 1895. Books of exceptional value are Poétes et Artistes de U'Italie (1881); 7 Littéraires, et Fantaisies Esthétiques (1882); Essais sur la Littérature Anglaise (1883) ; ‘orts contemporains ; Les ivains modernes Ris err ty (2 vols.) ; Livres oe iniee des Pays ; critiques ; an amaturges et Romanciers (1896), tg Montélimar, a town in the French de ment of me, near the Rhone, 85 miles 8. of " Lyons by rail, with some manufactures of silk, hats, and morocco leather, Pop. (1891) 9183. Montem. See Eron. Montenegro (the Italian translation of the native name Czrna , ‘Black Mountain’), an independent state in the Balkan Peninsula, between Herzegovina and Albania, about 80 miles long by 70 broad. Its area’ was extended in 1878 by the addition of a la district on the north, a long narrow strip right down its east side to Lake Seutari, and the port and district of Antivari on the south, on the Adriatic, and again in 1880 by the addition of the port and district of Dulcigno, also on the Adriatic. The area, thus extended, is offici- ully quoted as 3255 sq. m.—a private estimate is 3486 sq. m.—considerably less than half the size of Wales. Beyond the low coastal fringe, which has a climate like that of the south of France, comes a rugged mountain-region ranging up to 6500-8000 feet, not in a series of chains, but in a confusin maze of peaks and gigantic crags and blocks, wil ravines and gorges, fissures and natural caves, the bare gray crystalline rock being everywhere visible. In this region the streams in some cases have underground channels, and even pass for miles beneath the mountains. The centre of the country is oceupied by the branching valleys of the rivers Zeta and Moratcha, which flow south into Lake Seutari. East and north of them the mountains are well wooded, principally with beech and pine, and afford good eta 8 to the sheep, goats, and cattle of the people. e climate in these moun- tainous regions is characterised by temperate heat in summer and a rigid winter. Comparatively little of the surface is cultivated, except in the coast region; it is too sterile. Yet agriculture is the principal oceupation of the people; of indust there is virtually none. All the farms are small, the fields often patches of soil a few square yards in extent clinging to the mountain-side. The land in most cases belongs to the family, not to the indi- vidual, and woods and tures are common to the clan. Maize, rye, oats, barley, potatoes, capsicums, tobacco, with frnits in the south, are the more important products. Wine for home consumption is grown on the shores of Lake Scutari; and the mulberry is cultivated for silkworms. The same lake, and some of the rivers flowing into it, yield an abundance of fish, especially of scorantza or bleak. The exports, consisting chiefly of cattle, goats, hides, smoked fish and mutton, cheese, sumach, fruits, and wine, reach the annual value of £200,000. The imports, for the most part wheat, gunpowder, hardware, groceries, cloth, and glass, average in value about one-tenth of the exports. Nearly all the trade is in the hands of the Austrians, and passes through their port of Cattaro. Good roads connect the chief towns or villages in the south ; bridle-paths and footpaths only exist in the rest of the country. The Montenegrins, a race of primitive moun- taineers, whose principal business in life has for generations been to fight the Turks, are a brave, warlike, and simple people, noted for their honesty and their chastity. The men are stalwart and handsome, but the women, who until recent years did all the hard work whilst the men fought, or idled, or hunted, soon grow old and lose their good looks. The people live in small stone houses, in small villages—there is not a town, strictly so called, in all Montenegro. They belong to the Servian branch of the Slavs, number (1890) 236,000, and belong, except about 10,000 Moham- medans and 4000 Roman Catholics, to the Greek Orthodox Church, the head of which is the emperor of Russia. The native head of the church is the Archbishop of Cetinje. The monastery of Ostrog is visited by large numbers of pilgrims every year. There is a Roman Catholic archbishop at Antivari. In the 14th century the country, known as the principality of Zeta, was tributary to the Servian empire; but, when the latter was subjugated by the Turks (1389), Zeta, assisted by fugitive Servians, successfully maintained its independence, From that time down to 1880 the Montenegrins have waged almost incessant war against their hereditary. foes, the Turks. In 1516, when the last prince of the second native dynasty abdicated his throne, the ple elected their bishop to be ruler over them ; and the little state was governed by ecclesiastical princes (vladikas) down to 1851, when Danilo I. of the Nyegush clan, and nephew of the last vladika, persuaded the people to separate the civil from the 286 MONTENOTTE MONTESQUIEU ecclesiastical functions, and to elect him their secular prince, and declare the throne hereditary in his family. The prince is an absolute sovereign ; but he is assisted by a state council and a ministry of six members. The government both of the country and of the family is really, however, patri- archal, the will of the prince deciding all things only in so far as it does not conflict with the will of the people. During the last quarter of the 19th century the little land has progressed greatly in civilisation ; education has made rapid strides, the men have taken to cultivating their fields, and roads have been constructed; while the old militia has been converted into a standing army of 30,000 men, though not more than 100 serve permanently, as a bodyguard to the prince. An arms-factory has been established at Rieka and ammunition-factories at Rieka and,,Cetinje. The last-named village is the capital. The empress of Russia supports a higher school for girls at Cetinje. Crime is almost unknown. Podgoritza and Rieka are the chief trading-places. he state income amounts to about £60,000 per annum, a portion of which is a subsidy from Russia (since 1856); the expenditure is not known. There is a state debt of £100,000 owing to Austria and £70,000 owing to Russia. Montenegro has no money of her own; she uses chiefly Austrian paper and Turkish silver. The vladika Peter II. (1830-51) is accounted one of the test poets who have written in Servian, In their patriotic songs and ballads the Monte- negrins possess a treasure of great value, and of at iniluence upon the national temperament. he first Slavonic books to be printed were issued from presses at Cetinje and Rieka in the end of the 15th century. In 1895 a daughter of the prince was married to the crown-prince of Italy. See Denton, Monteneyro (1877); Freeman in Mac- millan’s Magazine (1876) ; Gopcevic, Monteneyro (1877) ; Schwarz, Montenegro (1882); W. Carr, ne (1884); Coquelle, Montenegro et Servie (1896); and W. Miller, The Balkans (* Story of the Nations,’ 1896). Montenotte, a small village of Northern Italy, miles W. of Genoa, where Napoleon won his first victory over the Austrians, on 12th April 1796. Montepulciano, a town of Italy, a bishop's see, situated on a high hill, 43 miles by rail SE. of Siena. It was the birthplace of Politian and Bel- larmine, and is famous for its red wine. Pop. 2952. Montereau, a town in the French department of Seine-et-Marne, at the confluence of the Seine and Yonne, 49 miles SE. of Paris. At the bridge here, in 1419, Jean-sans-Peur, Duke of Burgundy, was assassinated in the presence of the young Dauphin, afterwards Charles VII. ; and in the im- mediate vicinity Napoleon, on February 18, 1814, gained his last victory over the allies. Pop. 7519. Monterey, capital of the Mexican state of Nuevo Leon, lies in a fertile plateau-valley, b rail 670 miles N. of Mexico city. It is a well- built town, with a thriving trade, and contains a cathedral, seminary, and schools of law and medi- cine. Pop. 16,000. Founded in 1599, it was taken by General Taylor in 1846. Monte Rosa, an Alpine mountain mass with four principal peaks, in the Pennine ridge which separates the Swiss canton of Valais from Italy. The highest peak, the Dufourspitze, 15,217 feet high, is extremely difficult of ascent, and was first climbed by Mr Smyth in 1855. Monte Sant’ Angele, a city of Southern Italy, 28 miles NE. of Foggia. It stands 2790 feet above sea-level, on one of the Gargano hills, and is famed for its exquisite honey. Pop. 15,109. Monte Sarchio, a town of Southern Italy, 13 miles NW. of Avellino. Pop. 5238, —y Montespan, Francoise ATHENAIS, MaAr- QUISE DE, mistress of louis XIV., was born in 1641, the daughter of Gabriel de Rochechouart, Due de Mortemart, and married in 1663 the Mar- quis de Montespan, and became attached to the household of the queen. Her beauty and wit captivated the h of the king, and about 1668 she became his mistress, without, however, as yet supplanting La Vallitre. The marquis was flun into the Bastille, next banished to his estates, an finally in 1676 his marriage was formally annulled. Montespan reigned till 1682, and bore the kin eight children, which were pees, but at las her influence paled before the rising star of the astute widow of Scarron, afterwards Madame de Maintenon, whom she had en; as governess to her children. Gradually she lost all hold over the king, and in 1687 left the court, in 1691 Paris itself. Later, like so many women of her class, she found relief in devotion, and died 27th May 1707. See her Mémoires (1829; trans. 1895), and the studies by A. Houssaye (6th ed. 1864) and Clément (1868), Montesquieu, CHARLES DE SECONDAT, BARON DE LA BREDE ET DE, a celebrated French writer on lities and Jaw, was born 18th January 1689, at he chateau La Bréde, near Bordeaux. Jacques de Secondat, the father of the future author, was second son of the Baron de Montesquieu, president and chief-justice of the parliament of Guienne. Charles-Lonis de la. Bréde, as Montesquien was called, after studying the ancient classics, philo- sophy, and law, me councillor of the parlia- ment of Bordeaux in 1714, and its president in 1716, succeeding his uncle, who left him all his ake gr on condition of his assuming the name and title of Montesquieu. The young president dis- charged the duties of his office faithfully, but he gave himself by preference to the study of nature under the influence of Newton, In his discourses before the Academy of Sciences of Bordeaux he dealt with the causes of echoes and of the weight and transparency of bodies, and with the use of the renal glands, and sketched a project of a physi- eal history of the earth (Discours’ Académiques, 1716-21). But defective vision compelled him to abandon experimental research. s first great literary suecess was the publication of his Lettres Persanesin 1721. These contain a satirical descrip- tion of the contemporary manners, customs, and institutions of society in France, and owed much of their popularity to the ingenuity of their form and the piquancy of their style. Two Persians, Rica and Usbek, are represented as coming from Persia to Paris, and exchanging their impressions by letters to each other, as well as corresponding with their friends at home. The idea was bor- rowed from Dufresny, and it has been frequently imitated since. The libertinage, the political decadence, and the irreligious insincerity of the first years of the regency that followed the death of Louis XIV. are limned with masterly art. For his delineations of Persian manners and in- stitutions he drew from the accounts of Sir John Chardin and other travellers; but his vivid, and at times wantonly sensuous, imagination created most of his situations and characters, Along with much that is frivolous and ephemeral, the Persian Letters contain solid reflections on the nature and relations of social institutions, and an adumbration of the author's later views on govern- ment, toleration, and the inflnence of climate on population, customs, and religion. In 1725 Montes- quien wrote and published anonymously at Paris a prose poem entitled Le Temple de Gnide, in the artificial French style of the time. Returning to Bordeaux, he read to the wee ee a treatise on duty from the Stoic standpoint, and delivered an admir- able discourse on the motives which ought to give MONTESQUIEU MONTEVIDEO - 287 encow t in the sciences (1725). er for darger observation and enjoyment of the life of society, and weary of the routine of his lia- mentary duty, he sold his office in 1726, and then settled in i Thereafter he travelled for three years in order to observe and study the litical and social institutions of other countries, e visited Vienna, where he studied the constitu- tions of Hungary and Poland; Venice, where he formed a close friendship with Lord Chesterfield ; and Rome, where he studied Italian art, and was favourably received hy the pope. He then passed by Switzerland and the Rhine to Holland, where he again met Chesterfield, who took him to Eng- land. He remained in England from October 1729 to August 1731, mixing with its best society, fre- quen the Houses of Parliament, studying the politica’ i of Locke, and analysing the organisation. working of the English constitu- tion, whose essential principles he may be said to have discovered. ter returning to France he divided his time between Paris and La Bréde, mingling the pursuit of pleasure and an_un- ostentatious charity with the preparation of his t works on the science of politics and law. His Considérations sur les Causes de la Grandeur des Romains et de leur Décadence, the ablest, if not the most important, of his works, appeared in 1734. In it he surveys the vast political development of ancient Rome from the rude be- ginnings of the Eternal City till the Turks gathered around the walls of Constantinople, and is elncidation of the causes that determined the character and detail of the movement may- be regarded as the first genuine application of the modern scientific spirit to history, and as an endur- ing contribution to its philosophy. His char- acterisations of the great Romans, his analysis of complex influences, his filiation of events, his estimates of political and social causation have been generally accepted and reproduced by sub- sequent i His great monumental work on spirit of laws, De l’Esprit des Lois, cepeetes in 1748 in 2 vols. at Geneva. It was uet of all the work of his life, and of eliberate and concentrated effort of twenty years. Although published anonymously and put on the Index, the work passed through twenty- two editions in less than two years; and it soon vindicated its claim to be the most original and ripen book ever published on the science of law. ontesquieu indicated his consciousness of its originality by iting, Na it the epigraph : Prolem sine matre creatam. French Jurists of the 16th century, Cujas and others, had led the way to the hist treatment of Roman law, and Domat had written a chapter on ‘the nature and spirit of laws,’ but the universalisation of the historical and comparative method in dealing with the reason eg relations of all nee = one nieu’s mga F aoa applies it»more lucidly, and also more widely than Vico did. By the spirit of laws he means their raison d’étre in time, their historical cansa- tion, or the natural and social conditions by which their origination, development, and forms are deter- mined. The disenssion of the influence of climate was the most characteristic element of the work ; it advances beyond the old abstract discussions of right, and, although pushed in some points too exclusively, it formed the prelude to all the more recent work of the positive and ethnological school. The analysis of the forms and principles of govern- ment carried the subject farther than had been done by any one since Aristotle ; and the exposition of the constitutional government of England, with its clear distinction of the legislative and executive povers, made an advance upon Locke, and held u Nie free English constitution to the admiration ps imitation of all Europe. The influence of Montes- — great work upon political and legal thought irectly, and upon government and laws indirectly, was immense. It came too late to save France from the political errors that culminated in the Revolution, but it inspired and guided its best thinkers and its greatest men. In 1750 he pub- lished a clever Défense de l Esprit des Lois, followed afterwards by Lysimaque (1748), a striking dia- logue on despotism, Avsace et Isménie, a romance, and an essay on taste in the Encyclopédie. Severe study had exhausted his energy and still further weakened his eyes till he became totally blind. He died at Paris 10th February 1755, aged sixty- six, in the calm enjoyment of his great reputation. The best edition of Montesquien’s works is that of E. Laboulaye (7 vols. Paris, 1875-79); that of Lahure (3 vols, 1856) is convenient and serviceable. ‘here are English and other translations of the Lettres Persanes, and a commentary by Meyer (1841). The Spirit of Laws was soon translated into English by T. Nugent (new ed. by Prichard, with D’Alembert’s Analysis, 2 vols. Bohn, 1878). Vian’s Histoire de Montesquieu, sa Vie et ses @uvres (2d ed. 1879) is the fullest biography and bibliography. The smaller monograph by A. Sorel (Eng. ed. by G. Masson, 1887) is excellent; that by Zevort (1887) may also be mentioned. Monteverde, CLAUDIO, composer and_har- monist (1568-1643). See HARMONY, MUSIC. Montevideo, the fy Sige of the republic of Uruguay, is situated on the north shore of the La Plata estuary, about 125 miles E. by 8. of Buenos Ayres. It was built originally on a low promon- tory between the ocean and a horseshoe-shaped bay, 2 miles across; but its extensive suburbs now stretch far into the flat country behind, and have crept round the bay to the landmark which gives the city its name—the Cerro, a smooth, isolated cone, 505 feet high, crowned with a lighthouse and an old fort, At its base there are nearly a score of great saladeros, or beef-salting establishments, where 200,000 cattle yearly are Killed + and here, too, is the largest of the city’s dry-docks. The city proper covers an area of about 5 square miles, the old town, on the little peninsula occupying nearly one square mile; and the sea-breezes make its climate both pleasant and healthy. Montevideo is an attractive town, with broad streets exception- ally well paved— Mulhall declares the Calle 18 de Julio, which is 85. feet wide, ‘incomparably the finest street in South America.’ The houses are flat-roofed, mostly of two or three stories, and often crowned with small square belvideres, High above these rises the cathedral (133 feet), with two side towers and a dome covered with green and blue and yellow tiles. The next most prominent building is the large opera-house ; and otliers are the town-hall, the custom-house, the exchange, the Cabildo (law-courts and parliament house), the school of arts and trades, the university, the museum, the English and Basque churches, two convents, the Hospital de Caridad (330 beds) and the British hospital (60 beds), the extensive public markets, and several of the banks and _ hotels. Tramears run in all directions—there are over 55 miles of lines; there are local electric lighting and telephone companies, and a submarine telephone to Horned Ayres ; and water is brought by a pump- ing-main from the river Santa Lucia, a distance of 34 miles. The depth of water in the bay ranges from 9 to 15 feet, and vessels of heavy draught are compelled to anchor in the roadstead outside, which is exposed and often very rough. If a proper port had been constructed in the years before 1864, when the Buenos Ayres trade was diverted by the Para- guayan war, Montevideo might have permanently taken the place now occupied by the Argentine 288 MONTEZ MONTFORT capital; as it is, possessing the advan of a ates natural harbour, it may even wet hesuie again a dangerous rival, should the necessary harbour-works ever be constructed. It has com- munication by steamer with the United States and Europe, and on five days a week with Buenos Ayres. Its foreign trade is that of Uiewy (q.¥.). The manufactures are more numerous than im- yortant, but have increased of late years nearly as fast as the population. In 1877 there were 110,167 inhabitants, in 1889 there were 214,682, in 1894, 225,680; of these nearly half were foreigners. This foreign element—mainly drawn from Italy, France, and Spain, and engaged principally in retail trade—is a very noticeable feature of Monte- video life.—A fort was built on the Cerro, by the Spaniards, in 1717, and the first settlement of the town made in 1726; a century later (1828) it became the capital of the newly-formed republic of Banda Oriental, Its later history will be found under UruGuAy. See books on the river Plate by Mulhall (5th ed. 1885) and Levey (2d ed. 1890), and Vincent’s Around and About South America (1890). Montez, Loua, adventuress, was born in 1818 at Limerick, and was christened Marie Dolores Eliza Rosanna, her father being an Ensign Gilbert, her mother of Spanish descent, Taken out to India, she there lost her father by cholera; and, her mother having remarried, Dolores bee * Lola’) was sent home in 1826 to Europe, and brought up at Montrose, in Paris, and at Bath. To escape the match, arranged by her mother, with a gouty old judge, she eloped with a Captain James, whom in July 1837 she married at Neath; but the marriage ended in a separation and in her return from India (1842). She now turned «dancer, com- ing out at Her Majesty’s Theatre; and after visits to Dresden, Berlin, Warsaw, St Petersburg, and Paris (where she formed a liaison with Dujarrier, a young Republican editor, who fell in a duel), she came towards the close of 1846 to Munich. There she soon won an ascendency over the eccentric artist-king, Louis I., who created her Countess of Landsfeld, and allowed her £5000 a year. For more than a twelvemonth she was all-powerful, her power directed in favour of Liberalism and against the Jesuits; but the revolution of 1848 sent her once more adrift on the world. Again she married (this time a Lieutenant Heald), a marriage as unlucky as the first; and, after touring (1851- 56) through the States and Australia, and after two more ‘ marriages’ in California, in 1858 she de- livered in New York a series of lectures written for her by C. Chauncey Burr. She died, a penitent, at Astoria, Long Island, on 17th January 1861, her last four months devoted to ministering in a Magdalen asylum near New York, and was buried in iconic Cemetery. See her Autobiography (1858), and Zhe Story of a Penitent (1867). Montezuma, the name of two of the emperors of Mexico. Montezuma I., the most able of the Mexican emperors, ascended the throne about 1437, and soon after commenced a war with the neigh- bouring monarch of Chaleo, which resulted in the annexation of that kingdom to Mexico. He next erushed a confederacy of the Tlascalans, and reigned safely till his death in 1471. Montezuma IL, the last of the Mexican emperors, sueceeded to the throne in 1502. Already distinguished as a warrior, henceforth he devoted his chief attention to the improvement of the laws, and indulged his taste for ser and luxury at the cost of heavy taxation, leading to frequent revolts among his subjects. When Cortes landed in Mexico with his small army in 1519 Montezuma tried to buy off the dreaded enemy, but all his temporising could not prevent the conqueror’s progress to his capital. Soa he himself was prackiaaiiy a prisoner in the Spanish camp, and when the citizens rose in revolt rtes brought out Montezuma in order to pacify them ; but an accidental wound from a stone flung from amongst the crowd of his own subjects ak ag a climax to all the indignities he had. ered. He repeatedly tore the endagee from his wound, and soon after died broken-hearted, June 30, 1520. Some of his children adopted the Christian religion, and his eldest son received from Charles V. the title of Count of Montezuma. One of his descendants was viceroy of Mexico from 1697 to 1701. His last descendant, Don Marsilio de Teruel, Count of Montezuma, was banished from Spain by Ferdinand VII., and afterwards from Mexico, on account of his liberal opinions, and died at New Orleans in 1836. See Corres. Montferrat. formerly an independent duchy of Italy, between Piedmont, Milan, and Genoa, now forming part of the kingdom of Italy. _It consisted of two separate portions, both lying between the Maritime Alps and the Po, and having a united area of over 1300 sq. m. The capital was Casale, After the downfall of the Frankish empire, Mont- ferrat was ruled by its own marquises till the be- ginning of the 14th century. This house sent its most illustrious sons to take part in the Crusades, seneceny. Conrad, the defender of Tyre inst Saladin, and the competitor with bee e Lusignan for the crown of Jerusalem; and Boniface, who became ruler of Thessalia, Iolande or Irene, sister and heiress of the last male of the house, was empress of Constantinople; her second son be- came the founder of the family. of Montferrat- Palwologus, which became extinct in 1533, and Montferrat then passed to the Gonzagas of Mantua. In 1631 the Dukes of Savoy obtained a portion of Montferrat, and in 1703 the remaining portion, Montfort, L’AMAvRI, the name of a noble French house, traditionally descended from a mar- riage (end of 10th century) between the heiress of Montfort and Epernon and William of Hainault, great-grandson of Baldwin, Count of Flanders, the third husband of Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald. The name was taken from the castle of Montfort between Paris and Chartres. Its most famous members were the great Simon de Montfort and his father, Simon IV., Comte de Montfort and Earl of Leicester, subsequently Comte de Toulouse, the ruthless perseentor of the Albigenses. He was born about the year 1160, went on a fruitless crusade to Palestine, but began about 1208 the more congenial crusade of extermination against the harmless heretics in the south of France. He was killed by a stone at the siege of Toulouse, 25th June 1218, See ALBIGENSES. Montfort, Smion pr, Earl of Leicester, the fourth son of the preceding, and of Alice de Mont- morency, was born about the begihning of the 13th century. The title of Earl of Leicester came to him by his ndmother, Amicia de Beau- mont, sister and co-heiress of Robert, Earl of Leicester; and in 1230 we find him in England where he was well received by Henry IIL, am confirmed in his title and estates two years later. He married in 1238 the king’s youngest sister Eleanor, who had been betrothed to the Earl of Pembroke, and who, in the grief of an enthusiastic girl of sixteen, at his death had taken in her haste a vow of or chastity, but never proceeded to take the veil. The marriage aroused the jealousy of the barons and the denunciations of the church, whereupon Simon repaired to Rome, and there snsobeded by gold in obtaining the pope’s sane- tion. In Jane 1239 he was godfather at the baptism of Prince Edward, but three months later suf-_ . 1 7 | —— a i % ; 4 MONTHOLON MONTPELIER 291 The Jews, Arabians, and Turks still reckon by the lunar months of 29 and 30 days, and are therefore compelled, like the ancient jreeks, to insert an intercalary or ‘embolismic’ month. The French republicans in 1793 divided the year into twelve months of 30 days, with five odd days (six in lea ear) to be utilised as national festivals, each month feing subdivided into three decades of 10 days each, as with the ancient Greeks. Another distribution of the months has since been suggested, should such opportunity in oceur—viz. : Ist, 3d, 5th, 7th, oth. llth months, each 30 days; 2d, 4th, 6th, Sth, 10th months, each 31 days; and the remain- ing month 30 days in the ordinary year and 31 in leap year. The existing ‘calendar’ or ‘civil’ months are as i lar in length as they were left by the Romans; the 4th, 6th, 9th, and llth having 30 days, the second 28 days (or 29 in leap year), and the seven others 31 days. To compli- cate this disorder, a month in English law is ‘a lunar month or 28 days unless otherwise ae ee *a lease for twelve months is only for 48 weeks’ (Blackstone, ii. 141). Besides the archaic division of the month into four, as already mentioned, the early Greeks of Homer’s time and previously seem to have had only two parts, the earlier half and the ‘waning half;’ and a trace of that probably remained in the Roman /des, the middle or dividing day of each month. Montholon, (uAr.es Tristan DE, Count of Lee, was born at Paris, 1782. Having served in the navy, he entered the army, and was severely wounded at W . Napoleon made him his chamberlain in 1809. During the Hundred Days Montholon was Napoleon’s adjutant-general. He accom his master to St Helena, and along with Gourgand 9 aarp Mémoires pour servir a@ UHistoire de France sous Na, nm (8 vols. 1822-25). As chief of the staff to Louis Napoleon in 1840, he was condemned to twenty years’ im- | eee} he regained his freedom in 1848, ing published in 1846 Récits de la Captivité de Ni (2 vols.). He died 24th August 1853. Monthyon. See Montyon. Monti, Vincenzo (1753-1828), an Italian poet of the classical school, politically anti-French, Napoleonist, pro-Austrian in turn. He was pro- fessor at Pavia, and, under Napoleon, state historio- Monticelli, Avoipue (1831-85), a noteworthy modern painter, ‘ creator of the phantom genre,’ was born at Marseilles, studied at Paris, where he lived mainly till 1870. He sone rage 4 settled in Marseilles, and died there in cag is paintings fall into three periods, of which the last and most characteristic is notable for masses of warm and rgeous colouring, with vague almost invisible Rete byeephe imly discernible in luxuriant green meadows against a background of glorious cloud masses. Montilla, a town of aie, 23 miles SSE. of Cordova by rail. Pop. 13,207. Montjoie St De the French war-ery, old least as Wace’s day (12th century), from the hill near Paris on which St Denis (q.v.) underwent the joy of martyrdom. See HERALD. Montlucon, 4 town in the French department = of Allier, on a castle-crowned hill whose base is washed by the Cher, 202 miles S. of Paris. It owes its rapid development to the opening up of the 2 er apap field, and has large iron- works and “cpa eee manufactories. Pop. (1872) 20,251 Bg) ,019. Néris-les-Bains, 18 miles SE., is the Neri of the Romans—of whom many are left—and since 1821 has in risen into repute throngh its warm alkaline aainetal (126 F.). Pop. 1675. Montmartre. See Paris. Montmédy a town and fortress in the French department 0! Meuse, 25 miles N. of Verdun and 31 miles by rail SE. of Sedan, consists of two por- tions, the citadel and upper town overlooking the lower town, which lies in the valley of the Chiers, a tributary of the Meuse. Built and fortified in 1235, it was taken by the French in 1542, 1555, 1596, and 1657 ; they, after it was definitely assigned to them by the peace of the Pyrenees (1659), had it reconstructed and re-fortilied by Vauban. It was, however, captured by the Germans in 1815 and again in 1870. Pop. 2740. Montmorency, 2 river of Quebec, a tributary of the St Lawrence, famous for its beautiful falls, 8 miles NE. of Quebec. Here the stream is 100 feet wide, and the falls have a sheer descent of 250 feet. Montmorency, ANNE, first Duc pr, Marshal and Constable of France, born 15th March 1492, belonged to one of the oldest and greatest of the noble families of France. oon, up along with Francis L., he distinguished himself by his caleniy and military skill at Marignano (1515) and in the defence of Méziéres, and was taken prisoner along with his sovereign in the battle of Pavia (1525). In consequence of his efforts to win his master freedom, and his successful warring against the emperor’s armies, he was made Constable in 1538 ; but, being suspected by the king of siding with the Dauphin against him, he was banished from court in 1541. On the accession of Henry II. (1547) he was restored to his former position and dignities. In 1557 he commanded the French army which suffered the terrible defeat of St Quentin at the hands of the Spaniards, in which he was again taken prisoner. During the minority of Charles IX. Montmorency, with the Duke of Guise and the Marshal St André, com the triumvirate which opposed the influence of Catharine de’ Medici. In 1562 he commanded the royal army against the Huguenots at Dreux, and was taken prisoner a third time. In the following year he drove the English out of Havre. He again engaged Condé at St Denis (1567), but received a fatal wound, of which he died at Paris on the following day, 11th November 1567. See Life by Decrue (2 vols. Paris, 1885-89 ). ; Montmorency, HeEnzI, second Duc DE, grand- son of the famous Constable de Montmorency, was born at Chantilly, 30th April 1595. His godfather was Henry IV., who always called him his ‘son.’ When he was seventeen years of age Louis XIII. made him admiral and viceroy of Canada, and in the following year governor of Languedoc. During the religious wars of 1621 and the following years Montmorency commanded the Catholics in the south against Rohan, was almost captured at the siege of Montpellier (1622), took the islands of Ré and Oléron from the defenders of Rochelle (1625), and penetrated into Piedmont ( 1630). But Riche- lieu, jealous of his popularity, provoked him into rebellion along with the king’s brother, Gaston, Duke of Orleans. Marshal Schomberg was sent against him, defeated him at Castelnaudary, and took him prisoner. _Montmorency, cove’ with wounds, was carried to Toulouse, senten to death by the parliament, and, notwithstanding the intercession of King Charles I. of England, the pe, the Venetian Re ublic, and the Duke of voy, was beheaded, h October 1632. Mont- morency was distinguished for his amiability and the courtesy of his manners, as well as for his valour. Montoro, « town of Spain, on the Guadal- quivir, 26 miles ENE. of Cordova. Pop. 13,293. Montpelier, the capital of Vermont since 1805, is on the Winooski or Onion River, 206 miles by 292 MONTPELLIER MONTREAL rail NNW. of Boston. It, contains a handsome granite state-house, with a statue of Ethan Allen, and has some mills and tanneries. Pop. (1900) 6266. Mon ier, the capital of the French depart- ment of Hérault, on the river Lez, 6 miles from the sea and 31 SW. of Nimes. Pop. (1872) 54,466 ; (1891 ) 69,258. Lying near the centre of Langue- doe, on the great route from Italy and Provence to Spain, with its seaport at a point offering the shortest land-route not only to all parts of Langue- doc, but to north France, Mcntpellier’s position was a highly favourable one during the middle ages. Hence alike its commercial and intellectual importance, and its stormy history, during which it was sometimes independent, and sometimes under the suzerainty of Aragon or Navarre, before finally becoming a possession of the French crown in 1392. Its schools of medicine, law, and arts, developing during the 12th and 13th centuries, were formally constituted a university by a papal bull in 1289, at which time the schools of law and medicine Noy latter founded by Arabian physicians) rivalled those of Paris. In the following century Petrarch was a student at the law school, and Arnaud de Vill ve, the alchemist and physician, was teaching in the medical school. ith such a Pte eng ition Montpellier was easily sti by the Renaissance. belais and Ron- delet the anatomist both graduated in medicine’ in 1537; Casaubon was made Greek professor in 1586. After Rondelet there is a continuity al- most unique in the history of seience. A pupil of his founded the famous botanie garden (the oldest in France) in 1593; other pupils, Lobel, Clusins, the brothers Bauhin, were highly dis- tinguished amongst the earlier botanists (see BoTany). At the end of the 17th century’ (during which Clarendon and Locke had been residents), Magnol again made Montpellier the centre of the science, and reckoned among his pupils Tournefort and the elder De Jussieu. De Candolle also wrote here some of his principal works, and laid out the first botanic garden upon the natural system in 1810, The medical school had also a notable history; and a new period of activity is indicated by the celebration of the sexcen- tenary of the university (1890), with its reor- ranisation upon thé fullest seale of equipment. The town has also an important picture-gallery and library. A centre of wine production, upon which its present nage ag depends, Montpellier suffered greatly by the phylloxera; but it was here that the cure of grafting French vines upon American stocks was earliest applied. The new School of Agriculture, oe, devoted to the practical study of wine and silk culture, is very flourish- ing. Of the medieval town little remains, its fortifications and most of its buildings, save the cathedral and the adjoining bishop’s palace (which now houses the school of medicine), phen been destroyed in the religious wars, in the Revolution, or by municipal improvements. — The older streets are crooked and narrow, but afford better shelter from the sun, and ‘from the chilling mistral, than do the modern ones. The chief modern buildings are the theatre and law-courts; but the principal lory of the town is its two great terraces, form- ing public promenades overlooking the undulating country dotted with innumerable mazés or country cottages, and in the distance the Mediterranean, Cevennes, Pyrenees, and Alps. See Duval Jouve, Montpellier ; Aigreteuille, Histoire de Montpellier (1739; new ed. 1877). Montreal, the largest city of the Dominion of Canada, is the centre of Canadian commerce, of Canadian banking, and of the extensive system of railways by which the country is now covered. It is built on the south-east side of an island formed by the junction of the Ottawa River with the St Lawrence, and may be said in eral terms to be situated on the northern bank of the St Lawrence. ee ONS eee oD Lock, The city is about 4 miles long and 2 wide, the Central Mountain rising in the rear narrowing me! at its base for some distance. It is not the political capital of the province of Quebee, but it exerts an immense political influence, and prac- tically not only directs the political business of Quebec, but exerts also by means of its eg its manufactures, and its great importin pee liotis commercial houses a t influence Sy the R24 lic policy of the Federal Government. t is so the seat of the greatest universities, hospitals, convents, and seminaries in all Canada. Finally it is during the season of navigation—i.e. from May to November—the great maritime port of the Dominion, a dozen transatlantic steam- ship companies it one of their head- quarters; while a lake and river and coast navi- tion of great activity increases and diversifies the usiness of the city. It is nearly 1000 miles from Montreal to the oereeyts tor and 250 to the first salt water. Pop. (1871) 107,225; (1881) 140,747, or with the su 155,237 ; (1891), including suburbs taken into the city since 1881, 216,650. In 1881 the people were divided into 78,684 of French descent, 28,995 Irish, 16,407 English, and 12,531 Scotch, with a sprinkling of various other nationalities. The revenue of the city in 1888 was $2,095,411, and the expenditure $2,062,275. The growth of the commerce of Montreal is very remarkable. In 1870 the imports amounted to $23,698,688 and the exports to $11,222,101, In 1889 the imports were $43,948,594 and the exports $29,032,613. The 1500 miles of the St Lawrence River contribute to this growth of export, and distribute largely the growth of import. The total of ts of grain, flour, and meal at Montreal in 1900-05 amounted to about 20,000,000 bushels annually, the shipments of the same being some millions less. The annual soanegs of ship- ping rose from 208,000 tons in 1870 to 550,000 tons in 1890-95 (the American ships declining). For the great Victoria Railway Bridge across the St Lawrence, see BRIDGE, vol. ii., p. 441: see also CANAL. The Federal Government having assumed the debt of the port incurred for deepening the channel, and the canal tolls having been uced to a minimum with a prospect of being entirely abolished in order to encourage a through trade, the future of the port of Montreal as a practically free rt seems assured. The canal system which finds its outlet at Montreal is remarkable. By means the canals Montreal is enabled to touch and MONTREAL MONTROSE 293 the no Duluth _ — ashy sor mee ee s jor, of Chi ‘and Mi ele e Michi- Coil and Goderich on Lake Huron, Butfalo and Cleveland on Lake Erie, Hamilton, Toronto, Kingston, and Oswego on Lake Ontario. These canals afford a continuous course of water- These great roads open up by means of various connections the whole railway-system of the United States and Canada, and the Canadian Pacific Railway has a through line from Montreal to Vancouver City in British Columbia, a distance of 2906 miles. In the boot and shoe manufacture over 3000 hands are em- . loyed, in clothing-factories over 2500, in tobacco- a abecien about 3000, in the breweries about 500; in the works’ of the railways an army There are also rubber- capacity 21,000 eS eo located at i i ighting and for the ontreal requiring ; Of the some of them splendid: St Peter’s Church is a repetition on a smaller scale of the church at Rome; Notre Dame holds 10,000 people ; St Patrick’s is the church of the Irish Catholics. In the French churches the as is generally in eit “ree gp eral yore ones "the » it sev er churches, the .> Methodists have eleven, and other denominations also are well In all there are seventy- four churches in the city. Education in Montreal is conducted under the law of the province of Quebec. It is denominational in character, the vast majority of the schools being of course Roman Catholic. The Protestant schools are under the control of a special The taxes on Catholics go to the Catholic the taxes on Protestants to Protestant schools. M‘Gill University, which obtained its __ charter in 1821, has been an active establishment since 1852; over 1200 ates claim it as Alma Mater. Laval University of Quebec has a branch at Montreal ; the semi of St Sulpice, founded in 1657, is a theological institution, training about 300 pupils at one time; the Presbyterian College, chartered in 1865, has an endowment ane peer i lion of e was oo list are tional College, the jocesan 3 Cali, founded in 1848 by the academic hall of which holds 1200 5 mise in attendance numberin the ues Cartier Normal School, he the provincial government, Christian Brothers’ ools, the schools and convents of the coi tion of Notre Dame, the schools and convents of the Sacred Heart. M‘Gill College has a li of 25,000 volumes, the Advo- eates College Library has 15,000 volumes, the Presbyterian Li 10,000 volumes; the Mechanics’ institute, the Fraser Institute, and the Y.M.C.A. fie also sniper acl ope sim on about ! i in the city, including six Drench, and ve English dailies, and ten French ; eight English weeklies. The Quebec Gazette 1764) was the first paper ae in Canada ; ontreal Gazette (1778) is the next oldest, and is the leading journal still. There are musical, art, and historical associations also which maintain in Montreal a taste for art, literature, and science not common in colonial commercial cities. Amon the chief philanthropic institutions are the Gena] Hospital, costing $40,000 a year; the Protestant House of Industry, to which 20,000 people a year have access; the Y.M.C.A. building; the Dis. pensaty, aiding about 10,000 persons a year; the xray Nuns’ Hospital (1755), which is also a found- ling hospital ; the Hétel Dieu (1644), with 350 beds, receiving over 3000 persons per annum, and costing about $35,000 a year for maintenance. Lae FE Rear was purchased from the presi- dent of the Hundred Associates of France, a trading corporation, by Abbé Olier and Dauversiére, who were moved by religions enthusiasm to establish institutions there; it was actually founded by Maisonneuve, the leader and military head of the enterprise of Olier and Danversiére, who landed at Montreal ( Ville-Marie de Montreal) on the 18th May 1642. The early history of the city was one of continuous struggles against the Iroquois Indians, by whom the whole island was more than once devastated up to the very palisades of the town’s defences ; and in 1660 the Indians almost exter- minated the population not actually within the feeble defences, In 1722 the city was fortified with a bastioned wall and ditch. In September 1760, the year following the capture of Que by Wolfe, Montreal was surrendered by the French gover- nor, De Vaudreuil, to the British, under Lord Amherst and General Murray. In 1776-77 the city was occupied by the invaders from the revolted colonies, who did their best to coerce or cajole the Canadians into joining in the rebellion. In 1777 the British forees advanced from Quebec, and Montreal was evacuated by the invaders. Since that time the history of the city has been peaceful. The war of 1812-14 did not disturb its pr The rebellion of 1837 for a moment ruffled its political serenity ; but all its modern history has been the history of constitutional development, of business , of educational advancement, and of growth in population. Montreux, 2 group of villages on the north shore of the Lake ce Gasevs, 15 miles by rail SE. of Lausanne. The name properly belongs to one small hamlet, but is popularly extended so as to include the adjoining vi of Clarens, Vernex, Veytaux, &c., with a population of 8019. The beautiful situation and mild climate of ‘the Swiss Nice’ attract many invalids to the place, which abounds with hotels and ions. Near it is the castle of Chillon. See Steiger’s Der Kurort Montreux (Zur. 1886). 4 Montrose, a seaport of Forfarshire, 76 miles NNE. of Edinburgh and 42 SSW. of Aberdeen. It stands on a level peninsula between Montrose Basin (a tidal loch, measuring 2 by 1? miles, but almost dry at low-water) and the mouth of the river South Esk. A fine suspension bridge (1829), 432 feet long, leads to Inchbrayock or Rossie Island, in the Esk’s channel, and is continued thence by a drawbridge; and there is also a rail- wa: viateare (1883). ae has a plain town- hall (1763-1819); a large parish church (1791- 1834), with a steeple 200 feet high; an academy pice a lunatic asylum (1868), 2 miles NNW. ; good links; and a wet-dock (1840). The foreign trade—timber its staple—is chiefly with the Baltic and Canada; and the average tonnage of ships entering the port exceeds 90,000 tons per annum. Flax-spinning is the principal industry ; and topet, canvas, soap, &c, are also manufactured. on- trose was the birthplace of Robert Brown, botanist; Joseph Hume; Sir Alexander Burnes; 294 MONTROSE and Paul Chalmers, R.S.A. It has memories, too, of Edward L., the two Melvilles, the Great Marquis, the Old Pretender, Dr Johnson, and Lola Montez. A royal burgh since 1352 and earlier, it unites with Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar, and Bervie to return one member to parliament. Pop. (1851) 15,238; (1881) 14,973; (1891) 13,048. See Mitchell’s His- tory of Montrose (Montrose, 1866). Montrose, JAMES GRAHAM, MARQUIS oF, belonged to a family which can be traced back to the year 1128, and which since 1325.had been settled at Old Montrose, in Maryton parish, For- farshire, near Montrose town. It had been en- nobled with the titles of Lord Graham (1451) and Earl of Montrose (1505); and three of its members had fallen at the battles of Falkirk, Flodden, and Pinkie; whilst another, Sir William Graham, a Nex the eek egy tae s “9 his second wife Mary, ter 0! rt Ill.—a marriage from which sprung the Grahams of Claverhouse. John, third Earl of Montrose, was chancellor and, after James VI.’s accession to the English crown viceroy of Scotland. His successor, John, marri Lady M t Ruthven, eldest sister of the un- fortunate 1 of Gowrie; and the issue of this union was five daughters and one son, James, the f t — who was born in 1612 at Old ontrose. is mother died in 1618, his father in 1626. Next year the young earl was sent to the university of St Andrews by his guardian and brother-in-law, Archibald Lord Napier, son of the famous inventor of logarithms. He was proficient in all nage xh and an apt if not ardent student, besides exhibiting a genuine love of literature, which his stormy after-life never destroyed. In 1629 he married Magdalene Carnegie, daughter of the first Earl of Southesk, and he lived at Kinnaird Castle, his father-in-law’s seat, till in 1633, on attaining his majority, he left Scotland to travel in ttaly, France, and the Low Countries. On his way home, in 1636, he had an audience with Charles I., but, owing to the machinations of the Marquis of Hamilton, was coldly received; and he had not been long back in Scotland before by the ‘canniness of Rothes’ he was ‘ brought in’ to the ranks of the king’s opponents, at this time comprising the great mass of the Scottish nation. Montrose returned in the very year (1637) when the tumults broke out in Edinburgh on the attempt to introduce Laud’s Prayer-book ; and he was one of the four noblemen selected to compose the ‘Table’ of the nobility, which, along with the other Tables of the gentry, the burghs, and the ministers, drew up the famous National Covenant (q.v.). In the summer of 1638 he was despatched to Aberdeen, to coerce it into subscription ; and in 1639 he made three military expeditions thither. On the first occasion or March) he employed conciliation; Baillie laments his ‘too great’ humanity. On the second (25th May) he imposed on the city a fine of 10,000 merks, but, though his soldiers committed some acts of pillage, he resisted the importunities of the Covenanting zealots to give -Meroz’ to the flames, and Baillie again complains of ‘his too great ienity in sparing the enemy's houses.’ The arrival at Aberdeen by sea of the Earl of Aboyne, Charles's lieutenant of the north, with reinforcements, caused Montrose to retreat, followed by the earl and the Gordon High- landers ; but at Meagra Hill, near Stonehaven, on 15th June, he won a complete victory, and four days later, after storming the Bridge of Dee, he was once more master of Aberdeen. The citizens expected some bloody punishment for their well- known Episcopalian leanings, but again Montrose agreeably ee (a oo their fears, again to be upbraided by the Committee of Estates for not having burned the town. News now arrived of the ‘ pacification of Berwick,’ and terminated the struggle in the north. Charles invited several of the Covenanting nobles to meet him at Berwick. Among those who went was Montrose ; and the Presbyterians dated what the — as his apostasy from that interview. H political arene was certainly different after his return. In the General Assembly which met in August 1639 he showed symptoms of disaffection towards the Covenant; and one night, it is said, & paper was affixed on his chamber-door, ‘Jnvictus armas, verbis vincitur.’ In the second Bishops’ War, when, on 20th August 1640, 25,000 Scots crossed the Tweed, Montrose was the first to plunge into the stream; but that very month, with eighteen other nobles and gentlemen, he had entered into a secret engagement at Cum- bernauld against the dictatorship of Argyll, to whom and the zealots Montrose was as hostile now as he ever had been to Hamilton and the ‘sometime pretended prelates.’ It leaked out that he had been secretly communicating with the king; and when the Scottish parliament met (November 1640) he was cited to appear before a committee. The affair of the ‘Cumbernauld Bond’ was brought up; but nothing came of it, thongh some of the fiery spirits among the clergy ‘ pressed,’ says Guthrie, “that his life might go for it.’ Next June Mon- trose with three others was accused of plotting oe ll, and confined till November in inburgh tle. Clarendon’s story that Mon- trose, about this period, offered to the king to assassinate Argyll and- Hamilton ma safely be set aside; but to Hamilton he owed the rejection of his two proposals in the rd i Lapa to raise the royalist standard in the Highlan In 1644, however, he quitted his forced inaction at Oxford, where he had been residing with Charles, and, disguised as a groom, made his way into Perthshire, with the rank of lieutenant-general in Scotland and the title of Marquis of Montrose. At Blair-Athole he met 1200 Scoto-Irish auxiliaries under Alaster Maccoll Keitache Macdonell (* Col- kitto’), and placed himself at their head, the clans een wy hy round him. Marching south, on Ist ptember he fell on the Covenanting army, com- manded by Lord Elcho, at Tippermuir, near Perth, and gained a signal victory. He next defeated a force of Covenanters at Aberdeen (13th Septem- ber), and took possession of the city, which was this time abandoned for four days to all the horrors of war. The approach of Argyll, at the head of 4000 men, compelled Montrose, whose forces were far inferior in numbers and discipline, to retreat, He plunged into the wilds of e- noch, recrossed the Grampians, and suddenly —_ in Angus, where he wasted the estates of more than one Covenanting noble. Havi obtained fresh supplies, he once more return to Aberdeenshire, with the view of raising the Gordons; narrowly eseaped defeat at Fyvie, in the end of October; and again withdrew into the fastnesses of the mountains. Argyll, baffled, returned to Edinburgh, and threw up his com- mission, Montrose, receiving large accessions from the Highland clans, planned a winter cam- paign, marched south-westward into the country of the Campbells, devastated it frightfully, drove Argyll himself from his castle at Inveraray, and then wheeled north intending to attack Inverness. The ‘ Estates’ at Edinburgh were greatly alarmed, and, raising a fresh army, placed it under the com- mand of a natural son of Sir William Baillie of Lamington. He arranged to ee way of Perth, and take Montrose in front, while Argyll should rally his vast array of vassals, and fall on him in the rear. The royalist leader was in the Great Glen of Albin, the basin of the Caledonian MONTROSE MONTYON PRIZES 295 Canal, when he heard that Argyll was followin him. He instantly turned on his pursuer an surprised and utterly routed him at Inverlochy, 2d February 1645. Fifteen hundred of the Camp- bells were slain, only four of Montrose’s men. He then resumed his march northward, but did not venture to assault Inverness, his wild moun- taineers being admirably fitted for rapid irregular warfare, but not for the slow work of beleaguer- ment. So, directi his course eastward, he passed with fire sword through Moray and Aberdeenshire. Baillie and Hurry, his lieutenant, were at Brechin, but Montrose by a dexterous movement eluded them, captured and pillaged Dundee (3d April), and escaped safely into the ‘Grampians. nm 4th May he routed Hurry at Auldearn, near Nairn, and on 2d July inflicted 2 still more disastrous defeat on Baillie himself at Alford in Aberdeenshire. ‘Before the end of the summer,’ he sent word to Charles, ‘I shall be in Covenanters being slain. i of Montrose’s six splendid victories, seemed to lay Scotland at his feet, but the clansmen slipped away home to secure their booty, and Aboyne withdrew with all his cavalry. Still, with 500 horse and 1000 infantry, he had entered the Border country, when, on 13th Septem- ber, he was surprised and hopelessly routed by 6000 troopers under David Leslie at Philiphaugh, near Selkirk. Escaping to Athole, he again endeavoured, but vainly, to raise the Highlands ; and on 3d Sep- tember 1646 he sailed for Norway, whence he pro- ceeded to Paris, Germany, and the Low Countries. Here it was that news reached him of Charles I.’s execution, whereat he swooned, and then reviving, ‘swore before God, angels; and men to dedicate the remainder of his life to the avenging the death of the martyr.’ So, on behalf of Charles IIL., he undertook a fresh invasion of Seotland, and from Or passed over to Caithness, his little army almost annihilated by shipwreck. Neither gentry nor commons would join him; but he pushed on to the borders ‘of ire, where, at Inver- charron, his dispirited remnant was cut to pieces by Strachan’s cavalry, 27th April 1650. He fled into the wilds of Sutherland, and was nearly starved to death, when he fell into the hands of Macleod of Assynt, who sold him to Leslie. He was cuveyes with all possible contumely to Edin- burgh, where, dressed like a gallant bridegroom, in the Grassmarket on a loft crane 2ist May 1650. Eleven years afterwards is mangled remains were collected from the four airts, and buried in St Giles’s, where a statel monument was reared to him in 1888. He left a son, James, the ‘good Marquis’ (c. 1631-69), whose grandson in 1707 was created Duke of Montrose. Montrose’s few poems, all burning with passion- ate loyalty, are little known, save the one famous stanza commencing, ‘He either fears his fate too much.’ That has the right ring, one would think ; and yet its asecription to Montrose is doubtful, first put forward in Watson’s Collection of Scots Poems (1711). There are four portraits of Mon- trose—by Jameson ( 1629 and 1640), Dobson (1644), and Honthorst (1649), Of the inner man the finest estimate is Mr Gardiner’s: ‘When once he had chosen his side, he was sure to bear himself as # Paladin of old romance. If he made any cause his own, it was not with the reaso’ calculation of a statesman, but with the fond enthusiasm of a lover. When he transferred his affections from the Covenant to the king, it was as Romeo trans- ferred his affections from Rosaline to Juliet. He fought for neither King nor Covenant, but for that ideal of his own which he followed as Covenanter or Royalist. He went ever straight to the mark, impatient to shake off the schemes of worldly-wise ticians and the oF of interested intriguers, ature had marked him for a life of meteoric splendour, to confound and astonish a world, and to leave behind him an inspiration and a name which would outlast the ruins of his hopes.’ See the Latin Memoirs by his chaplain, Dr Wishart ( Amst. 1647 ; i lish translation, 1756 ; complete trans. by Mi orland on er 1893); Mark api ; 4th ed. 1856); Napier’s Memoirs of Montrose (1 Lady. Violet Greville’s Montrose (1886); and Mr S§. R. iner’s History of England, Great Civil War, and History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate. Montserrat (Lat. Mons Serratus, so named from its saw-like outline), a mountain of Catalonia, in north-east Spain, 30 miles NW. of Barcelona. Its height is 4055 feet ; and ‘its outline,’ says Ford, ‘is most fantastic, consisting of cones, pyramids, buttresses, ninepins, sugar-loaves,’ hte pious Catalonians aver that it was thus shattered at the Crucifixion. Every rift and gorge is filled with | box-trees, ivy, and other evergreens. From the topmost height the eye wanders over all Catalonia. The mountain, however, owes its celebrity to the Benedictine abbey built half-way up it, with its wonder-working im of the Virgin, and to the thirteen hermitages formerly perched like eagles’ nests on almost inaccessible pinnacles, In 1811 the French, under Suchet, plundered the abbey, burned the library, shot the hermits, and hanged the monks (who had given shelter to their emi- grant brethren at the Revolution). The place suffered still more in 1827, when it became the stronghold of the Carlist insurrection. Montserrat, one of the Lesser Antilles, belonging to Britain, lies 27 miles SW. of Antigua. It is about 11 miles in length, 7 in breadth, and has an area of 32 sq. m. The surface is ve mountainous (3000 feet), and heavily tim Sugar and limes and lime-juice are the pines products. The island, governed by a president and a legislative council, is the healthiest in the West Indies. The ae average nearly £25,000, and the exports £21,100. The island was discovered in 1493, and colonised by the British in 1632. It has remained in their hands ever since, except for two short intervals (1664-68 and 1782-84), when it was in the ae of France. Pop. (1881) 10,083; (1891) 11,762, of whom about 1500 were at Ply- mouth, the chief town. Mont St Michel. See St MicHEL. Montyon P: rewards for signal instances of disinterested ness discovered throughout the year, awarded by the French Academy, accord- ing to the will of Jean-Baptiste-Robert Auger, Baron de agen hay (1733-1820), who bequeathed £120,000 to public hospitals, and the remainder of his fortune to give sums of money to poor patients on leaving Paris hospitals, and to found the prizes since connected with his name. Already in 1782 he had originated the prize of virtue, but on his return to France in 1815 he arranged the scheme in its final form. The Academy of Sciences awards annually a prize of 10,000 frances to the individual who has discovered the means of making any mechanical occupation more healthy, another of equal value for improvements in medicine and surgery; while the Forty themselves award the prize of virtue, and another to the writer of the work likely to have the greatest beneficial influence on morality—both alike of 10,000 francs a year. 296 MONUMENTS The last are usually divided among several re- we arg and for these there seems to be a some- what liberal standard of interpretation, for in a single year (1884), for example, we find awards yiven to a Journey to Japan, a Life of General Chanzy, a History of English Literature, and an Essay on Laughter. The same indulgence extends also to romance, all that seems required being some literary merit and a fair average of morality. In- stead of rewarding works specially advantageous to morality, the Academy has been redaced to the necessity of crowning those which are content merely to respect it. in 1885 the Academy accepted a legacy of 10,000 franes to recompense particularly lilial piety. A society was formed in 1833 to publish cheap lives and portraits of all men to be regarded as benefactors to their species ; whether the benevo- lent, as Montyon, Howard, and Mrs Fry, or special originators like Jenner, Franklin, Davy, and Jac- quard. A medal bearing the heads of Montyon and Franklin was struck at its foundation, and a Id medal is given every year. See Memoir of Montyon by Labour ( Paris, 1881), and Taillandier’s Priz de Vertu (1877). Monuments. The Ancient Monuments Pro- tection Act of 1882 constitutes the Commissioners of Works guardians of a certain number (some seventy groups) of monuments in Great Britain and Ireland; and provides for their being made guardians of as many more as from time to time the owners shall put under their care. The owners retain all their rights save as regards injuring or defacing the protected monuments; any person defacing or injuring them is liable to a fine not exceeding £5, or imprisonment for a month. The Commissioners, the specially appointed Inspector of Ancient Monuments, and their workmen are to have access to do what may be necessary to protect the monuments. In France famous castles and churches, as well as dolmens, &c., are among the monuments historiques protected by law. Barrow. Earth-houses. Obelisk. Brasses, Hadrian’s Wall. Offa's Dyke. Brochs. Kits Coity House, Pyramid. Cairn. Maeshowe, Round Towers, Callernish. ) ausclenm. Standing Stones. Castile. Mouaster Stennis Colossus, Mound! Builders. Stone Circles, Dolmen Nuraghe. Stonehenge. Monza (anc. Modetia), a town of Italy, on the river Lambro, 9 miles by rail NNE. of Milan. It was aq seed the capital of the Lombards, to whose queen, Theodelinda, it owesits chief public buildings, notably the cathedral (595 ; reconstructed in the 14th century); it was noted for its wealth and its exten- sive cloth trade in the middleages. It has an inter- esting town-hall (1293), a royal lace (1777), and manufactures of cottons, hats, leather, &. The cathedral contains many relics of Theodelinda, and the famous Iron Crown (see Crown, Vol. LIL., p. 589), restored by Austria in 1866. Pop. 17,077. Moody, Dwicut LyMAN, evangelist, was born February 5, 1837, at Northfield, Massachusetts. In 1854, after a youth of great poverty, he went to Boston, where, during his two years’ service as a shopman, he became converted. He went to Chicago in 1856, and here was active in Sunday-school mis- sion work; and from 1858 he devo himself en- tirely to Christian work. During the civil war he served the Christian Commission, and afterwards became practically the head of the Young Men's Christian Association work in Chicago. In 1871 he) was joined by Ira D. Sankey, an effective singer, his life-long colleague. They worked with great | suecess in most of the principal cities of the United | States, and in 1873, 1881, and 1883 in Great Britain. | Mr Moody died at Northfield, December 22, 1899. Here are the great schools for boys and girls, started in his own home in 1879; they accommodate now MOON about 1000 pupils. He published volumes of ser- mons and other works. aoe the authorised Life by W. R. Moody (1900). Mooltan, See MuLTAN. Moon, the satellite of the earth. It ranks among the larger satellites of our system, being an almost perfect sphere of 2160 miles in diameter. It revolves at a mean distance from the earth's centre of 238,833 miles. Its total surface is 0°074 of the earth's, or in sq. m, 14,657,402; and its volume 0°02034 of the earth's, or in cubic miles 5,300,000,000, or in terms of the sun’s volume only sxxdeces- Its mass is 0°0128 of the earth’s, or in tons 78,000,000,000,000,000,000, Its density is 3°57 that of water, or 0°63 that of the earth. It travels in its orbit with a velocity of 3334 feet per second, and its equatorial velocity of rotation is 10 miles per hour. Presenting as large a surface Fig. 1.—Comparative Sizes of the Earth and Moon, to the eye as the sun, and changing both its form and position with great rapidity, it has necessarily always attracted a large measure of attention, and has proved in early ages and among savage peoples the most useful of the heavenly bodies for the measurement of time. Its motions, always in- teresting, have in modern times been most care- fully observed and calculated, from their great value in enabling the traveller and navigator to determine the Teasttade (see LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE). The explanation of the moon's changes of shape, from a thin crescent to a full disc, is the first prob- lem presented to the most careless observer, A little watching shows that these are due conjointly to the globular form of the moon, its motion, and the fact that it does not shine by native light, but simply reflects the solar rays. The illuminated (or conver) edge of its figure is always turned towards the sun, When right opposite the sun it appears as full, and sometimes is so situated as to partially obscured by the earth’s shadow, the earth intercepting the solar light by which alone it shines, When it is near the sun in the sky it appears as a thin crescent, turning almost entirely its dark side to the earth. Sometimes, at new moon, it comes between us and the sun, ob- securing his dise either in a partial or total Eclipse (q.v.). At either half moon the moon is said to be in quadrature, or in the ‘first’ or ‘last quarter.’ At new and full moon it is said to be in syzygy (Gk. syn, ‘together;’ zygon, ‘yoke’). Our own observation will soon show that these chan result from the constant illumination of one side of the moon, and constant darkness of the other, the crescent being larger or smaller as, from the moon's change of position, we see more or less of the bright side. Thus we see that the moon’s phases depend on its motions over the sky, with reference to the sun. These motions and their causes we next consider. And it is most convenient in doing so to discuss first the apparent motions—i e. FULL MOON, EXHIBITING BRIGHT STREAKS RADIATING FROM TYCHO. Vol. VIL, page 296. MOON 297 grey iy which the ae so tt the a es Demy. 43, nas ike a driving cloud, though not with the same rapidity. We can reduce all such motions to movements in the two easily-noted directions, first, north and south ; secondly, east and west. And it is most con- venient to take the sun as our point of reference. Sometimes the moon is north of the sun, and some- times south, sometimes east of it, and sometimes west. It moves, then, in both of our two directions. But when we compare the east and west motion with the north and south we soon note an important difference. The east and west motion is continu- ously and steadily from west to east, carrying the moon right round the heavens ; starting at new moon near the sun, and i porwr until at full moon nearly the whole breadth of the sky separates them; then still progressing, until the sun is a again from the opposite side. In fact, if the sun stood still at its setting for a lunar - month, we should see the moon soar steadily upwards in the western sky, cross the whole ex- = of heaven, and own below the eastern orizon. Then it would continue its course, re- turning to the sun, beneath our feet, and reach nearly its original position. o perform this eyele the moon takes 29°53 days, which is called its synodical period. If we took a bright star as the starting-point and of the moon’s circle, instead of the sun, we should find the moon only take 27°32 days to return to the star. This is called the moon's sidereal period. The cause of the difference is that the star is steady in its position, while the sun slowly moves in his annual course in the same direction as the moon, which therefore has to overtake the sun when returning to him. Thus the motion from west to east is always in the same direction ; but this is not the case with the north and south motion. While performing its = ge from west to east, say in the month of March, moon begins by travelling northward at first, but latterly swings as far southward. In autumn the reverse is the case (see below). In Decem- ber full moon occurs at the most northern point of its course, and in June at the southernmost. In winter, therefore, we have at night most light from the full moon, and in summer least. March the evenings have least moonlight, and in September they have most. Attentively consider- ing all these movements, we soon see that the moon travels round the earth in a curve not differ- ing very much from a circle, for as it always appears nearly of the same size, it must remain constantly at nearly the same distance from the earth. We have now almost insensibly passed from the observation of t motions to the idea of an orbit or path, which the moon traverses. And this leads at once to the consideration of the nature of this orbit, or the moon’s real motions. Accurate observation reveals that the moon’s distance from the centre of the earth is not the same in different of its orbit. It varies in apparent diameter m a maximum of 33’ 31” to a minimum of 29’ 21". As this variation forbids the idea that the orbit is a circle concentric with the earth, so it also forbids the idea that it is a circle eccentricall — in regard to the earth. The true form is nd to be that of an ellipse having an eccentricity of 005491, with the earth in one of the foci, This ellipse is, however, continually distorted by various inequalities to be noticed hereafter, chiefly due to the sun’s attractive energy, which continually con- tends with that of the earth for the mastery over its satellite. The lunar orbit is inclined to the ecliptic (or earth’s orbit) at an angle of 5° 8’ 40". The ts where the two intersect are called the Nodes (q.v.), and the line joining them the line of nodes. The point of her orbit nearest the earth is the perigee, that most distant is the apogee, and the line joinin; them is called the dine f apsides. Both the line o' nodes and line of apsides change their place, the former turning completely round in 6793°391 days =18°6 years, the latter in 3232°57 days = nearly 9 years. These motions take place, however, in opposite directions: the line of apsides revolves with the moon’s orbital motion, the line of nodes inst it. These motions are due to the sun’s disturbing influence (see PERTURBATIONS). Each day, on an average, the moon describes 13° 10’ 35” of the circle of her path. To do this requires, at its distance, an actual velocity of 3 miles per hour. This ees is found to be exactly what is uired to balance the moon’s weight, supposing that to be reduced in proportion to the square of its distance from the earth. Thus Newton concluded that the force retaining the moon in its orbit is simply its weight, or the mutual gravitation between it and the earth. This conclusion is veritied by the elliptic form of the orbit, and the place of the earth in one focus. For an orbit of this form is produced by a force varying inversely as the square of the distance. Both the form of the orbit, then, and the varying nature of the force governing it, as well as the powerful disturbing influence of the sun, cause variations in the moon’s pasa a Usually these are allowed for by taking as a foundation the mean or average angular velocity given above, and considering its variations under the title of inequalities, which must all be allowed for if the moon's place in the sky is to be if i with accuracy at any time. irst in order is the elliptic inequality discovered 2 Hipparchus. It is caused by the quicker or ower motion of the moon as it over the nearer or more distant of its elliptie orbit. Its value is 6° 18’ nearly. Secondly, there is the annual ation (diseovered by Tycho Brahé), a yearly effect, arising from the increase and diminu- tion of the sun’s disturbing force, as the earth approaches or leaves the sun in its annual course. is amounts to 11’ 10’, and, as our earth is nearer the sun in winter and farther off in summer, it causes the moon to be behind its mean place in the first part of the year and before it in the later months. Thirdly, there is the variation (discovered by Abul-Wefa). This arises from the changes in direction and amount of the sun’s disturbing force, which are caused by the moon’s motion in its own orbit. Its effect on the moon’s longitude may amount to 39 31”. Fourthly, there is the evection, ene on the position of the axis of the moon’s orbit, and the line of nodes, with regard to the sun. Its effects are complicated, but may amount to 1° 16’ 27” on the moon’s longitude, and 8’ 57” on its latitude. Besides these, the parallactic in lity is inter- esting, as giving a means of calculating the sun’s distance from our earth. The sun’s disturbing action varies in amount as the moon in its orbit is nearest or farthest away from the sun, This variation ee on the ratio of the moon’s distance to that of the sun; so that, knowing the amount of the inequality and the distance of the moon, a value may be found for the sun’s distance. Hansen showed by this means that the value long received for the sun’s distance required to be diminished. See PARALLAX, SUN. The secular acceleration of the moon was dis- covered by Halley in 1693 from a comparison of the times of Eclipses (q.v.) many centuries apart. This inequality is an increase of the moon’s mean motion by about 12” per century. It is partly due to a slow change in the form of the earth’s orbit, by which the sun’s disturbing force is slightly lessened, which is equivalent to an increase of the 298 rth's attractive force, whereby the moon’s angular velocity is increased. This part will, however, compensate itself in the course of ¢ It is partly also due to a slow lengthening of the day—i.e. the period of the earth's rotation, which arises from the frictional action of the tides, that act like a brake upon the earth’s surface. This portion remains uncompensated, of course. The moon's distance from the earth is obtained by observations of its place from two widely-separated stations, such as the observatories at Greenwich and the Cape of Good Hope. If simultaneously observed from these, the moon will not appear to both observers in the same position among the stars; the amount of difference in apparent tion depending on its distance from the earth at the time. From this difference is deduced the moon's horizontal parallax. This is the change in the moon's place which would be noted by an observer on shifting his place from the centre of the earth to a point on its surface where the moon would be seen on the horizon. The moon’s mass being very nearly »,th of the earth’s, the force of lunar gravity at the moon's surface is then such that any object would weigh there only 0°15 of its weight at the earth's surface, and a falling body would there only traverse 2°48 feet in the first second of its course. The moon’s rotation on its axis agrees in period with its revolution round the earth, so that, as has been said, we have 08i- Fig. 2.—The Moon, tirst quarter always the same side presented to our view. Occasionally, however, we see a little round one or other edge owing to Libration (q.v.). From these conditions of size, density, and mass we should expect that, while presenting some features of agreement, in most respects the moon would differ widely from the earth in physical condition. Even to the naked eve some peculiar ities are obvious. Attentively watching the full moon, we soon become familiar with its irregularly spotted surface, which changes. It cannot then be like that earth, which often obscured by clouds and mist The telescope con firms this impression All the details of the lunar eurface are hard, cold, and glaring in their delinea- never of the is | | of | classified, and the arrangement commonly in use is (inverted, as seen through telescope ). (From Photograph through the Great Lick Telescope, by Prof. 8, W. Burnham.) MOON tion. The delicate colouring and shade of terrestrial scenery is entirely absent. All is marked in white and black, or in various shades of yellowish gray. Nothing like mist, cloud, or vapour has ever been | seen, except in some doubtful instances on the floor of the erater Plato, or other deep depressions, There is neither water to furnish vapour, nor atmosphere lit to bear clouds. Observation of the stars occulted by the moon (see OCCULTATIONS ) confirms this, and, if there be even an attenuated atmosphere, it cannot have more than g},th of the surface-density of our own. Bessel’s maximum value for this of yey, has heen shown by Neison to be too small, and it is not improbable that the moon possesses an atmosphere of extreme rarity, having a surface-density of prob- ably about 45th that of the earth. Vegetation and | animal life appear to be equally absent from the moon, and the best modern theories of its state | require us to regard the surface as either bare rock pe sand, or as ice and snow. These theories have arisen in the attempt to explain the strange forms the lunar surface. These forms have been followed here as convenient. But it must not be regarded as a really scientific one. For some formations, while in their general aspect belonging | to one class, might really be assigned to other | classes in other respects. | The term Mare (Lat.) has been apes to the | large dark plains, an example of which is the Mare Crisium, easily seen as an oval dark spot near the edge of the new moon. There are also large level areas which are brighter, and to which no special name has been attached. To one large irregular dark plain the title of Oceanus Procellarum has been given. The terms Palus (marsh), Lacus (lake), and Sinus (gulf) have been somewhat fancifully used to denote smaller dark areas. Under the broad title craters have been grouped many formations, so dif- ferent from one another that seleno- graphers now divide them into walled plains, _mountain-rings, _ring-plains, crater-plains, craters, craterlets, crater- pits, crater-cones, and depressions— names expressive enough of more or less circular ramparts varying in size from 150 miles in diameter to a few hundred yards, and in depth, or height of walls, ranging from 18,000 feet down- wards. In some parts of the lunar sur- face these literally swarm, crossing and interrupting one another, smaller ones perched on the edge or sides of larger ones, and, generally, in the flat bottom of the larger ones several of the smaller kinds are sure to be seen. Any moder- ately good telescope will show the larger kinds. Besides these there are the true mountain ranges, called the Lunar Alps, Apennines, Cordilleras, &c., similar in most respects to terrestrial chains. These range from 20,000 feet in height downwards, and where their profile is seen at the edge of the lunar dise they form distinct notches. The lunar rills (so named by Schriter, their discoverer, in 1787) are clefts or cracks in the surface, passing often right through mountains and valleys, sometimes for a distance of 300 miles, their breadth being relatively so small as to give them the appearance of true cracks. Most striking of all lunar appearances are the broad white rays, which diverge from some of the principal lunar ring-plains. Those proceeding from Tycho extend, in one case at least, nearly 2000 | miles, There are hundreds of them, and they MOON ‘ 299 range from 10 to 20 miles broad. They pass right on over mountains of the surface at all points, but distinct from it in brightness. There are seven principal systems of these inexplicable streaks. To denote the relative brightness of lunar forma- tions a scale is used, the brightest being called 10°, and the less bright 9°, 8°, &e., down to 0°. These formations are variously named. The incipal mountain ranges have been named after Shoes. on the earth. e craters are named after astronomers or philosophers, as Tycho, Plato, Aris- totle, &c. The different parts of these, and smaller objects near them, are known by Greek or Roman letters, attached to the name of the chief object. Greek letters are used for peaks and hills, Roman letters for craters and depressions. Capital letters imply measured objects. For rills the letters ¢, = v, x9, and 7 are chiefly used. But there are occasional variations from rules, as in the case of most astronomical ah eiggnep st Pes These peculiar appearances, so different m those around us on the earth, have much puzzled astronomers. The usual t attributes them to voleanic action, combined with shrinkage of the lunar globe on nee oe A recent theory explains them as the result of slow glaciation, the craters being lakes, around whose margins the quickly vapour from their surfaces has fallen in mountains of ice. The craters are vents for water-vapour, and their cones masses of ice. To: this t! the extreme rarity of the lunar atmo- here is favourable, buat it cannot be said, any more alee tts release theory, to mideh all the ditiealtion me thoroughly satisfactory explanation has as yet n pro) ; The total amount of light given by the full moon is probably less than yyssy9th of the sun, Its aout a age intensity, however, has admitted of sev ne pho’ hs being taken, notably by Rutherford of New York, and recently by the fine telescope of the Lick Observatory, California. Harvest-moon.—At or about the time of har- vest in the north temperate zone the sun in its annual course is approaching the celestial equator, which it crosses from north to south on September 22. On that date it sets close to the exact western = of the horizon. If it happens to be then also ll moon, the moon rises that evening as the sun sets, and is at its rising opposite the sun, or close to the exact eastern point of the horizon. Thus it begins to give light at sunset, and continues to do so until sunrise, when it sets opposite to the sun, just as the latter rises. This arrangement holds good without any great menue for several days, so that there is practically no darkness, especially if the weather fine. The full moon which thus illumines the autumn niglits is called the Aarvest- moon. No other full moon in the year rises for so many days in succession so soon after sunset. If the date of full moon be not exactly September 22, still the same phenomena occur, though not with the same ection, and the longer the interval hetween full moon and that date the less perfect they This is because the full moon, being on are. September 22, coincides with the time when the moon (being at full moon necessarily opposite the sun) is crossing the celestial equator from south to north, at which time its northward motion is most a ol The position of any body on the Celestial Sp (q.v.) determines the time of its rising at any place in our latitudes, and, if that tion be altered, the time of rising will be altered also. If it moves southward the moon will tend to rise /ater, if it moves northward it will tend to rise earlier. We have seen that the moon’s northward motion is most rapid when crossing the equator. Hence it has then a strong tendency to rise earlier each a ae partaking of the 4 evening. But its motion towards the east (or downwards, when it is on the eastern horizon ) gives it a tendency to rise later. These opposite tend- encies, in the case of the September full moon, —— a balance, if the observer be in the lati- tude of northern Europe. Therefore the moon in that case rises only a few minutes later each even- ing for about a week. Farther north, about lat. 644°, a balance is attained, and for two evenings the moon rises at the same time. Still farther north it rises earlier the second evening. But the most generally observed phenomena are of course those to be seen between latitudes 40° and 60°, which consist in the nearly full moon rising but little after sunset for several aye in succession. In these latitudes of the southern hemisphere March enjoys the benefit of the harvest-moon, as September does in the north. And as celestial appearances are reversed to observers in different hemispheres, it follows that, when we have most benefit from the full moon, our neighbours at the antipodes have least. The best charts of the moon’s surface are those by Lohrmann, Beer, and Midler, Schmidt of Athens (a gigantic work), and the Committee of the British Associ- ation. For further information readers may consult Der Mond, by Beer and Miidler (1837); The Moon, by Ed. Neison (1876); The Moon, by Nasmyth and Carpenter (1874; new ed. 1885); and for the lunar theory, popu- larly treated, Airy’s Gravitation, and Sir J. Herschel’s Outlines of Astronomy. Superstitions regarding the Moon.—The moon was anciently an object of worship, and even in the 17th century she was supposed by the common ple of England to exercise great influence over uman affairs. The times for killing animals for food, gathering herbs, cutting down wood for fuel, sowing of various kinds, were all regulated by the ae of the moon, and these set periods were considered to be a necessary part of practical knowledge, and ignorance or neglect of them to be infallibly productive of loss. There were similarly defined periods for taking particular medicines and. seems the cure of particular diseases. Many such superstitions prevailed till a recent period in the Highlands of Scotland, favourable or unfavourable consequences from any occurrence being predicted according to the age of the moon at the time it happened. Through- out Scotland the waning moon was considered to have an evil influence, and full or new moon to be the most auspicious season for commencing any enterprise. The same opinion was held in Scandi- navia and Germany, and the history of all nations teems with similar superstitions. The special influ- ence of the moon on persons of weak or wavering reason is preserved in our words /wnatic and moon- struck, and is still an article of popular belief. Amongst mere superstitions must ie ranked the old and widesp belief that the changes of the moon influence the weather on the earth, bringing about fair or rainy, settled or stormy weather; so that from the moon’s periods predictions as to tlie weather may be made. The only known weather influence is a slight but appreciable tendency to dispersion of clouds shortly after full moon. See the article ECLIPSEs. In the Edda we read that ‘Mundilféri had two children—a son, MAni (‘moon’), and a daughter, S61 (*sun’);’ and in German the moon is masculine and the sun feminine to this day. It was the same in Anglo-Saxon, although modern English has in this matter followed the classic mythology, in which Phebus and Sol are gods and Selene, Luna, and Diana are goddesses ; Grimm (Deutsche Mythologie, . 666) quotes an old invocation to the ‘New Moon, gracious lord’ (Neuer Mon, Holder Herr), for inerease of wealth; and down to recent times 300 MOON the German people were fond of speaking of ‘ Frau Sonne’ and ‘Herr Mond’ (‘lady sun’ and ‘lord moon’). The same inversion (as it appears to us) of gender is found among the Lithuanians and Arabians, and even the ancient Mexican Meztle (‘moon’) was masculine. Among the Slavs, ac- cording to Grimm, the moon is masculine, a star feminine, and the sun neuter. See the Rev. T. Harley's Moon-lore (1886), itself containing a good bibliography. Moon, viel ae OF THE, —— Layne mysterious in African geography since the dave of Ptolemy, who indicated them as contain- ing the sources of the Nile. Their exact position was not known; they were generally figured on medieval maps as a high range crossing the entire continent from Abyssinia to the Gulf of Guinea. As modern enterprise has opened up the interior of Africa, different mountain-chains and peaks have been identified as Ptolemy’s Mountains of the Moon—for instance, the mountains of Abyssinia, the groups of Kenia and Kilima-Njaro, the so-called Kong (4q.v.) Mountains inland m the Gulf of Guinea, and finally Mr Stanley’s Ruwenzori and its fellows. Moonshiners, « term in popular use in America, especially in the south-eastern states, for illicit distillers of whisky. Moonstone. See Fevspar. Moonwort ( Botrychium lunaria), an interest- ing fern, native of Britain, and widely distributed over northern Europe, penetrating to within the Arctic regions and Asia, and along with the few other species of which the a? is composed appearing also in North America. The plant is of simple structure, consisting of a root-stock bearin a single erect stem from 3 to 6 inches high. single pinnate leaf springs from the stem about mii Se one root to apex, the segments being half- moon shaped, pale green, and of thick consistence. The fructification is developed on a branched spike, her ong in outline, from 1 to 2 inches long, the ranches all turning to one side. B.. virginicum, the oe et growing species, is named the Rattle- snake Fern, from the circumstance that it generally abounds in places frequented by that reptile Moor. See Boo, Peat, Waste LANps; and for Grouse Moors and Moorfowl, see GROUSE. Moore, Dr Joun, the author of Zeluco, was born in December 1729 at Stirling, a minister's son. Educated at Glasgow, he there studied medi- cine, and there began to practise, with Smollett’s and his own old master, Dr Gordon, for his partner, after spending some time in Holland (as army sur- geon), in London, and in Paris. As medical attend- ant to the young Duke of Hamilton he travelled six yoo on the Continent, and on his return (1778) settled in London. His View of Society and Manners in France, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy (4 vols. 1779-81) was well received; but the novel Zeluco (1789), which suggested Byron’s Childe Harold, is to-day the least forgotten of his works. These include two other novels, Medical Sketches, and a couple of books on the French Revolution. Dr Moore died at Richmond, 2Ist January 1802, See the Memoir by Dr R. Anderson prefixed to his Complete Works (7 vols. 1820). Moore, Str Joun, English general, born at G w, 13th November 1761, was eldest. son of a. He entered the army as ensign when a fifteen, and first distinguished himself in the descent — Corsica (1794); he served the West Indies (1796), in Ireland in during the rebellion of 1798, and in Holland in 1799. He was in Egypt in 1801 with the army under Abercromby, and obtained the Order — in Sicily St ya 1808 he was ne with @ corps y men to strengthen English army in the Peninsula. He arrived in instructions vancing by Valladolid to unite himself with the Spanish general Romana, and threaten the com- munications between Madrid and France. But the apathy of the Spaniards, the successes of the French in various parts of the Peninsula, and, above all, the folly and intrigues of his own country- men, soon pl him in a critical position. Yet he had determined to make a bold advance from Salamanca to attack Soult when the news reached him that Madrid had fallen, and that Napoleon was marching to crush him at the head of 70,000 men. Moore's forces amounted to only 25,000 men, and he was consequently forced to retreat. In December he began a disastrous mareh from Astorga to Corufia, a route of near 250 miles, through a desolate and mountainous country, made almost impassable by snow and rain, and harassed by the enemy. The soldiers suffered intolerable hardships, and arrived at Corufia in a very dis- tressed state. It was impossible to embark with- out fighting, and Soult was in readiness to attack as soon as the troops should begin to embark. The battle was mainly one of infantry, for the cavalry after destroying their horses had gone on board, and the bulk of the artillery, for which the ga was not adapted, had also withdrawn. nm the 16th January 1809 the French came on in four strong columns. A desperate battle ensued. While pagent the 42d Regiment in a brilliant c in an early stage of the action, Moore was struck by a cannon-ball on the left shoulder and died in the moment of victory. The French were defeated with the loss of 2000 men; and the dead leader was buried at night just before the embark- ation of his troops. The British army in this expedition lost their magazines and 6000 soldiers, Soult, with a noble feeling of respect for his valour, raised a monument to Moore's memory on the field of battle, and at home another was erected in St Paul’s Cathedral. His uncommon caneeeay was prema | the purest virtue and governed by a disinteres' patriotism, while a certain heroie eageeenn f of et and the singular beauty fa is person powe' impressed every one w came near Rn Wolfe's nee on the burial of Sir John Moore have helped to keep his memo green. See the Life by his brother (2 vols, 1834), and Napier’s Peninsular War (vol. i.). Moore, THoMAs, the ‘ Bard of Erin,’ was born at 12 ne Street, Dublin, on 28th May 1779, the son of a Catholic grocer. From the school where Sheridan had been educated, and where he himself became a ‘determined rhymer,’ he passed in 1794 to Trinity College, and thence, after taking his B.A., ag re in 1799 to London to k terms at the Middle Temple. He brought wi him a translation of Anacreon, which came out in 1800, dedicated to the Prince of Wales, his then, but the butt from 1813 of his satire. It proved a hit, and, with his musical talent, ured him admission to the best society. In 801 followed the Poetical Works of the late Thomas Little, whose pretty erotics were a deal blamed, and ve ny 4 read. In 1803, Lord Moira’s influence, he was appointed of the Admiralty court at Bermuda. He went there to arrange for a deputy, and, after a tour in won SS —————E—E—E————=——<———<<<—— MOOREA MOORS 301 the States and in Canada, returned in a twelve- month to England—the democratic notions of his Dublin days toned lg his transatlantic experience. For his Odes Epistles (1806) he was sharply taken to task in the Zdinburgh. The bulletless duel with Jeffrey was the consequence, over which Byron made so merry, but which left the non-combatants fast friends for life. In 1811 he married an actress, good Bessy Dyke (1793- 1865), and, after living successively in Leicester- shire, in Derbyshire, and at Hornsey near London, in 1817 they settled at Sloperton Cot , near Bowood, Lord Lansdowne’s seat, in Wiltshire. Meanwhile, among other fugitive pieces, Moore had published the earlier of the [rish Melodies (ten parts, 1807-34) and The neeerey Post-bag (1812), whose tropes at once glittered and stung. Now he became anxious to emulate his brother-poets, who published in quartos. He fixed on an oriental subject, and in 1817 the long-expected Lalla Rookh appeared, dazzling as a firefly; and the whole English world applauded. After the publication he went with Rogers to Paris, and there wrote The Fudge Family (1818). For Lalla Rookh the Long- mans paid him 3000 guineas; the Irish Melodies brought in £500 a year; but Moore had ‘a generous contempt for money;’ and about this time his Bermuda deputy embezzled £6000. Moore’s liability was redu by compromise to £1000, which he ultimately paid by his pen; but in 1819, to avoid arrest, he went to Italy with Lord John Russell. He spent five days at Venice with Byron (his friend since 1811), went on with Chantrey to Rome, and then with his family fixed his abode in Paris, where he wrote The Loves of the A (1823) and a prose romance, The Epicurean (1827). He returned in 1822 to Sloperton ; and here, except for occasional ‘junketings’ to London, Scotland, and elsewhere, he his last thirty years. To those years belong the Memoirs of Captain Rock (1824), the History of Ireland (1827), and the Lives of Sheri- dan (1825), Byron (q.v., 1830), and Lord Edward Fi (1831). In 1835 he received a ——— of . but his last days were clouded by sorrow and suffering—the loss of his two sons, and the decay of his mental faculties. ‘I am sinking,’ he writes to Rogers in 1847, ‘ into a mere vegetable.’ He died on 25th February 1852, and was buried in Bromham Churehyard. Moore in his lifetime was popular as only Byron ; bnt to-day he ranks far below Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats. His muse was a gled dancing-girl— light, ay, graceful, but soulless. The Loves of the Angels, his most ambitious effort, falls beneath even the Byronie standard ; Lalla Rookh, in, is brilliant, but fatiguing. He is best in his lyrics; and even in them there is a certain sameness, with their eternal ‘love of one’s country, of the wine of other countries, and of the women of all countries.’ See his Memoirs, Journal, and Ci dence, by Lord John Russell (8 vols. 1852-56) ; Valtat, Thomas Moore, sa Vie et Guvres ( Paris, 1886). Moorea, See Eimeo. Moor-hen. See WATER-HEN. Moor Park. See Farnuam. Moors, a vague ethnographical expression applied to le whose hieal frontiers have been constantly shifting. First given (Mauri) to the inhabitants of the kingdom and subsequent Roman province of Mauretania, comprising within variable limits the whole country west of Numidia, now ealled Algeria and Morocco, later on it in- eluded the inhabitants of the whole of Africa north of the Sahara and Atlas from Tripoli westwards. Here for some three centuries flourished the great African ebureh of Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augus- tine ; in 429 the country was overrun by the Arian Vandals from Spain, but was recovered for the Byzantine emperors by Belisarius (533-36) ; invaded ty the Arabs in 647, it was speedily subdued, and 1€ Moors embraced Mohammedanism as quickly as they had embraced Christianity, and. have clung to it ever since. From 1830 these countries have been vag. 4 occupied and colonised by the French, with the exception of Tripoli and Morocco. The Arab slave-dealers and mixed Arab and Negro clans to the south are sometimes called the Moors of the western Soudan. In early or prehistoric times it is possible that the inhabitants north of the Atlas and of southern Spain, the builders of the mega- lithic monuments, may have been of the same race in both continents. Whether in a ove or in Morocco the Moors can- not be considered as a pure race. Some authorities take them as nearly equivalent to the Berbers, even the nomad tribes; others restrict the name to an admixture of Arab blood, and call Moors only the more settled Arabic-speaking population of the towns. According to some the Arabic stock is the Semitic element, the Berber or native is the Hamitie element in the resultant Moor. Though still numerous, the town Moors seem destined to dwindle before the European colonists. The more nomad Berber or Kabyle tribes will probably maintain their ground. In European history the term is a in a general way to the inhabitants of the Barbary states under Turkish rule, and to the actual in- habitants of Morocco, but in a special sense to the Arab and Berber by sehr and occupants of Spain from 711 to 1492. ithin twenty years from their first landing — ye had bps the whole in except sturias, got possession 0 Narbonnaise (719), had-raided into France, till finally repulsed by Charles Martel near Tours in 732. For a short time one calif ruled the whole of Islam from beyond ad to the Atlantic. When in 750 the Abbaside califs overthrew the Ommiades (Califs), a descendant of the latter, Abdurrahman L., escaped and founded the califate of the West at Cordova in 755. His dynasty lasted till the degrada- tion of Hashim III. in 1031. Then after a period of anarchy the Almoravides ( Berbers) su ed from 1086 to 1147; the Almohades followed from 1130 to 1232. The greater part of Spain had now been lost, but the Beni-Nasr held Granada from 1232 to 1492. The chief steps of the Spanish re-conquest are the taking of Toledo, 1085; Saragossa, 1118 ; Valencia, Jaime I. of Aragon, 1238; Seville, 1248; Murcia, 1260; Granada, 1492. The first of these invaders of Spain were mainly of Arab blood, and brought with them capacities of civilisation. From the 8th to the close of the 11th centuries the Spanish Moors in architecture, literature, science, industry, manufacture, and iculture were far in advance of any northern European race of that date; no other people in western Europe could have then built a cathedral like the mosque of Cordova (784-793) ; in corr 6 and in the terms of mathematical and astronomical science they have left their impress on most of the lan- guages of western Europe. Only in religion were they inferior, and even here their toleration of the Christians, though contemptuous, contrasts favour- ably with that of the Christians towards the Moors after the conquest. But after the 12th and 13th centuries the conditions were reversed. The Moors had no reserve of civilisation or of increasing resources to fall back upon in northern Africa ; they were degenerating, while behind Christian Spain was a Europe ever growing more civilised and richer in resources of every kind. The con- quest was retarded the division and intestine struggles of the Christian kingdoms; but these same causes told far more fatally on the Moors. 302 MOORSHEDABAD MORAVIA There were never more than five or six separate Christian kingdoms; bat the Moorish states were at times divided among over twenty little kings, and every dynasty in succession fell to pieces throngh intestine strife. The latest researches, especially in numismatics, are continually adding fresh proofs of this disunion, and augmenting the number of petty independent princes or chiefs. The advance of the Turks westward after the taking of Constantinople (1453) was too late to help their co-religionists in Spain. Barbarossa established himself in Barbary in 1518; but he, failed at Malta in 1551 and 1565, and after the battle of Lepanto (1571), however much the Moors might harass Spain, there was no real danger of a re- conquest, Their piratical efforts only served to raise a hatred between two chivalrous races who had once ted each other and to carry it to the bitterest fanaticism. See the articles CaLirs, ALMORAVIDES, ALMAHADES, Averria, "ANDALUsIA, Corpova, GraNADA, Morocco, Sparx, Tunis; Los Beréhberes en la Peninsula, by F. M. Tubino ( Madrid, 1876); The History of the Mohammedan vols. 3d ed. Leyden, 1881); De causis cur Moham- medanorum cultura, &c., by R. P. A, Dozy (1869); The Moors in Spain, by Stanley Lane-Poole (Lond. 1887) ; Libro de Agricultura, by Abou Zacaria (2 vols. Seville and Madrid. And see ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE. Moorshedabad. See Mursuimpasap, Mooruk, See Cassowary. Moose. See Evk. Moosonee, a Canadian district south of Hudson Bay, and touching Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg. It is the see of an Anglican bishop. Moplas, a race of Southern India, mainly near the Malabar coast, who as fanatical Mohammedans have caused trouble by outbreaks. Descended from the old Arab traders, they number about 700,000. Moquis. See PvEBLOs. Moradabad, « town of British India, capital of a district, and centre of a large trade in country oe, stands on the Ramganga, 100 miles E. by . of Delhi. It is noted for its metal-work. Pop., with cantonment (1891), 72,921. Moraine. The masses of rock which, by atmospheric action, are separated from the moun- tains bounding the valleys along which glaciers flow, find a temporary resting-place on the surface of the ice, at the margin of the glacier, and are carried along with it, but so slowly that they form a continuous line along each margin. These lines of debris are called lateral moraines. When two glaciers unite, the two inner moraines unite also and form one large trail in the middle of the trunk lacier, and this is called a medial moraine. A arge portion.of these rocky fragments at length reach the end of the glacier, and here the melting ice leaves it as a huge mound, which is known as a terminal moraine, The rock-debris, sand, clay, gravel, &c., which are dragged forward underneath the ice, are called ground-moraines, or moraines profondes. See GLACIERS, BOULDER-CLAY. Moralities. See Mysreries. Moral Philosophy. See Eruics. Morano, a city of Southern Italy, built on a hill in a wild neighbourhood, 37 miles NNW. of Cosenza. Pop. 8259. Morar. GWALIoR. Morat (Ger. Murten), a town of 2364 inhabit- ants, in the Swiss canton of Freiburg, 12 miles ESE. of Neuchitel and 48 by rail NNE. of Lausanne, lies on the Lake of Morat (3) by 2 pe feet above erie: Here, = 22d une the Swiss gained a victory over Charles the Bold, Duke of Bagenay. Morata, OLyMriA, a 16th-century scholar, was born at Ferrara in 1526, the daughter of the Bg Fulvio Pellegrino Morato (who died in 1547). Already in her sixteenth year she gave public lectures in her native city; but, saving 1548 married the German tan Andreas Grundler, she followed him to Germany and ea testant. Driven from place to place by the religi- ous wars, and redu to B ag nl she died at Heidelberg, 26th October 1555, leaving numerous Latin and Greek ms, mainly on religious sub- ict air ee Le Ae Se ee ialogues, letters, Kc, e Monograp Bonnet (4th ed. Paris, 1865). Moratin, LEANDRO FERNANDEZ DE, comic poet, was born at Madrid, March 10, 1760, and was the son of a poet. In 1790 appeared his first and best comedy, Li Viejo y la Nina; it was followed by La Comedia nuova, El Baron, La Mogigata, and El si delas Nifias. Godoy several ecclesiastical benefices upon him; Joseph Bonaparte made him chief royal librarian; but after 1814 he took refuge in Paris, He died in Paris, June 21, 1828. Morava. See MARCH (river). Moravia (Ger. Méhren), a crown-land of the Austrian empire, is bounded NE. by Silesia, SE. by Hungary, S. by Lower Austria, and NW. Bohemia. Area, 8583 sq. miles; pop. (1870) 2,017,274; (1890) 2,276,870. It is enclosed on all ides by mountains, ted from Silesia sid — separa’ by the Sudetes, from Bohemia by the Moravian tein, and from Hungary by the Carpathian Moun- tains ; while branches of these various chains inter- sect the whole country except in the south, where there are extensive plains rising to about 800 feet. Numerous small rivers flow south-east, and fall into the March or Morava, from which the country derives its name, and which joins the Danube. The Oder rises among the mountains on the north. east, and soon leaves the country. Moravia is essentially an agricultural ion, On the whole the soil is rich, 56 per cent. being cultivated and 14 meadows and yrass, and the temperature is more genial than in other Euro) countries lying on the same parallel. The principal crops are rye and oats; then come barley, wheat, potatoes, beet-root, leguminous plants, and many fruits and vegetables. The breeding of all the usual varieties of domestic animals is actively prosecuted. The principal mineral products are coal and iron, with some graphite. The principal branches of industry are the manufacture of woollen, linen, and cotton goods, and beet-root sugar. Silk-weaving, lace- making, iron-founding, tanning, brewing, dis- tilling, and the manufacture of ‘chemicals, glass, paper, tobacco, and furniture also flourish. Briimn (q.v.), the capital, is the chief emporium for the manufactures, and Olmiitz (q.v.) the ae 3p cattle-mart. The former university at Olmiitz is now represented by a theological faculty, and by a large technical institute at Briinn. The bers te (95 per cent.) of the people belong to the Church of Rome. By nationality 70 per cent. are Slavs (Czechs and Moravians) and 29 per cent. Ger- mans, Moravia was anciently occupied by the Quadi, who were succeeded r the 5th century the Rugii, the Heruli, and the Longobardi, an finally in the 6th century by the Slavonians. Charlemagne brought the people under nominal subjection, Christianity was first established in the middle of the 9th century by Cyril (av) and Methodius. In 871 its ruler was made a duke by = \) MORAVIA MORAVIANS 303 the em po their country with his own. From 1029 it was i with Bohemia, and at the close of the century was erected into a margraviate, and declared a fief of Bohemia, to be held from the erown by the younger branches of the royal house. On the death of Lewis II. at the battle of Mohacz in 1526, Moravia, with all the other Bohemian lands, fell to Austria, in accordance with a pre- existing compact of succession between the reign- ing dynasties. In 1849 it was formally separated from Bohemia, and declared a distinct province and crown-land. See Dudik, Méhrens allgemeine Geschichte (11 vols. 1860-86). Moravians, otherwise known as Herrnhuters, The Church of the Brethren, or The Unity of the Brethren, are a small body of Protestants who claim to be the modern representatives of the ancient church of the Bohemian Brethren (see BOHEMIA), or Unitas Fratrum, which first took a definite shape in 1467, when the followers of Peter of Chelezicky, a pious layman and a contemporary of Huss, formed themselves into a separate ecclesiastical aren a on the apostolic model. They held that all Christians should lay aside distinctions of rank, abstain from mili service and the use of oaths, and live in literal accordance with the teaching of Christ. These views forced them to keep from both sections of the Hussites proper, and, thongh there may have been Wal- denses amongst them, they owed very little at any period of their history to these crypto-Protestants. At the of 1467 three elders, a bishop, and two presbyters were chosen by lot, and received ordination probably from a Waldensian priest, though the first beginnings of the church are wrapped in a mist of confused traditions and mniraculous tales. Under the influence of Lucas of Prague, a man of strong character and t lite’ talent, the Brethren in 1494 abandoned their levelling ideas, but maintained their stern and rigid discipline, and by the beginning of the 16th century there were between 300 and 400 churches in the Unity. They had much friendly intercourse with Luther, but stood out for the celibacy of the clergy, the doctrine of works, and con ional purism, For a time, however, the Unity was under the influence of Lutheran ideas, though the Brethren had naturally a much stronger sympathy with Calvinism. From the commence- ment of its history times of persecution alternated with Se iy of zenoee: and many - ae, especially in the ear of the 16th century, were forced to flee 4 Poland and Prussia, In 1570 the Polish branch united with the Reformed Church, and, though in 1600 the Bohemian and Moravian branches included two-thirds of the lation and most of the nobility, the Brethren ving got mixed up with the revolution which ended so disastrously in 1620, by 1627 the church was entirely broken up and destroyed. In 1722 some of the Moravian descendants of the suppressed Unity, who had beev roused by the preaching of a “od ac ay Christian David, a converted Roman Catholic, resolved to emigrate, and were allowed by the pious young Count Zinzendorf (1700-60) to settle on a part of his property in Saxony, close to the Austrian frontier. The first company consisted of two brothers, their wives, four children, two ions, and David, but these were soon joined by other emigrants from Moravia and Bohemia, and by pious and fanatical people of various nationali- ties. Five years later the settlers at Herrnhut ‘the Lord's Keeping’) amounted to over three undred, They at first attended the parish church, but soon to quarrel among themselves and with the Lutheran pastor, an pted wild and extravagant views. Owing to the exertions of rar ; he subdued the Bohemians and incor-* Zinzendorf peace was restored, and the settlers formed themselves into a society in communion with the Lutheran Church, and drew up certain rules for their guidance in all matters of religion and conduet, the chief of these being that all in Herrnhut should live in love with all their brethren and with all the cliildren of God in all religions. Twelve elders were chosen to be the teachers and overseers of the community, and these came to be assisted afterwards by male and female ‘labourers’ of all sorts, including ‘inspectors’ of spiritual nuisances, and even of the work done and the goods sold by the Brethren. August 13th of this year (1727) is still celebrated as the spiritual birth- day of the renewed church. By 1733 the Society had become a distinet church, and in 1735 the first bishop was elected and was ordained by Jablonski, court chaplain in Berlin, one of the two surviving guardians of the precious apostolical succession, which had been handed down by Amos Comenius, the last bishop of the old Unity. Although the Moravians imitated certain parts of the constitu- tion and practice of the original church, much of what was peculiar in their views and discipline is to be traced to Zinzendorf, who was consecrated bishop in 1737, and was their ‘advocate’ until his death in 1760. The members of the community were divided into ‘ bands,’ which met to exchange experiences, to study the Bible, to sing and pray, and there was a special division, still maintained, into ‘choirs,’ which consisted respectively of un- married men, unmarried women, married couples, widowers, widows, boys and girls. Some ot: the ‘choirs’ had their own houses, where the members lived under the direction of a brother or sister. There were two daily services in which all joined, and hourly prayer was kept up night and day by certain members of the bands, while every morn- ing the Brethren were supplied with a text as a ‘watchword.’ Love-feasts were introduced by Zinzendorf, and are still held, though the practice of feet-washing before the communion has been abandoned. All important. matters, even marriage, were decided by an appeal to the ‘lot,’ and, as Zinzendorf taught that death was a joyous journey home, the departure of a brother or sister was announced by blowing a trumpet, each ‘choir’ having its own peculiar air. Various branch settlements were established in Germany, America, and Britain, and in these the Herrnhut arrangements were strictly carried out ; but, when this was not possible, congregations were set up, or societies were created, com- posed of members of other Protestant churches, as Brethren might belong to either of the three ‘tropes’—the Lutheran, the Reformed, or the Moravian. These ‘diaspora’ societies contain at present 70,000 members, and the German ‘diaspora’ mission is the most important part of the home-work of the Brethren. Some of the Moravians came into contact with the Wesleys and Whitefield, and had considerable influence on their views, and they were even patronised by Anglican dignitaries, but partly owing to m resentation and partly owing to infadiclous conduct on the part of some of the Brethren, their use of certain foolish hymns and sensuous and tesque language in reference to the wounds of Christ, bitter opposition was roused against them both in England and the Continent. Since the middle of the 18th century the home- history of the Unity has been uneventful. At present the executive government of the church is vested in the Elders’ Conference of the Unity, a clerical body composed partly of bishops and partly of presbyters. ‘This conference carries out the injunctions of the synod, the supreme court of the church, which meets every ten 304 MORAY MORE years at Herrnhut, At the meeting in 1889, a synodal resolution was on practically abolish- ing the use of the lot. There are also provincial synods and conferences, and each con tion is governed by its own Elders’ Conference, which con- sists of all the male and female ‘labourers.’ The bishops, of whom there are eighteen, enjoy no special privileges in the way of rank or ayer but have the sole power of ordaining. The ordinary church service is largely liturgical, and hymn- singing has always been a prominent feature of Moravian worship. The Moravians have no formal confession, though at an early period they declared their adhesion to the Augsburg Confession, and the litany which is used on Easter Sunday and two other Sundays is really a creed. The Unity is divided into three provinces : the British, with 38 con with 27 congregations and 8374 members; and the American, with 66 congregations and 17,848 members. At Ayr, in Scotland (the birthplace of James Montgomery), there is a congregation with 65 members. The Moravian Church has all along been distinguished for its missionary and educational activity, and is r the missionary church of Christendom. The first mission, that to the West Indian slaves, was started in 1732, and soon after stations were estab- lished in Greenland (q.v.), Lapland, North and South America, South Africa, and other countries, and enthusiastic Brethren tried even to convert the Gypsies. At present the church has 111 stations with 22 filials, served by 343 missionaries and 1659 native assistants, who minister to 29,971 communicants and 55,835 baptised adults, and carry on 232 schools with 19,794 scholars. The Moravians have also had an important leper mis- sion in Jerusalem since 1867. The actual annual expenditure is about £50,000. The Brethren have 12 boarding and 13 day schools in Britain, with 1810 pupils; 20 boarding and 22 day schools in Germany, with 2769 gE and 4 schools in America, with 500 pupils. See histories of the Brethren by Holmes (1828), Schweinitz (1885), Bost (1848; and Eng. trans.); and in German by Gindely (1868) and Goll (1882); on their constitution, by Seifferth (1866); on their missions, Thompson ( 1883). and tej tinny Reichel (1874); ‘oravi s ls w Cust ; besid numerous German lives of Zinzendorf (1772-1888). Moray, James Stuart, EArt or, by Pro- testants called the ‘Good Regent, was the natural son of James V. of Scotland, by Margaret, daughter of John, fourth Lord Erskine, whom James in 1536 thought seriously of pding, even though she had already wedded Sir Robert Douglas of hleven. Born in the year 1531, in 1538 he was made prior in commendam of St Andrews, in 1556 joined the Reformers, and almost immediately became the head of the Protestant party in Scotland. In 1561 he was despatched to ence to invite his half- sister, Queen Mary, to return to her kingdom ; and on her arrival he acted as her prime-minister and chief adviser. In 1562 she created him Earl of Mar; but that earldom being claimed by Lord Erskine, the title of Earl of Moray was in 1564 conferred instead on Lord James, who had mean- while put down the Border banditti, and defeated Huntly at Corrichie, Strongly opposed to the marri of Mary to Darnley (1565), he is falsely alleged before it to have pte Aidan to seize the pair near Lochleven; and after it he openly sea to arms, but was easily put to flight by t mem and forced to take refuge in England. He did not return to Edinburgh till 10th March 1566, the day after Rizzio’s murder, to which he was certainly privy. In April 1567 he withdrew to France, but in the following August was recalled F tions and 5408 members; the German, - dy the nobles in arms against , and found her pri and oat ited with the queen on the 15th he ‘ behaved himself rather like a unto her than like a forven ah Langside, near Gleagery (13th May 1608), orces e, near G w 1 x ots ls was ae oe on pass conduct the ons her. e then, as always, pe with = vigour and prudence he succeeded in securing the peace of the realm, and stem, | the affairs ehureh, But on 20th January 1570 he was shot at Linlithgow by James Hamilton of Bothweilhaugh, who was ins thereto by Mary’s adherents, and prompted also, it ve be, rsonal enmity. He was buried in St Giles’s, Edinburgh. Of ambition there can hardly be question ; still, the most different estimates have been formed of his character, according to men’s estimates of Mary. + gee QUEEN OF Scots, and works there ci Moray Firth, an indentation of the German , on the north-east coast of Scotland, measur- ing 21 miles across its entrance from Tarbat Ness, in ies hire, to Stotfield Head, near Lossiemouth in Elginshire, and 39 miles thence to the mouth of the river Beauly. The name is sometimes applied in a wider sense to the whole extent of sea between Kinnaird’s Head in Aberdeenshire and bay Head in Caithness. Morayshire. See ELGINsuire. Morbihan, a maritime department of France, formed out of ancient Brittany, with the Atlantic on the south and Finistére on the west. Area, 2624 sq. m.; pop. (1872) 490,352; (1891) 544,470. The coast is much indented, and has a multitude of bays, promontories, harbours, and islands. The largest island is Belle Isle (q.v.). The department forms a plateau of no great elevation, partly eul- tivated, ly occupied by extensive tracts of heath and marsh (see BRITTANY). Morbihan is divided into the four arrondissements of Vannes, L’Orient, Ploermel, and Pontivy. The chief town is Vannes (q.v.), but the most populous is L’Orient (g.v.). Many ancient customs still prevail in orbihan ; communal proprietorship survives there, and in some of the islands the cuvré,.assisted by a council of notables, governs the people in a patri- archal fashion. Mordants. See Dyerna. Mordaunt, Cuartes. See PETERBOROUGH, Mordvins, a Finnic race, now however y intermingled with the Russians, who dwell along the middle course of the Volga, from the govern- ment of Hace gy to that of Samara. They number about 790,000, More, Hannan, was the fourth daughter of the village schoolmaster of Stapleton, near Bristol where she was born in 1745. As a child she showed ag eongce of apprehension and a good memory. er sisters were sent to a school in Bristol, and when the eldest was twenty-one they opened a boarding-school there, to which Hannah went when she was twelve years old. She wrote verses at an early age, and 1762 - nape bg ni after Happiness, a to rama. In 4 she went on De visit to rman; and was introduced to the Garricks, and by them to Dr Johnson, Burke, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and the best literary society of London. During this period of her life she wrote two tales in verse, and two tragedies, Percy and The Fatal Secret, both of which were acted. While in London she went a great deal into society, but gradually found this mode of life to be unsatis- MORE 305 , and was led by her religious views to with- draw from it. After the mblication of her Sacred Dramas, she retired to Cowslip Green, a cot near Bristol, where she did much to improve the condition of the poor in her neighbourhood b establishing schools for their instruction. She sti continued her literary work, and helped by her writings to raise the tone of English society. _ essays on The Manners of the Great and ligion of the Fashionable World (a pamphlet on illage Politics), her novel Celebs in Search of a Wife, and a tract called The Shepherd of Salisbury Plain are some of the most popular of her works. In 1828 she moved from Barley Wood, a house she had built for herself near Cowslip Green, and took up her abode at Clifton, where she «ied, Sep- tember 7, 1833. See the Life by Roberts (2 vols. 1838), and the short Life by Miss Yonge (1888). More, HeENry, one of the Cambridge Platon- ists, was born at Grantham in Lincolnshire in 1614. He was educated at Eton and Christ’s College, Cambridge, revolted early against the Calvinism of his parents, Le gaye ayes entirely to Lars hy, ially to Plato and more particularly the Neo fatonist writers. He took his Bachelor's degree in 1635, his Master’s in 1639, when he was elected fellow of his college. Here he remained all his life, nor could he be prevailed upon to accept church preferment. He lived in an atmosphere of unusual spiritual elevation, and exercised a great influence on the young men that gathered round him. Among his pupils was a young lady of family who became Viscountess Conway, and at whose seat of ley in Warwickshire More often stayed. This lady’s sympathies with the mystic and the occult extended also to Van Helmont and Valen- tine Greatrakes, and she ultimately found rest sraaenlly epee ma cade! earlier ration -— ve place to ess mysticism an ey enh Vis ro Rhea 9 works decline corre- in value. He died vig ngen ed 1, 1687, and was in the chapel of Divine Di ica in 1678. ard Ward (1710), and More, Str THoMAs, was born in Milk Street, London, in 1478. His father, who rene, became Sir John More, Justice of the Queen’s sg re was a _ of character aes _ a sense ibility. ore received his first instruction le Toite, then the basis of all education, in one of the most famous English schools of the time—that of St Anthony, Thread- needle ogg London. In after-life More wrote Latin with all the facility, though not with the classical purity, of the best Italian scholars of the Revival of ing. When he attained his fifteenth year his father, after the fashion of the time, placed him as page in the household of Archbi Morton, to whose virtues More after- wards paid the highest tribute in his Utopia. Morton, on his side, formed the highest expecta- tions of More, and was in the habit of sa ing to the nobles who dined with him : ‘ This child here waiting at the table, whosoever shall live to see it, prove a marvellous man.’ By Morton More was sent to Oxford, where the Renaissance was now represented by such men as Colet and Linacre, both of whom had travelled and studied in oe From Linacre he appears to have learned Greek, and froin Colet he received a spiritual impulse which gave a direction to his entire life and opinions. From Colet More also asap” ~ pc novel methods cf biblical interpreta- tion which Colet himself may have learned from Savonarola in Florence. By his acquaintance with the classics therefore, and by his enlightened views regarding the theology and the traditions of the church, More was emphatically a man of the new order. When, some time after leaving Oxford erage Angee 1498); he first met Erasmus, both at once felt that they were in entire sympathy on all the deepest questions of the time. It was his father’s wish that he should follow the same profession as himself. Having completed his legal studies, first at New Inn and afterwards at Lincoln’s Inn, he acted for three years as reader in Furnival’s Inn. It marks the religious basis of More’s character that he spent the next four years in the Charterhouse of London in ‘devotion and prayer.’ By his marriage with the eldest daughter of Mr Colte, a gentleman of Essex, he definitively made choice of a secular career. During the last = of Henry VII. he became under-sheriff of mdon and member of parliament, in which latter capacity he gave serious offence to the king by rotesting against the excessive dowry demanded Henry from parliament on the occasion of his daughter's marriage with James IV. of Scotland. On the accession of Henry VIII. (1509) a brilliant tie Fos was opened up to More. It was Henry’s ambition to surround himself with men of genius and accomplishments ; and More had by this time attained a European reputation in the world of learning. As ambassador on two occasions to the Low Countries he had also given proofs of his tact and capacity for business. More, however, had little inclination for public life, and it was only after much hesitation that he took service under Henry. Introduced to the king through Wolsey, he rose rapidly in dignity in the royal favour. He became Master of Requests (1514), Treasurer of the Exchequer (1521), and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1525). For a time the king showed him every mark of personal ee him unexpected visits at his house in Che ‘to be merry with him.’ Congratulated on these marks of favour by his son-in-law Roper, More, who had divined Henry’s real character from the first, replied : ‘If my head would win him a castle in France it should not fail to fo. As speaker of the House of Commons (1523), More, on the occasion of Wolsey’s demand for a subsidy of which the House disapproved, received the great cardinal in a manner that made him exclaim: ‘Would to God you had been at Rome, Mr More, when I made you speaker." More, however, still continued to enjoy Henry's favour; and on two occasions was sent on missions of importance to Francis L. and the Emperor Charles V. On the fall of Wolsey in 1529, More, against his own strongest wish, was appointed to the office of Lord Chancellor. Seeing from the first where the king's divorcee from Catharine of Aragon must eventually lead, he knew that only one fate could be in store for himself. In the discharge of his office he displayed a primitive virtue and simplicity, being ‘ y to hear every man’s cause, poor and rich, and keep no doors shut from them.’ The one stain on his checuter as judge is the harshness of his sentences for religious opinions. In passing such sentences. More acted only in the spirit of the time; but in his Utopia he had shown the clearest conception of the sacredness of the individual con- science. ‘The Utopians,’ he says, ‘put the un- believers to no punishment, because that they be persuaded that it is in no man’s power to believe what he list.’ More sympathised with Colet and Erasmus in their desire for a more rational theology and for radical reform in the manners of the clergy, but like them also he had no promptings to break with the historic church. He could look only with 306 MOREA MORECAMBE BAY displeasure, therefore, on the successive steps which led Henry to the final schism from Rome. In 1532 he ed the chancellorship, and retired into private life. The disapproval of his — by such a man as More could not be disregarded by Henry, and various attempts were made to win him over. Nothing, however, could shake the con- stancy of More, and his death became a mere matter of time and policy. The opportunity came in 1534. In that year Henry was declared head of the English Church; and More's steadfast refusal to recognise any other head of the church than the pope led to his sentence for high-treason after a harsh imprisonment of more than a year. The manner in which he met his death, while it is one of the commonplaces of gy ree history, strangely illustrates an inveterate habit of his nature—the disposition to jest with the most serious questions and on the most momentous occasions. As, on 7th July 1535, he mounted the scaffold he exclaimed to a stander-by: ‘Friend, help me up; when I come down in I can shift for myself ;’ and raising his head after it had been laid on the block, he bade the executioner stay till he had put aside his beard, ‘for,’ said he, * it never committed treason.’ More was twice married; but only by his first wife had he any family. In no life of More should his daughter Margaret, the wife of his biographer Roper, pass unmentioned. By her — character and accomplishments, but above all by her pious devotion to her father, she holds a place among the illustrious women of English history. One of the distinguished characters in the politi- cal history of England, More also ranks high in the history of its literature. By his Latin Utopia 1516; Eng. trans. 1556) he takes his place with the most eminent humanists of the Renaissance, and he was the one literary Englishman of the 16th century well-known and admired on the Continent. In his History of King Richard ITI. (1513) he pro- duced what may be regarded as the first book in classical English prose. In his personal character More was the most attractive and lovable of men ; and his ic end gave the crown to the moral beauty of his life. From Erasmus’s sketch of him we realise all his virtues and all his attractions ; but realise also that he was a winning rather than an pee rp figure. He had ingenuity rather than insight ; not infrequently his wit passed into levity and even into flippancy; and there was in his character a strain of morbidness and superstition which precluded him from the largest and famanest views of men and things. In 1886 he was beatified. See Roper, Life of Sir Thomas More ( first printed 1626); Lord Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors; Mackintosh, Lardner’s Cabinet Encyclopedia ; Seebohm, Oxford Re- kere D. Nisard, Renaissance et Réforme ; Utopia by pton (1895) and Michelis (1896) ; Lives by Father Brid- gett (1891) and W. H. Hutton (1895); also works cited at Henny VILL, Worsry, Erasmus, and FisHer. Morea, the medieval and modern name for the Peloponnesus (q.v.), in southern Greece, said to be . derived from morus, ‘a mulberry ’—the outline of the peninsula bearing a resemblance to the leaf of that tree; others, however, such as Fallmerayer, trace it back to the Slavonic more, ‘the sea,’ which nearly encircles the Morea. After being overrun by the Goths and Vandals, it became a prey. in the second half of the 8th century, to Slav nvaders, who were gradually subdued and civilised by the Byzantine emperors. In 1205 the peninsula was conquered by the Normans, who formed its western portion into a feudal gat yality subject to the crown of Sicily. Michae Vill Paleolo . reconquered the country after 1261; but the prin- cipality of Achaia remained in the family of Ville- hardouin till 1346, when the male line became extinct. Various claimants now arose, and much strife and confusion ensued, At length, in 1461, the Diag! of the Morea fell into the hands. of Turks, the remainder being held by — who abandoned it in 1540. Venice recmqneee the Morea in 1684, but again lost it to the in 1714. For its later history, see GREECE. M JeAN Victor, the test general of the French itepabii, except Denaparees was born, llth August 1761, at Morlaix, in Brittany, the son of an advocate, and was sent to study law at Rennes, On the outbreak of the Revolution he was chosen to command the volunteers from Rennes, served under Dumouriez in 1793, and dis- played such military talent that in 1794 he was made a ral of division ; he took an active part in reducing Belgium and Holland under Pichegru in that and the following year. When Pichegru fell under suspicion, the Directory appointed Moreau, in the spring of 1796, to the chief com- mand on the Khine and Moselle. He crossed the Rhine at Kehl, defeated Latour at Rastatt and the Archduke Charles at Ettlingen, and drove the Austrians back to the Danube. But, owing to the defeat and retreat of Jourdan, he was ob to make a desperate effort to regain the Rhine, which he accomplished, notwithstanding great difticulties, in a retreat that established his reputation for a more than all his previous victories. suspicion of participation in the plots of Pi led to his bein rs ge of his command after coup d'état of 18th Fructidor. In the ee year (1798) he succeeded Schérer in the comm of the army in we which was hard pressed by the Russians and Austrians. By a retreat con- ducted with consummate skill, he saved the French army from destruction. The Directory, neverthe- less, deprived him of the chief command, and gave it to Joubert. But Moreau remained with the army at Joubert’s request to be present at the battle of Novi. Early in the engagement Joubert was killed and Moreau in assumed the com- mand, and conducted the defeated troops to France. The noble disinterestedness of Moreau’s character, his military talent, and his political moderation induced the party of Sieyes, which overthrew the Directory, to offer him the dictatorship of France ; he declined it, but lent his assistance to Benes on 18th Brumaire. Receiving the command of the army of the Rhine, Moreau gained victory after victory over the Austrians in the comet of 1800, drove them back behind the Inn, and at last won the great and decisive battle of Hohenlinden (q.v.). Astrong feeling of jealousy against Moreau now took firm root in Napoleon’s mind. He aceused his rival of participation in the plot of Cadondal (q.v.) and Pichegru against his life, had him arrested, brought to trial, and found guilty on insufficient evidence, 9th June 1804. A sentence of two years’ imprisonment was pronounced ; Napoleon commuted it into banishment, and Moreau went to America, and settled in New Jersey. There he remained until 1813, when he accompanied the emperor of Russia and the king of Prussia in the march against Dresden. Fortunately for his fame he did not live to invade his country, for here, as. he stood talking to the Emperor Alexander on 27th August, a French cannon-ball broke both his legs. Amputation was ormed, but he died at Laun in Bohemia, 2d tember 1813. He was buried in St Petersburg. the studies by C. Jochmus. an 1814) and A. de Beauchamp (trans. Lond. 814). Morecambe Bay, 2n inlet of the Irish Sea, separates the main sobaae of Lancashire from the detached portion of Furness, It is about 10 miles. in average breadth and 18 miles in length, and MOREEN MORGANATIC 307 receives the Leven, the Kent, and the Lune. The depth of water in the bay is never great except in the channels of the rivers. Moreen. See Morre. Morel ( Morchelia) is a genus of Discomycete fungi, of which a number of species (/. esculenta, deliviosa, bohemica, &c.) are commonly eaten fresh and preserved in central and southern Europe. In Germany the morel is so highly rized that, as it often springs up where trees have been burned, the forests were often d yed for its sake, till this had to be restrained by severe penalties. Morelia, capital of the Mexican state of Mich- oacan, is siti , among gardens and orchards, in a valley 6400 feet above sea-level, 115 miles (234 by rail) W. by N. of Mexico city. It contains a cathedral and seminary, and manufactures cotton, tobacco, and candles. Morelia, which from 1541 to 1828 was called Valladolid, was the birthplace of the patriot Morelos, in whose honour the name was , and of Iturbide, the short-lived emperor of Mexico, Pop. 25,000. Morella, a town of Spain, 80 miles N. by E. of Valencia, was the stronghold of Cabrera, the Carlist general, who scaled the castle on 25th January 1839. ——- retaken in July 1840 by More Pork. See PopArcus. Moreri, Lovts (1643-80), was born in Provence, took orders, and was for five years a noted preacher at Lyons, where in 1674 he published Le Grand Dictionnaire Historique, ou le Melange Curieux de UHistoire sacrée et profane (in 1 vol. folio). In 1675 he went to Paris, and laboured at the expansion and improvement of this important work till his death. The best edition is the 20th (Paris, 1759), in 10 vols. folio. It was translated into Spanish, Italian, and English, Jeremy Collier adding to this an cea or supplement filling a folio volume. geographical and historical articles have become obsolete, but the biographical part is still valuable. Moresnet, a smal! neutral territory between Belgium and Prussia, 5 miles SW. of Aix-la- Chapelle, and containing about 70 acres. There is on it a village of 3000 inhabitants. Moreton Bay, on the east coast of Queens- land, Australia, is formed inside the islands of Moreton and Stradbroke, the former 20 miles and the latter 33 miles in length, and both about 5 miles in greatest breadth. The bay is 40 miles long by 17 broad ; its sonthern half is dotted with — . and oe es receives the six cams’ able streams, Nerang, Pimpama, Logan, Brisbane, Pine, and Caboolture. The entrance at the north end is practicable at all times for vessels of the largest size; the entrance between Moreton and Stradbroke Islands is narrow, and less safe. Moreton-bay Chestnut, a genus of plants so named because of the su resemblance in form and qualities of the to the sweet chest- nut of Eu um australe is the only species of the genus known. It belongs to the sub-order Papilionacee of the natural order minosze, is a native of Queensland, Australia. The tree grows to the height of from 70 to 100 feet, with spreading branches clothed With pinnate leaves about afoot long. The flowers _ t yellow, and red—are succeeded by cylindrical pendulous pods of a bright brown colour, 6 to 8 inches long generally, containing about four seeds each, which are roundish but somewhat flattened on one side. Though likened the sweet chestnut, they are much inferior in of flavour, being very rales eo but they are somewhat improved when roasted. Morgagni, G. B. (1682-1771), founder of patho- logical anatomy and professor at eae See ANATOMY. Morgan, Mount. See Mount MorGay. Morgan, Avcustus DE. See Dr Moraan. Mo HENRY. See BUCCANEERS; also J. C. Hutcheson, Sir Henry Morgan (1890), and Howard Pyle, The Buccaneers and Marooners of America (1891). Morgan, Lapy, novelist, was born (Sydney Owenson) in Dublin on the Christmas-day of 1780 or thereby—‘cold, false, erroneous, chronological dates’ she protests against. Her father, a theatri- eal manager, fell into difficulties ; and the clever, bold, live y oung woman resolved to prevent the fortunes 0 the family, first as governess, afterwards as author. She had had ‘somewhat mysterious relations’ with at least one admirer, Sir Charles Ormsby, when in 1812 she was married off-hand to Thomas Charles Morgan, M.D. (1783-1843), whom the Lord-lieutenant knighted for the occasion. For the next quarter of a century, excepting two long visits to the Continent, the pair made Dublin their home but in 1837 Lord Melbourne gave her a pension of £300, and next year they removed to London. _ Here she died on 16th April 1859, having continued busy with her pen and her tongue to the last. Her twenty-two works—rattling novels, verse, travels, &c.—include St Clair (1804), The Wild Irish Girl (1806), O’Donnel (1814), France (1817), and Jtaly (1821). Her silly but not un- amusing Memoirs were edited by Hepworth Dixon (2 vols. 1862). Morgan, Lewis Henry, an American archo- logist, was born at Aurora, New York, 2lst November 1818, graduated‘ at Union College in 1840, and became a lawyer at Rochester. He served in the state assembly (1861) and senate (1868), and died December 17, 1881. Morgan’s earliest work, The League of the Iroquois (1851), was the first account of the organisation and government of an Indian tribe; but even more valuable are his Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (1869), and his treatise on Ancient Society (1877). He also pub- lished Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines (1881), and an account of the beaver. Morgana, Fata. See Fara MorGcana. Morganatic Marriage ( ipothans from Goth. jan, ‘to limit ;’ perhaps Ger. morgengabe, a gift given by the husband to the wife after marriage ; Littré suggests morgen, ‘morning ’—a wedding celebrated privately in the morning), sometimes called Left-handed marriage, a lower sort of matrimonial union, which as a civil engage- ment is completely binding, but fails to confer on the wife the title or fortune of her husband, or on the children the full status of legitimacy or right of succession. In Germany it came in very early times to be accepted as a a that Ebenbiirtig- keit, or equality of birth between husband and wife, was essential to a proper marriage. The lower nobility were of course not Kbenbirtig with the higher nobility, nor the best born commoners with the lower nobility. Now the rule only econ- cerns reigning houses and the higher nobility. But still members of German princely houses entering into marriages of this kind with their inferiors in rank (as frequently happens) contract merely mor- ganatie unions. The marriage, for instance, in 1851 of Prince Alexander of Hesse to the Countess Julie von Hauke, from which sprang. the Battenberg family, was a morganatic one. andfasting (q.v.) in Scotland had a certain resemblance. The Royal Marriage Act, 12 Geo. III. chap. 11, reduces to a position somewhat like that of morganatic unions 308 MORGARTEN MORISCOS every marriage in the 7,64 family of Great Britain not previously approved by the sovereign-under the Great Seal, provided the prince entering into it is under twenty-five, and every such marriage of a prince above twenty-five which is diengproved by pees Thus, rages and most iography wooks make no mention of the Duke of Cambridge's marriage with Miss Farebrother, an actress (died 1890) ; their children bear the name of Fitzgeorge. See Roya FAMILY. Morgarten, 4 mountain slope on the east margin of Lake Eyeri, in the canton of Zug, Switzerland, is the place where 1400 meft of the Swiss Forest Cantons—Schwyz, Uri, and Unter- walden—won a great victory over 15,000 Austrians, November 15, 1315. Morghen, RAPHAEL SANZIO CAVALIERE, a famous engraver, was born at Rapley: June 19, 1758. His first instructor was his father, a mediocre engraver of German origin. But he gave such indications of talent that at the age of twenty he was sent to Rome to study under Volpato, then considered the best engraver in Italy, whose daughter he married in 1781. His. progress was very marked, and even his first works obtained t success. Raphael's celebrated figures in the Vatican of ‘ Poetry ’ and ‘ Theology’ were ve yd by him in 1781; and he afterwards produced a succession of engravings of a bese high class from many of the masterpieces of art: amongst these ‘may be mentioned Raphael’s “Madonna della Seggiola’ and the ‘Transtigura- tion ;’ the ‘Madonna del Sacco,’ by Andrea del Sarto; the ‘Duke of Moncado,’ by Van Dyck; and by his burin, Da Vinci's ‘Last Supper,’ not- withstanding its decay, has been rendered with such consummate skill as to lessen the regret felt for the evanescent condition of the original work. He accepted an invitation from the grand-duke to reside at Florence, with a pension of 400 sendi and a free residence, under condition of establishing a school of engraving ; and he received marked atten- tions from the Emperor Napoleon, to whom in 1811 he dedicated his engraving from the ‘ Transfigura- tion,’ the grand result of sixteen years of labour. He died at Florence, April 8, 1833." His Life, with a | portrait and catalogue of his works to the number of 254, was published by his pupil, Niccolo Palmarino. The works of Morghen will always hold a very prominent place in the history of Engraving (q.v.). See Fred. R. Halsey, Raphael Morghen’s Engraved Works (New York, 1885). Morgue, a building in Paris, just behind the cathedral of Notre Dime, where the dead bodies of persons unknown, found either in the river ( e) or in the streets, are exposed to public view for three days. The corpses are put under a glass case, on sloping slabs of marble. When a corpse is identified, it is handed over to the relatives or friends of the deceased, on ply of costs and dues; otherwise it is interred at the expense of the city. The number of bodies yearly exposed in the Morgue is about 300, of which five- sixths are those of males.—There are morgues in Berlin, and in Boston, New York, Brooklyn, Phila- delphia, Chicago, and other American towns. Moriah, Mount. See JERUSALEM. Morier, JAmes, an English novelist, born in 1780, served from 1810 to 1816 at the court of Persia, first as secretary of legation, subsequently as envoy. In 1812 he published his Travels in Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor to Constant- tnople, and in 1818 A second Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor. The minute and familiar acquaintance he had acquired with the manners and customs of the Persians was seen in his highly-interesting series of eastern romances : The Adventures of Hajji Baba of Is (3 vols, 1824), with its continuation, jji Baba in England (2 vols. 1828); Zokrab (1882 ; Ayesha (1834); and The Mirza (1841). His other novels are Abel Alinut (1837), Lhe Banished (1839), and Martin Toutrond (1842). Morier died at Brighton 19th March 1849. Morinus. Jean Morin, a French theologian (1591-1659), wrote on ecclesiastical antiquities, and ranks as one of the founders of bib! criti- cism mainly in virtue of his editions and notes on the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Targum (in the Paris Polyglot), and his Eyereitationes on the Hebrew and Greek text of the Bible. Morion, an iron or steel headpiece without visor. See ARMOUR. Moriscos. Moriscos is the name usually given to the Moors who remained in 8 in after the taking of Granada in 1492; Mozarabes or Muzarabes, to the Christian Spaniards who lived in the parts of Spain under Moorish rule; Mude- jares, to the Moors who submitted to the Christians in the earlier periods of the x Satay => To take first the Mozarabes. Christianity was freely, if posibeenpenseetys tolerated under the Moorish rule. Occasional outbursts of fanaticism used to take — These were often provoked ht Christians defiantly seeking martyrdom, as in ‘ordova in the 9th century; this persecution intermittently till 953, when it well-nigh ceased, The Mozarabes kept their ancient livareys though many of them had ceased to understand Latin and spoke and wrote Arabic only, writing even Latin and Spanish with Arabic characters. They occa- sionally held councils, but indifference prevailed, and the Spanish egrets were more astonished at the laxity of the Mozarabes than at their con- stancy in retaining their old faith. For Mozarabie liturgy, see LITURGY. Mudej —Moorish names ap) first in the 9th century as inhabitants of the country, and witnesses to documents, under Spanish rule. One of the earliest capitulations or fueros granted to them is that of Huesea (1081); by this and subse- uent fueros (Tudela, 1115, &e.) the widest tolera- tion was extended to them ; they were allowed full exercise of their religion, laws, language, dress, and customs. The fuero of Jativa i Sege by Jaime I. of A n (1251) even provides that if any Saracen should become a Christian he should lose his landed moperty 3 that of Siliebar, near Seville (1255), allows them to build a castle for their defence. These capitulations seem to have been fairly observed till the 14th century, when a change of tone becomes apparent. In 1301 the Moors of Aragon were compelled to wear a distine- tive dress, and in the next century their privileges were By carta | sine y (ek ve upon them. e Mudejares 0} n, en a | Castile had hitherto been faithful, had ov loyally in war even st Moors, had taken the royal ‘side in all popular movements ; even as late as 1528 they appealed to their well-proved loyalty to the crown. But their situation was greatly im by the incorporation am them of the Moriscos, after the fall of Gran (1492). The terms of the capitulation of Granada were to the full as liberal as those under which the sony a had lived loyally in Aragon, Valencia, and tile for three or four centuries. Under Talavera, the first Areh- bishop of Granada, some attempt was made to observe these conditions, and with ha) results, But the bigotry of Cardinal Ximenes, violating the capitulation, led to a rising in the Alpuxarras (1500-2) and to the expulsion of the Moriscos of Castile and Leon; though in 1503 and in 1510 MORISCOS MORLAND 309 Ferdinand forbade the expulsion of those of Aragon and Valencia. At the close of the rising in the Alpuxarras the alternative of exile or of baptism been offered to the Moriscos. Those who chose exile went to swell the number of the Corsairs of Algeria and the Barbary States, who were hence- forth a standing ae and annoyance to Spain. The newly-converted Moriscos (New Christians as they were called) became the objects of the severi- ties of the Inquisition ; as doubtful Christians they were ~ with ter jealousy and yea than as professed Mohammedans. Under danger of relapse their children were taken from them, and their young men sent to the galleys. In the war of the Germania in Valencia (1520) they were ruthlessly massacred by the populace, but were still faithful to the king and to the nobles who their privileges. The ever-increasing persecution provoked a still more serious rising under Philip II. in Granada. It was put down after two years of warfare by Don John of Austria (1568-70); many of the Moriscos, and especially the women, were given to the soldiers as slaves, and the rest, who did not emigrate, were removed to Castile, Valencia, and Marcia. The action of the Corsairs, avenging on Spain the wrongs of their fellow-countrymen, ruining the commerce, carrying off Christian captives, ravaging the coasts so that for leagues the south-east it remained un- cultivated, increased the bitterness against the Moriscos, who were of being in league with the Corsairs, and directing their forays. Many returned openly to their ancestral faith ; spasmodic attempts at _— conversion proved fruitless; in 1 the Archbishop of Valencia re- ported the conversion of one Morisco woman only as the result of a year’s labour. Harsher measures were tried and failed ; persecution only nade them cling more firmly to their faith; partial expulsion only au ted the number of Corsairs ; and at were forbidden to leave the country by sea. The hatred, however, of Philip II. inst the Protestants was stronger than his dislike of the Moriseos, and his reign is marked by constant vacillations in his policy towards them ; and their lot cannot have been absolutely intolerable, for one charge against them was that their numbers in- creased continually while that of the old Christians diminished. The fear and suspicion aroused on both sides made it difficult for Spaniards and Moriscos, tiew and old Christians, to live together. After so many breaches of faith the Moriscos could trust no promise made to them by king or church. To the Spaniards it seemed intolerable to have an intestine foe, while the kingdom was so sorely ressed from without; and churchmen taught the ing that anything, short of the extermination which he might commit with a safe conscience, was aT In 1582 the total expulsion was first mooted ; it was decided on in principle in 1599. In 1609-10 the whole of the Moriseos were expelled the kingdom, either sea from Valencia, or throngh the m Aragon and Castile. All their goods were confiscated, except what t could turn into money, or carry with them on their persons; robbery, murder, assault, excesses of every kind against them marked their track ; all their children under four years of age were taken ota to be ~ tu - mes Froese over yi oriseos, c efly agricultural labourers or farmers, left the country in which their people had dwelt for so many centuries. The results to Spain were like those which subsequently followed the emigration of the Huguenots from France. Even this does not end the story ; the descendants of the children forcibly kept behind, or of those really converted to Christianity, were regarded with horror, and were constantly denounced to the Inquisition. For nearly a century afterwards we find decrees of particular provinces expelling families for being descendants of the Moriscos. A taint of Moorish blood was sufficient to prevent the holding of any public office, even in the smallest municipality. See Guerra de Granada, by Diego de Mendoza; Rebellion y Castigo de los Moriscos del Reino de Gran- ada, by L. del Marmol Carvajal (both in vol. xxi. of Rivadeneyrai’s Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles); Estado Social y Politico de los Mudejares de Castilla, by F. Fernandez y Gonzalez (Madrid, 1866); Condicion Social de los Moriscos de Espaiia, by Florencio Janer ( Madrid, 1857); La Expulsion de los Moriscos Espaiioles, by M. . Danvila y Collado ( Madrid, 1889 ), Morison, ComMMANDER. See ZADKIEL. Morison, JAmMeEs Correr, author and Positiv- ist, was born in 1832, and educated at Highgate mar-school and Lincoln — Oxtord, is first work was his masterpiece, The Life and Times of St Bernard (1863). His latest, The Service of Man, an Essay towards the Religion of the Future (1886), attracted much attention, but it was commenced when sickness had already seized him, and it does not adequately represent his views. He was one of the founders and first pen of the Fortnightly Review. His intel- ectual _— were associated with a most genial and kindly nature; he was reputed one of the best talkers of his time in French as well as English, and had long projected a work on the history of France, but owing to ill-health it was never fairly begun. He died February 25, 1888. Morison, Rosert, botanist, was a native of Aberdeen, born in 1620. Having borne arms as a royalist in the civil wars, he retired to France when his sovereign’s cause collapsed, and took the degree of doctor at Angers (1648). Two years later he became superintendent of the garden formed at Blois by Gaston, Duke of Orleans. After the Restoration he was appointed by Charles IL one of his physicians, ‘botanist royal,’ and ‘ professor’ of Botany at Oxford. He was knocked down by a coach in London, and died the follow- ing day, 10th November 1683. His chief work is Plantarum Historia Universalis Oxoniensis (1680). Morisonianism. See EVANGELICAL UNron. Moris, a pictu ue and flourishin rt of France, in the Breton department of Finistére, on the tidal Dossen, 64 miles from the sea and 38 ENE. of Brest. It has many quaint timbered houses, a huge railway viaduct 20F feet high, and manufactures of tobacco, paper, &c. Vessels of 400 tons can reach the quays. Moreau was a native, Pop. (1872) 12,723; (1896) 15,200. See BERNARD or MORLAIX. Morland, Grorce, inter, was born in London, 26th June 1763, the eldest son of Henry Morland, crayonist (1712-97), to whom at fourteen he was articled for seven years, and who brought him up with extreme rigour. No sooner, then, had he become his own master than he went hope- lessly and utterly to the bad. His marriage in 1786 had no power to check him; and his whole after-life was a downward course of debt and dissipation. He was regular only in this, that ‘every day he got thoroughly intoxicated, and then generally would lie all night long on the floor.” Yet he worked hard and rapidly, in the last eight years of his life turning out nearly nine hundred paintings and more than a thousand drawings. His strength lay in country subjects (pigs, Gypsies, and stable interiors) ; his sea-pieces, also numerons, are not so good, He died of brain- fever in a Holborn sponging-house, 27th Oct. 1804. See Lives by Dawe (i807) ¢ and Richardson (1895). MORMONS 310 MORLEY Morley, a municipal borough in the West Riding | he was elected for Newcastle-on-Tyne, Mr Morley of Yorksitte, 5 ae SW * 55 Leeds, with eben was editor of the Pall Mall Gazette. His articles manufactures, coal-mines, and stone quarries. Mentioned in Domesday, it became a borough only in 1885. Pop. (1881) 16,011; (1891) 18,725. Morley, Henry, English author, was born in London, September 15, 1822, and educated at the Moravian School, Neuwied-on-the-Rhine, and King’s College, London, where he edited the King’s College Magazine. After practising medicine at Madely, Shropshire, from 1 till 1848, and keep- ing school for the next two years at Liscard, Liver- »00l, he settled down with some reluctance in ndon to literary work in connection with House- hold Words and the Examiner. Of the latter he was joint-editor from 1856 to 1859, and sole editor from that year till 1864. He was English lecturer at King’s College for eight years previous to 1865, when he became professor of English Language and Literature at University College, London, an office which he resigned in 1889. In 1889 he contributed the article on English Literature to this work. In 1870 he was appointed examiner in English Lan- re, Literature, and History to the university of Ton on. His numerous writings include How to make Home Unhealthy (1850); A Defence of Ignor- ance (1851); Lives of Palissy (1852), Jerome Car- dan (1854), and Cornelius Agrippa (1856); Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair (1857), reprints of his essays in Household Words ; two volumes of Fairy Tales (1859-60); English Writers to Dunbar (2 parts, 1864-66), worked up anew into the first 4 vols., 1887-89, of a projected complete history of English literature in 50 volumes); annotated editions of the Spectator (1868) and Boswell’s Life of John- son (1886) ; Tables of English Literature (1870); Clément Marot and other Studies (1871); A First Sketch of English Literature (1873); i of English Literature (5 vols. 1876-82); and Of Eng- lish. Literature in the Reign of Victoria (1881). No man has done so much to make classical literature (both English and foreign through English translations) accessible to the people as Henry Morley through his admirable series, Morley’s Universal Library (63 volumes at a shil- ling each, 1883-88); Cassell’s National Lib (209 volumes at threepence each, 1886-90) ; ‘ant the Carisbrooke Library, a series of half-crown vol- umes (1888 e¢ seq.). He died 14th May 1894. See Life by H. 8. Solly (1898). Moeriey, Joun, M.P., was born at Black- burn, 24th December 1838; he was educated at Cheltenham and Lincoln College, Oxford, and, after taking his degree in 1859, was called to the bar, but chose literature as a profession. The best known of his books are Edmund Burke (1867), Critical Miscellanies (1871 and 1877), Voltaire (1872), On Compromise (1874), Rousseau (1876), Diderot and the Encyclopadists (1878), Richard Cobden (1881). From 1867 till 1882 he edited the Fortnightly Review ; and he has edited the ‘English Men of Letters’ series. He is an hono LL.D, of Glasgow. Though possess- ing t literary faculty and power of phrase, Mr Morley’s desire has not been merely to write a readable book or to transmit knowledge, but always to make character stronger and deeper. He seems cae aa by the triviality of life; he feels that only the best is worth an effort, but that this is worth all effort, while indifference and mediocrity of aspiration are the greatest curses of mankind. In polities he has been throughout life & pronounced ical, and in religious questions he has long stood far apart from the great majority of _ his countrymen. : He unsuccessfully contested Blackburn in 1865, and Westminster in 1880. From 1880 to 1883, when in favour of Home Rule written then, and followed up by action in the House of Commons and in the country in 1885, did much to influence publie opinion before Mr Gladstone's change of nage eed known. In 1886 he became Irish the dissolution which followed the rejection of the Home Rule Bill in that year. In 1890, during the difficulty as to the leadership of the Irish party, he directly supported Mr Gladstone. As a speaker Mr Morley has certainly succeeded in the country ; he has few of the superficial gifts of an orator, but he never fails to convey to a public audience an irresistible impression of earnestness and some which has given him a personal hold on men’s m Though not an advocate of state interference, he wishes polities to be regarded as a means for raising the Ta and elevating national character, His political opponents say that Mr rps is a man of letters, more fitted to write history to make it, but seized with a perverse desire to be a politician ; and doubt whether his earnest cour- age is matched by penetrating insight into the airs of the moment and the quickness of decision essential to the highest success in public life. His opposition to the compulsory Eight Hours Bill lost him his popularity and his seat at Newcastle in 1895. In 1896 he was elected for the Montrose Burghs. a took a ee en Roger: in public affairs, but strongly opposed sere Boulan expeditions. His Staties te Litera- ture appeared in 1891; his Romanes lecture on Machiavelli in 1897. In 1898 he was selected to write Mr Gladstone’s Life. See the Review of Reviews for December 1890. Morley, SAMUEL, born in Homerton, October 15, 1809, extared his father's heii Wuneeiaias, Gil shared with a brother the chief responsibility from 1840 till 1854, when he became sole head of the concern. He was returned to parliament for Not- tingham, in the Liberal interest, in 1865; was un- seated on petition ; represented Bristol in 1868-85, and declined a peerage. Identified with many reli- gious and philanthropic movements, he gave £6000 towards the erection of a Nonconformist me hall, and during 1864-70 contributed £14,000 to- wards the erection of Conare aa esc He died September 5, 1886. See Life by Hodder (1887). Mormaer. See EArt. ; Mormons, or, as vs 5 fee themselves, ‘the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, a re- ligious organisation, the founder ght 1801, 1807, and which was Joseph Smith, who | 1000 tw the C4. oy 2. 8. was horn at Sharon, Vt., on 23d | MPriveets : December, 1805. He was the son of a farmer, and at the age of ten removed with his parents from the state of Vermont to Palmyra, in the state of New York, and four years later to the neighbour- ing town of Manchester. It was here, according to his claim, that he received in 1820 his first revela- tion—his divine call as a "mt of the Most High with no less authority and power than were wiel ed by the ancient seers and prophets of biblical fame. Prior to this he had belon to no religious body, though of a spiritual turn of mind, with a leanin, toward Methodism. He declared that no less a visi- tation than that of the Father and the Son, of two rsons of the Trinity, was vouchsafed to him. His second visitation from the unseen world was on the evening of 2)st tember 1823. A glorious personage appeared at his bedside, and, announe- ing himself as a messenger from the presence of God, ‘called me by name and said unto me... that God had a work for me to do, and that m name should be had for good and evil merry tes nations, kindreds, and tongues. . . . He said there ee 3 a ———- >| >| >| MORMON TEMPLE, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. Vol, VII, page 310, MORMONS 311 -was.a book deposited, written upon golden plates, giving an account of the former inhabitants of this continent, and the source from whence they sprung. He also said that the fullness of the everlasting was contained in it, as delivered by the viour to the ancient inhabitants. Also, that there were two stones in silver bows deposited with the plates, and the possession and use of these stones was what constituted seers in ancient or former times, and that God had prepared them for the purpose of translating the book. . . . While he was conversing with me about the plates, the vision was opened to my mind that I could see the place where the plates were deposited, and that so more -corraet, $0: Carat. Shese eee erent and afferent. If the anterior root be divid tween the point of its origin from the cells of the anterior horn of the spinal cord and its junction with the or root, the part un with the cord will waste along the whole length of the nerve, and the muscles which it supplies will waste also. The cells in connection with the anterior roots, therefore, not only send out motor impulses, but exert a nutritive or trophic influence on the nerve and muscle. Division of the posterior root beyond its ganglion is followed by wasting of the corresponding fibres of the nerve to their ultimate termination. If the root be cut between the. an and the spinal cord, the part attached to! the ganglion remains unaltered, while that con- nected with the spinal cord wastes. This shows that the lion of the posterior root exerts a trophic influence on the fibres connected with it. If the nerve be divided after the junction of the two roots, the whole of the nerve farthest from the spinal cord will waste. - The afferent nerve impulses which along the terior roots comprise those which give rise to e sense of touch, pain, and temperature, and to reflex movements of various kinds without neces- sarily exciting our consciousness, such as those concerned with the maintenance of the equilibrium of the body, and with the functions of the internal 0 ‘ex Action.—By this we mean an action brought about directly by the influence of an afferent impulse quite independently of voluntary control. For such an action four elements are necessary : (1) afferent fibres, (2) nerve cells or centres, (3) efferent Shanes 1) muscle fibres. The impulse travels up afferent fibres and stimulates the nerve-cells to send an im- pulse along the efferent fibre to the muscles. If any of these four factors is absent, the reflex action cannot take place. A familiar example is the mov- ing of the foot as the result of ticklin gthe sole. The afferent impulse passes up the nerves to the nerve centres in the spinal cord, which send out- wards direct to the muscles motor impulses, which often be controlled by the movement is brought about by an impulse originated in a nerve centre itself, without the influ- ence of an afferent stimulus, it is called automatic or yee Such actions are apt to occur bi ba Fig. 9. ically, such as the action of the heart. untary Actions.—In these the outgoing im- motor and mk Bag side of the spinal cord to the nerve-cells in its anterior horn. From thence they are transmitted by the efferent nerves to the muscles, Fig. 9 will explain the relation of voluntary to reflex action: ¢ is a nerve-cell in the b ; n, the a, an afferent nerve; s, a nerve-cell; Gs the power of voluntary NERVOUS SYSTEM 443 motion will be lost, but the reflex arc, 0, a, 8, €, m, remains intact. We can sometimes control or 8 thetic Nerve; the right the mae and abdomen, and the stomach, 10.—The lateral ° Trail of hog wremeg4 liver, spleen, and pancreas being removed to bring it in view: 1, 2, 8, the superior, middle, and inferior cervical ganglia; 4, the two lines from this include the twelve dorsal ganglia; 5, include the four lumbar ganglia; 6, include the tive ganglia; 7, the lion impar ; 8, cardiac plexus; 9, solar plexus; 10, aortic plexus; 11, nypowetads lexus ; a, the larynx; b, the trachea; c, arch of the aorta; vam nal carotid; ¢’, internal carotid; d, the heart; e, ¢, the dia- h ~ +h * ragm; f, the cardiac end of the Pp , a per 7’, abdominal aorta; h, the kidney; i, the Ss renal capsule; k, the sacrum; J, the section of base of skull; m, the bladder ; n, the lower portion of the rectum. repress a reflex action voluntarily. The cell ¢ in the brain can so act on the cell s as to hinder or inhibit its ordinary response to a stimulus, and when the cell in the brain is destroyed the cell s is more easily stimulated reflexly, Senin, irritation applied to one branch of a nerve give rise to pain at the extremity of another branch of the same nerve, the sensation being reflected along the branch which is not directly exposed to the irritation. Thus, facial neuralgia very frequently depends upon di d conditions of the teeth, even if they themselves are not painful. In this way we may explain the pain in the shoulder which often accompanies disease of the liver; the pain in the thigh, which is often associated with irritation of the kidney ; the pain in the left arm, which is often coincident with disease of the heart, &c. Persons suffering from debility, anzemia, and g gouty or rheumatic con- stitution are so especially liable to neuralgia that -these conditions, as also exposure to malarious in- fluences, must be ae among the predisposing causes, Amongst the exciting causes exposure to cold and wet, or to a cold dry east wind, is the most frequent ; but fatigue, strong mental emotions, the abnse of tea, coffee, tobacco, and alcoholic drinks, a wound or bruise, the retrocession of gout, rheumatism, or cutaneous eruptions, Kc. occasion- ally suffice to excite the disease, e resources of the materia medica have been exhausted in searching for remedies for this cruel disease, But, in the first tg see a careful search must be made for any possible local source of irrita- tion; and next, ‘hygienic conditions must be very carefully attended to; fresh air, regular bodily exercise, freedom from worry and overstrain of mind, plenty of sleep, an abundant supply of whole- some nourishment, are each essential’ (Fagge). Fatty food, as cod-liver oil, butter, cream, is of especia] importance. Of drugs which give immediate relief to the pain, morphia, ially when administered “tape me cally (see HYPODERMIC INJECTION), holds the first place. But it must be used with t caution, and not entrusted to the patient himself, lest a ‘morphia habit’ become established. Antipyrin and exalyin, coal-tar derivatives recently introduced into medi- cine, sometimes take the place of morphia, and are free from some of its Ss va deme yr Croton-chloral an ium are often useful in facial neuralgia. Relief from the suffering is often the first step towards recovery. But in most cases some treatment is necessary to remove the constitutional state on which the neural s. Iron, quinine (especially when the sala reeurs at regular intervals), arsenic, phos- phorus, chloride of ammonium, are the medicines most generally useful. But the treatment must of course be ad to the disorders, frequently d ive, present in each particular case. : | applications can be of no permanent service in cases where the pain results from organic change, or from general constitutional causes; they will, however, often give considerable temporary relief. Amongst the most important local applications may be mentioned landanum, tincture of aconite or aconitina ointment, belladonna-plaster, and chloro- form (which should be applied upon a piece of linen saturated with it, and covered with oiled silk to ent evaporation), mustard leaves or poultices, en ee ee ne also —s tly, neuralgia, being a purely nervous affec- tion, is often influen ir alain ealeulated to make a strong impression on the mind of the patient; and hence it is that galvanic rings, electric chains, mesmerie passes, and other applications wor tg these, act more upon the mind than upon the body of the patient, occasionally effect a cure. In cases which have resisted all other modes of treatment, surgical measures are sometimes neces- sary—viz. acupuncture, nerve-stretching (see under ScIATICA), or, in the last resort, removal of a portion of the affected nerve. Neuritis, a term applied to inflammation of the nerves. ‘The disease is not very common, and not very well defined. The symptoms are those of neuralgia, with impairment of sensation, or local- ysis, according as sensory or motor nerves are affected. Neuroptera. See Insects. Neusatz, a town in the Hungarian province of Baes, on the left bank of the Danube, opposite Peterwardein (q.v.). Pop. (1890) 24,717. Neusiediér Lake, a small lake on the north- west frontier of Hungary, 22 miles SE. of Vienna. It is shallow (13 feet), and has lost much of its former area (133 sq. m.) by the draining of the adjoining marshes—from 1865 to 1870 it was dry. Lat h waters are valuable as medicinal ths. Remap, 0° ancient manufacturing town of Rhenish ssia, near the left bank of the Rhine, 4 miles W. of Diisseldorf by rail. Its church of St P mageear a notable specimen of the transition from the round to the pointed style, was founded in 1209. Neuss has flourishing ironworks, foundries, flour and iron mills, and manufactures of cottons, woollens, leather, r, chicory, &c. Pop. (1875) 15,563 ; (1885) 20, 3 (1895) 25,026. Neustadt, a town of Prussian Silesia, 25 miles SW. of Oppeln. It is the seat of considerable industry, woollen and linen fabrics and carpets being the staple manufactures, Pop. (1875) 12,515 ; (1885) 16,093 ; (1895) 19,243. Neustadt, or WIENER-NEUSTADT, one of the most beautiful towns of Lower Austria, is situated 32 miles S. of Vienna by rail. The town is over- looked by the large old castle of the Dukes of Babenhberg, now a military academy. The castle contains a fine Gothie chapel (1460), rich .in a windows; it is the burial-place of the Superor Maximilian I. The old church dates from 1230, and was restored in 1890; a Cistercian abbey (1444) and a town-house are notable buildings. Locomotives and machinery, wire, bells, pottery, starch, leather, and ribbons are amongst the manu- factures. Thi city, called ‘the Ever-faithful,’ was founded in 1192, and was rebuilt after a great fire in 1834. Pop. 23,735. Neustadt-an-der-Hardt, a town of Rhenish Bavaria, at the foot of the Hardt Mountains, 20 miles W. of Spires. Its church, with several curious monuments, dates from the 14th century. It manufactures paper, cloth. soap, wine, brandy, &e. Pop. (1885) 12,255 ; (1890) 15,016. Neustrelitz, capital of the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, pleasantly situated in a hilly district, between two lakes, 62 miles NNW. of Berlin. Founded in 1733, it is built in the form of an eight-rayed star, and contains the ducal palace, with magnilicent gardens. Pop. 9366. Neustria, the name given in the times of the Merovingians and Carlovingians to the western rtion of the Frank empire, after the quadruple ivision of it which took place in 511. Neustria contained three of these divisions. It extended originally from the mouth of the Scheldt to the Loire, and was bounded by Aquitania on the §., and by Burgundy and Austrasia (Francia Orientalis) on the E. The principal cities were Soissons, Paris, Orleans, and Tours, See the historical maps at EUROPE. 450 NEUTRAL SALTS NEUTRALITY Neutral Salts, See Sauts. Neutrality. Neutrals are states which in time of war take no part in the contest, but con- tinue pacific intercourse with both belligerents. The aim of the doctrine of neutrality is to recon- cile the right of belligerents to carry on their war- like operations with the no less undeniable right of other nations to pursue peacefully their ordinary business, For many years after the rise of modern international law the conduct of warfare was dis- cussed only with reference to belligerents, and no intermediate relation between an ally and an enemy was recognised. Not, indeed, till the middle of the 18th century did the terms ‘neutral’ and ‘neutrality’ come into general use; for not till then was a systematic effort made to regulate the relations of belligerents to nations standing aloof from the war, or to define their reciproca! rights and daties. As between belligerent states and neutral states, the principles whence spring the complicated rules of modern neutrality are in themselves extremely simple. On the one hand, the neutral, being neither judge nor party, must show absolute im- partiality in his dealings with both belligerents ; on the other hand, the belligerent must pay scrupulous respect to the sovereignty of his nentral neighbours. Accordingly, throughout a war, neutrals continue diplomatic intercourse with both belligerents. A neutral state is not per- mitted to give armed assistance to either bel- ligerent, even though such aid may have been promised before the war; nor to lend money to either side or guarantee such loan; nor to allow the passage of belligerent troops through its territory. A neutral is bound to prevent and cancel all acts of hostility, either in the neutral territory itself or in the a waters, and to prohibit the exercise of any belligerent jurisdiction therein. So, if an attempt be made by troops of either belligerent country to traverse neutral terri- tory, the neutral state is bound to disarm and intern such troops, and to set at liberty all prisoners of war found within its borders. Should a neutral state deviate from its duty in any of these par- ticulars, the state injured is entitled to treat such deviation as a just cause of war. On the other hand, a belligerent is not permitted to carry on hostilities within neutral territory; nor to use neutral harbours for the purpose of fitting out expeditions against his enemy.. He must scrupu- lously observe all the regulations of neutral states regarding the admission of cruisers or prizes into their ports. The relations of belligerent states to the private citizens of neutral states involve greater difficulties. On land the property of nenizal individuals is, of course, protected from belligerent attack ; to this rule an exception is furnished by the Right of Angary (Low Lat. angaria, ‘forced service’), under which a belligerent may seize the property of a neutral found in the territory of the other belligerent, and. make use of it for the pur- pose of warlike operations, subject to his payin compensation. At sea, however, the commercia interests of belligerent and neutral merchants are so interwoven that it is difficult to separate them and strike at an enemy without injuring a friend ; hence ever and again have arisen bitter econtro- versies regarding the extent of a belligerent’s eer over the property of neutral citizens at-sea. Wo distinct principles for regulating the maritime capture of neutral property have at different times prevailed. By the one principle, the nationality of the ship determined liability to capture, so that neutral goods on hostile ships were liable to con- fiseation, while hostile goods on neutral ships went free. By the other principle, the nationality of the property determined its liability, so that neutral goods went free even though found on hostile ships, and hostile goods were liable to seizure even though found on neutral ships. In 1856 the Declaration of Paris finally settled the question by providing (1) that the neutral should cover an enemy's foods, except contraband of war; (2) that neutral goods, except contraband of war, should not be liable to capture even under the enemy's flag. The law, as thus settled, is the old rule, ‘Free ship, free goods,’ without the corol- lary, ‘Hostile ship, hostile goods.’ Attempts had frequently been made at an earlier period, particu- larly by Prussia in the Silesian Loan controv and by the Armed Neutralities of 1780 and 1 to incorporate the rule into international law; it was, indeed, mainly through the opposition of Great Britain that its final acceptance was post- poned till 1856. To the general rule of maritime capture, as thus determined, several important exceptions must be noted, Belligerents continue to have the right of intercepting, even on board of neutral y. ; such articles as are deemed contraband of war. The test to be tuken in deciding what goods are contraband has been much discussed and is now quite unsettled (see CONTRABAND). The vessel, too, carrying the goods may be condemned along with its contraband cargo, where both bel to the same owner, or where false papers are found, or any other fraudulent device is resorted to. Another instance in which a belligerent is entitled to interfere with the ships and property of neutral individuals is furnished by the law of blockade see BLOCKADE). Again, if during a war ships longing to neutral citizens perform certain classes of services on behalf of one of the belligerents, the other belligerent is entitled to confiscate these mys 2 Among such hostile services, against which a belligerent is entitled to protect himself, are reckoned the transmission of naval signals or messages, the carriage of military naval despatches, and the transportation of belligerent officers or troops. Where a citizen of a neutral state engages in any forbidden ventures—whether it be carrying contraband s, running a blockade, or doing other un-neutral service—the rieved belligerent does not complain to the neutral state, but strikes at the neutral citizen directly by cap- turing his property and condemning it in his own prize court. The neutral state does not appear in the matter at all, unless the penalty imposed by the prize court be such as is not warranted by international law; in this case the neutral state claims reparation for its injured subject from the offending belligerent. The most unsettled neutrality is that d rt of the modern law of ing with the oblige ng imposed on a neutral state, of restrain conduct of its own citizens and of enforcing the due observance of neutrality on all persons within its jurisdiction. In recent times the pate has been towards a large extension of the duties of neutral states in this respect. The movement was commenced by the Neutrality Act of the United peg in 1794, and re-enacted, with addi- tions, in 1818. The principles of these American statutes have been closely followed in the series of British Foreign Enlistment Acts, passed with a view of arming the British government with suffi- cient power to enable it to fulfil the extended obli- gations of neutrality. Among the more important offences st neutrality which are now struck at by the municipal law of most states are such acts as the following : To leave the neutral territory in considerable numbers for the purpose of enlis in the service of a belligerent; to accept letters marque from a belligerent; to fit out within its ALT cuv | yood904r- omanays * iS, | = bg bend Ks NvOlewINY aa DoTre = + 4 fe = i Ete, Sz0ynwy f Le | a Bop 4 Zuo” ae <> ; ; - ae etd Boon wel A [Nevada © MOsg OA OP 4 > | p Woyuag: y/s ox ouogg / a. | ye oStt 90 9 ANON ‘PERT ta “seat WYMakdog =, Oh SmpReONT 30 40H FIT ET MONT 8°00 8 ATEN “POWHL ose DET OTL OOr 06 08 OF 09 OF OF oF OF O19 0 your | =%O‘sesjowOoIy vu, = 09 09 or 08 08 os 0 ‘og “YOULL =OF ‘S21 93NeIS — *S31V9OS NEUVILLE NEVADA 451 territory armed expeditions against a belligerent, or increase therein the warlike force of any belli- gerent ship or expedition. At the same time a neutral state is not bound to restrain its subjects from trade in arms and munitions of war. The extent of the responsibility of neutral states for the building and fitting out of ships within their territory appears still to be uncertain. Till lately the English idea seems to have been that the neutral government was under no obligation to stop such proceedings, unless the vessel was ready to commence hostilities at the moment of its leay- ing neutral waters. But the events connected with the escape of the A/abama (see ALABAMA) and her sister-cruisers during the American civil war showed the inadequacy of this view. The treaty of Washington, 1871, by which all these questions were referred to arbitration, directed the arbitrators to apply, in addition to the ordinary rules of the law 4 ES Ponty three new rules, known as the Rules of Washington. These rules, owing to their loose phraseology, lave raised more ques- tions than they have solved, but their general effect is immensely to extend the duties of neutral states, See Hall, International Law (2d ed. 1884) and The Rights and Duties of Neutrals (1874); Wheaton, Inter- national Law (Eng. ed. by A. C. Boyd; 3d ed. 188%), For the history of the growth of the law of neutrality, see Manning, Law of Nations. See also the Letters of Historicus, and the works cited at Enemy. Neuville, ALPHONSE MARIE DE, the most r of the youngest school of French ory de of battle-scenes, was born at St Omer on 3lst May 1836, and after studying under Delacroix painted a series of successful pictures illustrative of French exploits in the Crimean war, Italy, and Mexico. Then came the war with Germany. Neuville oe. in the ranks and learned something of real fare from actual experience. This knowledge im additional power to his next and last series of works, depicti incidents of that war. The attack at Rorke’s Drift and that at Tel-el- Kebir were also chosen by him as subjects for pictures. Neuville axaled. moreover as an illus- trator of books, his best work in this line being the d for Guizot’s Histoire de France. He died in 20th May 1885. Neuwied, a town of Prussia, on the right bank of the Rhine, 8 miles below Coblenz, was capital of the mediatised principality of Wied ; the castle of the princes has a beautiful garden, in which are many Roman antiquities discovered here. The town contains an important institute of the Moravian Brethren, and there are some minor manufactures, Pop. Neva, a river of Russia, flows westward from the south-west corner of Lake Lad to the Bay of Cronstadt, in the Gulf of Finland, passing through St Petersburg, and carries to the sea an enormous volume of water (greater than that of the Rhine) from the lakes Lad Onega, Ilmen, and others. Its total length, with windings, is about 40 miles ; in places it is over 4000 feet wide, else- where the channel is narrowed to 180 feet ; and in one or two places the navigation is embarrassed by reefs and rapids. It is frozen on an average from November 25 to April 21. By the Ladoga Canal the Neva communicates with the vast water-system of the Volga, and thus it may be said to join the Baltic with the Caspian Sea. Nevada, a silver-mining state of the American rege aa spose N. b obey and Idaho, E. by and Arizona, and S$. an ae W. by California, “Its greatest to00 iar the U8. by 3 Be pect from north to sonth is a | \PP!eett Company. little less than 500 miles, and its greatest width from east to west is more than 300 miles. In aréa nee sq. m.) it is the fourth largest state of tlie nion; in population it is the lowest of all the states and territories—(1870) 42,491 ; (1890) 45,761; (1900) 42,335. Nearly the whole of Nevada is in- eluded in the Great Basin (q.v.), once occupied by a great inland sea, and afterwards by several great lakes which have also disappeared. Some of the deepest depressions of such a body of water are yet marked by Walker, Humboldt, Carson, Pyramid, and Winnemucca lakes, and by other ‘sinks’ and playas. The ancient shore-lines are clearly visible in certain places, and the climate, now arid and nearly rainless, was once moist. The soil of the Great Basin at some time produced an abundant vegetation, whereas it is now almost totally unfit for agriculture, frowned upon by barren treel mountains, and traversed by regions of nearly absolute desert. At present Nevada is a high plateau with an average altitude of 4000 feet, crossed by numerous ranges of mountains which as a rule are parallel and separated by valleys from 5 to 20 miles in width. Some of these valleys are barren and desolate; others, through which the rivers flow, have areas of arable land. The moun- tains contain rocks of every geological period ; many of them are voleanic, and there are striking exhibitions of metamorphic and trap rocks. In the valleys lie the sedimentary deposits of ages mixed with cinders and other volcanic products which fell in many cases on the surface of the extinct lake, and at the mouths of the cafions are vast moraines, The mineral production of Nevada, especially of silver, has been enormous (see Com- STOCK DE). Though the high grades of ore appear to have been largely exhausted, the pro- duction was at first so great as to materially change the value of the precious metals, and to promote Nevada hastily from an uninhabited desert to a state of the Union. Mining is still the chief interest. A small area in the north is drained by the Owyhee River, a tributary of the Snake, and another portion of the state in the south belongs to the Colorado valley. Otherwise Nevada lies wholly in the great basin of interior drainage, where none of the water reaches the sea. ‘The streams disappear in the sand or flow into ‘sinks,’ salt or brackish lakes, or playas, which are shallow mud lakes that evaporate when the supply of water fails. The Humboldt River pursues a winding course of 350 miles. There are numerous hot springs, many of which are surrounded with in- crustations of tufa often in weird and fantastic forms. Some of the lakes are nearly saturated solutions of borax and salts of sodium and potas- sium, and in the valleys are tracts of glistening begat deposits, which mark the beds of extinct akes. The atmosphere is dry, remarkably clear in winter, but filled in summer with minute particles of dust, which produce endless and extraordinary effects of colour on the sunlight. The temperature is subject to extremes, and the rainfall is exceed- ingly light. It nowhere exceeds 15 inches, and scarcely averages more than 5 inches. Some sections receive no rain for several successive years. Sage-brush and other desert plants capable of enduring drought form the native vegetation. It has been estimated that with careful irrigation about three per cent. of the land may be suecessfully cultivated. The Mormons established a few tem- porary camps in 1848, and in 1850 a settlement was made at Genoa; but the real history of the state begins with the discovery of silver in 1859. Nevada was separated from Utah territory in 1861, and in 1864 was admitted to the Union as a state. There are fourteen counties in the state, and the most important towns are Virginia City and Gold Hill, 452 _NEVERS NEWBERN which are contiguous and situated on the Com- stock lode, and Carson, the capital. Within the state there are over 900 miles of railway. The state board of education controls the public schools ; there is a state university at Reno. In 1898 there were 8529 Indians (Pah-Utes, Pi-Utes, and Sho- shones), living on 1490 sq. m. of reservations. The schools on the reservations are well attended. Nevers, the capital now of the French depart- ment of Niévre, and formerly of the province of Nivernais, is picturesquely seated on a hillside, 600 feet above sea-level, at the influx of the Niévre to the Loire, 159 miles by rail SSE, of Paris. The Noviodunum of Cyesar, it has been the seat of a bishop since 506; its beautiful cathedral, restored in 1879, belongs mainly to the 13th century. The stately palais-de-justice, dating from_ 1475, was formerly the castle of the Dukes of Nevers; and there are also a fine public garden, a bridge of fourteen arches over the Loire, a medieval gate- way, and a triumphal arch (1746) commemorating Fontenoy, The industries comprise the manufac- ture of cannon, iron cables and chains, porcelain (introduced by Italians about 1565), &c. Pop. (1872) 22,276 ; (1886) 23,610; (1896) 24,750. Neviansk, a town of Russia, in the govern- ment of Perm, 50 miles N. of Ekaterinburg by rail, stands on the Siberian side of the Ural Mountains, and on a tributary of the Tobol. The district around Neviansk is famous for its mineral wealth, particularly gold and iron. Pop. 16,066. Neville’s Cross. See Bruce (Davin). Ne an island of the West Indies, belonging to Great Britain, forms one of the Leeward Islands, and lies 2 miles SE. of St Christopher, with which it has been since i882 administratively connected, sending three (unofficial) members to the common legislative council. It is cireular in form, rises in the centre to a wooded ancient crater (3200 feet), and has an area of 50sq. m. The lower slopes are cultivated, the sugar-cane being the principal crop, though limes and oranges are grown to a sma extent. Statistics are given under St Christopher (gx) Pop. (1891) 13,087. The capital is the port of Charlestown (pop. 1500). Nevis was discovered Agar in 1498 and colonised by England in 1 As long as the slave-trade lasted it was one of the principal marts for slaves in the West Indies. The island has suffered much at various times from hurricanes and earthquakes, Nevis, Ben. See Ben Nevis. New Albany. poe > of Floyd county, Indiana, is on the north bank of the Ohio River, nearly opposite Louisville. By rail it is 317 miles 8. by of Chi and 267 miles E. of St Louis. The city is well built, and is the principal manufactur- ing town in the state. It contains iron and brass foundries, rolling-mills, potteries and brick-yards, flour, woollen, cotton, anc pe mills, &e. ; while its plate-glass works are the largest in the United States. Pop. (1880) 16,423; (1900) 20,628. New Almaden, See ALMADEN. New Amsterdam. See New York. Newark, (1) « port of entry and the capital of Easex county, New Jersey, is on the Passaic River, rail W. of New York. Itis a handsome city, with several beautiful little parks and wide streets shaded with lines of elms, It has a city hall, court-house, public library, and* nearly 150 churehes, but is mainly noteworthy for its manufactures. There are altogether 400 indus- trial establishments in Newark, producing brass and dron work, hardware and machinery, carriages, ‘trunks, saddlery, boots and shoes, hats, clothing, Four rail ways provide frequent com- jewellery, &e. Sateieatiog with New York, which is maintained also by river-steamers; the line of docks is over a mile long. Newark was settled in 1666 by a colony from Connecticut, and received a city charter in 1836. Pop. (1870) 105,059 ; (1890) 181,830 ; (1900) 246,070.—(2) Capital of Licking county, Ohio, on the Licking River (here crossed by four iron i ), 33 miles by rail E. by N. of Columbus. Stoves and fu boilers, machinery, wagons, flour, woollens, an zee are among its manufactures. Pop. (1880) 9600 ; (1900) 18,157, Newark-upon-Trent, a town of Notts, on a navigable branch of the river Trent, 18 miles by_rail NE. of Nottingham and 120 N. by W. of London. It is approached from the north by a causeway, 14 mile , constructed by § in 1770, and carried over the flat island formed by the Trent on the west and the Newark branch on the east. The fine h church, built mainly between 1350 and 1489, has an oc! 223 feet high, and contains a good brass of 1361. Other edifices are the town-hall (1805), corn exchange (1848), hospital (1881), coffee-palace (1882), free library (1882), and grammar-school, ounded by Archdeacon Magnus in 1529. Newark has a very important corn-market and malting industries, besides iron and brass foun- dries, manufactures of boilers and ultural implements, and plaster of Paris s. Ineor- porated by Edward VI., it returned two members to parliament till 1885. Pop. (1881) 14,018; (1891) 14,457. A British town and Koman sta! Newark in Saxon times became the seat of a castle, which was rebuilt in 1125 by Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln (hence the name New Wark), and which long bore the name of the ‘key of the north.’ King John died in it (1216); and in the Great Rebellion it stood three sieges, in the second of which it was relieved by Prince Rupert (1644), whilst in the third it was surrendered to the Seots by order of Charles I., who had just delivered him- self up (5th May 1646). It was then dismantled, and is now represented only by a very pictur- esque ruin, round which a public garden is main- tained by the corporation. See works by Shilton (1820) and Cornelius Brown (1879). New Bedford, « city and port of ont of Massachusetts, is on the Acushnet estuary (oes crossed by a bridge 4000 feet long), 3 miles N. of Buzzard’s Bay and 56 miles by rail 8. of Boston. Many of its ae residences are very Pres ies while the public buildings include a city hall ite, a custom-house, 30 churches, a public ibrary, and a fine high school ($126,000 ere is a broad drive (4 miles) round Clark’s Point, at the extremity of which there is a strong granite fort. For a century (1755-1854) New Bedford was the chief centre of the American whale-fisherii sending out more than 400 whaling-vessels, an receiving 60,000 barrels of sperm and 120,000 of whale oil in a year; but this industry has since declined, till now only some 80 whaling-vessels belong to the port, and the people have turned their attention mainly to manufactures. . es several great cotton-mills (nearly 500,000 spindles), the city contains foundries, oil-refineries, manu- factories of drills, cordage, boots and shoes, flour, glass, plated ware, carriages, candles, &e. Pop. (1880) 26,845 ; (1890) 40,733 ; (1900) 62,442. and port of entry, capital orth navigable Neuse and the Trent Newbern, «4 cit; of Craven oven the junction of the here crossed by a long bridge), 107 miles by rail — E. of Raleigh. It exports tar, turpentine, and lumber, and early vegetables for the North. It manufactures railroad-cars and cotton-seed oil, and factory, sawmills, and an has also a wood-pulp oyster-canning establishment. Pop. (1900) 9090. arolina, is situated at ar ' NEWBERY NEW BRUNSWICK 453 Newbery, Jounx, a London bookseller, inti- mately associated with Dr Johnson, Goldsmith, Christopher Smart, Smollett, and many other men of letters, was descended from an old bookselling vem lh and born a farmer’s son, in the Berkshire ish of Waltham St Lawrence, about midsummer 113. He had first a shop for general wares at Reading, and about -1744 settled in London as a vendor of books and such medicines as Dr James's Powder—the = gy of Horace Walpole as of Goldsmith. He was the first to publish little books for children such as have ever since been popular, and he was himself, in conjunction with Giles and Griffith Jones (1722-86), and perhaps Goldsmith, — author of some of the best of the series, as the tistories of Goody Two-Shoes and Giles Gingerbread and the Travels of Tommy Trip. He published many books of a more useful character, a complete list of which is given in Mr Welsh’s careful volume. In 1758 he started the Universal Chronicle, or Weekly Gazette, in the numbers of which the cele- Idler was first printed. The Public Ledger, commenced in 1760, has continued to our own day —in its early numbers appeared Goldsmith’s Chinese Letters, \ater reprinted as The Citizen of the World. His death took place 22d December 1767. He hada genius for advertising, even to an ingenious method of bringing in allusions to his books and wares in the text of his stories. Johnson sketched him humorously as ‘Jack Whirler’ in No. 19 of thie Idler. 1t was to Francis Newbery (1743-1818), his nephew and ultimate successor, that Boswell tells us Dr Johnson told him he sold for sixty ds the manuscript of Goldsmith’s Vicar of akefield, in which John Newbery has been immortalised as ‘the philanthropic bookseller in St Paul’s Churchyard, who has written so many little books for children. He called himself their friend, but he was the friend of all mankind.’ This transaction has occasioned much difficulty, as Boswell himself gives no date, while the accounts of Mrs Piozzi and Hawkins differ very materially, and Mr Welsh has discovered that B. Collins of Salisbury on October 28, 1762, paid Goldsmith £21 as one-third rice of the book. Boswell describes the book as then ‘realy for the press ;’ Mrs Piozzi says Johnson procured the distressed author ‘some immediate relief;’ Hawkins says the price that Johnson brought him was £40. The year of the sale by Dr Johnson was most likely 1762, when the of the book was written ; and it is most probable that Johnson did not mean that he brought the whole sum, but only an instalment of it. Charles Knight’s Shadows of the Old Book- sellers (1865); and A Bookseller of Last Century, by Charles Welsh (1885). New Brighton, a post-village of Richmond Borough, New Yor City, beautifully situated on the north-east shore of Staten Island, 6 miles from the Battery, to which steamers run frequently. ey houses of New Brighton are mostly villa resi- ences. New Britain, a manufacturing town of Con- necticut, 9 miles by rail SW. of Hartford, engaged in the production of hardware, cutlery, locks, jewellery, hooks and eyes, hosiery, &e. It is a leasant city, with two large parks, and contains state armoury and normal school. The water- supply is from a reservoir of 175 acres. Pop. (1880) ll, 3 (1890) 19,007 ; (1900) 25,998. New Britain, by Germans called Nev-Pom- MERN, an island of the Western Pacitlic, separated the north-east coast of New Guinea by the Dampier Strait. The interior is almost wholly un- known. In the forest-clad interior there are several voleanoes, active and quiescent, the highest pe the Father (3900 feet), The climate is hot an moist. Cocoa-nuts, yams, bananas, bread-fruit, betel-nuts, and similar fruits are the chief products. Fish are caught in great numbers. The natives, cannibals, of the Melanesian division, are warlike, but suspicions and crafty. They make handsome canoes, with sails and outriggers, earthenware vessels, baskets, mats, &c. The sling, stone axe, and spear are their favourite weapons. They worship goed and evil spirits. Area, 9600 sq. m. The population of the several islands is not known. and New Guinea See illy, The Western Paci (1886) ; Powel, Wanderings in a Wild Country (1883); and Parkinson, Im Bismarck-Archipel (1887). For map, see New GuINEA. New Brunswick, a province of the Dominion of Canada, is hounded on the N. and NW. by the province of Quebec, from which it is separated by the river Restigouche ; on the N. by the Chaleur Bay; E. by the Gulf of St Lawrence and Northum- berland Straits—the latter separating it from Prince Edward Island; S. by the Bay of Fundy and part of Nova Scotia; and on the W. by the state of Maine, the boundary with the latter being the St Croix and St John rivers. It has an area of 28,200 sq. m.—rather smaller than Scotland. Its coast-line is 500 miles. in length, interrupted only at the point of juncture with Nova Scotia, where an isthmus not more than 11 miles broad con- nects the two provinces, and divides the waters of Northumberland Straits from those of the Bor of Fundy, across which isthmus is the (unfinished ) Chignecto Ship-railway. The surface of the country is generally undulating. There are low hills skirt- ing the Bay of Fundy and the rivers of St John and Restigouche. A feature of the coast-line is the number of fine harbours, which have been of t value as a means for exporting the timber or which the country is famous. Several important rivers traverse the province ; among the fern ae is the St John, 450 miles in length, and navigable for vessels of 100 tons to Fredericton, the capital of the province, 90 miles from the sea. Above this point smaller vessels and steamboats ascend for 125 miles. The country drained by the St John and its tributaries com- prises about nine million acres in New Brunswick, as well as eight million in Quebec and the state of Maine. The Miramichi River, 220 miles long and 7 miles wide at its mouth, is also navigable for some distance. The Restigouche is 3 miles wide at its entrance into the Chaleur Bay, and over 200 miles in length, The lakes are numerous, but of small extent, the largest being Grand Lake, 30 miles long and 3 to 7 miles wide, communicating with the St John River, 50 miles from the sea. The population of the province in 1881 was 321,129; in 1891 321,270. In 1891 there were 115,961 Catholics, 79,649 Baptists, 43,095 Church of England, 40,639 Presbyterians, and 35,504 Methodists. The population in 1881 included 93,387 - of English origin; 101,284 Irish ; 49,829 Scotch ; 1401 Indian ; 6310 German ; French, 56,335. The principal cities and towns are St John (including Portland), (44,000), Fredericton, the capital (6700), Moncton (6000). The provin- cial government is administered by a lieutenant- tenia. assisted by an executive council, a legis- ative council of eighteen, and a legislative assem- bly of forty-one members, elected by the people. The province sends ten members to the senate, and sixteen to the Dominion House of Commons. Like that of many other parts of Canada, the climate of New Brunswick is subject to extremes of heat and cold. The mean temperature for the year 1885 was 40°3° F. at St John; the highest and lowest temperatures for the year being 81* and —15° respectively. If, however, the climate of a country is to be judged by its effects on animal 454 NEW BRUNSWICK NEW CALEDONIA life, that of New Brunswick may be pronounced one of the best in the world. The revenue is largely made up of subsidies from the Dominion government and from what is called ‘territorial revenue,’ including the proceeds of land and timber sales. The educational institutions supported by law are the Provincial University, the training or normal school for teachers, and a —, system of free common schools, The provincial revenue in 1890-95 was about $750,000 a year, rather more than covering the expenditure. The imports have a value of about $7,000,000, nearly half from the United States. The exports reach a somewhat higher value, timber bein the chief item. ‘The fisheries of the Bay of Pandy, as also the river fisheries, are very valuable. Agriculture is the chief industry in New Bruns- wick. Except in a portion of country adjacent to the coast of the Bay of Fundy, the soil is very fertile, and every kind of grain and roots produced in England is grown, as well as others. Attention has been paid to live-stock both by the government and private breeders ; and recently the government has established a stock farm. The province, owin to its cheap coal and proximity to the markets o the world, has also many advantages as a manu- facturing country. The principal articles manu- factured are sawn lumber, leather, cotton and woollen Is, wooden-ware, paper, iron-castings, nails, and mill machinery, bolts and nuts, railway engines and carriages. There are indications of considerable mineral wealth, and a number of mines are being successfully worked. Shipbuild- ing is still extensively prosecuted, although it has heen much interfered with by the substitution of iron and steel for wooden vessels. Land may be obtained in the province by settlers on reasonable terms—in fact, practically free, if the conditions of settlement are carried ont, requiring the improvement of the land to a small extent, reasonable cultivation, and residence for three years. Land is also put up to auction at an upset price of $1 per acre. Improved farms can be had in most parts of the province at reasonable prices ; many farmers having moved to Manitoba and the North-west, as they can there start their families with less capital. There is plenty of sport of all kinds in the pro- vince, and some of the finest trout and salmon fishing in the world is to be had. Close times for animals and birds are strictly observed. It is generally held that New Brunswick, as a rt of Nova Scotia, was ceded by France to Great ritain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The boundaries of Nova Scotia, however, were not well defined at that time, and the country along the St John River remained a subject of dispute which was not finally settled until the treaty of Paris in 1763 conceding and guaranteeing to Great Britain, in full right, Canada with all its dependencies, When in 1755 the memorable expulsion of the Acadians from Nova Scotia took place many of these — retired to what is now known as New Brunswick, and settled along the upper St John River, the Miramichi, and in the eastern parts of the province. The first British settlers in the province emigrated from Scotland to the Miramichi district in 1764; and in 1783, at the close of the American revolution, when the exodus of the loyalists from the United States took place, a large body settled near the eee city of St John and along the St John River. For the map, see CANADA. New Brunswick, capital of Middlesex county, New Jersey, is at the head of navigation on the Raritan River, 31 miles by rail SW. of New York, and is the terminus of the Delaware and Raritan Canal. It contains a Roman Catholic cathedral, and nearly a score of other churches, and is the seat of Rutger’s College (1771), connected with which is the theological seminary of the Dutch Reformed Church, as well as an observatory and a state icultural coll and model farm. New Brunswick is noted for its great india-rubber factories, and has also iron and brass foundries, and manufactories of hosiery, lamps, needles, paperhangings, &e, Pop. (1900) 20,006. Newburgh, a al burgh of Fife, near the Firth of Tay, 11 miles ESE. a Perth. It arose in connection with the neighbouring Benedictine abbey of Lindores (c. 1196); and in its vicinit: also is the famous Cross Macduff. Pop. 237 See A. Laing’s Lindores and Newburgh (1896). Newburgh, a city of O county, New York, is on the west bank of the Hudson Thebes 1 mile wide), 57 miles by rail N. of New York, the grand scenery of the Highlands. Its handsome edifices, villas, and gardens, rising 300 feet from the river, command a noble prospect. The city has, besides foundries, boiler-works, ship and powder-mills, manufactures of woollen cotton goods and carpets, leather, flour, soap, oil- cloth, brushes, paints, plaster, tiles, &e. nantities of butter, grain, flour, and coal are s paged here, Newburgh was the scene of the dis- bandment of the American army, 23d June 1783; and ‘ Washington’s Headquarters’ is preserved as the property of the state. Pop. (1900) 24,943. Newbury, a thriving market-town of Berk- shire, on the ‘swift’ Kennet, 17 miles W. by 8. of oe and 55 from London. Its gray old chureh, resto in 1867 at a cost of £15,000, is a fine Perpendicular edifice, with a noble tower added in 151 by John Winchcombe or Smallwoode, otherwise ‘Jack of Newbury,’ a famous clothier, who sent a hundred of his own men to fight at Flodden. The large Italian corn exchange was built in 1862, in which year was started a great yearly wool- market; and still more recent are the handsome municipal offices and the new grammar-school, though this claims King John for its founder (1216). Newbury—‘new’ only as distinguished from the old Roman station of Spine nos Soa —besides has many ancient and wealthy charities, It was inopepprated by Elizabeth in 1596, and the borough boundary was extended in 1878. we (1851) 6574 ; (1881) 10,144 ; (1891) 11,002. Two hard-fought battles too place here in the Great Rebellion— the one between Charles and Essex, on 20th Sep- tember 1643; the other between Charles and Manchester, on 27th October 1644, The advan- of the first was, on the whole, on the side of the king, but it cost the lives of Lords Falkland (q.v.), Carnarvon, and Sunderland, to whom a memorial was erected in 1878. The second would have been a decisive royalist defeat but for Man- chester’s hesitancy. See the ee eas (1839), a work on the two battles W. Money (1881), and his History of the Ancient Town of Ni ry (Oxford, 1887). Newburyport, 4 city and port of entry of Massachusetts, on the south bank of the Merrimac, 3 miles from its mouth, and 37 miles by rail NE. of Boston. A long, ay High Street, with a pond of six acres, is its chief ornament. Shipbuilding is carried on, and there are a number of cotton and shoe factories, besides manufactories of combs, hats, pumps, &c. Here Whitefield, who died in 1770, is buried. Pop. (1900) 14,478, New Caledonia, an island of the South Pacific Ocean, belonging to France, and lyi midway between the Fiji Islands and the eas coast of Queensland. The Loyalty Islands, Isle of Pines, and some others, with a total area of 1250 sq. m., are politically dependent upon New a, ae free NEW CASTLE NEWCASTLE 455 Caledonia. This principal island is about 240 miles in length, 25 in average breadth, and has an - area of 6450 sq. m. The long axis runs from north- west to south-east; the interior is greatly broken by irregular mountain-chains (highest point, Mount Hamboldt, 5380 feet); and the entire island is surrounded by coral-reefs. There are good har- bours on the east coast, but the only one used is Noumea, the capital (4601 inhabitants), on the south-west coast. In the valleys the soil is fruit- ful, producing the cocoa-nut, coffee, maize, tobacco, fruits, &e. But the most valuable natural products are minerals, especially nickel, with copper, cobalt, antimony, chrome, &c. There are several useful timber-trees, Promising attempts have been made to introduce wheat, the vine, and the silkworm, Turtle and fish are abundant. Locusts frequently devastate the crops. Besides the smelting of the minerals, meat is preserved and sent to France, and some soap and tapioca are manufactured. Wines and spirits, flour, drapery, groceries, iron- mongery, machinery, coal, &c. are imported to the annual value of £400;000, and nickel, cobalt, chrome ore, silver, lead ore, preserved meat, copra, coffee, &e. exported to the av value of £300,000. Every year about 130 vessels of 75,000 tons visit the island, one-half being British. The total population in 1890 numbered 62,790, thus made up igines (Canaqnes), 41,884; French colonists, 5595; convicts, 7487 ; liberated convicts and politi- eal prisoners, 2521 ; officials and others, 3478. The island was discovered by Captain Cook in 1774, and was annexed by France in 1853. She began to use it as a convict station, and after 1871 sent out numbers of political prisoners, mostly Communists. The righ aE are a mixture of two pes, one resembling the Polynesians, the other « Papuans. They were formerly cannibals, and delighted in war, yet were hospitable, and skilful tillers of the soil. They live now chiefly on vege- table food. Leprosy is a scourge amongst them. See the French works on New Caledonia by Lemire (1878 and 1884), Riviére (1880), Chartier (1884), eil (1885), and Moncelon (1886). New Castle, capital of Lawrence county, Pennsylvania, on the Shenango River, 50 miles by rail W. of Pittsburg, contains a college, large rolling-mills, foundries, and manufactories of bee 9 furnaces, and flour. Pop. (1900) 28,339. Neweastle, a of New South Wales, 75 miles NE. of Sydney by rail, at the mouth of the Hunter River. It is the chief port of the north coast, its shipping nearly equalling that of Sydney ; coal and wool are the main exports. The harbour, which is defended by a fort, is dangerous during storms from the ESE. Pop. (1881) 15,595; (1891) 12,914, Newcastle, Dukes or. See CAVENDISH and PELHAM. Neweastle-under-Lyme, 4 parliamentary and municipal borough of Staffordshire, on the Lyme brook, 16 miles NNW. of Stafford and 147 rail NW. by N. of London. Pop. (1881) 17,493 ; (1891) 18,452. The aspect of the town has of late years been much improved by the widening of the main thoroughfares, and the erection of new public buildings, notably the town-hall (1890) and the high school (1876). The latter was reconstructed under a new scheme in 1874 from the amalgamation of various ancient charities (the earliest founded 1602); its distinctive features are the study of natural science and modern languages. The parish church, part] Early English and ly Decorated, was rebuilt in 1876 from designs of Sir Gilbert Scott, and has @ quaint old square tower of red sandstone with pinnacles, and a fine peal of bells. The manu- facture of hats was formerly a speciality of the town, but has of late years been discontinued ; brewing, malting, and the making of paper and army clothing are now the principal industries, whilst the surrounding district is noted for its tteries, and numerous coal-mines are worked. Bf the castle, from which the town derives its name, all traces have entirely disappeared ; it was built by Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, the youngest son of Henry III. Neweastle, which confers the title of duke upon the family of Clinton, returned two members to parliament from 1353 to 1885, since which time it has only had one representative. - Newcastle-upon-Tyne, a city and county of itself, seated on the north bank of the Tyne, 275 miles from London, 117 from Edinburgh, and 10 from the German Ocean. It is the seat of a bishopric founded in 1882. The city is governed by a corporation consisting of a mayor, 16 alder- men, and 48 town-councillors, and it returns two members to rliament. Pop. (1801) 28,294; (1841) 71,850; (1881) 145,359 ; (1891) 186,345. During the Roman occupation of Britain the high ground overlooking the river in the neighbourhood of the castle was the site of the military station of Pons A‘lii. The * Roman wall’ would probably form its northern boundary. Soon after the abandon- ment of Pons Alii by the Romans, the Angles took pean r= of it. Subsequently it appears to have nm a monastic settlement, and at the time of the Conquest was known as Monkchester. Pandon, which until 1299 was a vill quite distinct from New- castle, is supposed to have been the place where, about 653, Peada, son of Penda, king of the Mid Angles, and Sigebert, king of the East Angles, were baptised by Bisho Finan. When the Conqueror arrived at Monkchester in 1072 there was nothing to be seen of the bridge above water, and the town was too small or impoverished to victual his army. Robert Curthose, on his return from an expedition against Malcolm in 1080, constructed a fortress here, which was named the New Castle. The south tern is probably a fragment of his work. William Rufus is stated—on doubtful anthority—to have rebuilt the castle, and to have granted to the in- habitants of the growing town many privileges and immunities. He besi the castle in 1095. The present keep—one of the most perfect examples of a Norman stronghold in the kingdom—was built between 1172 and 1177 at a cost of £911, 10s. 9d., and the Great Gate of the castle—the Black Gate as it is now called—in 1247, at a cost of £514, 15s. 11d. In the time of the first three Edwards the town was enclosed by a wall, 8 feet thick and over 12 feet high, whieh embraced in its circuit the monas- teries of the Black, the White, and the Grey Friars, the Benedictine nunnery of St Bartholomew, together with the vill of Pandon. The levies for the Scottish wars were usually directed to assemble at Newcastle. In 1644 Neweastle, which had declared for the king, was besieged for ten months by the Scots under General Leslie. This loyal resistance of the town to the forces of the parlia- ment is commemorated in the motto which it bears on its coat of arms ‘ Fortiter Defendit Triumphans.’ Events of tragic importance in the annals of the town were the visitations of the Asiatic cholera in 1831 and 1853, and the great fire which destroyed so much of the old town in 1854. The city occupies a striking and picturesque site, being built for the most part on steep slopes and gently rising ground. It abounds in contrasts, such as the grim,old keep and the High Level Bridge ; the modern Grey Street and the ancient Side; the stately stone buildings erected by Grainger and the half-timbered Elizabethan houses with projecting stories and latticed casements ; the Elswick Works, a mile in extent, and Jesmond 456 NEWCASTLE- UPON-TYNE A q Dene, one of the loveliest ravines in the country ; the closely-packed hillsides and the rolling expanse of common called the Town Moor. The principal remains of antiquity in Newcastle are the Norman keep; the Black Gate; the cathedral of St Nicholas; the churches of St John and St Andrew ; portions of the Edwardian walls, with the Durham, Heber, Mordaunt, and Plummer towers, and the Sally-port Gate; part of the Black Friars Monastery ; fragments of the houses of the Austin Friars and the Friars of the Sac; and several mansions of the 16th and 17th centuries. | The church of St Nicholas, now the cathedral, is said to have been founded by Osmund, Bishop of Salisbury, in 1091. This early structure was destroyed by fire in 1216. The present building belongs to the Decorated and Perpendicular periods ; the nave and transepts dating from 1359, the chancel from 1368, and the tower with its beautiful architectural crown from about 1435. All that remains of the previous edilice is some masonr above the arcades, together with an Early English pillar built up in the north-east pier. The reredos, erected in 1888, is of fine unpolished Uttoxeter ala- baster with splayed screens of Caen stone. In cano- pied niches around the central figure of Christ are statues of Northumbrian saints and the four evan- gelists, St John’s Church, built in the latter part of Henry I.’s reign, contains much of the original Norman work, with Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular additions. St Andrew's Church dates from about 1175 to 1185, and retains some interest- ing Transitional features. All-Saints’ Church was . Tebuilt in 1786-90 on the site of the church of All- Hallows, founded in the 12th century. There are twenty-one other places of worship in the city con- nected with the Established Church; the Roman Catholics have four churches, one being the cathe- dral of St Mary, erected in 1844 from the designs of Pugin; and the various other religious bodies are represented by about sixty chapels and meeting- houses. The central part of Newcastle with its stately and ornate buildings is a monument to the genius of Richard Grainger (1798-1861), a man of lowly origin who, by his vast building schemes, quite changed the appearance of his native town. Grey Street and Grainger Street, built in 1834-38, are the finest thoroughfares in the city. Monuments have been erected to Earl Grey (1838) and George Stephen- son (1862). The town-hall, built in 1863, stands near the cathedral. Associated with it are the corporation offices and the corn-market. Other public buildings are the guildhall and exchange on the Sandhill, the former (which occupies the site of the hospital of St Catharine) dating from 1658, the Moot Hall (1810), the general post-oftice (1876), the central ty mots (1874), the gaol (1823-28), the Wood Memorial Hall (1870), the Trinity House (chapel, ¢. 1651; hall, 1721; alms- house, &c., 1782-95), the Central Exchange News- room and Art Gallery (1838), the Assembly Rooms (1774-76), the (branch) Bank of England (1834), the Royal Areade (1831-32), the Butchers’ Market (1835), covering an area of 13,906 sq. yd., and the barracks (1806). There are two theatres in New- castle. The museum of the Natural History Society was erected in 1883-84 at a cost of £42,000, It contains valuable collections of British birds, fossils from the coal-measures, and a unique series of Bewick’s drawings. The Literary and Philo- a rn Society (1793) has a library of about 40,000 volumes. The public library (1881) contains over 68,000 volumes. There are two useful collegiate institutions in Newcastle affiliated to the university of Durham— the College of Medicine (1851) and the College of nee (1871): the College buildings were opened in 1888 and 1889. The Royal Free Grammar- school, founded in 1525, has since 1870 occupied new premises off Westmoreland Road. Among the | various benevolent institutions in Neweastle are the Royal Infirmary (1751), the Jesus Hospital (1681), the Keelmen’s Hospital (1701), the Trinity Almshouses (inco 1492), the Northern Counties Institution for the Deaf and Dumb (1861), the Fleming Memorial Hospital (1887), and the Northern Counties Orphan Institution (1876). The Central Railway Station in Neville Street (1850) is the terminus for all the trains entering Newcastle, with the exception of those on the Blyth and Tyne section of the North-Eastern Rail- way, which run to New Bridge Street Station. Tramways have been laid from the centre of the city to the chief suburbs. The public pleasure- grounds of Newcastle are the Town Moor (987. acres), Castle Leazes, and Nuns Moor, the Leazes, Elswick, Brandling, Heaton, and Armstrong Parks, the Cruddas recreation-ground, and Jesmond Dene. For the Armstrong Park and Jesmond Dene, New- castle is indebted to the munilicence of Lord Armstrong. Newcastle is connected with Gateshead by three bridges: (1) the High Level Bridge, erected in 1846-49 from the plans of Robert Stephenson and T. E. Harrison, at a cost, with the site and approaches, of £491,153. It is 1337 feet long, and consists of six cast-iron arches, which, springing from piers of solid masonry, support a railway at a height of 112 feet and a roadway at a height of 83 feet above high-water (see Vol. Il. p. 440). (2) The Swing Bridge, erected 1868-76, at a cost of £233,000, on the site the Roman, medieval, and 18th-century: bridges. The movable portion, which weighs 1450 tons and is 281 feet long, is worked by hydraulic machinery, and can be swung round in 90 seconds. (3) The Redheugh Suspension Bridge, erected 1868-71, at a cost of £35,000, is 1453 feet in length, its height from high-water mark to the under side of the arch ig 87 feet. Newcastle is well supplied with water. Hay and cattle markets are held on Tuesdays, corn-markets on Tuesdays and Saturdays. The port of Newcastle isa very ancient and important one. Since 1840 between 70 and 80 million tons of stuff have been dredyed from the bed of the river, which is now navigable by | vessels to Elswick. Since the river came under the jurisdiction of the Tyne Commissioners im- provements on a large scale have been made. The total number of vessels using the port during the year 1889 was 14,757, of a net register < of 6,914,392. The quay, the great terminus of the river-traffic of the port, is about 1540 yards in length, and, as the depth of the river there at low- water is 20 to 22 feet, vessels of large size can be moored in safety. Since the 13th century the chief trade of Neweastle has been in coal. A charter was ted by Edward III. to the bu to dig for coal outside the walls in 1350. The ont- ut of the northern coalfield, of which Neweastle. the centre, in 1889 was 39,101,182 tons. During this period the number of persons employed in the collieries, &c. was 115,440. In 1889 10,529,401 tons of coal and coke were ship from the port of Newcastle. One of the principal industries of New- castle is shipbuilding, the river yes being second in order ae roduction to the Clyde. In 1889 281,710 tons of shipping were launched on the river. The principal manufactures of Newcastle are locomotive and marine engines, machinery, heav ordnance, carri and harness, white and , lead, sheet and pipe lead, glass of various kinds,. earthenware, chemical manures, alkali, cement,, bricks, tiles, and fireclay s, colours, shovels, . grindstones, wire rope, nails, sails, &c. The most- important works at Newcastle are those of Sir- a I te NEW-CHWANG NEWFOUNDLAND 457 W. G. Armstrong, Mitchell & Co., Limited, founded in 1847. They comprise blast-furnaces, engine-shops, foundries, and steel-works. Since the amalgamation of the original firm with that of C. Mitchell & Co., shipbuilders, at Walker, in 1882, several ships of war with their armaments have been completed at Elswick, a notable one being the ill-fated TMS. Victoria. From the engine- works of R. Stephenson & Co. (founded by Geo: Stephenson in 1824), and R. W. Hawthorn, Leslie & Co, locomotive and marine engines have been sent to all parts of the world. Newcastle is the birthplace of I Lords Eldon and Collingwood, Mark Akenside, Charles Hutton the mathematician, and Lord Armstrong. Sve Gray’s Chorographia (1649); and the histories of the town by Bourne (1736), Brand (1789), an anony- mous writer—supposed to be the Rev. John Baillie (1801), E. Mackenzie (1827), Welford (3 vols. 1884-87), KR. J. Charleton (1885), and J. R. Boyle (1890), New-chwang, or Niv-cHWANG, a city of China, in the province of Manchuria, stands on the river Liao, 20 miles from its mouth and 120 from Mukden. By the treaty of Tientsin (1858) New- chwang was opened to foreign trade. From the accumulation of alluvial soil in the lower reaches of the river, vessels are obliged to load and dis- charge at Ying-tzu, at its mouth. It is there the Europeans are settled, and they call Ying-tzu b the name of the treaty-port New-chwang—whic latter is now a greatly decayed place. Ying-tzu imports cotton, woollen, and silk goods, sugar, paper, metals, opium, tobacco, &c. to the annual value of £600,000, and exports beans, silk, ginseng, skins, and horns to the annual value of £1,500,000. The import of Indian opium has fallen from £572,000 in 1866 to £8000. The port was captured by the Japanese in March 1895; in 1896 provision was made for connecting it with the Siberian rail- way ; and by 1898 it was, like the rest of Manchuria (q.v.), almost wholly under Russian control. The port is closed four or five months from November With ice. Since 1872 Scottish Presbyterian mission- aries have been working here; there is also a Roman Catholic mission. Pop. 60,000. Newcomb, Sox, astronomer, was born at Wallace, Nova Scotia, 12th March 1835, nated in 1858 at the Lawrence Scientific School, at Harvard, and in 1861 became a professor of Mathe- maties in the United States navy. He was appointed at once to the naval vere th sca at Washington, and in 1877 was placed at the hi of the office of the olficial American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. He organised the government So yee, to observe the transit of Venus in 1874, and in 1882 observed the transit of the same planet at the Cape of Good Hope; he had already been sent to Saskatchewan (1860) and to Gibraltar (1870-71) to observe ecli of the sun. In 1884 he undertook, in addition, the duties of the chair of Mathematics and Astronomy in the Jolins Hopkins University. His writings embrace over a hundred papers and memoirs, and include especially most exact tables of the motions of the slaneth He has also pub- lished several volumes on political economy. Pro- fessor Newcomb is a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and has received doctorates from Colum- bian University (at Washington), Yale, Harvard, Columbia, Leyden, and Heidelberg, and many other honours, both in America and in urope. Newcomen, Tuomas, the inventor of a Steam- engine (q.v.), was born at Dartmouth sometime in the month of February 1663, and died in London in August 1729. In 1705, along with Cawley, a Dartmouth glazier, and Savery, the manager of a Cornish mine, he obtained a patent for what is now known as the atmospheric steam-engine. Some six years later his invention was brought into use for pumping water out of mines. Newdigate, Sir RocEr (1719-1806), was born and died at Arbury in Warwickshire, having sat for many years in parliament as member for Middlesex and the university of Oxford. He was a great antiquary, but now is chiefly remembered as the endower of the Newdigate prize poem at Oxford, winners of which have been Heber (1803), John Wilson (1806), Milman (1812), Hawker (1827), Lord Selborne (1832), Faber (1836), Stanley (1837), Ruskin (1839), Shairp (1842), M. Arnold (1843), Sir E. Arnold (1852), J. A. Symonds (1860), W. J. Courthope (1864), and W. H. Mallock (1871). New England, « collective name given to the six Eastern States of the United States of America —Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut—embracing an area of 66,400 sq.m. The people, distinctively known as Yankees, are celebrated for industry and enter- prise. The joint population in 1900 was 5,592,017 ; this is more than one-fourteenth of the entire pulation of the republic, while the area of New Eiigland is less than one-fiftieth of the total area of the United States. For the influence of the Puritans who settled here, see Fiske, The Begin- nings of New England (1889). Newent, an old market-town 8 miles NW, of Gloucester. Pop. of parish, 2889. New Forest, a triangular district of south-west oe 9 miles SW. of Southampton, bounded W. by the river Avon, S. by the Solent and English Channel, and NE. by Southampton Water. It measures about 14 by 16 miles, and has an extreme area of 144 sq. m., or 92,365 acres, of which, however, only 64,232 belong to the crown demesnes. The district seems to have been wooded from the earliest times; its present name dates from 1079, when the Conqueror here made a ‘mickle deer-frith,’ and cleared away several ham- lets. This afforestation, enforced by the sav ‘Forest laws,’ was regarded as an act of the greatest cruelty; and the violent deaths met by two of his sons, Richard and William Rufus, of whom one was killed here by a stag, and the other - an arrow, were looked on as special judgments. he deer were removed under an act of parliament (1851); and under another of 1877 the New Forest now is managed by the court of Verderers as a public pleasure-ground and cattle-farm. Enclosed plantations ocenpy about one-fourth of the entire area, the remainder being open woodland, bog, and heath. The principal trees are oaks and beech. The former were once much used as timber for the navy; the mast of the latter still feeds large herds of swine. There*is also a herd.of small, rough-coated ponies. The hollies, the rhododen- drons, and therewith the general absence of under- wood, give a beautiful park-like aspect to the forest, points within whieh or on whose verge are Lyndhurst, Beaulien, and Lymington. See Gilpin’s Forest Scenery (ed. by F. G. Heath, 1879) ; Blackmore’s Cradock Nowell (1866); and Wise’s The New Forest (1863; 4th or ‘ Artist’s edition,’ 1883, with Linton’s engravings of views by Crane, and etchings by Sumner) ; The Portfolio (1894) : The New Forest by De Crespigny and Hutchinson (1895); also Forest Laws. Newfoundland (New'fundland’), an island and British eolony in North America, not yet incor- porated with the Dominion of Canada, lies at the mouth of the Gulf of St Lawrence, separated from Labrador on the north by the strait of Belle Isle (q.v., 11 miles broad), and extending in lat. from ° 38’ to 51° 37’ N., and in long. from 52° 44’ to 59° 30’ W. In shape it resembles an equilateral triangle, of which Cape Bauld on the north, Ca Race on the south-east, and Cape Ray on the 458 NEWFOUNDLAND south-west form the angles, It is 370 miles in length, 290 miles in breadth, and has an area of 40,200 sq. m.—a fifth less than England. Pop. 1874) 168,958; (1891) 197,934. ‘The coast of brador from the entrance of Hudson Strait to a line to be drawn due north and south, from Anse Sablon on the said coast to the fifty-second degree of north latitude, and all the islands adja- cent to that part of the said coast of Labrador,’ is claimed as constituting a dependency of New- foundland, During the fishing season in each year about 30,000 inhabitants of Newfoundland visit Labrador, and live about its harbours, either on shore or in their vessels, for about three months in each year. The population of Newfoundland and Labrador amounted in 1884 to 197,335, of whom 75,354 were Roman Catholics, 69,000 members of the Church of England, and 48,767 Wesleyan Methodists. The able-bodied fishermen numbered 33,000, and about 21,000 women and children were also engaged in curing fish. The island, as seen from the sea, presents a wild and sterile appearance. Its surface is diversified by mountains, ponds, and lakes. The mountains in the Avalon Peninsula (stretching south-east from the main portion of the island, and connected with it by an isthmus of only about 3 miles in width) rise in some cases to over 2000 feet above sea-level. The number of the lakes and ‘ponds’ is remarkable, and it has been estimated that about one-third of the whole surface is covered with fresh water. The coast-line is everywhere deeply indented with bays and estuaries. These bays vary in length from 25 to 70 miles, are of great breadth, and are lined—as indeed the whole coast is—with excellent harbours. The rivers are narrow and winding. Much of the soil is produe- tive, and there is considerable cultivation along the seaboard of the settled districts, but careful ex- ploration has shown that the best land and timber are in the river-valleys and upon the west coast. Large tracts of very good timber, chiefly pine and spruce, exist in several parts of the island. The great body of the people being employed either in the fisheries or in establishments con- nected with them, little attention used to be paid to the culture of the soil. In 1845 the only crops raised were oats and hay; but within recent years large supplies of grain, vegetable, and garden seeds have been imported; and now about 1,000,000 bushels of potatoes are produced annually, and turnips, hay, carrots, clover, barley, and oats are cultivated with success. The island many minerals, The chief seat of copper- mining is around the shore of Notre Dame Bay. The ore is found in connection with the serpentine rocks, which are spread over an area of 5000 sq. m. Up to 1890 the value of copper and nickel ore ex- ported was about £1,500,000 sterling ; the export in 1896 was worth over £99,000. Iron is worked mainly as yet on the east coast. Gold has been found. Rich deposits of lead ore exist in several places. Cre and marbles are plentiful. Roof- ing-slate isfound. Coal and iron exist side by side near the west coast, but their development is . unfortunately hampered by claims set up by the French to a right to use the strand for drying fish ‘free from interruption’ hy the colonists. The saine claims have seriously impeded mining opera- tions in several parts of the island. A great variety of valuable fish is found in the waters of the colony and its dependencies, but cod, herring, and salmon are the most important. The capture of seals and the canning of lobsters also add to the resources of the Newfonndlandets, Abont 250,000 seals are annually taken and their skins sent to Great Britain for manufacturing purposes ; the ‘fat’ is made into seal-oil, which is used in manufacturing and for lubricati rposes. The industry of canning lobsters, though com- menced since 1880, has an annual value of about $500,000. Several factories for canning lobsters have been erected by the French upon the coasts of Newfoundland over which they have certain rights, but the legality of this action is contested by the colonists, upon the ground’ that the lobster is not a ‘fish’ but a crustacean, and that canning lobsters is not ‘drying fish.’ The average annual value of the herrings exported and consumed in the country is about $600, , and that of the salmon exported about $100,000. 7 The people chiefly —— for a livelihood upon the Hea of the -fisheries, of which there are three distinct branches—namely, the Labrador fishery, the shore fishery, and the bank fishery. The average annual value of the cod-fishery is $6,034,242. This calculation includes the dried cod- fish exported, the quantity consumed by the popu- lation, and the oil extracted from the fish. From 25,000 to 35,000 people and 1200 vessels engage in the Labrador fishery, and the annual export is valued at about $1,500,000. The shore fishery is rosecuted along the whole coast-line in New- oundland, and is the mainstay of the very large portion of the population who from poverty, or disinclination refrain from going either to the Labrador or bank fishery, or divide their time between farming and fishing, The bank fishery is rosecuted upon the ‘ Banks,’ so called, which lie to he southwards of Newfoundland, These ‘ Banks’ are submarine plateaus gigi | averaging about 600 miles in length and 200 miles in breadth, The depth of water over the ‘ Banks’ varies from 100 to 600 feet, and the most produe- tive ground is known as the ‘Grand Bank.’ Amer- ican, C jan, and French fishermen also resort to these ‘ Banks’ to fish, the French using their islands, St Pierre and Miquelon, as a base of opera- tions. But it is necessary to procure fresh supplies of herring, caplin, and squid at frequent intervals for use as bait upon the "Banks,” and this can only be obtained, at the seasons when most wanted, and without great delay and expense, in the southern bays of Newfoundland, chiefly in Fortune and Pla- centia bays. Newfoundland does not now allow the bait-fishes to be exported for bait except under licenses, for which a large fee has to be paid, and the result has been a considerable decrease of the catch upon the banks by foreign fishermen. The revenue in 1893—the year before the great financial, commercial, and political ecrisis— was $1,853,844, the expenditure heing $2,110,000, while the debt in 1894 was $9,116,534. ‘The imports in some years have reached $7,500,000, the exports $6,500,000. There has been a slow recovery since 1894, assisted by very promising finds of gold during the year 1 In 1882 a contract was made with a company for the construction of a railway from St John’s to Hall’s Bay, a distance of about 250 miles, After 85 miles of the railway—from St John’s to Harbour Grace—had been completed the work of construe- tion was suspended, In 1887 the government com- pleted a branch-line to Placentia, By the ‘Reid contract’ (1898) a private contractor leased the railways from government for fifty years, to work them and complete the system for a nt of so much land per mile, undertook to make ocks and build steamers for a fast route to Britain (Galway or other port), and arran: to exploit the coal and iron of the interior. Atlantic cables land at Heart’s Content, on the eastern side of Newfoundland, and at Placentia, on the western side. Thereare 1400 miles of me h. _ The early history of Newfoundland is involved in obscurity. It was discovered 24th June 1497, over a tract — etm, NEWFOUNDLAND NEW GUINEA 459 in the reign of Henry VII., by John Cabot, and the event is noticed by the following entry in the accounts of the privy-purse expenditure: ‘1497, Aug. 10. To hym that found the New Isle, £10. It was visited by the Portuguese navigator, Gaspar de Cortereal, in 1500; and within two years after that time regular fisheries were established on its shores by the Portuguese, Biscayans, and French. In 1578, 400 vessels, of which fifty were English, were en, in the fishery. Sir Humphrey Gilbert (q.v.), with his ill-fated expedition, arrived in St John’s Harbour, August 1583, and formally took pos- session of the island in the name of Queen Elizabeth. In the return voyage the expedition was scattered by a storm, and the commander lost. In 1621 Sir George Calvert (afterwards Lord Baltimore) settled in the great peninsula in the south-east, and named it the Province of Avalon. The history of the island during the 17th and part of the 18th cen- turies is little more than a record of rivalries and feuds between the English and French fishermen ; but by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the island was ceded wholly to England, the French, however, retaining certain privileges in connection with the catehing and drying of fish on the coast extending from Cape Bonavista on the east to Point Riche on the west. By the treaty of Versailles (1783) the boundaries were so changed as to extend from Cape Joln on the east to Cape Ray on the west, and at the same time the French were promised ‘freedom from interruption by the com- petition of the British.’ This promise the French construe and urge so as to prevent the develop- ment of the resources of the interior adjacent to coasts over which their rights extend, and much friction consequently exists between the French and the people of Newfoundland. A governor was appointed in 1728. The present form of govern- ment, established in 1855, consists of the governor, an executive council, or cabinet of seven members, a legislative council of fifteen members (appointed by the crown), and a general assembly of thirty- six members (elected by the people). Every man of twenty-one years of age, a British subject and two years a resident in the colony, is entitled to vote at elections. ; See L. A. Aus , The History of the Island of New- foundland (1827); Little, The Government of Newfound- land (1855); W. Fraser Rae, Newfoundland to Manitoba (1881); Murray and Howley, Geological Survey of New- Soundland (1881); Hatton and M. Harvey, Newfound- land (1883); Howley, Ecclesiastical History of New- foundland (1888), and French Treaty Rights (1890); ey, Newfoundland as it iz in 1894; Prowse, A History of Newfoundland, For map, see CANADA. Newfound land, a breed of dogs originally introduced into England from the island of New- foundland, where oe were used for draught pur- poses. As the mastiff at that time was scarce, and the St Bernard had not yet appeared in England, the Newfoundland became exceedingly common, but has been eclipsed in popularity of late years by the other two breeds mentioned. In general appear- ance the Newfoundland is a large and imposing dog, mild in expression, but showing yreat strength. The head should be large, with ears falling close ; neck long, if ible; loins strong and well ribbed up, a point seldom seen in this breed ; tail long and powerful, as it is used greatly when swimming; coat, long and wiry; colour, black without any white markings. Much discussion was caused by Sir E. Landseer’s well-known picture of a black and white dog entitled ‘ A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society’ (1838). An at- tempt was made to prove that the black and white dog was the true Newfoundland; bnt it is now generally regarded as a cross from the black. The lack and white variety, uow known as the Land- seer Newfoundland, has been kept pure for many generations ; it is now almost as pure, and cer- tainly as handsome, as the original variety. The Newfoundland is a (gate water-dog, and takes to the sea at an early age. He is also a natural Newfoundland Dog—Bismarck, 1890. retriever, and, though himself too heavy for field work, has been extensively used to found the ordinary retriever. From his formidable appear- ance, combined with docility and intelligence, he makes a capital watch-dog, for which purpose he is extensively used, Newgate, a celebrated London prison, stands at the western extremity of Newgate Street, opposite the Old Bailey, The exterior presents high dark stone walls, without windows. It was long the chief criminal prison of city and county, but is no longer used for prisoners to be tried at the Central Court, and is in the hands of the Court of Aldermen. The earliest prison here was in the portal of the new gate of the city as early as 1218; and hence the name. About two centuries afterwards it was rebuilt by the executors of Sir Richard Whittington, whose statue with a cat stood in a niche, till its destruction by the great fire of London in 1666, The present edifice was erected in 1780, but the new buildings were greatly damaged by fire in the Gordon Riots of that year (see Boswell’s Johnson under that date), when 300 prisoners, felons as well as debtors, were released and let loose on the public. This awful scene is described by Dickens in Barnaby Rudge. After the passing of the Prisons Bill in 1877 Newgate, being considered a very costly and redundant establishment, was gradually disused, and is now, except during sessions or when the gallows is in requisition, practically closed. The Newgate Cal- endar contains biographical notices of the most notorious murderers, burglars, thieves, and forgers who have been confined within its walls. See Griffiths, Chronicles of Newgate (1884). New Granada. See CoLomsia. New Guinea, an island of Australasia, the largest in the world except the Australian con- tinent, from which it is separated by the shallow island-studded Torres Strait, 80 to 90 miles wide at its narrowest part, about the meridian of the York Peninsula. There is now no doubt that the two regions at one time, probably Baring the Miocene epoch, formed continuous land, an an upheaval of less than sixty fathoms would suffice again to unite them. The hundred-fathom line, as determined by Wallace, would also include the insular groups of Jobi, Biak, Suk, Mafor 460 NEW GUINEA iF | iS (Nufor), and Amberpoca in Geelvink Bay; Aru, near the south-west coast; Mysol, Salwatty, Batanta, and Waijiu at the north-western, and the Louisiade and D'Entrecasteaux Archipelagoes at the south-eastern extremity of New Guinea. But elsewhere the mainland is washed by deep waters, ranging from 500 to 1300 fathoms on the south-eastern and northern seaboards. It is dis- posed in the direction from north-west to south- east, stretching from Cape Goede Hoop (‘Good Hope’), just south of the wagered (0° 19’ S. and 132° 30’ E.), for about 1500 miles to South Cape, over 700 miles below the equator (10° 34’ S. and 150° 48’ E.). But owing to its extremely irregular shape, somewhat resembling a huge saurian, the width varies from under 20 miles at the narrowest parts of both extremities to 480 miles at the broadest part, about 141° E. long., giving a total area roughly estimated at 320,000 sq. m., or six times as large as England. The island thus forms three some- what distinct geographical divisions—a large the north and south coasts, while the north-west ager is decomposed into two secondary mem- rs by the Macluer Inlet, which penetrates from. bee on the north-west coast. ost of the interior is still a terra incognita ; but the more salient physical features of the island have already been roughly determined. It is essentially a mountainous and even an alpine region, being traversed in its entire length by 7 ran, by far the highest in the Oceanic world, ant in some places rising 2000 or 3000 feet above the snow- line. These ranges, which in the two peninsular regions form single continuous systems, devel in the broader central parts two or more chains with a general south-easterly trend, at man points approaching close to the coast-line, a elsewhere enclosing extensive rugged plateaus. Thus, the Arfak Hills of the north-west peninsula (10,000 feet) are continued in the central region by the Charles-Louis range, which for near] miles central mass from which two peninsulas project | appears to maintain an altitude of over 14,000 south-east and north-west. The south-east pen- | with ae towering to heights of 18,000 insula is defined by Huon and Papua Gulfs on | even 20,000 feet. Parallel with this chain runs the OT : iT Tas Hhkad o] Tiger Equator range OREN on * SAnchorite I moe Admiralty 13 * Matty! Buchanan | L ‘Eohiquier{? . -d @ . Jp Tenimber 12 Frederick — < or Timor Laut Henry I. f False C. %. ne ARAFURA SEA % * Sty, te i TORRES": py! i cing Ps ? SS Yim ss F FS Oe er} f Wessel 1 OH OF SF louisiadey A G@ULFIOF S lye Archipelago NORTHERN TERRITORY CARPENTARIA Yorkin. 3° ha all . x SOUTH AUSTRALIA 140 ! jr 5° northern coast range, known as the Finisterre Mountains (11,500 feet), which terminate east- wards in an imposing headland projecting in the direction of New Britain, and enclosing Huon Gulf on the north side, Between these two chains run the Bismarck and Kriitke ran (10,000 feet), the latter discovered in 1887 by Dr H. Zéller. About the same time Count Pfeil, administrator of Ger- man New Guinea, penetrated from the north coast still farther inland in search of expansive table- jands suitable for settlement; but he found the whole surface broken into a confused mass of steep mountains composed mostly of old sedimentary rocks—altogether ‘a rugged, hopeless region ’ inter- sected by deep gorges, but few open river-valleys. All these mountain-ranges converge in the south- east peninsula in a single lofty chain which tra- verses the whole of British New Guinea, but the various sections of which take the names of the Albert Victor, Yule, Owen Stanley, and Lorne ranges, in their order from west to east. But the _nomenclature is still far from settled, and much confusion has been caused by recent travellers re- naming peaks and crests and even rivers already determined by previous explorers. The there ‘ formations pe bt std to Be wert old plutonic asd sedimentary rocks. Gneiss and granites crop out’ in the highlands; elsewhere stratified clay- slates and old limestones abound, containing she identical with those of south-east Australia ; quartz and nstones occur on the south-east coast re- sembling those of the auriferous region in New South Wales, and there are numerous other in- dications of the presence of gold in many districts. Earthquakes are frequent in some places, but no active voleanoes appear to exist, although there are several comparatively recent craters on the spurs of the Owen Stanley range, while pumice and seoriw cover the flanks of the Finisterre Moun- tains. One result of the explorations has been the discovery of a surprising number of considerable rivers in every part of New Guinea. The three largest ap to be the Amberno (Mamberan, or ‘Great River’) in Dutch, the Empress Augusta in German, and the Fly in British territory. The Amberno (the Rochussen of Dutch geographers) descends from the Charles-Louis range to the east the south-west side to within 20 miles of Geelvink NEW GUINEA 461 side of Geelvink Bay, where it develops an extensive delta. The Empress Augusta flows from the un- central water-parting north-eastwards to the coast at Cape della Torre in 4° S. and 144° 30’ E., entering the sea in a broad, deep channel without any delta. In the rainy season it is navigable for many miles by vessels, and both the main stream and several tributaries are accessible for a long way to river-steamers. But the largest of all New Guinea rivers is certainly the Fly, which _rises on the southern slope of the central water- ‘parting and flows mainly south-east to a delta of vast extent on the west side of the Gulf of Papua. The Baxter (Mia Kasa), which enters the sea farther west, opposite Cape York, is an _in- dependent stream unconnected with the Fly. This estuary, which was discovered in 1845 by Blackwood and named after his vessel the Fly, was ascended in 1876 by D’Albertis for 500 miles in a steam-launch, again in 1889 for over 600 miles Sir W. ee The tides ascend the Fly fe 150 miles, 90 miles higher up it is joined on its left bank by the Strickland. Farther east several other copious streams flowing from the main range through British territory to the Gulf of Papua have also been either recently discovered or for the first time surveyed. Such are the Centenary, Stanhope, and Queen’s Jubilee, all of which converge in an almost con- tinuous common delta about the head of the gulf. But here again the terminology is much confused, the and Jubilee being respectively Black- wood’s Aird and the already partly-surveyed Aivei. Mr Bevan's oe also is merely the upper course of the Aird, of which the Centenary appears to be an eastern and the New a western branch. The east side of Papua Gulf is joined by other navigable streams from the Owen Stanley range, the more important of which are the St Joseph, flowing from Mount Yule to Hall Sound; the Vv: draining the southern slopes to Redscar Bay, and followed by Sir W. Macgregor on his ition to Mount Victoria (Owen Stanley) in ; the Ke Welch, flowing to Hood yi and the Da: wa and Hadava, reaching the . coast at Milne Bay. In German territory also, besides the Empress Augusta, no less than nine new rivers have recently been discovered, one of which, the Markham, gives easy access a long way into the interior. The whole of New Guinea lies within the track of the south-east trade-winds, which prevail from March to October, and which are charged with much moisture from the Pacific. These are fol- lowed for the rest of the year by the north-west monsoons, whose rain-bearing clouds are condensed on the cold alpine slopes of the island. The con- sequence is that the rain or snow fall is considerable in every part of the country, and this, combined with an ay igh temperature of from 85° to 90° F., results in a hot, moist ¢limate on all the low-lying coast-lands and fluvial valleys. So excessive is the moisture in some places that ‘ boots put aside for a day or two ans a crop of mildew nearly half an inch in thickness’ (Guillemard). Hence fever is endemic, not only in the lowlands, but to a con- siderable height above sea-level, the malarious exhalations being carried upwards by the atmo- spheric currents, as on the Central African plateaus. t the same time its action is most capricious, and its trne character still but little understood. ‘It may be very troublesome where weather, soil, and other conditions should be favourable to health, and perhaps almost absent under the opposite con- ditions ’ ( tts Trotter). Exactly similar pheno- mena have been observed in tropical Africa, and it may be inferred that New Guinea, as a whole, ‘is as unsuitable as that continent for European settlement. But some of the neads beyond the fever zone may be found adapted, if not for, per- manent colonisation, at least for the establishment of health-resorts for officials, traders, and mission- aries. Thanks to its abundant rainfall, varying altitudes, high temperature, and position intermediate be- tween the Asiatic and Australian botanical areas, New Guinea is almost everywhere clothed with a rich and highly diversified flora. The vegetable’ zones ap’ to be even superimposed as in Mexico, and Sir W. Macgregor’s party, after passing suc- cessively through the domains of tropical plants, such as the cocoa-nut, sago, banana, mango, taro, and s -cane, and of such temperate or sub- tropi d gpiedn as the cedar, oak, fig, acacia, pine, and tree-fern, were gladdened on the higher slopes by the sight of the wild strawberry, forget- me-not, daisy, buttercup, and other familiar British lants. Towards the summits these were succeeded y a true Alpine flora, in which Himalayan, Bornean (Kinibalu), New Zealand, and _ sub- antarctic forms were all numerously represented. In general, arboreal vegetation ceases at about 11,000 feet, and shrubs at 12,000, the latter being overlapped by the Alpine zone. In New Guinea the Asiatic and Malayan floras are far more richly represented than the Australian, as shown by the absence or rarity of the eucalyptus, of which as many as fifty varieties are found in the southern continent. Indigenous forms are numerous, and include many species of palm. On the other hand, the New Guinea fauna is much more closely related to that of the Austral than to that of the northern hemisphere. This is seen in the almost total absence of placental mam- mals and the presence of over thirty species of mar- supials, such as the cuscus and kangaroo, as well as the bower-bird, of which two new species were discovered on the Owen Stanley range. Here also were found the European lark and_black- bird in curious association with the bird of Paradise, of which typical New Guinea bird many varieties occur, Scarcely any birds of prey are found, a circumstance which may explain the presence of so many forms—parrots, cockatoos, pigeons, &¢.— remarkable for their gorgeous plumage. Reptiles are numerous, and include a remarkable python (Chondropython ), intermediate between the Asiatic python and American boa. A still more remarkable intermediate form, supplying a link between — and mammals, is the spiny ant- eater, which is allied to the Australian echidna, and like it oviparous. There are three species of this ant-eater, while the placental mammals are represented only by some bats and mice, besides the pig and dingo, both probably introduced in comparatively recent times. an also would seem to have invaded the island after its separation from Australia, for the inhabit- ants of the two regions belong to fundamentally distinct stocks. tween the Australians and Papuans, who form the great bulk of the New Guinea population, there is little in common except the dark colour, considerably darker, however, in the latter than in the former. But the New Guinea natives are far from a homogeneous people, and the descriptions of travellers in different parts of the island differ so greatly that many anthropologists have doubted or even denied the existence of any Papuan type. These discrepancies are due to the presence and intermingling of at least four ethnical elements : Papuan proper, diffused over the whole region ; Negrito (Karons and others in the north- west peninsula and probably also in the central highlands) ; Lastern Polynesian, such as the Motu of the south-east coast; lastly, Malay, along the north-western seaboard and around the shores of 462 NEW GUINEA NEW HAMPSHIRE Geelvink Bay, The mingling of these elements in different proportions has brought about much diveérsity in the physical appearance, speech, usages, and general culture of the natives, who are every- where broken into small tribal groups speaking a surprising number of distinct languages, some of which are members of the widespread’ Malayo- Polynesian family, while others, especially in the interior, seem to have no connection with that or any other known forms of speech. The tribal organisation is extremely loose, hereditary rulers being nowhere recognised, and the so-called chiefs depending for their prestige either on personal, social, or religious influences (S. Forbes). Can- nibalism is very prevalent, though by no means universal ; and some tribes, such as the Togaris of the south coast, are predatory, living entirely by plundering expeditions amongst the surrounding populations. But many others are veful, indus- trious, and keen traders, displaying remarkable skill, especially in the arts of pottery, wood-carving, and husbandry. New Guinea appears to have been first sighted by A. D’Abren in 1511, and first visited by De i Set about 1526, and Alvaro de Saaverda in 1528. It received its present name in 1546 from Ortiz de Retez (Roda), who was struck by the resemblance of its inhabitants to those of the Guinea coast in West Africa. During the flourish- ing period of the empire of Tidor, the Malay sultans of that state extended their sway over the so-called Raja Ampat or ‘Four Kingships’ of Waijiu, Salwatty, Mysol, and Waigamma, inelud- ing large tracts on the adjacent mainland. In 1793 the East India Gonpeny occupied the island of Manassari in Geelvink Bay; but the British troops were soon withdrawn, and in 1814 the English government admitted the claims of Holland to the finja Ampat as suzerain of the sultan of Tidor. In 1848 the Dutch proclaimed their sovereignty over the western half of the island as far as 141° E. long., and this meridian was accord- ingly taken as the western bonndary of the eastern half in 1884, when that section was divided between Great Britain and Germany. The boundary between the northern or German and the southern or British division coincides with the erest of the main water-parting. Subjoined is a roughly estimated table of the areas and populations of the territories assigned to these three states : Area in sq. miles, Population, Dutch New Guinea... 200,000 British " hee 135,000 German ee ee Fe 100,000 MOM cc cttee es 435,000 In the Dutch section, which is attached to the Residency of Ternate, there are no towns or ad- ministrative centres, Dorey, at the north-west side of Geelvink Bay, being merely a missionary station chiefly noted as the starting-point of many ex- peditions to the interior. No effort has ever been made by the Dutch government or by private enterprise to develop the resources of the country. German New Guinea, officially known as Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land, is a protectorate administered by the German New Guinea Company, which has stations at Astrolabe Bay, Finschhafen, Konstan- tinhafen, and Hatzfeldhaten, It yields for export tobacco, areca, sago, bamboo, ebony, and other woods. British New Guinea, which includes the D’Entrecasteaux and Lonisiade Archipelagoes, was administered as a protectorate by a Commis- sioner till 1888, when the sovereignty of the aK was proclaimed, the government being p under Sir William Macgregor as adminis- trator. New South Wales, Victoria, and Queens- land each contribute £5000 towards the expenses of administration. The territory is divided into a western, central, and eastern division, under deputy-commissioners, the chief station being Port Moresby. The revenue already exceeds the expenditure, and the exports, chiefly gold, 3 rs Nie ne and copra, pase 8 000 in i - See works on New Guinea and accounts of ; thither by Th, Forrest (1774-76), Modera (Du rts) in the Journ, Roy. Geog. Xx’ t d’Urville (1839), Marsden in Trade, . Asiat. Soe, 1831, G. W. Earl (1835) in "s vi, (1852), J. Proc, Roy. Geog, Soc. 1883, Coutts Trotter in the same, 1883, 1884, and 1890, Prince Roland in the Bulletin of the French Geog. Soc. 1884, Rye rs of the Roy. Geog. Soc. 1 Rev, J. tides and 1887). Ch. Lyne (1886), Ress (1886 and 1889), Forbes in Scot. Geor. 888, Geography (1887 ), Thomson's British New Guinea (1892), and Guillemard’s Malaysia und Polynesia (1895), New Hampshire, the ‘Granite State,’ one of the thirteen original states of the American Union, lying between 42° 40’ and 45° 18’ Copsright 1601, 1857, and N. lat., and bounded on the N. Ener Lm ae A Ss by the Canadian province of | “Prive Company. Quebee, E. by the state of Maine and (for 18 miles) the Atlantic Ocean, S. by the state of Massachusetts, and W. by the right bank of the Connecticut River, — Area, 9305 sq. m.—a fourth larger than Wales. The average elevation of the state is about 1200 feet, the general slope being towards the south. The highest point is Mount Washington (6293 feet), in the White Mountains, which include more than a hundred peaks of note, mainly in the northern- most county ; among the peaks over 5000 feet high are those bearing the names of the successive presi- dents, Adams, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, Geologically they consist of early metamorphic rocks ; immense masses of granite and gneiss con- stitute the bare peaks that make the name of the as appropriate in summer as in winter. The largest lake is Winnipiseogee (72 sq. m.); the prin- cipal rivers are the Connecticut, Merrimac, and Piscataqua. From Dover Point to its mouth the Piscataqua is about half a mile wide; and the volume and swiftness of its current at ebb-tide preva the freezing of the water in Portsmouth arbour during the coldest winters. The Merrimac is said to turn more spindles and propel more shuttles than any other river in the world. The state is noted for its salubrious climate and oud picturesque natural scenery, The mean ann temperature at Concord is 46° F, The principal een prodnets are hay, tatoes, maize, and oats ; the recent populari of ew Hampshire as a summer-resort has brought a new and re oe reed home market to the farmers, who, owing to the rough and sterile soil, could not compete in the great markets with those of the West, and has revived the declining agricultural industries. The state still has over a million acres of forest, which averages in value about double that of the cleared land. But manufacturing is the leading industry, cotton and woollen goods being the chief product; boots and shoes, and saw-inill products, are important. Manchester (the largest city), Nashua, and Dover are the chief ce ntres. New Hampshire embraces ten counties, and returns two members to sca ge The governor is elected biennially, and by him the judiciary are appointed until seventy years of age. The public G hel < T om — “WEL Ij} / D fe: s eh 21 UNIO wo0 oOo. > Mt RY Ten Te ee Soe oR MAO OO Se Pre OL ” om * < 7 ot . ° “YOUl 1 -Gt ‘Ses, OWT os oF oO o ou trcere “You, L— S'S! ‘SOU SIMMS “s21V9S | 2 ay WN osoqeneigé 4 m ry . E3 ‘A | NM Vike CK I” oe (- | SUS *soj]eq | 4 — yy L'a), [New Hampshire. } \ = qoved Wo x_ * Ausapuopuoy *g J og Awanu NEW HANOVER NEW JERSEY 463 schools are efficient, and the state possesses one Dartmouth, founded at Hanover in 1769 as a school for the instruction of Indians; it has well-appointed academic, scientific, medical, and agricultural departments, with libraries aggregat- ing 87,000 volumes. There is also a state normal school at Plymouth. History.—The earliest settlements were made in 1623 near Dover and Portsmouth. In 1641-79, 1689-92, and 1699-1741 New Hampshire was joined to the Massachusetts colony, but during the inter- vening dates and until 1775 it was under royal governors of its own. The people took an active part in the revolution. A provisional government was formed in 1776, a state constitution adopted in 1784; and New Hampshire was the ninth state (June 21, 1788) to ratify the national constitution. Among the eminent men born here have been— besides one president, Franklin Pierce—Daniel Webster, Lewis Cass, Salmon P. Chase, and Horace Greeley. Pop. (1790) 141,899; (1840) 284,574; (1890) 376,530 ; (1900) 411,588. New Hanover, one of the Bismarck Archi- lago, lying otf the north-east coast of New Paines, with an area of 570 sq. m. Its physical characteristics resemble those of New Britain (q-v.). New Harmony, 4 town (Pop. 1341) of In- diana, 30 miles by rail WNW. of Evansville, was first settled in 1815 by a German community of seligions socialists, called Harmonists, under the leadership of George Rapp (q.v.). _In 1824 the village and domain was purchased by Robert Owen, for an _ aL eranarag community on his system ; but this failed after a test of nearly three years. Newhaven, a seaport of Sussex, at the mouth of the Ouse, 84 miles E. of Brighton and 56 8. of London. It has risen into im ce throngh its steamboat traflic, particularly to Dieppe (54 hours), and has a large fort (1864-69) and a little Norman 12th-century church, with an east tower and small semicircular apse, curiously like that of Yainville- sur-Seine. Pop. (1881) 4421 ; (1891) 4955. Newhaven, 4 fishing-vill of Midlothian, on the south shore of the Firth of Forth, 1 mile WNW. of Leith, and 2 miles N. of Edinburgh. Dating from about 1490, it has a tidal harbour, reconstructed in 1876-77 at a cost of £10,000, and at famous = hey fish ae and ype bey es parish ) 6085 ; of vi 2108. See Charles Reade’s Christio Johnstone ( 1533), and Mrs Cupples’ Newhaven, its Origin and History (1888). New Haven, the chief city and seaport of Connecticut, and ital of New Haven county, at the head of New Haven Bay, 4 miles from Long Island Sound, and 73 miles by rail ENE. of New York. Its broad streets are shaded with elms, and the public squares, parks, and gardens, with its handsome publie and private edifices, make it one of the most beautiful of American cities. It is the seat of Yale College (q.v.), and contains also the Sheffield scientific school, the Hopkins grammar- school (1660), and thirty-four public schools. Its other public —— include the former state- honse, the city hall, United States government building, and about sixty churches. 1e harbour has a jetty and a breakwater surmounted by a lighthouse, and the port has a large coasting trade. But New Haven is of more consequence as a manufacturing town, employing many thousands of hands in its large works, and producing hard- ware, wire, locks, clocks, eutlery, firearms, corsets, india-rubber goods, earri , furniture, per, matches, musical instruments, &. New Haven was settled in 1638 by a company from London, and the colony was not united to that of Con- necticut until 1662; and till 1873 it was recognised as, jointly with Hartford, the capital of the state, It was incorporated as a town about 1665, and chartered as a city in 1784; and it- retains a town as well as a city administration, choosing select- men, &c., besides a mayor, aldermen, and council, Pop. (1880) 62,882 ; (1890) 85,981 ; (1900) 108,027. New Hebrides, a chain of islands in the Western Pacific, extending NNW. to SSE., and lying W. of Fiji and NE. of New Caledonia. There are in all some thirty islands (area, 5110 sq. m.), of which twenty are inhabited, the people, mostly of the Melanesian race, numbering about 70,000. They are of volcanic origin, some—e.g. Ambrym, Tanna, and Polevi—having active ve, canoes, but rest upon a coral foundation. The larger islands are Espiritu Santo (70 miles long by 40 wide), Mallicolo (56 miles by 20), Ambrym (22 miles by 17), Vaté or Sandwich (30 miles by 15), Erromango (30 miles by 22), Tanna (18 miles by 10), and cic (35 miles in circumference), All are wooded, and some lofty, reaching 3000 feet.e The climate is moist, but clear and healthy, the thermometer ranging from 60° to 90° F. The usual tropical plants and products are grown—yam, taro, banana, bread-fruit, sugar-cane, arrowroot, and cocoa-nut. Sandalwood, at one time common, is now almost extinct. The seas swarm with fish, some of them poisonous, and whales are taken near by. The people are savage cannibals of a low type, and are decreasing in number. They speak a great number of dialects, many being unintelligible to the others. The southern islanders ( Erromango to Aneityum) have been civilised by English and Scottish missionaries. This chain was discovered by the Portuguese ned, a! Quiros in 1606, and was bates ly explored ere Cook in 1773. They are claimed by the British, though nothing is done to oceupy them. The French have more than once cast covetous eyes upon the group, but their attempts to annex it have encountered the strenuous yagi of the Australian colonists. Since 1863 the natives of these islands have been every year carried away to serve as labourers on the plantations in Queensland, Fiji, and New Cale- donia, and many barbarities have been perpetrated in connection with the traffic. See Dr J. Inglis, In the New Hebrides (1887) and the Memoir of J. G. Paton (1889). New Holland, See AusTra.ia. New Ireland, now called Nrv-MECKLEN- BURG, a long narrow island in the Pacific Ocean, lying to the north-east of New Guinea. Area, 4900 sq. Mm. 5 length, 300 miles ; width, 15 miles. The hills rise to 6500 feet, and they and the whole of the interior are richly wooded. The climate, pro- ducts, and inhabitants resemble those of New Britain (q.v.). New Jersey, the name of one of the original states of the American Union, bounded on the N, by New York; E. by the Hud- | copyright 1891, 1997, ana son River, Staten Island Sound, | 190? in the U.S. by J.B. Raritan Bay, and the Atlantic ; | “??™e"* Compas: SW. by Delaware Bay ; and W. by the Delaware River, which separates it from Pennsylvania. Its reatest len is 167 miles ; its width varies from to 59 miles, It has an area of 7815 sq. m. ; it is the smallest of all the states save three, but it ranks sixteenth in population, and the third in population v square mile. In the north-west part of the state there are two rtions of the Appalachian system. The Blue or ittatinny Mountains extend along the Delaware from the Water Gap up, attaining a height of 1400 to 1800 feet. The highlands south and east of these consist of many ridges, their greatest height 1488 feet. In this part of the state are many smalllakes, The Palisades, the Orange Mountains, 464 NEW JERSEY NEWMAN - and other hills are in the red sandstone region, which extends from the north-east to the central part of New Jersey. The Navesink 4 ers south of Sandy Hook, reach a height of feet, support two lighthouses, and are the only con- erable elevation on the Atlantic coast south of New and. The central portion of the state is erally level and fertile; the southern part is in large measure sandy, covered with pine-woods, and marshy near the coast, The state is abundantly watered; its chief rivers, the Passaic, Raritan, Little and Great Harbor, flow south-east into bays. The coast from Sandy Hook to Cape May is generally protected by peninsula or island beaches ; the only considerable exception to this rule being the strip of mainland, about 18 miles long, between Monmonth and Squan beaches. | In agriculture the state occupies a prominent position in proportion to its area. The farms com- prise some 3,000,000 acres, more than three-fourths under tillage ; the value of farm lands approaches $200,000,000, and that of farm products is pbhout $30,000,000 annually. The chief products are maize, oats, wheat, rye, hay, potatoes and sweet potatoes, cattle, butter, and milk. The leading mineral products are iron ore, limestone of various kinds, zine, and slate. Glass, pottery, machinery, leather, silk, and sugar are among the chief manufactures. New Jersey returns ten members to congress. The state legislature meets at the capital, Trenton, in January ; a senator is chosen from each of the twenty-one counties (one-third each year) for three years; the assembly has about sixty members, who serve one year. The annual taxes are about $3,000,000, of which full half is devoted to edu- cation. There are (besides seven county riggs two large lunatic asylums near Trenton Morristown, the latter accounted a model; an institution for the deaf and dumb, an industrial school for girls, and a large state-prison, at or near Trenton ; a reform school for boys near Jamesburg ; and a home for disabled soldiers at Newark. There are 1400 school districts. In the cities over 100,000 pupils are enrolled, and some 240,000 in the rural districts, The state normal school is at Trenton, and its preparatory school at Beverly; and the state oe tural and scientific school is connected with Rutger’s College, at New Brunswick. At Princeton ( i y.) is Princeton University, founded in 1746 as The College of New Jersey, the most famous institution in the state. New Jersey has two canals, the Morris and the Raritan, and some fifty railroads, with nearly 3000 miles of length. The position of the state, be- tween the two great eastern cities and borderin upon both, has powerfully stimulated travel, industry, and population. Its south-west portion has Philadelphia for a market; its north-east section, including its two largest towns, is a suburb of New York. Its coast from Navesink to Squan is covered with villas, cottages, and hotels. Cape May and Long Branch for half a century, and Atlantic ay for twenty years or more, have been noted seaside resorts, Asbury Park, Ocean Grove, Seabright, &c. are now growing places, crowded in summer. Newark and Jersey City are by far the largest cities; next come Paterson, . den, Trenton, Hoboken, Elizabeth, Bayonne, Atlantic City, and Passaic, Pop. (1800) 211,149; (1850) 489,555 ; (1890) 1,444,933 ; (1990) 1,883,669, History.—In 1617 the Dutch settled at Bergen near New York. In 1623 Cornelius May ascendec the Delaware and built a fort four miles below the site of Camden. Some English colonists in that were driven away in 1638 by the Swedes, Who were conquered in 1655 by Peter Stuyvesant. In 1664 the territory was granted by Charles LL. to the Duke of York, and by him to Lord John. Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, with full rows 7. of government to them and their was no trouble with the Indians, whose titles fos { peacefully purchased. The proprietors soon divi the territory into East and West Jersey. In 1674_ Berkeley sold West Jersey to two Quakers, who settled Salem and Burlington; and in 1682 a society under Penn bought the Carteret rights in~ 5 In 1702 rs proprietors pl | East Jersey. d their power of government to the crown, and the two provinces were reunited; and from 1738 New Jersey had its own royal governors, always at issue with the assembly and the people, New Jersey bore its part in the colonial wars, con- tributed 10,726 men to the Continental army, besides militia, and spent over $5,000,000 in the cause of liberty. Ww campaigns and battles. The state sent nearl 7000 men to the war of 1812, and for the civil war thirty-seven regiments of infantry, three of cavalry, and five batteries. See the History of New Jersey, by Raum (1880). New Jersey Tea, a common name of Red Root (q.v.). ‘A New Jerusalem Church, See SWEDEN BORG. New Lanark. See LANARK. New London, « city and port of entry, the semi-capital of New London county, Connecticut, is on the right bank of the river Thames, 3 miles Long Island Sound, 51 by rail E. of New Haven, and 126 NE. of New York, with which it has rail- way and steamboat communication. It has a court- house, a brown-stone city hall, a granite custom- house, a new government public building, hospital, public library, and four parks. The manufacturesin- — clude woollens, sewing-silk, agricultural machinery, bieyeles, printing-presses, hardware, and crackers, The harbour (30 feet deep) is one of the best in the United States. On the left bank of the river isa United States navy yard; and there are two forts here, one no longer effective. New London was settled in 1645, and in 1781 was burned by Benedict Arnold. Pop. (1890) 13,757 ; (1900) 17,548, Newman, JoHn Henry, CAarDINnat (1801-90), the leader of the Oxford Tractarian movement of 1833 in the Church of England, who joined the — It suffered heavily during the revolution, and was the scene of several important Roman Catholic Chureh in 1845, and was madea cardinal by Leo XIII. in 1879. He was born in | His father London on the 2lst February 1801. was John Newman, a member of the banking firm of Ramsbottom, Newman, & Co. His mother was the child of an old Huguenot family which had settled in London as _ paper-manufacturers. She was a moderate Calvinist, and taught her children to love the school of Scott, Romaine, Newton, and Milner. Her children Jearned early to take great delight in the Bible, and Newman has always ascribed the utmost influence over his early religious views to his mother’s teach- ing. From Scott, the commentator on the Bil he learned two principles which may be in all his subsequent career. The first was to rize ‘holiness before peace ;’ the second was that growth’ is ‘the only evidence of life.’ From his reading of Law’s Serious Call he dates his firm ingunt assent to the doctrine of eternal unish- ment, which he always held as taught by our Lord himself; a doctrine, however, of which he often endeavoured to attenuate the mystery—not- — Milner’s Church — wman to the writings of — ably in Callista Seay xix.) History first attracted Ne the early Fathers. Yet at the same time he derived from Newton’s book on the prophecies a belief which more or Jess biased his mind long . | Teper pa dvp osnoyquesy ~OE OP Uaoyzjay Ssuavpexuyy — yung) ook . i .¥, A ope a) eas: - u rs yf ai \y Tage: ea - ~ a7 amen vod * : Mah n ™ . A Oe >" a sour mo” *. pm . ” a of : fe r . A ‘ A . ek Sd Pd Mar . or alee i psen x d : ve / NNOS ? ‘ cn ee a Opes eo EAR: oe , \ a 2 Nd 40 sevg SS opreased oowasy 4 LT * Aasag euvmbuyq SINK Parentqoy > , TON Soprege : * rc) one’ aor] _Pooucssal OWT PoOomueain oy q | puvooyT - * & lie Jos ation \o / | \ ven Pajadg QJ 2 MUUK , ; WM alee) laos] wey epestecT os ove "00 # Anexony *pewy 49 ‘peat “WF Hhdog ri 8 IL“?N 8°09 9 Ae NOTE *pUeTT ‘ xt a Pe ie 0% ol ¢ 0 je) "YOu L&I ‘Sesjzowoly NQ —_— SS— B 08 0% 0 a er er a | “youl [= SI ‘SSLW ©3N7eIS ar = eens 9 eS ‘Sa1VOS o | A, (wisi : - ? Bude: % ae aude: OY iD Se & ere Sova” NEWMAN 465 after he had ceased to accept it as a truth—that Rome is Antichrist. In the autumn of 1816 a belief took ion of him, as he tells us in his a” that he was to lead a life of celibacy ; and this belief held its ground, with certain brief intervals of ‘a month now and a month then,’ up to the of twenty-eight, after which it remained Rhectntely fixed. Newman went to a private school at Eali The stoppage of his father’s bank compelled him to take his degree at Oxford as early as possible without taking full time to read for honours, and he actually took it (from Trinity College) in 1820, when he was only nineteen, but overwork resulted in a partial failure. In 1821 he wrote jointly with a friend two cantos of a poem on St olomew’s Eve, but the fragment has never been republished. It should be added that Newman was always passionately fond of ‘music, and showed delicacy and skill as a violinist. In 1822 Newman was elected to a fellowship in Oriel College, then the most distinguished in the university ; and it was here that, after a period of some loneliness, he formed his close intimacy with Dr Pusey, and subsequently with Hurrell Froude, whose dash and genius exerted a great influence over Newman, and who had a great share in starting the Tractarian movement of 1833. In 1823, too, Newman first read Butler's Analogy, from which he tells us that he learned to interpret the less certain aspects of natural religion in the sense of revealed religion, and especially to in- terpret natural phenomena in the sense of the sacramental system—i.e. as conveying mystical spiritual influences of which there is no external sign. Keble’s Christian Year (1827) fell in exactly With this impression of the mystery at the heart of apparently purely physical influences. From Bishop tler Newman also derived the principle that ‘probability is the guide of life,’ which, however, more or less modified when he became a Roman Catholic, holding thenceforward that in all matters of first-rate religious importance certitude can be attained and not merely probability. At Oriel Newman formed cordial relations with Dr Haw- kins, afterwards the —— of the college, and Whately, afterwards bishop of Dublin. Both of them exercised influence over him by teaching him to define his thoughts clearly ; and he afterwards ex surprise that the casuistry of the Roman Cliurch should have been credited with those habits of subtle discrimination which he had really from his Oxford colleagues. Newman's first book, completed in 1832, but not bayer till 1833, was that on The Arians of the Fourth Century. It was a very careful and scholarly production, intended to show that the Arian heresy was not, as had been supposed, of Alexandrian origin, but was one of the Godaising heresies which sprang up in Antioch. The book is a powerful vindication of the Athanasian doctrine of the divine nature of Jesus Christ from the im- putation of being arbitrary, or in any way an un- authorised ccolestastion 1 addition to the essence of the Pauline and Johannine theology. Newman insists on the dogmatic definition of the Son as being ‘of one substance’ with the Father, and not merely ‘of like substance,’ as the only escape from either creature-worship on the one hand or the impossible assertion of the voluntary self-sacrifice of an eternal creator on man’s account cx the In the late autumn of 1832 Newman accom- panied Hurrell Froude and his father in a Mediter- ranean tour undertaken in the hope of restoring the health of the former. It was on this tour that the fire gradually kindled which was to bear fruit in the Anglican movement of 1833. Most of Neg my smaller poems were written on this voyage, and were soon afterwards published with the signature 6 in the L Apostolica, a volume of verse the object of which was to reassert for the Chureh of England her spiritual authority and mission with something of the ease and hmoyancy of poetic license. It was on this tour that Newman first saw Monsignore (afterwards Cardinal) Wiseman in Rome, and told him gravel in reply to the expression of a courteous wink that Hurrell Froude and he might revisit Rome, *We have a work to do in England.’ At Rome Newman left his friends to go alone to Sicily, — soleend “= a apo ae mand rb eeply uring this illness by the idea of the work he had to do in England, and the delay in finding passage to England was very trying tohim. He spent much of his time in the Roman Catholic churches, which he had up to this period refrained from ‘visiting, and speaks with great feeling in one of his poems of the good offices of that church, camp. a ‘foe,’ in minister- ing to his sickness, like the good Samaritan to the wounded Jew. At last he got passage on an orange boat to Marseilles. Becalmed in the Straits of Bonifacio, he wrote the best known of all his poems, ‘Lead, kindly Light.’ From Marseilles he travelled straight to England, reach- ing home in time to be present at Keble’s Oxford assize sermon on National Apos , Which he always regarded as the date at which the Trac- tarian movement began. It was preached on July 14, 1833. . Into the series of Tracts for the Times which now commenced Newman threw himself with great energy ; indeed he himself com a considerable number of them, In the very first page of the first tract, which was his own, he told the bishops that ‘black event though it would be for the country, yet we could not wish them a more blessed ter- mination of their career than the spoiling of their oods and martyrdom.’ The tracts which now gan to pour forth were all intended to assert the anthority of the Anglican Church, to claim apostolical descent for the Anglican episcopate, to advocate the restoration of a stricter discipline and the maintenance of a stricter orthodoxy, to insist on the primary importance of the sacra- ments, and the duty of loyalty to the chureh— Newman persuaded a friend to stay away from the marriage of a sister who had seceded from the Anglican Church—and in general to preserve the dogmatic purity of the church as well as to guard her divine ritual. But while he was full of confidence in these principles, which he held in common with Rome, what puzzled him was to justify adequately the strong anti-Romanist lan- guage of the greater Anglican divines; and a great part of his time was given during the Tractarian movement to laying down clearly the doctrine of the via media or midway course between popular Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, which he claimed that the Anglican divines of the 17th century had taken up. Up to nearly the end of his Anglican — he disapproved strongly the eultus of the Virgin Mary and the saints as in- raga with the true worship of God. In 1837 he made an attempt to distinguish the Anglican via media from the doctrine of the Church of Rome in a course of lectures on ‘The Prophetical Office of the Church viewed relatively to Roman- ism and Popular Protestantism.’ In these lectures he contrasted the attitude of the Anglican and Roman churches in reference to the use and abuse of private judgment, their attitude towards the principle infallibility, their very different use of Scripture, and their view of the fortunes of the church. But while defending and defining as far as possible the via media of Anglicanism, 466 NEWMAN Newman frankly admitted that it had never been owes! enforced, and that it was a theoretic ine on which no actual ecclesiastical policy had heen founded. This it was which it remained for the Tractarians to do. In 1838 Newman followed up his discussion of the via media so far as it affects authority with a volume on the via media in its relation to the doctrine of justification by faith. Again he taught that the Anglican Church takes a middle course between the Roman Catholie Church and popular Protestantism in maintaining that justification by faith—or the imputation without the reality of righteousness—must precede sanctification, which gives the reality, though sanctification must necessarily follow; while the Roman Catholic theology regarded sanctitication as the whole sub- stance of justification. In Tract 85, which was also published in 1838, Newman made an effort to apply the theology of the via media to the interpretation of Scripture, He held that the Roman Catholic Church takes a view too independent of Scripture, while the Anglican Church is right in asserting that all revealed doctrine is to be found in Scripture, though it could not be found on the mere surface of Seripture, since it needs the guidance of the church's traditions to help us to find it there. He admitted most fully that the stress which one might expect to be laid is not laid in Scripture on baptism, on confession, on absolution, nor even on public worship itself, and that we ean only find these doctrines in Scripture by attaching the importance which tradition teaches us to attach to the hints and obiter dicta of Scripture. Serip- ture, he held, verifies the teaching of the church rather than systematically inculcates it. Tract 85 was one of the most careful and characteristic of all Newman’s essays as a Tractarian. Tract 90, which appeared early in 1841, and which gave rise to so much agitation in Oxford, was the most famous, but certainly one of the least in- teresting of the tracts. The rigat wing of the Tractarian party, headed by William George Ward, was at this time urging Dr Newman to reconcile his High Church doctrines with the Thirty-nine Articles. This Newman thought a comparatively easy matter. The Articles recognise the teaching of the Books of Homilies as ‘godly and whole- some ;’ and Newman contended that there was therefore ample evidence that the intention of the Articles was Catholic in spirit, and that they were aimed at the supremacy of the pope and the popular abuses of the Catholic Church in practice and not at Catholic doctrine. The Homilies regard the first seven hundred years of the Catholic Chureh as quite pure, recognise six councils as received by all Christians, and speak of many of the Fathers as inspired by chet Holy Ghost, Clearly therefore, in Newman's opinion, they were meant to gain over the moderate Romanists ; and clearly they were not directed against the Council of Trent, for when the Articles were pro- mulgated the council was not over. But in spite of this really substantial defence for the Anglican view of the Articles, Tract 90 provoked an explosion the last which he preached in the ery : —viz, on the 2d Fobvesiy 1843. During Fite Littlemore he was a man sus Vf mt of : disloyalty to his church—for example, of a . Ronen Catholic already, ch over other Anglicans—a course of which he was quite incapable, On the 8th October 1845 he who only concealed of faith in order to exert more influence invited the Passionist Father Dominic to his house at Littlemore in order that he might be received into the Roman Catholic Church, and on the following day he was received ; and within a few months he had left Oxford, which he never saw again for thirty years. Of Newman's life as a Roman Catholic it is necessary to speak — briefly. in a literary point of view much more free natural than his somewhat repressed and severely — reined-in life as an Anglican. He first went to Oscott to be confirmed ; then he went to Rome for a year and a half; and on his return in 1848 he published Loss and Gain, the story of an Oxford conversion —_y different from his own, but full of happy and delicate sketches of Oxford life and manners. Shortly afterwards he began, but did not at that time conclude, Callista, the story of a martyr in Africa of the 3d century. The little book is full of literary genius as well as of reli- gious devotion, and it contains a most vivid pote of the devastation worked by the locusts in that country, as well as a still more impressive picture of Newman's conception of the phenomenon of demoni possession. In 1849 Newman lished a branch of the brotherhood of St Philip Neri (qv) in England (see ORaTory). New- man established himself at gS yraye== a suburb of Birmingham; and here he did a great deal of hard work, devoting himself to the sufferers from cholera in 1849 with the utmost zeal. The lectures on Anglican Difficulties, intended to show that Tractarian principles could only issue in sulmis- sion to Rome on the of any Tractarian who had a logical perception of what the movement meant, was the first book which drew public attention to Newman’s great power of irony and the singular delicacy of his literary style. These lectures were delivered and published in 1850, and were followed in 1851 by the Lectures on ‘ Cathol- icism in England,’ in which the Protestant pre- judices and pre ions about Roman Catholies were painted with a great power of ridicule and even caricature. This was the book which gave occasion to Dr Achilli’s action for libel against Newman, tried by Lord Campbell, in whieh the verdict went against Dr Newman so far as _ this, that the jury thought that he had not succeeded in justifying the libel, and awarded damages of £100 against him, while the costs of the case are said to have amounted to £10,000, Lord Campbell’s charge was deemed very one-sided even by Protestants, Newman will probably be longer remembered as a preacher than in any other capacity. His long series of Oxford sermons contain some of the finest ever preached from an Anglican pulpit, and his Roman Catholic volumes—Sermons addressed to Mixed weg fe par ns (1849) and Sermons on Various Occasions (1857 )—though less remarkable for their which was the end of the Tractarian mov t, and brought on the conversion to Rome of those of the Tractarians who were most logical as well as most in earnest. The tract was repudiated by those in authority ; the bishops almost all declared against the movement; Newman struggled for two years wens aed to think his position tenable, but in 1843 res! et the vicarage of St Mary's, which he had held since 1828, and retired to Littlemore (q.v.). The ificent university sermon on ‘Develop- ment in Christian Doctrine,’ which was the pre- liminary stage of his Zssay on Development, was pathos, are even fuller of fine rhetoric, and show the rarest finish. In 1864 a casual remark by Canon Kingsley in Macmillan’s Magazine on the indiffer- ence of the Roman Church to the virtue of truth- fulness, an indifference which he asserted that Dr Newman Smoves led to a correspondence which resulted in the publication of the remarkable Apo- logia pro Vité Sud, afterwards slightly recast as A istory of My Religious Opinions. Yn this book Dr Newman gave us much the most fresh and effee- tive religious autobiography of the 19th century, It was, however, and i . « ' AS : om ; ‘ sin > r | YY wos \ 2 . : 4 008 einen wy ns Ppt J “qoraseagNuos} 9.4 opaysaoy O 208 re) 7] = aa Tiga SD aan, ek ate. aig eli ae ie , a | ia “9p 8 ATreNOR “PeeH Aq “061 “YPHAMeD soosuegy mong Jo dom 41 2 11 Mex ¥.°09 9% ATENOM “PUVA ~——_—__| "You, lg ‘ses}eWo]]y os oF —o— OOr 06 O08 OL 09 OF OF OF O OLS O ) [New Mexico. ] “NEWMAN: NEW MEXICO 467 and completely vindicated the simplicity and eandour of his own theological career. It is perhaps the most fascinating of his many works, as it is of course the most personal. In 1865 Newman wrote a poem of singular beauty, giving his view of a Roman Catholie’s experience in death, called The Dream of Gerontius. It isa m of marvellous subtlety and pathos, as unique treatment as it-is in subject, and is now repub- lished in the volume of Verses on Various Occasions (1874), which contains also all the pieces originally ublished in the Lyra Apostolica, In 1870 he pub- Fished his Grammar of Assent, a book on the philo- sophy of faith, based on the view that a believing and even credulous attitude of mind clears itself much more easily of false beliefs than a sceptical attitude of mind clears itself of false denials. In the controversies which led to the Vatican Council Newman sided with the Inopportunists. He believed that the decree of the pope's personal infallibility in putting forth ex cathedra defini- tions on theology or morals intended to teach the church would alienate many Anglicans from the Roman Church, and he thought the doctrine, though true, not ripe for definition, nor pressed upon the attention of the church by any heresy. He was at this time in vehement opposition to the Ultra- montanes under Archbishop Manning and William George Ward, and the bitterness between the two parties ran very high. Nothing seemed less likely at that time than that Newman should ever be- come a Cardinal ; but after the death of Pio Nono and the election of Leo XIIL. the policy of the church altered, and the new pope was very anxious to show his sympathy with the moderates in various countries, and especially with the English Catholic moderates, of whom Dr Newman was much the most distinguished. Accordingly in 1879 Newman was summoned to Rome to receive the Cardinal’s hat, which was conferred on him in a secret consistory on the 12th May in that year. In acknowledging the congratulations which flowed in upon him on that event he renewed his protest against liberalism in religion, by which he meant the depreciation of revealed d and the popular view that one creed, honestly held and practised, is as good as another. For the last eleven years of his life Cardinal Newman seldom broke silence, and: his chief contribution to the religious controversy of the day was an essay in attenuation of the diffienlty of treating Seripture as plenarily inspired, its tendency being to sugyest that inspiration does not necessarily include mere matters of detail in history, unless these are of the nature of what are called ‘dogmatic facts ’—i.e. facts which lie at the basis of revealed truths, such as the supernatural birth of Christ. Cardinal Newman died on the llth Angust 1890, after a very short ilness, of pneumonia. See a work on Newman by the author of this article (1890) ; and Cardinal Newman’s Letters and Correspond- ence, edited by Miss Mozley (1891). Newman, Francis WILttAM, brother of the preceeding, was born in London in 1805, and educated at a private school at Ealing. Thence he to Worcester College, Oxford, where he obtained first-class honours in classies and mathematics in 1826, and, in the same year, a fellowship in Balliol og This fellowship, however, he resigned ; and withdrew from the university in 1830, at the approach of the time for taking the denne of M.A., declining the subscription to the Thirty- nine Articles, which was required from candidates for the degree. After a three years’ stay in the East, he was’ appointéd classical tutor in Bristol College, 1834. In 1840 he accepted a similar pro- fessorship in Manchester New College, and in 1846 his reputation led to his being appointed to the chair of Latin in University College, London, which he held till 1863; meanwhile he was an active contributor to numerous literary and scien- tifie periodicals, and to various branches of ancient and modern literature. In controversies on religion he took a part directly opposite to that chosen by - his elder brother, being no less eager for a religion in his view more world-wide, and including what- ever is best in the historical religions. Phases of Faith is by far the most widely diffused of his works,, simply because it was mainly negative ; but it was P ed by a book ealled The Soul (1849), which aimed to show a solid ground for divine aspirations in the human heart. His smaller moral and reli- gious essays are now collected in a single volume (ii. ) of Mescellanies. Vol. i. of Miscellanies (1869) was followed by the above vol. ii. (1887), vol. iii.,. Politica (1889), and vol. iv., Economica (1890). Other works were a History of the Hebrew Mon- archy (1847); a Dictionary of Modern Arabic, in Romanised type (2 vols. 1871); a Handbook of Modern Arabic (1866), giving the dialect now used by literary men in all Arab-speaking regions; and a Libyan Vocabulary (1882), in which, cutting out the Arabic, he tried to reproduce the old Numidian, Mauretanian, and Getulian. He also published two mathematical volumes, one on Elliptic Integrals (1888-89); and a small book on the earlier life of his brother, Cardinal Newman (1891). Died in 1897. Newmarket, the ‘racing capital of England,’ lies on the border of Suffolk and Cambridgeshire, 14 miles ENE. of Cambridge and 69 NNE. of Lon- don. Twice almost destroyed by fire, in 1683 and 1700, it chiefly consists of one long street, and con- tains an unusual number of hotels and fine private houses, belonging to the great patrons of the turf. Principal edifices are the Jockey. Club (1773); the adjoining Subscription Rooms (1844); the Pro- prietary Club (1882); the Rous Memorial Hospital (1883), with almshouses for eight jockeys and trainers or their widows; St Mary’s Church, Per- pendicular in style; and All Saints (1877). The town owes its prosperity to its horseraces, as old at least as 1605; and nearly half the male population are jockeys, trainers, or stablemen (Holeroft the dramatist was once one of their number). The race-ground, on Newmarket Heath, to the west, which is traversed by the Devil’s Dyke (see CAm- BRIDGESHIRE), is owned partly by the Jocke Club, erie! by the Duke of Rutland, and, wit’ its soft elastic turf, is one of the very finest in the world. Of its ten courses, the longest is 44 miles in circuit. The training-ground bears a like char- acter for excellence ; and 400 horses are constantly in training. There are seven annual meetings, the principal events being the Two Thousand at Easter and the Cesarewitch in October. Pop. (1851) 3356 ; (1881) 5093 ; (1891) 6213. See HorseRAcING ; and J. P. Hore’s History of Newmarket and Annals of the Turf (3 vols. 1886). New Mexioe, a thinly-peopled territo SW. part of the United fintes, is bounde Colorado, E. by Oklahoma and Texas, S. by Texas and Mexico, and W. by Arizona. Area a 122,580 sq. m.—larger than that of Great Britain and Ireland. Pop. (1880) 119,565 ; (1890) 153,593 ; (1900) 195,310. ew Mexico is thus the fifth in area and the forty-fifth in population of the states and territories of the continental United States. The surface of New Mexico belongs to the great platean upon which rests the Rocky Mountain system. Pron an altitude of 6000 to 6500 feet in the north it descends gradually to about 4000 feet along the Mexican border, and sinks to 3000 or 3500 in the Llano Estacado of the south-east. Except in the east the whole region is traversed in the N. by Copyright 1891, 1897, and 1900 in the U.S. by J. B. Lippincott Company. 468 NEW MEXICO NEW ORLEANS by broken ranges of mountains having in general a north and south trend. In the northern central the Santa Fé, Las Vegas, and Taos ranges orm part of the main axis of the Rocky Moun- tains, with a number of peaks over 12,000 feet high. Farther south, and east of the Rio Grande, are numerous broken ranges; and west of the Rio Grande the Sierra Madre rise above the level of the mesa (plateau) in various ranges. These mountains and the intervening mesas are cut by deep cafions. In the north-west a number of chains cross the Arizona boundary, and the San Juan Mountains enter the territory from Colorado, Among the mountains, especially in the north-east; are many ‘parks’ noted for their beauty and fertile soils. e surface rocks belong mainly to the Cretaceous period, with belts of Triassic formation. The moun- tain-chains and great part of the Sierra Madre plateau are much older. There are many tracts of metamorphic rock and lava overflows, some of which appear to be of comparatively recent date. The precious metals are found in almost all parts of the territory. Some of the most important mines are in the south-west near Silver City, Deming, and Lordsburg, others in the central region in the vicinity of ‘Socorro, and farther north near Santa Fé. There are also valuable mines in the San Juan country. Some of these mines were radely worked by the early Spaniards, who com- pelled the Pueblos to labour like slaves. In several laces old shafts have been discovered which were lled by the Indians when they successfully re- volted from this tyranny. Copper and iron occur in valuable deposits, and near Santa Fé are the famous turquoise mines. There are also fields of both bituminous and anthracite coal. Mineral and hot springs are numerous. The t mountain-divide causes the drainage of New Mexico to flow south to the Gulf of Mexico, and west to the Pacific Ocean. The Rio Grande traverses the central part of the territory and receives many tributaries. The Rio Pecos which joins it in Texas drains the south-eastern part. n the north-east are streams which unite to form the Canadian River, and in the west are the head- waters of the San Juan, Little Colorado, and Gila, all affluents of the Colorado. In the river-valleys the soil is fertile and produces excellent crops ; and Many acres in other sections may be successfull cultivated by irrigation. The climate is healthful, and on the whole remarkably uniform, and the atmosphere is very pure and dry, The death-rate from pulmonary diseases is the lowest in the country. The rainy season occurs between the middle of July and the middle of September, last- ing about a month. There are extensive forests on the mountains, and in the hilly regions of the western part of the territory, and on the pastoral lains nutritious grasses which support great num- rs of cattle and sheep. The yucca and cactus are characteristic forms of vegetation, especially in the Llano Estacado. Stock-raising is one of the leading industries. The flocks and herds need no housing in the winter, but of late years more attention has been given to improvement of the breeds, and the stock, instead of roaming at will, is often confined within enclosed ranges. Thongh one of the most recently settled portions of the Union, New Mexico was among the earliest regions occupied by the white man, and Santa Fé, cognally an Indian pueblo, claims the title of the oldest town in the country. When the Spaniards first visited this region they found a people living in communities with substantial dwellings, and mark- ing the decay of a civilisation which had flourished in previous centuries. In 1822 the people of New Mexico, in common with the other inhabitants of Mexico, of which it then formed a part, threw off the Spanish yoke. By the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, after the war between Mexico and the United States, part of the territory was acquired by the latter nation. Additions were made by a later purchase from Mexico and by a ceasion from Texas. The population still includes about 100,000 Mexicans, as well as nearly 40,000 Indians. The territory when originally organised in 1850 included Arizona and parts of Colorado and California. The construction of railroads, begun in 1878, had a marked influence in its development. There are now about 1400 miles of railroad, connecting with either ocean and with all parts of the Union. ere are nineteen counties in New Mexico, and the eee na cities and towns are Santa Fé (the capital), Albuquerque, Las Vegas, Taos, and Socorro, The common-school system was established by an act of legislature in 1891; the board of education consists of five members, ineluding the governor of the territory. Numerous institutions are conducted under Roman Catholic auspices. There is a state university at Albuquerque, an agricultural college at Las Vegas, and a school of mines at Socorro. Schools for the Indians are largely attended. Newnham College, just outside Cambrid but within ten minutes’ walk of the centre of the town, may be said to have commenced in 1871, when the Newnham Hall Company opened a house for five resident women students. The numbers steadily increased, and in 1875 Newnham: Hall was built, providing rooms for the principal, a lecturer, and twenty-six students. Scholarshi, were given by the London Companies and priv friends, the library grew, a chemical laborato and gymnasium were added, and the whole machinery of the college became more and more complete till, in 1879, the Newnham Hall Com- pany was amalgamated with the Association for the Promotion of the Higher Education of Women. Additional land was acquired, and a second, and finally a third hall was added. These three halls, Old Hall, Sidgwick Hall, and Clough Hall, now form Newnham Colne, where at the present time 147 students, under the charge of a principal, two vice-principals, and five lecturers, receive instrue- tion, partly by lectures delivered at Newnham, partly by such lecfures of the university and col- eges of the university as are open to them. In the year 1881 the university of Cambridge opened to students of Newnham and Girton its tripos and previous exams., and in 1889, out of thirty-five students of Newnham who entered for the tripos exam., six took a first-class, sixteen a second-class, and nine a third-class ; while in 1890 Miss Faweett was placed above the senior wrangler. Careful superintendence is here combined with a large amount of liberty and responsibility. The greater number of students work for tripos and stay for three or four years, but special courses of work can be taken without examination. The fees are 75 guineas a year. New Orleans, the commercial metropolis of Louisiana, and the most important city of the south- ern United States, is situated ) copyright 1801, 1897, and on both sides of the Mississippi | 19° in the U.S. by J.B. River—the aed portion on | MPpinestt Companys the east bank—107 miles from its mouth. Its gr rate area is 187 sq. m., but a large portion of this is market-gardens, forest, and swamp, and only 48 sq. m. are built over, a on the Mis- sissippi, and running back from half a mile to 3 miles. The city proper has a river frontage of 13 miles, and its western district, ‘Algiers,’ of 3 miles, The Mississippi makes two bends here, giving the old city a crescent-shaped front, whence its former title, ‘The Crescent City,’ but it is NEW ORLEANS NEWPORT 469 of the letter S. The river is from 600 to oar wide, and 60 to 240 feet deep. The bar at its mouth was removed in 1874-79 by the Eads jetties in South Pass, and vessels of 30 feet now easily reach New Orleans. The commerce of the city is large ($550,493,315 in 1890), and it is second in the United States in exports. New Orleans is the terminus of three canals, and of six large railroads (total mileage, 17,842) and three local lines, while twenty lines of steamships connect it with other American and foreign ports. Since 1875 it has made great progress in manufactures, icularly in cotton goods, cotton-seed oil, machinery, lumber, furniture, fertilisers, sugar- refining, rice-milling, beer, cigars, Xc. Its factories increased from 554 in 1870 to 898 in 1880, and 2100 in 1890; and their product from $8,450,439 to $44,500,000. The site of New Orleans is perfectly flat, and lies from 3 to 6 feet below the high-water level of the Mississippi ; it is protected from overflow by levees or dykes of earth. Similar levees in the rear keep out the waters of Lake Pontchartrain. The soil is saturated with water, and cellars are im ible; and the dead of the better classes are usual v placed in tombs of brick or marble above ground. The climate is warm and damp, the annual mean tem- ture being 69° I’. ; but the summer is tempered by winds from the Gulf, and is not oppressively warm. On account of its situation, the city is badly drained. It has no sewers, and the open gutters which carry the rain-water into canals, and nce into Lake Pontchartrain, are insufficient. But recent years have seen a great improvement in the public th, the death-rate having been re- duced from 59 per 1000 in 1860 to 24-80 in 1890. _ While it possesses few imposing buildings, New Orleans is a picturesque city. There are several parks little improved, but with handsome monuments or statues of Jackson, Lee, Franklin, and others, The enstom-house of granite cost $4,500,000, and is the largest and most imposing building in the city. The cathedral of St Louis, a Gothic church erected in 1794, is a good sample of the Creole-Spanish architecture. The archi- ng me palace (1737) is the oldest building in e city. Other noteworthy structures are the cotton exchange, United States mint, St Charles Hotel, and Christ and St Patrick’s churches. There are 188 churches, and 78 public schools, with 430 teachers and 21,136 pupils enrolled. Tulane University (known as the University of Louisiana from 1834 to 1883) has 59 professors and 683 students. Under its control is the Sophie Newcomb Memorial College (1887), for the higher education of girls. The College of the Im- maculate Conception (under the Jesuits) has 228 students, There are 4 coll for negroes, males and females, with 1860 students. The Howard Memorial (1888), Tulane, and Louisiana state libraries, all free, contain together 120,000 volumes. The a ee (1784) is the largest institu- tion of its kind in the United States, with accom- modation for 800 to 1000 persons; and there are 54 other hospitals, asylums, &c. The site of New Orleans was first visited in 1699 a4 Bienville, who in 1718 laid the foundations the city, and in 1726 made it the capital. In 1763 it was ceded to Spain by France, with the rest of ; but when in 1765 the Spanish governor, Ulloa, attempted to take ion, he was driven ont, and the le established a govern- ment of their own. tas 769 New Orleans was occupied by the Spanish, and the leaders in the late movement were shot. It was ceded to France in 1802, and transferred to the United States a few days later. Incorporated as a city in 1804, it was divided in 1836 into three separate municipalities, now the s' in consequence of the jealousies between the Creoles and the Americans; but the three were in consolidated into one in 1852. Since then New Orleans has annexed the neighbouring towns of Lafayette, Jefferson, Carrollton, and Algiers. Other outstanding events in the history of the city have been the battle of New Orleans (see JACKSON) in 1815; its capture in 1862 by the Federal fleet under Admiral Renegus (q.¥.); serious political troubles in 1874 and 1877, resulting in 1874 in a battle on the levee between the citizens and the police and militia, in which 46 persons were killed and 216 wounded ; and the lynching in 1891 of 11 Italian maffiosi. In 1880 the capital of Louisiana was removed from New Orleans to Baton Rouge. Pop. (1769, when it was transferred to Spain) 3190; (1802, when it became American) 10,508 ; (1840) 102,193; (1880) 216,190; (1890) 242,039, r cent. of whom were of American or &c., 16 negroes, an Chinese, and Malays, a population truly cosmo- politan in race and language ; (1900) 287,104. New Plymouth, the chief town of the pro- vineial district of Taranaki, New Zealand, 220 miles NW. of Wellington by rail. Two miles from the town extensive harbour-works are in progress. Pop. (1886) 3093; (1891) 7932. Ne rt, since 1891 a county borough of Mon- mouthshire, a municipal borough, and, with Mon- mouthand Usk, a parliamentary borough, is seated on the river Usk, about 4 miles from its mouth, 24 miles SSW. of Monmonth and 145 W. of London, and it is one of the principal outlets for the produce of the extensive collieries and iron and steel works in the vicinity. Its shipping trade has greatly in- creased, and with it its dock accommodation, which now covers more than 80 acres. Newport is the — iron-exporting port in the kingdom, and ranks third amongst the coal-exporting ports. In some years 3,000,000 tons of coal are exported, and 30,000 tons of iron pyrites and manganese im- ported. The town has many fine public buildings prominent amongst them being the town-hall (1885), erected at a cost of £30,000, and St Woollos’ Church, occupying an elevated site, and in style Pees Norman an partly Perpendicular. Besides its shipping trade, Newport has manufactures of india-rubber, gutta-percha, and posi and tele- graph plant and wagons, whilst several important rass and iron foundries are in operation, as well as breweries and pottery-works, On 4th November 1839 the town was the centre of a Chartist ont- break, which resulted in the death of ten persons, and the wounding of many more. Pop. (1801) 1087; (1881) 38,427; and in 1891, when it was created a county borough, 54,707. Newport, a market-town of Shropshire, on the Shrewsbury Canal, 11 miles WSW. of Stafford. Chartered by Henry I., and burned in 1665, it has a 15th-century church, a grammar-school (1656), and manufactures of machinery and agricultural imple- ments. Pop, of parish, 2675. Newport, the capital of the Isle of Wight, on the navigable Medina, near the centre of the island, 44 miles S. of Cowes and 10 SW. of Ryde. The church, rebuilt in 1854-56 on the site of one nearly 700 years old, is a fine Decorated edifice, and contains Marochetti’s beautiful monument, erected by Queen Victoria in memory of the Princess Elizabeth, who died at Carisbrooke Castle (q.v.) on 8th September 1650. Newport besides has a town-hall (1810); a free grammar-school (1612), the scene in 1648 of the protracted but fruitless negoti- ations between the liamentary commissioners and Charles L, to whose secret ‘engagement’ 4 470 NEWPORT NEW SOUTH WALES year before with the Presbyterian Scots the town also gave name ; a girls’ endowed school (1761); a diocesan school (1860) ; and a literary institute and museum. To the north-west are a _reformatory 1838) and barracks (1798). A municipal borough, ewport returned two members till 1867, and then one an 1885. Pop. (1881) 9357 ; (1891) 10,216. Newport, a town of Fife, on the Firth of Tay, 14 mile by water SSE. of Dundee. It has a small harbour designed by Telford (1822), and municipal Duildings (1890 . Pop. (1881) 2311; (1891) 2545, Newport, (1) capital of Cam bell cannty, Ken- tucky, is on the Ohto, opposite Gincinn stl, and at the mouth of the Licking River, which separates it from Covington ; both rivers are crossed by bridges, and there is also a steam-ferry to Cincinnati, The city contains large rolling-mills, a foundry, bolt- works, tile-works, and several steam-mills. Pop. (1890) 24,918 ; (1900) 28,301.—(2) A port of entry and one of the capitals of Rhode Island, on the west shore of the island of Rhode Island, in Narragansett Bay, 5 miles from the ocean, and 69 miles by rail S. by W. of Boston. It has a deep, excellent harbour, defended by Fort Adams; and there is a United States torpedo station on an island in the harbour. It contains a brick state-house, a custom-house, a city hall, the Redwood Library, many palatial villas, and large hotels; it is noted for fine scenery and sea-bathing, and is one of the most fashionable watering-p in America. In Touro Park stands the ‘Round Tower,’ or ‘Old Stone Mill,’ which suggested Longfellow’s poem, ‘The Skeleton in Armour.’ The city also contains cotton-mills, a brass-foundry, lead and fish-oil works, &c. It was settled in 1638 by eighteen adherents of Roger Williams, and was an important commercial town prior to the Revolution, which effected its ruin and transferred its trade to New York. Newport was for a time the residence of Bishop Berkeley. Pop. (1880) 15,693 ; (1900) 22,034. Newport-Pagnell, a market-town of Buck- inghamshire, at the influx of the Ousel to the Ouse, 56 miles by rail NNW. of London. Named from the Paganels, who owned the manor in the days of Rufus, it was taken by Essex in 1643, and held two igo later by Sir Samuel Luke, the pro- totype of Butler’s ‘Hudibras.’ The fine parish church, restored by Street in 1858, is the principal edifice ; lace-making has declined. Pop. of parish, 3686. See its History by Staines (1842). New Red Sandstone, the name former! given to the t. series of red sandstones whic! occur between the Carboniferous and Jurassic Systems. The sandstones are now divided into two groups, the lower of which is assigned to the Paleozoic (see PERMIAN SysTEM) and the upper to the Mesozoic System (see TrIAssic SYSTEM), The term New Red Sandstone is used as syn- onymous in England with the Trias, New River, an artificial cut, running 38 miles southward from Chadswell Springs in Hertfordshire inte reservoirs at Hornsey and Stoke Newington. It was designed for the water-supply of London, and completed (1609-20) at a cost of £500,000 by Sir Hugh Myddelton, goldsmith, who died poor on With iieoem r 1631, The seventy-five original shares, sold for £100 apiece, sell now at the rate of from £85,200 to £94,500. New Ross, 2 market-town and _river-port of Leinster, Ireland, situated on the Barrow, partly in the county of Kilkenny, but chiefly in that of ‘Wexford, 92 miles S. by W. of Dublin and 15 NE. of Waterford. The two portions of the town are connected by an iron swing-bridge (1869). Before the union New Ross—Old Ross lies 5 miles to the two members to parliament, and down to 1885 one. It was founded by the daughter of Strongbow, and was formerly fortified. The port can he entered at spring-tides by ships of 800 tons, and at all times by vessels of 200 tons ; and there is communication by river and canal with Dublin and with Limerick. Pop, (1851) 7941; (1881) 6670; (1891) 5847. Newry, @ seaport and iamen borough mainly in bounty Dows, bat partly oe Komaghe on the Newry River, 38 miles SSW. of Belfast by rail. A canal connects it with Carlingford Lough and with Lough Neagh. The town is handsomely and compactly built, and the does a | trade with Glasgow and Liverpool in cattle and agri- cultural produce. Flax spinning and weaving, with rope and sail making, tanning, and granite-po' are the industries. The place dates from 1131; i castle was taken by Edward Bruce in 1318, Newry returns one member to liament. Pop, (1851) 13,191 ; (1881) 15,590; (1891) 13,605. New Shoreham. See SHOREHAM, New Siberia, a group of uninhabited islands in the Arctic Ocean, ying off the coast of Siberia between the mouth of the Lena and the mouth of the Indigirka, The penal are Kotelnoi (the largest), Liakhov, Fadeyeff, and New Siberia. The coasts are rocky, and ice-bound all the year round, The soil contains immense quantities of fossil ivory, of the mammoth, &c, See Petermann’s Mitteilungen (1888 ). New South Wales is the oldest colony of Australasia. It formerly included what is now known as Queensland, New South Wales, Victo South Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, al under the governor at Sydney. The area is now diminished to 310,700 sq. m. or 198,848,000 acres, being five times that of England. It has the Pacific to the east, from Point ger, 28}° S. lat., to Cape Howe, 374°; South Australia to the west, along the meridian 141° E.; Victoria to the south, by the Murray River; and Queensland to the north, from 29° 8. lat. A series o' nee from 20 to 100 miles distance to the sea, exten from near Cape York to the Australian south-east corner, The southernmost are the Australian Alps, running over into Victoria, culminating in Mount Townsend, 7350 feet high. Northward are the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney, with 4000 feet, and containing the Jenolan ves (q.v.). Liverpool Range is more northerly; and the New England hills, north-east, rise With the exception of some isolated mountains, the region to the west consists of vast plains, up to the er Ranges near South Austra! ia. The mountains give birth to short and rapid streams toward the but long and sluggish ones west- ward. The Hawkesbury or Nepal Hunter, Clarence, Shoalhaven, and Macleay are eastern. The Lachlan, 700 miles long, runs into the Murrumbid which flows 1350 miles before fall- ing into the Murray. The Murray, after 1100 walles on the New South Wales border, passes into South Australia. The Darling, rising in meensland, has more than 1000 miles thi the colony before reaching the Murray, the mat receptacle of the country’s waters. The Macquarie and Mamol go northward to the Darling. The dry interior has few streams. Among the few lakes are George, Bathurst, Illawarra, Brisbane Waters—the last three sea-lakes, Twwo- fold Bay is not far from Cape Howe. North of it are Jervis Bay, Botany Bay, Port Jackson, Broken Bay, Port Hunter, Port Stephen, Port Macquarie. The capital, Sydney ( By ), is on Port Jackson, and — is the headquarters of the Australian naval squadron. — Near it are Windsor and Parramatta. New and Maitland are by the Hunter River. Goulburn uarie, and OE NEW SOUTH WALES 471 and Bathurst are westward, Albany and Went- worth on the Murray, Bourke and Wilcannia on the Darling; Wellington is on the Macquarie, Wollongong by Illawarra, Deniliquin in Riverina, Silverton in the Barrier Ran The colony was established in January 1788, under Governor Phillip, with a party of trans- ported prisoners from England, as the former pees of exile, America, was closed by the independence of that country. For years the settlement suffered much from want of food. The introduction of free colonists, to whom nts of land were given, -promoted pastoral agricultural pursuits; and the change from d ism to responsible government was gradually made. The cessation of transporta- tion in 1840 was followed by social and political advance ; and the gold discovery in 1851 gave a great impetus to the search for minerals. Town indus- tries were developed ; and commerce was aided by a fine harbour, an excellent mercantile marine, and the extension of railways. As regards flora, the eucalyptus-tree prevails in the colony, but acacias also are common, and pines and cedars, as well as palms in the north-east. Forest preservation is now receiving official atten- tion. In addition to products of native vegetation, plants of commercial value are being introduced, adapted to the warmer, colder, moister, or drier Tocalitien. Of 1600 economic plants in the colony, 210 are useful for food, 158 forage, 123 drugs, 57 oils, 87 tans, 60 gum-resins, 39 kinos, 14 perfumes, 35 dyes, 67 fibres, 630 timber. Some of these are available for export. There are more flowering plants than in all Ravopes The fauna, as in the rest of Australia, consists mainly of marsupial animals. In a single year there have been killed, as nuisances, 1,310,900 marsupials. Birds are of great variety, many of very beautiful plumage, and some of pleasant notes. Insects are pretty numerous, and not always welcome. Lizards and snakes may run to a good size, but there are no alligators. Fish, especially in the bays, are plentiful. Geology.—Silurian and Devonian formations, with tic, i , and metamorphie rocks, are rich gold, silver, lead, copper, tin, and other metals. The hilly country forms the centre of mining industry, but the older rocks underlie the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary beds of the vast plains to the westward. Coal is seen in both Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata. The Cretaceous beds are con- fined to the north-west corner. Trappean irrup- tions are of various geological epochs; yet the colony has fewer recent pibeatic, though extinct, craters than its Victorian neighbour. Marsupi- alian remains of huge dimensions are observed in the Pleistocene formations. Besides the monsters Diprotodon and Nototherium, there are the mar- supial lion Thylacoleo, and the Thylacinus. In the Pliocene and Pleistocene are the alluvial gold workings and the diamond and tin wash- ings. While the more ancient rocks prevail in the ranges, Mesozoic ones are nearly confined to the eastern side, north and south of Sydney, ee she Sydney sandstone, and in ‘the Clarence Gold, known in 1823, was first worked in 1851, near Bathurst. is ce = area of 70,000 sq. m., in nite, rphyry, diorite, quartz, . cad alieetel idepodis Dry eaten is employed by miners where water is scarce. Gold is often mixed with silver, copper, or tin; and the ‘ore is worth, according to purity, from 70 to 82 shillings an ounce. The output to the begin- ning of 1890 was nearly £38,000,000, though only £434,070 in 1889. Silver, found at Boorook, Sunny Corner, &c., abounds in the Barrier Ranges near South Australia, at Silverton, Thackaringa, &c., where there are over 4000 miners. Discovered in 1883, in an almost rainless region, the silver area is 100 miles by 12. One company paid in dividends £1,676,000 up to 1890, having raised 161,500 tons of ore, yielding 6,236,000 ounces of silver and 25,170 tons of lead. The district up to 1890 produced £4,168,397 ; the Broken Hill Company has raised 20,000,000 ounces ; and in 1889 the product of silver for the colony was £1,971,198. Copper, first wrought in 1858, yielded £122,444 in 1889; its ore being known to extend over 8000sq. m. Tin, worked since 1872, from streams and lodes in granite, has fields of aeons area, witha yield for 1889 of £207,670. Lead is chiefly got from silver-mines. Antimony, manganese, bismuth, &e. are mined. Iron is abundant, but not profitable to work owing to the cost of labour. Precious stones, as the diamond, emerald, zircon, sapphire, topaz, &c., occur in granite localities. Asbestos, zinc, mereury, cobalt, and alum are exported. Graphite, kaolin, and building-stone enrich the colonists. Coal is the most valuable mineral of New South Wales. It extends over 24,000 sq. m.; £22,000,000 worth was raised during 1860-89 ; and the export of 28 million tons brought in £16,000,000, In 1894 the gold pro- duced was worth £1,156,717; the silver, £94,150; copper, £63,617 ; and coal, £1,155,573. Kerosene is also produced in considerable quantity from the shale of the Blue Mountains. The resources in 1895 include as many as 56,977,270 sheep (in spite of recent losses of 8,000,000 from drought) ; cattle, 2,465,411; horses, 518,181; swine, 2,733,591. Most of these animals are upon stations or runs, on land leased from government, sometimes at less than a penny an acre rental in the dry west. The leases are for twenty-one years in western divisions, ten in central, and five only in eastern, at a higher rent. The lessees are the squatters. In the early years of the colony only salt meat from England was in use, as there were no native sheep, cattle, or horses. The sheep im- ported from Bengal and the C. were hairy, but the wool was improved by the introduction of Spanish merinoes; the cattle also were improved by good English stock. Pigs, goats, and poultry have been introduced. Wool exported in the year exceeds two hundred million pounds’ weight. Agriculture oceupies far less land than pastur- age. While 140,000,000 acres produce a rental of £917,190, being devoted to flocks and herds, there are but a million acres, or one acre to one inhabitant, devoted to culture, and nearly one- fourth of that is laid down in artificial grasses. But farming ground, especially near towns, is very valuable. Some of this is freehold, bought at government auction sales, though formerly be- stowed in nts at a nominal quit rent. Much is leasehold, held at various rentals on terms of years from the state, till the full purchase is there- y effected. Of 46,197 holdings, 580 were over 10,000 acres each, and 6889 were under 15 acres, The land laws of New South Wales are liberal and easy to settlers. The country, however, is more pastoral than agricultural, growing less produce proportionately to its size than Victoria and South Australia. In March 1890 the area under er was 947,072 acres, but 47,620 holdings contain 41,042,629 acres. In 1890 there were 419,758 acres in wheat, averaging 15 bushels to the acre; 173,836 in maize, averaging 304; 5440 in barley ; and 7867 in vines; hay, of various kinds, 222,262; sugar- cane, 18,730; oranges, 9804 ; tobacco, 3239; orchards, 16.867 ; market-gardens, 5409; potatoes, 17,551. Yet, while the colony exported £1,076,350 of agricul- tural produce in 1889, it imported £5,548,915. The sugar-plantations in the north-east are not so productive as in Queensland ; nor are the apple- orchards and potato-furrows equal to those of 472 NEW SOUTH WALES Lp’ es NEWSPAPER Tasmania. But all the fruits that thrive in Eng- land and Italy grow here. Climate intlaences vegetation in the colony. facilities exist in the Dividing Range, of New England in the north-east, slopes to the south, because of fair moisture. seacoast, with from 40 to 70 inches of rain a year, differs much from the western interior, where in some years as little as 5 inches may fall. But the climate is so uncertain that a region suffer from fearful drought in one season and floods in another. Cold and ice with heavy snows may be experienced on the lofty plains; but Sydney, 33° 50’ lat., hed no snow in thirty years. Though in summer the thermometer might rise to 100° and beyond it during the day, the nights are generally cool and recuperative after the heat. The trade exceeds that of any of the neighbour- ing colonies. It was worth £46,157,991 in 1889— £22,863,057 in imports, £23,294,934 exports. Each ave over £20 a head, or about £16 in produce of the colony. The re-exports amounted to £5,871,623. While the United Kingdom sent £8,736,478 of receiving from the colony £8,964,625, the neensland trade was £6,415,553; the Victorian, £7,804,338; the American, £2,225,286; the Ger- man, £1,052,517 ; the French, £284,004 ; the Indian, £202,359. The colonial overland trade was £10,070,189. New South Wales imported £2, 164,206 of drapery; £1,046,146, apparel; £852,304, iron and nery ; £741,189, flour ; £466,390, spirits ; £385,363, teas ; £438,004, heer ; £220,793, tobacco. Of exports, the home produce was £17,423,311; the foreign, £5,871,623. The animal and vegetable products realised £7,300,526 ; minerals and metals, £1,655,776; live-stock, £1,175,979; and coal, £1,319,271. The colony’s wool of 1889 brought £10,620,636. Duties are only levied on forty-seven articles; there are none ad valorem, what is prac- ge 2 trade having been established in 1872- 79. he customs realised £1,905,883 and excise £261,371. There entered, in 1889, 3254 ships of 2,632,081 tons; departed, 3229 of 2,689,098. Of Farm and ti alps the tonnage, 4,659,798 were British; 661,381, Of the former, 2,817,071 were colonial ; of the latter, 210,164 were American. While London cleared 5,284,149 tons, and Liverpool 4,758,525, Sydney cleared 1,432,340, and the New- castle coal-port, 1,126,892. The railways connect New South Wales with South Australia, Victoria, and Queensland. The 2530 miles belonging to gov- ernment has, to 1895, cost £36,611,350. the total imports in 1894 were worth £15,801,941; the total ex , £20,577,673. ‘overnment.—The governor is appointed W the yee The executive is of 10 ministers ; the per ouse or lative Council had, in 1892, 75 life- members ; the Lower, or Legislative Assembly, 141 members, in 74 electorates, receiving £300 a year. ethe parliament is triennial. The revenue in 1825 was £71,682; in 1890, £9,517,121. . From taxation was raised £2,758,750 ; from land, £2,208,039; from Festal, railway, and other services, £4,253,830, he public debt, contracted for useful works, was £48,578,837 in October 1890. An excellent volun- teer force comprises some 3500 men. In 1885 a New South Wales contingent was sent to strengthen the British forces in the Soudanese war, There is also a naval brigade. The wealth of the colony is stated at £314 per head, that of the United Kingdom being £270. The jon (1891), 1,132,207, of whom 518,199 were female, included 14,156 Chinese and 1997 The ports, farming localities, and mines return seven-eighths of the people. About 3000 manufactories employ 49,238, wages for eight hours a day being from 8s, to 12s. The birth- rate is 339 thousand ; marvingereae death. — rate, only 13. In religion, the ire of gland q claims one-half the population, the Roman ; nearly one-third ; but returns for 1889 gave Sunday attendance at worship as follows : Roman Catholic, 94,422; Church of England, 83,819; Methodists (various), 64,900; Presbyterian, 33,247; Salvation ) Army, 14,423; Congregational, 13,669; Baptist, Public schools are now unconnected with churches, and no state aid is granted to a denominational school; but one hour “Pod a ad ts eee to religious pec jon, 4 7 schools, where parents present no 0! ; the roll in 2964 schools are 229,043 The annual cost to the government of each child is £4, l4s.; the fees bain in 12s, 5d, there are many private schoo! England has 36,342 children in eee Meg Roman Catholic, 25,820; Methodist, 29,385; Pres- — byterian, 12,054. There are technol |. indus-— trial, and general museums, picture-gal public libraries, schools of arts, and mining schools; and a noble state university, having affiliated colleges, » crowns the educational edifice, See eae _ Migr Bev ego tng hen : blems of Greater Britain : Flanagan, . of New South Wales (1862); ‘Trollope, New tock ‘ales and Queensland (1874); Dr Lang, Historical and Statistical Account of New South Wales (1875); G. Sita, ne ce A pe sources 3; T. A. C Dn, , of New South Wales, 1889-90 (Sydney, i890); G. B, Barton, Pond A aid South Wales from the Records (16 vols, et seq. : News) . a sheet of paper printed and dis- tributed at short intervals for conveying intelligence of passing events. This is a definition of a news- paper which might safely be employed for | pur ; but it is altogether inadequate to de- scribe the great institution which is now, in all parts of the civilised and semi-civilised world, at once the bearer of tidings, the herald of commerce, and, according to the predilections of its readers, a more or less accepted guide in matters of polities, theology, morals, arts, and sports. The number of the newspapers of the world is (1891) estimated at 41,000, of which 24,000 appear — in Europe. A further division, according to stricter phical limitations, shows that Germany Coathe list with 5500, then comes France wi 4100, Great Britain and Ireland with 4000, Austria- Hun with 3500, Italy with 1400, Spain with 850, Russia with 800, Switzerland with 450, and Belgium and Holland with 300 each. The rest of Euro newspapers are ba aragi in Po and the Scandinavian and Balkan countries. United States of America must be credited with 12,500 newspapers. Canada claims 700, Australia about the same number. Of Pe issued in Asia, Japan alone has 200. Africa has 200 newspapers, and the Sandwich Islands three. Having regard to the respective popularity of the languages employed, it is found that 17,000 news- pers are published in English, 7500 in German, B50 in French, 1800 in Spanish, and 1500 in Italian, The news r came into existence when accounts of the imperial armies of Rome were sent to the generals in command in all parts of the rovinces, These Acta Diurna were communicated y the generals to the officers under their command, and thus the foundation of a system of newspaper circulation was laid. It is to Germany that we. have to look for the beginnings of modern European — journalism. As early as the 15th century small news-sheets in the form of letters were issued in Augsburg, Vienna, Ratisbon, and Nuremberg. It was not until 1566, however, when the : "* « i ae ae Fa eee, Ue beac ea) tad . 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Pinneall \ : ot > | mrs. : s : Pipe Clay Pla, “+ | Bullarook (BL tyrrat. = : Wissingren ¥) Desert Span Bl om \ Plat ee i a e is : Nnonaifirn LM ra ts it Ux enum Troe Welds rk oe : ad iT ~“Titindmar a a a . . _— D Boloke Ls * Z te ural 5 Donal. Koreng « “BL. Dorado Sandy Desert, sagonater iroken Bay! 4 Nowlestwry tt | NEW SOUTH WALES English Statute Miles OT 50 100 } m English Feet. Blau Heeset 7. iCape Howe « miu d25y — eek Te << NEWSPAPER 473 Notizie Scritte were established at Venice by order of the Venetian government, that a news-sheet at all answering to present ideas was produced. At first nef were not printed but written out, and exhib- in various public places, any one being per- mitted to read them on areas of the s' coin called a gazetta. From this these journals acquired the title of Gazette (q.v.), and the demand for them was so t that it became necessary to print them. tes were soon afterwards issued in most of the leading cities of ores ae Setting aside the apoory phe: history of the English Mercurie, said to have been published in 1588 under the sanction of Queen Elizabeth, the Weekly News of 1622, edited by Nathaniel Butter, is, so far as positive evidence goes, the first English news , as we understand the term. The Toaton Weekly Courant made its 2 apm in the same year. Twenty years later what has been ealled ‘the era of the Mercuries’ was entered upon, and Mereuries of many kinds claimed public pat- ronage—amongst others the Mercurius Clericus, started in 1641 in the interests of the clergy; the Mercurius Britannicus (1642); the Mercurius Civi- cus (1643), whose first number contained portraits engraved on wood of Charles I. and Sir Thomas Fairfax; the Mercurius Politicus, published in London, and reprinted in Scotland for the enter- tainment of Cromwell's army; and the waety Mercurius Caledonius, the first strictly Scottis newspaper, which, however, did not live beyond its tenth number. During. the protectorate the newspaper press enjoyed the luxury of freedom, and there was a great increase in the number of political journals. In 1663 the Public Intelligencer was lished by Sir Roger ag pe but was suspended on the issuing of the London Gazette, the first number of which was published at Oxford on the 7th November 1665. A newspaper censor- ship, begun in 1662, was continued with more or less ag acre 4 during the reign of Charles II. and down to 1695, when the press licensing law was abolished. eg that period there was no news- that could he prorerly so called except the ndon Gazette, which, as Macaulay puts it, ‘con- tained nothing but what the secretary of state wished the nation to know.’ Comments on polit- ical events rather than news formed the staple of such periodicals as were published during the existence of the censorship. There was the Observator, started by L’Estrange in 1681, which attracted some notice, but it was in no sense a newspaper. One of the earliest attempts at break- ing down the barrier of exelnsion was made in orcester on the publication of Berrow’s Worcester Journal in 1690, a paper which is still in existence. After the abolition of the censorship many new journals blossomed forth, including the Postboy, the London Newsletter, the Flying Post, the Eng- lish Courant, and the Lincoln, Rutland, and Stam- i Mercury. The Edinburgh Gazette was estab- ished in 1699, and published twice a week. It was not until 1702 that a daily r was put forth in England. This was the Daily Courant, a small sheet printed on one side only. Advertisements, which now form so important a factor in the prosperity of newspapers, did not appear in any journal, so far as can be ascertained, until tow: the middle of the 17th century. Occasional books and pamphlets were advertised in 1647-48, and in 1649 a reward was offered in the Moderate for the recovery of ‘a piebald nag ;’ but it was not until 1673 that anything like a regular og of advertising was established, when the niex Intelligencer opened its columns to paid announcements, at the rate of ‘a shilling for a or coach for notification, and fag for renewing.’ A little later the Observator Reformed was prepared to insert eight lines for a shilling ; but, as the public began to awaken to the value of this new medium of publicity, the govern- ment became equally alive to its value to the revenue, and in 1701 imposed a duty of one shilling for each advertisement. In the same year a bill was brought into parliament for the pur- pose of enforcing a tax of one penny on every fore aeaange periodically issuing from the press, wing to the representations of the newspaper pro- ora who pointed out that they had been in the bit of selling their sheets in many cases at a halfpenny a copy, the proposed measure was aban- doned; but in 1712 a tax of one halfpenny per sheet was imposed on every newspaper of a sheet and a half. As a consequence, many newspapers at once ceased to exist, the Observator amongst the number. During the reign of George III. the press was subjected to several additional imposts. At the beginning of the eign the tax on newspapers was a penny a copy ; in 1776 it was raised to three- halfpence ; in 1789 to twopence; in 1794 to two- pence-halfpenny ; in 1797 to threepence-halfpenny ; and in 1815 to fourpence. With these heavy taxes on papers there was of necessity a correspondin increase in their cost to the public, until the genera price reached sevenpence, a condition of things which lasted until 1836, when the duty was reduced from fourpence to a penny, the impost being entirely abolished in 1855. Another tax that affected the cost of newspapers was the paper-duty, which was repealed in 1861, leaving British journa’ free from imposts of any kind. In spite, however, of the heavy burdens against which brs eo to struggle, through nearly the whole of the 18th and a great part of the 19th centuries, newspapers ually increased in number and influence, and exercised much power in the direct- ing of public opinion. In all the chief centres of population in the provinces, as well as in London, pa rs of importance were established. The first alf of the 18th century saw a striking extension of journalistic enterprise. In the metropolis there was, in addition to the Courant, the London Daily Post and General Advertiser, established in 1726, This changed its title in 1752 to the Public Adver- tiser, and attained celebrity as the medium through which the Letters of ‘Junius’ were first given to the world. Defoe’s Review of the Affairs of State, begun while the editor was in prison, existed from 1704 to 1713. The St James's Post and the St James's Evening Post, started as distinct journals in 1715, were by amalgamation as the St James's Chronicle assured of a long existence. The London Post, started in 1715, had the honour of publishin a reprint of Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe as a serial story, commencing in No. 125 (7th October 1719) and concluding in No. 289 (19th October 1720). In 1731 there existed 22 journals in London and 23 in the provinces, amongst the latter being the Edinburgh Courant, the Edinburgh Gazette, the Nottingham Journal, the Newcastle Courant, the Hereford Journal, the Liverpool Courier, the York Mercury, the Glasgow Courant, the Leeds Mercury, the Northampton Mercury, the Gloucester Journal, the Norwich Mercury, and the Ipswich Journal, Still ter activity was dis- played in the later half of the 18th century, It was in 1762 that the North Briton was first issued by John Wilkes, No. 45 of that notorious journal being the one which was burned by the hangman and for which Wilkes was put in the Tower an cast in heavy dam e Morning Chronicle was started in 1770, the Morning Post in 1772, and the Morning Herald in 1781. The Times (q.v.)— the chief and central figure of modern journalism— was started in 1788, as a development of the Daily Universal Register, which had existed from 1785, 474 NEWSPAPER Mr John Walter was the originator and sole owner of both papess, and mainly through his energy and ability did the journal ultimately attain its posi- tion of pre-eminence. In the literary direction of the paper he always so the highest available talent, while in the mechanical production of it he effected numerous improvements, In 1814 he suc- ceeded in printing the 7tmes b bag pe wl The publication of the leading London and pro- vincial newspapers involves an immense outlay, and the co-operation of an army of experts repre- senting every department of human knowl Be. The work is now divided and subdivided in such a way that it is difficult to describe its organisation on the lines of the old official designations. It is no longer ible to speak unreservedly ofan ‘ editor- in-chief’ as having necessarily supreme power as the representative of the proprietors. So onerous and so various have the duties of that office become that it is, so to speak, frequently * put into com- mission.” It is not uncommon to find a managing editor whose business it is to control in every wa the supply of news, including foreign correspond- ence and reporting of all kinds, and a literary editor who controls the general policy of the paper, and is responsible for the style and substance of all original matter. It is increasingly rare to find an editor who writes any one of the several leading articles with which most of the great dailies fur- nish their readers, Each of these journals has a staff of leader-writers, who are often well-known workers in literature outside of journalism. On the principal newspapers the leader-writing staff in- cludes experts of the highest mark, who are paid retaining fees in order that they may be in readi- ness, on the shortest notice, to supply essays on the subjects of which they are masters. For the leaders themselves they are po special fees. A similar system prevails with respect to special correspondents, whether employed in a military or social capacity. George Borrow was the first war- correspondent, writing from Spain to the Morning Herald in 1839. Some of these gentlemen receive what Mr G. A. Sala has described as ‘the wages of an aml dor,’ in ideration of being always prepared to start for a campaign in ‘Darkest Africa,’ or to chronicle a royal pro- That the services rendered in return in- volves much personal danger is sadly suggested by the memorial in the crypt of St Paul’s to the war-correspondents who fell in the Soudan. The sub-editors vary in number, according to the com- pleteness of the organisation of the particular paper. The duties of the sub-editor on all im- portant newspapers, whether metropolitan or pro- vincial, have been almost revolutionised during the last four decades of the century. It is true that on the evenin pers it is still neces- sary that the sub-editors should make a special study of the morning papers of the current date. This indeed enables the evening, or more properly speaking the afternoon, journals to appropriate the most interesting telegraphic items within a few hours of their appearance in the morning papers, to whose conductors such specially wired news may have caused a heavy expense. It may be noted that in some of the British colonies a law already exists giving copyright of ‘exclusive’ news twenty-four hours after publication. On the whole, however, the sub-editor has almost to be a gleaner in the fields which have been sown and already reaped by his colleagues, The old-fashioned sneer at the conductors of newspapers, that they ‘put in anything to fill up,’ is now only an amus- ing anachronism. Such are the ‘services’ of news which a daily paper is obliged to employ—whether they be those of the Press Association, the Central News, the Central Press, the Exchange Telegraph Conan , Reuter’s, or Dalziel’s—that a sub-editor's trouble lea his work is to reconcile the amount of ‘ flimsied’ matter which he has pnt into the bor basket with his duties to his chiefs. Reuter’s ney was founded in 1858, the Central Press in 1863, the Press Association in 1868, and the Central News Agency in 1870. . There used to be twelve or sixteen parliamentary shorthand reporters on every London daily. At that time the daily provincial papers obtained their telegraphic reports of parliament solely from one or other of the news organisations. This is now changed. The chief papers in the provinces have formed syndicates in accordance with their respee- tive politics for the purpose of obtaining special reports of the debates from their own associated staffs of reporters. This arrangement, which par- liament sanctions, enables the leading provincial dailies to supply parliamentary reports according to their own special requirements, the result being that debates are frequently reported at greater length in those papers than in the London journals of the same date. Thus it arises that the chief provincial papers have offices in the neighbourhood of Fleet Street or the Strand, where a special wire or wires will connect the London and the country offices, Formerly the journalists who were in charge of these wires were styled the ‘wire men ;’ now they are designated London editors. In the city there are also editors whose special functions are the furnishing of information connected with linancial matters to various panes: The chief London dailies retain the exclusive services of a city editor, while several provincial published in different localities, are served by one and the same city editor. These remarks apply also in a modified degree to colonial and even foreign newspapers, which often have their own special services of news, and special representa- tives, in London and other principal cities. Another important representative of modern phono enterprise is what is known as the London correspondent. There were London cor- respondents of a kind even in the days of the Restoration, but it was not until 1863 that the ‘London letter,’ as it is now known, was introduced as a special feature of provincial papers, In that year the Central Press Agency proposed to supply their clients with ‘a London letter once a week, written by a gentleman of long emer in the literary world.’ This was the late Edward Spender, who for some years continued to write what formed an admirable compendium of the week's political, social, and literary gossip for country ers. As time went on the weekly letter became a daily contribution, and other London correspondents — the ae until ow es Le cil is an indispensable feature of all provincial journals, Many well-known journalists are pric in this work, including several members of parliament, and the lobby of the House of Commons forms their chief hunting: nd, In 1 the number of newspapers published in London was 79; in 1880 it was about 340; in 1890 it had increased to 646. Of these 28 are daily, 9 of which are issued in the evening (nominally i, their first editions being issued about noon. The price of these pares is either a penny, or, as in the case of the Daily Mail (1896), a halfpenny ; the Times continues to be published at threepence. The list of daily papers, which formerly consisted almost entirely of political journals, has during recent years been increased by the appearance of several daily sheets devoted exclusively to financial and commercial matters. Financial journalism, indeed, forms a very § 1 feature of modern newspaper enterprise. he Economist, established in 1843, journals, jand a few other weeklies of kindred aims, held this NEWSPAPER 475 ground with success for many years, but the great speculative rush of more recent times, consequent on the altered conditions brought about by the passing of the Limited Liability Acts, has produced @ vast number of papers of this class, the Financial News, started in 1884, and the Financial Times, founded a little later, being amongst the more widely circulated of financial daily newspapers. And again, not only does a fully-illustrated news- paper, the Daily Graphic (1890), mt pay eve’ morning, but many of the other daily journa ive illustrations of current events with more or tne frequency. The difficulties of producing clear illustrations by the rotary printing-machines which are necessitated by large circulations are being gradually overcome. Of purely literary journals the number is not lai The Atheneum, founded in 1828, is devoted ecahadouly to books, authors, science, art, music, and thedrama. The Academy, established in 1869 on similar lines, repeatedly ‘modernised’ its plan (as in 1898, when illustrations in the text were added), The Literary World covers much of the same nd. Several weekly journals, while devoting — attention to lite’ criticism, have by free, frank, and able handling of political and social subjects made themselves both feared and admired. The Examiner, established by Leigh Hunt in 1808, lost ground after Hunt’s retirement in 1821, but ker & oesr later, when Albany Fonblanque succeeded to the post, it again became a power, and for many years remained the champion Radical thought. The Spectator, edi by Rintoul, also held a strong independent position about this period. Both papers were much read by the cultured classes; but after changes of editorship and rae de term of decadence set in; and when, in 1854, the Saturday Review made its seresrence, controlled and contributed to by some the brightest intellects of the day, a great stride in advance was made, and. the weekly review became as influential as the great quarterlies had been in former days. Abont the same time the Spectator was remodelled hy R. H. Hutton and eredith Townsend, and has ever since stood high as the representative of what may be termed the Philosophical Radicals. The Speaker, estab- lished in 1890, is edited by Sir T. vat Reid, and is a Radical @ National Observer (founded in 1888 as Scots Observer ) ran till 1897 as a rvative political and literary review. Literature (issued from the Times office since 1897) is a literary weekly. The Guardian (Anglo- Catholic, 1846), the Zablet (Roman Catholic, 1840), the Christian World and British Weekly (1859 and 1886, Nonconformist), are religious newspapers. oats’ journalism dates from the first publica- tion of Vanity Fair in 1868, and was strengthened by the issuing of the World in 1874, and Truth in 1877. These ro and a host of pas that have been publ hed in imitation o them, have made the wri of personal paragraphs and articles a leading feature; one of the results being a marked increase in the number of libel suits. The combination of the nal and se! elements constituting what it is custom- gg describe as the ‘new journalism’ likewise calls for mention. Cradled in America, it was boldly adopted in England by Mr W. T. Stead in the early days of his editorship of the Pali Mall Gazette eagerly taken up by numerous others. The following figures will give some idea of the de of the a a ress of the United Kingdom, and — of ite c assification: Daily morning papers, $ y evenin rs, 126; pe published in England outside Londen, 1318; Scotland, 241; Ireland, 192; Wales, 90; the Channel Islands, 14; the Isle of Man, 7. In the following analysis of class and trade journals it has been found practically impossible to differentiate between newspapers properly so called and other periodicals. Occasionally, too, a journal will — under more than one classi- fication. The distribution of papers according to subjects, however, may be thus distinguished : Accountants, 2; agents, 3; agriculture, 30; an- tiquities, 3; anti-vaccination, 1; architecture, 8; army, 11; art, 16; astronomy, 1; athletics, 12; auctioneers, 3; bakers, 3; banking, 1; Baptists, 11; bees, 3; bells, 1; booksellers, 9; boot and shoe trades, 2; botany, 2; boys, 6; brewers, 4; builders, 13; bnilding-societies, 2; butchers, 1; ters, 1; caterers, 3; cattle-dealers, 2; chari- ties, 5; chemists and druggists, 10; chess, 3; Church, 47; civil service, 8; coach-builders, 2; coal trade, 2; colonies, 21; comic, 30; commercial, 41 ; conf ery, 3; contracts, 4; co-operation, 4; country, 7; county courts, 1; cow-keepers, 1; cricket, 1; cycling, 5; decoration, 6; dental, 3; dogs, 5; drama, 13; drapers, 4; dyers, 1; educa- tion, 23 ; resem 6; engineering, 10; entomol- ogy, 1; estates, 7; exchange, 4; fashions, 37; financial, 39; fire, 2; fishing and fish-trades, 4; food, 3; freemasonry, 4; Free Methodists, 2; friendly societies, 4; Friends (Society of), 3; fruit trades, 2; furniture, 8; gardening, 16; gas, 3; NaH i , 1; German, 2; grocers, s gynecology, 1; hairdressers, 2; hardware, 1; hatters, 1; homeopathy, 2; horology, 2; horses, 2; hosiers, 1; illustrated, 14; implements, 1; India, 6; india-rubber, 1; insurance, 18; inven- tions, 3; iron and ironmongers, 7; jewellers, 1; Jewish, 4; labour, 4; ag pal 3; law, 18; leather, 5; licensed victuallers, 6; lifeboats, 1; literary, 18; live-stock, 7; local government, 6; machinery, 3; matrimonial, 2; mechanics, 3; medical, 26; meteorology, 1; millers, 2; mineral waters, 4; mining, 3; music, 18; natural history, 6; navy, 14; Nonconformists, 13 ; non-sectarian (religious), 46; notes and queries, 2; numismatics, 1; official, 2; oil and colour trade, 2; paper trades, 10; pawn- brokers, 1; peace, 1; photography, 10; phrenology, 2; plumbers, 1; pottery, 1; poultry, 8; Presby- terian, 3; Primitive Methodist, 7; printers, 12; railways, 10; Roman Catholic, 15; saddlers, 3; sanitary, 8; scientific, 6; secular, 3; shipping, 14; shorthand, 3; society, 24; sporting, 40; stamps, 1; Sunday-schools, 6; tailors, 3; telegraphy, 2; temperance, 32; textile industries, 11; timber trade, 2; time-tables, 36; tobacco, 4; undertakers, 1; Unitarian, 2; warehousemen, 3; Wesleyans, 6; wine and spirits, 4; yachting, 1. The circulations attained at the present day the leading metropolitan and Fab apers is in some instances very large. The Daily Telegraph and the Standard each circulates close on a quarter of a million copies. Amongst the London evening pers the Star, the Echo, and the Evening News and Post each claims a circulation of 200,000 copies or thereabouts. Of the penny weeklies, Lloyd's ewspaper heads the list with half a million copies, and a further half-million is divided between the Weekly Dispatch and Reynolds's Newspaper. Other London weeklies with vast circulations are the Police News, Referee, Illustrated London News, with the Sketch, Graphic, and Black and White. In the provinces there are the Yorkshire Post, 45,000, the three Manchester morning papers (with a combined issue of at least 100,000), and the Birmingham Post, 30,000, amongst the mornin dailies; and a glance at the list of provincia weeklies. gives us the Sheffield Weekly Telegraph, 215,000, the Glasgow Weekly Mail, 200,000, the Dundee Weekly News and People’s Journal, 200,000, the Newcastle Weekly Chronicle, 100,000, the Man- chester Weekly Times, 100,000, and the Sunday 476 NEWSPAPER Chronicle (Manchester), 200,000. It should be mentioned also that since 1882, when 7it-Bits was started, there have sprung into existence a aes number of journals aay 3 are eal — y news rs nor magazines, but are widely popular. Tit- Bate has a circulation of over half a million copies per week. Following in its train are such papers as Answers, Pearson's Weekly, &c., all of which sell largely. As already mentioned, the newspaper press of Scotland had its origin during the civil warsof the 17th century, a printer named Higgins, attached to Cromwell’s army, being employed to reprint the London Mercurius Politicus tor the benefit of the troops then in Scotland. This issue was continued from 1653 to 1660; in which latter year the Mer- curius Caledonius was published, existing coy for three months, and being succeeded by the King- dom's Intelligencer. In 1699 came the Edinburgh Gazette, in 1702 the Edinburgh Courant, in 1706 the Scots Courant, and in 1718 the Edinburgh Evening Courant. In 1720 the Mercurius Cale- donius was revived as the Caledonian Mercury, and survived until the middle of the 19th century. The Scotsman, which may be regarded as the Times of Scotland, came into existence in 1817, the Glasgow Herald in 1782, the Aberdeen Journal in 1746, the Kelso Mail in 1797, the Dundee Adver- tiser in 1801, the Ayr Advertiser in 1803, the North oo Daily Mail in 1847, and the Scottish Leader in 1887. In Ireland, a news-sheet called Warranted Tidings from Ireland saw the light during the rebellion of 1641, but the Dublin Newsletter, started in 1685, was the first Irish news paper roperly so called. A Dublin daily, called Bucs ccurrences, ran from 1700 to about 1750; and Faulkner's Jour- nal, another Dublin daily journal, was started in 1728. Sauncders’s Newsletter, established in. 1746, existed down to 1879. The Dublin Evening Post was first issued in 1725; and in 1737 the "Pet fast Newsletter, the oldest existing Irish nore r, was § - The Derry Journal was estab’ ‘che in 1772, the Limerick Chronicle in 1766, and the Belfast Northern Whig in 1824. he English papers of the principality of Wales show evidences of the pressure of a public de- mand whieh every year becomes more exacting. In the northern division, a thinly-spread population have still to be content with weekly papers— Welsh and English—with the addition of such daily supply as is afforded by the Liverpool press. The tenacity with which the masses cling to the native language enables the Baner of Denbigh to hold a commanding position among the newspapers of North Wales. P aifferent condition of thin obtains in the busy centres of South Wales, wit its vigorous industrial life and populous com- munities. Two daily papers share the patronage of the South Walian, The Western Mail, a pro- gressive Democratic-Conservative journal, is the senior in point of age. The South Wales Daily News is the organ of the advanced Liberalism pro- fessed by the majority of South Wales electors. Both mie are published in Cardiff. Each popu- lous district has its local journal, and the vernacu- ga is supported by a large, but diminishing, clas In the different British colonies newspaper enter- rise has been very active in recent years. As far Pack as 1803 the Australian colonies were catered for by the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser, which was published ‘by authority.’ The Australian, also issued in New Sonth Wales, was originated in 1824, but snecumbed in 1848, In 1831, however, the Sydney Morning Herald was established, and has long held the position of being the most substantial paper in the colony. In Victoria the Melbourne Advertiser was the pro- nitor of the existing race of Victorian journals. t first it was written, not printed, and had a circulation of not more than a dozen copies at six- pence a copy. It ceased with its thirty-second number. e Argus and the Age—the latter reputed to have the largest circulation of ony in Australia—now hold the first rank. South Ans- tralia has in the Register a journal which has been published daily since 1850, There are not more than about a score of journals in Western Australia, the number including three dailies. The Brisbane Courier is’ the of journalism in Queens- land. There are two other dailies in Brisbane, and about seventy papers altogether in the colony. In Tasmania the news press to have a history in 1810. There are four dailies in the colony, and about twenty others. In New Zealand there are no fewer than fourteen towns which have daily jou rs, besides more than a lundred other published throughout the island. In the South African colonies the Cape Times, although it was only established in 1876, takes the lead. In Johannes’ f English enterprise has a great deeper te re Argus, neues on % ercury, published three times a week, was es' lished in 1875 in King William’s Town. Natal has three daily og ee and cay weeklies. On the Gold jierra Leone, St Helena, Mauritius, British (which has a daily paper at George- town), and the West Indies (with a daily journal in Jamaica) British journalism is more or less well represented. Even Cyprus has its weekly Owl. China claims to have had newspapers before they were known in Europe, and we are specially interested in the three or four English dailies pub- lished in Hong-kong. In India we find an English press powerful and influential out of all proportion to the extent of its circulation. Every European British subject in India, who has brains and character, is the centre of a social system. To him the news’ , which constitutes the link between his early home and the scene of his daily labour, is an infinitely more important institution than the British journal is to the citizen of London or Liverpool. The English- man, a daily paper published in Calcutta, first made its appearance in 1821, under the title of the John Bull in the East, and had set up at its press the rough proofs of several of Macaulay's known essays. There are two other dailies in Caleutta, while Bombay, Madras, Allahabad, Delhi, Lahore, and Rangoon have each one or more daily news rs. Many journals are issued in English by ves for native readers, and the sheets printed in the vernacular languages are — The small cost of native labour largely aids the multiplication of Indian journals. United States and Canada.—In 1890 there were issued in the United States and Canada a total number of 17,760 newspapers and periodical here lications, consisting of 13,164 weeklies, 2191 monthilies, 1626 dailies, 280 semi-monthlies, 217 semi-weeklies, 126 quarterlies, 82 bi-weeklies, 38 bi-monthlies, and 36 tri-weeklies. The geographical distribution of the 17,760 periodicals is as 3 New York state, 1778 ; Illinois, 1309 ; Pennsylvania, 1281; Ohio, 1043; Dominion of Canada, 812; Kansas, 807; Iowa, 799; Missouri, 756; Massa- chusetts, 685; Indiana, 651; Michigan, 644; Nebraska, 565; California, 536; Wisconsin, 529; Texas, 494; Minnesota, 427; New Jersey, 318; Colorado, 268 ; hg 257; Kentucky, 257; Sonth a 250; Tennessee, 236; the Terri- tories, 220; Virginia, 220; North Carolina, 192; Arkansas, 185; Connecticut, 182; Maryland, 178; Alabama, 175; Maine, 156; Mississippi, 155; Lonisiana, 152; Washington, 146; West Virginia, NEWSPAPER + 477 143; Oregon, 133; New he emt 126; Florida, 121; South Carolina, 120; North Dakota, 119; Vermont, 83; District of Columbia, 68; Rhode Island, 64; Montana, 58; Delaware, 38; Nevada, 24. It is estimated that the total issue of a single edition of all these pepe represents a circulation of 41,524,000 copies, being an average edition of 2335 copies. According to classification it is found that there are 27 publications with circulations of 150,000 for each issue, 28 with 100,000, 35 with 75,000, and 42 with 50,000; while at the other end of the scale there are 5426 publications classed as issuing only 500 copies per issue. New York prints more than a quarter of all the papers which are sold, and Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Massachusetts more than another quarter. Nearly 75 per cent. of all the publications issued appear weekly. According to an expert statement there were issued in the United States and Canada in 1899 a total of 22,061 newspapers and periodicals, of which 15,688 were weeklies, and 2229 were dailies. The earliest newspaper published in America was Publick Occurrences, 1690; this was followed in 1704 by the Boston News-letter, which continued without a rival until 1719, when the Boston Gazette was issned ‘by authority.’ Later on the News-letter extended its title, and became the Massachusetts Gazette and Boston News-letter, and was conspicuous for its support of the British rule in the early days of the war of co pea ceas- ing to exist, however, when the English troops evacuated Boston. In 1721 the New England Courant was established by James Franklin, and subsequently was conducted by his more renowned , Benjamin Franklin. The latter started a paper of his own, the Pennsylvania Gazette, in 1729, after the death of the Courant, and this appeared weekly down to 1745, whien it merged in the North American, Edes's Boston Gazette, begun in 1755, was for a long time the chief organ of the popular party, and was the medium throngh which John Adams published his ‘ Letters of Novanglus.’ The M usetts Spy was another paper of note on the revolutionary side. On being removed from Boston to Worcester its title was changed to the Worcester Spy. At the revolution the New England colonies 14 newspapers; Penn- sylvania, 9; New York, 4; and the middle and southern colonies, 10. All save the semi-weekly Advertiser of Philadelphia were published weekly. From this period onward the of American ournalism was marked by rapid strides; it extended by leaps and bounds, developing an originality all own, and displaying an activity in some direc- tions altogether iad Datending the achievements of Great Britain. What the existing journalistic enterprise of the North American continent represents has already been indicated; it is desirable, however, that some of its more salient features should be referred to. American = have always been more strongly personal than English journals, It is to the transatlantic reporter that we owe the introduction of ‘interviewing’ and the inven- tion of ‘head-lines,’ amongst other things. No effort is spared to make an American news- paper understanded and admired of the people ; it gives news in abundance, usually presented in a sensational manner, and vents its views and opinions with what an English journalist would regard as a reckless unrestraint. ‘The organisation and equipment of the leading papers of the chief cities are most complete, including an editorial and reportorial staff of neo He ceiranbeiens backed by a of remarkable vigour and enterprise. majority of American and Canadian rs are, of course, printed in English, but there a considerable number published in other tongues. Those published in the German language number 724, while 112 are in French, 59,in the Seandi- navian langu , 34 in Spanish, 16 Bohemian, 12 Dutch, 7 Polish, 4 Danish, 5 Welsh, 8 Finnish, 5 Italian, 2 Portuguese, 2 Chinese, and 2 Hungarian. The principal papers of America and Canada have a world-wide renown. The Herald, originated by James Gordon Bennett, the Tribune, founded by Horace Greeley, the World, the Times, the Sun are the chief papers of New York; and in Chicago, Boston, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Philadelphia, St Louis, San Francisco, and other cities there are journals hardly less famous. Amongst the chief Canadian papers may be mentioned the Toronto Globe, which claims to be the leading paper of the Dominion, the Montreal Herald, the Quebec Morn- ing Chronicle, the Ottawa Free Press, and the Ottawa Citizen. There is a considerable sprinklin of Canadian papers printed in French, the chief o' them yp reaieen Bix Quebee and Montreal. The Sunday paper long been a specially popular institution in America. Nearly every prominent daily in the States issues its enlar; Sunday edition, which in addition to its news proper contains a vast amount of miscellaneous reading, culled from all kinds of sources, and often includ- Ln eine contributions of great merit. In Canada Sunday papers are not so common.—In some of the large cities of South America, also, as in Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Ayres, there are ably con- ducted English newspapers. France.—Journalism in France an with the Gazette in 1631. The first French daily paper was the Journal de Paris, started in 1777. Many journals sprang into existence with the Revolution, ut most of them had but a brief career. Under the first Napoleon the freedom of the press was much restricted. It was then that the danger attending the handling of political questions sug- gested the filling of a large — of the sheet with the ‘ Fenilleton’ (q.v.). There are at present about 44 daily papers (morning and evening) pub- lished in Paris alone. As newspapers, in the full sense of the phrase, the journals of France cannot be compared with those of Great Britain. They contain less matter, and they do not, as a rule, report with any degree of fullness home or foreign events. The Temps, which is said to have a cireu- lation of 45,000 Wy day, approaches somewhat to the English standard ; but the Figaro, which, with its singular mixture of clericalism and worldliness, would be considered frivolous in England, has a circulation of 100,000 daily. French daily papers generally cost at least twice as much as English ones. notable exception, however, is found in Le Petit Journal, an evening 44 costing 5 cen- times (one halfpenny), witch as probably the largest cireulation of any paper in the world; it is put down at 950,000. See also GALIGNANI. gium.—An illustrated war-gazette called the Niewetijdinghe was the first journal published in the Low Countries, in 1605, and was succeeded | the Gazette van Antwerpen, which survived until 1805. The Belgian newspdpers are now numerous, including about a dozen daily journals in Brussels, and half that number (mainly in Flemish) in Antwerp. The Indépendance Belge, on the Liberal side, and the Journal de Bruxelles, as the organ of the clerical party, with the toile Belge, are the leaders of public opinion. Holland.—The newspapers of Holland were at an early date remarkable for the fullness and accuracy of their intelligence ; but until 1830 their news was chiefly confined to commercial matters. The principal Dutch journals of to-day are the Allgemeene Handelsblad of Amsterdam, and the Amsterdam Courant; the. Harlemsche Courant ; and the Journal de la Haye, De Nederlandsche 478 NEWSPAPER NEWT meoneeh and Staats-Courant, published at the aygue. ee eee the Swiss press is gener- ally speaking ably conducted, it does not include any journal of European importance. The different cantons have their local newspapers, in which local matters are discussed with much political bias, and latterly there have been published one or two Swiss journals printed in French and English, and intended mainly for the travelling public, the Swiss Times being the first of these. Germany, as we have seen, was farnished with news-sheets long prior to their introduction into England ; but it was not before 1615 that any German sco gx ag had a really settled habitation. Frankfort was the first town to a journal of its own ; Fulda, Hildesheim, and Herford followed. The first Leipzig newspaper was published in 1660. The Blainburguoks Correspondent deserves mention as the first paper to organise a staff of foreign correspondents. In 1798 the Al/gemeine Zeitung was established by Cotta, and gradually made its way into the front rank of ico pean journals, being still regarded as the le ing paper in Germany. Severe restrictions have fettered the German press even in recent years, the government having exhibited no little animus against the many socialistic journals which have sprung into exist- ence, but now comparative freedom is bg as bay Berlin owns a large number of daily papers, inelud- ing the Vossische Zeitung, the orddeutsche A ine Zeitung, the Neue Preussische Zeitung, the Post, the National Zeitung, and the Vol zeitung. The Cologne Gazette is a paper of influence, and at Hamburg and other leading towns there is considerable journalistic enterprise. In_ 1833 Germany had 350 journals of all kinds; it has now 5500, about a quarter of which were until recently avowedly government organs—hence the vogue of the term ‘ Bismarck’s reptile press.’ Austria.—Austrian journalism has similarly ex- panded and improved in recent years. Vienna is a very active centre, and within its boundaries many excellent bp bh are issued, the Neue Freie Presse and the Neue Wiener Tagblatt being the most important. oie in ungary.—The literary activity of Hungary ma: he jeleel oF the fact that there are no fewer thax 17 papers published daily in the capital, some of them having a circulation of 25,000. Denmark,—U p to 1830 only two newspapers were printed in Copenhagen, and both were entirely made up of extracts from foreign journals. The olticial paver, the Berlingske Tidende, which was establis in 1749, is published daily, and has a cireulation of 10,000. There are ten daily journals published in the capital, and the Aftenposten, an evening paper, has the largest circle of readers. S n and Norway.—The Ordinarie Post Tidende, started in 1643, seems to have been the first Swedish paper. Stockholm now boasts four daily journals, the Stockholm Dagblad having a circulation of 23,000. Den Morgendblad is the lead- ing paper of Norway. * ‘pain.—Spanish journalism cannot be said to have really existed until a comparatively recent period. There was no liberty of the press in Spain until after the revolution of 1854. the chief daily journals of Madrid are the Correspondencia de no and the Imparcial, the former having a circulation of about 50,000, the latter of some 70,000. The press of Portugal is not more flourish- ing than that of Spain. taly.—Mention has already been made of the early Gazettes of Italy. Their successors were denounced by the , especially by G XIIL, and up to 183} “the talian orean wae a small account, A rigid censorship existed until far into the 19th century. There are now fifty ay ge nel etree ogna, Florence, Genoa, Milan, Leghorn, Palermo, and Turin. The Secolo of Milan is credited with a daily circulation of 120,000, Russia,—Peter Great was the author of Russian journalism. Political journalism, how- ever, is practically forbidden in the dominion of the czar, the papers occupying themselves-for the most with literary and scientific questions: The Journal de St Petersbourg (1824) is semi-official, and, though it has but a small circulation, it is well known throughout Europe, being pu in French. The two daily papers of largest ci i are the Novoe Vremya (‘ New Times’), the organ of the envied party, and the Novossti (‘ Latest’ News’), which represents the doctrinaire Liberals. Turkey.—Journalism in Turkey is chiefly of foreign origin, and the French were the first to French, or ish. The leadi rkish journal, the Djeridei ished in 1843 by an Englishman. See the articles RePorTING, ADVERTISING, and Print- ING; also Andrews’ History of British Journalism (Lond. 1859); Grant’s The N per Press; its Origin, Pro- x and hcg Condition Pe ie) H. Fox 's English Newspapers 3 Pebody’s English Journalism, and the Men who have made It (Lond. 1882); Baker’s Zhe Newspaper World (Lond. wet a Newspaper Press Directory ; and Sell’s 8 Newstead Abbey, 10 miles NNW. of Notting- ham, on the border of Sherwood Forest, was founded for Augustinian Canons by Henry II. in atonement for Becket’s murder (1170), and in 1540, after the dissolution, was given to ‘Sir John Byron the Little, with the beard.’ Among his descend- ants were the first Lord Byron (cre. 1643), the ‘wicked Lord Byron’ (1722-98), and the poet Lord Byron (q.v.), who made the half-ruinous old place his home in 1808, but sold it in 1818, since which time about £100,000 has been spent on its resto For a full description of Newstead, its lake, ruined chureh, superstitions, and memori ror tana com Irving’s Abbotsford and Newst (1835). New Style. See CaLenpar, CuronoLoey. New Sweden. See PENNSYLVANIA. Newt, or Err (Zriton), a genus of caduci- branchiate Amphibians (see AMPHIBIA), somewhat resembling the Salamanders, but more slender and active, and making up with them the family Salamandride. The newts have a soft, sensitive skin, covered with warty tubercles or granules; a laterally-compressed tail; four fingers and five toes; teeth on the jaws and palate; an el and a lower eyelid, and a third eyelid or nictitating membrane ; near the snout, open internally into the mouth; and_ generally well- develoged organs of the lateral line. tooe Bon found in marshes and ponds and damp In habit they are carnivorous, devouring sewers of various ies, worms, snails, frog-spawn, and even smaller animals of their own kind, Sixteen species are enumerated, widely distributed in urope, and found also in Algeria, North China and Japan, the eastern states of North America, California, and Oregon. The Great Water Newt, or Warty Newt (7. cristatus), is the British — y= is — 6 inches long; t! oy is thick and round, the upper parts are generally very dark, the sides are dotted with white, and the breast and belly are of a bright orange colour, oe ee NEWT NEWTON 479 with black spots. The male is more vividly coloured than the female, the sides of the tail are of a beau- tiful ly colour, and at the breeding season he develops a large back crest (fig. 1). The movements Fig. 1.—Great Water Newt ( Triton cristatus). in slow swimming are accomplished by means of the tail and the limbs ; but in fast swimming both pairs of limbs are laid ——~ the body, and the move- ments are effected by rapid undulations of the body and tail. On land they crawl by means of their weak limbs. In summer they cast their skin perhaps many times, sometimes by complete slough- ing, but sometimes it comes off in shreds. In winter they generally remain at the bottom of ponds and ditches. Like many other animals of the same genus, they show great power of reproducing lost ee. the tail, limbs, and portions of the head ing very perfectly restored, even several times in succession. They are also able to withstand great cold. In laying her eggs the female deposits them on the leaves of aquatic plants, each egg being deposited separately below a leaf, which is then folded, apex to petiole, by means of the newt’s hind-limbs, so as to retain the egg in position. The embryo grows rapidly and becomes bent in shape. In seven days the gills and legs appear as small knobs. By the ninth day the tail is oar-shaped, and the heart may be seen beating. On the tenth day the fore-limbs and claspers appear beside the gills. In two or three days more the eyes appear as distinct strnetures, and the gills hecome leaf- like. About the fourteenth day the embryo escapes from the and holds on to leaves of water-plants by means of its claspers. At this stage of its exist- ence it resembles a fish in outward form and in- ternal structure, and its whole anatomy may very easiiy be studied on account of its transparency. About twelve days after leaving the egg the fore- feet are longer, rudiments of toes are visible; the ills, at first ciple, hecome fringe-like, and red lood circulates through them, and the claspers a= - ? : q = ‘ Fig. 2.—Larve of Triton cristatus. A, condition before leaving the egg; B, tatlpole shortly after it is hatched ; C, at about the twenty-second day; D, at about the forty-second day. disappear. About the twenty-second day it begins to breathe by means of its developing fed oe gills are still large, and the hind-legs begin to sprout. This change takes place concurrently with A the change of diet from vegetable to animal food. About the forty-second day after hatching, the gills begin to grow smaller and are soon obliterated. The newt then seeks to leave the water, respires atmospheric air only, and goes on to sexual matur- ity. In some circumstances individuals of this species occasionally retain some of the external appearances of immaturity in spite of having be- come capable of reproduction (a phenomenon more common, however, in a European species, 7. alpes- tris, which may become sexually perfect even in its pg stage); and in rare instances they may bring forth their young alive as do the true salamanders, The Great Water Newt is seldom found on land. The Common Smooth Newt (7. punctatus), a smaller species about 34 inches long, is much more common in Britain than the great newt, from which it also differs in having a smooth skin, the back crest continuous with ‘the tail crest, and in being often found on land. Its eggs are laid in the axils of leaves quite as often as under the leaves. The Palmated Smooth Newt (7. palmipes) is the only - other common British species. It has been found in various of Britain from the Isle of Wight to the north of Scotland. The toes of the hind-foot are webbed, the tail ends in a long filament, and the back crest is straight ; these characteristics are prominent only in the breeding season. Newts form very interesting inmates of aquaria, where they may be easily reared and kept; and their —— movements and development interest the observer. The words newt and eft are really identical, a newt = an ewt, A.S. efeta, just as an adder resulted from a nadder by mistake. Newton, (1) crite of Harvey county, Kansas, 134 miles by rail SW. of Topeka, is the centre of a rich coalfield. Pop, (1900) 6208.—(2) A city of Massachusetts, 7 miles WSW. of Boston by rail, and almost surrounded by the Charles River. It contains many suburban residences belon ing to citizens of nm, and has manufactures of cloth, silk, shoddy, machinery, glue, &c. Pop. (1860) 8382; (1890) 24,379; (1900) 33,587. Newton, Sir Isaac, the greatest of natural pollens was born on 25th December (0.s.) 642—year remarkable in English history for the breaking out of the Civil War, and doubl remarkable in the history of science by the birt of Newton and the death of Galileo. The farm- house he was born in, still preserved religiously, is at the hamlet of Woolsthorpe in Cottersworth parish, Lincolnshire, 8 miles 8. of Grantham (q.v.), at whose mar-school the boy received his early education. On the 5th of June 1661 he left home for Cambridge, where he was admitted as subsizar at Trinity College. On the 8th of July following he: matriculated as sizar of the same college. He immediately applied himself to the mathematical studies of the place, and within a very few years must have not only made himself master of most of the works of any value on such subjects then existing, but had also begun to make some progress in the methods for extending the science. In 1665, in which year he took his B.A., he committed to writing his first discovery on fluxions ; and in 1666, according to Voltaire’s Lettres sur les Anglais (1733), the fall of an apple, as he walked in the garden at Woolsthorpe, suggested the most magnifi. cent of his subsequent discoveries—the law of uni- versal gravitation. On his first attempt, however, by means of the law so suggested to his mind, to explain the lunar and planetary motions, he em- ployed an estimate then in use of the radius of the earth which was so erroneous as to produce a dis- crepanéy between the real force of gravity and that required by theory to explain the motions, corre- sponding to the respective figures 16:1 and 13:9. 480 NEWTON He accordingly abandoned the hypothesis for other studies. These other pursuits to which he thus betook himself consisted chiefly of investigations into the nature of light, and the construction of telescopes, By a variety of ingenious and inter- esting experiments upon sunlight refracted nen a prism in a dark ne gerres he was led to the conclusion that raysof light which differ in colour differ also in refrangibility. This discovery enabled him to explain an imperfection of the telescope, which had not till then been accounted for. The indistinetness of the image formed by the object- glass was not necessarily due to any imperfection of its form, but to the fact of the different coloured rays of light being brought to a focus at different distances. He concluded rightly that it was in)pos- sible for an object-glass consisting of a single lens to produce a distinet im He went further, and too hastily concluding, from a single experiment, that the dispersive power of different substances was proportional to their refractive power, he pro- nounced it impossible to produce a perfect image by a combination of Jenses. This conclusion—since proved erroneous by the discovery of the achromatic telescope (see ACHROMATISM)—turned Newton's attention to the construction of reflecting tele- scopes ; and the form devised by him is the one which, at later periods, reached such perfection in the hands of Sir William Herschel and Lord Rosse. Newton became a Fellow of Trinity in 1667, and Lucasian professor of Mathematics in 1669; and it was on 11th January 1671 that he was elected a member of the Royal Society, having become known to that body from his reflectin telescopes. At what period he resumed his cal- culations about gravitation, employing the more correct measure of the earth obtained by Picard in 1670, does not clearly appear; but it was in the year 1684 that it became known to Halley that he was in possession of the whole theory and its demonstration. It was on the urgent solicita- tion of Halley that he was induced to commit to a systematic treatise these principles and their demonstrations. The principal results of his dis- coveries were set down in a treatise called De Motu rum, and were afterwards more completely unfolded in the great work entitled Philosophie Naturalis Principa Mathematica, which was finally published about midsummer 1687, Shortly before the Principia was given to the public Newton had been called to take an active part in defending the rights of the universit - enper the illegal encroachments of James IL. conspicuous which he had taken on that occasion procu him a seat in the Convention Parliament, in which he sat from January 1689 to its dissolution in 1690. In 1696 he was appointed Warden of the Mint, and was afterwards promoted to the office of Master of the Mint in 1699, an office which he held till the end of his life. He again took a seat in parliament in the year 1701 as the representative of his university. Thus engaged in the public service, he had little time left for mere scientific studies—pursnits which he always held of secondary importance to the public duties in which he was en In the interval of public duty, however, Newton showed that he still retained the scientific power by which his great discoveries had been made. This was shown in his solution of two celebrated problems proposed in June 1696 by John Bernouilli, as a challenge to the mathematicians of Europe. A similar mathematical feat is recorded of him so late as 1716, in solving a problem pro- gi by Leibnitz for the peees; as he expressed t, of feeling the pulse of the English analysts, When in parliament Newton recommended the _ encouragement of the invention of a method determining the longitude—the first reward in consequence being gained by John Harrison for his chronometer. e was president of the Royal Society from 1703 till his death, a_ period twenty-five years, being } this position he could do much for the ad ment of science; and one of his most im t works during this time was the su ence of the publication of Flamsteed’s i Observations—a task, however, not accomplished without much controversy and some bitterness between himself and that astronomer. The con- troversy between Newton and Leibnitz as to priority of discoyery of the differential calenlus, or the method of fluxions, was raised rather through the partisanship of jealous friends than throu the anxiety of the philosophers themselves, w were, however, induced to enter into and carry on the dispute with some degree of bitterness and mutual recrimination. The verdict of the impartial historian of science must be that the methods were invented quite independently, and that, although Newton was the first inventor, a greater debt is owing by later analysts to Leibnitz, on account of the superior facility and completeness of his method. In 1699 Newton was elected a foreign associate of the Academy of et and in 17 he received the honour of knigh Anne, He died at Kensington on 20th March 1727, and his remains received a resting-place in Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erec to his memory in 1731. Roubilliac’s ificent full-length statue was erected in 1755 in ante- chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge. appeared in 1713, 1726, 1729, 1730; and at Geneva the esuits’ edition (1739-42; republished at a ges An admirable reprint is that SS ar and Eveuatcn of the Onin A ‘i706 the Optical tion e ies ap! in ; the y Lectures in 1728; Fluxions in 1736; Horsley edited an edition of his works (5 vols, 4to 1779-85). Newton was a student of Alchemy (q.v.); and ‘he left a ane ee of ky er in theology, especially prophecy, a work on pro- aaacel Daniel a on ha Apoonizpien: a history of the tion, and a number of tracts, See the icles in this work on AsTRONOMY. FLUXIONS, GRAVITATION, Licut, Motion (Laws oF), Optics, Spectrum; Sir David Brewster’s Life of Newton (1855); and eye de Morgan’s Newton, his Friend, and his Niece (1885), that friend being John Conduitt (1688-1737), Newton's successor as master of the mint, who in 1717 married Newton's niece, Katherine Barton, the widow probably of the Earl of Halifax. Newton’s Rrncs.—In his investigations of the colours produced by thin plates of any terial, solid, fluid, or gaseous, Sir Isaac Newton hit upon the following mode of exhibiting the colours pro- duced by reflection from a film of air, He took two lenses, one convexo-plane, its convex side having a radius of 14 feet, the other equi-convex, with the radii of its surfaces 50 feet, and laid the first with its plane surface downwards on the toy of the second, thus producing a thin film of air between the lenses; the film being thinnest near the centre, and becoming gradually thicker ont- wards, On slowly pressing the upper lens st the under one, a number of concentrie coloured rings, having the point of contact of the lenses for their centre, appeared, and inc in size when the pressure was increased. These rings, or more properly systems of rings, are in this form of the experiment seven in number, and each of them is com of a number (ranging from eight in the first or smallest ring to two in the outermost) of rings of different colours, the colours, though different in each of the systems of rings, preserv- ing the same arrangement as the colours of the spectrum; thus, in the second ring the inside of each year re-elected. In. from Queen — ae _ surveyor at Liverpool. NEWTON NEW-YEAR’S DAY 481 colonr is violet, and the outside scarlet red. The colours are very distinct in the first three systems of ri but become ually confused and dull Soyarde the outside, till they almost fade away in the seventh system. The centre is deep black. The thickness of the air-film at the centre is about half a millionth of an inch, and increases nally to nearly of an inch, when the colours dis- appear. See INTERFERENCE. Newton, Joun, the friend of Cowper, was born in London, 24th July (0.s.) 1725. e had little schooling, and, as his father was master of a trading ship, the boy joined him at eleven and sailed under him for six years. Next impressed on board a man-of-war, he was made midshipman, but was degraded and cruelly treated for an attempt to escape. He was allowed at Madeira to exchange into an African trader, joined a slaver at Sierra Leone, and sailed with her for two years, returnin; to din 1747. He next sailed to Guinea an the West Indies as mate on a Liverpool slaver, married in 1750, and made several voyages of the same nature as master, giving his leisure to study. In 1755 he renounced his calling to become tide- His religious opinions had ly a an im t change, which led him to apply in 1758 to the Archbishop of York for holy orders, but without success. In 1764 he was offered the curacy of Olney, and he was at once ordained deacon, and next year priest, by the Bishop of Lincoln. Hither the poet Cowper came abont four years later, and an extraordinary friend- ship quickly sprang up between the two men. Newton was a burning Calvinist, and it cannot be doubted that the converted slaver’s influence was to a great extent disadvantageous to the sensitive nature of the poet. Newton left Olney in 1779 to become rector of St Mary Woolnoth, London, and here he died, December 31, 1807. Newton’s prose- works, Omicron (1762), Cardiphonia (1781), &e., are now but little read, save his vigorous and inter- esting Authentic Narrative of some Interesting and Remarkable Particulars in his own Life. But his name can never be forgotten from its association with Cowper, and from some of his O/ney Hymns, which have been taken to the heart by the English- speaking religious world. Of these need only be named here: ‘ Approach, my soul, the mercy-seat ;’ ‘How sweet the name of Jesus sounds;’ ‘One there is above all others;’ and ‘Quiet, Lord, my froward heart.’ See the Life by Richard Cecil ( i), prefixed to a Thomas Weight, The To 4 Couper (1886)) d other rT own O) 5; and other works cited at Cowper. Newton, THomas, was born at Lichfield, Jan- uary 1, 1704. From Westminster he passed to Trinity College, Cambridge, became one of its fellows, took orders, and after minor preferments was made Bishop of Bristol and Canon identi: of St Paul’s in 1761. He died 14th February 178: Newton's annotated edition of Milton’s Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained, and his Dissertations on the Prophecies (3 vols. 1754-58) long enjoyed a reputation far beyond their deserts. Newton-Abbot, a market-town of Devonshire, at the influx of the Lemon to the Teign estuary, 15 miles (by rail 20) S. of Exeter. Ford House, a good Tudor building, has lodged both Charles I. and William of Orange, who here in 1688 was first proclaimed king. Pop. (1851) 3147; (1891) 10,951. _Newton Heath, a town and local government district, and part of the parliamentary borough of Manchester, with a pop. of 29,189. Newton-in-Makerfield (otherwise Newron- Le-WILLows), with its suburb of Earlstown, a oder © pial of Lancashire, 16 miles E. of Liver- pool and 16 W. of Manchester. An important railway junction, it has rapidly increased in size, and large printing-works, paper-mills, iron- foundries, and a sugar-refinery are here in opera- tion, whilst numbers of hands are employed in the making of bricks and railway wagons. Near to the town is a fine racecourse on which a meeting is held annually in July. At Parkside, 4 mile distant, the Right Hon. W. Huskisson met with the accident which caused his death, on the occasion (15th September 1830) of the opening of the railway. Newton returned two members to parliament from 1558 to 1832, when it was disfranchised. Pop. (1801) 1455 ; (1881) 10,580 ; (1891) 12,861, Newton-Stewart, one of the most beautifully among the smaller towns of Scotland, on the Wigtownshire side of the river Cree, near its mouth, by rail 50 miles W. of Dumfries and 24 E. of Stranraer. It owes its name to a son of the Earl of Galloway, who obtained a charter mak- ing it a burgh of barony in 1677. Manufactur- ing enterprises have hitherto proved unsuccessful. Its buildings are a fine town-hall (1884) and an endowed school, the Ewart Institute (1864). Pop. (1841) 2432; (1881) 3070; (1891) 2732. Newtown (Welsh Drefnewydd ; anc. Llanfair Cedewain), a manufacturing town of Montgomery- shire, North Wales, on the Severn and the Mont- gomery Canal, 13 miles SSW. of Welshpool. It is the centre of the Welsh flannel manufacture, and also produces tweeds, shawls, &e. With Mont- gomery, &c., it returns one member. Robert Owen was a native. Pop (1851) 6371; (1891) 6610. Hewteneerets a town of County Down, 14 miles E. of Belfast by rail. Flax-spinning, muslin- weaving and embroidering, and nursery-gardening are the industries, and there are important markets. Pop. (1881) 8676 ; (1891) 9197. New Westminster, formerly the capital of British Columbia, is on the Fraser River, 10 miles from its mouth and 113 miles by rail and steamer NNE. of Victoria. Here are 6 churches, a convent, Roman Catholie and Methodist colleges, a peniten- tiary, a lunatic asylum, sawmills, and great salmon- canning establishments, Pop. (1891) 6641. New-year’s Day, the first day of the year. The custom of celebrating by some religious observ- ance, generally accompanied by festive rejoicing, the first day of the year, appears to have prevailed among most of the ancient nations. The Jews, the ptians, the Chinese, the Romans, and the Mohammedans, although differing as to the time from which they reckoned the commencement of the year (see CALENDAR, CHRONOLOGY, YEAR), all regarded it as a day of special interest. On the establishment of Christianity the usage of a solemn inauguration of the New Year was re- tained; but considerable variety prevailed, both as to the time and as to the manner of its cele- bration. Christmas Day, the Annunciation (25th March), Easter Day, and Ist March have all, at different times or places, shared with the Ist of January the honour of opening the New Year; nor was it till late in the 16th century that the Ist of January was universally meg: hee as the first day of the New Year. The early Fathers—Chrysostom, Ambrose, Augustine, Peter Chrysologus, and others—in reprobation of the immoral and super- stitious observances of the pagan festival, pro- hibited in Christian use all festive celebration ; and, on the contrary, directed that the Christian ear should be opened with a day of prayer, fast- ig, and humiliation, The festal character of the day, however, generally was preserved, though the day was also observed as a day of prayer. From the earliest recorded celebration, we find notice of feasting and the interchange of presents 482 NEW-YEAR’S DAY NEW YORK as usages of New-year’s Day. Suetonius alludes to the bringing of presents to the capital; and Tacitus eaes a similar reference to the practice of giving and pees | New-year's gifts. This custom was continued by the Christian kingdoms into which the western empire was divided. In England we find many examples of it, even as a of the public expenditure of the court, so far et as the reign of Charles IL. ; and, as all our antiquarian writers mention, the custom of inter- changing presents was common in alk classes of society. In England, as in Germany, this custom has been largely eclipsed by the still more popular ractice of Christmas gifts (see CHRISTMAS); in Beotland, as in France and Italy, New-year’s Day is still the day most observed, and the festival according to Old Style, twelve days later, still lingers in corners of the country. In some parts of the United States and Canada gentlemen are exceptionally industrious in making social calls on the first day of the year. In many countries the —_ of New-year's Eve, ‘St Sylvester's Eve,’ was celebrated with great festivity, which was _pro- longed till “after twelve o’clock, when the New Year was ushered in with congratulations, compli- mentary visits, and mutual wishes for a happy New Year; this is an ancient Scottish custom (see HOGMANAY). In eeny paces the practice of tolling bells till midnight, and then ‘ringing in the New Year,’ is still observed. Many religious com- munions are wont to celebrate it with a special service or ‘watch night.’ In the Roman Catholic Church New-year’s is a holiday of strict obli- gation. See bere s Book of Days. New York, called the ‘empire state,’ is the ag — in area, the ~* population, and the fifth in . per sq. m. oO : the United Staten It fics ‘be- | ais aceh suse tween 45° and 40° 29’ N. lat., | Mppireott Company. and between 71° 51’ and 79° 47’ W. long. It is triangular in shape, and has an irregular outline. Its boundary line measures 1420 miles, of which 879 miles, or nearly two-thirds of the entire length, lie along the shores of Lake Erie, the Niagara River, Lake Ontario, the St Lawrence River, and Lake Champlain. The remaining portions of the boundary are formed by arbitrary straight lines. Area, 49,170 sq. m., or almost that of England, Long Island is the largest, and Manhattan, con- taining the most populous part of New York City, the most important of the many islands. The surface structure of New York is remarkably diversified, and presents many contrasts of eleva- tion. The state is traversed by numerous chains of mountains and hills, among which lie beautiful valleys. There is also much rolling land, and there are several extensive plains. The greatest eleva- tions are in the eastern and north-eastern parts of the state, but nearly the whole of the south-eastern part is hilly or mountainous. From this highland region the land slopes gradually, and declines in a series of terraces, north and west toward Lake Ontario. The most level portions are those border- ing that lake and the St Lawrence River. The mountainous region in the east is ent by the gap of the Mohawk River. The narrow valley of this stream, once traversed by a mighty river which drained the great Ontario basin, joins at right angles the deep depression in which are Lake Champlain, Lake George, and the Hudson River, Both of these valleys pass directly through the Appalachian system of mountains, and divide the state into three distinct sections, The mountains are also disposed in three groups. The Adiron- dacks (highest point, Mount Marey, 5400 feet), in » the north-eastern — of the state, are completely isolated by the valleys of Lake Champlain and the Mohawk River from all other parts of the Appal- achian system. South of the Mohawk valley are the Catskills with various associated groups, such as the Helderberg and the Shawangunk Mountains, covering an area of about 500 sq. m. The Shawan- gunk Mountains are continuous with the Blue or Kittatinny Mountains of Pennsylvania. The Taconic range of New England enters the state still farther south, and passes sonth-westerly into New Jersey. This range is cut by the Hudson nics eure eres meen e ew Yor terest - ing ond compebisdien With the cxeepulee of the Jurassic formations and a few others closely related in time with the Jura-Trias, its rocks exhibit de- posits of nearly every period, from the primitive —— —_ met seg oy peg alluvium. riefly and super! , the onteropp’ rocks are disposed as follows: In the norkh-sechiee part of the state, with the Adirondacks as a centre, is a somewhat circular area of Archean formation. — Along the eastern side of the Hudson River and near its mouth, the Archean rocks again appear, and are continuous with the primitive formations of New England. Nearly surrounding the Adiron- dack region is a belt of Silurian rocks, which ex- tends southward along the western shore of the Hudson, and westward, bordering u Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. North of Adiron- dacks is a belt of Cambrian rocks, and south and west of the Silurian belt the greater part of the formation belo to the Devonian age, with traces of Carboniferous deposits, but no true coal- measures, There are in the state some extensive iron-mines, deposits of lead, copper, zinc, and other valuable minerals, and an abundance of buil stones, The salt-springs, especiall Onondaga salt group, are of great value, There are also valuable petroleum springs, and mineral and medicinal springs—the most noted are those at Saratoga, Ballston, Sharon, Richfield, Avon, and New Lebanon. The most important river belonging entirely to the state is the Hudson (q.v.). he Oswego, draining a chain of lakes in the central of the state, the Black, and the Genesee are affluents of Lake Ontario; the St Lawrence forms part of the northern boundary; the Niagara connects Lakes Erie and Ontario, and the Delaware, the Susquehanna, and the Allegany rise within and drain the southern portions of the state. New York lies mainly in the lake region of North America, The eastern part of Lake Erie, one-half of Lake Ontario, and one-half of Lake Champlain are controlled by the state, Among the numerous lakes of north-eastern New York, fake George and the Adirondack lakes are the most noted. There are three groups of picturesque lakes in central New York. The mountains, rivers, and lakes of New York make it famous for its scenery, Of this, one of the most notable features is the num- her of waterfalls, among which the mighty Niagara is of course pre-eminent. Other beautiful falls are the Falls of the Genesee (q.v.), Trenton Falls, the Kaaterskill Falls in the Catskills, and those of Cohoes, Ticonderoga, and at Watkins Glen. The average temperature of New York is about 47° F., with a range of over 100°. The climate is thus subject to extremes, but is very healthful. Although the surface is so diversified, most of the soil is arable, and much of it is fertile. More than one-half the area of the state is under cultivation, The usual farm products are raised in abundance. In the lake valleys there are many vineyards, Hops and tobacco are also impertant crops. In the vicinity of New York and the other ] market-gardening is a pest occupation, and the highland regions yield excellent milk, butter, and cheese. But manufacturing is the leading those of the — I . | \ TITS TRELUGAS oe “A mY |r = vn : a i, f , on Cla goin OPM t iP rrng : Aina Rea Tiherny 5 vocal Ol et — Pr ree = 2 dee I, ui “! y, j PrP schies. N * eneute Miles, 26 1 Inch, | ! 333 to Kilometres, 45 —1 Inch. i os = ® 5 Ma is " i” . ‘ rr eet Z Ret By A Rew la Bae ot eas £1 Doprrtght, PAM, by Rand Meaty & On Onpyright, ORY inet MeMatty & Oe, Pi 7" i 4 [New York. | ; Longitude| West from Greenwich! ee FY Cae : Taya a Hyframe Coxirsy ‘atent oi Poland Ae he Bp aisrisre” © Sa, WwW, Germad Blue Wosrmat'f WNarrowshurgs ; ee Fre *~ tk wee NEW YORK — 483 industry, and in the value of its manufactured roducts New York is the foremost state of the nion. Moreover, its geographical position and its natural avenues of communication with other parts of the country, together with the system of eanals and railroads, make it the leading com- mercial state. There are several canals, of which the Erie (see CANAL) is the most important. New York is the centre towards which nearly all the great railroads of the country tend, and within the state there are over 8100 miles of railway. Previous to the coming of the whites the territory now known as New York was ocenpied by the Troquois (q.v.) Indians. Almost simultaneously, in 1609, Samuel Champlain discovered the lake which bears his name, and Henry Hudson explored the Hudson River as far as the present site of Albany. eee oa and again aroused within her the spirit nationality and the instinct of freedom. He said himself with we pride, ‘Grattan sat cradle of his country, and followed her hearse: it was left for me to sound the resurree- tion trumpet, and to show that she was not dead, but sleeping.’ With all his faults he was a and sincere patriot, whose devotion to the best in- terests of Ireland will never fade from her remem- brance. Of O’Connell’s published writings the most character- istic is the Letter to the Earl of Shrewsbury (1842). His Memoir of Ircland, Native and Saxon (1843), never saw its second volume. and is inaccurate. There is no adequate biography, th: there are Lives by his son John O'Connell (1846), William Fagan (1847-48), M. F. Cusack (1872), and a short Senet ies by the Rev. John O'Rourke (1875). See W. J. O'Neill Daunt’s Per- sonal Recollections (2 vols. 1848); his son’s Recullections and Experiences during a Parlia from 1833 re ‘ence of Daniel O'Connell, the Liberator (2 vols. 1888). The delightful letters to his wife and Nrelbishep M‘Hale, contained in the last, gave a new revelation into his character. Good articles on ©’Connell are preg! J. Ball in Macmillan’s Magazine for July 1873, and Gladstone in the Nineteenth Century for January 1889. O’Connor, FEeArGus Epwarp, Chartist, was born in 1 and was educated at Portarlington and Trinit; great stature and strength, his eloquence enthusiasm, gave him vast popularity as a leader, and by his paper, the Northern Star, he did much to advance the cause of Chartism. Elected for Nottingham in 1847, he presented the monster tition in the April of the following year. In 852 he was found to be hopelessly insane, and in 1855 he died. Oconto, capital of Oconto county, Wisconsin, on Green Bay, at the mouth of the Oconto River, 149 miles by rail N. of Milwaukee. It has large steam sawmills, and exports pine lumber. Pop. (1880) 4171; (1900) 5646. : Octave (Lat. octavus, souk *), in the church calendar, is the eighth day r a festival, count- ing in the festival day itself ; also, the week after a church festival.—In Music octave is the interval between sd musical note and its most ‘ect concord, which is double its P viene and otote es the position of the eighth note from it on the diatonic scale. The name octave is often given to the eighth note itself as well as to the interval. Octavia, the sister of the Roman pave nd Augustus, and wife of Mark Antony, distinguished for her beauty, her noble disposition, and womanly poet ag On the cre os her first ray Mar- cellus, she consented in B.C, to marry Antony to make secure the reconciliation between him and her brother; but in a few years Antony forsook her for Cleopatra. In 32 B.C. war, lon inevitable, broke out between Antony and Octavian ; and the former crowned his insults by sending Octavia a bill of divorcement. But no injury was too t . to be forgiven by this patient Griselda of the ancient world; and after her husband’s death she brought up with maternal care not only her own children by Antony, but also those of Cleopatra. She died 11 B.c, Octavian. See Avcustus. October (Lat. octo, ‘eight’) was the eighth month of the so-called year of Romulus, but became the tenth when Numa changed the commencement OCTOPUS ODE 577 of the year to the first of January, though it retained its original name, notwithstanding the attempts made by the Roman senate, and the emperors Commodus and Domitian, who sub- stituted for a time the terms Faustinus, Invictus, Domitianus. Many Roman and Greek festivals fell to be celebrated in this month, the most remarkable of which was the sacrifice at Rome of the October horse to the god Mars. Oc'topus, a widely distributed genus of eight- armed cuttle-fishes, the members of which (¢.g. 0. vulgaris in Europe, and O. bairdii in America) usually live near shore, lurking among the rocks, preying upon crustaceans and molluscs. The term is often extended to related genera, such as Eledone, and to other members of the sub-order Octopoda, These differ in many ways from the Decapoda, such as Sepia and Loligo: thus, the suckers on the eight arms are sessile and without ® horny ring; the body is more rounded, and there is no inter- nal residue of ashell. Of the half-hundred species some are large: thus, O. vulgaris may have ten- tacles about 8 feet long, and 0. punctatus of the Pacific coasts even twice as much. These are dwarfed, however, by the gigantic ten-armed Archi- teuthis, of which one specimen exhibited in America had a head and body 9} feet long and arms of 30 feet, while another had a body twice as big. Common Octopus ( Octopus vulyaris ) Many fanciful descriptions have been given of the Octopus, notably that by Victor Hugo in his Toilers of the Sea, in which the characters of cephalopod and polyp are dramatically combined. Large specimens may of course act powerfully on the defensive, but by nature they are timid, lurking animals, the econger eel and other voracions fishes being their most formidable foes. They are some- times caught in sunken pots, into which they creep, and the flesh is used both as food and bait. The predominant colour is reddish, but it changes rapidly with that of the surroundings and with the temper of the animal, which has also the ower of discolouring the water by a discharge of inky fluid. The eggs are enclosed in small trans- Incent sacs, and hundreds are attached to a com- mon stalk which is glued to the rock, and pro- tected and kept free of small seaweeds, &e., by the female. For their general structure, see CEPHALO- PODA, CALAMARY, and CUTTLE-FISH. Octroi (Lat. auctoritas, ‘authority’), a term which originally meant any ordinance authorised 349 by the sovereign, and thence came to be restric- tively applied to a toll or tax in kind levied from a very early period in France and other countries of northern Europe on articles of food which passed the barrier or entrance of a town. The octroi was abolished in France at the Revolution, but in 1798 it was. re-established. The octroi officers are entitled to search all carriages and individuals entering the gates of a town. Similar taxes are raised in Italy and elsewhere. O’Curry, EUGENE (1796-1862), Irish antiquary. See IRELAND, Vol. VI. p. 209. Od, the name given by Baron Reichenbach (q.v.) to a peculiar physical foree which he thought he had discovered, intermediate between electricity, magnetism, warmth, and light. This force, accord- ing to him, pervades all nature, and manifests itself as a flickering flame or luminous appearance at the poles of magnets, at the poles of crystals, and wherever chemical action is going on. All motion generates od ; and all the phenomena of mesmerism are ascribed to the workings of this od-force. See Buchner, Das Od (1854); Fechner, Erinnerungen an die letzten Tage des Odlehre (1876); and the Transactions of the Psychical Research Soc. (1883). Odal, See ALLopIuM. Oddfellows. See FRIENDLY Socrettes. Ode (Gr. 6dé, from aeidé, ‘1 sing’), a form of lyrical poetry associated in its supreme form with the name of Pindar, but practised with splendid success by many English poets. The Greek ode was simply a chant or poem arranged to be sung to an instrumental accompaniment, and all the variations of form that occurred were merely subjective, incapable of imitation, and conditioned only by the exigencies of the music. Archi- lochus was the first to expand the simple distich into an epode; Aleman, to adopt the more com- plex form of the carmen or ode. Sappho, Alczeus, and Anacreon carried it further, and shaped the lighter form of ode known to us, through the masterpieces of their greatest imitator, as the Horatian. Stesichorus modified the ode of Aleman by elaborating a triple movement, in which the metrical wave moving in the strophe was answered by the counter-wave moving in the antistrophe, the whole concluded by the epode, a blended echo of the two. Simonides adapted this elaborate form to Dorian music, and next followed Pindar, the greatest master of the ode. His Parthenia or odes for virgins, his Skolia or dithyrambie odes in praise of Dionysus, and his encomiastic odes have all perished ; only his Epinikia, or triumphal odes, remain. These display an infinite variety of metri- cal ingenuity; no two odes have the same metrical structure, yet each obeys a definite structural law, and license there is none in its irregularity. The Humanist poets imitated the simpler A‘tolian measures as they found them in Catullus and Horace; but many of our poets, taking Pindaric as synonymous with irregular, produced so-called odes whose only likeness to their great original was their ‘unshackled numbers.’ But irregularity in verse is not allowable except in cases where it is a natural aid grasped by the poetic mood in its moment of exaltation ; for the most constant charm of poetry is the inevitableness of cadence, which must never be lightly flung away unless to sub- serve another and still higher law—that of emotional necessity. It is only in the hands of a master that the ode may safely he imitated in English; by all others the apparent artifice of the form and the necessary spontaneity of the impulse may not be reconciled. , Ben Jonson's odes are unequal; Herrick’s, poor ; Spenser’s Epithalamium, or marriage ode, is one of the most splendid triumphs of English poetry ; and 578 ODENSE ODIN Milton, in his magnificent poem, On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity, found in this a form adequate for that poetic exaltation which was his habitual mood, wley was already an expert in the Horatian ode, when he fell in with Pindar, and imitated him, in externals at least, in a number of elaborate compositions, usually redeemed from dullness by bursts of undoubted poetic ~ power. yden has left at least three immortal odes, Zo Mistress Anne Killigrew, For St Cecilia’s Day, and Alexander's Feast ; and Congreve wrote not only a few admirable, if formal, examples, but an ex- cellent critical Discourse on the Pindarique Ode (1705). The matchless Orinda, Lord Orrery, Am- brose Philips, Young, Akenside, and Shadwell followed after their kind ; and Gray, first drawn to this form by Gilbert West, translator of Pindar, Sey rang in 1754 and 1756 his two inimitable indaric odes, the Progress of Poesy and The Bard. The exquisitely poetic, though not Pindaric, odes of Collins were given to the world somewhat earlier. Wordsworth, eee Shelley, Keats, and Tennyson poured some of their noblest verse into this form, while modifying it further, whether as requiar—i.e. following a definite arrangement in stanzas, or as irregular, following no such arrange- ment. ‘There are no finer odes or nobler ms in our language than Coleridge’s odes To the Departing Year and To France ; Wordsworth’s Jo Duty and Intimations of Immortality from Recollections 0 Early Childhood ; Shelley’s To the West Wind, To a og aa To Liberty, and To Naples; Keats's odes To a Nightingale, On a Grecian Urn, and To Autumn ; Tennyson’s funeral ode On the Death of the Duke of Wellington ; and Swinburne’s To Victor Hugo in Exile. See English Odes (1881), admirably selected by Edmund W. Gosse, with an excellent introduction ; and the subtle and-suggestive article ‘Poetry.’ by Theodore Watts, in vol. xix, (1885) of the Encyclopedia Britannica, Odense, the chief town of the Danish island of Fiinen (q.v.). Its cathedral was founded in 1086 ; and diets were held here in 1527 and 1539. Pop. (1880) 20,804 ; (1890) 30,277. Odenwald, a mountainous system partly in Baden and Bavaria, but mainly in Hesse (q.v.). Oder (Lat. Viadrus, Slavon. Vjodr), one of the principal rivers of Germany, rises in the Oderberg on the tableland of Moravia, 1950 feet above the level of the sea, traverses Prussian Silesia, Brand- enburg, and Pomerania, then empties itself into the Stettiner Haff, wh it into the Baltic by the triple arms of the Dievenow, Peene, and Swine, which enclose the islands of Wollin and Usedom. It has a course north-west and north of 550 miles, and a basin of 50,000 sq. m. The rapid flow, induced by its very considerable fall, to- gether with the silting at the embouchures of the numerous tributaries, renders the navigation diffi- cult; great expense and labour being, moreover, necessary to keep the embankments in order, and prevent the overflowing of the river. Canals con- nect the Oder with the Spree, the Havel, and the Elbe; the Warthe is the only tributary of import- ance for navigation. On the banks of the Baler are Ratibor (where it is navigable for barges), Brieg, Breslau, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, Stettin, and Swinemiinde. Odescalchi. Odessa, in point of population the fourth cit; of Russia, Masts on as thors of the Black Sea, about midway between the estuaries of the Dniester (25 miles to the south-west) and the es 90 miles north-east of the Danube mouth, and by rail 967 miles from Moscow and 381 from Kieff. The city is built facing the sea on low cliffs, seamed with deep ravines and hollowed out by galleries in See INNOCENT XI. the soft rock, in which numbers of the poorest inhabitants herd ther. Above nd its streets are long and broad, and cross each other at right angles. Odessa was only founded in 1794, near a Turkish fort that fell into Russian hands in 1789; but it quickly became the principal export town for the extensive corn-growing districts of South Russia. oe was greatly aided by its being declared a free port from 1817 to 1857, and again by the construction of the railway to Kieff in 1866. The pore has ine rapidly, from 3150 in 1796 to 25,000 in 1814, 100,000 in 1850, 184,800 in 1873, 270,600 in 1887, and 404,651 in 1897. Close upon 70,000 of these were Jews, sharing with the Greeks most of the trade. Mer- chants of any other nationalities dwell here also. The harbour is made up of a roadstead and three basins, protected by moles against the dangerous winds that sweep the Black Sea. It is impeded by ice—searcely ever closed by it—during an ave’ of only a fortnight in the year. The imports in 1894 had a value of over £9,000,000 (less than in 1886 or 1891); the exports, over £21,000,000 (more than in any preceding year). The bulk of the exports is grain, especially wheat; but the figures for wheat finetuate greatly, according to the crop and legislation about exporting it. Yet the value of the gross exports has steadily increased, doub- ling between 1886, when the figure was £8,279,900, and 1889, when it reached £16,787,700. Su (£1,217,400 in 1889), wool, and flour are the remaining chief items of export. The imports (raw cotton, oils, groceries, iron and steel, coal, food-stufis, fruits, tea, tobacco, machinery ) average £3,856,500 (five years from 1885), An average of 1295 vessels of 1,370,256 tons enter the port every year, an average of 716 of these vessels, with a hy Oy 1,180,245, being British, the Russian ton- nage being only one-fifth of this. But the Russians carry on a la and increasing coasting trade. The chief branches of industrial activity are flour- milling, sugar and oil refining, and, in a secondary egree, the manufacture of tobacco, machinery, leather, soap, chemi biscuits, &c. Odessa has a university (1865) with close upon 600 students, and the usual cabinets and collections; a great number of schools, including a cadet, a com- mercial, and two music schools; several learned societies, and a public lib (1829) of 40,000 vols,, many of them rare. ne museum of Historical and Antiquarian Society contains treas- ures from the coasts of the Black belonging to the Hellenic, the Veneto-Genoese, and the Tartaro- Mongol civilisations. Amongst the publie build- ings of Odessa we mention the cathedral (1802-49), which is the church of the Archbishop of Kherson, three dozen other cliurehes, a very fine opera-house (1887), palatial grain- warehouses, conn are and the ‘palais royal,’ which, with its gardens rk, is a favourite place of resort. Monuments to unt Worontsoff (1863), the Duke de Richelieu 1827)—both great benefactors of Odessa—and shkin (1889) adorn the city. Water is brought by aqueduct (27 miles long) from the Dniester. flamed coast batteries have been built since 1876 to prevent a recurrence of bombardment, such as happened when the British fleet sailed past the city in April 1854. Odessa an unenviable notoriety as a home of the cholera, for its persecu- tion of the Jews, and for its Nihilist sympathies, Odeypoor, See Uparrur. Odilon-Barrot, See BArrort. Odin (Odhinn; O. H. Ger. Wuotan ; Saxon, Wodan, or Woden—whence Wednesday), the chi god of northern mythology, common to all Ger- manie les. He is not the creator of the world, but its ruler, king of heaven and earth. Odin, as ODOACER G@DEMA 579 the highest of the gods, the A/fadur, rules heaven and , and is omniscient. As ruler of heaven, his seat is the palace Hlidskialf in Asgard, from whence his two black ravens, Hugin (Thought) and Munin (Memory), tly forth daily to gather — of all that is being done throughout the world. As of war, he holds his court in Valhalla, whither come all brave warriors after death to revel in the tumultuous joys in which they took most pleasure while on earth. His greatest treasures are his eight-footed steed Sleip- ner, his spear Gungner, and his ring Draupner. As the concentration and source of all greatness, excellence, and activity Odin bears numerous dif- ferent names. By drinking from Mimir’s fountain he became the wisest of gods and men, but he | agers the distinction at the cost of one eye. e is the greatest of sorcerers, and imparts a knowledge of his wondrous arts to his favourites. Friese (q.-v.) is his queen, and the mother of (q.v.), the Scandinavian Apollo; but he has other wives and favourites, and a numerous progeny of sons and daughters. He is claimed as ancestor of various royal dynasties. Rhys con- tends that the myths relating to Woden, the great Teutonic sed may be traced to a Celtic origin, and com the name Woden with the Celtic Gwydion. See SCANDINAVIAN MYTHOLOGY, Odoacer, Ovovacar, the ruler of Italy from the Pg 476 to 493, was the son of Adico, a captain of the Germanic Scyrri. He entered the military service of the western Roman empire, and rapidly rose to eminence. He took part in the revolution by which Orestes (475) drove the Emperor Julius epos from the throne, and confe’ on his son Romulus the title of Augustus, which the people i ace Bhan into Augustulus. He soon per- ceived weakness of the new ruler, and at the head of the Germanic mercenaries—Herulians, Rug- ians, Turcilingians, and Seyrri—marched against Pavia, one restes had emt Teper = an t his o nt to death (476). nulus Sbilcated, and withdrew into obscarity. ‘Thus perished the Roman empire. Odoacer showed him- self to be a wise, moderate, and politic ruler, it to conciliate the Byzantine emperor Zeno, a with the title of Patricius, ruled Italy from Ravenna, The barbarian ruler did everything in his power to lift oo of the deplorable con- dition into which she had sunk. Though an Arian himself, he acted with a kingly impar- tiality that more orthodox monarehs have rarely exhibited. He conducted a successful campaign in Dalmatia, and against the Rugii on the Danube. taly should be shared between him and Theoderic ; but a fortnight after Odoacer was assassinated at a feast b eoderic himself. See Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders. Odometer. See PEDomerTer. O'Donnell, Leorotp, Marshal of Spain, born at Teneriffe, 12th January 1809, was descended from an ancient Irish family. He entered the Spanish army when young, and espoused the cause of the infant Queen Isabella inst Don Carlos (see CARLISTS). When the Carlists were overthrown he was creaved Chief of the Staff to Es He took the side of the queen-mother in 1840, areet with her to France, and took up his at Orleans, where he planned many of the political risings which took place under the tule of Espartero. In 1843 his punigo against Espartero (q.v.) were successful; and he was re- warded by governor-generalship of Cuba, where he amassed a large fortune by favouring the iniquit- ous trade in slaves. Whien he returned to Spain (1848) he intrigued against Bravo Murillo and Narvaez; was made war minister by Espartero in 1854; but plotted against his benefactor, and in 1856 supplanted him by a coup d'état. He was in three months’ time succeeded by Narvaez, but in 1858 he returned to power; in 1859 he com- manded the SrOny in Morocco, and after a tedious campaign took the Moorish camp, and the city of Tetuan surrendered, whereupon he was made Duke of Tetuan. In 1866 his cabinet was upset by — and he died at Bayonne, 5th November Odontopteryx (Gr. odous, ‘a tooth ;’ pteryx, fa Teel & roose-like or duck-like bird, the remains of which occur in the London clay (see EocENE SysTeM). The alveolar margins of both jaws are furnished with tooth-like denticulations, which are actual of the bony substance itself, and, therefore, not like true teeth. The tooth-like serrations, of two sizes, are of triangular or com- pressed conical form, and are all directed forwards. Odontornithes, extinct ‘toothed birds from the Cretaceous strata of North America. There are two distinct types—Ichthyornis and Hesper- ornis, The former and its relative Apatornis were small tern-like flying birds, with teeth in sockets, and with biconcave vertebree. But Hesperornis was a large bird, about six feet long, with utterly degenerate wings and obvionsly incapable of flight. According to Marsh, to whom our knowledge of these forms is chiefly due, it was a consummate diver, even more aquatic than the penguin. The teeth are set in grooves, the vertebre saddle- sha) ‘A bird indeed,’ Stejneger says, ‘but a kind of swimming, loon-like raptorial ostrich, with- out fore-limbs, with the i armed with formid- able rows of stron, aan | ike a gigantic lizard, and with a ge. road, and flattened tail like a beaver.’ See h’s monograph (1880). Crolempndivs, JOANNES (the Latin form of HAUSSCHEIN, although his proper name was Hussgen), one of the most eminent of the coad- ae of Zwingli in the Swiss Reformation, born n 1482 at Weinsberg, in Swabia. He relinquished the study of law at Bologna for that of theology at Heidelberg, became tutor to the sons of the Elector Palatine, and subsequently preacher in Weinsberg. Being appointed preacher at Basel, he formed the acquaintance of Erasmus, who.em- ployed him as assistant in his edition of the New estament. In 1516 he left Basel for Augsburg, where also he filled the office of preacher, and where he entered into a convent. But Luther’s publica- tions exercised so great an influence on him that he left the convent, and became chaplain to Franz von Sickingen, after whose death he returned to Basel in 1522, and, in the capacity of preacher and professor of Theology, commenced his career as a reformer. He held disputations with supporters of the Church of Rome in Baden in 1526, and in Bern in 1528, In the controversy concerning the Lord’s Supper he gradually adopted more and more the views of Zwingli. In 1529 he disputed with Luther in the conference at Marburg, and he wrote several treatises. He died at Basel, 24th November 1531. He was remarkable for his gentleness of character. There are Lives in German by Herzog (1843) and Hagenbach (1859). Ccumenical. See EcuMENICAL. €de'ma (Gr., ‘a swelling’) is the term applied medicine to the swelling occasioned by the effu- 580 OEDENBURG CZ2NOTHERA sion or infiltration of serum into cellular or areolar structures, The subcutaneous cellular tissue is the most common seat of this affection. Cidema is not a — , but a sg ose — wag symptom indicating great danger to life. e bo of avowed it must be directed to the morbid condition or cause of which it is the symptom. Oedenburg (Hung. Soprony), a town of Hun- gary, situated in an extensive plain, 3 miles W. of the Neusiedler See and 48 S. by E. of Vienna. It is one of the most beautiful towns in Hungary, and has manufactures of candied fruits, sugar, soap, &c., with a large trade in wine, corn, and cattle, the neighbourhood being rich and well cul- tivated. The Roman town of Scarabantia here was one of considerable importance ; and numerous Roman remains have been found. Pop. 22,322. «Edipus (Gr. Oidipous), the hero of a legend which supplied subjects for some of the noblest tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides. C&dipus was the son of Laius, king of Thebes, by Jocasta, the sister of Creon, and was exposed after his birth, with his feet pierced through, on Mount Citheron, use his father had learned from an oracle that he was doomed to perish by the hands of his own son. The child was discovered by a herdsman of Polybus, king of Corinth, and was named (Edipus from his swollen feet. Polybus brought him sp as his own son. Being told by the oracle at Delphi that he was destined to slay his father and commit incest with his mother, he would not return to Corinth, but proceeded to Thebes to escape his fate. As he drew near he met the chariot of the king, and the charioteer mete him out of the way, @ quarrel ensued, in which (Zdipus unwit- tingly slew Laius. In the meantime the famous Sphinx had appeared near Thebes, and propounded a riddle to every one who passed by, putting to death all who failed to solve it. In the terror of despair the Thebans offered the kingdom, together with the hand of the queen, to whoever should deliver them from the monster. (£dipus offered himself, bye for the Sphinx asked him, ‘ What being has four feet, two feet, and three feet ; only one voice; but whose feet vary, and when it has most, is weakest?’ Q£dipus replied that it was man, whereat the Sphinx threw herself headlong from the rock on which she sat. C£dipus became king, and husband of his mother, Jocasta. From their incestuous union sprung Eteocles, Polynices, Antigone, and Ismene. A mysterious plague now devastated the country, and, when the oracle declared that before it could be stayed the mur- derer of Laius should be banished from the country, (Edipus was told by the seer Tiresias that he himself had both murdered his father and committed incest with his mother. In his horror he put out his own eyes, that he might no more look upon his fellow-creatures, while Jocasta hanged herself. He wandered towards Attica, accom- panied by his daughter Antigone, and at Colonus near Athens the Eumenides charitably removed him from earth, «Ehlenschliiger, ApaAmM Gorrttos, Danish poet, was born I4th November 1779 in a suburb of Copenhagen, where his father, a Sleswicker, was an organist. After an irregular and desultory course of education, he tried unsuccessfully the career of an actor, and then took to law studies, but seon devoted all his energies to the cultivation of the history and poetry of his own country. In 1803 ap sd his first collection of poems; and the Vaulunders Saga (1805) and Aladdins forun- derlige Lampe raised him to the rank of the first of living Danish poets. These early efforts were zecarded hy « travelling pension, which enabled him to spend some years in travell the Con- tinent, and becoming acquainted with and other literary celebrities, During this period CEhlenschliiger wrote his Hakon Jarl, the first of his long series of northern tragedies (1807 ; 4 2 (1800 ; Kg. trans, by Theodore Martin, 0 ; Eng. trans. 1eodore 1854). us 1810 Clifenschliger returned to Den- mark, where he was hailed with acclamation, and made professor of A‘sthetics in the university. In 1814 took place his literary feud with Baggesen (q.v.). In 1819 appensed one of his most mas- terly productions, Nordens Guder, which showed that the severe criticism to which his writings had been exposed during the celebrated quarrel had corrected some of the faults, and lessened the self-conceit which had characterised his earlier works. His reputation spread with his increasing years both abroad and at home. In 1829 he went to Sweden, where he was weleomed by a public ovation ; and he was honoured in his own country in 1849 by a grand Et festival in the palace at Copenhagen. He 20th January 1850. His fame rests peecpely. on his twenty- four tragedies, most of them on northern subjects, Besides those already referred to, the best are Knud den Store, Palnatoke, Axel og Walborg, Veringerne i Miklagord. His lyrical and e poems are of less value. His Poetiske j were edited in 1857-62 in 32 vols.; the German translations were done by himself. An Autobio- graphy appeared in 1830-31, his Reminiscences in 1850; and there are posted Arentzen (1879) and Nielsen (1879). His Danish and German works amount in all to 62 volumes, Ochler, Gustav Friepricu, one of the Old Testament scholars of the 19th century, was born at Ebingen, 10th June 1812, studied at Tiibingen, laboured as a teacher at Basel and Tiibingen, became in 1840 professor in the theolo- gical seminary in Schinthal, and in 1845 ordinary professor of Theology at Breslau. In 1852 he was called to Tiibingen to be head of the theological seminary, and here he died, 19th February 1872. The chief books of this learned and reverent scholar were Prolegomena zur Theologie des Alten Testa- ments (1840), Die Grundziige der Alt-testament- lichen Weisheit (1854), Ueber das Verhéiltniss der A. T. Prophetie zur heidnischen Mantik (1861), V ie des Alten Testaments (1873-74; En trans. 1874-75), and Lehrbuch der Symbolik (1876 See the study by Knapp (Tiib. 1876), land, a long and narrow island in the Baltic, 4 to 17 miles from the east coast of Sweden, It is 55 miles long and 5 to 12 broad ; pop. 37,513, Scarcely more than a limestone cliff, it is sean cove’ with soil, but in some parts it is w wooded, and has good powers Cae there are large alum-works; and the fishing is excellent all round the coasts. Oels, a manufacturing town of Prussian Silesia, 16 miles ENE. of Breslau by rail. Pop. 10,276. nanthic Ether, See Erner. a noth’era, 4 genus of ornamental plants of the natural order i , related to the Fuchsia (q.v.), though strikingly dissimilar in general appearance, The Evening Primroge (@, brennis), a native of Virginia, has been known in Europe since 1614, and is now naturalised in many parts of Europe and in some of Britain, on the banks of rivers, in thickets, on sandy grounds, &e. The flowers are f t in the evening. The root somewhat resembles a carrot in shape, but is short; it is usually red, fleshy, and tender, and is eaten in salads, or in soups, and as a boiled vegeta Eaten after dinner it incites to wine-drinking, as olives do. This and numerous other species of {vd Sak Cerapherg ° 2 tals A F4U Ley. Oo W, Unity imi ‘sntoa \) 1A , is ttegnt x & Z a] Ly fos Ai iS Parmer o fefeerert Laren’ pm B Ney, © nn : ‘A - A Ow: se A Y y, iS dD” vhs A ~ Hope y Z| m nut * unzen — 2 IT, x ° * The ‘ AU - Sonn = rey 4 < Mel a - Qo a rT a a ess Cons ) Or 5 No] {ee 5 nal ss man Wert S wil ANIWER Te PI re i of Bt. bs ry W. co ‘ nu ° We 7 2) C pe. wae OH. ALR DI = « Tomah Un 3 2 a ER CE, I phir rite ie ra 3 ear “aM A Wate; a ve wer O/falle a. j kins in ‘ones VP SrtRlecorery ft FV Tack o~! wh ° StiLicury® Re ; aoe Le 6 4 " fea) Pi. : Strakerst” HE ° > 5 aoe Aaa Sidney : =e rat] £. Mi Vere Pst pero W. rs veal cn alle t- * 2 Cae eo ort ington ryevitle 3 Hy ° Atelet ee BA haan cPray id | b D2 3 Sy A GN Nile | iy te Sy : a erie ed = 2. y, cyaeony,, wAUOL 4a Vey re % Nine Se [oie "TN, Firemen Speake [tnt on J ,¥ 4 4 4 or, = ~ ee a Me c orrwr dt arti, ad; 2D cS : r “— ™~ Re | ye AMT ETKCIN Sue ee oh #) U% Kpaiah! las s. Pre Catiags Hy {nd ° 9 ta,,! < », ¥ ie ee ¥ bra dwt 1 O/H LAN D r By f . . . oe SDuleyyilicg evwailles . \" > ms pad Vernon | c 2 a Q ; soi . 39 ———— ee | axy kse Tia “i s Mele, e jug Suv “\\ ee me 7 + N q | , | ime Mich eno <2 Winch: os ¢ Wahon¥~ -\(R °S ~ Sao George Tyo errs. x fay bird] ¥, _ G “Ne = cceselivitie® SO < | SF \o ON = He ADA $s Matiovn /) i) a Volow 6) ®, F Wareae,, L My Wellaburg 7G. 2 Boao SCALES. | ° simouth 4 a Stout — / Brookville Riatote Miles, 281 Tach. ruc Maysville RIVE > ss » ~” © w _# town TZ ’ ‘Vanceborg or se = 4 - Kilometres, 1b 1 lwch, a ia ‘ T ; * > » ©» w \, a : & C K 5) Cra ore ee ’ > Reet, Mealy b On. Copyright. 1 6) Rant, Mr Kalle & Coy w WG Zy " — = » NS Coaltofrn (All Valley &' WV. Penn. Je.) Mis ot Weellsburg S RAPER x append Yas i Morewojod, LASS i Washington /2” Herpes ned 1 moaaes 7. . fee ‘ashing ad Hy Antrim : rs Fxwee ra : ’ ® * Brow, sty, jor Middlebourne " ee “Rubinsons Mille yan Maree \ onstitution MM Parkersburg | MAP OF : HAMILTON _ OHIO. ScaLe oy Mines, i984 6 6-76 -8-@ OGDENSBURG OHIO 585 manufactories of woollens, brooms, boots and shoes, &e. Pop. (1880) 6069; (1900) 16,313. Ogdensburg. a port of New York, on the St Lawrence, at the mouth of the Oswegatchie, — site Prescott, Canada, and 393 miles by rail NNW. of New York City. Its principal buildings are the Roman Catholic cathedral and the United States government building. The city has a | lake and river trade, and contains a huge grain-elevator and manufactories of flour, lumber, and leather. A steam ferry plies to Prescott. Pop. (1900) 12,633. Ogee, ve. Ogive is the name given by the French tee potatos arch; and as an English architectural term, ogive ribs are the main ribs - which cross one another at the intersection of the vaulting. Ogee, a form of the same word, is applied to a compound curve, made up of a convex curve continued hy a concave one. Oxival work is common in the Decorated Style (q.v., fig. 3), and may be seen in the tracery of the Flamboyant (q.v.). The ogee moulding is that also called Cyma reversa, illustrated at MoutpiInc. The French word is from the Spanish azvge, and that from the Arabic dwyj, ‘summit,’ ‘ vertex.’ Ogier le Danois, See CHANSONS DE GESTES. Ogletho JAMES EDWARD, founder of Georgia, was born in Loudon, 21st December 1698, the son of Sir Theophilus Oglethorpe, of Godal- ming in Surrey. After studying awhile at Oxford he joined the Guards before he was twenty, and served on the Continent with Prince Eugene. From 1722 to 1754 he represented Haslemere in parliament. Meanwhile he projected a colony in America, where the debtors then languishing in English gaols might start life afresh, and which should be also a refuge for the persecuted German Protestants (see SALZBURG). Parliament contrib- uted £10,000, George Il. gave a grant of the neces- sary land, after him called. Georgia; and in 1733 Oglethorpe went out with a company of 130 persons and founded Savannah. In 1735 he took out 300 more, including the two Wesleys; and in 1738 he was back again with a regiment of 600 men, raised in anticipation of a war with Spain, from whose neighbouring colony of Florida he had already received annoyance. War was declared by the mother-countries in 1739, and in 1741 Ogletho invaded Florida and unsuccessfully attacked St Augustine (see his own account, published 1742) ; the next year he repulsed a Spanish invasion of Georgia. In 1743 he left the colony for the last time, to meet and repel before a court-martial the malicious ch one of his own officers. He was again tried and acquitted after the Forty-five for having failed, as major-general, to overtake Prince Charles’s army. e charter of his colony he surreridered to the British government in 1752. His later years were spent at Cranham Hall, his seat in Essex, where he died 30th January 1785. His intimate friends included many of the most eminent mea of the day. Pope’s couplet is well known : Or driven by strong benevolence of soul, Will fly, like Oglethorpe, from pole to pole. Dz Johnson w him to write his life, and even offered to do it himself; and Boswell made a few, but insufficient, notes with the same object. See Lives by Harris (Boston, 1841), Wright (Lond. 1867), and Bruce (New York, 1890). Ogowe, or OGoway, a river of West Africa has its origin on the west side of the watershed that parts its basin from that of the Congo, in 2° 40’ 8. lat., 14° 30’ E. eye flows north-west, west, and finally curves round by the sonth so as to pour its waters into Nazareth Bay, on the north side of pe It forms a wide delta of some 70 sq. m,.in extent. In the dry season (July to Sep- tember) it shrinks to a narrow current winding between the rocky obstructions of its bed; at other times it is a deep, broad stream, navigable hy boats ; numerous islands and sandbanks a shallows pre- vent vessels of any size from ascending. It has been dominated by France, through her colony on the Gaboon (q.v.), since 1885. ‘ges, the earliest legendary king of Attica ant Beek in whose time a great flood took place called the Ogygian Flood. Ogygia, a genus of Trilobites (q.v.), peculiar to the Lower Silurian system. oRera, THEODORE, author of ‘The Bivouac of the ; was born at Danville, Kentucky, in 1820. He was a lawyer and journalist, but served as captain and major in the Mexican war, after- wards, for a year, in the United States cavalry, and in the civil war as a colonel on tle Confederate side. He died in 1867. See monograph by Ranck (Baltimore, 1875), and the Century (May 1890). O'Higgins. See Curt. Ohio, a river of the United States, called by the French explorers, after its Indian name, la Belle Riviére, next to the Missouri the largest affluent of the Mississippi, is formed by the union of the Alleghany and Monongahela at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and flows west-south-west 975 miles, with a breadth of 400 to 1400 yards, draining, with its tributaries, an area of 214,000 sq. m. In its course it se tes the northern states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois from the southern states of West Virginia and Kentucky. The principal towns upon its banks are Pittsburgh, Wheeling, Cincin- nati, Louisville (where there are rapids of 22 feet in a mile, with a steamboat canal), Evansville, New Albany, Madison, Portsmouth, Covington, and Cairo, The river's principal affluents are the Tennessee, Cumberland, Wabash, Kentucky, Great Kanawha, Green, Muskingum, and Scioto. It is usually navigable from Pittsburgh. Ohio, a state of the American Union, the fourth in os Pog oe 38° 25’ and 42° N. lat., an and 84° + IONE. | copyrigh , 1897, and It stretches from north to south | 1000 tu the U.S. by Jb. 210 miles, and from east to | MPrincott Company. west 220 miles; the northern and southern and much of the eastern boundaries are irregular. Area, 41,060 sq. m., or equal to that of Ireland and Wales together. Ohio is a part of the original North-west Territory, chiefly claimed by Virginia under charters granted by the oo ge kings, which territory became a corporate y soon after the formation of the Virginia colony ; and when that colony became a state, the territory, with undefined northern limits, beeame a county. Ohio was the fitst state created within the territory,-of which it comprises much of the best part. It is watered on the north by Lake Erie, and on much of the east and all of its southern boundary by the Ohio River, from which it derives its name. The face of Ohio, taken as a whole, presents the appearance of an extensive, monotonous plain. It is moderately undulating, but not mountainous ; in many places streams have forced a way through bold clifis of sandstone. A low ridge enters the state near the north-east corner and crosses it in a south-westerly direction. This ‘divide’ separ- ates the waters of Lake Erie and the Ohio River, and maintains an average elevation of a little over 1300 feet above sea-level. North of this ridge the surface of the country is generally level, gently declining toward the lake. The central part of Ohio is almost a level plain, about 1000 feet above the sea, slightly inclining southward. The southern part is somewhat hilly, the valleys growing iced as they approach the Ohio River, whose tribu- taries here water many extensive and fertile 586 OHIO OIDIUM valleys. There are a few prairies or plains in the north-western parts of the state, but over its greater anaes i ne immense quantities of im ber. e principal rivers draining southward to the Ohio are the Muskingum, Scioto, Great Miami, and Little Miami. Northward to the lake are the Tuscarawas, Cuyahoga, Sandusky, Huron, and Maumee, all but the last named being entirely in the state. The rocks underlying Ohio belong to the Silu- rian, Devonian, and Carboniferous systems. The general arrangement of the geological formation shows a layer of sheets resting in the form of an arch from Lake Erie to the Ohio River. The limestone ( No. 4) agrtty ge the state is unbroken, and stretches from side to side; the Oriskany, the Corniferous, the Hamilton, and Huron formations, though generally removed from the crown of the arch, still remain over a limited area near the cen- tral portion. On the side of the great anticlinal axis the rocks dip downward into a basin, which for several hundred miles, north and south, occupies the interval between the Nashville and Cincinnati ridge and the first fold of the Alleghany Moun- tains. As they dip toward the centre of this trough, on the eastern and southern border of the state, the older rocks are deeply buried, and the surface is here underlaid by the Alleghany coal-measures ; while in the north-western part of the state the strata dip northward and pass in the same way under the Michigan coal-basin. The coalficlds of Ohio cover over 12,000 sq. m. ; nearly 11,000,000 long tons were mined in 1897. Immense deposits of limestone, freestone, and mill-stones abound. Archzeologically Ohio is the richest field in Amer- ica. Inno other state have been found so many evi- dences of man’s antiquity exemplified in implements of stone, bone, copper, and = ae while the most extensive and elaborate systems of earthworks in America are at Newark, near Chillicothe, and on the Miami bluffs near Waynesville. See Mounp- BUILDERS. Ohio is one of the chief manufacturing states in the Union, leading all others in the manufacture of farm machinery, carriages and wagons, woollen and cotton goods, furniture, and wine and spirits. It has also great rolling-mills and iron-factories, glass-factories, potteries, and oil-works. In agri- culture the state is first in the Union in many regards. Its annual production of maize is some 90,000,000 bushels, of wheat 40,000,000, of wool over 20,000,000 Ib. Cattle and hogs are reared in large numbers. Ohio is a leading “aed sre state. The oil-fields, prevailing largely in the north-west, are being rapidly developed, and already the output is second only to that of Pennsylvania. Natural gas has been found in immense quantities, but at the present rate of consumption is soon exhausted. History.—In 1787 the Ohio Company of Associates was organised in New England by those who had served in the war of the revolution, and under their auspices a large tract of land was purchased from the government in the territory north-west of the Ohio River, payment being made in ‘Continental Certificates’ issued to the soldiers for their services. This was the first public sale of land by the United States government. In connection with its sale the famous ‘Compact’ or ‘ Ordinance of 1787’ was passed, guaranteeing for ever in the territory civil and religious freedom, the system of common schools, trial by jury, and the right of inheri- tance. In 1788 farietta and Cincinnati were founded, and till 1791 settlements in the southern part of the territory increased rapidly. In that the Indians became troublesome, owing to e continual encroachments of the whites, and an army under the governor suffered a disastrous defeat. In November 1794 a es was ined by General Anthony Wayne over the ndians at ‘Fallen Timbers’ on Maumee River. The year after a treaty of — was con- cluded at Fort Greenville, the Indians ceding a great portion of territory, which settlers began at once to fill, and the towns of Xenia, Dayton, Hamilton, Chillicothe, Zanesville, Franklinton, and others were established. Chillicothe was made the seat of Fanaa nrooe for the territory, and a capitol buil erected. In 1802 a constitution was adopted for the ‘Eastern Division of the Territory North-west of the Ohio,’ to be known as ‘Ohio,’ and on 19th February 1803 Ohio was formally admitted into the Union. By 1810 its population was 230,760, and the increase from that period was rapid. As early as 1812 steam- boat navigation up and down the Ohio River was accomplished; by 1834 there were, as now. 709 miles of in operation; and the Mad River Railroad, begun in 1837, was opened for traffic in 1842, and completed to the lakes by 1848 ; in 1897, 8729 miles of railway traversed the state, not counting double tracks, &c. Ohio has given five presidents to the Union—Grant, Hayes, Gar- field, Benjamin Harrison, and M’Kinley. Ohio is divided into 88 counties, and returns 21 members to con, The justices of the supreme court are elected for terms of five years by people. The state has several universities and nu- merous colleges, with professional, art, and commer- cial schools. The school population in 1897 was 1,088,000 ; attendance, 56 per cent. The ratio of illiteracy is less than the average of other states. The largest cities are Cincinnati, Cleveland, Co- lumbus (the capital), Toledo, Sandusky, “ewes Springfield, Steubenville, Portsmouth, A j Youngstown, and Canton. The total taxable value of real and personal ross in 1890 was $1,778,- 138,477. Pop. (1850) 1,980,329 ; (1870) 2,665,260 ; (1890) 3,672,316 ; (1900) 4,157,545. Ohlan, a town of Prussian Silesia, 20 miles SE. of Breslau by rail, on the Oder. Pop, 8575. Ohm, GeEoRG Simon, physicist, born at Erlan- n, 16th March 1787, became in 1849 professor at unich, and died there 7th July 1854. For Ohm’s Law and the ohm as a measure of electric resistan see ELecrricity, Vol, IV. p. 267. @Ohnet, GeorGeEs, a French novelist of great pularity, if not merit, born 3d April 1848 at Paris, e studied law, and after practising some time as an advocate took to journalism, and later to literature proper. Under the general title of Les Batailles de ia Vie he has published a series of novels dealin pen probens ia with social questions, some of which have actually reached a hundredth edition, The first in this cycle of romances was Serge Panine (1881), too quickly followed by Le Maitre de Forges (1882), La Com- tesse Sarah (1883), Lise Fleuron (1884), La grande Marniére (1885), Les Dames de la Croix-Mort (1886), and Volonté (1888). Oidium, or ErysiPxe, a genns of minute fungi infesting various plants, and especially important as the cause of a ravaging disease of the vine, pularly known as vine-mildew, The disease was rst observed in Kent in the spring of 1845; it spread rapidly over the English vineries, and was observed about the same time in the vineries of Paris, and soon afterwards in those of nearly all parts of France, Italy, Greece, Tyrol, and egy and in a less degree in the Rhine valley. Its ravages extended to Algeria, Syria, Asia Minor, and especially to the island of Madeira, where it nearly put an end to the production of the cele- brated wine. The disease spore first in the leaves, these drop off, the plant loses strength a el OIL-BEETLE OILS 587 through impaired nutrition, the young shoots fall victims, and lastly the grapes. Powdered sulphur was found useful as a cure, but the applications had to be very uent; in consequence of its importance the duty of sulphur was reduced by the French government. It is probable that in this case, as in all diseases of the sort, the general vitality of the organism must be lowered before it will fall a victim. Over-cultivation and long use of the same ground are predisposing causes. Gil-beetle, 2 name given to beetles of the Mele and allied am which when disturbed emit a yellowish oily liquor from the joints of their legs. @ species are used cantharides, Oil-bird, See GuAcHARo. Oil-cake is used mainly for feeding sheep and cattle. It is made from the solid residue of oleagin- ous seeds (linseed, rape-seed, cotton-seed ), after a large “ag m of their oil has been extracted. The following is the usual process of manufacture in Britain. The seed is crushed between iron rollers, then damped and ground upon a mill of the following construction. Two large circular blocks of hard granite are set edgewise on a bed- stone of the same material, which is slightly hollowed out; these two upright stones are con- nected by a horizontal shaft which passes through the centre of both, and is fixed at its middle to a revolving upright shaft. The stones are thus made to revolve about their vertical axes, while at the same time they are left free to be turned round the horizontal shaft by the friction of grinding. The meal thus obtained is heated in kettles formed of as vesicants instead two com ments, in the inner of which the meal is p while the outer is filled with steam. The meal is then filled into small woollen bags of the shape it is wished to make the cakes—usually oblong, about 30 inches by 12 inches, and 4 to 2 inch k. These bags are then placed in wooden Sohie ogeee which consist of two pieces of hard , of the same size as the cakes, hinged to- gether at the end; the wood is usually corrugated and furnished with a stamp to mark the cakes. The wrappers containing the bags full of crushed seed are then placed in the compartments of a worked on the same —— as a Hydraulic Bramia.y.), except that oil from the seed is used instead of water. In this way about 90 per cent. of the oil the seed contains is squeezed out of it, leaving sufficient to bind the residue of husks into a solid firm cake. Sometimes the process is varied, in that the seed, instead of being ground under stones, is repeatedly crushed on iron rollers; in this case the crushed seed is steamed in the kettles to give the necessary moisture, not merely heated as described above. Sometimes oil-seeds are subjected to a chemical instead of a mechanical process—viz. solution of the oil in bisulphide of carbon. By this means the oil may be almost completely extracted. Mustard, castor-oil, undecorticated cotton-seed cake, and some others are also used as fertilisers, Oil City, Pennsylvania, on both sides of the Alleghany River (here crossed by long railroad and nger bridges), 133 miles by rail N. by E. of Pittsburgh, is one of the Hacipel oil markets in the state, and the centre of a busy trade. It eon- ; ; pani beet gee and bacor factories, and a large coo) ere were fearfu inundations here in June 1802, Pop. (1870) 2276 ; (1880) 7315; (1900) 13,264. Oil-fuel, See FUEL, GAS-LIGHTING, PeTROLEUM. For Oil-engine, see GAs ENGINE. Oil Palm, See O1s, and PALM. Oil Rivers. See Nicer. @ils (including Fats). The fats and fixed oils constitute an important and well-marked group of organic compounds, which exist abundantly both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. They are not simple organic compounds, but each of them is a mixture of several such Sane to which the term glycerides is applied ; and the glycerides which by their mixture in various proportions form the numerous fats and oils are mainly those of palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids, and to a less extent those of other fatty acids, such as butyric, caproic, cap- rylic, and capric acids, which are obtained from butter, myristic acid, which is obtained from cocoa- nut oil, &e. The members of this group may be solid and hard, like suet; semi-solid and soft, like butter, horse- , and lard; or fluid, like the oils. The solid and semi-solid are, however, usually placed ther and termed fats, in con- tradistinction to the fluid oils. The most solid fats are readily fusible, and become reduced to a fluid or oily state at a temperature lower than that of the boiling-point of water. It is not until a temperature of between 500° and 600° F. is reached that they begin nearly simultaneously to boil and to undergo decomposition, giving off acroleine (an acrid product of the distillation of Me Sen and other compounds. In consequence of this property these oils are termed fixed oils, in contradistinction to a perfectly separate group of oily matters, on which the odoriferous setae of plants depend, and which, from their being able to bear distilla- tion without change, are known as volatile oils, These, which are also known as essential oils, differ in toto in their chemical composition from the com- pounds we are now considering. All the fats and oils are lighter than water, and are perfectly in- soluble in that fluid. Their specific gravity ranges from about 0°91 to 0°94. They dissolve in ether, oil of turpentine (one of the volatile oils), benzol, and to a certain extent in alcohol; while, on the other hand, they act as solvents for sulphur, phos- phorus, &c. ese bodies the property of penetrating paper and other fabrics, renderin them transparent, and producing what is we' known as a stain. They are not readily inflammable unless with the agency of a wick, when they burn with a bright flame. In a pure and fresh state they are devoid of taste and smell, but on exposure to the air they become oxidised and acid, assume a deeper colour, evolve a dis- agreeable odour, and are acrid to the taste; or, in popular language, they become rancid. The rapidity with which this change occurs is consider- ably increased by the presence of mucilaginous or albuminous bodies, The rancidity may be removed by shaking the oil in hot water in which a little hydrated magnesia is suspended. The eral diffusion of fats and oils in the animal kingdom has been already described (see Fats). In the vegetable kingdom they are pe ee arr distributed, there being scarcely any ue of any plant in which traces of them may not be detected; but they are specially abundant in the seeds. The seeds of the Cruciferse are remarkably rich in oil; linseed yielding fully 20 per cent., and rape-seed about 40 per cent. of oil; and some fruits, as those of the olive and oil- palm, yield an abundance of oil. The uses of oils and fats are numerous and highly important, many being extensively em- ployed as articles of food, as medicines, as lubri- cating agents, in the preparation of soaps, oint- ments, varnishes, pigments, for candles, lamps, and other means of illumination, and for the purpose of dressing leather, &c. In Africa, Asia, and the Pacific animal and vegetable oils and fats are much used for anointing the person and smearing the hair, thus affording a protection aganst heat 588 OILS and the attacks of insects, and ane excessive perspiration. This practice conduces to health and preserves the skin smooth and soft. Oil thrown on the sea has a remarkable effect in subduing the force of the waves, A few gallons cast upon stormy seas moderates and prevents the waves penne 4 with force. This practice might be adopted by lifeboats when approaching wrecks, and rescuing the crews of stranded vessels. The com- position of the fine oils required for watches and sewing-machines is often carefully kept secret. Those array, wd used are ben, almond, olive, and neat’s-foot. The oils suitable for machine-shops and general cotton and woollen machinery require a oo body, rather viscid. For woollen spindles a lighter oil, and for cotton spindles, which have as of 4000 revolutions per minute, an oil of still lighter body. For lubricating purposes mineral oils may with advan be mixed with animal and vegetable oils to diminish their tendency to thicken; the more fluid an oil is the less friction takes place. (1) Vegetable Fats.—The chief solid fats of vege- table origin are cocoa-nut oil, nutmeg-butter, cocoa- butter, and palm-oil. The fluid vegetable fats or oils are divisible into the non-drying and the dry- ing oils; the latter being distinguished from the former by their becoming dry and solid when ex- posed in thin layers to the air, in consequence of oxygenation. Some of the drying oils, when mixed with eotton, wool, or tow, absorb oxygen so rapidly, and consequently become so heated, as to take fire, and many cases of the spontaneous combustion of leaps of oily materials that have been employed in cleaning machinery have been recorded. The chief non-drying oils are olive-oil, almond-oil, and colza- oil; while the most important drying oils are those of linseed, hemp, poppy, and walnut; castor-oil seems to form a link Saabs these two classes of oils, since it ually becomes hard by long exposure to the air. 2) Animal Fats.—The chief solid fats are beef and mutton suet or tallow, lard, butter, goose- &e.; while among the fluids sperm-oil, ordinary whale-oil, cod-liver oil, and neat’s-foot oil may be especially mentioned. In many of their characters spermaceti and wax resemble the solid fats. Asa general rule, stearin and palmitin, both of which have comparatively high fusing- points (between 157° and 114° F.), preponderate in the solid fats; while olein, which is fluid at 32°, is the chief constituent of the oils. When ~ of these bodies are heated with the hydrated alkalies they undergo a change which has long been known as Saponification, or con- version into Soap (qv. ,» in which the fatty acid combines with the alkali to form a soap, while the sweet viscid liquid glycerine is simultaneously formed. When the fatty acids are required on a large scale, as for the manufacture of the so-called stearin candles, which in reality consist mainly of stearie and palmitic acids, sulphuric acid and the oil or fat are made to act upon each other ata high temperature (see CANDLE). The fatty acids may also be procured in a very pure form by the injec- tion of superheated steam at a temperature of be- tween 500° and 600° into heated fat. A complete list of even the chief fats and fixed oils would take up far more space than we can command. The more important are noticed in separate articles, such as Fixed Oil of Almonds, Castor-oil, Croton- oil, &e., and some account given of their properties and uses; or under the names of the substances from which they are procured—Linseed, Rape Candle-nut, Cocoa-nut, Cotton (for Cotton-seed Oil), &, Reference may also made to the articles on Butter, Ghee, Lard, Cod-liver Oil, &e. The Volatile or Essential Oils exist, in most instances, ready formed in plants, and are believed to constitute their odorous principles. form an extremely numerous class, of which most of the members are fluid. Many used for flavouring are artificially compounded (see ButTyrie Acrp). Essential oils are much employed in perfumes, for flavouring liqueurs and confectionery, and for various purposes in the arts. They will be described at PERFUMERY. The mineral oils will be found discussed under the heads of Naphtha, Paraflin, Petroleum. OILS IN THEIR COMMERCIAL RELATIONS.— Vegetable Oils,—The principal seeds imported for expressing oil are cotton, li : ym) and ground-nut ; but many others are received in small quantities. Cotton-seed is now a — re iat ee roduct, whieh was formerly much neglee The imports into Britain rose from about 20,000 tons in 1861 to over 314,000 tons in 1890, nearly all pen: 2 from Egypt: 100 lb. of seed yield about 2 “ot oil. The seed fetches £5 to £6a ton; the oil £18 to £21 a tun. Linseed.—British imports of this flax-seed now reach over 2,000,000 qr., of the value of £4,000,000. Nearly all the supply used to be obtained from Russia, which produces the best seed, but now the chief imports are from India; these arrive, however, very much mixed with rape and other seeds. India ships about 84 million ewt. of linseed yearly, of which three-fourths is sent to England. One quarter of linseed will yield by pres- sure 120]b. of oil and 24 ewt. of oil-cake. The aver- age annual production of linseed-oil in the United ingdom may be taken to be about 120,000 tuns. India is the chief source of supply for the small oil-seeds, the value of those exported annually ranging from £9,500,000 to £10,750,000, besides about £500,000 more for the oils of various kinds shipped. Africa alone supplies m-oil and large quantities of ground-nuts; Ceylon, Indi and the Pacific islands the cocoa-nut oil o' commerce. Cocoa-nut Oil is expressed from the albumen or ripe kernel of the nut, known in commerce when dried as copra, The production of this oil does not make the same p that palm-oil does, as the following decen im- er into the United Kingdom will show: 1870, 98,602 ewt.; 1880, 318,454 ewt. ; 1890, 184,409 ewt. The price of the oil declined about £10 in 1883-90, the price being in the latter year £27 per ton. Palm-oil.—The average imports of this oil are 50,000 tons annually. Prices have advanced of late years, and in 1890 stood at £26 per ton. This oil forms a chief ingredient in the grease used for railway axles. Rape-seed.—The imports of ra range between 459,000 to 2,300,000 qr., of which about half come from Russia and half from India, The total exports of this seed from India now exceed 3 million ewt., valued at nearly £2,000,000 sterling; the great bulk of this is sent to France and ¥ paver From the first pressure rape-seed will yield about 90 Ib. of oil nd uarter, and from a second pressure 60 to 70 Ib. he Ground-nut (Arachis hypogea) is now a large source of oil-supply, but the principal commerce and manufacture centre at Marseilles. It is prin- cipally cultivated on the west coast of Africa, but is now much grown in India. The price of the shelled kernels in the London market is from £11 to £13 per ton. Olive-oil used to be one of the most valuable vegetable oils used for food, but it is now much adulterated with or replaced by Gingelie and cotton-seed oils, The ave imports are about 20,000 tuns, the best Spanish fetching £37 per tun. For lubricating and woollen manufac- tures olive-oil has been largely replaced other vegetable oils and lard-oil (see OLIVE). Gingelie or Til-oil is the produce of the seed of Sesamum indicum, which yields about 50 per cent. of oil ; and _ pe OILS 589 the annual export of this seed from India is from 1 to 2# millionewt. It goes oni ea Se France an Italy. The price is 40s. to 50s. the lb. Poppy- seed. The trade in this seed from India is a fluetu- ating one, ranging from 450,000 to 730,000 ewt. ; the exports are chiefly to France and Belgium. The seeds yield 45 per cent. of oil, which is used for culinary pu The seed sells at about 43s. the bag. of 268 tb. Castor-oil seed.—From 600,000 to 700,000 ewt. of this seed are exported annually from India, and 2,000,000 to 2,600,000 castor-oil. The expression of the oil is chiefly earried on in Italy and America, besides India. The various ies of Bassia of India and Africa yield good oils, some of which are semi-solid and esteemed for soap-making. Under the name of Mahwa about 100,000 ewt. are shipped from India (see BUTTER-TREE).—One or two species of Aleurites produce what are known as candle-nuts in commerce; these yield 50 per cent. of oil. Some species of Garcinia yield kokum-butter, which is used as a substitute for ghee or clarified butter by the poorer classes of India. Many species of nuts, such as the Brazil, hazel, walnut, and others, even oil which is used locally, but does not enter argely into commerce. In China oil is obtained from the Soy bean (Saja hispida), and it yields about 18 per cent. of a drying oil. The bean-cake is employed for feeding men and animals, and is also largely used for manure. Another oil made there is from the seed or fruit of the Camellia olei- fera. Wt is of remarkable purity, of an amber colour, and a pleasant taste. In the United States corn or maize oil and pea-nut oil are manufactured, as well as cotton-seed oil, linseed-oil, and castor-oil. The cocoa seeds or beans of commerce contain from 18 to 20 per cent. of a concrete fat, which being separated in the preparation of cocoa and chocolate, throws a large amount of cocoa- butter on the market. Several thousand tons of it in flattened cakes are now sold annually in London and Holland. It is used for pharmacentical Ws — and confectionery. Nutmeg-butter, Galam tter (Bassia), Carapa, Casianbe. and certain vegetable tallows and waxes partake of this solid character. Animal Oils.—The principal solid animal oils found in commerce are butter and lard, tallow, mares’ sags neat’s-foot oil, and unrefined yolk of egg oil. first two are fully described under their names. Tallow is the fat of oxen and sheep, but more expecially the fat which envelops the kidneys and other parts of the viscera, rendered down or melted. The qualities of this solid oil make it { meters well adapted fer making candles, and until the end of the first quarter of the 19th centu candles for use were almost wholly e of it. Britain obtains probably about 60,000 tons rt tallow yearly at eetorted ate etary m & rom North an South Am om Australia. Russia used to furnish the chief supply, but the pastoral pro- grees in the new countries has quite changed sources of supply of animal fats. The imports of tallow and s do not vary tly from year to year; were, in 1870, 1,523,298 ewt.; 1880, 1,316,379 ewt.; 1890, 1,385,517 ewt. The value of the last-named year’s imports was £1,729,349. The oleins, obtained by pressure from animal fats, are known in commerce as tallow- olein, lard-olein, and neat’s-foot oil; they come next in value to sperm-oil, The two former are included under animal oils. Many thousand tons of these oleins are sent from the United States to Europe for artificial butter-making. Besides the home uction of butter, which is large (about 130, tons), the United Kingdom im in 1890 over 100,000 tons, valued at £10,500,000, gal. of the- and 54,000 tons of an artificial compound pre- wags from tallow, chiefly in Holland, and which to be labelled as ‘margarine’ when sold; for this more than £3,000,000 is paid (see BUTTER- INE). Of lard-oil Britain imports 91,000 ewt., besides about 27,000 ewt. of other animal oils, such as mares’ grease, tallow-oil, &c. Lard-oil from which the stearin has not been pressed is known as ‘neutral oil.’ An olein is extracted from beef-suet in the United States, of which there are three-qualities, Several thousand tons of this animal oil are sent from Chicago to Holland for the manufacture of oleom ine. The export of this olein from the United States averages now 30,000,000 Tb. yearly, valued at £600,000. Horse- is received from the River Plate states, where there are over five million horses. The mares, which are never used for the saddle, are annually slaughtered in 1 numbers in the republics of Uruguay and Argentine, A little horse- is also obtained in Britain from the ps. apie horses, 400 to 500 dying weekly in London alone. They furnish about 28 lb. of e each, which is valuable as a lubricant. Neat’s-foot oil is obtained in boiling down the feet of cattle. It does not turn rancid, and remains fluid at 32°. When part of its stearin has been abstracted it is used for oiling church and steeple clocks (as it does not solidify), for softening leather, and other pw In North America, where swine are bred so largely, the melted fat of the Big is a very important secondary product. The United States, with its 50 million pigs, sends away lard to the value of £5,500,000 yearly. It is a very important food-product, and in the West Indies it is much used instead of butter. The imports of lard from America into Britain now average 60,000 tons yearly, of the value of £2,000,000. The imports increased fivefold in 1870-90, Another animal fat is the suint obtained in the — of washing wool. This potassic sudorate forms no less than a third of the weight of raw wool in the grease. Marine oils are obtained from various mammals and fishes in different localities. Much of the oil obtained passes under the general name of ‘ train- oil.’ The whale-fishing has been much abandoned of late years by the nations which formerly pursued it; but the seal-fishing, which is less precarious and hazardons, is extensively prosecuted. The value of the oil shi from Newfoundland annu- ally exceeds £100, The average value of the fish-oil imported into Britain is only about £420,000; about 1880 it used to be double that amount. In America and the north of Europe fish oils are principally obtained from the liver of the cod and shark, from the dogfish, porpoise, Men- haden (q.v.), age at herring, sardine, and other Clupea. In the Mediterranean the tunny yields a large quantity of oil, extracted by boiling, often in sea-water. It is of a pale amber colour and an agreeable flavour. Fish oils are often confounded with the oils obtained from the blubber of the whale, seal, and other marine mammals, and their oil is much mixed with these. The great trade in animal oils and fatty substances dathlontén the care with which oily matters rich in carbon and hydrogen are sought for, supplying as they do a great number of wants in countries the most civilised as well as among people still in their primitive state. Some of these oleaginous substances are employed as food by man, some in manufactures, and others in medi- cine. The fish oils are usually thick, with a strong odour, and of different colours, according to quality and preparation, ranging from white to blonde and brown. In northern countries they still serve for illumination, but of late years have been largely superseded in this use by gas, petroleum, an OKEN 590 OIL-WELLS electri ting. Fish oils are valuable for soap- min much employed by curries for dressing leather; and the oil is again recovered and See eee eres gees are y t orwa coast and in the Indian See akieas for their vil In Greenland 300 or 400 are taken every season, their livers yielding 2500 barrels of oil, which is much valued for lubricating. 5S ti, or ‘head matter,’ as it is commercially termed, from the oil being principally found in the enormous head of Ph macrocephalus, has, like whale-oil, been d ing largely of late ro Britain only re- ceives some 1430 tuns, valued at £56,325, against three times that quantity imported about the year 1880, It used to be much employed in_candle- making, mixed with about 5 per cent. of beeswax to prevent crystallisation (see WHALE). Seal-oil is bones ineluded with train or fish oil. The ex- rts from Newfoundland range from 3500 tuns to 000 tuns yearly, according to the catch of seals. Tn 1889 Great Britain imported from that island 7000 tuns of oil, valued at nearly £67,000. There was a large decline—fully 50 per cent.—in the prices of fish oils in the years 1889-90. The current prices in 1890 per tun of 252 gallons were, for sperm, £45 to £46; whale-oil, £21 to £23; pale seal-oil, £24 to £26; and cod-oil, £22. The medicinal cod-liver oil realises higher prices. Fuller information on the reparation of these will be found under the various fate In 1878 the British imports of fish oils of all kinds were 20,656 tuns, valued at £810,891 ; in 1890, 20,302 tuns received were only valued at £419,296. In various quarters a considerable quantity of oil is obtained from different birds. such as the fulmar, the penguin, puffins, an species of Procellaria, the Guacharo (q.v.), the , ostrich, emu, and rhea, the nger pigeon, and others; but, with the exception of penguin-oil from the Falklands, none of these a re to any extent in commerce, and are only Kn ocally. The large and growing importance of the oil trade is manifest from a consideration of the statistics of imports and exports alone in a year, independent of the various industries and labour interested therein. Taking the English Board of Trade figures for 1889, we find that the value of the imports of animal oils and fats, including butter, lard, tallow, &c., amounted to £18,395,518, the vegetable oils to £3,718,074, the mineral oils to £2,963,834, and the nuts and seeds imported for yay Pay to £8,269,678, making a total of 347,104. The imports are nearly all used in Britain, the re-exports being merely to the value of £3,531,242. If to this we add the £1,701,106 for oil-seed cake rg eke and the export of oil, soap, and candles of British manufacture, amounting to £2,507,095, we have a total capital involved in the trade of over £37,500,000, and this quite irrespec- tive of the home production of tallow, butter, fish oils, and the like. Gil-wells. See Baku, PeNNsyLVANIA, PE- TROLEUM Oinomania, See Dipsomanta. Ointments are fatty substances intended to be applied to the skin by rubbing in, and havin, the consistence of butter. The material employ as a basis for the ointment varies considerably, and as a rule the activity and action are entirely due to the substance incorporated with the basis. The most ly used basis is lard, either alone or mixed with wax, &c., to give it more consistence. To avoid rancidity the lard is usually melted pre- viously with gum-benzoin, and is then known as . Although lard is readily absorbed the skin, yet in this respect it is su by ’s wool and Oleic Acid (q.v.). The former of these, when incorporated with water, forms an excellent ointment base, smooth, and in every way pn So en eeee of att eaade eee th great advantage. wn in commerce under a number of names, has also been used for ointments and does not turn rancid, but on the whole its use is not extending. As nearly all substances may be made into ointments, there is no limit to their number, but the best known are Zine Ointment (q.v.), Boracie Oint- ment, and the Red and White Precipitate Oint- ments (see PRECIPITATE OINTMENT). In all cases the greatest care is required to ensure that the active principle is rubbed perfectly smooth with a small quay of oil or lard before adding the bulk of the ingredients, otherwise the production of a homogeneons ointment free from grit is impossible. See CoLp CREAM. Oise, a department in the north of France, separated Agr English Channel by Seine- Inférieure ; area, 2261 8q. m. ; pop. (1881) 404,555 ; (1891) 401,835. The principal rivers are the Oise, a tributary of the Seine, 150 miles in length, with the Aisne and Therain, affluents of the The soil is in general fertile, and agriculture advanced. The products are the usual penn with an immense quantity of v bles, which are sent to the markets of the metropolis. There are exten- sive iron manufactures; porcelain, paper, chemicals, beet-root sugar, woollens, cottons, and lace (at Chantilly ) are also made, The department is divided into the four arrondissements of Beauvais, Cler- mont, Compitgne, Senlis ; capital, Beauvais. @Oisin. See Ossian. Ojibbeways. See Curppeway INDIANS. Oka, an important navigable river of central Russia, the principal affluent of the Volga from the south, rises in the government of Orel, and flows in a generally north-east direction, and joins the Volga at the city of Nijni-Novgorod, a course of 706 miles. Its basin comprises the richest and most fertile region of Russia, The principal towns on its banks are Orel, Bielev, Kaluga, Riazan, and Murom ; the most important affluents are the rivers Moscow, Kli and Tzna. During spring the Oka is navigable from Orel to the Volga; but in summer the navigation is obstructed by sand- banks, Okavango. See Noam. Okeechobee, a lake of Florida (q.v.). Oken (originally Ockenfuss), LoRENzZ, natural- ist, was born at Bohlsbach, in Baden, August 1, 1779. He studied at Wiirzburg and Géttingen ; became genes A professor of Medicine at Jena in 1807; in 1812 he was appointed ordi- nary professor of Natural Science; and in 1816 he commenced the publication of a journal pec | scientific and partly political, called Jris, whic led to government interference and his a tion. In 1828 he obtained a professorship in the newly-established university of Munich, but in 1832 exchanged it for another at Zurich, where he died 11th Au 1851. Oken aimed at construct- ing all knowledge a priori, and thus setting forth the system of nature in its universal relations. His system of natural science is a nature-plilo- sophy, which, though decried as ental and a deduction from foregone conclusions, was fer- tile in suggestive ideas. It was he who wrought out the theory, claimed by Goethe, and now ex- ploded, that the skull is but a modified vertebra. His principal works are his Lehrbuch der Na Arty Eng. trans. 1847), his Lehetwen der ‘aturgeschichte (3 vols. 1813-27), Allgemeine Natur- geichichte (17 vole, 1859-40) See works on Oiken by Ecker prey Mg Guttler (1884), and see Sir Owen's article in the Encyclopedia Britannica. urnine Cora p 2 Cron days Se Salo ’ s ‘ Y e ) - SWORTE } 2 ° oc | Qi ‘ aARODEMARS WESTERN PORTION OF a OKLATIOMA.. %) Statute Miles, 56—1 Inch. » — 510 oa. 4 ots Ls Henrictta > a mee 2 Statute Miles, 25—1 Inch. ” 30 «0 50 BD Onle Mew fie 14 Mag of tetine Trrvnnry and (iPlabome. Covrright, 1805 by Rast, MeNally & Os. Ovprright, I, by Rand, MeNally & Oo, a MONTAG INE [Oklahoma and Indian Territory. ] “A. W \ WW ashits © Ref A Davis | Sopphur. 4 | HH oxime stringtown Kosoma / 5 ao was EVIE 2 Ss ; Qriver —_— OKHOTSK OLBERS 591 Okhotsk, SEA orf, an extensive inlet of the North Pacific Ocean, on the east coast of Russian Siberia, nearly enclosed by Kamchatka and the Kuriles and halien. It is little navigated. On its northern shore, at the mouth of the Okhota, is the small seaport of Okhotsk, with a pop. of 300. Oklaho: an organised territory of the United States of America, is bounded W. and S. by the state of Texas, E. and SE. 1, ¢ 1801, 1897, and by Indian Territory, and N. by }1900 in the U.S. by J.B. states of Kansas and Colo- !''?vinertt Company. tado. The territory includes what was formerly the western Saga of Indian Territory, together with the Public Land Strip N. of the Texas ‘pan- handle.’ This strip, ceded to the United States by Texas at the time of its annexation, was by an oversight not included in any of the adjacent states or territories, and until its incorporation in Okla- homa Terri was known as No Man’s Land. The area of Oklahoma is 39,030 sq. m. ane eee tion in 1890 was 61,834 persons, includin in Greer county, between the forks of the Red River and claimed by Texas; it has been awarded to Oklahoma. The federal census of 1900 showed a population of 398,331. surface, which rises gradually toward the north and west, is for the most part an upland eS. The most important elevations are the ichita Mountains in the south. The charms of Oklahoma (‘ Beautiful Country’) have been much overrated. It is fairly well watered by the Red and Arkansas rivers and their affluents, but many of the streams are brackish, and so saturated hea alkaline salts - to be at sag eae = rinki rposes or for irrigation. e rainfa is een 4 fighter and also less uniform than in Indian Territory. In the river-valleys and in some of the upland regions there are fertile and produc- tive spots, but much of the region is likely to be subject to the same disappointment which prevails in western Kansas during unfavourable seasons. The so-called Public Land Strip, formerly the of desperadoes, is now the civilised Beaver county, a rich agricultural and stock country, though subject to sudden masee, produced by the $ ers,’ in its usually mild climate. The im- vement is directly due to the exertions of the ‘oung woman teachers in the public schools. his of Oklahoma dates from the year 1866, when the tribes to whom the lands of Indian Territory had ly been nted ceded the western portion of their domain to the United States. e land thus acquired was known as the Oklahoma district, but it was agreed that it should be used only for settlement by other Indian tribes or freedmen. Notwithstanding this stipulation western speculators claimed that the lands were the property of the government, and open, like other public lands, for settlement under the Home- stead (q.v.) laws. In 1879 an organised effort was made to take forcible possession of the lands, and adventurers from Texas, Kansas, and Missouri, equipped and ready for permanent settlement, invaded the territory. Their action was forbidden by proclamations from President Hayes, and the intruders were finally ejected by United States troops. From this time until his death in 1884, David L. Payne, the leader of the ‘boomers,’ was repeatedly arrested, but he always evaded punish- ment and returned to the forbidden land, with the number of his followers augmented. He is said to have received more than $100,000 in fees from who secured from him permission to settle Oklahoma. After his death the invasions were continued with even greater pertinacity by his lientenants. Althongh the government repeatedly gga the Peon, pred of the treaties with the ians and enf them by the authority of the military, negotiations were opened, as a result of which, upon the receipt of an additional sum, the Indians waived all claims to a district in the heart of Indian Territory. This unoccupied area was opened for public settlement in 1889, and the terri- tory was re ly organised with extended boun- daries in 1890. In 1891 the restriction prohibiting settlement was removed from other sections, and in 1893 the Cherckee Outlet was thrown open. United States officials were appointed by the President, a public school system was organised, and a normal school was established at Edmond. Educational facilities have grown with the territory. There is a territorial university at Norman ; there are three normal schools, at Edmond, Alva, and Langston ; Stillwater has an agricultural and mechanical col- lege; and graded schools are found in the towns size, with high sthools in the cities. In 1897 there were 90,585 children of school , and (1898) there were 1879 organised school districts. The annual income from the school lands amounts to an average of $200,000. Oklahoma presents an unprecedented instance of a commonwealth created almost in a mature condition at a moment's notice. In an incredibly short space of time the wilderness was transformed into a region of productive farms and populous towns, Guthrie, the capital, and Oklahoma City have each over 10,000 inhabitants. Norman, El no, Kingfisher City, Stillwater, Beaver, Perry, and Enid are among the rapidly growing centres. Okra, a name for the Hibiscus (q.v.) escilentus. Olaf, the Saint, one of the most revered of the early Norwegian kings, was born in 995, and after having distinguished himself by his gallant ex- loits, and made his name a terror in several war- ike — on the coasts of Normandy and England, succeeded, in 1015, in wresting the throne of Norway from Eric and Svend Jarl. The cruel severity with which he endeavoured to exterminate paganism by fire and sword alienated the affec- tions of his subjects, who hastened to tender their allegiance to Canute of Denmark on his landing in Norway in 1028. Olaf fled to the court of his brother-in-law, Jaroslav of Russia, who gave him a band of 4000 men, at the head of whom he returned, in 1030, and gave Canute battle at Stiklestad, where Olaf was defeated by the aid of his own subjects, and slain. His ly was removed to the cathedral of Trondhjem, where the fame of its miraculous pel spread far and wide; and Olaf was solemnly proclaimed patron saint of Norway in the su ing rtay @ See Passio et Miracula Beati Olaui, edited by F. Met- ealfe (Oxford, 1881). Oland. See CELAND. Olaus. For Olaus Magnus, see MAGNus; for Olaus Petri, see SWEDEN (Literature). Olbers, Henrich WILHELM MATTHAUS, phy- sician and astronomer, was born at Arbergen, a village of Bremen, October 11, 1758, studied medi- cine at Géttingen from 1777 till 1780, and subse- quently practised at Bremen. In 1811 he was a successful competitor for the prize proposed by Napoleon for the best ‘Memoir on the Croup.’ Hy becuase known as an astronomer by his caleula- tion of the orbit of the comet of 1779. He dis- covered the minor planets Pallas (1802) and Vesta (1807); and in 1781 he had the honour of first re- discovering the planet Uranus. He also discovered five comets in 1798, 1802, 1804, 1815, and 1821, all of which, with the exception of that of 1815 (hence called Olbers’ comet), had been some days pre- viously observed at Paris. His observations, cal- culations, and notices of various comets, which are of inestimable value to astronomers, were pub- lished in various forms. Olbers also made some 592 OLD BAILEY OLD CATHOLICS important researches on the probable lunar origin of meteoric stones, and invented a method for cal- culating the velocity of falling stars. He died at Bremen, 24 March 1840, His correspondence with Bessel was edited by Erman (1852). Old Bailey, the court or sessions house in which the veep 2 of the Central Criminal Court are held monthly for the trial of offences within its juris- diction. The judges of this court are the Lord Mayor, the Lord Chancellor, the judges aldermen, recorder, and cominon serjeant of London. But of these the recorder, the serjeant, and the judge of the sheriff's court are in most cases the actually presiding judges. The judicial sittings here are of such antiquity that all record of their com- mencement has im lost. Crimes of all kinds, from treason to petty larceny, are tried, and the numbers in past times were enormous, but are now greatly reduced by the extended jurisdiction given to the quarter sessions, and the summ wers gran to magistrates. Here were tri in 1660, after the Restoration, the surviving judges of Charles L; and Milton’s Eikonoklastes and Defensio Prima were in the same year burned at the Old Bailey by the common hangman. The patriot Lord William Russell was tried here in 1683, Jack Sheppard in 1724, Jonathan Wild in 1725, the poet Savage in 1727, Dr Dodd in 1777, Belling- ham, the assassin of the statesman Perceval, in 1812, the Cato Street conspirators in 1820. The Old Bailey dinners given by the sheriffs to the judges were long famous. However else varied, they always included beefsteaks and marrow nddings, and were served twice a day. The Old Bailey adjoins ene (q.v.) Prison, between Holborn Viaduct and Ludgate Hill. Prisoners awaiting trial at this court are transferred to New- te for the sake of convenience whilst the sessions ere are sitting. Old Believers, See RaskoLniK. Oldbury, « busy manufacturing town of Wor- cestershire, 5} miles WNW. of Birmingham, stands in the midst of a rich mineral district, and has iron and steel works, besides factories for railway plant, edge-tools, chemicals, &e. Pop. (1851) 11,741; (1581) 18,841; (1891) 20,348. See J. Nichols’ History of Manceter Parish (1791). Oldcastle, Siz Joun, once popularly known as the ‘ 1 Lord Cobham,’ whose claim to dis- tinetion is that he was the first author and the first martyr among the English nobility, was born in the reign of Edward IIL ; the exact year is not known. e acqnired the title of Lord Cobham b marriage with the heiress of the line, and signal- ised himself by the ardour of his attachment to the doctrines of Wyclif. At that time there was a party among the English nobles and gentry sin- cerely, even strongly, desirous of ecclesiastical reform, whose leader was ‘old John of Gaunt— time-honoured Lancaster.’ Oldcastle was active in the same cause, and took part in the presenta- tion of a remonstrance to the English Commons on the subject of the corruptions of the church. At his own expense he got Wyclif’s works tran- scribed, and widely disseminated among the people, and paid a large body of arena to propagate the views of the Reformer thronghout the country. In 1411, during the reign of Henry IV., he com- manded an English army in France, and forced the Duke of Orleans to raise the siege of Paris; but in 1413, just after the accession of Henry V., he was examined by Archbishop Arundel, and condemned as a heretic. He escaped from the Tower into Wales, but after four years’ hiding was captured. He was brought to London, and—being reckoned a traitor as well as a heretic—was hung up in chains alive upon a gallows, and, fire being put under him, was burned to death, December 1417. Oldcastle wrote Twelve Conclusions addressed to the Parliament of England, several monkish rhymes against ‘ fleshlye livers’ eee) te clergy, religious discourses, &c. Halliwell-Philli fret proved in 1841 that Shak ’s Sir John Falstaff was ortetnsliz Sir John Oldcastle—a view endorsed in Gairdner and Spedding’s Studies (1881), _Old Catholics (Ger. Altkatholiken) is the title assumed by a number of Catholics who at Munich protested against the new dogma of the personal infallibility of the pore in all ex cuthedré deliverances, proclaimed by the Vatican Council in 1870. It now applies to a communion or church in Germany and Switzerland, which has wn to be considerable in numbers and infl he Munich protest by forty-four professors, Dr Lise = and Professor Friedrich at their head was directed against the binding authority of the Vatican Council and the validity of its decrees. To the Munich protest a number of lie pro- fessors at Bonn, Breslau, Freiburg, and Giessen declared their adhesion. The leaders of the move- ment met at the end of A t at Nuremberg and drew up a declaration. The German bishops, though they had given warning of the dangerous consequences of the proclamation of the new dogma, submitted to the decision of the Vatican Council, and, in a pastoral letter of the 10th September 1870, called upon all members of the faculty of Catholic theology to signify their alle- iance. Against the refractory (numerous pro- essors and one priest) they proceeded by sus- pending them from their functions, and then by excommunication. The Prussian and Bavarian governments, however, took their respective sub- jects, the objects of those measures, under their protection. At first the mass of the priests and laity showed very little sympathy with the movement, only two country congregations declaring their dissent from the decree of the Vatican Council. Pamphlets and an issned by the heads of the party elici but little response. committees in furtherance of the cause were, however, formed in towns of Bavaria and the Rhine country. Ata neral Old Catholic Con, , held in 1871 at Ntunieh, it was resolved to draw the bonds of union close with the church of Utrecht, the Jansenists (q.¥.) of the Netherlands, which, under its areh- ‘ishop and two bishops, offered to the Oll Catholics the possibility of priestly consecration and confirmation. The congress, while carefull eschewing any decided breach with traditiona dogma, and professing the desire simply to main- tain the church as it stood before the 18th July 1870, propounded the far-reaching apr 2 that the decisions of an ecumenical council, to be vali id must be in agreement with the i faith of , the Catholic people and with theological science. The hope was ceo expressed of a reunion with the Greek Oriental Church and a nal under- standing with the Protestants. Old Catholic eon- gregations began to be formed in different towns of Bavaria and the Rhine country. In 1872 the Old Catholic priests in the German empire num- bered about thirty. The Archbishop of Utrecht in July made a tour in Germany, holding religious service in Protestant churches and confirm the children of Old Catholics. At a secon con at Cologne, 1872, Professor Friedrich declared that the Old Catholic movement was now directed not merely against papal infalli- bility, but ‘against the whole papal system, & system of errors during a thonsand years, which had only reached its climax in the doctrine of infallibility.’ Déllinger, the leader of the move- ment which led to the formation of the new OLDENBARNEVELDT OLDHAM 593 communion, at first disapproved of the establish- ment of a new sect, but ultimately approved of the action of his friends. Yet till his death he never formally joined the community. At Cologne in 1873 Professor Reinkens of Bres- lau was Peng om of the ae organ = re ancient ion, by ‘clergy and people ’—by e Old Catholic priests and by representatives of the Old Catholic ions. He was consecrated at Rotterdam by the bishop of Deventer, and formally acknowledged by the governments of Prussia, Baden, and Hesse. The Bavarian government declined to forbid Bishop Reinkens holding con- firmations in their kingdom. The third congress at Constance in 1873 was taken up with ‘synodal and communal ions,’ and with projects towards union with other Christian confessions. There were numerons guests present, An i Russian, and German Protestant clergy. the basis of the decrees of this congress the first Old Catholic Synod was held at Bonn in 1874, being composed of thirty priests and fifty-nine laymen. pine bees down en sar for reforms in general, a auricular confession and compulsory fast- ing, and appointed two commissions to draw up a new ritual in the — tongue, and to frame a Catechism and a Bible History. A formula of ment drawn up at another conference of 1875 failed to command assent of Easterns or Angli- cans. The third and fifth congresses (those of 1876 and 1878) permitted priests to marry, and yet fulfil all ministerial functions, in spite of Jansenist tests. After 1875 the numbersdeclined. In 1878 ere were in Germany 52,000 Old Catholics; in 1890 some 30,000, in 79 congregations. In Switzer- land (where a theological faculty was established at Bern in 1874 and a bishop consecrated in 1876) there were in 1890, 53 priests and 45,700 members (against 73,000 in 1877). In Austria there were in 1891 about 10,000, mainly in Bohemia. In 1896 a new bishop, Dr Weber of Breslau, was consecrated in place of Dr Reinkens, who died in January of that year. The Jansenist Archbishop of Utrecht still co-operates with them; but the communion is nowhere growing in numbers or influence. The movement in France headed by Pére Loyson came to little ; see HYACINTHE. See DoutincEr; Miss Scarth’s Story of the Old Catholic and Kindred Movements (1883) ; an article in the Church Quarterly, vol. xix. (1884-85); Déllinger and the Papacy, in the Quarterly (1891); works on Old Catholicism by Forster (1879), Biihler (1880), Beyschlag (1882), and Reinkens (1882), Oldenbarneveldt. See BARNEVELDT. Oldenburg, a erg of northern Ger- many, consisting three istinet and widely separated territories—viz. Oldenburg Proper, the pality of Liibeck, and the principality of irkenfeld. Total area, 2508 sq. m. (less than Devonshire); pop. (1890) 354,968, Oldenburg Proper, ecompri ths of this area, is prises bounded by the German Ocean and Hanover. hag eld are the Weser, the Jahde, and the , Vehne, and other tributaries of the Ems. The country is flat, belonging to the great sandy plain of northern Germany, sad consists for the most part of moors, heaths, marsh or fens, and eon tracts. The occupations are mainly agrieul- tural, with some iron-working, fisheries, and ship- ping; there is also a little wool-spinning and linen- weaving, The pmax eed of Liibeck, consisting of the secula: territories of the former bishopric of the same name, does not contain the city (north of which it lies), and is surrounded by the duchy of Holstein. Its area is about 200 sq. m. The prtecipality of Birkenfeld (q.v.) lies among the wage Mountains, in the very south of Rhenish Prussia, by which it is surrounded ; its area is 192 square miles, Oldenburg is a constitutional ducal monarchy. The constitution, which is upon that of 1849, revised in 1852, is common to the three pro- vinces, which are represented in one joint chninbae: Each principality has, however, its special provin- cial council. The grand-duke has a civil list of £12,570, besides private revenues, Oldenburg became an independent state in 1180. The family that then established its power has continued to-rule to the present day, giving, moreover, new dynasties to the kingdom of k, the empire of Russia, and the king- dom of Sweden. the death, in 1667, of Count Anthony Gunther, the wisest and best of the Oldenburg rulers, his dominions fell to the Danish reigning family, and continued for a century to be vale by viceroys nominated by the kings of Denmark. This union was, however, severed in 1773, when by a family compact Christian VII. made over his Oidenbu territories to the Grand- duke Paul of Russia, who represented the Hol- stein oe branch of the family. Paul having iven up Oldenburg to his cousin, Frederick- ugustus, of the younger line of the House of Old- enburg, the emperor raised the united Oldenburg territories to the rank of a duchy. For a time the duchy was a member of Napoleon’s Rhenish Con- federation. The Liibeck territories were added in 1803; Birkenfeld at the Con, of Vienna, when Oldenburg became a -duchy. The grand- duchy concluded in 1 a treaty with Prussia, by which the grand-duke renounced his clainis to the Holstein succession. See SLESwIcK-HOLSTEIN. leasantly situated miles WNW. of family. Oldenburg is the seat of an active river- trade, and is noted for its great cattle and horse fairs. P. (1875) 15,701; (1890) 21,646. See Runde’s O/denburgische Chronik (3d ed. 1863). Oldenburg, Henry, a native of Bremen, born in 1626, was consul for~his native city in London during the ges of the Long Parliament and the protectorship of Cromwell. Besides being tutor to Lord Henry O’Brien and Lord William Caven- dish, he was elected one of the very first members of the Royal Society, and, as assistant-secretary, edited its Transactions from 1664 to 1677, main- taining an extensive correspondence with Spinoza, Leibnitz, ee and many other learned men of the age. ilton also knew him, and addressed him in the Zpistole Familiares. Oldenburg died at Charlton, near Greenwich, in August 1678. Oldham, a parliamentary, municipal, and county borough of Lancashire, on the Medlock, 7 miles NE. of Manchester, 5 SSE. of Rochdale, and 38 ENE. of Liverpool. It has grown since 1760 from a small village, such growth being due to its proximity to the Lancashire coalfields and to the marvellous extension of its cotton manufac- tures. It has nearly 300 mills, with more than 12 million spindles, which consume one-fifth of the total imports of cotton from abroad ; and the other manufactures include fustians, velvets, silks, hats (once a leading industry), cords, &c., besides huge weaving-machine works, one employing 7000 hands. The town-hall (1841) is a good Grecian edifice, enlarged in 1879 at a cost of £29,000; and there 594 OLDHAMIA OLD RED SANDSTONE are the lyceum (1854-80), a school of science and art (1865), public baths (1854), an infirmary (1870-77), and the Alexandra Park of 72 acres (1865). Oldham received its charter of incorpora- tion in 1849. It was enfranchised by the Reform Bill of 1832, and returns two members, the parlia- er borough (which extends into Ashton- under- _ parish) covering 19} sq. m., the muni- ipal only 7%. Pop. of the former (1881) 152,513 ; the latter (1801) 12,024; (1841) 42,595; (1881) 111,343 ; (1891) 130,463. Oldhamia, a genus of fossils of unknown affinities met with in the Cambrian system. Old- hamia assumes various forms, sometimes consist- ing of short radiating branches or umbels, which spring at regular intervals from a central thread- like axis; at other times the branches radiate in all directions from a central point. Some pale- ontologists have supposed the fossil to be a Ser- tularian zoophyte’; others have referred it to the polyzoa; while yet others think it may be a sea- weed. Possibly it is not a fossil at all, but merely an inorganic structure. Oldhaven Beds. See Eocene System. Oldmixon, Joun (1673-1742), author of dull histories of England, Scotland, Ireland, and America, and of works on logic and rhetoric, is known chiefly as one of the heroes of Pope's Duneiad. Old Mortality. See PATERSON ( Roper). Old Point Comfort, a village and watering- pee of Virginia, at the mouth of James River,on ampton Roads, is the site of Fortress Monroe. . Old Red Sandstone and Devonian System, the name given to certain series of strata that are intermediate in age between the Silurian and Carboniferous systems. These, known respec- tively as ‘Old Red Sandstone’ and ‘ Devonian,’ are nowhere seen together, but the one is believed to be the equivalent of the other. Old Red Sandstone. —This series, which underlies the Carboniferous system, was so called to distin- guish it from another set of red sandstones which rests upon the Carboniferous strata, and was for- merly known as the New Red Sandstone (see PERMIAN, and Triassic). In the British Islands the Old Red Sandstone is confined to Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. In Scotland it comprises two groups of strata, the upper resting unconformably on the lower. The dower group attains a great thickness (20,000 feet as a maximum), and con- sists of coarse red, y, brown, and purplish and sometimes yellowish sandstones, gray flagstones, clays, and shales, coarse conglomerates, and loca 8 of limestone-and cornstone, Associated with these strata are interbedded lavas (porphyrites, diabase, &c.) and tuffs, which in some regions (Sidlaws, Ochils, Pentlands, Cheviots, Ayrshire, &e.) reach several thousand feet in thickness. The fossils of the Lower Old Red Sandstone consist chiefly of fishes and crustaceans and badly-preserved plants, which are mostly lycopodiaceous, In Lanark- shire a thin bed of shale in the group has yielded a few Upper Silurian fossils. The upper group comprises sandstones, clays, conglomerates, and breccias, the sandstones in some areas being gray, yellow, or white. Few fossils occur, and are chiefly the remains of ganoid fishes. In Arran the group contains a limestone which has yielded marine Carboniferous fossils. In some places this p upwards conformably into the lower member of the Carboniferous system. In Wales the Old Red Sandstone appears to graduate downwards into the Upper Silurian, and to be likewise conformable with, the overlyin Carboniferous strata. In Ireland, as in Scotland, there appears to be an unconformity between the. upper and lower groups of the series, the former Spreqnicens iy uy wards oy the Carbonifer- ous, and the latter (‘Glengariff Grits’) graduating downwards into the U Silurian, In Scotland the Old Red Sandstone strata are developed chiefly in the Lowlands, but here and there they rise to considerable elevations, They flank the Paleozoic strata of the southern up- lands and the Highlands, and are probably more or less continuous und the overlying Carbon- iferous strata throughout the whole breadth of central Scotland. Other wide areas occur in the lower basin of the Tweed, along the borders of the Moray Firth, in Caithness, Orkney Islands, Xe. In Wales the Old Red Sandstone is well pak eg in the,region watered by the Usk and the Wye. In Ireland it is met with chiefly.in the west and south-west. Devonian.—In Devon and Cornwall we meet with a very different series of strata occupying the same stratigraphical position as the Old Sand stone. The Devonian strata pass up conformably into the Carboniferous system, but the base of the series is not seen, so that the relation of the strata to the Silurian is not known. The English Devonian probably does not exceed 10,000 or 12,000 feet in thickness. It consists of three groups (Lower, Middle, and Upper), the rocks being prin- cipally gray and brown slates, brown, yellow,. red, and purple sandstones, grits, conglomerates, calcareous slates, and limestones. The caleareous members of the series are generally well cl with fossils of marine. types, and are developed chiefly in the middle group. Devonian rocks occupy wide areas at the surface on the Continent. They eupeee in the north of France, and extend from the Boulonnais eastwards through Belgium to Westphalia. In northern Russia they extend over more than 7000 miles, and crop up along the flanks of the Urals. But the areas ex to view probably bear but a small roportion to those which lie buried underneath ater formations. In central Europe the strata have the general as of the English Devonian, and contain relics of the same marine fauna, In Russia the strata are remarkable for showing alter- nations of calcareous and arenaceous rocks—the former of which contain an assemblage of fossils of a Devonian facies, while the latter are charged with the remains of a fish fauna resembling that of the Scottish Old Red Sandstone. It may be noted that voleanie rocks are here and there associated with the Devonian strata of central Europe. In North America both types of strata appear; the arenaceous type occurring in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, while the Devonian type is met with inthe state of New York and t Aree region, and is largely developed in the Mississippi in. Life of the Period.—Fucoidal markings are not uncommon in the Devonian strata, but land-plants rarely occur, These latter, however, are met with now and again in the Old Red Sandstorie, more especially in that of Nova Scotia and New Bruns- ea mp ah * eet one small herbaceous ferns, lycopods (lepidodendroids), great horsetails (Calamites), and sigillarioida. The vege- tation would thus appear to have been for the most. part flowerless, Here and there, however, remains of | conifers have been detected. Among the lower forms of life that swarmed in the seas of the ae were rugose and tabulate corals, Of the ormer the most characteristic were Cyathophyllum, Cystiphyllum, Calceola, &e,, while the honeyeomb corals ( Pavosites) are the most common of the tabu- late forms. Echinoderms abounded, especially erin- oids (Cupressocrinus, Cyathocrinus) and pentrem- OLD RED SANDSTONE OLEANDER 595: ites. Trilobites, which formed so marked a feature in the life of the Silurian seas, were now reduced in number and variety—among the more notable forms being Phacops, Homalonotus, and Bronteus. Some of tle eurypterids (most of which are small) attained a large size, one of these (Pterygotus) ing 5 or 6 feet long. They occur chiefly in the Old Red Sandstone. From the same strata in North America have come the remains of insects— neuropteroid and orthopteroid wings of ancestral forms of May-fly, &c. Myriopods have also been re- ised. iopods are among the most common Devonian fossils ; indeed this group appears to have reached its maximum development in the seas of that period, Very characteristic forms are Uncites, Strin: us, and Rensseleria. Lamellibranchs were well represented, some of the notable genera being Pterinea, Megaledon, Cucullea, Avicula, &e. The marine gasteropods call for no particular men- tion, for they belong chiefly to types which had come down from earlier Paleozoic times. One may note, however, that the earliest pulmonates (Snails, &c.) come from the Old Red Sandstone. The ight Orthoceras and other old genera of br continued to flourish, but coiled forms (Clymenia, Goniatites) began to predominate. in Devonian times. From the Old Sandstone chiefly come the remains of numerons ganoid fishes —a yroup feebly represented in existing waters. Among these are the Pangea Cephalaspis, Pteraspis, Pterichthys, and tens, and the lepidoganoids Cee, Diplopterus, Holopty- chins, Acanthodes, The largest placoga- noi was thé Dinichthys of North America—the armoured head of which was 3 feet in length. According to Dr Newberry, this fish was probably not less than 15 feet long, ‘encased in armonr, and provided with formidable jaws, which would have severe the body of a man as easily as he _ off lage sic er forms (such raging and possibly Phaneropleuron) appear to have rela- tions with the Saodaca fap 43 (Ceratodus) of Australia. It is obvious that in the Old Red Sandstone and Devonian we have two distinct types of sedimenta- tion ; the two series must have accumulated under different physical conditions. The Devonian strata are unquestionably of marine origin, while the Old Red Sandstone beds are believed to have been deposited in large lakes or inland seas. Hence we meet with the latter in a few more or less isolated basins, byt aes = former rte = oxo pe regions. From the geographi istribution of the marine Devonian in Barope we gather that durin the period in question the sea covered the south o England and the north-east of France, whence it extended eastwards, occupying the major portion of central Europe, and sweeping north-east.through Russia, and how much farther we cannot tell. North of that sea stretched a wide land surface, in the hollows of which lay great lakes and inland seas, which seem now and again to have communi- eated with the ocean. It was in these broad sheets of water that the Old Red Sandstone strata were accumulated. Several of these old lakes in Scot- land were traversed by lines of volcanoes, the relies of which are seen in many of the hill-ranges of the central and southern regions of that country. Vol- canie action also at the same time manifested itself in some of Germany, but on a smaller scale apparently than in the Scottish area. The land, as we have seen, was clothed for the most with a monotonous flowerless vegetation, but large pinesgrew on the higher and drier uplands, whence they were ccnnthoaalis carried down by rivers to the lakes and seas. Very little is known of the terres- trial animal life of t riod ; most of the fossils met with in the lacustrine sediments of the period consisting of the remarkable ganoids and eury- pterids already referred to. These (the fishes especially ) appear to have abounded in the lakes, whence, however, they now and again descenced by the rivers to the sea. The general facies and the geographical distribution of the life of the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone are suggestive of genial climatic conditions. Some geologists, how- ever, have thought that the coarse breccias and conglomerates which occur in the Old Red Sand- stone may be indicative of somewhat cold condi- tions ; for these masses have often quite the aspect of morainie accumulations. It is ible, there- fore, either that local glaciers may have existed-in certain regions, or that the temperature may have been lowered for some time over wider areas. However that may be, the presence of the Devonian fauna in the Arctic regions seems to show that the temperature of the ocean must have been more equable in Devonian times than it is now. Old Sarum. See Sarum. Old Style. See CALENDAR. Oldys, WiL11AM, an industrious bibliographer, was a natural son of Dr Oldys, Chancellor of Lincoln, and was born in 1696. The most of his life was spent as bookworm and bookseller’s hack. He suffered by the South Sea Bubble, lost the property left by his father, and when he died (April 15, 1761) left hardly enough to decently bury him. For about ten years Oldys acted as librarian to the Earl of Oxford, whose valuable collection of books and MSS. he arranged and catalogued, and by the Duke of Norfolk he was ps Norroy King-of-arms. His chief works The British Librarian (1737, anonymously); a em of Sir Walter Raleigh, prefixed to Raleigh's iwtory of the World (1738); The Harleian Mis- cellany (8 vols. 1753), besides many miscellaneous literary and bibliographical articles, Oleacex, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, with opposite leaves, and flowers in racemes or panicles. Nearly 150 species are known, mostly natives of temperate countries. Among them are the olive, lilac, privet, phillyrea, fringe tree, &c. Between some of these there is a great dissimilarity, so that this order is apt to be rded as a very heterogeneous group ; but the real affinity of the species composing it is manifested by the fact that even those which seem most unlike can be grafted one upon another, as the lilac on the olive. Bitter, astringent, and tonic properties are prevalent in this order. Oleander (Nerivm), a genus of plants of the natural order Apocynaces. The species are ever- green shrubs wish Jontheey leaves, which are oppo- site or in threes; the flowers in false umbels, terminal or axillary. Tle Common Oleander (XN. oleander), a native of the south of Europe, the north of Africa, and many of the warmer temperate parts of Asia, is frequently planted in temperate countries as an ornamental shrub, and is not un- common in Britain as a window-plant. It has beautiful red, or sometimes white flowers, The English call it Rose Bay, and the French Rose Laurel (Laurier Rose). It attains a height of eight or ten feet. Its flowers give a splendid appearance to many ruins in the south of Italy. It delights in moist situations, and is often found near streams. All parts of it contain a bitter and narcotic-acrid juice, poisonous to men and cattle, which flows out as a white milk when young twigs are broken off. Cases of poisoning have occurred by children eating its flowers, and even by the use of the wood for spits or skewers in roasting meat. Its exhalations are injurious to those who remain long under their influence, particularly to those who sleep under it. A decoction of the leaves or bark is much used in 596 OLEASTER OLIBANUM the south of France as a wash to cure cutaneous ies. N. odoratum, an Indian species, has t flowers, which are very fragrant. N. pis- cidium (or Eschaltum piscidium), a perennial Common Oleander ( Nerium oleander), climber, a native of the Khasia Hills, has a very fibrous bark, the fibre of which is used in India r Ace The steeping of the stems in ponds kills sh, Oleaster. Ole Bull. See Bui. Olefiant Gas, or Erny.ene, C,H,, is the most abundant illuminating constituent in coal- gas. It may be obtained by the destructive dis- tillation of coal, but more readily by the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol, It is a colourless gas with a faint odour, but little soluble in water or alcohol. It may be liquefied by cold and pressure. With air it forms a powerfully explosive mixture, which, on being burned, yields water and carbonic acid gas. When mixed with an equal volume of chlorine, and kept cool and in the dark, the two unite, with the production of drops of an oily iquid called Duteh Liquid (q.v.). Olefines. See Hyprocarpons. Oleic Acid is one of the acids present in olive, almonil, and other oils, in which it is united to glycerine. At temperatures above 57° (14° C.) it exists as a colourless limpid fluid, of an oily con- sistence, devoid of smell and taste, and (if it has not been ex to air) exerting no action on vegetable colours. At 40° (4°4° C.) it solidilies into a firm, white, crystalline mass, and in this state it undergoes no change in the air; but when fluid it readily absorbs oxygen, becomes yellow and rancid, and exhibits a strong acid reaction with litmus paper. It is very difficult to obtain the acid in a state of purity, in consequence of the readiness with which it oxidises, It is obtained in a crude form, as a secondary product, in the manufacture of stearin canilles ; Pit when the pure acid is required a lengthy process, starting with almond oil, must be aioptad, Oleic acid forms normal (or neutral) and acid salts; but the first compounds of this class that uire notice are the normal salts of the alkalies. These are all solnble, and by the evaporation of their aqueons solution form soaps. Oleate of potash forms a soft soap, which is the chief ingredient in Naples soap; while oleate of soda is a hard soap, which enters largely into the composition of Marseilles soap. Of recent years a large number of oleates have come into use in See ELZAGNUS. e|! medicine, which depend for their activity on the remarkable ease with which they are absorbed by the skin, Such are the oleates of zinc, mercury, lead, tin, morphia, &e., which, in this form, pro- duce more rapid results than when applied as oint- ments. Olein is a compound of oleic acid with glycer- ine, and constitutes the bulk of olive-oil. ong with it are associated stearin and mitin, similar compounds of stearic and palmitic acids with glycerine. See Fars. Olenus, 4 genus of Cambrian trilobites highly characteristic of the upper members of the system. Oleograph. This is a name given to an ordinary chromo-lithograph which has been ‘roughed’ after printing, mounted on canvas, and varnished so as to imitate an oil-painting. See LITHOGRAPHY. Oleomargarine. See BurTer. Oleometer, or ELAYoMETER, an areometer or balance for ascertaining the densities of fixed oils. It consists of a very delicate thermometer-tube, the bulb being large in proportion to the stem, so weighted and graduated as to adapt it to the densities of ili leading fixed oils. On the scale is marked the principal oils of commerce, with their specific gravity opposite. The standard tempera- ture of the oleometer is 59° F, Those in general use are Gobby’s and Lefebre’s oleometers, Fisher's oil-balance, and Brix’s areometer for lighter liquids. Oléron (ane, Uliarus), an island lying 2 to 10 miles off the west coast of France, and formin part of the department of Charente-Inférieure. It 1s 19 miles long by about 5 broad, and is unusually fertile. Pop. 17,720, mostly Protestants. On Oléron are the port of Le Chateau, and the small towns of St Pierre @’Oléron and St Georges d’Oléron. The Laws or Judgments of Oléron were a code of maritime law compiled at the instance of Eleanor of Guienne before she married Henry IL of Eng- land, modelled on the Book of the Consulate o, the Sea (a maritime code regulating commerce in the Levant), but drawn from the decisions of the maritime court of Oléron, in the duchy of Guienne. It was intended for the use of mariners in the Atlantic waters, was introduced into England in the end of the 12th century and into Flanders in the 13th, The usages and decisions upon which it was based were those observed in the wine and oil trade between Guienne and the safe of England, Nor- mandy, and Flanders. An English translation was ublished as Rutter of the Sea, by T. Petyt in 1536, . INTERNATIONAL LAW. Olga, St, a saint of the Russian Chureh, wife of the Scandinavian (Varangian) Duke Igor of Kieff, who, after her husband’s death (946), governed during the minority of her son, till 955. There- after she repaired to Constantinople, and was baptised, assuming the name of Helena. Return- iny to Russia, she laboured with much zeal for the propagation of her new creed. After her death (968) she was canonised, and is now held in high veneration in the Russian Church, Her festival is held on July 21, Olib‘anum, a gum-resin which flows from incisions in several species of Boswellia, growin on bare limestone rocks in the mountains o} Somali Land and the south of Arabia. These trees send their roots to a t depth into the erevices of the rock (see WELLIA; and an exhaustive memoir on this gum-resin by Sir George Birdwood, published in the Linnean Transactions, xxvii. p. 111). Olibanum is the Lebonah of the Hebrews, Libanos or Libanotos of the Greeks, Thus of the Romans, of all which terms the ordi English translation is Frankincense (q.¥.). OLIFANT RIVER OLIGOCENE SYSTEM 597 occurs in commerce in semi-transparent yellowish tears and masses; has a bitter nauseous taste ; is hard, brittle, and capable of being pulverised ; and diffuses a strong aromatic odour when burned. It was formerly used in medicine, chiefly to restrain excessive mucous discharges ; but its use for such urposes is now rare. It sometimes enters as an ient into stimulating plasters. It is chiefly employed for fumigation, and is used as incense in Roman Catholic churches and Indian temples. Its odour is obnoxious to mosquitoes and other insects. The inner are of mene of B. c are transparent, resembling oi paper, and are used by the natives for writing on. Aden is the great port where it is chiefly received, The imports there in 1888 were 16,248 ewt. of ordinary olibanum and 3600 cwt. of that termed Mayeti, the name of the ro from which it is received in Somali Land. is is the produce of B. frereana, and much resembles Tacamahae, The exports of oli- banum from Aden in 1888 were 23,000 ewt. In India, where it is much used, the imports increase = by year, and_ reached 26,680 ewt. in 1888. e is sent to China, and about 17,000 ewt. comes to England, valued at about £41,000. Olifant River, a forked stream of Cape Colony, rises in the mountains north-east of Cape- town, and, after a north-westerly course of 150 miles, enters the Atlantic. Area of drain basin, 13,000 sq. m.—Another stream bearing the same name rises in the Transvaal, and goes east to join the Limpopo. Oligarchy (oligos, ‘few,’ and archo, ‘I govern’), aterm applied by Greek political writers to that ersion of an aristocracy in which the efforts of the dominant and ruling party are chiefly devoted to their own ndisement and the extension of their power and privileges. Ths it bears the same relation to aristocracy that despotism does to monarchy and ochlocracy to democracy. Olig’ocene System, The British strata belon to this system occur only in Hampshire, the Isle of Wight, and Devonshire. The series is as follows : marine 3% Bemerince Beps: maris and limestone; fresh-water below, estuarine above, About 110 feet. 2. Ostonye Beps: fresh-water clays, marls, sands, and lime- stone. About 10) feet. 1. Heapow Bens: variable series of clays, marls, sands, and Se Se the upper fresh-water. Alnat 60 tee ics 4; Usually inelnded as Oligocene are the lacustrine beds of Bovey Tracey in Devonshire, consisting of sands and clays with + ad Between the basalt- beds that compose the denuded plateaus of Antrim and the Inner Hebrides (Mull, &c.) oceur thin — of clay and lignite—the so-called leaf-beds— which are probably of the same age. Foreign Equivalents.—Oligocene strata, chiefly of fresh- and brackish-water origin, but containing intercalations of marine beds, overlie the Eocene of the Paris basin and that of Belgium. They like- wise a in Germany, where they fori the oldest Tertiary deposits—no Eocene having yet been detected in that region. The German Olixo- cene is mainly of fresh-water origin in its lower and upper portions, while marine deposits predominate in the middle of the series. It is noted for its beds of lignite or brown coal. In Switzerland the Oligocene attains a thickness of several thousand feet, chiefly conglomerates and sandstones, known as Molasse, and mostly of fresh-water origin; the portions, however, are marine and brackish- water, Other areas of fresh-water Oligocene more or less notable are met with in Alsace, Breisgau, and Wiirtemberg. In Auvergne, central France, lacustrine deposits of the same age are well developed, each like most of the Oligocene strata, have yielded great numbers of organic remains. Life of the Period.—The flora of Oligocene times was abundant and varied. Palm-trees (Sabal, Flabellaria), both large and small, seem to have grown over all Europe. Amongst conifers were various American ty (Libocedrus, Chamecy- paris, Sequoia, Taxodium) and other forms, such as Glyptostrolus, like G. heterophyllus of Japan and China, Widdringtonia, a genus now found only in South Africa and Madagascar. There were also proteaceous plants (Dryandra) of Australian affinities, and species of custard-apple, gum-tree, spindle-tree, maple, acacia, mimosa, lotus, aralia, camphor-tree, cinnamon-tree, evergreen oak, laurel, &e., besides such familiar forms as birch, horn- beam, elder, elm, poplar, walnut, &c. Evergreens were the prevalent forms. The invertebrate fauna needs but little notice. Amongst notable molluscs were volutes, cowries, olives, cones, spindle-shells, &e. Cerithium a 2 yrgerrerang he plentiful in the estuaries of eral ge iod ; while Jamellibranchs were well represented by modern types of marine and fresh-water habitats. Amongst the birds common in Europe were paroquets, trogons, marabouts, cranes, flamingoes, ibises, pelicans, eagles, secretary- birds, sand-grouse, Ke. At the beginning of the iod many mammals of extinct types lived in urope, such as Palwotherium and Anchitherium, survivals from the Eocene; certain transitional forms of ungulates, such as Cainotherium (a small animal somewhat resembling the living chevrotains in outward ap nee), Xiphodon (a slenderly . built deer-like animal ), and Anoplotherium (a long- tailed animal about the size of an ass, with two toes on each foot); various tapiroid animals, small rhinoceroses, Hyzenodon (a carnivore), also forms of a civet, martin, mole, musk-rat, &e. Physical Conditions,—During Oligocene times a wide land surface appears to have extended over all the British area. the region lying between what is now Antrim and the west coast of Scotland great fissure-eruptions took place, and sheet after sheet of basalt was poured ont, so as eventually to form broad plateaus that extended northwards beyond Skye. In the intervals between successive eruptions these plateaus became clothed with vegetation, the debris of which has been here and there preserved in the deposits of shallow lakes that dotted the surface of the volcanic country. It is probable that at this time there was land- connection between Europe and North America by way of the Faroe Islands and Iceland, in both of which tracts similar basaltic plateaus occur, containing intercalated layers of lignite, &c. like those of Antrim and the Western Islands of Scotland. The Oligocene strata of the south of England and the Franco-Belgian area are evidence that the sea or estuarine waters which occupied that region in Eocene times (see EocENE SysTeEM) were gradu- ally silted up. In Germany there existed great fresh-water lakes, fringed by wide marsh-lands and by dense forests of a subtropical character. As the lakes became partially silted or dried up vegetation encroached upon their deserted beds, only to be buried under fresh accumulations of sand and mud when the water had again risen. That these lakes were now and again in direct communication with the sea is shown by the occurrence of thick layers of marine origin intercalated amongst the fresh-water beds. For some time, indeed, the lacustrine areas were entirely usurped by the sea, which may have entered them from submerged regions in the east of Europe. In Switzerland, in like manner, we have evidence of changing con- ditions, At first the sea covered a considerable 598 OLIGOCLASE OLIVE portion of the country, but eventually it dis- appeared, and its place was taken by a series of brackish-water lagoons and fresh-water lakes. The x S053 accumulated in those lakes now form con- siderable mountains at the base of the Alps (Rigi, Rossberg). In central France, as in Germany, lacustrine conditions were characteristic of the period, one or more lakes having occupied a considerable area in Auvergne. nm) southern Europe the Mediterranean had withdrawn from wide regions which were deeply submerged by it in Eocene times, but it still covered a more extensive area than at present. The climate of the Oligocene period was uniformly genial, but hardly so tropical ~~ that of the preceding period. See EOCENE YSTEM. Oligoclase. See Ferspar. Olinda, a city of Brazil, 4 miles NE. of Per- nambuco. Pop. 8100. Oliphant, LAvRENcE, traveller, novelist, and — was born in 1829, son of Sir Anthon Oliphant, Chief-justice of Ceylon. In early yout he travelled with Jung Bahadur to Nepal, and after his return was admitted a member of the Scottish bar, and later of the English bar at Lincoln’s Inn. His first work, A Journey to Khatmandu (1852), was followed by The Russian Shores of the Black Sea (1853), the fruit of his travels in Russia in 1852, He next became private secretary to the Earl of Elgin, Governor-general of Canada, whom later he accompanied on his special embassy to China, thus finding material for his books Minnesota and the Far West (1855) and A Narrative of the Earl of Elgin’s Mission to China and Japan in 1857-59 (1860). In 1861, while acting as Chargé d’Affaires in Japan, he was severely wounded by assassins, and consequently pomgne his post, From 1865 to 1868 he sat in -parliament for the Stirling burghs. Having become profoundly influenced by certain peculiar religious opinions, he renoun London society, joined for a time the community of 'T, L. Harris (q.v.) in the United States, and finally settled at Haifa (q.v.) in Palestine. He died at Twickenham, December 1888. The religious opinions of his ‘zine, ally appeared in succession in Blackwood’s Maga- hough these are of somewhat various merit, in all of them the peculiar talent of the writer is marked, They are rich in the minute detail which is dear to the womanly mind ; have nice and subtle insights into character, a tlavour of quiet humour, and frequent traits of delicacy and pathos in the treatinent of the gentler emotions. It was, however, by the Chronicles of Carlingford (first ‘published in Blackwood’s, 1861-64) that her reputation asa novelist was first secured. In the first of them, The Doctor's Family, the character of little Netty, the heroine, vivities the whole work, and may rank as an original creation. The next in the series, Salem Chapel, perhaps indicates a wider and more vigorous p than is to be found in any other of her wor Certain of the unlovelier features of English dissent, as exhibited in a small provincial community, are here graphically sketched, and skil- fully adapted to the purposes of fiction. After more than forty years of novel-writing Mrs Oliphant’s Borin showed no decadence; she retained to the t the art of interesting her readers; there was still the same fidelity to truth in the minor details of her novels. A civil list pension of £100 was con- ferred upon her in 1868. She resided at Windsor for many years before her death, June 25, 1897. Her other works include Agnes (1865); Madonna Mary (1866); The Minister’s Wife (1869); John and Three Brothers (1870); Squire Arden (1871); Ombra 1872); A Rose in June (1874); Phabe Junior (1876); Primrose Path (1878) ; Within the Precinets (1879); He that Will Not when He May (1880); In Trust (1882); The Ladies Lindores and It was a and his Lass (1883); Hester, The Wizard’s Son, and Sir Tom (1884); Madam and Two Stories of the Seen and Unseen (1885); House Divided against Itself (1886); A Country man and The Son of his Father (1887); The Second: Son and Joyce (1888); Neighbours on the te Lady Car, and A Poor Gentleman (1889); The D [ and Kirsteen (1890), Her more important contribu- tions to a literature have been Life of Edward Irving (1862) ; Historical Sketches of the Reign v Aides Memoir of Florence later years he gave to the world in Symp (1886) and cae fad Religion (1888), as well as in his novel Masollam (1886), while they already formed the background of his earlier novel, A/tiora Peto (1883). liphant, when he subjected his intellect to occultism, brought a bright career to an abrupt conclusion, and flung away a rare literary endowment. His Piccadilly (1870) was a book of altogether exceptional promise, bright with wit, delicate irony, and, above all, individuality ; but its promise was never fulfilled. : Cther books of Oliphant’s were The Transcaucasian Campaign under Omar Pasha (1856); Patriots and Filibusters (1860); The Land of Gilead (1881); T'raits and Travesties, Social and Political (1882); The Land of Khemi (1882); Haifa (1887); and Epi. in a Life of Adventure (1837). See his Life by Mrs Oliphant. Oliphant, Mrs MARGARET (née WILSON), one of the most distinguished of modern female novelists, was born in 1828 at Wallyford, near Musselburgh, Midlothian. In 1849 she pub- lished her first work, Passages in the Life of Mrs Margaret Maitland, which instantly won attention and approval. Its most distinctive charm is the tender humour and insight which regulate ite exquisite delineation of Scottish life and character at once in their higher and lower levels. This work was followed by Caleb Field (1850), Merkland (1850), Adam Graeme (1852), Harry Muir (1853), Magdalen Hepburn (1854), Lilliesteaf (1855), and Katie Stewart (1852), The Quiet Heart (1854), Zaidce (1855), the last three of which origin- Principal Tulloch Yh of Sn eA ot Motor Reign of Queen Olivarez, GASPARO DE GUZMAN, COUNT OF, Duke of San Lucar, was born January 6, 1587, at Rome, where his father was ambassador. He became the friend of Philip IV., his confidant in his amours, and afterwards his prime-minister, in which capacity he exercised almost unlimited power for twenty-two ee Olivarez showed ability for government; ut his constant endeavour was to wring money from the coun that he might carry on wars ge Portugal, France, and the Netherlands. is attempts to rob the ae a of their time- hononred privileges provoked insurrections in Catalonia and Andalusia, and roused the Portn- guese to shake off the Spanish yoke in 1640. | But the continued ill-suecess of the arms of Spain at length thoroughly roused the nation, and the king was obliged to dismiss his favourite in 1643. He was ordered to retire to Toro (Zamora), and died there, 22d July 1645. See De la Rocea, Histoire du Ministére du Comte-Duc d’ Olivares (1673). Olive (Olea), a genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order Oleacese, having opposite, evergreen, leathery leaves, which are generally entire, smooth, and minutely sealy. The general character of the = OLIVE 599 us is well illustrated by the accompanying eut. The species are widely distributed in the warmer temperate parts of the globe. The Common Olive (0. Europea), a native of Syria and other Asiatic countries, is in its wild state a thorny shrub or small tree, but through cultivation becomes a tree of 20 to 30 feet high, destitute of spines. It attains a prodigious age; some plantations, as those at Terni, in Italy, are supposed to have existed from Common Olive (Olea Europea), Branch in Flower: a, ripe fruit; b, section of same showing stone. (Bentley and Trimen.) the time of Pliny. Some trees in Turkey are credited with an age of 1200 years. There are two Yarieties of the common olive, one having narrow, willow-like leaves, gra mn above and silvery below. In the other the leaves are similar in ail respects, only much broader. The latter has also much the larger fruit of the two, but the oil it yields is rank and coarse to the palate, and is rarely used on the Continent out of Spain, in which country it is the variety chiefly cultivated. The narrow-leaved variety is preferred by the French and Italian olive-growers, the more bland and agreeable oil from which is better appreciated, especially by the British. Olive-oil may be said to form the cream and the butter of Spain and Italy, as it takes the place of those ee gear of milk in the cookery and table uses of those countries. Being highly nutri- tious, it is also regarded as more wholesome than animal fats in warm climates. The finest quality of olive-oil is obtained from’Tuscany. The oil is con- tained in the —T part of the fruit—not in the stone—from which it is extracted by pressure. The fruit when ripe is crushed to a paste. It is then put into woollen bags and subjected to pressure moderately. Thus is obtained in considerable quantity the finest quality of oil, which is named ‘Virgin Oil.’ The pulp is then moistened with water and sole pressed, the result being an oil of inferior quality, yet oe fit for table purposes. A further residue of oil is extracted from the ulp after it has been steeped in water ; but it is ote fit for soap-making and other manufacturing purposes (see OILs, and Corron-srEp O1L). Unripe olives are pickled both for consumption in the countries in which they are grown and for exportation to other countries. The best pickled olives come from Genoa and Marseilles to England, but quantities are also imported from Languedoc, Leghorn, and Naples. y are eaten abroad before meals as a whet to the appetite, and in England at with wine to restore the palate and as a digestive. Dried olives are also used for the same purposes, as well as pickled olives. The wood is much prized by cabinet-makers, being beautiful in colour and grain, and capable of - taking a fine polish; that of the root is most in demand for the making of snuff-boxes and orna- ments, The olive has been cultivated in the East from the remotest times, is associated with much mythi- cal lore, and has been regarded in all ages as the bounteous gift of heaven, as the emblem of peace and plenty, and the highest reward that could be iven to the honourable and the brave. The area evoted to olive-culture in Italy is stated at about 2} million acres, and the total production of olive- oil is some $0 million gallons. The olive is also largely cultivated in Turkey and the Levant, in Morocco and Tripoli, as wel as Spain; and some attention is being peel to its culture in South Australia. It grows luxnriantly in Chili, whither it was brought by the Spaniards. Jesuit missionaries introduced it into Mexico in the 17th century, and into California, where it grows freely. It has also been grown in Florida and other southern states. The culture of the olive has been attempted in Eng- land, but without success. Against south walls it lives, with slight protection in winter, in the a a of London, and in the same way it produces fruit in exceptionally favourable seasons in Devonshire ; but it is generally unsuited to the British climate. Even in those countries in which its culture may be profitably pursued the tree is somewhat fastidious as to soil, aspect, and position. It does not succeed well in elevated situations, pre- fers sloping ground facing and not far removed from the sea, and thrives t in caleareous soil. It is very generally propagated by suckers, but where great care is bestowed on it inarching is practised, It bears an alundant crop only once in several years, There are other species of Olea more remarkable for the hardness and usefulness of their timber than for their fruits. O. verrucosa, O. capen- sis, and O. laurifolia, natives of the Cape of Good Hope, are small trees or shrubs with wood of such density and toughness as to rival in strength and durability iron itself, and they are all named Iron- wood by the colonists. The fruit of some of these is eatable. The fruit of O. americana is also eat- able. The Fragrant Olive of Japan and China— O. (Osmanthus of some) fragrans—is a handsome shrub with sweet-scented flowers, which are said to be used by the Chinese for flavouring some kinds of tea. See A. T. Marvin, The Olive: its Culture in Theory and Practice (San Francisco, 1888); and United States Consular Report (1890). Olive, Princess, the title assumed in 1820 by an impudent pretender, Mrs Olivia Serres, who claimed to have been born at Warwick on 3d April 1772, the granddaughter of the Rev. Dr Wilmot, her mother being his only daughter, her father Henry Frederick, Duke of Cumberland, the young- est brother of George ILI. In 1791 she had married John Thomas Serres, painter, but had separated from him in 1803; and between 1805 and 1819 she had published ten trashy volumes of poetry and fiction. She resembled the royal family, and found some people ready to believe her to be really Prin- cess of Cumberland and Duchess of Laneaster ; but she died in poverty, within the ‘rules’ of the King’s Bench, in November 1834, Lavinia, the elder of two daughters by her husband (there seems to have been at least one son by someone else), married Anthony Thomas Ryves, the adopted son of William Combe (‘Dr Syntax’), only, however, also to separate, She died 7th December 1871, five years after a jury, in Ryves and Ryves v. the Attorney-general, had decided that Olive Serres was not the legitimate daughter of the Duke of ‘600 OLIVENITE OLSHAUSEN Cumberland, and that eighty-two documents pro- duced in evidence were forgeries. See the Life of John Thomas Serres (1826), Motes and Queries, passim ; and an article by E. Walford in the Gentleman's Magazine for August 1873. Olivenite, a mineral, consisting chiefly of arsenic acid and protoxide of copper, with a little phosphoric acid and a little water. It is generally of some dark shade of green, sometimes brown or yellow. It is found along with different ores of copper in Cornwall and elsewhere. It is often erystallised in oblique four-sided prisms, of which the extremities are acutely bevelled, and the obtuse lateral edges sometimes truncated, or in acute double four-sided pyramids; it is sometimes also spherical, kidney-s aped, columnar, or fibrous, which latter variety is known as wood-arseniate, and is greenish gray in colour. Olivenza, a fortified town of Spain, near the Portuguese frontier, 20 miles SSW. of Badajoz. Pop. 7759. Oliver, the comrade in arms of Roland (q.v.). Olives, Mount or, called also Mount OLIVET, a limestone ridge, lying north and south on the east side of Jerusalem (q.v.), from which it is sep- arated only by the narrow Valley of Jehosaphat. It is called by the modern Arabs Jebel-al-Tér, and takes its familiar name from a magnificent grove of olive-trees which once stood on its western flank, but has now in great part disappeared. The road to Mount Olivet is through St Stephen’s Gate. Immediately beyond, at the foot of the bridge over the brook Podren, lies the Garden of Gethse- mane ; and the road here parts into two branches, northwards to Galilee, and eastwards to Jericho. The ridge rises in three principal summits, that to the north being 361 feet above Jerusalem (2725 above the sea), the central summit, crowned with a village (Olivet proper), 286, and the third summit on the south 46 feet. David fled from Absalom by way of the Mount of Olives, which was also the seene of the idolatrous worship established by Solomon. The northern peak is the supposed scene of the appearance of the angels to the dis- ciples after the resurrection, and is remarkable in Jewish history as the place on which Titus formed his encampment in the expedition against the fated city of Jerusalem. But it is around the central peak, which is the Mount of Olives properly so called, that all the most sacred associations of Christian history converge. On the summit stands the Church of the Ascension, on the site of a eliurch built by St Helena; and near it are shown the various places where, according to tradition, our Lord wept over Jerusalem, where the apostles composed the apostles’ creed, where our Lord taught them the Lord’s Prayer, &e. Near the Chureh of the Ascension is a mosque and the tomb of a Mohammedan saint. Olivetans, a religious order of the Roman Catholic Church, whose full title is the Congrega- tion of Our Lady of Mount Olivet. They are an offshoot of the Benedictine Order (q.v.), and were founded in 1313 by Giovanni Tolomei, a native of Siena, and professor of Philosophy in the university of that city, who believed himself to have been miraculously cured of blindness. The order was confirmed by pope John XXIL., and Tolomei was chosen the first general. Olivine, See Curyso.ire, Igneous Rocks. Olla Podri‘da (lit., ‘putrid pot’), a Spanish national dish, consisting of flesh, fresh and salted, poultry, vegetables, &c., well seasoned with pepper and garlic, and stewed together in a closed pot. The terin is applied figuratively to literary produc- tions of very miscellaneous contents. The French uivalent is pot-pourri, and the Scotch hotch- py both of which, bat especially the former, are also employed in a figurative sense. Ollendorf's Sretem, a method of learning languayes, invented by H. G. Ollendorf (1803-65), and designed for those who teach themselves, The yrammars are meant to give the student a mastery of the conversational forms of the language, gram- matical rules being few. Ollivier, OLtvier Emit, French statesman, was born at Marseilles on 2d July 1825, and, having studied law at Paris, began to practise as an advocate in that city. By clever pleading he established a reputation at the bar, and after ‘ise acquired influence as a member of the Legislative Assembly. In 1865 the vieeroy of Egypt appointed him to a high juridical office in that country. But he still took an active interest in French polities, and in January 1870 Napoleon IIL. charged him to form a constitutional ministry. But the real authority of the ministers was practically nil. Ollivier was an bier 5 tool in the hands of the Imperialists. * With a light heart’ he rushed his country into the war with Germany, himself to be overthrown, after the first battles, on 9th August. He withdrew to Italy. Ollivier has written books on Lamartine (1874) and Thiers (1879), and L’ Eqlise et VEtat au Concile du Vatican (2 vols. 1879), Principes et Conduite (1875), Nouveau Manuel de Droit Ecclésiastique Frangais (1885); and_ his L’ Empire Libé (vol. i. 1894) was an apol for his administration, and an attempt to throw the blame of the war wholly on Germany. Olmiitz, a fortress of Moravia, Austria, on the March, 129 miles NNE. of Vienna, otable are the 14th-century cathedral (restored 1887); the churely of St Maurice (1472), whose organ has 48 stops and 2342 pipes; the noble town-hall, with a steeple 255 feet high; the archiepiscopal palace ; and the lofty Trinity column on the Oberring. The former university (1581-1855) is reduced to a theological faculty, with over 200 students and a library of 75,000 volumes. The trade is more im- arse than the manufactures. Pop. 20,176. Imiitz, which in 1640 was superseded by Briinn as the capital of Moravia, suffered severely in both the Thirty and the Seven Years’ Wars. In 1848 Ferdinand I. signed his abdication here. See the local history by W. Miiller (Vienna, 1882). Olney, a pleasant little town of Buckingham- shire, on the Ouse, 11 miles W. by N. of Bedford and 10 SE. of Northampton. At the corner of the market-place still stands the house where Cowper (q.v.) lived from 1767 to 1786, writing with John ewton the Olney Hymns (1779). The place besides has memories of Scott the commentator, William Carey, and many more missionaries. Brewing and hootmaking are industries. Pop, 2347. See Thomas Wright's 7own of Cowper (1886). Olonetz, a government of Russia, bounded W. by Finland, NE. by Archangel, and 8. by Novgorod and St Petersburg. Area, 57,422 sq. m.; pop. (1883) 327,043. Forests cover 634 per cent. of the total area, Petrosavodsk is the centre of adminis- tration. Oloro t Basses-Pyrénées, on the Gave d’Oloron, 22 miles by rail SW. of Pau. It has two interesting Romanesque churehes, Pop. 7517. Olshausen, HERMANN, theologian, was born at Oldeslohe in Holstein, 2lst Angust 1796, studied at Kiel and at Berlin under Neander, and became steep at Berlin (1821), Kénigsberg (1827), and rlangen (1834). He died 4th September 1839. hy Fy 1 work was a complete commentary on the N a town in the French department of | ew Testament, completed by Ebrard and — 2 OO —— OLYMPIA OLYMPIAD 601 Wiesinger ( 1830 et seg. ; Eng. trans. 4 vols. 1847-49? rey. ed. 6 vols. New York, 1856-58). His younger brother Justus (1800-82) was a distinguished Orientalist ; and Theodore (1802-69) took a promi- nent part in the Sleswick-Holstein rising, 1848, Olym the scene of the celebrated Olympic games, is a utiful valley in Elis, in the Pelo- ponnesus, through which runs the river Alpheus. As a national sanctuary of the Greeks, Olympia contained, within a smal space, many of the choicest treasures of Greek art belonging to all periods and states, such as temples, monuments, altars, theatres, and multitudes of images, statues, and votive-offerings of brass and marble. In the time of the elder Pliny there still stood here about 3000 statues. The Sacred Grove (called the Altis) of Olympia enclosed a level space about 660 feet long by nearly 580 broad, containing the sanctuaries connected with the games. It was finely wooded, and in its centre stood a clump of sycamores, The Altis was crossed from west to east by a road called the ‘Pompie Way,’ along which all the pro- cessions passed. The Alpheus bounded it on the south, the Cladeus, a tributary of the former, on the west, and rocky but gently swelling hills on the north; westward it looked towards the Ionian Sea. The most celebrated building was the Olym- icion, or Olympium, dedicated to Olympian Zeus. t was designed by the architect Libon of Elis in the 6th century B.c., but was not completed for more than a century. It contained a colossal statue of the god, the masterpiece of the sculptor Phidias, and many other splendid figures; its paintings were the work of Panenus, a relative of Phidias. Next to the Olympieion ranked the Herwum, dedicated to Hera, the wife of Zeus and Queen of Heaven, containing the table on which were placed the garlands pre for the victors in the games. The Pelopium, the Metroum, the ten Thesauri or Treasuries, built for the reeep- tion of the dedicatory offerings of the Greek cities, the temples of Eileithyia and Aphrodite also de- serve mention. The Stadiwn and the Hippodrome, where the contests took place, stood outside and east of the Altix; the Gymuasium and Palestra were also outside and to the west. Explorations were carried on in 1875-81 by the German govern- ment at a total expense of £40,000, and threw much light on the plans of the buildings. Many valuable sculptures, bronzes, coins, and other ‘objects were discovered. The greatest find was the Hermes of Praxiteles, a most beautiful and inarvellous piece of sculpture, The results of these excavations have been published officially in Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia (5 vols. 1875-81, with a? poms ). ympic es were the most splendid national festival of ha edielens Greeks, aad were celebrated every fifth year in hononr of Zeus, the father of the gods, on the plain of Olympia. Their origin goes back far —— 776 B.C., the year in which the eustom of reckoning time by Olympiads (q.v.) began. We may, however, believe that the games hecame a truly national festival for the first time in that year. At first, it is conjectured, only Peloponnesians resorted to the Olympie games, but F sheng the other Greek states were attracted to them, and the festival became Pan-Hellenic. Originally, and for a long time, none were allowed to contend except those of pure Hellenic blood; but after the conquest of Greece by the Romans the latter sought and obtained this honour, and both Tiberius and Nero figure in the list of Roman victors. Women—with one exception, the priestess of Demeter Chamyne—were forbidden to be pres- ent, on pain of being thrown headlong from the A pgp k. -The games were held at the first moon of the summer solstice, when first throughout Elis, and then throughout the rest of Greece, heralds proclaimed the cessation of all intestine hostilities; while the territory of Elis itself was declared inviolable. The competitors were required to undergo a preparatory training for ten months in the gynmasium at Elis, an cotng the last of these months the gynmasium was almost as numerously attended as the games themselves. Much uncertainty prevails as to the manner in which the contests were distributed over the different days. Krause (Olympia, B 106) suggests the following order: On the first day the great initiatory sacrifices were offered, after which the competitors were properly classed and arranged by the judges, and the contests of the trumpeters took place; the second day was set apart for the boys who competed with each other in foot-races, wrestling, boxing, the pentathlon, the F aagpnean horse-races ; the third and principal day was de- voted to the contests of men in foot-races of different kinds (as, for example, the simple race, once over the course; the diaudos, in which the competitors had to run the distance twice ; and the dolichos, in which they had to run it seven or twelve times), wrestling, boxing, the pankration (in which all the powers and skill of the combatants were exhibited), and the race of Aoplites, or men in nical Peay pach on the fourth day came off the pentat, (contest of five games—viz. leaping, running, throwing the discus, throwing the spear, and wrestling), the chariot and horse races, and perhaps the contests of the heralds; the fifth day was set a for processions, sacrifices, and ban- quets to the victors (called Olympionikoi), who were crowned with a garland of wild olive-twigs cut from a sacred tree which grew in the Altis, and presented to ‘the assembled people, each with a palm branch in his hand, while the heralds pro- elaimed his name, and that of his father and country, On his return home he was received with extraordinary distinction : songs were sung in his praise (14 of Pindar’s extant lyrics are devoted to Olympionikoi) ; statues were erected to him, both in the Altis and in his native city; a place of honour was given him at all public spectacles; he was in general exempted from public taxes, and at Athens was boarded at the expense of the state in the Prytaneion. The ulation of the games belonged to the Eleans, from whom were chosen the hellanodikai, or judyes, at first two in number, but latterly ten or twelve. Theodosius I. pro- hibited the games in 394 A.D. Theodosius II. ordered the buildings, which had suffered at the hands of the Romans and of various Byzantine Emperors, as they afterwards did from Goths and Slavs, tobe burnt, Olympic games( including bieyele races) were in a fashion revived at Athens in 1896; theathletescoming, however, from France,Germany, and elsewhere, as well as from Greek territories. See Krause’s Olympia (1838); Béotticher’s Olympia (1882) ; Baumeister’s Denkmiler ; Lalon and Monceaux, Restauration de U Olympie (1889) ; and Curtiusand Adler, Olympia die Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen (1891). Olympia, capital of the state of Washington, on a peninsula at the south end of Puget Sound, some BS miles from the Pacific Ocean, and 121 miles by rail N. of Portland, Oregon. The Des Chutes River, which enters the sound here, provides abun- dant water-power, and the town has flour and saw mills, boot-factories, &c. Pop. (1900) 4082. Olympiad, the name given to the period of four years that elapsed between two successive celebrations of the Olympic games, a mode of reckoning among the. Greeks apparently first em- ployed systematically by Alexandrian writers in the 3d century B.c. It is used only by writers, and is never found on coins and very seldom on inscriptions. The first recorded olympiad dates 602 OLYMPIAS OMAR KHAYYAM from the 2ist or 22d of July 776 B.c., and is frequently referred to as the Olympiad of Corebus; for historians, instead of referring to the olympiad by its number, frequently designate it by the name of the winner of the foot-race in the Olympic games belonging to that period. The first year of our present era (1 A.D.) corresponded to the last half of the fourth year of the 194th with the first half of the first year of the 195th olympiad. See CHRONOLOGY. Olympias, the wife of Philip IL, king of Macedonia, and mother of Alexander the Great. She was the daughter of Neoptolemus L, king of Epirus. She was a woman of great vigour and capacity, but was passionate, nang and ambi- tious. When Philip married Cleopatra, niece of Attalus, she left Macedonia, and she was believed to have instigated his assassination by Pausanias (337 B.c.). On the accession of Alexander she re- turned to Macedonia, and brought about the murder of Cleopatra and her daughter. Alexander treated her with respect, but he never allowed her to meddle with his political schemes. After his death she obtained the support of Polysperchon, and in 317 the pair defeated and put to death Philip Arrhidweus, the weak-minded step-brother and successor of Alexander, together with his wife Eurydice. Her cruelties soon alienated the minds of the people, whereupon Cassander besieged her moh dep and on its surrender put her to death, 316 B.C. Glysaplodorns, one of the latest of the Alex- andrian Neoplatonists, flourished in the first half of the 6th century after Christ, during the reign of the Emperor Justinian, Regarding his life nothin, is known. Of his writings we possess a Life @ Plato, with commentaries or scholia on the Gorgics, Philebus, Phedo, and Alcibiades I, In these he appears as an acute and vigorous thinker and as a man of great erndition.—Another Olym- piodorus, of the Peripatetic school, flourished in Alexandria in the 5th century B.c., and was the teacher of Proclus (q.v.).—A third Olympiodorus, from Thebes in Egypt, wrote in Greek a history of the western empire from 407 to 425 A.D., abridged by Photius. Olympus, the ancient name of several moun- tains or chains of mountains—e.g. in Mysia, Cyprus, Lycia, Elis, Laconia, Arcadia, and one, the most famous of all, between Thessaly and Macedonia. lts eastern side, which fronts the sea, shows a line of vast precipices, cleft by ravines filled with forest trees. Oak, chestnut, beech, and plane trees are scattered along its base, and higher up grow forests of pine, as in the days of the old poets of Greece and Rome. Its highest peak is 9750 feet above the sea. It was regarded by the ancient Greeks as the chief abode of the gods, and the ng of Zeus was supposed to stand upon its yroad summit. According to Greek legend it was formerly connected with Ossa, but was separated from it by an earthquake, allowing a passage for the Peneus throngh the narrow vale of Tempe to the sea. The philosophers afterwards transferred the abode of the gods to the planetary spheres. Om is a Sanskrit word which, on account of the mystical notions that even at an early date of Hindu civilisation were connected with it, acquired much importance in the development of Hindu religion. Its original sense is that of emphatic or solemn affirmation or assent. Later it became the auspicious word with which the spiritual teacher to begin, and the pupil had to end, each lesson of his reading of the Veda. And nlti- mately (as equal to Aum) it came to be regarded as an abbreviated method of naming the ‘Hindu Trinity. In the Lamaist form of Buddhism the ‘formula of six syllables,’ Om mani padme hum, which is variously interpreted, is the most solemn aud sacred of invocations ; is the first thing taught to Tibetan and Mongolian children, the last prayer breathed by the dying man. It is found engraved on rocks, flags, and praying-wheels,-and is looked on as the essence of religion and wisdom, and the means of attaining eternal bliss. Omagh (Gael. a magh, ‘seat of the chiefs’), the county town of Tyrone, on the Strule, 34 miles S. of Londonderry and 110 NNW. of Dublin. It grew up around an abbey founded in 792, but is first heard of as a fortress in the end of the 15th century, when it was forced to surrender to the English. It formed part of James I.’s ‘ Plantation’ grants, and was strongly garrisoned by Mountjoy. On its being evaenated by the troops of Jamieke in 1689 it was partially burned, and a second fire in 1743 completed its destruction. But it has been well rebuilt, and is now a neat and prosperous town. Pop. (1881) 4138; (1891) 4039. Omaha, thie chief city of Nebraska, the seat of justice of Douglas county, is on the right bank of the Missouri River, at the convergence of several important railway lines, 490 miles by rail W. of Chicago, and 476 miles N. by W. of St Louis. Lat. 40° 16’ N. ; lon. 95° 56’ W. The site of Omaha is a plateau 80 feet above the river, which is spanned by wagon- and railway-bridges, one of the latter 2750 feet in length and erected at a cost of $1,250,000, The city covers an area of 244 sq.m. Among its institutions are 2 cathedrals and over one hundred other churches, a university, a college, a hall for girls, a medical college, a state institution for the deaf and dumb, and a free public library. There _ are also 6 hospitals, with accommodations for 700 patients; a United States court-house and post- office building, costing $1,600,000; a county court- house; a high-school louse, costing $250,000; 9 national banks, 8 state banks, and 2 savings-banks ; a chamber of commerce and exposition pen There are 140 manufacturing concerns, with a capi- tal of $22,000,000, ppg ee Pye persons and pro- ducing is valued at $80,000,000 per year, and 170 wholesaling houses, with a capital of $9,000,000, Omaha is said to the largest silver-smeltin; works in the world, epee an annual output ld, silver, copper, and | valued at $22,000,000, fits meat-packing industries are also of vast propor- tions, the several establishments having an aggre- gate capital of $11,000,000, and employing per- sons. A belt-line railway encircles the city, and here are the principal shops of some of the main lines that centre here. Dail pers and many other periodicals are published here. Pop. (1870) 16,083; (1880) 30,518 ; (1890) 140,452; (1900) 102,555. Omahas, » tribe of American Indians, of the Dakota stock, settled in northern Nebraska, and numbering about 1200, Oman, the most eastern portion of Arabia, a strip of maritime territory, extending between the Strait of Ormuz and Ras-el-Had, bounded on the SW. by the deserts of the interior, At a distance of from 20 to 45 miles inland a chain of mountains runs lel to the coast, Tt 6000 feet in Jebel Akhdar. There are some richly fertile tracts in this region, especially where water exists for irrigation. he coast is hot and not v: healthy. This part of Arabia is under the of the sultan of Muscat (q.v.). Omar. See CALIF. , Omar Khayyam, the astronomer-poet of Persia, was =. at Nishapur, the capital of Khorassan, about the middle of the 11th century, and took his takhallus or poetical name. Nig 8 yam,’ from his father’s calling of tent-maker, He bd OMAR PASHA OMICHAND 603 was bronght up under the great Sunni teacher, Imam Muattik, and formed a close friendship with two of his fellow-pupils, Nizim-ul-Mulk and Hassan-ibn-Sabbah, of whom the one became vizier to the sultan Alp-Arslan, and the other founded the sect of the Assassins. Omar himself had an offer from his old friend of a place at court, but accepted instead a yearly pension of 1200 gold jieces. He, however, obeyed the summons of alik Shah to Merv, and during his sultanate helped to reform the calendar. The result was the Jaldli erva—‘a computation of time,’ says Gibbon, ‘which surpasses the Julian, and approaches the accuracy of the Gregorian style.’ To appease the odium theologicum that he had roused against him- self he is said to have made the pilgrimage to Mecea; and he died in 1122 at Nishapur, where the north wind, as he predicted, still scatters roses on his tomb. Of some mathematical treatises by him in Arabic, one on algebra has been edited and translated by Woepke (Paris, 1851); and it was almost solely as a mathematician that he was known to the western world, until in 1859 Edward FitzGerald (qv) 7 ore his ‘translation’ of seventy-five his Rubdiydt or quatrains. The poet of Agnosti- cism, such was Omar Khayyam, though some in his poetry see nothing save the wine-cup and roses, and others read into it that Sufi mysticism with which, indeed, it was largely adulterated long after Omar’s death. He was a true poet; yet his fate has been that of the man in the story who lost his shadow, to find it years afterwards grown toa nobleman, through whom he perished. _ For FitzGerald’s translation is so infinitely finer than the original that the value of the latter is such mainly as attaches to Chaucer's or Shake- speare’s prototypes. There are editions of the Rubdiydt by Nicolas (464 quatrains; Paris, 1867), Monbir Muhammad Sadik Ali or 4 800 quatrains; Lucknow. 1878), and E. H. field (253 quatrains ; Lond. 1883), who also trans- lated them into very literal English verse {ieee} A i translation by Justin H. M‘Carthy (1889) has ittle to recommend it. See an article Professor E, Cowell in the Calcutta Review (January 1858), and vol. iii. of Fitzgerald's Letters and Literary Remains (1889). Omar Pasha, Turkish general, was born at Plaski, in Croatia, in 1806 (according to some authorities, in 1811). His real name was Michael Lattas; he was educated for the Austrian army at the military school of Thurn, near Carlstadt. Having by a breach of discipline rendered himself liable to punishment, he fled to Bosnia, and, embracing Moham ism, gained through his beautiful br ere’ the post of writing-master to Abdul-Medjid, the heir to.the Ottoman throne. On his pupil’s accession in 1839 Omar Pasha was raised to the rank of colonel, and in 1842 appointed mili- tary D, aptasins of the Lebanon. In 1843 he dis- played considerable skill and energy in suppress- ing an insurrection in Albania, and in the following ears others in Bosnia and Kurdistan. On the vasion of the Danubian Tiger roy by the Russians in 1853 Omar Pasha collected an army of 60,000 men, and, crossing the Danube in presence of the enemy, intrenched himself at Kalafat, where he successfully withstood the Russians; after they withdrew from the Principalities Omar Pasha entered Bucharest in triumph in August 1854. On 9th Febrr 1855 he embarked for the Crimea, and on the 17th of the same month repulsed with ear loss 40,000 Russians who attacked him at wether He was soon afterwards (October 3, ¥ ) sent fa rh fs chaand cs one ee tem was c to paci nia ot a ~ommmll a which were redid an Brain tion. This being accomplished, he attacked the Montenegrins, captured Cetinje, and overran the country in 1862. He died 18th April 1871. Ombre (through the Fr. from Span. hombre, ‘man’), a game of ecards borrowed from the rab and usually played by three persons, though sometimes by two and by five. The game is played with 40 cards (the eights, nines, and tens having been removed ), and each player receives nine cards, three by three. Omdurman. See Knartoum, Manni. O'Meara, Barry Epwarp, physician to Napoleon on St Helena, was born in Ireland in 1786. He first served as surgeon in the army, but was dismissed the service in 1808 for a discreditable share in a duel at Messina. Later he entered the naval department, and was on board the Bedlero- on when Napoleon surrendered to Captain Mait- and. He pleased the great exile, and accompanied him as his private physician to St Helena. He took part with Napoleon in his squabbles with the governor, Sir Hudson Lowe, and was imprisoned and compelled to resign his post in 1818. On his return to England he asserted in a letter to the Admiralty that Sir Hudson Lowe had dark designs against his captive’s life, and had attempted insidi- ously to corrupt himself. For this monstrous charge he was at once dismissed the service. His Napoleon in Exile (1822) made a great sensation, and is still valuable if read with caution. He died obscure in London, 3d June 1836. Omelet (Fr. Omelette), - exquisite dish Vien exquisitely prepared, an e most good things perfectly simple. Break fresh eggs (not less than two or more than five) in a basin with a pinch of salt and pepper, beat for two seconds, pour into an omelet- in which butter (1 to 2 0z.) is boiling. Stir till the mixture sets, fry till one side is brown, double over in half and serve immediately. Savoury omelets are made by adding to the eggs finely-minced herbs, ham, bacon, fish, or game. For sweet omelets use a little sugar instead of pepper in the mixture, and place a spoonful of reserved fruit on the omelet before folding over. he word is said, by Littré and by Skeat, to be derived from the Old French Alemelle (a thin flat plate), first corrupted to Amelette, then Omelette. Omen (perhaps originally osmen, for ausmen ; root, audio, ‘1 hear’); also Propicy (Lat. pro- digium for prodicium, from prodico), names given by the Romans to signs by which approaching good or bad fortune was supposed to be indi- cated. The former applied particularly to signs received by the ear Sey spoken words ; the latter, to phenomena and occurrences, such as monstrous births, the appearance of snakes, the striking of the foot against a stone, the breaking of a shoe- tie, sneezing, and the like. It was supposed that evil indicated as approaching might be averted by various means, as by sacrifices, or by the utterance of certain magic formulas; or by an extempore felicity of interpretation, as when Cesar, having fallen upon the ground on landing in Africa, ex- claimed : ‘I take possession of thee, Africa.’ Occa- sionally we read of a reckless disregard of omens ; as, for example, when P. Claudius in the first Punic war caused the sacred chickens, which refused to leave their cage, to be pitched into the sea, saying: ‘If they won’t eat, let them drink.’ The belief in omens in one form or other has existed in all s and countries, and traces of it linger in the folklore of all countries. And, indeed, there is no little philosophy in the Scotch pro- verb: ‘Them that follow freits, freits follow.’ See AUGURIES, DIVINATION, and FOLKLORE. Omentum, See PERITONEUM. Omichand, See CLive (ROBERT). 604 OMMIADES ONION Ommiades, See Cair. Omnibuses, vehicles ‘for all,’ the well-known test? conveyances. So long since as 1662 Blaise rascal, the author of the Lettres Provinciales, assisted by some noblemen, obtained a patent from the French king for the privilege of running public nes, containing six persons, each along certain streets of Paris, and preserving its own route, for five sous per passenger. For two years the scheme proved a great snecess, but the death of Pascal and other causes occasioned its disuse. The first omni- bus, built in Paris in 1820, was drawn by three horses, and soon me popular. Paris has also an excellent system of railway buses to contain eight ngers inside; the English railways have recently followed this practice, In England at the beginning of the 19th century stage-coaches were used by "sasluens men to reach London from its suburbs. “These were succeeded by the omnibuses started in London, July 1829, by Mr Shillibeer, formerly a coachmaker in Paris, and were drawn hy three horses, conveying twenty-two persons inside. Smaller and more convenient buses were introduced in 1849, which conveyed twelve passengers inside and two out. Outside seats along the centre of the roof followed in 1857, and the vehicle was sub- sequently much improved upon by Mr Miller of Hammersmith. Large omnibuses are in use in Glasgow and Manchester and other large towns, and the three-horse omnibus was re-introduced in London on the route from Charing Cross to Port- land Road. Many recent improvements have been made in the arrangement of seats outside facing forward, the greater accommodation of the in- terior, and the lightness of the vehicle. The London General Omnibus Company, founded in 1855, took over 580 omniluses.. In 1891 it liad 860 omnibuses, employing 9600 horses and 3000 men. Each ‘bus runs about 12 miles daily. The company build for their own use about 90 or’ 100 lnses annually. The average weight of an omnibus is 30 ewt., and the cost about £150. The more recent London Road Car Company, whose opposi- tion to the older company has resulted in a great reduction of fares, runs 217 buses, and employs 2619 horses. The average charge per mile by bus is less than 1d. Omnium, Jacos. See Hicarns. Omphacite (Gr. omphaka, ‘unripe grape’), a frass-green granular variety of the Pyroxenes (q.v.), one of the constituents of Eclogite (q.v.). Omphale. See Hercuces. Omsk, chief town of the Russian province of Akmolinsk, stands at the contluence of the Om with the Irtish, 1800 miles E. of Moscow. It was built in 1716 as a defence against the Kirghiz; but is now of no importance as a fortress, "at is the seat of administration for the Steppe provinces of western Asia. It has a military aculemy, a Greek and a Roman Catholic cathedral, a museum, governor’s palace, &c., and a declining trade with the ete in cattle, hides, furs, and tea. Pop, (1887) 33,847 ; (1895) 54,750. On. See HELIopo.ts. Onager. See Ass, BALLISTA. Onagracew, ONAGRARLEZ, or CENOTHER- ACE®, & natural order of exogenous plants, con- sisting chiefly of herbaceous plants, but including also a few shrubs; with simple leaves and axillary or terminal flowers. There are about 450 known species, natives chiefly of temperate climates, amon which are some munch cultivated for the beauty o their flowers, particularly those of the genera Fuchsia, Enothera (Evening Primrose), Clarkia, and Godetia. The British yenera are Epilobiam (Willowherb) and Circwa (Enchanter’s Night- shade). A few species produce edible berries, and the roots of one or two are eatable; but none are of economic importance. The root of Isnarda alternifolia, found in the marshes of Carolina, and called Bowman’s Root, is emetic. Some s of Jussiwa are used in dyeing in Brazil. One’ga, a seaport in the north of Russia, stands at the point where the river Onega empties into the White Sea, 87 miles SW. of Archangel. It is entered by about 120 vessels annually of a gross burden of 21,000 tons. Pop. 2547. Onega, Lake, in the north of Russia, after Ladoga, to the north-east of which it lies, the largest lake in Europe, is 50 miles in greatest breadth, 146 miles in length, and 1000 feet in depth in parts. Area, 3764.sq.m. It is fed by numerous rivers ; but its only outlet is the river Swir, which flows south-west into Lake Lad The northern end is studded with islands eal. deagly indented with bays. The shores in other parts are flat and low and lar. Although the water is iee-bound generally for 156 days in the year, the lake is the scene of busy traffic at other seasons. Communica- tion is promoted by a canal ent lel to the southern shore. Fish abound. rages are fre- uent at times. Surveys were completed in 1890 or a canal to connect Lake Onega with the White Sea; it will be 145 miles long, 10 feet deep, and 63 wide, and is expected to cost only £800,000, the greater part of the distance being along natural waterways, Oneglia, a town on the Gulf of Genoa, 3 miles NE. of Porto Maurizio by rail. Pop. 7286. Oneida Company. See PeRFEecTIONIsTs. @Oneidas (Indians). See Iroqvors. O'Neil, Hucu. See Tyrone (EARL oF). Onion (Fr. ofgnon, from Lat. unio, ‘a pearl, but-in Columella signifying a kind of onion), the name given toa =a —, of the genus Allium (q.¥.), an rticularly to A. (Lat. cepa), a tennial buthonaceationd plant. The bulb Se ahem le, and in the common variety is solitary, showing little tendency to produce lateral bulbs. “The native country of the onion is shrouded in obscurity. It is supposed to be indigenous to India, whence it into Faypt, where it was cultivated 2000 years before the Christian era. Thence po was transmitted to Greece and Italy, anc uall spread over Europe, in most countries of which it has been cultivated from time immemorial. onion contains a white acrid volatile oil, holding sulphur in solution, albumen, uncrystallisable sugar ait gern ee phosphoric acid, both free and com- bined with lime, acetic acid, citrate of lime, and lignin. The acrid qualities, while present in every part of the plant, are inost concentrated in the bulb, When it is cultivated in warm countries the acri- dity decreases, while the saccharine qualities in- crease ; hence the comparative mildness of Spanish and Portuguese onions. So mild and sweet are these that the peasantry of Spain and Portugal eat them raw with bread. Indeed, the onion forms a very important article of food with the poor of those countries. It is very nutritious and easily ot yet does not with all stomachs when cook otherwise than bojled. In boiling, the essential oil is dissipated and the onion thereby rendered more agreenble to delicate stomachs. The onion is stimulant, dinretic, expectorant, and rubefacient. The acid of the juice has the reputation of dis- solving calenlns in the bladder. The pulp of the bulb by fermentation is converted into vinegar, and with the addition of dregs of beer yields by distilla- tion an aleoholic liquor. The pulp of roasted onion with olive-oil forms an excellent anodyne and emol- lient poultice to suppurating tumours. There are ONKELOS ONTARIO " 605 many varieties of the onion in cultivation in Britain, which have been obtained by natural seminal varia- tion and by careful selection. In recent years t has been made by these means in the diree- tion of increasing the size of the bulb, and there are now varieties which under good cultivation surpass even the large Spanish onion of the sho in size, but they lack the delicate flavour of t latter. There is great diversity in the keeping ualities of the bulbs of the different varieties. Those having small, compact bulbs keep best and for the longest time. By a oy wa selection of sorts home-grown onions may be had either green or matured all the year round. The Tripoli Trebon and White Lisbon are sown in August to supply green onions in spring; and if transplanted from the seed-bed to rich ground at that season they grow to very large size by September, when they reach maturity. James's Keeping, Strasburg, and Brown Globe are varieties which keep long and are sown in Feb and March for the main crop. The onion delights in rich, moist soil deeply trenched ; when very large bulbs are desired it is hardly possible to overdo the ground with manure. When the crop ripens, which is known by the central leaves ceasing to grow and the lower ones going to decay, the bulbs are taken up and spread out thinly on a dry surface in the open air till they are quite dry ; they are then stored in a loft where, in mild weather, they may have plenty of air but be pro- tected from frost and damp.—The Potato-onion, so called because it reproduces itself und und by division of the bulb, is a nnial variety of the onion which also bears the names Egyptian and Ground Onion. It is much favou by 3, in Scotland Vn von A legend that it was first brought to Britain by the British arm from t in 1805 is without foundation, as it was cultivated long before that time in the country. Pickling onions are usually obtained by sowing the small silver-skinned variety on poor soil in spring. The Tree-onion, so named because, instead of producing seeds after flowering, the ovaries deve viviparous bulbs by which the plant is propagated, is rarely cultivated except as a cnriosity. The Welsh Onion, or Cibol (A. Jistulosum), produces no bulb, but merely a fleshy stem like the leek. It is a native of Siberia, and being ‘very hardy was formerly grown in gardens to supply green onion tops in spring for salads and the flavouring of soups and sauces. Being rather coarse in flavour, however, it has been superseded by the milder flavoured kinds, which are sown in August. It is the true syboe of the Scotch, al- though the term has come to be applied to green or young onions of whatsoever kind. Onkelos, the reputed author of an Aramaic Targum of the Pentatench. See TARGUM. Onomacrritus, 4 religious poet of ancient Greece, lived at Athens in the time of the Pisis- tratide. He exercised t influence on the development of the Orphic mysteries, and col- lected the prophecies or oracles of Musius (q.v.), bmt was banished by Hipparchus for falsifying them. He followed the Pisistratide into Persia, and was by them induced to repeat to Xerxes all the ancient yb that seemed to favour his invasion of Greece. He helped to arrange the Homeric poems, and is suspected of having introduced interpolations into the text of them. Cromstepeia, a term used in philology to denote the formation of words in imitation of natnral sounds, as in cuckoo, pee-wit, and the like. See PurLoLocy. Onondagas. See Inoquors. ; pmtarte, Ue easternmost and smallest (7240 sq. m.) of the five great lakes of North America, receives at its sonth-west corner the waters of the upper lakes by the Niagara River, and at its north-east corner it issues into the St Lawrence. Its surface, which is subject to periodieal variations (4 to 7 years) of about 34 feet, and which it is attempted to explain on the supposition of there ing a subterranean river out of the lake, is 3263; feet below the surface of Lake Erie and 246,%; feet above the ocean-level. Its mean depth is about 300, its maximum depth 738 feet. It is 190 miles long, 55 in its widest part, and over 500 in ei rence. It has many thriving ports, of whieh the chief are Kingston, Coburg, Port Hope, Toronto, and Hamilton on the Canadian shore, and Sackett’s Harbor, Oswego, and Char- lotte in the United States. It is connected with Lake Erie by the Welland Canal, with the Erie Canal and river Hudson by the Oswego Canal, and by the Rideau Canal with the Ottawa; and in 1890 a ae agin (69 miles) was projected, to connect this lake with Lake Huron. Lake Ontario is subject to violent storms, and it is robably owing chiefly to the constant agitation of its waters that it freezes only for a few miles from the shore. The shores are generally very flat, but the ~~ of Quinte, near Kingston, a long, crooked arm of the lake, which stretches —_ 50 ae possesses some attractive scenery. Burlington Bay, on which Hamilton lies, is Pig ka here alinost enclosed by a natural bank of sand, which forms a beautiful drive. See Crosman’s Chart (1888). Ontario, the most populous and wealthy pro- vince of the Dominion of Canada, is bounded NE and E. by Labrador and Quebee, SE., 8., and SW. by the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes, N. by St James’ Bay, and NW. and W. by Keewatin and Manitoba. Area, 222,000 sq. m.; pop. (1881) 1,923,228 ; (1891) 2,114,321. The province extends from about 74° 50 to 95° W. long. The surface is generally undulating, and there are no elevations of any considerable height. The Laurentian Hills run westward from the Thousand Islands near Kingston, and extend north of Lake Simcoe, form- ing the coasts of Georgian Bay and Lake Huron. In the middle of the province the high land forms a watershed, separating the rivers flowing into the Great Lakes from those entering the Ottawa and the St Lawrence. The principal rivers of Ontario are tributaries of the Ottawa, which forms part of its north-eastern boundary. The St Lawrence forms the boundary of the eastern portion of the province, dividing it from the United States. Bounded by the Great Lakes, among its smaller lakes are Simeoe, Nipissing, Nipigon, and many others. Ontario is largely an agricultural country, and its resources are very great. Immense crops are raised of all the beset of a temperate climate, and in the south-west corner of the pro- vince Indian corn is a regular crop, and grapes, peaches, and tomatoes are grown and ripen in the open air. In addition to arable farming, stock- raising, dairy-farming, and fruit-growing are im- portant industries. In minerals the country is also rich. Iron is found in many parts; copper, lead, plumbago, apatite, antimony, arsenic, gypsum, marble, and building-stone are abundant; there are also gold and silver deposits—the latter very extensive in the country along the shores of Lake Superior and west to the Lake of the Woods. The nickel deposits at Sudbury are probably the most extensive in the world. The petroleum-wells, in the south-west part cf the province, are yielding immense and apparertly inexhaustible supplies ; the same may be said of the salt-wells on the shores of Lake Huron. Largely owing to the fayourable position which the province occupies with regard to water-power—although steam-power is established to a large extent, coal being obtained 606 ONTARIO OOSTERZEE without difficulty by means of the lakes, from Pennsylvania, and also from Nova Scotia—the manufactures are numerous and abrndant. The principal manufactures are agricultural im- plements, iron and wood ware, wagons and carriages, railway rolling-stock (including locomotives), cot- tons and wonlienny leather, furniture, flax, ordinary iron and hardware, paper, soap, woodenware, c. The most thickly populated of Ontario more nearly resembles England than any of the other colonies. There is only one lar city, Toronto, which contains nearly 200,000 inhabit- ants; but smaller cities and towns, such as Ottawa (44,000 inhabitants), Hamilton (43,000), London (27,000), Kingston (17,000), Guelph (11,000), St Catherine’s (11,000), Brantford (13,000), St Thomas, Peterborough, Port Hope, Woodstock, Galt, Lind- say, Paris, and Port Arthur, are scattered all over the province, and are usually manufacturing or agricultural centres. The farms in these districts are well cultivated and fenced, with houses as a rule superior to those found in Great Britain. Ontario has a perfect network of railways (between 5000 and 6000 miles), which has proved of great advan- tage in the development of the manufacturing and agricultural industries ; and in summer it is supple- mented by the means of transport provided by the lakes and by the magnificent system of canals on the St Lawrence. The revenue of Ontario is about $5,000,000, made up of subsidies and contributions from the Dominion treasury, land and lumber sales, licenses, stamps, &c. The expenditure is invariably under the revenue, and the finances of the province are in a thoroughly satisfactory condition. The value of the imports in 1889 was $42,292,819 including $24,912,245 from the United States and $14,542,782 from Great Britain. The value of the exports in the same year was $30,336,698, of which $23,449,821 went to the United States and $3,728,174 to Great Britain. The exports in 1893 (manufactured goods, agricultural products, animals and their products, timber, minerals) had a value of $33,850,783, while the imports were valued at $48,243,786. ‘The industries in 1891 produced goods to the value of $240,100,000. The school system of Ontario is admirable, and is under the control of a minister of Education, who is always a member of the Provincial Cabinet. The schools are supported by a tax on property, with state grants, and are free to all. Roman Catholics may, if they think proper, establish sepa- rate schools, and are then exempted from supporting the public schools, receiving a separate grant from government. The children attending the schools in 1887 were 493,212, out of a total school population of 611,212. There are many universities and colleges, and the facilities for higher education are. quite equal to those provided for elementary purposes. The municipal system is one of the most perfect in the world, and affords a pattern which has been followed in many other countries. The public affairs are administered by a lieutenant-governor, an executive council of eight members, and a legis- lative assembly of 93 members elected every four years, In the Dominion periienins the province represented by 24 members in the Senate and 92 members in the House of Commons, In Ontario the Protestant religious bodies predominate; the Methodists are the most numerous, followed by the Presbyterians, then by the Church of England, History.—Ontario was largely founded by the immigration of United Empire loyalists’ into Canada after the declaration of independence of the United States. It was made into a separate province and called Upper Canada in 1791 (see article CANADA). The two provinces were re- united in 1840, as the result of the disturbances in 1837 and 1838, and remained in that pales until confederation in the hse 1867, wi the province received the name of Ontario, Ontology. See Merapruysics, PHILOSOPHY. ~ Onus Probandi, i.e. the burden of proof, is often a difficult question in litigation; but as a rule the plaintiff who institutes the suit is bound to give proof of the allegations on which he relies. Onyx, an agate formed of alternating white and black, or white and dark-brown stripes of chalced- ony. More rarely a third colour of stripes occurs, The finest specimens are brought from India, Onyx is in much esteem for ornamental purposes. The ancients valued it very highly, and used it. much for cameos, many, of the finest cameos in existence are of onyx. The name onyx, however, appears to have been applied by the ancients more extensively than. it now is, and even to stri calcareous alabaster, such as is now called Onyx Marble. The Sardonyz of the ancients is a variet; of onyx in which white stripes alternate wi stripes of a dark-red variety of carnelian, called sard or sarda, It is one of the rarest and most beautiful kinds of onyx, and is more valued than carnelian. Oodeypore. See UpAirur. Oojein. See Ussarn. Ookiep. See Care Covony, Vol. Il. p. 735. @Oolachan, See CANDLE-FIsH. Oolite (Gr., ‘egg-stone’), a variety of limestone, a of spherical granules of calcic carbonate, which have a concentric and often a fibrous radiat- ing structure. In many cases these granules con- tain a nucleus or kernel of some foreign substance, such as a grain of sand, round which the snecessive layers or encrusting coats of calcic carbonate have been formed. Granules of this nature are seen forming in the springs of Carlsbad. A similar oolitic structure een observed occasionally in the coral-rock forming the surface of modern coral-reefs—which seems to owe its origin to the movement to and fro of grains of coral sand in Is or sheltered places in which the water is Righty saturated with carbonate of lime, derived from the decomposition of dead coral. The coarser varieties of oolite are termed Peastone or Pisolite.— For Oolite as the name for a group of strata, see JURASSIC SYSTEM. Oonalashka, See ALEUTIAN IsLANDs. Oori, Limpopo, or CrocopiLE River, a river of south-eastern Africa, has its sources in heart of the Transvaal, between Pretoria and Potchefstrom, describes a = curve to the north, and. joins the Indian Ocean a little north of Del Bay. Its course exceeds 800 miles, and it numerous tributaries, the most_important being the Olifant from the right. The Lim has been ascended 50 miles by steamboat; but its upper reaches are obstructed by rapids and falls. Oosterhout, a Dutch town in North Brabant, 6 miles NE. of Breda, with sugar-factories, tan- yards, breweries, potteries. Pop. (1893) 11,001. Oosterzee, JAN JAKOB VAN, theologian, was born in 1817 at Rotterdam, studied at Utrecht, was a pastor in Rotterdam, and in 1862 became a theo- logical professor at Utrecht, being the leader of the Evangelical school in Holland. He died 29th July 1882, He wrote many works, amongst them a Life of Christ, a Christology, a work on John’s Gospel (in German); commentaries on Luke and’ the Pastoral Epistles in er Commentary ; also a Theology of the New Testament (1867; Eng. trans. 1870, 4th ed. 1882); Christian (1872; trans. 1874); Moses (trans. 1876); Practical Theology (trans. 1878). ey a ae OOTACAMUND OPAL 607 Ootacamund, or UTakaMAnp, the chief town in the Neilgherry Hills (q.v.), the principal sanatorium of the ras Presidency, and the summer headquarters of the governor of Madras. It stands on a plateau, in an amphitheatre sur- rounded by hills, 7228 feet above the sea, 350 miles from Madras city, and 24 from the nearest railway station on the Madras line. There are a public library (1859), the Lawrence Asylum (1858) for the children of British soldiers, and botanical ens. The mean annual temperature is 58° F. The first house was built in 1821. Pop. 12,335. 0 a term technically applied to some kinds of deposits found covering the bottom of the deeper parts of the sea. It is not only the depth of the water, but the distance from the land which deter- mines oceurrence of ooze. As we from the shore out to sea we find a succession of deposits, shingle, sandy mud, mud—all derived from the land; but at a distance varying from 60 to 300 nautical miles from the shore, and at a depth of 2000 feet or more, lie the various oozes, which consist of the remains of numerous small at vena isms, but especially of the shells of Foraminifera, A whitish deposit, containing enormous numbers of Globigerina shells, which in dying have sunk from the surface, is very widely distributed till depths of about 2000 fathoms are approached. There the es ooze wanes ants and is replaced in the deeper regions by so-called ‘red clay.’ At the surface above there are of course here as elsewhere abundant Foraminifera which still doubtless sink, but the physical conditions of the t depths are such that their shells are dissolved in falling. But in certain of the dee parts—e.g. at 4575 fathoms—the Challenger explorers found another kind of ooze, com of the flint shells of Radiolarians. Besides this, in other regions the shells of Pteropods and Diatoms are alundant enough to form a characteristic ooze. It is to be understood, however, that the various oozes (Globigerina, Radiolarian, Pteropod, Diatom, &e.) into one another, and that the names usually express simply the predominance of one or other kind of shell, and also that the colours— white, yellow, brown, and red—mainly denote the portion in which the ‘red clay’ is present. The tter owes its colour to the oxides of iron and manganese, and is composed of disintegrated mate- rials of volcanic origin, such as pumice, and also of meteoric dust. These, after being carried by winds and floated on ocean currents, sink and are distributed at the bottom. But as to the ooze in the strict sense, it ought also to be noted that the _ dead or dying organie material, which the rain of these organisms brings to the bottom, serves as the fundamental food-supply of deep-sea animals, while the shells not only accumulate as ooze, but aid in the elevation of submarine voleano tops to the level at which corals can grow. Finally, the results of the ooze of incaleulably distant ages are seen in the chalk cliffs often obviously composed of Foraminifera, or in such Radiolarian deposits as Barbadoes Earth. See CHALK, D1AToms, Foram- INIFERA, GLOBIGERINA, PTEROPODA, RADIOLARIA, SEA, and the on ypex OO of the Challenger Reports by Murray and ard, Opacite, name given by petrologists to minute black, opaque, amorphous aaipeasien, grains, and patches of indeterminate mineral matter, which are seen in many igneous rocks when these are viewed in thin slices under the microscope. Opa- cite is probably in most cases hematite, limonite, ite, or other iron oxide, and is a product of the chemical alteration of one or other of the el na mineral constituents of the rock in which occurs. @Opah, or Kinc-risn (Lampris luna), a fish of the family Coryphznidz or ‘ Dolphins,’ order Acanthopterygii. The body is compressed laterally and deep, and is covered with small deciduous seales. The cleft of the mouth is narrow, and there are no teeth. The dorsal fin is single and has no spinous portion; the pectoral and ventral fins are falciform and of nearly equal length. The tail is forked. The lateral line has a strong curve behind the head, and becomes straight about mid- way between the eye and the root of the tail. This fish is beautifully coloured; the back is bluish green ; the sides violet, becoming red underneath ; round or oval silvery spots are scattered all over the body ; the fins and tail are deep scarlet. It is found only occasionally near shore. It prefers the deeper waters of the North Sea, being found off —_— —— - Opah (Lampris luna). Norway, the British Isles, Ieeland, Newfoundland, and jally near the Azores and Madeira. It is rare in the Mediterranean, and has not heen recorded off Greenland or east of the North Cape in Norway. Specimens have been caught measur- ing 6 feet in length ; one of 4 feet 5 inches weighed 140 Ib. The flesh is red or yellowish in colour, and is excellent to eat. Its food, so far as is known, consists of cuttle-fish and other cephalopods. Other names applied to it are Sun-fish (a name also applied to Orthagoriscus and to the basking shark), because it comes to the surface of the water in calm weather, Sea-pert, Carf, and Jerusalem Haddock. Opal, a mineral which differs from quartz in containing generally 3 to 10Q—in some cases only 1, in others as much as 21—per cent. of water, its only other essential constituent being silica, although a little alumina, oxide of iron, &e. is often present. The water is readily driven off on the application of heat, and some opals contain so small a propor- tion of water that they might be described simply as jelliform rs Not infrequently minute scales or plates of tridymite (a crystallised variety of silica) are present in opal. The latter is never found crystallised, and does not exhibit a erystal- line structure like quartz. It has a conchoidal fracture, and is very easily broken. There are many varieties, which pass into one another, so that their precise limits cannot be defined, from which has arisen no little confusion of names, The finest kind is called Precious Opal or Noble Opal, and sometimes Oriental Opal. It is semi-trans- parent or translucent, usually of a bluish or yellowish white colour, vellow by transmitted light, and exhibits a beautiful play of brilliant colours, owing to minute fissures which refract the light. It is much valued for setting in rings, brooches, &e., and is polished with a convex surface, never ent into facets, both because of its brittleness and because its play of colours is thus best exhibited. The ancients valued opals very highly. |The Roman senator Nonius preferred exile to givin up an opal to Mark Antony. This opal.was stil to be seen in the days of Pliny, who ascribes to it a value equal to more than £100,000 sterling. The 608 OPAL OPERA imperial cabinet of Vienna contains the most cele- brated opal now known to exist. It is 5 inches by 24 inches. The finest opals are almost all brought from Cerwenitza, between Eperies and Kaschau, in Hungary, where they are found disseminated as alteration-products in trachyte tuff. They are mostly very small, but even a very small opal, if really beautiful, is worth four or five pounds; and the price increases very rapidly with increase of size. Precious opal is found also in Saxony, in South America, Ke. When the colours are not ere diffused, but in detached spots, jewellers call it Harlequin Opal, There is a dark or blackish variety, epeereey tinged by oxide of iron, which occasionally exhibits very beautiful reflections, and is then much prized, Girasol (q.v.) and Cacholong (g-¥ ) are varieties of o t lapidaries call ime d’Opal is porphyrite or other igneous rock, containing many small amygdules of opal. It is cut into slabs, and made into boxes and other ornamental articles; the stone which contains the opals being often artificially blackened by boiling in oil, and afterwards exposing to a moderate heat. —Common Opal is semi-transparent, white, yellow, green, red, or brown, and does not exhibit any play of colours. It is not a rare mineral, and is chiefly found in veins and cavities or diffused (as an altera- tion-product) through the mass of various igneous rocks. Semi-opal is more opaque. Wood Opal isa petrifaction, and exhibits the form and structure of wood, the place of which has been taken by the siliceous mineral. Hyalite and Menilite are varieties of opal. Opera (Ital. Opera in Musica, Dramma per la Musica) is a drama which is sung throughout to the accompaniment of a full orchestra, The various forms of aria or song, recitative or de- clamation, duet, trio, &c., concerted piece or instrumental interlude are used as the exigencies of the situation demand. The whole is usually introduced by an introduction, vorspiel, or Overture (q.v.), and often one of the acts contains a ballet or pantomimic dance. It is a direct development from the discovery by the Florence Academy (see Music) of Monody or the musical expression of a single individuality by a single voice. As ever country, every school since 1600 has felt the fasci- nation of the art problem, and nearly every great composer has been ambitious to solve it, the opera is a universal ion, and its range is almost as wide and varied as the history of music itself. Three schools may be distinguished, Jtalian Opera is marked by its spontaneity and melodious char- acter, and even more by the honour of priority ; German Opera is the product of greater geniuses than the other two schools can boast, but lacks the continuity which makes the French school so inter- esting to the student. talian School.—The experiments in scena-writ- ing (1582-90) culminated at Florence in the first real opera, ne (1594), by Peri and Caccini, the more successful Huridice (1600), and the very advanced work of Monteverde. The new depar- ture in music soon spread its influence beyond Florence to Venice, where Monteverde spent the last thirty years of his life, and to Naples, where Alessandro Scarlatti (1659-1725) took up the work and founded the Neapolitan or ‘ beautiful’ school. Scarlatti, by the prominence he gave to melody, re Page said to be the founder of Italian opera, which to this day is noted for so-called melody in profusion, and the comparative indifference to other as important qualities, such as harmony, orchestration, and dramatic unity. No Italian work of the 18th century has survived save Cimarosa’s I/ Matrimonio Segreto (1792), which, very similar in style to Mozart's greater works, has been overshadowed by these, ‘The most famous modern Italian composer is brilliant vocal writer, whose charming Seville (1816) is a model of opera buffa, and whose serious opera, William Tell (1829), wor in style (Zrovatore, 1851; Traviata, 1853, &c. Aida (1871) shows a leaning to, and Otello (1887) cools adhesion to the — oo ne veteran com at the t; t produced still anther work, Falstaff qa Tibia German Opera.—During the 17th and early part of the 18th century the opera in southern German was purely Italian en, where Hasse supreme, and Vienna were the two centres. It was in Hamburg that the National school was founded by Keyser, who wrote (1694-1734) over 100 operas in which a high dramatic ideal is apparent. Gluck, though a German, belongs more to the school of French Grand Opera. Mozart, after beating the Italians on their own melodic ground in Jdomeneo, Die Entfii Figaro, and Don Giovanni OS eons first national romantic opera, The Magic Flute (1791). Beethoven, desiring nobler plots of a more serious and moral character than had satisfied the light-hearted Mozart, chose Bouilly’s Léonore as the foundation of his single opera Fidelio (produced 1805, rewritten 1814). The operas of Weber were eg imbued with the romanticism of the early 19th century, and in Der Freischiitz (1821) he uses the national folklore with immense effect. To this new Romantic school also belong the operas of Marschner and of a the beauty of whose music is buried, like Weber's £ nthe and Schubert’s Rosamunde, under absurd libretti. Melodrama in opera is an effective device which originated in Germany. The singer recites his part in an ordinary speaking voice aay agen by orchestral music, which seeks to convey the mean- ing of the situation and scene to the audience. Benda first used it (Ariadne, 1774), and Mozart, who heard it in 1778, was much impressed by its possibilities. The most successful example is the grave-digging scene in Beethoven's Fidelio ; Weber in Der Freischiitz and Mendelssohn in A Midsummer Night's Dream have also used it with happy effect. he French Grand Opera School is extremely important, not only on account of its prc! Fo consistence, but because at various times, for various reasons, tmen were attracted from Sin countries to it as acentre. It was founded by the Florentine a reformed by the German luck; and Italians like Cherubini, Spontini, Rossini, Belgians like Grétry, Germans like Meyerbeer and Wagner have both learned from it and contributed to its various stages of develop- ment, Lully (born 1633) arrived in Paris a boy of thirteen in the train of the Chevalier de Guise, and by his diplomatic and social, no less than by his musical talents, he gradually pushed his way to the very summit of musical success, and lived in great favour with King Louis XIV. In 1672 he obtained a patent conferring the sole right of pro ducing operas in Paris, and this monopoly he lield till his death in 1687. Musical Paris was sharply divided between his followers and those of Ramean (1683-1764), until the arrival of an Italian com- pany made them unite their ranks in opposition to the foreigners. The characteristic of this French school from its beginning was its attention to rhetoric and dramatic requirements. The treat- ment of recitative in particular has always been a feature since Lully’s time, and he it was also who invented the overture. Gluck arrived in Paris in The earlier operas of Verdi are quite Italian drama. OPERA OPHICLEIDE 609 1774, and produced his Iphigénie en Aulide and ro ape en Tauride there ; and the ideal hers by Peri and Monteverde, embodied to a considerable extent in these and other works (see GLUCK), has at last found its goal in the music drama of Wagner. Cherubini’s seriousness and nobility. of style (Les a + ee Sorat Méhul’s oe ear rie effect (Joseph, 1807), Spontini’s magnificence of concep- tion ( Vestale, 1805), and Halévy’s dramatie trut (Juive, 1835) were all ranged under Gluck’s banner, and the roll of French d opera is brought to a gorgeous close with the name of Wagner's predecessor, Meyerbeer ( Robert le Diable, 1831, Huguenots, 1836, Le P , 1843). The new blood he brought with him from the schools of Germany and Italy invigorated it, and the time was a when the experiment of Rienzi was made in 1 Other important contributions to grand opera were Auber’s Masaniello (or Muette de Por- tici, 1828) and arity Guillaume Tell ( vrsad Opéra eee (by no means comic opera) is a title applied all works which, on account of spoken dialogue, were not eligible for performance at the G 0 Grétry’s Caur de Lion (1784), Méhul’s J Boieldien’s La Dame Blanche (1825), Hérold’s Pré aux Clercs (1832), and Auber’s Le Macon, Les Diamants de la Couronne, &e. are the most famous. This Opéra Comique, so purely French, had a large share in the development of the modern lyric opera, of which Gounod’s Faust (1859), Thomas’s Mignon (1871), and Bizet’s Carmen (1875) are examples. The Ballet (entirely pantomimic) attained a very high pitch of development in Paris, where Delibes (1836-91) produced his charming Coppélia and via. Comic opera proper (Opera Buffa) is re ted in Italy by Roosini's Barbiere, Gonisettes Figlia del y (1840), and Verdi’s last great oor A (1893); in Germany by Flotow’s Martha (1847), Nicolai’s Merry Wives (1849) ; in France uffe) by Offenbach’s Orphée aux Enfers (1858), Grande (1867), &c., Le- ’s Madame Angot (1873), &c., and numberless poet bright works ; and in England worthily by the charming Gilbert-Sullivan series (Pinafore, 1878 ; Patience, 1881 ; Mikado, 1885). Music Drama is the ideal which Wagner has sought to wags 4 in Tristan und Isolde (1865), M i (1868), Ring des Nibelungen (1876), and Parsifal (1882). Rienzi (produced in Dresden in 1842) establishes his connection with the Grand va, of Meyerbeer, and in the Flying Dutchman (1843), Tannhéiuser (1845), and Lohengrin (1849) the growth of his method is distinctly seen, as well as his indebtedness to many predecessors, especi- ally, in orchestration, to ioz, Wagner seeks to make the ‘ Art Work of the Future,’ as he calls it, equally dependent on music, drama, and scenic poten sbi erd ees of none being sacrificed to the de of the other, but all contributing to one perfect unity. His influence is clearly trace- able in all modern operas—e.g. Goldmark’s Queen of Sheba, Merlin, Boito’s Mefistofele, Ponchielli’s ioconda, Verdi's Otello, &e. English Opera.—Purcell’s early work, Dido and Eneas, written at the of seventeen, his chef deuvre King Arthur (1691), and other works gave of such an English school of opera as the mes’ of Lawes and others had suggested (1613-75), but no one was ready to carry on the work after his early death in 1695 ( thirty- seven). Dr Arne’s Artaxerxes (1762), out of thirty- four operas, is the only other English opera which calls for mention. Italian opera became the fashion in London (Handel wrote forty-four, 1710-39), and England’s attention has been divided between that school — the highly inesthetic and, from an bmn toilet wD meh ming bk of Ballad tae u r Pepusch ( ars ret 1 28), until recent years, when Pe Maekencie’s Colomba (1883), Villiers Stanford’s Canterbury Pilgrims (1884), Goring Thomas’s Esmeralda (1883) and Nadeschda (1885), and lastly Sullivan’s Ivanhoe (1891) have sought to win recognition for England among the rs ap schools of opera.— — — Ne Bog into America in , in the shape of the ars ra, and Italian opera in 1825. 7 Pee articles Opera, &c., and on GiucK, Mozart, WEBER, WAGNER, &e. in this work. lass (Fr. lorgnette), a double tele- scope, used for looking at objects that require to be clearly seen rather than tly magnified, such as adjoining scenery and buildings, the performers at a theatre or opera, &c. The opera-glass is short and light, and can be easily managed with one hand. Its small magnifying power (from two to three at the most), and the large amount of light admitted by the ample object-glass, enable it to present a bright and pleasant picture, so that the eye is not strained to eae ot or = in ein of greater power, which generally show a highly-mag- nified bry faint picture. It allows the oa of both eyes, which gives to the spectator the double advan- tage, not possessed by single telescopes, of not requiring to keep one eye shut (a somewhat un- natural way of looking), and of seeing things stand out stereoscopically as in ordinary vision. The opera-glass is the same in principle as the telescope invented by Galileo. It consists of two lenses, an object-lens and an eye-lens. The object- lens is convex, and the eye-lens concave. They are placed nearly at the distance of the difference of their focal lengths from one another (see TELE- scope). The opera-glass need not be set to a precise point, as is n with ordinary terrestrial tele- scopes, for the lengthening or shortening of the in- strument does not pos so decided an effect on the divergence of the light ; the change of diverg- ence caused by screwing the opera-glass out or in is so slight as not much to overstep the power of adjustment of the eye, so that an object does not lose all its distinctness at any point within the range of the instrument. There is, however, a Laie length at which an object at a certain istance is most easily looked at. The two tele- scopes ef the opera-glass are identical in construc- tion, and are pl rallel to each other. The blending of the two im is easily effected by the eyes, as in ordinary vision. Opera-glasses have now come into such demand that they form an important article of manufacture, of which Paris is the great seat. So largely and cheaply are they produced in Paris that it has nearly a monopoly of the trade. They may be had from 2s. 6d. to £6 or £7. The cheapest opera-glasses consist of single lenses; those of the better class have compound achromatic lenses. A very ordinary construction for a medium price is to have an achromatic one lass, consisting of two lenses, and a single eye-lens. n the finest class of opera-glasses, which are called Jfield-glasses, both eye-lenses and bit ae Masse wep are achromatic. Plissl’s celebrated field-glasses (Ger. Feldstecher) have twelve lenses, each object-lens and eye-lens being composed of three separate lenses. hhicleide (Gr. ophis, ‘serpent,’ and Xle?s, oP ), a brass bass Re: seg ses apo was devel- oped from improvements on the Serpent (q.v.) about the beginning of the 19th precip © It con- sists of a conical tube having a bell like that of 610 ' OPHIDIA OPHTHALMOSCOPE the horn, a cup mouthpiece, and usually eleven holes stopped by keys like the old Kent bugle. It has the usnal harmonic (see HAR- MONICS) open notes of all brass instrumen its fundamental, never used, being an octave lower. By means of its i it has a range, including all the semi- tones, of a little over three octaves, and its music is written in the j te rt = bass clef. Alto and double-bass ophicleides have also been made, but not much used. It is much to be regretted that an instrument of such a characteristically rich tone, and capable of intonation so accurate as the ophicleide, should be allowed to tall com- pletely out of use, it being almost superseded by the simpler three- valved instruments of the Sax- horn (q.v.) type. Ophidia. See Serpents. Ophicleide, Ppblosionen, a sub-order of Filices or Ferns (q.v.), consist- ing of a few rather elegant little plants with an erect or pendulous stem, which has a cavity in- stead of pith, leaves with netted veins, and the spore-cases (theca) col- lected into a spike formed at the edges of an altered leaf, 2-valved, and with- out any trace of an elastic ring. They are found in warm and temperate coun- tries, but abound most of all in the islands of tropi- cal Asia. Several species are European, and two are British, the Botrychium lunaria, or Moonwort (q.v.), and the Common Adder’s-tongue (Ophiepioes sum vulgatum), which was at one time appre to possess magical virtues, and was also used as a vulnerary, although it seems to possess only a mucilaginous quality—on account of which some of the other species have been employed in broths, It is a very common plant in England, its abundance in some places much injuring pastures, Ophir, a region, fre- any mentioned in the ld Testament, from which the ships of Solomon, fitted out in the harbours of Edom, brought gold, precious stones, sandalwood, &e. The voyage occupied three years. Where Ophir was situated has been a much-disputed question. Arias Montanus fixed on Peru, Raleigh on the Moluccas, and Calmet on Armenia. Pro ably, however, yr was either on the east coast of Africa about Sofala, or in Arabia, or in India, but in which of the three countries is doubtful. Milton (following Purchas), Huet, Bruce (‘the Abyssinian '), the historian Robertson, Quatremére, Adder’s-tongue (Ophioglossum vulgatum), Mauch, &c. are in favour of Africa; Michaelis, Niebuhr (the traveller), Gosellin, Vincent, Winer, First, Knobel, Forster, Crawfurd, Kalisch, and Twistleton (Smith’s Dict. of the Bible), of Arabia; Vitringa, Lassen, Ritter, Berthean, Ewald, and Max-Miiller, of India. Josephus, however, it should be said, placed Ophir in the peninsula of Malacca, and his opinion has been adopted by Tennent and Von Baer. For a complete dinommion of the point, see Ritter’s ELrdkunde (vol. xiv.), eighty pages of which are devoted to Ophir. According to Ritter, who accepts Lassen’s view, Ophir was situated at the mouth of the Indus. Ophites (Gr. ophitai, from is, ‘a serpent’), a an of Gnostice, who, while they shared the general belief in dualism, the conflict of matter and spirit, the emanations, and the Demiurgos, were distinguished by giving a prominent place in their systems to the ad og Some of their divi- sions were the Sethiani, t e Naaseni ( Heb, er ‘serpent’) in Phrygia, and the Perate, who honou the ghar which tempted Eve, as having intro- duced knowledge and revolt nst the bondage of the Archon. We owe our knowledge of them mainly to Irenzus, Clement, Origen, and Hip- polytus: the last also contains an account of two other Ophite systems, that of the Sethians and of Justinus. Already in his day the sect was fast dying out, although Theodoret mentions serpent-worship as still existing in the 5th century. See Gnostics, and the books named there ; also Lipsius in the Zeitschr. fiir Wissen tl. Theol. (1863); Gruber, Die Ophiten (1864); and the Rabbi Dr Adolph Hénig’s monograph, Die Ophiten (1889). Ophitic Structure, name given by petrolo- ists to a structure seen in various crystalline igneous rocks, in which large plates of a pyroxene are penetrated and divided, as it were, into small portions, by crystals of felspar. The separated —, of the pyroxene, however, are in crystal- ine continuity, since they all possess the same optic orientation. Ophiuroidea, See BrirrLe-stars. Ophthalmia (derived from the Greek word ophthalmos, ‘the eye’) was originally and still is sometimes used to denote inflammation of the eye generally ; but it is at the present time usually restricted to inflammations of the conjunctiva or mucous coat of the eye (conjunctivitis); and to two other diseases, blepharitis tinea tarsi or ophthalmia tarsi, and errs inflammation or ophthalmia (see under EYE) Ophthalmoscope, an instrument by which the interior of the eye can be examined. It was first invented in 1847 by Charles Babbage (q.v.); but, as unfortunately the ophthalmic surgeon to whom he showed it did not recognise its importance, he laid it aside without making it generally known; and its principle had to be rediscovered by Professor Helmholtz, to whom belongs the credit of bringing it before the medical and scientific world in 1851. The value of the instrament depends on the cireum- stance that by illuminating and examining an eye in the same direction its deeper parts can be rendered visible, All forms of ophthalmoscope are adaptations of this principle. The form now generally in use resembles more that of Babbage than that of Helmholtz. It consists of a concave mirror of about 10 inches focus, 1 to 3 inches in diameter, with a small hole in the centre, and cer- tain lenses to use with it, the most important of them a separate convex lens of 24 inches focus, and 1} to4 inches in diameter. Examination is facili- tated agp the pupil of the observed eye with atropine; and for a complete examination this is often indispensable. The person whose eye is to be examined is seated in a darkened room, with a OPIE - OPITZ 611 ight light—e.g. a good gas-burner—on a level bas his eye by the side of his head. The observer sits opposite him, and placing the mirror close to his own eye, and about 18 inches from the eye to be examined, reflects the light upon the latter, while he looks at it through the hole. The pupil in a healthy eye ap of a bright red or orange instead of its usual deep black. In short-sighted and long-sighted eyes, but not in normal ones, the vessels of the retina, the entrance of the optic nerve, &c. can be more or less distinctly seen, and by their movements the deviation from the normal jon can roughly be estimated. Opacities in the lens (Cataract, q.v.) or vitreous humour appear black, and are discovered by this method more certainly and easily than by any other. The details of the retina, choroid, &c. (or fundus) can be seen in two different ways. In the indirect method the observer, seated as above described, holds the 24- inch convex lens about 3 inches from the eye under examination, between it and his own, when a clear real ioage of part of the fundus, inverted and magnified about four diameters, appears in the red light of the pupil. In the direct method the observing eye must be placed as close to the observed as the intervention of the mirror will allow, when a virtual image of a smaller of the fundus is seen, but erect and magnified about four- teen diameters. The fundus a — of an orange or red colour, varying much in di ‘erent individuals ; the blood-vessels of the retina are seen as darker red lines coursing over it. The entrance of the _— nerve, commonly called the disc, from which t vessels diverge, appears as a round area of a much paler colour. The ophthalmoscope has revolutionised this department of medicine, as most of the deeper affections of the eye, particularly of the optic nerve, choroid, and retina, were before only recognisable after the eyeball was removed from the body. Some of these affections have, moreover, important relations to general diseases —e.g. ot apd disease, diabetes, syphilis, diseases of the and spinal cord—and general medicine has benefited accordingly. The ophthalmoscope has also much facili the discovery and correc- tion of errors of refraction (short- and long-sighted- ness, Astigmatism, q.v. ; and see under EYE). fie, JouN, R.A., was born at the vill of St , 7 miles from Truro, Cornwall, in May 1761. His father, a master-carpenter, wished him to follow the same trade, but his bias for art was st ; and his attempts at portrait-painting secured the friendly help of Dr Wolcot (‘ Peter Pindar’). In 1780 he was taken to London by Dr Wolcot, and immediately came to be acknow- ledged by the fashionable world as the ‘Cornish Wonder.’ This tide of good-fortune soon ebbed, sbut not before Opie had realised a moderate com- petency. The loss of ular favour, however, only served to bring out Opie’s manly independ- ence and strong love of art, and he calmly entered on that department of painting which was then regarded as the only style of high art, namely, vege ma or meh smpetond a on a seale. His pencil was employed Boydell in his well-meant and ificent: scheme to elevate British art; he also painted a number of works in the illustration of Bowyer’s English History, Macklin’s Poets and Biblical Gallery, and other similar undertakings. His pictures of the ‘Murder of James I. of Scotland,’ ‘The Slaughter of Rizzio,’ ‘Jephtha’s Vow,’ ‘Presentation in the Temple,’ ‘ Arthur and Hubert,’* Belisarius,’ and ‘Juliet in the Garden’ are his most noted works. Opie was elected an Associate of the Royal A i 1786, and Academician in the dike year. wrote the ‘Life of nolds’ in Dr Wolcot’s edition of Pilkington’s Dictionary of Painters, and = into lifeless imitation of An Inquiry into the Requisite Cultivation of the Fine Arts in Britain ; and delivered lectures on Art at the Royal Institution. Opie was twice married. He obtained a divorce from his first wife; his second was the novelist. He died April 9, 1807, and was buried in the crypt of St Paul's, near the grave of Reynolds.—AMELIA OPIE, daughter of a Norwich physician, Dr Alderson, was born in 1769, and while very young wrote songs and tragedies, and was acquainted with Godwin, Mrs Inchbald,. Mrs Siddons, and much of the literary society of the time. She was married to Opie in 1798. In 1801 her first novel, Father and Daughter, appeared ; the following year, a volume of poems. Adeline Mowbray and Simple Tales were her next works. On her hushand’s death she returned to Norwich, and published his lectures with a memoir prefixed. She wrote also Temper, Tales of Real Life, Valentine’s Eve, Tales of the Heart, and Madeline. Having been long acquainted with the Gurneys, Mrs Opie became a Quaker in 1825, and afterwards published Illustrations in Lying, Detraction nae a and articles in period- icals, but no more novels. She died at Norwich, 2d December 1853. See her Memoirs by Miss Brightwell (1854), and Miss Thackeray’s Book of Sibyls (1883). Opitz, Martry, German poet, born on 23d December 1597, at Bunzlau on the Bober, in Silesia, who for a century or more after his death was Peace. tl praised as the ‘Swan of Bober,’ the ‘Swan of Silesia,’ the ‘ Father and Regenerator of German poetry.” This inflated reputation he had earned by toadying to the princes of Germany, by writing adulatory poems in their honour, by praising third and fourth rate poetasters, who recompensed him in kind. Although himself « Protestant, he worked and wrote for one Count. Hannibal von Dohna, a cruel persecutor of the Protestants ; but then Count Dohna helped him te get (1628) from the em r a patent of nobility, and Ferdinand II. had with his imperial hand previously (1625) crowned him with the laurel crown of the poet—recognitions of his talent that Opitz valued above all thin He was summoned (1622) by Bethlen Gabor, Prince of Transylvania, to fill the chair of Philosophy and Polite Literature at Weissenburg; but at the year’s end was so home- sick, so wearied of the rude, martial people, and so famished through lack of the kind words of his friends, that he returned to Germany. Then he eurried favour we ragestey, ene the Duke of Lieg- nitz (1624), Count von Dohna (1626), and King Ladislaus IV. of Poland (1634), who made him his secretary and historiographer of Poland. But fate was against him: in 1620 he had fled from Heidel- berg to Holland to escape war and the plague ; now in zig, where he was living, he caught the plague from a r, to whom he gave a coin in the street, and died 20th August 1639. The poems Opitz wrote are like his ordering of his life, cal- culated: they owe their origin to the under- standing, have no imagination, and little feeling, and are cold, formal, pedantic. The fact is, Opitz, originally a schoolmaster, schoolmastered poetry udo-classic models. Poetry must, he propounded, in his most original work, Buch von der teutschen Poeterei (1624; new ed. 1876), teach and instruct as well as please. Hence his favourite pieces are purely didactic— Trostgedicht in Widerwertigkeit des Kriegs, Zlatna oder von der Ruhe des Gemiiths, Vielgut oder vom wahren Glick, Vesuvius, and others—such as the ‘good boy’ writes who wishes to please a pedantic master. Yet Opitz is entitled to the credit of having championed the use of his mother-tongue as against Latin, and of having actually used it. He also insisted upon the difference between the 612 OPITZ OPIUM ancient prosody of feet and quantity and the modern prosody of accent and rhyme, emphasising the use of the last for German poetry, and recom- mending the Alexandrine form of verse as that best suited to the genius of his native tongue. His works inelude translations from classic authors (Sophocles and Seneca, whom he om on exactly the same rank as dramatists), the Dutchmen Hein- sius and Grotius (whom he sets up as models of style), and from the Bible. Throngh the men who swore by him—the so-called first Silesian school— Opitz reigned for nearly a century as a sort of thumous literary dictator, a worthy rival of ttsched. The best editions of his Gesammelte Schriften are those that ap in his lifetime (1637, 1641). See Lives by Strehlke (1856), Weinhold (1862), and Palm 1862), and critical works on the Buch der Poeteret by inski (1883), Fritsch (1884), and Berghéffer (1888). Opium, one of the most valuable of medicines, is the dried juice of the unripe capsules of a species of Poppy (q.v.), Papaver somniferum, of which several varieties are cultivated, the most usual in India, Persia, and China being apparently the variety album. The cultivation of the poppy for the sake of opium is carried on in many — of India, although the chief district is a large tract on the Ganges, about 600 miles in length and 200 miles in breadth, which is divided into two pepe that of Behar and that of Ben- ares, the central factory of the former being at Patna, and that of the latter at Ghazipur. The poppy is also extensively cultivated for opium in the Asiatic provinces of Turkey, in Egypt, in Persia, and in China; and opium of fair = is produced, although not to any considerable amount, in some parts of Europe, and even in Behe i for its profitable cul e y requires for ro e cultivation a rich a eral ts India is generally sown in the a gee of villages where manure can be easily obtained. The soil ought to be fine and loose when the seed is sown, The subsequent cultivation consists chiefly in thinning and weed- ing. Irrigation is practised. Mild moist weather, with night-dews, is deemed most favourable during the time of the collection of the opium. Very d weather diminishes the flow of the juice, and muc rain is injurious. The opium poppy is cultivated for its seed or oil and other purposes besides the production of opium, concerning which see Poppy. Opium, as a commercial article, is of great importance, exceeding indeed that of any other omg in use. The cultivation of the opium popp in British India forms a most extensive Peaeeh of agriculture, and the collection and preparation of the drag itself employs a large number of persons, The seed is sown in India in the be- ginning of November; it flowers in the end of ——— a oe Fig. 1. January, or a little later; and in three or four | weeks after the capsules or poppy-heads are about the size of hens’ eggs, and are ready for operatin upon. When this is the case the collectors eac take a little instrument (fig. 1), made of four small knives tied together, the blades appearing like the a a yee with ee . re sk wound each half-ripe poppy-h (fig. 2) as the make their way through the pines ria the field, This is always done in the afternoon, and on the following morning the milky sap is collected by scraping it off with a kind of scoop, and trans- ferred to an earthen vessel hanging at the side of the collector, When this is full it is carried home and p in a shallow open and left for a time tilted on its side, any watery fluid may drain out; this watery fluid is very detrimental to the opium un- less removed. It now requires daily attention, and has to be turned frequently, so that the air may dry it equally, until it acquires a tolerable con- sistency, which takes three or four weeks; it is then packed in small earthen jars, and taken to the factories, where the contents of each jar are turned out and carefull weighed, tested, valued, an credited to the cultivator. The opium is then thrown into vast vats, which hold the accumulations of entire districts, and the mass being kneaded is again taken out and made into balls or cakes for the market. After being fully dried these balls are packed in chests for the market. Of the Indian opium there are several qualities, as Patna, Ben- ares, Malwa, &c. The area under cultivation in India with the poppy varies from year to year; in been as Fig. 2. some years the area in Bengal alone has high as 560,000 acres. Certain districts are mitted to cultivate the plant, but the cultiv: must obtain a license. Government purchases the opium at about 10s, a seer of 2 Ib., and an acre yields from 10 to 15 seers of opium over above the petals, capsules, and seed. In Persia the drug is prepared at Ispahan, Shiraz, and Yezd ; the latter is considered the best. The morphia in Persian opium is only 2 to 8 per cent., t 7 to 11 per cent. in Turkish opium. In horassan the cultivation of the poppy tenfold between 1875 and 1890. quantity of -_ for local consumption is prepares in the pe of sticks or cylinders. That destined for China is mixed with linseed-oil in the ee perky se of 6 or 7 lbs. to each chest ; but that sent. ndon is pure. The exports of Persian opium, whieh in ~ 1874 and 1875 were only 2000 chests, rose before 1890 to 7700 chests, In Turkey the production is also | For the relation of the opium trade to the revenue of British India, see INDIA, Vol. VI. p. 115. There has been a good deal of controversial discussion carried on of late years as to the effects of opium-smoking (see below), and the abolition of the Indian trade is by many earnestly de- manded, Those who support the present . system of India say it is on the whole better that the preparation and sale of Indian opium should be in the hands of the government as a monopoly, for if abandoned by them its culture and manu- facture would be carried on in many other localities favourable to the growth of the poppy. Indeed its culture has been already tried in Australia, and parts of America, It should also be remem that China itself produces opium largely; there is virtual permission and open connivance of all the local authorities at the culture of the porpy over the length and breadth of the empire. essedly forbidden, its culture is free to all. The local _pro- duction of opium is indeed believed to be as | as the foreign import, since the authorities er to quietly encourage the home-grown produce, 80 as to prevent the export of bullion for the ya In south-western China the production of opiam is stated to exceed 280,000 ewt., and it sells at two- thirds the price of the Indian, ~ OPIUM 613 In 1880 the annual revenue from opium in India was nearly £10,500,000, of which the excise opium (or that locally consumed ) yielded £1,000,000, and the ‘provision’ or export opium the rest. In 1897 the net revenue from this source was only about £4,000,000. About 40,000 chests (of 140 Ib.) are area in the native states of Central India, jputana, and Baroda, which pay a transit duty for export from Bombay. The following figures (in ewts.) show the decline in the export, and the countries to which the Indian opium goes. 118,598 In 1860 the chest of Indian opium fetched £185; but it gradually dropped to £111, although rather better prices were obtained in 1889. It is sold monthly by public auction at Calcutta. To prevent speculation and to steady agen the nantity to be sold during the year is duly notified a the previous year. he bulk of the Indian inm, it will be seen, still finds its way to China. ersian opium, like the Chinese, has i greatly in recent years, and, being cheaper than the Indian article, has n to have a distinct effect upon the market. The foreign exports from India by no means represent the total trade in the drug. There is an immense internal consumption of what is known as ‘excise opium,’ averaging about 4500 chests yearly. This is retailed to the Indian consumer as a decoction, or in the form of two smoking mixtures, chandu and madak. The quantity of the different kinds of opium im into China (added to the stock held in bond from the previous year) was in 1889 as follows, in piculs of about 1} ewt. each. DORA 005 evecscaes 86,370 = 108,000 ewt. The net im into China were, in 1888, 82,612 iculs, and in 1889, 76,052 pieuls. The likin or jocal duty and the import duty amount to 110 taels per chest, or about £36, From 1830 to 1840 the im- ports of foreign opium into China amounted to 20,619 piculs; from 1 to 1850 they increased to 52,925 iculs. In 1860, when the trade was legalised, the ports reached 89,744; in 1870, 95,043; in 1880, 96,839 ; and in 1895 they fell to 83,500 piculs. The im of opium into Great Britain average 600,000 to 700,000 lb. annually. This is chiefly re-exported —about 140,000 Ib. to the United States, and over 200,000 Ib. to South America and the West Indies. The United States imports nearly 600,000 lb. of crude opium, and from 45,000 to 75,000 lb. of opium for smoking. In Europe opium is mainly used for medicinal purposes, and large quantities of it undergo further manufacture, in order to separate from it the active principles morphine, narcotine, &c. In Great Britain the chief manufacture of these salts of opium is carried on in Edinburgh, where two firms manufacture these products = hee an immense scale, supplying probably a fifth of the whole quantity manufactured. Chemical Properties, &c.—All kinds of opium have a bitter, nauseous taste, and a peculiar’ nar- cotic, heavy odour. Chemically it is a af - ‘resin patataing a very large number of alkaloids, Meconic and other acids, and the ordinary con- stituents of a plant juice, Its exact composi- tion varies greatly, but is somewhat as follows : Alkaloids—morphine (4-15 fe cent.), nareotine (4-6 per cent.), thebaine, codeine, narceine, papa- verine (of each from about 4-1 per cent.), erypto- pine, rheeadine, laudanine, laudanosine, avd morphine, codamine, meconine, protopine, lantho- pine, papaveramine, oxynarcotine, hydrocotarnine gnoscopine, tritopine, and others, all in very small amount. They exist free or in combination with meconic, lactic, sulphuric, and phosphoric acids. There is about 8 per cent. of saccharine matter, about 35 per cent. of gum, resin, fat, albumen, &e., various i ic bases, and a variable amount of water. It may be adulterated with sugar, gum, or molasses, and sometimes contains nails, lead, or stones in the centre of the mass. The chief and most easily applied chemical test for — depends on the presence of meconic acid, which is an ic acid peculiar to it. A watery or aleoholic solution turns blood-red in colour on the addition of a solution of perchloride of iron, and this colour is eee by a solution of proto- chloride of tin. Its smell and taste are also very characteristic. Turkey opium is sidered the best, and in the British Pharmacopoeia it alone is directed to be used for making the official pharmaceutical preparations (twenty in number). Before use it must be dried and powdered, and standardised to a strength of_as nearly as possible 10 per cent. of morphine. For making the officinal alkaloids any kind of opium may be used. A method of assaying the amount of morphine in it is given with great detail in the British sonakyy ss pe . Action and Medicinal Uses.—The action of opium depends on its alkaloids, and is chiefly determined by the morphine present in it. Ordinary medicinal doses (} to 3 grains) depress the activity of the brain and cause deep sleep with dentiacted. upils, slow respiration, and insensibility to agen n awaken- ing there are usually di ble after-effects, such as loss of appetite, slight nausea, constipation, mental fatigue, and headache. When minute doses are taken there ensue symptoms of excitement and stimulation, as shown by increased mental and bodily activity, restlessness and sleeplessness, The imagination is more active, and mental work can be accomplished with greater ease and celerity. It is disputed whether these effects are due to actual stimulation of the brain, or whether the higher centres are blunted, and thus allow the vice regi faculties to have fuller oe: Most probably the latter is the case. Self-consciousness and self- criticism are lulled, the judgment is less controlled by the higher centres and by impressions from without, and left to itself part of the brain lapses into uncontrolled activity. It is for these reasons that opium is habitually used by some brain- workers. Individual susceptibility and race influ- ence its effects very largely. The Teutonic races and phlegmatic ple in general tend to sleep after it, while Phebatte and persons of high] nervous temperament tend to become excited. Man, owing to the greater development of his brain, is somewhat differently affected from the lower animals. Frogs, after a primary stage of narcosis, pass into a condition of exquisite tetanic spasm from stimulation of the spinal cord, and the lower mammalia exhibit the same condition to 4 lesser degree. In adult man tetanic convulsions are rarely seen, and only occasionally after enor- mons doses; but in children convulsions are not infrequent, the explanation given being that in them the spinal cord is relatively largely developed in proportion to the brain. Opium diminishes all the secretions except the sweat, and thus causes constipation. It does not materially affect the nerally con- heart or circulation in medicinal doses, 614 OPIUM When opium is used habitually a tolerance for it becomes established, and enormous doses may be taken without any special effects. In medicine it is = wae d to procure — and hvoe ea . For these purposes it no equal. ape employed Pereans secretions, to allay irri- tation, and in diarrhwa, In diabetes, heart disease, hemoptysis, and many other conditions it is given with great advantage. Probably no remedy has such wide and universal applications. It must be given with great caution to young children, but many other factors, such as pain, habit, idiosyncrasy, and various diseases influence its action and dosage. . Poisoning.—About half the deaths from poison which occur in the United Kingdom are due to opium or its preparations. When the effects of a dose become fully developed the person lies in deep coma and in a state of complete insensibility. Respiration is slow, noisy, and stertorous, the pupil is contracted to a ‘ Lost int,’ and insensible to light, the pulse is rapid and weak, or sometimes full and slow, the face and skin generally are pale and livid, and covered with cold perspiration. Constant stimulation i rouse the patient par- tially, but he always tends to relapse into stupor. Death is due to paralysis of the respiratory centres in the brain, but may be due to apoplexy or collapse. Such are the usual symptoms, but many cases present peculiar features, such as convulsions, vomiting, diarrhea, delirium, dilated pupils, and other anomalous symptoms. The post-mortem pearances are not characteristic, but the cerebral hleni-vonadis are usually very full, and there may be effusion of serum into the ventricles. The smailest fatal dose recorded for an adult is four grains, but enormous quantities are often taken without serious symptoms. In infants very minute doses (4 to 4 grain) may prove fatal. Death may occur in about two hours or even Jess; few cases are prolonged beyond twenty-four hours. he treatment consists in making the gerne vomit, and in washing out the stomach with large uantities of water. Owing to the state of insensi- ility emetics sometimes fail to act. Atropine is often given subcutaneously, while coffee or tea or caffeine may be also freely given. The patient may be further aroused by keeping him moving about supported by attendants, by cold cloths applied to the chest, and by electric stimulation. Any violence or measures which tend to exhaust the patient should be carefully avoided. Opium-eating.—The habitual consumption of opium or any of its preparations by persons other- wise in [health is known as opium-eating, the ium habit, morphine habit, or morphinism. pium, laudanum, chlorodyne, black drop, ro ane: morphine, and other forms are all used, They are most commonly taken by the mouth, the sub- cutaneous injection of Morphine (q.v.) being almost entirely contined to the more cultured and edu- cated classes. Its habitual use is usually begun to relieve pain or sleeplessness, and one month’s constant use is said to be sufficient in many cases to confirm the habit. The amount consumed by different individuals varies greatly. Of morphine most habitués take about three grains daily, some five or six grains, while a few go much por geo De Quincey says that at one time of his life he consumed 8000 drops of landanum daily, but his ration was very excessive. The immediate effects are a feeling of stimulation and well-being, but as soon as these have passed off there ensues a state of despondency, to banish which a fresh dose is taken. It is a craving brought on by indulgence, and is to be ranked with such habits as an smoking, gambling, &c. Many persons indulge th craving during their whole life, and do their daily |} al work well. Such persons do not, however, go to any great excess, although they may have the craving as iidercloded others —~ — er ernest from well-developed symptoms of chronic opium poison- ing. The typical pi tener is lean and pale, with dull, glazy eyes; he suffers from chronic a, from nervous irritability, and disturbances of the circulation. Albuminuria, glycosuria, and various other disorders are sometimes present. Sudden deprivation causes severe nervous disturbances and not seldom alarming collapse. For snecessful treat- ment of the opium craving the patient had better be removed from his own home and friends to some institution where he can be under strict and constant medical supervision. There is a differ- ence of opinion as to whether the opium should be pres a or gradually withdrawn. Recovery is nerally complete in a few weeks, but relapses to the habit are exceedingly apt to occur. Opium-smoking.—The smoking of opium as a stimulant-narcotic is practised chiefly in China, — India, Borneo, and the far East. In China prob- ably about 1 per cent. of the entire population smoke opium, but the habit is growing rapidly. In 1767 only about 200 chests of opium were im- ported yearly, while in 1854, 78,000 chests were needed, Fines, ties, and even death have been found ineffective to stop the practice. Opium prepared for smoking is called chandu, which is simply a watery extract, about twice the strength of the original drug. A special form of pipe is used, a piece of prepared opium about the size of a pea is placed, by means of a small flattened iron pen, into a small cup at one end; this is ignited and the smoke inhaled, and then slowly exhaled through the nostrils. As a result, Easterns expat ence mental and physical excitement, follow by a pleasant sense of well-being and content, an then narcosis. Europeans, as a rule, are not affected by it to any appreciable extent. In the pipe the opium is destructively distilled, and chiefly the products of destructive distillation come over in the smoke—pyridine, collidine, and similar bases, There is probably scarcely a trace of morphine. The flavour of the smoke is mild and aromatic. In China and Singapore there are public smoking- houses, but it is also largely practised in private. It is reported that there are a million opium- smokers in the United States, especially in San Francisco and New York. ; There is great difference of opinion regarding the hurtfulness of the habit. Some authorities hold — that in moderation it is not more hurtful than tobacco, while missionaries and others maintain that the habit is franght with moral, social, and individual degradation. This seems to depend largely on the extent to which it is carried, and the question is probably on all fours with that of alcohol in this country. Many Chinese smoke opium all their lives in strict moderation without apparent harm, while others have excessive de- bauches lasting a week or more, and often become confirmed in its excessive use. The latter without doubt wreck their constitutions and suffer in much the same way as confirmed alcoholics do, See the articles LaupDaANum, Morputne, Porson; the medical works on stimulants and narcotics. As to the harmfulness of the use of opium, see Calkin, Opium and the Opium Appetite (Phila. 1870); H. H. Kane, ‘um- smoking in America and China: a Study of its enceand Effects (New York, 1882); the publications of the Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade (founded 1874); W. J. Moore, The Other Side of the Opium tion, and W. H. Brereton, The Truth about Opium (1882, for the defence). The Report of the Indian gone Commission (1895) indicated great diversities bbe meray vad affirming it to be less harmful than cohol ; but by a majority advised against interference by government, For the Opium Wars, see Cuina. 4 OPODELDOC OPOSSUM 615 Opodeldoc is a popular synonym for soa Liniment (q.v.). het catein of the term, whic was apparently applied by Paracelsus to various forms of liniments or local applications, is not known. The opo is the same as the opo of nax, ye, A ny &ec., and is doubtless erived from the Greek opos, ‘juice.’ See Notes and Queries, October 1888, p. 316. Opo’panax, a gum-resin obtained in Persia, which comes to Europe at rare intervals. It has an unpleasant odour resembling bruised ivy leaves. Holmes suggests that it may be the pro- duce of some Araliaceous plant, but nothing is known of its botanical origin. The ancient phy- sicians attached great importance to it as an anti- spasmodic medicine ; Hippocrates, Theophrastus, and Dioscorides have neh left descriptions of it. The plant 0, naz chironium, from which it was supposed to be obtained, grows generally throughout southern Euro The perfume known as opopanax is not derived from this gum-resin. There is a commercial opopanax, a kind of perfumed myrrh, obtained from a Balsamodendron, largely imported Fad Germany, where an essential oil is distilled rom it. Oporto (Port. 0 porto, ‘the port’), the second city of Portugal, stands on the steep, rocky, right bank of the uro, high above its waters, which reach the sea 3 miles to the west. ‘The houses, as they rise confusedly from the river’s edge, some painted in strong reds, blues, or greens, some left whitewashed, and the majority retaining the granite gray of the stone they are built with, make up a very strange and beautiful panorama, ringed as the city is by the encircling pine-covered mountains’ (Oswald Crawfurd); and many of these louses stand embowered in the greenery. of rdens. One of the crags overlooking the river crowned with a Crystal Palace (1865), surrounded by ens. Many of the former monasteries are still standing, though put to other uses: one is a citadel, another the exchange, with splendid mar- quetry of wood in floor and walls, a third barracks, and so on. There are seven principal churches, including the cathedral (built by Henry the Navi- gator), the old Gothie church of Cedofeita (origin- ally founded in 559), and the Church dos Clerigos, with a tower 213 feet high. The English factory (1785), the bishop’s palace, and the hospital of St Antony are the most noticeable amongst the secular buildings. Oporto a polytechnic academy, with observatory, scientilic collections, &c., a medical school, a fine art academy, a com- mercial museum, an industrial institution, a library (1796) of 200,000 vols. and 9400 MSS., and two see a On the. south side of the river, panes xb apoese Oporto, and connected with it by a lofty bridge, is the suburb of Villa Nova de Gaia, with a p. of 9126, and extensive wine- cellars. The rai way to Lisbon (209 miles) crosses the river a little higher up, on one of the finest (steel) arch bridges built; the arch spans a hori- zontal distance of 549 feet, and its centre is 203 feet above the river. Pop. (1878) 105,838; (1890) 139,856, who are chiefly engaged in the manufacture of cloth and silks, hats, porcelain, ribbons, tobacco, soap, and candles, in metal- casting, tanning, brewing, distilling, cork-cutting, sugar-refining, and brick-making, and in commerce and shipping. Oporto is the principal place of export for Port Wine (q.v., and also PORTUGAL). The remaining exports of moment are cattle, oranges and other fruits, cork, copper, onions, meat, hides, and wool, the total value of all ex- ports reaching on an average £3,550,000. The imports, consisting chiefly of corn and flour, cod- fish, , machinery, textiles, rice, raw sugar. hides, coal, and timber, amount to £1,800,000 annually. Originally the Portus Cale of the Romans ( whence Portugal), this city was the stronghold of the Christians in the north-west of the Iberian penin- sula against the attacks of the Moors, and more than once changed hands between the Sth and the 12th centuries. The ple are noted for their sturdy patriotism and liberal sentiments; in 1808 they were especially hostile to the French; they stoutly opposed the usurper Miguel (1828), who in revenge executed great numbers of its people, but without breaking their spirit, for they sup- rted Pedro of Brazil, and withstood the besieg- ing troops of Miguel thirteen months (1832-33). It was the scene of frequent republican riots in potty century. See O. Crawfurd in New Review (1889). Opossum (Didelphys), a genus of Marsupialia, having ten incisors in the upper jaw, and eight in the lower, one canige tooth on each side in each jaw, three compressed premolars, and four sharply- tuberculated molars on each side—fifty teeth in all; the tail generally very long, prehensile, and in gol sealy; the feet plantigrade; five toes on each foot, their claws long and sharp; but the inner toe of the right foot converted into a thumb, destitute of a claw, and opposable to the other digits. The pouch, so characteristic of marsupials, is generally absent, sometimes rudimentary, rarely complete. The unwebbed feet and non-aquatic habits distinguish this genus from Cheironectes (q-v-) also belonging to the family Didelphide. The name opossum has also been applied to certain Australian Lia, but is letter restricted to the American opossuins, which are the only marsupials found in America. They range from the United States to the Argentine Republic. There are alto- gether twenty-three distinct species, with a consid- erable range in size, varying from that of a large cat to that of a mouse. The best known is the Vir- ginian Opossum (D. virginiana). Among the mar- supials they are nearest allied to the Dasyuride, from which they are doubtfully separable; if it were not for their graphical range, they would un- doubtedly be placed in the same family. Although there are now no opossums found anywhere but in America, they existed formerly in Europe, as is shown by their fossil remains. The opossums are all carnivorous, one species, the Crab-eating Opos- sum, feeding—as its name denotes—upon erabs ; in order to capture its prey it frequents marshy places. It is a native of tropical America. Merian’s Opos- sum (D. dorsigerus) is remarkable for the fact that it carries its young on its back, their tails being twined round the tail of the mother; many other species carry the young on the back; this is due in many cases to the fact already mentioned—that 616 OPOTECA OPTICS there is no pouch. The Niprin Opossum is a foe to pacreges Pf ce in the United States ; but it can put up with frogs if there is nothing better to be had. The opossums, like other marsupials, have a lowly organised brain; but ~~ are remarkably cunning in robbing agua 8; on the other hand, their stupidity in walking straight into the simplest and most obvious trap is more in accord with their brain structure. Hunting the opossum with dogs by night is a favourite sport in the southern states, especially in autumn, when the body has a thick layer of fat all over. The animal takes refuge in a tree, and is either shaken down or shot as it hangs by the tail. The expression . playing possum’ refers to the opossum’s habit of feigning death when caught. At such times, though usually very timid, it will endure almost any amount of torture, and give no sign of its suffering. 0 teca, a sleepy town of 1000 inhabitants, in Materes, about 1S miles NNW. of Comayagua, formerly famous for its great silver-mines. Sppein, a town of Prussian Silesia, on the Oder, 51 miles SE. of Breslau. Since 1816, when it was erected into a seat of government for Uppers Silesia, the town has been much beantified both with new edifices and with parks and ens. Its church of St Adalbert was founded in 995; and there is an old castle on an island in the Oder. The manufactures include pottery, cigars, cement, beer, leather, &e., and there is a considerable trade in grain and cattle, Pop. (1875) 12,498; (1885) 15,975; (1890) 19,206. See Idzikowski’s Geschichte der Stadt Oppeln (1863). by 4 Queneng: a town of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine, 20 miles SSE. of Mainz by rail, with fine vineyards. On the site of the man castle of Bauconica, Oppenheim became a free city of the parte, and was repeatedy besi . especially in the Thirty Years’ War. Pop. 345 Opportunists, in French politics, are those who, hke Gambetta, Ferry, and others like-minded, oppose doctrinaire as well as extreme views, accom- modate themselves in great measure to the cir- cumstances of the hour, and aim only at what can obviously be carried through. Optical Hlusion. An object appears large or small, near or distant, according as the rays from its opposite borders meeting at the eye form a saree or a small angle: when the angle is large, the object is either large or near; when small, the object must be small or distant. Experience alone enables us to decide whether an object of large apparent size is so on account of its real size, or of its proximity ; and our decision is arrived at by a comparison of the object in position with other common objects, such as trees, houses, &c., which may chance to be near it, and of which we have by experience come to form a correct idea. The same is, of course, true of apparently small objects. But when all means for comparison are removed our judgment is at fault. Similarly, we erroneously nfer spherical solids at a distance to be flat dises ; and, by reason of Irradiation (q.v.) in the eye, the sun appears larger than he would if illumined by a fainter light, and a man in a white habit seems larger than he would if he wore a dark dress, Illusions are also produced by external causes ; and instances of this sort are given under MIRAGE, REFLECTION, and REFRACTION. The persist of impressions on the retina for about one-sixth of a second after the object which produced the impression has been removed produces another class of illusions. Common examples of this are the illuminated circle formed by the rapid revolution of an ignited carbon point, piece of red- hot iron, or other luminous body, and the fiery eurve produced by a red-hot shot projected from a cannon, Another form of illusion is produced to a who is seated in a vehicle in motion ; and it is very deceptive when the motion is so equable as not to be felt by the person himself. The illusion is most complete when the attention is riveted on an object several yards off; this object then appears to be a centre round which all the other objects re- volve, those between the observer and the object moving backwards, and those beyond the object moving forwards. This illusion occurs on a scale in the ap t motion of the heavenly eg e ge! —— arise from 2 pprerines| state of the organs of vision: e.g. the seeing o things double or movable, or of a colour different from the true one (see COLOUR-BLINDNESS); the appearance as of insects crawling over a body at which the eye is directed, &e. Optic Nerve. See Eve. Optics is the science of the phenomena of light. This science is usually treated under two heads: (1) Physical Optics, which treats of the nature of Light (q.v., as also MAGNETISM and UnpULATORY THEORY), and explains the pheno- mena of Colour, Reflection, Refraction, Interfer- ence and its consequences, such as the colours of thin plates and films, Diffraction, Dispersion, the Spectrum, Polarisation and the properties of polar- ised light, for which see separate articles; and (2) Geometrical or Mathematical Optics. The eading idea in physical optics is to trace the P of an undulatory or oscillatory disturbance in the Ether (q.v.); this disturbance, which may be termed a wave, has an advancing wave-front; the direction along which this wave-front advances through a given point is a geometrical conception, which it is convenient to make use of in di more convenient than it would be to draw a series of successive wave-fronts ; this direction of propa- gation through any given point is called a ray ; and metrical optics traces, hy mathematical reason- ing, the course of a given set of ‘rays’ under specified conditions, particularly under those which have reference to Reflection and Refraction (q.¥.). The part of geometrical optics which deals with reflection of light is often called Catoptries (based on such laws as that the angle of reflection is equal to the le of incidence); that which deals with refraction is called Dioptrics: and for an account of these, reference is made to articles REFLECTION and REFRACTION respectively. Though the Greeks and their disciples the Arabs had made some progress in mathematical optics, their knowledge was confined to the law of reflection and its more immediate consequences. Euclid, Aristotle, Archimedes, Hero, and Ptolemy were acquainted with the fact that light is transmitted in straight lines; but, with the important exception of Aristotle and some of his followers, the ancient philosophers believed that rays proceeded Jrom the eye to the object, instead of in the contrary direc- tion. Ptolemy was well acquainted with atmo- spheric refraction. Alhacen (1070) and Vitellio the ole (1260) were almost the only cultivators of this science during the middle ages, and their additions to it were unimportant. The lens, though known from early antiquity, was not applied as an aid to defective eyesight till after the time of Roger mn. Jansen, Metius, and Galileo separately invented the telescope about the beginning of the 17th century ; and the last-mentioned philosopher by its means made various important astronomical discoveries. Kepler, a short time after, gave true theory of the telescope, explained the method of finding the foeal length of lenses, and applied it to find the magnifying power of the telescope, OPTIMISM ' ORACLE 617 besides pointing out the mode of constructing an instrument better adapted for astronomical pur- poses than that of Galileo; he also made some useful experiments on the nature of colours, and showed that images formed on the retina of the e are inverted, a fact previously discovered by yeus of Messina. From this period the science of optics steadily advanced, and its treasury of facts received numerous additions through the labours of De Dominis, Snell (the discoverer of the law of refraction in 1621), Descartes, Fermat, Barrow, Mariotte, and Boyle. Up to the time of Newton it was generally believed that colour was uced by refraction, but that philosopher showed y a beautiful series of experiments that refraction tes the colours already existing in white light. In his hands the theory and construction the telescope underwent many valuable improve- ments, and in 1672 the description of his reflecting telescope was submitted to the Royal iety. ven Hag constructed an instrument on similar ay some years before. About the same ime Grimaldi made his interesting series of experi- ments on the effects of diffraction, and noticed the remarkable fact of the interference of one pencil of light with the action of another. The theory of the rainbow, with an el t analysis of the colours of thin plates, and the A eawe concerning the nature and propagation of light, now known as the ‘corpuscular’ theory (see LIGHT), completed Newton’s contributions to the science. The import- ant services of the ingenious but eccentric Hooke cannot be easily stated in a brief abstract, as he discovered a little of everything, completed nothing, and occupied himself to a large extent in combat- ing faulty points in the theories of his contem- ies. It must not, however, be forgotten that has as much right as Huygens to the credit of sr grr mad the undulatory theory. The double ction of Iceland spar was discovered (1669) by Bartholin, and fully explained in 1690 by Huygens, the under of the undulatory theory, who also aid of mathematical optics to a considerable extent. The velocity of light was discovered Romer (1675), and in 1720 the aberration of the fixed stars and its cause were made known by Bradley, who likewise determined with accuracy the amount of atmospheric refrac-— tion. Bouguer, Porterfield, Euler, and Lambert rendered essential service to physical optics; the same was done for the matical theory by Dollond (the inventor of the achromatic telescope), Clairaut, D’Alembert, Boscovich, &c. ; while in later times the experiments of Delaval on the colours produced by reflection and refraction ; the discus- sion of the phenomena arising from unusual reflec- tion or refraction carried, on by Vince, Wollaston, Biot, Mo and others ; the discovery of polarisa- tion of light by Malus (1808), and its investigation by Brewster, Biot, and Seebeck ; of depolarisation by Arago (1811), and of the optical properties as connected with the axes of crystals (1818) by Brewster ; and the explanation of these and other optical phenomena in accordance with the undula- tory hypothesis by Young—the discoverer of the Interference (q.v.) of rays—and Fresnel, went far to give opties a width of scope and a ey wg which are possessed by few other sciences. The develop- ment of the undulatory theory and of optical seience generally has heen carried on in the present century by Lloyd, Airy, Cauchy, Clerk-Maxwell, Hertz, and others; and for an acconnt of the pueene state of the science reference may be made Mr Thomas Preston’s Theory of Light (1890), in addition to the works mentioned under Licut, and’ the articles LENSES, Microscope, TELESCOPE, &c. Optimism (Lat. optimus, ‘ best’), the doctrine that the existing order of things, whatever may be its seeming imperfections of detail, is nevertheless, as a whole, the most perfect or the best which could have been created, or which it is possible to conceive, Some of the advocates of optimism content themselves with maintaining the absolute Sa gt that, although God was not by any means und to create the most perfect order of things, yet the existing order is de facto the best; others contend that the perfection and wisdom of Almighty God necessarily require that His creation should be the most perfect which it is possible to conceive. The philosophical discussions of which this con- troversy is the development are as old as_philo- sophy itself, and are dealt with in the article on the origin of Evil (q.v.). But the full development of the optimistic theory as a rice system was reserved for Leibnitz (q.v.), in his Theodicée, the main thesis of which is that, among all the systenis which presented themselves to the infinite intelligence of God as possible, God selected and c in the existing universe the best and most rfect, physically as well as morally, regard being ad to the universe asa whole. The Theodicée was desi, to meet the sceptical theories of Bayle, and its theories were ridiculed in Voltaire’s Candide. Modern discussion on this question usually assumes the form of assertion or denial of the opposite doctrine of Pessimism (q.v.). Opuntia, See Prickty PEAR. Opus Operatum (Lat., literally ‘the work wrought’) is the phrase employed in the Catholic theological schools to describe the manner of opera- tion of the sacramental rites in the production of It is intended to imply that the ministra- tion of the rite (opus) is in itself, through the institution of Christ, an eflicient cause of grace, and that, although its operation is not infallible, but requires and presupposes certain dispositions on the part of the recipient, yet these dispositions are but conditiones sine qua non, and do not of themselves produce the grace. Hence, when the sacraments are administered to dying persons in a state of apparent insensibility, this is done in the hope and on the presumption that the dying person may, though seemingly unconscious, be neverthe- less really disposed to receive the sacrament; but it is by no means held that if these dispositions be wanting the sacrament will itself justify him.—The phrase Operantis is ha, eng used as denoting that the effect of a particular ministration or rite is primarily and directly due, not to the rite itself (opus), but to the dispositions of the recipient (operans). Thus, in the act of kissing or praying before a crucifix, of sprinkling one’s self with holy water, of telling the prayers of the rosary upon blessed beads, the fervour and personal piety of the supplicant, and not the material object of the religious use, is held to be the efficient cause of the grace which is thereby imparted. Orache (Atriplex), a genus of plants of the natural order Chenopodiacee, having male and female flowers on the same plant. The species are numerous and widely spread.over the maritime or saline parts of the earth, scarcely any species axeeyh the Common Orache (A. patula) being ever found inland or away from saline influence. Five species, including the Garden Orache (A. hortensis), are natives of Britain. Although formerly much cultivated in Britain, orache is now displaced as a pot-herb by spinach (Spinacia oleracea), a species of a closely allied genus. All the species have similar qualities, and may be used as spinach. Oracle, the response delivered by a deity or supernatural being to a worshipper or inquirer; also the place where the response was delivered. These responses were supposed to be given by a certain divine afflatus, either through means of 618 ORACLE ORANG mankind, as in the orgasms of the Pythia and the dreams of the worshipper in the temples; or by its effect on certain objects, as the tinkling of the caldrons at Dodona, the rustling of the sacred laurel, the murmuring of the streams ; or by the actions of sacred animals, as exemplified in the Apis or sacred bull of Memphis, and the feeding of holy chickens among the Romans. Such responses were, however, closely allied to augury, which differed in this respect, that auguries could be takenanywhere, while the oracular spots were defined and limited. Oracle dates from the highest antiquity, and gradu- ally declines with the Sediine of Animism (q.v.) and with the increasing knowledge of mankind. Among the Egyptians ‘all the temples were a oracular, In the hieroglyphic texts the gods spea constantly in an oracular manner, and their con- sultation by the Pharaohs is occasionally mentioned. In later days the most renowned of these oracles was that of Ammon in the Oasis, where oracular responses were rendered either by the shaking of the statue of the god or by his appear- ance in a certain manner. Oracles were also used by the Hebrews, as in the consultation of the Urim and Thummim by the high-priest, and the unlawful use of Teraphims, and consultations of the gods of Pheenicia and Samaria. The Hebrew oracles were by word of month, as the speech of God to Moses, dreams, visions, and prophetical denunciations ; besides which there were oracles in Phoenicia, as that of Beelzebub and others of the Baalim. They were also in use throughout Babylonia and Chaldea, where the responses were delivered by dreams given to the priestesses, who slept alone in the temples as concubines of the gods. The most renowned of all Greek oracles was the Delphic oracle (see DELPHI), which was Panhellenic or open to all Greece. Sacrifices were offered by the inquirers, who walked with laurel crowns on their heads, and delivered in questions inscribed on leaden tablets (of which many have been recently discovered); the response was deemed infallible, and was usually dictated by justice, sound sense, and reason, Other oracles of Apollo were at Abe in Phocis; at Ptoon, which was destroyed in the days of Alexander the Great; and at Ismenus, south of Thebes. In Asia Minor the most cele- brated was that of Branchid, close to Miletus, celebrated in Exypt, Gryneum, and Delos. Besides that of Dodona, Zeus had another at Olympia; and those of various other deities existed else- where. A secondary class of oracles of heroic or prophetic persons existed in Greece, the two most celebrated of which were those of Amphiaraus and Trophonius, The first mentioned was one of the five great oracles in the days of Croesus, and was situate at Oropus in Attica. Those who consulted it fasted a whole day, abstained from wine, sacrificed a ram to Amphiaraus, and slept on the skin in the temple, where their destiny was revealed by dreams, That of Trophonius was at Lebadea in Beotia, and owed its origin to a aeified seer. It was given in a cave, into which the votary descended,- bathed and anointed, hold- ing a honeyed cake. There were some other oracles of minor importance. Besides these oracles, written ones existed of the prophecies of celebrated seers, as Bacis and Musiens, which were collected by the Pisistratidw, and kept in the Acropolis of Athens. Others of the Sibyls or prophetic women were popular, and at alater period (see Sipyi) Athenais and others prophesied in the days of the Selencide. Amongst the oriental nations, as the Arabs and others, divination was and is extensively practised, but there are no set oracles, The Celtic Druids are said to have delivered responses, and the oracle of the Celtic god Belenus or Abelio was celebrated. See Herodotus, Hist, v. 89, viii. 82; Curtius, iv. 7; Hare, Ancient Greeks (1836); Bos, Antiquities of Greece (1823, p. 31); F. W. H. Myers, Greek Oracles ( Hellenica, pp. 426-492, 1880); Stengel,’ Griechischen Sakvalalter. Antigeiis (ations Antequitiay “Hummel ewes ie ntiquitees us 1€3, Galuski, 1887). Se - nd Oran (Arab, Waran), a seaport of Algeria, stands on the Gulf of Oran, 261 miles by rail W. by S. of Algiers and 130 by sea S. of Cartagena in Spain. It climbs up the foot of a hill, is defended by detached forts, has a thoroughly French appear- ance, having been mainly bnilt since 1790, when the older Spanish town was destroyed by an earth- quake, and possesses a Roman Catholic cathedral (1839), a grand mosque, a large military hospital, a college, a seminary, and two citadels or castles. The harbour is protected on the north and east by moles constructed in 1887 at a cost of £280,000; alfa, iron ore, and cereals are the chief of the exports. Pop. (1891) 73,610. Oran was built b the Moors. During the second half of the 15t century it was a highly-prosperous commercial town, and was celebrated for its cloth and arms and fine public buildings. But it was taken by the Spaniards in 1509 and made a penal settlement. It was captured by the Turks in 1708, but retaken by the Spaniards in 1732. In 1790 it was destroyed by an earthquake, and shortly after was altogether abandoned by the es the Turks weet gs. it again in 1792. The French took on 0} the town in 1831.—The province of Oran has an area of 33,236 sq. m., and a pop. (1891) of 942,066, of whom 74,810 were French, 91,494 Spaniards, and 15,771 Jews ; (1891) 942,066. Orang, or ORANG-OUTANG (Simia ws), an anthropoid ape, found only in the forests of Sumatra and Borneo. There is only one species, though it has been said that another smaller variety occurs in Borneo, The orang is distinguished from other anthropoid apes by its reddish-brown colour ; and it has been noticed that the colour corresponds to that of its human neighbours, just as the black colour of the chimpanzee and gorilla answers to PEL CK ET a ‘ a We Orang-outang (Simia satyrus). that of the African tribes inhabiting the same country. Miklucho-Maklay asserts that the Malays never use their words Orang titan (‘man of the woods’) for any ape, but for an uncultured tribe of Malays living in the woods, Like other anthropoids the orang is arboreal in ORANG ORANGE 619 habit, and can move with considerable swiftness through a forest, passing from tree to tree; on the = it is awkward. It has a curious habit of uilding among the branches a. temporary - hut or nest as it is usually called. The orang was formerly regarded as capable of all manner of —, such as carrying off women and children, throttling people with its hind-foot as they passed under the trees. When these beliefs were proved to be false they were transferred to the chimpanzee, and particularly to the gorilla. Th were mainly dispelled by Wallace, who stated, however, of the orang that ‘there is no animal in the jungle so airong as he;’ but strength does not necessarily imply ferocity, and the orang seems to be a very tamable creature. : Hornaday, an American traveller, observ the orang in the act of making its nest. He thus describes the process : ‘I got there just in time to see the orang build a large nest for himself. He took up a position in a fork which was well screened by the foliage, and began to break off small branches and pile them loosely in the crotch. There was no eens at weaving, nor even regularity in anything. He reached out his long, airy arm, =e off the leafy branches with a practised , and laid them down with the broken ends sticking out, He presently got on the pile with his feet, and standing there to weight it down, he turned slowly, breaking branches all the while and laying them across the pile in front of him until he had built quite a large nest. When he had finished he lay down upon it, and was so effectually screened from us that I could not dis- lodge him, and after two or three shots I told the natives that they would have to cut down the tree.’ During one day’s travel in Borneo thirty-six old nests and six fresh ones were seen ; there appears to be nothing like house-building, which has been stated by some to exist among the orangs. The structure of the orang shows its near rela- tionship to the other anthropoids and to man. The curvature of the spine, which is an important character, os according to Cunningham, to be different from that of a full-grown man, but to correspond to that of a boy of six years old. The extension of the cerebral hemispheres in the brain backwards over the cerebellum is about equal to what is found in the chimpanzee; naturally this is considerably than in man, but greater than in the new-born child. The orang comes nearest among the anthropoids to man in certain other characters, especially in brain characters; but, as the gorilla an Shape show @ nearer approxi- mation in various other points, it would not be safe to call the orang the most man-like of apes. See ANTHROPOID APEs, . Orange (Lat. aurantium; from aurum, fold), the name of one or more species of itrus (q.v.), of which the fruit is much prized. Botanists ly regard all the oranges as of one 3, aurantium, but some make the weet Orange, the Bitter O: , the Bergamot Orange, &c. distinet species. The wild state of the orange is not certainly known, although its characters may be pretty confidently inferred from the degeneration of cultivated varieties; and no enltivated plant shows a greater liability to de- generate, so that seedling oranges are almost always worthless. From a remote antiquity it has been cultivated in India; and thence it seems to ~ have spread into western Asia and Europe. It Was been alleged that the orange is a native of North America, near the Gulf of Mexico; but the bability rather seems to be that it has been troduced, and has become naturalised. The Common Orange, or Sweet Orange (Citrus aurantium), is an evergreen tree of moderate size, with greenish-brown bark; the leaves oblong, acute, sometinies minutely serrated, the leaf-stalks ‘more or less winged, the flowers white, the fruit ‘roundish, the oil-eysts of the rind convex, the juice sweet and acid. It is cultivated in almost every part of the world of which the climate is warm enough, but succeeds best in the warmer tem- perate or subtropical climates, as in the south of Europe, where it is very extensively cultivated, The orange as far north as the south of France. does not seem to have been culti- vated by the Greeks or Ro- mans, but was probably brought to Europe by the Moors, an “et is supposed to have peas introduced into Italy so re- cently as the 14th century, fully 1000 years after the citron. In the north of Italy oranges aresome- times grown in conservatories, but often in the open air, except during _ winter, when they are covered — temporary houses Sweet Orange ( Citrus aurantium » of Boards In eal in Flower : the south of Eng- a, fruit; b, transverse section of same. land they are (Bently and Trimen.) sometimes in like manner grown in the open air, with a shelter of boards or matting in winter, but trained against a south wall; they attain a large size, and yield fruit. The abundant importation of the ruit, however, renders the cultivation of the orange in Britain unnecessary ; and, in general, only small plants are to be seen in greenhouses or conservatories, as mere objects of interest. In some of Queensland and south-west Australia the orange is grown to great perfection, but its culture does not appear to be regarded as a profitable industry—probably owing to the absence of markets and the facilities of conveyance thereto. A few counties in the colony of New South Wales appear to be ey well adapted to orange cultivation. government report on the area under orangeries gives it as 10,857 acres in 1889. Excellent oranges have been exported from the colony to Britain at remunerative rates. There are many varieties in cultivation, which are perpetu- ated by grafting upon seedling orange stocks and by layers. The principal orange-growing sections of the United States are Florida, Louisiana, and California. Of the varieties of the sweet preg perhaps the most deserving of notice are the Portugal or Lisbon Orange, the most common of all, having the fruit generally round or nearly so, and a thic tind ; the China Orange, said to have been brought by the Portuguese from China, and now much cultivated in the south of Europe, having a smooth thin rind and very abundant juice; the Maltese or Blood Orange, remarkable for the blood-red colour of its pulp; the Egg Orange, open fruit of an oval shape; the Mandarin Orange, or Clove Orange (C. nobilis), has fruit much broader than long, with a rind very loosely attached to the flesh, and small leaves; and the Tangerine Orange, an arently derived from the Mandarin, The St Hichael’s 620 ORANGE Orange is a sub-variety of the China orange. The Jaffa Orange has now a great reputation. The Majorca Orange is seedless. The Kum-quat (C. japonica), from China and Japan, is little bigger han & berry, and grows well in Australia. The Bitter ay, k Seville Orange, or Bigarade = vulgaris, or C. bigaradia), is distin ruished rom the sweet orange by the more truly elliptical leaves, the acid and bitter juice of the fruit, and the concave oil-cysts of its rind. Its branches are also spiny, which is rarely the case with the sweet ora The varieties in cultivation are numerous, The bitter orange was extensively cultivated by the Moors in Spain, probably for medicinal pur- poses, as stomachie and tonic. Its chief use, how- ever, is for flavouring puddings, cakes, &c., and for making marmalade. The Bergamot Orange (C. Bergamia) is noticed in a separate article. — Orange-leaves are feebly bitter, and contain a fragrant, volatile oil, which is obtained by dis- tilling them with water, and is known in the shops as Essence de Petit Grain. Orange-flowers yield, when distilled with water, a fragant volatile oil, called Oil of Neroli, which is used in making Zau de Cologne and for other purposes of perfumery. The flowers both of the sweet orange and of the bitter orange yield it, but those of the bitter orange are preferred. Dried orange-flowers, to be distilled for this oil, are an article of export from the south of Europe. They are packed in barrels, and mixed with salt. The dried flowers have a yellowish colour; the fresh flowers are white and very fi t. The use of them as an ornament in the head-dress of brides is common throughout t of the world. The small green oranges, 5 ae the size of a pea to the size of a cherry, which fall from the trees, both of the sweet orange and the bitter orange, when the crop is too great to be brought to maturity, are carefully gathered and dried, and are the Orange berries of the shops. They are used in making Curagoa, and yield a fragrant oil on distillation, the original essence de petit grain. The dried and candied rind of the ripe bitter orange, well known as Orange-peel, is used as a stomachic, and very largely for flavourin puddings and articles of confectionery, The rin of the sweet orange is sometimes employed in the same way, but is inferior, A fragrant essential oil is obtained from the rind of the orange by distilla- tion with water, and is sold by perfumers as Oil of Sweet e, or Oil of Bitter Orange, accordin as it is obtained from the one or the other, wre 4 the two kinds of oil are very similar. The rind of the orange is used in the preparation of a fine liqueur called Orange Rosoglio, which is.an article i) ap yi from some parts of Italy. Besides the use of the sweet orange as a dessert fruit, and as a refrigerant in cases of sickness, its juice is extensively used as a refrigerant beverage, and is valuable in febrile and inflammatory complaints. range-trees are often extremely fruitful, so that a tree 20 feet high and occupying a space of little more than 12 feet in diameter sometimes yields from 3000 to 4000 oranges in a year. One tree in Florida has often borne 10,000 oranges in a single season. The orange-tree attains an age of at least 100 to 150 years. Young trees are less productive than old ones, and the fruit is also less Juicy, has a thicker rind, and more numerous seeds, The fruit of the orange-tree is of great com- mercial importance, for not only is it one of the most delicious and wholesome of fruits, but for- tunately it is also the most easily kept and carried from p to place. No fresh fruit possesses in the same d as the orange and its congeners, the lemon, citron, lime, &c., the peepee of being ly packed in boxes when nearly ripe, and being in that state able to stand the close confinement of a ship's hold during a voyage of two or three re Bo — . eae freeing rd = the zores, ta, Sic’ in, Portugal, yrian coast, and latterly” in Prlorida, and it is from these localities that Britain receives its supply. Those from St Michael's, one of the Azores, and from Malta are the best varieties in the English markets ; but the Mandarin Orange of China and the Navel Orange of South America are much superior, The latter occasionally Bri in small quantities from Brazil; they are nearly double the size of the ordinary orange, and have a peculiar navel-like formation on the top of the fruit, which is somewhat oval in s Oranges when gathered for pee ar must not be quite ripe ; those fully formed and with the colour ust turning from green to yellow are chosen. h is wrapped in a piece of paper, or in the husk of Indian corn, and they are R ryarmes in boxes and half-boxes, chests and half-chests— the former are the Sicilian packages, the latter are St Michael’s, Spanish, and Po ese. A box contains about 250, a chest about 1000 a 1 the rind of th is used range-peel, or the rin e orange, em in scene and a —for the ormer purpose it is merely cut into long strips, and dried ; for the latter it is carefully separated, either in halves or quarters, from the fruit, and, . after lying in salt water for a time, is washed in clear water, and then boiled in syrup of sugar, or candied, and is sold extensively as candied peel. The rinds of the citron and lemon are treated in the same manner.—The wood of the orange-tree is yellowish white and close-grained. It is used for at ty and for turnery. The orange may be successfully cultivated in climates the winter temperature which does not fall below 40°, The tree prefers strong loam or clayey soil, but succeeds in any kind of soil if well fertilised. See Dr Moore’s Handbook of Orange Culture (New York and Lond, 1885); and — States Consular Report on Fruit ure ( ). Orange, or GArtzp, the largest river of South Africa, rises in the Kathlamba Mountains, in the east of Basutoland, and flows west, with an in- clination to the north, to the Atlantic Ocean. It describes numerous wide curves in its course of 1000 miles, and separates Cape brag C on_ the south, from the Orange Free State, Griqualand West, Bechuanaland, and Great Namaqualand, on the north. Area of basin, 325,000 sq. m. Its ¥ - cipal tributaries are the Caledon and the Vaal, both joining it from the right. Its volume varies greatly between the dry season, when it is not navigable, and the rainy season, when it overflows its banks in the upper parts of its course. Its mouth is, moreover, obstructed by a bar. Orange, « town in the French department of Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Aigue, 18 miles by rail N. of Avignon. The Arausio of the Romans, which contained 40,000 inhabitants, it retains two splendid Roman remains—a triumphal arch, 72 feet high, and a theatre whose fagade was 340 feet long by 118 high, A neighbouring circus has been swept away. ‘There is a Romanesque cathe- dral, and statues of two of the counts. Pop, 6904, Orange was the capital of a small independent a , Which was ruled by its own sovereigns rom the llth to the 16th century. The last of these sovereigns, Philibert de Chalons, died in 1531 without issue. His sister, however, had married a Count of Nassau, and to that house the estates and titles . The Count of Nassau who obtained the principality of Orange was the father of William the Silent (see HOLLAND, Vol. V, p. 742). William . a—aa ORANGE ORATORIO 621 TIL, Prince of Orange and king of England, having died in 1702 without issue, there n a long- continued controversy as to the succession between Frederick I. of Prussia (as grandson of one of the last princes of Orange), the —— of the older branch of the House of Nassau (q.v.), and the head of the younger line. At the peace of Utrecht (1713) the king of Prussia took the settle- ment into his own hands, so far as the territory of Orange was concerned, by making it over for certain equivalents to the king of France. The title Prince of bet ay however, remained with the younger Nassau line, afterwards sovereigns of Holland. See Bastet’s Histoire d Orange (1856). Crane a city of New Jersey, 12 miles W. of New Yor rail, and 3 miles by tram-car from Newark. slope of Orange Mountain is laid out in beautiful parks, and ornamented with villas, There are manufactures of hats, carriages, &c. Pop. (1880) 13,207 ; (1900) 24,141. Orangemen, an organisation which had its origin in the hostility that snbsisted between Protestants and Catholics in Ireland from the Reformation downwards, though the term is first used after the Revolution of 1688. The members of the Protestant associations appear at first to have been known by the name of ‘ Peep-of-day Boys ;’ but the rude and illiterate mob of Peep- of-day made way for the rich and influential isation of the Orange Society. Its name was rd from that of the Prince of 0: , William IIL, who in Ireland has been popularly identified with the establishment of that Protestant ascend- ency which it was the aves of the Orange asso- ciation to sustain. The first ‘Orange Lodge’ was founded in the village of Taagheall, County Armagh, September 21, 1795. Lecky holds that the first Orange rising was bronght about by the restless- ness and discontent of the Catholics, co’ uent on the withdrawal of Earl Fitzwilliam and the collapse of his schemes of Catholic emancipation, and was really a plan to expel all Catholics from Ulster, and drive them to Connaught or else- where. The immediate occasion of the crisis was a series of ontrages by which Catholics were forcibly ejected from their houses and farms, terminating (September 1795) in an engagement, called, from the place where it occurred, the _— oe the ae inn aegioro tag ey =n nseparably combi religious with the polit- ical antipathies. In November of that year the Orange iety had ‘already reached the dignity of a grand | of Ireland, with a formal estab- lishment in the metropolis; and in the following years the organisation extended over the entire province of Ulster, and. had its ramifications in all the centres of Protestantism in the other pro- vinces of Ireland. In 1808 it extended to England. A grand lodge was founded at Manchester, but transferred to London in 1821. The subject more than once was brought under the notice of parlia- ment, especially in 1813, and in consequence the grand lodge of Ireland was dissolved; but its unctions in issuing warrants, &c. were discharged a through the English Say The most memorable crisis, however, in the history of the Orange Society was the election of a royal duke (Cumberland) in 1827 as grand master for England, and, on the re-establishment of the Irish grand lod in 1828, as imperial d master. The Catholic Relief Act of the following year stirred up all the slumbering 7 pg of creed and race, and the association was h preengites more ly than ever—not only in Wales and Scotland, but also in Canada and in the other colonies ; and it extended its ramifications into the army. In 1835 the asso- ciation numbered 20 grand lodges, 80 district lodges, 1500 private lodges, and from 200,000 to 220,000 members. After a protracted parliamentary inqui in 1835 the lodges were formally su presead, thong! the institution afterwards gradually revived as a secret society. In 1861 there were 150,000 members in British America. Great days in the association are the 5th of November, the anniversary of William III.’s arrival in Torbay ; and the Ist and 12th of July, the anniversaries of the battles of Pig ey and the Boyne. Serious riots took place in New York on July 12, 1871, and at Belfast in 1880 and 1886. See Lecky’s History of England in the Eighteenth Century, vols. vii. and viii. (1890). River Colony, a British crown colony in South Africa, lying between the Vaal and Orange rivers, and surrounded by Cape Colony, the Transvaal Colony, Natal, and Basutoland. This region is a sneer rising from 3000 to 5000 feet above the sea-level, with very little wood, except alongside the numerous watercourses. Its vast un- dulating plains of magnificent pasture-land slope down to the Vaal and the hs gy and are dotted over with the isolated hills called ‘ Kopjies.’ Area estimated at 48,326 sq. m.; pop. (1890) 207,503— 77,716 being whites. Of these again 51,910 were natives of the State, 21,116 were born in Ca Colony, and 2549 in Europe, with 1000 from the Transvaal and 900 from Natal. Nearly 70,000 were members of the Dutch Reformed Church. The oc- eupationsare mainly pastoral. Merinosheep, cattle, horses, Goats, and ostriches are reared ; corn ( wheat, maize, Kaffir corn) is grown chiefly in the east. Coal is mined in the north and diamonds in the south-west. The climate is healthy and temperate. Railways connect Bloemfontein (q.v.), the capital, with the Cape (1892) and the Transvaal. The annual trade reaches a total of 3 millions sterling ; the chief exports being wool, diamonds, hides, ostrich-feathers, and live animals. When the Dutch Boers left the Cape Colony (1836) and took posses- sion of this country it was inhabited by Bushmen, Bechuanas, and Korannas. The Cape government appointed a resident in the republic in 1845, and years later it was annexed to the British crown as the Orange River Sovereignty; but in 1854 it was aes up to the Boers, who formed them- selves into the independent republic of the Orange River Free State. ident Sir J. H. Brand (1863- 83) cherished the friendliest relations with Britain, and mediated in 1881 between Britain and the Transvaal. On the failure of negotiations between the Transvaal (q.v.) and Britain in 1899, President Steyn, in alliance with the Transvaal, issued an ultimatum to Britain (9th October) which was virtually a declaration of war, and was followed a few om afterwards by a joint invasion of Natal. The r tog having been conquered and overrun, on 28th May 1900 the Orange River State was formally annex Llane as a crown colony, under the name of the Orange River Colony. See Borers, TRANSVAAL; Norris-Newman, With the Boers in the Transvaal and Orange Free State (1882) ; Anthony Trollope, South Africu (1878); E. de Weber, Quatre Ans aux Pays des Boers (1882); Theal’s History of the Boers in Southern Africa (1887); and numerous works on the Transvaal war (1899-1900). Oratorio, a sacred story set to music, which, like opera, requires soloists, chorus, and full or- chestra for its performance, but dispenses with the theatrical aidjanets of scenery, costumes, and acting. It is named from the oratory or mission- hall in Rome, where on feasts St Philip Neri (q.v.) prompted by the same spirit as had in the medisva miracle and mystery plays sought to interest and educate the unlearned, arranged the sacred musical performances (1571-94), which developed into the modern oratorio, 622 ORATORIO ORATORY The effort to find a more dramatic vehicle of ex- ression which had proved in Florence the germ of Gees. (q.v.) was also being made in Rome by Emilio del Cavaliere. And by a curious coincidence the first oratorio and the first opera (properly so called ) were produced in the same year ( ) in these two cities. Cavaliere’s oratorio, which was written thronghout in recitative style, was called La ppresentazione del’ Anima e del Corpo, and the directions for eating. dressing, and dancing, as well as singing, show how entirely the conception of oratorio has changed since its first rude beginning. During the 17th century Carissimi and Scarlatti wrote many works full of expression, but the Italians were, as a rule, more engrossed with the development of opera. Indeed, save in such expressive works as Carissimi’s Jephtha, Stra- della's John the Baptist, and the like, there is no difference between opera and oratorio composition, and it was among the graver nations of the North that the oratorio was to arrive at its maturity. There the first and almost universal subject was the Passion; and to illustrate the story and direct the meditations of the devout, Schiitz, Graun, Handel, and Bach employed all their skill in musical construction, and all the resources which counterpoint, harmony, and orchestration could afford them, Solid part-writing for voices is absolutely necessary for such impressive and seri- ous works as oratorios, and it is the neglect among the Italians of the art they had brought to snch perfection during the 16th century which has caused the crown to pass from Italy to Germany. The greatest ‘Passion Music’ is the St Matthew, written for service on Good Friday, 1729, by Seb. Bach. It contains choruses, solos, and chorales (in which the congregation took part), all of surpassing interest and beauty, and showing when requisite t dramatic truth and force. And as this work is the climax, so it is the close of passion music development. The next and most important phase of oratorio was the Epic, which became in Handel’s giant hands such a powerful instrument, Before he wrote Sau/ and Israel in Fount ie) he had written an early oratorio in the Italian, and Passions, Xe. in the Ger- man style. Between his arrival in England (1710) and his abandonment of the opera he had in no fewer than forty-four operas accustomed himself to all the possibilities of vocal expression ; and his Italian training, his studies in Germany, and his varied experience eminently fitted him for his task. In twelve years he composed fifteen grand oratorios (Israel in Egypt, Messiah, Samson, Judas Mac- cabeus, Joshua, Solomon, Jephtha, &c.), besides several cantatas and anthems of almost oratorio dimensions, The greatest is Jsrael in Egypt, with its massive double chorus-writing and its grand effects ; but the Messiah is a work which stands out not only among oratorios, but in all musical literature as a front inspiration. Pure inspiration it must indeed ave been, for it was written in twenty-four days ! The great admiration for Handel's compositions in England finds expression every three years in the Handel Festival, held in London, at which the Messiah, Israel in Egypt, and a ‘selection’ are performed on a — scale (about three thou- sand singers and five hundred instrumentalists), Haydn heard Handel’s works when he visited England in 1791-92, and was incited to the com- sosthlon of his great oratorio, the Creation (and also the charming pastoral the Seasons, which should scarcely be called an oratorio); in fact, Handel has been the inspiration and model of nearly all succeeding oratorios, as England, his adop country, has been oratorio’s peculiar home. There the unequalled choruses and the general custom of choral festivals on a large scale offer numerous eepeceenies for producing familiar masterpieces and inducements to compose new works. For the Birmingham Festival of 1846 Mendelssolin wrote his masterpiece, the Elijah, a work of great originality, which, however, owes more to the influence of h than of Handel. S¢ Paul was produced at Diisseldorf ten years earlier. Daring orchestral colour and original effects characterise Spohr’s oratorios, Last Jud, (1826), Cal (1885), and The rie f . lon (1842). fodern oratorios take advan of the dramatic element which is so strong in music of the 19th century, and in many works the name is modified (e.g. Dramatic Oratorio— Mackenzie’s Rose of Sharon, Parry’s Judith, &c.) or avoided Nope ilogy—Gounod’s Redempti Berlioz’s Chi Ludmila and Liszt’s izabeth and Christus lean more and more to the form of dramatic can of which Beethoven’s Mount of Olives (miscall an oratorio), Schumann’s Paradise and the Peri, Sullivan’s Golden Legend, and Mackenzie’s Dream of Jubal and Sayid are fine examples. To treat of the large field thus opened to modern composers in the dramatic cantata, sacred and secular, would lead us far beyond the limits of this article; reference must be made to musical dic- tionaries, as well as, more strictly for Oratorio, to Bitter’s Geschichte des Oratorinms (1872), Wan- gemann’s Geschichte des Oratoriums (1882), Rock- stro’s careful article in Grove’s Dictionary, and Upton’s Standard Oratorios (Chicago, 1887). Oratory of St Philip Neri, Concrrca- TION OF THE. The origin of the Con; tion of the Oratory has been described in the article on St Philip Neri, its founder (see, NERI). Here some- thing must be said of its constitution and work. The primary idea of the institution was that its members should be bound by no religious vows. They were to be secular priests living together under a common rule, and practising obedience as free sub- jects, with liberty to quit the community if the so willed. Each father must contribute an annu pension towards the se nad of the house, and have, moreover, a sufficiency of private means for his personal expenses, therwise he has absolute control over his own property. The government of the congregation is of a remarkably republican character. Each community is entirely independ- ent, being subject to no mother-house or general- superior. The community is composed of three classes—the novices, triennial and decen fathers. A member after passing his novitiate becomes a triennial father, with a consultative voice in the affairs of the congregation. On the com- letion of his tenth year he becomes a decennial ‘ather, with a decisive vote. The superior, who is generally spoken of as ‘the Father,’ is elected every three years, and with him are elected four deputies, who form a committee which meets weekly, has the appointment of the other officers, distributes the ecclesiastical work, and controls the ordinary expenditure. But no large expenditure or new undertaking can be entered upon without the consent of the general co tion, where in all vag the voting is sc fa lot. whe i superior, primus inter pares, has no leges an is exempt from no rules. He takes his turn in the waiting at table in the refectory, and has his share in the work of the church. The principal religious exercise of the community, beyond the duties common to all priests, is half-an-hour’s. mental prayer in the evening followed by the litanies, for which three times a week is substituted the tak of ‘ the discipline’ or self-flagellation in a darken room, The ceremonial for this exercise will be found described in Hone’s Ancient Mysteries. The ministerial work of the Oratory consists chiefly in ‘dhood vA rist, &e.). Dvyorik'’s St — st El ORBIS PICTUS ORCHARD 623 constant attendance in the confessional and in the characteristic daily preaching. Another essential part of the institute is an external brotherhood similar in some respects to the ‘Third Orders’ of the older religious orders, but consisting of men only, who meet in a separate chapel called the Little Oratory, under the direction of a father prefect. The brothers, as a rule, observe the same exercises as the fathers. It is in the Little Oratory that the musical services which originated the ora- torio are held. Music was so often performed in the oratory at Seville that Blanco White s' it as the ‘spiritual opera-house.’ Philip Neri, who governed the community at Rome as long as he lived, committed no rule to writing. The traditional rules drawn up at a later time were approved by Paul V. in 1612. Oratory spread rapidly through the chief cities of Italy, and there were several houses in Spain. In Germany it never took root. In France Cardinal de Bérulle took the institute as his model in a new foundation (1611), approved by Paul V. in 1614, under the name of the ‘Congregation of the Oratory of our Lord Jesus Christ in France.’ But it differs essentially from the Oratory of St Philip Neri. It was governed by a superior-gen- eral, and was mainly concerned with the institution of seminaries for the training of priests. The life in the Roman Oratory admitted leisure for private study ; and the founder, in encouragin Cesare Baronio to write his t work on chure history, set an example which was followed by many distinguished scholars—Bozio, Gallonio, Aringhi (Roma subterranea), Bianchini (Evan- gelium quadruplex), Gallandi ( Bibliotheca patrum), and others. It was natural that the character of ee | Neri and the community life which he estab- lished should have a particular attraction to a number of men from the English universities, who were led by the Oxford movement to the Church of Rome. Dr Newman when at Rome obtained from the pope a brief (26th November 1847) author- ising him establish the Oratory in England. Shortly afterwards F. W. Faber, who had founded a new order, ‘the Brothers of the Will of God,’ generally known as ‘ Wilfridians,’ joined, with his whole community, the Oratory at Birmingham. In 1849 Father Faber was sent to London with some other fathers to set up a house in King William Street, Strand, which in October 1850 was con- stituted an in ent congregation, and in 1854 was transferred to its present abode in Brompton. There seems to have been a project of introducing the Oratory into England in the reign of James II., and there is in the British Museum an extremely rare if not unique copy of an English translation of the Rule printed in 1687. Cattolica in Inghilterra, orvero V Oratorio Inglese, 4 Ca) latro (Na 1859), and Life and Letters of Faber, . Bowden (1869). The Instituta Con tionis Anglice was printed in Rome at the Propag. Press in 1847, Orbis Pictus. See Comentvs. Orbit, in Astronomy, is the path described in space by a heavenly body in its revolution round its primary. The I es so described is of an elliptic form, and would accurately an ellipse were it not for the disturbing influence of the other heavenly bodies (see PERTURBATIONS). The com- determination of a planet’s orbit is of the last mportance to astronomers, as it enables them to predict the planet’s place in the heavens at any , and thus determine the exact date of — of the sun and moon, of transits and occul- of the planets, and of the appearances and boseaby aad. of comets. For the determination ks of of a planet’s orbit it is necessary to know three things: (1) The situation of the plane of the orbit in space; (2) the position of the orbit in this plane; and (3) the situation at a given epoch, and rate of motion, of the planet in its orbit. Since the plane of the ecliptic is for convenience taken as the refer- ence plane, the position of the plane of a planet’s orbit is known when (1) its inclination to the plane of the ecliptic and (2) the line of intersection of the two planes are known. Ore: a, whose real name was Andrea di Cione and his nickname ARCAGNUOLO (‘archangel’), cor- rupted into O: a, Was a painter, sculptor, and architect, as well as a maker of ms. Born, about 1316, the son of a Florentine worker in silver, he was early imbued with artistic tastes. Sculpture he learned in the studio of Andrea Pisano, and in ey was helped by an elder brother. In 1355 @ was appointed architect to the church of Or San Michele in his native city; his greatest artistic triumph exists in the marble tabernacle in this church. ‘This, in its combined splendour of archi- tectural design, sculptured reliefs and statuettes, and mosaic enrichments, is one of the most im- ference and eee — of art mai —- rich taly possesses. It combines an altar, a shrine, a rarerica: and a baldacchino’ (Middleton). From 1358 to 1360 he was chief architect of the cathedral at Orvieto, for which he designed some mosaic pictures. In Florence he planned a mint, piers in the cathedral, and other works. His earliest achievement with the painter’s brush was to execute, in conjunction with his elder brother Nardo, several frescoes in the church of Santa Maria Novella at Florence. Some of these have perished ; but a ‘ Last Judgment’ and ‘Christ and the Virgin enthroned in Heaven’ still survive, though greatly restored. Other frescoes in the cemetery at Pisa that were attributed to Orcagna are now believed to have been by a painter or painters of the Sienese school. Orcagna painted several panel pictures, including a retable for the altar in the Strozzi chapel of Santa Maria Novella ; another for the church of San Pietro Maggiore in Florence, now in the National Gallery, London ; an altarpiece in the chapel of the Medici (Santa roce), Florence ; and ‘St Zenobius Enthroned,’ in the cathedral of Florence. Orcagna’s death is usually given as 1389; but 1376 seems a more likely date, or even 1368, See the article by Pro- fessor J. H. Middleton in Ency. Brit. ; and Crowe and Cavaleaselle, Painting in Italy, vol. i. (1864). Orchard (generally supposed to be from A.S. ort-gearde—i,e, a yard or enclosure for orts, worts, or wurts = Lat. o/us, but strangely resembling the Gr. orchatos, especially in the Miltonie form, orchat) is a space of ground employed for the growth of hardy tree-fruit, such as apples, cherries, pears, and plums. By common usage and the force of climate the word in Great Britain has now be- come suggestive of apples only ; and if the fruit be of any other staple a special prefix is peealy employed, except in the counties (and few they are) in which cherries, pears, or plums are grown thus largely, such as Kent, Hereford, and Wor- cester. In some parts of the United States peaches are grown in vast quantities upon orchard-trees, and that fruit can be ripened thus in the southern counties of England, when the spring and summer have been favourable, But in the main with us the orchard is a plot of ground planted with apple- trees, and thus we shall chiefly regard it. In England, as well as the more fruitful parts of Scotland, the manor-house, vicarage, manse, or farm, or other well-environed dwelling-place, has its own orchard not far from the house, and capable of producing fruit, unless too much discouraged, 624 ORCHARD Too often the orchard is treated with contempt, as a space where the children, turkeys, calves, or pigs may roam at pleasure; and if there are any apples they are ed as a windfall of some rarity. This is not as it ought to be. Orchards were laid out at a time when there was room enough to move freely, and people knew less than they seem to know now. Hovudiegy we find on these old trees either no fruit at all, or very little, and of that the chief part, worthless, There is no greater puzzle to the farmer or squire farming his own land than the sad condition of his orchard and his own deep ignorance about it. Amid the more im t works the trees have too often been neglected; and the space which should yield its fair share of profit, as well as of picturesque enjoyment, has become a frowsy wilder- ness, Much of the blame for this would fall on those who are now beyond it. Seldom indeed can we find an orchard planted by our ancestors with any common sense or judgment. The trees have been placed there anyhow, without any knowledge of their habit, growth, fertility, use, or requirements. And for this the nurserymen of that time must also be held accountable, their ignorance of their own produce having been equal to that of their cus- tomers. In this particular a vast advance has been made in the last half-century, and the planter of an orchard now has himself to thank if he plants amiss. For of late years it has been imagined largely that profit, equally speedy and heavy, can be secured very pleasantly by the growth of fruit in Britain. In spite of all experience this may be so, as we find the laws of nature overcome now and then by superhuman effort. And when every- thing comes to pass exactly as it should, the orchard takes occasion sometimes to pay its way. With a view towards this we may consider first the formation and planting of an orchard ; secondly, the renewal of an old and not too hale plantation. (1) Situation and soil are the first two questions, the former being even the more important in the colder of Britain. A slope towards the south or south-east is best of all; but if that cannot be found a fair level will do, unless it be in the bottom of a valley or too near some broad river. A damp situation is always bad; and especially evil is the spot—though it may be the warmest in summer— where the fog of the morning draws and packs from the marshes or from a tidal river. For the worst of all enemies to British fruit is the late spring frost, which settles chiefly in the valley or along the plain; whence the bleak hillside is often fruitfu when the sheltered dale is barren. Also the soil must be fairly ; neither too sandy nor of very heavy clay. hen the site has been chosen the nd should be trenched to the depth of two feet possible, and drainage provided where neelful, as in all but the most favoured spots it is. Time for settlement should be allowed after the trenching ; and then the stations may be prepared for the standard-trees. The distance from tree to tree and row to row ought to be governed by the choice of kinds, and this again es ones upon the object of the planter. He may plant for home use, or for sale, or for both; and in either case for table use or for cider. If he plants for his own table use— be it for cooking or dessert—his chief concern is Pag | combined with fair fertility. If he plants or market he must first consider productiveness and appearance and the common opinion of his neighbourhood ; for if he took into the market the best apple ever grown, but as yet of no repnta- tion, he would have to take it home again until the trees old. Also, he would rather sell ges frnit than bad; but generally speaking this difficult without much self-sacrifice, For the finer kinds are, with few exceptions, less fertile than the inferior. But whatever his objects be, - and whatever varieties he selects, the planter must he guided by the habit of the trees as to the allowed them. It is better to allow too much room than too little ; and in a plantation intended to en- dure, 25 feet from tree to tree is not one too many. The permanent trees should be straight worked upon the crab-stock, and with 6 feet of stem from the root to the spread of the branches. Let them be planted almost upon the surface, then banked up with re soil, and staked until cher can hold their own against the wink Of pruning little or none is required during the first year of their growth, except that any shoot should be ent out, or rival to the leader repressed at once, if the tree is to be carried up in conical form. No manure should be we as unless it be in the way of mulching, where the is very droughty. hen all the standards are planted and staked, and seen to ‘eut true,’ as gardeners term it, both along and across the rows, the tempora ee may be planted among them, whether of dwarf-trees, or of bushes, vegetables, clover, or anything. else; but a clear must be reserved at all times of at least a yard around the orchard-tree. And throughout the next year the young plantation must be heeded Gi A Dixie Kilometres, 54=!1 Inch, hind) 05.2. 2. BO 10 4 ally —F Syst} 2S rab A o” 2 daw Yomes, prtenlc A RR” - nt Ve Cant? AGS, ost « By ct es & Nise” v 7 G pificanville & Ca | /oSeneca ORDOVICIAN OREGON 635 are made on the 6-inch maps in the parts of the country where these exist, but the results are published on the l-inch scale only, except some of the mineral districts, which are issued also on the 6-inch scale. Besides the maps, sheets of sections, horizontal and vertical, with valuable memoirs, and monographs on fossils, are also pub- i ; and a general index map, scale 4 miles to an inch, is in p . A survey of the West Indies has been carried out, and memoirs descrip- tive of the geology of Trinidad, Jamaica, and British Guiana have been published. The geologi- cal survey of Canada and that of India are vast undertakings in progress; also government geo- logical and mining surveys are in progress in the Australian colonies. See the articles Con- Tour Lines, Map, SURVEYING; Colonel White’s oe of the United Kingdom (Edin. 886). Ordovician, 2 name sometimes given to a geological formation intermediate between Cam- ian and Silurian ; otherwise accounted the Lower Silurian strata. It is so called from the Ordovices, an ancient British tribe. Ore-deposits. Any mineral which is obtained by mining, and which contains a workable pro- rtion of a metal, is called by miners an ore. res are met with in various forms and positions in the earth’s crust. Sometimes they are found in gravel, sand, and other alluvial deposits. Examples of this class are afforded by the placers of California (see GOLD), the now exhausted tin- stream works of Cornwall, and the bog iron ores of various localities. In other cases the ores occur disseminated through igneous and sedimentary rocks, Tin ore and magnetic iron ore are fre- quently met with in this form. When the whole rock is permeated with mineral matter, accumu- lated in minute veins, the deposit is termed a stock- work. Examples of such deposits of tin ore occur at Carclase and other places in Cornwall, and at Altenberg in Saxony. Again, the ores may occur in detached masses. Such, for instance, are the red hematite deposits of Ulverston in Lancashire, the brown hematite of the Forest of Dean, the iron mountains of Gellivara and Taberg in Sweden, and of Missouri. The ores may occur in regular — beds (see MINING) or seams pms ated tween rocks of sedimentary origin, as in the case of the ironstone of the coal-measures, and in that of the cupriferous shale of Mansfeld in Prussian Saxony, a seam not more than 5 inches thick which has been worked without interruption since the 12th century. Lastly, ores are met with in tabular masses, known as mineral veins or /odes, differing in character from the enclosing rocks. The simplest classification of ore-deposits is that based on their form, into two divisions: (1) tabular deposits, a class subdivided into (a) beds, whether inter- stratified or superficial, and (4) lodes; and (2) non- tabular deposits, or masses. A lode is usually defined as a repository of mineral matter which fills more or less completely a former fissure. Though this definition is un- doubtedly trne in most cases, deposits are occasion- ally met with in which the rock at the sides of the fissure, having been so altered as to render it worth working, should be considered as part of the lode. These exceptional cases are included in a more neral definition ‘ee ounded by Dr C, Le Neve Foster, who regards lodes as tabular deposits of mineral, which have been formed subsequently to the rocks by which they are surrounded. Lodes are very variable in thickness, from a mere film u to 150 feet or more. Their longitudinal extent is equally variable. The great Mother Lode of Cali- fornia has been traced for a distance of 70 miles. In tabular deposits, whether beds or lodes, two dimensions predominate, and the third or smallest dimension, the perpendicular distance between the two bounding planes, is termed the thickness. The adjacent rock on both sides of these two planes is termed the country ; the portion on which the deposit lies is the foot-wall, and that covering it is the hanging-wall. With beds or seams, these are known as the floor or roof respectively. The strike of a deposit is the angle formed with the meridian by the direction of a horizontal line drawn in the middle plane, and its dip is the inclination down- wards measured in degrees from the horizontal. As the dip of lodes is usually considerable, it is sometimes measured from the vertical, and is then termed underlie or hade. The portion of a mineral deposit occurring at the surface is known as the ou » basset, or (in the United States) apex. The contents of lodes vary, some parts containin worthless vein-matter or gangue, others being fill with ore. The productive portions are termed courses, bunches, shoots (U.S. chutes), or pipes of ore, Cross-courses are veins with a direction nearly at right angles to the chief lodes of any particular mining district. Experience shows that the pro- ductiveness of lodes is affected by intersection with other veins, by the nature of the adjacent rock, and by changes of dip or of strike. The origin of mineral veins is a much debated subject which has long occupied the attention of geologists. All the theories which have at various times been brought forward assume in the first place that a fissure has been formed in the earth’s crust. This fissure has, it is thought, been filled up by mechanical action causing the attrition of the sides, by sublimation, by injection of molten or plastic material from below, as in the case of dykes of eruptive rock, or, lastly, by depositions from solution, coming from above, from below, or from the sides. The last mentioned, known as the lateral secretion theory, has received great sup- ou by the researches of Prof. F. Sandberger. hese researches have shown the presence of the common heavy metals in rocks belonging to every geological period. Copper, tin, lead, zinc, cobalt, and nickel have been detected in silicates (mica, augite, and olivine), occurring as component minerals of the commonest rocks. Prof. Sand- berger therefore coneludes that these metals have been dissolved ont and deposited in fissures. The subject of mineral deposits is systematically treated in J, A. Phillips’ Zreatise on Ore-deposits (Lond. 1884), in which a full bibliography of the subject will be found, The reduction of. ores is discussed under METALLURGY, and under the names of the several metals, Or'egen: a Pacifie state of the American Union, bounded N. by Washington, E. by Idaho, 8. by California and Nevada, and W. | concright 1301, 1807, and by the Pacific. Lat. 42°—46° | 1900 in the v.'. by’. B. + long. 116° 40’—124° 45’ W. Lippincott Company. Area, 96,030 3 m., or almost twice that of England. Oregon on the west is literally rock-bound by the Coast Range of mountains, having, however, numerous indentations which furnish good harbours for sea-going vessels, The Columbia River affords the largest and deepest entrance. Seventy miles east of the Coast Range is the Cascade Range, rising to a height of 6000 to 8000 feet, and at almost — intervals surmounted by snow- capped peaks of nearly double that altitude. From the Cascade Range eastward to the Blue Moun- tains, about 70 miles, and farther on to the eastern boundary of the state, the surface is diversified by mountains and valleys, rolling plains, and table- lands. Here the soil and climate are suitable for riculture and Lion In Western Oregon is the Willamette valley, 130 miles long and 60 miles 636 OREGON ORENBURG wide, every foot of which is arable and fertile— adapted by soil and climate to in and fruit. The valley is situated between the Coast Range and the Cascade Range of mountains. South of this are the peg and Rogue River valleys, both of which produce large quantities of fruit. The climate of Oregon is mild, in spite of its northerly situation, owing first to the oceanic cur- rent from Japan, which, starting with a tempera- ture of 90°, is from 49° to 54° off the coast here. Moreover, the cold Arctic winds are warded off by the Cascade Range, and no blizzard camcross the Rocky Mountains. The range of temperature from summer to winter is smal On the coast the climate is mild and varies little, but there is fog in summer and excessive rain in winter; in the Willamette valley the summers are pleasant, the winters wet, and spring and autumn foggy in the mornings; the Umpqua valley has a delightful climate, with some snow in winter; and the same, with greater heat and cold, is true of the Rogue River valley, the lake region in the south-east, and Eastern Oregon, where there is a good deal of snow in winter. The average mean temperature is 50° F., the rainfall 36 inches—17 at Linkville, in the interior, and 59 at Astoria, on the coast. The grain-crops of O m are wheat, oats, barley, rye, and maize, in this order. Flax- seed, hay, potatoes, tobacco, and hops (principally along the rivers Willamette and Mackenzie) are also raised. From three to four million pounds of butter and cheese are produced annually. Great quantities of fruit, both green and dried, are annually shipped from the state, especially from the western districts; but in Eastern Oregon, too, excellent fruit is produced, and, as the bunch-grass is fast disappearing, and the herds of cattle are diminishing, agricultural and horticultural pursuits are receiving more attention. The lands best suited for fruit-farming are mainly limited to the valleys and foot-hills ; but these are of vast extent, and the extreme richness of the soil and the mild- ness of the climate make the state’s productive powers almost inconceivably great. The demand abroad for Oregon fruits more than doubled annu- ally from 1885 to 1890. The most successful fruits are the Italian prune, apples (Oregon is called ‘ the land of red epples’), pears, peaches, grapes, and cherries (the Royal Ann cherries grow too large for one bite). The wealth of Oregon in timber is remarkable. The Oregon Pacific Railroad, in crossing the Cascade Range, passes through a great timber belt extending for 90 continuous miles; and it is stated that careful examination shows in one locality enough timber on one square mile to supply for twenty years a mill cutting 150,000 feet a day. y: Among the other industries of Oregon may be mentioned the catching and tinning of salmon (430,000 cases were shipped from the Columbia River in 1890), the rearing of sheep (Eastern one produces large quantities of wool of good qu ity), and mining. The minerals of the state com coal (29,600 tons in 1885), iron ore, gold (14,965 ounces), copper, nickel, quicksilver, fire- clay, chrome, silver, manganese, zinc, lead, and platinum. Trade is facilitated by numerous lines of railway, and the navigable rivers have steamers ‘running all the year. In 1891 there were three thro lines connecting Oregon with the east and south, and another was in construction. Under the title of Oregon was formerly included all the land between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean north of 42° N. lat. John Jacob Astor established Astoria (q.v.) in 1811; in 1813 it was sold to the North-western Fur Company, and it afterwards passed into the ion of the Hudson Bay Company. Great Britain's claim to the territory was based on Drake's of the coast in 1579, Cook's visit to Juan de Fuca Strait in 1778, the explorations of Captain John Meares in 1788-89, and Vancouver's survey of the entire coast from 30° to 60° N. lat., dis- covery and ascent of the Columbia River, in 1792. A treaty of joint occupation was to between Britain and the United States in 1818, and endured until 1846. Settlement by the New Englanders pa eee and an Indian mission was planted at Salem by the Methodists in 1834. The Oregon question was a prominent feature of the presidential contest in 1844. In 1846 the dispute was com- pone the boundary line with British America og at 49° N. lat. Oregon became a terri- tory in 1848, and, with redw limits, a state in 1859. It has thirty-three counties, and sends two representatives to congress. The judges of the =e court are elected by aipalar vote. The valuation of property in 1898 was $133,533,571. The Bg school system consists of district schools (3675 teachers in 1898, with an av daily attendance of 61,234) free to all betwen Es ages of four and twenty, the state university at ugene, the state agricultural coll at Corvallis, and four normal schools, besides institutions for the blind, deaf and dumb, and orphans. There are also thirty-three private and denominational institutions. The principal cities are Portland (pop. 1900, 90,426), lem, the capital (4258), As- toria, Albany, Baker City, Eugene, Oregon City, The Dalles, Pendleton (town), &e. Pop. (1860) 52,465 ; (1880) 174,768 ; (1890) 313,767 ; (1900) 413,536, Oregon River. See CoLuMBIA. Orel, a town of Russia, stands on the Oka, 222 miles by rail SSW. of Moscow, has manufactures of ropes, tallow, bricks, machinery, and verdigris, and a bi trade in grain, ropes, and tallow. It was burned down in 1848 and again in 1858. Pop. (1883) 76,601—The | eon speed of Orel, an agri- cultural and busy industrial region, has an area of 18,036 sq. m., and a pop. (1883) of 1,918,342. Orellana, See AMAzoN. Orelli, KAsPAR von, scholar, was born at Zurich, 13th February 1787. Ordained in 1806, he next year e a Reformed preacher at Bergamo; in 1813 a teacher in the cantonal school at Coire; in 1819 professor at Zurich, and in 1833 professor of Classical Philology in the newly-founded univer- sity. He died at Zurich, 6th January 1849. Orelli edited many classical authors with great learning, taste, and acute discrimination, in particular Horace 1837-38), Tacitus (1846-47), and Cicero (1826-31). is Onomasticon Tullianum (1836-38) and In- scriptionum Latinarum Selectarum Collectio (1828) also deserve mention. Orelli, Konrap Von, theologian, was born at Zurich, a January 1846, and studied at Lausanne, Zurich, Erlangen, and especially theology at Tiibingen, and oriental languages at Leipzig. In 1869 he became orphan-house preacher at Zurich, ivat-docent in 1871, professor extra-ordinary of heology at Basel in 1873, and ordinary professor there in 1881. Among his writings are Die Alt- testamentliche Weissagung von der Vollendung des Gottesreichs (1882; . trans, 1885) and admir- able Commentaries on Isaiah (1887; trans. 1889), Jeremiah (1887), Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor Prophets (1888). Orenburg, a town of Euro Russia, stands on the = oy, Ural, rail ib miles ESE. of Moscow. Founded (1743) as a frontier fortress, it is now of importance for its commerce only ; it imports cotton, silk-stuffs, cattle, hides, &c. from Bokhara, Khiva, and Tashkent. Corn, m sugar, woven goods are the principal exports. The OO —— a ORENSE ORGAN 637 town possesses an arsenal and two mili schools. Pop. (1882) 42,123.—The government pec area of 73,794 sq. m. and a py oa 1,198,360, of very mixed races, Bashkirs (246,000) and Cossacks (229,000) predominating. Orense, capital of a Galician province of Spai near the frontier of Portugal, on the left bank of the Minho, and 60 miles from its mouth. It has hot sulphnrous springs, and manufactures woollens, linens, and chocolate. Pop. 13,291. Oreodaphne, a genus of trees of the natural order Lauracew, Piscine called Mountain Laurel. 0. opifera is a native of the countries on the lower part of the Amazon. A volatile oil obtained from the bark is used as a liniment, and when kept for a short time deposits a great quantity of camphor. 0. cupularis is a very large tree with strong-scented wood, the bark of which yields the cinnamon of Mauritius. It grows also in Bourbon and Mada- gascar. O. fetens, a native of the Canaries, has wood (Til-wood) of a most disagreeable odour. 0. bullata, found at the Cape of Good Hope, is also remarkable for the di ble odour of its wood, the Stink-wood of the colonists; but it is hard durable, beautiful, takes an excellent polish, and is used in shipbuilding. Oreodonts, an extinct family of ungulates, the remains of which occur in the Tertiary deposits of North America. Orestes, son of Agamemnon and Clyteemnestra. When his father was murdered by his mother and her ur Agisthus -he was saved by his sister Electra, who sent him secretly to Phocis to the court of Strophius, husband of memnon’s sister. Here he formed a romantic friendship with the king’s son, Pylades, and as soon as he had "pote up the pair went secretly to Argos, and slew Clyteemnestra and Aégisthus. Madness seized him after the matricide, and he fled from land to land, ever hannted by the avenging Erinnyes or Furies. At Athens, whither he had fled by advice of Apollo, he was purged of guilt by the meoreans. Learn- ing from erello, according to another story, that he could only recover from his madness by carry- ing off the statue of Artemis from the Tauric Chersonesus, he journeyed thither along with Pylades, but the friends were seized by the natives to be sacrificed to Artemis. Her priestess Iphigenia recognised her brother thee gee and fy saree escaped together, e statue with them. Orestes recovered his father’s kingdom at Mycene, slew Neoptolemus, and married his wife Hermione, who had been formerly promised to himself. The story of Orestes afforded a favourite theme to the great tragedians—to Aischylus in the extant trilogy, the Oresteia ; to Sophocles in his Electra ; to Euripides in his Orestes and Electra. See Becker, Die Orestes-sage der Griechen (1858). Orfa. See Epessa. Orfi MATHIEU JOSEPH BONAVENTURE, founder of the science of toxicology, was born at Mahon in Minorea, 24th April 1787, and studied at Valencia, Barcelona, and Paris (whither he was sent by the junta of his province). In October 1811 he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine, and immediately commenced a private course of lectures on chemistry, botany, and anatomy, which was largely attended, and, along with his successful practice, soon rendered him famous. In 1813 the first edition of his celebrated work on = entitled Traité de Toxicologie Générale ‘aris ). In 1819 he was created a citizen of France, and became professor of Jurisprudence ; and in 1823 he was transferred to the chair of Chemistry, to which in 1831 was added the deanship of the oye On the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 he was deprived of his place in the medical faculty on account of his conservative opinions, but retained his professorship. He died at Paris, March 12, 1853. Other works were on medical chemistry (1817) and on forensic medicine (1825). He also contributed largely to various journals, dictionaries, and encyclopzedias. Orford, See WALPOLE. Organ (Gr. organon, ‘an instrument’), a musical instrument played by keys, and general] also by pedals, and consisting of metal and w Pipes, which sound by wind stored in bellows, and mitted into them at will. The following descrip- tion is necessarily restricted to the most funda- mental arrangements of this very complicated instrument. As met with in cathedrals and large churches, the organ comprises four or sometimes five departments, each in most respects a separate instrument with its own mechanism, called respec- tively the great-organ, the choir-organ, the swell- organ, the pedal-organ, and sometimes the solo- . Each has its own keyboard, but the dilt erent keyboards are brought into juxtaposition, so as to be under the control of one performer. Keyboards played by the hands are called manuals ; by the feet, pedals. Three manuals, belonging to the choir, great, and swell organs respectively, rise above each other like steps in front of the per- former, while the pedals by which the pedal-o' is played are placed on a level with his feet. The condensed air ee lied by the bellows is conveyed through a wi agent into a wind-chest. Each department of the organ, it may be mentioned, has its wind-chest. Attached to the upper part of the wind-chest is the upper board, an ingenious con- trivance for conveying the wind at pleasure to any individual pipe, or pipes, exclusively of the rest. In the upper are set the pipes, of which a number different quality, ranged behind each other, belong to each note. Beneath the upper board is a row of parallel grooves, ranning horizon- tally backwards, corresponding each to one of the keys of the instrument. On any of the keys being down, a valve is opened which supplies wind to the groove belonging to it. The various pipes of each key stand in a line directly above its ve, and the upper surface of the groove is _per- orated with holes bored upwards to them. ere this the whole mechanism of the sound-board the wind on entering any groove would penetrate all the pe that groove; there is, however, in the upper board another series of horizontal grooves at right angles to those beneath, supplied with cross- slides, which can be drawn out or pushed in at pleasure by a mechanism worked by the draw-stops placed within the player’s reach, Each slide is perforated with holes, which, when it is drawn out, complete the communication between the wind- chest and the pipes: the communication with the pipes immediately above any slide being, on the other hand, closed up when the slide is pushed in. The pipes above each slide form a continuous set of one B see cml uality, and each set of pipes is called a stop. h depart- ment of the organ is nage with a number of stops, producing sounds of different quality. _ The great-organ, some of whose pipes appear as show- pipes in front of the instrument, contains the main body and force of the organ. Behind it stands the choir-organ, whose tones are less powerful, and more fitted to accompany the voice. Above the choir-organ is the swell-organ, whose ipes are enclosed in a wooden box with a front of ouvre-boards like Venetian blinds, which may be made to open and shut by a pedal, with a view of producing cr do and di do etfects, The ee an is sometimes placed in an entire state hind the choir-organ, and sometimes divided and 638 ORGAN a part arranged on each side. The most usual compass of the manuals is from C on the i Among the reed-stops are the clarion, oboe, bassoon, ‘senda , trumpet or posaune, and trombone or line below the bass staff to F above the third ledger line over the treble staff; and the compass of the pedals is from the same C to the F between the bass and treble staves—i.e. two octaves and a half. The real compass of notes is, as will be seen, much greater. Organ-pipes vary much in form and material, but belong to two great classes, known as /lue-pipes and reed-pupes. A section of oue of the former is represented in the figure. Its essential parts are the foot a, the body b, and a flat plate c, called the language, extending nearly across the pire at the point of junc- tion of foot and y. There is an open- ing, de, in the pipe, at the spot where the language is discontinuous. The wind ad- b mitted into the foot rushes through the narrow slit at d, and, in impinging against ¢ © imparts a vibratory motion to the column : of air in the pipe, the result of which is a ¢ musical note, dependent for its pitch on the _— of that colamn of air, and con- uently on the length of the body of the pipe: by doubling the length of the pipe we obtain a note of half the pitch, or lower My an octave, Such is the general principle of all flue-pipes, whether of wood or of metal, subject to consider- able diversities of detail. Metal pipes have gener- ally a cylindrical section, wooden pipes a square or oblong section. A flue-pipe may be stopped at the upper end by a plug called a tompion, the effect of which is to lower the pitch an octave, the vibrat- ing column of air being doubled in length, as it has to traverse the pipe twice before making its exit. Pipes are sometimes half-stopped, having a kind of chimney at the top. The reed-pipe consists of a reed placed inside a metallic pipe. This reed is a tube of metal, with the front part cnt away, and a tongue or spring put in its place. The lower end of tle tongue is free, the upper end attached to the top of the reed ; by the admission of air into the pipe the tongue is made to vibrate, and, in striking either the edge of the reed or the air, produces a musical note, dependent for its pitch on the length of the tongue, its Foor f being determined to a t extent by the length and form of the pipe or ll within which the reed is placed. When the vibrating tongue does not strike the edge of the reed, but the air, we have what is called the free reed, similar to what is in use in the Harmonium (q.v.). To describe the pitch of an organ-pipe terms are used derived from the standard length of an open flue-pipe of that pitch. The largest pipe in use is the 32-feet C, which is an octave below the lowest C of the modern pianoforte. There is, however, now in the new Sydney organ a al stop 64-feet tone. By a 32-feet or 16-feet stop we mean one whose lowest note is produced by a pipe 32 feet or 16 feet in length. he stops of an organ do not always produce the note properly belonging to the key struck ; some- times they > Seg a note an octave, or, in the pedal- organ, even two octaves lower, and sometimes one of the harmonies higher in pitch. Compound or mixture stops have several pipes to each key, cor- responding to the different harmonies of the ground- tone. There is an endless variety in the number and kinds of stops in different organs; some are, and some are not continued through the whole range of manual or pce Some of the more important stops are called open or stopped dia (a term which implies that they extend throughout the whole compass of the keyboard), The stops on an or, are principally of 8 feet in the manuals. The dulciana is an 8-feet manual stop, of small diameter, so called from the sweetness of its tone. ophicleide, deriving their names from real or fan- cied resemblances to these instruments and to the human voice. Of the compound-stops the most prevalent in Britain is the seoguialieie Saas fre- quently called mixture—consisting of three to five ranks of open metal pipes, often a 17th, 19th, 22d, 26th, and 29th from the ground-tone. The resources of the are further gree appliances called couplers, by which a manual and its stops can be brought into play, or the same manual can be united to itself in the octave below or above. are now generally tuned on the Be temperament (see TEMPERAMENT). The notation for the organ is in three staves, consisting of a treble and two bass clefs ; but in old compositions the soprano, tenor, and alto clefs are used. The organs used in antiquity were ipinere ro! water-organs, Large water-organs were oosies to accompany the performances at m theatres, and similar instruments were to be found in the hippodromes of Constantinople. The seope of the instrument was therefore originally and one of the earliest patrons of the o was the Emperor Nero. Ctesibius of Alexandria must be credited with the invention of the organ. Taking the idea from a pe sort of clepsydra or water- clock which he invented, and one function of which was to tell the hours of the night by musical notes, he worked onwards from invention to inven- tion until he constructed the earliest water-organs, The instruments shown to Nero and the first organs ever seen in Rome were from the designs of Ctesi- bius. The water mechanism in the ‘ water-organs’ was connected solely with the blowing, and seems to have been insisted on so strongly by the early organ-builders in order to render that operation equable and steady. By means of pistons working in cylinders the wind was pum through water into the wind-chest, where were set the pipes, fur- nished on the bottom with slides, which were con- nected with iron keys by strings or trackers. Such was the main difference between the water-organ and the wind-organ. The water-organ became the rage of Rome and increased in favour as the empire hastened to its decline. In the reign of Honorius (400 A.D.) no nobleman’s house was considered com- plete without its organ, and portable water-organs * were made in great numbers which could be carried hy slaves from house to house, where concerts or musical gatherings were attended by their masters. After the overthrow of the western empire organ- building seems to have been lost, among other useful arts, under the influence of the barbarian inroads, Constantinople, however, remained what it had always been, the great home of organ-build- ing in the ancient world. The magnificence of the a in the Golden Hippodrome is spoken of with enthusiasm by the Byzantine historians, An organ which was brought by certain Byzantine ambassadors on a mission to Charlemagne is said to have served as a model for the first o} ever built in medisval Europe, constructed by the orders of that emperor according to the Greek pattern. From Aix-la-Chapelle the use of organs spread throughont Charlemagne’s empire, and this instru- ment served as a model for the rest. The application of bellows to the organ was known in the days of the later Roman emperors. On the obelisk of Theodosius we have a delineation of an o blown solely by bellows. Probably the invention of the bellows mechanism dates from the time of the a te Julian. Yet this great secret of organ-bnilding was rarely if ever acted upon; and until the end of the 9th century, when Germany had become the centre of organ-building, a ORGAN ORGANO-METALLIC BODIES 639 water-organs were the almost exclusive form of organ employed both in Europe and the East. Towards the end of the 9th century large bellows organs began to be built, in keeping with the large Romanesque churches of the times. Thirty bellows were employed in some of these organs ; the outstretched arms of the organist could not span the compass of an octave; and the player or players struck each key with their fist. In the monasteries meanwhile, where size was not so much in demand, the mechanism of the organ was marvellously elaborated. The complete fur- nishings of the organ parts were manufactured in the monasteries, even down to the smelting of the metals whereof the pipes were made. Those dim- inutive organs, called regals, so small that they could be held on the palm of the hand, were the outcome of monastic ingenuity, and Pope Sylvester IL was a warm patron of organ-building, and him- self no mean inventor in the art. The family of the Antignati, in Brescia, had a great name as organ-builders in the 15th and 16th centuries. The organs of England were once in ute, but the puritanism of the Civil War most of them to destruction; and when they had to be replaced after the Restoration it was found that there was no longer a sufficiency of builders in the country. Foreign organ-builders were therefore invited to settle in England, the most remarkable of whom were Bernhard Schmidt nerally called Father Smith), his nephews, and natus Harris. Christopher Schreider, Snetzler, and Byfield succeeded them; and, at a later — Green and Avery, some of whose organs ve never been surpassed in tone. The largest English organs are those of the Royal Albert Hall, St Paul’s Cathedral, the Alexandra Palace, the Crystal Palace, St George’s Hall, Liverpool, and the Town-hall. The German organs are remark- able for preserving the balance of power well among the various masses, but in mechanical contrivance they are surpassed by those of England. he largest organ in the world is usually said to be that in the cathedral of Seville, which is stated to have 110 stops and 5300 pipes. There are several organs in that cathedral, and this immense o is said to exceed them all considerably in size. The method of blowing it is peculiar: a man walks u and down a long planking, arran like the famil- iar ‘see-saw,’ the motion of which fills the bellows. Since, however, there is a conflict of testimony as to the Seville organ, and no certain indication of its magnitude can be gathered except by reports upon hearsay, the ey in point of size amon theorgans of Europe is usually conceded to the Dutch organs. The organ in the cathedral of St Lawrence at Rotterdam is an immense structure, containing a great organ with 18 stops, a choir with 15, a posi- tive with 18, an echo with 8, and a al-organ with 16 stops. These, along with 11 accessory stops, make up a total of 86 stops. The organ at the cathedral of St Bavon at Haarlem was lon celebrated as the largest in the world. It too three and a half years to build, and cost £10,000. -It possesses 4088 — and 60 stops, exclusive of accessory sto e organ of the Protestant Church in Utrecht has 59 stops, —a the accessory ones; that in the Octagon Chure at Rotterdam aera a total complement of 52 stops. St Peter's at Rome has four smallish organs, the largest of which has only 2 manuals and pedal, and 27 stops in all, thus divided— great, 17; swell, 6; pedal, 4. The second largest organ in St Peter’s has but 1 manual and al. Generally speaking, the Italian organs are much inferior in point of size to those of the northern nations. Up till the middle of the nineteenth century, little interest was taken in organ-building in America. The erection of the great organ in the Music Hall, Boston, by a German builder, Walcker of Wiirtem- berg, gave the first impetus to public interest in the matter. Roosevelt of New York, and Jardine, likewise of New York, are two of the best-known organ-builders in America at the present time. Roosevelt has invented ‘the automatic adjustable combination,’ which enables the player to place any required combination of stops under immediate control, and to alter such combinations as frequently as desired. By his construction of the wind-chest, also, each pipe has its own valve, actuated by com- pressed air. Among the largest organs in America are the organs of the Roman Catholic Cathedral, Montreal, the cathedral of the Holy Cross, Boston, which 83 stops; the Musie Hall, Cincin- nati, with 96 stops and 4 manuals, and the Tremart Temple, Boston, with 65 stops. For the structure of. the o: see Hopkins and Rim- bault, Zhe Organ (Lond. 1855). For the history of the STEAD, see Rowbotham’s History of Music, vol. iii. chaps. 3,63 and book iv. chap. 2( Lond. 1887). For organ-play- ing, see Archer’s Practical Oryan Tutor, Best’s School for the Organ, Stainer’s The Organ. There are also works on ha aune by bibewere4 af 1882-87 ) Sp~ ogg (1894), and a ve 0 i in * and Queries for 1-90.” The American —. discussed at Har- MONIUM; and BARREL-ORGAN is a separate article. Organ, Organic, Organism, terms derived form the Greek organon, ‘an instrument,’ and still retaining in some of their applications that signi- ficance. But the words have found special accept- ance in connection with the forms of life ; Linnzeus described these, whether animals or plants, as Organisata ; and we Leoreigeue speak of them as organisms, of their larger, well-defined, and integ- rated parts as organs, of their internal activity and its products as organic. Prior to the year 1828 it was believed that certain chemical compounds which were produced as the results of vital processes occurring within the tissues of animal and vegetable organisms could not be obtained by the ordinary methods of the chemical laboratory; and these compounds were, for this reason, designated as organic. Wohler in that year, however, discovered that urea, the most important solid constituent of urine, could be obtained ‘ artificially,’ as it has been called, from inorganic materials. Since that date a very large panber of so-called organic compounds have been prepared artificially, so that the original signification of the term ‘ organic’ does not hold any longer; and the old conception of an organism as an engine-like collection of organs with fixed func- tions is disappearing before the doctrine that it is the protoplasm or living stuff in all parts of the body that is the basis of all vital activities. The title of organic eer, is now commonly applied to thie dhenisiry of the compounds of carbon, whether these compounds are obtainable only as the products of vital processes or not; see the articles CHEMISTRY and ANALYSIS (ORGANIC). ic impurities in water are those due to animaleules, bacteria, and decomposing organisms ; while such phrases as ‘organic disease,’ ‘ organic connection,’ refer to the relation between a living organism and its parts. See BioLocy, FUNCTION, MorPHOLOGY, PuystoLoGy.—For organic bases, see ALKALOIDS ; for organic radicals, see RADICAL. Organo-metallic Bodies. Under this term are included a number of chemical nee in which organic radicals, such as methyl, CH, ethyl, C.H;, &e., are united to metals. Amongst the earliest obtained of these substances were those derived from the metal zinc. Zine-methyl, Zn(CH;)., and zine-ethyl, Zn(C,H;)., which may be taken as examples of the class, are colourless liquids, heavier than water, which boil at 46° and 640 ORGANZINE ORIGEN 118° C. respectively. They take fire spontaneously in contact with air, and burn with the production of a dense white smoke of oxide of zine. In con- tact with the skin they give rise to severe wounds which are very difficult to heal. They are decom- posed with great energy by water. Substances analogous to these zine compounds have been pre- pared, containing cadmium, magnesium, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, tin, aluminium, mercury, lead, sodium, potassium, and some rare metals. For further information on this subject, see an article by Dr Frankland, in the 13th vol. of the Quarterly Jour, of the Chemical Soe. ; also the article om‘ Organo- metallic Bodies’ in Watt’s Dict. of Chemistry ; or any of the larger recent text-books of organic chemistry. Organzine. See SILK. Orgies, secret rites or customs connected with the worship of some of the n deities; as the secret worship of Demeter, and the festival of Dionysus, which was accompanied with many customs of mystic symbolism, and much license. From this latter accident comes obviously the modern sense of drunkenness and debauchery implied in the word. See MysTERIEs. Oribasius, a Greek medical author, and hysician to Julian the Apostate (326-403 A.D.). fe was born at Pergamus or Sardis, and his works are largely compilations from Galen (see MEDICINE, p. 117). "There is an edition of his works in 6 vols. y Buffemaker and Daremberg (Paris, 1852-76). Oriel Movement. See Keste, NEWMAN. Oriel Window, a projecting window in an upper story, supported on corbels, having more sides than one, usually three, and commonly divided into bays by mullions. It is one of the most picturesque features in medieval and Eliza- bethan domestic architecture, and adds much to the convenience of the interior. The word oriel (Mid. Lat. oriolum, probably dim. from os, oris, as if a small opening or recess) formerly meant a chamber or apartment, and a window is so called which makes, as it were, a small apartment off a large room. By old writers oriels are called Bay Windows (q.v.). Orientation, in Architecture, is the position of a church so that its chancel shall point towards the east. This was a fashion invariably adopted in northern countries, but not adhered to in Italy and the south, St Peter’s at Rome, for example, has the choir to the west, and the principal entrance towards the east. The orientation of aurea is not usually very exactly to the east, and it is supposed that the east end in some cases has been set so as to point towards the place where the sun rises on the morning of the patron saint's day. In other cases the choir and nave are not built exactly in a straight line, the choir having thus a slight inclination to one side, which in the symbolism of the middle ages was supposed to indicate the howing of our Savionr's head npon the cross, This departure from the line of the true east, how- ever, in many instances arose more probably from carelessness or ignorance, Oriflamme, the red silk banner first of the foe of St Denis, and afterwards of France, was so called because it was a aoe Lieeoresy borne on a gilded (or = ‘ gold’) staff. Fiaa. Orige the most learned and original of the early church fathers, and perhaps the noblest figure amongst them all, was born, probably at Res! andria, in 185 or 186. His full name was Origenes Adamantius. He was the son of the Christian martyr Leonidas, who was beheaded under Severus in 202. ‘Origen was great even from his cradle,’ says Jerome, In the early years when he was instructed by his father, Eusebius tells us, ‘ the simple and easy meanings of the sacred Scriptures 4 not enough for Soar tak he pong som: deeper,’ and Leonidas would often dover h son's bed as he lay pg Oe kiss_his breast, ‘which the Spirit of God had made His temple. In the catechetical school of Clement he frmed the friendship of Alexander, afterwards Bishop of Jeru- cry e a d fe ats et markyrciene and his purpose of joining him in this was only Gasiadeda by the artifice of his mother, who con- cealed all his clothes. After his father’s death he supported his mother and six brothers by teacl ‘grammar,’ and from his eighteenth year he ac’ with the consent of his aes Demetrius, as master of the eatechetical school. collection of classical books which he had bought or copied out for him- self he sold for a sum which yielded him four obols (or about 6d.) a day, which sufficed for his simple wants for many years. According to Eusebius he went so far in his asceticism as to mutilate himself, following a literal interpretation of Matthew, xix. 12, but by some this is doubted. His in’ with heretics and educated heathens led him to devote himself to more thorough study of Plato, the later Platonists and Pythagoreans, and the Stoics, under the guidance of the Neoplatonist Ammonius At Alexandria he taught for twenty-eight years (204-232), composed the chief of his dogmatic treatises, and commenced his t works of textual and exegetical criticism. The labours of those years. were interrupted by sonia to Rome, Arabia, Antioch, and other places. ring a visit to Palestine in 216 the bishops Alexander of Jeru- salem and Theoctistus of aaa had employed him to deliver public lectures in the churches, and on a later occasion (in 230) had consecrated him as * presbyter without referring to his own bishop. syn bade him to teach in that city and a second Alex- andrian opued (consisting of bishops only ) deprived him of the office of yon he ¢ es of Palestine, Pheenici bia, and Achaea declined, however, to concur in this sentence. Origen then settled at in Palestine, which was his chief home for twenty years. He there founded a school which afforded its disciples a thorough training in literature, philosophy, and theology, Among their number were Grego Teseeeays and Firmilian of the Coppadocica Uneaten: In the latter city Origen took refuge for two years during the Maximinian ution. In the last twenty ears of his life he made many other journeys. n the Decian persecution he was arrested at Tyre and cruelly tortured. He died there in 253 or 254. Origen was a most voluminous writer. ‘Which of us,’ asks Jerome, ‘can read all that he has written?’ Yet the statement of Epiphanius that his works numbered 6000 is doubtless exaggerated. His exegetical writings extended over nearly the whole of the Old and New Testaments, and in- cluded Scholia (short notes), Homilies, and Com- mentaries. Of the Homilies only a small part has been preserved in the original, much, however, in the Latin translations by Rufinus and by Jerome; but unfortunately these cannot be relied the translators thought fit to modify and tamper with them. Of the Commentaries a number of hooks on Matthew and on John are extant in Fea — on ae of vieretcae for - Fine t of his ative theology. n’s tic Hexapla, tha pest Nachiaien of the ra ps ees of the Scriptures, was too large to be preserved entire. The remains of its text of the Septuagint were collected by Bern. de Montfaucon (2 vols. fol. Paris, 1713) and Field (2 vols, Oxford, 1875). His Eight Books. against Celsus(q.v.), written in his old age, are pre- served entire in tre original Greek, This, the great- est of early Christian apologies, effectively appeals held at Alexandria under Demetrius for- upon, for, a ea ei ae ORIGEN ORINOCO 641 to the Christian life as the most convincing proof of the Christian faith. The speculative theo of Origen is presented in his four books Peri Archon, extant as a whole only in the somewhat garbled Latin translation of Rufinus. It is a bold attempt to evolve from the church’s rule of faith, with the help of Scripture and reason, a science of Clivistian faith. Two books On the Resurrection and ten books of Stromata (in which he proved all the Christian dogmas by quotations from the philo- sophers) are lost. The eclectic phdbecoby of Ori the distinctive stamp of Neoplatonist Stoic theories. God alone has being in the proper sense. It is essential to the Deity to will, a and reveal Himself unchangeably and eter- nally. In the Logos, proceeding by eternal genera- tion from God, and of the same substance with Him, all creative ideas are concentrated. He is the link between the oneness of Deity and the multiplicity of the world. All finite i | is good only as it has part in the Divine. All created irits are free. Their fall led to the creation of the material world, that in forms more or less material (soul and body) the renewing discipline of the spirit within might be realised. The idea of the procession of all spirits from God, their fall, their redemption, and return to God lies at the foundation of the whole development of the world, at the centre of which is the incarnation of the for the revelation of redeeming truth and the union of divine forces with humanity. Origen’s system is worth eine: + web, cach icare Greek — physies is the warp, the gos is the woof. All that was tens be Girocke p ieauhe tice held to be traceable to the general revealing agency of the Lagos, who in Christianity alone is fully and aoe f manifested. The r source of the knowledge of the Christian faith is the Word of Christ (i.e. the Scriptures). A living faith in those truths of Scripture which have been handed down as fundamental by the church’s succession of bishops is itself sufficient for salvation. Beyond such ‘ unreasoning faith’ there is the ‘knowledge’ or ‘wisdom’ which rises to the free love of God, and leaves behind it the historical contents of the ehurch’s teaching, which have served to it as the media of spiritual ideas in its progress from prac- tical faith to the vision of God and likeness to Him. It is by entering more deeply into the successive senses of Scripture that this process is carried out. Scripture admits of a threefold interpretation, in correspondence to the tripartite nature of man. The ‘bodily’ (literal or historical) sense is always to be retained, except where it is unworthy of God or contradictory to reason ; for God has intended such ges to be ‘stumbling-blocks,’ suggesting the necessity of seeking a deeper meaning. The Psychi- cal (or ethical signification) is next; and beyond it is the Pneumatic (allegorical or plod sense. pew ‘ats for the memory of Origen, his name was chiefly remembered in connection with the most erroneous part of his work. His fanciful method of interpretation was tuated alike in the east and the west, and the fruits of his gigantic labours were Gee by orthodox theologians, who branded him as a heretic, and doubted of his salvation. Long after his death malignant false- hoods were heaped upon his name by unscrupulous enemies like Theophilus of Alexandria; and not merely the heresy of maintaining the ultimate restitution of all mankind, but even heresy respect- ing the nature of Christ was trinmphantly dis- covered in his writings. Yet, heterodox though he was, not one amongst those honoured by the church as saints surpasses him in saintliness or spiritual elevation of character. ‘His whole life,’ says Bishop Westcott, ‘from first to last was fashioned on the oe type. It was, according to his own grand ideal, ‘one unbroken prayer,” one ceaseless effort after close fellowship with the Unseen and the Eternal. No distractions diverted him from the pursuit of divine wisdom. No persecution checked for more than the briefest space the energy of his efforts. He endured a double martyrdom : perils and sufferings from the heathen, reproaches and wrongs from Christians; and thé retrospect of what he had borne only stirred within him a humbler sense of his shortcomings.’ There is as * oath ga complete critical edition of Origen’s works ; the apology for this is that of the uncle and nephew, De La Rue (4 vols. folio, Paris, 1733-59) reprinted by Lommatzsch (25 vols. Berlin, 1831-48), an Migne, Patrol. Curs. Compl., ser. Gr., vols. xi,-xvii. Prolegomena to a critical edition by Dr Ph. P. , Koetschau of the work against Celsus appeared in 1890, The work of P. D. Huet, Origenis in sacras Seripturas Commentaria quecunque Grece reperiri potuerunt (2 vols. Rothomagi, 1668), was the foundation of the critical study of Origen. For an account of his theological opinions and the great controversies that these ori, see the works on church history by Baur, Neander, Dorner, Béhringer, Schaff, and E. de Pressensé ; also E. W. Miller, Geschichte des Kosmologie in der Griechischen Kirche bis auf Origenes (Halle, 1860); Kahnis, Die Lehre vom Heiliven Geist (1847); and the prt a Irctragh tech Thomasius, Origenes | Niirnberg, be ) , Patrologie( b. 1840); — y epenning, ay cate eine ung seines Lebens und noir Lele | vols. Bonn, 1841-46). See also Joly, Etude sur Origene {Dijon 1860); Freppel, Origéne ( Paris, 1868); J. Denis, Za hilosophie d@’ Orighne ( Paris, 1884); as also Harnack’s Dogmenyeschichte (2d ed. 1888) and Farrar’s Lives of the Fathers (1889). Original Sin. See Sin. Orihuela (the Auriwelah of the Moors), a town in the Spanish province of Alicante, on the Segura, 38 miles N. of C ma. Situated in a plain of great beauty and fertility, it offers an eastern aspect with its palm-trees, towers, and domes, and has a cathedral, a college, and manu- factures of silk, linen, hats, &c. Pop. 20,929. Orinoco, one of the t rivers of South America, has its origin on the slopes of the Sierra Parima, in the extreme south-east of Venezuela; its exact sources were only discovered in 1886 by M. Chaffanjon. It flows at first west by north, a mountain-stream, as far as 67° W. long. A little below Esmeralda (65° 50’ W. long.) it divides and sends off to the south an arm, the Cassiquiare, which, after a course of 180 miles, enters the Rio Negro, a tributary of the Amazon. The other branch on reaching San Fernando (68° 10’ long. and 4° 2’ N. lat.) is met by the strong current of the Guaviare; the united stream then turns due north, and, after passing over the magnificent cataracts of Maypures and Atures (glowingly described by Humboldt), and picking up the Meta on the left, meets the Apure, which likewise strikes it from the left. Below the confluence with the Apure the Orinoco turns east and traverses the llanos of Venezuela, its waters, with an average breadth of 4 miles, being augmented from the right by the Caura and the Caroni. About 120 miles from the Atlantic, into which it rolls its milk-white flood, its delta (8500 sq. m.) begins. Of the numerous mouths which reach the ocean over 165 miles of coast-line only seven are navi- gable. The waterway principally used by ocean- oing vessels, which penetrate up to Ciudad livar (Angostura), a distance of 240 miles, is the Boca de Navios, varying in width from 3% to 23 miles. The total length of the river is some 1550 miles, of which 900, up to the cataracts of Atures, are navigable, besides a farther stretch of 500 miles above the cataracts of Maypures; area of drainage basin, 368,600 sq. m. Most of the larger affluents are also navigable for considerable distances, the 642 ORIOLE ORISSA Meta, for instance, to within 60 miles of ti, the capital of Colombia. As a rule the river floods the districts adjoining its banks from May to January, the country under water sometimes measuring 100 miles across. See A. von Humboldt and Bonpland, Voyage au Nouveau Continent, vol. ii.; Sir Robert Schomburgk, Travels in Guiana (1840); Michelina y Rojas, Ez- ploracion Oficial ( 1867); and Chaffanjon, Comptes Rendus of Paris Geog. Soc. (1887). Oriole, « genus ( Oriolus) and family ( Oriolidie) of Passerine birds, confined entirely to the Old World, and characteristic of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions. The members of the family are generally of a bright yellow or golden colour, which is well set off by the black of the wings. Twenty-four species are enumerated under the genus. The best known is the Golden Oriole (0. gin). The adult male is about 9 inches long. ts general colour is a rich golden yellow; the bill is dull orange- Jred; a_ black streak reaches from its base "| to the eye; the iris is blood >| red; the wings Sjare black, | marked here and there with yellow, and a pened of yellow {forms a con- spicuous wing- spot; the two middlefeathers of the tail are black, inelin- ing to olive at the base, the very ti el- low, the base half of the others black, the other half ellow; legs, feet, and claws dark brown, The emale is less yellow than the male, and the under parts are streaked with gray. This bird is some- what rare in England, but it is an annual spring migrant to Cornwall and the Scilly Isles, and it has been found nesting in the south-eastern counties, In Scotland, especially in the southern districts, it has been re several times; in Ireland it is more rare. central and southern Europe it is common in summer in certain localities; it is abundant in Persia, and ranges eastwards through central Asia as far as to Irkutsk. It winters in South Africa, where it is found at the Cape, Dam- araland, Natal, and Madagascar. In habit it is an unobtrusive bird, fond of the shade of woods, groves, and small ravines, and, although generally accounted very shy, it may be found building its nest in avenues in towns. Its food consists of in- sects and their larvie, especially green caterpillars, and fruits such as currants, cherries, and mul- berries. The song of the male is short, loud, clear, and flute-like; he has also a mewing call-note, and a harsh alarm-note. The nest is unlike any other European bird’s; it is placed in, and suspended from, a fork in a horizontal branch, sometimes of an oak, usually of a pine, in a shady grove or thick wood, and is made of bark, wool, anc —. The eggs number four or five, and are of a glossy, white colour, blotched with reddish purple. Other orioles are distinguished by having black on the head and o— O. kundoo partly replaces the golden oriole in Turkestan, and extends eastwards to India. 0. auratus, found in Africa between the Sahara and the equator, and 0. notatus, found throughout south tropical Africa, have the lesser wing-coverts yellow, not black as in the European and Indian birds. The birds called ‘Orioles’ in the United States belong to an entirely different family, the Icteridw, See BALTIMORE Brirp. Ori‘on, in Greek Mythology, an unusually hand- some giant and hunter, the son of Hyrieus of Hyria,.in Bootia. At Chios he fell in love with Merope, daughter of Cinopion, but for an at- tempted outrage upon the maiden his eyes were put ont by ponre Orion recovered his sight by exposing ach tg Ils to the rays of the rising sun, and afterwards hunted in company with Artemis. The cause and manner of his death are differently related. Some make Artemis slay him with an arrow, because Eos, enamoured of his beauty, had carried him off to Ortygia, and thereby offended the gods, Others say that Artemis, virgin-goddess though she was, cherished an affection for him that enraged her brother Apollo. One day pointing out to her at sea a black object Lorene in the water, he told her that he did not believe she could hit it. She took aim and hit the mark, which was the head of her lover swimming in the sea, A third myth makes him find his death from the sting of a scorpion, A‘sculapius wished to restore him to life, but was slain by a bolt from Zeus. After his death Orion was placed with his hound among the stars, where to this day the most splendid of the constellations bears his name. Orinsn, an ancient kingdom of India, the authentic history of which goes back for probably more than one thousand years, extended from Bengal on the N. tothe Godavari on theS. The present pro- vince is the extreme south-west portion of Bengal ; on the E. it has the Bay of Bengal, and on the W. the Central Provinces. Orissa was long a Buddhist stronghold; in 474 a new dynasty made it Brah- manical, -and introduced the worship of Siva; in 1132 this was replaced by Vishnuism and another dynasty. It ceased to be an independent state in 1568, being conquered and made an outlying pro- vince of the empire of the Great Mogul. Its next masters were the Mahrattas, who seized it in 1742; but they were forced to surrender it to the English in 1803, At the present time Orissa is divided between the British commissionership of Orissa and the tributary states, and is accounted part of Bengal Presidency. The pee 1as an area of 9853 sq. m. and a pop. of (1891) 3,789,799 ; the tributary states, a hilly country with dense jungle, 1 between the low coast districts and he interior platean, has an area of 14,387 sq, m. and a population of 1,696,710. A}l this region was visited by severe famine in 1868-69, The principal river is the Mahanadi, and the chief towns Cuttack, Balasor, and Puri (Juggernaut, q.v.). The entire district is sacred und to the Hindus; evi- dences of the worship of Siva and Vishnu meet the eye at every turn. Great festivals are held in honour of this latter — and of his image called Juggernant (q.v.). e most interesting of the aboriginal races are the Kandhs ( Kondhs, Khonds), who number 280,000, besides close upon 150,000 in the Central Provinces. oe pe these people agri- culture and war are theonly = oyments, the menial offices of village life being performed by a subject, almost slave race. They pay profound reverence to the earth-god, and used to sacrifice human beings to secure his favour, until the practice was suppressed by the British (1837-60). The tribal government is strictly patriarchal. The tribesmen were summoned to arms by messengers bearing an arrow, who sped from glen to glen, like the bearers of the fiery cross in Scotland. Duelling was formerly in vogue. The irrigation of a large portion of Orissa is provided for by an extensive and costly system of canals, taken over by the government in 1868, ORIZABA ORLEANS 643 - See ‘An Account of the Religion of the Khonds in Orissa,’ in Trans. Asiatic Soc. (1851); Campbell’s Personal Narrative of Service amonyst the Wild Tribes of Khondis- tan (1864); Calcutta Review, Nos. IX., XI., XV., and XX. ; and Orissa, by W. W. Hunter (1872). Oriza’ba, capital of the Mexican state of Vera Cruz, 82 miles WSW. of Vera Cruz City, and 181 ESE. of Mexico, lies in a fertile garden country, 4030 pot above the sea, ass a an oe sca ‘factory, and corn mills, and railway-shops. Pop. 13,000 The volcano of Orizaba, 25 silcaree the north, is a noble pyramid rising to an elevation of 17,876 feet, or, according to Heilprin’s measure- ments (1890), 18,205 feet. Its last severe eruption was in 1566. Orkney Islands, 2 group of ninety Scotch islands, islets, and skerries, of which only twenty- eight are inhabited, and which have an te area of 376 sq. m., the largest being Pomona or Mainland ( . m.), Hoy (53), nday (26), Westray, South naldshay, Rousay, Stronsay, Eday, Shapinshay, Burray, Flotta, &e. They ex- rome | 50 miles north-north-eastward, and are separ- ated from Caithness by the Pentland Firth, 64 miles wide at the narrowest. With the exception only of Hoy (q.v.), which has fine cliffs, and in the Ward Hill attains 1564 feet, the scenery is gener- ally tame, the surface low and treeless, with many fresh-water lochs. The prevailing formation is the Old Red Sandstone, with a small granitic district near Stromness; and the soil is mostly shallow, incumbent on peat or moss. The mean annual temperature is 45°, the rainfall 34:3 inches. The area under cultivation has more than doubled since 1850, but is still less than one-half of the total area. The live-stock during the same period has trebled. The holdings are small—164 acres on an average; and iculture and_fis' are the princi industries. Kirkwall and Stromness, the only towns, are noticed separately, as also are the standing-stones of Stennis and the tumulus of Maeshowe. Orkney unites with Shetland to return one member to parliament, but it was dis- severed therefrom as a county by the Local Govern- ment (Scotland) Act, 1889. Bop. (1801) 24,445; (1861) 32,395; (1891) 30,453. The Orkneys Ptolemy’s Orcades) were gradually wrested by orse rovers from their Pictish inhabitants; and in 875 Harold Haarfager conquered both them and the Hebrides. They continued subject to the Scandinavian erown—under Norse jarls till 1231, and afterwards under the Earls of Angus and Stratherne and the Sinclairs—till in 1468 they were given to James IIL. of Scotland as a security for the dowry of his wife, Margaret of Denmark. They were never redeemed from this pledge; and in 1590, on James VI.’s marriage with the Danish princess Anne, Denmark formally resigned all claims to the sovereignty of thé Orkneys. The present landed proprietors are chiefly of Scotch descent, the islanders generally of mixed Scandi- navian and Scotch origin. See J. R. Tudor’s Orkneys and Shetland (1883); and Wallace’s Description of the Isles of Orkney (new ed. 1884). For map, see SHETLAND. Orleans, « city of France, the capital now of the department of Loiret, and formerly of the old province of Orléannais, which yy geo the best td of the present departments of Loiret, Eure-et- ir, and Loir-et-Cher, with portions of four others. It stands in a fertile plain on the right bank of the Loire, here crossed by a nine-arched bridge (1760), 364 yards long, and by rail is 75 miles SSW. of Paris. Close to itis the Forest of Orleans, covering nearly 150 sq. m., and planted with oaks and other valuable trees. The walls and gates have given place since 1830 to handsome boulevards, but the town as a whole wears a lifeless appearance, and its domestic architecture has much more interest than any of the public edifices. These include the cathedral, destroyed by the Huguenots in 1567, and rebuilt from 1601 onwards by Henry IV. and his three successors ; the Mazrie (1530); and the 15th- century Musée (till 1853 the hétel-de-ville). Note- worthy are the house of Agnes Sorel, Diane de Poitiers, and Joan of Are, of whom there are three statues—the bronze equestrian one inaugurated in 1855. The commerce is far more important than the industries (of which the chief is market-garden- ing), Orleans ing unusual transit facilities by road and railway, river and canal. Pop. (1872) 48,976 ; (1891) 61,073. The Celtic Genabum, where in 52 B.c. the gent Gallic rising broke out against Julius Cesar, Orleans afterwards (about 272 A.D.) was renamed Civitas Aureliani, of which tle present name is only a corruption. It was besieged by Attila (q.v.) in 451; into the hands of the Franks ; and was twice plundered by the North- men (855 and 865). In 1428-29 it was besieged by the English under the Duke of Bedford, but was delivered by Joan of Are (q.v.), called therefore the Maid of Orleans. Dunois (q.v.) was known as the Bastard of Orleans. The town suffered much in the wars of the Huguenots (q.v.); and in the Franco- German war it again figured prominently, being oceupied by the invaders, October 11 to November 9, 1870, and then the headquarters of the great Army of the Loire until its crushing defeat by Prince Frederick-Charles (December 3-5). Orleans was the death-place of the Earl of Salisbury (1429), of Francis II., Mary Stewart’s husband (1560), and of the Duke of Guise (1563). See its history by Bimbenet (3 vols. Orleans, 1884-87). Orleans, DuKEs oF. This title has belon to three distinct dynasties of French princes of oe blood. The title was first given in 1392 by Charles VI. to his dissolute brother Louis (1371-1407), who became nt on the king’s madness, and was murdered in the streets of Paris at the instigation of the Duke of Burgundy in revenge for his father’s death (see Jarry’s Louis de France, 1890). His successor was his son Charles (1391-1465), the poet. Charles’s son Louis succeeded to the throne as Louis XII. in 1498, whereupon the dukedom of Orleans me in the crown. It was revived in 1626, when Louis XIII. created his ambitious and intriguing brother, Jean Baptiste Gaston (1608-60), Duke of Orleans and Chartres and Count of Blois. He died without male issue, whereupon Louis XIV. at once revived the title in favour of his brother Philippe (1640-1701), the husband of Henrietta, sister of Charles IL, and, after her death, of the Princess Charlotte Elizabeth of Bavaria. His daughters married Charles II. of Spain, Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy, and Prince Charles of Lorraine; his son was the regent and debauchee, Philippe (1674-1723), and his t-grandson was the notorious £yalité, Louis-Philippe Joseph (1747- 93). Egalité’s son, Louis-Philippe (1773-1850), bore the title during his exile, and until he became ne of the French in 1830. His eldest son 1810-42) took the title; but it was not borne by is son, the Comte de Paris (1838-94), who in 1883 became head of the French Bourbons, his son, Louis Philippe Robert (born 1869; travelled in Asia, 1890-95; married an Austrian princess, 1896), assuming the old ducal title. For the Orleanist party, see BOURBON, FRANCE. CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLEANS, commonly called Charles d’Orleans, was the eldest son of Louis, Duke of Orleans, and of the high-spirited Valentina Visconti, and was born 26t ay 1391. He married in 1406 his cousin Isabella, the widow of Richard IJ. of England, who brought him searcely her good-will, but an ample dowry of half a million frances. Three years later she died, leaving him a 644 ORLEANS daughter. He took his share in the intestine struggles of the time, in alliance with the infamous Bernard d’A and did his best to aven on the Duke of Burgundy his father’s murder. He commanded at Agincourt (October 1415), and there, or shortly after, was taken prisoner and carried to England, where he spent over a quarter of a cen- tury in easy imprisonment at Windsor, Pontefract, Ampthill, Wingfield in Suffolk, and the Tower. In his enforced leisure he hunted, hawked, admired the English ladies, and amused himself with turn- ing some hundreds of ballades and rondels, which, conventional and shallow as they are, are easy and 1 in versification, and informed with a musical and tender melancholy that has a singular charm for the reader. His long captivity had made him a martyr to the ote of Frenchmen—it was one of Joan of Are’s declared intentions to deliver the captive duke, who, she assured her judges, was beloved of God. His imprisonment emma ever more irksome to him, but he was at length ransomed in 1440 through the offices of Philip the Good of Burgundy, son of his father’s murderer, and he at once married Philip's niece, Mary of Cleves. But it was soon discovered that there was nothing of the heroic in his temper or capacity, and he quickly sank again into po itical insignifieance. The last third of his life he spent mainly in great dignity and state at his seat at Blois, where he maintained a kind of literary court which was visited by all the elegant poets of that rhyming age. His latest act was a vain attempt to defend the Duke of Brittany from the grasping hand of Louis XI. He died at Amboise, 4th Jan- uary 1465. His son became Louis XII. of France, The best edition of the poems of Charles d’Orleans is that of C. d’Héricault in the ‘ Nouvelle Collection Jannet’ (2 vols, Paris, 1874). The Debate between the Heralds of France and England is assigned to him by Mr Henry Pyne, its translator and editor; but M. Paul Meyer, in his edition of the French text, has declared inst his authorship. See Beaufil’s Etude (1861); and R. L. Steven- son, in Familiar Studies of Men and Books (1882), JEAN Baptiste GASTON, DUKE OF ORLEANS, was the third son of King Henry IV., was born in 1608, and was nted the title in 1626 on his marriage with Marie of Bourbon, Duchess of Mont- pensier. His wife soon died, leaving one daughter, ‘La Grande Mademoiselle.’ He troubled France with incessant and bloody but fruitless intrigues against Richelieu, and but for his royal birth would have lost his head like Montmorency, Cinq-Mars, and De Thou, The validity of his marriage with Marguerite of Lorraine was only declared after a long disputation among jurists and theologians. After Richelieu’s death a reconciliation was effected between him and the king, and he was appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom during the minority of Louis XIV. The duke, finding himself impotent in the hands of Mazarin, placed himself at the head of the Fronde, but with his usual selfishness soon threw over his friends and made terms again with the court. After Mazarin’s final triumph he was confined to his castle of Blois, where he died, 2d February 1660, leaving three danghters by his second marriage. See his Mémoires (Amsterdam, 1683). Paitipre, DUKE OF ORLEANS, regent of France during the minority of Louis XV., was the son of the first Duke Philippe, and the grandson of King Louis XIII, and was born 4th Angust 1674, He eager excellent talents, and uired know- edge with rapidity, but his tutor, Dubois, after- wards cardinal, early demoralised him by minis- tering to his ons, and, hardly yet grown up, he gave himself np to debauchery, The king com- lied him to marry Mademoiselle de Blois, his caghter Ay Madame de Montespan, The young prince now began to alarm the court by an unsus- ty for war, showed courage at Steen- irk and Neerwinden, and commanded with success in Italy and Spain. But his presence in Madrid after his victories was disliked both by Philip V. and by Lonis XIV. For some years thereafter he lived mm complete exile from the court, spending his time by turns in profligacy, the practice of the fine arts, and the study’ of chemistry. Lou having legitimised his sons the Duke of Maine the Count of Toulouse, appointed the Duke of Orleans president of the regency only and not regent, giving the guardianship of his grandson and heir and the command of the household troops to the Duke of Maine; but this arrangement was set aside at his death (1715), and the Duke of Orleans became sole regent. He was popular, and his first measures increased his popularity ; but the financial affairs of the kingdom were perplexing, and the regent’s adoption of the schemes of Law led to disastrous results. He favoured an English and anti-Spanish alliance, and Anglomania, or a craze for everything English, was one of the features of his régime. His alliance with England and Hol- land, formed in 1717, was joined next year the emperor, and this quadruple alliance s' ed in effecting the dow of Alberoni and his wildly- ambitious schemes. At the instance of Lord Stair, the English ambassador, he expelled the Pretender from France. He put an end to the parliament, of Paris meddling with financial or political affairs, and declared the legitimised sons of Louis XIV. incapable of s ing to the throne. Dubois now e prime-minister, and ere long Archbishop of Cambrai and cardinal. To appease the Jesuits he sacrificed the Jansenists, ey the parlia- ment in 1722 to ise the bull Unigenitus. Yet he was faithful to his trust, and the indolent poe on his coming of age (1723) rewarded him retaining him in power. But Dubois died in the August of the same year, and four months later, Philippe’s frame gave way under the burden of ed SS, agg = piv a PSs the wor ossens (5 vols. 1749) an apefigue (2 vols, 1838 ). rip LovuIs-PHILIPPE JOSEPH, DUKE OF ORLEANS, the famous Egalité, was born April 13, 1747, and succeeded to the title on his father’s death in 1785, having been Duke of Chartres since 1752. He abilities, but early fell into a course of debauchery which he never quitted till the end of his career, In 1769 he married the heiress of the Duke of Penthiévre, and used her immense wealth to advance his political interest. But he was looked upon coldly at court, and still more so after the accession of Louis XVI. (1774), who abhorred his morals, while Marie Antoinette grudged him his wealth and independent position and hated the criticisms of the ring of witty reprobates who clustered round him. He fought at Ushant, but was prevented from further service and pro- motion to the rank of admiral by the jealousy of the court, He visited London frequently, became an intimate friend of the dissipated young Prince of Wales, afterwards inglorious as George IV., and infected young France with Anglomania in the form of horseracing and hard drinking. He made himself widely bepeler by profuse charity and by flinging open to the poor the splendid gardens of the Palais Royal. In the lit de justice of Novem- ber 1787 he showed his liberalism boldly against the king, and was sent by a Jettre-de- to his chitean of Villers-Cotterets, As the pe rresie o drew near he lavished his wealth in disséminatin throughout France books and papers by Sieyés an other advocates of liberal ideas, and had himself ag up in as many as five bailliages, but was e' but three, Crépy-le-Valois, Villers-Cotterets, and . a ORLOFF ORMONDE 645 Paris. In October (1788) he promulgated his Délibérations, written by Laclos, to the effect that the tiers état was the nation, and in June 1789 he led the forty-seven nobles who ded from their own order to join it. There is no doubt that, guided by Adrien Duport and others, he dreamed of some day becoming constitutional king of France, or at least regent, but it is no less certain that the indolent debauchee was to a t extent the mere dupe of a party, and at no time the deep designing villain he was believed to be at court. There the blame of everything was cast upon his head, even of such great outbursts of the revolu- tionary fever as the fall of the Bastille and the march of the women on Versailles. Orleans ually lost influence, and felt so hopeless of the volution that he would willing] ve gone to America had his mistress, the abandoned Comtesse de Buffon, consented to accompany him. From October 1789 to July 1790 he was absent in England on a mission, and after his return he took a smaller share in political matters than before, while his efforts to come to an understanding with the court were still met with repulse. In September 1792 all hereditary titles being swept away, he de- manded a new name from the Paris electors, and adopted that of Philippe Egalité, suggested by Manuel. He was elected the twentieth deputy for Paris to the Convention, and gave his vote of death for the king, which sent a shudder to the heart even of the Mountain. His eldest son, the Duke of Chartres, afterwards King Louis-Philippe, was a brave and active officer on the staff of Dumouriez, and rode over with his chief into the Austrian camp. lité was at once arrested with all the Bourbons still in France, and, after six months’ durance at Marseilles, was brought to Paris for trial. He was found guilty of royalism and con- spiracy and guillotined the same day, 6th Novem- ber 1793, dying with courteous Lares on his lips and all the high courage of the old régime. See Baschet’s Histoire de Philippe Egalité, the elaborate — (9. (2 vols. 1840-43) and Mrs Elliot’s fou ). Orloff, 2 Russian family that first rose to eminence during the reign of Paul III., when one of its members, Gr (1734-83), attracted the notice of the Gcasiclesbons Catharine, afterwards the Empress Catharine IL, and succeeded Ponia- towski as her favourite. It was this man who planned the murder of Peter III., and his brother Alexis (1737-1809) who committed the deed (1762). Both brothers were men of gigantic stature and herculean strength. The family of the Counts Bobrinski resulted from Gregory’s intercourse with the empress. The legitimate line of Orloff soon became extinct ; but Feodor, a brother of Gregory and Alexis, left four illegitimate sons, one of whom, Alexis (1787-1861), signalised himself during the French wars and in Turkey, negotiated the treaties of Adrianople (1829) and Unkiar-Skelessi (1833), and represented Russia at the London conference of 1832 on the affairs of Belgium and Holland. In 1844 he was ig at the head of the secret police, and stood high in favour with the Emperor Nicholas, who employed him in the negotiations with Austria previous to the Crimean war. In 1856 he sat in the congress of Paris as the representative of Russia, and on his return was made president of the grand council of the empire and president of the committee for the enfranchisement of the serfs.—For the Orloff diamond, see DIAMOND, Ormer. See HA.ioris. Ormerod, Eveanor A., entomologist, the daughter of George Ormerod (1785-1873), the historian of Cheshire. She commenced her con- ‘tributions to the science of entomology in 1868 in connection with the Bethnal Green Museum. In 1880 she edited the Cobham Journals, being the meteorological and other observations made during forty years by Miss C. Molesworth, and involving enormous labour in the consultation of 75,000 observations. In 1882 Miss Ormerod’ was appointed consulting entomologist of the Royal Agricultural Society, and shortly afterwards became — lecturer on economic entomology at the yal ricultural College, Cirencester. Her - Manual of Injurious Insects (1881) and her Guide to Methods of Insect ry be (1884) are the most generally interesting of her works, which consist principally of papers on different injurious insects of South Africa and Australia, as well as of England. She died 19th July 1901. Or’molu, 2 name sometimes given to brass of a golden yellow colour. Ormonde, an old name for what became after- wards East Munster, comprising Tipperary. Ormonde, JAMEs BUTLER, DUKE oF, was the first of the ancient Anglo-Irish family of Butler on whom the ducal title was conferred. The family was of illustrious antiquity. In the beginning of the 13th century Theobald Butler, from whom the Duke of Ormonde was descended, held the hered- itary office of royal cupbearer or butler of Ireland. The subject of the present article was born in London in 1610. His father, the son of the cele- brated Walter, Earl of Ormonde, was drowned in crossing the Channel; and the old earl havin incu the displeasure of the king, James L., an cen Amtoke into prison, James, who on his father’s death became, as Viscount Thurles, the heir of the title, was taken on of as a royal ward, and placed under the guardianship of the Archbisho of Canterbury. On the restoration of his nd- father to liberty, he also was released ; and in his twentieth year he married his cousin, Lady Eliza- beth Preston, and in 1632 succeeded, upon his dfather’s death, to the earldom and estates of nonde, During the Strafford administration in Ireland Ormonde distinguished himself so much that on Strafford’s recall he recommended him:to the king; and in the rebellion of 1640 Ormonde was appointed to the chief command of the army. a the troubled times which followed he con- due himself with undoubted ability, 8 as a necessary consequence of the numberless divisions and subdivisions of party which then pre- vailed in Ireland, he failed to satisfy any one of the conflicting sections ; and when, in 1643, he con- eluded an armistice, his policy was loudly con- demned as well by the friends as by the enemies of the Wat Labie party in England. During the long con of Charles with the Parliament, Ormonde continued to uphold the royal interest in his Irish vernment ; and when the last crisis of the king's ortunes came, he resigned his Irish command, and retired to France, from which country he again returned to Ireland with the all but desperate design of restoring the royal authority. After a gallant but unequal struggle, he was, however, compelled, in 1650, to return to France. His services to the royal cause continued unremitting during his exile; and at the Restoration he accom- ied Charles II. on his return, and was rewarded ‘or his fidelity by the ducal title of Ormonde. His after-life was less eventful, although he twice again returned to the government of Ireland. It was in 1679 that the well-known attempt was made by the notorions Colonel Blood (q.v.) upon the lite of Ormonde, As he was returning from a civic festival, he was attacked by Blood and a party of ruffians, and was dragged from his coach with the intention of his being hanged at Tyburn. The attempt drew additional interest from its being 646 ORMSKIRK ORNITHORHYNCHUS commonly su to have been instigated the pro’ Peale of Buckingham, Srmende’s inveterate foe. He escaped uninjured, and lived until the year 1688. As a soldier he exhibited both skill and bravery in command ; and as a politician he was singularly upright in a period when there were many rtunities for the trimmer and the charlatan. is letters and other —— are full of deep historical interest. See te’s Life of Ormonde (1735-36). JAMEs BuTLER, second Duke of Ormonde, was the dson of the foregoing. He wag born in Dublin in 1665, and when ten years of age was sent to France for his education, whence he returned after a few years, and was entered at Christ Church, Oxford. In 1682 he married Anne, daughter of Lord Hyde, afterwards Earl of Rochester. As Earl of Ossory he served in the army against Monmouth, and also held an office in the palace under James IT. After his accession to the dukedom by the death of his grandfather in 1688, he took his share in the Revolution conflict, at first being for moderate measures; but he must have seen the futility of these, for afterwards, at the coronation of William and Mary, he acted as lord high-constable. He was present at the battle of the Boyne, at the head of William’s life-guards. He soon me popular. In 1702 he was placed in command in the expedi- tion against Cadiz; in 1703 he was appointed lord- lieutenant of Ireland, and in 1711 commander-in- chief of the land forces sent against France and Spain. After the accession of George I, Ormonde somehow fell into di with the king, and was impeached in 1715 of high-treason, with the result that his estates were attainted, and he was deprived of all his honours. He retired into France, where he attached himself to the Jacobite court, and spent many years in the secret intrigues of the Pre- tender and his followers. He died abroad in 1746. A collection of letters written by him in the organisation of the abortive attempt by 6 jem to invade England and Scotland in b19, and which led to the affair of Glenshiel (q.v.), were in 1890 lrought to light, in the following years prepared for publication, and in 1896 peak by the Scottish History Society. Ormskirk, a market-town of Lancashire, 12 miles NNE. of Liverpool. It has a grammar-school (1612); a parish church, with embattled tower and spire, and the burial-vault of the Earls of Derby ; and manufactures of cordage, iron, silk, cotton, &ec. Pop. (1851) 6183; (1881) 6651; (1891) 6298. Or'mulum, a Transition-English metrical translation of the gospel history. See ENGLISH Lirerature, Vol. [V. p. 367, and the edition of the Ormulum by White and Holt (2d ed. 1878). Ormuz, or Hormvz, a small town on the island of Jerun (12 miles in circuit), in the strait of Ormuz, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, 4 miles 8. of the Persian coast. Three centuries before the Christian era there existed on the mainland, 12 miles east of the island, a city Ormuz; this in the 13th goers | was the headquarters of the Persian trade with India. But about the end of the cen- tury its ruler transferred his people to the site of the present town, to escape the Mongols. The new city maintained its commercial supremacy even after it passed into the hands of the Portu- foe through Albuquerque’s capture of it in 1507. t was taken from the Portuguese in 1622 by an no fleet ( Baffin, the Arctic navigator, bein killed in the action), and nee to Shah Abbas o' Persia, who transferred the trade to his port of Bandar Abbas, 12 miles north-west on the main- land. The Portuguese fort still stands, but the town of Ormuz is a ruin, The island yields salt and sulphur. Ormuzd (Ahuré-Mazdaé), the name of the supreme deity of the ancient Persians, and of their descendants the Guebres and Parsees. It was at first emphatically employed in this sense by Zara- thustra, See ZOROASTER. a department of France formed out of the old provinces of Normandy, Alengon, and Perche, is se ted from the English Channel on the W. by Manche and on the N. by Calvados, Area, 8q. m.; pop. (1861) 423,350; (1891) 354,387. A range of wooded hills, nowhere rising above 1370 feet, extends across the south of the department from east to west, separating the streams that flow north to the English Channel from those that go south to the Seine and Loire. Although the soil is fertile, culture is not in an advanced state. Apple and pear trees abound, and more than 22,000,000 gallons of cider are made every year. Cattle and horses of the purest Nor- man breed are reared. There are cotton and hemp reap and cotton and linen weaving, dyeing, b a and manufactures of gloves, iron, glass, &e. Fis re, Na bee-keeping are carried on, The department is divided into four arrondissements, Alengon, Argentan, Domfront, and Mortagne; capital, Alengon. Ornithol that branch of zoology of which the subject is (q.¥.). Ornithorhynchus, or DuckKMOLE (also called Duck-billed Platypus, the ‘ water-mole’ of colon- ials), one of the lowest mammals, found in the rivers of Australia and Tasmania. Along with the Poreupine Ant-eater (Echidna, q.v.) and a neighbour genus, the duckmole is included in the sub-class Prototheria or Ornithodelphia, co-exten- sive with the order Monotremata. These three genera are of great interest as ‘living fossils,’ oe the ancient characters of primitive mam- mals, The duckmole, represented by a single species (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus or anatinus), is a flat animal, between a foot and 18 inches in length, 1,—Ornithorhynchus paradoxus. not including the broad beaver-like tail, which measures 45 inches. The thick, soft fur is dark- brown above, rusty yellow below. The very short legs have webbed digits in adaptation to the swim- ming habits, and are also equipped with strong claws, utilised in burrowing. he ‘duck-bill’ is due to the anterior expansion of the premaxille and mandibles, is covered with a horny sheath, bears the nostrils far forward, and is provided with curious tactile structures. Behind the ‘bill’ is a loose, naked, sensitive collar. The eyes are very small, and there are no external ears. Within the mouth true teeth are present only in the earliest stages; their place is taken in the adults by eight horny plates, sharp-edged in front, broadened out behind. The tongue is not extensile. In the young of both sexes a curious perforated spur, associated with a gland, occurs near the heel, but a a i ORNITHORHYNCHUS ORONTES 647 this only persists in the males, which are further distinguished in being somewhat larger than their mates. The body temperature is peculiarly low. The voice resembles the growl of a small puppy. No fossil forms are known. This aces | mammal is essentially aquatic, living in rivers and ‘ ponds,’ swimming and diving admir- ably. It is lively and active, diving when alarmed, rea able to remain several minutes under water. It constructs on the ¥ bank elaborate burrows (sometimes 20 to 50 feet in length) with two entrances — one above, the other under ; water. Like many WV other defenceless ani- mals, it is most active in the twilight. It grubs in the mud for worms, water-insects, molluses, &c., which it Fig. 2. Ornithorhynchus asleep. can temporarily stow away in cheek-pouches. When frightened or asleep it often rolls itself up, in hedgehog fashion, into a living ball. It appears to live amicably with the water-rat, but is molested by carnivorous marsupials, and is often wantonly, though fortunately not easily, shot. The eggs— for discredited oviparous habit has been con- firmed—are laid in a rough nest within the burrow. The young a 4 to use their bills in breaking the tough shell, The animals have a fishy, oily smell. The flesh is eaten by the omnivorous natives, who are said especially to esteem the young forms. Many of the enigmas about the duckmole’s structure and affinities are still unsolved, but there is no doubt that along with its neighbours it links mammals back to reptilian or even amphi- bian types. It need hardly be stated that it has no close connection with birds. Some of the most important structural characters may be briefly summarised: The bones of the skull fuse and are eeiabed as in birds; the halves of the lower jaw o not unite in front, and have no ascending pro- cess; the bones of the ear are in a primitive state. There are important technical peculiarities in the vertebrie, ribs, hip-girdle, &e. Epipubic bones, for instance, occur as in marsupials. The coracoids are remarkable in reaching the sternum, and the breastbone is like that of the lizard and some other reptiles. The brain is smooth, and old fashioned in having a small — callosum and large anterior commissure. ere is a common cloaca, receiving the rectum and the urino-genital canal. The heart in its structure is like that of birds. The ureters do not open into the neck of the bladder, but farther down into the short urino- genital canal. The left ovary is larger than the right, and the testes are abdominal. The oviducts have no ‘fimbriated’ upper ends, are separate throughout their course, open into the urino-genital and thence into the cloaca, The vasa deferentia are open separately in the same way, and have only a temporary connec- tion with the penis, which lies attached to the wall of the cloaca. The two milk-glands open on a flat bare patch of skin. As the duck- mole is oviparons, there is of course no placenta. The eggs, like those of reptiles, undergo partial segmentation. From the above it will be seen that the duckmole not only represents the lowest extant stage of mam- malian evolution, but preserves, more markedly than the higher forms, traces of the far-off pedigree of the class, See Ecurpwa, MAmmMat, MarsvptaAt; also Gould’s Mammals of Australia (3 vols. 1845-63); Huxley’s Vertebrates, and text-books of Comparative Anatomy ; W. K. Parker’s Mammalian Descent; Flower’s Oste- Phd of the Mammalia ; Spencer, Nature, xxxi. (1884- Orobanchez, or OROBANCHACEA, a natural order of parasitical herbs, generally with simple stems clothed with brown, purplish, yellow, or blue, but never green scales, instead of true leaves ; terminating in a spike of flowers each in the axil of a scale or bract similar in colour and character to those of the stem. The species known consider- ably exceed one hundred in number, and are spread over the greater = of the globe, chiefly in tem- eats climates, but more abundant in the Old orld than in the New. Eight species are natives of Britain, seven of which belong to the genus Orobanche (Broomrapes), and one species to Lathrea (Toothwort). In Britain they are all rather rare or purely local plants. High medicinal virtues former] : were a to some of tlie species, especia to i us virginiana (see Caxcein-n00T), which ps td discredited. With 4; utea ti yptians dye the ropes made of ae pein Hyphene thebaica vlack. Orobus, « genus of plants of the natural order minosw, sub-order Papilionacew, allied to Vetches, and sometimes called Bitter Vetch. The species are per- ennial atk: ceous plants, chiefly natives i) They ai SF y 6 e 0 ~ pon | food for _ ) \ cattle. Two are natives of Britain, of * which the most i if oes is 0. ft | tuberosus, , de Se whose racemes Sad 2 A and bushy places, especi- ally in_ hilly districts. Its roots are creep- ing and swell pe. out into tubers ati in- tervals. The tubers have a sweet _ taste, resemblin that of liquorice, and are sought after by children ; they are also bruised and steeped in water in some parts of the Highlands of Scotland to make a fer- mented liquor, and a kind of liquor is made also by steeping them in whisky; they are well flavoured and nutritious when boiled or roasted, and are use in this way in the Highlands of Scotland, in Hol- land, Belgium, and other countries. Orontes, the ancient name of a river in Syria, now called Nahr-el-Asi. It rises in the highest rt of Cole-Syria, near Baalbek, flows northward tween the mountains of Libanus and Anti- Libanus, as far as the city of Antioch, and then westward to the Mediterranean Sea, through a total course of 147 miles. Its lower course is remarkably beautiful; its rocky banks are 300 feet high, and the windings of the river show them off to the greatest ee Myrtles, laurels, figs, wild vines, arbutus, dwarf-oaks, and_syca- mores grow up the cliffs in picturesque irregularity. The country through which the river flows is in many parts richly cultivated, Bitter Vetch ( Orobus tuberosus) : a, standard of the corolla. 648 OROSIUS == ORRERY Orosius, PAvLvs, a Spanish presbyter and historian, was born at Tarragona, and flourished in the 5th century. He visited Augustine in 415, and presented to him his work written against the heresies of Priscillian and Origen. He went thence to Palestine to study under Jerome at Bethlehem. His chief work, the Historiarum adversus Paganos Libri vii., begins with the creation and goes down to 417 a.p.. It is apologetic in design, intended as a complement to the great work of Augustine written to prove from historical evidence that the prevailing evils of the time were not due to Cliris- tianity. It is based on the chronicle of Ensebius- Jerome, and on Livy, pee agg Justin, Tacitus, and Suetonius; bunt the work is a trivial, inaceu- rate, uncritical miscellany of facts, although the style is elegant if watery, in Bacon’s phrase. It was a favourite text-book of universal history during the middle ages, and had the honour of being translated into Anglo-Saxon by Alfred (ed, by Bosworth in 1851, anc by H. Sweet from Lord ollemache’s 9th-century MS. 1883 et seg.). Some MSS. bear the puzzling title of Hormesta or Ormista, conjectured by some to be a corruption of Or. m, ista—i.e. Orosii mundi istoria, or perhaps Orosii miseriarum (mundi) istoria. The editio princeps appeared at Vienna in 1471; the best edition is that by C. Zangemeister in Cor. Script. Eccles. Latin. (Vienna, 1882). The edition of Havercamp (1738) was reprinted in vol. ix. of Galland’s Bib. Pat. (1773) and vol. xxxi. of Migne’s Patrol. (1846); the history alone by Dr Brohm (Thorn, 1877). An earlier English translation (1773) was reprinted in Buhn’s * Antiquarian Library’ (1853). Orotava, a town on the north coast of Teneriffe, one of the Canary Islands, is situated below the Peak, in one of the pleasantest districts in the world. Pop. 8293. Orpheus, a Greek hero, a son of Apollo and the Muse Calliope, or of CEagrus and Clio or Polyhymnia, His native country is Thracia, where many different localities were pointed out as his birthplace. Apollo bestows upon him the lyre, which Hermes invented, and by its aid Orpheus moves men and beasts, the birds in the air, the fishes in the deep, the trees, and the rocks. He accom- panies the Argonauts in their expedition, and the wer of his music wards off all mishaps and isasters, rocking monsters to sleep and stopping cliffs in their downward rush. His wife, Eurydice, is bitten by a serpent and dies. Orpheus follows her into the infernal regions; and so powerful are his ‘golden tones’ that even stern Pluto and rpine are moved to pity, while Tantalus mein his thirst, Ixion’s wheel ceases to revolve, and the Danaids stop in their wearisome task. He is allowed to take her back into the ‘light of heaven,’ but he must not look around while they ascend. Love or doubt, however, draws his eyes towards her, and she is lost to him for ever. His death is sudden and violent. According to some accounts, it is the thunderbolt of Zeus that cuts him off, because he reveals the divine mysteries ; according to others, it is Dionysus, who, ang at his refusing to worship him, causes the Phe, to tear him to pieces, which pieces are collected and buried by the Muses in tearful piety at Leibeth at the foot of Olympus, where a nightingale sings over his grave. Others, again, make the Thracian women divide his limbs between them, either from excessive madness of unrequited love or from anger at his drawing their husbands away from them, The faint glimmer of historical truth hidden beneath these myths becomes clearer in those records which speak of Orpheus as a divine bard or priest in the service of Zagreus, the Thracian Dionysus, and founder of the Mysteries (q.v.); as the first musician, the first inaugurator of the rites of expiation and of the Mantic art, the in- ventor of letters and the heroic metre; of every- thing, in fact, that was menos to have con uted to the civilisation and initiation into a more humane worship of the deity among the primitive inhabitants of Thracia and all Greece. A kind of monastic order sprang up in later times, callin itself after him, which combined with a sort enthusiastic creed about the migration of souls and other mystic doctrines a senn-ascetic life. Ab- stinence from meat (not from wine), frequent purifi- cations and other expiatory rites, incantations, the wearing of white garments and similar things were among their fundamental rules and ceremonies, But after a brief duration the brotherhood, having first, during the last days of the Roman empire, passed through the of conscious and very profitable jugglery, sank into oblivion, ar ig with their ‘ ornhestaliatic® formulas and sacrifices. Orpheus has also given the name to a al literature called the Orphic, and was called the first t of the heroic age, anterior to both Homer and Hesiod. The fragments current under his name were first collected at the time of the Pisistratida, chiefly by Onomacritus, and these fragments grew under the hands of the Orphie brotherhood, aided by the Pythagoreans, to a vast literature of sacred mythological so sung at the public games, chanted by the’ priests at their service, worked out for dramatic and pantomimic purposes by the dramatists, commented upon, philosophised upon, and ‘improved’ by grammarians, Lg ay oe and theologians, Although authorities like Herodotus and Aristotle had already combated the pee antiquity of the so-called Orphic myths and songs of their day, yet the entire enormous Orphie litera- ture which had grown out of them retained its ‘ancient’ authority, not only with both the Hellen- ists and the church fathers of the 3d and 4th cen- turies A.D., but down almost to the last generation, when it was irrefutably proved to be in its main bulk, as far as it has survived, the production of those very 3d and 4th centuries A.D., raised upon a few scanty, primitive snatches. The most remark- able part of the Orphic literature is its Theogeny: which is based mainly on that of Hesiod. story of Orpheus also occurs in English and other medieval literature. Besides the fragments of the Theogony which have survived, imbedded chiefly in the writings of the Neoplatonists, are to be mentioned the. nautica, a poem of the Byzantine period, consistin, of 1384 hexameters; further, a collection of 8 or $8 liturgical hymns; a work on the virtues of stones, called Lythica, &c. Other poems belonging to the Orphie Cycle, of which, however, only names have survived in most instances, are Sacred Legends, ascribed to Cereops; a Poem on Nature, called Physica, probably by Brontinus ; Bacchica, sup) to be written by Avignota, the danghter of Pythagoras ; Minyas, or Orpheus’ descent into Hades ; and other poetical productions by Zopyrus, Timocles, Nicias, Persinus, Prodicus, &c. The hynins have repeatedly been translated. See the editions of the Orphica by Hermann (1805) and Abel (1885); Lobeck’s Aylaophamus (1829); and Gerhard, Orpheus und die Orphiker (1861). Orpiment,. See ARSENIC. Orpine, a kind of Sedum (q.v.). Orpington. o vill of Kent, England, 12 alles OF rail SE. of London, where Ruskin's books to be published in 1873 (see E. T, Cook, Studies in Ruskin, 1890). Pop. 3090. Orrery, « machine constructed for the pu of exhibiting the motions of the planets round the sun, and of the satellites round their primari which was in high repute during the 18th | | ORRIS-ROOT ORTHOCLASE-PORPHYRY 649 beginning of the 19th centuries, though now re- garded as a mere toy. Made by Rowley in 1715 at the expense of Chark Boyle (q.v.), Earl of Orrery, it was a combination of the old Planetarium of the 16th century with other machines which showed the motions of the earth, moon, and planetary satellites. Though the construction of a machine which would exhibit accurately the motions, dis- tances, and magnitudes of the planets is impossible, yet an orrery is in some degree useful as giving a general notion of the way in which the planetary motions are performed. As it was a favourite machine at one time, a description of it may not be ar wasn 2 A number of iron tubes equal in number to the planets, and of different dimen- sions, are placed oue within the other; their len, ing arranged so that the innermost tube projects at both ends beyond the one next to it, that one similarly’ poe beyond the third, and so on. At one end of each tube a rod is fixed at right angles, and a ball or lamp attached to its end; the lengths of the rods being proportional (or at least su to be so) to the radii of the aes orbits. The other ends of the tubes orm the axes of toothed wheels, which are con- nected, either directly or by means of combinations of toothed wheels, with a winch. The several com- binations of wheels are so adjusted that the velocity of revolution of the rods is proportional to the times of revolution of the planets. On turning the winch the whole apparatus is set in motion, and the balls or lamps (representing the planets) revolve round the centre, which is a fixed lam cons the sun), at different distances, an with varying velocities. Orris-root (probably a corruption of Jris Root), the root-stock (rhizome) of certain species of Tris (q.v.), natives of the south of Europe, belong- ing to the division of the genus having bearded flowers, sword-slinped leaves, and scapes taller than the leaves—viz. I. florentina, a species with white flowers ; I. pallida, which has pale flowers; and I. germanica, which has deep purple flowers. The flowers of all these species are fragrant. J. ger- manica extends farther north than the other species, and its root is sometimes said to be more acrid. Orris-root was formerly used in many medicinal preparations as a stimulant, but is now almost entirely disused. It issometimes chewed to sweeten an offensive breath. Its chief use is in perfumery. It has a pleasant smell of violets, which it acquires in drying. Hair and tooth powders, and oils, are often scented with it. A tineture of it also is used as a scent, and is often sold as Lssence of Violets. Orsay. See D'Orsay. Orsini, FELICE, conspirator, was born in Decem- ber 1819, at Meldola, in the States of the Church, and studied at Bologna. He belonged to a branch of a noble family, long famous as supporters of the Guelfie party, which produced famous scholars, soldiers, and churchmen (including two pes, Nicholas ILL and Benedict XIII). Felice, the son of a conspirator, was early initiated into secret societies, and in 1844 was sentenced at Rome to the galleys for life. The amnesty of Pius IX. (1846) restored him to liberty, but he was soon again im- prisoned for participation in political plots. When the revolution of 1848 broke out Orsini was elected a deputy to the Roman Constituent Assembly, and, invested with extraordinary powers, was sent to Ancona and Ascoli to suppress brigandage. He signalised himself by the violence with which he executed his commission. He also took part in the defence of Rome and Venice; agitated in Genoa and the duchy of Modena; and in 1853 was nea by the Sardinian government to England, where he formed close relations with Mazzini. Furnished with money by the leaders of the revolutionary party, he aj red at Parma in 1854, and after- w at ilan, Trieste, Vienna, everywhere agitating in the interest of insurrection; until at last he was arrested at Hermannstadt, and confined in the fortress of Mantua. In 1856 he succeeded in making his escape, and found refuge in England, where he oof Sade a himself by public lecturing, and wrote Austrian Dungeons in Italy (1856). Towards the end of 1857 he repaired to Paris, with the intention of assassinating Napolsea lil., whom he reckoned the great obstacle to the progress of revolution in Italy. His associates in this diabolical design were persons named Pieri, Rudio, and Gomez. ‘They took up their station in a house close by the Opera, and on the evening of the 14th January 1858, just as the carriage containing the emperor and empress was drawing up, they threw three bombs under it. An explosion took place, and 10 persons were killed, 156 wounded, but Napoleon and the empress remained unhurt. The assassins were arrested, tried, and sentenced ; Orsini, Pieri, and Rudio, to capital lena Gomez to penal servitude for life. Rudio’s life was spared at the intercession of the empress, but Pieri and Orsini were guillotined on 13th March. See Memoirs and Adventures of Orsini, written by himself (Eng. trans, Edin. 1857); his Letters (2 vols. Milan, 1861); and a work by Montazio (1862). Orsova, the name of two towns on the Danube over against the Iron Gates. OLD ORSOVA, a Hungarian place, is 478 miles by rail SE. of Vienna, and is a station for the Danube steamers. Pop. 3381.—NEW ORSOVA, on the Servian side, is a fortified town held by Anstria (since 1878), who were masters of it between 1716 and 1738; the Turks held it both before 1716 and after 1738. In 1890-96 a costly canal and other works were made for facilitating navigation at the rocky bend called the Iron Gates (see DANUBE). Ortegal, Carr, the north-west extremity of Spain (q.v.), in Galicia, Ortelius, the Latin form of the name of ABRAHAM ORTELL, or ORTEL, who, born of Ger- man parents in 1527 at Antwerp, where he also died in 1598, published the earliest atlas under the title Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (1570); a critical work on ancient geography, Synonymia Geographica (1578), vemenes. 7 greatly improved, as Thesaurus phicus (1596); and other geographical wor, He was also a frequent traveller to Eng- land, Ireland (1577), and Italy, and the countries between. Orthez, a town in the French department of Basses-Pyrénées, on the right bank of the Gave de Pau, 41 miles by rail E. of Bayonne. The ‘Tour de Moneade’ (1240), the stately castle of the counts of Foix (q.v.), which Froissart visited in 1388, was’ reduced to a ruin by Richelieu. Near Orthez Wellington gained a decisive victory over Soult, 27th February 1814. Pop, 4757. Orthoceras, a large genus of common fossil Cephalopods. The shells are quite straight, but a gradual series of forms lead on to the Nautilus type. Some species of orthoceras were gigantic ; ha O. titan in its fossil state is said to have weighed some tons, Orthoclase-porphyry, « crystalline igneous rock, of wines 06 co eve ih generally reddish. It is fine-grained and compact in texture. The ground-mass is felspathic, and micro- or erypto- erystalline ; now and again it shows a little glassy or devitrified matter. Scattered through this ground-mass are microscopic crystals of orthoclase and usually some hornblende and biotite in small 650 ORTHOCLASE-ROCKS OSAKA granules, crystals, and scales. The rock is met with amongst Paleozoic strata, both as contem- poraneous lava-flows and as intrusive masses, See also FELSPAR, and IgNEous Rocks. Orthoclase-rocks, See Perrocrarny, Orthodoxy (Gr. orthos, ‘right,’ and doxa, ‘an opinion’), a name given by theologians to religious opinions in agreement with Scripture and historical ition, or rather with the interpretation of these entertained by the particular chureh to which they themselves happen to belong. While it is true that the great cardinal and essential points of Christian dogma have been preserved by all sec- tions of the Church of Christ, the gravest diver- ences have also arisen, alike in doctrine and practice, each fortified by an assumed infallible interpretation of the letter of Scripture or the line of historical descent in the usage of the chureh,— The antithesis of orthodory is heterodoxy (heteros, ‘other ’—i.e, ‘wrong,’ and doxa, ‘ opinion’). Orthoepy (Gr. orthos, ‘right ;’ epos, ‘a word’), @ branch of grammar that treats of the correct pro- nunciation of the words of a language. Orthography. See SPELLING. Orthoptera (Gr., ‘straight-winged ’), an order of Insects (q.v.). Or'tolan (Emberiza_hortulana), a species of Bunting (q.v.) of the Finch family Fringillide. The adult male is about six inches long; has the head, neck, and upper breast slate-gray suffused with yellow; bill reddish brown; chin, throat, aud feathers round the eye yellow, with a narrow band of greenish gray descending from a little in _ front of the angle of the mouth ; back, wing-coverts — and secondaries fulvous brown with dark ;| stripes; rump red- Si dish brown. The 4 pame> of the emale is paler in colour. he orto- lan in its summer migrations ranges as far north as the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia. In the south of Europe, where it is found in great numbers, and in the north of Africa, where it sometimes breeds, it is but a summer visitor. In winter it migrates as far south as to Abyssinia and North-western India, but its true winter-quarters have not yet been accurately ascertained. Thongh enormously abund- ant in certain localities on the Continent, it is rare in Britain, and many of the specimens captured have no doubt escaped from captivity, considerin the large quantities imported alive from Hollanc and Belgium. It frequents bushy places, and builds its nest of dry grass always on the ground and generally in the open fields, though sometimes among herbage or under low bushes, It lays from four to six Cees, which vary in colour from vei pale-bluish white to salmon colour, spotted with rich purple brown, with underlying spots of pale violet, not streaked as is usual with other buntin The note of the male is rather metallic, and his song at times is incessant and very monotonons. The food consists of beetles and other insécts and seeds, Large numbers of ortolans are netted during their migrations, and confined in dark or dimly- lighted rooms, where they are fattened upon oats Ortolan ( Emberiza hortulana). and millet until ready for the table. Their flesh is considered a great delicacy, Orton, Arrnur. See TicuBoRNE. Ortona, a town of Italy, on the Adriatic, 104 miles by rail SSE. of Ancona. It has a cathedral and a recently improved harbour, Pop. 6366, Ortyx. See Virginian QUAIL. Oruro, capital of the department of Oruro, in Bolivia, stands on a saline plain 11,960 feet above the sea, near the salt lake of Aullagas, and pos- sesses mines of silver, gold, and tin. Foundel sa 1590, it had 70,000 inhabitants in 1650, but now, though connected by rail with Be beret Loe only 13,500. The department, bite on Peru, has an area of 21,600 sq. m. and a pop. of 111,400. The soil is saline, but the mineral wealth is great. Orvieto, a city_in the Halian province of Perugia, 78 miles NNW. of Rome, crowns an isolated tufa rock, which rises 765 feet above the river Paglia, and 1327 above sea-level, The eruci- form cathedral (1290-1580), one of the most heanti- ful and richly decorated specimens of Italian Gothic, is built of black and white marble, and measures 295 feet by 109. The facade is unsurpassed in richness of material, and in the beauty of its mosaics, sculptures, and elaborate ornamentation. The interior also is magnificently decorated with sculptures and with paintings by Luca Signorelli, Fra Angelico, &c, The neg ye os. and St Patrick’s Well (1527-40), with its pen ve are also noteworthy. Pop. 7304. Orvieto, called in the 7th century A.D. Urbs Vetus—of which its present name is a corruption—has by some been. su ey onary the site of a aap Volsinii. In the middle ages it gave shelter to thirty-two popes. See works by Gruner (Leip. 1858), Berir (Lend. 1884), and Piccolomini (Siena, 1885). Orwell, See Irswicu. Oryx, an old name given to several ] and heavy African antelopes, with very long, slightly curved horns. One species (1% tragus leucorys) frequents the deserts of Central Africa, and once extended farther north, as is shown by the frequency of its apparently ‘unicorn’ figure on ancient monu- ments. Another form (H. capensis) is found in Kaftiraria. But the name oryx has used somewhat widely. See ANTELOPES. Oryza. See Rice. Osage O e@ (Maclura aurantiaca), a tree of the natural order Moracem, a native of North America. It attains a height varying, according to soil and situation, from 20 to 60 feet, It is of the same genus with Fustie (q.v.), and its wood, whieh is bright yellow, probably might be used for dyeing. The wood is fine-grained and ve: elastic, and takes a high polish; it is much w for fence-posts, sleepers, paving-blocks, &e. The tree is largely employed in America, especially in the west, as a hedye-plant; it has also been intro- dueed into Britain for that purpose, Iut has not met with general appreciation. Its fruit is about the size of a large orange, has a tuberculated surface of a golden colour, and is filled internally with radiating, somewhat woody fibres, and with a yellow milky juice, the odour of which is generally disliked, so that the fruit, although not unwhole- some, is seldom eaten. Osages, a tribe of American Indians, of the Dakota stock, formerly very troublesome, but now settled in the north of Indian Territory, with Quaker teachers, They number about 1200, Osaka, or OZAKA, an important city of central Japan, situated at the head of the gulf of the same name, and at the mouth of the Yodo River, which issues from Lake Biwa. The city covers an area of iin. OSBORN OSIANDER 651 about 8 sq. m., and is intersected with canals. Its fine castle, the stones of whose walls are of astonish- ing size, was constructed by Hideysohi’s orders in 1583, and the palace, built afterwards in its precincts and destroyed in 1868, was perhaps the most mag- nificent structure in Japan. Osaka is the great commercial centre of the empire, and the head- quarters of the rice and tea trade. Its port does not admit of the entrance of large vessels. There is a foreign settlement, mostly occupied by mission- aries. Pop. (1889) 361,694; (1892) 479,546. Osborn, SHERARD, admiral and Arctic naviga- tor, was born at Madras, 25th April 1822, the son of an English officer, and entered the navy in 1837. He took part in the capture of Canton (1841), and of the defences of Woo-sung (1842); commanded vessels in two expeditions sent ont in 1849 and 1852-55 respectively to search for Sir Jolin Franklin; was head of the division of the British fleet that served in the Sea of Azov during the Crimean war ; and took a leading share in the Chinese war of 1857-59, penetrating up the Yang-tsze-kiang as far as Hankow. After his retirement from active duty he superintended the construction of a submarine telegraph between Great Britain and Australia, and was made rear-admiral in 1873. He died 6th May 1875. Besides publishing Stray Leaves from an Arctic Journal (1852), Journals of Robert M‘Clure (1856), and Career, Last Voyage, and Fate of Sir John Franklin (1860), he proved his interest in Arctie exploration by ota H. Markham to test the navigability of Baffin Bay in winter (1873) by steam-power, and by helping to fit out the expedition which sailed under Nares in 1875. Osborne, See LEEDs (DUKE OF). For DoroTny OsBORNE, see TEMPLE (SIR WILLIAM) ; for OSBORNE House, see Cowes; and for the OsBORNE or St HELEN’s Beps, see OLIGOCENE SYSTEM. Osecans (Lat. Osci or Opseci ; Gr. Opikoi), the name of an Italian people, who at an early period occupied Campania, and were either closely allied to or the same race as the Ansones. Su uently (about 423 B.c.) Samnites from the hilly districts to the north overran the country, and amalgamated with the inhabitants whom they had subjugated ; and the names Osci and Oscan language were subse- quently applied to all the other races and dialects whose origin was nearly or wholly the same. The Osean language was not substantially different from the Latin, but only a ruder and more primi- tive form of the same central Italic tongue. By the victories of the Romans over the Samnites, and the conferring of the civitas on all the Italians (88 B.c.), an end was put to the official use of the Oscan tongue; nevertheless, in the time of Varro ne century B.C.) it was still used by the people. uring its most flourishing period it was something more than a country patois; it is even possible that the Oscans had a literature and art of their own (see ATELLAN#). [Besides a considerable number of coins with Oscan legends, there are still extant a number of inscriptions in the Oscan tongue (see INSCRIPTIONS). ; See Mommsen’s Oskische Studien (1845), and Unter- ttalischen Dialekte (Leip. 1850); Zvetaieff’s Sylloge Inser. Oscarum (Petersb. 1878), Osceola (As-se-he-ho-lar, ‘Black Drink’), a Seminole chief, was born in Georgia in 1804, the son of an English trader, named Powell, and of a chief's daughter. With her he removed to Florida while a child, and there attained great influence among the Indians. In 1835 his wife, the daughter of a runaway slave, was seized as a slave. The outraged husband threatened revenge, and for his threats was imprisoned six days in irons by General Thompson : six months afterwards he killed the general and four others outside Fort King. This was the beginning of the second Seminole war. He then placed himself at the head of a band which had surprised and massacred Major Dade and a detachment of soldiers, and taking to the almost impenetrable Everglades, with two or three hun- dred followers, he fought for nearly two years with great energy and skill the superior numbers sent against him. He was taken prisoner at last, in October 1837, by General Jesup, while holdin a conference under a flag of truce—an act o} inexcusable treachery, though represented as one of retaliation—and confined in Fort Moultrie until his death, 30th January 1838. Mayne Reid, in Oceola, has woven the story into a romance. ‘Oscott, a Roman Catholic college, near Bir- mingham, which claims to*be the centre of the Roman Catholic movement in England. The name (or Auscott, as it cade in Camden’s Britannia) is first met with towards the close of the 17th century as the seat of a Catholic mission, which continued to be served by different priests till in 1752 it was formed into a college for the education of both laymen and ecclesiastics, and called St Mary’s College. In 1835 the present fine buildings were erected, and in 1889 the establishment became purely ecclesiastical, no longer admitting lay students. It is now styled St Mary’s Seminary, and the curriculum includes a course of higher classics, science, and mathematics, to meet the pe meer of the London University B.A. Exam. r this the course consists of two years of mental philosophy and three and a half of theology and kindred subjects. The staff includes a rector, vice-rector, an eight professors, and the seminary is upen to students from any British diocese. O'Shaughnessy, Arruur, minor poet, was born in London, 1th March’ 1846. He was em- pore in the natural history division of the British useum, manied a daughter of Dr Westland Marston, whom he lost in 1879, and followed to the grave on 3lst January 1881. During his brief life he published Epic of Women (1871), The Lays of France (1872), and Music and Moonlight (1874) ; and soon after his death appeared Songs of a Worker (1881). As a poet he is somewhat diffuse, over-gorgeous in colour, and not sufliciently dis- cerning in his admiration for modern French models ; yet he reveals imagination, passion, ten- derness, melody, and a mastery of lyrical forms. Oshkosh, capital of Winnelago county, Wis- consin, on both sides of the Fox River, at its entrance to Lake hig tong 80 miles by rail NNW. of Milwaukee. The lake (30 miles by 12), with the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, which are connected by a canal, forms a water-route between Lakes Michigan and Superior. The city extends along the lake for 4 miles, and contains a number of handsome buildings. It carries on a great trade in lumber, and contains fifteen sawmills, extensive door and sash factories, and large manufactories of furniture, matches, carriages, and soap, besides pork-packing establishments. It is the seat of a state normal school, and close by is a state Innatic asylum. Oshkosh was incorporated in 1853, and burned down in 1859; it was again partially a, Se by fire in 1874 and 1875, and in 1885 a cyclone overwhelmed part of the suburbs. Pop, (1880) 15,748 ; (1890 ) 22,836 ; (1900) 28,284. Osiander, ANDREAS, German reformer, was born on 19th December 1498, at Gunzenhausen, near Nuremberg, His name is a Greecised form of the original German Heiligmann or Hosemann, Edueated at Ingolstadt, he declared himself an adherent of Luther, and became a preacher at Nuremberg (1522), persuaded that city to declare itself Lutheran, took part in the conference at Marburg (1529), and was present at the diet of 652 OSIER OSMIUM Augsburg (1530), and at the signing of the Schmal- ald articles (1537). In 1548 he was deprived of his office as preacher because he refused to agree to the Angs urg Interim; but was immediately afterwards invited by Albert, Duke of Prussia, to become professor of Theology in the newly-estab- lished university of Kénigsherg. He was hardly settled there when he became entangled in a the- ological strife that was greatly embittered by his vehement and arrogant temper. In a treatise, De L et Evangelio, Osiander asserted that the righteousness by which sinners are justified is not to be conceived as a mere justificatory or imputa- tive act on the part of God, but as something inward and subjective, springing in a mystical way from the union of Christ with man, The most notable of his opponents was Martin Chemnitz (q.v.). Osiander’s death in the midst of this fierce lemical war, on 17th October 1552, did not check it; the battle was continued by his followers, called Osiandrists, and led by his son-in-law Funk, who was executed for high-treason in 1566, and the entire party was banished from Prussia in 1567. See Lives by Wilken (1844), Méller (1870), and Hase (1879). Osiander’s son Lukas (1534-1604) and his son Lukas (1571-1638) won reputations as theologians of note. Osier, the popular name of those species of Willow (q.v.) which are used chiefly for basket- making and other wickerwork. They are of low bushy growth, few of them ever becoming trees, their branches long and slender; and they are the more valuable in proportion to the length, slender- ness, suppleness, and toughness of their branches. The Common Osier (Salix viminalis), a common native of wet allu- vial grounds in Britain and man parts of Europe, is one of those which ¥ sometimes become trees, although when cultivated for basket- making it is not per- mitted to do so, It is often planted to prevent the banks of rivers from being washed away. Its branches are used for making hoops and coarse baskets. There are several varieties in cultiva- tion, not easily dis- tinguished except by a very practised eye, but much more use- : ful than the original ’ or wild kind, which Common Osier (Salix viminalis): is apt to break, and a, male catkin; p, female catkin. therefore of little value. More suit- able for the finer kinds of basket-making are Salix Sorbyana, sometimes called the Fine Basket Osier, and S. rubra, known near London as the Green- leaved Osier or Ornard ; S. triandra, a triandrous species, known to English osier-cultivators and basket-makers as the Spaniard Rod; whilst S. vitellina, a pentandrous species, sometimes hecom- ing a tree, is the Golden Osier or Golden Willow, remarkable for the bright-yellow colour of its branches, as well as for their pliancy and tough- ness, There are other xpecies, not natives of Britain, which also are valuable. Osiers are very extensively cultivated in Holland, Belgium, and France, on alluvial soils, especially near the mouths of rivers ; and from these countries t quantities of ‘rods’ are imported into Britain. ‘hey are cultivated also to a considerable extent in some parts of England, particularly on the banks of the Thames and the foun, and in the level districts of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, &c, Islets in the Thames and other rivers, entirely planted with osiers, are called Osier holts, Osiers grow particularly well on grounds flooded by the tide. Much depends on the closeness of planting of osier grounds; as when s is too abundant the shoots of many of the kinds do not Ww up so long, slender, and unbranched as is = able. The French cultivators, when t wish osiers for the finest kinds of basket-work, cut branches into little bits with a bud or eye in each, and plant these pretty close together, so as to obtain weak hut fine shoots; but-generally eut- tings of 15 or 16 inches in length are used, and of tolerably thick branches, and these are placed in rows from 18 inches to 2 feet apart, and at dis- tances of 15 to 18 inches in the row. Osier planta- tions in light soils continue productive for fifteen or twenty years, and much longer in rich alluvial soils, Osiers succeed best in rich soils, but not in clays. No cultivation is required after planting; but the shoots are cut once a year, at any time between the fall of the leaf and the rising of the sap in spring, After cutting they are sorted, and those intended for brown baskets are carefully dried and stacked, care being taken that they do not heat, to which they are liable, like hay, and by which they would be rotted and rendered wortli- less, The stacks must be protected carefully from rain. The osiers intended for white baskets cannot at once be peeled, but, after being sorted, they are placed upright in wide shallow trenches, in which there is water to the depth of about four inches, or in rivulets, being kept secure in their upright. posi- tion by posts and rails; and thus they remain till they begin to bud and blossom in spring, which they do as if — remained on the parent plant, sending forth small roots at the same time into the water. They are then, in ordinary seasons, easily peeled by drawing them throngh an instrument called a k, but in cold springs it is sometimes necessary to lay them for a while under a — of litter. After being peeled, they are stacked, preparatory to sale. BASKET. Osiris, greatest of Egyptian gods, is the son of Seb (the Earth—here the father) and Nut (Heaven —the mother). He wedded Isis his sister while they were yet in the womb; was slain by Set, was avenged by his son Horus, and judges the dead in the nether world, The myth is generally interpreted by taking Osiris for the Sun, Set for darkness, Osiris by Nephthys another son Anubis (i.e, Dusk), who is said to have swallowed his father. Osiris has also been identified with the god on with vane pp with the N vn! and bear, annu sun-period or summer (as against the ly appear- ing = ). For further discussion of the m tin see Isis, and works there quoted; also Wiedemann, Die Religion der Alten Aigypter (1890). Oskaloosa, capital of Mahaska county, Iowa, 104 miles by rail WNW. of Burlington. — It pos- sesses mines of bituminous coal, and manufactures flour, woollens, boilers, electric appliances, &e. Here are Penn College (Quaker) and two others, Pop. (1890) 6558 ; (1900) 9212, ; Osmium ( Os; atom. wt. 191) is a metal which occurs in association with platinum in the form of an osmium-iridium alloy. It may be obtained in the metallic condition by several pro- cesses which yield it either as a black amorphous wder or in hard bluish-white 2 gpa It is the east fusible of all the metals, the anya jet volatilising, but not fusing it. It is the heaviest OSMOSE OSPREY 653 substance known, its specific gravity being 22-477. Four oxides of osmium are known. hree of these—viz. the protoxide, OsO, the sesquioxide, 08,05, and the binoxide, OsO,, are black or grayish-black powders. The peroxide, OsO,, com- monly called osmic acid, is the most important oxide. It is produced when the metal is heated strongly in air or oxygen, and forms colourless, listening, acicular crystals, freely soluble in water, and very volatile. At about 100° C. this compound gives off an extremely irritating and irrespirable vapour; and hence the name of the metal (from the Greek word osmé, ‘odour’). It produces a permanent black stain upon the skin, and at the same time causes an eruption which is difficult to heal. It violently attacks all the Inucous membranes, and its vapour may cause partial or total blindness by depositing a film of metallic osmium on the eyes. A solution of the peroxide is employed in histological work for stain- ing fat and nerve substance. Osmium also forms two chlorides; and osmates, corresponding to an wnknown osmie acid, have been prepa This metal was discovered by Tennant in 1803. Osmose, the interdiffusion of two liquids through a septum, usually of bladder or of parch- ment paper. If a bottle, filled with one liquid, be closed by parchment paper, and be completely im- mersed in a vessel containing another liquid, increase or decrease of the contents of the bottle will occur according as the liquid contained in the bottle passes out through the septum less quickly or more quickly than the other liquid passes inwards. When the contents are increased the phenomenon has been called ; when they decrease it has been termed exosmose. The distinction is obviously not a scientific one; for a reversal of the positions of the liquids will cause a reversal of the osmotic rocess, so that the process which was formerly enominated exosmose must now be called endos- mose, and vice versé. The phenomenon is one of extreme importance, for it is constantly taking Place in living bodies—both animal and vegetable. Nollet was the first to record the occurrence of osmose, He placed a vessel, filled with alcohol and closed with a piece of bladder, inside a larger vessel which was filled with water. The rapid entry of the water almost burst the bladder; and the opposite effect took place when the water was placed inside the inner vessel and the alcohol was placed outside it. Nollet did not pursue his obser- vations any further. Dutrochet first made careful investigations into the subject, which has since re- ceived numerous practical applications—notably in the method of dialysis, which is due to Graham. The phenomenon consists merely in the inter- diffusion of two liquids complicated by the mutual molecular actions which take place between the liquids and the material of the membrane. The rate of interdiffusion depends greatly upon the nature of the membrane; sometimes the direction of the osmose is affected when the membrane is altered, The action being essentially molecular, we can readily understand how sap may be raised to heights in plants and trees against the action of gravity ; for the molecular forces ina drop of water (say) are sufficiently powerful to hold the parts of the drop together pewaet the gravitational attraction of the whole earth. process which is analogons to osmose occurs in the interdiffasion of two liquids through an intervening liquid layer. The difference between the rates of diffusion of colloids and erystalloids is even more marked when the substances are separ- ated by parchment paper or animal membrane than whet they diffuse directly into each other. Osmunda, See Roya. Fern. Osnabriick, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, in the fertile valley of the Hase, 75 miles by rail SSW. of Bremen and 70 WSW. of Hanover, Its great Catholic cathedral, in the Transition style of the first half of the 13th century, is rich in relics and monuments ; and the town-hall (1486-1512) contains portraits of all the pleni- potentiaries who here on 24th October 1648 signed the peace of Westphalia. By that treaty the Lishoprie of Osnabriick, founded by Charlemagne about 810, was to be occupied alternately by a Catholic prelate and a Protestant secular prince of the House of Brunswick-Liineburg. After having last been held by Frederick, Duke of York, the district of Osnabriick came in 1802 to Hanover, and the chapter was dissolved, until the re-establishment of the bishopric in 1857. Osnabriick has important — and ee = -— manufactures of railway plant, agricultural machinery, gas-meters, paper, tobaceo, &e. Dating from 772, ff suffered much in the Thirty Years’ War, but recovered, thanks to its linen industry, during the 18th century. The name Osnaburgs given to coarse linens is derived hence. Pop. (1852) 13,718 ; (1875) 29,850; (1885) 35,899 (of whom 12,086 were Catholies) ; (1890) 39,920. See works hy Méser, by Frideri and Stiive (1816-26 ), and by E. Miiller (1868). Osprey (Pandion haliaétus), or FIsH-HAWK, a not infrequent autuminal visitor to British shores, estuaries, and lochs, where it feeds exclusively on fish. It has been known to breed in England, and several eyries still remain in Scotland. But its Osprey (Pandion haliaétus), distribution is almost cosmopolitan, for it occurs on all the continents, especially where fish are common and men rare. The male bird is 22 inches in length, the female 24. ‘The adult male has the head and nape white, streaked with brown; upper plumage umber, with a purplish. tinge; under rts white, with a band of brown spots across the reast; cere, legs, and toes greenish blue.’ The female has more brown on the breast. A large nest of sticks‘and turf, with a small moss-lined cavity for the eggs, is built on a tree or rock. he eggs (two or three) are laid in April or May, and have a ‘ground colour of white or buff, with chestnut or claret blotches, and blurs of purplish gray.’ In North America the osprey is gregarious. It never preys on other birds, and is not dreaded by them. It is, indeed, of a pacific and timorous disposition, and readily abandons its prey to the White-headed Eagle. in the days of falconry it was sometimes trained and used + Oa fish, See Howard Saunders, British ti e . 654 OSRHOENE OSSIAN Osrhoene, a district in the north-west of Mesopotamia, containing Edessa (q.v.). the ancient name of a mountain on the east side of Thessaly, near Pelion (q.v.), and separ- ated from Olympus by the vale of Tempe. The ancients placed the seat of the Centaurs and Giants in the neighbourhood of Pelion and Ossa. See TITANS. Ossetes. See Caucasus. Ossian, the t heroic poet of the Gael. In form the name is a diminntive—Ovseam, Oisin, the little os or deer, In Gaelic story Ossian was the son of Fionn MacCumhail, a celebrated hero who flourished in the 3d century A.D. Fionn gathered about him a band of warriors like himself, who were collectively termed the Féinn, The adventures and exploits of these heroes, and especially of the principal figures in the group—of Fionn himself, animous and wise; of his grandson Oscar, chivalrous and daring; of his nephew Diarmad, handsome and brave; of his rival Goll, the one- eyed; and Conan, the villain of the band—their jealousies, dissensions, and final overthrow con- stitute the literature of the Feinn. The story goes that Ossian was carried away by his fairy hind- mother to Eilean na h-Oige, ‘the isle of the ever young,’ from whence he returned betimes; and now old, blind, and alone, ‘ Ossian after the Feinn,’ he told the story of the heroes to St Patrick. The legends of the Feinn are but a frayment of the heroic literature of the Gael, and in the oldest MSS. the deeds of Fionn and his companions oceupy but little s There were two earlier cycles. The first of these extended from unknown antiquity until the settlement of the Gael in Ireland. The legends of this period preserve traditions of the old. divinities of the race, notably the 7uatha de Danann, ander the guise of earlier colonists whom the Gael conqnered and displaced. Several tales of this cycle are preserved, among which the Fate of the Children of Tuirenn and the Fate of the Children of Lir are the best known. The second, and by far the richest, epoch in Gaelic romance is that of Cuchullin, Conall Cearnach, Fergus, and the Sons of Uisneach. The date is about the com- mencement of the Christian era, when Conchobar MacNessa ruled Ulster and Queen Meave ruled Connaught. The great literary product of this pene is the Tain or Cattle Spoil of Cuailgne, the liad of the Gael. Another noted Saga recounts the death of the Sons of Uisneach and suicide of the Lady Deirdre, the Darthula of James Mac- pherson. ventually the legends of the Feinn rtly absorbed and totally eclipsed the earlier tra- ditions; so that Ossianic literature is now but another name for the heroic literature of the Gael. These traditions have come down from the misty past in tale and ballad. They were early reduced to writing, and as time goes on we observe great development in incident and detail. In ballads acre in the Book of Leinster (circa 1150 A.D.) jan is represented as old and blind, surviving father and son. A 15th-century MS. recounts the boyish exploits of Fionn. As we come down, the volume of tradition gets fuller, while cycles tend to become confused. The leader of the Feinn is at one time a god, at others a hero, a king, a giant, but usually a t warrior, as wise as brave. In the book of the Dun Cow his mother is Muirn ‘of the Fair Neck;’ in later traditions we hear of Fionn as the son of a sister of Cuchullin; at another time a Scandinavian princess is his mother. But the literary form in which the legends are preserved remains practically unchanged. A Gaelic tale is of a distinct type--narrative prose with verse interspersed. Gaelic poetry, older and later, is ever rhymed lyric verse, ‘ To the majority of people Ossian is known through the publications of James Macpherson (q.v.). In 1760-62-63 this remarkable man pelieeee Fingal, an epie poem, in six books; ‘emora, another epic, in eight books; with a num- ber of shorter pieces, epic and dramatic—all porting to be translations of 8 composed by ian, the son of Fingal. ‘The translation,’ Dr Blair is made to say in the preface to the Frag- ments printed in 1760, ‘is extremely literal.’ These publications, in the opinion of the most competent udges, possessed t literary merit. Caosaks wealth es fame to the author, aah — the ey of — ee a nan bene them appeared in nearly every European Encouraged by the success that attended Mac- pherson’s venture, other publications of a some- what, similar kind followed. In 1780 Dr Smith of Campbeltown issued a volume of Seaw or ancient poems, ‘com by Ossian, Orran, Ullin,’ &c.; and in 1787 Baron Edmund de Harold, an Irishman in the service of the Elector Palatine, printed at Diisseldorf seventeen so-called Ossianie poems in English. The genuineness of Macpherson’s Ossian was early called in question by Dr Johnson and others. An angry controversy followed. It was maintained that Macpherson had jumbled together persons and periods to an unwarrantable extent; that his originals, so far as he had any, were not Scottish, but Irish. If this were all that could be said one would feel justified in regarding, with Professor Windisch of Leipzig, Macpherson’s Ossian as a legitimate development of the old traditions, For the] ds of the Feinn are the common property of the G ‘ whether in Ireland, Scotland, or Man. They are located in Scottish topography time out of mind, and within the last four hundred years quite as rich a harvest of ballad and tale has been recovered in Scotland as in Ireland. It is no doubt absurd to represent Fionn, whom Macpherson after Barbour ealls Fingal, as a mighty Caledonian monarch, at one time successfully fighting the Roman legions in the 3d century, at another assisting Cuchullin, who lived in the beginning of the Ist century, to expel from Ireland the Norsemen who made their appearance for the first time in the end of the 8th. Dut Macpherson had warrant in genuine tradition for mixing up names and epochs. In the ‘Battle of Ventry’ Fionn defeats the kings of the world. According to a Gaelic tale, his father Cumhal sets up as king of Alba, and the kings of Ireland and Scandinavia combine to effect his overthrow; while the son is ever fighting Norsemen. Zimmer has ropounded the theory that the whole of these innsage are in their origin traceable to Teutonic sources, the very names by which thé hero and his band are known being borrowed from the Norse. Find, finn, Fionn this distinguished Celtic scholar regards as a translation of Avitr, ‘ white;’ while fiann, féinn are merely fjanda, ‘foe,’ later ‘fiend,’ Again, in genuine Gaelic ballad Fionn and Cuchullin are not directly brought together, but we find Garbh or the Rough, son of Starno, now fighting the latter hero, and again op; to Caoilte, a dis ed companion of the former, According to some - ted verses composed in Perthshire before ames Macpherson was born, the tailor of the Feinn passes, in the exercise of his calling, from the house of Goll to Dundealgan, the abode of Cuchullin, and back again to the palace of Fionn, without the least consciousness of anachronism. But in Macpherson’s Ossian there is a wide departure from genuine Gaelic literature and tradi- tion. In his aagenttying of the past, in his sym- pathy with nature, and in his powerful deserip- tions of the scenery of his own mountain-land James Macpherson is true to the genius of his OSSIFICATION OSTEND 655 —_ But there he parts company with it. ic literature supplies material for epics and dramas; but the epic and dramatic, as litera forms, were unknown to the people. The dim an owy characters of Macpherson are in shar contrast to the clear-ent features of the Gaelic heroes. Rarely does this author make a definite statement of t; but when he does, as when, for example, he arms the old Gaels with bows and arrows, blunders hopelessly. Macpherson is the most vague and abstract of writers; Gaelic ts are wearisome in detail, and revel in the concrete. In the opening of Book iii. of Cathloda, the author inquires regarding the origin and issue of things ; but he is indebted for his answer rather to Bishop Berkeley than to the son of Fionn. herson was not a Gaelic scholar, and the fact is considered conclusive proof of his inability to compose the Gaelic text of Ossian. The only Gaelic printed in the author’s lifetime was Temora, k vii. Ossian was published in all the lan- of Europe before he appeared in his own, when at length the great edition of 1807 did apres: there were Gaelic texts for only one-half of the poems, and for about three-fourths of the matter published by eee in English forty- five years previously. For the others, no ‘origi- nal,’ ancient or ern, has ever yet been found. And it must be allowed that this truncated Ossian does not show to “spartan, in his native garb. The Gaelic-speaking people have never known him. There is not a single line of these Gaelic texts which can be proved to have been committed to writing before Wisephecsoa’s day. The diction is essentially modern. The loan-words are numer- ous, several of them borrowed from English. The idioms and constructions are colourless, and show traces of classical training rather than of the turns of phrase characteristic of uative authors. The so-called blank verse in which the poems are written is unknown to Gaelic poetry. ne archaic ortho- gn hy of the seventh book of Temora was adduced y Dr Clerk of Kilmallie as proof of the anti- quity of the writing. But in his frequent use of the tenues (c, p, t), instead of the media (q, d, b), Macpherson merely followed Alexander Mac- donald, who published his own poems twelve years reviously. B the same gifted man he was led nto the blunder of making grian, ‘sun,’ a mas- enline noun, contrary to invariable Gaelic u ‘ which has the sun as well as the moon of the feminine gender. The truth seems to be that these so-called trans- lations were essentially the compositions of James Macpherson, and that the Gaelic texts were pre- with or without aid from his friends, but w and when we do not now know. The only man who could explain things died and made no sign. One regrettable consequence of this famous episode in the history of Gaelic literature still remains. To many persons the discrediting of James Macpherson means the blotting out of ex- istence of an extensive and interesting literature —the heroie literature of the Gael. See the Poems of Ossian (1762-63); Brooke’s Reliques of Gaelic Poetry (1789); Ossian (1807); Transactions of the Ossianic Society of Dublin (6 vols. 1854-61); Popular mores Book (1862); rk’s Ossian (1870); Leabhar na Féinne (1872); Folk and Hero Tales from Argyllshire (1890); Windi Trische Texte (1880); Ztschr. fiir deutsches Alt., vol. liii.; Academy, Feb 1891 ; William ra te Introduction to the centenary edition of Ossian (1896) ; and books noted at MACPHERSON (JAMES). Ossification is the formation of bone. Most human bonesare first represented by cartilage, which, by a complicated series of changes, becomes trans- formed into bone. The bones of the vault of the cranium and the face, part of the clavicle, and the ‘sesamoid’ bones occurring in tendons, on the other hand, are developed from fibrous tissue, without ing through a cartilaginous stage, and are distinguished as membrane-bones. In the larger bones of the limbs at least three centres of O8St, ion are found, one in the shaft, and one at each sexes Growth of the bone takes place mainly at the lines between these elements, which long remain cartilaginous. Bony union becomes complete in each situation at a tolerably definite age (in some not till about twenty-five ; see BONE). rue Ossification sometimes occurs as a morbid process ; but in many cases the term is incorrectly used (especially in the case of blood-vessels—see under ARTERIES) to designate a hard calcareous deposit, better called calcification, or calcareous degeneration, in which the characteristic micro- scopic appearances of true bone are absent. In one sense the osseous tissue that is formed in regeneration of destroyed or fractured bones (see FRACTURES) may be regarded as due to a morbid, although a restorative action. Hypertrophy of bone is by no means rare, being sometimes local, forming a protuberance on the external surface, in which case it is termed an exostosis; and some- times extending over the whole bone or over several bones, giving to the condition known as Ayper- ostosis. Again, true osseous tissue occasionally oceurs in parts in which, in the normal condition, no bone existed, as in the dura mater, in the so- called permanent cartilages (as those of the larynx, ribs, &e.), in the tendons of certain muscles, and in some forms of tumours. The peculiar causes of the osseous formations which are unconnected with bone are not known. Ossoli. See FULLER (SARAH MARGARET). emery, a diocese of the Roman Catholic Church of Ireland, embraces the county of Kilkenny and Fork of King’s and Queen’s Counties. Tlie bishop 1as his cathedral at Kilkenny. There is an Ossory parliamentary division in Queen’s County. Ostade, ADRIAN, painter and engraver, was born at Haarlem in December 1610, and in that city he died, 27th April 1685. His teacher was Franz Hals. Country dancing-greens, farm-yards, stables, the interiors of rustic hovels and honses, and beer-shops are the places which he loves to paint; and his persons are for the most part coarse peasants, ugly, sordid, dirty, ragged. Vigour and close observation, with skilful management of lights, are perhaps his most noticeable character- istics ; and humour and poetic appreciation are not unfrequently present. About 1639 he fell under the influence of Rembrandt's style. He was a pro- lifie painter, and his works are to be found in the museums and collections of the Netherlands, Ger- many, Austria, Russia, France, and England. See a work by Bode (Vienna, 1881).—IsAAc OSTADE, brother of Adrian, also a painter, was born at Haarlem in 1621, and died at Amsterdam in 1649. Until 1644 he worked in the style of his brother, but then struck out a path for himself, and ex- celled in roadside scenes, winter landscapes, village street life, and similar subjects. Ostashkoff, a town of Russia, stands on the south-east of Lake Seliger, 107 miles W. by N. of Tver. It is one of the chief centres in Russia for the making of boots and shoes. Pop. 9905. Ostend, a fashionable watering-place in the Belgian province of West Flanders, on the German Ocean, 77 miles by rail WNW. of Brussels. (Its Digue, or sea-wall, 3 miles long, 40 feet high, and 35 yards broad, forms a favourite promenade, as also do the two Estacades, or wooden piers, pro- jecting on both sides of the harbour’s entrance. wo spacious floating basins for the Dover mail- 656 OSTENSORY a OSTRICH kets (a four hours’ passage) were completed in 874; and as a station also for London steamers, and the terminus of varions lines of railway, Ostend is a lively and active = of transport traflic ( butter, rabbits, oysters, &c.), and the resort in the season (auly, to September) of 16,000 to 20,000 visitors from Germany, Russia, and all parts of the Continent. It is, moreover, an important fishing-station, and has a good school of naviga- tion, a handsome Cursaal (1878), a hdtel-de-ville ees ), a fish-market, and a lighthouse (1771; 175 eet). The place is now notorious for gambling facilities. “r (1874) 16,5383; (1895) 27,250. Dating from 1072, Ostend is memorable for the protracted siege by the Spaniards which it under- went from 7th July 1601 to 20th September 1604. Twice again it surrendered—to the Allies in 1706, and to the French in 1745. The fortifiea- tions have been demolished since 1865.—The ‘Ostend Manifesto,’ in American history, was a despatch forwarded to the United States govern- ment in 1854 by its ministers at the courts of Great Britain, France, and Spain, who had met here, by the government's request, to discuss the Cuban question. The despatch declared that, if Spain wonld not sell Cuba, self-preservation required the United States to take the island hy force, and pre- vent it from being Africanised like Hayti. Nothing, however, came of the ‘ manifesto.’ Ostensory. See MonsTRANCE. Osteol'epis (Gr., ‘bone-scale’), a genus of fossil ganoid fish peculiar to the Old Red Sand- stone. It is characterised by smooth rhomboidal acales, by numerous sharply-pointed teeth, and by Osteolepis. having the two dorsal and anal fins alternating with each other. The body is long and slender. Osteology. See Bong, SKELETON, Xe. Osterode, a town of Hanover, at the western base of the Harz Mountains, on the Sése, an affinent of the Leine, 30 miles by rail NW. of Nordhausen. Its church of St Giles (724; rebuilt 1578) contains the graves of the dukes of Gruben- hagen, and there are also a fine town-hall, baths, large n-stores, and cotton, woollen, and linen factories. Pop. (1890) 6757.—OsTERODE, in East Prussia, on the Drewenz, 77 miles NE. of Thorn, has a castle of the Teutonic knights (1270) and iron ‘manufactures, Pop. (1890) 9410, Ostia, a city of Latium, at the month of the Tiber, 14 miles SW. of Rome. It is said to have been founded by Ancus Martius, and was regarded as the oldest Roman colony. It first acquired importance from its salt-works, and afterwards as the port where the Sicilian, Sardinian, and African corn shipped for Rome was landed ; but its name first occurs during the second Punic war. It was long, too, the principal station of the Roman navy ; but its harbour was exceedingly bad, and gradually the entrance became silted up, so that vessels were pes a to “ay rae their cargoes in the open stead. At length, towards the middle of the Ist century A.D., the Emperor Claudius dug a new harbour or basin, 2 miles to the north, and con- nected it with the Tiber by a canal. It was named the Portus Augusti, and around it soon sprang. up a new town called Portus Ostiensis, Portus Urbis, Portus Rome, and often simply Portus. Yet it was not till nearly the close of the Roman empire that the prosperity of Ostia as a city to decline. It was, however, a mere ruin 830,. when Gregory IV, founded a village—the modern Ostia—half a mile above the ancient one, whose 100 inhabitants still carry on the manufacture of — salt. The ruins of Ostia extend fora mile and a half along the Tiber, and are nearly a mile in breadth. Excavations were commenced in 1783, and have been carried on systematically since 1855. See MITHRAS. Ostiaks, or OstyAKs, a Ural-Altaic ears living meen the lower course of the river in western Siberia, where they struggle against chronic poverty, drunkenness, frequently famine, to get a living by fishing and hunting fur-bearing animals. They dwell in wretched and very dirty huts, eat flesh raw, use bows and arrows, and weapons of bone and stone; and are still in part heathens, They are pee num and are estimated now at 27,000, eir language belongs to the Finnish division. ‘ -Ostmen, or EAstMEN. See NORTHMEN. Ostracion. See Correr-FIsu. : Ostracism, a right exercised by the people of Athens of banishing for a time any — whose services, rank, or wealth appeared to pean. be to the liberty of his fellow-citizens, or incon: t with their political equality. It was not a ment for any particular crime, but rather a pre- cautionary measure to remove such leaders as were obviously exercising a dangerous ascend- ency in the state. Ostracism. was intro- duced by Cleisthenes about the beginni of the 6th century B.c., after the expul- sion of the Pisistratide. The people were annually asked by the Prytanes if they wished to exercise this right, and if they did a publie assembly (ecclésia) was held, and each citizen had opportunity of de- positing, in a place appointed for the pur- pose, a potsherd (ostrakon, also ‘ oyster- shell’) or small earthen tablet, on which was written the name of the person for whose banishment he voted. Six thousand votes were necessary for the banishment of any person; but the greatest men of Athens—Miltiades, Themis- tocles, Aristides, Cimon, and Alcibiades—were subjected to this treatment. The banishment was: at first for ten years, but the period was afterwards restricted to five. Property and civil rights or honours remained unaffected by it. Alcibiades succeeded in obtaining the final abolition of ostra- cism, of which, however, Plutarch and Aristotle speak as a necessary Seore expedient, and its utility has been very ably defended in modern times by Grote ( History of Greece, vol. iv.). Ostracoda. See Cypris, CrusTACEA. Ostrich (Strvthio), a genus of birds which was_ once included with the cassowaries, emu, rhea, and apteryx in a distinct order, the Ratite, but which is rohaste better ed as forming a family apart. iirbringer thus places it; its nearest allies appear to be the rheas of South America. There seem to be two species of ostrich—viz. Struthio camelus and 8. molybdophanes ; the differences which distinguish them are not t. The ostrich is the largest exist- ing bird, reaching a height of from six to ye ar As in the other ‘struthious’ birds (= Ratite), the wings are somewhat rudimentary and quite useless as organs of flight; but the bird spreads them ont when running, and they appear to act as sails. The breastbone or sternum has no keel—that is, no median ridge to which the great pectoral muscles OSTRICH 657 in other birds are so largely attached ; in the ostrich these pectoral muscles are but slightly developed, which fact is of course in relation to its small wing. The absence of the sternal keel was the chief reason which led to the association of all the struthious birds into one order, and the name of this order— Ratitwe—emphasised the character, signifying raft- ’ like, as opposed to Carinatz or keeled. The ostrich is now confined to Africa, Arabia, and Syria, but the discovery of its fossil remains in India indicate that it formerly had a much wider range. The ostrich shuns the presence of man, but is often to be seen in near pecstaity to herds of zebras, quagens, giraffes, real ger and other quadrupeds. t is gregarious, although the flocks of ostriches are not generally very large. It is polygamous, one Re Es Ostrich (Struthio camelus). male usually appropriating to himself, when he can, from two to seven females, which seem to make 9 ays in common, 5 ping a RE; hole in the sani for this purpose. emale is supposed to lay about ten oe The eggs are all placed on end in the nest, which often contains a large number, whilst around it eggs are generally to be found seattered on the sand. Concerning these, it has been supposed that they are intended for the food of the young birds before they are able to, go in quest of other food; an improbable notion, not supported by evidence. It seems at least as likely that these scattered eggs are laid by females wait- ing whilst the nest is oceupied by another, and that they are lost to the ostriches, and no more regarded, Contrary to a very generally received opinion, the ostrich does not leave her eggs to be hatched entirely by the heat of the sun; nor is it the case, as has been alleged, that the male only incubates. Both parents give their assistance in the task of watching the eggs. The male and female sit alter- nately on the egus for six weeks ; the cock sitting all the night, but the female helping in the daytime. The ostrich feeds exclusively on vegetable sub- stances, its food consisting in great part of grasses and their seéds ; so that its visits are much dreaded by the cultivators of the soil in the vicinity of its haunts, a flock of ostriches soon playing terrible havoc with a field of corn. The ostrich swallows stones, as small birds swallow grains of sand, to aid the gizzard in the trituration of the food; and in confinement it has often been known to oe, very indiscriminately whatever came in the way—pieces of iron, bricks, glass, old shoes, copper coins, &c. Its instincts do not suffice to prevent it from swallowing very unsuitable things ; copper coins were fatal in one instance, and a piece of a parasol in another. The s of the ostrich, when it first sets out, is sup, to be not less than sixty miles an hour ; but it does not seem to be capable of keeping up this speed fora longtime. It is successfully hunted by men on horseback, who take advantage of its habit of running in a curve, instead of a straight line, so that the hunter knows how to er in order to meet it and get within shot. It is often killed in South Africa by men who envelop them- selves in ostrich-skins, and, cleverly imitating the manners of the ostrich, approach it near enough for their pu , Without exciting its alarm, and sometimes kill one after another with their poisoned arrows. The strength of the ostrich is such that it can easily carry two men on its back. Its voice is deep and hollow, not easily distinguished, ex- cept by a practised ear, from the roar of the lion ; but it more frequently makes a kind of cackling, and, when enraged and striking violently at an adversary, hisses very loudly. The flesh of the ostrich is not unpalatable when it is young, but rank and tough when old. It is generally believed to have been prohibited as unclean to the Jews (Lev. xi. 16), although the name is translated owl in the English Bible. There are frequent references to it in the Old Testament. : The eggs of the ostrich, which are white or yellowish white in colour, are mucli esteemed as an article of food by the rude natives of Africa, and are acceptable even to European travellers and colonists. Each egg weighs about three pounds, and is thus equal to about two dozen ordinary hen’s ope. The egg is usnally dressed by being set up- night on a fire, and stirred about with a forked stick, inserted through a hole in the upper end. The thick and strong shell is applied to many uses, but particularly is much employed by the South African tribes for water-vessels. The reader will probably recollect the interesting plate in Living- stone’s Travels of women filling ostrich-shells with water. In taking ostrich-eggs from the nest the South African is careful not to touch any with the hand, but uses a long stick to draw them out, that the birds may not detect the smell of the intruder, in which case they would forsake the nest; whilst otherwise they will return, and lay more eggs. The long plumes of the ostrich have been highly valued for ornamental purposes from very early times, and continue to a considerable article of commerce (see below; also FEATHERS). The ostrich is often to be seen in Britain in con- finement, and readily becomes quite tame and familiar, although still apt to be violent towards strangers. Great numbers were exhibited in the public spectacles by some of the Roman emperors ; and the brains of many ostriches were sometimes presented in a single dish, as at the table of Helio- balus. See the articles CAssowAry, EMU, HEA; also ALPYORNIS, DINORNIS. OSTRICH-FARMING.—Although there were iso- lated attempts in 1864, the domestication of the ostrich in South Africa, for the sake of its plumage, dates from about 1867, and so rapidly had the industry grown that in 1880 about £8,000,000 of capital was employed, and the value of feathers exported was over £800,000. The French have also made attempts in the same direction in Algeria ; feathers are exported from Tripoli; there are tame birds kept in Egypt; while birds have been imported into Australia by the Melbourne Acclimatisation Society, and a shipment was made from Capetown to Buenos Ayres in 1882. Suc- cessful experiments in ostrich-farming have also 658 OSTRICH OSYMANDYAS been made in several places in California, Mr Kin- near of Beaufort-West, and Mr Arthur Douglass of Heatherton Towers, near Grahamstown, were two pioneers in ostrich-farming. Large fortunes were made in the early days of the industry, when feathers were worth £100 per Ib., the plumes of one bird sometimes fetching £25. As much as £400 or even £500 have been paid for a good pair of breeding birds, and chicks newly out of the egg have fetched £10 each. As the supply became greater than the demand a pair of ostriches might not bring more than £12, and the plumes of an ostrich about 30s. for one plucking. The beautiful white plumes so highly prized by ladies all over the world grow in the ends of the wings of the male birds. A good bird in his prime will yield from twenty to forty of these, besides a few black feathers also from the wings. The tail-feathers are not nearly so valuable nor so beautiful. The plumes of the hen from her wing-tips are generally spotted and flecked with gray, and are called feminines. From 120 to 130 good feathers go to a pound : they are always thus sold by weight. Ostrich-farmers either may buy the young birds from the breeders when from four to twelve months old, keep them for the sake of their feathers, and sell them as breeding birds when they are four years of age; or they may give their attention to breeding birds only, selling the young as they are hatched or when they are a few months old; or they may breed and farm for themselves. Where artificial incubators are in use the eggs are removed from the nest as soon as laid. Till a year old birds are usually treated as chicks, and fed with 1 lb, each of wheat, barley, or Kaffir corn; when the weather is wet they must be put under cover. After this age they may be put in a fenced camp, with ten acres to each bird, and left to shift for themselves. Still, they need to be watched for two years, as they suffer much from parasites. There may be a fortnightly muster, and a stock-book kept, in which the days for cutting and pulling feathers are noted, ve-wire fence is recommended by some breeders, never less than 4 feet 9 inches in height. The ‘ plucking-box’ is a solid wooden box, in which the ostrich has only room to stand. The feathers are cut before the quills are quite ripe; the stumps remain for a month or two, and are then easily pulled ont. Formerly the feathers used to be pulled out by the roots. The first crop of good feathers is clipped at seven or eight months ; this is repeated every eight months with like result, till the birds take to breeding, after which it is not desirable to deprive them of their feathers, as they require them to cover the eggs on the nest. The bird’s plumage has reached perfection when three years old, and at four years the birds have reached maturity. The bony body of the ostrich yields little or no flesh, but the thigh makes delicious soup. The legs are brittle and easily broken, in which case the bird has to be killed. Ostriches may be kept in every part of Cape Colony except in the cold mountainous tablelands, but they thrive best in the extensive Karroo plains, which are their natural habitat, though strong adult birds may thrive in a good grass country. They prefer a dry, warm, well-drained Karroo country, and the wider the range the birds can be allowed the better they thrive. Their best grazing unds are where the soil is rich in alkalies. In 885 the export of feathers from the Cape of Good Hope amounted to 232,119 Ib, of a value of £900,165; in 1889 to 147,486 Ib., of a value of £404,091 ; in 1894, to a value of £477,414, See Mosenthal and Harting’s Ostriches and Ostrich- farming (1876); Douglass, Ostrich-farming in South (soon 1881); Martin’s Home Life on an Ostrich-farm Ostr a town of Russia, in Volhynia, 176 miles Wot Kieff. Pop. 16,522, mostly Jena Ostrogoths. See Gorus. Ostuni, a city of South Italy, 22 miles NW. of Brindisi by rail. Pop. 15,199. y Osuna, « town of Spain, 66 miles by rail ESE. of Seville, stands in a fertile plain on a trian hill crowned by the castle of the Girons, dukes of Osuna, and by a collegiate chureh (1534), which was pillaged by Soult of 5 ewt. of ancient church plate. Pop. 17,211. Oswald, St, king of Northumbria, was the son of the conquering Ethelfrith of Bernicia and of Acha, sister of the brave Edwin of Deira, He fought his way to the throne by the defeat, at Heavenfield near Hexham (635), of Cedwalla the Welsh ki who had aided Penda to crush Edwin at Hattiel two years before. Under the reign of Edwin he had found shelter in Scotland, and been converted to Christianity at Hii or Iona; and now, when he was hailed king by the whole of Northumberland, he established Christianity with the help of St Aidan, who settled on Holy Island. Oswald was acknowledged as over-lord by all the ae save those subject to Penda. He fell fig ting against his enemy at Maserfield (Oswestry) in Oswego, a port of entry and capital of Oswego county, New York, is situated at the mouth of Oswego River (here crossed by three bridges), on Lake Ontario, at the extremity of the Osw Canal (to Syracuse, 35 miles rail), and 3 miles by rail NW. of New York City. It is a handsome city, with wide streets, and a United States government building, court-house, city hall, state armoury, &c. It is the principal port on the lake, with a breakwater, a dozen large eleva- tors, and 4 miles of wharves, and carries on a brisk trade, The river falls -here 34 feet, and the abundant water-power is utilised in flour-mills, knitting-mills, &c. Oswego starch and corn-flour are as well known in Europe as in America. Pop. (1880) 21,116; (1900) 22,199. Oswego Tea, a name given to several species of pte particularly pri al yt M. pistes and M. kalmiana, natives of North America, hecause of the occasional use of an infusion of the dried leaves as a beverage. They belong to the natural order Labiate, somewhat resemble mints in appearance and have an agreeable odour. The infusion is sai to be useful in intermittents and as a stomachic. Some other species of Monarda are used in the same way, and the three species named are not uncom- monly cultivated in gardens for ornament. Oswestry, a thriving market-town and muni- cipal borough (1397) of Shropshire, 18 miles NW, of Shrewabur’. It has an old parish church, restored in 1872 at a cost of £10,000; a fragment of the Nor- man castle of Walter Fitzalan, progenitor of the royal Stewarts; and a 15th-century grammar-school, rebuilt in 1810 and enlarged in 1863-78. Railway workshops were established in 1865, and sewerage and water works constructed in 1866, Oswestry derives its name from St Oswald (q.v.), who was slain here. In 1644 it was captured by the parlia- mentarians. Pop. (1851) 4817 ; (1881) 7847; er $496, See works by Price (1815) and Cathrall (1855). Osymandyas, the name of a great king of Egype, mentioned by Diodorns and Strabo, who reigned, according to these authors, as the 27th sue- cessor of Sesostris. He is said to have distinguished himself by his victories, to have invaded Asia with an army of 400,000 men and 20,000 cavalry, and to have conquered the Bactrians, who had been rendered tributa to Egypt by Sesostris. In honour of this exploit 15 is said by Hecateeus to have erected a monument which was at once a pal i Te OTAGO OTRANTO 659 and a tomb, and which, under the name of Osy- mandeion, was renowned for its size and splendour in later times. The Osymandeion is generally believed to be eatacted by the extant ruins of the Ramessenm at Medinet Habu (see THEBES), though great difficulty has been felt in reconciling the descriptions of its magnificence in ancient writers with the dimensions of the existing relic. Nor can the name of Osymandyas be recognised amongst the Egyptian kings. 0 0, the most southern provincial district of New d, in the South Island. It was one of the original six provinces in the colony, but since 1876 these have been abolished and the county system has been adopted. The name is said to be derived from the Maori Otakou, ‘red earth.’ a large army was stationed under Vitellius, which at once began to march on Italy under the com- mand of the lieutenants Valens and Cxcina. Otho showed vigour in his preparations, but his forces were completely defeated after an obstinately fonght battle near Bedriacum. Next day, though things were still far from desperate, Otho set his house in order, and then stabbed himself, 16th April 69. Otho I., or Orro THE GREAT, son of the Emperor Henry I. of Germany, was born in 912, and was, on the death of his father in 936, formally crowned king of the Germans. His reign was one succession eventful and generally triumphant wars, in the course of which he brought many tur- bulent tribes under subjection, acquired and main- tained almost supreme power in Italy, where he It was colonised in 1848 by the Otago Association connected with the Free Church of Scotland. It is bounded on the N. by Canterbury and Westland, and on the E. and W. by the sea. It has a coast- line of 400 miles, is 160 miles long by 195 broad, the estimated area comprising 15,038,300 acres, of which 9 millions, chiefly in the centre and in the east, are fit for iculture. Pop. (1880) 138,219; (1891) 153,097. ld was discovered here in 1861, and now the goldfields comprise an area of 24 millions of acres, from which gold to the value of £20,000,000 had been exported up till 1895. Dunedin (q.v.) is the capital. See NEW ZEALAND. Otaheite. See Tanti. 0 a (Gr. ot-, ‘the ear,’ and algos, ‘ pain’) is neuralgia of the ear. See Ear. Otary ((taria), a genus of the Seal family (Phocidw). See SEA-LION. Otchakoff, a seaport of Russia, stands on the north shore of the estuary of the Dnieper, 38 miles ENE. of Odessa. It occupies the site of the ancient Alector, and has beside it the ruins of the once im- portant Greek colony of Olbia. In 1492 the khan of the Crimea built here a strong fortress, which was taken by the Russians under Miinnich in 1737, recovered in 1738, and again captured after a lon, by Potemkin in 1788, and definitively annex by Russia. After it had been bombarded by the Allied fleet in 1855 the Russians demolished the fortifications. In 1887 a ship-canal was opened here, which makes the estuary of the Bug and Dnieper much more easily accessible to large ships. Pop. 6977. Othman, or Osman I., surnamed Al-ghazi (‘the conqueror’), the founder of the Ottoman (Turkish) power, was born in Bithynia in 1259, and, on the overthrow of the sultanate of Iconium in 1299 by the Mongols, seized upon a portion of Bithynia. Then he forced the passes of Olympus, took ion of the territory of Nicsea, except the town of that name, and gradually subdued a great part of Asia Minor; and so became the founder of the present Turkish empire. From his name are derived the terms Ottoman and Osmanli as synonyms for the Turks. See TURKEY. Othman, third calif. See Carr. Otho, Marcus SAtvius, Roman emperor for the first three months of 69 A.D., was descended from an ancient Etruscan family, and was born in 32 A.D. He was a favourite companion of Nero, who sent him as governor to Lusitania for his re- fusal to divorce his beautiful wife, Poppzea Sabina. Here he remained ten years, and ruled with wisdom and erg roa i pees ee in Sr i against Nero (68), but, disappoin in his hope o being proclaimed Galba’s asa, marched at the head of asmall band of soldiers to the forum, where he was proclaimed emperor, and Galba was slain. Otho was ised as emperor over all the Roman possessions, with the exception of Germany, where imposed laws with equal success on the kings of Lombardy and the popes at Rome, consolidated the disjointed power of the German emperors, and established Christianity at many different points in the Scandinavian and Slavonic lands, which lay beyond the circuit of hisown jurisdiction. He died in 973. 0 JAMES, American statesman, was born at West rnstable, Massachusetts, 5th February 1725, graduated at Harvard in 1743, practised law, and became a leader of the Boston bar. He was advocate-general in 1760, when the revenue officers demanded his assistance in obtaining from the superior court general search-warrants allowin them to enter any man’s house in quest of smugg] Otis, however, refused, resigned his posi- tion, and ap for the ple; and his speech, which took five liours in delivery, produced a great impression—Jolin Adams afterwards declared that ‘the child Independence was then and there born.’ When the writs were ted, by the direction of the home authorities, in 1761, Otis was elected to the Massachusetts assembly ; and he afterwards was prominent in firm resistance to the revenue acts. In 1769 he was savagely beaten by some revenue officers and others, and as a result of a sword-cut on the head he lost his reason. On 23d May 1783 he was killed by lightning. The publica- tion on which his fame chiefly rests is The Rights of the Colonies Asserted and Proved (1764), a powerful and fearless defence of their right to control their own public expenditure. See the Life by W. Tudor (Boston, 1 Otitis, inflammation of the tympanic cavity of one See Ear. ag : ‘ Otley, a market-town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on the right bank of the Wharfe, and at the north base of Otley Chevin (925 feet), 10 miles NW. of Leeds. Its church, restored in 1868- 69, is mainly Perpendicular, but has fragments of Saxon and Norman work; and there are also a court-house (1875), a mechanics’ institute (1869), and a grammar-school (1602), Machine-making. is the principal industry, with worsted and leather manufactures. Pop. (1851) 4422; (1891) 7838. Otocyon. See Doa. Otoliths. See Ear, Vol. IV. p. 157; FisHes, p. 652. Otorrhea, a purulent or muco-purulent dis- charge from the external ear. See EAR. Otranto (the ancient Hydruntum), a town in the extreme south-east of Italy, 29 miles by rail SE. of Lecce, and on the Strait of Otranto, 45 miles from the coast of Albania on the opposite side. During the later period of the Roman empire, and all through the middle ages, it was the chief port of Italy on the Adriatic, whence passengers took ship for Greece—having in: this respect supplanted the famous Brundusium of earlier times; but its port is now in decay. In 660 OTTAVA RIMA OTTAWA 1480 it was taken by the Tarks. At the present day its castle, which gives the title of Horace Wal- pole’s well-known story, is in the same condition as its port. The town is the seat of an archbishop, and has a cathedral, restored after the siege by the Turks, with fine mosaics and an ancient crypt. Pop. 1893. For the Duke of Otranto, see FoucHE. Otta’va Rima (It. Octuple Rime). A stanza form, consisting of eight lines of eleven syllables in Italian, and usually of ten syllables in English, with the rime-order abababec, See METRE. Ott'awa, one of the largest rivers of British North America, rises nearly 300 miles due north of Ottawa city, flows west to Lake Temiscamingue, some 300 miles, and thence 400 miles south-east, and falls into the St Lawrence by two mouths, which form the island of Montreal. Its drainage basin has an area variously estimated at from 60,000 to 80,000 sq. m. During its course it sometimes contracts to 40 or 50 yards; elsewhere it widens into numerous lakes of considerable size. It is fed by many important tributaries, the chief of which are the Petewawa, Bonnechtre, Madawaska, and Ridean on the right, and the Coulonge, Gatineau, and Rivitres du Liévre and du Nord on the left side, These, with the Ottawa itself, form the means of transit for perhaps the largest lumber trade in the world. The passage of timber over falls and rapids has been greatly facilitated by the construction of dams and slides, See next article. Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion of Canada, is situated upon the south bank of the Ottawa yower. The Rideau Canal, which was made in Ts27, passes through the centre of the city, and affords connection with the Rideau Lakes, and so with the great lakes beyond. Opposite the city, to the north-east, the Gatineau River joins the Ottawa and affords further lumbering facilities. A few miles to the east, the Du Lisvre River opens u a rich phosphate country, which is being cathe worked. The industries of Ottawa are mostly eon- nected with lumber. In the winter thousands of men are engaged in cutting timber and drawing it to the streams, and in the spring the freshets carry down to the mills the rafts, on which the men who cut it live and labour during the passage. The cut of timber in the Ottawa Valley amounts in some years to over 700,000,000 cubic feet. Flour, iron wares, bricks, leather, and matches are manu- factured, The exports of the city amount annually to over $3,000,000, the imports to about $2,000,000. The parliamentary buildings, constructed in the Italian Gothic style after 1860, when the Prince of Wales laid the foundation-stone, are placed on a noble bluff on the bank of the Ottawa. These strue- tures, including the handsome library building and the Victoria Tower (180 feet high), cost altogether about $8,000,000, The residence of the governor- reneral—an old-fashioned, ugly building, called Rideau Hall—is situated about a mile i the city. The post-office, city hall, banks, and_tele- | Aegon are all of stone and handsomely built. ‘he churches are numerous, but not splendid in architecture. Ottawa is the place of residence of the bishop of Ontario (Church of England), and of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ottawa, who has a cathedral here. The Roman River, 120 miles from its influx into the St Law- rence at Montreal. The river Ottawa drains a vast stretch of country as far north-west as Lake Nipis- sing and beyond; all the lumber-products of this district, as well as all the local trade, are carried down to Ottawa, to the point at which the river forms the splendid Chanditre Falls (200 yards wide and 40 feet high). These falls, above which a sus- pension bridge spans the river, supply the motive- ~ower for the numerous lumber-mills, flour-mills, actories, &e, To the east of the city the river Rideau forms a second fall, which, although in- ferior to the Chauditre, supplies further motive- Catholics have separate schools; the Protestants attend almost universally the public schools. There are a normal schoo] and a collegiate institute, both public, and a very large college conducted by the lab Rathieted be- sides a ladies’ college, a musi- cal emy, and an art school. Beeal in the academical year 1889-90 was as ae tay Hon. M.A. 1; Hon. D.C.L. 7; Hon. All ordinary degrees require that candidates should have kept a specified number of terms by having their names on the books of some coll or hall or of the non-collegiate students. For the degree of B.A. it is further required that the candidate should have resided in Oxford during twelve terms. In the academical year there are four terms—Michaelmas term (October to Decem- ber), Hilary or Lent term (January to March), Easter and Trinity terins (the latter beginning the day after the former closes, April to July). The first two are kept by six weeks’ residence, the last two by three weeks’ residence in each, the legal Ss cna of residence being thus eighteen weeks in the year. The colleges, how- ever, under ordinary circumstances, require an undergraduate to reside eight full weeks in each term (counting Easter and Trinity as one term)— ie. twenty-four weeks in the year. The number of undergraduates is now much too large to be accommodated within the walls of the eges, and most colleges have undergraduates residing outside the college in lodgings in the town. bd are still, however, strictly under the control of the university-and the college. (1) No under- graduate is allowed to lodge in a house nor with a landlord who has not been licensed by the uni- versity, a provision which partially guards against unsanitary lodgings and overt spun & roe conduct, but immensely increases the expense of lodgings ; (2) if the undergraduate goes out or comes in after 10 p.M. the fact is sup to be noted in the ‘gate bill’ which the landlord has to send weekl to the college. In October 1890 there were feat ing in lodgings 637 undergraduate members of the colleges and halls and 211 non-collegiate students. Since 1868 there has been in Oxford a body of students not members of any college or hall, styled formerly ‘unattached students,’ but latterly ‘non- collegiate students.’ These reside in licensed lodg- ings + have a building provided by the university in whieh they attend lectures and meet their tutors ; are under the page tn control of a censor, as the students of a college are under the control of their dean ; and are supervised by a board of dele- gates, in the same way as the students of a college are by the head and fellows of their colle Under a statute of 1882 it is possible for a member of con- vocation to open a ‘a private hall,’ of which he is the ‘licensed master,’ for the reception of academ- ical students. These private halls act chiefly as a limbo to which, in preference to leaving the university altogether, students who have been rejected by or ejected from the colleges betake themselves, The number and disposition of the fellows and undergraduate members of the university in 1891 are shown in the following table : Fone of Title of Head No. of No. of ag NO Of x No. of University College (Univ. 71249 Master. 13 17 14 70 St Edmund Hall. 71260 Principal. rs iF 35 Balliol College... 71268 Master, 13 27 82 130 Merton College 1274 Warden, 20 18 10 94 Exeter College... 1314 Rector. 9 26 12 104 ME CMON a doscdvacheciesepneosese 1326 Provost. 14 16 6 68 St Mary Hall (in 1896 incor. with Oriel) 1333 Principal. F + 1 22 n’s College. . «. 1340 Provost, 14 34 88 48 ew College..... 1379 Warden 24 33 13 185 Lincoln College... 1429 Rector. 10 18 12 57 All Souls College... 1437 Warden. 35 ax 4 Magialen College............. 1458 President, 24 380 16 119 Brasenoxe Ser eek a 1509 Principal. 13 26 20 75 Christi College (C C.C. 1516 President. 12 27 7 46 Christ Church (Ch. Ch.)...... 1546 Dean. 28 45 45 181 Trinity College.......... 1554 President. il 20 15 129 8t John’s College........ 1555 President. 16 26 8 68 Jesus College....... 1571 Principal. 10 19 2 62 Wadham College 1613 Warden, 8 18 13 68 embroke College 1624 Master. 8 = 85 Worcester Col ee 1714 Provost. 9 16 10 79 Non-collegiate Students. 1868 Censor. aa vs 225 Keble College............. 1870 Warden. 13 6 160 Hertford College...... .. 1874 Principal. 18 39 9 44 Charley's (Private) Hall... Be ah ice Licensed Master. 81 Turrell’s ( Private) Hall.............+5 Licensed Master. = os = 8 309 494 293 2144 In this table it must be noted that in the column of commoners none are reckoned who matriculated before 1886, and that to ascertain the number of commoners in actual residence about five per cent. must be struck off the numbers given. At Merton Coll the scholars are called ‘postmasters,’ at ‘Magdalen College, ‘demies.’ At Christ Chureh the fellows are called ‘students,’ and until 1877 the scholars were called ‘junior students.’ Christ Church, being a cathedral as well as a college, has also an ecclesiastical foundation of six canons. Oxford is fortunate in having been described from the points of view of its different interests in several attractive handbooks: Rev. C. W. Boase'’s Oxford City, in the ‘ Historic Towns’ series (Longmans, 1887); Dr Brodrick’s History of the University of Oxford, in the *Epochs of Church History’ series (Longmans, 1886) ; ‘Rev. E. Marshall’s Oxford Diocese, in the * Diocesan His- tories’ series (S.P.C.K. 1882); and The Colleges of Ox- ford : their History and Traditions, edited by A, Clark (Methuen, 1891). Messrs Parker’s Handbook for Oxford is an admirable guide to the architectural features of the city ; and in Andrew Lang's Oxford : Brief Historical and Descriptive Notes (1885 ; new ed. 1890) a charming present- ment of Oxford ag both by writer and artists. A manual of the studies of the university is furnished by J. Wells in his Oxford and Oxford Life (Metliuen), A full account of Oxford, civic, jastical, demic, collegiate, personal, up to the end of 17th century, will be found in the various works of the great Oxford anti- uary, Anthony Wood, in the following editions—his istory of the University and of the Colleges and Halls, by J. Gutch (1786-96); his Athene and Fasti, by Dr Bliss (1813-20; a new edition of these is in preparation); his City of Oxford, by A. Clark (1889 seqq.).. From the time of Wood the formal annals of the university become of little interest and very little importance. The interest of books about Oxford rather lies in the diaries which 684 OXFORD “a OXYGEN ive the day-to-day impressions of Oxford residents, nthony Wood for the 17th century and Thomas Hearne for the 18th (best edition of both by the Ox- ford Historical Society), or in reminiscences of Oxford ed in Ramet i really mag g. in the — ies of Edm ibbon, pe oes 5 onl io Oinala s Life of Arnold. Part of the ground traversed by Wood has been gone over from the point of view of modern criti woh din rahe pee he to the year 1100) in his ayy Overt (0. ist. Soc. 1888), and by H. C. Maxwell Lyte for the university (to the year 1530) in his History of the Uni- versity of Oxford (1886). See also Reminiscences af pe by Oxford Men, edited by Miss Quiller-Couc! te 1); F. Hulton, Riza Ozxonienses (1592); Joseph ‘oster, Alumni Oxonienses 1500-1886 (1888-91), and his Oxford Men and their Colleges (1893); Wells, Oxford and Oxford Life (1893); Oxford as it vs, by a mere Don (1894) ; Goldwin Smith, Ozford and her Colleges (1895) ; and The Colleges of Oxford, their History and Traditions, edited by the present writer (1891). Periodical publica- tions are the Dost-office Directory and Oxford Almanac ; for the university, Ozford University Calendar, Student's Guide to the University, ulations of the Boards of Studies, University Gazette ; for the diocese, the Diocesan Calendar and Diocesan Gazette, The local press is vigor- ous, not to speak of the Oxford University Herald, the Ozford Review, and the Oxford Magazine, Oxford, EArt or. See HARLEY. Oxford Clay, the principal member of the Middle Oolite series. See JURASSIC SYSTEM. Oxford Movement. See ENGLAND (CHURCH OF), and KEBLE, NEWMAN, PUSEY. Oxfordshire, an inland county of England, in bape very irregular, and with an extreme length and breadth of 48 miles by 26; is bounded on the N. by Warwickshire and Northants, E. by Bucks, 8. by the river Thames, and W. by Gloucester- shire. Area, 755 sq. m., or 483,621 acres. Pop. 1841) 163,143; (1881) 179,559; (1891) 185,669. lat and bleak in the north and west, except near at acer (q.v.), on the Warwickshire border, and _ undulating in the central district, the county in the south presents a succession of richly wooded hills, alternating with picturesque dales, and ter- poner on the south-east border with a branch of the Chiltern Hills, which, near Nuffield, attain a height of nearly 700 feet above the sea-level. Foremost, however, among the natural beauties of Oxfordshire are the numerous rivers by which it is watered, notably the Thames, with its .affluents the Windrush, Evenlode, Cherwell; and Thame. The Oxford and Birmingham Canal affords access to the midland coalfields. The soil in general is fertile, and the state of agriculture advanced, as evidenced by the fact that in 1889, exclusive of 2061 acres under cultivation as orchards and market-gardens, no less than 414,192 acres were under crops, fallow, or Ironstone is extensively worked near Banbury, whilst of manufactures the most: im- mee are those of blankets at Witney, paper at hiplake and Henley, and, to a certain extent, of gloves at Woodstock, The county contains four- teen hundreds, the municipal boroughs of Banbury, cues ing Norton, Henley-on-Thames, and Wood stock, and parts of those of the city and university of Oxford, and of Abingdon (the remainder being in Berkshire), and 292 civil parishes, all in the diocese of Oxford. Three members are returned to the House of Commons for the county, as also one for the city of Oxford and two for the university ; the county council numbers seventy-six members, Most of the historical events connected with the county took place at Oxford (a.v.) but apart from them may be mentioned the battles of Chalgrove (1643) and Cropredy Bridge (1644). The best known of its worthies are Edward the Confessor, Leland (the antiquary ), Dr Heylin, Viscount Falkland, ‘Doctor’ Fell, Thomas Ellwood, Lord Chief-justice Holt, Rev. James Granger, Warren Hastings, Lord Keeper Guilford, Sir William Beechey, Miss Edgeworth, Charles Reade, Green (the historian), Lord Pen- zance, Sir William Vernon Harcourt, and Lord Randolph Churehill. See works by Skelton (1823) and Davenport (1869). d Oxidation is the term applied in chemistry, with a somewhat wide significance, to the changes which occur when elemen or compound sub- stances enter into new combinations with oxy, The majority of those chemical actions to w the term Combustion (q.v.) is applied are examples of oxidation. The P ucts of the processes of dation are frequently (but not invariably) oxides. Oxides are compounds of oxygen with other elements, and are amongst the most important of the classes of chemical compounds, Basic oxides and acid oxides are described in the article CHEMISTRY (q-v- ). In addition to these two classes of oxides there are numerous oxides do not possess either basic or acid properties, or if at all only to a very insignificant degree. Oxlip. See Cows ir. Ox-pecker. See BEEF-EATER. @Oxus, the ancient name of a river in western Asia, which is called by Arab writers Jihan, and by the Asiatics of the regions through which it flows Amfi or Amf-Daria. It rises in the elev table- lands between the Tian-Shan Mountains and the Hindu-Kush, and flows west as far as 66° E. long. through Badakshan, and then north-west th Bokhara and Khiva, and empties itself by several mouths into the southern end of the Sea of Aral. There are two main head-streams issuing at 13,042 and 14,177 feet respectively, and uniting in 71° 20’ E. long. at 7500 feet. In the first part of its course the volume of the Oxus is increased by numerous affluents, but it receives few tributaries after it turns north-west, its course then running —_ the deserts of Turkestan. The delta is 90 miles - long, and embraces many lakes and marshes. The principal = made of the river is for indgalion urposes ; Khiva owes its prosperity entirely to its 87 eg The river has nico peters for 280 miles 4 steamboats. It is believed that before the Christian era the Oxus flowed into the Caspian and that since about 600 A.D. it has twice chan, its course. The Russians have been considering the possibility of turning it back again into the Caspian. The [ip Sgn conditions seem to be favourable, and if the plan were carried out Russia would get a navigable highway a couple of hundred miles farther towards the centre of For the ae railway bridge across the river Se see BrinGe, Vol. Il. p. 444; and see works by J. Wood (1841; new ed. by Colonel Yule, 1872) and MacG (1876). Oxyazo. See DyErNnG, Vol. IV. p. 142. Oxychlorides, chemical compounds contain- ing both chlorine and oxygen in combination with some other element, and intermediate in composi- tion between the oxides on the one hand and the chlorides on the other. Thus, antimonious oxy- chloride, SbOCI, is intermediate between anti- a. oxide, $b,05, and antimonious chloride, uly. Oxygen (sym. O, atom. wt. 16) is a colour. — less, inodorous, tasteless gas, long regarded as a ‘permanent’ gas, but liquefied by Pictet of Geneva for the first time in 1877. Its chemical affinities for other elementary substances are very powerful ; with most of them it is found in combination, or may be made to combine, in more than one proportion ; with several in as many as four different propor- tions; and there is only one element (flnorine) with which it does not enter into any combination. OXYGEN OYSTER 685 Owing to the intensity with which many of these combinations take place, this gas has the power of supporting Combustion (q.v.)in an eminent de; It is only slightly soluble in water ; 100 cubic inches of that liquid dissolving 4-11 cubic inches of at 32°, and only 2°99 inches at 59°. It is slightly heavier than air, its specific gravity being 1-1056. Oxygen gas is not only respirable, but is essential to the support of animal life; and hence it was termed vital air by some of the older chemists. A small animal placed in a bell-glass containing pure oxygen will not be suffocated as soon as if it were placed in the same glass filled with atmospheric air. For further details on this property of oxygen, the reader is referred to the article RESPIRATION. Oxygen is the most abundant and the most widely distributed of all the elements. In its free state (mized but not combined with nitrogen) it constitutes about a fifth of the bulk, and consider- ably more than a fifth of the weight, of the atmo- here. In combination with hyd n, it forms t-ninths of all the water on the globe; and in combination with silicon, calcium, aluminium, &c., it enters largely into all the solid constituents of the earth’s crust; silica—in its various forms of sand, common quartz, flint, &c.—chalk, limestone, marble, and all the varieties of clay, containing about half their weight of oxygen. It is, more- over, found in the tissues and fluids of all forms of animal and vegetable life, none of which can sup- port existence independently of this element. There are various laboratory methods of obtain- ing oxygen on the small scale, the simplest of which consists in the exposure of certain metallic oxides to a high temperature. It was originally obtained by its discoverer, Dr Priestley, from the red oxide of mercury, which, when heated to about 750°, resolves Spon ne motallie mereny sa oxygen gas. It may obtained similarly from pas oxide and peroxide of lead, the resulting pro- ducts being protoxide of lead and oxygen. The ordinary laboratory method commonly em- ployed to obtain an abundant supply of ox gen consists in heating chlorate of potash, KCIO,, which yields up all its oxygen (amounting to 39°16 per cent.), and leaves a residue of chloride of potassium. One ounce of this salt yields nearl two gallons of oxygen gas. It is found by expert- ment that if the chlorate of potash is mixed with about a fourth of its weight of black oxide of copper, or of binoxide of manganese, the evolution of the gas is greatly facilitated, although the oxides do not seem to undergo any change during the a Various processes have been proposed for obtain- ing oxygen on the large scale, but only in recent — has the commercial production of the n carried out sufficiently cheaply to enable oxygen to be employed extensively for industrial pn The method employed by Brin’s Oxygen ‘ompany consists in ing air under pressure over barium oxide, BaO, heated to a temperature of dull redness. In this way a quantity of barium oainer = BaO,, is formed, and this can be made again yield up its extra oxygen in the pure state (being reduced again to BaQ) by heating to a full red heat, or, as is actually done in practice, by greatly diminishing the gaseous pressure without altering the temperature. It is estimated that oxygen can be produced by this process at a cost of from 5s. to 7s. 6d. per 1000 eubie feet. Oxygen can now be obtained in practically any required quantity in wrouglit-steel cylinders, in which it is or up to a pressure of 120 atmospheres. Of the compounds of oxygen it is unnecessary to speak here, as they are described in the articles on other chemical elements. Oxygen was discovered almost simultaneously, in the year 1774, by Priestley and by Scheele, the Swedish chemist having, however, nearly completed his discovery in 1772. iestly called it Dephlogisti- cated Air ; Scheele termed it Empyreal Air ; Con- dorcet shortly afterwards suggested Vital Air, as its most oe riate designation; and in 1789 Lavoisier, who, by a series of carefully conducted and very ingenious experiments, proved that the combustion of bodies in the air consisted essentially in their chemical combination with oxygen, and thus overthrew the Phlogiston (q.v.) theory, gave it the name which it now retains (from oxys, ‘acid,’ and gennad, ‘I produce’), in consequence of his (erroneously ) believing that it was a neces- sary constituent of every acid. Oxyhydregen. See LIME-LIGHT. Oyer and Terminer (Fr. owir, ‘to hear;’ terminer, ‘to determine’). See ASSIZE. Oyster (Ostrea), a genus of bivalves, the mem- bers of which are well known to be very passive and very palatable. Structure.—The fundamental characteristics, as displayed by the favourite Euro- oe species, Ostrea edulis, are those of other bivalve ollusea (q.v.), but the ‘foot,’ with which many less sedentary forms move, is almost completel degenerate, the two valves of the shell are Hea | the hinge which unites them is without teeth, and Diagram of Internal Structure. The dorsal surface is downwards, the anterior or head end to the left. a, region where water enters and leaves the animal ; the dark lines indicate where one mantle-flap has been cut away to expose the other structures; }, gills; c, margin of one of the mantle-folds; d, anterior part of hinge; e, hood over mouth; f, position of mouth; g, h, labial palps; 4, end ¢ 9 a 1, the closing muscle of the shell; m, position of e heart. the powerful closing muscle is almost median in position. The left valve of the shell, that by which the animal fixes itself, is hollowed out, while the other is almost flat, and the whole animal is slightly unsymmetrical. On an opened oyster it is easy to detect the fringed mantle which lines and makes the shell, the ciliated gills or ‘beard,’ two some- what similar flaps (labia! pelps) on each side of the mouth, which, overhung by a hood, lies near one end of the hinge, the brownish aigestive gland, the heart and the kidneys close beside the shell-shut- ting muscle. ‘I suppose,’ says Professor Huxley, ‘that when the sapid and ope gate morsel—which is and is gone like a flash of gustatory summer lightning—glides along the palate, few people imagine that they are swallowing a piece of machinery (and going panel 4 too) freatly more complicated than a watch ’—in fact a living organ- ism of a high order, General Life.—The oyster feeds on microscopic organisms which are washed into the gaping shell and on to the mouth by the ciliary activity of the gills and palps; and it may be noted that the — tinge, regarded by epicures as one of the ighest credentials of an oyster, is probably due to a copious diet of minute green alge. As every one knows, oysters live gregariously in ‘beds’ or 686 OYSTER ‘banks’ at depths of 3 to 20 fathoms, and are strangely fastidious as to locality. They have many enemies besides the dredger, such as the little sponges (Clione), which bore in the shells; marine worms, and sea-snails (e.g. Purpura and Murex), which also effect an entrance; besides starfishes, which swallow little ones intact, or, em- bracing larger specimens, insert their arms when the shells gape. Although these passive animals have no eyes or ears they can detect the shadow of an approaching boat; the mantle-fringe and some other parts are undoubtedly sensitive ;and some enthusiasts have even inferred ‘intelligence’ from the fact that in the ‘oyster-schools’ and elsewhere the molluses learn to keep their shells shut when the tide retires or when they are transported by rail ! Life-history—There are vos | interesting facts connected with the life-history of the oyster. Thus, O. edulis is hermaphrodite, being first an egg-laying female, afterwards a » rm-producing male, while O. angulata and the American 0. virginica have the sexes separate. Maturity is sometimes rapidly attained, but usually not until the third or fourth year of life, and the maximum fertility is between the fourth and seventh year. The repro- ductive season generally begins in May, and con- tinues till the beginning of autumn, but its limits are extended or lessened by the conditions of tem- perature. When the oyster becomes ‘sick,’ ‘milky,’ or ‘out of season,’ the mantle-cavity and the inter- spaces between the gills are packed with developing eggs, which fishermen call ‘ white,’ and at a later stage ‘black spat.’ Buckland likened this black spat to fine slate-pencil dust, and the emeryence of the young from the mother to a puff of smoke from a railway-engine. He computed the number of developing in an oyster at from 276,000 to ,000; and Professor Mibius, the greatest Ger- man authority on oysters, calculates that 1000 full-grown parents produce 440 million embryos annually. These embryos are only about 7}5th of an inch in length, and about two millions of them might be packed into a cubic inch, but the numbers which rise from an oyster-bank are so immense that the water seems to be clouded. They are very unlike the adults in habit, for they swim actively for some days by means of a protrusible ciliated cushion or um. The valves of the shell are transparent and symmetrical ; the gills, palps, and some other adult structures have yet to be developed. In the American oyster, the are set adrift at an early , fertilisation and the whole of development taking place outside the shelter of the parent. In either case the mortality is enormous; multitudes are washed away to unsuitable localities, and multi- tudes are devoured by hungry animals; in fact Mébius computes that out of 440 million embryos es individuals reach maturity. ose that survive become weighted by their frowing shells, draw in their ciliated velum for the t time, and sink to the bottom as a ‘fall of spat.’ ‘They settle on stones, shells, or other ‘culch,’ and nowadays on chalked tiles or on floatin collectors which are placed for the pe pose O receiving them. Moored by their left shells, they grow idly, from sth of an inch when first attached, till at the end of six to eight months they are like threepenny pieces, and are known as ‘brood.’ ‘The diameter of an oyster at two years is about two inches, another inch is added in the _ year, after which the growth is much less a ifferent Kinds.—Oysters are represented by several ws distributed species—e.g. the Euro- n O, edulis and O, angulata, the American , virginica with several varieties, two others from the western coasts (0. conchophila and 0. lurida)—all of them edible, while the Caps 8 Good Hope, Australia, Japan, &c. are not t their share, They vary considerably in size; those from 3 to 6 inches are common, but Sir J. E. Tennent found one in Ceylon measuring a little over 11 inches in length. American oysters are very large. The banks of oysters sometimes form important marine and shore deposits—witness the banks of long, narrow ‘raccoon’ oysters off the coast of Georgia and other parts of North America, which are said to form natural breakwaters. The race is an ancient one, for oysters appear in Carboniferous strata, and two related forms— Gryphea and Exogyra—with thick heavy shells, are common fossils. The name is sometimes ex- tended to other bivalves, such as the false oyster Anomia (one valve of which is perforated by a tag of attaching byssus), the pearl-oyster Meleagri (see PEARL), and the thorny oyster Spondylus. Edibility.—The accumulations of oyster-shells in the ‘ kitchen-middens’ of Neolithic ages show that the appreciation of oysters is no modern taste. To Roman palates the oyster was precious, and the praises of its appeteing Sa ( ingluvies) were often sounded. ose of Rutupia (Rich- borough, in Kent) were os to the epi- cures and highly esteemed. hen eaten alive or half-alive in the usual fashion, they are not only pleasant, but nutritious and readily digested, nor can any evil effects (such as parasites) be traced to moderate indulgence in these dainties. ‘The points of an oyster are,’ Frank Buckland says, ‘first the shape, which to be perfect should resemble very much the petal of a rose-leaf. Next, the thickness of the shell; a_ first-class Lara beige native should have a shell of the tenuity of thin china or a Japanese tea-cup. It should also have an almost metallic ring, and a peculiar opalescent lustre on the inner side; the hollow for the animal of the oyster should be as much like an egg-cup as possible. Lastly, the flesh itself should be white and firm, and nut-like in taste. It is by taking the evetee proportion of meat to shell that oysters should critically judged. The oysters at the head of the list are of course “natives” (oysters artificially reared); the proportion of a well-fed native is one- fourth meat.’ Oysters and Disease.—Many cases of enteric ill- ness and death having been of late referred to the . eating of nal the Local Government Board made searching inquiry into the conditions of oyster culture and sto along the coasts of ngland and Wales, and carried on bacteriological investigations as to the power of the oyster to absorb, retain, and transmit the typhoid bacillus and the cholera vibrio. It appears from a report in 1894-96 that oysters contaminated by sewage, &c., can and do transmit disease; and that in many localities the conditions of culture and stor- age do expose oysters to the serious risk of such contamination. Demand.—Some years ago 500 millions were sold annually in London, at a cost of £100,000; but the coreene decreased, and the price increased. The total British expenditure in oysters has since been calenlated at £2,000,000, for about 240 million oysters. In Paris the annual consumption is said to be over 100 millions, which cost, it is said, 1,654,350 francs in 1853, and 4,500,000 in 1890. In the United States the business employs 60,000 persons and 5000 vessels; some 25 million bushels are sold for $15,500,000. In New York state alone the capital invested now exceeds. $6,000,000. = are sent from Baltimore, New York, and other principal markets in car- loads to the west—to Milwaukee, a St. Louis, and even San Francisco. The grea beds occur in Long Island Sound and Chesapeake Bay ; 7 OYSTER OYSTER-CATCHER 687 the former is in part surveyed and divided into plots, not to exceed 500 acres for any one person, ‘or oyster-culture. The bivalve is found, however, from the Gulf of St Lawrence to and along the north shore of the Gulf of Mexico, and, though smaller, at points on the west coast, as Puget Sound and Juan de Fuca Strait. In some parts of the United States the Clam (q.v.) rivals the oyster in popularity. Supply.—The British pod is derived from three sources—from the national oyster-banks, which are getually getting the attention which they deserve ; m the continental banks and farms, especially those of France and Holland ; and from the United States, with which a trade amounting to about half a million dollars annually has rapidly grown. Moreover, it must be noted that young oysters are largely imported from France and elsewhere to be ‘fattened® on British culture-grounds. The’ prac- tical problem is to keep wp a supply sufficient to meet the large demand. For various reasons this seems to be difficult. As oysters live in 3 to 20 fathoms of water, they can hardly be hered with much selection ; they are sometimes lifted b ‘rakes’ and tongs, but usually by the dredge; this is a destructive process, probably killing more than it secures. There seems some evidence to show that sheer over-dredging has almost ruined some of the banks, but this probably has been exaggerated. Changes in the sea-bottom and in the food-supply have doubtless had more to do with the disappear- ance of oysters from localities where they once abounded. Those who permit all kinds of debris and foulness to be emptied into the sea can hardly expect a flourishing oyster-bank in the neighbour- hood. To preserve the beds, to observe ‘close time,’ to re-stock when the supply wanes, and similar practical precautions are certainly effective ; but regulations which are satisfactory on paper are often very unsatisfactorily realised. The reader should consult the Parliamentary Reports on British Oyster Fisheries (1870), and on the increas- ing scarcity (1876). Oyster-culture.—Another practical endeavour which has been richly rewarded is that of artificial oyster-culture. This is of course no novelty, having been practised by the Romans. Thus, Pliny says that ‘the first person who formed artificial oyster- beds was Sergius Orata (in the time of Augustus), who established them at Baie... not for the gratification of gluttony, but for the sake of gain, as he contrived to make a large income by the exercise of his ingennity.’ In the days of the later A Sh there were well-established ostrearia, and Lake Fusaro, the Acheron of Virgil, a muddy salt- water pond, nowhere more than six feet in depth, has been for many centuries utilised for this pur- se. Of oyster-culture there are many different inds; it may be confined to ‘fattening ’ oysters in some conveniently constructed nd; or ‘fallen spat,’ collected on tiles or artificial ‘culch,’ may be brought to the sheltered culture-grounds, where the young can grow in safety ; or again, oysters may be red in confi t, as Professor J. A. Ryder has succeeded in doing in America. In this last case the oysters were kept in a pond se ted from the sea by a sandbank, through which water alone came and went with the tide; they produced eggs, these grew into ‘spat,’ the young fell on suitable collectors, which were afterwards removed to the natural beds. It has even been found possible to fertilise the eggs artificially with sperm from male oysters, and though this is not so feasible in the case of the European species, whose eggs are retained within the parent until they have to some extent developed, there is no theoretical obstacle against breeding them in confinement. Another possibility is to collect the free larve, which are ‘crustaceans, and small fish. sometimes very abundant, and transfer them to culture-grounds where the risksof mortality would be lessened. The success which has already attended various forms of oyster-culture, of which details will be found in the reports cited below, certainly warrants further extension and experiment, especi- ally as many authorities believe that there is more hope in this than in any legislative measures to pre- serve the natural banks. Arcachon (q.v.) and Can- cale are important French seats of oyster-culture ; in England Whitstable is most natalie The frost of the winter of 1890-91 was estimated to have done £15,000 of damage to the oysters of two com- panies at Whitstable. See Parliamentary Reports on Oyster Fisheries (1870, 1876, 1878); Report of the United States Fisheries Com- mission, viii, which contains not only the results of American observations and experiments. but translations of valuable memoirs by Hoek, Hubrecht, and Mobius ; Report of Scotch Fisheries Board (J, H. Fullarton on Oyster-culture in France, &c.), 1890; Mobius. Die Auster und die Austernwirtschaft (1877); E. Ingersoll, The Oyster Industries of the United States (1881); W. K. Brooks, gm ge and Protection of the Oyster in oh pe (1884), and Studies from Biol. Lab. (vol. i. A cg ae bare English Illust. Mag. (vol. i. 1883); uis of e, in Good Words (1890); Philpots, Oysters and all about them (2 vols. 1892). Oyster-catcher (Hematopus), a genus of birds of the family Charadriide, closely allied to the Plovers, and distinguished chiefly by the long, strong, straight, wedge-shaped bill, legs of moderate length, feet with only three toes, all directed for- wards and united at their base by a small mem- brane. The genus, which is cosmopolitan in its distribution, embraces nine species. The only European species, H. ostralegus, known also as the -pie and Mussel-picker, is found on many zie? of the English coast, and is common in Scot- and along the whole east coast, on the adjacent islands even as far as St Kilda, and also on the Irish coasts. Although a coast bird, it often wanders inland, and may be found breeding near inland lochs and on the banks of large rivers. It occurs in Greenland, is common in Iceland, and in many parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, Its southern 2 . Ss < aS Pies Oyster-catcher (Hcmatopus ostralegus). migrations extend to Burma, Ceylon, Persia, Mozambique, and Senegambia. The adult bird is about 16 inches long, has black and white plum- age, orange-yellow bill, crimson irides, and flesh- coloured fege and toes. It is very regular in its feeding habits, passing with great punctuality to and from its Gather eraande, where it regales itself. with mussels, whelks, limpets, annelids, Its eggs, usually three or four in number, are laid on shingle, more rarely among sandhills or even in fields inland, and sometimes on the top of a fairly lofty stack. The oyster-catcher swims well, and takes to the 688 OYSTER PLANT OZONE water of its own accord. Its flesh, though dark in colour, is palatable. H. capensis is a black species ranging from the Cape to the Canaries, Three or four species are confined to America. Oyster Plant. See SAusiry. Ozzena (Gr. ozé, ‘a stench’) is generally used of all diseased conditions of the nose accompanied by great fetor of the breath. This may arise from ¢ ulcerations occurring in tubercular or syphilitic disease, or in lupus ; from malignant disease ; from necrosed bone; or from the presence of a foreign body. But it also occurs where none of these causes is present; and to this form of disease the term is limited by some recent writers (Frinkel, Morell Mackenzie, and others). In these cases there is a peculiar form of inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose, called dry catarrh, in which the morbid secretion accumulates in the form of crusts in the nasal cavity. This ma occasion comparatively little inconvenience, till it leads, as it often does, to the occurrence of an offensive and characteristic odour, the precise cause of which has not been ascertained. It is a very chronic and troublesome disease ; but much relief is obtained by the frequent use of alkaline and antiseptic washes or sprays. An arrangement devised by Gottstein renders the secretion moist, and so keeps the fetor in abeyance—the intro- duction of a plug of cotton-wool, which is worn in each nostril for a few hours daily. Ozanam, ANTOINE FREDERIC, was bern at Milan, April 23, 1813, studied at Lyons and Paris, and was appointed in 1841 to fill the chair of Foreign Literature at the Sorbonne. He died at Marseilles, September 8, 1853. Ozanam learning and industry, but fate did not favour him in his dream of rivalling the work of Gibbon, save in such f ents as Dante et la Philosophie Catholique au XIIT* Siécle (1839), Histoire de la Civilisation au V° Siécle (1845; Eng. trans. 1868), and Etudes Germaniques (1847-49). A collected edition of his writings fills 11 vols. (1862-75). There are Lives by Karker (Paderborn, 1867), O'Meara (Edin. 1876), and Hardy (Mainz, 1878). Ozokerite, See Brrumen. Ozone (Gr. ozé, ‘I smell’). long ago that a peculiar odonr was produced by the working of an electrical machine. Van Marum found that, when electric sparks were passed rete. a a tube containing oxyge , the gas became powerfully impregnated with this odour—which he therefore called the ‘smell of electricity.’ Sub- sequent writers attributed the phenomenon to the formation of nitric acid, due to a trace of nitrogen mixed with the oxygen; especially as the gas was found to act energetically upon mercury. Thus supposed to be explained, these curious results were soon forgotten. But in 1840 Schinbein (q.v.) with remarkable acuteness made a closer investiga- tion of the question, and arrived at many most curious results, all of which have not even yet been satisfactorily accounted for. The problem remains, in fact, one of the most lexing, as well as interesting, questions imperfectly resolved in chemistry. The earlier results of Schénbein were these: (1) When water is decom hy the vol- taic current, the electrodes being of gold or plati- num, the oxygen (which appears at the positive pole) in a high degree the smell and the oxidising power developed by Van Maram by means of friction-electricity. (2) When the positive elec- trode is formed of an oxidisable metal these It was remarked results are not observed, but the electrode is rapidly oxidised. (3) The oxygen collected at a platinum electrode retains these p’ es for an indefinite period if kept in a el vessel ; but loses them by heating, by the contact of an oxidis- able substance, an bodies as and oxide of manganese. the substance, whatever it may be, which such powerful chemical aflinities, Schinbein gave the name ozone, from its smell. In 1845 he showed that the same substance can be produced by the action of phosphorus on moist air, and hinted that it might be a higher oxide of hydrogen. j De la Rive and Marignac shortly ee repeating the experiments of Van Marum, that electric sparks produce ozone even in and dry oxygen, and came to the conel that ozone is oxygen in an sestote t= state, as diamond is a form of coke or ch . Baumert, in 1 endeavoured to show that there are two ozone—one formed from pure ox by el rks, which he allowed to be alletopie oxygen 8 the other formed in the voltaic decomposi water, which he endeavoured to prove to be a terowide of hydrogen. Andrews, in 1856, refuted this view, by showing that no such oxide of hydro- gen (at least in a gaseous form) is produced in the electrolysis of water; and that ozone, from what- ever source obtained, is the same body, and is not a a but an allotropic form of oxygen. In 1860 Andrews and Tait published the results of a series of volumetric experiments on this sub- ject, which led to some remarkable conclusions— among which are the following: When the electric disch is passed through pure oxygen it con- tracts, hence ozone must be denser oxygen. A prt 9 ter amount of gprs re and — corre- spondingly greater quantity of ozone, are uced ron si aa Ruabaree of electricity peal ris fine points than by a brilliant series of sparks, The contraction due to the formation of the ozone is entirely removed by the destruction of the ozone— by heat; and this process can be repeated indefi- nitely on the same rtion of oxy; Soret subsequently determined 14 the density of ozone as compared with that of oxygen, first by absorbing the ozone from the oxygen with whi it was mixed by means of oil of turpentine or oil of cinnamon, and observing the contraction pro- duced ; and later by determining the relative rates of diffusion of chlorine and ozone. He ascertained that its density is one and a half times that of Andrews showed later that ozone is oxygen. rapidly destroyed when shaken up with dry frag- meats of glass, &c, He also proved that the effect which is (almost invariably, antl sometimes in fine weather pt tes Ad produced by the air on what are called ozone-test a ap xs steeped in iodide of potassium which are rendered brown by the liberation of iodine—is really due to ozone. He did so by showing that it acts upon mereury as ozone does, and that it is destroyed by heat at the same temperature. The quantity of ozone in the atmosphere is never great, and it varies within wide limits. Little or nothing is known as to its function in the air, but it is believed to be active in destroying unwhole- some substances, owing to its intensely oxidisi properties. Ozone has been liquefied by the appli- cation of pressure, at a temperature of abont - C. It is stated to be blue in the liquid and to be liable to decomposition into oxygen, with ex- plosive violence, on sudden diminution of pressure, even by contact with such P is the sixteenth letter in our alphabet. The symbol was de- rived from the -hieroglyphic_ picture of a shutter (see ALPHA- BET). When taken over by the Semites, the sign was called pe, ‘the mouth,’ a name ex- lained by the fact that in the Raypien hieratic, from which the Pheenician sign was obtained, there are strokes resembling teeth, which, however, disappeared before the date of the earliest extant Pheenician inscriptions. The oldest Greek form was f, which differs little from the Pheenician letter. In the Latin alphabet the hook ving the form P, and this being the old form of the latter acquired a tail to distinguish it. In the later Greek alphabet P continued to be the sign for r, and the sign for p was differentiated by cnpmening the hook, giving ultimately the form II for the letter pi. The sound of p is the sharp labial mute. Hence it interchanges with other labials, especially with 6, the flat labial mute. Most languages give a reference to one of these two sounds. Thus, the trnscans preferred p, and have no 6 in their alphabet, whereas the Teutonic languages dislike ki especially as an initial. Only six primitive eutonie words, all probably loan words, begin with p, and in-Beowulf and Cdmon, taken together, only three such words are found. In Mceso-Gothie the Greek p was used b eee but only for foreign words, such as Pan , Pontius Pilate, prophet, and presbyter. Most of our Eng- lish words nning with p, such as plough, parish, le, or prince, are loan words from Greek, tin, or Celtic. A primitive Aryan p corresponds to a Teutonic f, and it is only a primitive 5, a very rare letter, which can soxmeend to a Teutonic p. A Welsh p corresponds to a Gaelic ¢ and an Eng- lish f. us, the Gaelic mac, ‘son,’ is the Welsh map or ap. The Gaelic cethair is the Welsh war, and the English four ; and the Gaelic coic is the Welsh pump, and the English five. Owing to French influence the English prejudice against p begins to disappear in the 13th century, and we get gossip instead of the older godsib, apricot for abricot, and purse for bor'se, though even here the 4 is retained in the derived verb to disburse. A p also intrudes between m and ¢, as in empty for the Old English @mtig, and in tempt from the Old French tenter. In Latin p intrudes also between m and /, as in the words exemplum and templum. In like case, as in humble from humilis, 6 is usually the intrusive letter in English words. Paarl, capital of a district in Cape Colony, 40 miles by road NE. of Capetown; pop. (1891) 7668. Pabna, a town of Bengal, on an arm of the Ganges, 115 miles N. of Caleutta. Pop. 15,267. Paca (Celogenys, i.e. ‘hollow-cheek’), a re- markable genus of rodents, allied to the Agoutis (Dasyprocta), represented by a single species (C. gree), which ranges in Central and South America ually became a loop, |’ Guatemala to Paraguay, east of the Andes. Its cheek-bones are uniquely developed, the zygo- 356 matie arch being enlarged to form a great cavity on each side. Each communicates by a narrow aper- ture with the mouth, is lined by mucous membrane, and does not contain food as an ordinary cheek- pouch naturally does. Their function, if they have any, isunknown. The paca is large for a rodent, being about 2 feet in length. It is stout and some- what pig-like in build, with a large blunt head, Paca ( Calogenys paca). cloven lip, small ears, stump-like tail, thick legs, five-toed feet, and rounded back. The colour is brownish yellow above, whitish below, with whitish- ellow spots or longitudinal bands along the sides. hough somewhat clumsy in form and gait, the paca runs actively, and can swim well. It lives alone or in pairs in the moist forests, especially by sides of rivers, and tends to be nocturnal in its habits. It makes burrows, which are said to have three Spay The female bears only one or two young at a birth. As a vegetable eater, the paca sometimes does fare to sugar-cane plantations and gardens. Its fat, pork-like flesh is much esteemed. Pace (Miuitary). See Yarp. Pachacamace, a village of Peru, 18 miles SE. of Lima, with the ruins of a temple from which Pizarro took immense treasure. Pachmarhi, a sanitarium and convalescent depét for European troops in India, is situated, 2500 feet above the plains, in the Central Provinces, 110 miles SW. of Jabalpur. Pachomius, an Egyptian monk of the 4th century, the first to substitute for the free asceti- cism of the solitary recluse a regular conobitic system. He was born about 292, and about 340 founded the first monastic institution at Tabenna, an island in the Nile, where ere long there were as many as 1400 monks. He also established the first convent for nuns, which was under the presi- deney of his sister, and he laboured with so much diligence and zeal that at his death, according to Palladius, not fewer than 7000 monks and nuns were under his inspection. The writings ascribed to Pachomius are not only worthless in them- selves, but of dubious authenticity. See the article MOoNACHISM. 690 PACHYDERMATA PACIFIC OCEAN Pachyder'mata (Gr., ‘ thick-skins’), a term applied by Cuvier to hoofed mammals ( Ungulates) which are not ruminants—e.g. elephants, 5 Ca hog, hippopotamus, tapir, rhinoceros, horse, and which have thick skins. For many good reasons the term is no longer much used. See MAMMALS. Pacific Ocean.—Position and Extent.—The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the great divisions of the ocean, occupying as it does about one-half of the water-surface of the globe and more than one-third of the whole area of the world. It is almost landlocked towards the north, communi- cating with the Arctic Ocean by the narrow and shallow Behring Strait, only about 40 miles in width, whereas towards the south it opens widely into the great deep Southern and Antarctic Looking upon its southern boundary as the Antarctic Circle, its length from north to south is about 9000 miles, while its greatest breadth at the equator is over 10,000 miles. Its area is gg reese neariy 70,000,000 sq. m. istory.—The Pacific was first seen by Europeans in 1513, when a Spaniard, Balboa, with a few followers, viewed its waters from the summit of a mountain in Panama; Columbus was aware of its existence, but did not live to see it. The first Euro to sail upon it was Magellan, who in 1520 entered it after threading his way through the strait bearing his name, and he gave it the designation ‘ acihic," by which it is known to the present day. From about this time trade was established between Europe and the Pacific coasts through the Strait of Magellan and round Ca Horn. Sir Francis Drake was the first English- man to sail upon it, entering it in 1577, and. after- wards sailing across it as far as the Moluccas. The explorers of the 17th century discovered Aus- traiia, New Zealand, and other islands, and during the 18th century the work of exploration was carried on by numerous voyagers, whose names are famous in the annals of geographical discovery. Many of them attempted to find | res between the Atlantic and Pacific through the Arctic Ocean ; but the problem remained unsolved until Maclure in 1850 discovered the North-west Passaye, and Nordenskiéld in 1874 the North-east Passage. The routes are, however, of no practical utility. Dur- ing the 19th century many exploring and surveying expeditions have completely investigated the region of the Pacific, and among the more recent scientific expeditions special mention may be made of that of H.M.S. Challenger. River-systems.—Compared with the enormous ex- of the Pacific the area of land draining into t is comparatively insignificant—7,500,000 sq. m., being less than half of that draining into the Atlantic. By far the greater proportion of the land of North and South America drains into the Atlantic, the Andes and Rocky Mountains, which form the watershed, running north and south in more or less + close proximity to the Pacific coast. The largest American river is the Yukon in the extreme north, which is over 2000 miles in length, and flows into Behring Sea. Proceedin south, we find the Fraser (600 miles long), the Columbia or Oregon (750), the Sacramento (420), and the Colorado (1100). The South American rivers draining into the Pacific are little more than mountain-streams. ‘The Asiatic rivers flowing into the Pacific include some of the largest and most important rivers of the world, There is the Amur, 3060 miles in length, flowing into the sea of Okhotsk, and with its tributaries draining an area of nearly 900,000 sq. m.; the Hoang-ho, over 3000 miles long, and the Yang-tse-kiang, 3200 miles in length, falling into the Yellow Sea, the combined drainage area of which two rivers is estimated to exceed 1,250,000 sq. m.; whilst flowing into the China Sea there are the Choo-kiang, the Mekhong, and the Menam. The rivers of Australia draining into the Pacific are of slight importance and small size. The ann rainfall on the catchment basin of Pacific is estimated at about 5000 cubic miles ; annual river discharge at a little over a fifth of that amount. Coasts and Seas.—Generally speaking, the Ameri- can and Australian coasts bordering the Pacific are mountainous and free from indentations, while the Asiatic coasts are low and fertile, with many gulfs and bays, and fringed with islan proces enc numerous seas, he Alaskan shores of N America are low and swampy, while the coast farther south is rocky and ru » With inlets and off-lying islands. most considerable indentation of the whole American Pacific coast is the Gulf of California, the Gulfs of Panama and Guayaquil being the only others of importance. The southern extremity of South America presents a complete contrast to the rest of the coast-li being broken up into numerous bays with etattered islands, the winding Strait of Magellan separating Tierra del Fuego from the mainland. The contour of the Asiatic coast-line is much more diversified than that of America, being especially charac- terised by the off-lying seas more or less aged enclosed and cut off from communication with the open ocean. Behring Sea is from the ‘acific basin by the peninsula of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, communicating with the Aretic Ocean through Behring Strait. The Sea of Okhotsk is divided from yes | Sea by the peninsula of Kamchatka, and from the basin of the Pacifie by the Knrile Islands. The Sea of Japan is cut oif from the ocean by the Japanese islands, from the Sea of Okhotsk by the island of ialien, and from the Yellow Sea by the peninsula of Corea, The Yellow Sea is an extensive indentation of the Chinese coast, and is so named from the i amount of ochreous material brought down by the sy rivers Hoang-ho and iam theres which ow into it. The China Sea is separated from the Pacific by the island of Formosa, the Philippine Islands, the island of Palawan, and Borneo, and from the Indian Ocean by the Malay peninsula it includes the two extensive Gulfs of Tonquin and Siam. The islands of the East Indian Archipelago cut up this part of the Pacific into several more or less distinct seas, known as the Sulu, — Java, Banda, and ‘Arafura Seas, the last nam lying between the north coast of Australia and ew Guinea, and including the Gulf of Carpen- taria. The Coral Sea is enclosed by the north-east coast of Australia, New Guinea, New Britain, the Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides, and New Caledonia, and communicates with the Arafura Sea by Torres Strait. The Pacific coast of Australia is mountainous and free from any considerable inlets, the most important harbours being Moreton Bay and Port Jackson, the latter one of the finest in the world. Bass Strait the island of Tasmania from Australia. The main islands of New Zealand are separated by Cook Strait, and the ceeeiral bays are the Gulf of Hauraki, Bay of Plenty, Hawke Bay, and Pegasus Bay. Totands.—The Pacific Ocean is remarkable for the innumerable small islands and island grou which stud its surface, but the area occupied by the truly oceanic islands is very small; they are principally congregated towards the central and western portions of its basin, the eastern portion, for some considerable distance off the American coasts, being comparatively free from islands. The principal continental islands may be briefly enu- merated: commencing at the southern point of PACIFIC OCEAN 691 South America, and proceeding northwards along the American coast, then southwards along the Asiatic coast, we have Tierra del Fuego and the islands off the coast of Chili; Vancouver, Queen Charlotte, Prince of Wales, and other islands off the coast of British North America ; Kodiak Island, off the Alaskan coast; the Aleutian chain of islands, stretching from the Alaskan peninsula towards the Asiatic coast and enclosing Behring Sea; the Kurile Islands, stretching m the insula of Kamchatka to the Japanese Islands ; halien ; the islands of Japan; Formosa and Hainan, off the Chinese coast; the Philippine Islands; Borneo, Celebes, Sumatra, Java, and other islands of the East Indian Archipelago ; New Guinea ; New Caledonia ; Australia and Tasmania ; and New Zealand. The oceanic islands of the Pacific are all either of volcanic or coral origin, the voleanie islands lying within the zone of coral- reef builders being fringed with coral-reefs, while there are large numbers of islands entirely of coral formation—coral atolls, The principal rg are the Hawaiian Islands, in the centre of the North Pacific basin, 18° to 22° N. lat., consisting of eight r and four smaller islands, containing man active and extinct volcanoes, including the weil- known Kilauea in Hawaii, said to be the largest active crater in the world; the Bonin Islands, south-east of Japan; the Ladrone or Mariana Islands, between 13° and 20° N. lat., containing several active voleanoes; the Caroline Islands, south of the Ladrones, mostly of coral formation ; the Marshall Islands, east of the Carolines, entirely of coral formation; the Gilbert Islands, on the equator, of coral formation and densely populated ; in the South Pacific there are the Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides, the Fiji Islands, the Friendly Islands, the Samoa or Navigator Islands, the Society Islands, all fringed by coral-reefs, and the Paumotu or Low Archipelago, an extensive group of coral islands lying between 10° and 25° S. lat., besides the volcanic Galapagos group on the equator about 600 miles off the coast of Ecuador, and others of less extent and importance. —The Pacifie was formerly looked upon as rather a shallow ocean, but we now know that some of the greatest depths in the world occur in it, and that on the whole it is deeper than the Atlantic, its mean depth being about 2500 fathoms. The eastern basin is comparatively uniform in depth, between 2000 and 3000 fathoms, except a large area under 2000 fathoms extending from off the coast of Chili in a westerly direction for over 40° of longitude, while off the north-west coast of North America the 2000 fathom line lies a considerable distance off-shore. The western basin is much more diversified, numerous groups of islands, shallow water, and immense depths occurring irregularly ; the greatest depths yet sounded are found in this region of the Pacific. The Challenger’s deepest sounding, 4575 fathoms (nearly 5} miles), was in the sea between the Caroline and rone Islands, while the American ship 7uscarora found a depth of 4655 fathoms to the north-east of Japan, where a large area of very deep water extends off the Kurile Islands and Japanese coast; more recently depths of over 4000 fathoms have been discovered off the coast of Chili, and a British surveying ship has sounded in 4530 fathoms east of the Fiji Islands, which is the deepest sounding recorded south of the equator. There are ceri detached patches throughout the Pacific wit depths of over 3000 fathoms. The seas border- ing on the western basin of the Pacific vary considerably in depth: the depth in the Sea of Okhotsk, the Yellow Sea, and the Java Sea does not apparently exceed 700 fathoms; and the Behring Sea, the Sea of Japan, and the Arafura Sea are all under 1500 fathoms; while the China Sea, Celebes Sea, Sulu Sea, and the Banda: Sea are in some places over 2000 fathoms in depth. The bulk of water filling the Pacific is estimated at 170,000,000 cubic miles. Winds and Currents.—The surface-currents of the Pacifie Ocean depend to a t extent upon the direction of the prevailing winds, the principal of which are the two trade-winds, blowing more or less constantly, the one from the north-east, the other from the south-east. Between these two Di, orm is what is called the equatorial belt of ms, which is found all the year round north of the equator in the eastern Pacific, but in the west Pacific it is south of the equator during the summer of the southern Tey ahh and during the southern winter it is replaced by a regular southerly breeze ; north and south of the trade-winds, also, there are two other belts of calms. In addition to the trade- winds, there are the monsoons, which blow with great regularity, but the direction of which changer according to the season. Monsoons are especially prevalent in the west Pacific, their general direc- tion being south-east, north-east, or north-west, and they cause surface-currents, the direction of which likewise changes with the season. The differences between the temperature and atmo- spheric pressure over the Jand and over the water cause monsoonal winds. In mid-ocean the winds are found to have a greater velocity than in the vicinity of the land. The Pacific is practically cut off, as far as the circulation of the deep water is concerned, from com- munication with the Arctic Ocean in the north, but towards the south it has uninterrupted communi- cation with the Antarctic. A cold surface-current flows constantly northwards from the Antarctic, dividing into two at Cape Horn, one enterin the Atlantic, the other flowing along the coasts o Chili and Peru, thence turning to the westwards ; but the cold water frequently met with along the eastern coasts of America is evidently brought from oceanic depths by the action of off-shore winds. The great equatorial eurrent flows to the west- ward, divided by a counter-current running in an opposite direction into two branches, the northern one on approaching the Asiatic coast being de- flected northwards and finally north-eastwards as the Japan current, which is comparable to the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic ; the southern branch is diverted to the southward, flowing along the shores of Australia and New Zealand, thence curv- ing eastwards, and ultimately merging into the Antarctic surface-current. ere are many minor currents, and branches of these more important ones, diverted by the numerous groups of islands, The broad currents, circling in the one direction in the North Pacific and in the opposite direction in the South Pacific, enclose in their centres two miniature Sa Seas somewhat similar to that of the North Atlantic, though not so well marked. Temperature of the Water.—The temperature of the surface-waters of the Pacific varies with the season, but in the tropical regions the variation is very small. Between the latitudes of 45° N. and 45° 8. the temperature of the surface is always above 50° F., while north and south of these lati- tudes it is nearly always below 50° F. The highest temperature occurs among the islands of the Malay Archipelago and off the Mexican coast, where the mean temperature rises to 85° F., and in the sea between Japan and New Guinea the temperature in August reaches 84° F, In the South Pacific the temperature of the surface-water is appar- ently higher than that of the air, while in the North Pacifie the reverse is the case in some places, The temperature of the water below the surface 692 PACIFIC RAILWAYS ‘PADISHAH as a general rule decreases as the depth increases, the lowest temperature occurring at the bottom in great depths, where the bottom temperature appears to be nearly constant all the year round, usually about 35° This refers only to the open ocean, for in the enclosed seas of the western basin of the Pacific the minimum temperature is usually found some distance above the bottom, depending upon the depth of water over the barrier cutting off the sea from the general oceanic circulation. cg SEA, Vol. IX. p. 272.) The temperature of the inter- mediate water in the Hs ocean decreases rapidly at first from the surface downwards, and then slowly down to the bottom, irrespective of the surface temperature, which may vary from below 60° to over 80° F. Salinity.—The meen d of the surface-waters of the ocean changes with the season; increase of evaporation raises, while precipitation in the form of rain lowers, the salinity. In the South Pacific there is a region of high salinity in the neigh- bourhood of the Society Islands, the maximum salinity being 1-02750 (taking: pure water at 4° C. as unity); in the North Pacitic the verge f is never so high, the maximum being 1°02650, w ile in some regions the salinity falls to 1°02485. For the deposits see the article SEA; see also works cited at CHALLENGER, CORAL, POLYNESIA. Pacific Railways, a name given to the lines from the eastern side of America to the Pacific coast, which, though not running under one man- agement from sea to sea, constitute with their con- nections transcontinental lines. (1) The combined Union Pacific from Omaha or Council Bluffs to Ogden, and the Central Pacific, thence to Oakland for San Francisco), opened in 1869; total distance rom New York vié Chi and Omaha 3500 miles, time of transit 44 days, fare $90. (2) The South Pacific (1881-83), associated with the Atchison Topeka, and Santa Fé, which connects Kansas and New Orleans with San Francisco, as well as with Mexico. (3) The Atlantic and Pacific Railway (1883) connecting St Louis with a branch of the South Pacifie. (4) The Northern Pacific (1883) from Duluth and St Paul to Portland and to Tacoma on Paget Sound. (5) The Canadian Pacific (1885) to Vancouver. The Panama Railway is also inter- oceanic, and so will be the trans-Andean line from Valparaiso to Buenos Ayres. (See CHILi, RaIL- WAYS.) Packard, Atruevs SPRING, an American naturalist, son of the historian of Bowdoin College, was born at Brunswick, Maine, 19th February 1839, graduated at Bowdoin in 1861, and was for a time assistant to iz at Cambridge. He took in several scientific expeditions, was state entomologist of Massachusetts in 1871-73, and lectured at Bowdoin and elsewhere. In 1878 he became professor of vig ng og Geology at Brown University. Bunt he is best known as a distin- guished entomologist; his classification of insects, proposed in 1863, has been generally accepted. As an evolutionist, Professor Pack is one of the leaders of the ‘Neo-Lamarckian’ school (see LAMARCK). Besides ee works and text- books, his writings include Structure of the Ovi- positor of Insects (1868), Development and An- atomy of Limulus Polyphemus (1871-85), The Cave Fauna of North America (1888), The Labrador Coast (1891), <2 ig on the geometrid moths, the locust’s brain, phyllopod crustacea, &c. Packfong, or PeToNG, a Chinese alloy or white metal, consisting of arsenic and copper. Paco, See ALPACA. Pacto'lus, anciently the name of a small brook of Lydia, in Asia Minor, which rises on the northern slope of Mount Tmolus (modern Buz Dagh), flows north past Sardis (Sart), and empties itself into the Hermus (Kodus). It is never more than ten feet broad and one foot deep. The sands or mud of Pactolus were long famous in pea for the particles of gold-dust which they con ; The collection of these icles, accord! to legend, was the source of Crosus’ vast ith. The brook is now called Sarabat. Pacuvius, the earliest of Roman tragic the sister’s son of Ennius, was born at Dencdium about 220 B.c., lived a in Rome, and died at Tarentum, ninety years of age (130 B.c.). His dramas, of which only fragments are extant, were. formed after Greek models, ‘ Padang, capital of a residency on the west coast of Sumatra, and seat of the Dutch governor of the west coast province, is situated at the mouth of the Padang River ; pop. 15,000. Paddy. See Rice. Paderborn, a town of Westphalia, situated 50 miles SW. of Hanover. The fine Romanesque cathe- dral (Roman Catholic), completed in 1163, is built over the sources of the Pader (a tributary of the Lippe), and contains the silver coffin of St Liborius, Other noticeable edifices are St Bartholomew's Chapel (1017) and the town-house (1615; restored 1870-76). There are miscellaneous manufactures here; and there are mineral springs close by. The old Hanse town was sacked by the Duke of Brunswick in 1622, and it suffered much during the Thirty Years’ War. From 1614 to 1819 it was the seat of a Roman Catholic university. Much of it was burnt down in 1875, Pop. 19,941. Paderewski, Icnace JAN, Polish pianist, was born in Podolia (Russian Poland), 6th Novem- ber 1860, and began to play as an infant of three. He studied at Warsaw, becoming professor in the Conservatoire there in 1878, In 1884 he taught in the Strasburg Conservatoire, but thereafter became a virtuoso, making his début at Vienna in 1887, and appearing with phenomenal success at Paris in 1889, at London in 1890, and in America in 1891. He has composed. largely for the piano, for the voice, and for piano and orchestra; and is idolised by his admirers of both sexes, Padiham, 4 town of Lancashire, 3 miles W. of Burnley and 8 NE, of Blackburn. Cotton is the staple manufacture, with coal-mining and. stone- quarrying. Pop. (1891), with Hapton, 11,311. Padilla, Juan bk, one of the most popular heroes in Spanish history, was a scion of a Tole- dan family, and was appointed by the Emperor Charles V. military commandant of Sai “While he was so employed a formidable rebellion: caused by the excessive taxes which the emperor imposed on the Spaniards, to defray the cost of his various wars in Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries, broke out among the towns of Castile, and the rebels, who were known as communeros, called upon Padilla to put himself at their head. He was su 1 in a number of enterprises undertaken against the royalist party, but on 23d April 1521 was completely beaten at Villalos, This conflict decided the fate of the rebellion and of Padilla himself, who was taken prisoner, and next day beheaded, His wife, Donna Maria de Pacheco, rallied the remnants of the rebel army, and for a long time held Toledo oN the royalist besieging army; after its fall she retired to Portugal, where she died in 1531. Numerous poems and dramas celebrate their deeds. Padishah, in Turkish PaprsHaa° (Persian padi, * protector’ or ‘throne ;’ shah, ‘prince’), one of the titles of the Sultan of the Ottoman empire, and of the Shah of Persia. PADUA PAGODA 693 . Padua (Ital. Padova), a city of North Italy, 23 miles by rail W. by S. of Venice and 18 SE. of Vicenza, is still surrounded with walls. The prin- cipal streets are lined with arcades; most of the others, especially in the older parts, are narrow, dark, and ill-paved; but there are several hand- some squares and fine gates. The first place amon the public buildings belongs to the municipa' palace (1172-1219), a huge structure resting on arches, with balconies running round the upper story. The roof (1420) of its great hall (2674 feet long, by 89 wide, and 78 high) is perhaps the largest in Europe bi are ec beg by pillars. The churches (nearly fifty) include the cathedral (1552-1754) ; St Antony (1230-1307), said to have been designed by Niccola da Pisano, a building in the Pointed style, with Byzantine blendings, and a richly decorated interior by Donatello, Sansovino, and others—the bones of St Antony rest in a side- chapel ; St Justina (16th century), a fine Renaiss- ance church, with an altarpiece by Veronese, and other pictures ; church of the Eremitani (13th cen- tury), with frescoes by Mantegna; the chapel of the Annunejation (1303), adorned with frescoes by Giotto ; and the chapel of St George (1377), with by Avanzi and Altichieri. The ‘saint’s school’ is adorned with frescoes by Titian and his papils, illustrating the life of St Antony. Dona- tello’s fine equestrian statue of Gattamelata, the Venetian captain, stands in front of the church of St Antony. Padua has eevee greatest fame from her university, found by the emperor Frederick II. in 1221, though the fine Renaissance buildings date from 1493-1552; there are now 80 teachers and 1100 students. To it is attached one of the oldest botanical gardens in Europe, and a library (1629) of 158,500 vols. and 2500 MSS. The city museum (1881) contains antiquarian, art, and numismatic collections, a library, and archives, There is not much industry or much commerce, though leather, cloth, and gut-strings are prepared. Pop. with suburbs (1897) 81,300. Padua’s most famous natives were Livy and Mantegna. One of the oldest cities in Italy, Patavia came under the an supremacy in 215 B.c. In the 5th century it was severely handled by the Huns, and was bandied to and fro between the Goths and the Eastern empire. From the Lombards it to the Franks (774); during the Guelph and Ghibel- line quarrel it alternately submitted to the em- aps and sided with the Lombard cities. In 1318 t took to itself as lord the head of the Carrara family, who ruled it till it was conquered by Venice in 1405. Venice kept it till 1797, when it was given to Austria, who held it (except from 1805-14) until it was incorporated in Italy in 1866. The ince has an area of 797 sq. m. and pop. (1895) of 445,300. Paducah, capital of McCracken county, Ken- tucky, on the Ohio River, 48 miles above its mouth, and just below the entrance of the Tennessee, 226 miles by rail WSW. of Louisville. It has a large trade by river and rail, and contains shipyards, foundries, railway-shops, flour, saw, and Planing mills, and manufactories of soap, vinegar, ice, furni- ture, tobacco, &c. Pop. (1880) 8036 ; (1900) 19,446. Pan (of doubtful etymology), the name given the ancient Greeks to a kind of 7 try originally connected with the worship o ‘Apollo, Pzdo-baptists, See Baptists. Pwronia, or Peony. See Prony. Pestum, anciently a Greek city of Lucania, in Southern Italy, on the present Gulf of Salerno. It was founded by the Sybarites some time between 650 and 600 B.c., and was originally called Posi- donia. It was subdued by the Lueanians, and from them passed to the Romans, who established a colony there about 273 B.c. The Latin poets’ sing the praises of its roses, which bloomed twice a year. Pzestum was burned by the Saracens in the 9th century, and ravaged by Robert Guiscard in the 11th, and never recovered from these disasters. Portions of the ancient walls and three well-pre- served Doric temples remain. See Labrouste, Les Temples de Pestum (1877). Pagan. See Burma, Vol. II. p. 566. Paganini, Nico.o, the famous violinist, was born a _porter’s son at Genoa on 18th February 1784. His genius showed itself early, and, practis- ing sometimes a single passage for ten hours run- ning, he acquired a mastery over his instrument that has never been equalled ; the vulgar, indeed, ascribed it to diabolic agency. It must be con- fessed he was too much addicted to mere feats of musical legerdemain. He gave his first concert as early as 1793; began his professional tours in Italy in 1805; in 1827 received from the pope the order of the Golden Spur; in 1828-29 made a great sensa- tion in the chief towns of Austria and Germany ; and in 1831 created an bi iges Jurore in Paris and London. He had gambled much in youth, but he returned very rich to Italy; and he died at Nice on 27th May 1840, drawing a last long note on his favourite G string. See his Life in French by Fétis (1851), in Italian by Bruni (1873), and in German by Niggli (1882); also vol. ii, of Grove’s Dictionary of Music (1880), and Engel’s From Mozart to Mario (1886). Page (derivation variously assigned to Gr. pais, ‘a boy,’ and Lat. pagus, ‘a village’), a abe oy of noble or good birth employed in the service of a royal or noble pence nag Ye he practice of te ing youths of noble birth in personal attendance on the sovereign existed in early times among the Persians and Romans, and was a special feature of feudal chivalry in the middle ages. The degree of page was paratory to the further degrees of esquire and knight. The practice of educating: the higher nobility as pages at court began to decline after the 15th century. Pages still figure, however, on ceremonial occasions at the chief’ courts of Europe. The Corps of Pages at St. Petersburg is a cadet school for the Russian Guards., Paget, Str Greorce Epwarp, K.C.B., was born at Yarmouth in 1809, and edueated at the Charterhouse and at Cambridge. He took his B.A. a in 1831, became Fellow of Caius in 1832, M.D. in 1838, D.C.L. Oxford and Durham, LL.D. Edinburgh, and F.R.S. in 1855. In 1872 he was appointed ~— professor of Physie in Cambridge, and became K.C.B. in 1885, Sir G. Paget may well he regarded as a public benefactor, he having taken the principal part in the great advance lately made in the education of medical practitioners. He died in 1892.—His younger brother, Sir JAMES PAGET, Bart., was born at Yarmouth in 1814, He became member of the Royal College of = in 1836, Hon. Fellow in 1843, member of the Council in 1865, president of the College in 1875, Bradshawe Lecturer in 1882. Serjeant- surgeon to the Queen, surgeon to the Prince of Wales, and consulting surgeon to St Bartholomew’s Hospital, he was created baronet in 1871, and in the same year LL.D. of the university of Edin- burgh. Two standard works are Lectures on Sur- gical Pathol (1853; 4th ed. 1876), and Clinical Lectures ( Is7o He was vice-chancellor of the uni- versity of London, and a member of the Institute of France (Academy of Sciences), Died in 1900. Pagoda (a Portuguese corruption of the Persian but-kadah, ‘idol-temple’) is originally an Indian temple of the approximately pyramidal shape especially characteristic of the Dravidian style (see Vol. VI. p. 109). Thus, the great pagoda at 694 PAGODA — PAINTED LADY Tanjore has a perpendicular part two stories in height, 82 feet square, and above that thirteen stories, forming an elongated pyramid about 100 | feet high. The basement section is simple in out- lines, but adorned by niches and vcard the pyramidal portion is somewhat elaborately seulp- tured; and the whole is crowned by a dome (said to consist of a single stone), which brings the total height to 190 feet. The temple stands in one of two great courtyards, and in the same court stand several small shrines, one of which is se beautifully carved as to rival in interest the great temple. Pagoda at Tanjore. The date of the latter is not certainl¥ known, but is with much probability referred to the beginning of the 14th century. The so-called ‘ Thonsan Pagodas ’ of Brambanan (q.v.) in Java are obviously modelled on Hindu originals, either Jain or Bud- dhist. The Burmese pagodas are described and illustrated at Vol. «lLvoap: 5665. The j term is also loosely — ap- slied to the Shinese taa, or = tapering tower, o which the most famous was the Por- celain Tower of Nanking, described at 1 Vol. UL p. 186. This Go| was erected } in the begin- ning of the 15th century ; only nine of } the proposed } thirteen stories, cased in white por- celain, were oy sare and the height never exceeded about 260 feet. It was destroyed by the Taipings in 1856. First-class pagodas have seven, nine, or thirteen Chinese Pagoda of Thirteen Stories. stories, the more numerous second-class ones usually three or five. still erected—sometimes of iron. Pahang, or PAKANG, a Malay and Moslem state on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, since 1887-89 under British protection and con- nected with the Straits Settlements (q.v.). Pahang has an area of 10,000 sq. miles, and a pop. of 57,462, The capital is Pekan on the Pahang River, Pahlanpur. See PALANPUR. Paine, THomAs, deistical and radical writer, was born at Thetford in Norfolk on 29th January 1737, the son of an ex-Quaker staymaker, He him- self had by turns been staymaker and marine, school- master, exciseman, and tobacconist, had married twice, losing his first wife, and soon divorcing the second, when in 1774, with introductions from Franklin, he sailed for rey On 1st Janu- ary 1776 appeared his pamphlet Common Sense, which argued simply but strongly for complete independence, and which in Washington's words, ‘worked a powerful change in the minds of many men.’ His Crisis, a twelvemonth later, gave the battle-cry, ‘These are the times that try men’s souls,’ for the Americans’ first victory at Trenton, where Paine himself was serving as a private; and congress rewarded him with the post of Secretary to the Committee of Foreign Affairs. He lost that post in 1779 for divulging state secrets, but was appointed clerk of the Pennsylvania legislature, and in 1785 received from congress $3000 and the confiscated farm of New Rochelle. In 1787 he returned, by Paris, to England, where in 1791-92 he published The Rights Y Man, the most famous of all the replies to Burke’s Reflections upon the French Revolution. The work, of which a million and a half copies were sold in England alone, involved many in heavy penalties ; Thomas Muir, for instance, for circulating it got fourteen years transportation. Paine, however, had slipped off to Paris, having been elected by the department of Pas-de-Calais its deputy to the National Conven- tion. Here he voted with the Girondists, and at Louis XVI.’s trial he ‘alone,’ says Madame de Staél, ‘proposed what would have done France honour—the offer to the king of an asylum in America.’ He thereby offended the Robespierre faction, and in 1794 was thrown into prison ; just before his arrest having written part i. of The Age of Reason, against Atheism and against Christianity, and in favour of Deism, Part ii, appentes in 1795, and a portion of part iii, in 1807, 1¢ book alien- ated Washington and most of his old friends ; and it was not till after an imprisonment of eleven months that he was released and restored to his seat in the Convention, He became, however, disgusted with French politics, and occupied himself chiefly with the study of finance, till in 1802 he returned to America in aship placed at his service by President Jefferson, He died at New York 8th June 1809. The stories about his intemperance were greatly exaggerated. In 1819 his bones were removed by Cobbett (q.v.) from New Rochelle to England; their whereabouts since 1847 is unknown, ‘ Paine’s ignorance,’ says Leslie Stephen, ‘ was vast and his language brutal ; but he had the gift of a true dema ogue—the power of wielding a fine vigorous English, The completest edition of his works is that by Mendum (3 vols. Boston, 1850) ; of his numerous biographies may be mentioned those by ‘Francis Oldys’ (i.e. George Chalmers, 1791), Cheetham (1809), Rickman (1814), Sherwin (1819), Vale (1841), and Blanchard (1860). See also Leslie Stephen’s History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (1880); an article by Moncure D. Conway in the Fortnightly for March 1879; and Alger’s Englishmen in the French Revolution (1889), Pains and Penalties. See ATTAINDER. Painted Lady. See Burrerrty, II. 589, Pagodas are occasionally TESAKA PAGODA, KYOTO, JAPAN. Vol. VII, page 694, PAINTER PAINTING 695 Painter, WiLttAM, author of the Palace of Pi » was most probably a Kentishman, and born about 1525. He seems to have been master of Sevenoaks school about 1560, but early next year became Clerk of the Ordnance in the ower, with a stipend of eightpence a day. He kept this post all his days, married, seems to have a somewhat easy standard of honesty, grew rich, and bonght lands. He made his will in 1594, and died robably soon after. In 1566 he published the Fret volume of The Palace of Pleasure ‘ beautified, adorned, and well furnished, with Pleasant Histories and Excellent Nouells selected out of divers good and commendable authors ;’ the second volume, ‘containing manifold store of pee Histories, Tragical matters, and other Moral argument, ve ee for delight and profit,’ followed in 1567. the first volume the principal source was the Heptameron ; of the second, Bandello, through the medinm of the French translations of Boaistuau and Belleforest ; but, in the definitive edition of the whole work (1575), to both parts stories were added from Boccaccio, Ser Giovanni, and Straparola. These last two at least he must have taken directl from the Italian. Painter's work became alae 2 ingly popular, and indeed was the main source whence many dramatists drew their plots. Even in almost all Shakespeare’s comedies we see the prevalence of the convention in early English comedy in favour of Italian plots, names, and places. Ascham in the Scholemaster denounces the ‘bawdie stories . . . enchantments of Circes, brought out of Italie, to marre mens maners in England,’ and there can be little doubt that here he points directly at Painter, though he does not name his book. Painter’s English is easy and un- affected, but lacks the se crore the reader expects of an Elizabethan. His k is the largest work in prose between the Morte Darthur and North’s Plutarch, but its real importance is that it intro- duced into our literature many of the best novels of Boccaccio, Bandello, and Margaret of Navarre. Joseph Haslewood edited an admirable edition in 1813 (2 vols.); a later is that by Joseph Jacobs (3 vols, 1890). Painter’s Colic. See LEAD-POISONING. Painting. It is convenient to divide this slight sketch of the history of painting into two sections, the first dealing with the technical, and the second with the intellectual, history of the art. (1) The Technical History of Painting.—The importance of technical conditions in the fine arts is due to their influence upon the action of the mind, For example, fresco-painting, if genuine, requires both spend and decision, oil-painting per- mits deliberation and correction almost without limit. Water-colour ocenpies, as to hurry, a posi- tion between the two. A technical facility allures the mind in certain directions, a technical difficulty impedes it, and a technical impossibility, like an insurmountable obstacle, diverts its energy into another channel. Each art has its own educational influence on the artist who practises it. Albert Diirer was an engraver with the burin, and he carried the strictness and precision of the burin into his painting; Rembrandt was an etcher, and he painted with an etcher’s freedom ; Turner was a water-colour painter, and his practice in oil bears evidence of his other skill. resco was painted either from drawings or from pure imagination. The deliberation possible in oil has led to paintin from the life, with its consequences of increase reality, better knowledge, and more perfect truth. The improvement in water-colour done for landseape what oil has done for the figure. As water-colour dries quickly it is convenient for sketching from nature, so that modern landscape- painters have been induced to study more in colour than their predecessors, a practice which has brought about a revolution in landscape-painting by taking it from the studio and the gallery into the open air. The extreme importance of technical conditions may be made guilt cleared by a reference to the sister arts. With the burin in his hand, the most impetuous of men must be disciplined by the instru- ment itself till he becomes cautious, careful, and methodical. A sculptor may love marble, but he does not sketch or invent in it; he sketches in wax or clay. Bronze can be cast into the most picturesque forms, but the granite of Egypt im- posed a severe simplicity. Painting was not, in its origin, an independent art. It was employed in subservience to sculpture, to architecture, and to primitive engraving quite unconnected with printing. Rude idols were coloured in imitation of life, or rude outlines in- cised in stone or wood were filled up with spaces of colour sharply separated and clearly distinguished. The outlines might also be themselves painted and then filled up with colour. Painting was separated from sculpture and engraving long béfore it was separated from hard and definite linear drawing. The connection of painting with the hard line is always evidence of a primitive condition of the art, either simple-minded as in early work, or affected in modern work as an archaic fancy, or continued for decorative reasons. The earliest painting known to us is that of the ancient Exyptians, a kind of distemper or water- colour with dissolved gum. They had a sufticiently well-supplied palette. White, a light yellow, a duller yellow, oe red, dark red, light blue, green, brown, and black appear to have eonstituted their list. As for the chemical nature of these pigments, pure chalk supplied a white ;-the Egyptians were acquainted with a vegetable yellow; they were familiar with the ochres; cinnabar was to be had in Ethiopia; their blue was powdered blue glass, itself stained with copper, and when mixed with yellow it supplied a green. Black was easily obtained from animal charcoal and other materials. It is a misunderstanding of Egyptian art to criticise it as a pot Pang een of avec! that was eee ty ae ible by ignorance o rspective and other tectncioal dehcloncios. It #5 intanded to be at the same time a record and a decoration, and it effectu- ally answered both pu It is much too primi- tive to be artistic in the modern sense, and in fact the Egyptian painters were not artists but work- men subjected to authoritative direction and to an excessive division of labour. Their drawing was manually skilful, bus limited by want of knowledge; their colouring was simply decorative. The remains of Assyrian painting are much less abundant than those of Egyptian, though it appears from the evidence of favelers that the Assyrians must have painted extensively upon internal wall- surfaces covered with plaster, and also upon tiles built together so as to make more or less extensive compositions. The little that we know of Assyrian and Babylonian painting leads to the conclusion that it was technically not more advanced than that of Egypt, and resembled it in being a record and a decoration rather than an imitation of nature. Outlines were still strongly marked and adhered to, and spaces were shirt atly, almost as we colour them in heraldic painting. The painting of those early times is, in principle, much the same as that now employed upon playing-cards. The supreme position of Greece in the art of sculpture has strongly predisposed many critics in favour of her painters, and it has long been believed that if we could see their works we should admire them as we now admire Greek statues of the age of Pericles. There are, however, very good reasons for believing that Greek pictures, 696 PAINTING even by the most famous men, would appear to us still primitive from the pictorial point of view, though it is certain that the drawing of the figures would be elegant and observant. We have no evidence whatever in the classical paintings which have come down to us that the ancients ever mastered the craft of sates in the modern sense—ie. as an art which interprets truths of effect and which studies not only the forms but the appearances of nature, The grt Greek ters must have been fine linear dranghtsmen, and they would colour their drawings’ carefully ; but all Greek art that is known to us has a clear and positive quality incompatible with the rich- ness, the mystery, and the subtle visual truth of painting in its most advanced stages. With regard to the colouring of the Greeks, Sir Joshua Reynolds praised them for having used only four colours, and said that four are sufficient to make every combination required. Sir Joshua probably was thinking of flesh-colour only, which has since been soleded by Etty with very few colours. Maclise said of Etty that ‘with three colours and white—anything approaching to a yellow, a red, and a blue—he could produce a sweetly-coloured picture.” The Greeks in like manner might colour ‘sweetly’ with few pigments, but it is not possible to imitate the full colouring of the natural world without a complete palette. Apelles him- self could not paint a primrose with yellow ochre, nor a geranium with red ochre, nor is there any means of mixing black and white so as to imitate the azure of a southern sky. It is therefore of the test interest to ascertain whether the Greeks had a complete palette or not. Here the difficulty is to know at what date each pigment came into use. The vague expression generally employed is that certain colours were ‘known to the ancients.’ Of yellows Pliny says that Polyg- notus and Micon used yellow ochre only. Ver- milion is said to have n ‘first prepared by Kallias the Athenian five hundred years before the Christian era,’ and minium (red lead) was first used by Nicias, a painter of Athens in the time of Alexander. It is highly probable that the Greeks would be acquainted with Egyptian colours, and the Egyptians knew the madder-root. The Tyrian purple and Egyptian blue were too famous for the Greeks to remain ignorant of them. Yellow and red orpiment were also known to the ancient world. Blue-black made from burnt wine lees was used by Polygnotus and Micon, and ivory black is said to have been employed by Apelles, As for vehicles, there is a well-known passage in Pliny which Sir Joshua Reynolds interpreted as a description of glazing, that is, repainting with trans- parent colours; but it seems more probable that such accounts as have come down to us mean really no more than varnishing. The use of the word ‘atra- mentum’ by Pliny seems to imply that the varnish darkened the picture, which it would do if it were not colourless. It is greeny believed now that the works of the Greek painters were executed in distemper and varnished afterwards, except their encaustic pictures, tediously executed with melted colours, Distemper or tempera (the Italian word for the same thing) is a kind of painting in which enue colours, ground in water, are mixed with any kind of thin glue or white or yolk of egg with We believe that the Greeks possessed oils and varnishes, but there is no evidence that they ever practised what we call oil-painting. owever, a tempera picture protected by a coat of oil-varnish is distinguishable from an oil-paint- ing only experts. As to their palette, the probability is that the extremely restricted list of pigments which has been attributed to them was a matter of choice rather than of necessity for con- ventionslly under-coloured hae * they cred have begun their painti with very few colours, as Titian did slterwecte, and finished them with a fuller palette, Be . For a study of Roman painting our materials are. much more abundant. We have no im works by famous artists, but there is an ample. supply of such ordinary painting as was spelie’ to the decoration of houses and tombs; and from this we may infer at least the technical condition of higher art. The variety of pigments was evidently sufficient to give a full scale of colouring by mixture or supe: J af reo - oils and ; + inden known, it might have been possible for oil- 4 to arise under the Caesars. Everything was ready for it as everything was ready for printing, yet the final step was not taken. The art of tempera or size-painting remained technically much what it had been before, except that there may have been greater freedom in execution and in choice of subject. Classical taste in painting continued with a tradition of old methods for a considerable time after the introduction of Christianity, and even when the nude figure was no Jonge a subject of study tempera painting was still practised, though more stiffly than in classie times. The distance from the painters of Pompeii to medieval work is marked by more than a technical decline. In reading histories of painting we may be on our guard inst the careless and inaccurate em- ployment of the word ‘fresco.’ It really means painting on fresh plaster—i.e. on plaster that is still wet; but the word is inaccurately used for paintings on dry plaster also, The practice of painting on walls covered with plaster is as old as ancient Assyria, and it has been believed that the ancient Greeks understood true sree prinei- pally on the strength of an expression of P utarch, eph’ hugreois zographein, ‘to paint on a wet ground, itruvius, too, speaks of a wet ground, and, al- though he does not directly say that it was painted upon when wet, he says that, so prepared, it was. fit for pictures, and that colours on it are nan- ent. This permanence of the colours is the char- acteristic of true fresco. Unfortunately, Plutarch compares painting on the wet with encaustic as eva to perma Whatever may be the real antiquity of true. fresco, it is certainly a much older process than oil-painting. It was understood and practised in Italy in the middle ages, when mural painting in churches was already in great request. The pro~ cess is as follows: On the second coat of oni mortar is spread a coat of fine old lime mixed wi well-sifted river sand. In a few hours (say from. three to six, nespesing $0 temperature) this to ay and the work of painting must be com- pleted before the drying begins, consequently a small surface of plaster is laid at a time. All honest and conscientious fresco-painters, such as Antonio Veneziano, resisted the temptation to re-— touch on the dry plaster; but the careless or incompetent could not resist, though such retouch- ing is simply cheating, as it is really not in fresco, and not permanent, The technical process of fresco was well under- stood in Italy whilst art itself was still in a srimitive condition. Cimabue, Taddeo Gaddi, and iotto, with many less known men, painted in fresco as well as in tempera, so that all the technical part of the craft was a matter of ancient tradition when Raphael and Michelangelo took it up on their own account, and brought to it far greater powers of mind. To appreciate the pro- gress made before these great men it is n only to refer to the stiff and mindless Byzantine art from which that of Cimabue was ya partial emancipation, PAINTING 697 After the invention of oil-painting the incon- yeniences of fresco were more strongly felt, and many artists turned away from it to the new process. True fresco cannot be retouched ; it has to be painted darker than the artist’s intention, as it lightens in drying, and it must be painted from sketches or cartoons. On the other hand, it is luminous and has no gloss, and so is suitable for mural decoration. Raphael seems to have liked fresco and oil equally well. Michelangelo greatly ——_ fresco, as better suited to his powers. o da Vinci painted his great mural work, ‘The Last Supper,’ in oil, though fresco must have naturally s ted itself. Many modern attempts to revive fresco have been made in Europe. They have rarely been snecessful, and have especially failed in the Houses of Parliament, where many works have decayed prematurely. Modern failures have led to the adoption of a process on dry plaster, fixed after- wards with water-glass in spray, as in Maclise’s large works in the Royal Gallery ; but this is not absolutely durable. The best substitute for true appears to be Mr Gambier Parry’s ‘spirit fresco,’ employed by Sir Frederick Leighton for his large compositions at South Kensington. These are painted with a spirit medium on dry mortar. In Menaee a substitute for fresco has been found in pustine on canvas with a dead surface, the canvas ing afterwards fastened to the wall with white lead. True fresco may now be considered almost a dead art. The next step of importance in the history of art is the discovery, or earliest known practice, of what we call ‘oil-painting,’ which includes the use of varnishes during the progress of the work. This has been generally assigned to John Van Eyck, who was born about 1390; but it is now believed that his elder brother Hubert may have an equal if not a better claim. Both certainly worked in the new method, and John continued it after his brother’s death. Since then the practice of oil- painting and of varnish-painting has been carried without interruption down to our own time, and, though it has undergone much technical develop- ment, it remains essentially distinguished from tempera by the mixture of oil or varnish with the colours themselves and by the consequences in execution to which this mixture has led. The brothers Van Eyck themselves were far from anticipating the future freedom and power of oil- inting. Their work was beautifully executed ina smooth and simple way, and, with the excep- tion of small eracks, it has lasted wonderfully ; but their careful rendering of detail belongs to the infancy of art. An Italian student of painting, Antonello da Messina, stayed in Flanders for some time and worked under John Van Eyck. He after- wards returned to Italy by way of Venice, and from him the knowledge of the new method spread to Florence, and thence to the other cities of Italy. The date of Antonello’s death, which occurred in Venice, is not precisely known, but appears to have been in the last years of the 15th century. It may be convenient to remember that the year 1500 saw the practice of oil-painting firmly estab- lished in the north and south of Europe. It did not immediately win the absolute pre-eminence that it has subsequently attained. ichelangelo expressed a contempt for it which was probably dne to the fact that its full powers were not yet developed by his neighbours. The fame of Raphael as an artist is due to other qualities than the technical merit of his oil-painting, which remained comparatively primitive. The earliest practice of oil-painting was dependent upon the luminous quality of the ground showing through the colours ; and, although the early oil-painters manifested a workman-like skill in dealing with their materials, they displayed no power of handling. The manual precision of Albert Diirer has never been surpassed, yet his work as a painter is primitive. man painters of the time of Michelangelo might use oil as a convenience, but they could have expressed themselves as completely in fresco or tempera. When we come to the Venetian school the case is very different. There was a harmony between the technical methods of oil and the genius of the Venetians which led to the rh ines technical excellence. Van Eyck and his followers, both in Flanders and Italy, painted upon a transparent monochrome. Titian used a_ substantial dead- colouring in which he could make whatever altera- tions he chose, and afterwards worked upon that by successive glazings till he obtained the utmost richness of scege The notion that Titian had some secret that died with him may be dismissed as purely fanciful. His method of painting is well known, and his superiority to his imitators may be accounted for by his natural genius and by favour- able circumstances. His master, Bellini, drew carefully and coloured well, but his work is still rimitive, because it is still coloured drawing. In itian’s painting the different kinds of technical knowledge are so completely fused together that he is not the draughtsman who colours, but the painter. The same is true of Giorgione, almost equally gifted, but less favoured than Titian in the cireumstances of his life. Rubens was a great master of the technique of painting in another way. He painted much in transparent or semi-transparent colours over a first inting in transparent brown monochrome ; but, instead of leaving the lights thin that the white ground might show through as in the practice of the early Flemish painters, Rubens loaded his lights with thick opaque colour. His way of painting was technically very systematic, which permitted an extreme rapidity. There is evidence that he followed the early practice of mixing varnish with his colours, at least when transparent and for linear sketching with the brush. The technical execution of Velasquez is a model of excellence in the use of both transparent and opaque colours and in variety of handling. It is not so methodical as that of Rubens, being always subordinated to the artistic intention of the painter. The most perfect works on a small scale have hitherto been those of the Dutch painters, Teniers, Terburg, Metsu (or Matsys), Maas, Peter de Hooch and many others of the same school. Their method of painting was almost universally to begin with a transparent brown monochrome on which they painted the shadows thinly, giving more substance and opacity to the lights. ing limited in their aims, and painting chiefly what they could see around them and study at their own convenience, they attained a high degree of technical excellence. Their drawing is almost invariably careful and true, and their colouring harmonious, whilst the quality of their textures is often inimitable. The practice of modern artists is always founded upon that of one or other of the masters we have men- tioned. There are not very many ways of painting, or if they seem to be many they are reducible to a few very simple principles. The early method of giving luminous quality to the os by letting the white ground show through them is seldom followed in these days, but it has been resorted to occasionally. The practice of Rubens, by which the shadows are painted thinly and the lights more thickly, is much commoner in the modern schools. Reynolds, who painted first a strong dead-colour with few colours and a upon it afterwards, worked on the principle of Tifian, Landseer’s 698 PAINTING practice was essentially that of the Flemish school, and Meissonier’s (in his best works) that of the Dutch. Turner approached much more nearly to the Venetian practice than to that of Rubens, as he dead-coloured broadly and afterwards painted in detail on the dead-colour, ming Cones and scumbles (opaque colour used thinly); but Turner's practice was complex, as he often had recourse to water- colour in his oil-pictures, and finally loaded his lights. Ingres, the leader of the cl 1 French school, was a close follower of Raphael. It is difficult to point to any real technical originality in mexlern art, unless it be the use of thick pigments in the French school (called in French, pleine pdte) introduced by Decamps, and often exaggerated by his imitators, The novelty here was, however, rather in the brush-work than in the use of thick ents themselves. Many French artists have also blurred their outlines in revolt against the clear definition of the classical school, but the originality was rather in the manner of doing it than in the mere softening of the outlines, as Titian, Correggio, Reynolds, and others had already care- fully avoided the early hardness of definition, Although the technical methods of oil-painting are few and have now been known for centuries, the varieties of guality which result from individual genius are almost as numerous as artists them- selves, They cannot be explained without ex- amples; but it may be said generally that, as differ- ent violinists elicit different qualities of tone from the same instrument, so the idiosyncrasy of painters produces new results with old colours and old pro- cesses, It is in this way, and not by the invention of novel methods, that the art continually renovates itself. Oil-painting now holds the first place on account of its convenience, as it permits of infinite delibera- tion and alteration, and also on account of its great power and truth in imitating the textures and tones of nature. But the true successor of fresco in modern times is water-colour, It resembles fresco very closely by its rapidity and by the absence of glows, though it cannot replace fresco in mural ecoration. Water-colour, as a process, is much more ancient than oil, having n extensively employed in various ways during ancient and sagaieoral times; but the method of using it that gives the process its present intellectual value is essentially modern and English, dating from the early years of the 19th century. The practice of the 18th century led up to it by the use of broad washes in sepia or in neutral tint, afterwards more or less coloured, an adaptation of the Dutch and Flemish practice in oil-painting, except that the finished result stopped very far short of full colour. The water-colour of the present day has discarded the monochrome wash, beginning with pale washes in colour, and working from light to dark, In its perfection modern water-colour is distinguished by extreme freshness and brilliancy, It is important not only as an independent art, but by its t influence on modern oil-painting. The majority of oil-painters have themselves employed water-colour as an auxiliary for studies, especially in landscape, and much of the light and air in modern oil-painting may be attributed to its influence. Water-colour, in our own century, has proved a compensation for our failure in the attempted revival of fresco. Thongh apparently of inferior importance, because practised on a small scale, it has tanght what freseo taught and more, as it has educated us in land- seape. Improvements in the materials of water- colour have led some of its a to attempt rivalry with the force of oil, which is unnecessary, as oil must ever remain the more powerful medium of the two, and water-colour has its own superi- orities in freshness and delicacy, There does not seem to be wags Lee tose that either of the two arts will ever cone by a new discovery as tempera was superseded by oil, nor is it likely that the technical methods will be improved. is room for improvement in a stricter al from the use of evanescent or destructive colours ; but wyae es very few artists trouble selves to secure the permanence of their works. Water-colour was despised in France until the fall of the second empire; but the example of English artists has led the French to the study of ; , it, and now many of them pursue it with success, Their methods of work are usually very simple and direct, and their influence is almost exclusively in favour of freshness and decision. ‘ (2) The Intellectual History of Painting.—Under the Egyptian dynasties painters were recorders of events and decorators; in Assyria they illuminated a sort of pictorial history of royal d In both these cases there could be very little room for the exercise of individnal intellect in the artist, who was seldom more than a manual workman, laying on colour according to methods prescribed for him by authority. Even in Greece we have evidence that the manual skill of artists was despised as — handicraft by the class of gentlemen and scholars ; however, Greek painters of eminence attained indi- vidual distinction, and such a complete cent personal emancipation that they were to exercise whatever intellectual power possessed, There is not much expression in Greek sculpture, but there is some, and what there is proves quite sufficiently that the subtle and acute intellect of Greece could express itself in art as effectually as in literature. What remains to us of Gree Roman caricature is good evidence of faculties that might have exerci themselves, by an alliance with a higher form of art, in what we now call genre-painting. Still, we have no direct that od fine arts ePiee pete pi Ate ere ally so t as her poetry, her phi and her drama, In the dectine of classinal arte fa ae more than the current production of an inferior class of men for the adornment of habita- tions or tombs. The beginnings of Christian art, stiff in design and laboriously ornamental, give hardly any evidence of intellect; the artists who produced that art were in a condition of mental servitude, like that of the men who now manufac- ture holy icons in Russia, and who are the _ descendants of the early Byzantine school. Asthe fine arts became gradually emancipated from the thraldom of sacerdotal authority intellectual power _ began to show itself, and, at length, when the human mind was stimulated in so many directions by the great outburst of the Renaissance, the art of painting had its full share in the er activity, and assumed a place by the side of literature which it has ever since maintained. Neverthel | the necessity for high manual accomplishment an 4 technical mastery must always, in peisting. pve an advantage to the workman over the thinker; — and so we find, as in many Dutch pictures, that _ clever representations of the most err ‘ subjects preserve their value though almost desti- tute of mind. There can be no more strikin A. con trast than that between a Dutchman toiling for six weeks on the representation of a besom and s angelo painting a prophet in half a day; yet the Dutchman is immortal too. The intellectual i ae of art has been marked by the extension of its sympathies, Under Christianity the art of pees Sees again from the beginning, without either technical or intellectual preparation. Its first awakening of sympathy is with the human side of Christianity, the love of mother and child, the sufferings of the crucified Christ, the sorrow and bereavement of the disciples. As religious art PAINTING 699 advances, its mental progress is shown by the increasing importance given to the human side of its subjects and the diminution of ornament in dress, till at length the dresses become simple draperies, almost without jewels or embroidery, and the charm of the work lies in the beauty or nobility of the faces and the dignity of the attitudes. With the Italian Renaissance the art of painting made a great intellectual advance by its —— 1y with what was then the new activity of scholarship. Raphael was, if not himself a scholar, the intimate friend of scholars, working constantly under their influence; besides which he was an architect and an archeologist. The selection of *The School of Athens’ as the subject of one of the most important mural pictures in_ the Vatican is most significant. In Leonardo da Vinci the artistic is united to the scientific intellect; in Rubens it is united to the broadest culture of the scholar and the man of the world. Rembrandt may not have been a learned man, but few authors or artists have shown more sympathy with different classes, or have discerned so well the dignity that may belong to the learned or the unlearned, to the rich or the poor. The pictures and etchings of biblical subjects by Rembrandt bring them nearer to us by their homely truth than the ideal conce tions of Raphael. Surely we cannot refuse the title ‘intellectual’ to an art which contains a hilosophy at once so comprehensive and so ripe. The faculties of Teniers and Ostade are narrower and lower, yet even in their works there is a sympathy with the humbler classes which has lasted down to the art of our own day, which was lively in the art of Wilkie, and is graver and more profound in the work of Israels. All portrait-painting of any importance has en- deavoured not only to copy the features, but to express as much as possible of the mind; and the knowledge we derive from historiansand biographers is felt to be incomplete until we have referred to the canvases of some observant contemporary artist, some Holbein, Van Dyck, Velasquez, Rey- nolds, or Raeburn. Even in these days of photo- graphic invention the portrait-painter ey = his place, great portraits are painted still, and future students of history will not be satisfied with the photograph alone, but will go for the intellectual element to the canvases of a Millais or a Bonnat. Closely connected with portraiture is the art which observes and records the passing phases of social life, an art which reached perfection in the 18th century in the strongly characterised and too truthful pictures of Hogarth. The representation of contemporary life, in drawing-rooms and else- where, has been actively pursued down to our own day in all the leading schools of Europe, and is now practised more than ever, a id in France, where the artists are tempted by the elegance of modern interiors and the grace of feminine cos- tumes. In the 19th century there has also been much retrospective emrto rticularly of the 18th century, and this has led to a very close and min- ute study of that century by Leslie in England, Meissonier and Géréme in France, and many other artists of ability. The retrospective tendency of our own time been strongly manifes' in other ways. The modern interest in the past has been shown by much ‘historical’ painting on in- sufficient data representing personages whose _por- traits we do not possess, in buildings that have left no trace, and engaged in actions known to us only by the meagre narrative of some chronicler. Art of this kind no real historical interest, though it may bg cog Screened artistic ability. Of late years it has been in a great measure super- seded by archeological painting, skilfully practised by Mr Alma Tadema and his followers, whose object is to revive the past for us in its details as it on was by representing everyday life without much pretence to the portraiture of individuals or the recording of particular events. This kind of painting has irosent the art nearer than ever to the spirit of scholarship. No doubt the special interest of it is outside of artistic interest, but there is no reason why archeological pictures should not be as beautifully drawn, as well com- posed, and as richly coloured as any others. A sketch of the history of painting would not be ae without some notice of the way in which landseape became a speciality. Rude and childish landscape backgrounds are found even in Assyrian art, they are not uncommon in Greek and Roman antiquity, and they attained a considerable degree of freedom and observation in the backgrounds of the paintings at Pompeii. After the death of classic art, painting began again from its first rudiments in the ornamental art of the middle , and the study of landscape soon revived in the backgrounds of religious pictures. Medieval landscape lasted down to Raphael,-who was him- self essentially a medieval landscape-painter, especially in his early works. The general char- acteristics of that kind of landscape are clear atmosphere, pure skies, either cloudless or with a few white clouds, pale blue distances with hills, green foregrounds, and almost invariably one or more well- nid buildings. Trees in the foreground are usually slender, with thin twigs and few leaves visible almost separately against the sky; in the distance they may be more massive. Water is usually calm in ponds or winding rivers, or serene in distant sea. Rocks occur in medieval land- scape, but are seldom accurately represented, the medizval ignorance of rocks having even persisted in Leonardo da Vinci notwithstanding his scientific nius. In the backgrounds of Albert Diirer all inds of objects are observed and set down as ina catalogue ; he perceived the grandeur of mountains, the abundance of forest trees, the picturesque beauty of medizeval towns, and he took an interest in all the details of the foreground; but he never fused his details into one connected whole ; he never saw nature with the eye of a landscape-painter ; he had no sense of atmosphere or effect. The begin- ning of the modern landseape spirit is to be sought for in Venice. Titian made many studies of land- seape, and, although in his pen-drawings there is no recognition of local colour and very little effect, there is a remarkable sense of grandeur and a fine grasp of noble scenery, not in detail merely, but as a whole. In his painted landscape backgrounds Titian goes still further and attempts transient effects, showing himself a true precursor of thie modern landseape-painters. Tintoretto occasionally exercised his magnificent powers in the same direc- tion. The most influential of professed landscape- orale = was Claude, He had not the power of the enetiaus, but he had a tenderness and charm, and a sense of grace and beauty, that won the hearts of pica! pabakeay and have since maintained the celebrity of his name, though it is easy for criticism to point out deficiencies of knowledge. Unlike Diirer, Claude saw nature, not in details, but synthetically in complete pictures full of atmo- sphere and light. Salvator Rosa and Gaspard ughet (or Poussin) maintained a grandeur of con- ception and style in landscape which, in spite of a certain remoteness from pure nature, tell effectu- ally in picture-galleries even at the present day. The same may be said of Gainsborough, whilst Wilson perpetuated in England a Sag, for land- scape akin to the amenity of Claude. Cozens and Girtin had the old breadth and serenity of concep- tion, with a more modern view of nature, and 700 PAINTING Turner did not manifest much personal independ. ence until he had first studied and imitated the old masters, particularly Claude. Indeed, he is much more mer x4 brcameced vied the Sey —_ the future of Jan n e the deepest respect for Shechiee sale whom he both studied and imitated, yet he founded no school and has had little influence on the art of England and none on that of continental Europe. Constable, on the other hand, who during his lifetime was a less celebrated artist, has had a very far-reaching in- fluence. The freshness and originality of his view of nature, less poetical and imaginative than Turner's, but nearer to rustic reality, determined the future direction of that French rustic school which in its turn has influenced all the schools of Europe. Whilst land has had her t landseape- painter in Turner, France has had hers in Corot, a painter of at least equal celebrity, though of much narrower range. Like Turner, Corot founded his art on the study of Claude, but won public favour late in life by a delicacy of sentiment which was his own. His subjects were simple and his effects chosen so as to avoid strong colouring, but he composed beautifully and was a master of quiet grays, pale yellows, and browns. Since the middle of the 19th century landscape- painting, both in oil and water-colour, has been actively pursued all over Europe. Every class of scenery has found itsinterpreters. Scotland has been ‘painted effectively by Horatio MacCulloch, Sam Bough, Mr Peter Graham, Mr Colin Hunter, and many others. A severely accurate and scientific irit was imported into English landscape by Mr ke and Mr Brett. The French landscape of the present day is usually marked by simplicity of sub- ject, breadth of treatment, and truth of tone, with- ont much accuracy of detail. Marine painters in all countries appear to concentrate their attention more than their predecessors upon the sea itself, and both we gee French, and American artists have produced remarkable studies of waves, A sketch of the history of painting seems to require a brief outline of the sects which have divided artists. The chief of these have been the Classics, the Romantics, the Realists, the Pre- Raphaelites, and the Impressionists. The classical aim was the pursuit of the ideal, which was be- lieved to be one and to have been attained by Raphael; this school was represented by the French painter Ingres, The Romantics desired freedom from the classical restraint, and liberty to illustrate all literature and all history that interested them in their own way; their ti man was Eugéne Delacroix. The doctrine of the Realists is the right to represent persons and things as they are without beautifying them by idealisa- tion. This doctrine was at one time represented by the French painter Courbet; but, in fact, there was a great deal of downright realism long before his time, as we find it in Velasquez, Rembrandt, Teniers, Ostade, Hogarth, and many others, who have redeemed the ugliness of a subject by the intelligence of their treatment and the force of their execution. Even in the case of Courbet himself we now easily see that, although he affected to take nature exactly as it is, he Tieplaved the wilfulness and the style of an artist. English Pre- Raphaelitism was not alone in its return to the painstaking imitation of detail which marked the ractice of Raphael's predecessors. Like the con- nental movements in the same direction, it was a return to patient analysis, and had a disciplinary value; but accumulation of artistic experience was too much for it. After Titian, Velasquez, and Reynolds, it is not possible to bind down the art of painting permanently to the minute practice of the early masters, Intellectually the movement was of more importance, as it favoured the choice. of noble subjects, Impressionism asserts the im- rtance of visual truth as opposed to mere trath of fact, and affirms that painting ought not to represent: what és, but what a Impressionism is also opposed to the abstract rendering of this or that quality ; it requires a synthesis of all visible qualities as they strike the eye ther. The Impressionists claim several great artists, especially Turner and Constable, as their predecessors. They are equally ps apne to the detail of the minute ters and to the hard, clear, linear definition of the classical schools. There can be no doubt that theo they have right on their side, but in practice their art is often unsatisfactory, as it requires the happiest and most rapid sketching to be successful, with great certainty in selection and perfect truth of tone, The present state of the art of painting is one of complete freedom from all the former restraints of religious or classical authority. The fine arts are as free as the sciences, and, although less exclusivel devoted than men of science to the pursuit of truth, contempo painters at least refer to nature for everything. e@ consequence is a pores freshness in the modern schools, and it is also certain that manual skill has never been so general as it is now. On the other hand, the intensity of the commercial struggle amongst the multi- tude of artists is certainly not favourable either to learning or to refinement, and it is doubtful whether painting makes any advance in taste and culture corresponding to the increase of its productiveness or _ extension of its fields of study. .—The extent of the subject renders. laconic treatment necessary. Archaic Greek draw- ing, marked by want of proportion, especially in thickness of limbs, lasts in ree pening: throughout the 6th century B.c. and la 5th century better drawing on many vases; in 4th century it is often learned and Yeautiful, as on Camirus vase (British Museum), contemporary with Protogenes, Attitudes then easy and ful, faces shown in all positions; 5th and 4th centuries B.C. golden age of antique painting, including Apollodorus, Zeuxis, Parrhasius, foe Polygnotus, and Micon. Romans imported Greek pictures and took up painting by imitation, Roman ainter Ludius (Augustan age) anticipated Claude in choice of subjects. Paintings preserved at Her- culaneum and Pompeii, and in baths of Titus, belong nearly to Christian era, some earlier, others a féw years later. Pompeian painting shows interest in ordinary life and in landscape, Classical art is, in feeling and principle, prolonged for six centuries in the service of Christianity, The middle are divided by Woltmann into {1) Early, from 700 to 950 A.D. ; (2) eneae rom 950 to 1250 A.D. ; (3) Gothic, from 1250 to A.D. Thus the three periods are 250, 300, and 150 years. Throughout these ages, speaking generally, the human motive of art is religious, and its artistic motive is ornament. In the middle ages. — design began again from a barbarous infancy, it being necessary for the representation of religious personne From 8th te 13th century childish rawing and gaudy colouring prevailed throughout Europe. In 13th some partial improvement takes lace, and in 14th the advance is remarkable when Jaes Sluter carved his life-like statues, Brothers’ Van Eyck (q.v.) born in this century. The 15th century is the time of transition from the art of the middle ages to an improved craft of drawing and painting preparatory to the Renais- sance. Improvement simultaneous in Flanders and Italy. Van Eyck’s work known in southern Europe, his influence only technical, and soon died out in Flanders itself. EEO el Roger van der Weyden a ee PAINTING 701 — 1464) worked differently, having stayed in taly and exercised much influence in Flanders and Germany. His pupil, Hans Memling, died 1495. . The 16th century is remarkable for its exten- sion of the subject-matter of painting. Before 1500 the art is chiefly confined to religious subjects and portraits, afterwards it includes more of what we now call genre—a change associated with the name of Quentin Massys (1466-1530). The nude in- troduced into Flemish art from Italy by Jan Gossart (died 1532). After this date Flemish painters went much to Italy, which produced a hybrid school ealled the ‘Italianised Flemings’—e.g. Michael Coxis (1499-1592), spent many years in Tal . The first Flemish school, now at an end, was influential in Germany; Roger van der Weyden had German upils. Cologne and Nuremberg were active centres, artin Schongauer lived in Rhineland in the 15th century. Hans Holbein the elder, of Augsburg, lived in 15th and 16th centuries. His famous son, Hans (1498-1543), represents the perfection of Ger- man realism in portrait. Albert Diirer (1471-1528) stands for Germany, coming out of, but not yet delivered from, the middle ages. His contemporary, Lueas Cranach (1472-1553), was like Diirer, labori- ous and productive. Diirer visited Venice 1506, and was admired for his skill (particularly by Giovanni Bellini), but had little influence. German hardness and minuteness of finish culminated in the com- paratively mindless art of Denner (1685-1747). Italian painting is minutely divided into local schools, and these 0 chronologically into three or four stages of development. Masters of 14th century divided into Tuscans, Sienese, cS at re Paduan, and Neapolitan; those of the 15th into Tuscan, Umbrian, Paduan, Veronese, Milanese, Venetian; those of the 16th are headed by the well-known t individualities. The schools affect each other—e.g. it is difficult to disengage Roman and Florentine art, whilst the Umbrian school gave strength to Rome. The following list gives the most famous names. Uth Century — Tuscans.—Giotto (1276-1336), Taddeo Gaddi (1300-66), Oreagna (died before 1376). Sienese.—Duccio (still living in 1339), Angelico (1387-1455). ith Century—Tuscans.—Paolo Uccello (¢. 1400- 79), Masaccio (1402-28), haw Lo Lippi (1412-69), Ghirlandajo (1449-98). Umbrians.—Pietro della Francesea (living 1494), Giovanni Santi (died 1594), Pietro Perugino (1446-1524). Bolognese.— Francia (1450-1517). Paduans.—Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506). Venetians—Antonello da Messina (1414-93), Gentile Bellini (1421-1507), Giovanni Bellini (1426-1516). léth Century—The Great Masters.—Leonardo da Vinei (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1563), Raphael (1483-1520), Correggio (1494-1534), Gior- gione (1478-1511), Titian (1477-1576), Tintoret (1512-94), Paul Veronese (1530-88). Other Italians of eminent, but not of supreme, rank in the 16th century are Luini (living 1500-30), Volterra (1509- 66), drea del Sarto (1488-1530), Sebastiano del Piombo (c. 1485-1547), Palma Vecchio (c. 1480-1528), Moroni (c. 1525-78). In the north of Eu there was a new develop- ment occupying the 17th century. In the year 1600 Rubens was an accomplished artist (died 1640). Snyders (1579-1637) his most ores contemporary, and Van Dyck (1599-1641) his most eminent scholar. David Teniers, the father (1582-1649), was eclipsed by David Teniers, the son (1610-94); the latter gave genre-painting a firm position. Gonzales ues (1614-84) was a portrait-painter. Passing to Holland we find Frans Hals, a contemporary of the elder Teniers (1584-1666), and a painter of remarkable certainty and spirit. The greatest of the Dutchmen, Rem- brandt, belon entirely to the 17th century (1607-69). The fame of Rembrandt has greatly increased during the 19th century, and so has that of Frans Hals. Rembrandt had distinguished pupils, like Dow and Flinck, and he influenced many artists. Terburg, genre-painter, was Rem- brandt’s contemporary (1608-81), also Metsu (1615- 58). These carried genre-painting to perfection. Landscape also prospered in Rembrandt's time, chief representatives being Ruisdael (c. 1628-82) and Hobbema. In Spain a primitive school was founded as early as 1450. In the 16th century local schools developed themselves. Eminent foreign artists visited Spain and worked there, asin England. Of the Spaniards themselves, few have become celebrated out of their own country. Ford’s list includes only thirty-seven names; the National Gallery only seven, and of these one was a Greek. Only five Spanish artists are represented in the Louvre. The fame of the school is due almost entirely to Velasquez (1599- 1660) and Murillo (1616-82). Next to these come Zurbaran (1598-1662) and Ribera (1588-1656) ; Morales (c. 1509-86) is also known. Goya (1746- 1828) is the only great Spanish artist between the old masters and our contemporaries. The French school before developing a character decidedly of its own was subject to foreign, chiefly Italian influences, especially after the Renaissance. Francois Clouet (c. 1500-72), one of the earliest French masters, was naturalised, and probably of Flemish origin, like his accurate method of work; Jean Cousin (1500-89) worked under Italian influence ; Vounet (1590-1649) studied, lived, and married in Italy; the great Poussin (1594— 1665) lived nearly forty years in Rome, and died there; Claude le Lorrain (1600-82) lived fifty-five Page in Rome, where he, too, died ; Lesueur (1617- ) refused to go to Rome, but was influenced by Raphael ; Le Brun (1619-90) studied four years in Rome, like other eminent Frenchmen since his time. The following artists are essentially French : Rigaud (1659-1743), Watteau (1684-1721), Lancret (1690-1743), Chardin (1699-1779), Boucher (1704— 70), Greuze (1725-1805), Fragonard (1732-1806), Prud’hon (1758-1823 In the British school the seven names which follow are at the same time distinctly national, and generally recognised by continental criticism. They oceupy in this respect a position similar to that of the few Spanish masters who are gener- ally known : Hogarth (1697-1764), Reynolds (1723- 92), Gainsborough (1727-88), Turner (1775-1851), Constable (1776-1837), Wilkie (1785-1841), Land- seer (1802-73). The peculiarity of the present situation is that all schools have turned away from their national ancestry. The modern Italians go straight to nature, and paint it as if they had no art behind them. The modern Dutch have no connection with the great Dutchmen of the 17th century. Spaniards of the school of Fortuny are as remote as Americans from Velasquez. French landscape has nothing to do with Claude. Leighton is not a descendant of Reynolds. We find everywhere that the national artistic ancestry counts for little or nuthin The localisation of styles has to be done anew by criti- cism for the close of the 19th century, and it is complicated by the free choice everywhere made amongst past examples. Ribot is nearer to Ribera than to any Frenchman. Paris has become the capital of the art of pee: The clever and a American school is as yet an offshoot rom the French; and the northern European nations send their art-students to Paris as once they went to Rome. Schools are no longer national, the art has become cosmopolitan to a degree impossible for literature. 702 PAISIELLO PALZOGRAPHY Technical Chronology.—400 B.c., white-lead of this date has been found at Athens; 1398 a.p., Indian ink pre- Ape pl Bsa ap nerinc| ma Pe _in taly: 1 oil-pain ly : assian Mies dines conte Die of Berlin 3 1787, zine white Sapuested hy Constess of Sten 1802, Thénard discovers it blue ; 1814, discovery of emerald green; 1814, first discovery of existence of artificial ultramarine, and prize offered for its manufacture soon afterwards won by Guimet of Lyons; 1814, cappagh brown found on Lord sore estate; 1517, cadmium discovered iy rang 1 zine white Winsor and Newton as Chinese white; 1 eae, of chromium green by Pannetier and Binet; 1850, water-glass painting introduced. Of the ten col h for perm in Prof Church’s restricted palette six have been discovered dyring the 19th century. TBLIOGRAPHY.— Vasari, Lives of the Painters (1850); Lanzi, History of Painting (1847); Blanc, Histoire des Peintres (n.d.); Kugler, Handbook, Italian Schools, with Eastlake’s additions (1874), and Handbook, German, Flemish, and Dutch Schools, remodelled by Waagen, re- written by Crowe (1874); Carel van Mander, The Book of Painters ; Woltmann and Woermann, History of Paint- ing, edited by 8. Colvin (1880); Canningham, British Painters, edited by Mrs Heaton (1879); Miintz, Les Pré- curseurs de la Renaissance (1882), Raphael et son Temps (1886), and Histoire de ' Art pendant la Renaissance (5 Vols, 1889 et seq.); Passavant, Rafael ron Urbino (1839-58); Mrs Heaton, Albrecht Diirer (1870) and Lionardo da Vinci (1874); Scott, Life of Diirer (1869); Gilbert, Land- scape in Art before Clawle and Salvator (1885); Ford, Handbook for Spain (1869): Clément, Michel Ange, Léonard de Vinci, Raphael (1867); Mantz, Holbein (1879) and Boucher (1880); Fromentin, Les Mattres d’ Autrefois 1876); Ruskin, Modern Painters (1843-60) ; Wedmore, Masters of Genre-painting (1880) and Studies in English Art (1876); Poynter, Lectures on Art (1879); Atkinson, Modern Schools of Art in Germany (1880); Collier, A Manual of Oil-painting (1886) and A Primer of Art (1882); Church, The Chemistry of Paints and inting (1890); Morelli, Italian Painters (applying new methods for solving problems as to the authenticity of ‘old masters ;’ trans. 1892); H. Quilter, Preferences 1892); G. Moore, Modern Painting (1898); W. C. wnell, French Art (1894); R. Muther, History of Modern Painting (3 vols. ; trans. 1894-96), See further the articles in this work on the greater painters—DUxer, LEONARDO DA VINCI, MICHELANGELO, PHAEL, TITIAN, ‘TURNER, and the rest ; that on RUSKIN; also those on ART, Fresco, Impressionism, PicMENts, PRe-RAPHAELITISM, RENAISSANCE, ROMANTICISM, WATER-COLOURS, &c. Paisiello, Giovanni (1741-1816), a Neapolitan com poser, ides more than ninety operas (in- eluding a Barbiere di Seviglia), Paisiello composed over & hundred masses, requiems, and cantatas, Paisley, a manufacturing town of Renfrew- shire, stands on the White Cart, 3 miles above its influx to the be ae 7 WSW. of Gi wand 16 ESE. of Greenock. Although commonly identified with the Vanduara or Vindogara of, Ptolemy, whieh Skene places rather at Loudoun Hill in Ayrshire, it first is heard of sorteinly about 1157 as Passeleth, a possession of Walter itzalan, the first Scottish ancestor of the royal Stewarts (q.v. ). He six years later founded here a Clugniac priory, which was dedicated to SS. James, Mirin, and Mil- burga, and which in 1219 was raised to the rank of an abbey. It was burned by the English in 1307; suffered much at the Reformation on 1561, and still more by su uent vandalism; and now is represented chiefly re the aisled Decorated nave (15th century: the Abbey parish church, restored since 1862), and by the chapel of St Mirin, called the ‘Sounding Aisle’ (1499), with the altar-tomb of Marjory Bruce. Near the abbey are statues of Wilson the ornithologist and Tannahill, who, like Professor Wilson (‘Christopher North’), were natives of Paisley. There are also fine statues of George A. Clark, founder of the town-hall, and (since 1891 ) of Sir Peter and Thomas Coats, Mother- well and Alexander Simith were residents ; and the latter describes the town well in Alfred Sg oS Household, Elderslie, 2 miles W., is the tional birthplace of Wallace. public edifices include the municipal (formerly county) buildings (1818); new sheriff court-house (1885); the fine Clark town-hall, Italian in style, and built in 1879-82 at a cost of £110,000 the new county buildings (1891), containing one the finest council halls in Scotland; the Coats free lib: and museum (1871), with a plctare- ea ondsah observatory; the grammar-school (1576; rebuilt 1864); and the Neilson educational institn- tion (1852). The Coats Memorial Baptist Church (1894) is, it is claimed, the finest ecclesiastical edifice built in Scotland since the Reformation, having cost £100,000. The Fountain Gardens (1868), the Brodie Park (1877), and St James’s Park, round which is the racecourse, have an area respectively of 6, 22, and 40 acres. he linen, lawn, and silk-gauze industries, im- portant during the 18th century, are now extinct as, too, are the age shawls,’ so celebrated between 1805, and the middle of the century, their sale sometimes exceeding £1,000,000 per annum. The manufacture of linen sewing-thread, intro- duced in 1722 by the witch-denouncer Christian Shaw of Bargarran, has been nearly superseded since — by that of cotton = » pineal assumed gigantic proportions, the two pri firms now suigheping choas 10,000 hands betwee them. There are also works for dyeing, bleaching, tartans, woollen shawls, carpets, distilling and brewing, ater era Salhi ate Ta engineering, c., es ship -yards, Cart since 1786 has been rendered’ navigable, its water-way being finally d ed to 18 feet in 1888-90; and water-works (1834-90) furnish 6,000,000 gallons per diem to Paisley and John- stone. Paisley was made a free burgh of barony in 1488, the fourth centenary of that event in 1888 being se by the presence of Queen Victoria, who afterwards pl a memorial of the Stewarts in the ruined choir of the abbey. Since 1833 it has returned one member to parliament, In 1843 the corporation had to suspend payment, nor was the burgh clear of debt until 1877. "Pop. (1801) 24,324; (1841) 48,125; (1881) 55,627 ; (1891) 64,379. See Cosmo Innes’ Registrum Monasterii de Passelet (Maitland Club, 1832), two works by Semple (1872-74), Dr Cameron Lees’ Abbey of Petey eh Robert Brown's History of Paisley (2 vols. 1886), Pakhoi, a seaport of China, opened to fo: trade in 1876, stands on the norte shore te Gulf of Tongking. The harbour is shallow. Trade does not flourish, The imports—cottons, woollens, opium, rice—average alr neds hide graneae exports—tin, sugar, indigo, ani ; hides, - nut oil—£229,700.. Pop. 25,000, Palacky, Francis, a Bohemian historian, was born 14th June 1798, at Hodoslavitz, in Moravia, and studied at Presburg and Vienna. In 1829 he was appointed historiographer of Bohemia, and was cha to write a History 0 ba ian People to 1526 (5 vols. 1836-67), which appeared in both German and Bohemian; it is one of the greatest literary works in the Bohemian tongue, and nationalist sone and through. Palacky took part in the political agitation of 1848, and was the leader of the Slav or national B skit as opposed to the German at the Diet of the Kremsier. ides his great History hée published works deal- ing with the emerge A sear and with Schafarik edited The Oldest Memorials of the Bohemian rangnegs (1840). He died 26th June 1876 at rague. Palxography is the science which deals with ancient manuscripts, teaching us not only to PALZOGRAPHY 703 Gecipher them, but to judge of their date, genuine- ness, and place of origin. While Epigraphy (see the article INSCRIPTIONS) is concerned with writings engraved on some hard substance, such as stone or metal, the materials for paleographic study com- prise ancient books, either rolls, volumina, written on leather or papyrus, or codices, written in book form on sheets oo vellum or paper. Wax-tablets, charters, bulls, decrees, acts, business papers, and similar documents have also to be considered by the student of palwography. The oldest extant manuscripts come from Egyp- tian tombs, and are written on sheets of Papyrus (q.¥.), prepared from the pith of a rush. few fragments date from the time of the early empire, the most important being the Papyrus Prisse, the oldest book in the world, which was found in a tomb of the 11th dynasty, and must therefore be older by several centuries than the Hebrew Exodus, Coming down to the 18th and 19th dynasties, papy- rus roll, usually containing portions of the Book of the Dead (q.v.), are numerous. But documents written on papyrus, a very fragile material, have mostly Sete. and the chief ancient MSS. which have come down to us are written either on parch- ment, which is still used for legal documents, or on vellum; the skins being prepared so as to be written on both sides, thus superseding the older leather rolls, still used in Jewish synagogues for copies ot the Law. The necessary limits of this article make it impossible to discuss the hieratic and demotic papyri from Egyptian tombs, or any of the Eastern scripts, Chinese, Pali, Indian, Coptic, Syriac, Hebrew, or even the magnificent specimens Persian and Arabie calligraphy preserved in oriental libraries. The student may, however, be referred to the oriental series of the Palzeographical Society, to Silvestre’s Puléographie Universelle, and Burnell’s Elements of South Indian Paleo- graphy. It must here suffice to describe briefly the Greek and Latin style, and the more important of the medizval scripts. Both in Greek and Latin manuscripts we find two contemporaneous but widely-different styles of writing; a book-hand, formal and stiff, but legible, used by professional scribes, and a cursive hand, rapid, careless, loose, and straggling, often very difficult to read, which was employed for private correspondence, contracts, accounts, and, somewhat formalised, for charters, rescripts, and other official documents. . The book-hands may be classed as Capital, Uncial, or Minuscule. The capitals, which differ little from the lapidary forms used in inscriptions, are square and angular, such as are still retained for initials, titles, and superscriptions. Manuscripts written wholly in po are very rare, the use of more facile materials, such as parchment or papyrus, having led at a very early time to modifications of the lapidary forms, transforming them into uncials, a formal book-hand, large, clear, and legible, used by professional scribes for codices, and derived from the capitals with little change, save that the forms are more rounded, and often inclined rather than upright. Thus, € both in Greek and Latin is a characteristic uncial form, obtained by rounding the capital form E, and saving labour by requiring only two strokes of the pen instead of four. The term Uncial is as old as the time of St Jerome, but its modern usage is due to a misconception, uncial letters being seldom an inch in height, as the name implies. The general resemblance in the character of Greek and Latin uncials will be seen by a few words from St John, xxi. 19, as they appear in the Codex Bezw at Cambridge, a manu- seript assigned to the 6th century, containing the ic pg and Acts in Greek, with the Vulgate trans- ation. CHMENOONTI OIWOANATCOAOTA CEITONON Greek, SICNIFICA NS GQUAMORTENONORIFICADITIUM Latin. Or, in ordinary minuscules, cquerwv [onuawwv] row Bavary dotace tov Oeov, ‘siguificans qua morte honorificabit Deum.’ In the 8th and 9th centuries a new book-hand was evolved mainly out of the cursive, but incor- porating sundry forms from the degenerate contem- porary uncial. This, by reason of the smaller size of the letters, is called minuscule. The old majuscule cursive, developed ont of the capitals and uncials, which had by this time become formless and illegible, was gradually superseded by a new cursive, devel- oped out of the minuscule. The minuscule reached its perfection as a book-hand in the 11th century, after which it continually degenerated till the invention of printing. Both for Greek and Latin books the ear: y Nagata adopted at first the cor- rupted forms of the contemporary book-hands, but afterwards returned to the older and purer types of the 11th and 12th centuries. Thus there is a eneral analogy between the successive s of reek and Latin writing. Side by side with the old cursive scripts there is a gradual evolution of improved uncial book-hands till about the 4th century, followed by a period of decay, till the 9th century, when the revival of learning produced a regeneration, again followed by progressive deteri- oration till the invention of printing caused a reversion to the best of all preceding styles, that of the llth century. Traces of these revolutions may still be recognised. It will be observed that we now employ four different alphabets : minuscules for our printed books, and capitals for their title- pages, headings, and initials, and cursives for our correspondence, while the initials in our ordinary writing are analogous to uncials. Familiarity pre- vents us from noting the wide differences in the forms of such letters as A, a, a; B, b, b; G, g, 9; or R, r, r. These are survivals, the first from the lapidary — of the Augustan age, the second from the French book-hand of the 11th century, and the third from the Tudor cursive, modified and improved by the Italian cursive of the Elizabethan age. Greek Palawography.—No Greek manuscripts written in pure capitals have come down to us, though the transitional forms may be detected. The oldest Greek manuscripts now extant are papyri in early uncials of the Ptolemaic period which have been found in Egypt, their preservation being due to the dryness of the climate, and to the practice of burying documents in tombs. Three must be earlier than 160 B.c., and there are several Homeric fi ents on papyri earlier than the Christian era, "The most important contain Orations of Hyperides, of which the oldest are assigned to the Ist century B.c. We have from Herculaneum an ancient library consisting of 1803 papyrus rolls, which must be older than 79 A.D.s 704 PALZOGRAPHY when the city was destroyed. These early Greek uncials being written on [ah ~ Bk ile mate- rial, are slender and delicate, wi t bold curves, thick downstrokes, or fine hairlines, which only became possible when the use of vellum introduced a firmer and bolder style. In these uncial papyri the introduction of res produced a tendency to cursive forms, which are exhibited in the ostraca, of which great numbers have been found in Egypt. These are usually receipts for taxes, scratched with a point or written with ink on potsherds. Our chief knéwledge of the early Greek cursive is derived from the private papers and correspondence of Ptolemy, son of Glaucias, a Macedonian Greek, who li as a recluse at the Serapeum about 170 Bc. Cursive seri were, however, used by ithe Greeks at a much earlier period ; Greek in- ‘scriptions in the Cypriote syllabary exhibiting forms of a distinctively eursive character as early as the 7th century B.c, Compared with the papyri the uncial vellum codices, of which about 300 are known, exhibit a firmer and more set uncial style, which was rendered ible by the material. The oldest to which a definite date can be assigned is the Dioscorides now at Vienna, which from inter- nal evidence must have been written about 506 A.D. Earlier, but undated, are the three great Biblical codices, the Codex Vaticanus at Rome, which is assigned to the 4th century; the Codex Sinaiticus at St Petersburg, assi; to the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 5th century; and the Codex Alexandrinus, now in the British Museum, which probably belongs to the middle of the 5th. The style of the writing in these uncial codices is seen in the subjoined specimen, which is taken from the Septuagint version of Esther, i. 22, as it appears in the Codex Sinaiticus. KAI ATT ECTIAEN El: 8 MACANTHN KACI AKEIAN KATA XCD PAN KATATH NXAESIN AT TWN WCTEEINAI POKONAYTOICEN TAICOI KIAICKY FE This in ordinary Greek type would read : Kat aweorihey as wacav Thy Bact ear Kara Xwpay xara TH MeEw av Tw wore cat doSor avras aw Tas oKus avrol »}, To the 5th century are assigned the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi at Paris, to the 6th the Codex Beve at Cambridge and the Codex Claromontanus at Paris. After the 7th century the Greek uncial loses its early ane: the letters become oval, narrow, elongated, and cramped, sloping to the right ; accents make their appearance, cad’ the pure er uncial degenerates into cursive forms difficult At the end of the 6th century we find the first beginnings of the new minuscule, the book-hand of the future, which was destined to replace both the deformed uncial and the earlier cursive, from each of which it borrowed certain elements. earliest trace of these minuscule forms as yet dis- covered are seen in a collection of papyri, in date from 592 to 616 A.D., which were the S ness and family papers of Aurelius Pachymius, a dealer in purple dyes. The transition from the old’ to the new style is exemplified in a most interesting sheet of papyrus from Ravenna, now at Vienna, which contains the signatures of certain KE to the Acts of the Council of Constantinople, in 680. The older bishops sign in slanting uncials and the younger men in early forms of the new minuscule. In the 9th century, with the revival of learning, this new min e developed into a ealligraphic book-hand, which was used in vellum codices. The oldest books in which it are the Uspensky Gospels, written in 835, and the Bodleian Euclid of 888 A.D. The chief transfor- mations are due to the use of ligatures, as is plainly seen in the forms of the letters 6, 9, and c. Hence in the fully-formed minuscule of the llth century we find the letters a, €, x, A, ¢, @, which follow the old uncial forms, while 4, 9, 4, ¥ are taken from the cursive. In the ease of several letters the double source of this seript is shown by the retention of duplicate forms, 4 6, w, and s, for instance, being uncials, while ¢, 9, @, and ¢ are of cursive origin. From the end of the 12th century to the inven- tion of printing the minuscule Fatcwemaie ys Br erates, losing its purity and beauty, and ing up into a rough cursive script. The writing becomes intricate and involved, Higasares and accents combined into a single character rapidly execu without taking the pen from the paper, thus makin the writing very difficult to . In the earli printed books thecontracted and ligatured forms of con- temporary minuscule were faithfully imitated. These, however, were u- ally discarded, though afew, such as $ for or, & for ov, and for os, survived till quite recent times. Latin Paleography fol- lowed much the same course as the Greek. There were four set book -hands— capitals, uncials, semiun- cials, and minuscules, of which the two last were influenced by the old Roman cursive. he capitals are of two kinds, Square and Rustic. Sanere capitals differ little from the lapidary characters used in in- scriptions, and may be defined as having their verti- cal and horizontal strokes at right angles, Of the few examples we possess of this seript the best is the St Gall Virgil, assigned to the 4th century. Rustic capitals, which were more usual, are char- acterised by circumflexed finials and by the crossbars being curved and slightly oblique. This style, which can be traced in a Herculaneum papyrus of the Ist century A.D., was greatly in fashion from the 3d century to the 7th. Good examples are four famons Virgils: the Codex Vaticanus assigned to the 4th century, the Codex Palatinus to the 5th, the Codex Romanus to the 6th, all of which are in the Vatican, and the 5th century Medicean Virgil at Florence. The Rustic died out about the 9th century, and left no successor. The uncials arose out of the square capitals, and exhibit rounded forms of certain letters. The earliest uncial codices extant are not earlier than the 4th century A.D., but it is plain that ‘a PALZOGRAPHY 705 writing was practised at a much earlier period, since we find uncial forms in some of the Graffiti (q.v.) scribbled on Pompeian walls, while as early as the 3d century B.c. the lapidary forms of P, R, C, 8 show that uncial influences had already trans- formed the earlier = shapes of these letters. The uncial book-hand is distinguished from the contemporary square capitals by the rounded forms € u D instead of E, M, V, H, and by the tails of P, F, Q, and R falling below the line, while the head of L rises above it. One of the oldest uncial Latin MSS. is the Ver- celli ere said to have been transcribed by the hand of Eusebius himself, but in any case nearly as early as his time. A good example of the later uncials is the copy of the Gospels now in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, which is believed to have been the actual copy bronght from Rome by St Augustine in 596. Also of the 6th century is the Codex Beze at Cambridge, the style of which is shown in the fac-simile already given. The earlier and later uncial styles are well seen in the famous palimpsest Cicero from the monastery of Bobbio, now in the Vatican. A palimpsest is a manuscript from which the writing was washed off with a sponge, or sometimes scraped or rubbed, in order that the vellum might be used for some other work. The Codex Ephremi above mentioned is a palimpsest, a 5th-century Greek text being over- written in a 12th-century hand. The Vatican Cicero is a codex consisting of 150 leaves, contain- ing in the first hand the treatise De Republica, written in double columns in large uncials, probably of the 4th centu Over this is written across the commentary of St Augustine on the Psalms, in a small uncial hand of the 7th century. bomeesy gua FANIMeEeMBna cy) r B SUNT J Seaway mar PRP PERLE SRP eTtomnNnes mda khkpiad _In the fainter writing of the original manuscript we may decipher the words EST IGITUR INQUIT AFRICANUS RESP.[ublica]. The writing in the second hand reads (line 1) HOMO EST QUIA, (2) ET OMNES XPIANI [ Christiani] MEMBRA SUNT XPI [Christi], (3) MEMBRA XPI [Christi] QUID CAN- TANT. AMANT, (4) DESIDERANDO CANTANT. ALI- QUANDO. Towards the close of the 7th century the Latin uncial becomes rough and careless, and it deterior- ates still further in the 8th, when it is replaced as a book-hand by a new script which goes by the name of semiuncial or half-uncial. This name, which arose out of a misconception of early palzo- graplrers, does not signify a script half the size of the uncial, some semiuncials ing larger than some uncials, but is used to denote an uncial seript with new forms of certain letters, of g and s, for instance, which were derived from the cursive. The earliest traces of the semiuncial style are found towards the end of the 5th century, and the first instance of its use as a book-hand is a Hilary, written in 509 or 510, now preserved in the Chapter Library of St Peter’s at Rome. The old Roman cursive which thus began to influence the uncial writing in the 6th century is of great palwographical importance, since it became the wee of many forms in modern scripts. Its . existence has long been suspected, but actual examples have only recently been discovered. In a house at Pompeii a number of wax-tablets were found in 1875 which proved to be the business memoranda of L. Czcilius Jucundus, a Pompeian banker and agent, mostly belonging to the years 55 and 56 A.D., and relating to purchases at auctions, and payments of taxes on behalf of his clients. Similar tablets, which are dated from 131 to 167 A.D., have been discovered in abandoned gold- workings in Dacia. This old Roman cursive, which is very illegible, exhibits the forms out of which arose f (the long s) and also the modern forms g, b, f, m, n, d, r, h, which replaced the capital and uncial forms G, B, F, M, N, D, R, H. This illegible Roman cursive reappears in a more set official hand in rescripts addressed to Egyptian functionaries in the 5th century, in official docu. ments written at Ravenna in the 6th century, as well as in numerous marginal notes in uncial or semiuncial manuscripts. It is also employed in a copy of Avitus, written in the 6th century, and a Josephus of the 7th. These two books are written on papyrus, and the absence of other examples may be explained by the fact that the fragile papyrus books, probably copies made by scholars for their own use, have mostly perished, only vellum codices as a rule having been preserved. With the establishment of the Teutonic kingdoms on the ruins of the Roman empire a ne oe of national scripts arose—the Merovingian in France, the Visigothic in Spain, and the Lombardic in Italy. These were all based on the Roman cursive, and were used for civil pu as well as for charters and other diplomatic documents. The Merovingian e the official hand of the Frankish empire. _ It is cramped and vermiform, with exaggerated loops for the heads and tails to certain letters. It was used as the diplomatic hand in the chanceries of France and Italy till the 9th century, and in the imperial chancery till 1231, when its use was abolished by Frederick Il. It has survived, however, in a modified form in the modern German. cursive, in which many of the peculiar forms of the old Roman cursive can be detected. Out of the official Roman cursive arose the script, which was employed in papal bulls till the 12th century; when it was replaced by the French minuscule, which was used till the 16th century, when a deformed, contracted, and illegible script called the dittera Sancti Petri was adopted. e old cursive derives its chief importance from having been one of the sources from which was de- veloped the semiuncial book-hand which superseded the old uncial. Incorporating sundry uncial forms, the Visigothie and asker ie cursives developed in the monasteries into calligraphic book-hands. But the Irish semiuncial is the most important of the national seripts, as it became the basis of the ‘Roman type,’ which is used in our modern printed’ books. he history of this Irish semiuncial is obscure. Its elements must have been obtained, robably in the 5th century, from the semiuncial k-hand of southern Gaul. The forms of some of the letters are plainly those of the Roman uncial ; others are calligraphic forms which must have been derived from an ecclesiastical Gallican type of the Roman cursive. Just as the Greek minuscule has duplicate forms of certain letters, some derived from the uncial, others from the cursive, so the double parentage of the Irish 706 PALZOGRAPHY semiuncial is demonstrated by the permissive use of N, R, 8, which are uncials, and of n, r, f, which are uncialised eursives, Several other forms, such as b, a, m, f, h, ],are also uncialised cursives, and not, ke the Roman uncials, merely rounded capitals (see IRELAND, Vol. VL. p. 208). This Lrish semi- uncial suddenly blazes forth in the 6th century as the most splendid of all medimval scripts. The noblest specimen is the magnificent Boo of Kells now at Dublin, which was probably written in the 7th century, though often referred to the 9th (see ILLUMINATION). Of somewhat later date are St Chad's Gospels, now at Lichfield, and the Lindisfarne or Durham Book, seagesset d called St Cuthbert’s Gospels, now in the British Museum, both of which were written in North- umbria, where the script had been introduced by Irish missionaries. This Northumbrian semi- uncial formed the basis of the nearly perfect Caroline minuscule, so called because during the reign of Charlemagne it was introduce: by Aleuin of York, the friend and preceptor of the emperor, into the calli hic school at Tours, over which Alcuin presid m 796 to 804. Alcuin seems to have incorporated certain elements from the Roman uncial and the Lombardic minuscule ; and the new script, recommended by its legibility, distinctness, and minuteness, was rapidly diffused by Alenin’s pupils over Europe, and rapidly super- seded all the other monastic book-hands. Startin; at the beginning of the 9th century, it reach its highest periention at the end of the 11th. In the 13th deformation set in; it stiffens and becomes more cramped, ligatures and contractions are introduced, and out of it grew the Black Letter or Gothic of the 15th century, a form of which still survives in German printed books. The black letter was used in the earliest printed books, but, with the revival of learning, Italian scholars returned to the beautiful Caroline minuscule of the llth century, which was imitated in the Roman type now universal in Italy, France, Spain, Britain, and America, and which is rapidly replacing the Gothic letter in northern Europe. See PRINTING. Besides the pure Caroline minuscules used for books, various cursive hands grew out of it, more angular, irregular, and difficult. Such are the Anglo-Saxon and the pointed Irish, the Domesday script (see DomEesDAY Book), and the deformed hands used in English charters and the records of courts. Our modern English script is based on this ‘court-hand,’ which arose out of the degraded Caroline one ggg rekbes however, in the reign of Elizabeth by the influence of the con- temporary Italian hand. Tt is, however, much superior in legibility and distinctness to the modern German script, which, as we have seen, is toa great extent a survival from the old Roman cursive. Contractions. —The_ difficulty of deciphering mediwval MSS. arises largely from the contractions, abbreviations, and ligatures which were employed to economise labour and parchment. To give a complete list within reasonable limits is impossible, more especially as they varied at different periods and in the various scripts, More than 5000 contrac- tions of Latin words were used in France between the 7th century and the 16th, while in England more than 1000 are found in official Latin documents of the Tudor period alone. There are, for instance, six = contractions for guoniam, seven for esse, and ten for et. In one class of MSS. qi stands for qguoniam, in another for guum, while qd denotes fo in one script and quoniam in another. Instead, therefore, of attempting to catalogue the more usual contractions, which are tabulated in several works referred to below, it will be more useful to explain the general prin- eiples by which medieval scribes were guided. In most cases, if not in all, these contractions arose out of ligatures, and were used at first for some particular syllable, and then as time went on they were generalised, so as to denote a whole class, Some of these ligatures we still use, Thus, W, as the name implies, is a ligature for uu; @ need no explanation. The two superscript dots, as in & or 6, which express the German umlaut, are merely the ligatures «@ and @. The usual modern sign of abbreviation is the full point, as in ib. or ibid. for ibidem, e.g. for gratia, or i.e, for id est. But this, which seems so natural and simple a sign, appears, when we trace its history, to have arisen out of a ligature for the common Latin termination -ws. Its earlier form was the colon (:), which stood for -ws, as in omnib: for omnibus. The origin of this colon is ee by the fact that at a still earlier time we the final syllables -mus and -nus written ™§ and *f, where the cross stroke § , which is merely the Jong s, forms a ligature with the curve — whie represents U. Of this ligature, re ting -ws, everything disappeared except the dots at the top and bottom of the s, leaving m: for -mus, or b: for -bus. The upper dot was then omitted as needless, and ultimately the use of the full point () was neralised so as to denote the omission of any inal syllable. When this had taken place another special sign was required for -us. This was 9, so that in later documents we find eig for ejus, or omnibg for omnibus. But in earlier MSS. the loop of the sign ° is open at the top, the form y being manifestly the ligature of U and the long s. In viz. for videlicet, and oz. for ounce, we have survivals of a very frequent abbreviation, which also proves to be a ligature. The z is merely used by printers for their own convenience instead of correct sign 3, which is found, by tracing it back, to be only a rapid and slurred way of writing the semicolon (;) without taking the pen from the paper. This sign at one time denoted only the omission either of et, as in hab; for hadet, or of ue, as in q; for que. The latter, however, was originally written q: where the reversed comma ( ) is the letter vu, and the dot stands for e, as in many other cases, such as -n- for enim, or + for est. This ligature was assimilated to the nearly identical —— (3) for et, where the dot (*) represents e, and the comma (,) is the remains of the letter T. For a long time this ligature (3 or ;) was confined to words ending in we or et, as in qn3 for quand quos for quognes as for apparet, 0; for oportet, 1; for licet, tz ‘or tenet, hz for habet, s; for scilicet. Afterwards it was generalised to signify the omission of any final syllable, as in 0; for ounce, or in the apothe- caries’ signs % for uncia, and 5 for drachma, The sign B for seruple is merely the ligature sr, the ar s being crossed by a cursive r. y 1e superscript comma now used to denote the omission of medial syllables or letters, as in can’t for cannot, or I've for J have, was at first merely & superscript 7, and denoted exclusively the omis- sion of r or of a syllable containing 7, such as er or re. In English records it forms a ligature with the preceding letter, as in flint for fuerunt, for verbo, or ¥s for tres. The circumflex (~) grew out a cursive form of the uncial m, and originally denoted exclusively the omission of m, then of », and afterwards of other letters. Thus we have ofies, ofis, and des for omnes, dia and ofiia for omnia, hditi and hdih for hominwm, nd and ii for non. The horizontal line (—) is one of the earliest signs of omission, and in some cases, if not in all, is merely a simpli- fied form of the circumflex, as in 6 for cum, ait for autem, & for annos, Its use was, however, less restricted than that of the circumflex, and we use it in the contraction Ib for dibre (pounds), the =) PALZOLITHIC PALZONTOLOGY 707 double bar in 2 denoting a double omission. Shil- lings and pence, now expressed by s. and d., were for- merly denoted by § and @, abbreviations for solidi and denarii. The sign§$ for dollars is said to be the ligature di/, the S being merely 6, a cursive Dutch form of d (but see DOLLAR). The circumflex (~) which was a cursive m was not always written hori- zontally. We see this in the common sign ¥ used for rum, as suo% for suorum, or 8vo¥ for servorum. Here 2 is the ligature of 2 and U, which is crossed by m in the cursive form (~) or (—) written vertically. For et there are numerous signs, all of which resolve themselves into ligatures. Some of them, such as &, &, and ¢, require no explanation. They are found in &iA for etiam, and in the various forms &c&era, or &c&Pa, or &cet. or &é, or finally &e. which we now use for et cetera. The sign 7, used in Domesday for eé, is also a ligature, as is shown by the older forms ©Z and %. The sign = or + for est is also a ligature, the upper dot standing for e, the bar or cireumflex for the long s (f ), and the lower dot for ¢. In like manner esse is written’=", the two dots each representing ¢, and the two cireum- flexes being each a long s. This became -=- and then =, whence we obtain =s for esses, =t for esset, and =mg for essemus. Many similar contractions were also used, most of which can be easily resolved into ligatures. A few of the more common are p for pro, p for per and por, and p and § for pre, q for quam, q for quod, q for qui, a for tz, fr for frater, t for vel, € for ser and sit. Thus we have supius and supig for superius, ppe for prope, . for proximus, geno for generosi, ass~ for assisa, fiz for fitz. BisirioGraPHY.—The study of Eaemosseney requires either an ample purse or access to a good library, the works being mostly bulky and costly. The best books of moderate price for the beginner in Greek Paleo- gs y are Wattenbach’s Anleitung zur Griechischen ‘ala ie and Schrift-tafeln, and Gardthausen’s Griechische Paldéographie. ‘or Latin Palwography it would be well to begin with Wattenbach’s Anleitung, and Arndt’s Schrift-tafeln. For Medixval Palwography, Chassant’s Paléographie des Chartes et des Manuscrits, with his companion volume, Dictionnaire des Abréviations du Moyen Age, are extremely useful little books. Prou’s Manuel de Paléographie may also be consulted. For English Charters, the student, await- ing Mr Maunde Thompson’s long-promised work, has had to fall back upon Wright’s Court-Hand Restored, published in 1773, and the article ‘Records’ in Savage’s Dictionary of Printing. The evolution of the forms of letters is traced in Dr Taylor's book on The Alphabet. Subsidiary matters, such as writing materials, gatherings, lineation, punctuation, &c., which are useful in determin- ing the age of MSS., are discussed in the works of Prou and Gardth alread: tioned, and also in Watten- bach’s Schriftwesen im Mittelalter, and Leist’s Urkunden- Of the more costly works, far the most important are the autotype fac-similes published by the Palwo- graphical Society, with Zang ister’s Lxempla Codicum Latinorum, Wattenbach’s Exempla Codicum Grecorum, and his Scripture Grece Specimina. For MSS.in England, the fac-similes of tional MSS., of Anglo-Saxon MSS., of ancient charters, and of ancient MSs. in the British Museum must be consulted; for German MSS., Sybel’s Works and Sickel’s Monumenta Graphica ; for Russian, Sabas’ Spevimina Paleogruphia ; for Yalion, the Archivio rafico Italiano; tor Spanish, the Exempla Scrip- ture: Visigotice ; for French, the Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits, and the valuable publications of Delisle and Letronue. Among the older works the most important are Walther’s Lexicon Diplomaticum, Wailly’s El/ments de Paléographie, Astle’s Origin and Progress of Writing, Silvestre’s Paléographie Universelle, Montfaucon’s Palwo- jphia Greca, Mabillon’s De Re Diplomatica, and the Benedictine Nouveau Traité de Diplomatique. Palzolithic. See Arcuzo.ocy, Firnt Im- PLEMENTS, STONE AGE; also MAN. Palol ogus, the name of an illustrious Byzan- tine family, which first appears in history about the llth century, and attained to imperial dignity in the person of Michael VIII. in 1260 (see BYZAN- TINE EMPIRE). The last of the dynasty, Constan- tine XI., fell bravely fighting at the siege of Constantinople. His brothers were princes of the Morea and of Achaia respectively ; a daughter of one of them married Ivan TIL of Bisatiac A branch of the family ruled Montferrat from 1306 to 1533. Paleontology (Gr., ‘study of ancient life’), the science or study of fossil organic remains— whether of animal or plant life. The study of fossil animals is sometimes termed paleozoology, and that of fossil plants paleophytology. The aim of average is to attain a knowledge of all the various plants and animals which have suc- cessively spreree and disappeared in the course of geological ages. But as the geological record is highly imperfect, and myriads of species must have lived and died without leaving any trace behind them, it is obvious that our knowledge, no matter how enlarged it may become, can never ibly be complete. The history is full of gaps, some of which may eventually be bridged over, but, however that may be, it is nevertheless certain that our knowledge must always bear but a small proportion to our ignorance. Nevertheless, the study of paleontology has been fruitful in results, It has greatly influenced zool and botany—and that not merely by adding to the number of sub- jects with which those sciences deal, but especially y the light which it has thrown on the evolution and mutual relations of existing forms of life. Fossil organic remains consist chiefly of the harder parts—such as bones, scales, teeth, shells, crusts, spines, &c.—of animals, and the ligneous tissues of plants (see Fossris). In attempting to interpret the evidence wegey by such remains, palzeontolo- gists were early led to study, for purposes of com- parison, the structures of existing plants and animals. By applying the results of these com- act tg to the restoration of extinct forms of life, uvier was enabled to establish the law of the ‘correlation of organs ;’ and thus the paleontologist, who has to deal apart with fragmentary remains, is not in such a helpless case as might have been supposed. ‘Stated in its most general form, the law of the correlation of organs is the law that all the parts of an organism stand in some relation to one another, the form and characters of each part being more or less closely dependent on, and connec’ with, the form and characters of all the rest. In other words, an organism is not a fortuitous collocation of unrelated parts, but is composed of mutually adapted and related organs ; the possession of any given organ, therefore, imply- ing the possession of other ‘‘ correlated” parts’ (Nicholson and Lydekker). Hence the paleontolo- gist can often infer from an isolated organ or strue- ture the essential characters of the remainder of the organism. But, while the biological sciences lave greatly benefited, it is geology which has been most advanced by paleeontological research. With- out the help of fossils the geologist would be unable to reconstruct the past. By their aid he is able to identify and correlate the various formations which constitute his systems. It is from them that he infers former climatic and geographical pea ct that he is able to distinguish between fresh- water and marine, shallow-water and deep-sea conditions, &e. But for the general relations of paleontology to logical research the reader is referred to the article GEOLOGY. Some account of the paleontology of the stratified or fossiliferous roeks will be found in the articles that deal with the various geological systems. Here all that need be done is to summarise the characteristic features of the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, Cainozoic, and Quater- nary or Post-Tertiary faunas and floras. , 708 PALZONTOLOGY Paleozoic Life.—The most prominent types of Paleozoic times were se mg pee, corals, eens: Crinoids, autilid Cepha- et i rilobites, Eurypterids, and Heterocercal Ganoi Graptolites ranged from the Cambrian into the Lower Old Red Sandstone, but attained their maximum in Lower Silurian times. aw 9 corals, unknown in the Cambrian, swarmed in Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous seas, but were much less numerous in those of the Per- mian, Crinoids first appear in the Cambrian, are numerous in Silurian and Devonian rocks, but more abundant still in the Carboniferous. After this they n to decline. Brachiopods, com- mencing in the Cambrian, abounded all through Paleozoic times, but culminated in the Upper Silurian period, They were still numerous in Devonian and Carboniferous seas, but less abun- dant in those of the Permian period. Pteropods were more common in Upper Cambrian and Silurian - in PSeeads: oer parwectrtens poe autili halo; rst appear in the Upper Cambrian, ead seem caaabebeete in the Silurian, but they continued to abound in the Devonian and Carboniferous seas, becoming reduced in those of the Permian period. Trilobites appear first in the Cambrian, reach a maximum in the Silurian, wane in the Devonian and Carboniferous, and die out in the Permian. They are therefore essentially and ere — woes aE _ cag owen So weodal =o are the Eurypterids, which, culminating apparently in the pels Silurian and Old Red Sandstone, became extinct in Carboniferous times, Ganoids with heterocercal tails first appear in Upper Silu- rian strata, and reach their maximum in the Old Red Sandstone. The t order of Sharks and Rays likewise dates back to Upper Silurian times. Such are the more prominent types in Paleozoic strata. Many other forms, however, are met with, amongst which may be noted starfishes (Aster- oidea), brittle-stars (Ophiuroidea), sea-urchins (Echinoidea), and the wholly extinct and char- acteristic Paleozoic types, Cystoidea and Blast- oidea, Amongst the crustacea were cirripedes, ostracods, phyllopods, king-crabs, amphipods, isopods, long-tailed d , and stomapods, Arachnids were represented by scorpions and other forms; myriapods and insects by a number of an- cestral types. All the great classes of molluscan life were present—Cephalopods appearing first in the Upper Cambrian; Pteropods in Lower Cam- brian; Gasteropods in Lower Silurian; and Lamellibranchs in Upper Cambrian, The fishes have been already mentioned. Amphibians, repre- sented by Labyrinthodonts and Baiksanndrods, first in hg wages acer ‘ mongst plants the prominent weozoic types are yptogams—Lepidodendroids, Sigillarioids, and Calamites being exclusively Paleozoic, but conifers were also present, It may be noted that many of the characteristic life-forms of Palwozoic times were what are termed ic or comprehensive types, that is to say, types which while belonging fundamentally to some particular division or group of the animal ae yet present in their stracture characteristics of one or more contemporaneous, or as yet non-existing types. Among such intermediate or comprehen- sive forms may be mentioned the Labyrinthodonts, which were urodele amphibians with many piscine and reptilian characteristics. Examples are also furnished by the Ganoids, the Trilobites, the Brach is, the insects, Ke. Amongst plants the lendroids exhibit similar peculiarities, for combine characteristics of club-mosses and fers. Again, many Paleozoic forms attained a larger size than the corresponding forms that dbelong to Jater times. Thus, some of the ptero- phalopods, ds, phyllopods, and in- sects were larger than a cuveenenene forms of our own day. The amphibians likewise exceeded in size any living representatives of thei: class. Innumerable Palwozoic genera died out before Mesozoic times, while not a few lived on, and some have even persisted to the present day. These versistent forms are met with chiefly among the oer types of animal life, as foraminifers, brachio- s, and molluscs. See CAMBRIAN, SILURIAN, Lp Rep SANDSTONE, CARBONIFEROUS, and MIAN SYSTEMS, Mesozoic Life.—The life of Mesozoic times is in many respects strongly contrasted with that of the Palwozoic era. In place of Sigillarioids and 0- dendroids, the prevalent forms of plant-life up to the close of the Cretaceous period were arbores- cent and herbaceous ferns, conifers, and cycads, while in late Cretaceous times the earliest an sperms appeared, Corals, which were pe esozoic seas, consisted al modern types—the almost to extinction. Echinoids and abounded, but Crinoids, so prevalent in Paleozoic seas, were now much reduced in num Some of the higher grades of the erustacea, which are hardly known in Paleozoic rocks, were plentiful in Mesozoic times, and the same was the case with insects, Brachiopods ceased now to be dominant forms; while amongst molluses the Cephalopods take the lead, and reach their culmination in swarms of Ammonitide and Belemnitide. Gas- teropods and Lamellibranchs are well represented, and include a number of modern genera, wh increased towards the close of the era. Ganoids were still numerous, eT with symmetrical tails. Chimeroids, true sharks, and rays were all represented, while Teleosteans or bony fishes made their first appearance. Labyrinthodonts, which in Triassic times attained a great size, soon died out, making way for the advent of a prodigious tilian fauna, in which all orders, save the Ophidians, were represented. There were swimming — (Ichthyosaurus, q.v., Plesiosaurus, q.v.), flying reptiles (Pterodactylus, q.v.), snake-like reptiles (Dinosaurs, see DINOSAURIA ), crocodiles, and chel- onians, This reptilian life was specially abundant in Jurassic times. Birds probably were numerous, some of the forms being toothed, while others mi have approximated to modern ap ammals were represented by only the inferior grade of marsupials, and were all of small size. All the remarkable reptiles referred to became extinct lefore the beginning of the Cainozoic era, it was with the characteristie Mesozoic mollus- can families of Ammonitide, Belemnitide, and Hippuritide. Putting aside the lowly : Protozoa, it may be said that hardly one Cretaceous species has been met with in Cainozoic or Tertiary strata. See TRIASSIC, JURASSIC, and CRETACEOUS SYSTEMS. Cainozoic Life.—The plants of early Cainozoie times, although differing specifically and often generically from living forms, yet approach on the whole to existing types. Palms were a common feature of the floras from Eocene into Pliocene times. Indo-Australian types were common in Europe during the early etry but later on forms characteristic of the warmer latitudes of North America began to abound. A comming! of Indo-Australian and American types also mar the bie nye period, but the American forms gradually increased until in Miocene times they peaponciees over all the others. The Pliocene ora of central Europe had a prevalent Mediter- ranean character. With regard to the lower forme of animal life, all that need be noted here is the general fact that these have a modern aspect, the | | | j : ; ~ - @ PALZOTHERIUM PALANQUIN 709 number of existing genera and species becoming greater as we advance from the lower to the higher stages. The foraminifers attained now their maxi- mum development, and are pres ernpiresiet ° - presented by the large coin-shaped nummulites. Amongst molluscs the Cephalopods are no longer dominant forms—the most abundant ig being Lamellibranchs and Gasteropods. But the most striking and leading Cainozoic forms were the mammals. In Eocene times the mammals were cong developed—many of the forms attaining a _— size. Among the more notable types of the early Euro Tertiary are Paleotherium (q.v.), Anoplotherium (q.v.), along with which were carnivores, rodents, insectivores, and hats, and also the earliest representatives of the horse and the monkey tribe. The later Tertiaries are marked hy the appearance of Dinotheres, Mastodons, true ele- phants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamus, deer, antelope, lles, various carnivores, such as Machairodus, rs, cats, wolves, &c., and apes. No certain or unequivocal evidence of man is yet forthcoming from Tertiary strata. While it is true that the general aspect of the plant and animal life of the Cainozoic era approaches to that of the present, yet this is truer for the less highly organised types than it is for those which are higher in the scale of being. Amongst the higher vertebrates of early Tertiary times not a few possessed characters which are now met with only in widely separated forms. Some, for ex- ample, were intermediate in character between tapirs and horses; in others (Tillodonts) we meet with a combination of structures now seen in ungulates, rodents, and carnivores ; while many of the carnivores had decided marsupial affinities. Other remarkable composite forms were the Dino- cerata (q.v.). > Serta or Post-Tertiary Life,—The animals and plants of Quaternary age belong for the most part to existing species; a number of the higher vertebrates, however, are extinct. Among these latter, in Europe, were the Mammoth and various other elephants, several rhinoceroses, a dwarf form of hippopotamus, and Machairodus. In North America the fauna also inelnded various extinet species, such as Mastodon, an elephant, and several = members of the Sloth family (Megatherium, ylodon, Megalonyx). ‘These last seem to have abounded in South America, where they were asso- ciated with great armadillos (Glyptodon). The Quaternary period was characterised by marked oscillations of climate, and consequently by secular migrations of flora and fauna. Thus numerous forms which had survived from the Tertiary era eventually became extinct, and a still larger number were banished from the areas which they had occupied in Pliocene times. It is in the deposits of the Pleistocene that we meet with the first un- questioned relics and reinains of man. See PLEIS- TOCENE SYSTEM, POSTGLACIAL AND RECENT System; works cited at GEOLOGY ; and the special handbooks of Paleontology, as by Nicholson (new ed. 1879), Seeley (1885), Steinmann and Déder- lein (1888), Zittel (i.-iii. 1879-90), &e. Palzotherium (Gr., ‘ancient wild beast’), a genus of pachydermatous mammalia whose remains occur in the Eocene beds of England and the Con- tinent. Several species have been described, rang- ing in size from that of a sheep to that of a horse. The Upper Eocene gypseous quarries of Montmartre supplied the first seanty materials, which Cuvier, by a series of careful and instructive inductions, built up into an animal resembling the existing tapir. The restoration, however, is not quite correct, for the discovery of a complete skeleton (P. magnum) shows that the animal was longer- necked, and of a more slender build than the tapir, and probably was not unlike, in general a) r- aesés aie livin llama. There pci no bina however, that Palzotherium resembled the tapir in erie the snout terminating in a short pro- boscis. It had three toes on each foot, each terminated by a hoof. The formula of the teeth is i. 3, c. }, p.m. {3-4}, m. 3, and the structure of the upper true molars, in certain particulars, seeins to foreshadow that of some of the Equide. Palzotherium magnum. It is supposed that animals of this genus dwelt on the margins of lakes and rivers, and that their habits were similar to those of the tapir. Paleozoic (Gr., ‘ancient life’), the name given to the lowest division of the fossiliferous rocks, hecause they contain the earliest forms of life. Ther were formerly, and are still generally, known as the Primary rocks. The strata included under these titles are the Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous, and Per- mian systems. Palafox .y Melzi, José pr, Duke of Sara- gossa, a Spanish soldier, was born in 1780 of a dis- tinguished Aragonese family, and rose to the rank of brigadier-general in the Spanish guards. His defence of Saragossa (q.v.), 22d July 1808 to 21st February 1809, which only yielded to the French after a second investment, is one of the most heroic , incidents in modern history. Palafox y Melzi was carried prisoner to France, and not released until 1813. he year after his return home he was appointed captain-general of Aragon, in 1836 was created Duke of Saragossa, and in 1837 grandee of Spain and captain-general of the guards. He died at Madrid, 15th February 1847. Palagonite-tuff, usually associated with basalt-lavas, is fine-grained, red, brown, and some- times greenish or yellowish in colour. Under the microscope it is seen to be composed of minute fragments of voleanic glass, crowded amongst which are granules and crystals of augite, olivine, plagioclase, and magnetite. It occurs in Sicily, the Canary Islands, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Scotland. See IgNEous Rocks. Palanpur, capital of a native state in Gujarat, lies 83 miles N. of Ahmedabad by rail. The state has an area of 3150 sq. m. and a pop. of 234,402. The ‘Palanpur Agency’ comprises, besides Palan- pur, twelve other small native states. Palanquin, or PALKI, an Indian vehicle corre- sponding somewhat to the Roman litter and the modern European sedan-chair, but, unlike the latter, used for long distances by travellers where railways or good carriage-roads do not exist. It is a wooden box, about 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet high, with wooden shutters which can be opened or shut at pleasure, and constructed like enetian blinds. At each end of the palanquin, on the outside, two rings are fixed, and the ham- mals, or palanquin-bearers, of whom there are four, two at each end, support the palanquin by a pole passing through these rings. 710 PALAPTERYX PALATINATE ~ Palapteryx (Gr., ‘ancient apteryx’), a genus of fossil birds whose remains are found in the river- silt d its of New Zealand, associated with the tic Dinornis, and which, like it, resembled the form of the sternum, and the structure of the pelvis and legs, the living wingless apteryx. Palapteryx, however, seems to have possessed rudimentary wings. See Moa. Palapwe. See SHosuonc. Palate, the roof of the mouth, consists of two portions, the hard palate in front and the soft ate behind. The framework of the hard palate is formed by the intermaxillary bones, the palate processes of the superior maxillary bones, and by the horizontal processes of the palate bones, and is bounded in front and at the sides by the alveolar arches and gums, and posteriorly is continuous with the soft palate. It is covered by a dense The Mouth widely opened so as to show the Palate : 1, 1, the upper, and 2, the lower lip; 8, 3, the hari palate; 4, 4, the soft palate; 5, the uvula; 6, 6, the arches of the soft palate; 7, 7, the tonsils; 8, the tongue. structure formed by the periosteum and mucous membrane of the mouth, which are closely ad- herent. Along the middle line is a linear ridge or raphe, on either side of which the mucous mem- brane is thick, pale, and corrugated, while behind it is thin, of a darker tint, and smooth. This membrane is covered with sealy epithelium, and is furnished with numerous follicles (the palatal glands). The soft palate is a wovable told of miicous membrane enclosing muscular fibres, and suspended from the posterior border of the hard palate so to form an incomplete septum between the month and the pharynx ; its sides being blended with the pharynx, while its lower border is free, When occupying its usual position (that is to say, when the muscnlar fibres contained in it are relaxed) its anterior surface is concave; and when its muscles are called into action, as in swallowing a morsel of food, it is raised and made tense, and the food is thus prevented from passing into the posterior nares, and is at the same time directed obliquely backwards and downwards into the pharynx. Hanging from the middle of its lower border is a smal por setel cer mace process, the wvula ; passing outwards from the uvula on each side are two curved folds of mucous membrane con muscular fibres, and called the arches or pillars the soft palate, The anterior pillar is continued downwards to the side of the of the tongue. The posterior pillar is larger than the anterior, and runs downwards and backwards to the side of the pharynx, The anterior and posterior pillars are closely united above, but are separated Ww by an angular interval, in which the tonsil of either side is lod ed. The tonsils (amygdale) are gland- ular organs of a rounded form, which v: siderably in size in different individuals. bef are composed of an assemblage of mucous follicles, which secrete a thick grayish matter, and open on the surface of the gland by numerous (twelve to fifteen) orifices. The space left between the arches of the palate on the two sides is called the isthmus of the fauces. It is bounded above by the free margin of the palate, below by the tongue, and on each side by the pillars of the soft palate and tonsils. As the upper lip may be fissured through imper- fect development (in which case it presents the con- dition known as Hare-lip, q.v.), so also may there be more or Jess decided fissure of the palate. In the slightest form of this affection the uvula merely is fissured, while in extreme cases the cleft extends through both the soft and hard palate as far for- ward as the lips, and is then often combined with hare-lip, When the fissure is considerable it materially interferes with the acts of sucking and swallowing, and the infant runs a great risk of being starved ; and if the child grows up its arti- culation is patntally indistinct. The closure of cleft palate by operation must be left in the hands of an experienced surgeon, who should be called to see the child as soon as the defect is noticed. If the separation is too great to admit of closure by operation, a plate or ‘artificial palate’ may be made to cover the opening. Acute inflammation of the tonsils, popularly known as Quinsy, is treated of in a rate article. Chronic enlargement of the tonsils is very frequent in scrofulous children, and is not rare in scrofulous persons of more advanced age, my give rise to very considerable inconvenience and distress. It may occasion difficulty in swallow- ing, confused and inarticulate speech, d in various degrees from closure of the Eustachian tubes (now often termed throat deafness), and noisy and laborious respiration, especially during sleep; and it may even cause death by suffocation, induced by the entanglement of viscid mucus between the en- Pet ge glands. If local and constitutional remedies fail to reduce the enlarged tonsils they must be more or less removed by the surgeon, either by the knife or scissors, or by a small guillotine specially invented for the purpose. Enlargement or relaxation of the uvula is not uncommon, and gives rise to a constant tickling cough and to expectoration, by the irritation of the larynx which it occasions, If it will not yield to local treatment it may require to be removed either in whole or in part. Palatinate (Ger. Pfalz), the name for two “German states, which were united till the year 1623. They were distinguished as the Upper and Lower Palatinate. The eee or Bavarian Pala- tinate, now forming a circle of the kingdom of Bavaria, was a duchy, its capital being Amberg. The Lower Palatinate, or the Palatinate on Rhine, lay on both sides of the Rhine, with an area of 3150 sq. m., and included, besides the Electoral i, el — ae "PALATINE PALERMO 711 Palatinate proper, the principality of Simmern, the duchy of Zweibriicken, the principalities of Veldenz and utern, &c., and was bounded by Mainz, Tréves, Lorraine, Alsace, Baden, and Wiirtemberg. Its capital was Heidelberg. The counts of the Rhenish Palatinate were estab- lished in the hereditary possession of the territory of that name, and of the lands attached to it, as early as the llth century. In 1216 it was granted to sa Duke of Bavaria, and with various combina- tions the Rhenish Palatinate and the Bavarian territories were held by members of the Bavarian house and its branches. Sometimes the electoral dignity was alternately exercised by the Duke of Bavaria and the holder of the Rhenish Palatinate. In 1559 the Rhenish Palatinate and the electoral vote to Frederick IIL, who introduced Calvinism. Frederick V. (q.v.) was the ‘ Winter King’ of the Thirty Years’ War, who in 1623 lost his lands to his kinsman the Duke. Bavaria retained the Upper Palatinate and the electoral dignity ; but the Rhenish Palatinate was in 1648 given to Frederick’s son, and the eighth electorate created for him. In 1694, during the war of the Spanish suecession, the elector received again the Tipoee Palatinate and all the ancient rights, re- sumed again by Bavaria after the war. During this time the Rhenish Palatinate was repeatedly and cruelly desolated by French armies; and in 1801 France took possession of all on the left bank of the Rhine, giving the rest to Bavaria, Nassau, and Hesse Darmstadt. In 1815 the left bank was restored to Germany, the larger part of the Lower Palatinate being, granted to varia (Rhenish Bavaria); Prussia got the Rhine Province; Hesse Starkenburg and Rhine Hesse ; and Baden Mann- heim, Heidelberg, and Mosbach. The religion of the palatinate has been successively Catholic, Cal- vinist, Lutheran, Calvinist, and Catholic again, in accordance with the tenets of the reigning prince. For the area and population of the modern Upper and Lower Palatinate, see BAVARIA. Palatine (from Lat. palatium, ‘palace’). A Comes Palatinus, or Count Palatine, was, under the Frankish kings of France, a high judicial officer (see COUNT), his district being called a palatinate or county palatine. In England Chester and Dur- ham became palatine under William I., doubtless on account A their respective proximity to the frontiers of Wales and of Scotland. Chester had not 7 its own courts, judges, constables, and steward, but a parliament, and was not represented in the national parliament until 1549 ; it was assim- ilated by Henry VIII. Durham ceased to be a county palatine under its bishop in 1836. Lancas- ter became palatine in 1451, and yielded its juris- diction in 1873 to the High Court of Justice (see LANCASTER, Ducuy oF). At various dates Kent, Shropshire, Pembrokeshire, the Isle of Ely, and Hexhamshire, were counties palatine, but had lost their special rights by the 16th century. Of similar rivileges in — Scotland, the Earls Palatine of. Btrathearn held the most important. Palatine Hill (Mons Palatinus), the central hill of the famous seven on which ancient Rome was built, and, according to tradition, the seat of the earliest Roman settlements. See Rome. Palawan, the most westerly island of the Phil- ippines (q.v.). Area, 2315 sq.m. It is long and narrow, with an axial mountain-chain, and has ex- tensive and well-protected bays and harbours. The soil is fertile, yielding the products of the archi- pelago. Capital, Puerta Princesa. Pop. 45,000. Pale, in Irish history (see IRELAND, Vol. VI. p. 204), means that portion of the ain, se over whic the English rule and law was acknowledged. It varied very greatly at various dates, but for a long period meant generally Dublin and the greater part of the adjoining counties. Palem’bang, capital of a residency (formerly an independent kingdom ) near the south end ot Sumatra, stands on the river Musi, 50 miles from its mouth; the houses of the town are built on great log rafts on either bank. Manufactures, trade in silk goods, carved wood, ornaments in gold and ivory, and krises, as well as shipbuilding, are carried on. In the middle ages Palembang was one of the most important centres of Arabian trade on, aay Pop. 43,368; and of the residency, Palencia (the ancient Pallantia), a walled city of Spain, in Old Castile, stands in a fruitful pee 180 miles by rail NNW. of Madrid and 29 NE. of Valladolid. The Gothic cathedral was built 1321-1504. The first university of Castile was founded here in 1208, but was removed to Salamanca in 1239. Blankets and coarse woollen cloths are manufactured. The vine is cultivated, and there is a good trade in wool. Pop. 14,505. —The province of Palencia has an area of 3256 sq. m. and a pop. (1887) of 188,954. Palenque, Rurys or, lie between the Michol and Chacamas rivers, in the north of the Mexican state of Chiapas, 6, miles E. of the village of Santo Domingo de Palenque. The ruins extend over 20 to 30 acres, and are buried in a dense be a forest; trees grow over and about the buildings, and rise even from the tower. The ruins consist of vast artificial terraces, or terraced truncated pyramids, of cut stone, surmounted by edifices of peculiar and solid architecture, also of cut stone, covered with figures in relief, or figures and hieroglyphies in stueco, with remains of brilliant colours. Most of the buildings are of one story, but a few are two, three, and some may have been four stories. The principal struc- ture, known as the Palace, is 228 feet long, 180 feet deep, and some 25 feet high, standing on a terraced truncated pyramid of corresponding dimen- sions ; the front contained fourteen Benin: each about 9 feet wide. The building was irregular, and built in two distinct parts, with double eqluadon of unequal length running round it, and two large courts, also irregular in shape. Charnay holds that the Palace was a magnificent convent ; Palenque, he says, was a holy city, ‘a place of pilgrimage, teeming with shrines and temples, a vast and muceli-sought burial-place;’ in the whole place ‘there seems to have been nothing but temples and tombs.’ See Stephens’s Incidents of Travel in Central America, &c., and Catherwood’s Views of Ancient Monuments, &c. ; Charnay’s Ancient Cities of the New World (Eng. trans, 1887); also La Rochefoucauld, Palenque et la Civilisa- tion Maya (Paris, 1888). Palermo, formerly the capital of Sicily, now in point of population the fifth city of Italy, an archbishopric, and a seaport. It stands in the north-west corner of the island, on a bay that faces east, and at the mouth of a fertile valley called the Conea d’Oro (‘Golden Shell’), 120 miles by rail W. of Messina, and occupies a picturesque site, being backed by mountains—on the north by Mount Pellegrino, with a (pilgrimage) grotto chapel (1624) to St Rosalia, whose festival is one of the great annual events of the city. The streets are for the most part handsome, and there are many fine old houses. The oldest public buildings date from the Norman period, and belong to two ayes of architecture—Saracen and Byzantine. The most conspicuous of them all is the cathedral of St Rosalia, Wailt (1169-85) by an Englishman, Archbishop Walter; it contains sepulchral monu- ments to Roger I., the emperors Henry VI. and 712 PALERMO PALESTINE Frederick IL, and in the crypt the tombs of the archbishops. Others to be named are the chapel (1143) in the royal with ilicent mosaics ; the Norman hall, in the same pile; and (with fine mosaics), St John of the Hermits (1132), and St Cataldo; and the mansions of Ziza, Cuba, La Favara, and Miin- nerno, all outside the city. There are close upon three hundred churches and chapels in Palermo, The royal palace, built by Roger L., is principally of ish construction; in it Piazzb established his observatory. The other public buildings— archbishop's palace, town-house, law-courts, uni- versity, , &e.—do not call for particular mention. The university (1447) has 70 teachers and 1100 students, with schools of engineering, fine arts, conveyancing, &c. There are also. a national museum, the town library (1775) with 141,000 vols. and 2640 MSS., and the national library (1804) with 110,000 vols. and 12,000 MSS. Industry is little developed ; machinery, essences, sumach, turnery, iron-founding, books, gloves, and represent almost the only branches. But Palermo is an important seaport, with a large, though not growing, trade. Oranges, lemons, dried fruits, sumach, tartar, grain, oils, manna, sulphur, wine, animal produce, and lemon-juice are the princi} exports, and ave’ £1,457,700 per annum. The imports—grain and vegetables, cottons and woollens, coals, live-stock, iron, timber, groceries, silk, hides, petroleum, machinery, linen, metals, and glassware —fell from £1,439,515 in 1887 to £732,167 in 1889. The bulk of this trade is with Great Britain, France, and the United States. There is also a coasting trade—imports, from 3 to 34 millions sterling; exports, about 1 million sterling. Some 3500 vessels of 1,200,000 tons enter ev year, an average of 430,000 tons being British. and 685,600 tons Italian. Pop. (1894) 276,000. The first we know of Palermo, the ancient Panormus, is that it was a Phoenician city, and the stronghold of Carthage in Sicily. It was conqnered snecessively by Pyrrhus (276 B.c.), the Romans (254 B.c.), the Vandals (440 A.D.), Belisarius (535), the Saracens (835), the Pisans (1063), and the Normans from Apulia (1071). Henceforward it was the capital of the kingdom of Sicily (q.v.), first of the Norman kingdom, then of that of the Angevins and their Spanish successors. It suffered severely from earthquakes in 1693, 1726, and 1823. The city revolted against the Bourbon kings of Naples in 1820 and 1848, and was freed from them in 1860 by Garibaldi. But since then it has been only a provincial capital.— The province of Palermo has an area of 1985 sq. m. and a pop. (1895) of 819,765. See the excellent guidebook of Gsell Fels; Morso, De- serizione di Pulermo Antico (1827); Sclubring, Histor- tache Topographic von Panormus (1870) ; Springer, Afittel- alterliche Kuust in Palermo (1369); Holm, Studii di Storia Palermitena (1880); Freeman, Historical E. (34 series, 1879), and his History of Sicily (1891), Palestine,—I. /istory.—The name of Palestine is an i!lastration of the part taken for the whole. In the song of Moses (Exod. xv, 14) sorrow falls upon Palestina, and amazement upon Edom at the coming of Israel. Palestine was to Moses as it was afterwards to Isaiah and to Joel, to Herodotus, to the Greeks, the Egyptians, and the Assyrians, to ay act and to Jerome, simply the Plain of Philistia, the Wroad slip of coast inhabited by the Philistines. Milton restricts the word to this sense. The country has received various names at different times, with all of which we are familiar. It has been called Canaan, or the Land of Canaan, the Land simply, the Land of Israel, the Land of Promise, and the Holy Land, 4 name which, in the words of Quaresmius, ‘though of later date than the churches of the rest, them all.’ The nations inhabiting this count ally given, six in number. A seventh added in one or two lists. These nations were the Canaanites, the Hivites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, and the Jebusites, The seventh were the Girgashites. The Canaanites—‘low- landers ’—occupied the country east and west of the highlands—that is to say, the seaboard and the valley of the Jordan ; the Hittites, a branch of the great kingdom whose extent and history are only now beginning to be recovered, dwelt in what was afterwards Judwa, the Hivites in Samaria, the Perizzites in Galilee, the Amorites in the north, the Jebusites in and around Jerusalem. Of the Girgashites nothing is known. Other tribes there were—those of Moab, Ammon, Midian, and Edom on the east of Jordan, all of Semitic descent; the yet in excellency and dignity surpasses — f the Conquest were, accordin to the list a a | is a tall races—Rephaim, Zuzim, and Anakim; the Horim cave-dwellers ; and there were the Amale- kites, who defended the mountain-passes near Sinai, and the Philistines, of Egyptian origin ; in later times they were called Cherethites, and at this day there is a village in Philistia called Keretiya. he flood of conquest rolled over these tribes. When the invaders had settled down within the boundaries allotted to them, we find them fighting " con- for their new possessions, being driven back solidating their position. The conquered people were nowhere exterminated: the Jebusites held their own in Jerusalem, the Amorites in Ephraim the Philistines took and lost and retook Gaza an Ascalon. There are many who regard the fellaheen of modern Syria as the direct descendants of the Perizzite, the Amorite, and the Hivite. How long the Israelite tribal distinctions were kept up it is difficult to say. We find them strongly marked in the early history, but they grow fainter in the later books. that Solomon's twelve provinces corresponded mainly with the twelve tribes. During the term covered by the Book of ree. 5 and part of Samuel there was no capital city and no central authority. The religious centre was shifted; the ark rested at Shiloh, at Nob, at Gibeon, and at Bethel. Jern- salem became the capital of David and Solomon, but on the foundation of the northern kingdom Shechem, Tirzah, and Samaria became successively its capital. Whien the Jews returned from the grant Captivity they occupied a territory extending from Jerusalem in the north to Beersheba in the south, and from Jericho in the east to Lachish in the west. The Philistines remained in undisturbed possession of their lands; the Idummans were driven back to their deserts ; on the north were the hostile Samari- s. ’ The Maccabean struggle for independence—a part of history which finds few students, yet a struggle heroic in its conduct and stupendons in its results—preserved the national existence. That there were Jews in the time of Herod, that there are Jews still, is due to the heroism of immortal brothers. The kingdom of Herod the Great covered the whole country divided into tribes by Joshna, with the exception of a small portion in the south-west and the tribe of Asher in the north. West of Jordan it contained Galilee, a province unknown hy that name to the Old Testament; Sa also unknown before the Captivity; Judea Jdumma; east of the Jordan it contained Perma, Ganlonitis, Auranitis, and Trachonitis—the ten cities of the Decapolis belon, and partly to Gaulonitis, Of these provinces the most fertile and the most densely populated was It is not without significance 1 partly to Perea hit ta ree IR aTORY a0 avu x _\= (® ~ 4 “ay! © Fae iw. A 7 r ss me ot. oe = @as Ss ; pe of the published PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND English: Miles 69 16- One Degree Levitical Cities Gibbethon Cities of Refuge Kedesh + = ed by Permission s Geographical Miles 60-One Degree é Reduc from the Maps by the Committee > PALESTINE W& R.CHAMBERS, LIMITED LONDON & EDINBURGH. - ~ —. pies is Diwtie ok A o. ~ PALESTINE 713 Galilee. He who takes the trouble to examine the large map of the Palestine Exploration Fund and to compare with it the statements made by Josephus will be astonished at the overwhelming evidence of a vast population and of exuberant fertility. Nowhere else in the country are there so many ruins of ancient towns; on every hill-top in a country which is a succession of hills is a Khurbet or ruin; springs abound; there are the traces of ancient terraces on the hillsides, extensive heaps of pottery, ancient cemeteries, broken oil-presses, groups of rock-hewn cisterns; proofs on sides of the ancient prosperity. This period of prosperity, encouraged by the Roman rulers, was destroyed by the madness of the Jews themselves. It vanished with the cam- paign of Vespasian and with the destruction of the temple by Titus. Even these rude lessons failed to quell the fiery spirit of the people. A second time they rose in revolt, not only in Judza, but also in Egypt, Cyrene, Babylonia, Cyprus, and Meso- tamia. They were subdued. But again, when adrian endeavoured to suppress altogether this turbulent Judaism, there flowed a rising, the wildest, the most blood-thirsty of all the Jewish revolts. It was led by Bar-Cochba (q.v.), ‘Son of the Star,’ the pretended Messiah, whose pre- tensions were recognised by Akiba (q.v.) himself, most learned of all the Jewish doctors. The re- bellion was followed by a siege of Jerusalem, con- cerning which history is almost silent. It was probably marked by all the horrors which belong to the siege by Titus. The last stand was made at the fortress of Bether, when Bar-Cochba with an immense number of his followers was slain. Then for a period Jerusalem vanishes from his- tory. It is Zilia Capitolina; a temple of Jupiter was erected on the site of Herod’s temple; no Jew was allowed to appear even within sight of the Holy City. Outside, for the next hundred Minor thongh perseentions raged, the progress of Christi- anity was rapid and continuous; pilgrimages began to the holy places, and as a natural consequence Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem. After inding of the Cross, and the building of the church of the Holy Sepulchre, the history of Palestine becomes for more holy places were discovered every day. the conversion of Constantine, the three hundred years ecclesiastical. The country was all the time a battlefield, but the weapons were tongues and pens, and the missiles were words and arguments. Arius, Pelagius, and other persons of curious and questioning disposition kept the Holy Land in a continual state of unqniet. The Samaritans gave trouble from time to time by murdering Christians ; they were quieted in the usual manner, ‘by punishment.’ All Syria became a nest of monasteries, nunneries, and hermitages. In order to build their monasteries the old syna- gogues, the old fortresses, were destroyed and their stones used again. In every cave was a recluse; on every hillside lived a hermit ; some erected lofty pillars and Jived upon the top for all to see; the discovery of relics, holy bones, and holy places went on without interruption. Day and night, it is said, the air resounded with litanies. In a word, the land was given over to monks, for whom the country-people—the descendants of the Perizzites and the Amorites—tilled the fertile soil, grew the corn, pressed the oil, and made the wine. Then King Chosroes, tle Persian, marched into Syria (614 A.p.). The Jews, who had been quiet, but were neither dead nor converted, raised their heads in hope and gladly joined his victorious army. What the Persians did in the country itself may be guessed from the fact that in Jerusalem alone they massacred 90,000 Christians (the number may be taken as indicating a gigantic slaughter) and destroyed the whole of the buildings. When they retreated they left behind them along the broad track of their march ruined churches and monasteries destroyed by hundreds, with thousands of dead Christians to rejoice the eyes of the Jews who followed in the train. Fifteen years later Heraclius reconquered the province of Syria. ‘The ruined churches were partly restored, the monas- teries partly rebuilt. Tut for six years only, for then followed an enemy worse P hem Chosroes, because, though the Persian destroyed, he went away. The new-comer came to stay. In the year 636 A.D. the calif Omar with his Moslems took Jerusalem and proceeded to reduce the whole of the test which indeed offered no resistance. After three hundred years of the ecclesiastics followed four hundred years of the Moslems. Jew and Christian were alike tolerated ; the latter with a little less contempt than the former. Early in this period the Dome of the Rock (‘Mosque of Omar’), the most beautiful build- ing in the world, was erected for Abd el Melek by Byzantine archi- tects. The church of the Holy Sepulchre, or the group of churches bearing that collective name, was completed and beautified. We hear nothing more, however, of the monks. They disappeared at the first approach of the Moham- medans, and were no more seen, Except for the invasion,*in 1244, by the Chorasmians (or Khariz- *mians; see Kuiva), then fol- lowed a period of peace for the country. It was also a period of continual pilgrimages. Men from all parts of western Europe visited the country, and knelt weeping at the places which had seen the sufferings of the Lord. And year by year while men related how these places where miracles were wrought daily were in the hands of the infidels, who cursed and reviled the Christian pilgrims, the indignation grew until the world was ripe for the Crusades, The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem began in the year 1099, and lasted less than a hundred years, except in name. But it took two hundred years before the Christians were finally driven from the coast of Syria, and longer than that before the 74 PALESTINE great idea of the Crusades (q.v.) finally faded out of men’s minds, and d to be a factor in European polities, For five hundred years Palestine has been so far happy that she has contributed little to the history of the world. The Turk succeeded the Saracen ; there has been no progress till the present yenera- tion; the rains have become more ruinous ; pashas come and go; the people are oppressed with taxes ; the young men are taken for soldiers, and they never one back ; but the country has been for the most n peace, IL. MPhysicad Description of the Holy Land.— Palestine proper contains an area of about 6000 sq. m. tis hounded on the N. by the river fees 1 (the ‘ divider’), which is never merttioned at all in the Bible; on the E. by the Jordan, and on the W. by the sea. At first sight the map shows ridge upon ridge of hills running east and west, sloping gradually to the west, and descending steeply to the east. On the west is a long strip of low sea- board varying in breadth, vanishing altogether at the foot of Carmel, and broadening sonthward into the Plain of Philistia. The Bible speaks of the country as consisting of desert, mountain, plain, low hills (Shephelah), and valley. In North Galilee the watershed runs at an average height of 2800 feet above the sea, while the highest peak rises to a height of 3934 feet. In Samaria the hills are lower, not rere! above 3000 feet, while south of Jerusalem the hills again rise to over 2300 feet. The north country contains the Plains of Buttauf and the rich plain of Esdraelon, 20 miles long and 9 miles broad, elevated, at its highest point, 250 feet above the sea. The principal elevations in the atry are Jebel Jermftk, 3934 feeb; Carmel, 1740 feet high and 12 miles long; Mount Ebal, 3084 feet, and Mount Gerizim, 2849 feet; Tell Asiir, 3318 feet; aud R&s esh Sherifeh, 3258 feet, the only known spot whence the Dead Sea and Mediterranean Sea are visible. The Maritime Plain, formed partly by the denudation of the mountains and partly by accumulation of sand, possesses a fertile soil; deep gullies ran across it, with, in some cases, perennial streams. The Jordan Valley begins with the rise of the stream 1000 feet above the Mediterranean, and in 100 miles has fallen to 1292 feet below the Mediterranean, This is a drop of nearly 2300 feet, or 23 feet in a mile. The valley itself varies in width from 5 miles, where it begins, to 13 miles in the Plain of Jericho. The country terminates southward with the Jeshi- mon, the ‘Solitude’ of the Old Testament or the * Wilderness of Judea’ of the New, a platean of white — rising in cliffs 2000 feet high above the Palestine is poorly snpplied with rivers. The following, large and small, flow into the Mediter- ranean: The Nahr Mefshukh, Nahr Namein (the Belus), Nahr el Mukatta (the Kishon), Nahr el Zerka, Nahr el Mefjir, Nahr Iskanderfineh, Nahr el Falik, Nahr el Aujeh, Nahr Rubin, Nahr Sukereir. The following are the sources of the Jordan: Nahr Bareighit, Nahr el HAshany, Nahr el Leddin, Nahr Banias. On the eastern side, not counting a few winter rills which run into the Sea of Galilee, there are the Nahr Yarmuk, Nahr Rukkad, Nahr Zerka (the Jabbok), Nahr Zerka MA’ain, and Nahr Mojib (the Arnon), Those which flow into the Jordeh on the west side are Nahr Jalid and Nahr Far’ah. The country is not, therefore, plentifully supplied with streams, On the other hand, it is a country abounding in springs. The three lakes of Huleh, Galilee, and the Dead Sea are its only lakes. The climate of Palestine is extremely hot in summer, when the temperature reaches 100° F., and in winter it is wet and cold, though frost does not occur on the plains. There are heavy dews. The ‘former rain’ and the ‘latter rain’ are those which occur at autumnal and vernal equinoxes. The fauna and flora of Palestine have been treated exhaustively by Canon Tristram, ; distinetive trees of the count the olive, the cedar, and the sycamore, shittim-wood is supposed to have been the acacia, The vine of Sodom is the osher, which has a fruit like a lemon, containing pith. The rose of Sharon is a white narcissus ; and the lily of the valley is the blue iris. Many of the names of creatures mentioned in the Bible have been so translated in the old version as to convey quite a false impression. Thus, the ‘unicorn ’—rém—was a species of wild-ox now extinct. This, is shown hy the A reliefs, The ‘hart’ is the fallow-deer ; the ‘ is not the rabbit, but the Syrian hyrax ; the ‘leo- pard’ is the cheetah; the ‘fox’ is the jackal; the ‘mouse’ is the jerboa; the ‘weasel’ is the mole- rat; the ‘badger’ is the porpoise. The leviathan is probably the crocodile, still found in one or two of the rivers. The wild-goat—bex—is still found in large herds in the southern wilderness ; the lion is extinct ; the bear lingers in the mountains; the hywna is common; the wolf is rare; the dog is an unclean creature living in the outskirts of towns, and feeding on garbage. Of birds, man mentioned in the Bible cannot be identified. A those which can be identified are still to be fi Of insects, the locust still devastates the erops; the grasshopper still serves for food; the hornet and the wasp are still regarded with terror; and the worship of the ‘Jord of flies’ is still explained by the multitudes of those insects in the low Geology.—In no other country are the physical features more indicative of the geological structure than in Palestine ; and every student of the history of this remarkable country will recognise the important bearing which these features have had on the political and religions history of its inhabitants, The region is physically divisible into four parts: (1) The maritime district, extending poe the shore of the Mediterranean, and ineluding Philistia; (2) the central tableland or ‘hill-country’ of Judwa, culminating in the Lebanon towards the north and spreading out into the great plain of the Badiet-et-Tih in an opposite direction; (3) the depression of the Jordan Valley and separating Eastern from Western Palestine; an (4) the tableland of Edom, Moab, and the on of Trachonitis to the east of the Jordan Valley hounded by an abrupt and lofty escarpment, an stretching away towards the east into the ) of Arabia. Taking these divisions in the order here stated, their geological structure may be briefly described as follows : (1) The maritime district, having an average elevation of about 200 feet above the sea, is formed of marls, sand, and gravel, with shells teloniek to species now living in the adjoining seas. These deposits are, in fact, the upraised sea-beaches belonging to geologically recent times, and indicate considerable eel changes at a period partiall prehistoric. These littoral deposits rest upon eal- careous sandstones of perhaps Miocene age, which terminate inland along the borders of the central ~ tableland. (2) This latter is composed of lime- stones and marls, of Cretaceous and Eocene age, with bands of marl and layers or nodules of chert; the whole having a thickness of about 3500 feet. The beds rise from beneath the calcareous sand- stone of Philistia, and form a vast crenelated arch, the central axis of which in a meri- dional direction under the summit of the table- land, where the strata are nearly horizontal ; and upon which are the sites of Nablas, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Hebron. Fossils in these strata are the terebinth, “a | a PALESTINE 715 are only locally abundant, but are quite sufficient to enable us to refer the beds either to the Cre- taceous or Eocene periods. (3) The great depres- sion of the Jordan Valley and Dead Sea, known as the Ghér, lies along the line of a great fault, or dislocation of the strata, owing to which the strata do not correspond to each ze on opposite sides of the valley, but are vertically displaced; being let down on the west and elevated along the east. The fault has been traced southwards along the eastern margin of the Wady-el-’Arabah, and in Palestine its position is marked by the abrupt uprising of the tableland along the eastern side of the Jordan Valley and the Ghér. The valley itself on either side is often diversified by terraces of marl, sand, and gravel, with lacustrine or fluviatile shells, and of rock-salt along the western margin of the Dead Sea. These terraces are at various levels above the present waters of the valley, and reach to a height of about 1200 feet above the Dead Sea surface in the ’Arabah Valley. As they are clearly lake-deposits they indicate that the waters of the Dead Sea once rose to a level of 1200 feet higher than at present, thus forming a lake which must have had a length of 120 miles from north to south, embracing the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan as far as the lake of Huleh. The remarkable promon- tory called El Lissan (or ‘The Tongue’), which ee out into the Dead Sea from the base of the oabite escarpment, as well as the corresponding terrace of rock-salt capped by gypseous marl on the west side of the Dead Sea, are portions of a once continuous bed of this more ancient and vastly more extensive inland lake. (4) Along the east of the Jordan Valley and Dead Sea the base of the Creta- ceons limestone is seen reposing upon variegated sandstone, known as the ‘Nubian Sandstone’ of Lower Cretaceous age and this again on various erystalline rocks, such as granite, gneiss, porphyry, and schist, of great geological antiquity. Of these rocks the flanks of the Edomite Mountains are composed, as well as those forming the Sinaitic peninsula. In the valley of the Nile the same series reaches the surface at the First Cataract, and is seen to pass below the Nubian sandstone. Everywhere these crystalline rocks are the founda- tion of all the geological formations of this region, and have been referred to the Archzean or Lauren- tian period. Tle Cretaceous and Eocene lime- stones form the surface of the tableland of Edom and Moab, and extend eastwards under the great elevated plain of the Arabian Desert, a counterpart of the Libyan Desert west of the Nile. From the neighbourhood of Kerak nortliwards these lime- stone strata are intersected or overlaid by dykes and sheets of basalt, which form the region of Trachonitis east of the Sea of Galilee, and which have been poured forth from voleanic vents and fissures in the region of the Hauran. Some of the voleanie cones and vents are remarkably perfect and fresh—resembling those of the Auvergne region in central France, both having been developed in Post-Tertiary times ; and it is not improbable that some of the hot springs which issue forth along the line of the Jordan owe their high temperature to the proximity of the underground waters to the still heated masses of lava beneath the surface. In the Lebanon and Hermon the Cretaceous and Tertiary limestones are thrown into numerous flexures, and are repeated by successive faults, amongst which the most important is the prolonga- tion of the Jordan Valley fault, which, judging from indications which have been observed, appears to be continued along the valley of the Orontes. Il. The Exploration of the Country.—The stream of pilgrims to the Holy Land began in the 2d century, and has never since then ceased. This stream rose to its highest flood in the century before the Crusaders, when the Mediterranean was covered with ships conveying the pilgrims to the shores of the Holy Land, and the roads were black with the troops of those who walked or rode through Europe and across Asia Minor. Those of them who returned in safety told what they had seen. Some of them wrote descriptions of the Holy Land. Thus, in the 4th century, a pilgrim from Bordeaux, who visited the country when Con- stantine’s basilica was being built, wrote an account of his journey. In the same century Eusebius produced an Onomasticon or gazetteer of the Holy Land. Later on Jerome, Eucherius, Theodorus, Antoninus Martyr, Procopius, before the Mohammedan conquest, wrote accounts of the country and of Jerusalem. After the conquest the pilgrims were allowed to come and go unmolested. Arculphus, Willibald, Bernard, and others have left descriptions which belong to the 7th, 8th, and 9th centuries. Moreover, the Moslems themselves began to write. About 985 El Mukaddasi, ‘the man of Jerusalem,’ described the whole of Syria. A few years later Nazir-i-Khusrau wrote an account of his journey from Balkh, through Armenia and Palestine to Cairo, thence to Mecca, through Persia, and so back to his native town. The Crusaders have left copious accounts of their wars, their oceupations, and their customs, while the descriptions and narrations of pilgrims who wrote in Latin, French, Russian, Greek, Hebrew, Per- sian, and Arabic throw floods of light on the country of this time. Maps began to be made; they lack the accuracy of later geographers, but they convey instrnetion as regards the land and its hysical features, which is correct so far as it goes, linsy the map of Marino Sannto indicates the hill- country, the mountains of Libanus, the River Jordan, the Dead Sea, and the Sea of Galilee, and places the towns with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Palestine, therefore, though never explored, was tolerably well known to the world, as well known as Italy was formerly to the French or the Low Countries to the English. Modern exploration, with fuller knowledge of what was wanting, an in the 19th century with Seetzen, Burckhardt, Buckingham, Irbyand Mangles, Tobler, De Sauley, Van de Velde, and Williams. The researches of Robinson and the immense additions made by him in the field of Biblical geography in the years 1838-52 forced upon the world the necessity for an exhaustive survey of the country. Robinson demonstrated the existence every where of rnined towns and hill-forts in which were preserved the long-lost names of Bible places. It became certain that a triangulation of the country, such as that of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, which should leave not a corner of country, not a single hillock, unexplored, would be fruitful in results, and would furnish a map of such accuracy as to require no more books of travel for the elucidation of geographical points. Thus, the physical features of the country were already known in general terms, but the details were mostly unknown; while even the curious foot- steps of Robinson had left whole tracts of country totally unexplored. The foundation of the Pales. tine Exploration Fund (1865) was the first step taken in this new direction; but it shows how little the necessity for such a survey was impressed upon the minds even of its founders that they began, after a preliminary journey under Captain (Colonel Sir Charles) Wilson, by excavations in Jerusalem under Lieutenant (Colonel Sir Charles) Warren. It seemed at the moment more import- ant to settle, if possible, the site of the temple than to make clear and intelligible the whole of the Bible narrative. For this and nothing short of this has been the result of the survey. This survey 716 PALESTINE PALESTRINA has now been executed, chiefly by Major Conder, R.E., whose name will be indelibly associated with a work which has done so much for the right understanding of the Bible in the version ‘into English. The whole of Western Palestine is now mapped on a scale which includes every ruin as well as every epring, every watercourse, every wood, and every hillock. At least 150 lost biblical sites have been recovered ; by means of these the bonndaries of the tribes cau now be laid down; one-fourth only of the Bible names remain to be identified. The topography of Joseplins, of the Talmud, of the pilgrims, and of the chroniclers has also been illustrated and recovered. All important heights have been ascertained; the levels of the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee are laid down ; all the remaining ruins have been planned and drawn; the various forms of rock sepulture have examined and classified; the rude stone monuments have been marked and planned ; for the first time the route of invading armies can be followed, and the strategic art of the captains can be understood ; native customs have been gathered ; the seasons, the climate, the fauna and flora, the monuments, the inscriptions, the ethnology of the country and its people have all been collected. These things bring floods of light to bear upon the understanding of the Scriptures, Formerly the study of the Bible was contined to the books them- selves and to the literature of exegesis which had gathered round those books. To this method we owe the immense mass of writings on the Bible, books which fill the greater part of our libraries, books of profound erudition from which scarcely anything can be gleaned for the instruction of the ple. Now, however, there are new methods. Ve approach the Bible armed with coins, with inseriptions in cuneiform, in hieroglyphics, in Hebrew, Arabic, and in Greek ; we have inscribed monuments, such as the Moabite Stone, the Siloam inscription, the stone of the temple; we have a map of the country accurate and exhaustive, a ion for all time, which will never need to be one again; we have measurements and plans of all the ruins; we have traditions, legends, Jan- guages, customs; we have, besides, for those who . come after us, a great collection of inscriptions in unknown characters containing one knows not what ancient history. Lastly, which must not be omitted, everything which has been found, or which has been achieved, in the direction of scientific exploration to prove the literal exactness of the historical portions of the Old and New Testament. The nt condition of the country shows the beginning of rapid changes in every direction. The - Survey of Palestine was undertaken not a day too soon. In a very few years’ the ruins which have been figured by the surveyors, and so, ina sense, aaa for ever, will have vanished under the estructive hands of Change. The thonsands of visitors who every — pour into the country con- tribute in no small degree to alter the character, the habits, and the ideas of the people; roads are being everywhere constructed in a country where up tilla few years there were no ronuls, The traveller can now drive from Jaffa to Jerusalem, from Jerusalem to Jericho, from Jerusalem to Hebron, and from Haifa to Tiberias. A railway is in construction between Jaffa and Jerusalem; plans and surveys of another from Haifa to Damas- ens, by way of Nazareth, are also ready ; and there is now a hotel at Jericho, As ris Jernsalem, a new town has sprung up outside the walls; the Russians have dJmildings there which, on occasions, would serve for fortresses; the Jews are flocking into the city—it is rumoured that there are now upon 50,000 Jews in and about the Holy City; the Mount of Olives is being covered with bnild- ings. There are Jewish colonies between Ramlah, Lydda, and Jaffa; there are German colonies in the same region ; Circassians ocenpy Amman, and are settling in the Haurin; the people from the Lebanon are coming down from their bills and covering the country east of the Jordan. In fact, those who wish to see Palestine as it has been for a thousand years and more must go at once or they will never have the chance. BreuiocraPuy.—The books published on Palestine are far too numerous to be set down. But the has rendered most of them practically useless. All of travel of modern times may now be ; their Fauna and Flora, by Canon Tristram ; a volume of nected with the . the Name-lists, containing all the names in Arabic the English transliteration and the translation; and the. Geology of Western Palestine, by Professor Edward Hall, F.RS. ; to which is added an index in one volume. results he may read the works of work in Palestine, Heth and Moab, Syrian Stone- that of Mr H. A. Discoveries. An excellent résumé of the and of E recent research is also contained in Gonder's Patewine A collection of early pilgrims is in course of publication by the Palestine Pilgrims’ Text Palestine the Moslems, by Guy le Strange ( Fupah gives s . world =) neg first time an and geographical account of the country compiled exelu- oer from Moslem writers. See also Canon brerege 3 La side So. (2d ed. 1872); Socin, Palestine Syria ( eker’s guide, 1878); Thomson, The Land and the Book (1859; new ed. 1886); Sir R. Palestine (1888); G. A. Smith, Historical G 0) the Holy Land (1894); bibliographies by (1875) and Réhricht (1890); and Thirty Years o; Holy Land (Pal. Explor. F 1895). SALEM, and works cited there ; Jews, Palestine, capital of Anderson county, Texas, 151 miles by rail N. of Houston. It manufactures brass and iron goods, and has a pop. (1900) of 8297. Palestrina, the ancient Preneste, an Italian city, 22 miles E. by S. of Rome, on the slope of an offset of the Apennines, contains the chief castle of the Colonnas and the palace of the Barberini family, the owners after 1630. It is built almost entirely upon the gigantic substrne- tions of the ancient Temple of Fortune, one of the greatest religions edifices in all Italy, celebra not only for its splendour, but also for its oracle, which was consulted down to the time of - stantine. Portions of the ancient wall—Cyclopean blocks of limestone—still remain. Prieneste was a member of the Latin League, until in 499 B.c. it joined the Romans. Yet it took a prominent part in the Latin war (340-338 B.c.) t Rome. aving given shelter to the younger Marius in 82 B.C., it was taken and sacked by Sulla. Its elevated and healthy situation, at no great distance from the capital, made it a favourite summer-resort of the Romans, Augustus and Tiberius frequented it; Horace found it a pleasant retreat ; Hadrian built there an extensive villa; and Antoninus erected a palace. Numerous valuable works of art and other remains have been recovered, dating. prin- cipally from the 8th, and from the 3d and 2d, cen- turies B.C., the former showing Phoenician influence, the latter being Roman. Pop. 5855. Palestrina, Giovanni Preriuict DA, the greatest of Italian musical composers, was born at eee PALESTRINA PALEY ~ 717 Palestrina in 1524. He studied music at Rome under Goudimel, and in 1551 was made maestro di capella of the Julian Chapel of St Peter’s by Pope Julius III. In 1554 he published a collection of Masses, which the pope so highly approved of that he appointed their composer one of the singers of the Sixtine Chapel. Being a married man, he lost that office on the accession to the pontificate of the severer Paul IV. But in 1555 he was made choir-master of the Lateran, and in 1561 was given the similar post in St Maria Maggiore, and held it till 1571, when he was restored to his office in the Julian Chapel. The Council of Trent, having under- taken to reform the mmsic of the church, entrusted to Palestrina the task of remodelling this part of religious worship. He composed three masses as exainples of what could be done; one of them, the Mass of Pope Marcellus (to whose memory it is dedicated), saved music to the church by estab- lishing a type infinitely superior, in its blending of devotional with artistic feeling, to anything that had preceded it, a type which, amid all the changes that music has since gone through, continues to attract admiration. Palestrina must be considered the first musician who reconciled musical science with musical art, and his works form a most im- 1 epoch in the history of Music (q.v.). He ied in the arms of St Philip Neri on 2d Februai 1594. His compositions, very numerous, are all sacred, except two volumes of Madrigals; they have been published at Leipzig (1868 e¢ seq.). The authoritative Life was written by the Italian Baini (Rome, 1828). Paley, FrepericK Apruorp, classical scholar, grandson of the author of the Lvidences, was born at Easingwold, near York, in 1816. He had his education under Dr S. DVutler at Shrewsbury, and at St John’s College, Cambridge, but, not obtain- ing mathematical honours, by the regulations of the time was shut out from the classical tripos, and likewise did not obtain a fellowship. He resided, however, at Cambridge till his conversion to the Roman Catholic faith in 1846, and later from 1860 till 1874, when he was appointed pro- fessor of Classical Literature at the abortive Roman Catholic college at Kensington. He next went to live at Bournemouth, was twice classical examiner to London University and for the classical tripos at Cambridge, and continued till the sudden close of his life (11th December 1888) his arduous labours in classical scholarship. In early life at Cambridge he helped to found the Camden Ecclesi- ological iety, and published books on Gothic architecture; but the important work of his life began in 1844 with the first part of his edition of 4Eéschylus with Latin notes. He re-edited A’schylus for the ‘ Bibliotheca Classica,’ as well as Euripides, Hesiod, the Iliad, and completed the Sophocles of Mr Blaydes, all for the same series ; host also pre- pared minor editions of similar works, or parts of these, for the ‘ Cambridge Texts’ series. is Pro- pertius, Ovid's Fasti, and Martial were less suc- cessful; but his three comedies of Aristophanes, Theocritus, and his Select Private Orations of Demosthenes (in conjunction with Dr Sandys) were recognised as works of the very highest value. He eee prose translations of the Philebus and Theetetus of Plato, the 5th and 10th books ‘of Aristotle’s Ethics, the Odes of Pindar, and the Tragedies of AEschylus, and renderings in verse of the 5th book of Propertius and Fragments of the Greek Comic Poets (1888). Other works were a treatise on Greek Particles (1881), Greek Wit (1881), and an unsatisfactory edition of the Gospel of St John (1887). Paley received the degree of LL.D. from Aberdeen in 1883. A sagacious textual eritic and sound exegete, he left behind him traditions of a high type of scholarship, of the age when yet scientific philology was not, and German might be neglected. In his later years he adopted a late date for Homer. / Paley, W1.1AM, a celebrated English divine, was born at Peterborough, son of a minor canon of the cathedral, in 1743. His family belonged to the West Riding of Yorkshire, and not Tong after his birth his father returned to his native parish of Giggleswick to become master of the grammar-school there. In 1759 he entered Christ’s Gollege, Cambridge, as a sizar, and led for two years an idle (though not dissipated) life, but thereafter became a severe student, and in 1763 came out senior wrangler. After three years as an assistant-master at Green- wich, he was elected in 1768 a fellow and tutor of Christ’s College, and here he lectured on moral philosophy till his marriage in 1776 and presenta- tion to the rectory of Musgrave in Westmorland and the vicarage of Dalston in Cumberland, which were soon exchanged for the more profitable living of Appleby. In 1780 he was collated to a pre- bendal stall in Carlisle Cathedral, in 1782 he became archdeacon, and in 1785 chancellor of the diocese. In the latter year he published his Prin- ciples of Moral and Political Philosophy, for which he received £1000. In this work he propounds his ethical theory—a form of what is usually known as utilitarianism. He begins by adducing a series of strong objections against the popular doctrine of the moral sense, next takes up the question of the source of obligation, and resolves it into the will of God, enforced by future punishment, it bein admitted candidly that virtue is prudence directec to the next world. The will of God, in so far as it is not rendered explicit by revelation, is to be interpreted by the tendency of actions to promote human happiness, the benevolence of the Deity being assumed. Objection may fairly be taken to the pein pies on which Paley rests his system, but the lucidity and appositeness of his illustrations are beyond all praise; and if his treatise cannot be regarded as « profoundly philosophical work, it is at anyrate one of the clearest and most sensible ever written, even by an Englishman. In 1790 appeared his most original work, Hore Pauline, the aim of which is to prove, by a great variety of ‘undesigned coincidences,’ the great improbability of the common hypothesis of the unbelief of that day, that the New Testament is a cunningly devised fable. It was followed in 1794 by his famous View of the Evidences of Christianity, in which dexterous use is made of Lardner’s Credibility and Bishop Douglas’ Criterion of Miracles. The treatment is on the historical method, flanked by auxiliary a, ara is drawn from the superior: morality of the gospel,- the originality of Christ’s character, and the like. But the bases of con- troversy have now entirely shifted, and the work, able as it is, is no longer, even at Cambridge, regarded adequate as a defence. The champion of the faith was splendidly rewarded. The Bishop of London gave him a stall in St Paul’s; shortly after he was made subdean of Lincoln, with £700 a year; Cambridge conferred on him the degree of D.D.; and the Bishop of Durham presented him to the rectory of Bishop Wearmouth, worth £1200 a year. Perhaps his latitudinarianism and essentially unspiritual temperament, as well as such homely sarcasms as comparing the ‘divine right of kings’ with the ‘divine right of constables,’ may have hindered him from yet higher preferment. After 1800 he became subject to a painful disease of the kidneys, yet in 1802 he published perhaps the most widely fiona of all his works, Natural Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, largely based on the Religious Philosopher of Nieuwentyt, a Dutch disciple of Descartes. An excellent edition is that by Lord Brougham and 718 PALGHAT PALINDROME Sir Charles Bell (1836-39), Paley died May 25, 1805. A complete edition of his works was published by one of his sons, the Kev. Edmund Paley (7 vols, 1825); later editions are those by Wayland (5 vols, 1837) and Paxton (5 vols, 1838). The best biography is that by G. W. Mea/lley (Sunderland, 1809); and see Leslie Stephen, Enylish Thought in the Eighteenth Century (1876). - P. at, a town of Malabar district, 68 miles SE. of Calient by rail. Its old fort was of great strategic importance during the wars with Hyder Ali and Tippoo Saib. Pop, (1891) 39,481. P. ve, Str Francis, historian, was born in London in July 1788, the son of Meyer Cohen, a Jewish stockbroker. He was privately educated, and showed a quite remarkable precocity, having at eight translated into French a Latin version of the le of the Frogs and Mice, which his — rinted in 1797. His father’s fortunes failing in 803, he was articled as a solicitor’s clerk, and here he remained until 1822, when he took chambers in the Temple and was employed under the Record Commission. On his marriage (1823) he assumed his mother-in-law’s maiden name of Palgrave. He was called to the bar in 1827, and soon acquired considerable practice in pedigree cases before the House of Lords. As early as 1818 he had edited a collection of Anglo-Norman chansons ; in 1831 he contributed a History of England to the ‘Family Library ;' and in 1832 he published his Rise and Progress of the English Commonwealth, also Obser- vations on the Principles ¥ New Municipal Corpor- ations. The same year he was knighted. From 1833 to 1835 he served on the Municipal Corpora- tion Commission, and in 1838, on the reconstruction of the Record Service, he was appointed ace keeper of Her Majesty’s Records, an office he held till his death at Hampstead, 6th July 1861. Besides the works already mentioned, Palgrave edited for the government the followitig: Calendars of .the Treasury of the Exchequer (3 vols. 1836), Parliamentary Writs (1 4), Rotuli Curie Reyis (1835), Ancient Kalendars and Inventories of the Treasury of Her Majesty's Exchequer (1836), and Documents and ls illustrating the History of Scotland (1837). In his ee capacity he produced the Merchant and the iar [Marco Polo and Friar Bacon], and a learned and still valuable History of Normandy and of England (4 vols, 1851-64). P. ve, Francis TURNER, a gifted poet and critic, eldest son of the preceding, born in London, September 28, 1824. He was educated at Charter- house School, became scholar of Balliol College, Oxford, and Fellow of Exeter, filled for five years ‘the office of oopoudies of the Training College for Schoolmasters at Kneller Hall, was private secretary to Earl Granville, an official of the Privy- council, professor of Poetry at Oxford in 1886-95, and was a contributor to the present work. He died 25th October 1897. His works are Jdylls and Songs (1854), Essays on Art (1866), Hymns (1867) The Five Days’ Entertainments at Wentworth Grange (1868), Lyrical Poems (1871), and the Visions of ac apr (1881). He is best known however, as the editor of the admirably selected oa ae of Bag Lyrics ose ; 2d series, ; The ren’s Treasury of Lyrical Poe: (2 vols. 1875); The Sonnets 4 rt ILLIAM GIFFORD PALGRAVE, another son of Sir Francis, born in Westminster, Janu 24 =p" ae yee di = Charterhonse. School anc nity College, Oxford, graduating with t distinction in 1846, Next Sear he Shestooh 4 a tommission in the Bombay Native Infantry, which, however, he soon resigned to become a priest in the Society of Jesus, After a course of study at Laval in France and at Rome he was sent at his own request as a missionary to Syria, where he acquired a wonderfully intimate knowledge of Arabic. Summoned to France in 1860 by Wapoleon Ill. to give an account of the Syrian massacres, he went disguised as a physician on a daring expedition at the emperor's expense throu central Arabia, crthares | the entire W. kingdom, and returning to Europe through and Aleppo (1862-63), With the consent of the emperor, he published his Narrative of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia (2 vols, 1865), one of the best books of travel in the English langu Palgrave quitted the of Sesus in 1864, and was sent by the arr vovernment in 1865 to treat for the release of Coil Cameron and the other captives in Abys- sinia) He was nominated consul at Sukhum- Kalé in 1866, at Trebizond in 1867, at the island of St Thomas in 1873, at Manila in 1876, and consul-general in the eer: of Bulgaria in 1878, and in Siam in 1880. He was ted British minister to Uruguay in 1884, and died at Monte Video, September: , 1888. His other works are Essays on Lastern Questions (1872); Hermann Agha: an Eastern Narrative (2 vols. 1872); Dutch Guiana (1876); Ulysses: Studies in Many Lands (1887) ; A Vision of Life (1891, unfinished ), Pali, the sacred language of the Buddhists (see InprA, Vol. VI. P 102). Pali ceased to be a living language of India when Buddhism was rooted out of it; it was carried by the fugitive Buddhists to other countries, especially Ceylon, Burma, and Siam; but in these countries, too, it had to give way before the native tongues, in which the later Buddhist literature was composed. See the Pali grammars of Minayeff (St Petersburg, 1872; Eng. trans. Maulmain, 1882), Kuhn (1875), and Miiller (1885); Childers’s Padi Dieti (1875), and Frankfurter’s Pali Handbook (1882), Pali, the commercial capital of Jodhpur (q.v.), 45 miles by rail SE. of Jodupas city. st Palikao, a place on the canal between Peking and its port on the Peiho, Here in 1860 was fought an engagement between the Anglo-French troops and the Chinese, and hence the French general, oe heres tate ree iste minister of War in August and Septem } received his title of Count Palikao. Palikars, a name for the Armatoles (q.v.). Palimpsest. See PALZoGRAPHY. Palindrome (Gr. palin, ‘backwards,’ and romos, ‘a running’), the name given to a kind of verse very common in pont the peculiarity of which is that it may be the same back- wards as forwards. A few examples will suffice. Si bene te tna lans taxat sua laute tenebis. Et necat eger amor non Roma rege tacente, Roma reges una non anus eger amor, A Greek palindrome, sometimes inscribed on Le cg fonts (e.g. Hadleigh and Worlingworth, in Suffolk), runs : Nivor dyounua wh pévay sw (* Wash my sin, and not my face only’). A Roman lawyer gets the credit of Si nummi immunis, which Cam- — e n translates ‘Give me my fee, and I warrant free.’ It is said that in the reign of Queen El beth a certain Jady of rank, have been compelled to retire from the court on account of some the truth of which she denied, took for her motto: Ablata at alba, ‘Retired but pure.’ The English language has few palindromes, but one at least is inimitable, It represents our first parent potioy. introducing himself to Eve in these words: ‘Madam, I’m Adam.’ Compare Henry B. Wheatley’s book PALINURUS PALLADIUM 719 on Anagrams (1862); G. R. Clark, Palindromes (Glasgow, 1887). Palinurus, the helmsman of A®neas, was lulled to sleep at his post, and fell into the sea. When Afneas visited the lower world he related to him that on the fourth day after his fall he made the coast of Italy, and was there barbarousl murdered, and his body left unburied on the strand. The Sibyl prophesied that his death should be atoned for, a tomb erected to him, and a cave (Palinurus, the modern Punta della Spartivento) named after him. Palisander Wood, a name sometimes given to Rosewood (q.v.). Palissy, Bernarp, the great French potter, was born about 1509 in the diocese of Agen, and, after wandering for ten or twelve years all over France as a glass- and portrait-painter, about 1538 married and settled at Saintes. There he em- ployed himself also as a land-surveyor, when the chance sight of an enamelled cup made him resolve to discover how to make enamels. So, nagiconn all else, he devoted himself to experiments for six- teen years, by which time he exhausted all his resources, and, for want of money to buy fuel, was forced to burn the tables and the flooring of his house. His neighbours, even his wife, mocked at him; his children cried to him for food; but in spite of all these discouragements he persisted, and was at length rewarded with success (1557). His ware, bearing in high relief plants and animals, coloured to represent nature, soon made him famous; and, though as a Huguenot he was in 1562 im- risoned at Bordeaux, he was speedily released y royal edict, and appointed ‘inventor of rustic figulines’ to the king. Removing to Paris in 1564, he established his workshop at the Tuileries, and was specially exempted by Catharine de’ Medici from the massacre of St Bartholomew (1572). During 1575-84 he delivered a course of lectures on natural history and physics, and was the first in France to substitute facts for fancies, as also to ive right notions of the origin of springs, the Tioutin of fossil shells, the fertilising properties of marl, and the best means of purifying water. In 1585 he was again arrested as a Huguenot, and thrown into the Bastille, where he died in 1589. Palissy’s writings, published between 1557 and 1580, and edited by M. France (Paris, 1880), possess much interest; but the man himself is more interesting still, brave, ardent, sincere, a mixture of Columbus and John Bunyan. See H. Morley’s Palissy the Potter (2 vols. 1852), and French Lives by Audiat (1868), Berty (1886), Dupuy (1894), Paliurus, a genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order Rhamnaceze, nearly allied to Zizyphus (see JusuBe), but very different in the fruit, which is dry, orbicular, and girded with a broad mem- branons hy | P. aculeatus is often ealled Christ’s Thorn, and by the Germans Jews’ Thorn (Juden- dorn), from the faney that it supplied the crown of thorns with which our Saviour was crowned. It is a decidnous shrub or low tree, with slender, pliant branches and ovate three-nerved leaves, each of which has two sharp spines at the base, one straight and the other re-curved. It is a native of the countries around the Medi- terranean, of India, and many parts of Asia. It is often used for hedges in Italy and other coun- tries, its sharp spines and pliant branches admir- ably adapting it for this purpose. -Palk Strait, the northern portion of the shallow between the south coast of India and the Bland of Ceylon (q.v.). Palladio, ANpDREA, Italian architect, was born at Vicenza, 30th November 1518, After studying the writings of Vitruvius and the monuments of antiquity at Rome, he settled in his native city, and soon acquired a high reputation throughout the country from his designs for numerous buildings in Vicenza and the neighbourhood. He is the most conspicuous of the architects who, following Brunel- leschi, led the way in establishing the modern Italian school of architecture, as distinguished from the earlier Italian Style (q.v.) of the Renais- sance. His style, known as the Palladian, is modelled on the ancient Roman as apprehended by Vitruvius, reproducing its dignity and strict proportions, but often to the neglect of usefulness ; and his buildings are constantly encumbered by a superfluity of pilasters and columns, broken entab- latures, and inappropriate ornament, even where there is real beauty of detail. The palaces Bar- barano, Della ione, Chierigati (now the Museo Civico), Tiene, and the Olympic theatre at Vicenza; the country mansions of Sons Maser, and Rotunda in the vicinity ; and the churches of San Giorgio Maggiore and I] Redentore, the facade of San Fran- cesco della Vigna, and several palaces, in Venice, are his greatest achievements. the died at Vicenza, 19th August 1580. Palladio wrote a work on archi- tecture (I quattro Libri dell’ Architettura, 1570, and often reprinted) which had a great influence upon the styles of his successors, especially upon Inigo Jones, the ‘English Palladio,” whose notes on the book are published in Leoni’s Eng. trans. (1715). The term Palladian was, indeed, long practically synonymous with the beautiful an perfect in architecture. Recent Lives (in Italian) are those by Zanella (1880) and Barichella (1880). Palladium, among the ancient Greeks and Romans, an image of Pallas, who was generally identified with Athena (q.v), upon the careful keep- ing of which in a sanctuary the public welfare was believed to depend. The Palladium»of Troy was especially famous, and was the gift of Zeus to the founder of Ilium. It has heen supposed it may have been originally a meteorite (see METEORS). Ulysses agai Pdecede stole the Palladium, and so he to seeure victory for the Greeks ; and both Athens and Argos boasted to have afterwards secured the possession of the charm. Palladium (sym. Pd, atom. wt. 106-2, sp. gr. 114) is one of the so-called noble metals, which in its colour and ductility closely resembles latinum. It is not fusible in an ordinary wind- rnace, but melts at a somewhat lower tempera- ture than the last-named metal; and, when heated beyond its fusing-point, it volatilises in the form of a green vapour. It undergoes no change in the open air at ordinary temperatures ; but at a low red heat it becomes covered with a purple film, owing to superficial oxidation. It is soluble in nitric and iodic acids, and in aqua regia. It com- bines readily with gold, which it has the property of rendering brittle and white. (When it forms 20 per cent. of the mass the alloy is perfectly white.) When alloyed with twice its weight of silver it forms a ductile compound, which has been employed for the construction of small weights ; but for this purpose aluminium is superior. Pro- fessor Miller states that it ‘has been applied in a few cases to the construction of graduated scales for astronomical instruments, for which, by its whiteness, hardness, and unalterability in the air, it is well adapted ;’ its scarcity must, however, prevent its*general use for this purpose. It was discovered in 1803 by Wollaston in the ore of platinum, of which it seldom forms so much as 1 percent. Another source of this metal is the native alloy (termed ouro poudre) which it forms with gold in certain mines in Brazil ; it is from this alloy that the metal is chiefly obtained. 720 PALLADIUS PALM Palladium forms with oxygen a protoxide, PdO, which is the base of the salts of the metal; a binoxide, PdO,; and according to some chemists, a suboxide, Pd,O. On exposure to sufficient heat these compounds give their oxygen and yield the metal. The salts of the protoxide are of a brown or red colour. Palladius, Rutimtvus Taurus A2MILIANUS, a Roman author of the 4th century A.D., who wrote a work, De Re Rustica (On Agriculture), in four- teen books, the last of which is a poem of eighty- five elegiac couplets. Palladius, St. See ScorLanp (CHURCH OF). Pallas, See ATHENA, MINERVA. Pallas, Perer Simon, traveller and naturalist, was born 22d ber 1741, at Berlin, studied medicine and natural history at Berlin, Géttingen, and Leyden, and, already famous, was in 1768 invited to St Petersburg by the Empress Catharine. Appointed naturalist to a scientific expedition to observe the transit of Venns, he spent six years (1768-74) exploring the Urals, the Kirghiz Steppes part of the Altai range, great part of Siberia, an the steppes of the Volga, returning with an extra- ordinary treasure of specimens in natural history. He wrote a series of works on the geography, ethnography, flora and fauna of the regions visited. He settled in the Crimea in 1796, and there he died, 8th September 1811.—The Sand-grouse (q.v.) is often called Pallas’s Sand-grouse. Pallavicino, Srorza, an Italian historian, was born at Rome, 20th November 1607, Having taken priest's orders in 1630, he became in 1638 a member of the Jesuit Society, and was created a cardinal in 1659 by Pope Alexander VII. He died at Rome, 5th June 1667. The best known of his writi is Istoria del Concilio di Trento (Rome, 1656-57), intended as a reply to the equally cele- brated and liberal work of Paul Sarpi, whose nar- rative is not altogether acceptable to Catholics. — FERRANTE PALLAVICINO (1618-44) wrote pasquin- ades which bitterly offended the papal curia and the Barberini family; and being betrayed into his enemies’ hands near Avignon, be was tried, con- demned by a foregone conclusion, and beheaded. Pallice, La, a new harbour A hea (1889) to receive large transatlantic and other ocean-going vessels bound for La Rochelle in France, whence it is less than 3 miles distant. It consists of an inner lasin 28) acres in extent and an outer harbour pro- tected by two moles, each 1380 feet long. Palliser, Sir WiLiiAM, C.B., was born at Dublin on 18th June 1830, and entered the army as a cavalry officer. In 1863 he invented the chilled shot (see SHELL) that bears lis name, and a system of strengthening cast-iron ordnance by the insertion of a stec! tube. He retired in 1871, sat for Taunton as M.P., and died 4th February 1882. Pallium, the name given in the Roman Catho- lie Chureh to one of the ecclesiastical ornaments worn by the pope, by alm nyy and by areh- bishops. It is worn by the pope at all times, as a symbol of his reputed universal and abiding juris- iction. By archbishops it cannot be worn until it has been solemnly asked for and granted by the pope, and even then only during the solemn service of the great church festivals, and on occasions of the ordination of bishops or of priests, and other similar acts of his episcopal office. The pal- lium is a narrow annular band of white woollen web, about 3 inches wide, upon which black crosses are embroidered, which encircles the neck of the archbishop, and from which two narrow bands of the same material depend, one falling over the breast, the other over the back of the wearer. It is made wholly or in part from the wool of two lambs, which are blessed annually on the festival of St Agnes, Palm (Palme or Palmacee), a natural order of endogenous plants, the products of which are of extreme importance and utility to man. They are arborescent, with erect stems, usually slender as compared with the extreme height to which some trees, by means of hooks or prickles, or trailing on the ground with stems of almost incredible length and extreme slenderness, as in the ease of many of the Calami. Externally the stems are hard and horny, often coated with a siliceous deposit hard as flint, and finely polished; they nently are armed with spines, and marked with sears of dead leaves, or clothed in the upper part with the remains of the dead Jeaf-stalks enveloped in masses of fibre. The interior of the stem is prac 4 soft and pithy, intermingled with bundles of tibre —_ tudinally. So soft and easily extracted is internal substance of the stems of many palms that the outer hard case may readily be formed into a cylindrical tube. The leaves vary much in form superficially, bnt all the variations belong to two types—the fan-veined and the pinnate-veined. In the former the general outline is that of a fan, with veins arising from the top of the leaf-stalk and radiating like the ribs of a fan. In the other type the leaves are more or less elongated, with a distinct midrib extending to within a little of the extremity of the blade, which is always there cleft in two down to the point of the midrib, and with the veins springing from the sides of the midrib like the pinnules of a feather. Leaves of this type are sometimes entire, but more generally pinnate, and impart much elegance and grace to the figure of the particular species to which they belong. The size of palm-leaves varies extremely, some only a few inches in length, as in some species Malortia, while in Manicaria saccifera they attain the enormous proportions of 35 feet in length by 5 or 6 feet in breadth. The inflorescence is a simple or many-branched spadix enclosed in a spathe of one or several valves. The flowers are small in- dividually, but numerous, usually of a yellow tint, and in some species powerfully odorous. They are unisexual, bisexual, or polygamous, the male and female flowers ba borne in some species on different plants. The fruit when ripe is berry- like, drupaceous, plum-like, or, as in the cocoa-nut, nut-like. Palms are natives chiefly of the tropical regions of the earth. A few are found in extra-tropical countries extending to 36° N. lat. in America, 34° N, lat. in Asia, and in Europe Chamerops ili. which is the only indigenous species, extends to 44° N. lat.; no species are found beyond 38° 5. lat. Linneus, whose knowledge of palms was limited to the more arborescent species, very appropriately named them the ‘Princes of the egetable Kingdom.’ Their stately habit, the elegant proportions of the stems, and the gun and beauty of the leaves of the majority of the larger species, coupled with the great variety and utility of the products of all, mark them as a most distinguished and valuable group of plants, gratify- ing the eye by their adornment of the landscape and ministering abundantly to the necessities an the pleasures of both savage and civilised man, Their stems when young and tender are delicious and nutritious food ; x old and mature those of certain species yield valuable farinaceous sub- stances ; some are valuable as timber-trees, and the terminal bud of several consists of a mass of tender mucilaginous leaves, which are esteemed a ———————EE eo i a PALM 721 and delicious vegetable. Many yield by incision or otherwise an abundance of sweet sap, from which sugar, refreshing drinks, wines, spirits, and vinegar are obtained. Their leaves are used for thatch, and for the making of mats, baskets, hats, umbrellas, thread, cord, and clothing. They yield excellent and inexhaustible materials, and they are in some cases a natural substitute for writing- paper, the records and writings of many eastern peoples being inscribed upon them. he order comprises, according to Hooker and Bentham in Genera Plantarum, between 130 and 140 genera, and the number of species known is variously estimated by different authorities at from 600 to 1000. The genus Chamiedorea is composed of about sixty species, all of slender, graceful habit, their smooth stems often not exceeding an inch in diameter, though they may be twenty or more feet high, They are in South America for making bridges, as the bamboo is in China and India. The flowers of several of the species— inecludin those of C. aurantiaca (fig. 1)—are highly es- teemed as a enlinary vegetable in some of the countries of Central America, but for this purpose they must be extracted from the spathe before it bursts. The fruit of Leopoldina major, called by the natives of Brazil Jard-assv, is collected by them and burned, and the ash, after being washed, is used as a substitute for salt. It is described, how- ever, as being bitter rather than saline. Zuterpe edulis—also a native of Brazil—produces fruit in size, shape, and colour like that of the sloe. From the fruit of this species a beve is made by infusion which is much relished. JL. oleracea pro- duces an edible and nutritious cabbage. The Nibong of the Malays of the Eastern Archipelago is Oncosperma filamentosa, the cabbage of which is more highly esteemed than that of any other palm indigenous to that region. From the fruit of (Enocarpus batava a wholesome beverage called Patawa-yulissé is made on the Rio Negro. The fruit of Oreodoxa regia, an extremely Rasdsocns alm, a native of Cuba, is too acrid for human ood, but is used there for fattening hogs. Areca catechu is the Betel-nut Palm (see ARECA). The fruit enters into the masticatory of that name so much used in India: It contains gallic acid, much tannin, a principle analogous to catechu gun, a volatile oil, a red insoluble matter, a fatty sub- stance, and some salts. A spurious kind of catechu is obtained from the nuts in two colours—one dark or black, which is extremely astringent; the other yellowish brown, which is less astringent and more pure. Besides being used as a masticatory and in medicine in cases of dysenvor, the substance is em- ployed in tanning leather and in dyeing calico. The terminal shoot of this palm furnishes an excellent cabbage, as also do several other species of Areca, But the true Cabbage Palm is A. oleracea, a noble species indigenous to the West Indies, attaining the height of 170 to 200 feet, with a diameter of stem of about 7 feet. The leaves are pinnate, about 20 feet long, the pinnules in full-sized leaves being often 3 feet in length. The terminal bud or cabbage is enclosed among many thin snow- 358 Fig. 1.—Chamzedorea aurantiaca, white brittle flakes. It has the flavour of the almond, but with greater sweetness, and is boiled and eaten with meat. As its removal causes the death of the tree, it is regarded as an extravagant delicacy only rarely to be enjoyed, because of the great importance of the other products which the tree yields. The inflorescence is extracted from the spathes before they open, are pickled, and esteemed a delicate relish with meat. The nuts yield a useful oil by decoction. The shell or outer hard crust of the stem is employed in making gutters, and the pith yields a kind of sago if extracted immediately the tree is felled; but if allowed to lie and decay on the ground, it becomes the breed- ing ground of a peculiar grub, which is greatly esteemed as a delicate article of food in Mar- tinique and St Domingo. Ceroxylon (Iriartia) andicola, a native of Peru, growing at an elevation of 8000-10,000 feet above sea-level, is a handsome species rising to the height of 160 or more feet. The stem exudes from the annular cicatrices of the fallen leaves a resinous substance called by the inhabitants cera de palma. It is composed of about two parts of a yellow resin and one c= of wax, the texture of which is more brittle than beeswax. A sub-resinous matter is also extracted from it named ceroxylin, which assumes the form of silky crystals, is soluble in alcohol, and phosphorescent by friction. The exuda- tion, mixed with certain proportions of wax or tallow, is employed in candle-making. Besides the resinous exudation the trunk yields a valuable and durable timber, the leaves are excellent and durable material for thatch, and they supply astrong, useful fibre for the manufacture of ropes and cordage. The Kiziuba Palm (C. exorrhiza) is a native of Central and South America, and is a singular and Fig. 2.—Arenga saccharifera. interesting tree on account of its peculiar habit of growth, ‘The roots all spring from the stem above ground, every new root emerging from a point somewhat higher on the stem than the one which preeeded it. And as the old roots decay as the new are produced and penetrate the ground, a tree of some age presents the curious spectacle of being supported on three or four legs long enough and wide enough apart to enable a man to pass between them erect. The timber is used in flooring and for making umbrella-sticks, musical instruments, &c. Blowpipes (q.v.) for poisoned arrows are made from the stems of C. setigera. The Sugar Palm ( Arenga saccharifera, see fig. 2) is a native of the Moluccas, Cochin-China, and the Indian Archipelago, and is of immense value to the 722 PALM natives of these countries on account of its various products, It yields an abundant sweet sap, from which a chocolate-coloured sugar named jaggery is made, The sap fermented makes an intoxicating drink variously named by the inhabitants of the different countries neroo or brum. From the pith of the stem sago is obtained in great quantity, a single stem yielding as much as from 150 to 200 Ib. 1e leaves supply Gomuto fibre, which is celebrated for its great strength and durability when formed into oontage and ropes, and at the base of the leaves a fine woolly material, named baru, is developed in mature trees, which is employed in caulking ships, stufling cushions, and making tinder. Caryota urens (see fig. 3), one of the noblest Ims of India, yields some remarkable products. he flesh of the fruit, which resembles a plum in size and structure, is very acrid, and corrodes and burns the lips and month. From the terminal bud & sweet watery liquor is obtained, which, when “boiled, yields yaggery. The terminal bud is also Fig. 3.—Caryota urens, eaten as a cabbage. From the pith of the stem sago is obtained, which is made into bread, and prepared in various other ways, and is a valn- able article of food to the natives. The tree is named Kittul in Singhalese, and the fibre called Kittul, obtained from its leaves, is most valuable to brushmakers (see FIBROUS SUBSTANCES). The genus Calamus and its immediate allies are varded as forming a connecting link between the valms and the grasses, having the inflorescence and Fruit of the former and in some cases the habit of the latter. Certain species—viz. C. Roxburghii, C. Royleanus, both of which are included in C. rotang by some authors, and C. viminalis and others— furnish the rattan-canes employed in making ropes and cables, chair bottoms, couches, kets, mats, &e. The walking-sticks known as Malacca canes are made from the stems of C. scipionum, & species which grows not in Mal- acea, bunt in Sumatra, and the canes are chiefly exported from Siak in that island. The stems of the Great Rattan (C. rudentium) and others are of prodigious length, extending to hundreds of feet, clinging by hooks attached to their leaves to the trunks and boughs of neighbouring trees, or trailing on the ground, They are extremely hard externally, and usually smooth, with a dense sili- ceous crust on the surface. C. draco furnishes the finest quality of the resinous substance known as Dragon's Blood (q.v.), although a similar substance is obtained from various other plants. In this case it is exuded from the surface of the fruit, and is separated from it by rubbing or shaking the fruit together in a bag. An inferior quality of the same sabstance is also obtained from the tree by incision of the stem, and hy steaming the fruit after the natural exudation has been collected. The species are very numerous, about 200 having been described, but few are more singular than ( fig. 4), which resembles a creeping or twinin rrass rather than a palm, the stems rarely exceed- ing in thickness stont wheat straw.—Zalacca edulis is regularly cultivated by the Burmese for the sake of its pleasantly acidulous fruit, which grows to the size of a walnut. The — sueeulent scaly pulp which encloses the seed is the edible part, — Raphia vinifera, a nativeof Guinea, yields a rather abundant sap, from which a strongly spirit- uous wine is ob- tained. One of the most beauti- ful and singular of palms is &. tedigera, an in- habitant of the banks of the Amazon. The trunk of the tree is short, from 6 to 10 feet high, but from the summit the leaves rise al- most perpendicularly to the height of 40 feet or more, arching gracefully outward towards the apex. The footstalk of these enormous leaves alone are often 12 or 15 feet long by 4 or 5 inches in diameter. The integument of these footstalks is thin, ex- tremely hard and elastic, and light as a quill, and, being easily split into straight strips, is made into window-blinds, baskets, &e, by the Indians. The true sago of commerce (see SAGO) is derived from various species of the genus Sagus, although other species of palms, as has already been stated, and also plants widely different botanically, such as Cycas revoluta, also yield a kind of sago. Rumphii, S. levis, and S. farinifera are the species from which the largest quantity of true sago is Fig. 4.—Calamus adspersus. obtained. S. Rumphit_ is a native of the Indian ped pelago, Malacca, Borneo, Sumatra, Celebes, and the Toluceas being the principal places in which it is cultivated. The tree is sont i rarely exeeeding 30 feet in height of stem, which consists of a hard shell about 2 inches thick enclosing a mass of spongy pith—the sago. This pith is nally absorbed after the tree reaches matur- ity, fore the stem quite hollow. The proper time to fell the trees, before the pith ins to diminish in bulk or quality by absorption, is indi- eated by the upper leaves becoming covered with a sort of farina or white dust. en felled the stem is cut into lengths of 6 or 7 feet, which are split, the better to remove the pith. There are various modes of extracting the fecula from the insoluble substances with which it is combined in the stem, but washing and straining are the prin- cipal features of every process. A single tree, it is said, will yield from 500 to 600 1b, of sago.—The Bache (Mauritia flexuosa), a native of Guiana, supplies the chief wants of the ple wherever it grows; the stems furnish timber for building their dwellings, the leaves thatch for the same, and material for mats, couches, hammocks, &e. 3 the pith yields sago; the juice by fermentation gives an excellent beverage; the kernels of PALM 723 fruit are ground into meal and made into bread; and the fibre is converted into cordage and cloth- ing.—The Palmyra Palm (Borassus “Aabelliformis is one of the most common of its tribe in India. In some parts of the country it grows spontane- ously, and it is found as far north as 30° ; in others it is the subject of careful cultivation. It furnishes the ter part of the palm-wine of India, which Ww the cope fara” Famuls bo called vine and oongpoo, and by Europeans Toddy. The fruit is shoud the size of a child's bend: somenas tri- angular, and within a thick, fibrous rind contains three seeds about the size of a goose’s egg. The seeds when young are eaten by the natives, bein jelly-like and palatable. The toddy is obtain y wounding the spathe before the inflorescence expands. After a few days a clear, sweet liquor exudes from the wound, and is earefully collected in pots suspended under the wounded spathe. A tree yields about three quarts daily. The liquor is drunk fresh, and will only keep sweet for about three days, when it undergoes fermentation and becomes sour, and is distilled into arrack. Jaggery is also made from the juice. The young plants when a few inches high are cooked and eaten as a vegetable. The Teaves, whieh are fan-shaped and large, are turned to the various uses alluded to in connection with species already described, and in India they are almost universally used for writing upon with an iron stylus. The Double Cocoa-nut, or Sea Cocoa-nut as it has been.called, is Lodoicea seychellarum. The nuts of this tree are seen occasionally in museums and in the cabinets of collectors of curios, often beautifully polished and carved by native workmen, aad formed into caskets and other ornaments. For long their origin was shrouded in mystery. They were f. nently found floating about in the ocean before the discovery of the tree, and an absurd belief was entertained by Malay and Chinese sailors that they were the fruit of some marine tree. The tree, a native of the Seychelle Islands, is very elegant, attaining a height of from 50 to 80 feet with leaves 20 feet long supported on stalks of equal length. The fruit is one of the largest produced by any of the palms, being a foot or a foot and half in length. The kernel near the base is divided into two parts—hence the name Double Cocoa-nut —and while young part of the fleshy substance in which it is enclosed $e edible. The chief products of the tree are timber and fibre for cordage, and a downy kind of fibre which envelops the young leaves is used for filling mattresses and pillows. The Talipat’ Palm of Ceylon (Corypha umbra- eulifera) is notable only for the variety of uses to which its leaves are put in Ceylon and other parts of India to which it is indigenous. The leaves are of immense size, and, being palmate with the leaf- stalk attached near the middle, they are readily formed into umbrellas and tents; the cane-like ribs being removed and the blades neatly stitched together, they may be folded up with great facility. They are also very much used for the books or colahs of the inhabitants. Many of these alleged to be made of Egyptian papyrus are formed of the leaves of this palm. The tree grows to the height of 100 feet, and has a very grand and imposing appearance.—A closely allied species (C. taliera) is the Talipat Palm of the Indian peninsula. It grows to abont the same height as the preceding species, with leaves of a more durable kind for the urposes of thatch, but not so adaptable to more elicate and artistic uses.—Licnala peltata is the Chittah-pat of Assam, the leaves of which are extensively used for making umbrellas, punkahs, and hats. The stems of L. acutifolia are made into walking-sticks, named by Europeans Penang Lawyers. —Copernicia cerifera, a native of northern Brazil, produces an edible fruit ; and from the leaves, after they have been removed from the-trees and dried, is obtained an inferior kind of vegetable wax, which is used in candle-making and to adulterate beeswax. Of the American Palmetto Palm, a native of the Carolinas and Florida, the most important species is the Cabbage Palmetto (Sabal palmetto), which sometimes grows to 50 feet in height and 15 inches in diameter, with leaves 5 feet long and broad. It is found also in the Bermudas. Its products are timber and the leaves, the former being exceed- ingly durable, very porous (see MOULTRIE), and especially valuable for wharf-building, as it resists water and is not attacked by the teredo. The fruit is not edible-—The Palmetto of Europe is Chamerops humilis, which inhabits the countries on both shores of the Mediterranean, occupying great tracts. It rarely reaches 10 feet in height, and usually is much less, its growth being ex- ceedingly slow. The leaves are fan-shaped and abound in excellent fibre, with which the Arabs, combining it with camels’ hair, make tent-covers ; in Spain it is made into ropes and sailcloth, and in France into carpets, named African haircloth. The French in Algeria make paper and pastebourd of it, and so well adapted is it to this purpose that its use might be more extended in other countries, The fruit is edible, and is eaten by the Arabs and the inhabitants of Sicily and Southern Italy. The plant endures the climate of London, but scarcely grows. C. Ritchiecana, a native of Sind and Afghanistan, and C. excelsa, a native of China and Japan, both produce excellent fibre. The leaves of 7hrinax argentea supply the material called chip, of which ladies’ hats and bonnets of that name are made. The trunks of TL. parviflora, a native of Jamaica, though of slender diameter, are said to be very suitable for Fig. 5.—Sabal (Trithrinax ) mauritizeformis. piles and marine buildings subject to immersion, as they are impervious to the influence of water, and are not attacked by borers or worms. Sabal (Trithrinax) mauritieformis, a native of New Granada (fig. 5), is a low-growing but very hand- some goles not remarkable for any products of special utility. The Piritu of Venezuela, the Paripou of Guiana, and the Papinba of the Amazon are the local names of one species of palm—Gulielma_ speciosa. It produces fruits somewhat triangular in shape, about the size of an apricot, and bright reddish yellowin colour. They have a peculiar oily flavour, and are eaten boiled or roasted, when they resemble chestnuts. They are also ground into meal, which 724 PALM PALMA is baked in cakes.—The Great Macaw tree of the West Indies ( Acrocomia sclerocarpa) is a native of Jamaica, Trinidad, and the adjacent islands and continent. In Brazil it is called Macahuba, and in Guiana Macoya, The tree grows from 20 to 30 feet high, with a crown of leaves, each of which measures from 10 to 15 feet in length. The frait ields an oil of yellow colour, sweetish taste, and having the odour of violets, which is employed.by the natives as an emollient for painful affections of the joints; and in Europe it is used in the manufacture of toilet ae: The nuts are capable of receiving a high polish, and are converted by the natives and the negroes into ornaments. —The Tucum Palm (Astrocaryum tucuma), a native of the Rio Negro and the Upper Amazon, yields a very superior fibre, the cordage from which is knitted into hanmocks, which are in great demand with the Brazilians. The fleshy outer covering of the fruit is eaten by the natives. —The Muramuru Palm (A. murumurn) produces a very agreeable fruit with the fragrance of musk. Cattle eat the fruit with avidity, but evacuate the hard stony seeds undigested. In times of scarcity these seeds are carefully collected and used to feed pigs, which are very fond of them, and find no difficulty with their powerful teeth and jaws in masticating them. —Attalea funifera furnishes the whalebone-like fibre now so much used in Britain for making brooms and bruxhes. The tree attains the height of 20 or 30 feet. At the base of the leaves a valuable thick, dark-brown, very long fibre, Bahia bast, is obtained, sometimes 12 feet long; Para or Monkey bast, a softer, shorter kind, usually about feet in length, is got from dina pi (see Frnsrous SUBSTANCES). The fruit of Attalea funifera is the Coquilla nut, much used in turnery for the making of knobs to walking-sticks and umbrellas, handles to bell-pulls, &e. he nuts are extremely hard and susceptible of a fine polish, and exhibit a beanti- fully mottled surface of light and dark brown, —The fruit of A. cohune yields from its kernel a valuable oil called Cohune Oil, which is said to he superior in quality and to burn twice as lon ais the best cocoa-nut oil. It is a native o Honduras and the Isthmus of Panama. The trunk, which attains the height of about 40 feet and is crowned with leaves some 30 feet long, yields by tapping a kind of palm-wine.—The Palm- oil of Africa is the product of the fruit of L/ais uineensis, The tree is cultivated now in the West ndies and tropical South America for the sake of the oil. It attains a height of 60 to 80 feet, with a spreading crown of pinnate leaves, each about 15 feet long, the footstalks of which are armed with stout hooked spines. The flowers have a strong peculiar smell, like anise and chervil in combina- tion. The fruit forms a large head, consisting of a great number of bright orange-coloured drupes ; when ripe each drupe has an oily pulp with a stone or kernel in the centre, and it is from this pulp that the oil is obtained. To extract the oil wine.—The ei ‘0 of Chili is Jubea spectabilis, a tree of about 50 feet in height, with a spreading crown of leaves. From its trunk a syrup is ex- tracted, called miel de palma, which is much esteemed by the Chilians and Europeans in coo in various ways. It is obtained by cutting down the tree and lopping off its crown of leaves, when the sap flows from the wound, and is carefully collected, By cutting off a fresh slice from the wound daily, or when the flow of sap becomes weak, it may be kept flowing for several months ; a good tree is said to yield as much as eels of sap, which on being boiled down assumes the consistence of treacle. Much information on palms and their products will be found in the Historie Palmarum, by Martius; in the Flora Braziliensis, by Drude; and A Popular History of Palms, by Seeman. See Areca, Cocoa-NuT, CHAM#ROPS, DATE Pata, Doom PALM, Fisrous SUBSTANCES, &e. Palm, a measure of length, originally taken from the width of the hand, measured across the joints of the four fingers. In Britain a palm is, somewhat loosely, understood to be the fourth part of an English foot, or 3 inches. Palm, JoHANN PHILir?, a bookseller of Nurem- berg, who has acquired historic celebrity as a victim of Napoleonic — in Germany, was born at Schorndorf in 1768. the spring of 1806 a pamphlet entitled Deutschland in seiner tiefsten Erniedrigung (Germany in its Deepest Humilia- tion), which contained some bitter truths concern- ing Napoleon and the conduct of the French in Bavaria, was sent by his firm to a bookseller Anges in the ordinary course of trade. The hook fell into the hands of Napoleon’s officers ; they made the emperor acquainted with it, He ordered Palm, as the publisher, to be arrested, tried him by court-martial, and shot him at Braunau, 26th August 1806. This murder greatly incensed the German people against the French. Palma, (1) the sence of the island of Majorca (q.v.) and of the Balearic Islands, stands on the Bay of Palma, on the south coast. The cathedral, a Gothic edifice (1232-1601), contains the tomb of King Jayme II. of Aragon and a valuable collec- tion of church ornaments. The tomb of Ra: Lully (q.v.) is in the church of St Francis. There are, further, a beautiful exchange (1426-46), an old’ Moorish’ palace, and a 16th-century town-hall, with pictures. Palma is one of the most aristo- cratic cities in Europe. Pop. (1887) 60,514, bers weave silks and woollens, make jewellery, various articles of common use. The port is pro- tected by a mole, and the town by a wall and batteries. The commerce reaches a total value of about £1,600,000 per annum.—(2) A town of Sine 14 miles SE. of Girgenti. Pop. 11,702.—(3) The et of one of the larger of the Canary Islands q.¥.). Palma, Jacopo, commonly called PALMA Veccuio (i.e, Old Palma), painter of the Venetian the pulp is first bruised to a paste in wood mortars, and is then boiled in water. The oil which rises to the surface of the water is reddish or orange in colour, and has an agreeable odour of violets ; it is allowed to cool, and is then skimmed off. In warm countries it retains its oily consist- ence, but in cooler climates it acquires the solidity of butter. It is used by the natives universally as butter is in Europe. quantity of palm-oil now imported to Great Britain is enormous. It is em- ployed in the manufacture of candles, toilet and common soaps, and as a lubricant of railway- carriage wheels, &e. It is com 1 of about + a dood rag of stearin and sixty-nine of olein. The tree yields from its trunk abundance of palm- hool, was born about 1480 at Serinalta, near Bergamo, and died at Venice just about the middle of the year 1528. At first working under the influence of the Bellinis, he subsequently ea in the spirit and style of Giorgione and itian, and may be placed at the heal of the second class of great Venetian artists. His pic- tures are either sacred subjects or portrait groups. Of the former the best are a series of six figures of saints, St Barbara and others, in the church of St Maria Formosa at Venice. The best portrait group is three sisters, generally called the ‘Three Graces.'—His brother's f gin ee likewise called Jacopo (1544-1628), and nicknamed In GIOVANE © (the Younger), painted religious pictures of greatly PALMA CHRISTI PALMERSTON 725 inferior merit, thongh he modelled his style on that of Titian, Palma Vecchio, and Tintoretto. Except for eight years in Rome, he spent all his life at Venice. Palma Christi. See Casror-om PLANT. Palmblad, Vituetm Freprik, a Swedish historian, was born 16th December 1788, at Lil- jested, in East Gothland, where his father held a oped aged the government, studied at Upsala, and me professor of Greek in the -same university in 1835. He died 2d September 1852. Amongst his works (which deal with geography, history, an classical philology) are the Biografisk Lexikon (23 vols. 1835-59) and the historical novel Aurora Koningsmark (1847). Paimellacez. See ALG. Palmer (Lat..palmifer, ‘a palm-bearer’), pro- perly so called, was a pilgrim who had performed the pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre, and had Saisseeds os was returning home after the fulfilment of his vow. The Palmers were so called from their carrying branches of the oriental palm, in token of their accomplished expedition. On arriving at their home they repaired to the church to return thanks to God, and offered the palm to the priest, to be placed upon the altar. ; Palmer, Epwarp Henry, the ‘Sheikh Abdul- lah,’ was born 7th August 1840, at Cambridge, and while a schoolboy there picked up Romany (the Gypsies’ tongue), while a clerk in the City Italian sak Greek, In 1859 he all but died of consump- tion ; in 1860 at Cambridge began to devote himself to oriental studies—Arabic, Persian, and Hindi- stani; in 1863 obtained a sizarship at St John’s ; and in 1867, graduating with a third-class in classics, was yet elected a Fellow of his college. During 1868-70 he was engaged for the Palestine Explora- tion Fund in the survey of Sinai, and, with Charles Tyrwhitt Drake, of the Desert of the Wanderings, acquiring meanwhile a marvellous knowledge of the wild Arab tribes. In 1871 he was appointed Lord Almoner’s professor of Arabic at Cambridge (his stipend £40, 10s., angmented next year by £250); and in 1874 he was also called to the bar. So ten years went by of work and play—he was a wonderful conjurer—of sorrow, too, and trouble, for he lost his first wife and got involved in money difficulties, till in 1881 he turned London journalist, writing principally for the Standard. Finally, in June 1882, on the eve of Arabi’s Egyptian rebellion, he was pitched on by government for the perilous mission of winning over the Sinai tribes to Britain and hindering the destruction of the Suez Canal. He made two expeditions—the first his t ride from Gaza to Suez (July 15-31), and the second when, starting from Suez with Captain Gill, R.E., and Lieutenant Charrington, R.N., he and they on August 11 were betrayed and murdered in the ravine of Wady Sudr. Eight months later the three were buried in St Paul’s. Of a score of works by Professor Palmer may be men- tioned his Desert of the Kxodus (1871), Arabic Grammar (1874), Song of the Reed (1876), Poems of Beha ed Din Zoheir (1876-77), Persian-English and English-Persian Dictionary (1876-83), Haroun Alraschid (1880), and a translation of the Koran (18380). See his Life by W. Besant (1883). Palmer, RounpveLL. See SELBORNE (LorD). Palmer, SAMvuEL. See Encravine, Vol. IV. p- 380. Palmerston, Henry Jonun Tempe, VIs- COUNT, was born at the family mansion, Broad- lands, near Romsey, Hants, 20th October 1784, and helonged to the Irish branch of the ancient English family of Temple, —— name from Temple in Leicestershire. Sir W. Temple, the diplomatist and patron of Swift, was a member of this family, which removed to Ireland about 1601, and which was ennobled in 1722, when Henry Temple was created a peer of Ireland with the dignities of Baron Temple and Viscount Palmerston. His grandson, Henry, second Viscount (1739-1802), was father of the great minister, and superintended his education at Eroadlanils, until he sent him to Harrow. Young Temple in 1800 went to the university of Edinburgh, where he attended the lectures of Dugald Stewart and other professors. In 1802 he succeeded his father as third Viscount, and in 1803 he matriculated at St John’s College, Cambridge. His eminent abilities were early recog- nised, for he was scarcely of age when the Tory party in the university selected him (1806) as their candidate to succeed Mr Pitt in the repre- sentation. Unsuccessful at Cambridge then and again in 1807, he entered parliament in the latter year for Newport, in the Isle of Wight, his colleague being Arthur Wellesley, then Chief- secretary for Ireland. In 1811 he exchanged New- — for the university of Cambridge, enjoyed the istinction of oper my his alma mater for twenty years, and only lost hi became a member of the Grey administration and supported the Reform Bill. For the last two years of the unreformed parliament he sat for the now extinct borough of Bletchingly. At the first election after the Reform Act he was returned for South Hampshire, but Jost his seat at the general election of 1835. He immediately afterwards found a seat for the borough of Tiverton, Having traced his representative, we now turn to his official career. Palmerston entered life as a member of the Tor, party, and aecepted the office of Junior Lord of he Admiralty and Secretary at War (without a seat in the cabinet) in 1809. This office he held during the successive governments of Mr Perceval, the Earl of Tiveesoeks: Mr Canning, Lord Goderich, and the Duke of Wellington—a period extending from 1809 to 1828. There was ample scope at the War Office for Palmerston’s administrative talents and activity. The military — swarmed with abuses, and the labour thrown upon the Secretary at War during the Peninsular campaigns was prodigious. In 1816 an attempt was made to assassinate Palmerston by an insane army-lieutenant, named Davis, who fired a pistol at him as he was entering the Horse Guards; the bullet, however, only inflicted a slight wound. Palmerston early attached himself to the Canning section of the Liverpool administra- tion, and he accepted a seat in the cabinet of Mr Canning. His official connection with the Tory party ceased in 1828, when the ‘Great Duke’ insisted on accepting Mr Huskisson’s resignation, which was followed by Palmerston’s retirement. The Duke's ap dieses was swept away in the reform flood of 1830; and Earl Grey, who became prime-minister, offered the seals of the Foreign Office to Palmerston. The European horizon was so disturbed at this crisis that a great plitical authority declared that if an angel from 1eaven were in the Foreign Office he could not preserve peace for three months. Palmerston falsified the prediction. Louis-Philippe then filled the throne of France; and for the first time on record England and France acted in concert, and without jealousy, under Palmerston’s forei ministry. He took a leading part in securing the independence of Belgium, in establishing the thrones of Queen Isabella of Spain and Queen Maria of Portngal on a constitutional basis, in endeavouring, in alliance with Austria and Turkey, to check Russian influence in the East, and in the war with Mehemet Ali.. In 1841 Palmerston went out of office with the Whigs on the question of free trade in corn; but on their return in 1846 s seat when he 726 PALMERSTON PALMISTRY he resumed the seals of the Foreign Office. His second foreign administration furnished various subjects of hostile y criticism, among which may be mentioned the civil war in Switzerland, the Spanish marriages (see Gu1zoT), the European revolutions in 1848, the rupture of diplomatic rela- tions between Spain and Great Britain, and finally, the affair of Don Pacifico (a Gibraltar Jew living in Athens, who claimed the privileges of a Britis subject), and the consequent quarrel with Greece. His strenuous self-asserting character, his brusque speech, his frequently hasty interferences in foreign airs, were little caleulated to conciliate op nents at home, and secured him many enemies abroad—the name ‘Firebrand Palmerston’ still clinging to him on the Continent. A vote of censure on the foreign policy of the government was in 1850 carried in the House of Lords on the motion of Lord Stanley (afterwards Earl of Derby ). A counter-resolution, approving the foreign polic of the government, was thereupon moved by Mr Roebuck in the Lower House. The debate lasted four nights. In a speech of five hours’ duration— ‘that speech,’ said Sir Robert Peel, ‘which made us all so proud of him’—Palmerston entered upon a manly and dignified vindication of his forei policy ; and Mr buck’s motion was carried by a majority of forty-six. In December 1851 the public were startled at the news that Palmerston was no longer a member of the Russell cabinet. He had expressed to the French aml lor in London his appro- bation of the coup d'état of Louis Napoleon, without consulting either the premier or the p oengl and, as explanations were refused, Lord ohn Russell advised his resignation. Palmer- ston, in the general opinion, was ‘smashed ;’ but he soon got his ‘tit for tat;’ for in the following February, soon after the meeting of parliament, he avenged himself by shattering the Russell adminis- tration to pieces on a comparatively trifling ques- tion—a Militia Bill. He refused an offer from the Earl of Derby to join the government which he was commissioned to form, but accepted the post of Home Secretary in the coalition administration of the Earl of Aberdeen in 1852. The fall of this coalition government in the winter of 1854-55, on Mr Roebuck’s motion for a Sebastopol committee, placed Palmerston in his seventy-first year in the position of prime-minister, to which he was unani- mously called by the voice of the nation; in his own phrase he was ‘the inevitable.’ He vigorously prosecuted the Russian war until Sebastopol was taken, and peace was made. His government was defeated in March 1857 on Mr Cobden’s motion condemnatory of the Chinese war. Palmerston to the country, and met the House of Commons with a ——_ increased majority. But his administration fell in February 1858, over the Conspiracy Bill, intended to protect the French emperor against the machinations of plotting refugees. A short Conservative administration followed ; but in June 1859 Palmerston was again called to the post of First Lord of the Treasury, which he continued to fill up to his death, the chief events of this premiership being the American civil war (with its Trent and Alabama incidents), Napoleon’s war with Austria, and the Austro- war with Denmark. His last great h was his defence of the policy of his govern- ment, delivered in July 1864, in reply to the attack of Mr Disraeli. He died at his country seat, Brockett Hall, 18th October 1865, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Both his titles became extinct with him. It was his ambition to be considered the minister of a nation rather than the minister of a political party; and his opponents have been constrained to admit that he held office with more general accept- ance than any ae minister since the time of the age Lord tham. As an orator he was usually homely and unpretending, but py fhe sensible and practical. He was a dexterous tactician, of irrepressible spirit, and a ready, witty, and often brilliant debater. He was lar as a minister, because he was rey oe"! Engl hin his ends and aims. Even his robust th, off-hand manner, manly and usual jaunty bearing, and physi- eal vigour were elements of his popularity, they were regarded as a glorification of the English sports, which he was never ashamed to patronise. e desired nothing so ardently as to promote the aepcrag influence, and grandeur of Great Britain, and his national character and national spirit were thoroughly appreciated by his country- men. See Life of Palmerston, by Lord Dalling (3 vols. 1870), continued by Evelyn Ashley (2 vols. 1879); and smaller works by Anthony ‘Trollope (1882), Lloyd Sanders (1888), and the Marquis of Lorne (1891). Palmerston (Australia). See Porr DARwiIn. Palmer-worm, 4 name given to many large kinds of grub, the larve of coleopterous destructive to various vegetable substances. Palmetto-leaves, the leaves of the Palmyra palm (see PALM, p. 723), imported into Europe for the manufacture of hats and mats. For the palm known as Palmetto, see PALM, p. 720. Palmieri, Lvici, meteorologist, born 22d April 1807, taught mathematics, became in 1847 professor at Naples, and in_ 1854 director of the observatory on Vesuvius. He invented many meteorological instruments, and wrote on voleanoes and seismology. He died 6th September 1896. Palmi'pedes, also called NATATORES, or Swimmers, the web-footed birds,*in some classi- fications an order of Birds. See Brrp. Palmistry, or CutroMancy (Gr. cheir, ‘the hand, and mantiké, ‘divination’), is the art of ‘reading the palm’—the art which professes to discover the temperament and character of any one, as well as the past and future events of his li from an examination of the palm of his hand, anc of the lines traced upon it. As a considerable body of very complicated rules and directions have laid down by authorities, ancient and modern, to enable the student to read the palm, palmistry claims to be regarded as a ‘science,’ or at least as a branch of an interpretative science of the hand in general, to which the name Chirosophy has heen siven. The other branch of this eral science as been called Chirognomy, and is concerned with the interpretation of the form and character of the hand and fingers, while Chiromancy treats of the palm only (see DIVINATION). As an art palmistry ap to be of great antiquity. Mr Nestield, in his Report on the caste system in the North-west Provinces and Ondh (1885), tells us that there is a caste of Brahmans, r= called Joshi, who profess the art of fortune-telling ly means of marks on the palms of the hands, the face, and the body generally; and who seem to have practised it from remote times. Palmistry has an ancient literature of its own in India; the ancient Samudriki appears to have had some acquaintance with letters, but the Joshi, his modern representative, is quite illiterate, though he generally carries about with him a mannal of palmistry, of whose contents he knows nothing. here are also a number of wandering outcasts India who tell fortunes by palmistry. That palmistry was to some extent at least known to the ancient Greeks we have evidence in the writings of the Stagirite himself. In his *% PALMISTRY 727 Hist. Animalium Aristotle observes (i. 15) that long-lived persons have one or two lines which extend through the whole hand; short-lived per- sons have two lines not extending through the whale hand. Other references to this subject occur in the doubtful works, the Problemata and the Physiog- nomika, attributed to him. Pliny, too, in his Natural History (xi. 114) directly asserts that Aristotle regarded numerous broken lines in the palm of the hand as a prognostic of short life. Of the cultivation of palmistry among the Romans there is little evidence; but Juvenal, in showing up the curiosity of women and their love of prying into forbidden mysteries, describes the woman of fashion as consulting eagerly Chaldean astrologers and other diviners, while the middle-class woman ‘frontemque manumque priebebit vati’ (Sat. vi. 581). In the 2d century Artemidorus of Ephesus, the author of a work on the interpretation of dreams, is said to have devoted a whole treatise to the subject, which, however, is not extant. In writers of the middle ages there is much reference to the subject, and zy: names of Para- celsus, Albertus Magnus, and Cardanus have been associated with it. But the most important work on ehiromancy belonging to this period seems to be Die Kunst Ciromantia, of Johann Hartlieb, which was printed at Augsburg in 1475. In the 16th century we find several treatises on the sub- ject, of which the most important seem to be those of Johann. Indagine, and of Barthelemy Cocles ‘de Bouloigne,’ doctor of natural philosophy and_ of medicine. The former has been Englished by Fabian Wither (London, 1651). In the end of the 18th cen- tury palimistry found an important exponent in the celebrated rie Anne Lenormand (1772-1843), who in her Souvenirs Prophétiques d'une Sibylle (1814) foretold the downtall of Napoleon. The chief authorities on palmistry in recent times are two Frenchmen—M. le Capitaine D'Arpentigny, and M. Adrien Desbarrolles; and it is on their works that modern English books on the subject are chietly founded. D’Arpentigny has expounded rincipally chirognomy, or that branch of the interpretative science of the hand which treats of the general form of the hand and ry ee The observation of the fingers and joints of the hand is quite as important to the chiromant as that of the palm itself ; but we must refer for D’Arpentigny’s system to the works cited below. The thumb is enerally regarded as chirognomically the most im nt of the hand. The first, or upper phalange of the thumb, when well developed, shows the presence of will and decision of character; the second, according to its development, indicates more or less logical power (see A and B in diagram). What has to be considered by the chiromant proper is the ‘mounts’ of the hand, with the marks on them, and the lines in the palm. The ‘mounts’ are the elevations at the base of the fingers and thumb and in the ‘ percussion ’ of the hand—i.e. the side of the palm which extends from the root of the little finger to the wrist: it is so called becanse it is used in striking. They are seven in number, and are named from the planets, by the signs of which they are also known—viz. for Venus, 2 for Jupiter, for Saturn, © Apollo, 8 Merenry, fi Mars, ( the Moon (see diagram), When we developed the mounts indicate the possession of the quality associated with the respective planets— e.g. Jupiter developed denotes pride and ambition ; Saturn, fatality; Apollo, art or riches; Mercury, science or wit; Mars, courage or eruelty ; Venus, love and melody; the Moon, folly or imagination. But the effect of a greatly developed mount may be modified by the lines in the palm or by other signs. There are four Lapras ines—viz. the line of ife, which surrounds the thumb, and which, if long, indicates a long life; the line of head, the line of heart, and the rascette or the bracelets. These last (the bracelets), if well marked, strengthen the effect of the line of life, each bracelet indicating thirty years of life. The line of heart (the linea mensalis of ancient chiromancy ), if long, clear eut, and well coloured, denotes an affectionate and de- voted character ; and the nearer the line stretches to Jupiter the better the character. If the line end in a fork, so much the better. In actors and mimics this line ascends the mount of Mercury. A, will; B, logic; C, mount of Venus; D, mount of Jupiter; E, mount of Saturn; F, mount of Apolio; G, mount of Mer- cury; H, mount of Mars; I, mount of the Moon; K, the rascette; a, a, line of life; b, b, line of head; c, ¢, line of heart; d, d, jine of Saturn ‘or fate; e, e, line of liver or health; f, £ line of Apollo or fortune; 9, g, the girdle of Veuus; R, the quadrangle; m, m, m, bracelets of life. A good line of head—i.e, a clear-cut, long, unbroken line—indicates the presence of superior intellectual ualities. If the line stretch to the mount of the oon, it indicates imagination. A winding head- line shows folly and indecision of character; a linked line (like a chain) denotes want of con- centration. The other lines (which are not present in all hands) are the line of Saturn or fate (d, d@), the line of Apollo (f, f), the line of liver or health (e, e), and the line of Venus (g, g). A long, clear-cut line of Saturn (see diagram) foretells a happy and prosperous life, breaks or windings in the line fore- tell misfortunes or obstacles ; a good line of Apollo shows that its owner will be successful in art; a good liver-line promises a long and_healthy life ; while the Venus line (Cingulum Veneris), when resent, indicates a character very liable to be Influenced by the passion of love. Marks on the mounts or lines, such as stars, crosses, &e., have their respective significations. A good open space between the lines of head and heart (the quad- rangle) indicates a generous and noble disposition, while a very narrow space in the quadrangle is a sign of avarice and egotism. The best handbooks are 8. D’Arpentigny, La Chirog- nomie (Paris, 1843); A. Desbarrolles, Les Mystéres de la Main (1859), and his R4vélations Completes (1874) ; Beam- ish, The Psychonomy of the Hand (1865); A. R. Craig, The Book of the Hand (1867); H. Frith and E, Heron Allen, Chiromancy, or the Science of Palmistry (1883); Heron 728 PALMITIN PALOLO Allen, Manual of Cheiroxophy (1885); L. Cotton, Palm- istry and its Practical Uses (1590). Palmitin. See Fars. Palm-oil. See PALM, and Ors. Palm Sunday (Lat. Dominica Palmarum, or Dom, in or ad Palmas), the Sunday before Easter, is so called from the custom of blessing branches of the palm-tree, or of other trees substituted in those countries in which palm cannot be procured, and of carrying the blessed branches in procession, in commemoration of the triumphal entry of our Lord into Jerusalem. The date of the origin of this custom is uncertain; the procession cannot be traced back beyond the 8th century, though the name Palm Sunday is found two or three centuries earlier, The Greeks appear to have adopted the festival long before the Latins ; their procession is at matins. In the Roman Catholic Church the celebrant blesses the branches before the mass, and they are then distributed to the people; the clergy in procession pass out of the church, the doors are closed, and the ancient hymn known in English as ‘All glory, land, and honour’ is sung by the choir within and those without, until, on the sub-deacon’s knocking at the door, it is again thrown open, and the procession re-enters. During the singing of the Passion in the solemn mass which ensues, the congregation hold the palm- branch in their hands, and at the conclusion of the service it is carried home to their respective houses, where it is preserved during the year. Afterwards it is burned, and the ashes employed, as a rule, for Ash-Wednesday. At Rome the pope himself distributes the palm branches to all the churches of the city. In Moscow until 1700, and in parts of Germany until the beginning of the 19th century, a wooden image of an ass was led about the streets, followed by the people bear- ing the consecrated branches, Palm-tree. See Pac. Palmyra, in ancient times, from about 100 A.D. to the I4th century, more especially in the 2d and 3d centuries, a wealthy and magnificent Arabic settlement, planted at a spot that formed a convenient station on the great caravan route between the Persian Gulf and the Mediter- ranean. At all events, after the decline of Petra (q.v.; also NABATAANS) in 105 A.D., Palmyra took its place as the chief commercial centre in northern Arabia. Its merchant aristocracy reaped reat advantage from the long-protracted wars Serween Rome and Parthia by acknowledging the supremacy of Rome. From both Hadrian and Septimius Severus it received special favours and privileges. One of its chiefs, Odwnathus, husband of the more famous Zenobia (q.v.), extended his “tate over most of the adjoining countries, from igypt to Asia Minor, Aurelian at length erushed in 272 the attempt of the Palnyrenes to found an independent empire. After the Roman empire became Christian Palmyra was made a bishopric. When the Moslems conquered Syria Palmyra also submitted to them. From the 15th century it hegan to sink into decay, along with the rest of the Orient. Magnificent remains of the ancient city still exist, chief among them being the great temple of the Sun (or Baal); the great colonnade, nearly a mile long, and consisting eee, of some 1500 ‘Corinthian columns; and sepulchtal towers, overlooking the city. The ancient Palmyrenes, besides conducting and controlling the caravan trade across the desert, extrac salt, tanned leather, and worked in gold and silver. See Wood, Bouverie, and Dawkins, Ruins of Palmyra (1753); Seiff, Reisen in der Asiatischen Tiirkei (1875); a Russian work by Prince Abamelek-Lasareff (1885); and Dr W. Wright, Palmyra and Zenobia (1895). Palmyra Wood, properly the wood of the Palmyra palm (see PALM, p 723); but the name is generally used for all kinds of palm-tree wood imported into Britain; much of which is the wood of the cocoa-nut palm, Cocos nucifera, and the allied species C. plumosa, : Palni Hills, a range of Southern India, linking the southern extremities of the Eastern and Western Ghats; average height of the higher ridge, 7000 feet. The climate of the Palni Hills is eo aval 2 Portico of the Great Colonnade, city of northern Syria, situated in an oasis on the northern edge of the Arabian desert, about 150 miles NE. of Damascus and nearly midway between that city and the Euphrates. The Semitic name was Tadmor, Palmyra (= ‘city of palms’) being the Greek and Latin equivalent. According to the old tradition, it was founded by Solomon. There is stronger probability that it was an singularly pleasant and eqnable many preferring the sanatorium of Kodaikanal to Ootacamund. Palo Alto, 33 miles SE. of San Francisco, the seat of a university founded at a cost of $15,000,000 b Senator Leland Stanford, and open in 1891. It is designed to provide, entirely gratis, education from the Kindergarten sta to the most advanced instruction that human teachers can supply ; the pupils are to board on the premises, at the smallest possible charge. Pop. (1900) 1658. Palolo ( Palolo viridis), an edible annelid, allied to the Lug-worm, ex- tremely abundant at certain seasons in the sea above and near the coral. reefs which surround many of the Polynesian Islands. The body is cylindrical, slightly tapering at both } ends, divided into peek | equal joints, S each joint with a small tuft of gills on each side. In thickness the palolo resembles a very fine straw; in length it varies from 9 to 18 inches. These an- nelids make their appearance in great multitudes, apparently — out of the coral-reefs, and with a atten regularity which is very remarkable. ley are eagerly sought after by the islande who are on the watch for their appearance, an go out in canoes before sunrise to take them b means of nets; but they often occur in suc PALOS PAMLICO SOUND 729 numbers that the water seems to be full of them, and they may be grasped by handfuls. After sun- rise the creatures break into pieces and the shoals are not seen till the next gabe which seems to ave a definite relation to the Junar time; the two stated periods being in October and again in November. Palos, a small Span- ish port at the mouth of a the Rio Tinto, and 5 miles SE. of Huelva. Once an important place, from whence Columbus started on his great voy- age, it has now sunk to a village of 1200 inhabit- ants. °o = nf Palpitation is the term used of the condi- tion in which a person becomes painfully aware @, Palvlo viridis, half natural of the beating of his own size ; b,c, anterior and pos- heart. This occasionally terior extremities (mag-). Jjappens even when tlie heart’s action is appar- ently quite natural; but much more generally the — are found to be greatly increased in orce, and in most cases in frequency as well. It may be either functional or a symptom of organic disease of the heart. Here we shall merely consider it as a functional disorder, Although it may be persistent, it far more frequently comes on in paroxysms, which usually terminate within half an hour, recurring afterwards quite irregularly, sometimes daily or several times a day, and some- times not till after a long interval. The attack often comes on under some mental or physical excitement, but sometimes when the patient is uite composed, or even asleep. If the paroxysm a severe one the heart feels as if bounding up- wards into the throat; and there is a sensation of oppression over the cardiac region, with hurried or dificult respiration. Exeluding organic diseases, the causes of this affection are either (1) an abnormally excitable condition of the nerves of the heart, or (2) an unhealthy condition of the blood. (1) Amongst the causes of disturbed innervation may be especially noticed the abuse of tea ( especially green tea), coffee, ee and tobacco. Any irrita- tion of the stomach and intestinal canal may be reflected to the heart; and hence palpitation ma; frequently be traced to flatulence, undue acid- ity, and intestinal worms, especially tapeworms. Everything that causes ‘pressure on the heart, such as tight-lacing, abdominal reek Mt or an enlarged uterus, is also liable to occasion this affection. (2) If the blood is abnormally rich and stimulat- ing it may give rise to palpitation, as in Plethora (q.¥.);. but the opposite condition, known as Anemia (q.v.), is a much more common cause of this affection. In anemia the blood is watery and deficient in fibrine, and (far more) in red colour- ing matter; and, being thus in an unnatural state, it acts as an unnatural stimulant, and induces fre- quent and abnormally strong pulsations. The age at which palpitation most usually comes on is from fifteen to twenty-five; and the affection —especially if it arise from anzemia—is very much more common in the female than in the male sex. The treatment of pee must entirely depend upon its cause. The use of all nervous stimulants (tea, coffee, alcohol, and tobacco) should be sus- pended or abandoned. If the patient is clearly é Le ik -- = 7 plethoric, with a full strong pulse, he should take saline cathartics, and live upon comparatively low diet (including little snienal $052) until this con- dition is removed. When, on the other hand, the palpitation is due to an anemic condition, the remedies are preparations of iron, aloetic purgatives, an abundance of animal food, bitter ale, the cold shower-bath, and moderate exercise. Palsy. See Paratysis. Paltock, RoBert, born in London apparently in 1697, and educated at St Paul’s School, was bred to the Jaw, and while in Clement’s Inn secured his title to remembrance by writing the wondrous tale of Peter Wilkins, a Cornish Man, published anonymously in 1750, and often re- printed. The authorship, known to some in 1802, remained generally a mystery till 1835, and first appeared on the title-page in 1839. Paltock died 20th March 1767. the preface to A. H. Bullen’s edition of Peter Wilkins (2 vols. 1884), and Atheneum, August 1884 to February 1885. Paludan-Miiller, Freprrix, Danish poet, born at Kjerteminde in Fiinen, on 7th February 1809, led a quiet, uneventful life, and died at Copenhagen on 29th December 1876. Whilst still a student at the university in that city he gained the ear of the publie with a play, Love at Court (1832); a poem, The Dancer (1833); and a lyric drama, Amor and Psyche (1834; 8th ed. 1883)—all three decidedly romantic in temper, the second especially showing Byronic influence. But his fame rests on Adam Homo (3 vols. 1841-49; 7th ed. 1885), a humorous, didactic poem, full of deep and suggestive thought, with no small share of satiric wit and irony, and strong realistic touches, and of the most finished literary workmanship ; on Kalanus (1854), a contrast between Alexander the Great and the Indian sage Kalanus, as representa- tives of Greek culture and Hindn religion, a work written in the loftiest spirit of idealism; and on Adonis (1874), an exquisitely finished little mytho- logical poem. Along with Kalanus he published the poems Paradise, Abel’s Death, Cain, A erus, and Benedict of Nursia; and he wrote also two rose romances, Zhe Source of Youth (1865) and var Lylke’s History (3 vols. 1866-73). His poeti- cal works were published in 8 vols. in 1878-79. See Georg Brandes, Danske Digtere (1877). Pamir’ (‘roof of the world’), the nuclens of the central Asian highland system, is a lofty lateau-region, with a mean elevation of 13,000 eet, uniting the western terminations of the Him- alaya and the Tian-Shan Mountains, and both with the Hindu-Kush, It is traversed by mountain-ridges that rise from 4000 to 5000 feet above the plateaus, and the culminating points attain in some cases 25,500 feet above sea-level. Between these ridges are a series of broad valleys, to which the generic name ‘pamir’ is given. On the west side this lateau-region sinks rapidly in terraces to the eserts of Turkestan. These lofty plateaus are exposed to great extremes of heat and cold, and are visited by terrible snow and sand storms. Nevertheless the Kirghiz drive up their flocks and herds for summer pasture, and from time imme- morial traders have crossed them along celebrated routes. It was crossed by Marco Polo (q.v.). Animal and bird life is plentiful, the moufflon having its home there. iiongst the lakes are Karakul, 120 sq. m., and Shivakul, 100 sq. m. See the Earl of Dunmore, The Pamirs (1893); Alcock’s Report of the Boundary Ce ission (1898); Sven Hedin’s Through Asia (1898). Pamlico Sound, a shallow body of water, some 75 by 10 to 25 miles, on the coast of North Carolina, separated from the ocean by long, narrow islands of sand, with narrow passages. 730 PAMPAS PAMPHLET Pampas ( Qwichwa, ‘ plains’) is a term properly confined to the immense treeless plains of the Argentine Republic, which rise, almost imper- ceptibly, in a series of terraces from the coast to the base of the Cordilleras. Extending some 2000 by 500 miles, they differ greatly in various districts. The north-eastern portion, in the Parand basin, is one of the most fertile regions in the republic; and stretching from this through Buenos Ayres and the south of Cordova and Santa Fé is the rich grassy mpa-land proper, supporting great hérds of cattle, 2 and sheep. ie rest is for the most part waterless and sterile. The soil, which is a dilavium composed of sandy clay, and abounds in the bones of extinct mammals, is more or less impregnated with salt, especially in the west, where strips of desert, known as travesias, are numerous. Within recent years great tracts of pasture have been con- verted into farm-land, but stock-raising is still the most important industry. The half-white herds- men are called Gauchos (q.v.).—The name Pampas is also given to the level districts of Peru, where those of the Sacramento occupy an area estimated at 180,000 sq. m., covered with primeval forest, Pampas Grass ( Gynerium argenteum), a grass which covers the pampas of South America. A noble grass now well known in British gardens as an ornamental ory it is quite hardy, and its tufts have a splendid appearance. The leaves are 6 or 8 feet long, the ends arching gracefully over; the } 4f) YN Pampas Grass (@Gynerium argenteum). flowering stems 10 to 14 feet high; the panicles of flowers silvery white, and from 18 inches to 2 feet long. The male and female flowers are on separate plants; the spikelets two-flowered, one floret stalked, and the other sessile; the palee of the female florets elongated, awn-shaped, and woolly. The herbage is too coarse to be of value. The plant is now cultivated at Goleta, California, for the sake of its plumes, which are vended by florists for room decoration. Their culture and prepara- tion for market form a considerable industry,— Another species of the same genus, G. saccharoides, a Brazilian grass, yields a considerable quantity of sugar.—A decoction of the root of G. parviflorum is used in Brazil to strengthen the hair, Pampas Hare, See Viscacna. Pampeluna, or Pamriona, a fortified city of northern Spain, stands on a tributary of the Ebro, 111 miles by rail NW. of Zaragoza (Sa ) and 508. by W. of Bayonne ia Frans, Tt has a citadel (a copy of that of Antwerp), a Gothic cathe- dral (1397), a viceregal palace, a fine aqueduct, a natural history collection, a college of surgery, and a bull-ring, manufactures of pottery, leather, cloth hardware, &c., and a trade in wine. It was called by the ancients Pompetupolis, because built by Pompey in 68 B.c. It was taken by the Goths in 466, Ee the Franks in 542, and by Charl ein 778. From 907 it was the capital of Navarre. It was during the siege by the French in 1521 that Loyola (q.v.) received his wound. The town was seized ly the French in 1808, and held by them till 1813, when it was captured by Wellington. It again capitulated to the French in 1823. In the Carlist wars it was held by Queen Christina’s adherents from 1836 to 1840, and in 1873-76 it was Myf attacked several times by the Carlists. Pop, 25, Pamphlet, The word is used by Hocleve in 1411, who applies the name ‘ pamflet’ to his rather long poem De Regimine Principum, and by Caxton, who spells it ‘pannilett.’. Beyond this we know nothing for certain—the ultimate origin may be Pamplala, the name of a first-century writer of epitomes. In the 15th century the word was applied chiefly to short poems, and the modern meaning was only gradually assumed. Davies (1715) in his Jeon libellorum, or Critical Hi: of Pamphlets, detines it as ‘ any little book or volume whatever, whether stitched or bound, whether good or bad, whether serious or ludicrous, whether esteemed or slighted.’ It is evident, however, that some literary characteristics must be added in order to exclude sermons, academic dissertations, chap-books, broadsides, &e. The pamphlet has a distinct aim, it relates to some matter of current interest, religions, political, or literary, and, whether didactic, religious, or con- troversial, is the spontaneous expression of one who seeks to excite or change some popular feeling or opinion. In England the history of pane would be the history of the oo of the people. From the tracts of Wyclif and his followers in the 14th century to the Zracts for the Times in the 19th, from the heights of noble entlmsiasm in Milton's Areopagitica and Tract on Education to the most scurrilous of party pamphlets, all reflect, or appeal to, some phase of popular feeling, One of the earliest and most effective of such appeals to the public ibag: pros the course of ecclesiasti- cal events in the 16th century—i.e. the Supplica- cion for the Beggars, in which Simon Fish (1523} previ e's satiri the ‘bishops, abbots, Len monks, and generality of the clergy; A copy this was sent to Anne Boleyn, and ‘divers copies scattered in the streets of London.’ To this Sir Thomas More replied with his Si page Ne of Soules. Then followed an unceasing flow of Puritan pamplhilets, and in 1587 the famous Martin Marprelate series commenced, and in 1657 the esl 4 no Murder attracted more attention than any other political writing of the time. The enor- mous collection of publications, chiefly pamphlets, le by The the bookseller, now in the British Museum, ranging merely from 1640 to rie yet filling 2000 volumes, tells the history of the Civi War from day to day. The foneN ears 1813-28, in twenty-nine volumes, contains the best pamphlets of that period, and is full of material for history. In our day the multitude of quarterly reviews, monthly magazines, and weekly papers gives to authors a more certain and a more extensive cir- enlation ; yet the pamphlet reappears whenever popular feeling is really aroused, or in the proj gandism of such causes as anti-vivisection, anti- vaccination, and the like. Some prolitie topics have been the Bullion Question 5b 0). the Poor Laws (1828-34), Tracts for the Times (1833-45), the Canadian Revolt (1837-38), the Corn Laws (1841-48), the Crimean War and the Indian PAMPHYLIA PANAMA 731 Mutiny (1854-59), Ireland (1868), the Franco- German War (1870-71), the Vatican rees {1874-75), the Eastern Question (1877-80), the Irish Land Laws (1880-82). Pamphylia, anciently a country on the south coast of Asia Minor, with Cilicia on the east and Lycia on the west. It was originally bounded on the inland or northern side by Mount Tanrus, but afterwards enlarged, so as to reach the confines of Phrygia. Pamphylia is mountainous, was formerly well wooded, and had numerous maritime cities. The inhabitants—a mixed race of aborigines, Cilicians, and Greek colonists—spoke a language the basis of which probably was Greek, but which was disfigured and corrupted hy the infusion of barbaric elements. See Dr Lanckorowski, Die Stidte Pamphyliens und Pisidiens (1890 et seq. ). Pan, among the Greeks, a divinity of pastures, forests, and flocks, usually described as eo of Hermes. His worship originated in Arcadia, but spread gradually over the rest of Greece, althongh it did not reach Athens until after Marathon. Pan is represented as having horns, a goat’s beard, a crooked nose, pointed ears, a tail, and goat’s feet. Sometimes he appeared to travellers, startling them with sudden fear, whence a sudden fright was called a panic fear. During the heat of the day he used to sleep in the shady woods, and was exceed- ingly wroth if his slumber was disturbed by the Salon of the hunters. He was the patron of all rsons occupied in the care of cattle and of bees, in hunting and in fishing. He is also represented as fond of music, and of dancing with the forest nymphs, and as the inventor of the syrinx or Pan- dean pipes. Cows, goats, lambs, milk, honey, and new wine were offered to him. The fir-tree was sacred to him, and he had sanctuaries and temples in various parts of Arcadia, at Troezene, at Sicyon, at Athens, &c. The Romans identified the Greek Pan with their own god Faunus. Plutarch (De Orac. Defectu) is the first to tell the baa that in the reign of Tiberius one Thamus a pilot, when steering near the islands of Paxw, was commanded by a loud voice to proclaim that ‘the great Pan is dead.’ As soon as he had reached Palodes he cried the news aloud from the poop of his ship, where- upon was heard a great noise of lamentation, as of nature itself expressing its grief. The coincidence of this story with the birth or the crucifixion of Christ gave occasion to an explanation that it marked the end of the old world and the beginning of the new when the old oracles became dumb, Rabelais has the story, there is a well-known allusion to it in Milton’s Ode on the Nativity, and it has been finely treated by Schiller and Mrs Browning. The Devil of popular Christian super- stition owes some of his attributes to Pan. Panama, IstuMus or, formerly called the Isthmus of Darien (q.v.), embraces the narrowest rt (35 miles) of ntral America, pean Josta Rica on the W. with Colombia on the E. It now forms a department of Colombia, has an area of 31,880 sq. m., and a pop. of 285,000, with 8000 uncivilised Indians, and is traversed by a low chain of mountains, forming the barrier between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Numerous streams, the largest of which is the Tuira (160 miles long, and navigable for more than 100 miles), fall into both oceans. Off the Pacific shore are numerous beautiful islands, among which Las . Perlas, so called from their pearl-fisheries (now almost discontinued), Naos, and Taboga are the chief. There are no good natural harbours. The chief trading ports are Panama (see below) and Colon (Aspinwall), The exports embrace hides, tallow, caoutchoue, indigo, vanilla, coffee, gold dust, cocoa-nuts, tortoiseshell, &c. Commerce is entirely in the hands of foreigners, and is valued at less than £1,400,000 annually. Gold, once abundant, is still worked, and copper, iron, coal, &c., exist. ‘Panama hats’ are made in Ecuador and Peru. PANAMA, the vt of the department, stands on a projecting volcanic rock on the Pacitic side of the Isthmus; the massive walls the Spaniards built to o— their treasure city still stand in places. Old Panamd, founded in 1518, was captured and destroyed by the buccaneers under (1671). Modern Panama was built two years later, 44 miles distant from the old city. In May 1880 it had a population estimated at 15,000, the majority of Indian and negro descent, and half- breeds. During the zenith of canal work (see below) the population was estimated at 25,000 to 30,000. Fires have destroyed Panama repeatedly, as well as its sister city Colon. The principal buildings are the cathedral (1760), a Spanish structure, built of yellow stone; the town-hall, in which the Colombians signed the declaration of their independence ; and the hishop’s palace (1880). Panama is connected with Colon on the Atlantic by the Panama Railway (48 miles long), built by Americans in 1850-55. PANAMA CANAL.—The idea of connecting the Atlantic and Pacifie Oceans by way of the central American isthmuses is by no means new. That for uniting them by the Isthmus of Panama is almost coincident with Balboa’s discovery of the Pacifie (1513). In King’s Wonders of the World we read: ‘In the town library of Nuremberg is reserved a globe, made by Jolin Schéner in 1520. t is remarkable that the passage through the Isthmus of Darien, so much sought after in later times, is on this globe carefully traced.’ Gomera (1510-60), the historian, was the first to advocate a union of the oceans by means of acanal. Phili II. of Spain proved an implacable enemy to all sue schemes. The Tehuantepec, Nicaragua, and Darien routes were discussed in the 16th century ; and the Dutch, it is alleged, made complete plans for a canal over two centuries ago. But no steps were taken to carry ont any plan until Ferdinand de Lesseps, of Suez fame, convened in Paris in May 1879 an international congress to discuss the plan of er through the Isthmus of Panamé, A plan previously prepared by De Lesseps was adopted, and a concession from the United States of Colom- bia to Lieutenant Lucien Napoleon Bonaparte Wyse of the French navy, who had made a hasty and partial survey, was sold to the prospective Panama Canal Company. On February 28, 1881, the first detachment of canal employés arrived at Colon ; surveys were at once made, and the build- ing of camps, hospitals, &c. followed. In 1882 the Canal Company pepe the Panama Rail- way. ps’ Engineering Commission to Panama in 1880 estimated that a canal could be made for 843,000,000 francs. De Lesseps reduced their figures to 600,000,000 frances, or £24,000,000, and announced that a canal a niveau, or tide-level canal, could be completed for that sum. Later he invited delegates to meet him at Panama in 1888 for its opening. Loans followed year after year. Meantime interest charges accumulated and be- came burdensome, while little real progress was made. In the autumn of 1888 further borrowing became impossible. The company was forced into liquidation, January 1, 1889; its bond and share indebtedness was roughly estimated at £70,000,000, interest charges over £4,000,000, with perhaps a fifth of the real work done. There are over 800,000 holders of shares in France. Shortly after the crash, a liquidator was named by the Court of the Seine. In 1890 a commission of French and other engineers was sent to the Isthmus by him. Their report was very discouraging. Valuable organ 732 PANAMA CRIMSON PANCRAS plant estimated at about £6,000,000 was rusting away, much al y useless, The tide-level cut at Colon was rapidly filling in, and the fine harbour shallowing, owing to the ent, In 1891 the govern- ment of Colombia ted to the Panamé Canal Company an extension of ten years from 1893 in which ts finish their contract, provided operations should be resumed before February 1893. De ps seems to have entered upon the plan with- out sufficient knowledge. It is also alleged that much money was squandered —- extravagance and incapacity. Moreover, many hundreds of the workmen were swept away by tropical diseases, yellow and pernicious fevers, dysentery, Xc., the climate of the Isthmus being pestilential and death-dealing. Indeed the Isthmus and its towns are hotbeds of malignant disease, distributed thence by ing merchandise to all quarters. the obstacles to a tide-level canal are t, such as the swamps and volcanic ledges on the Panama side; and the marshes and quicksands on the At- lantic coast are apparently insurmountable. The periodical overflow of the Chagres fills the valley of the Isthmus, as in the flood of 1879, which swept all before it, and covered the railway with 12 feet of water. The wet season of nearly eight months causes delays and dar to cuttin Earth- quakes, too, occur, as in September 1 which did much damage to both Isthmian cities and the Pa- nama seg whilst a tidal wave caused great de- struction of life and property on the islands and coast of the Gulf of Darien ; and to natural obstacles must be added thegreatcost of labourand living. See Nel- son, Five Years at Panama (N. Y. 1889; Lond. 1891). _ Panama Crimson. See Dyerne. Panatheniea, the most famous festival of Attica, celebrated at Athens in honour of Athena, tron goddess of the city. All writers who men- ion it speak of a Lesser and Greater Panathenma, the former annual, the latter quadrennial. The procession of the festival was sculptured by Phidias and his disciples on the frieze of the Parthenon. Panax, See GINSENG. Panay, an island of the Philippines (q.v.), south of Luzon. Area, 4540 sq.m. Mountain-chains run rallel to the east and west coasts. It is exceed- gly fertile, and has vast pastures. Capiz, Iloilo, and Panay (pop. 15,484) are the chief towns. Panchatantra, the oldest extant collection of apologues and stories in Sanskrit literature, This work is a compilation due to a Brahman named Vishnusarman, who is represented as at once the narrator of the stories and author of the book. Com 1 of narratives, some of which are found in different literary monuments, and of passages borrowed from legislators, moralists, and poets, the Panchatantra has been subjected to many modifications. Wilson, who first gave a detsiled analysis of the work (Trans. Roy. Asiat. Soe. of Great Britain, i., Lond. 1827), lad three widely varying MSS. before him. Kosegarten, the first editor of the Sanskrit text, found the same variety in the eleven MSS. he used. In these he recognised two distinct redactions, one simple and without ornament, the other more extended and elaborated. Neither of these is, however, the first form of the work. Benfey held that there existed a still more ancient text, from which the lost Pelilevi translation was made, and that the Pan- chatantra was composed snbseqnent to that trans- Jation, This Pehlevi version was the parent of the Arabic Kalilah wa Dimnah, as also of the old Syriac version of Bickel] and Benfey (1876). The book of Kalilah wa Dimnah ditiers considerably from the Panchatantra. It is divided into eighteen chapters, of which only five (5, 7, 8, 9, 10) corre- spond to the five parts of our collection. The , ”, literary history of this work and its extraordinary diffusion among the languages of western Europe are sketched in the article BipPAI. Some of the fables contained in the Panelia- tantra are found in the Mahabharata, others have their source in Buddlist books, and there exist in Sanskrit several abridgments or imitations. Of these the most ancient forms part of the Kathasarit- sigara (‘Ocean of the Streams of weeps & , com- posed by Somadéva about the beginning o 12th century. The text of this work was edited by H. Brockhans ( Leip. 1839-62-66) ; a German trans- lation by the same scholar was published in 1839 (Leip. 2 vols.), and one in English by Professor C. H. Pairias in 1880 (Caleutta, 2 vols.). It contains, of the Panchatantra, the first three books, three fables of the fourth, and one of the fifth. Another abridgment, in which most of the poetical quota- tions are omitted, is entitled Kathamritanidhi (* Treasure of the Ambrosia of Stories’). But the most celebrated of its imitations is the Hitopadésa (* Useful Instruction’), of comparatively modern date. Like Somadéva, its author, Sri Narayana, has taken only the first three books of the Indian original; he has drawn from the last two four fables only, and inserted them in his third and fourth books. The Panchatantra belongs to the class of works designated in India as Nitisdstras (sdstra, * book of knowledge,’ and niti, ‘conduct ”), composed for the instruction of princes and all those called to take a share in the direction of public affairs. The five books of which it is com form as many distinet ts, related to each other by an intro- duction in which a king, after having taken the advice of his conncillors, entrusts to a Brahman the education of his three sons. The latter com- poses the Panchatantra for the instruction of the young princes, and by the reading of that work 1e succeeds in overcoming their indolence and in developing their faculties. The first book is the longest, and has for special title Mitrabhéda (* The Disunion of Friends’). Its object is to acquaint kings how dangerous it is to lend an ear to the perfidious insinuations of those who seek to sow divisions between a prince and his faithful friends. The second book, entitled Mitra- prapti (‘The Acquisition of Friends’), has for its aim to show how advantageous it is to form and ny tore other. The third book, Kakoloiké (‘ The War of the Crows and the Owls’), shows danger of trusting to men unknown or to enemies. The fourth, Labdhapranasana (‘The Loss of Ac- quired Good’), proves that we often lose by im- pn gpenes what we had gained with difficulty. The fth and last book, A hitakaritwa (‘ Incon- siderate Conduct’), shows the danger of being too precipitate in action. A principal logue forms the subject, or, more correctly, the framework, of each of the five books, Fables contained in that apologue, and often involved the one with the other, are related by the person introduced. The narrative is intermingled with a multitude of sentences, maxims, a thonghts, extracts from codes of legislators, heroic and other poems, and dramas, The text of the Panchatantra has been edited by Kose- rten (2 vols. Bonn and Greifswald, 1848-59), and G, hier and F. Kielhorn in the ‘ Bombay Sanskrit’ series 1868-69). There is an admirable German translation Benfey (2 vols. Leip. 1859), a French translation, with nseful notes on the sources and imitations of the sto by Fdonard Lanocreau (1871). Vol. i. of Benfey’s work is entirely taken up by a masterly and e: ve introduction, the best work that has yet appeared on the sources and the diffusion of Indian fables, Pancras, St, the son of a heathen noble of Synnada in Phrygia, lost both parents whilst a PANCREAS PANDOURS 733 boy, and was taken to Rome by an uncle, and there baptised, but immediately afterwards was slain (304) in the Diocletian persecution, being only fourteen years old. The first church that St Augustine consecrated in England was dedi- eated to St Pancras ; it stood at Canterbury.—The London terminus of the Midland Railway, St Pancras Station, is situated in the parish of St Pancras. See G. Clinch, Marylebone and St Pancras (1891). Panereas (from the Gr. pan, ‘all,’ and kreas, * flesh’) is a conglomerate gland, lying transversely across the posterior wall of the abdomen, varying in length from 6 to 8 inches, having a breadth o: about an inch and a half, and a thickness of from half an inch to an inch. Its usual weight is about three onnees, The head of the pancreas lies in the concavity of the duodenum. For the action of the pancreatic juice, and an illustration of the pancreas, see DIGESTION. The diseases of the pancreas are few, and do not signify their existence by any very marked symptoms. The most common form of disease is cancerous deposit in the head of the gland, which sapere induces jaundice by obstructing the common biliary duct near its opening. An accurate diagnosis of disease of this organ is extremely diffienlt, and cannot lead to eflicient treatment ; all that can be done in these cases being to palliate the most distressing symptoms. The pancreas of ruminating animals is a favourite article of food under the name of sweetbread. Pancsova, a town in the sonth of Hungary, inhabited by (1890) 17,948 Servians and Germans, stands 9 miles NE. of Belgrade, on the Temes, not far from its junction with the Danube. ‘The people breed silkworms, brew beer, distil brandy, make starch, grind flour, &c. The Austrians took the lace from the Turks in 1716, routed them there in 1739, burned the town in 1788, and in 1849 defeated the Hungarians under Kiss. Panda (Ailurus fulgens), a rare and remark- able animal in the bear section of Carnivores, It lives among rocks and trees by the sides of streams at great altitudes in the south-east Himalayas, and Panda ( Ailurus fulgens). in eastern Tibet. Like a large cat in size, it has long, thick, brilliant reddish-brown fur, black beneath, high pointed ears, stout plantigrade limbs, with large, very slightly retractile claws, and woolly soles. The bushy tail is almost as long as the body, and has beautiful rings of red and yellow. , The molar teeth are very broad, with numerous cusps; the diet consists of fruits, roots, and other rts of plants. A ee ty panda in the Zoo in aon sucked water like a bear, and ran like a weasel in a jumping gallop. In its native haunts it climbs trees dexterously. The call varies from a curious bird-like chirp to a loud squeal. By the large bear-like Ailwropus melanoleucus, with snow- white fur and black legs, the panda is linked to the bears, but in several features it is nearer the raccoons of the New World. Pandanacex, a natural order of endogenous plants, wholly natives of the tropics. They are trees or bushes, often sending down adventitious roots, sometimes weak and decumbent, or elimb- ing. The leaves are imbricated linear-lanceolate and spiny, or pinnate and palmate without spines. The flowers are unisexual, naked, polygamous, or arranged on a spadix, and wholly covering it. The stamens are numerous; the ovaries usually clus- tered, one-celled, each crowned with a stigma; the fruit consists of fibrous, one-seeded drupes, collected or almost combined, or of berries with many seeds. There are not quite 100 known species. Some are valuable for the fibre of their leaves, some for their edible fruit, &e. See ScREW Pine. The unexpanded leaves of Carludovica imata furnish the material of which Paname ats ave made, The tree which yields Vegetable Ivory (q.v.) is Phytelephas macrocarpa belonging to this order. The flowers of Pandanus odoratissimus are very fragrant; in India they are boiled with meat, and are regarded as aphrodisiac. It is cul- tivated in some parts of Japan for the sake of the perfume of the flowers, and the adventitious roots are used as substitutes for corks. Pandavas. See MAHABHARATA. Pandean Pipes, a series, fastened side b side, of short 8 or pipes, graduated in lengtly so as to give out different notes when blown across their months. See PAN, Pandects (Gr. pandectai, ‘all-containing’), or the Dicrst, one of the celebrated legislative works of the Emperor Justinian (q.v.). Pandharpur, a town of British India, 112 miles SE. of Poona, on a branch of the Kistna. It is highly revered by the Hindus on account of a temple dedicated to an incarnation of Vishnu. Pop. 16,910. Pandit. See Punpir. Pandora (i.e. the ‘all-endowed’), according to Greek myth, was the first woman on the earth, When Prometheus had stolen fire from heaven Zeus instigated Hephstus to make woman out of earth to bring vexation upon man by her graces. The gods endowed her with every gift necessary for this purpose, beauty, boldness, cunning, &e. ; and Zeus sent her to Epimetheus, the brother of Prometheus, who forgot his brother’s warning seen accepting any gift from Zeus, A later form of the myth represents Pandora as possessing a vessel or box filled with every form of human ills, on opening which they all spread over the earth, Hope alone remaining. A still later version makes the box filled with winged blessings, which man- kind would have continued to enjoy if curiosity had not pee Pandora to open it, when all the blessings flew out, except Hope. Pandours, a people of Servian origin who lived scattered among the mountains of ungary, near the village of Pandour in the county of Soli. The name used to be applied to that portion of the light-armed infantry in the Austrian service raised in the Slavonian districts on the Turkish frontier. They originally fought after the fashion of the ‘ free-lances,’ and were a terror to the enemy whom they annoyed incessantly. Their appearance was exceedingly picturesque, being somewhat oriental in character, and their arms consisted of a musket, pistols, a Hungarian sabre, and two Turkish poniards. Their habits of brigandage and cruelty rendered them, however, as much a terror 734 PANDULF PANORAMA to the people they defended as to the enemy, and about 1750 they were put under stricter discipline, and gradually incorporated with the regular army. The name is now obsolete. Pandulf, Carpixat, the commissioner sent by Innocent III, to King John in 1213, who returned to England as legate (1218-21), and in 1218 was made Bishop of Norwich. Langton strongly opposed his pretensions as legate, and got his commission cancelled. Pange Li a (Lat., ‘Now, my Tongne, the mystery telling ’), one of the most remarkable of the hymns of the Roman Breviary, and like its kindred hymn, Lauda Sion, a most characteristic example of medimval Latin versification. ‘The Pange Lingna is a hymn in honour of the eucharist, and belongs to the service of the Festival of Corpus Christi. It was written by the great Angelic Doctor, Thomas Aquinas, and consists of six strophes of verses in alternate rhyme, Besides its place in the office of the Breviary, the ‘Tantum ergo,’ a portion of this hymn, forms part of the service called Benediction with the Blessed Sacrament, and is sung on all occasions of the exposition, procession, and other public acts of eucharistic worship. Pangenesis. See (Vol. VL. p. 676) Hereprry. Pangolin, or SCALY ANT-EATER, a name given to the various species of the genus Manis belonging to the mammalian order Edentata, and confined to the Oriental and Ethiopian regions. The most van Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla). marked peculiarity of these animals is their cover- ing of scale-like structures, which are really formed of numerous hairs closely fused. The pangolin is most nearly allied to the Aardvark (q.v.) of South Africa, and like it is edentate pat feeds upon ants. When threatened with danger these animals roll themselves into a ball like the hedgehog. Pango Pango. See Samoa. Panicle, See Grasses, Panicum, See Miter. Panini, the greatest known grammarian of an- cient India, whose work, equally admirable for pre- cision of statement and analytical skill, has up to the present day remained the standard of Sanskrit (q.¥.) grammar. Of his life little is known save that he was born near Attock, in the 7th century B.C., according to Goldstiicker, while Weber and Bohtlink give about 350 B.c. penioat, & town of the Punjab, is situated 53 miles N. of Delhi, near the old bank of the Jumna, and on the t military road of northern India between Af istan and the Punjab, Hence it has been at various times the scene of strife be- tween the ple of India and her invaders. The first vat battle of Panipat was fought in 1526, when ber, at the head of 12,000 Mongols, defeated the army, 100,000 strong, of the emperor of Delhi. The second great battle was fought in 1556 by the Mon- gols ander Akbar, grandson of Baber, and third of the Mogul emperors, against Hemn, an Indian general of the Afghan Sher Shah, the latter being defeated. The third battle was pC on 7th Jann- ary 1761 between Ahmed, ruler of Afghanistan, and the till then invincible Mahrattas, who on this oceasion sutfered a total defeat and great slaughter, The existing town is enclosed by an old wall, and manufactures copper utensils, cloth, blankets, hard- ware, silver and glass ornaments. P, (1891) 27,574. Panizzi, Sir ANTHONY, principal librarian of the British Museum from 1856 to 1866, was born 16th September 1797, at Brescello, in the duchy of Modena, He studied at Padua, and e an advocate, but, sharing in the revolution of 182, had to flee. Condemned to death in absence, he settled in Liverpool, where the friendliness of Roscoe procured him employment as a teacher of Italian. Through Brougham’s help he was in 1828 made professor of Italian in University Coll London, and in 1831 assistant-librarian in British Museum. As keeper of the printed books (1837) he undertook the new catalogue, and it was he who designed the new reading-room (see BRITISH Museum). He was long a fast friend and corre- spondent of Prosper Mérimée, and died sis 8, 1879, having been made K.C.B. in 1 He retained to the end a lively interest in the cause of Italian freedom. See his Life hy Fagan (1880). Panjab, « province of India. See Punsan. Panjim, a city of Portuguese India. See Goa. Panna, capital of a small native state in Bun- delkhand, 173 miles SW. of Allahabad, Pop. of town, 14,676; of state, 227,306. Pannonia, 2 province of the ancient Roman empire, bounded on the N. and E. by the Danube, on the W. by the mountains of Noricum, and on the 8. reaching a little way across the Save; it thus ineluded part of modern Hungary, Slavonia, parts of Bosnia, of Croatia, and of Carniola, Sys. and Lower Austria. It received its name from the Pannonians, a race of doubtful origin, but who at first dwelt in the country between the Dalmatian Mountains and the Save, in modern Bosnia, and afterwards more to the south-east in Mesia, The Roman arms were first turned against them and their neighbours, the Iapydes, by Augustus in 35 B.c. After repeated defeats the Pannonians settled about 8 A.D, in the more northern countries, which received their name, and of which the former inhabitants, the Celtic Boii, had been in great part destroyed in Ciesar’s time. The country was now formed into a Roman province, Great numbers of the Pannonian youth were drafted into the Roman legions. In the 5th century it was transferred from the Western to the Eastern Empire, and after- wards given up to the Huns. After Attila’s death, in 453, the Ostrogoths obtained possession of it. The Longobards under Alboin made themselves masters of it in 527, and relinquished it to the Avari upon commencing their expedition to Italy. Slavonian tribes also settled in the south, Charlemagne brought it under his seeptre. In the reigns of his successors the Slavonians spread northward, and the country became a part of the great Moravian kingdom, till the Magyars or Hungarians took it in the end of the 9th century. Panorama (Gr. pan, ‘all,’ and horama, ‘a view’), a word coined by or for Barker in 1788 to mean ‘a view all round.’ The word is used loosely for all that the eye can see at once, or by a person’s simply turning round, from an eminence ; also for aseries of pictures, such for example as what is called a ‘panorama of the Rhine,’ folded up in a kind of portfolio. The name is also given to a con- tinuous series of {poco pictures exhibited at one end of a room, and moved so as snuecessively to pass into and ont of the field of view by some mechani- cal arrangement, This when seen from a distance PANORMUS © PANTHAYS 735 through an opening, and under a combination of direct and re seta Tight (as invented by Daguerre and Bouton), is called a diorama. But the word peerage roperly belongs to what is now called, y way of distinction, cyclorama—a- continuous painting on the interior of a cylindrical surface, the spectator standing in the centre. It is claimed t Breising of Danzig proposed such a plan. But Robert Barker (1739-1806), an Irish painter resident in Edinburgh, is entitled to the credit of having not merely conceived the method, but of having successfully carried it out on a large scale ; his first ‘panorama’ being a view of Edinburgh, painted in water-colour on ere pasted on a eylinder of canvas 25 feet in diameter, and exhib- ited in Edinburgh in 1788. This he took to London in 1789; and in 1793 he erected a special building, one of the rooms of which admitted a cireular picture 90 feet in diameter. Robert Fulton is said to have painted and exhibited shortly after this the first panorama seen in Paris. But on the Continent the panorama in this sense first became very popular after the Franco-German war of 1870- 71. Tn various towns of Germany and in Paris panoramas of the war were exhibited in buildings specially built for the purpose; the Parisian one of the siege of Paris being enormously successful. In the United States also large panoramas have been exhibited, the subjects being battle-scenes from the civil war. A large panorama of the battle of Bannockburn, painted by Fleischer of Munich, was shown in a specially erected building in Glasgow in 1888; ea oe of the battle of Trafalgar, by the same artist, was a feature of the Edinburgh Exhibition of 1890. In the ‘same year Niagara was brought on canvas to London, and in 1891 this was succeeded by a view of Jerusalem on the day of the Crucifixion. Georama is the name given to a delineation of the earth’s surface on the interior of a hollow sphere, the spectator being in the centre of the whole (see LOBES). Panormus. See PALERMO. Panslavism, 2 movement with the aim of drawing closer together all the various races of Slavonic stock, and combining their influence in petites! and other directions, Some extretie Slavophils have even pro 1 an actual amal- gamation in nationality, language, literature, and religion. The first literary representative was the Slovak t Kollar (q.v.), and the movement showed first in Bohemia (q.v.), where the philo- logical and historical work of Schafarik and Palicky contributed to give it impetus, The Poles of Prussia resisted Germanisation ; Serbs, Slovaks, and Croats asserted their rights against their Magyar masters ; and the still less fortunate Slavs of Turkey gladly swelled the chorus. But at the first great Panslavie congress at Prague in 1848 the most convenient medium of intercourse proved to be the tongue of the alien Germans! Russia, after being called to saypreee the Hungarian revolu- tion, came to be regarded as the protector of all Slavs; and the papers and periodicals of Russian Slavophils, such as Aksakoff and Katkoff, heartily promoted this growing feeling. The growing domi- uance of Russia caused the Poles to withdraw their hearty support, and even the Czechs began to fear that Panslavism, under Russian guidance, looked like Panrussism. There were no Poles at the second congress at Moscow in 1867; but Russia found a most receptive field for her propaganda in Bul- garia, Servia, and Macedonia. nd in the re- enrrent crises of the Eastern Question (q.v.) Russia became more pronouncedly the protector of all Eastern Christians. The Austrian Slavs felt them- selves put into the background by the re-constitu- tion of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1867, which gave so much more power to the Magyars. The war in the Balkan Peninsula in 1875-78 was doubtless largely due to Panslavist intrigue as well as to Christian grievances ; but the rearrange- ments that have taken effect since the Berlin treaty, especially the resolute self-assertion of the Bulgarians, have somewhat disillusioned Russian Panslavists. See SLAvs, Russia; and Hiiusler, Der Panslawismus ( Berlin, 1886 et seq.). Pansy. See VIOLET. Pantagraph, or PANTOGRAPH (Gr. panta, ‘all;’ hens, ‘to delineate’), an atentbent invented for the purpose of making copies, reduced or enlarged, of drawings or plans. It is made in various forms, one of which is shown in the figure. Four rods are so hinged to one another that AE is equal to DF, and AD to EF; hence ADFE is always a parallelo- gram. If from a given point C on AE any straight line BH (or a, 5) be drawn, eutting the other arms, the triangle ABC will always, no matter how the arms of the instrument be moved, be equal to the triangle DBH. It follows that, if the instrument be pivoted on a point at B (usually by a weight), a pencil- point inserted at H and a tracing-point at C, and the latter traced over the lines of a drawing, the yard at at H will trace a reduced copy of the rawing. The proportion of the reduction will be as BH is to BC. By and H are made to slide on their respective rods, so that any proportion of reduction can be made. By changing the places of the pencil and tracing-point, an enlarged copy may be made. The instrument is fitted with little castors to facilitate its free motion. The pantagraph was invented by the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner prior te 1631, and improved by Professor W. Wallace of Edinburgh prior to 1831. Enlargements or reductions can now be done so mtich more accurately by means of photography that the pantagraph is nearly obsolete. See Copy- ING. Pantellaria, a volcanic island in the Mediter- ranean, 36 miles in circumference, and lying 60 miles SW. of the Sicilian coast. In the chief town (Pantellaria, pop. 3600) is a great convict prison. Panthalops. See Cuiru. Panthays, « Mohammedan community occu- pring the province of Yun-nan in the south-west of China, who asserted their independence in 1855. In 1859 they captured Talifoo, the second city of the province, and in 1858 the capital. Their leader Wen-soai ( King Suleiman) established his authority over about 4,000,000 of people, of whom not above a tenth were Siskenioedase In 1866 the Chinese government recognised the independence of the Pan- thays, and in 1872 their king sent his son Hassan on a mission to Europe. Meanwhile the Chinese again attacked the Panthays, defeated them utterly, and finally suppressed their empire. Panthays is A 736 PANTHEISM PANTOGRAPH an anglicised form of Pan-si, their own name. They are still numerous. Pantheism (Gr. pan, ‘all,’ and theos, ‘God’), the name given to that system of speculation which, in its spiritual form, identifies the universe with God (akosmism), and, in its more material form, God with the universe. It is only the latter kind of pantheism that is logically open to the accusa- tion of atheism; the former has often been the expression of a profound religiosity. The word Pantheist is comparatively modern, and seems to have been coined by the Deist John Toland in 1705, and is used shortly after that date by his opponents and orthodox writers like Waterland. lier pantheistic systems, such as Spinoza’s, were regularly assailed under the name of atheism. But the antiquity of this mode of belief is undoubtedly great; it is prevalent in one of the oldest known civilisations in the world—the Hindu, Though it may dimly underlie various polytheistic systems, it is obviously in any definite shape a later develop- ment of thought than polytheism, and most prob- ably originated in the attempt to divest the popular system Of its grosser features, and to give it a form that would satisfy the requirements of philosophi- eal speculation. Hindu theism as mism is taught especially by the aes, the Vedanta and Yoga philosophies, and by those poetical works which embody the doctrines of these systems ; for instance, the Bhagavad Gita, which follows the Yoga doctrine, It is poetical and religious, rather than scientific, at least in its phraseology ; but it is substantially similar to the more logical forms developed in Europe. The Hindu thinker regards man as born into a world of illusions and entangle- ments,-from which his great aim should be to deliver himself. Neither sense nor reason, how- ever, is capable of helping him; only through long- continued, rigorous, and holy contemplation of the supreme unity (Brahma) can he become emanci- pated from the deceptive influence of phenomena, and fit to apprehend that he and they are alike but evanescent modes of existence assumed by that infinite, eternal, and unchangeable Spirit who is all in all. Hindu pantheism is thus spiritual in its character; matter and (finite) mind are both alike absorbed in the fathomless abyss of illimitable and absolute being. Buddhism (q.v.) denies or ignores the existence of God, but in many modes of regard- ing the universe is rather akin to pantheism than to absolute atheism. Sufism is a pantheist out- growth of Islam. Greek pantheism, thongh it doubtless originated in the same way as that of India, is at once more varied in its form, and more ratiocinative in its method of exposition. The philosophy of Anaxi- mander may be described as a system of atheistic physics or of materialistic pantheism. Xenophanes, the founder of the Eleatic School (q.v.), has been held to be the first classical thinker who promul- gated the higher or idealistic form of pantheism., Alexandrian Neoplatonism is substantially pan- theistic; the universal reason and the world-soul of medieval thinkers have the same tendency. The Mosaic account of the Creation (q.v.) of all things ont of nothing by God expressly excludes any pantheistic cosmogony ; and Christian contro- versialists strennonsly assert against every form of pantheism that it involves an antichristian theory of the origin of Evil (a.. ), subverts the personality of God and man, renders free-will impossible (see WILL), and destroys all real moral responsibility. Many heresiarchs have been pantheists. Gnosti- cism is based on an essentially pantheistic doctrine of emanation. Dionysius (q.v.) the Areopagite and Scotus Erigena (q.v.) were pantheists within the Christian fold; and the later Christian Mysticism (q.v.) has a highly pantheistic flavour (see EcknART, BoEHME). Bruno, Vanini, and Paracelsus were outspoken theists; and there were various minor pantheistic sects in the middle ages. Spinoza is perhaps the greatest, certainly the most rigorous and precise of the whole class tha either the ancient or the modern world has seen. Schelling’s Nature- Eniowsly: proposed to limit the meaning of the term pantheism to the doctrine of See the articles on the thinkers mentioned, and those on PHILosopHy, RELIGION, and THEIsM; the works on Pantheisin by Jiische ( 1826-32), Bélimer (1851), Weissen- born (1859), and Driesen (1880); Saisset, Modern Pantheism (Eng, trans, 1863); Fellens, (1873); Hunt, Pantheism and Christianity (1866; 2d ed. 1884); Flint, Anti-Theistic Theories ( History of Pantheism (2 vols. 1881). Pantheon (Gr. pan'theion), a temple built in a modified Corinthian style with a great vaulted roof, dedicated to all the gods, The ‘Pantheon’ Half-section of Pantheon (from Fergusson), of Rome is the only ancient edifice in Rome that — has been perfectly preserved, and is lighted through one aperture in the centre of its magnificent dome, It was erected by Agrippa, son-in-law of i 27 B.c. In 610 it was consecrated as a church, and is known as Santa Maria Rotonda, Under Pope Urban VIIT. the architect Bernini erected on it two little Campaniles, called in derision his ‘ass’s ears.’ Jndicious restorations were made Pius LX., and the ass’s ears have been remo’ The church is used as a place of sepulture for great Italians.—The Panthéon at Paris, Dnilt in 1 as the church of St Genevieve, beeame famous as the mausoleum of famous men, From 1851 to 1885 it was again a church. Panther. See Leoparp, Puma. Pantograph. Sce PANTAGRAPH. 1877); Plumptre, — PANTOMIME PAPAVERACE 737 Pantomime, among the ancient Romans, denoted not a spectacle but a person. The — mimes were a class of actors who acted wholly by mimicry in gesture, movements, and turings, esponiing therefore pretty closely to t modern ballet-dancers. hen they first made their appearance in Rome cannot be ascertained ; bably the Aistriones (Etruse. hister, ‘a dancer’) ught from Etruria to Rome 364 B.c. were panto- mimes; but the name does not once occur during the blic, though it is common enough from the very dawn of the empire. Augustus showed great favour to this class of performers, and is conse- a supposed by some writers to have been imself the inventor of the art of dumb acting. The most celebrated pantomimes of the Augustan age were Bathyllus (a freedman of Mecenas), 2 enane and Hylas. The class soon spread over Italy and the provinces, and became so popular with the Roman nobles and knights that Tiberius reckoned it necessary to administer a cheek to their vanity, by issuing a decree forbidding the aristocracy to uent their houses, or to be seen walking with them in the streets. Under Caligula Lex f were again received into the imperial favour ; Nero, who carried every unworthy weakness and vice to the extremity of caricature, himself acted as a pantomime. From this period they enjoyed uninterrupted popularity as long as Ly PETRY held sway in the empire. the oo. sock Arma no — — was possible; everything depen on the waovemente of the body. It was the hands and fingers chiefly that spoke; hence the expressions, manus loquacissime, digiti clamosi, &c. To such perfection was this art carried that it is said the pantomimes could give a finer and more precise expression to ion and action than the poets themselves. he subjects thus represented in dumb show were always mythological, and con- sequently pretty well known to the spectators. The dress of the actors was made to reveal, and not to conceal, the beauties of their person; and as, after the 2d century, women began to appear in public as pantomimes, the effect, as may easily be supposed, of their costume, or lack of costume, was prejudicial to morality. Hence tomimie exhibitions were denoun by the early Christian writers, as they were even by pagan moralists like Juvenal. © The ] drama in medieval Italy gave birth to the opera, and already in the 16th century we find on the Spanish stage ballets with allegorical figures. Into France also about the same time the ballet was introduced. But the improvised Italian comedy was already familiarly known far beyond Italy, with its conventional comic figures, Panta- lone and Arlecchino. In England the mask and so-called ‘opera of the 17th century supplied the place of the modern pantomime, which grew out of an attempt to reproduce a popular light dramatic entertainment, varied with song and dance, itself the parent of the modern French vaudeville. Colley Cibber mentions as the first example a piece on the Loves of Mars and Venus. Geneste gives the ear 1723 as the commencement of pantomime in England, with Harlequin Dr Faustus by Jolm Thurmond, presented at Drury Lane. John Rich 1681-1781) produced splendid pantomimes at incoln’s Inn Fields and Covent Garden, and from that time this form of entertainment became a traditional institution. In the older English pantomimes the harlequin layed a serious as well as merely comic part; columbine (originally his daughter) was a village maiden whose fever was pursued by the constables —the prototypes of the modern policemen. The predominance of the clown seems to be a modern 359 development, mainly due to the exceptional ability of Joseph Grimaldi. Now the chief reliance of the manager is on scenic and spectacular effects, large sums of money being lavished on the mise en scéne. Pa’oli, PASQUALE DE, a famous Corsican patriot, was born in 1726 at Morosaglia in Corsica, son of that Giacinto Paoli who fought bravely, but with- out success, for independence inst the Genoese and their French allies, and died at Naples in 1756. Thither he was carried in 1739 by his father, but returned to take part in the heroic struggle of his country, and in July 1755 was appointed to the chief command in a full assembly of the people. He struggled bravely against disaffection within and a powerful enemy without, governed the island with rare wisdom and moderation, and would have achieved the independence of Corsica had not the Genoese sold it in 1768 to France. For a ‘ig he held out against a French army, under the Comte de Vaux, of 22,000 men, but was at length overpowered and forced to make his escape to England, where he was warmly received and ted a pension by the crown. Boswell, who visited him in Corsica, introduced him to Dr Johnson, who deseribed him as having ‘the loftiest port of any man he had ever seen.’ The two became warm friends; at Paoli’s house John- son wrote to Mrs Thrale he loved to dine. Twenty ears later the French Revolution recalled Paoli to rsica, of which, as a free department of France, he consented to become lieutenant-general and governor; but the excesses of the Convention soon alienated his sympathies, and he organised a fresh insurrection. Despairing of maintaining unaided the independence of the island, he promoted its union with England, but failed to obtain the post of viceroy, and returned a disappointed man to England in 1796. He died near London, 5th Febru 1807; and in 1889-his remains were exhumed from Old St Pancras Churchyard, and reinterred in his native island. See Boswell’s Account of Corsica (1768), and the Lives of Paoli by Arrighi ( Paris, 1843), Klose ( Brunswick, 1853), Bartoli (Ajaccio, 1867), and Oria (Genoa, 1869). Pa'pa (Lat., ‘father’), the Latin form of the title now, in the Western Church, given exclu- sively to the Bishop of Rome (see PoprE), Origin- ally, however, meaning simply ‘father,’ it was gen Daercantnarely to all bishops. In the reek Church, whether in Greece Proper or in Russia, papa is the common appellation of the clergy. Papacy. See Pore. Papain is a nitrogenous body, isolated from the juice of the tropical Papaw (q.v.). The juice from which it is extracted is a milky, white, in- odorous fluid, obtained by making incisions in the ripe fruit. From this papain is isolated by precipi- tation with alcohol after the fatty matters present have been removed. The juice has been for a long time used in the West Indies for making meat tender ; but it has oy recently a shown os papain , like sin and trypsin, the power of digesting meat fil re; and this digestion will on in an alkaline, a neutral, or an acid solution. Hence it belongs to the group of diges- tive ferments, and like them is employed in some cases of dyspepsia, being either administered inter- nally or employed for the pre-digestion of food. It has also been used for the removal of warts and for the solution of the ‘false membrane’ in cases of diphtheria. Papal States, See CouRcH (STATES OF THE). Papaveracez, 2 natural order of exogenous plants, herbaceous or half shrubby, usually with a milky or coloured juice. The leaves are alternate, 738 PAPAW PAPER a Y= 7: vi the flowers on long, ae erered stal e t is -shaped or capsular, the seeds numerous (see Boer) The Fa ned is _ tinguished for narcotic properties. Opium (q.v. is its most important product. The juice a Cel- andine (q.v.) is very acrid, The Blood-root or Sanguinaria (q.v.) is another representative of the order. A number of species are used in their native countries for medicinal purposes. The seeds yield fixed oil, which, with the exception of that obtained from A me Mexicana, is quite bland. The flowers of many species are large and showy, most frequently white or yellow, sometimes red. There are in all about 130 known species, natives of all uarters of the world, and of tropical and temperate Sec but they abound most of all in Europe. Papaw (Carica papaya), a small South Ameri- can tree of the natural order Passifloraceze ( mnie made the type of a small family, Papayaces), which has now been introduced into many tropical and subtropical countries. The fruit is eaten either raw or boiled. The seeds when chewed have in a high d the pungency of cresses, The powdered is and the juice of the unripe fruit are most powerful anthelmintics, The juice of the fruit and the sap of the tree render tough meat tender (see PAPAIN); even the exhalations from the tree have this property, and joints of meat, fowls, &e. are hung among its branches to prepare them for the table. It rs fruit all the year, a is yee ad ee ae Chamburu (C. igitata), another species of the same genus, a Salone Balat te Senarighie:tee in extremely acrid and poisonous character of its juice, and the disgusting stercoraceous odour of its flowers.—In the United States the name Papaw is given to the Asimina triloba, a small tree of the natural order Anonacee, the fruit of which, a1 oval berry, 3 inches long, with soft, insipid pulp, is ee Or n but not generally relished by others, parts of the plant have a rank smell. Papenbury, asmall port in the north-west of the province of Hanover, 25 miles W. of Oldenburg by rail and near the Ems, with which it is con- nected by canals. Pop. 6916. In the neighbour- hood are extensive moors. Paper. The earliest paper was doubtless that made from Egyptian Papyrus (q.v.), whence all similar writing material is named. The papyrus paper used to be described as being made of the thin pellicles lying between the rind and the pith : now it is known to have been made of slices of the cellular pith laid lengthwise side by side, whereon other layers were laid crosswise, the whole mois- tened with Nile water, pressed and dried, and smoothed by being rubbed with ivory or a smooth shell. The papyrus ex was superseded in Europe ty Pe r of other fibrous matter gradually between the 1} and 11th centuries (see PALZO- GRAPHY). At a remote antiquity the Chinese made paper of the bast of a special mulberry-tree, of sprouts of bamboo, and of Chinese (see Barumerta). According to Fang Mi-Chih, author of the Encyclopwdia 7’ung-ya, the Chinese at first wrote on bamboo-boards ; but for 300 years before and after Christ the usual writing material was paper made of silk-waste, solidified in some way not described. The inventor of r made of vegetable fibre was the statesman T’s’ai Lun, born in Kwei-yang, in the province of Hu-nan, who in 89 A.D. was in charge of the imperial arsenals. In 105 A.D. it is expressly testified that he had succeeded in making paper of bark, of hemp, of rags, and of old fishing-nets. The governor of Samar- kand, returning from a victorious expedition into China in 751 A.D., brought back amongst his prisoners of war artisans who enabled him to estab- lish a r manufactory at Samarkand, Here Persians learned the my: , and soon were making paper of old linen cloths. The demand rapidly increased, and new paper-works were at work in 795 at ad, where the manufacture was carried on till the 15th century. Soon —< was practised in Damascus, Easpty and along the north coast of Africa; and ere pp bee paper, to which the names Pred pram and were transferred, was impo’ into Europe, where it was generally eggs a Charta sean bombycina, cuttunea, and g ina. From latter adjectives it has eutrintly Gown held that the earliest paper was made of the pulp of crude cotton- wool, and that this was only pace teh supersed by rag pulp. But the researches of Wiesner and Karabacek on 12,500 MSS. pete 2 to Vienna from the Fayim in 1884 by Archduke Rainer have proved that this is an error. There never was any paper made by Arabs from cotton-wool ; the charta cuttunea was all made of rags, and called ‘ cottony,’ probably only from its resemblance to fine cotton cloth. The first manufacture of rag paper in Europe was in Spain under the Moors; in 1154 there was a mill at Jativa. But soon after traces of per-making are found in Italy, France, and Games: n England there is said to have been a paper-mill at Stevenage in Hertford in 1460, but little is known of the history of paper-making in England till about 1558, when there was a well- known mill at Dartford. had, however, been commonly in use since the 14th century. The art of paper-making is one of the most use- ful that has been invented, and paper has acquired a my wis of importance with which it would not have been credited in the 18th century. It has been well observed that buted more to the advancement of the human race than any other material employed in the arts, and its manu- facture constitutes an industry depend more closely than any other on the march of civi Its uses are now beyond number ; the demand for it is so general that it has become an article of prime necessity, and one that is daily entering more and more Jargely into the ordinary wants and ord life of all classes. Large as the orgie Sion ag in the United Kingdom, it is not app so sey and general uses as paper and paper-pulp is th some uro paper has con’ i e United States, Japan, and of the E countries. In the paper trade, as in other mechanical industries, there has been. posers made in the last half-century. Chemists and mechanics have each contributed peer an The former have furnished improved methods for washing, bleaching, and colouring the paper stock, which must yield a different product from what was made by the ancients; while the mechanical im- provements also have been many, both for boiling, running out, drying, and finishing the pulp. The vegetable substances from whi Ly tel ean be made are innumerable, but the difliculties are to obtain them at a sufficiently low price to be used profitably and to secure a con- tinuous supply. Many books and n have been printed entirely of one material, such as bamboo, straw, jute, Phormium tenaz, maize leaves, esparto, &.: at the Paris Exhibition of 1889 a paper-maker showed more than webs or rolls of paper, each made from a ‘erent vegetable fibre. Books, again, have been pub- lished which were com of several hundred leaves, all of a different fibre. In Japan a species of mulberry osier is grown specially for its bark for pepee making. But the substances available in Europe are few that can be had in quantity at a low price. The multitude of vegetable fibres that have been suggested for the use of the paper-maker is PAPER 739 bewildering, but of the number only two have come into use to any general extent; thess are esparto and wood-pulp. The best sources of fibre for the paper-maker’s use are linen and cotton rags for white paper, and hempen cordage for brown; but the modern uses of paper have become so numerous that rags are no longer available in sufficient a for paper-making. Having regard to the composition of paper, the supply would at first seem to be illimitable, inasmuch as woody fibre is amongst the most common of vegetable things. ice, however, soon teaches the important lessons (1) that not all woody fibre is equally well adapted for the production of paper, and (2) that many vegetable growths are built up of admirable cellulose for the paper-maker’s use, but yield it with such trouble and at such cost as to be wholly unremunerative. Much caustic soda or soda-ash is uired in the preparation of many fibres. w fibre may be divided into four classes : (1) that which is easily reduced and easily bleached ; {2) that which is difficult to bleach ; (3) that which difficult to reduce, but easily bleached ; and (4) that wherein perfect bleaching affects the integ- rity of the fibre. The longer the fibres and the more intricate the mixture of them when wet, the stronger will be the sheet of paper when dry. The shorter the fibres, the less pliable will they become with water, as in the case of ground wood, and the less will be the pressure which individual fibres exert on each other, and the more brittle will the paper sheet turn out. arious early attempts to employ Esparto (q.v.) for paper-making are recorded. One patent dates back to 1839, and paper made of it was shown at the London Exhibition in 1851. But to the late Mr T. Routledge is mainly due its extensive em- loyment by the trade. He commenced with a ew tons at the Eynsham Mills in 1856, and the for the number of the Society of Arts weekly journal for November 28 of that year was made of it. For several years the makers looked very coldly on this new material, but gradually by the aid of Mr Pirie, Mr E. Lloyd, and others it became universally adopted. From an import of 891 tons in 1861 it has gradually ine as follows: in 1870, 89,156 tons; 1880, 191,229 tons; and 1890, 217,048 tons. The United Kingdom has hitherto monopolised the supply. Esparto is treated much like straw, but does not require as much soda-ash and chlorine to bleach it. The fibres are easil dissolved and bleached by chemicals. They felt readily and yield an excellent pulp, which is em- ployed alone, or mixed with rags, wood-pulp, or straw. It furnishes a paper pliant, resistant, trans- parent, and of great purity, thicker than other papers of the same weight, and forming a good printing and writing substance. The culms of various cereal are employed where obtainable; rice-straw in Asia, wheat, oat, and other kinds of straw in Europe. Straw was used a century ago for paper-making, but its exten- sive use is 0 pes par recent date. For low rs it commands a market, but as a mixer it is inferior to esparto, the internodes or knots reer Seceetingyy troublesome and difficult to get ric of. The deficiency in the supply of rags and the absence of any cheap substance to supplement esparto have led toa airy run upon wood-pulp in the last few years for the paper-mills in Great Britain and most other countries, Its manufac- ture and use dates practically back only to about 1870 ; indeed its general adoption may be referred to the ten years later. Although not all that could be wished for as an adjunct or filler, its introduc- tion and employment have proved eminently useful. The conifers giving the strongest and toughest fibre seem to be best adapted for conversion into pulp, although many other oe are used, The pro- duction has centred chiefly in the two Scandinavian countries of Norway and Sweden. From these Britain yearly receives about 140,000 tons of wood- ulp, besides what they ship to other countries. hey also make a large quantity of paper and pasteboard for export. The quantity and value of the paper materials received by Britain in 1889 were : Tons. -- 42,443 value £426,322 Esparto, &e. IIIT 11217/256 1,090,266 Wood-pulp..... 11122}179 "690,692 MobMbin, 255. svdogauneSeae ate 381,878 £2,207,280 The idea of making a paper-pulp of wood was repeatedly mooted in the early part of the 19th cen- hee A patent was granted to some paper-makers in taly in 1826. Some years later the idea was revived in improvements in Great Britain by Des- grand, Johnson, Newton, and others. Mr Houghton took out a patent in 1857. But the mechanical process of Volter of Heidenheim was that which gave the principal impetus to the use of wood-pulp. At first the wood was simply rubbed down into pulp against the periphery of a wheel with a rough surface ; but now b: i ape chemical appliances a better pulp is P uced, and the manufacture has become generally adopted in Europe and America, adding largely to the value of their forests. Wood- pulp is admirably oo asa pane 2p Peter in the manufacture of cheap paper. It is deficient in fibre, but a moderate admixture of , esparto,, or other fibrous material strengthens it. It was about 1873 that wood-pulp began to be introduced in England as a paper material. At first only: 12,000 tons could be got rid of yearly, but in 1890 as much as 137,837 tons was pul chiefly from: Sweden and Norway. Much of the paper made ix used up a second time. Koop’s patent for nework~ ing old waste-paper was carried on in the earlier ears of the 19th century at the Neckinger Mills, rmondsey, The process of manufacture then would seem to have been faulty, the ge made being found unfit for use, and the mill was sold. The process has, however, been brought extensively into use of late years, old newspapers and forming much of the material for repulping. Cotton and linen rags are one of the mainstays of the ee and all countries are drawing 1 y on this waste substance. In Great Britain, unlike sunny climes, woollen clothing is more generally worn than cotton and linen, hence these used vegetable fibres are_not so plentiful with us as in Asia and southern Europe. British imports of foreign rags were 29,642 tons, valued at 1,762, in 1880; 34,889 tons, valued at £354,306, in 1890; and 21,055 tons, valued at £206,772, in 1896. Much of this is re-shipped, and British rags are also exported. Of ‘esparto and other materials’ for paper-making 538,464 tons, valued at £2,630,964, were imported in 1896. The British export of 2, in 1896 had a value of £1,304,483. In 1897 1 the imports of paper matin materials had a value of £3,150,240; the value of paper and ager gee exported was £2,472,429, ‘he prices of all paper-making materials have fallen greatly since 1875; nevertheless a great im- petus has been given to the use of straw and wood- pulp. Thedemand for paper continues great. Some of the London daily journals consume 100 tons weekly ; but as they sell at low prices the paper they use must be cheap. In order to reduce the price many makers introduce into their pulp sawdust and various mineral matters, such as kaolin or china clay. Very often 25 to 30 per cent. of such substances is introduced into these loaded papers, which do for cheap journals, the sheets of which have hence no solidity. But if such papers 740 PAPER are used for book-work they have no durability, and are also injurious to the type. Another cause which contributes quite as mych to the bad quality of many modern papers is the too rapid desiccation which the sheets unde in the preparation of machine-sized paper. Admitting that many of the a now made are infinitely finer, more beauti- , and above all whiter than those made in former times, it is equally true that in general machine-made papers possess less strength than the old hand-made —_— _ Paper of pure and good to pene | ought no eave after burning more an 2 per cent. of ash. The question for consideration as to the future is whether raw material enough can be obtained in quantity to keep our mills going, since esparto must ually fail, and wood-pulp and rags will alone remain to us, unless some new, cheap, and abundant vegetable fibre can be met with. About 90,000 tons of rags are collected in Britain, but they are chiefly of cotton fabrics, and even these are now much drawn upon for other purposes. How much longer will Belgium, France, and Germany be disposed to part with their rags? and without rags wood-pulp is useless, however plentiful it may be. The varieties of paper made are chiefly the follow- ing four classes : (1) news and printing papers ; (2 writing-papers of various kinds, blue, cream, an inf wg , and wove and tinted, and for account- ; (3) wrapping or packin, rs, brown and purple, heavy manila for poser. Fn goo | bags ; (4) miscellaneous, such as light copying, tissue, and pone pers, blotting and filtering, tte, &e. tly, there are all kinds of card and mill- Pete adios The following enumeration shows the neipal kinds of papers, made in the British mills; but the list might be extended to one or two thousand names of various kinds and qualities. Account-book, backing, -papers, bank-note and bill, blottings, boards, bowl-papers, browns (heavy and cutting), butter, caps (brown for ), cards for looms, carpet-felt, cartridge, casings, chart-papers, cheques, cigarette, collar, coloured, copyings, drawings, drying royals, duplex, enamelled, engine- boards (glazed and milled, paste and portmanteau), aeons a, ta eer 2 aera or sa ‘oil, grocery, gan-wadding, hosiery, lithographic, J long elephants, maniiold, manillas, Secliok! middles (browns), mill wrappers, music, news or printings, parchment, _ and needle, plate, rail- way-ticket, royal hands (gray, brown, blue, and white), sampling, skips, small hands ( browns), tea- paper, tissues, tobacco, tracings, tube-paper, water- Foot, wrapping, writing. It is on record that in 772 there were sixty varieties of paper made from as many different materials, and ten or twelve ears later the number had been extended to 103. n those days all wa was manufactured by hand, each sheet separately, The rags were pu in mortars by trip-hammers, and several days were required to turn out a sample of dry finished paper. The workman dipped a rectangular sieve or mould into the vat and deposited the sheet of fluid pulp on a piece of felt to dry. This simple mode of manufacture, which is still largely practised in Holland and Italy, has been su ed very Loppson by continuous machines, and only a small quantity of paper for owe oooks, editions-de-luxe, and the like, besides a superior writing, bank-note, and drawing paper is now made by hand in England. Mill 8 (q.¥.) and pasteboard or cardboard were formerly chiefly made for bookbinding ; but now they are much in demand for box-making, machine, packing, and other purposes, Over 50,000 tons of straw and wood are imported from Germany, Holland, Belgium, and other countries, besides what is ¢ in Britain, The various machines for making pe in con- tinuous lengths are wonderful productions of mechanical skill, being almost automatic in their action, and they work with marvellous exactness. These machines consist of contrivances for an equal supply of pulp to flow upon an wire-gauze apron, which revolves and carries on the per until it is received on an endless sheet of elt, ee and between large couching- cylinders, These machines have now it to such perfection that nepe can be made in one continuous roll or web of any length, and before leaving the machine is ak, dried, calendered, hot-pressed, and cut into sheets, % At the Edinburgh Exhibition in 1886 a web of per was shown five miles long, and at the Pitts- urgh Exhibition there was a roll 14 miles long, 18 inches wide, which weighed 2658 Ib. Some machines are 75 to 100 feet long and 126 inches wide, requiring a building to themselves, and making a sheet of paper 7 feet in width. Fig. 1 is a side-view of a continuous making machine, and fig. 2 a vertical one. principle of the machine is very simple; it contains a pulp-vat, A, with a hog or wheel inside to the pulp, and an arrangement for ee the pulp over the wire-gauze mould, B, B, B, which, instead of being in single squares, as in the hand-process, is an endless sheet moving round two rollers, a, 6, which keep it strete out and revolving when in operation. nder the part which receives the pulp there is a series of small brass rollers, d (fig. 1); these, being nearly close together, keep it perfectly level—a most necessary condition; besides which there is a shallow trough, e¢ (fig. 1), called the save all, which catches and retains the water that always escapes with some pulp in suspension; and an arrangement of suction boxes and tubes, f, f, f (fig. 1), worked by air-pumps, which draw much of the water out as the pulp passes over them. The pulp is kept from running over the sides by straps called deckles, which are also endless bands, usually of vulcanised india-rubber, carried round moving rollers so that they travel with the wire-gauze, and therefore offer no resistance to it. In addition to all this the framework on which the surface of the wire-gauze rests has a shoggling motion, or side-shake, which has an im effect in working the fibres ther before the pul finally settles down. When it reaches the couake ing-rolls, which press out most of the — moisture, and carry it forward to the first second series of —— by means of an end- less web of felt which passes round them, the speed of these rollers and the travelling sheet of felt, CC (figs 1 and 2), is nicely calculated, so as to prevent a strain upon the still very tender web of paper. Sometimes the upper rollers of these two series are filled with steam in order to com- mence drying the web, The paper is now trusted to itself, and passes on, as indicated by the arrows, from the second press-rolls to the first set of dry- ing cylinders, DD (figs. 1 and 2), where it meets with a felt sheet, which keeps it in contact with the drying cylinders, which are of large size, and filled with steam. Around these it —— drying as it goes, and is then received tween the two smoothing-rolls, or damp calenders, which press both surfaces, and remove the marks of the wire and felt, which are until then visible on the paper, This necessarily is done before the drying is quite completed ; and from the smooth- ing-rolls it passes to the second series of dryi cylinders, E (figs. 1 and 2), where the drying finished, and thence to the calenders, which are polished rollers of hard cast-iron, so adjusted as to give a considerable pressure to the paper, and PAPER 741 produce a glossiness of surface. For writing- pers the paper passes ugh a shallow trough of size after leaving the drying cylinders, and then f over another 7 series of skeleton cylin- ders, with fans moving inside, by ae % is again dri without heat, and afterwards passes through the ealenders. rinting / and Cy rs are — i y mix- 7 ing the sizein the pulp, ~ in which stage the - colouring materials— 7 such as ultramarine for the blue = of fools- cap—are a intro- duced. Still following the paper web in the drawing (fig. 1), it is seen to pass from the ealenders to another machine, F; this slits the web into widths, which are in cross- cut into sheets, the size of which is regu- lated at will. In the United States, for fine book-work, the paper receives a white coat- _ ing after it has been | made; it is the finish 7) thus given to the sur- ¥ face that renders the illustrations seen in the best American mee zines possible. e water- mark is im- pressed on machine- made paper by means of a fine light-wire eylinder with a wire- woven pattern; this is placed over the wire- uze sheet upon which e pulp is spread, but near the other end of it, so that the light impression of the marker may act upon the paper just when it ceases to ulp, and ° this remains all through its course. There are many other interesting points about the paper- machine, but their in- troduction here would rather tend to confuse the reader. Its pro- ductive power is very great; if moves at a rate of from 20 to 200 feet per minute, spread- ing pulp, couching, drying, and calendering as it goes, so that the stream of pulp flowing in at one end is in two minutes passing ont finished paper at the “BdNOd TIVAUAVS aNv dina 742 PAPER PAPIAS other. It has been computed that an ordinary Cwt. Cut. machine, making webs of paper 54 inches wide, 3870 130,050 ao will turn out four miles a any, Woedelloet cats, 230,093 1 Paper Production of the World.—The following | ine average pice of paper, which in 1874 was E in 1 d thelr annual Ra as high as £3, 2s. per cwt., has fallen as low as mace des ae 30s. perewt, The superiority of the British over the am, don | continental manufacture has obtained for Britain — dio.coo | & steadily increasing business in the markets of 083 180,000 | Asia, South America, and her Colonies. In 1879 - 741 72,000 | the value of the British paper of all kinds exported | {eco) | was £015,925; in 1889 it was £1,602,075, even ab * 331 14,000 | the much lower prices ruling. In 1889 was im- . 65 Ve periet of paper and ae : Ms bard . 4 or} 110,000 ewt., an increase of 1 million cwt. over ms Y 1882. : i "9.000 In the United States equal progress has been 13 3,600 | made in the paper-manufacture as in Great a + | Britain. The first mill was established in 1690, on $286 1,049,800 | ground now included within Philadelphia. In 1770 Many of the mills may not be working, some pro- duce pulp only, and the vat-made paper is included in the estimate of production. Assuming 1 million tons are made annually, this may be valued at £30,000,000, of which half is the prime cost of the raw . It is difficult to determine with any precision the quantity of paper now made in the United Kingdom, as the manufacture is free from tax; but we may form a fair estimate by looking at the progress under the duty rate, and judging of the advance since from the increased exports and the stimulus now given to production. The following are official figures of the quantity of with duty before the abolition of tax, which brought in £1,500,000. In 1842, 43,166 tons; 1852, 70,000 tons; 1861, 102,456 tons, In 1851 Mr Poole, in his Statistics of British Commerce, stated that there were then ee: mills at work in the United Kingdom; 349 in England, 48 in Scotland, and 40 in Ireland. The weight of paper made amounted to 62,000 tons ; the estimated value of which was £3,000,000. The number of mills in 1860 was 397 ; in 1870, 369. Mr W. Arnot, in his course of lectures on the ‘Tech- nology of the Paper Trade’ before the Society of Arts in 1877, stated the number of paper-mills working in the United Kingdom at 385; of which 300 were in England, 65 in Scotland, and 20 in Ireland. The number of machines employed he gave at about 526, producing 350,000 tons of paper, which, with 10, tons of hand-made, gave a total production of 360,000 tons. This = he estimated to be worth £16,000,000 sterling. This is, however, far too high an estimate, having regard to the depreciated prices resulting from the fall in value since 1880. The 400,000 tons made at the present time cannot be valued at more than £12,000,000. Assuming the annual production of in the United Kingdom at present to be ,000 tons, the home consumption is evidently and ve, for we only export in books paper about 57,000 tons, while we import of writing and printing papers, &c., 60,000 tons. Newspapers, books, and periodical literature use up fully one-half of our total make. Schools and public offices and correspondence consume much of the remainder, leaving but little for wrapping, pecking, and other purposes. Judging from the ata adduced, the British paper-manufacture has more than quadrupled since the abolition of the r-duty. The Seana a of the United rag a in paper een Ta se chon as the res i the following table will show ; the first of its toes columns comprising writing: r, printing-paper, and envelopes ; and the second all other finds of paper. there were forty paper-mills in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, and only three or four in New England. In 1840 there were in the United States but 426 paper-mills; in 1850, 443; and in 1860, 500, producing 60,000 tons ; in 1872 there were 812 mills, owned by 705 firms, making 200,000 tons. At present, with over Le ye Is having 3000 machines, the quantity e greatly exceeds that of the United Kingdom; the amount in some of the last years of the decade 1880-90 amounting to over 1,200,000 tons. In the other parts of America there are 85 paper-mills, In Asia there are 19 paper-mills, ides numerous vats; in Africa, 4; and in Australasia, 7; making a total of nearl 4500 mills in the world. The production of hand- made papers in China and Japan it is im ble to estimate. China has made great strides in her exports of paper of all kinds. From about 75,000 ewt. a few years ago the export advanced to 237,000 ewt. in 1890, valued at ,000. The i of the paper now made in the world—at least three- fourths—is believed to be used for printing on, since the correspondence carried on in many countries out of Europe is comparatively small. There are works on and r-maki Hof- mann (New York, 1873}, Munse New Yosk, 1876 Archer (1876), Dunbar (1881), Par (1886), C. T. Davis (1886), and Cross and Bevan (1887). For old water-marks dating from 1473, see Archologia, vol. xii. For ancient paper-making, see Hirth, Ciinesische Studien (1890), and Karabacek, Das Arabische Papier, WAtt- PAPER is the subject of a separate article. Paphlagonia, anciently a province of Asia Minor, extending oo southern shores of Black Sea, from the Halys on the east to the Parthenius on the west (which separates it from Bithynia), and inland on the south to Galatia. Its limits, however, were somewhat different at different times, and it successively belon: to bag Persia, and Rome. Its capital was Sinope. The Paphlagonians are supposed to have been of Syrian or Semitic origin, like the Cappadocians. Paphos, two ancient cities in Cyprus. Old Paphos (now Kyklia) was situated in the western rt of the island, about 14 mile from the coast. t probably was founded by the Phoenicians, and was famous, even before Homer's time, for a tem le of Venus, who was said to have here risen from the sea close by, whence her 5 eo A seg: foam- sprung.’ “This was the home of the ‘Paphian enus,’ and hither crowds of pilgrims used to come. The other Paphos (Papho or @) was on the seacoast, about 8 miles west of the older city, and was the place in which the apostle Paul proc the gospel before the proconsul Sergius. Papi Bishop at Hierapolis, in Ph in the earlier half of the 2d coneaees is ones us only from references by Irenzus, Eusebius, and a PAPIAS PAPIER-MACHE 743 few others, and from fragments of his lost work onorigeg in their writings (see especially Eusebius, istoria Eccl. iii. 39), Irenzeus speaks of him as a ‘hearer of John’—evidently meaning the apostle. Eusebius aptly quotes Papias himself against Treneus on the point; but, while the quotation justifies his criticism thus far, it does not fully out his own view that Papias claimed to have been a hearer of two other disciples of the Lord, Aristion and the elder (not the apostle) John. There is, then, no very reliable evidence of personal intercourse with any of the immediate followers of Jesus. On the other hand, some of the links between Papias and the apostles are definitely known ; for two daughters of the apostle Philip, living in Hierapolis, related traditions to him, and he was a ‘companion of Polycarp’ (69-155 A.D.), Bishop at Smyrna, who in his youth had been a disciple of the apostle John. The statement, how- ever, in the Chronicon Paschale, that Papias suffered at Pergamum in the year of this contemporary’s martyrdom at Smyrna, rests on the compiler’s mis- reading of Eusebius ( Hist. Eccl. iv. 15). The only work which he is known to have written is the a kyriako: ap! cong (‘Exposition of Oracles of the Lord’), in five books, which on various grounds, including an expression in a frag- ment recently discovered, may be probably assigned to the ayer 140-150. It is now generally agreed that the signification of ‘oracles’ is not to be absolutely limited to ‘discourses,’ and that by ‘Oracles of the Lord’ we are to understand a record, or records, of the. Lord’s sayings, inelud- ing at least a setting of narrative. Part of the author’s design was to supplement his expositions with trustworthy oral traditions. But the scanty remains are enough to show that Papias was, as Ensebius says, ‘of very small intellect,’ credulous, and fond of recording the wonderful. His doctrinal characteristic is a quaint millenarianism, with traces of the Apocal of Baruch. But it is in relation to the New Testament canon, and especially to what is known as the optic problem, that Papias is of real importance. he fragment bearing on Mark runs thus: ‘ This also the elder (John) said: ‘‘ Mark, having become the interpreter (recorder) of Peter, wrote down accurately whatever he remembered, without, how- ever, recording in order what was either said or done by Christ,”’ &e. Many scholars maintain that the words suit the second gospel as we have it, while others who deny this accept them as an account of its groundwork. Still greater interest attaches to the short fragment on Matthew: ‘Matthew, then, com the oracles in the Hebrew (Aramaic) language, and each one inter- preted them as he could.’ This statement has often been called in question, but the best authori- ties now hold that Papias is correct as to the Aramaic original, and that the canonical gospel, while evidently not a translation, is a Greek edition, by either Matthew himself or some writer unknown. On the whole, the two-document hypo- thesis of the origin of the synoptics, which at resent holds the field, coincides remarkably with the above two fragments (see GOSPELS). As to the rest of the canon, Papias quoted 1 John and 1 Peter, and was cited as an authority for the ‘credibility’ of the Apocalypse. There are also some indications that he knew the fourth gospel. For Papi nerally, see Lightfoot, Essays on the Work entitled ‘ ipernatural ieigion * (3889) ; oF foe bere fragments, the Patrum . Opera of Gebhardt, Har- nack, onde Zahn ; for an Tinglish translation, the Ante- Nicene Library, vol. i. Papier-mAché (Fr., ‘mashed or pulp paper’). This name is applied to a material consisting either of paper-pulp or of sheets of paper pasted together, which by a peculiar treatment resembles varnished or lacquered wood in one class of articles made of it, and in another class (chiefly architectural orna- - ments) somewhat resembles plaster. Other sub- stances are, however, mixed with paper, especially for the latter class of objects. Among eastern nations, where varnished and decorated articles in papier-maché have long been made, the finest work has been produ in Persia, and next to it in Cashmere. The articles chiefly made are eases for pens and other writing materials, as well as boxes and trays. In Japan various objects are manufactured by glueing together a number of sheets of the soft and flexible paper of that country upon moulds, when it is in a damp state. This kind of papier-mfché, which is light, strong, and elastic, was at one time used in that country for helmets and other parts of armour. No doubt it was from one or other of these eastern countries that the art of working in papier-maché was uired by Europeans. rticles of papier-miché were extensively made in France in the first half of the 18th century. Sub- sequently the manufacture was largely developed in Germany. The painted papier-mfché snuff- boxes and other articles Samed Vernis Martin work, from the fact that they were made by a coach-painter named Martin, who had a peculiar way of varnishing them, were in the 18th century popular throughout Europe, and fine specimens are still sought after by collectors. Papier-maché appears to have been introduced into England for the purpose of imitating Japanese trays of lacquered wood. In 1772 Henry Clay of Birmingham took out a nt for making papier-mfché of sheets of specially prepared paper pasted together upon a mould. In this way he produced panels for doors and walls, besides cabinets, screens, tables, tea- trays, &c., and these are still manufactured. The best papier-maché is made by Clay’s method ; but it is also made from paper-pulp to which glue has been added, and this is pressed between dies to give it the required shape. There is a third kind made of coarse fibrous material, mixed with earthy matters and a binding size, certain chemicals being added to render it incombustible. Suppose that a tray-blank of sheets has been formed upon a metal mould. It is then heated to 120° F., and afterwards dipped in a mixture of linseed-oil and spirits of tar (other mixtures are used) to harden it and make it resist moisture. It is again placed in a stove, and when taken out it is planed and filed to give it the required finish. The tray now gets several coats of tar varnish and lampblack, each of which is rubbed down with pumice, and stoved once more. It is then ready to be decorated, after which it receives a coat of transparent varnish, and is finally polished with the hand. Carton-pierre, which has been extensively em- ployed for the internal decoration of buildings (much in the same way as plaster), is formed of paper-pulp mixed with whiting and glue, and P into plaster moulds. It is next backed with paper, allowed to set, and dried in a hot room. Ceramic Papier-mdché (Martin’s patent dated March 15, 1858) is a very plastic substance, which can be readily moulded or otherwise worked into any required form. It is composed of bic me pulp, resin, glue, drying oil, and sugar of lead, well kneaded together. There are various ways of decorating papier- mfché. For tea-trays, caskets, panels, and other objects with a black varnished surface, what is ealled ‘inlaying’ with plates of mother-of-pearl shell, searcely thicker than stout jabra Se oe has been largely practised. The pieces of shell are stuck on with varnish, and the design painted on them with a protecting varnish. An application 744 PAPILIONACE PAPPENHEIM of acid dissolves away the unprotected and then the in’ are filled up with varnish. When the surface is rubbed with pumice-stone the superfluous varnish is removed, and the shell orna- ments displayed. In a similar way the surface can be ‘inlaid’ with cut-out metal devices. Flower and landscape painting has also been much em- ployed in the way of decoration, as well as borders other ornaments in leaf gold. Owing to the extensive importation in recent years of cheap Japanese lacquer wares (see LACQUER), the Bir- mingham manufacturers of papier-miché have now largely resorted to an inexpensive decoration b; Ceanien-puaating, which can be done by boys an girls instead of ry mig ve artists. A change has also taken place in the nature of the material itself, which has recently been chiefly made of wood- from Sweden. A limited quantity of the igh-class papier-miché is, however, still joe eg manufactured. The variety of — é adopted for architectural ornaments, which are usually more or less in relief, can be readily painted, gilded, or bronzed. The application of papier-maché to articles requiring t strength, such as wheels for railway carriages, has not proved so successful as was at one time anticipated. Papilionacez (from Lat. papilio, ‘ butter- fy’) a sub-order of the Lira) po scr of plants generally called Leguminose (q.v.), the plants of which have flowers of the peculiar structure called popenece us, and of which the Pea and Bean afford familiar examples. Papilionaceous flowers have five petals, im ricated in estivation (bud), one of which, called the vexillum, or standard, is superior, turned next to the axis, and in estivation folded over the rest; two, called the ale, or wings, are lateral; and two are inferior, which are often united by their lower margins, forming the carina, or keel. The number of the hg re ana is very ear ec 4800 species being known. They are ound in all parts of the world, abounding in the tropics. Many have superb and beautiful flowers ; many are plants of beautiful form and foliage, trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants; many possess valuable medicinal properties; and many are of great importance as furnishing food for man and for domestic animals, others as furnishing dyes, fibre, timber, &c. See Broom, LABURNUM, CLover, Bran, Pea, Lucerne, Liquorice, IN- DIGO, SANDALWOOD, &e. Papillz. See Skin, Taste. reps Denis, a French — was born at Blois, August 1647, and studied medicine in Angers, where he practised for some time as a physician. But, becoming acquainted with Pa: gens, he hel him in his experiments with the ll gd, then, crossing to England, he assisted Boyle in his physical experiments, invented the condensing pump and the steam digester (1681)—a sort of steam cooking apparatus, to which was applied for the first time a safety-valve—and was made a member of the Royal Society (1680). Shortly afterwards he proceeded to Venice for the — of helping to conduct a newly-founded so! of science, but was back in London in 1684. Three years later he was — fessor of Mathematics at Marburg, but from 1696 to 1707 worked in Cassel. Then, —s to England, be died in obscurity, probably in 1712. To Papin belongs the honour of having first applied steam (1690) to produce motion by rabing a piston, and with this he combined the simplest means of producing a vacuum beneath the raised piston— viz. SA em rpeeene of aqueous vapour, In virtue of this his biographer claims that he is really the inventor of the steam-engine. He is the inventor of the safety-valve, an essential part of his digester; of the siphon; and according to some, of steam-navi- gation. See SHIPBUILDING, p. 402; also DIGESTER. His rs were mostly printed in the Ph: Svalietons: Acta Eruditorum, Journal des &c. He also wrote Nouvelles Expériences du Vuide (Paris, 1674). See Lives by Ernouf (Paris, 1874) and Gerland (Berlin, 1881). His ce with Huy- gens and Leibnitz was published Gerland (Berlin, 831). See Nature, vol. xxiv. (1881). Papineau, Lovis Josern, Canadian states-— man, was born at Montreal in October 1789. At twenty he was elected to the Legislative Assembly, and speedily worked his way to the head of Radical or French-Canadian party, and in 1815 was chosen speaker of the House of Assembly for Lower Canada, a post that he held until 1837. He op the union of Upper and Lower Canada, formulated the grievances and demands of his party in the Ninety-two Resolutions, and — actively against the imperial government. ven the province rose in rebellion in 1837, a warrant was issued against Papineau for - treason, though he took no active part in the fighting. He esca to Paris; but returned to a, = doned, in 1847. He died at Montebello, in Q: : on 23d September 1871. Papinianus, “mivs, down to the time of Justinian the most celebrated of the Roman jurists, lived at Rome during the reign of ins Severus, whose second wife is said to have been his relative. Both he and Septimius were pupils of Scwvola; Papinianus succeeded the prince as advocatus fisci, and afterwards held the office of ba dnedg pretorio. The son and successor of verus, Caracalla, caused Papinianus to be put to death in 212. His works consist of 37 books of eee 19 of nsa, 2 of Definitiones, and Adulteriis ; from these works 595 excerpts were incorporated in Justinian’s Pandects, Pappenheim, Gorrrriep Herricn, Count VON, an imperial general of great note in the Thirty Years’ War, was born at Pappenheim, in Middle Franconia, Bavaria, 29th May 1 of a very ancient Swabian family, in which the digni of Marshal of the Empire became hereditary about the 13th or 14th century, and many of whose mem- bers had greatly distinguished themselves in the wars of the middle ages. At twenty he went over to the Roman Catholic Church, and thenceforth signalised himself by his fiery zeal in its cause. ter serving under the king of Poland in his wars with the Russians and Turks Pappenheim joined the army of the Catholic ue, and in the battle of Prague (1620) stayed the flight of the Austrian ey and by a well-timed and furious charge turned the tide of battle against the Bohemians, In 1623 he received from the emperor the command of a cavalry regiment of the famous ‘ Pap eimer pengvans: In 1625 he became general of the Span- ish horse in Lombardy; but in 1626 he re-entered the Austrian service, and after suppressing a danger- ous revolt of the peasants of Upper Aus in which 40,000 of the. peasants perished, he joined the army which was opposed to the Protestant League, and, in ype mera i, carried - many campaigns against the Danes, job go Saxons. It was Pappenheim who induced Tilly to attack Magdeburg (q.v.), and on his head rests in measure the guilt of the ferocious massacre, is reckless bravery involved Tilly t his will in the disastrous battle of Breitenfeld ; but to some extent he retrieved his character by his heroic efforts to remedy the loss and protect the retreat of the army. After Tilly’s death he served under Wallenstein, who detached him with eight rai ments to pee Cologne, but, on hearing of advance of Gustavus, sent an urgent order for his PAPPUS PAPYRUS 745 return. Pappenheim arrived at Liitzen at the moment when Wallenstein’s army was on the point of being completely routed, and at the head of his cuirassiers he charged the left wing of the Swedes with such fury as to throw it into con- fusion, and for a moment change the fortune of the battle. He was mortally wounded in the last charge, and died a few hours afterwards at Leipzig, November 7, 1632, with a smile on his countenance, after learning that Gustavus Adolphus was dead. 4 be praised!’ he said: ‘I can go in peace, now that that mortal enemy of the Catholic faith has had to die before me.’ Pappus. See ComposiTz. Pappus or ALEXANDRIA flourished about the end of either the 3d or the 4th century A.D. Which of these dates is the more probable it is difficult to determine, owing to conflicting evidence, but recent opinion inclines to the former. Suidas states that ‘appus was a contemporary of Theon, thus placin him towards the end of the 4th century, an ascribes several treatises to him. These treatises have not survived, and the only work by which Pappus is now known, his Mathematical Collection, receives no mention from Suidas. This work consisted of eight books, the first and the earlier part of the E second of which are lost, and its interest is mainly, though not exclusively, histori- cal. From what remains of the second book, it is conjectured that the first two books were arithmetical. The third book § explains some of the methods for the duplication of the cube, treats of She pay: ressions and the five regular polyhedra. | he fourth book discusses the figure | called the arbelos (‘a shoemaker’s knife’), ‘\ff the spiral of Archimedes, the conchoid of jf Nicomedes, and the quadratrix of Dino- stratus. The fifth book contains some | theorems regarding isoperimetrical figures plane and solid, and a short account of the semi-regular solids of Archimedes. The sixth k comments on some of | the works of Theodosius, Aristarchus of Samos, and Euclid. From the seventh % book, which is the longest and most valu- § able of the Collection, is derived a large on of our knowledge of Greek Revere any of the writings here analysed are no longer extant, and it is on the indi- cations (in the notable instance of Euclid’s Porisms, the very obscure indications) which Pappus gives of the object or the contents of them that the geometers of the 17th and 18th centuries relied for their restorations of these writings. The eighth book is devoted mainly to mechanics. The mathematical interest of the Col- lection does not equal the historical, but several of the books contain important theorems, the dis- covery of which is probably due to Pappus himself. One of these has been long associated with the name of Guldinus (1577-1643). Some others have received a brilliant development from the mathe- maticians of modern times. The last six books of the Mathematical Collection were translated into Latin by Commandinus, an Italian geometer, and were published in 1588; another edition appeared in 1660. Fragments of the Greek text have been rinted at various times in England, France, and Leecueny, but the only complete edition is that of Fridericus Hultsch, Papyn Alewandrini Collec- tionis que supersunt (3 vols. Berlin, 1876-78). Papua. See New GUINEA. Papules, or Pipes, are ‘solid small eleva- tions of the skin,’ and may be either pale in colour or inflammatory and more or less red. Papules occur as an early stage in the development of the eruption in many skin diseases—e.g. in eczema, where they speedily become vesicles; or in acne, where they become pustules. The papular diseases ote where the eruption in its fully developed orm consists of papules, are lichen and prurigo. Papy'rus, a genus of plants of the natural order Cyperacez, of which there are several species, the most important being the Egyptian Papyrus or Papyrus of the ancients (P. antiquorum, Capers papyrus of Linnzeus)—a kind of sedge, 8 to 10 feet high, with a very strong, woody, aromatic, creep- ing root, long, sharp-keeled leaves, and naked, leafless, triangular, soft, and cellular stems, as thick as a man’s arm at the lower part, and at their upper extremity bearing a compound umbel of extremely numerous drooping spikelets, with a general involucre of eight long filiform leaves, each spikelet containing six to thirteen florets. By the ancient Egyptians it was called papu, from which the Greek papyrus is derived, although it was also called by them byblos and deltos. The Hebrews called it gomé, a word resembling the Coptic gom, or ‘volume ;’ its modern Arabic name is berdi. The plant is nearly extinct in Lower Egypt, but is found in Nubia (whence it was rape introduced into Egypt) and Abyssinia. t eae bg in the Jordan Valley, in the neigh- bourh of Jaffa, and also of Sidon, in parts of the Sinai Desert, and in Sicily. It is often a con- spicuous feature in African vegetation. It is repre- sented on the oldest Egyptian monuments, and as reaching the height of about ten feet. It was grown in pools of still water, growing ten feet above the water, and two beneath it, and restricted to the districts of Sais and Sebennytus. The papyrus (not merely P. papyrus, but P. dives, which is still found in Egypt) was used for many purposes, both ornamental and useful, such as wreaths for the head, sandals, boxes, boats, and eordage, but the P. papyrus was valued principall, for a kind of paper called by its name. _ Its pit was boiled and eaten, and its root dried for fuel. The papyrus or Paper (q.v.) of the Egyptians, made of strips of its pith in layers, was of the greatest reputation in antiquity, and it appears on the earliest monuments in the shape of long rectangular sheets, which were rolled up at one 746 PAR a PARABOLA end, and on which the scribe wrote with a reed called kash, with red or black ink made of an animal carbon. When newly prepared it was white or brownish white and lissom ; but in the process of time those papyri which have reached the present day have become of a light or dark brown colour, and exceedingly brittle, breaking at the touch. Papyrus was commonly used in pt for the pur- poses of writing, and was, in fact, the paper of the period; bat, although mentioned by early Greek authors, it does not appees to have.come into general use among the Greeks till after the time of Alexander the Great, when it was extensively exported from the Egyptian ports under the Ptolemies. It was, however, always an expen- sive article to the Greeks. Among the Romans it does not appear to have been in use at an early or although the Sibylline books are said to ve been written on it. It was cultivated in Calabria, Apulia, and the marshes of the Tiber, but the staple was no doubt im from Alex- andria, So extensive was the Alexandrian manu- factory that Hadrian, in his visit to that city, was struck by its extent, It continued to be employed in the eastern and western empire till the 12th century, and was used amongst the Arabs in the 8th; but after that period it was quite superseded by parchment or by paper made of rags. During be ange perio it was no longer employed in he of ro! ut cut up into square pages, an honmd like modern "ei aig The discovery in Egypt of classical Greek authors written on papyrus began about the middle of the 19th century, and the results have been on the whole beyond expectation. The t orator Hyperides (q.v.), then only known by name, is now represented by four or five pretty complete orations ; ents of Euripides and Aleman have been added to what we of these authors, and early MSS. have obtained of parts of Homer, Plato, Thucydides, Demosthenes, and Isocrates. In 1888-89 Mr Flinders Petrie found near Medinet el ie papyri which were identified as fragments of Plato’s Phedo, tran- scribed about 250 B.c., and a part of the lost Antiope of Euripides, besides quantities of letters and documents of the Ptolemaic period. In January 1891 more than 160 ancient mummies (dating from the 20th and 2lst Dynasties) were found in a subterranean at Deir el Bahari, near Thebes; with these were many papyri, contain- ing, as usual, arab ritual and extracts from the Book of the Dead (q.v.); there were also ‘boxes crammed with papyri.” And at the begin- ning of the same year the world was surprised by the announcement that papyrus rolls obtained from Egypt by the British Museum authorities had been found to contain almost the whole of a lost but famous work of Aristotle on the con- stitution of Athens. Of these rolls there were four, of which the longest measures seven feet, the shortest three feet. They have been written by four different copyists, are mainly in a small semi-cursive hand, and date from about the end ot the Ist century A.D. There are thirty-six columns in all, of which the last six are badly mutilated, The text was edited and published in February 1891 by Mr F. G, Kenyon ; a later edition was that of Mr J. E. Sandys. See Paoli, Del Papiro (1878); also the articles Boox (and works there quoted), Eayet, PALMOGRAPHY, PAPER. Par. See SALMon. Parad, the name which the river Tocantins (q.¥.) receives its lower course, from Cameté downwards (138 miles). It is 20 miles broad opposite the city of Parad, and 40 miles broad at its mouth. The Paranan, an arm of the Amazon, which cuts off Marajé Island from the mainland, pours into it part of the waters of the great river, Para (official name Belém), a thriving city and seaport of Brazil, capital of the state of the same name, stands on the east bankof the river Para, 70 miles from its mouth, on a point of land formed by the entrance of the Guandi. The harbour is near] landlocked by wooded islands, and admits vesse! of large size. Pari, as a whole, is a plain-looking commercial town, compactly built, and without straggling suburbs, the dense tropical forest coming close up to the outskirts, The streets are narrow, but regular, well shaded with mangoes and and partly paved; many of the houses, with their blue and white tiled roofs and whitewashed walls, are very pretty, Tram-cars and telephones are in general use, and there is a railway to Bragan (108 miles). The principal buildings are the theatre, the government building, custom-house, and cathedral (1720). The city contains a small fort Brazil nuts, the sh, &c. The annual value of the exports exceeds £2,500,000. Pop. 50,600. See Vincen Around and About South America (1890); and BRAZIL, and books there noted.—The state, border- ing on Guiana and the Atlantic, and divided by the Amazon, has an area of 443,650 sq. m., and a pop. (1895) of 335,000. ‘Para Grass’ is a name given to piassava ; see FisRous SUBSTANCES. Pa’ra, a coin of copper, silver, or mixed metal, = most generally of copper, in use in Turk and Egypt; it is the 40th part of a Piastre (q.v.), and varies much in value, owing to the de condition of the Turkish coinage. Parable (Gr. abolé, ‘a com *) was originally the aoa aloon by the Foe mgt Pika to an illustration avowedly introduced as such. In Hellenistic and New Testament Greek it came to signify an independent fictitious narrative, employed for the illustration of a moral rule or principle. This kind of illustration is of eastern origin, and the test examples are to be found in the Old and New Testaments, particularly in the discourses of our Lord. The parable differs from the fable in the probability or verisimilitude of the story itself, and agrees with it in the essential requisites of simplicity and brevity. It is essenti- ally a short allegory marked by probability of incident, and intended to convey one direct moral or spiritual truth. In the course of time the word parable came to lose its significance of figurative speech, and to mean speech generally. ; There are works on the bles of our Lord by Arch- bishop Trench (1846), Calderwood (1880), A. B. Bruce (1882), Goebel (trans. 1883), and Dods (1883 the articles ALLEGORY, APOLOGUE, and FABLE, Para’bola, the section of a cone by a plane which is parallel to a generating line. As @ particular case, when the plane through the vertex of the cone, the parabola closes up into a straight line. A property of the parabola is that the distance of any point on the curve from a certain fixed point is equal to its distance from a certain fixed straight line. The fixed point is called the focus of the bola, and the fixed line is called its directriz. In the re, PAP’ ears sents a parabola of which S is the focus and is the directrix. The point A is called the vertex of the parabola. The line ASO is the principal diameter of the eurve; and any line drawn through a point such as P parallel to AO is called a diameter, the emporium of the Amazon river-trade, supply: ). See also. - PARABOLOID PARADISE-FISH 747 From the above property it is easy to prove that PN? = 4AS:AN, where N is the foot of the perpen- dicular from P upon OA. It is obvious that the parabola is not avclosed curve. The centre (cor- responding to the centre of the ellipse) is situated : at infinity. The tangent to the curve at P bisects the angle SPD. Hence a reflecting surface formed by the revolution of PAP’ about OA as axis is such that parallel rays falling upon it in the direction of OS are reflected to S. Conversely, rays diverging from § will be reflected rallel to SO. ence the intensity of the reflected beam of light re- mains constant at all distances from the source, except in so far as it is affected by absorption, and the parabolic is therefore the most perfect form of reflector (see LIGHTHOUSE, REFLECTION). If the resistance of f the air were negligible, the path of a_ projectile: would approximately be a parabola with its axis, or principal diameter, vertical, and_its vertex at the highest point of the path. Let PN = y, AN =2, AS=a. The equation of the parabola referred to its vertex as origin is y?=4ax. All curves the equations of which are of the form y" = px™ are classed as parabolas. Thus, the curve represented by the equation ¥' = pa is called the aabceat rabola ; and that one whose. equation is ¥= pat is called the semi-cubical parabola. Paraboloid is a solid figure traced out by a Parabola (q.v.) revolving round its principal axis. Paracelsus, a name coined for himself by Theophrastus mbastus von Hohenheim, was eater rence meant to imply that he was than Celsus; there is no good authority for further adding the names Philippus Aureolus. Paracelsus was the son of Wilhelm Bombast von Hohenheim, a a beepsase at Einsiedeln, in the Swiss canton of Schwyz, and was born in 1490, 1491, or 1493 (it seems impossible to decide which). He owed his early education mainly to his father; went to Basel University at sixteen, but soon left to study alchemy and chemistry with Trithemius, Bishop of Wiirzburg ; and next at the mines in Tyrol belong- ing to the Fugger family learned the physical preperties of metals and minerals, and the dis- tion of rock strata, and began to realise that the observation of nature is of surpassingly ter value to the student than academic A ie Notions or the lucubrations of the study. Here and in subsequent wanderings over great part of Europe he amassed a vast store of facts, learned the actual practice of medicine amongst various peoples, but lost all faith in scholastic disquisitions and disputations. He acquired no little fame as a medical practitioner, and on his return to Basel in 1526 received the appointment of town physician. He also lectured on medicine at the university, but defied academic tradition not merely by lectur- ing in German (not Latin), but by flouting at Galen and Avicenna—burning their books in public, it was affirmed—and denying all that was most firmly believed by the faculty. Bitterness, backbiting, enmities soon rose and pursued him throughout the rest of his life, aggravated and justified in some measure by his own vanity, arrogance, and aggressiveness, as also by his intemperate habits. A dispute with the magistrates in 1528 led to his leaving Basel in haste ; he wandered for more than a dozen years, visiting Colmar, Nuremberg, Zurich, Augsburg, and many other towns, but seldom sojourning more than a few months, and at last settled in 1541 under the protection of the archbishop at Salzburg. But he died on the 24th September of the same year—murdered by his enemies, said his friends; in consequence of a drunken debauch, said his enemies. He is said to have written some 364 works, of which only some 230 were printed; and of these the critics only admit from ten (Marx) to twenty- four (Hiiser) as genuine, the others being by his followers the ‘ Paracelsists.’ They were mainly written in Swiss-German, the Latin versions bein by other hands. About a dozen were translat into English. The earliest printed work was Prac- tica D. Theophrasti Paracelsi (Augsbur , 1529). Collected German editions appeared at asst in 1589-91 (11 vols. 4to) and again in 1603-5 (4 vols. folio; re-issued 1618), Latin editions in 1603-5 (11 vols. 4to) and 1658 (Geneva, 3 vols. folio). His system was on a cosmogoniec view of the universe, the disturbances in the economy of the human microcosm corresponding to and being determined by the movements of the all-embracing macrocosm. Repudiating the current pseudo- Aristotelianism, Paracelsus turned sympathetically to Neoplatonism and the Cabbala; but it seems difficult not to admit in him an element of pure charlatanism, as well as of mysticism. Unquestion- ably, however, his method and his influence tended in the direction of the immediate observation of nature, the discarding of antiquated theories, the encouragement of independent research, experi- ment, and innovation. He is not to be blamed for clinging like his age to Alchemy (q.v.); he certainly made some new chemical compounds, and pep chemical knowledge to improve pharmacy and therapeutics, and, in an empirical fashion, to revolutionise hide-bound medical methods. See monographs by M. B. Lessing (1839), Marx (1842), Mook ( Wiirzburg, 1876); the article MEDICINE ; and the History of Medicine by Hiser. There is an English Life of Paracelsus by Fr. Hartmann (1886); Browning’s famous poem on Paracelsus is well known. Parachute (Fr. chute, ‘a fall’), a machine for the purpose of retarding the velocity of descent of any y through the air, and employed by aéronauts as a means of descending from Balloons (q.v.). The original type was a gigantic umbrella, strongly made, and having the outer extremities of the rods, on which the canvas is stretched, firmly connected by ropes or stays to the lower part of the handle. It was recommended in 1783 at Lyons by Le Normand as a means of escape from a house on fire, but was first used in connection with ballooning by Blanchard in 1793. In 1887 Baldwin claimed to have descended from a height of one mile by means of a parachute in 3} minutes. Paraclete. See Sprrir (HoLy), MonrTan- ISM, ABELARD. Paradise (Gr. paradeisos, ‘a park,’ ‘a pleasure- ground ;’ originally an oriental, apparently Persian, word ; ef. the Heb. pardes, and modern Persian, Jirdaus), the garden of Eden (q.v.), Heaven (4-Y-) —See Brrp oF PARADISE for the bird so named. Paradise-fish (Macropodus viridi-auratus), a Chinese species of ert often kept in aquaria for its beauty of form and colouring. In the male the colours increase in brilliancy at the pairing- season, and he swims around his wished-for mate, fluttering the long, delicate filaments of the ventral 748 PARADOX PARAFFIN fins, or erecting those of the tail fin like a pea- cock’s train in miniature, Paradox (Gr. para, ‘ beside’ or ‘ beyond,’ and dozxa, ‘an opilion’), a term bs gra to whatever is contrary to the received belief ; not wos werigs Bory opinion contrary to truth. There have been bold and happy paradoxes whose fortune it has been to overthrow accredited errors, and in the course of time to become ony accepted as truths. For paradoxists who square the circle, and invent per- tual motion, see QUADRATURE OF THE CIRCLE, PERPETUAL Motion; and De Morgan's Budget of Paradoxes (1872). Paradoxides Beds (Paradozidian), a term sometimes applied to the Harlech or Longmynd Menevian rocks of Britain, which are charac- terised by the presence of trilobites belonging to the genus Paradoxides. See CAMBRIAN SYSTEM. Paraffin (so called as being parum affinis —i.e. having little aflinity—for an alkali) is a name given by Baron Reichenbach (q.v.) to a white transparent crystalline substance first obtained by him in 1830 from wood-tar. The honour of this discovery must be shared with Christison of Edinburgh, who independently and almost simultaneously obtained the same body in making a chemical examination of Rangoon petro- leum, and which he named petroline. Dumas, a French chemist, obtained it also from coal-tar in 1835. But for twenty years after its discovery opemagnes remained a chemical curiosity only. t was not till 1850 that it began to be produced, by Mr James Young, in quantity suflicient to oceupy the attention of manufacturers. Since then it has become of great importance com- mercially, and has for years been the bos 1 material employed in the manufacture of candles in Great Britain and Germany, having for that purpose, to a large extent, superseded the use of Wax, spermaceti, stearic acid, and tallow, besides being used in many other branches of the arts and manufactures, and in surgery. The word paraffin, at first applied 1 by Reichenbach to the solid body, is now used by chemists as a generic term for the series of saturated Hydrocarbons (q.v.), the higher members of which are paraffin-wax, lower members are an and the lowest are gases ; marsh-gas or firedamp being lowest ofall. Parattin- oil was the term first — oyed by Mr Young to denominate the mineral burning oils oatmeal by him, and this name still applies in Britain to all the oils associated with the manufacture of n. In these oils, however, the olefine series of non-saturated hydrocarbons is largely repre- sented along with liquid paraftins. But Petroleum (q.v.) is the term in general use to designate the natural oils of America, Russia, and other countries, which are for the most part mixtures of these same two series of hydrocarbons. As the production of ffin-wax and paraffin-oils has now become an industry of great importance to the world, it will be convenient to make some reference here to the his' of its development, ey in Scotland, which is now the seat of the industry. To a comparatively limited extent coal and shale or schist are made use of in Germany, in France, in Italy, and ‘n Australia for the production of hydrocarbon cils, In December 1847 Mr James Young received a letter from Dr (Sir Lyon) Playfair, calling his attention to a dark oily liquid found in a coal-mine at Alfreton in Derbyshire. On examining this oil Mr Young recognised the commercial import- ance of the products that could be obtained from it. He erected a refinery, and produced a light oil for burning, a heavy oil for lubricating, and paraffin. wax. This petroleum spring, at first producing about 300 gallons per day, had exhausted itself at the end of two years. Meanwhile, Mr Y reflecting on the probable origin of the oil, after a series of experiments, su ed in — at a low heat an analogous oil from coal. Th process became the subject of his celebrated it obtained in 1850, Works were erected at in Scotland, in which neighbourhood a highly bitu- minous cannel coal was at that time being mined for aye It was known as Tor ill Mineral or ead Coal (qv. ).. This mineral was employed by Mr Young, and it yielded under distil- lation about 120 gallons of crude oil per ton. In 1851, when the Bathgate oil-works were s' tS endealie ar till in 1862 tt ve Rete it un rose, ti 8 per ton, when the supply ceased. Mr Young’s t, which covered the distillation of oil from coal at a low red heat, ran from 1850 to 1864. In 1859, however, Mr Robert Bell erected oil-works at Broxburn (q.v.), in which he distilled oil from shale. He was the first in Scotland to use this material, although Du Buisson had obtained a patent in France previous to 1850 for the distillation of schist or shale. Since 1862 this mineral has been and now is, the only mineral employed in Scotland for oil-making. Soon after Mr Young obtained his tent in 1850 he granted licenses for its use in the nited States of America, where oil for several years was distilled from cannel-coal; but public attention being thereby directed to the natural petroleums which have since been found in such abundance, the use of cannel-coal was discon- tinued. Mr ee: was thus the — not only of the paraffin-oil manufacture, but also of the petroleum industries of the world. During the progress of the shale-oil industry in Scotland it has been frequently subject to serious vicissitudes of fortune, more than once being threat- ened with extinction. During one of those elsh coal-oil trade by. roducts, and regarded of little value, or for which there was no market, and products which for years were even unknown came to be of prime importance in the life of the trade. The first period was a brief one (1848-50), when Mr Young utilised the petroleum- spring at Alfreton for the production mainly of lubricating oil, used in mills as a substitute for sperm-oil. The second period extended over the uration of Young’s patent (1850-64), when the burning oil had become of the test are to the manufacturer. The third period (1864-72) witnessed the great development of the petroleam trade in America, during which the price of burning oil fell so low that about half of the works in Seot- land were closed, The fourth period (1872-78) was a period of severe struggle for existence. The ~ smaller and weaker works disappeared. The pro- duction became concentrated in fewer hands with larger ontputs. Burning oil being now less remu- nerative, the utmost attention was paid to the recovery of all waste-products and to the develo; ment of the by-products; parattin-wax and sulphate of ammonia then becoming of chief importance to the manufacturer, Fortunately also the inventive nins, pencipally of N. M. Henderson, of William oung, and George T. Beilby, and others stimu- lated by necessity, culminated in the production of new and economical processes whereby manufac- turing costs were reduced, and the yield of the products that had now become of most value were much increased. The fifth period (1878-87) was PARAFFIN 749 in consequence a time of much prosperity, ending, however, in a partial collapse by reason of over- uction in Scotland combined with ever-increas- ing imports of wax from America. The sixth period, for a few years from 1887, was a period of combination, the Scotch and American producers having combined to restrict the supplies of paraffin- wax. After 1894 the Scotch companies suffered again from American (and also Russian) competition. Geologically, the position of the shale in the east of Scotland is in the Lower Carboniferous series, but in the west of Scotland it is found in the ordinary coal-measures. . There are some seven or eight different seams of shale, all varying in position and quality from each other; but the same shale also varies from its normal character in different districts, being thick and rich in one place, and thin and poor in another. The Broxburn seam of shale at its best is probably the richest and most profitable quality to work ; but the Pumpherston seams of shale, though poor in oil, have now be- come of value, because they are rich in ammonia. The shale is procured in the same manner as in a ere A The following summaries will indicate the material facts in the history of the trade in Scot- land, and the direction and extent to which the — processes have tended—viz. diminished yield of. burning oils, increased yield of lubricating oils,. paraffin-wax, and sulphate of ammonia, to- ther with reduction of loss in process of manu- serial SUMMARY No. 1. = ee End of 3d Period—1872, End of 4th Period—1878, ‘umber capital employed. 51—£1,750,000 18—£1,400,000 18—£2,000,000 — of shale 800, 850, 1,869,300 tons, oil 2 agen 25,000,000 29,000,000 52,876,700 gallons, Burning produced 11,250,000 11,400,000 21,680,000 Lubricating oils 2,500,000 5,000,000 9,000,000 Paraffin-wax 5,800 9,200 22,846 tons. Sulphate of ammonia 2,350 4,750 18,483 SUMMARY No. 2. SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF PRODUCTS UNDER THE OLD AND NEW SYSTEMS OF WORKING. Fenner eee een ee ee eee ae eeees The first most notable improvement was the enderson patented by N. M. Henderson in 1873. With this retort the spent shale off which the oil had been distilled, and which still con- tained about 12 per cent. of carbon, was allowed to descend into the furnace beneath the retort to serve as fuel in the distillation of fresh cha of shale. This effected a great saving of coal and labour, and, on account of mild temperature produced with regularity, there was increased yield of products of better quality and more easily refined. In 1882 Mr William ae and Mr George T. Beilby, combining the results of their experi- ments, patented a new retort. It is a combina- tion of two retorts; in the ps a one the ordinary ok roducts are distilled off, after which the 8 below, where a higher heat is employed and in which it is exposed to a current of steam and air; this method gives a greatly increased yield of ammonia; and it is therefore a form of retort of the utmost value in the case of shales rich in nitro- genous and poor in bituminous products. This was followed in 1883 by Mr Henderson’s continuous distillation process, in which the crude oil passes by gravitation through three stills. During the progress of the oil through these stills the fractionation or separation of the crude oil into naphtha, burning oil, and heavy or lubricating oil containing paraffin takes place automatically. . In addition to these three stills there are two or more coking stills into which alternately the residue of the crude oil flows and where the dis- tillation is completed, the dry coke being removed from each at lar intervals. The advantages obtained from this process are pokes in first cost of plant, saving of labour, time, and fuel; less cost of maintenance; the fractionation of the oil is more perfect and uniform, and the distillates purer, iving less loss in refining. Mr Henderson also, by a patented process, greatly simplified and cheapened the cost of the production of sulphate of ammonia. And his new methods of refrigeration and refinement of the crude paraffin scale increased the yield of wax and improved the quality of the lubricating oils. e is allowed to fall into a firebrick retort | of Burning Lubricating Loss in Naphtha, Oils, Oils. Paraffin, , process, oRescedecds 6 40 13 8 84 dwesesenecs 4 35 17 14 30 In the distillation of bituminous minerals for the production of gas a bright-red heat is employed in order to obtain as much incondensable vapour or permanent gas as possible. The aim of the oil- manufacturer on the contrary is to minimise the —- of incondensable gas, and to obtain the ighest percen ible of the liquid and solid hydrocarbons. He therefore reduces the distillation temperature to the lowest practicable point—viz. from 600° to 800° F. Crude oil is composed of a very wide range of hydrocarbons, each varying in specific gravity and boiling-point and in the percentage of carbon present; but in the practical operations of the refiner the fractionation of the oil is confined within certain definite limits which have been found most convenience commercially—viz. Naphtha, specific gravity, 680 to 750 (water = 1000); volatile at ordinary temperatures ; the highest portions are used for carburetting air gas; the heavier portions are principally used as solvents. Burning oils—(a) for domestic use ; specific gravity, 800 to 805 ; flash- point, Abel test, about 100" F. (6) Lighthouse oil, specific gravity, 810 to 815; flash-point, Abel test, about 150° F, (c) High Test oils, specific gravity, 830 to 840; flash-point, Abel test, about ° F.; used in special lamps for lighting railway- carriages and in ships. Lubricating oils: These are made of various standard specific gravities—viz. 865, 875, 885, 890-5. They are used principally for mixing with animal and vegetable oils in the preparation of lubricants. ‘arafin-wax, with melting-points varying from 80° to 130° F. The soft wax from 80° to 100° is employed instead of sulphur in the preparation of ordinary safety- matches, while the harder qualities are manu- factured into candles. The operations in the production and _refine- ment of mineral-oil products stated briefly are: The shale when taken from the pits is broken into small pieces and put into the retorts. In the retort the first chemical process, destructive dis- tillation, takes place. The various products of the oil-works do not exist as such in the shale; -hey are all created by its destructive distillation. The shale, according to quality, yields from 20 to 40 750 PARAFFIN PARAGUAY gallons of crude oil ton, and over 60 gallons of ammonia water. is water, now such a valuable product to the oil-manufacturer, was allowed for years to go to waste; but in 1864 was for the first time utilised by Mr Bell, who recovered ammonia from it in the form of sulp The operations of the oil-refinery are: (1) dis- poe pens (2) Lei eewems t vp poo weapaaled cooling an —e vy oil con ng n 80 as to sipenaiie solid hydrocarbons from the liquid. The oils are distilled several times and are frac- tionated into the various qualities required; and between each distillation the oil is treated with oil of vitriol and with caustic soda. After the finishing treatment with acid and soda some of the soda com- unds are retained in solution by the oil; these ave to be carefully removed by washing with water. The absence of acid and alkaline com- mnds, and thorongh fractionation of the oil, are the great secrets in the refining of burning oils; and at some of the works in tland the best burning oils that can be obtained are now pro- duced, and the safety of the Scotch oils can be relied upon. ‘In lubricating oils the essential features are high viscosity, high flash-point, and low setting-point. The first two depend on proper fractionation; and the third is secured by careful refri tion, so that the lowest forms of solid parafin may be crystallised and separated from the oil. The crude nscale or wax is refined either by chemicals, by sweating, or by treatment with naphtha. The chemical treatment is seldom used, the greater portion being purified under the sweat- ing process, which is simple and effective. The temperature of the sweating-chamber is rai from 2° to 3° above the setting-point of the paraffin nired ; the oil then drains off, carrying most of the other impurities with it. But the best qualities of refined paraflin nire a treatment or two with shale naphtha. e paraffin is melted, and abont 30 per cent. of spirit run in, and after careful stirring 4 4 the mixture is allowed to cool down; it is then pressed, when ‘the naphtha runs ont, taking the colouring matter with it. This pressed paraffin is again melted and steam blown thro’ it, which carries off the remainder of the naphtha, and finally the melted paraffin is stirred with animal charcoal, settled, and then filtered through cloth and filter-paper, and run into pans to solidify into cakes of convenient size. Pardagua, Philippine Islands. See PALAWAN. Paraguay, an important river of South Amer- ica, an affluent of the Parand (q.v.), rises in the Brazilian state of Matto Grosso. The sources of the river are a number of deep lakes, and 8 miles from its source the stream already has considerable volume. Pursuing a south-west course, and after flowing through a level country covered with thick forests, the aay is joined from the west by the Jauru in 16° 30 8. lat. It then continues to flow south through the Marsh of Xarayes, which, during the season when the stream rises, is an ex ve waste of waters, stretching far on each side of the stream, and extending from north to south over about 200 miles. The river still pursues a generally southward course, forming from 20° to 8. the boundary line between Brazil and Bolivia, thence flowing south-south-west th h the territories of Paraguay to its junction with the Parana, a few miles above Corrientes. Its chief affluents are the Cuyaba, Tacuary, Mondego, and Apa on the left, and the Jaura, Pilcomayo, and Vermejo on the right. Except in the marsh districts, the country on both banks of the river rich and fertile, abounds in excellent timber. The entire length of the river is estimated at 1800 miles ; it is navigable for steamers to the mouth of the Cuyabé. The waters of the Paraguay, which are quite free from obstructions, were declared open to all nations in 1852; and now Brazilian mail- steamers ply monthly between Rio de Janeiro and Cuyabd, on the river of the same name, and there are several lines of steamers between Buenos Ayres and Asuncion. Paraguay, an inland ublic of Sonth Amerlonliviled into two distinet pordlens hey ile river so named, Eastern P. , or proper, is a well-defined territory, nearly in the shape of a Nel , extending from 22° to and Argentine republics. Western Paragua or the Chae : oat between the mouth of the Pi meg and that of the Rio Negro. On the west the only definition of a boundary is a line of separation between the Chaco = Rasy bet ert yet been geographically determined, but wh supposed to along the meridian 64° 30° w. The total area of Paraguay is estimated at about 142,000 sq. m.—a territory considerably larger than Great Britain and Ireland. The population of Paraguay is composed of whites of Spanish descent, Indians, a few negroes, and a mixture of these several races, and in 1895 was estimated at 500,000, exclusive of the Indians in the Chaco, A moun- tain-chain called Sierra Amambay, running in the eral direction of from north to south, and ifurcating to the east and west towards the southern extremity, under the name of Sierra Mbaracayi, divides the tributaries of the Parand from those of the Paraguay, none of which are very considerable, although they are liable to frequent and destructive overflows. The northern portion of Paraguay is in general undulating, covered by low, gently-swelling ridges, separated large grass plains, dotted with palms, There are moun- tains in the north-east and north-west corners. The southern portion is one of the most fertile districts of South America, consis’ of hills and gentle slopes richly wooded, of wide sav: which afford excellent pasture- nd, and of rich alluvial plains, some of which, indeed, are marshy, or covered with shallow pools of water (only one lake, that of Ypod, deserving special mention), but a large proportion are of extraordinary fertility highly cultivated. The banks of the rivers Parana and Paraguay are occasionally belted with forest ; but in general the lowlands are destitute of trees. The climate, for the latitude, is temperate, the temperature occasionally rising to 100° in sum- mer, but in winter being usually about 45°. In geological structure the southern part capi generally to the Tertiary formation; but the n and east present greywacke rocks in some dis- tricts. The natural productions are very although they do not include the precious metals or other minerals common in South America. Much valuable timber is found in the forests, and the wooded districts situated upon the rivers possess a ready means of transport. Among the trees are several species of dye-wood, several trees which yield valuable juices, as the india-ruabber and its cognate trees, and an especially valuable shrub, the Maté (q.v.), or Paraguay Tea, which forms one of the chief articles of commerce, being in general use throughout great part of South America. The shrub or tree grows wild in the north-eastern dis- tricts, and the gathering of its leaves gives em- ployment in the season to a large number of the PARAGUAY 751 native population. Native orange woods are com- mon, and more than fifty million oranges are exported age Many trees also yield valuable gums. Wax and honey are collected in abund- ance, as is also cochineal, and the medicinal plants are very numerous. The chief cultivated crops are rice, coffee, cocoa, indigo, manioc, to! 0, and sugar-cane, The animal world is largely represented in Faraguay, and game, both large and small, is very abundant. Tapirs, jaguars, pumas, ant-eaters, wild-boars, pecearies, and deer of many descrip- tions are inhabitants of the forests and plains; birds are innumerable, and for beauty and variety of plu are perhaps unsu y any in the world; the rivers teem with fish, and their banks are the resort of alligators and coypus. Snakes are numerous, but very few of them are venomous. Some of the boas are exceedingly large, and there is a remarkable water-serpent which is said to sometimes attain a length of eight yards. The commerce of the country greatly increased during the decade 1880-90, and several banks and other mercantile institutions have been estab- lished. In 1880 the total value of exports was £252,000, that of imports somewhat less ; in 1889-90 their respective values were £597,903 and £344,037. In this latter year the total revenue was £824,935, and the expenditure somewhat in excess. The chief exports are yerba-maté, tobacco, hides, oranges, timber, bark for tanning, and lace; the imports, cotton goods, hardware, wine, grain, rice, linen, silk, apap eg &c. Trade in the towns is almost wholly in the hands of Italians, French, and Ger- mans. The principal native industries are tanning and the manufacture of pottery and bricks, laces, ponchos, soap, food-pastes, brandy &e. Until the war of 1865-70 Paraguay had no national debt, but the utter ruin into which it had then fallen compelled it to have recourse to foreign aid. Two loans were contracted in London in 1871-72, the nominal amount of which was three millions sterling, but only about one-half was laced. The republic defaulted in 1874, but at the end of 1885 a settlement was made with the bondholders whereby the loans were reduced to the sum of £850,000 bearing 2 per cent. interest at the commencement, and gradually increasing to 4 per cent. ; and furthermore, 500 paste leagues of public lands were ceded by the republic in payment of arrear interest. The service of the new debt has been regularly maintained. There are also obligations or polizas assigned as an indemnity to Brazilian and Argentine subjects for losses sus- tained by them during the war. The total external indeb ess amounts to £4,704,308. There is no internal debt. The ey force consists of 500 men. The established religion is the Roman Catholic, the ecclesiastical head of which is the Bishop of Asuncion. Education is free and com- ulsory ; but of the adult Paraguayans only one in Eve can read and write. The history of Paraguay is highly interesting. It was discovered by Juan Diaz de Solis in 1515, and further explored by Diego Garcia in 1525, and by Sebastian Cabot in 1526; but the first colony was settled in 1535 by Pedro de Mendoza, who founded the city of Asuncion, and estab- lished Paraguay as a province of the viceroyalty of Peru. The warlike native tribe of the Guaranis, however, a people who a certain de of civilisation, and professed a dualistic religion, long successfully resisted the Spanish arms, and refused to receive either the religion or the social of the invaders. In the later half of the 16th century the Jesuit missionaries were sent to the aid of the first preachers of Christianity in Paraguay; but for a long time they were almost entirely unsuccessful, the effect of their preaching being in a great degree marred by the profligate and cruel conduct of the Spanish adven- turers, who formed the staple of the early colonial population. In the 17th century the home govern- ment consented to place in the Jesuits’ hands the entire administration, civil as well as religious, of the province, which, from its not possessing any of the precious metals, was of little value as a source of revenue; and, in order to guard the natives inst the evil influences of the bad example of uropean Christians, gave to the Jesuits the right to exclude all other Europeans from the colony. From this time forward the progress of civilisation as well as of Christianity was rapid. On the expulsion of the Jesuits from Paraguay in 1768, the history of which is involved in much contro- versy, the province was again made subject to the ene viceroys. For a time the fruits of the older civilisation maintained themselves ; but as the ancient eo ape ape fell to the ground great part of the work of so many years was undone, and by degrees much of the old barbarism returned. In 1776 Paraguay was transferred to the newly-formed viceroyalty of Rio de La Plata; and in 1810 it joined with the other states in declaring its inde- pendence of the mother-kingdom of Spain, which, owing to its isolated ition, it was the earliest of them all to establish completely. In 1814 Dr Francia (q.v.), originally a lawyer, and the secre- tary of the first revolutionary ee was proclaimed dictator for three years; and in 1817 his term of the office was made perpetual. He continued to hold it till his death in 1840, when anarchy ensued for two years; but in 1842 a national con elected Don Mariano R. Alonzo and Don Carlos Antonio Lopez, a nephew of the dictator, joint consuls of the republic. In 1844 a new constitution was Lp ey and Don Carlos was elected sole president, with dictatorial power, which he exer- cised till his death in 1862, when he was succeeded by his son, Don Francisco Solano Lopez, whose name has become notorious in connection with the tragic struggle of 1865-70, in which the Paraguayans made a heroic but unavailing fight. against the combined forces of Brazil, the Argentine Confedera- tion, and Uruguay. The war was bronght to a close by the defeat and death of Lopez at the battle of Aquidaban, March 1, 1870. The results of the war may be read in the returns of the popu- lation—( 1857 ) 1,337,489 ; (1873) 221,079, including only 28,746 men and 106,254 women over fifteen years of age. Tlie sexes are now, however, again nearly yr balanced. Paraguay has had its share of the general emigration of recent years from Europe to South America; and in every way the country has made considerable progress. In June 1870 a congress voted a new constitution, which was proclaimed on the 25th November. It is modelled on that of the Argentine Confederation, the legislative authority being vested in a congress of two houses, and the executive in a president, elected for four years. A curious feature in the recent history of the state was the settlement here of 500 Australian Socialist workmen, one colony of whom was thriving in 1896. Asuncion, the capital, had in 1895 a population of 45,000, and has a railway 160 miles in length, designed ultimately to connect with the Argentine railway system. See Histories of Paraguay by Demersay (Paris, 1865) and Washburn (Boston, 1870); Daire, Letters from Paraguay (1805); Robertson, Francia’s Reign of Terror (1840) ; Graty, La République du Paraguay ( Brussels, 1861); Burton, Battlefields of Parayuay (1869); Martinez, El Paraguay (Asuncion, 1885); Knight, Cruise of the Falcon (1887); Criado (trans, by Winsweiler), La République du Paraguay ( Bordeaux, 1889); La Dardye, 752 PARAGUAY TEA PARALLELOGRAM Le Paraguay Paris, 1889); Vincent, Around and About South pretom AS (1890), : * Paraguay Tea, See Mate. Parahyba, capital of the Brazilian state of Parahyba, on river of the same name, 10 miles from sea. Its chief buildings are the cathedral emery the Jesuit ‘op. 14,000.—The state, the eastern- the republic, has an area of 28,854 sq. Fig. L. appease in line with some object, 8; but after the ri) er has moved to E, M has apparently moved to a position in line with S’; the amount of pepe: ent motion is called parallaz, The angle E is called the ‘angle of parallax,’ or the ‘paral- lactic angle,’ and is the measure of the amount of parallax. To astronomers the determination of the — of the heavenly bodies is of the utmost mportance, for two reasons—first, from the neces- sity of referring all observations to the earth’s centre—i.e. so modifying them as to make it appear as if had been actually made at the earth’s centre ; and secondly, because parallax is our only means of determining the magnitude and distance of the heavenly bodies. The geocentric or daily pees apparent displacement of a venly body, due to its being observed from a t on the surface of the earth instead of from ts centre, is called—is determined as follows: Let P and P’ be two pe stations on the 2 surface of the earth (fig. 2), E its centre, M the respectivel of the daacres at P and P’ a which, if pos- “ sible, should z on the same me- Fig. 2, ridian bees f Ys then at P and P’ let the zenith distances, ZPM and Z’'P’M, be observed simultaneously, and, since the latitudes of P and P’, and consequently their difference of latitude, or the angle PEP’, is known, from these three the angle PMP’ (the sum of the llaxes t P and P’) is at once found; and then, by a trigonometrical process, the a angles or parallaxes PME and P’ME. When the parallax of M, as observed from P, is known, its distance from E, the centre of the earth, can be at once found. When the heavenly body is on the horizon, es at O, its lax is at a maximum, and is known as the Aorizontal parallax. The parallax is of use rt in determining the distances of those heavenly bodies at which the earth’s radius subtends a considerable angle. In the case of the fixed stars, at which the earth’s radius subtends an intinitesimal ie, it becomes necessary to make use of a mucli larger base- than the earth’s radius, and, as the largest we can cungloz is the radius of the earth’s orbit, it aceord- ingly is made use of, and the displacement of a star, when observed from a point in the earth’s orbit instead of from its centre, the sun, is called the annual or heliocentric parallax. Here the base- line, instead of being, as in the former case, 4000 miles, is about 92,000,000 miles, and the two observations necessary to determine the parallactie angle are made from two points on opposite sides of the earth’s orbit, at an interval as nearly as possible of half a year. Yet, notwithstanding the enormous length of the base-line, it bears so small a proportion to the distances of the stars that only in a few cases have they been found to exhibit any parallactic motion whatever, and very rarely does the angle of parallax amount to 1” tece STARS The geocentric horizontal parallax of the moon about 57’ 4-2"; that of the sun, about 8°8"; and of the double star, 61 Cygni, the heliocentric parallax has been determined by Bessel to be “348”, equiva- lent to about 15 millionths of a second of trie eager parallax. See the articles STARS and UN. Parallel Forces are forces which act in parallel lines, such for example as the weights of the portions that make up any framework or structure on the earth’s surface. With the tion of a particular case (see COUPLE), — forces have always a vas resultant, w is readily found by the method of moments. See MoMENT ; also FoRcE. Parallel Motion, a name given to any link- age by which cireular motion may be into straight line motion. The most familiar is Watt’s parallel motion (see STEAM-ENGINE which is essentially a three-bar link rev although not theoretically perfect, is sufficiently for all practical pur; It is impossible, indeed, to obtain a straight line motion without the use of at least five bars in the inkaee t and till 1874, when Hart discovered the method, even this simplest mode of obtaining a true parallel motion was not deemed ible. The Peaucellier cell, a linkage of seven bars, was, however, the earliest linkage discovered for solving the problem of how to draw a straight line. It dates from 1864, and is, perhaps, the most convenient form that has et been devised, t is shown in the figure. The equal links AP, 9 AQ, BP, BQ, + form a rhombus; the long links OA, OB, are also equal, and have the common int O fixed. The seventh link, QC, has its end C xed, so that Q describes a circle passing through O—i.e. QC equals the fixed distance CO, In these circumstances, when Q moves in its circle P moves in a straight line. See A. B. ig How to draw a Straight Line (‘ Nature’ series, 1877). Parallelogram of Velocities. See Com POSITION. PARALLELOPIPED PARALYSIS 753 Parallelopi‘ped (Gr. parailelepipedon), a solid figure having six faces, the faces being in- variably llelograms, and any two opposite ge eq a and i oa inom es squares, and consequent the parallel- opiped becomes a eahen ee Parallels, in military language, are trenches eut in the ground before a fortress, roughly parallel to its defences, for the purpose of giving cover to the besiegers from the guns of the place. See SIEGE. Paralysis. The term paralysis, while ordi- narily used to express loss of power of movement, is used medically in the wider sense of loss of fune- tion, so that there may be paralysis of motion, of sensation, of secretion, &c. The term Paresis is used to indicate a diminished activity of function. Thus, paresis of a limb means diminished power of moving the limb. From what is said under the articles BRAIN, Nervous SysTeM, and Sprnau Corp it will be seen that paralysis may arise (1) from destrue- tion of the nerve-cells in the motor area of the surface of the brain; (2) from interruption of the nerve-fibres in their path through the brain to the spinal cord; (3) from interruption of the nerve-fibres in their path through the spinal cord ; (4) from disease of the nerve-cells in the spinal cord; (5) from disease or injury to the nerves ng from the spinal cord to the muscles; or (6) from affections of the muscles themselves. Thus, we speak of Cerebral, Spinal, and Peripheral Paralyses. Cerebral. Paralysis.—The most common causes of rom from brain disease are the rupture of blood-vessels (see APOPLEXY), or the blocking up of the blood-vessels which to the surface i the brain by clots or other solid particles carried from the heart or larger arteries (embolism). Other less frequent causes are tumours, abscesses, &c. The most usual form of paralysis is that termed Hemiplegia, in which there is paralysis of the leg, arm, and muscles of the mouth and tongue on one side of the body, often accompanied, if the disease is on the right side, by the condition called Aphasia (q.v.). If the original condition has been such as merely to produce pressure upon the nerves without their actual destruction, it may be com- pletely recovered from. But this is obviously not very frequent. Hemiplegia may be ekg un- accompanied by any paralysis of sensation, but if the fibres which carry sensory impulses to the sur- face of the brain be also destroyed there will be a concomitant loss of sensation on the same side as the loss of motion (hemianzsthesia). In certain cases, when the disease of the brain is in the pons Varolii, the mouth may be paralysed on the oppo- site side from the paralysed limbs. (‘This depends on anatomical considerations.) Destruction _ by disease of individual ‘motor areas’ will obviously lead to paralysis of the corresponding movements. Spinal Paralysis is usually the result either (1) of pressure upon the spinal cord from the results of curvature or injury of the spine, or of growths such as tumours or abscesses ; (2) of disease of the spinal cord itself, especially from tumours or acute or chronic inflammations, which may lead to inter- ruption of the nerve-fibres which pass downwards from the brain to the nerve-cells in the gray matter of the spinal cord; or (3) of direct injury to the inal cord. If the conducting paths from and to the brain are interrupted in any way, there is com- lete paralysis of voluntary motion and of sensation Solow the level of the affected part of the spinal cord, because the motor impulses cannot pass down nor the sensory impulses upwards. At the same time, below the injury reflex movements may be 260 preserved and certain forms even increased. Such spinal paralysis is termed Paraplegia. If the injury to the spinal cord is localised to one side there will be paralysis of the muscles on the same side, supplied by the nerves arising from the cord below the injury, and of sensibility of the opposite side of the body below the injury (see SPINAL CorD). In certain cases the nerve-cells in the anterior horns of the y matter of the cord. (and the same may be said of the corresponding cells of origin of the motor nerves of the brain) may be diseased without implication of any other part of the spinal cord. The result of this is paralysis of the muscles supplied by those nerve-cells, and consequent gradual wasting of the muscles. Under this head come those se pie localised paralyses in the lower limbs of children (the so-called ‘essential paralyses’ of children) which affect certain groups of muscles, and lead to such deformities as club-foot and impaired growth of the limbs. A similar disease is sometimes observed in adults (progressive mus- cular atrophy), which runs a very chronic course and leads to a gradual wasting of muscles, the direct result of a corresponding gradual wastin of the nerve-cells in the gray matter of the cord. The disease called ‘bulbar paralysis,’ in which there is a slow affection of the muscles of the tongue, of the side of the mouth, and of the larynx, is of this nature, its more rapidly fatal termination being due to the implication of structures so neces- sary for organic life. eripheral Paralyses.(a) From Affections of Nerves.—These are of extremely frequent occur- rence, and may be due to pressure upon, injury to, or disease of the nerves. The most common of these diseases are the inflammations arising from cold, from the excessive use of alcohol, or from pr seh to the poison of lead. If the nerve ted be a purely motor nerve the resulting lysis is purely motor. The typical example is the so-called ‘Bell’s’. or ‘facial paralysis,’ from affection of the seventh cranial nerve. ‘This arises most commonly either from exposure to draught or from disease of the ear, in the neighbourhood of which the nerve passes through the bones of the skull (see EAR). There results a complete paralysis of the muscles of expression on the cor- responding side of the face; the mouth is twisted to the opposite side, the lips cannot be pursed or retracted, the eye cannot shut, and the fore- head can be neither raised nor depressed, while the usual furrows on the forehead and cheek are either obliterated or diminished. The disease is in many cases amenable to treatment, but when associated with disease of the ear it should always be regarded as of grave import. If proper treat- ment be neglected, the paralysed muscles may waste, and recovery become impossible. ‘ Lead palsy’ is usually indicated by a loss of the power of extending the wrists (wrist-drop) without im- pairment of sensation (see LEAD-POISONING). An example of paralysis resulting from pressure on a nerve is seen in the not uncommon result of sleep- ing with the arms over the back of a chair (sleep- ing or crutch palsy). As the musculo-spinal nerve is compressed, and the muscles which it SA pec a namely, those which extend the wrist and fingers, and which turn the forearm outwards (supination )— are paralysed, there is a vg like that of lead palsy, but in addition there is loss of sensibilit (anzesthesia) on the skin of the back of the thum and first two fingers. (6) From Disease of Muscles.—A very remarkable form of paralysis—affecting mostly the oung—is that termed ‘psendo-hypertrophic paralysis,’ in which the onset of the paralysis, which is ‘very gradual, is accompanied by a remarkable apparent overgrowth of the muscles, more especially in the 754 PARAMARIBO PARASITIC ANIMALS calves of the legs, in the thighs, and back. Exam- ination of the muscles shows that the special mus- cular tissue is replaced by fat, while the nerves themselves are ap tly not - Injury, such as rupture or bruising of muscle, will produce ysis, which may be only temporary. oi ical Paralysis.—Paralysis, which may for the time being be as complete as in any of the cases above ibed, may occur without any discoverable lesion. To this the term ‘hysterical’ has been applied (see Hysreria). The simulation of organic paralysis by hysteria is frequently so close as to deceive even expert observers, § Gowers, Diseases of Spinal Cord and Brain; Quain’s Dictionary of Medicine. — For ‘general paralysis,’ see INSANITY, Vol. VI. p. 155. Paramaribo, the capital of Dutch Guiana, is situated on the Surinam, about 10 miles from its mouth, It has broad, tree-shaded streets, with clean wooden houses, painted light gray, and numerous canals and churches. There are also a vernor’s palace, two forts, a park, &c. The errnhuters (Moravian Brethren) are a_ strong body in the town. Except for the small harbour of Nickerie, all the trade of the colony is concen- trated at Paramaribo. See statistics under GUIANA (DutcuH). Pop. (1895) 29,300. Parramatta, See PARRAMATTA. Paramecium, or SLIPPER ANIMALCULE, an Infusorian very common in pond water or in vege- table infusions, In shape it is an asymmetrical oval, in length about ,}5 of an inch, If dry grass be steeped in a glass of water for some days, the animalcules dormant about the stems revive and multiply very rapidly. Each ramecium is covered with rows of cilia which lash it through the water and drive food-particles into an aperture which serves as mouth. As the food-particles enter they take bubbles of water with them, and are moved round and round in the living substance until they are digested or got rid off. There are two (excretory) contractile vacuoles; the large nucleus has a small one (paranucleus) lying beside it; beneath the thin rind there are remarkable eversible threads. A paramecium often divides transversely into two; these two repeat the pro- cess, and with continually diminishing size rapid multiplication may thus proceed for a while. It has its limits, however, and then two individual In conjugate, exchan some of the material of their paranuclei, and separate. Thus they seem to renew their youth. Paranda, (1) an important river of South America, rises as the Rio Grande in the Brazilian state of Minas Geraes, about 100 miles NW. of Rio de Janeiro. It flows north-west and west through and along the southern frontier of Minas Geraes, till it unites with the Paranahyba. It then receives the name Parand, and turns to the south-west and afterwards to the south, separating Parana state from Matto Grosso and from Para- y, round the southern border of which republic t sweeps westward to its confluence with the P ay River. It then rolls sonthward through the Tsoantine provinces, : t Santa Fé, below which its channel fi soe divides and encloses numerous islands, and finally south-eastward, till it unites with the Uruguay, above Buenos Ayres, to form the Rio de la Plata. The entire length of the river is a little over 2000 miles; it drains an area of more than 1,100,000 sq. m.~ Its chief tributaries, besides those already mentioned, are the Mogy Guassu, Tieté, Paranapanema, Ivahy, Iguassu, and Salado; at San Pedro (33° 40’ S. lat.) a delta begins. The principal towns on its banks are Corrientes, Parand, Santa Fé, and Rosario—all Argentinian, The river is navigable at all times to the influx of the Paraguay (705 miles), and except at low water to the mouth of the Iguassu (460 miles). Immediately above this point occurs one of the most remarkable rapids in the world. It extends for 100 miles in a straight line up the river, between ranges of frowning cliffs which con- fine the stream to a narrow, rocky bed, little more than 100 yards wide. Thro this gorge the water pours in tumultuous fury; for above the rapid the river, then 24 miles broad, rushes down over the Salto of Guayra, an inclined plane 55 feet high, and then forces its waters, tossing and churn- ing, into the narrow channel below.—(2) A southern state of Brazil, on the coast, with an area of 85,453 sq. m., and a pop, (1888) of 187,548, including several colonies of Germans and Italians. The oe is Curitiba (34,000), with a railway (69 miles) to P: 4, the port of the state (pop. 5000 ).—{3) Capital of the —— tet of Entre Rios, stands on a high bluff overlooking the Parana, opposite Santa Fé, 410 miles by steamer from Buenos Ayres. The town was the capital of the Confederation from 1852 to 1861; afterwards it sank rapidly, but has now again a pop. of 15,000, Parapet (Ital. para-petto, from ‘to rotect,’ and petto, ‘the breast’), a wall raised tigher than the gutter of a roof for protection ; in military works, for defence against missiles from without (see - ; ae FoRTIFICA- | 4 | fy NII qe uae Ar omestic build- \ ings, churches, = ® b @, = &e., to pre- vent accident by falling from the roof. In classic Reo Soe tee em En Ornamented Gothic Parapet. archi- tecture balustrades were used as parapets. In early work parapets are generally Fins but in later buildings they are pierced and ornamented with tracery, Paraphrase (Gr. para, ‘ beside,’ and phrazein, ‘to speak’) is the name given to a verbal expan- sion of the meaning either of a whole book, or of a separate passage in it. A paraphrase conse- quently differs from Metaphrase, or strictly literal translation, in this, that it aims to make the sense of the text clearer by a lucid cireumlocution, with- a actually noe x into comeeee ets The a ed passages 0! ripture formin, e Psalmody of the Scottish Church eg as ‘the Paraphrases,’ See Hymn, Vol. VI. p. 48. Paraplegia. See PARALYSIS. Parasite (Gr. from ‘beside,’ sitos, ‘food ;’ one who eats with another ; hence one who eats at the expense of another), a common char- acter in the Greek comedies ; a low fellow, who is ready to submit to any, indignity that he ag be permitted to partake of a banquet, and who lives as much as possible at the expense of others, Parasitic Animals are those which live on or in other o' isms, from which they derive their food. But this mode of life has many forms and degrees; the hosts may be animals or plants; the parasites may be external or internal (ectoparasitic or endoparasitic), fixed or with the power of move- ment; they a | be parasitic temporarily, for a prolonged period, or for the whole life ; restricted to one host, or requiring to pass from one kind of animal to another if the life-cycle is to be completed. For. the parasitic animals which infest plants, see Corn Insects, Gauuis, &e.; and ASCARIS, FLUKE, TAPEWORM, THREAD-WORMS, TRICHINA, &e., and ee are separately discussed, Grades of Parasitism.—-The grades recognised by Leuckart are: (1) Temporary Parasitism.— PARASITIC ANIMALS “755 *To this category belong almost exclusively ecto- parasites, which differ from their free-living rela- tions only in their diet.’ (2) Eetoparasitism—an established and invariable habit during a prolonged age or during the whole of the parasite’s life. his is called ‘stationary’ ectoparasitism in the translation of Leuckart’s great work, but the term hardly suggests the idea. ‘These parasites either esd through all their developmental stages on the ost, or at first lead an independent existence under a form more or less different from that of the adult.’ (3) Endoparasitism, in which the parasites are dur- ing a great part of their life, and almost invari- ab during their maturity, ‘ boarders’ within the y of their host. Moreover, all the developmental stages are almost never passed through within one host, a transference from one kind to another being necessary for the completion of the life-cycle. But of endo itism there are many varieties. The Hosts of Parasites.—Probably no animals, except some of the simplest, are free from the attacks of parasites. Yet some are more liable than others—e.g. because they offer greater. in- ducements to those pareaitically inclined, because they are more accessible, or because they eat infected food. Thus, vertebrates are more abundantly infested than invertebrates. ‘Man has more than fifty distinct species of parasites, the dog and the ox some two dozen each, the frog fe aps twenty.’ Some species of parasite are imited to one kind of host; thus, the adults of Bothri us latus and Oxyuris vermicularis are not known except in man, while Trichina spiralis is found in man, pig, rat, dog, cat, ox, &c., and Distomum hepaticum in many ruminants and other ungulates, in rodents, in the kangaroo, and in man, The systems most infested are the most accessible —viz. the skin and the alimentary canal, by ecto- and endo-parasites respectively ; but there are no organs in which parasites may not be harboured. Origin of the Parasitic Habit.—It is probable that most cases of parasitism began gradually. Animals found temporary shelter on or in others, and the habit grew upon them. In some cases it might es fortuitously—e.g. as the embryos or adults wandered or were swallowed ; or it might be a shift saving those which adopted it from some presumed keenness in the struggle for exist- ence; or it might simply express a sluggish con- stitution. In many cases, however, we can hardly doubt that the habit with the naturally more sluggish females, prompted not by hunger, but by the impulse to seek some conveniently shel- tered place for the birth of the young. In fact, there are not a few parasitic female Crustaceans whose mates live freely. Of the evolution of parasites from free-living ancestors the free stages still included in the life-history of most, the close relationships between some free and some parasitic members of the same class—e.g. Crustaceans and Nematodes—and the frequent occurrence of tem- porary parasitism afford sufficient evidence. It is also instructive to consider the three classes of Plathelminthes—Turbellarians (Planarians, &c.), Trematodes (Flukes, &c.), and Cestodes (Tape- worms, &c.)—of whose genetic relationship there seems little doubt; the Turbellarians are almost all free-living; the Trematodes are mostly external, but sometimes internal parasites ; the Cestodes are all endoparasitic. Life-history of Endoparasites.—Most endopara- sitic animals have an eventful life-history. They are not always parasites, or they are not always parasites within the same kind of host. Most of them are at some time free; many of them have some sort of metamorphosis. But, as their life- histories are very various, they do not readily admit of being summed up in general statements. Let us begin, however,-with the adult ‘sexual animals. In this state they are always almost para- sitie, partly because rich copious diet, warmth, and relative quiescence favour reproductive maturity ; partly because se probably began their parasitic career at the reproductive period, when shelter and readily attained food were specially advantageous ; artly because it is not likely that animals which nad ome parasitic would relinquish this habit in adult and mature life. In fact, with the excep- tion of some thread-worms (Gordius, Mermis, &e.) and some few insects (ichneumon-flies, -flies, &c.) which are parasitic in their youth and free as adults, it is generally true of parasitic animals that the eggs are produced, fertilised, and deposited in the parasitic stage. In regard to the repro- duction it should be noted (1) that the fertility is often enormous, for a tapeworm may produce 42,000,000 eggs, and a female thread-worm 64,000,000 in a year; (2) that in those cases where the female alone is parasitic fertilisation may take place before parasitism has begun; that otherwise it oecurs within the body of the host; that Trema- todes and Cestodes are hermaphrodite and some- times fertilise themselves ; (3) that in tapeworms the fixed ‘head’ buds off a long chain of joints, each of which is sexually complete, becomes even- tually distended with eggs and embryos, and is liberated singly or along with others from the intestine of the host. The eggs or embryos of the parent endoparasite usually pass from the host along with the excreta, and ‘there are no intestinal worms, at least among the typical and constant parasites, whose embryos come to maturity near the parent; or, in other words, there are none which’ pass their whole life- eycle in one locality.’ Some of the embryos ate locomotor—e.g. those of the 'liver-fluke and of Bothriocephalus latus, which are active mig reed He others are passively carried along with food and drink into new hosts. There the embryos rarely become or remain quiescent, but wander from the food-canal through the tissues and organs of the host until a fit resting-place is found. But, to state another of Leuckart’s general conclusions, ‘the quiescent s following upon the wandering embryonic stage does not conclude the life-history of the parasite, which requires, in order to complete its development, a radical change in its environ- ment—in other words, a second migration.’ But before leaving the so-called intermediate host—which is different from that of the parent or that of the adult—we should notice that within it asexual multiplication may occur. Thus, several asexual generations characterise that part of ja liver-fluke’s life during which it sojourns in 1a water-snail (Limneus) prior to reaching its final or ‘definitive’ host in the sheep. In other cases, the asexual cs Hg within the intermediate host is of a simpler kind, being restricted to bud- ding, as when the bladder-worm or proscolex of Tenia echinococcus within ox or man develops many ‘heads’ or scolices, each of which on being transferred to dog or wolf will grow into a tape- worm. Or there may be no true multiplication— e.g. in the numerous bladder-worms which form only one head, and remain quiescent until the host happens to be devoured by another, within which the ‘head’ of the bladder-worm may bud off an adult tapeworm chain. Connected with this change of host there are two main problems :. (1) How.is the change effected? (2) how did this extension of the life-history to: two distinct hosts arise? In regard to the modes of transference it will be enough to give two illustra- tions, The young liver-fluke actively migrates from a water-snail and from the water, encysts on stems of grass, and is then eaten by a sheep. 756 PARASITIC ANIMALS Rhizopoda: A few parasitic. Amoeba coli in man. Gregarinida. All parasitic, In all sorts of animals; Coccidium | Usually intracellular parasites oviforme in man, id of life. A few) Infusoria. A few itic—e.g. : occur within the blood-cells of | Ich phthirus, — soa &e. n Pelaardium coli, In intestine of man. Srowags. Probably none in strict sense. Clione bores in oyster-shells, &e., y and cases of commensalism are Coelenterata. Very rare instances : Medusnid Cunina (Cundetantha)| In another Medusoid, Geryonia | A Medusa (Mnestra) on the neck parasitica, proboscidialis. of the pelagic Cunina (Cunoctantha) octonarta. |In the bell of the Medusoid| Phyllirhoe, and the frequent Turritopsis. occurrence of a on The Hydroid Polypodium hydri- | On the ova of the sterlet (Acipen-| a hermit-crab illustrate com- Fh pie is in one stage p ti ser ruth ism. * Mrsozoa." parasitic. 0 (Rhopalura), in a| These forms are perhaps very britule-star (Amphiura squa-| primitive, perhaps very degen- mata), in a Nemertean worm erate, types. (Lineus th (Dicyema ) in cuttle-fish. * Worms.’ (Plan- | Mostly free-living ; a few genera | Graffilla in marine molluscs. arians, &c.). are parasitic : Anosloniam in or on Holothu- ns. Trematoda All U_garesitie, many externally, | Especially on fishes. *‘ Monogenetic.’ (Flakes, &c.). usually on one host. * : Many interially, and then re-| The first usually a mollusc, the | ‘Digenetic. uiring two hosts. second some vertebrate. Cestoda (Tape- parasitic; the mature sexual | All sorts of vertebrates contain | Two hosts are requisite to com- worms, &c.). forms in vertebrates, except in| both the adults in the} plete the life-h of the} the case of which | gut, the immature forms usu- The final usu- becomes mature in the fresh-| ally in the flesh. But the im-| ally devours the intermediate | water worm Tubifex. mature stages have also been| one. found in some molluses, Ar- thropods, and worms, Nemerteans (Rib- | Almost all free-living. Two occur on crabs. bon-worms). Malacobdella. In bivalves. Nematoda Many parasitic; many free. In| The majority in the digestive | The life-histories are often bay (Thread-worms). | man occur Ascaris lumbricoides,| tract of vertebrates; but they | complex, and may include Oxyuris vermi Filaria| may be transferred from a| ternation of generations. Many sanguinis hominis, med-| lower host to a higher—e.g.| infest plants. inensis, Trichina spiralis, &c, from insect to mammal. Acanthocephala. | The class includes one Fy Ech, proteus lives as adult in pike, (Echinorhynchus), and is} &c., in youth in the ont parasitic. pod Gammarus ; angustatus of in the isopod Asellus. Ech. gigas oceurs in the pig. Almost all free-living. Three or| The minute males of Bonellia | Branchiobdella, which some rank ¢ ag four marine forms are parasitic. — Hamingia live within the = pay 7 is parasitic females. - Myzostomidw are ectoparasitic | On Crinoids. This family Looe and form galls. — degenera’ by paras Hirndinea Most are ectoparasitic (the rest | On molluscs, fishes, amphibians, | In many, however, the ecto- (Leeches), erm tn mms &e. ed ae parasi is very temporary. Rotifera. Mostly free-living, a few parasitic —¢.g. Seison, On crustacean Nebalia. Albertia, In earthworm and slug. EcuINODERMATA. None parasitic, Axritnoropa, These illustrate (a) many Crustaceans, There are many parasites among of ange tras Be O"Brboctenantth Usnall kin, gills, &c. of wt "(b) corresponding grades racanthus. y on skin, Caligus. Lernwa, fishes, J of degeneration. Among Cirripedia—e.g. ina. Beneath the tail of crabs. Among Isopoda—e, Bopyrus and Entoniscus, On fishes. Iwsucts. The vast majority are free-living, at ectoparasi us: bir ee (atone. } Mostly on birds and mammals. . paiptera, In bees and wasps, The females only are parasitic, (Many =o ee the males free, 7 by the of lpm = other ai a. + s -flies. mammals, ca’ jorses, £0, Arachnida. The majority are free-living, but : parasitism is illustrated by P Li lina Embryo in rabbit; adult in| With little trace in adult of (Pentastomum). frontal sinuses of dog and wolf, | Arachnid appearance. By some Acarina (mites), Demodex ion: Sarcoptes (iteh-mite), in skin of man, &¢. Mottusca. All free-living, except a few Gastero Entoconcha mirabilis, Within Holothurian Synapta. Eulima and Stylifer. On or in various Echinoderms. VenTennata. The hagfishes (Myxinoidei) are| They are said to eat their way | Precise details are wanting. the only parasitic vertebrates. into cods and other fishes. 2 PARASITIC ANIMALS 757 Here, and in some other cases, the migration is in part active. On the other hand, the bladder-worm of the pig lies oe passive in the muscles or con- nective tissue of that animal, and cannot reach its final host unless ‘measly’ pork be eaten by man. Here, and in most other cases, the migration is passive. The second problem is very difficult. Is the host in which the adult is found the primitive host, and has that of the immature s been intercalated? or is the intermediate host really the primitive one in which the animals used to become mature, while the final host represents a secondary prolongation of the life-history? Leuckart ex- presses himself unconditionally in favour of the second theory that ‘the intermediate hosts were originally the true definitive carriers, which for- merly brought their intestinal worms to sexual maturity, but have since become merely interme- diate, because the development of the parasites has extended itself over a ter number of stages in the course of further differentiation.’ The Environment of Parasites.—It is at present debated (see HEREDITY) whether the precise in- fluences exercised on parasites by their hosts are transmissible or not. But it can hardly be doubted that the habits and surroundings of parasites have been somehow influential in their evolution. It is certain that individual parasites may vary in different parts of the body and in different hosts, and it is admitted by all that parasites exhibit ‘adaptations’ to their life and surroundings. It is therefore important to take account of the precise relations between host and eee. Ectoparasites will experience mechanical influences due to the movements of their bearers, they will often be carried from one locality to another, they will sometimes share in the warmth of their hosts, they usually find abundant food, and they are often not only sheltered but sedentary. Endoparasites will experience pressure from ‘the tissues in which ey lie, or from the peristaltic movements of the food- eanal in which they are lodged ; their immediate environment usually involves confined space, scant oxygen, considerable warmth, and total darkness ; they will be affected by abundant and rich nutri- tion, by surrounding gases and juices, and by their uently sedentary life. Now it is at least a plausible theory that the usual absence of sense- organs in endoparasites is due to the eustenlee character of the environment, which has cau them to degenerate, and this view is partly con- firmed by the occasional occurrence of sense-organs in the larve alone, and by the facts that locomotor appendages are absent or much reduced in the alults of many fixed ectoparasitic crustaceans, because they have gone out of use; that a food- canal is absent in many endoparasites, partly becanse the superficial absorption of complex sur- rounding juices left it functionless; that the pas- sivity of many is increased by living in surround- ings in which the respiratory processes must be very sluggish; or that the prolific reproduction— especially perhaps the budding growth of tape- worms—is in part due to the abundant and yet stimulating nutrition. . Effects of Parasites on their Hosts.—In the 17th and 18th centuries the injurious effects of parasites were much exaggerated. All sorts of diseases, including many which we now know to be asso- ciated with Bacteria, were said to be due to ‘worms,’ and physicians gravely discussed ‘An mors natu- ralis sit substantia verminosa?’ As accurate diag- nosis began to be less unusual, a strange reaction in favour of parasites found many et pada In- testinal worms were called ‘the good angels and unfailing helpers of children,’ and were said to aid digestion and even development. But since the middle of the 19th century, when the experimental study of parasites began in earnest, a knowledge of the various injuries which parasites may do, to man and to domesticated animals at least, has become more and more precise and complete. Only a few illustrations need be given. Numerous large parasites will certainly diminish the nutritive supplies of their host ; large bladder-worms and the like press upon adjacent organs, cause obstructions, and give rise to many troubles; the movements and migrations of parasites within the body of their host produce pain and inflammation, and may even result in the perforation and destruction of im- portant organs. Even external parasites may do considerable damage; witness those crustaceans which oceur beneath the tails of crabs, and some- times effect the virtual castration of their hosts. On the other hand, there are many less important rasites whose effects are very slightly if at all injurious. It is a question of much practical im- rtance how the endoparasites which infest man nd their way to their host, but as details will be given in such articles as TAPEWORM and TRICHINA, it is enough here to say that food in which parasites are known to lurk should be in- spected, cleaned, and sufficiently cooked. Historical.—Most of the ancient and medieval naturalists and physicians who expressed any opinion on such matters believed that parasites were spontaneously generated within the bodies of their hosts. It was not till the 17th century, when Swammerdam and Redi showed how maggots, lice, &c. developed from eggs, that the belief in eneratio equivoca began to be seriously disputed. t was ecaduclly replaced by the theory that para- sites came from without, that, ceasing to be free- living, they entered the bodies of other animals and were there modified. But this conclusion was: too hastily leaped at, and no care was taken to» prove that the free-living forms in question didi really develop into parasites. In many cases,. indeed, it was soon shown that they did not, and? this disappointing result helped Pallas and others: in the latter part of the 18th century to recognise- rightly that parasites were propagated like other animals by means of eggs. They concluded,, however, that these eggs were more or less: directly carried from one host to another, there to develop into the original form, while we know that the life-history of parasites is rarely so simple ; nor was there more than a slight warrant for another favourite idea that young animals inherited parasites from their mothers, At the beginning of the 19th century the helminthologists, such as re and Bremser, were very active and greatly extended the list of known parasites, but the life- histories remained a pes, and many naturalists relapsed into a belief in spontaneous generation. The increasing use of the microscope led to most im nt results: in 1831 Mehlis discovered the Intusorian-like embryo of certain flukes; Von Siebold (1832) detected the six-hooked embryo within the still unliberated ova of the tapeworm ; Eschricht (1841) compared the life-history of in- ternal parasites to that of ichneumon-flies and bot- flies ; dtcensienp (1842) published his famous essay on alternation of generations; Von Siebold (1843- 50) and Van Beneden (1849-50) worked out the metamorphoses of several parasitic worms; Kiichen- meister (1853), Leuckart (1856), and others showed paras cere how infection with larval stages resulted in the development of adult parasites. The foundations of modern helminthology were thus laid, and we have now a vastly increased knowledge of the number of parasites, a precise acquaintance with the life-history and migrations of some of the most important, a scientific system of medical diagnosis and treatment, and some realisation of the general biology of parasitism. 758 PARASITIC DISEASES PARCHMENT See Ascaris, Bot, BoTHRIOCEPHALUS, COMMENSALISY, Coun Insects, DEGENERATION, ENVIRONMENT, FisH- Louse, Fiuxe, GaALus, GrecaRINtnaA, GUINEA-WORM, Hac, Leecn, Louse, Mirr, Tareworms, THREAD- worms, TRICHINA; also Leuckart, Parasiten des Menschen 2d ed. 1881 et seq. ; trans. by H MAYOR 3, Mein, 1888) Schanmalchec, Poraniten des Menschen (2d ed. 1878; trans. Ray Society); Cobbold, Parasites (1879); Van Bened ‘ers Intesti: Paris, 1858), Animal Para- . Series, Lond. 1876); Von sites and Messmates (Inter. Linstow, Com; ium der Helminthologie (1878); Moniez, Les Parasites de U Homme (1888). Parasitic Diseases constitute an important sub-group in the accepted classification of Disease (q.v.). In these diseases certain morbid conditions are induced by the presence of animals or vege- tables which have rand a place of subsistence within some tissue or organ, or upon some surface of the body of man or other animals, Plants are not exempt from disorders of this nature see PARASITIC PLANTS). The forms of animal ife giving rise to parasitic diseases are described in articles on Ascaris, Cestoid Worms, Flea, Guinea- worm, Itch, Lice, Nemathelmia, Strongylus, Tape- worms, Thread-worms, Tick, Trichina, Xe. The vegetable organisms which are with | diseases are almost all of microscopic size, and therefore, though their effects are of much importance than those of animal ites, they are as yet much less perfectly understood. Certain minute fungi have long been ised as the causes of diseases in the skin and mucous membranes: Favus, Pityriasis versicolor, hing- worm, Thrash (q.v.). It was shown in 1861 by Carter that a serious disease of the foot which oceurs in India (Madura-foot, fungus-foot, &c.) is due to the presence of a fungus; and in 1877 what is now called Actinomycosis (q.v.) was put in the same catego ry. But the most important and interesting of the’ v ble ites are those belonging to the izomycetes or Bacteria (q.v.), whose eendy has assumed such prominence that it is now almost an independent science Coregeinne, The rela- tions of these organisms to their host are much more intimate than in the case of the larger para- sites, and the problems presented by the diseases associated with them are consequently much more difficult of solation ; but in some cases the parasitic nature of these diseases has been completely estab- lished, Analogy makes it probable that some day all ‘ ifie febrile diseases’ will have to be in- cluded in this group. See Germ THEORY. Parasitic Plants are those which, unable to nourish themselves, prey upon other plants or animals ; becoming attached, they gain access to the tissues of their host and feed upon its juices. They are more or less degenerate, according to the extent of their parasitism. Any climbing plant is so far a te, but, not drawing any nourish- ment from its host, merely using it as a support, it can live without it, and is perfect in all its parts. Many parasites have probably developed from such plants. The mistletoe, on the other hand, has no roots in the ground; its seed is left by a bird upon an apple or an oak tree, to which, when it begins to grow, it becomes attached by means of special organs called haustoria, which act as roots and enable it to draw crude sap, water, and salts from its host, and having green leaves it can absorb carbonic acid from the air, and elaborate food for its tissues. In the case of the dodder, again, which ns life as an independent plant, the seed ger- minates underground; when the young plant reaches the surface it fastens upon some host, twining round it, sending its haustoria deep into the tissues, and drawing all its nourishment from them ; it no green leaves, but only flowers, while the part in the ground dies, In the Rafllesiacem, a foreign order, remarkable for the size of the flowers of some of its genera, the degradation has gone still further, and the whole plant consists of haustoria, a _knob- like mass of tissue half formed by the h and the flowers. There are some ites w are attached to the roots instead of the stems of their hosts—e.g. Yellow Rattle, Cow-wheat, Eyebright. The attachment by the haustoria is always remark- ably intimate; their tissues are always joined to the corresponding ones of the host, often in such a way that it is difficult to say to which plant they be The ovules of many ites are rudimentary, er! a is‘small and without chlorophyll; in cases of advanced parasitism it may even produce no leaves. There are parasitic Oe in many orders— eg. Corallorhiza in the Orchidex, Cuscuta in Con- volvulacee, Orobranche in Labiatiflore, Monotropa in Pyrolacese. The Loranthacee, of which is Viscum the mistletoe, the Balanophorew, and the Santa- lacew are families of doubtful affinity. Nearly all these ites have a marked preference for a particular species of host, and they are all flower- ing plants. But there are many others; two whole classes, the Bacteria and the Fungi, are either sitic or, what is much the same thing, saprophytic —i.e. a upon decaying organic m for food. 1e Bacteria have animals as their hosts, and cause in them many diseases, the species being often recognised by the disease. When they are saprophytic they cause fermentation and putre- faction. The Fungi are many of them a trouble in agriculture, causing corn, hop, and vine mildew, potato disease (see PLANTS, DISEASES OF), ani also tas disease - ouness like the ee om are saprophytes. ied to parasitism is fava sort of mutually arran pereatinn for the benefit of both parties; as in the case of the Lichens, which consist of Alge and Fungi in partnership. : Paratoluidin, Sce ToLurpry. Paray-le-Monial, a town in the French de- rtment of Sadne-et-Loire, 48 miles by rail W. . of Macon, celebrated for its chapel, in whic Mary Alacoque (d. 1690) believed herself to have had’a vision of the Saviour, now the object of pilgrimages by the confraternities of the eart (q.v.). Pop. 3269. Parew. See Fare. Parchim, a town of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 23 miles SE. of Schwerin. Pop. 9726. Parchment (Fr. parchemin, Lat. pergamena, through Gr. from Pergamus), At a very early period the skins of animals were used for writing upon. Some authors who have written on the subject of ancient writing materials think that the king of Fargas brought the art of making atnge to es ection through Ptolemy Epiphanes 1aving prohibited the exportation of peprres from Egypt. The Romans appear to haye written chiefly on papyrus, and this practice was continued in Italy till about the 10th century, but parchment was also used ; and from that time till ordinary paper be- came available in the 14th century parchment was almost the only material employed (see PALmo- GRAPHY, PAPER). To a limited extent wax tablets and leaden plates were written upon as late as the 14th and 15th centuries, and some of these are reserved at Florence. Some of the earliest printed hooks were done on vellum (a name 0 all given to a parchment made of calf-skin), an on a specially fine quality of this substance, from the skins of calves prematurely born, some ‘of the best of the early miniature raits were painted. Ordinary parchment is chiefly made of sheep-skins, but those of calves and goats are PARDOE PARE 759 also used. Fine parchment and vellum are pre- pared from the skins of kids, lambs, and young calves. A coarser parchment for drumheads, tam- bourines, &c. is manufactured from the skins of male goats, wolves, and calves. A uliar kind is made from asses’ skin, and for bookbinders’ use a parchment is sometimes prepared from pig- skin. The early stages in the manufacture of hment are the same as for Leather (q.v.). After being unhaired and cleaned, the skins are stretched evenly upon a stout wooden frame called a horse. The flesh side of the skin is first gone over with a double-ed semicircular knife (fleshing- tool) to remove adhering particles of flesh. Wit! the fleshing-tool inverted, to prevent any cutting of the epidermis, the other side of the skin is then seraped to remove dirt and to squeeze out some of the absorbed water. For some purposes for which stout parchment is required the skin is now merely allowed to dry on the frame, no further treatment being requi But fine parchment for writing or drawing upon, some of which is made from split skins, is sprinkled over with sifted chalk on the _ flesh side and rubbed smooth with a flat surface of pumice-stone. The grain side of the skin also is rubbed over with pumice, but no chalk is used, In these operations ot ing care requires to be taken not to fray the surface, and certain precautions are necessary during the drying of the parchment. Any considerable roughness or unequal thickness is removed by the skin being again scraped and pumiced. VEGETABLE PARCHMENT.—This substance, which excited much interest and curiosity when it was first introduced, was patented by Mr W. E. Gaine in 1853 (no. of specification, 2834). It is made by dipping ordinary unsized paper for a few seconds in concentrated sulphuric acid mixed with one-half its volume of water, and then quickly removing all trace of the acid. The mixture is allowed to cool before being used. This simple treatment produces a remarkable change in the paper. It acquires a parchment-like texture ; turns translucent, especi- ally when thin; and becomes about five times stronger than ordinary paper. Vegetable parch- ment is also impervious to water, but is rendered soft and limp when dipped into it. The acid pro- duces a molecular change in the Cellulose (q.v.) of which paper consists. A solution of chloride of zine acts on paper ina similar way. In the manu- facture of vegetable parchment a roll of paper is by a mechanical arrangement pulled through a vat containing the sulphuric acid (the time of immer- sion being from five to ten seconds for thin paper), next through water, then through a weak solution of ammonia, and once more through water. It is afterwards | ane through felt-covered rollers, and then calendered. Stout Egat of vegetable parchment have been used for book-covers and for writing deeds upon. Thin sheets of it serve as a convenient material for tracing designs, plans, Xe. But it is now anety employed for covering jars of preserves and for like purposes, Pardoe, Jutta, born at Beverley in 1806, published poems and a novel in her fifteenth year, and Traits and Traditions of Portugal in 1833. A visit to Constantinople in 1836 led to her City of the Sultan, Romance of the Harem, and Beauties of the Bosphorus. She next visited Hungary, and wrote. The City of the Magyar, and a novel, The Hungarian Castle (1842). series of works deal with French history—Louis XIV. and the Court of France (1847), The Court and Reign of Francis BS (1849), The Life of Mary de Medecis (1852; new ed. 1891), A Pilgrimage in Paris, and Episodes of French History (1859). Others of her numerous works are The Confessions 0, Flies in Amber, The Jealous a Pretty Woman, ife, Reginald Lyle, Lady Arabella, and The Thousand and One Days. She received a pension of £100 in 1859, and died 26th November 1862. Pardon, in Law, is the remission of the penalty inflicted on an offender who has been tried and con- victed, and is an act of grace rather than of justice. The right should be used with great discretion in rectifying an obvious miscarriage of justice, or where, through the inevitable imperfection of all laws, individual cases or offences seem to be visited with too severe a penalty. The power to grant pardons has usually in all monarchical states been regarded as the prerogative of the sovereign; in England a law of 1536 apg VIII.) expressly denies to any other than the king the power to pardon or remit treasons or felonies. In republican countries the - le is sovereign, but the pardoning power is usually delegated to the head of the execu- tive government for the time being. The United States constitution gives the power to the president to grant reprieves or pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeach- ment; and in all but seven of the states of the Union the same power is conferred on the governor. In Florida the pardoning power is vested in the governor, the justices of the supreme court, and attorney-general, or a major part of them; in Louisiana the governor pardons only on the re- commendation of the lieutenant-governor, the attorney-general, and the presiding judge of the court which tried the case—but only the general assembly may pardon in cases of impeachment and treason; in New Hampshire and Vermont the governor exercises the power with the aid of the executive council; and in New Jersey, Ohio, and Pennsylvania there are boards of pardons—in New Jersey the board consists of the governor, the chancellor, and six judges of the court of errors and appeals. In Britain pardon may also be granted by the supreme authority of the House of Commons; Acts of Indemnity (q.v.) are practi- cally grants of peice. The sovereign’s power of pardon is at all times limited. Thus, he cannot oes certain offences seme by law (21 Geo. II. chap. 49, excludes the power to pardon con- victions for forms of Sabbath-breaking); the king cannot pardon in a matter of private, as opposed to public, wrong, though fines may be re- mitted in such cases. The endurance of the penalty is said to work out a constructive pardon ; and the effect of pardon, constructive or other, is to put the offender legally in the position of an innocent man, so that he may proceed at law against any one who thereafter calls him traitor or felon. ut civil rights are not overridden by ardon ; the injured person may recover damages rom a pardoned offender. In modern times the crown’s prerogative is delegated, the crown acting not personally but on the representation of the home secretary, the secretary for Scotland, and the lord-lieutenant in Ireland. The pardon is by war- rant under the Great Seal, or under the sign-manual countersigned by a secretary of state. To those who have been unjustly convicted, their innocence being subsequently proved, not merely is a free pardon granted, but compensation may also be allowed (see IMPRISONMENT). A notable case of a free pardon Ly, hom the condemnation is that of the Earl of Dundonald (q.v.). See also INDULGENCE. Pardubitz. a town of Bohemia, on the left bank of the Elbe, 55 miles by rail E. of Prague, has a fine 16th-century castle. Pop. 10,292. Paré, Ameprotse, the father of modern surgery, was born about the beginning of the 16th century, at Laval, in the French ig Pearse of Mayenne, was trained at the Hétel Dieu of Paris, and in 760 PAREGORIC PARENT AND CHILD 1536 as surgeon joined the army rene for Italy. In a later cam he improved the mode of treat- ment of gunshot wounds, which had up to this time been of the most barbarous kind—namely, cauterisation with boiling oil. It was during this cam that he substituted ligature of the arteries for cauterisation with a red-hot iron after amputa- tion. Many other important improvements in surgery were introduced by him at this time. In September 1552 he was —, surgeon to Kin Henry IL, and afterwards to Charles IX. an Henry Il. He died at Paris, December 22, 1590. His writings, of which the principal was Cing Livres de Chirurgie (1562), have exercised a great influence on the practice surgery in all countries. See Stephen Paget, Ambroise Paré and his Times (1897 ). Paregoric, or Parecoric Exrxir (from the Gr. OFS, ors arge aw Me the Compound Tinc- ture of or of the British Pharmacopeia, con- sists of an alcoholic solution of opium, benzoic acid, camphor, and oil of anise, every fluid ounce con- tainin 2 grains each of opium and benzoic acid, and 14 grains of camphor. This preparation is much used both by the profession and the public. In doses of from 30 to F drops it is an excellent remedy for the chronic winter-cough of old people, the opium diminishing the bronchial secretion and the sensibility of the peasy mucous membrane, while the benzoic acid and oil of anise act as stimu- lating expectorants, It has also been found useful in chronic rheumatism, and, especially in the case of children, to relieve slight pains in the stomach and bowels. Pareira-Brava, a lofty climbing shrub in- habiting the forests of Peru and Brazil, which bears bunches of oval berries resembling grapes. The botanical source was for some tiie obscure, but it is now known that the plant yielding the root of commerce is the Chondodendron tomentosum (ord, Menispermacem). The plant has a long branch- ing woody root, of a yellowish to greenish brown pe oh internally, and this has attained consider- able reputation in medicine. The root contains a bitter principle, and is used in chronic catarrhal affections <4 the bladder and in calculus, The decoction and fluid extract are most usually em- ployed, but it is sometimes given in the simple orm of powder.—This medicinal root has been referred, but erroneously, also to the allied Céssam- pelos ira, a climbing shrub of the West Indies and Mexico, and to. the Botryopsis platyphylla— both of which plants have roots possessing similar properties, Parella, a name given to some of those crusta- ceons lichens which are used to produce Archil, Cudbear, and Litmus, but which more strictly belongs to one species, Lecanora parella, and the red or crimson dye prepared from it. Parenchyma, a technical name for that kind of vegetable tissue in which the component cells are roundish or polyhedral, touching each other by ag broad palieca tting -_ or = opens as in the ‘ palisade-parenchyma’ of the upper part ofa leaf, or leaving ie intercellular po 5 ain the ‘spongy parenchyma’ of the lower part. See Ceu., LEAr. Parent and Child. The legal relation ween parent and child is one of the incidents or Sen i rte of the relation of husband and wife, an flows out of the contract of marriage. The legal is to be distinguished from the natural re ; for two persons may be by the law of nature tare and child, while they are not legally or legitimately so, Hence a radical distinction exists between natural or illegitimate and legiti- mate children, and their legal rights as against their parents respectively are very different. Legiti- mate children are the children of two parents who are recognised as married according to the laws of the country in which they are domiciled at the time of the birth ; and, according to the law of if a child is illegitimate at the time of the i nothing that can happen afterwards will ever make it legitimate, the maxim being ‘once illegitimate always illegitimate.’ In Scotland, on the other hand, a child born of = who were not mar- ried at the time of the birth is made legitimate by their subsequent intermarri For a statement of the law relating to illegitimate children, see the articles BASTARD, AFFILIATION, LEGITIMA- TION, and see also FAMILY, INFANT. As regards the maintenance of the child, it is somewhat singular that, according to the law of England, there is no duty whatever on the parent’ to support the child, and consequently no mode of enforcing such maintenance. The law of nature was probably considered sufficient to supply the motives which urge a parent to ma fe child, but the municipal law of rey has not this duty compulsory. This defect was to some extent remedied when the Poor Law was created by statute in the reign of Elizabeth: by that law parents and children are compellable to a certain small extent, but only when they have the means to do so, to support each other, or rather to help the parish authorities to do so. But from the poor-law statutes there is no legal ob! tion on the parent to support the child, nor on child to support the parent. Hence it follows that, if the child is found in a destitute state, and is taken up, fed, clothed, and saved from starvation by a stranger, it is questionable whether such a stranger can sue the parent for the expense, or any part of it, however gigs te to the child’s exist- ence, In order to make the father liable for main- tenance there must in all cases be made out sates him some contract, express or implied, by which he undertook to pay for such expense; in other words, the mere relationship between the rent and child is not of itself a d of lia- ility. But when the child is living in the father’s house, it is always held by a jury or court that slight evidence is sufficient of, at least, an implied seg x by the father to pay for such expenses. or example, if the child order clothes or pro- visions, and the father see these in use or in process of consumption, it will be taken that he assented to and adopted the contract, and so will be bound to pay for them. So, if a boarding-school, very slight evidence of a contract will be held sufficient to fix him with liability, Nevertheless, in strictness of law, it is as necessary to prove a contract or agreement on the part of the parent to pay for these expenses as it is to fix him with liability in respect of any other matter. If a child be put under the care and dominion of an adult person, and the latter wilfully neglect or refuse to feed or maintain such child, whereby the child dies or is injured, such adult will incur the penalties of misdemeanour; but offence does not result from the relationship of parent and child; it may arise between an adult and child in any circumstances, as where a child is an apprentice or servant. If a parent runs away and deserts his children, leaving them destitute and a burden on the mba the overseers are entitled to seize and sell his goods, if any, for the benefit and mainten- ance of such children ; and if the parent so desert- ing the children be able by work or other means to support them, such ent may be committed to P m as a rogue and vagabond. Not only, there- ore, is a parent during life not bound to maintain his or her child (with the above exceptions), but after the parent’s death the executors or other re- presentatives of the parent, though in possession of i parent put a child toa «_ PARENT AND CHILD PARIS 761 funds, are also not bound. It is true that if the parent die intestate both the real and personal property will go to the children; but the parent is rane , if he nreiges to disinherit the children, ive away all his property to strangers, pro- ied he execute his will in due form, whieh he may competently do on death-bed if in possession of his faculties. A father has the right to the enstody of his child until majority at least, as inst third parties, and no court will deprive him of such custod except on strong grounds. Whenever the child is entitled to property, the court so far controls the parental right that, if the father is shown to act with coger fy or to be guilty of immorality, a guardian will be appointed. The court has often to decide in cases of children brought before it by eng Sag: when parties have had the custody i father’s will. In such cases, if the child is under fourteen, called the age of nurture, and the father is not shown to be cruel or immoral, the court will order the child to be delivered up to him ; but if the child is above fourteen, or, as some say, above sixteen, the court will allow the child to choose where to If the parents separate by agreement, no stipulation will be enfo: which is pe to the child. In case of divorce or judi- cial separation the Court of Divorce has power to direct who is to have the custody of the children. The law lays upon fathers the duty of providing their children with an elementary education in roading, writing, and arithmetic; and a father has the right, which the court will not interfere with except on opetal grounds, to have his children educated in his own religious faith. Scotland.—The law of parent and child in Scot- land differs in some respects from the law of England and Ireland. In Scotland there is a legal obligation on parents and children to maintain each other if able to do so, and either may sue the other for aliment at common law; but this obligation extends only to what may be called subsistence money, although this does not mean merely relief of the poor-law authorities, but is held to vary according to the social position of the party. As all maintenance beyond mere subsist- ence, the law does not materially differ from that of England, and a contract must be po against the father before he can be held liable to pay. The legal liability as between parent and child qualified in this way “A the common law, that if a on has both a father and a child living and able to support him, then the child is primarily liable, and next the grandchild, after whom comes the father, and next the grandfather. Not only are parent and child liable to support each other while the party a is alive, but if he dies his executors are also liable; and this liability is not limited by the age of majority, but continues during the life of the party supported. Another advantage which a Scotch child has over an English child is that the father cannot disinherit it—at least so far as concerns his tpbenere ap Mec LecITImM). With regard to the custody of children in Scotland, the rule is that the father is entitled to the custody as between him and the mother. His right, however, is not absolute, but subject to the equitable jurisdiction of the Court of Session, which makes such orders regarding custody as are dictated by a regard for the health, interests, and moral education of the child. In actions for separa- tion or divorce this court has power to make such orders as are just and proper regarding the custody of the children of the spouses. By the Guardianship of Infants Act, 1886, in- creased rights were given to the mothers of lawful children both in England and Scotland. The general effect of the enactment is to place the mother of children whose father is dead in a similar position to that which the father would have oceupied had he been alive in regard to the guar- dianship. United States.—The American law closely follows that of se ge on this head, save in regard to the age (usually eighteen) at which women cease to be infants. See INFANT, AGE. Parhelion. See Hatos. Pariahs is the Tamil name now generally given to the lowest class of the Hindu population of Southern India—the ‘out-castes’ 255 do not belong to any of the four castes of the Brahminical system (the Telugu name is Mala, the Kanarese olia, the Malayalim Paliyar). In the Madras Presidency they numbered, in 1881, 4,439,253, or 15°58 per cent. of the total population, or four times as numerous as the Bralimans. Presumably they represent the aboriginal race conquered by the Sudras, themselves a stock vanquished by the Vedic peoples. In the 18th century Pariahs were slaves to the higher castes; they must still dwell in huts outside village bounds, but are frugal, pleasure-loving, and laborious. See CasTE.—For the Pariah Dog, see Doc. Paris, the capital of France, and the largest city in Europe after London, is situated in 48° 50’ N. lat. and 2° 20’ E. long., on the river Seine, about 110 miles from its month, It lies in the midst of the fertile plain of the Ile-de-France, at a point to which converge the chief tributaries of the river, the Yonne, the Marne, and the Oise. These streams, navigable for the small vessels for- merly used in commerce, gave it until recent times the advantages of a seaport, while the great trade- routes passing along their valleys connected it with all parts of France. It is still the centre of a great network of rivers, canals, roads, and rail- ways; hence its commercial importance. Paris has oceupied since Roman times a constantly pene Cae of concentric circles. The present city is bounded by fortifications—a rampart upwards of 22 miles in length, begun in 1840 and completed twenty years afterwards. The exten- sion of the city boundary to this line explains the increase of population from 1,174,346 in 1856 to 1,696,741 in 1861; subsequent pop. (1866) 1,825,274 ; (1881) 2,269,023; and (1891) 2,447,957. Paris has within the fortifications a mean eleva- tion of about 120 feet, but it rises in low hills north of the Seine, Montmartre (400 feet) and Belleville (320 feet), and south of the Seine, the Montagne Sainte Genevitve (190 feet), These elevations are encircled at a distance of from two to five miles by an outer range of heights, in- cluding Villejuif, Meudon, St Cloud, and Mont- Valérien (650 feet), the highest point in the immediate vicinity of the city. The Seine, which enters Paris in the south-east at Bercy, and leaves it at Passy in the west, divides the city into two parts, and forms tlie two islands of La Cité and St Louis, which are both covered with buildings, France has long been the most highly centralised country in Europe, and Paris as its heart contains a great population of government functionaries. Paris is a city of pleasure, and attracts the wealthy from all parts of the world. These wealthy inhabitants make it a city of capitalists and a great financial centre. he provincial universities of France have been deprived of their attraction by the schools of Paris, to which flock the youth of France. The publishing trade has followed the same course, Paris cannot be de- scribed as a manufacturing town. Its chief and peculiar industries produce articles which derive their value not from the cost of the material, 762 PARIS but from the skill and taste bestowed on them by individual workmen, 1 hey include jewellery, bronzes, artistic furniture, and decorative articles known as ‘articles de Paris.’ In consequence of the intelligence and taste required in their trades, the Paris workmen are in many respects superior to the machine hands of manufacturing cities. The absence of extreme poverty among them and their well-to-do appearance strike the English visitor. Before speaking in detail of the streets, boule- vards, and places or squares of Paris, it is proper to mention that the private houses as well as the are built of a light-coloured lime- stone, quarried in the neighbourhood of the city, easily cut with the saw and carved ornament- ally with the chisel. With this material they are in huge blocks to a height of six or seven stories, each floor constituting a distinct dwelling ; access to all the floors in a tenement being gained by a common stair, which is usually placed under the charge of a porter or concierge at the entrance. Very frequently the tenements surround an open quadrangle, to which there is a spacious entry, the gate of which (the porte cochére) public buildin is kept by a porter for the whole inhabitants of the several stairs, In these respects, therefore, Pais differs entirely from London ; for instead of extend- ing rows of small brick buildings of a temporary kind over vast spaces, the plan consists of piling durable houses on the top of each other, and con- fining the population to a comparatively limited area, In the great new streets which were formed in the time of the Emperor Napoleon IIL. this general plan has been adhered to, but with this ifference, that instead of being narrow and crooked they are wide and straight. Among the finest are the Rue de Rivoli, two miles in length, the Rue de la Paix, the Rue du Faubourg St Honoré, and the Rue Royale. The Boulevards, which extend in a semicircular line on the right side of the Seine, between the nucleus of the city and its surrounding quarters, present the most striking feature of Paris life. In all the better parts of the city they are lined with trees, seats, stalls, kiosques, and little towers, covered with advertisements, Restaurants, cafés, shops, and various places of amusement succeed one another for miles, their character varying from the height of luxury and elegance in the western Boulevard des Italiens to the homely simplicity of the eastern Boulevards Beaumarchais on St Denis, Among the public squares or places the most notewortliy is the Place de la Concorde, which connects the Gardens of the Tuileries with the Champs-Elysées, and embraces a magnificent view of some of the finest buildings and gardens of Paris, In the centre is the famous obelisk of Luxor, covered over its entire height of 73 feet with hieroglyphics. It was brought from Egypt to France, and in 1836 placed where it now stands. On the site of this obelisk stood the revolutionary guillotine, at which rished Louis XVI., Marie Antoinette, Philippe igalité, Charlotte Corday, Danton, and Robespierre. Of the other squares the following are some of the finest ; the Place du Carrousel, including the site of the Tuileries burned by the Commune and not re- stored ; the Place Vendéme, with Napoleon’s Column of Victory; the Place de la Bastille, where once stood PARIS 763 that famous prison and fortress ; the Place Royale, with its two fountains and a statue of Louis XIII. ; the Place de I'Hétel de Ville, formerly Place de la Gréve, for many ages the scene of public execu- tions. Triumphal arches are a feature in the archi- tecture of Paris. The Porte St Martin and Porte St Denis were erected by Louis XIV. to commem- orate his victories in the Low Countries, and are adorned with bas-reliefs representing events of these campaigns ; the Are de Triomphe de I’Etoile was begun by Napoleon in 1806, and completed in 1836 at a cost of more than £400,000. This arch, which bounds the Champs-Elysées, has a total height of 152 feet and a breadth of 137. . It is profusely adorned with bas-reliefs and alto-reliefs, some of which, representing the departure and return of the Grande Armée, are masterpieces of sculpture. The great streets which radiate from the Are de Triomphe were among the most magnificent of those constructed by Napoleon III., and make this monument of the Bonaparte family the most con- spicuous in Paris. A great avenue runs east from it to the Palace of the Louvre, in the heart of the city. The Seine in passing through Paris is spanned by twenty-eight bridges. The most celebrated and ancient are the Pont Notre Dame, erected in 1500, and tlie Pont-Neuf, ger in 1578, completed by Henri IV. in 1604. This bridge, which crosses the Seine at the north of the lle-de-la-Cité, is built on twelve arches, and abuts near the middle on a small peninsula, jutting out into the river, and planted with trees, that form a background to the statue of Henri IV. on _horse- back, placed in the central open space on the bridge. The bridges all communicate directly with spaci- ous quays, planted with trees, which line both banks of the Seine, and which, together with the Boule- vards, give special characteristic beauty to the city. During the last two centuries of the ‘ancien régime’ the Pont-Neuf was the centre of Paris. It was a meeting- place of showmen and charlatans, and there popular orators addressed the mob. Early in the 12th century Ogival or Gothic architecture took its rise in Paris, or the district im- mediately surrounding it, this event being one of the most memorable in the history of art. Unfortunately the Parisians, with an impatience of everythin not in the latest fashion, long neglected their old buildings in the style they had originated. Their Gothic churches were disfigured by incongruous ad- ditions and tawdry ornaments, which make them uninteresting if not repulsive to visitors. - This remark, however, does not apply to the first two churches we shall mention. They have been ad- mirably restored, and it is now difficult to say whether their incomparable beauty is to be more attributed to medizval builders or to the modern architects by whom they have been renovated. Among the parish churches of Paris (upwards of sixty in number) the grandest and most interest- ing, from a historical point of view, is the cathedral of Notre Dame, which stands on a site successively occupied by a pagan temple and a Christian basilica of the time of the Merovingian kings. The main building, begun in the 12th century, is 400 feet long, 150 feet wide, and 110 high. The height of two towers is 218 feet, that of the fléche 300 feet. The interior consists of a principal and two flanking naves, which are continued round the choir. It has been said that if the pillars of Notre Dame could speak they might tell the whole history of France. The kings, however, were crowned at Rheims, and the only royal coronation celebrated at Notre Dame was that of Henry VI. of Eng- land in 1431. There, too, was sung in 1436 a memorable Te Deum when Paris was retaken by the troops of Charles VII. During the French Revolution the church was mutilated in order to destroy what were supposed erroneously to be emblems of royalty. In 1793, after childish and repulsive mockeries of the ceremonies of the Roman Catholie Church, it was converted into a ‘temple of reason.’ In 1804 Napoleon I. at the height of his power resolved to impress Europe by an imposing ceremony—that of his coronation—in Notre Dame; and there it was that he, in presence of the pope, who never before had pea the Alps at the bid- ding of king or emperor, rudely placed the crown upon his own head. In 1831 the novel of Victor ugo, Notre Dame, made the church interestin, to all Europe. In France there was a genera desire for its restoration, and in 1845 this great work was undertaken by the state. Viollet-le-Duc added to the building the great fléche, a structure Notre Dame : from the River. of oak and lead; and under the care of some of the ablest architects of France the church was converted into what is now described in Paris as the noblest of Gothic buildings. The Sainte Chapelle, built by St Louis in 1245-48, for the reception of the various relies which he had brought from the Holy Land, is perhaps the greatest existing masterpiece of Gothic art. Restored by Napoleon III. at a cost of £50,000, it was threatened by the Commune, but saved. One of the most interesting churches in Paris is St Séverin, buried in narrow streets of the Quartier Latin. A large part of it is in the English Gothic of the 15th century, showing that it was erected during the English occupation of Paris. St-Germain-des-Prés, which is probably the most ancient church in Paris, was completed in 1163; St Etienne du Mont and St Germain lAuxerrois, both ancient, are interesting—the former for its picturesque and quaint decorations, and for containing the tomb of St Genevieve (q.v.), the patron saint of Paris; and the latter for it# 764 PARIS rich decorations and the frescoed portal, restored at the wish of Margaret of Valois. Among modern churches is the Madeleine (1806-42), built in the style of a Corinthian temple, and originally in- tended by Napoleon I. to be a monument to the Grande ée. It forms an oblong on, 328 feet long by 138 wide, independently of the y sare of steps. The height of the columns is 62 feet, that of the entablature 14 feet, and the entire height from the ground 116 feet. There are in all fifty-two columns. The roof is of iron and copper. The interior is elaborately decorated with gold, white marble, paintings, and sculptures; but in spite of their religious subjects the building still produces on northern eyes the impression of a pagan temple rather than of a Christian church. The Pan- théon (i764) was begun as a church, but con- verted by the Constituent Assembly of republican France into a temple dedicated to the t men of the nation, next restored to the church by Napoleon IIL. and rededicated to St Genevidve, but once more, on the occasion of the funeral of Victor Hugo (1885), reconverted into a monument, with the old inscription ‘ Aux pas hommes la patrie recon- naissante.’’ The Panthéon has been spoken of as rivalling St Peter’s at Rome and St Paul’s in London. The frescoes of the interior are very fine. In the erypt are the tombs of Voltaire, Rousseau, and Victor Hugo. Notre Dame de Lorette, erected. in 1823, is a flagrant specimen of the meretricious taste of the day; and St Vincent de Paul, com- leted in 1844, is somewhat less gaudy and more mposing in style. Among the few Protestant churches, l'Oratoire is the largest and the best known. For the great church of Sacré Cour at Montmartre, see SACRED HEART. Paris abounds in places of amusement suited to the tastes and means of every class, including over forty theatres, The ee ouses are the “og the Théftre Frangais (chiefly devoted to classical French drama; it was burned down in 1900), the Opéra Comique, and the Odéon, which are assisted by government. The new opera-house (1875) is one of the most magnificent buildings of this century, costing, exclusive of the site, £1,120,000. Page, concerts, equestrian performances, and pub- lie balls, held in the open air in summer, supply a constant round of gaiety to the burgher and work- ing classes at a moderate cost, and form a char- acteristic feature of Paris life; while, in addition to the noble gardens of the various imperial palaces, the most densely-crowded parts of the city have — gardens, shaded by trees and adorned with fountains and statues, which afford the means of health and recreation to the poor. Beyond the fortifications at the west of Paris is the Bois de Boulogne, converted by Napoleon IIL. from a wood cov, with stunted trees into one of the most beautiful gardens in — It takes the place of the London parks for the fashionable world of Paris. East of Paris is the Bois de Vincennes, an admirable recreation ground for the working- classes, Paris has three large and twelve lesser ceme- teries, of which the principal one is Pere-la-Chaise (see LACHAISE), extenling over 200 acres, and filled in ar with monuments erected to the memory of the countless number of celebrated persons buried there. The Morgue (q.v.) at the upper end of the [le-de-la-Cité is a Tuilding in which the bodies of unknown persons found in the Seine are placed temporarily for recognition. The southern parts of Paris are built over beds of limestone, which have been so extensively quarried as to have become a network of vast caverns, These quarries were first converted in 1784 into catacombs, in which are deposited the bones of the ead, collected from the ancient cemeteries of Paris. It has been frequently remarked that Paris con- tains few important civil buildings of the middle ages, which is to some extent due to the reckless way in which improvements have been carried out. What Paris has lost in picturesque interest and architectural variety from this cause was brought home to all by the imitations of the Tour de Nesle and other buildings erected for the exhibition of 1889. A government commission now watches over the historic monuments of Paris, so that further destruction is checked. Two most interest- ing civil buildings of the 15th century still exist. One is the Hotel de Cluny (see CLUGNY), one of the finest existing monuments of the Gothic Flam- boyant style. The other is the Hétel de Sens, the old palace of the archbishops of Sens, ite metropolitans of Paris. It is unfortunately bu among narrow streets north of the Seine and opposite the Cité. In 1890 its most interesting rt was advertised ‘to let for business purposes, t had been last used as a mp pie The Louvre, the greatest of the ern of Paris, forming a square of 576 feet feet, was erected on the site of an old castle of the 13th century (see below). The first part, the south- west wing, was in 1541 on the plans of Pierre Lescault. It remains a masterpiece of architectural design and monumental sculpture. The principal portion of the g square was completed under Louis XIV. in the latter part of the 17th century, the physician Claud Perrault being the architect. The colonnade of the eastern. facade is more admired than any other part of the Ly ea The Palace of the Tuileries was begun in 1566 by Catharine de Medicis, and enlarged suc- cessive monarchs, while used as a royal residence, until it formed a structure nearly a quarter of a mile in length, running at right angles to the Seine. It was connected with the Louvre, which lay to the west, by a great picture-gallery over- looking the Seine, and 1456 feet in length. North of the pee eaeten: and between the two palaces, lay the Place du Carrousel, in the midst of the most magnificent palatial structure in the world. The Tuileries continued to be occupied as the resi- dence of the imperial eens” bs but the Louvre proper formed a series of t galleries filled with pictu sculptures, and collections of Egyptian, Greek, an Roman antiquities. The Commune aie to burn the whole pile, but only succeeded in destroying the Tuileries and a corner of the Louvre, The Place du Carrousel enclosed between them and the Louvre is now thrown into the ot line = e. a mass of buildings, including the old palace of the Orleans family, the ThéAtre Francais, and a quad- panes of ap 5p mes Tg ap tg enclosing & large or garden open to the public, long by 300 feet vie With its avenues and parterres it was long one of the liveliest and most uented spots in Paris. Its cafés had a world-wide reputation, which has faded, however, since the great improvements of Napoleon III. sent the current of life into other quarters. The most valuable part of the palace, frontin the Rue St Honoré, was set fire to by order of the Commune in 1871. The Palace of the Luxembourg, on the south side of the Seine, was built by Marie de Medicis in the Florentine style. It contains many magnificent rooms, and in 1879 became the meet- ing-place of the French senate, Close to it a lery has been constructed for the reception of the works of living artists acquired by the state. On the north bank of the Seine, opposite the Island PARIS 765 of the Cité, stands the Hétel de Ville. It was burned by the Commune, but has been rebuilt and restored in the style of its predecessor, and is now one of the finest buildings in Paris. On the Island of the Cité stands the Palais de Justice, a vast pile, also set fire to by the Commune; some parts of it date from the 14th century, and others are modern. It is the seat of some of the courts of law, as the Courts of Cassation, of Appeal, and of Police. Within the precincts of this palace are the Sainte Chapelle, and the noted old prison of the Con- ciergerie, in which Marie Antoinette, Danton, and Robespierre were successively confined. The Conciergerie, just mentioned, in which pris- oners are lodged pending their trial, constitutes one of the eight prisons of Paris, of which the prin- cipal is La Force. The Nouveau Bicétre is designed for convicts sentenced to penal servitude for life ; St Pélagie receives political offenders, St Lazare is exclusively for women, the Madelonnettes for juvenile criminals, and Clichy for debtors. The number of benevolent institutions is enor- mous. The largest of the numerous hospices or almshouses is La Salpétritre, probably the largest asylum in the world, extending over 78 acres of land, and appropriated solely to old women; Bicétre receives only men. The Hospice des Enfans Trouvés, or Foundling Hospital (q.v.), pro- vides for the infants brought to it till they reach the age of maturity, and only demands f mbreer in the event of a child being reclaimed. The Créches (q.v.) receive the infants of poor women for the day at the cost of 20 centimes. Besides institu- tions for the blind, deaf and dumb, convalescents, sick children, &c., Paris has many general and special hospitals. Of these the oldest and most eg are the Hotel Dieu, La Charité, and La itié. The chief institutions connected with the Univer- sity of France, and with education general] » are still situated in the Quartier Latin. ‘The Sorbonne (q.v-), the seat of the Paris faculties of letters, science, and Protestant theology, has been rebuilt and increased in size. The new building was opened in 1889, when it was announced that a complete re- organisation of the university system of France was contemplated (see UNiversiTy). The Sorbonne contains lecture-halls and class-rooms, and an exten- sive library open to the public. There gratuitous lectures are given, and de; are granted by the University of France. Near the Sorbonne is the Collége de France, where gratuitous lectures are alao delivered by eminent scholars and men of letters, as well as a large number of colleges and lycées, the great public schools of France for secondary instruction. Most of them have been recently rebuilt, filling the Quartier Latin with huge barrack-like buildin The Scotch College stands as it did in the ith century, five stories high, with eleven windows in a row, a good speci- men of the old Paris colleges. At present, owing to the war between the republic and the Roman Catholie Church, the schools of the latter are in- dependent of the university, and there is no faculty of oman Catholic theology at the Sorbonne. The Ecole Polytechnique, the School of Medicine and the School of Law, the Observatory, and the Jardin des Plantes, with its great museums of natural history, rtly rebuilt on a grand scale and opened in 1889, Lecture-rourie, and botanical and zoological gardens are situated in the same quarter of Paris. The rincipal of the public libraries are those of the Rue ichelien, now called the Bibliothéque Nationale (see LiBRARY), which originated in a small collec- tion of books placed by Louis XI. in the Louvre. It is rivalled only by the British Museum in the number of its books and manuscripts, but its use- fulness is impaired by the want of a proper cata- logue, which makes its treasures less accessible than bes should be. o city on this side of the Alps is richer than Paris in fine-art collections, and among these the museums at the Louvre stand pre-eminent. Among its chief treasures may be mentioned, in the museum of antique miietares the famous Venus of Milo, and in the Salon Carré the great works of the Italian, Flemish, and Spanish masters, possible to do more than refer to the long succes- sion of galleries in which are exhibited Egyptian, Assyrian, Elamitic, Greek, Roman, medieval, and Renaissance relics and works of art. The Musée Carnivalet or historical museum of the city of Paris has been specially devoted to the collection of everything interesting connected with the muni- cipality. On the demolition of the old houses many objects were found which formed the nucleus of the collection, which is constantly receiving large additions which make it one of the most interest- ing of the Paris museums. The Palais des Beaux- Arts is used as an exhibition of art, manufac- tures, and architectural models. The Hotel de Cluny, connected underground with the Palais des Thermes, contains curious relics of the arts and usages of the French people, from the earliest ages of their history to the Renaissance riod, The potteries, sculptures, paintings, arms, irniture, and tapestries of the middle ages and of the 16th and 17th centuries are of the highest his- torical interest and value. The Museum of Artil- lery at the Hotel des Invalides is devoted to arms and armour, flags and war dresses. The Musée Guimet, or ‘ National Museum of Religions,’ includes objects used in religious ceremonies, savage, Indian, Chinese, &c. The Mint deseryes ay the per- fection of its machinery ; and the Gobelins (q.v.), or tapestry manufactory, may be included under the fine arts, as the productions of its looms are all manual, and demand t artistic skill. The Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, in the Rue St Martin, contains a great collection of models of machinery, and class-rooms for the instruction of workmen in all pa oma of applied science. The great Paris exhibitions have all left behind them important buildings. The Palace of In- dustry, built in 1854, now forms a permanent exhibition. The spacious building in which the exhibition of 1878 took place was named Palace of the Trocadéro, and is now used for musical enter- tainments and as an architectural and ethnological museum. For the exhibition of 1889 was erected one of the most striking monuments of modern Paris, the Eiffel (q.v.) Tower. Paris was surrounded, under Louis-Philippe, with fortifications costing £5,500,000 sterling, and, in addition to these, a large number of detached forts have since been erected. The walls, 37,000 yards in length, are penetrated by sixty-nine open- ings, fifty-six for gates, nine for railways, two for the canals of St Denis and the Ourg. Through the two remaining breaks passes the Seine. At the gates are paid the octroi or town dues, a large source of revenue to the city of Paris. Qn the left bank of the Seine is the le Militaire, founded in 1752, and used as barracks for infantry and cavalry ; it can accommodate 10,000 men and 800 horses. . Near it is the Hétel des Invalides, founded in 1670 for disabled soldiers. The crypt of the church con- tains the sarcophagus, hewn from a huge block of Russian granite, in which lie the remains of Napoleon, deposited there in 1840. aris is divided into twenty arrondissements. The prefect of the Seine is the chief of the muni- cipal government, and is appointed by the govern- ment. There is a large municipal council, chosen by popular election. Each arrondissement has a maire and two assistant-councillors. The prefect It is im- 766 PARIS of police is at the head of the civic guard or gens- deraaa the fire-brigade, and the sergents de ville or city police, who are armed with swords. The cleaning, sewerage, and water-supplies of Paris are under the charge of the prefect. Paris is now abundantly supplied with pure and wholesome water; and the sewers have been sg extended with the street improvements. @ same may be said in to the paving of the city, and the street-lighting by gas and electricity. In 1818 ublic liter-houses, or abattoirs, were estab- ished at different suburbs, where alone animals are allowed to be slaughtered. Large cattle- markets are held near the licensed abattoirs. There are in the heart of the city numerous ha/les, or wholesale, and marchés, or retail markets. The principal of these is the Halles Centrales, near the church of St Eustache, covering nearly 20 acres. History.—The earliest notice of Paris occurs in Ceesar’s Commentaries, in which it is described, under the name of Lutetia, as a collection of mud huts, composing the chief settlement of the Parisii, a Gallic tribe, conquered by the Romans, Lutetia soon acquired t strategic importance, due to its lines of defence—the windings and marshes of the Seine and Marne to the east and west, and the forest-clad hills on the north and south. It lay midway between the chief enemies of Rome in Gaul, the Germans on the east and the unsubdued Celts of Armorica on the west. In 53 B.c., accordingly, Cwsar assembled there the delegates of the Gallic tribes, and it became an important Roman town. Two ruins of this period remain south of the Seine. One formed part of the Palais des Thermes, the abode of the Roman governors of Lutetia and afterwards of the Mero- vingian kings of France. The other ruin is that of the arénes or amphitheatre of the Roman city. The foundations and parts of the old wall were dis- covered in 1870, and since then excavations have laid them bare. In 1891 they were enclosed in a small park and thrown open to the public. The amphitheatre was 180 feet long by 153 feet wide. It is estimated that it could contain 10,000 spec- tators of the gladiatorial shows. Lutetia began in the 4th century to be known as Parisia, or Paris. In the 6th century Paris was chosen by Clovis as the seat of government; and after having fallen into decay under the Carlovingian kings, who made Aix-la-Chapelle their capital, and in whose time it suffered severely from frequent inva- sions of the Northmen, it finally hecame in the 10th century the residence of Hugh Capet, and the capital of the French monarchy. From this period Paris continued rapidly to increase, and in two centuries it had doubled in size and a ulation, The reign of Philippe-Auguste (1180-1223) is the great epoch in the medieval history of Paris. It was then that were erected masterpieces of Gothic art, including the nave, the choir, and the chief facade of Notre Dame and the Sainte Chapelle. Then was founded the University of Paris, the sreat theological school of the middle ages, wield- fog a power over the church second only to that of Rome, and pecan op J from all parte of western Europe vast crowds of students, who, on returning to their homes, ee abroad a knowledge of the art and culture of Paris. Philippe-Auguste built a crenelated wall and flanking towers, one of which, the Tour de Nesle (q.v.), stood on the site of the Palace of the Institute. Outside the wall he erected the castle of the Louvre on the site of the present palace. It became the centre and stronghold of feudalism and the citadel of Paris, which was now, after Constantinople, the greatest city of Europe, In the 16th century the castle was still ised as a royal residence, but after the recep- tion of Charles V, there by Francis 1. it was pulled down to make way for the new palace. Luckily the walls were’ noe levelled to their foundations. A few years ago they were discovered to exist, Galleries have been excavated, and extensive ruins have been laid bare, which now form the most interesting sight of underground Paris. In the middle ages Paris was divided into three distinct the Cité, on the islands; the Ville, on the right bank; and the Quartier Latin, or University, on the left bank of the river, and on the Montagne St Genevitve. In 1358 broke out the first of the long series of Paris revolutions. It was headed by Etienne Marcel, the famous provost of the Paris merchants, who for a time ably ruled the town. Louis XI. did much to enl Paris and to efface the disastrous results of its hostile occupation by the English during the wars under Henry V. and Henry VI. of England; but its — was in checked during the wars of ast of the Valois, when the city had to sustain several si On the accession of Henri IV. of Navarre, in 1589, a new era was opened for Paris. The improvements commenced in his reign were continued under the minority of his son, Louis XIIL. A arnt ae — the old ram- rts into public w: or evards, organised a pagelar syle of police, established — and sewerage works, founded hospitals, almshouses, publie schools, scientific societies, and a library, and thus renewed the claim of Paris to be regarded as the focus of European civilisation. The terrible days of the Revolution caused a temporary reaction; but the improvement of Paris was recommenced on a new and grander under the first Napoleon, when new quays, bridges, markets, streets, squares, and public gardens were created. All the treasures of art and science which conquest placed in his power were applied to the embellishment of Paris, in the restorati of which he spent more than £4,000,000 sterlin in twelve — His downfall ri - and in many respects Paris - find other European cities henvession was re- commenced under Louis-Philippe; but as lately as 1834 much of the old style of things remained ; the gutters ran down the middle of the streets, there was little underground drainage from the houses, oil-lamps were suspended on cords over the middle of the thoroughfares, and, except in one or two streets, there were no side-pavements. It was reserved for Napoleon III. to reconstruct Paris. When he commenced his improvements Paris still consisted, in the main, of a labyrinth of narrow, dark, and ill-ventilated streets. He resolved to pierce broad and straight thoroughfares the midst of these—thus putting an end to possibility of forming barricades—to preserve and connect all the finest existing squares and boule- vards, especially those surrounding the monuments of the Bona family, and, in lieu of the old houses pulled down in the heart of the town, to construct, in a ring outside of it, a new city in the most approved style of modern architecture. With the assistance of n Haussmann (q.v.), the Prefect of the Seine, his schemes were carried out with rare energy and good taste. With afresh supply of water, trees, parterres, and fountains were introduced every- where, and Paris ceased to produce on visitors impression that it stands in the midst of a chalky desert. It was converted into one of the greenest and shadiest of modern cities. Two straight and wide thoroughfares, parallel to and near other, the whole width of Paris from north to south through the Cité; a still greater thorough- fare was made to run the whole length of the town north of the Seine, from east to west. The old boulevards were completed so as to form outer and inner circles of spacious streets—the former chiefly ay PARIS 767 ‘lying along the outskirts of the old city, the latter ing through and connecting a long line of istant suburbs. In the year 1867, when the inter- national exhibition was opened, Paris had become in all respects the most splendid city in Europe. Many further improvements were then contem- lated. Financial and political difficulties were, wever, at hand (see FRANCE), and these schemes had to be tponed. The siege of Paris by the Germans, which lasted from 19th ig ose 1870 to 28th January 1871, caused much less injury to the city than might have been expected—it was reserved for a section of the Parisian population to commit an act of vandalism without a parallel in modern times. On the 18th of March the Red Republicans, who had risen against the govern- ment, took possession of Paris. On the 27th March the Commune was declared the only lawful govern- ment. Acts of pillage and wanton destruction followed. On the 15th of May the column erected to the memory of Napoleon and the Great Army, in the Place Vendéme, was solemnly pulled down as ‘a monument of tyranny.’ The government troops under Marshal MacMahon attacked the in- surgents, and kept them from doing further mischief. The former succeeded in enteriug Paris on the 20th of May, and next day the Communists began systematically to set fire with petroleum to a great number of the chief buildings of Paris, public and private. The fire for a time threatened to destroy the whole city. It raged with the greatest fury on the 24th, and was not checked until property had been lost to the value of many millions sterling, and historical monuments were destroyed whic never can be replaced. The horror inspired by the Commune for a time drove the wealthy classes from Paris, and it was feared that it would lose its restige as a European capital. This, however, as not proved to be the case. By the autumn of 1873 all the private houses burned had been rebuilt, the monuments only partially injured had been restored, and the streets and public places were as splendid and gay as in the best days of the empire. dines the establishment of the republic improve- ments have been executed little if at all inferior in importance to those of the second empire. New streets have been opened near the Paris Bourse de Commerce and the Post-office ; the Champs de Mars, a waste of sand, has been converted into a beauti- ful garden, in which rises the Eiffel Tower; the museums of the Jardindes Plantes have been rebuilt; the Quartier Latin has been covered with educa- tional buildings. In 1890-91 two great undertak- ings were mooted—asystem of metropolitan railways to connect the great Paris stations with the heart of the city, and the conversion of Paris into a sea- port by the deepening of the Seine, or the con- struction of a ship-caral to the Channel. The magnificent International Exhibition of 1900 did not attract the vast crowds for whom preparations had been made, and was not financially as success- ful as was hoped. Somewhat pg cig - opinions are expressed on the part Paris has played in the history of the world. After Athens and Rome, says one writer, it is the city that has made the deepest impression on men’s minds. Paris, says another, has carried the torch of life and civilisation from century to century, and done most to spread culture and enlightenment throughout the globe. At this moment, says a third, the inhabitants are the best fed and best clad, the best educated of city popu- lations. These views are generally accepted in France. There is, however, a reverse to the pic- ture. The Parisians are declared to be a feeble ple, dying out, and constantly recruited b mmigration from Belgium, Alsace, Switzerland, and Italy. Paris is a modern Babylon; its domestic life, described in French novels, is a centre of corruption for Europe. There has been, no doubt, truth in all these views at different — of the history of Paris. Certain it is, owever, that in England it is too often forgotten that in Paris drunkenness is almost unknown, that among a large section of the population there has always been a pure domestic life, and that the profligaey of the second empire has now to exist. See the guidebooks of Murray, Baedeker, Joanne, and topographical works by Du Camp (7th ed. 6 vols. 1884), Colin (1885), Pontich (1884), and the official Annuaire Statistique (since 1883); G. A. Sala, Paris Herself Ayain { 1879) ; P. G. Hamerton, Paris in Old and Present Times 1884; new ed. 1892); Piton, Comment Paris s'est Trans- Sormé ; Histoire, Topoyraphie, dc. (1891); Paris Guide par les principaux Ecrivains et Artistes de la France (introd. by Victor Hugo, and parts by Michelet, Louis Blanc, Renan, Sainte-Beuve, Taine, Quinet, Viollet-le-Duc, Ac. (2 vols. 1867-68); Hoffbauer, Paris 2 travers les Ayes (1890 et seq.) ; Lebeuf, Histoire de la Ville et de la Diovése de Paris (15 vols. 1754; new ed. by Cocheris, 4 vols, 1863); Dulaure, Histoire Civile, Physique, et Morale de Paris (7 vols. 1821; new ed. by Leynadier, 1874); histories by De Gaulle (1840), Gabourd (1863-65), Arago (Paris Moderne, 2d ed. 1867); and the copious Histoire Générale dela Ville de Paris, issued, since 1866, by the municipal authorities ; also histories of the university, in the middle ages by Budinssky (Berlin, 1876), and in the 17th and 18th centuries by Jourdain (Paris, 1862-66). Some account of the siege of Paris in 1870-71 is given at France, Vol. IV. p. 783. See also Du Camp, Les Con- vulsions de Pavis (1875-79); Morin, Histoire Critique de la Commune (1871); Vinoy, Siége de Paris (1872); Viollet-le-Duc, La Defensede Paris(1872) ; books by Grant Allen (1897), Belloc (1900), Macdonald (1900), Whiteing (1900) ; see Lacombe, Bibliographie de Paris (1886). . DECLARATION OF Paris.—In 1856 the repre- sentatives of the Powers agreed to four points in International Law (q.v.)—viz. (1) Privateering is abolished; (2) the neutral flag covers enemies’ goods, excepting Contraband of War (q.v.); (3) neutral goc s, with the same exception, are not liable to be seized even under an enemy’s flag; (4) blockades, in order to be binding, must be effective. The United States refused to accept the first point, because the Euro wers declined to affirm that thereafter all private property should be exempted from capture by ships of war. See NEUTRALITY. TREATIES OF PARIS.—The Peace of Paris of 1763 terminated the Seven Years’ War (q.v.) ; fixed the territorial relations of Germany, France, and Spain; gave to England the French colonies in America ; and rearranged the possessions of France and England in the West Indies, India, and Africa. The Treaty of 1814, concluded by the Allies soon after the abdication of Napoleon, reduced France substantially to its old limits. That of 1815, after Waterloo, did so more completely, levied a heavy contribution towards the war expenses, and re- constituted the map of Europe on the old lines. The Treaty of 1856 concluded the Crimean War (q.v.). A Treaty of 1857 arranged relations between Britain and Persia. Paris, (1) capital of Bourbon county, Ken- tucky, on Stoner Creek, 19 miles by rail NE. of ert It contains a military institute, and manufactures whisky, flour, cordage, &c. Pop. (1900 ) 4603.—(2) Capital of Lamar county, Texas, 98 miles by rail NE. of Dallas. It has manufac- tories of brooms, furniture, sashes, wagons, ploughs, &e. Pop. (1900) 9358. Paris, a genus of plants of the small endogen- ous natural order Trilliacese, of which one species, P. quadrifolia, called Herb Paris, is not uncommon in moist, shady woods in some parts of Britain. It 768 PARIS PARISH is rarely more than a foot high, with one whorl of generally four leaves, and a solitary flower on the top of the stem, followed by a berry. The b is reputed narcotic and poisonous, but its juice leen employed to cure inflammation of the eyes. The root has been used as an emetic. Paris, also called ALEXANDER, was, according to Homer, the son of Priam and Hecuba, sovereigns of Troy. His mother dreamed durin her p cy that she gave birth to a firebran which set the whole city on fire, a dreanbinterpre by Aésacus or Cassandra to signify that Paris should iginate a war which should end in the destruc- tion of his native city. To prevent its realisation Priam caused the infant to be exposed upon Mount Ida by a shepherd named Agelaus, who found him five days after alive and well, a she-bear having given him suck. Agelaus brought him up as his own son, and he beeame a shepherd on Mount Ida. An accident having revealed his parentage, old Priam became reconciled to his son, who married (Enone, daughter of a river- But his mother’s dream was to come true for all that. He was appealed to, as umpire, in a strife which had arisen among the three goddesses, Hera (Juno), Athene (Minerva), and Aphrodite (Venus), as to which of them was the most beautiful, the goddess Eris (Strife) having revengefully flung amcne them, at a feast to which she had not been invited, a golden apple (of discord) inscribed ‘To the Most Beautiful.’ h of the three endeavoured to bribe him. Hera promised him dominion and wealth ; Athene, mili- tary renown and wisdom; Aphrodite, the fairest of women for his wife—to wit, Helen, the wife of King Menelaus, Paris decided in favour of Aphro- dite—hence the animosity which the other two desses displayed against the Trojans in the war that followed. Paris now carried Helen away from Lacediemon in her husband’s absence. ‘The rape of Helen’ is the legendary cause of the Hp oa war (see HELEN, TROY). Paris deceitfully slew Achilles in the temple of Apollo, He was himself wounded by a ned arrow, and went to Mount Ida to be eu Wd (Enone; but she avenged her- self for his unfaithfulness to her by refusing to assist him, and he returned to Troy to die. Paris, Comre pg. See BouRBON, ORLEANS, Paris, Gaston, born 9th August 1839, succeeded his father, Panlin Paris (1 1), in 1872 as pro- fessor of old French at the Collége de France, became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1872, and of the Académie Francaise in 1896. He has written a long series of most valuable works on old French literature (La Poésie du Moyen-Age, 1885-95; La Littérature Francaise au Moyen-Age, 21 ed. 1890, &e.), and edited many texts (Le Roman de Renard, 1895, &c.). Paris, MATTHEW, chronicler, who probably in- herited his family-name (then not uncommon. in England), was born about 1200. In January 1217 he entered the Benedictine monastery of St Albans, grew up under the eye of x de Wendover, and in 1248 was sent by the pope's recommendation on a mission to repair the financial disorders in the Benedictine monastery on Monk's Island (Holm) near Trondhjem in Norway. In July 1251 he was in attendance at the court at Winchester, six months later he witnessed the marri at York of _~ daughter to Alexander fi. of Seotland, and March 1257 he had much con- versation with the king during his week’s visit to the monastery. death occurred about the middle of 1259. Matthew Paris's principal work is his Historia Major, or Chronica Majora, a history from the creation down to the year 1259. The original edition is that published in 1571: under the authority of Archbishop Parker; but the authoritative edition of the work is that edited Dr Luard in the Rolls series (7 vols, 1872-83 His conclusion as to its authorship is that down to the year 1189 it was the work of John de Cella, abbot of St Albans from 1195 to 1214; that from that point it was continued by of Wendover down to the year 1235—the whole work to this point being often ascribed to him alone, and as the Flores Historiarum ; that Matthew of Paris next transcribed, corrected, and extended (by im- terpretation rather than inte ion) the which, moreover, from 1235 down to 1259 is ent: his own. As a historian he is vigorous, vivid, accurate, and his pages are aglow with patriotic fervour. His Historia Anglorum is abridged from the greater work by the omission of what relates to foreign affairs, It was area 2 Sir F. Madden in the Rolls series is vols. 1 ). Other works are the Abbreviatio Chronicorum (1100-1255); Liber Additamentorum or Supplementorum ; the dubious Duorum Offarum Merciorum Vite ; and the valuable Viginti trium Abbatum S. Albani Vita. See an article by Dr Jessopp in the Quarterly Review (1886). Paris, PLASTER or. See Gypsum, Stucco. Paris Basin, in Geology, the area in which the Cainozoic systems of France are best developed. See EocENE SYSTEM. Paris Bordone. See BorDONE. Parish (Lat. parochia; Gr. paroikia, ‘ bourhood’) is a term used to donot the dates assigned to a mapep or priest. In early times the bishop arranged all the church work of and the minor churches were served by cl sent from the bishop’s church. Where the church was established and endowed parishes were assigned to resident priests, and tithes were, b spol or by general rules of law, made cane le to oe parson of the parish. In England provisions relat- ing to this matter were included among the laws of Edgar about 970. Parishes were formed on the basis of previously existing manors and townships ; the lord of the manor often held the Advowson (q.v.) or patronage of the parish church; and the inhabitants held their meetings in the vestry of the church ; the parson presided, and he was rmitted to nominate one of the Churchwardens +Y )} The recs < originally the unit of administration for poor-law and highwa: but modern legislation has res 5 | abe the functions of parish authorities to of Guardians (see Poor-LAWs) Highway Boards (see Roaps), and County Councils pts There are about 15,000 civil parishes in England and 900 in Scotland ; they vary very widely both in extent and in ene Thus, Queensferry has an area of only 11 acres, Kilmallie (pop. 4157) in Lochaber of 444 sq. m. (nearly as large as Bedfordshire) ; whilst Whalley in Lancashire (180 sq. m.) has more than 250,000 inhabitants, and Skiddaw (nearly 5sq. m.) in Cumberland only 10. The boundaries of an ancient rish are fixed by custom, the memory whereof was ormerly, and in some cases is still, kept alive by an annual or periodical peranibulaiiondties Bounps, BEATING THE). Ancient parishes have been divided and altered in many cases in the exercise of statutory powers ; the Local Government Board possesses large powers of alteration. For eeclesi- astical purposes populous parishes may be divided and new vicarages constituted by the esiastical Commissioners ; by the exercise of these powers the number of ecclesiastical parishes has been raised to about 13,000. The parson or incumbent is a cor- ration sole; he has a freehold in his office, and n the church and churchyard (see TiTHE). The church is only used for the services of the Church of England; the Churchyard (q.v.) may be used a] PARISH PARK 769 by Nonconformists. The powers of Churclwardens and Vestry have been greatly limited by the Local Government Act of 1894, which established dis- trict councils, parish meetings, and parish councils. The district councils are mainly the old rural and urban sanitary authorities under a new name, and have charge of highways, &c. The parish meetin in every rural ee includes all persons re aaverd as parochial electors (all registered as parliamen- tary or local government electors), and retains, even where there is a parish council, the power of adopting the Adoptive Acts (Lighting and Watch- ing Act, Baths and Washhouses Acts, Burial Acts, Public Improvements Act, Public Libraries Act), and of controlling the expenditure of the parish. When there is no parish council, the parish meet- ing (which must take place at least once a year) appoints the overseers, and may have some of the powers of the ae council conferred on it by the county council. Every rural parish with a popu- lation of 300 in 1891 (though some parishes are grouped, and some smaller parishes have had a council given them by the county council) has now a parish council of a chairman and from five to fifteen councillors, elected annually at a parish meeting by show of hands, or by ballot, if demanded. The council, which is a corporate body whose expenses are defrayed out of the poor- rate, appoints overseers and assistant-overseers, has the secular power once exercised by the overseer (rating, nominating constables, &c.), the former powers of the churchwardens, save in church affairs and charities, the carrying out of the Adoptive Acts by the provision of public offices and recrea- tion grounds, the duty of looking after wells, streams, footpaths, rights of way, and minor nui- sances, the power of acquiring and holding land for allotments and other local purposes, and the appointment of trustees for parochial charities. Both married and single women are eligible as parish councillors, guardians, rural or urban dis- trict councillors (not for borough or county coun- ceils). As parochial electors women may attend parish meetings and vote. Husband and wife can- not be qualified in respect of the same property. The Vestry of a parish is either a common vestry—a meeting of all the ratepaying inhabitants, presided over by the incumbent—or a select vestry, elected under Hobhouse’s Act (1831). In urban parishes it is unaffected by the Local Government Act of 1894; in rural parishes it now exists for ecclesiastical purposes only. The administration of the Poor-laws (q.v.) in England is unaffected by that act, save that now rural district councillors act as guardians. The care of the r is almost entirely in the hands of the guardians; the over- seers assist the guardians. The assistant-overseers, when not appointed by the guardians, are officers of the parish council. woman may be an overseer. See CHURCH-RATES, CHURCHWARDENS, CHURCH- YARD, PooR-LAws, VESTRY. In Seotiand the ecclesiastical parishes are of very ancient date. The Court of Session, acting as the Commission of Teinds, has power to unite and divide parishes, and to erect a disjoined part into a parish quoad sacra—i.e. for ecclesiastical purposes only. The poor-law was formerly administered by the kirk-session in county parishes and by magis- trates in burghal parishes; but an act of 1845 introduced a system of parochial boards, which since the Local Government of 1894 have been superseded by the parish councils. The church fabric is supported by the heritors; there are no churehwardens in Scotland ; nor is there any meet- ing corresponding to the vestry. In the matter of parish schools Scotland was formerly far in advance of England; the policy of the Education Acts is now the same in both countries. In the United States the term parish is not un- commonly used to denote the district assigned to a chureh or minister, but there are no civil parishes, except in the state of Louisiana. See Wright and Hobhouse, Local Government; and, for the ecclesiastical part of the subject, Lord Selborne on Churches and T'ithes, Parish Clerk. See CLerx. Park, Munco, the African traveller, was born 10th September 1771, at Foulshiels on the Yarrow, afarmer’s youngest child in a family of thirteen. Educated at Selkirk, he was apprenticed to Dr Thomas Anderson, a surgeon there, and afterwards studied medicine in Edinburgh (1789-91). He was then introduced to Sir Joseph Banks by his brother- in-law, James Dickson, botanist, and obtained the situation of assistant-surgeon in the Worcester, bound for Bencoolen in Sumatra. On his return in 1793, the African Association of London had re- ceived intelligence of the death of Major Houghton, who had cindartaken a journey to Africa at their —— Park offered lis services, was accepted, and sailed from England 22d May 1795. He spent some months at the English factory of Pisania on the Gambia in making preparations for his travels, and in learning the Mandingo language. Leaving Pisania on the 2d of December he travelled eastward ; lut when he had nearly reached the place where Houghton lost his life, he fell into the hands of a Moorish king, who imprisoned him, and treated him roughly. Park seized an opportunity of escaping (Ist July 1796), and in the third week of his flight reached the Niger, the great object. of his search, at Sego, in 13° 5’ N. lat. He followed its course downward as far as Silla; but meeting with hindrances that compelled him to retrace his steps, he pursued his way westward along its banks to Bammaku, and then crossed a mountain- ons country till he came to Kamalia, in the king- dom of Mandingo (14th September), where he was taken ill, and Jay for some time. A slave-trader at last conveyed him again to the English factory on the Gambia, where he arrived, 10th June 1797, after an absence of nineteen months. Bryan Edwards drew up an account of his journey for the Association, and Park published an account of his travels after his return, under the title of Travels in the Interior of Africa (1799), a work which at once acquired a high popularity. He now married a daughter of Dr Anderson, his old Selkirk friend (2d Angust 1799), and settled as a surgeon at Peebles, where, however, he did not feel at home. He told Scott that he would rather brave Africa and its horrors than wear his life out in toilsome rides amongst the hills for the scanty remuneration of a country surgeon; and so, in 1805, he undertook another journey to Africa at the expense of government. As he parted from Scott on Williamhope ridge, his horse stumbled : ‘I am afraid, Mungo,’ said Scott, ‘that is a bad omen.’ To which Park replied with a smile, ‘ Freits (omens) follow those who look to them.’ When he started from Pisania he had a com- pany of forty-five, of whom thirty-six were Euro- pean soldiers; but when he reached the Niger in August his attendants were reduced to seven. From Sansanding on the Niger, in the kingdom of Bambarra, he sent back his journals and letters in November 1805 to the Gambia, and embarked in an unwieldy half-rotten canoe with four European companions. Through many perils and difficulties they reached Boussa, where the canoe was caught in a cleft of rock; they were attacked by the natives, and drowned as they attempted to escape. An account of Park’s second journey was published at London in 1815. Mrs Park was in receipt of a government pension till 770 PARKER her death in 1840, Two of Park's sons joined the Indian army; Thomas, the second son, perished in trying to penetrate the mystery of his father’s death. Park's narratives, which are well written, have long held their place amongst the classics of travel, and are of no inconsiderable value, ticularly for the light which they throw upon the social and domestic life of the negroes, and on the botany and meteorology of the regions through which he ; but he was unfortunately cut off before he had achieved the grand aim of his ex- plorations—the discovery of the course of the Niger (q.¥.). Park was tall and robust, and of t hardihood and muscular vigour. * For actual uardships undergone,’ writes Joseph Thomson, ‘ for dangers faced, and difficulties overcome, together with an exhibition of the virtues which make a man great in the rnde battle of life, Mungo Park stands without a rival.’ See the Life by Wishaw, prefixed to Journal (1805), and Joseph Thomson's Mungo Park (1890). Parker, Str Hype (1739-1807), a British admiral, of a Devonshire family distinguished both before and after him in the naval service of the country, served in the American war and in the West Indies, and in 1801 was appointed to the chief command of the fleet which was sent to the Baltic to act against the armed coalition of the three northern states of Russia, Sweden, and Den- mark. He had no share in the battle of Copen- n, in which Nelson engaged contrary to his orders; but by his appearance before Carlskrona he compelled the neutrality of Sweden; and he was on the point of sailing for ‘Cronstadt when the news of the Emperor Paul's death put an end to hostilities. Parker, Josern, a popular preacher and author, the son of a stone-cutter, was born at Hexham, 9th April 1830, and like $ urgeon began to eae in ear ?, youth. He studied at Moorfields Tabernacle and University College, London (1852), was ordained tor of the Congregational Church, Banbury (1 ), and became minister of the Caven- dish Street Church, Manchester (1858), and of Poultry Chapel, London (1869), now City Temple (opened 1874). He visited the United States in 1888, and received the degree of D.D. from Chicago University. As a preacher he is wring | and vigor- ous, with a splendid command of racy English ; he has not unfrequently as an oracle on political and ecclesiastical subjects. He has published Helps to Truth-seckers (1857), contro- versial discourses with secul at open-air meetings ; Ecce Deus (1868; Sth ed. 1875), being a reply to Ecce Homo; Ad Clerum (1870); City Temple Sermons (1869- 70) ; Inner Life of Christ (1881-82) ; Apostolic Life (3 vols. 884); People’s Prayer-book (1889); but his most ambi- tions work is his People’s Bible, ‘discourses upon Holy Scripture, forming a pastoral commentary,’ of which the first volume, Genesis, appeared in 1885. See Z'yne Chylde; My Life and Teaching (new ed. 1889), Parker, Matruew, the second Protestant _ Archbishop of Canterbury, was born son of a ealenderer at Norwich, Angust 6, 1504, studied at St Mary's Hostel and Corpus Christi College, Cam- bridge, took orders, and was elected to a fellow- a He was an arduous student of the Scriptures and of church history, yet, in spite of his strong leaning to the past, from an early period he was infected by the new doctrines. In 1535 he was appointed chaplain to the queen Anne Boleyn, and soon after he obtained the deanery of the college of St John the Baptist at Stoke near Clare in Snaffolk. Here he lived mainly till 1545, his re- tiring temper tinding pleasure enough in his studies and the administration of the college, In 1538 he was created D.D., next a royal chaplain and canon of Ely, and in 1544 master of Corpus Christi Col- ] Cambridge, and the year after vice-chancellor _ of the university. Two years later he married, He was presented by Edward VI. to the of Lincoln and the prebend of Corringham, but on the accession of Mary he resigned his mastership and was deprived of his preferments, finding safety, however, in strict retirement. e accession of Elizabeth called him from his retirement, and he was consecrated Archbishop of Canter in the chapel at Lambeth, December 17, 1 The ridiculous fable about the informality of the cere- mony is discussed under the head of the Nag’s Heal Consecration. During his fifteen years’ primacy Parker strove to define more clearly the limits of belief and dis- cipline, and to bring albout more general conformity. The Thirty-nine Articles were passed by conyoca- tion in 1562, and four years later the archbishop issued his ‘Advertisements’ for the regulation of service, which, with the measures of repression perinps forced upon him by the imperious queen, provoked great opposition in the ranks of the grow- ing Puritan party. To Parker belongs the merit of originating the revised translation of the tures known as the Bishops’ Bible. His wife died in August 1570. Her on one occasion Elizabeth insulted at Lambeth with the words, ‘Madam I may not call you, and mistress I am loath to call you: however, I thank you for your good cheer.’ Parker died 17th May 1575. Parker did much for our native annals, but his methods as an editor have not commended themselves to modern scholars. He edited Allfric’s Anglo-Saxon Homily, to prove that transubstantiation was not the doctrine of the ancient English church; the Flores Historiarum, as the work of an assumed Matthew of Westminster; the Historia Major of Matthew Paris, the Historia Angli- cana of Walsingham. Asser’s Gesta ag ther and the Itinerarium of Giraldus Cambrensis, De Excidio Britannia of Gildas was edited under his hy Jos- selin. He was an indefatigable collector of and the greater part of the treasures he had amassed he ueathed to Corpus Christi College. This collection Fuller called ‘the sun of English antiquity before it _ was eclipsed by that of Sir Robert Cotton.’ Parker estab- lished a scriptorium at Lambeth, where he maintained printers, transcribers, engravers. His original bhi are inconsiderable, the chief being a Latin treatise, Antiquitate Britannica Ecclesia et Privilegiis Ecclesia Cantuariensis (1572). His letters fill a volume a in the b pur prongs of the Parker a : memorial of the vapenpy | archbish: e Society published from 1841 till its dissolution in 1853 as Grindal, Hooper, Grsscsar, Ooveeiiie casement ooper, mer, mer, Je Tyndale, Bullinger, Whitgift, and other Lithow at the English Reformation. For Parker’s life, see the and Acts by Strype (3 vols. Oxford, go also Hook’s Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, (1872). Parker, THEODORE, a great American preacher, was born at Lexington, Massachusetts, A 24, 1810. His grandfather held a command at Lexington, his father was an intelligent Uni- tarian farmer and wheelwright, He uated at the Divinity School at Harvard in 1836, and settled the year after as Unitarian minister at West Roxbury, now a part of Boston. The naturalistic or rationalistic views which separated him from the more conservative portion of the Unitarians first attracted wide notice in an ordi- nation sermon on The Transient and Permanent in Christianity (1841). The contest which arose on the anti-supernaturalism of this discourse led him to further money his theological views in five Boston lectures, published under the title of A Discourse of Matters pertaining to Religion (1841), which was followed hy Sermons for the Times. Failing health induced him to make an extended tour in Europe. In 1844 he returned to America, and for the remainder of his life preached to a HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT FROM THE THAMES, LONDON, ENGLAND. Vol, VII., page 771. PARKERSBURG PARLIAMENT 771 congregation of three thousand at the Melodeon and Music Hall, besides incessantly writing for the a on social and theological questions. He ectured also throughout the States, and plunged with characteristic enthusiasm into the anti-slavery agitation. In the midst of his work he was attacked in 1859 with bleeding from the lungs, and made a voyage to Mexico, whence he sailed to Italy, only to die at Florence, May 10, 1860. His lectures, sermons, and miscellaneous writings have been collected and published in America and England, and reveal vast learning, keen spiritual insight, with great force of argument and felicity of illus- tration. Yet the thonght is neither doniky de- fined, profound, nor always self-consistent, while the form is usually far inferior to the content. The English edition of his works was edited by Frances P. Cobbe (12 vols. 1863 et seq.). There are Lives by Weiss (2 vols. Boston, 1864), Frothingham (New York, 1874), Dean (Lond. 1877), and Frances E. Cooke (3d ed. Boston, 1889). See also vol. i, of Martineau’s Essays, Reviews, and Addresses (1890). Parkersburg, capital of Wood county, West Virginia, on the Ohio River (here crossed by a railway bridge 14 mile long), at the mouth of the Little Kanawha, 195 miles by rail E. by N. of Cincinnati. The city has a large trade in petroleum, and contains five great oil-refineries, besides chemi- cal works, lumber-mills, and manufactories of furniture, barrels, &e. Pop. (1900) 11,703. Parkes, Sir Henry, K.C.M.G., an Australian statesman, was born the son of a yeoman at Stone- leigh, Warwickshire, in 1815, emigrated to New Sonth Wales in 1839, and at Sydney became eminent as a journalist, editing The Empire from 1849 to 1856. A member of the colonial parliament in 1854, he held various government offices and became prime-minister in 1872, was repeatedly head of the ministry, and was identified with free trade. He was at the Colonial Conference in London in 1887, and president of the Australian Federation Council. He died 27th April 1896. See his Fifty Years of the making of Australan History (1892), which is largely autobiographical. Parkesine. See CELLULOID. Parkhurst, JoHN, an English biblical scholar, was born at Catesby in Northamptonshire in June 1728. He was educated at Rugby and at Clare Hall, Cambridge, and took orders, but soon after retired to his estate at Epsom to give himself to study. Here he died, March 21, 1797. In 1762 appeared his principal work, A Hebrew and English Lexicon, without Points, a very creditable perform- ance for its time, and long a standard work, although disfigured by its fanciful etymologies. Of course it is now entirely supe Park- hurst also wrote a treatise (1587) against Dr Priestley, to prove the divinity and pre-existence of Jesus Christ. Parkman, Francis, historian, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, 16th September 1823, a at Harvard in 1844, next studied law ‘or two years, then travelled in Europe, and returned to explore the Rocky Mountains, The hardships he endured among the Dakota Indians seriously injured his health, yet in spite of this and defective sight Parkman worked his way to ition as a historical writer on the period of rise and fall of the French dominion in America. His books are The California and Oregon Trail (1849), The Conspiracy of Pontiac (1851), Pioneers of France in the New World (1865), Jesuits in North America (1867), La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West (1869), The Old Régime in Canada gs74), Count Frontenac and New France under is XIV. (1877), Montcalm and Wolf (1884), and A Half-Century of Conflict (1892). Died November 8, 1893. Parlement, the name applied in France, down to the Revolution, to certain superior and final courts of judicature, in which also the edicts of the king were registered before they became laws. Of these the chief was that of Paris, but there were no fewer than twelve provincial parlements, at Toulouse, Grenoble, Bordeaux, Dijon, Pau, Metz, Besancon, Douai, Rouen, Aix, Rennes, and Nancy. These, though not actually connected with that of Paris, invariably made common cause with it in‘ its struggles with the royal power. The parle- ment of Paris dated from the 14th century, and already consisted of three chambers, the Grand Chambre, the Chambre des Enquétes, and the Chambre des Requétes. By 1344 it had grown in numbers and power, and consisted of 3 presidents and 78 counsellors, of whom 44 were ecclesiastics and 34 laymen. In 1467 Louis XI. made the ecoun- sellors irremovable. Its influence grew during the 16th century, and it now began to find courage to deliberate on the royal edicts as well as merely register them, which the king could always force them to do by coming in person and holding a ‘lit de justice’ (see Bep oF JusTicE). Neither Richelieu nor Louis XIV. permitted such discus- sion of their edicts, and both the Regent Orleans and Louis XV. followed their policy. The latter exiled the members from Paris in 1753 for their interference in the struggle between the Jansenists and the Jesuits, and in 1770, on the advice of Manpeou, abolished the old parlement altogether and established the Parlement Maupeou. Louis XVI., however, recalled the former counsellors. These in the last days of their existence were grouped as follows: The Grand Chambre, with 10 presidents and 37 counsellors, of whom 12 were clerics; the three Chambres des Enquétes, each formed by 2 presidents and 23 counsellors; and the Chambre des Requétes, in which sat 2 presi- dents and 13 counsellors, Parley, Perer. See Goopricu. Parliament (Low Lat. parliamentum or par- lumentum ; Fr. parlement, from parler, ‘to talk’), a meeting for conference and discussion (see PAR- LEMENT). In England the name of parliament has been given since the 13th century to the Great Council of the realm—the national assembly which succeeded to the powers exercised by the Witena- gemote in Anglo-Saxon times. Under the influence of feudal ideas the Great Council became the high court of parliament. As the manor had its courts in which the lord met with his tenants, so the king- dom had its high court, in which the king met wit the different estates or orders of his aabjeota. and conferred with them as to the enforeement of the good customs of the realm. At first the king claimed to exercise a measure of arbitrary discre- tion in issuing his writs of summons to parliament ; but before the end of the 13th century it was settled and clearly understood that parliament should always consist of duly qualified representatives of the three estates of the realm—the Clergy, the Lords, and the Commons. The notion that_the three estates are King or Queen, Lords, and Com- mons is a modern misconception. The Three Estates—The Clergy.—The clergy were represented by the Lords Spiritual, the bishops, who sat among the Lords by virtue of their office. At one time proctors representing the lesser clergy sat among the Commons; but the clergy gave up this right in order to manage their own affairs in Con- vocations (q.v.). When Convocation gave up its right of taxation clergymen were permitted to vote in the election of members of the House of Com- mons. It would hardly be correct to say that the PARLIAMENT 772 c still form a — estate; but the Lords Spiritual still sit in Upper House. The Areh- bishops of Canterbury and York, and the Bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester are always summoned to liament; the other bishops are also sum » but the a members of the episcopal bench are excluded by the acts for the creation of new bishoprics, in which it is provided that the number of Lords Spiritual is not to be increased beyond the number as it stood in 1846, when the see of Manchester was founded. The Lords Spiritual do not vote as a separate order; if other words, a bill may pass in the House of Lords though all the bishops vote against it. The Lords T: ral.—The lords or greater barons were originally who held lands and honours of the king by the more dignified kinds of feudal service. ney were barons by tenure, and as such entitled to receive the king's writ; among them- selves they were peers or equals, In course of time the writ became the evidence of title to a peerage; but since the 15th century peers have always been created by a patent from the crown, specifying the title by which the new peer is to be known, and the heirs to whom his dignity is to The titles now in use are duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and baron (on which see separate articles); a is named as being of a ~. lace, but it is no longer necessary that important rule, for the right to create new peers enables the crown—i.e. the ministers governing in the name of the crown, and enjoying the confidence of the House of Commons—to overcome the resist- ance of the House of Lords. Of late years the mere threat to create new peers has been found sufficient, as may be seen on referring to the his- tory of the Reform Act of 1832, The dignity of peerage was always a hereditary dignity; the lood of the holder was bled, Bunt the sons ofa , though they bear courtesy titles and are nominally ennobled, are commoners for all legal and political purposes. This again is a most im- —— rule, use it prevents the nobility from ming a closely organised caste. It seems that the crown could always create a man a peer for his life; but it was resolved in the case of Lord Wensleydale, in 1856, that a life peerage, even if followed up by a writ of summons to parliament, would not entitle the holder to sit in the House of — peed esl Sb owe ed — _ es ~ ppeal, n to take n the judicia ek etl of the House, have tea made life peers by statute. In 1830 there were 401 rs on the roll of the Honse of Lords ; in 1890, 551, 12 being minors, Of these 193, or rather more than one-third, have been created since the begin- ning of the 19th century. In ancient times the prerogative right to create peers was used but sparingly; there were only some 50 or 60 Lords Temporal in the parlia- ments of the 15th and 16th centuries. The num- ber of Lords Spiritual was reduced by the removal of abbots and priors at the Reformation to 26, and has not since been increased. Four sat as repre- sentatives of the Irish Church from 1800 down to its disestablishment in 1869. In conferring peer- ages the Stuart kings were more generous, or more Jax than their predecessors. At the Revolution of 1688 the number stood at about 150. On the accession of George I. the leaders of the House of Lords proposed to restrain the crown from adding to the then existing number of 178 peer- ages; but this scheme was vehemently opposed in the House of Commons, and finally rejected. During the of George IIL. peers were created very freely. It was the avowed policy of the younger Pitt to fill the House of Lords with the ‘vealthiest traders and landowners, and so to break down the family and personal factions into which a small aristocratic assembly tends to divide itself. With this object he conferred pee so la that the number created by — TL. was 388. In 1399 the Commons formally admitted ‘that the judgments of parliament belong to the and not to the Commons,’ The House of Lords is a court of final appeal for all parts of Kingdom; it éxereises original jurisdiction in rage cases, in trials of ‘ foleus: and on Impeachments (q.v.) by the Com- mons. When the House is sitting — onl os eres ct! = or have held Sy judicial office take part in the proceedings. : rs formerly took part and voted on appeals; ut this practice was justly regarded as a scandal. In 1844 some lay peers announced their intention to vote in the case of the House. In its legislative capacity the House deal with any matter affecting the aie interest, tinte w z the right of the Commons to initiate money ; they may accept or reject a money bill, but they do not amend it in detail. Any mem Bs the House may introduce a Dill, and ask that be read a first time; the ‘reading’ is of a character—the bill is laid on the table, title is read out by the clerk. If the H sents to read the bill a second time it sue general principle of the measure; the bill refe: to a committee of the whole House, or a select committee, to be amended in detail ; may then be reported to the House and read third time and passed. If the bill is afterwards 1, or has already been ze 25 arses 3 In the case of a money bill the royal assent is coupled — with an expression of thanks for the * benevolence’ of parliament. The clerk endorses on the bill the date of the royal assent which turns it into an act. If the sovereign were to refuse assent the form would be ‘Le Roy (or La Reine) s’avisera’—the King (or Queen) will think about it. But since the cabinet conncil became the chief power in the state this form of refusal has never been heard. Ministers take the lead in the business of legisla- tion ; they obtain the assent of the sove on the one hand, and of parliament on the other; all open conflict of powers is avoided. Ste Anne refused her assent to a Scotch Militia Bill; but since that time the royal assent has been given to every bill which passed the two Houses. Bills which await the royal assent are usually deposited in the House of Lords for that poreces but a money bill, after returned to the § of the longer olwerved, the woolsack ; on the same side is the bench usually PARLIAMENT 773 ocenpied by ministers. Supporters of the govern- ment sit behind their leaders, members of the Sma on the other side of the House, and independent members on the cross benches in front of the table. Whether it is sitting as a legislative or a judicial body, the House of Lords possesses all rivileges necessary to the safe and dignified con- uct of business. Its members are free from arrest on civil process in coming, going, or returning. They are free to speak their minds without being liable to action or indictment. They have access to the crown to explain their proceedings, and the crown should put the best construction on what they do. It is a breach of privilege to reflect on the honour of the House, or on the parliamenta conduct of.its members. It is technically a breac of privilege to report its proceedings; but regular arrangements are now made for the admission of reporters. It was formerly doubtful how far the printers of the House were protected, but now, under an Act of 1840, the printers of parliamentary papers, if sued or prosecuted, may obtain a stay of proceedings on producing a certificate that such hee were printed by order. The House of Lords eclares its own privileges; but in doing so it is bound by the law ; it cannot create a new privilege by mere declaration. Persons guilty of breach of privilege may be attached and brought in custody, censured, fined, or imprisoned for a time certain or during pleasure. The privilege of the House may be used to protect the House and its com- mittees, and all persons having lawful business before them, together with their counsel, solicitors, and witnesses, Officers. —The chief officer of the House of Lords is the Chancellor, or Keeper of the Great Seal, who acts as speaker for formal purposes; he does not keep order; the Lords keep their own order, It is not even necessary that he should be a lord of parliament, and he sits on the woolsack, which is supposed to be outside the House. Deputy- speakers are appointed when necessary ; and there is a salaried Chairman of Committees who exercises considerable powers, especially in regard to private bills. The Clerk of Parliaments is appointed b; the crown; and the Gentleman Usher of the Blac Rod is one of the Queen’s ushers, whom she permits to act as the messenger and executive officer of the Lords. The judges and law-officers rank as assist- ants of the House; they are summoned to attend in parliament, and they are present on occasions of state; the judges also come in and sit together on the woolsack when the Lords desire to take their opinions on a point of law. Formal messages to the Commons are conveyed by the Usher of the Black Rod. Judges and Masters in Chancery were formerly employed for the same purpose, but the Commons came to ,treat these ceremnonions messages with levity, and messages now pass from one House to another by the hands of their respee- tive clerks, except on certain important occasions, such as the opening of parliament, &c. Formerly, when the two Houses differed, a formal conference was held in the Painted Chamber, the Lords sittin with their hats on, the Commons standing an uncovered; but the modern practice of party government renders these conferences unnecessary. Commons.—The Commons, or ‘ communitas regni,’ included originally three classes of persons. First, the proctors of the lesser clergy, who dis- appeared at an early date. Secondly, the knights *j the shire, who were chosen by the lesser barons and the general body of freeholders. These free tenants held their land by honourable tenures, but they could not bear the expense of attendance in parliament. As early as the time of King John they were represented by delegates; and Simon de Montfort gave effect to the same principle when he ordered two knights to be sent to parliament from each shire. Thirdly, there were burgesses and citizens, representing the self-governing towns of the kingdom. The burgesses also found it hard to bear the expense of attending parliament ; they eg received an allowance for doing so; and some legal authorities have held that a member may still recover his ‘wages’ if he chooses to sue for them. No member o rliament now receives any pecuniary allowance. Payment of members is often advocated on the ground that the labouring population ought to be represented by men of their own class; it is resisted on the ground that paid members would be officials or delegates, not free representatives of the general body of citizens. appily for the cause of popular government, the knights and burgesses were soon welded together in one body; there has never been any legal difference between county members and borough members, Early in the history of parlia- ment (the date cannot be’exactly determined ) the Commons retired to consider their own affairs in a separate chamber ; one of their number presided, and acted as Speaker in communicating to the Lords the opinions of the third estate; and thus the Commons came to be organised as a separate House. The Lords remained in the old parliament chamber, and there the king continued to meet with the three estates; his throne was set in the House of Lords, and he never went into the House of Commons. Charles I. was therefore acting contrary to usage when he went in person to arrest the seven members. From about 1548 the Commons met in a room which had been known as St Stephen’s Chapel, and the House is still occasionally spoken of as St Stephen’s. Within the House all members are equal ; but the bench immediately to the right of the chair is reserved for privy-councillors, and is now always oceupied by ministers having seats in the House: their supporters sit behind them, and the members of the opposition sit to the left of the chair. Like the members of the other House, the Commons enjoy privilege of parliament; they are free from arrest on civil process in attending the House, and in coming or returning ; but no person is privileged apaee arrest for crime or contempt of court. In the days when arrest for debt was common the privilege claimed by members of parliament, and even by their servants, was sometimes used to defeat creditors; but now an action or a bank- ruptey petition is in no way impeded by privilege, A member of either House who becomes bankrupt is not permitted to sit or vote. Freedom of speech is enjoyed by the Commons as by the Lords ; and they may claim, as a House, free access to the sovereign, The Commons may deal with offenders agains’ their privileges by directing a prosecution ; they do not claim the right to impose a fine, or to imprison for a time certain, but they may commit a person to prison during pleasure ; persons so imprisoned may not be detained after the end of the session. The House declares its own privi- leges, but it cannot create a new privilege by mere declaration. In the famous case of Stockdale ». Hansard the House assumed authority to protect its printer against an action for libel, but the courts disregarded this resolution, and the econ- troversy was finally settled by the passing of the Act of 1840 which has already been cited. A question of gig will be taken up without notice at any moment; but it should be observed that a member has no privilege except when he is per- forming his parliamentary duty. If, for instance, a meniber is arrested for a crime committed ont of doors, no beer of privilege arises. We have seen that the Commons claim no general judicial authority, but they have claimed to deal judicially 774 PARLIAMENT with cases of privilege, and with questions relat- ing to the election and conduct of their members. Election petitions used to be tried by committees of the House, but this practice led to great abuses, and in 1868 these petitions were remitted to the judges for trial, The House may exclude, suspend, or expel a member for misbehaviour; but it was settled in the case of John Wilkes (q.v.) that nalification ; the person expulsion creates no d te Barke and.other high expelled may be re-elec 1 anthorities attach t importance to this rule of the constitution. the House could disqualify a member for re-election, the majority might be tempted to strengthen itself by expelling the ers of the minority. In 1711 Sir Kobert (then Mr) Walpole was expelled the House, and there is reason to believe that the vote in his case was decided by considerations of party, and not by his uilt or innocence of the charges made against im. As representing the whole community, and_ not merely a limited order, the Commons have lon been accustomed to take the lead in the financia‘ and legislative business of parliament. Since the Great Charter the crown has frequently admitted that taxes are not to be levied without consent of parliament; and in the reign of Richard IL, if not earlier, the Commons laid claim to the ‘ power of the purse.’ It is now established beyond doubt that the Commons have an exclusive right to vote supplies of money, and to prescribe the ways and means by which money may be raised. This right is respected by the Lords; the last conflict between the Hoests occurred in connection with the repeal of the paper duty in 1860. Estimates of public expenditure are laid before the Commons by ministers, and considered in committee of men’ This is a committee of the whole House; the Speaker leaves the chair when the committee begins; the Mace (q.v.) is taken from the table; the Chairman of Committees takes his seat at the table; and the discussion which follows is of an informal character, members being allowed to speak more than once to the same question. When some of the necessary votes have been taken in supply the House resolves itself, in like manner, into a committee of ways and means. The resolutions adopted in committee are embodied in bills, which are sent up for the assent of the Lords. At the close of the financial year (i.e. about the end of March) the Chancellor of the ee in com- mittee of the whole House, opens his Budget (q.v.) of expenditure and revenue for the coming year. Legislative business is conducted with the same forms as in the Lords; but a member must ask leave of the House to introduce a bill. If a bill is read a second time it is considered in detail by a committee of the whole House, or by a select com- mittee. A committee always reports its proceed- ings to the House, the Speaker resuming the chair for that — Besides performing these financial and legislative duties, the House of Commons acts as a ‘grand inquest’ to inquire into all matters of public concern. It is specially bound to watch the conduct of ministers, and to inform the sovereign whether they | the confid of the nation or not. In other words, the support of the Commons is necessary to the existence of a ministry, while a ministry may hold power thongh its ps apc are in a minority in the Lords. Ministers take the lead in all important business; and party =e tends to reduce the individual private member to comparative insignificance. Union with Scotland and Ireland—Parliamentary Reform—Democracy.—The functions of parliament have been rendered more important and difficult by the political changes of the last 200 years. In the first place there is now only one legislature for the United Kingdom. Down to 1707 Scotland had an independent parliament ; the three estates of that kingdom sat together in one house, and the conduct of business was for the most left to a smaller body ealled Lords of the Articles. At the Union the Scottish parliament ceased to exist; it was agreed that sixteen Scottish peers (elected by an assembly of peers at Holyrood, at the opening of a new parliament) should sit in the House of and not less than forty-five Scottish members in the House of Commons. The Irish parliament was an assembly of a more or less provincial character, sitting in two houses. Its legislative ind - ence was conceded, under pressure, in 1 but it never obtained effective control over the ex- ecutive (see GRATTAN). By the Act of Union the Irish parliament was taken away; it was creed that twenty-eight Irish a elected for life) should sit in the House of Lo and 100 Irish members in the House of Commons. Thus the English parliament became the parliament of the United iipeiham: the acts ex! toleration to Roman Catholics (1829), Jews (1858 and Secularists—under the Oaths (q.v.) Act 1888—new elements have been introdu into Beir rer tcp red life, and new questions have arisen 0 r legislative treatment. Successive acts have widened the democratic basis of the House of Commons: the Act of 1832 ris power into the hands of the middle classes; the Acts of 1867 and 1884, by oer ome all householders and £10 lodgers to the franchise, h: ance of voting power to the working-classes, One result of these successive changes is that the Commons are now 670 in number; they yy Pe fact, much too numerous for a deliberative assembly. The colonies and dependencies have no direct repre- sentation in either House ; but questions of imperial policy oceupy no small share of the time of parlia- ment. With the advance of democracy, the sphere of legislation has been extended; large schemes for promoting education and sanitary reform, for regulating mines, factories, and shipping, and for the creation of new executive departments and local authorities are brought forward by all political ies. Each party makes its power felt by push- ing its own measures and by dilatory resistance to the measures of its opponents ; obstruction has been reduced to an art; the labours of those who lead the House of Commons have become intoler- ably heavy, and the old rules of debaté are found unequal to the strain of political conflict. In 1882 the House adopted new rules of ure, these rules were further amended in 1887. A motion for the closure of a debate may now be put at any moment, with the assent of the §) er or Chairman. But a question for the closure of debate is not decided in the affirmative unless it oe that the motion is supported by more than ported by nwre: hex: 100: Saat Ditaory sup y more than mem motions for adjournment have been checked ; tedious and irrelevant speakers may now be stopped by the chair; a member ‘named’ to the House as disregarding the authority of the chair may be suspended for a time from his service. Mficers.—The chief officer of the House of Commons is the Speaker, who is chosen by the members from among their own number, at the opening of a new parliament. The Speaker-elect presents himself at the bar of the Lords for the approval of the crown, which is given in a custom- ary form of words by the Lord Chancellor. The Speaker then lays claim to the ancient privileges of the Commons: on returning to his own House he takes the oath before the other members. Inducted with these forms, the Speaker becomes dent and spokesman of the House, with authority ave given a preponder- presi- PARLIAMENT 775 to keep order. He refers all questions of import- ance to the House; but his own position is one of t influence and dignity; he is the First Jommoner in the kingdom, and takes precedence as such. The Chairman of Committees presides in committee of the whole House; he is also empowered to act as Deputy-speaker. The Assistant Clerk of Parliaments acts as clerk of the House: There are two other clerks; their chief duty is to keep the Journals, which are accepted by all other authorities as evidence of what is done by the House. The Serjeant-at-arms is the executive officer of the Commons. Summoning Parliament.—When the sovereign is advised to summon a new parliament notice of that intention is given by proclamation. A writ of summons is sent to each lord of parliament; the Scottish = elect the representative peers. writ is also sent to the returning-officer of each constituency, commanding him to hold an election, and to return the name of the person elected. In counties the sheriff acts as returning-officer; in Scotland he acts also for burghs within his juris- diction ; in English boroughs this duty is commonly rformed by the mayor. The lawful charges incurred by the returning-officer are borne by the candidates, an arrangement which is re ed with disfavour by those who wish to make it easy for poor men to enter parliament. Places represented in Parliament.—The places represented in the House of Commons are counties and county divisions, borongls and wards_ of borongls, and universities. By the plan of redis- tribution adopted in 1884-85 the more populous counties and boroughs are divided into Viaerieta, each of which elects a single member. The plan is fairly convenient, and will probably hold its own in spite of the advocates of LN gabere representa- tion. The seats allotted to the universities have leen the cause of some controversy. In old times a university was a kind of borough within a borough; Oxford and Cambridge obtained at an early date the privilege of sending burgesses to parliament; Trinity College, Dublin, enjoyed a similar privilege, and now sends two members to Westminster; London University now elects one member, and the four Scottish universities elect two. The electors in all these cases are the graduate members of the university. Of course university men, if qualified, vote also for the places where they reside or have property, and this double representation is objected to as being inconsistent with democratic principles. There is also a con- siderable body of opinion hostile to all double qualifications ; ‘one man one vote’ has been for some time a popular cry. Electors.—The voters entitled to take part in the election are those whose names are on the register. Registration was introduced after the Reform Act of 1832; and the present law affords much more satisfactory means of -proving and testing claims to vote than the rough and ready methods formerly in use. Lists of voters are made ont by local authorities, and carefully revised, in England by barristers appointed for the purpose, in Scotland by the sheriff or his substitute in a registration court. The persons entitled to be placed on the register are male persons over twenty-one, not being peers, not disqualified by alienage, office, or employment, unsoundness of mind, conviction for crime or corrupt practices, or receipt of parochial relief, and yasessing any of the property qualifications required law. Before 1832 ee members were elected in England by the freeholders assembled in the eounty court; an act of Henry VI. restricted the right of voting to those whose tenements were of the yearly value of forty shillings ; in some boroughs the right of election belonged to a limited number of a having freeholds or burgage tenements within the boroughs; in others the inhabitants paying scot and lot voted; in others, again, the right was restricted to members or officers of the corporation. In Scotland the county qualification was a forty-shilling land of old extent, or land not of old extent rated in valuation hooks at £400; in Edinburgh the election was by the town-council+; the member for each group of royal burghs was chosen by delegates pepentee by the town-councils. In Galt’s novel, The Provost, there is a graphic and truthful description of a burgh election under the old system. The Irish borough and county fran- chises were modelled on the English system; on the ing of the Roman Catholic Emancipation Act in 1829 it was thought prudent to disfranchise freeholders under £10 a year. These old franchises have been in part destroyed and in part preserved by successive acts of reform. The statute law on the subject is voluminous and complicated, and the work of simplification is beset with difficulties ; the opposition is always ready to suspect the party in power of what the Americans call ‘gerryman- dering ’—i.e. of readjusting the electorate to suit its own interests. See GERRY (ELBRIDGE). The qualifications which now entitle a person to be registered and to vote are classified by Sir W. Anson as follows : (1) Property.—In England free- hold of inheritance of forty shillings yearly value, freehold for life of £5 yearly value, copyhold of £5 yearly value, leasehold of £5 yearly value held for a term of sixty years or more, leasehold of £50 yearly value, if held for a term of twenty years or more, will qualify a person to vote in counties, and in towns which rank as counties. In Scotland land or Pree of £5 yearly value, leasehold of £10 yearly value held for life or for fifty-seven ears or more, leasehold of £50 yearly value held ‘or nineteen years or more will qualify for the county franchise. In Ireland freehold of £5 net annual value, rent charge or leasehold for life of £20 annual value, leasehold of £10 value held for sixty years or more, leasehold of £20 value held for fourteen years or more will qualify for the county franchise. 2s tee rules have been made . to prevent the multiplication of small freeholds for political purposes (the process explained in article * Faggot-votes,’ q.v.). (2) Occupation.—The oceu- pier of land or tenements of the yearly value of £10 is qualified to vote in any part of the United Kingdom, but the mode of ascertaining the value varies. In English and Seotch boroughs residence in or within 7 miles of the borough is required ; and in all parts of the United Kingdom this franchise is made to depend on payment of rates. (3) Resi- dence.—The inhabitant occupier of a dwelling- house, or of any part of a hones occupied as a separate dwelling, is qualified; throughout the United Kingdom this franchise is made dependent on payment of rates. rs occupying rooms of the yearly value (unfurnished) of £10 are also ualified. Certain rights of resident burgesses and fresinet in English boroughs were preserved by the Act of 1832, and the liverymen of the City since ea retain the right to vote in the City of London. Candidates—Conduct of the Election—Election Petitions.—On receiving the writ for an election the returning-officer fixes a day to receive the names of candidates. Any male British subject of full age, not disqualified i peerage, office, convie- tion, &c., may become a candidate. A candidate is required to have an agent for election expenses, and in promoting his candidature he is bound to see that no breach of the law is committed, and that the total expenses are kept within the limits ee by the Corrupt Practices Act, 1883 (see RIBERY). If more candidates come forward than 776 PARLIAMENT there are seats to be filled, a day is fixed for taking a poll of the electors ; rooms or booths are fitted ha for that ; each polling-place is suppliec with a ot box, voting-papers, &e., and presided over by the returning-oflicer or one of his deputies. The elector votes by placing a cross opposite the name of the candidate of his choice ; his paper is folded up by himself and dropped into the box; elaborate rules are made by the Ballot Act, 1872, to the secrecy of the vote (see BALLOT). Any material infraction of the law in ‘eonducting an election may be made the ground of a petition ; the petitioners are required to find security for the costs: the petition is tried by two judges, who decide such questions of law and fact as may be raised, determine whether the person petitioned nst has been duly elected or not, and report to © Speaker the seen of their inquiry. If there is reason to believe that corrupt practices have exten- sively prevailed, commissioners may be appointed to make inquiry and report, and persons yuilty of criminal offences may prosecuted. The fore- going rules apply to the conduct of a general election, and also to the conduct of an election to fill a vacancy in the House of Commons caused by death, ex rh mony or acceptance of office under the crown. The law does not permit a member of rliament to resign ; if a member wishes to retire e applies to the Treasury for the stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds (q.v.), and the acceptance of this has the effect of vacating his seat. When a member accepts high political office, as a general rule he vacates his seat, and must present himself for re-election. Meeting of Parliament—Acts of Parliament.— When the Lords and Commons assemble at West- minster the Commons are directed to choose a Speaker. This having been done, and the members of both Honses having taken the oath of allegiance, the causes for which parliament has been called together are declared in the King’s or Queen's Speech, which is read by the sovereign in person, or by the Lord Chancellor in the sovereign’s presence, or by one of the lords commissioners who represent the sovereign in absence. The two Houses are free to take =p matters not laid before them by the crown; business is usnall begun in each House by reading a bill pro forma, in order to assert the right of free deliberation. Two members are chosen in each House by minis- ters to move and second an address in answer to the royal speech; in the Commons this motion gives rise to an aimless and discursive debate, in which the whole policy of the government is attacked by the opposition. Such are the forms with which the first session of a new parliament is begun, Each House may adjourn at its own dis- cretion from day to day and for the customary holidays. The session comes to an end when parliament is prorogued by the crown: prorogation uts an end to all sessional orders and to all pend- ng business, except impeaclments, writs of error, and appeals to the House of Lords. The public acts liament 1 in a session form one statute, which is divided into chapters for conveni- ence of reference. Thus, ‘ the 30 and 31 Vict, chap. 20’ means the 20th chapter of the statute law made in a session which began in the 30th and continued into the 3st Pt of Queen Victoria’s reign—in other words, the session of 1867, Copies of the statutes are engrossed for preservation among the rolls of parliament, and printed copies are sent to judges and magistrates ; but no form of publication required to give validity to a statute; all sub- jects are bound to take note of and obey the law. n applying the rules of a statute the courts are guided , he intention expressed in the act itself ; they will not look at the arguments or assurances royal assent, unless some other time has been indi- cated in the act. It isa rule that no bill may be introduced twice in the same session ; it has some- times been found necessary to e parliament in order that a rejected bill may tonal i again without delay. Divisions—Committees.—A division is taken either House by the voices of those present, Lords crying ‘Content’ or ‘Not content, Commons ‘Aye’ or ‘No.’ If the decision as to the result of the vote is members pass out into the lobbies, and are ‘ or counted by members appointed for that pu In case the numbers are equal, in the Lords question is decided in the negative; in the Com- mons the Speaker gives a casting vote, Matters which cannot conveniently be dealt with House are referred to a committee of the w House, such as has been already described, or to a select committee. Witnesses may now be ex- amined before committees of both Houses on oath, When a private bill is sent to a committee, the promoters and opponents attend with their and agents; the inquiry partakes of a judicial aoe neice The expense of pronestings Dales iamentary committees is very great, and many stent have been made to alter the existing S& ze ig system: a bill was before parliament in 1891 by which it was proposed to create a local cibansliee deal with Scotch private bills. In the H of Commons there were formerly four grand com- mittees, for religion, for candagy for courts of justice, and for trade. hese four were discon- tinued in 1832; in 1882 two standing committees were appointed for the consideration of bills relat- ing to law and courts of justice and to trade. These standing committees have done less to lighten the labours of the House than was at first expected ; it is found that time may be wasted by reopening in the House questions which have been already discussed at length in the committee. Prorogation and Dissolution.—When parliament has been prorogued it may be summoned to meet for another session ; the new session is opened with a royal speech, When the government «eter. mines to ‘go to the country ’—i.e. to hold a general election, it is customary to put an end to the session by prorogation, and afterwards to issue a proclamation dissolving the parliament and to give directions for the issue of new writs of summons, Dissolution puts an end to the House of Commons for the time being; the members are no lon aldressed by the title of M.P., and the §; er becomes an ordinary commoner. The law directs that not more than three years shall elapse between the dissolution of a parliament and. the cane | of a new one; but, inasmuch as the Commons wi not vote more than an annual supply of money, it is absolutely necessary that there id be at Jeast one session of parliament in each year. No parlia- ment may endure for more than seven years from the time when it is first summoned to meet. Tri- ennial parliaments were established by a law of 1641; in the same year the Long P. ment the king to agree to a bill depriving him of the right to disselve that parliament without its own consent; the Triennial Act was led after the restoration of Charles IL, re-enacted in 1694. The peries of seven years was fixed, instead of three years, the Septennial Act, passed on the accession of rge I, (1714), at a time when the government desired to avoid the changes of popular opinion produced frequent general elections. The act is praii hy some critics and attacked by others, it makes members more independent of the tee — se PARLIAMENT ; 777 electors than they would be if they were constantly looking forward to an election. ‘ Omnipotence’ of Parliament.—In foreign coun- tries and in the British colonies the legislature is a limited body, which exercises the powers conferred upon it by a written constitution ; its acts are void if they exceed its powers. An act of the congress of the United States, for example, may be set aside by a court of law if it is beyond the constitutional competence of congress. o British court can set aside an act of parliament on any such ground, for Sagan defines its own powers and is not bound ’y any written constitution. In the words of Sir Edward Coke, the power of parliament ‘is so tran- scendent and absolute that 1t cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds.’ The other legislative authorities of the empire act within the limits laid down for them by parliament. If a colonial government, for instance, wishes to deal with some matter outside the colony, it must, asa general rule, obtain an act of parliament for the purpose ; a colonial legislature has an authority which is plenary as to causes and persons, but limited as to territorial area. The Septennial Act, cited above, illustrates what is meant by the omni- potence of parliament. A House of Commons, elected for three years under the Act of 1694, con-- eurred in prolonging its own mandate to a period of seven years ; and its action was rfectly legal and constitutional. Whether we should gain or lose by bringing the powers of parliament within legal bounds, it is not easy to decide. Petitions to Parliament.—Petitions may be ad- dressed to either House of Parliament by British subjects and persons resident-in the British démin- ions ; a petition must be presented by a member of the House to which it is addressed, except petitions from the corporation of London, which are presented by the sheriffs of London at the bar. The Lord ayor of Dublin has also been allowed to present a petition, and the same privilege would probably be conceded to the Lord Provost of Edinburgh. It was formerly not unusual for the member presenting a petition to make a speech, but the standing orders of the Commons now forbid this to be done. There is a committee on public petitions which reports twice a week during the session. Parliamentary Returns.—Each House may obtain information from the executive departments by asking for returns and papers. In dealing with a subordinate doparieees or a department created and regulated statute, either House may order returns ; if the department is that of a high officer of state, or if the matter inquired of concerns the sovereign’s prerogative, it is usual to move a humble address, praying that the documents required may be furnis' ei: ‘Neither House will order a return regarding the proceedings of the other; but the members of one House have seldom any difficulty -in obtaining Papers printed for the use of the other. No return may be ordered from private persons and associations, unless under the provisions of an act of parliament. Confidential documents (e.g. cabinet memoranda, or opinions of the law officers of the crown) are never laid on the table in either House, unless for special reasons the government thinks it desirable. Constituencies.—The following table shows tle number of members sent to the House of Commons by constituencies of the United Kingdom; the names of the electoral divisions of a county or bisoug not being generally specified when they are all simply taken from-the points of the com- pass, north, north-east, central, &c. Devon —continued, Huntingdon, 2. Middlesex—continued. Stafford, 7. ENGLAND. South Molton. Huutingdon. . Tottenham, Leek. Barnstaple. Ramsey. Hornsey, Burton. CousTtEs, Tavistock. Kent, 8. Harrow. West. Bedford, 2. Totnes. Sevenoaks, Ealing. North-west. Biggleswade. Torquay. Dartford. Brentford. Lichfield. Luton, Ashburton. Tunbridge, Uxbridye. Kingswinford. Berks, 3. Dorset, 4. Medway. Monmouth, 3. Handsworth, Abingdon. North. Faversham, North. Suffolk, 5. Newbury. st. Ashford. West. Lowestoft. Wokingham. South. St Augustine's, South, Eye. Buckingham, 3. West. Thane Norfolk, 6. Stowmarket, Buckingham, Durham, 8. Lancashire, 23. North-west. Sudbury, Aylesbury. Jarrow. North Lonsdale, South-west. Woodbridge. Wycombe. Houghton-le-Spring. Lancaster. North. Surrey, 6. Cambridge, 3. Chester-le-Street. Blackpool. East. Chertsey. Wisbech. North-west. Chorley. Mid. Guildford, Chesterton. Mii. Darwen. South. Reigate. Newmarket. South-east, Clitheroe. Northampton, 4, Epsom. Cheshire, 8. Bishop Auckland. Accrington, North. Kingston. Wirral. Barnard Castle. Rossendale. East. Wimbledon, Eddisbury. Essex, 8. Westhoughton. Mid. Sussex, 6. Macclesfield, Walthamstow. Heywood. South. Horshain. Crewe. Romford, Middleton, Northumberland, 4. Chichester, Northwich. Epping. Radcliffe. Wansbeck. Grinstead. Altrincham, *Sattron Walden. Eccles. Tyneside. Lewes. Hyde. Harwich. Stretford, exham. Eastbourne, Knutsford. Maldon. Gorton, Berwick-on-Tweed, Rye. Cornwall, 6, Chelmsford, Prestwich, Nottingham, 4. Warwick, 4. St Ives, South-east. Southport, Bassetlaw, Tamworth, Camborne. Gloucester, 5. Orinskirk, Newark. Nuneaton. Truro, Stroud. Bootle. Rushceliffe. Stratford-on-Avon, St Austell. Tewkesbury. Widnes. Mansfield. Rugby. Bodtnin. Cirencester. Newton, Oxford, 3. Westmorland, 2, Launceston. Dean, Ince, Banbury. Appleby, Cumberland, 4. Thornbury. Leigh. Woodstock, Kendal, Eskdale. Hants, 6. Leicester, 4. Henley. Wilts, 5. Penrith. Basingstoke. Melton. Rutland, 1. Cricklade. Cockermouth. Andover. Longhborough, Shropshire, 4. Chippenham, Egremont. Peterstield. Bosworth. Oswestry. Westbury. Derby, 7. Fareham. Harborough. Newport. Devizes. High Peak. New Forest. Lincoln, 7. Wellington, Wilton. North-east. Isle of Wight. Gainsborough, Ludlow Worcester, 5. Chesterfield. Hereford, 2. Brigg. Somerset, 7. Bewdley. West. Leominster, Louth. vorth, Evesham. Mir. Ross, Horncastle, Wells, Droitwich. Ilkeston. Hertford, 4. Sleaford. Frome North. South. Hitchin, Stamford, East, East. Devon, 8. Hertford. Spalding. South. Yorkshire, 26. Honiton. St Albans. Middlesex, 7. Bridgwater. Thirsk and Malton, Tiverton, Watford. Eutield, Wellington, Richmond. 778 PARLIAMENT Yorkshire—continued, | Liverpool—continued, Winchester, bel ee actin rer West Derby. Windsor. Borovons. Whitby. Scotland, Wolverhampton, 8, Aberdeen, 2 Kirkwall. Holderness. Exchange. Worvester, Ayr Burghs. Tain, Buckrose. Abereromby. Yarmouth (Great). Ayr. eigen West os Farcuenge tr a Keighley. London & Metropolitan Universities, Irvine, Gioapet and Reema e Shipley. 62. Cambridge, 2 Oban. 4 Sowerky. City, 2 London, Dumfries Burghs, : Elland, Bat Oxford, 2. Dunifries. — a ae Combereell s. Kirkcudbright. ‘orman’ Colne Valley. Lochmaben, IRELAND. Holinfirth, Clapham. ALES. Sanquhar. Counties, Barnsley. Croydon. . Dundee, 2. Antrim, 4. Hallamshire, pttord. Counties. Edinburgh, 4, Armagh, 3. Rotherham, Finsbury, 3. Anglesey. Elgin Jsarghs. Carlow. Doncaster. Iham. Brecon, n. Cavan, 2. Ri Greenwich. Cardigan. Banff. Clare, 2. Otley. kney, 3, Carmarthen, 2 Cullen. Cork, 7. Barkston Ash. Hammersmith. Carnarvon, 2 Inverarie, Donegal, 4 Oxgoldcross. Hampstead. Eifion. Kintore, Down, 4. Pudeer. Islington, 4. Arfon. Peterhead. Dublin, 2. Spen Valley. Kensi 2. Denbigh, 2. Falkirk Burghs, 2 Lambeth, 4. Flint. Falkirk. Galway, Borovons. Lewisham, Glamorgan, 5, Airdrie. Kerry, 4. Ashton-under-Lyne. Marylebone, 2. East. Hamilton. Kildare, 2. Aston Manor. Newington, 2. Rhondda, Kil , & Barrow-in-Furness. Paddington, 2 Gower. ee: King's 2 . 2 8t Mid. G Ww, 7. Lei 2. Bedford. St Pa ‘4 South. ton, 2 Shoreditch, 2. Merioneth. Camlachie. Londonderry, 2, Birningham, 7. Southwark, 3. Montgomery. St Rollox. 2 Strand. Pembroke. Cen Louth, 2. Wi Tower Hamlets, 7. Radnor. Mayo, 4. Central. W: worth. jeston. M 2 st North. West Haim, 2. Borovons. Blackfriars and M 2 at East. Westininster, Cardiff district.* Hutchesontoun, 's 7» % Bordesley. Woolwich. Carmarthen » Rosson TAS South. Lynn Regis. Carnarvon Hawick Burghs. Bligo, 2." * Blackburn, 2, ve. Denbigh Hawick. Tip 4 Bolton, 2 hester, Flint 4 Galashiels. Boston. Miridlesbror Merthyr-Tydvil, 2. Selkirk. 2. Bradford, 3. Monmouth Montgomery di s Inverness Burghs. binsreasds | 2 Brighton, 2 Morpeth. Pembroke Inverness. Wexford, 2 Bristol, 4. Newcastle-upon- wansea, eet Forres. Wicklow, 2. Burnley. Newcastle-under-Lyme, ‘Sens laetides ‘Cassese Furtrose. Bury. Northampton, 2. Fust, < jairn. Borovans. Bury St Edmunds, Norwich, 2. Kilmarnock Burghs, Cambridge, Nottingham, 3. SS Kilmarnock. Belfast, 4, Canterbury. Oldham, 2. Dumbarton. Cork, 2. Carlisle. Oxford. SCOTLAND, Port-Glasgow. Dublin, 4. Speltenhoa, Plymouth. ¥ Counties. Ruther zh Dui th, utherglen. 9 Chester. Pontefract. Aberdeen, 2. Kirkealdy Burghs, St Stephen's Green, Christchurch, Portsmouth, 2 Argyll. Kirkcaldy. St Patrick's, . 2. Ayrshire, 2. Burntisland. Galway. Coventry. Readi Banff. t Kil A Darlington. Rochd Berwick. Kinghorn. Li Derby, 2. Bute, Leith Burghs, . Devonport, 2 St Helen's, Caithness, Leith. Newry. Dewsbury, Salford, 3. Clackinannan & Kinross, Musselburgh. Dover. Salisbury. Dumbarton, Portobello. Dudley. Dumfries, Montrose Burghs, Ustversity, Darham. eo 6. Edinbu Montrose, Dublin, 2 Falmouth and Penryn. Brightside Pile og mou! le. rechin, Gateshead. Central, Forfar, Forfar. Gloucester, Hallam. Haddi: Bervie, Grantham. Ecclesall. Inverness. Paisley. Ceavanend. ‘ pica I South). Seer . ae Saas SUMMARY. rimaby (Great rewsbury. cud brigh Andrews ND alime + Sonthampton, 2, , 6 8t Beareve. ce Counties 283 Hanley. Stafford. Govan, Easter Anstruther. Boroughs Peet Hartlepool. Stalybridge. Partick, Wester Anstruther. Universities... 5 Hastings. Stockport, 2. North-east. Crail. Ww. a Hereford. Stockton, North-west. Cupar. Counties, 98" Huddersfield. Stoke-upon-Trent, Mid. Kilrenny, Boroughs... 4; Hall, & = 2 tena Pt veep md ScotAso— +958, ythe, nton, nlithgow, ng Burghs, 1 2 Tynemouth & N. Shields. | Orkney and Shetland. Stirling. Coenen ts 39 - Kidderminster. ‘akefield, Peebles and Selkirk. Culross, Univeralties.. 2 4 Leeda, 5. Walsall. Perth, 2. Dunfermline. 1a Leicester, 2, a Renfrew, 2. Inverkeithing. "Sountles 85 a ate @ wan & Leamington. pom mand Cromarty. genes: bercumn Oe v neabury. 6 unghs, as Kirkdale, West Bromwich. Stirli Wick. Universtiy, .: “SF Sage Walton. Whitehaven. 8u Cromarty. Grand total for —— — ; Everton. Wigtown. Dingwall, United Kingdom. .670 : x For the of parliament, see the constitutional | found in the works of (England), Badenach Nicol- - a histories of Hallam, and May; for its laws and | son (Scotland), and W. H. Mann (ireland See further F customs, May's Parliamentary Practice, Anson's Law | G. B. Smith's History of the English Parlia ment (2 vole , and Custom of the Conatitution, and Lucy’s Handbook ¢ eos Procedure; for its relations with executive, see Ral ore oe Parliamentary Govern- ment in England. The of electoral law will be 1892) ; G. L. Dickinson's The in the Nineteenth Centur: mentary nion, Bart since 1837 (1880), Adam's Political State PARMA PARNELL 779 1788 (Edin. 1887), and the almanacs ; besides the articles in this work on . Ap Edward I. Reform. Ballot. England ( Hist. of). | Reporting. Bri Government. Representation, Cabinet. Hausard. Sovereign. Chartism. Impeachment, Taxation, Commissions, Montfort. Treasury. Congress. Nobility. Westminster, Cromwell. Petitions. Witenagemote, Parma, a town of Italy, formerly the capital of the duchy of Parma, is situated on the ancient Via Emilia, and on the river Parma, 124 miles §S. from the Po, and by rail 56 miles NW. of Bologna and 79 SE. of Milan. The town is surrounded by walls and has a citadel (1591 ); the streets are straight and wide. Of the sixty or more churches the chief is the cathedral ( 1059-74), built mostly in the Lombardo-Romanesque style, with frescoes by Correggio. Other notable edifices are the baptis- tery, one of the most splendid in Italy, begun in 1196 and completed in 1281; the clureh of Madonna della Steceata (1521-39), containing ‘ Moses break- ing the Tables of the Law’ and other paintings by Parmigiano, and the tombs of the Farnese dukes ; the church of St John the Evangelist (1510), with frescoes by Correggio ; the ducal palace, containing art-galleries (Correggio’s works), a library (214,000 vols, and 4500 MSS., including many incunabula and rare works), the archives, &e.; and numerous other palaces, public and private. There are also ‘a university (1599), with nearly fifty teachers and more than two hundred students, a music school, a museum of antiquities, &e. The principal industrial products are pianofortes, silks, cast-iron wares, woollens, earthenware, aper, soap, We. Tliere are cattle, corn, and silk markets, Pop. 1897) 52,700. Founded by the Etruseans, Parma me a Romun colony in 183 B.c. After the fall of the western empire it was known as Chrysopolis (Gold Town).