and
‘St Sebastian ’"—are distinguished for the and
vigour of their drawing.—His brother PreTro, born
at Florence in 1448, and died at Rome in 1496, was
nerally associated with him in his work, though
ne devoted most attention to painting. To him are
attributed an altarpiece introducing SS. James,
Vincent, and Enstace (if indeed it is not mainly by
the other brother), an Annunciation, a Coronation
of the Virgin, and the Five Virtues.
Pollan (Coregonus pollan), a fresh-water fish of
the family Salmonide, a native of lakes in Ireland.
It is particularly abundant in Lough Neagh, where
great numbers are often netted, and sold in the
— country. The fish is from 10 to 12
inches in length, and is well flavoured. See
CorREGONUS.
Pollanarrua, a ruined city of Ceylon, 60
miles ENE. of Kandy, with a massive dagoba,
a rock-cut temple, masses of sculptured stones,
and a wide area of ruined buildings that attest
the size and gf va of the city, which became
the capital of the kingdom about 770, after the
Malabar invasion ruined Anuradhapura, the former
capital. The city stood on the site of an immense
tank, still called Topaweva or Topare. The place
was first made known to Europeans in 1820.
Pollarding (to poll, to cut off, or shave the
head) is the cutting off of the whole crown of a
tree, leaving it to send out new branches from the
top of the stem. ‘Trees thus treated are called
pollards. The new branches are never equal in
magnitude to the original branches of the tree,
although often more numerous, and when pollardi
is often repeated the scars and stumps form a th
ring at the top of the stem, from which many small
branches spring. Pollards are not beautiful ; but
pollarding is practised with advantage in districts
where fuel is searce, the branches being cut off in
order to be used for fuel, and the operation repeated
every third or fourth year. illows, poplars,
alders, elms, oaks, and limes are the trees most
frequently pollarded, and in some parts of Europe
the white mulberry. The trees of most rapid
growth are preferred where fuel is the object ; and
willows, poplars, and alders are planted alon
water-courses, and in rows in moist meadows an
Ls Oaks are sometimes pollarded, chiefly for the
sake of the bark of their branches, and the whole
treatment very much resembles that of copse-wood.
See Corpse.
Pollen, See (under Flower) FERTILISATION OF)
THE FLOWER; also the article STAMENS.
his-
Pollio, Carus AsrNivs, an orator, poet,
torian, and soldier, was born in Rome, 76 B.c. He
sided with Cesar in the civil war bey at
Pharsalia, and commanded in Spain rege xtus,
Pompeius, but was defeated. He sided with the
triumvirs against the oligarchie senate, and was
appointed by Antony to settle the veterans on the
lands assigned them in Transpadane Gaul. Tt was
now that he saved the property of the poet Virgil
at Mantua from confiseation. After Antony and
Octavian had quarrelled, it was Pollio who effected
their temporary reconciliation at Brundusium (40
This year he was consul, when Virgil’s fou
—
POLLOCK
POLL-TAX 293
eclogue was addressed to him. The year after he
went to Greece as legate of Antony, and defeated
the Parthini, a people of Illyria. This was the
iod of Virgil’s eighth eclogue, also addressed to
ollio. Thereafter he withdrew altogether from
political life, and survived till 4 a.p. Pollio was
the first to establish a public library at Rome, and
was the patron of Virgil, Horace, and other poets.
His own orations and tragedies and history have
parities, and it is most probably no t loss.
he severest critics are seldom themselves even
decent writers, and he, we are told, detected
Patavinitas in the limpid style of Livy, and
censured Cicero, Sallust, aud Czsar.
Pollock, an illustrious family descended from
Mr David Pollock, saddler to George III. in the
later Bers of the 18th century, who kept a shop
near ing Cross. Three of his sons rose to
eminence—Sir David Pollock, Chief-justice of
Bombay (died 1847); Sir Frederick Pollock ; and
Field-marshal Sir George Pollock.—The second,
FREDERICK, was born 23d September 1783, and
in 1802 passed from St Paul’s School to Trinity
College, Cambridge, where in 1806 he graduated
B.A. as senior wrangler and first Smith’s prizeman.
Next year he was elected a fellow of his college,
and called to the bar at the Middle Temple. He
travelled the northern cirenit; in 1827 became
a K.C.; in 1831 was returned as a Tory for
Huntingdon; was Attorney-general 1834-35 and
1841-44; and in the last year succeeded Lord
Abinger as Chief Baron of the Exchequer. He
had . knighted in 1834, and on his retirement
in 1866 he received a baronetecy. He died 23d
August 1870.—His eldest son, SiR FREDERICK
Po.iock, born 3d April 1815, was educated at
Trinity College, Cambridge (1832-36), and in 1838
was called to the bar at the Inner Temple. He
was appointed a master of the Court of Exchequer
1846), and Queen’s Remembrancer (1874) ; in 1876
me senior master of the Supreme Court of Judi-
cature ; in 1886 resigned his offices; and died 24th
December 1888. Besides a good many quarterly
and ine articles, he published a blank verse
translation of Dante (1854), and two pleasant
volumes of Personal Remembrances (1887).—His
eldest son, also Str FrepERICK POLLOCK, third
baronet, was born 10th December 1845, and from
Eton passed to Trinity, where in 1868 he obtained
a fellowship. He was called to the bar at Lincoln’s
Inn in 1871, and became professor of Jurisprudence
at University College, London (1882), Corpus pro-
fessor of Jurisprudence at, Oxford (1883), and_pro-
fessor of Common Law (1884). Besides
1880), he has published books on Contract (1875),
artnership (1877), Torts (1887; 4th ed. 1°78),
Oxford Lectures (1891); and, with Maitland,
History a Law before Edward I, (2 vols.
1895).—His younger brother, WALTER HERRIES
PoLiock, born 2ist February 1850, and likewise
educated at Eton and Trinity, was called to the
bar at the Inner Temple in 1874, and from 1884
till 1894 was editor of the Saturday Review. He
is author of Lectures on French Poets, The Picture’s
Seeret, Verses of Two Tongues, A Nine Men's
Morrice, Old and New, &c.—GEORGE FREDERICK
POLLOCK (born 1821), third son of the first baronet,
a master of the Supreme Court of Judica-
ture; and the fourth son, Sik CHARLES EDWARD
(i 1823), became a baron of Exchequer and
udge of the High Court.
Str Greorce Pouiock, field-marshal, was born
in Westminster on 4th June 1786, and entered the
army of the East India Company as lieutenant of
ry in 1803. Almost immediately after his
arrival in India he was en zaged in active warfare,
_ in the battle and siege of Deig in Bhartpur (1804),
at the siege of Bhartpur (1805), and in other
operations in the war against Holkar. Nine years
later he saw some service in the Nepal (Goorkha)
campai of 1814-16, and in the first Burmese
war (1824-26) he took an active share, winning
his _coloneley. In _ 1838 he reached the rank of
major-general. After the massacre of General
Elphinstone and his forces in the passes of Af-
ghanistan (q.v.), the Indian government decided
to send a force to the relief of Sir Robert Sale,
who was shut up in Jelalabad. The command of
the relieving force was given to General Pollock.
In Gy 1842 (5th to 16th) he forced the formidable
Khyber Pass, and reached Sir Robert Sale; then,
after a few months’ delay, he pushed on to Kabul,
his object being to restore the prestige of the
British arms and to rescue the British prisoners in
the hands of Akbar Khan. Both pu were’
crowned with success; he defea’ the Afghan
chief at Tezeen, and destroyed the bazaar in
Kabul, and he recovered 135 British prisoners.
Then, after being joined by the forces of General
Nott, who had marched from Kandahar, he success-
fully conducted the united armies back to India.
He was rewarded with a G.C.B. and a political
appointment at Lucknow. He returned to Biviaad
in 1846, was director of the East India Company
for a couple of years (1854-56), and was created a
field-marshal in 1870, and a baronet in 1872; in
1871 he was appointed to the honourable office of
Constable of the Tower. He died on 6th October
1872, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. See
Life by C. R. Low (Lond. 1873).
Pollok, Roser, a minor Scottish poet, was
born in 1799 at Muirhouse, in the parish of Eagles-
ham, Renfrewshire. He studied at the university
of Glasgow and the Divinity Hall of the Secession
Chureh, and was licensed to preach in 1827. In
the same year he published, by the advice of
Professor Wilson, The Course of Time, in ten
books, an attempt at a poetical description of the
spiritual life and destiny of man. It was warmly
received, but its praises fell on a dying ear, for the
poet had meantime been seized with a fatal con-
sumption. He set out, accompanied by his sister,
in the hope to reach Italy, but found himself
unable to leave England, and died at Shirley
Common, near Southampton, 18th September 1827.
The Course of Time, which is still read in Scotland,
is curiously unequal in merit, as we might expect
when we remember that its two sources of inspira-
tion were oe and the aoe rath 5 It
contains eloquent passages, but portions of it read
like a dail seman in poor blank verse. Pollok
ublished Tales of the Covenanters anonymously
fore his poem. See the memoir by his brother
(1843) ; Rosaline Masson, Pollok and Aytoun ( ‘ Fa-
mous Scots,’ 1899).
Pollokshaws, a manufacturing town of
Renfrewshire, on the White Cart, 3 miles SSW.
of Glasgow. It derives its name from the ‘shaws’
or woods of the estate of Pollok, held for more than
six centuries by the Maxwells. It was made a
burgh of barony in 1814; and its industries, first
started in 1742, now comprise power-loom weay-
ing, dyeing, tapestry and chenille manufacturing,
bleaching, iron-founding, paper-making, &e. Pop.
(1841) 4627 ; (1881) 9363 ; (1891) 10,228.
Poll-tax, or CAPITATION TAX, a tax levied by
the poll or head (per capita). In England the
imposition of a gradua ll-tax (varying from
4d. to £4, according to rank and wealth) in the
time of Richard II. led to Wat Tyler’s rebellion in
1381. A similar tax was im in 1513; and an
unpopular tax (varying from 12d. for a private
person to £100 for a duke) was assessed in 1678 and
abolished in 1689. In the United States most
states impose a poll-tax or capitation tax as a
294
POLO
condition of the suffrage ; the sum being generally
$1, but in some states only 50 cents, and in others
varying from year to year, but not exceeding $3.
A considerable number have no such tax ; in others
the imposition of a poll-tax is expressly prohibited
by the constitution. TAx. °
Polo, an equestrian game, which may be
shortly Manette as hockey on horseback. It is
of oriental origin and of high antiquity ; indeed,
it has been claimed that it can be traced back to
600 B.c. The accompanying illustration is from a
beautifully illuminated Persian MS. of the poems
of Hafiz, executed in the year 956 of the Hegira or
1549 of the Christian era, and now in the Bod-
leian Library, Oxford, by the permission of whose
[IS le Se ee
authorities it has been specially photographed to
illustrate this article. ae bears the following
legend: ‘Welcome to the meiddn, thou chief o
horsemen : strike the ball.’ Polo was first played
by Europeans in 1863 in Calcutta, whither it had
been brought by officers who had been stationed
in Cachar in Assam, where polo has been played
since time immemorial by the hill-tribe of Mani-
puris. Almost the same game exists in Tibet;
whilst native equestrian games more or less closely
resembling polo are played in Japan and other
sa of the East. Since 1871 many polo clubs
ave been started in Britain and, since 1876, in
America, as well as wherever Britons are found
in the East. The principal British club, which
makes the rules of the game, is at Hurlingham,
near London. The following is a short descrip-
tion of polo; An oblong space of turf is marked
out, of which the proper size is 300 yards by 200
yards; at each ook in the centre of the line two
poles are fixed 22 feet apart, forming the goals
through which it is the object of the opposin
sides to strike the ball. The players are ssaanted
on ponies, the size of which, according to rule,
should not exceed 14 hands; and each player is
armed with a polo-stick, consisting of a strong
eane about 4 feet long with a cross head about
8 inches long, with which to strike the ball of
light wood. The proper number of players is
four a side, each of whom has a definite place
(numbered one, two, three, and back) in relation
to friends and opponents; and in polo, as in most
games, combination is perhaps the first condition
of success, The ponies have to be carefully trained,
and some acquire wonderful cleverness in under-
standing what is required of them. It is part of
the game so to ride alongside an opponent as to
prevent him from hitting the ball, but it is not
allowed to ride across in front of an opponent. To
become a good player requires strength, good
horsemanship, a quick eye, and much practice,
See Captain G. F. Younghusband’s Polo in India (1890),
and the chapter on ‘ Polo’ by J. Moray Brown in Ridiny
(Badminton Library, 1891).
Polo, MAxrco, the greatest of medieval travel-
lers, was born of a noble family of Dalmatian
origin, at Venice, in 1254. His father, Nicolo
Polo, and his uncle, Maffeo Polo, both enterprising
merchants, had, previous to his birth, set out on
a mercantile expedition, visiting Constantinople,
the Crimea, and the court of Barka Khan at Sarai.
Thence they travelled round the north side of the
Caspian Sea to Bokhara, and here they fell in with
some envoys returning from Hulagu in Persia to
his brother the Great Khan Kublai, and by them
were persuaded to accompany them to Cathay,
They were well received by Kublai, then either at
Cambalue (Peking) or his summer residence at
Shangtu (Coleridge’s Xanadu), north of the Great
Wall. He listened eagerly to their reports concern-
ing the peoples and mode of government in Europe,
and commissioned them as envoys to the pope, bear-
ing letters requesting him to send 100 Europeans
learned in the sciences and arts, to act as instruc-
tors to the Mongols. They reached Venice in 1269,
found Rome in the confusion of a long interregnum,
and, after the new pore (ene X.) was elected,
could only get two Dominicans, and even these
had hardly commenced the journey when they lost
heart and turned back. The Polos made their final
start in the November of 1271, apg thse them
young Marco, and arrived again at the court of
Kublai Khan in the spring of 1275, after travel-
ling by Sivas, Mosul, Bagdad, Hormuz, through
Khorassan, up the Oxus to the Pamir, by Kashgar,
Yarkand, and Khotan, Lob Nor, and across the
great desert of Gobi to Tangut, thence to Shangtu.
Their second reception was still more honourable
than the first, and the khan took special notice of
Mareo, from the rapidity with which he learned
the customs and language of the Mongols. His
wisdom and intelligence also recommended him as
a fit envoy to the various neighbouring rulers ; and
during his residence at their several courts Marco
observed closely the manners and customs of the
country, and delivered on his return a detailed
report to the khan. In various missions he visited
the western provinces on the borders of Tibet,
Yunnan, northern Burma (Mien), Karakorum,
Champa or southern Cochin-China, and Southern
India. For three years he served as governor of.
the town of Yang-chow, and with his uncle helped
to reduce the city of Saianfu by constructing man-
gonels for casting stones. The khan long refused
to think of the Polos leaving his court, but at
length in the beginning of 1292 they succeeded in
obtaining permission to join the escort of a Mongol
princess, who was travelling to marry Arghun,
Fins of Persia, andson of Kublai’s brother
Hulagu. They sailed from Chwan-chow in Fu-
kien (Zaitén), but were detained long on the
coasts of Sumatra and Southern India, and only
reached Persia after two years had Two
of the three envoys and most of their attendants
had perished. Arghun Khan himself was dead,
but the three Polos and the young princess were
safe, and she married the late khan’s brother and
suecessor. The Venetians finally ‘reached their
native city about the end of 1295, and Ramusio
tells the story how like Ulysses they were recog-
nised by none of their kinsfolk, and repulsed fro
the door, They brought with them much wealt)
in the portable form of precious stones, the fruits’
POLO
POLYANTHUS 295
of their trading. -In 1298 Marco fought his own
ley in the t battle of Curzola, in which the
enetians under Dandolo were defeated by the
Genoese under Doria, and was taken prisoner and
immured for a year in a dungeon at Genoa. Here
he dictated to another captive, one Rusticiano of
Pisa, an account of his journey through the East.
After his liberation he returned to Venice, where
he died in 1324, and was buried in the church of
S$. Lorenzo. The traveller bore among his con-
temporaries the surname or nickname of Marco
Millioni, most probably from his having frequently
used that word in his attempts to ewcithe the
wealth and splendour of the khan. The wonders
he narrated seem to have excited incredulity—
even long after Sir Thomas Browne commends the
cireumspection of the reader who ‘shall carry
a wary eye on Paulus Venetus, Jovius, Olaus
bas ae ierembergius, and many others.’
Polo’s book consists of two parts: (1) a
Prologue, the only part containing personal narra-
tive; (2) a long series of chapters descriptive of
notable sights, manners of different states of Asia,
especially that of Kublai Khan; and ends with a
dull chronicle of the internecine wars of the House
of Genghis during the second half of the 13th cen-
tury. Marco Polo succeeds in almost entirely
effacing himself, yet despite his modesty is un-
consciously revealed to the eyes of his reader as a
man truthful, brave, shrewd, keen-eyed, grave, of
few words, fond of sport, with all the due respect
of the prosperous man for wealth. He shows
throughout a singular lack of humour—Sir Henry
Yule cites as almost the solitary instance that in
speaking of the khan’s paper-money he observes
t Kublai might be said to have the true Philo-
sopher’s Stone, for he made his money at pleasure
out of the bark of trees. Nothing disturbs the
even tenor of his narrative—not even when he has
to tell of so strange a custom as the couvade
among the Gold-teeth on the frontier of Burma,
He is no less sparing of scientific observations, and
his geographical data are not infrequently the
reverse of clear and adequate. He tells us that he
acquired several of the languages current in the
Mongol empire, and as many as four written char-
acters, but of these Sir Henry Yule thinks Chinese
was not one. His work is poorer in information
relating to the Chinese proper than anywhere
else. us, he does not mention the Great Wall,
nor yet customs so striking and distinctive as the
use of tea, the eciapruaae feet of the ladies, the
fishing cormorant, artificial egg-hatching, nor the
printing of books. An absurd assertion has been
made that block-printing was carried to Euro
by our traveller, by him shown to one Panfilo
Castaldi, from whom it was learned by John Faust
of Mainz; and indeed the printers of Lombardy,
misled by patriotic feelings, have stultified them-
selves by erecting a statue at Feltre to Castaldi,
‘ the illustrious inventor of movable printing types.’
Polo liad learned more from men than books, yet it
is evident that he had read romances, especially
those dealing with the fabulous adventures of
Alexander. To these he refers in his notices of
the Iron Gate and of Gog and Magog, and of the
Dry Tree ( Arbre Sol or Arbre Sec) on the Khorassan
frontier. Such stories as these, that of the Land
of Darkness, of tailed men, of the t Roc, of
trees yielding wine, and the like, go far to account
for the grave and matter-of-fact Messer Marco
Polo’s nickname of Millioni.
Ramusio (1485-1557) assumed that the book was
first written in Latin, Marsden supposed in the
Venetian dialect, Baldelli-Boni showed in_ his
edition (Flor. 1827) that it was French. There
exists an old French text, tage ry by the Paris
de Géographie in 1824, which M. Paulin-
Paris describes as the French of a foreigner. This
Colonel Yule believes the nearest po e approach
to Marco’s own oral narrative. About eighty MSS.
are in existence, showing considerable variations.
These fall naturally into four groups: (1) the old
French version already mentioned ; (2) a revised
French version, the basis of M. Pauthier’s edition
ea de (3) a considerably abridged Latin version
y Francesco Pipino (about 1490)—not identical
with, although similar to, the Latin version pub-
lished by Grynzeus at Basel in the Novus Orbis
(1532), itself the parent of the 16th-century French
editions; (4) a form of the text now alone repre-
sented by the Italian recension of Ramusio, pub-
lished (1559) in vol. ii. of the Navigationi e Viaggi.
This last text has been subjected to aohaideratte
literary modifications, but undoubtedly contains
many new circumstances which are substantially
supplementary recollections of Marco Polo himeel?,
The notes of Marsden’s excellent English edition (1818)
were abrii by T. Wright for Bohn’s ‘ Antiquarian
Library’ (1854). Another good English edition is that
of Bagh Murray p {1844 5 but all its predecessors were
set aside by the admirable edition of Colonel Sir Henry
Yule (1871; 2d ed. 1875), containing a faithful English
translation from an eclectic text, an exhaustive introduc-
tion, notes, and other illustrations from the editor’s wide
learning and intimate knowledge of the East. French or
Italian editions worthy of mention are those of the Soc,
de G of Paris (1824), Baldelli-Boni (1827), Lazari
(1847), Bartoli (1863), and Pauthier (1865). Sir Francis
Palgrave’s Merchant and Friay (1837) is of course a
mere work of imagination, in which Roger Bacon and
Marco Polo are brought together.
Polonaise, or PoLaAcca, a Polish national
dance of slow movement in ? time.
Polotsk, a town of Russia, on the Diina
(Dwina), by rail 62 miles NW. of Vitebsk and
228 SE. of Riga, is the seat of a bishop of the
Greek United Church. Pep. 21,350.
Poltava. See PuLtTowa.
Polyandry, the social usage of certain races
in stages of civilisation in which the woman nor-
mally forms a union with several or many hus-
bands—a condition proved by the researches of
M‘Lennan and others to be much more important
in the development of the social organism than was
formerly understood. See FAMILY, MARRIAGE.
Potyanthus (Gr., ‘many-flowered ’), a kind of
Primrose (q.v.), much prized and cultivated by
Polyanthus.
florists. It is generally believed to be a variety of
the Common Primrose (Primula vulgaris), produe
by cultivation, in which an umbel of numerous
296 POLY BIUS
POLYCARP
flowers is supported on a common scape (leafless
flower-stem), instead of each flower rising on its
own stalk from the crown of the root ; a modifica-
tion to which a tendency often appears in the wild
lant itself. Thus in its habit it somewhat resem-
bles the cowslip and oxlip, whilst in the size of its
flowers it is more like the common primrose; but
instead of the pale uniformity of the wild plant it
exhibits t variety of delicate and beautiful
colours. The subvarieties are innumerable, new
ones being continually produced from seed, and of
short duration. The seed is sown about mid-
summer, and flowers may be expected in abund-
ance next year, if the young plants are properly
planted out. A rich free soil is most suitable. The
polyanthus loves shade and moisture more than its
congener, the auricula. It is very hardy, and
seldom suffers from the most severe winters. Fine
kinds are preserved for a time by dividing the
root. The cultivation of the polyanthus is prose-
cuted with particular assiduity and success in
England. or the Polyanthus Narcissus, see
NARCISSUS.
Polybius, the Greek historian, was born abont
204 B.C. at Megalopolis in Arcadia. From his
father Lycortas, one of the leading men of the
Achwan e, he received valuable instruction
in the science of politics and in the art of war. He
was one of the 1000 noble Achzeans who, after the
conquest of Macedonia in 168, were sent to Rome
on the ground that the Achzans had failed to
assist the Romans against Perseus, Without any
trial the Greeks were detained in an honourable
captivity. Polybius was the guest of A®milius
Paulus himself, and became the close friend of his
son, Scipio Amilianus, accompanying him in his
military expeditions. Polybius in his turn derived
much advantage from the protection and friendship
of Scipio, who gave him access to public docu-
ments, and aided him in the collection of materials
for his great historical work. In 151, after sixteen
years in Italy, the surviving Achwan exiles were
—— by the Roman senate to return to
reece ; Polybius, however, soon rejoined Scipio,
followed him in his African campaign, and was
resent at the destruction of Carthage in 146.
ut the outbreak of war between the Acheans
and Romans summoned him — to Greece,
where he arrived soon after the taking of Corinth.
All his influence was now exerted to procure from
the conquerors favourable terms for the vanquished ;
and so grateful were his countrymen for his services
in their behalf that they erected statues in his
honour at Megalopolis and elsewhere. It must
have been about this time that Polybius under-
took the writing of his great historical work, the
materials of which he had so long been collecting ;
and in furtherance of his plan he undertook several
long journeys—to Asia Minor, Egypt, Upper Italy,
southern France, and even Spain—where it has been
supposed he witnessed the capture of Numantia by
Scipio in 133. He died about 122 B.c.
is history, the design of which was to show
how and why it was that all the civilised countries
of the world fell under the dominion of Rome,
includes the period between 220, wliere the history
of Aratus concluded, and 146 B.c., the year when
Corinth fell, and with it the independence of
Greece. Much the greater part of the work has
perished. Of forty books only the first five are
preserved complete; but the plan of the whole
work is fully known. Of the two parts into
which it was divided the first (books iii.-xxx.; the
introductory books i. and ii. being a sketch of the
earlier history of Rome) embraced a period of fifty-
three years, commencing with the second Punic
War and the Social War in Greece, and concluding
with the subjugation of the kingdom of Macedonia
in 168. The last ten books deal with the years
168-146. The great merits of a hee are the care
with which he collected his materials, his strong love
of truth, his breadth of view, and his sound judg-
ment, which was ye pen assisted by his famili-
arity with political and military life. He was an
excellent authority on the art of war. His tone is
didactic, dull, and wearisome; he is too anxious
to draw consequences and deduce lessons, and has
been called ‘the first pragmatical historian.’ His
method of exposition is careless, somewhat con-
fused, and inartistic ; his style, occasionally pithy
but usually bald to a degree, belongs to the period
of beginning decadence,
Of the thirty-five books which have not been pre-
served entire we possess merely f: ents or extracts.
Fragments were found by Cardinal Mai, and published
as late as 1827. Valuable editions have been published
by Schwei ser (1789-95; new ed. Oxford, 1831
under Roman Sway (1890) in works on Polybius
name, for he brid the little known much
controverted period lying between the Bee of his .
master the Apostle John and that of his own
disciple Ireneus, and his testimony is only the
larger, clearer, and more valuable because of his
rigid conservatism and lack of intellectual individu-
ality. The ‘Life’ by ‘Pionius’ is utterly untrust-
worthy. All that is really known of Polycarp’s
origin is gathered from his ying declaration, which
shows that he was born about 69 A.D., and P aporerct
of Christian parents. By the migration of apostles
and others from doomed Jerusalem, Ephesus and
the neighbouring districts became the new home
of the faith, and there Polycarp was ‘taught by
Apostles,’ John above all, and ‘lived in familiar
intercourse with many that had seen Christ’
(Irenzeus, Heresies, iii. 3, 4). The further state-
ment that he was appointed bishop in Smyrna ‘ by
Apostles’ (‘by John’—Tertullian) is probably
coloured by the later conception of the eprqoopates
but he certainly appears to have been head of the
church from early manhood,
Among contemporaries he was intimate with
Papias. More interesting is his brief intercourse
with Ignatius, who, on his way from Antioch to
martyrdom at Rome, made a short stay at Smyrna,
where Polycarp and the church ministered to him.
The tone of his Zpistle to Polycarp, written shortly
after from Troas, is that of a letter to one less
experienced, if not younger, and less energetic
than the writer, but high ma ee is paid to Poly-
carp’s stedfastness, piety, and position. In conse-
uence of a request which Ignatius was making to
the churches to send messages to Antioch, the
Philippians wrote to Polycarp asking that their
letter to Antioch might be forwarded by the
Smyrnean messenger, at the same time inviting
exhortation, and further asking for any of the
epistles of Ignatius that he might have, Hence
‘olycarp’s Epistle to the Philippians, in which he
accedes to their various requests, and solicits further
news of Ignatius. His influence on a younger
generation, and his importance as a faithful pre-
server of the apostolic tradition, are vividly de-
lineated 7" his greatest aeerle Treneeus in his
Epistle to Florinus, quoted in Eusebius, Hist. Heel.
y. 20: ‘I can tell the very place where the blessed
Polycarp used to sit and discourse. . . . Whatso-
POLYCARP
POLYGAMY 297
ever things he had heard from them (John and
others) about the Lord... Folyestp, as having
received them from eye-witnesses of the life of the
Word, would relate altogether in accordance with
the Scriptures.’ These valuable reminiscences re-
late to a period somewhere between 135 and 150
A.D.
At the gd close of his life Polycarp visited
Rome, where he conferred with the bishop Aukéesak:
chiefly on the vexed question of the time for com-
memorating the Passion. On this point neither
yielded to the other, yet their relations remained
so cordial that Anicetus allowed Polycarp to take
his place in celebrating the eucharist (see Irenwus
quoted in Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. v. 24). After turn-
ing many Valentinians and Marcionites from their
heresies cod saga 4 the aged bishop returned
to Smyrna, only to win the martyr’s crown in a
eae which broke out during a great festival.
nsatiated with meaner victims, the mob called
for Pol carp, ‘ the father of the Christians.’ With
truest Sealey and modesty does Polycarp play the
man. Betrayed by his servant-boy, but offered his
life by the proconsul if he will revile Christ, he
answers: ‘Fourscore and six years have I been
His servant, and He hath done me no wrong. How
then can I blaspheme my King, who hath saved
me?’ As the games were over, death by fire was
substituted for death by wild beasts, and Jews
vied with heathens in providing fuel. But the
fire arched itself about the martyr, and he had to
be d hed with a dagger. The graphic Letter
of the ~ page tells the story of the martyrdom
to the Philomelian church. chronological ap-
dix to this letter has been elucidated by Wad-
ngton’s skilful dating of the ‘ proconsul,’ and his
conclusions have been confirmed by the discovery
of inscriptiofis relating to the ‘high-priest,’ also
mentioned therein, so that the martyrdom may,
with strong probability, be dated 23d February
155 A.D,
The only writing of Polycarp extant is the
Epi to the Philippians, incomplete in the
i Greek, but complete in a Latin transla-
tion. Its genuineness has been assailed, but un-
successfully. Somewhat commonplace in itself, it
is of great value for questions of the canon, the
origin of the church, and the Ignatian Epistles.
More New Testament phrases are here inwoven
than are found in any other work of the time.
Their wider range, and especially the prominence
given to Paul and his epistles by this disciple of
John, tell heavily —— Tiibingen theories of the
origin of the church and the canon. The letter
bears so closely on the Ignatian Epistles that,
while apart from it the external evidence for their
yenuineness is weak, with it that evidence is very
strong. The grounds, however, for assigning the
epistles of Ignatius and Polycarp to the reign of
rajan are not beyond question, while among other
things a certain reference to heresy in Polyearp’s
epistle would better accord with a time about 130
A.D., or even later.
For one of the best editions of the Epistle (first edited
Halloix in 1633 and frequently since), see Patrum
\postol. Opera (ed. Gebhardt, &c., vol. ii. 1876); for
the date of the martyrdom, Waddington’s Fastes des
Provinces Asiati (Paris, 1872), and the Oxford
Studia Biblica (1885 and 1890). But the best and most
exhaustive work on all the parts of the subject is Light-
foot’s Apostolic Fathers, part ii. (2d ed. 1889), An
ingenious, scholarly, and able attempt is made the
Rev. J. M. Cotterill in the Cambridge Journal of
(1891) to attribute the extant epistle to
a monk of St Saba, who flourished under
and from whose pen is still dyed ‘if,’ in
Tis éeyias ypadis, divided into 130 homilies.
Polycotyle‘donous Plants are those whose
embryos have more than two seed-leaves (cotyle-
dons). Examples are found occasionally, or as
monstrosities, among Dicotyledons. In the Pine
(Pinus) group of the Coniferze (q.v.), however, the
polycotyledonous condition is the normal one, and
the cotyledons occur in whorls of from three to ten.
Multiplication of cotyledons occurs in a few other
groups of the Coniferee, Sometimes the numerous
cotyledons unite in pairs, and this leads to the
suggestion that they originally sprang from two;
but many botanists believe that the cotyledons
arise as separate leaves.
Polycrates, ‘ Ebay ooh of Samos from about
536 B.C. to 522. He conquered several islands of
the Archipelago, and even some towns on the
Asiatic mainland, w; war successfully against
the inhabitants of Miletus, and defeated their
allies, the Lesbians, in a great sea-fight. His
intimate alliance with Amasis, king of Egypt,
proves the importance in which this daring ont.
rince was held even by great monarchs. Accord-
ing to Herodotus, Amasis dreaded the misfortunes
that the envious gods must be preparing for so
lucky a mortal, and wrote a letter to Polycrates,
earnestly advising him to throw away the possession
that he deemed most valuable, and thereby avert
the stroke of the spleenful gods. Polycrates, in
compliance with this friendly advice, cast a signet-
ring of marvellously beautiful workmanship into
the sea, but next day a fisherman presented the
tyrant with an unusually big fish that he had
caught, and in its belly was found the identical
rin It was quite clear to Amasis now that
Po ‘bape ag was a doomed man, and he immediately
broke off the alliance. When Cambyses invaded
Egypt (525) Polyerates sent him a contingent of
forty ships, in which he placed all the Samians
disaffected towards his tyranny, hoping they
might never come back; but mutinying they
returned to Samos, and made war against the
tyrant, but without success. Hereupon they went
to Sparta, and succeeded in securing the help of
both Spartans and Corinthians. A triple force of
Samians, Spartans, and Corinthians embarked for
Samos, and besieged Samos in vain, and Polyerates
became more powerful than ever; but Nemesis
overtook her victim after all. Orctes, the Persian
satrap of Sardis, had conceived a deadly hatred
against Polycrates, and, having enticed the latter
to visit him at Magnesia by appealing to his
cupidity, he seized and crucified him.
Polydipsia. See Diaseres.
Polygalacez. See MiLKworts.
Pelygamous, a term applied to
bear both unisexual and hermaphrodite flowers,
either on the same or on different individual plants.
For example, the maple produces male, female, and
hermaphrodite flowers on the same tree; while
some ash-trees sometimes bear male only, others
female, and others hermaphrodite flowers.
Polygamy (Gr. polys, ‘many,’ gamein, ‘to
marry ’) includes eeymolegiaally the social arrange-
ment by which one wife has many husbands, now
usually termed Polyandry (q-v.), as well as that in
which a man has or may have several or many
wives. To the latter the term polygamy is, how-
ever, practically restricted. Former!. polygamy
was thought to be prohepls the original type of
the development which has culminated in the
marriage relations of civilised ples ; that this
is not so is shown somewhat fully in the articles
FAMILY and MARRIAGE. °
Polygamy certainly obtained at one time over a
very ‘ate area of the world’s surface ; in general it
may be said still to be the rule not merely amongst
most African races, but amongst the peoples, both
lants which
298 POLYGAMY
POLYGONACE
more and less civilised, of ‘the East’ generally, and
to a certain extent in Australia and Polynesia,
though it is rare amongst American Indians. That
this custom was usual in Old Testament times is
obvious from many references ; the New Testament
seems to indicate that monogamy was) universal
amongst the Jews of the Ist century, though the
Talmud contains no positive prohibition against a
plurality of wives. Christianity has never tolerated
polygamy ; even Concubinage (q.v.) has been al-
ways treated as sinful, and polygamy is a crime by
the law of Christian states. Greeks and Romans
did not practise polygamy within historical times ;
the ancient Germans were the only barbarians
known to Tacitus who were content with a single
wife. Moslem law and permit a man to have
four wives, but such plurality is confined to the
rich ; r men have seldom more than one wife
(see MOHAMMEDANISM). ‘There is no limit to the
number of wives a Hindu may keep, without taking
account of concubines. Instances still occur of a
igh-caste man of wealth having a hundred wives.
But in this connection it should be remembered
that in hot countries girls become marri ble at
an early age, and soon lose their youth and attrac-
tiveness ; a man’s first wife may remain his con-
fidante and real companion through life, though
he provides himself with a succession of girl favour-
ites. In China there is but one rightful wife in a
household, though a man may, if he will, keep
secondary wives or concubines.
In Christian countries, even in those where con-
eubinage and adultery are lightly regarded and
divorce very easily obtained, polygamy is dealt
with as a criminal offence. In Britain and the
United States Bigamy (q.v.) is severely punished ;
under the same head any polygamous union is
included. Nevertheless there have occasionally
been found divines to defend polygamy or some-
thing like it. The Anabaptists insisted on such
om; Ochino (q.v.) wrote in defence of it.
When in 1540 Philip the Magnanimous, the reform-
ing landgrave of Hesse, resolved with the consent
of his wife (then a confirmed invalid) to marry a
second wife, Luther and Melanchthon approved
the step ‘as his personal friends, though not as
doctors of theology ;’ and Bucer (q.v.) promoted,
approved, and witnessed the bigamous union. The
first wife survived the second marriage for nine
ears. As late as 1667, when Catherine of
raganza miscarried, some Anglican divines sug-
har polygamy as the best way of securing a
irect heir to the throne.
Morganatic nee (q-v.) and Handfastin
(q.v.) greatly simplified divorce, and often precedec
a more binding and legitimate union; but another
union at the same time was not compatible with
either. In 1780 the Rev. Martin Madan, chaplain
to the Lock Hospital in London, startled the world
and raised a violent controversy by arguing in favour
of polygamy as a means of diminishing prostitution
and saving human souls from guilt; the work in
which these views were advocated was called
Thelyphthora, or a Treatise on Female Ruin (3
vols. 1780-81). In recent times the Mormons (q.v.)
by their practice of polygamy created a trouble-
some question for the administrators of United
States law ; but in 1890 they 1 to cease from
making plural marriages. It has always been a
difficulty for Christian missionaries when converts
with several wives desired baptism, As a rule the
convert was treated as married only to the first wife
in point of date, and .was required absolutely to
away all the others—a rule that was inevitably
arsh and inequitable in its operation. Bishop
Colenso declined to make the convert part from
wives he had married in good faith; so did the
American missionaries in Burma; and M‘Farlane,
in Among the Cannibals in New Guinea (1£88),
says that he and the other missionaries of the
London Missionary Society ‘resolved not to inter-
fere with those social relations in which the gospel
found the people of New Guinea.’ See ANTHRO-
POLOGY, FAMILY, MARRIAGE, HAREM, and the
works cited there.
Polyglot (Gr. ys, ‘many,’ and lotta,
tong) means a@ Ee tion of poder in Niiffer.
ent languages of the same work, but is almost
exclusively applied to manifold versions of the
Bible. he Hexapla of Origen (q.v.) contained,
besides the face text, got other Greek
versions, but is not commonly reckoned among the
polyglote. The most famous polyglots are (iy the
‘omplutensian, published under the auspices of
Cardinal Ximenes (q.v.) at Alcala (Lat. Complu-
tum), in 6 vols. folio, 1502-17, with Hebrew, Greek,
Chaldee (each with Latin versions), and the
Vulgate Latin; (2) the Antwerp Polyglot, printed
at the Plantin press, at the cost of Philip IL. of
ee in 1569-72, edited by Arias Montanus;
(3) the Paris Polyglot, edited by Le Jay in 1645, in
6 splendid volumes ; and (4) the London Polyglot,
edited by Brian Walton, in 6 vols. folio, 1654-57,
and containing the Bible, or parts of it, in nine
languages. f modern works of this kind the
most convenient is ter’s Polyglot, first pub-
lished by Bagster at London in 1831 (new eds,
1874, &c.), which gives the Old Testament in eight
languages (Hebrew, Greek, Latin, English, Ger-
man, Italian, French, and Spanish), and the New
Testament in nine (the Syriac version being added ).
Polygno a Greek painter who flourished
in the middle of the 5th century B.c., was born in
the isle of Thasos, and belonged to a family of
i He was a friend of the Athenian general
‘imon, and is said to have been attached to his
sister, Elpinice. His principal works were at
Athens, at Delphi, and at Platea. In the first-
named city he executed ao in the temple of
Theseus ; in the Stoa Poikile (or Painted Portico),
the Greek Princes assembled to dodge of the
Violation of Cassandra by Ajax; e temple
of the Dioscuri, the Ra) the Daughters of
Leucippus; and in the rise on the Acro-
lis, a series from the old Greek legends. At
painted, in the temple of Athena,
Ulysses and the Slain Suitors of Penelo His
greatest work is said to have been in the hé, a
court or peristyle at Delphi, built by the Cnidians,
the walls of which he covered with a series repre-
senting the Wars of Troy and the Visit of Ulysses
to the Lower World. Polygnotus was a great
advance on any of his predecessors. He was the
first who gave life, character, and expression to
painting. Aristotle extols the dignity and beauty
of his conceptions.
Polygon (Gr. s, ‘many,’ gonia, ‘ corner’),
a cleus gars, ‘cans ed by a number of straight
lines; the name is conventionally limited to those
plane figures whose bounding straight lines are
more than four in number. Polygons of 5, 6, 7, 8,
&c. sides are denominated pentagons, hexagons,
heptagons, octagons, &e.; and when the number
of sides exceeds twelve the figure is merely men-
tioned as a polygon of so many sides.
Polygonacez, a natural order of plants,
saphiy | ierbs, but including a few shrubs. The
leaves are alternate, with stipules cohering around
the stem, though sometimes reduced to a mere
ring. The flowers are not unfrequently unisexual ;
the fruit generally a nut, often triangular, the
seed with farinaceous albumen, which has an
economic importance in buckwheat. The genus
Polygonum comprises numerous species, of which
several are natives of Britain; in North America
lateea he
VW ———————
———— ss — SlCr OO ee
POLYHYMNIiA
POLYNESIA 299
twenty-five species are found east of the Missis-
sippi. Knot-grass (P. aviculare) is a very common
British weed, and is found in cultivated and waste
places in all parts of the world from the tropics to
the Arctie regions. The stems of P. amphibium,
an inhabitant of ponds and watery ditches all over
Britain and Europe, central Asia, and North Amer-
ica, have been used as a substitute for sarsaparilla
on the continent of Europe. P. hydropiper: often
called Water Pepper, a plant common by sides of
lakes and ditches in Britain and North America, is
acrid enough to be used as a vesicant. Several
= eveen are occasionally used for dyeing, as the
potted Persicaria (P. persicaria), a very common
weed on “pd peed and in waste places in Britain ;
but the only species really important on this
account is that called Dyer’s Buckwheat (P.
tinctorium), a native of China, the cultivation of
which has been vec ras 8 introduced in France
and Flanders. It yields a blue dye scarcely inferior
to indigo. P. orientale has long been occasionally
cultivated in flower-gardens in Britain, and is quite
hardy, although a native of the West Indies.
The Bistort (q.v.) belongs to the genus. Fagopy-
rum m, & species of buckwheat abundant
on the mountains of the north of India, affords
an excellent substitute for spinach. Fagopyrum
esculentum, or Polygonum Fagopyrum | (Buck-
wheat), is cultivated for the sake of its fruit, which
furnishes a nutritious diet used in the countries of
northern Europe. The Garden Sorrel (Rumex
acetosa) and some other species of Rumex have a
singular combination of properties in their roots
in their leaves. In the former there is greater
or less astringency, due to the presence of tannic
and gallic acid ; the latter are more or less acidu-
owing to their containing oxalic acid. Rhubarb
(q.v.) belongs to this natural order; so does the Dock
(q.v.). The root of Pterococcus aphylla, a native of
the sandy steppes of Siberia, when cut exudes a
clear viscid gum similar to Tragacanth (q.v.), which
swells in water and forms a ee of a brownish-
ellow colour ; it is eaten by the Kalmucks in
Toes of scarcity. Its fruit, which is acid, is eaten
to quench thirst. Triplaris americana and T.
landiana, both natives of South America, are
small trees with hollow branches which are the
haunts of small venomous ants that shower them-
selves on the unwary who may attempt to shelter
themselves under their shade. tihlenbeckia
adpressa is the Macquarie Harbour Vine of
Tasmania, an evergreen climbing or trailing shrub
of most rapid growth, sometimes 60 feet in length.
It produces racemes of fruit somewhat resembling
pes or currants, the nut being invested with the
Rose and fleshy segments of the calyx. The fruit
is sweetish and subacid, and is used for tarts.
Coccoloba uvifera is the Seaside Grape (q.v.) of the
West Indies. See also CALLIGONUM.
Polyhymnia, one of the nine Muses (q.v.).
Polymerism. See IsoMERisM.
Polynesia (Gr. polys, ‘many,’ nésos, ‘ island’),
aterm applied collectively by some writers to all |
the Pacific islands of strictly oceanic chatacter—i.e.
either of voleanic or coralline origin; by others
restricted to the eastern groups inhabited by the
brown Polynesian race. Here it will be taken in
the broader sense so as to include all the Pacific
lands east of the Philippines, New Guinea, and
Australia, except Japan, the Kuriles, Aleutians,
me Charlotte, Vancouver, Revillagigedo, and
pagos, which are geographical dependencies of
the surrounding Asiatic and American continents.
Polynesian, or ‘South Sea’ islands, as they
are also called, are distributed over a vast space,
stretching across a hundred — of longitude
from New Britain (149° E.) to + Island (109°
17’ W.), and across seventy degrees of latitude from
Hawaii (23° N.) to Stewart Island at the southern
extremity of New Zealand (47° 20'S.). But the
aggregate extent of dry land in this boundless
expanse of some 1] million square miles scarcel
exceeds 170,000 sq. m., of which nearly two-thirds
are comprised in the New Zealand Archipelago,
while the total population is probably less than
1,500,000. See the map at WORLD, and also the
es map at AUSTRALIA,
oe comprises the three broad divisions
_ pat ag 2 NP at — Polynesia,
which are determin rtly graphical
position, and partly by Chanel teal ecentitionis
and each of which is again subdivided into several
secondary groups. Thus, Micronesia (Gr. mikros,
‘small,’ nésos, ‘ island’) lies in the extreme north-
west almost entirely north of the equator, and con-
sists exclusively of small volcanoes and atolls,
forming the five archipel of the Marianas
(Ladrones), Pelew, (Palaos), Carolines, Marshall,
and Gilbert, all inhabited by heterogeneous popula-
tions in whieh most of the oceanic and perha
some of the continental elements are represented.
So also Melanesia (Gr. melas, ‘ black’) lies in the
extreme west entirely south of the equator, and
consists mainly of rea grace large upraised
crystalline, coralline, and volcanic islands disposed
in parallel chains from north-west to south-east,
forming the eleven archipelagoes of the Admiralty,
Bismarck (New Britain and New Ireland),
D’Entrecasteaux, Louisiade, Solomon, Santa Cruz,
Banks, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Loyalty,
and Fiji, all inhabited by the Melanesian or dark
Oceanic race. Lastly, East Polynesia lies on both
sides of the equator, mainly east of a line drawn
from New Zealand between Fiji and Samoa to
Hawaii, and consists of the twelve voleanic and
coralline archipelagoes of Hawaii (Sandwich),
Pheenix, Ellice, Tokelau, Samoa, ne Ker-
madec, Austral (Tubuai), Cook, Tahiti, Tuamotu
(Paumotu), and Marquesas, besides the large
sedimentary and igneous region of New Zealand
and numerous sporadic islets, such as Norfolk,
Chatham, Rapaiti, Easter, Manihiki, Tongareva,
Uvea, and many others. This division is the
exclusive domain, apart from recent white immi-
grants, of the large brown race, commonly called
* Polynesians’ in a special sense.
Subjoined is a table of these multitudinous
insular groups, with their areas, populations, and
political status.
Group. Area in sq.m. Pop. State.
I, Micronesta—
Mariana 450 10,000 Germany and U.S.
200 12,000 Germany.
400 30,000 Germany.
160 11,000 Germany.
170 41,000 England.
Il. MeLanesia—
2,000 Germany.
70,000 ee
1,000 (?) England.
2,000(?) England.
175,000 England and Ger.
5,000 England.
4,500 wipete
62,000 Independent.
43,000 France.
20,000 ~=+France.
125,000 England.
81,000 United States.
60 Independent.
3,300 England.
520 England.
35,000 U.S. and Germany:
80,000 England.
100 England.
ode 1,400 ~=‘France.
Cook (Hervey)..... 11,500 England.
Tahiti (Society).... 600 17,000 France.
Tuamotu (Low).... 360 6,600 France
Marquesas.......... 480 6,000 France.
New Zealand....... 104,000 604,000 England
300
POLYNESIA
Lying almost entirely within the tropics, and
consisting nearly everywhere of igneous or coralline
groups ex to the same atmospheric and
marine currents, Polynesia presents great uni-
formity in its climatic and biological conditions. In
these respects, however, New Zealand belongs to a
separate world, thanks to its large extent, loft
ranges, different geological history, and_ hig!
southern latitude. But even in Fiji, Tahiti,
Samoa, the Solomon and Hawaiian groups, with
voleanic cones ranging from 1000 to nearly 14,000
feet, less variety is presented by the different local
floras than might expected from their great
altitude. Almost everywhere the prevailing winds
are the moist south-east trades, which in summer
veer round to the west and north-west. But these
winds also bring moisture-bearing clouds, so that
the rainfall is generally high, in the Solomons
excessive (150 inches), in Hawaii 60 to 80, and
in New Caledonia over 40. But many of the
atolls, being too low to arrest the currents, receive
very little moisture, and in some places constitute
a rainless zone, as indicated by the accumulated
deposits of guano. The mean temperature is about
70° F. both in Hawaii and New Caledonia (about
the two tropics), with an extreme range from 50°
to 90°F. But the climate, except in New Caledonia
and New Zealand, is everywhere relaxing, and in
the Solomons and other large islands malarious up
to considerable altitudes.
In the coralline groups the flora is essentially
oceanic, the prevailing species being the cocoa-nut
and one or two other palms, the pandanus and
bread-fruit tree, and such edible roots as yams, taro,
and sweet potatoes. Besides these forms, the lar;
archipel have a rich forest vegetation, mostly
belonging to the Papuasian and Australian zones,
with some American and a few indigenous plants.
Hence the prevalence of casuarinas, dammaras,
araucarias, tree-ferns, besides myrtles, ebony, and
the banyan fig. Highly spats forms are the
New Caledonian niauli (Melaleuca leucadendron),
which yields the cajeput-oil, and the Hawaiian
oleaginous kukiu and gigantic halapepe (Branch-
leya), with foliage like that of the pandanus. As
many as 1300 distinct species have been discovered
in New Caledonia, and nearly 1400 in Fiji, of
which 1100 are phanerogamous.
In contrast with the relatively rich flora is the
remarkably poor fauna, especially in mammals.
The dog and pig were found both in the Solomons
and Hawaii at the time of their discovery ; but both
appear to have been introduced in comparatively
recent times, The only undoubtedly indigenous
mammals in these and the other Polynesian groups
are two or three species of rodents (rats and mice)
and a few varieties of the bat family. Even
reptiles and insects are rare, being chiefly represented
by three small lizards in Hawaii, one snake, one
scorpion, one centipede, and a spider in New
Caledonia, a few snakes and frogs in Fiji, and in
East Polynesia by only one venomous animal, a
centipede. Fiji is the easternmost limit of the
frog and the Solomons of the crocodile, which here
adapts itself both to fresh and salt water about the
rivers and estuaries, Birds are everywhere more
numerous, 107 species occurring in New Caledonia,
46 in Fiji, and 40 in Hawaii, these last ineludi
the oo (Moho nobilis), whose lovely black =|
yellow plumage is used for decorating royal mantles.
In recent times no branch of ethnology has been
more carefully studied than that which deals with
the origin, migrations, physical features, langnages,
and traditions of the Oceanie peoples. But so
intricate are their mutual relations that the difficult
anthropological and linguistic problems suggested
by a comparative study of these peoples are still
far from solved. There is, however, a general
consensus that Polynesia has been occupied from
Pacis times by two distinct races, the dark
elanesians, who belong to the same stock as the
Papuans of New Guinea and Malaysia, and the
brown Polynesians, called also Mahori and Sawaiori,
whose racial affinities have not been satisfactorily
determined, By different writers they have been
allied to the Mongoloid Malays, to the Aryans or
Caucasians, to the American aborigines, and even
to the Melanesians. But the diflerence between
the Polynesians and Melanesians must be ed
as fundamental. The former are brachycephalous
(round-headed, with high cephalic index), ortho-
nathous, narrow-nosed, of a light-brown café-au-
ait colour, with round orbits and black lank hair,
and next to the Patagonians the tallest people on
the globe (mean height, 5 feet 10 inches), The Mel-
anesians are dolichocephalous (long-headed, with
the lowest cephalic index of any race), prognathous,
broad-nosed, of a sooty black colour, with low
orbits, black frizzly hair, and low stature (mean
height, 5 feet 5 inches).
e Melanesians appear to be the indigenous
element in the Pacific, where they formerly oecu-
pied a much wider domain than at present, for
traces of black blood are found in Samoa, New
Zealand, and even as far east as the Marquesas
(Whitmee). They also stand at a lower s of
culture, being undoubted cannibals, in many places
head-hunters, extremely savage, blood-thirsty and
treacherous, eg recognising any hereditary
chiefs, and often forming independent hostile
groups at perpetual feud with their neighbours.
The Polynesians, who ees resemble the Indo-
nesians of the Malay Archipelago (see MALAYS),
seem to be later arrivals almost certainly from
Malaysia to Samoa, whence they gradually spread
from island to island over all the eastern archi-
pel , more recently sending colonies westwards
to inden ig and even to New Guinea. Hence
Sawaiori settlements and mixed Sawaiori-Mela-
nesian communities are now found in the eastern
rts of ty in the New Hebrides ( Niué, Futuna,
el, and Fil), in the Loyalty group (Uvea), in
British New Guinea (Motu), and generally in
Micronesia, That Samoa was the centre of dis-
persion is shown by the recurrence of such geo-
gereieel terms as Samoa and Sayaii (originally
vaiki), the largest island of the archipelago,
under diverse dialectic forms (Hamoa, Amoa,
Hawaii, Havaiki, Hawaiki, Avaiki), either in the
geographical nomenclature or in the traditions
and mythologies of all the Polynesian islanders
from New Zealand to Hawaii.
In Easter Island (Rapanui) and the Carolines
(Ponapé, Lelé, Ualan) are found numerous cyclo-
pean monuments, huge monolithic statues, paved
avenues, ramparts or walls of basalt bl over
30 feet long, brought from great distances, None
of the present races could erect such structures as
these, all memory of which has died out. They
have been referred to the cultured peoples of
America, and the features of the Easter Island
(q.v.) statues are said to resemble the Bolivian
Aymaras, thongh others have recognised a Papuan
cast in the specimens preserved in the British
Museum. Skulls of a Papuan type have also been
found in Easter Island, but if the monuments
were erected by these natives, it must have been
under the direction of builders such as the Hindu
missionaries who raised the stupendous temples of
Java and Indo-China by training Malay and Cam-
oe “eg ger ie cn — és 4a
early all the Pacific languages appear
members of the great Malayo-Polynesian family,
which stretches across two oceans, from Mada-
gascar to Rapanui. However it is to be explain
the fact is now established that both the dark an
— mostly commi'
POLYNESIA
POLYPODIUM 301
brown peoples speak idioms derived from a com-
mon stock; and Mr Codrington has even shown
that the Melanesian are of a more archaic ty
than the Polynesian —— Perhaps this is the
most inexplicable of all the problems presented by
the Oceanic peoples, for here anthropology and
philology are found to be in direct antagonism.
+ first sight it would appear as if the lower had
im its speech on the higher race, by whom
it profoundly modified both in its phonetic
system and grammatical structure. But the re-
verse and less violent process is conceivable, and it
may be assumed that during their endless migra-
tions over the Pacific the more enterprising and
intelligent Polynesians transmitted their speech to
the more passive Melanesians at a very remote
oe. the former afterwards modifying it in the
irection of greater simplicity and harmony, the
—_ preserving it in its more pristine inflectional
For over a century the Oceanic peoples have been
in contact with Europeans, and nearly all the
be henge as well as many of the Melanesians,
profess some form of Christianity—the first mis-
sion established being that to Tahiti in 1797 by
the London Missionary Society. But as western
influences increase the races themselves appear to
decrease. Thus, the population of Hawaii had
fallen from about 300,000 at the time of Cook’s
visit (1778) to 40,000 in 1884 ; the Maoris of New
Zealand, who numbered probably 400,000 in 1769
( Cook’s first visit), were reduced to 42,000, includ-
ing half- in 1886, and the Tahitians from
,000 in 1776 to less than 10,000 in 1888. Here
and there the returns show an pe 95 increase,
as in some of the Ellice and Marshall islands, but
only amongst the half-castes. Everywhere the
pure Polynesian race seems to be rapidly disappear-
ing, a phenomenon attributed partly to the intro-
duction of alcoholic drinks, partly to the abrupt
change of habits, dress, diet, &c. enforced or
encouraged by the missionaries, but mainly to the
ravages of leprosy, smallpox, syphilis, measles,
and especially pulmonary affections, by which
whole communities have been decimated.
Formerly the political organisation was based on
a distinction between two classes, the nobles and
the common people. The Maoris had developed a
sort of democracy ; but elsewhere the archipelagoes
constituted one or more monarchies of a somewhat
feudal character, with powerful hereditary rulers
under a king, whose authority had been much
reduced in Samoa, the Marquesas, and some other
groups. Their subjects were a gay, pleasure-lovin
people, engaged chiefly in fishing, pa baggret an
navigation. Their diet was largely vegetarian
(yams, taro, batatas, bananas, cocoa-nuts, &c.),
varied with fish, pork, poultry, and, in some places,
5
_ human flesh. Hnman victims were also offered on
solemn occasions, and a prominent feature of the
itive religion was the so-called Tabu (q.v.),
in virtue of which certain persons and objects
acquired a sacred character. But there was no-
where a distinct sacerdotal class, and most of the
old beliefs had resolved themselves into a system of
ancestor-worship. Other distinctive institutions
were certain orders of knighthood, secret societies
with iar semi-religious rites, and tattooing,
which, ly in Micronesia, acquired the char-
aed of a fine art, a the Po Pa
stems in its elaborate designs an
skiifal execation. Few other arts were practised,
and letters were unknown, although a national
folklore, tolerably rich in historic legends and
was orally preserved, and has now been
to writing by European scholars.
See Cora, and the articles on the several Polynesian
or groups of islands; and for the first navigators
in Polynesia, see GEOGRAPHY, PactFic OCEAN in this
work. See also Ellis, Polynesian Researches (1829);
Reybaud, La Polynésie (1843); Sir George Grey, Poly-
nesian Mythology (1855); De Quatrefages, Les Poly-
nésiens et leurs igrations (1866); Pritchard, Polynesian
Reminiscences (1866) Angus, Polynesia, or the Islands
of the Pacific, &c. (1867); Waitz-Gerland, Anthro-
pologie der Naturvilker, vol. vi. (1872); Moresby, New
Guinea and Polynesia (1877); Fornander, An Account
of the Polynesian Race, &c. (1878-86); Gill, Histor-
ical Sketches of Savage Life in Polynesia (1880); Lesson,
Les Polynésiens, dc. (1880-87); Keane, Inter-Oceanic
Races and Languages (1880); Novara and Challenger
Reports; R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (1891) ; and
Guillemard on Malaysia and the Pacifie Archipelagoes
(1895) in the new edition of ‘Stanford’s Compendium.’
Pol a name usually applied to an animal
like the fresh-water Hydra or like the Sea-anemone,
having a tubular body and a wreath of many
tentacles around the mouth. The name is equally
applicable to an isolated individual or to a mem-
ber (zooid or ‘ nm’) of a colony. Thus, the
individuals which make up a zoophyte or a coral
colony are called polyps, and the term is seldom
used except in reference to Celenterate animals.
But the history of the word has been strange. In
Greek and Latin works on natural history the
term polypous or polypus is usually applied to the
octopus (poulpe), or some other cuttle-fish, though
sometimes to the many-footed wood-louse, Oniscus.
Réaumur and Jussieu were the first to apply the
word to zoophytes and the like; Lamarek used it
more loosely, but gradually it has been narrowed
to the signification above noted. See ANEMONE,
C@LENTERATA, CoRAL, HyprRA, Hyprozoa, &c. ;
and Potypus, for the surgical use of the term.
Polyphemus, in the Homeric mythology,
the son of Poseidon and the nymph Thoosa, the
most celebrated of the fabulous Cyclopes (q.v.),
who inhabited the island of Sicily. He was of im-
mense size, and had only one eye. When Ulysses
landed on that island he entered the cave of Poly-
phemus with twelve companions, of which number
this tremendous cannibal ate six. The others stood
expecting the same fate, but their cunning leader
made Polyphemus drunk, then burned out his
single eye with a burning pole, and so escaped,
leaving the blinded monster to grope about in the
darkness,
Polyphonic (Gr. polys, ‘many,’ and phoné,
‘voice’). When a musical composition consists of
two or more parts, each of which has an independ-
ent melody of its own, it is said to be polyphonic,
in opposition to a homophonie composition, consist-
ing of a principal part with a leading idea, and
accessory parts employed to strengthen it. Each
part of a polyphonic composition aims at melodic
perfection, and, while supporting the other, has
an equal share in the entire effect. A Fugue
(q.v.) is the most perfect example of polyphonic
composition.
Polypodium (the Greek name, as old as
Theophrastus, was polypodion, from polys, ‘many,’
and podion, ‘a little foot Recep 3 the foot-
like appendage of the rhizome, not the leaf), a
genus of Ferns, with spore-cases on the back of
the frond, distinct, ring-shaped, in roundish sor7,
destitute of indusium. It is the largest genus of
the Filices, comprising over 450 species; and
amongst them are plants of different modes of
growth, of different venation, and from almost
all climates. Several species, differing very
considerably in appearance, are natives of
Britain, where no fern is more common than
P. vulgare. It grows on rocks, trees, dry banks,
&e., and has fronds 2 to 18 inches long, deep]
pinnatifid, with large sori. P. dryopteris, with
delicate ternate bipinnate fronds, is a fine orna-
302 POLY PORUS
POMACE
places in Scotland.
ment of many dry ston
ern, is said to possess
P. calaguala, a native of
Polypodium :
1, Polypodium dryopteris ; 2, P. vulgare.
important medicinal properties—solvent, deobstra-
ent, sudorific, &e.
Polyporus. See AMApovu, and Dry Ror.
Polyp’'terus, a genus of Ganoid fishes, of which
only one species (P. bichir) is known. It lives
in the Nile and western rivers of tropical Africa.
It may attain a length of 4 feet, and is esteemed
as food. Very characteristic is a series of dorsal
spines, with attached finlets, which extend almost
the entire length of the back. Of its life very
little is known. The only nearly allied living form
is Calamoichthys ealabaricus from Old Calabar.
Polypus, in Surgery, is an ancient term em-
ployed to signify rs sort of pedunculated tumour
attached to the surface of a mucous membrane, to
which it was sup to adhere like a many-
footed animal, as its name indicates. The most
common seats of polypus are the nostrils and the
uterus; but these tumours are also found in the
rectum, the larynx, and the external anditory
passage of the ear. The only satisfactory mode of
treatment consists in their removal, which must be
effected in various ways, according to their posi-
tion, as by the forceps, écraseur, ligature, &c.
Polytechnique, or PoLyTecunic ScHoon
(Gr. polys, ‘many,’ techné, ‘art’), is an institute
in which the technical sciences that rest in great
part upon a mathematical basis, such as engineer-
ing, architecture, &c., are taught. The first school
of the kind was established in Paris (1794) by the
National Convention, under the name of School of
Public Works. No students were admitted but
those who intended to enter the public service,
especially the corps of civil and ecg rik engineers
and the artillery. The Polytechnic School, as it
was called from 1795, has been repeatedly reorgan-
ised as the different political parties have sneceeded
to power. At the present time it is the institute
in which France trains her artillery and engineer
officers, her naval engineers, her directors of roads
and bridges, and of mines, her telegraph officers,
in short, all her officials who require to know
aqme. of the higher branches of technical
science. Germany too has her polytechnics. Those
that came into being during the first half of the
19th century were in great part training-schools
for the higher branches of the industrial arts; but
since Zurich established (1856) a polytechnic
modelled on the plan of the German universi!
most of the German polytechnics have follo
suit. Of these establishments, thus increased in
scope (now called also Technische Hochschulen),
Germany has nine or ten, and Austria-H
half a dozen; though Germany has also sev
other coll that might fairly claim the name of
Polytechnikum in the old sense. The nine techni-
cal coll of Berlin, Hanover, Aix-la-Chapelle,
Munich, en, Stuttgart, Carlsrunhe, Darmstadt,
and Brunswick have some 550 teachers and 6000
pol chief departments of instruction being
architecture, civil engineering, machine-making,
shipbuilding, chemistry, an pag ey
America the oldest institutions of the d are
the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, at Troy,
New York, and the Franklin Institute, at Phila-
delphia, both founded in 1824. There are now
nearly a hundred technical schools in the United
States, more than half of them endowed with a
national land-grant. See TECHNICAL EDUCATION ;
also ArT; and Pinet, Histoire de l’Ecole Poly-
technique (1886).
Polytheism. See RELiGion.
Polytrichum, a genus of Mosses (q.v.).
Polyzoa, or Bry0ozoa, a class of small animals
which, with one exception, form colonies, and are
almost always fixed. Most familiar are the sea-
mats or horn-wracks (Flustra), cast-up pieces of
which are abundant on the beach. On these will be
seen the hundreds of separate chambers in which
the minute individuals live. Each individual has
a sac-like or on Boe ae body, traversed by a food-
canal bent like a U, crowned around the mouth
by a wreath of tentacles, controlled by a ee
nerve-centre. The cuticle which surrounds the
body is usually horn-like, not unfrequently caleare-
ous (Cellepora, Lepralia, &c.), and sometimes
gelatinous (Alcyonidium, Lophopus). The indi-
viduals of a colony are not always all alike;
thus, some of them are occasionally modified into
gs birds’-beak-like or whip-like structures.
All Polyzoa mali by budding, and thus the
colonies increase. he individuals in the older
ee: of the colony usually degenerate or die.
resh-water forms reproduce by peculiar winter-
buds or statoblasts, which are liberated on the
death of the parent, are floated rate by currents,
and after a winter’s quiescence develop in spring.
But all Polyzoa also reproduce sexually ; the sexes
may be separate or united; the larve developed
from the eggs are free-swimming. The Polyzoa
used to be ranked with Fos pds among the
Hydrozoa), but the individual animals are much
more complex and are independent of one another.
Often they are called molluscoid, because of
apparent affinities with lamp-shells or Brachio-
pods, which used to be regarded as allied to
molluscs. Most modern zoologists rank them as
a distinct but heterogeneous class in the gréat
assemblage of ‘worms’ or‘ Vermes.’ Representa-
tive genera are Cristatella, Lophopus, Pluma-
tella—in fresh water; Flustra, Membranipora,
Alecyonidium, Cellepora—marine ; Pedicellina and
Loxosoma—two marine genera, simpler than the
others, the latter non-colonial. Rhabdoplenra, a
remarkable genus sometimes included in this class,
shows at least hints of vertebrate affinities.
See Allman, British Fresh-water Polyzoa (Lond. 1886);
Busk, Challenger Report, X. (1884); Hinks, British
Marine Polyzoa (Lond. 1880); E. Ray Lankester, article
*Polyzoa’ in Ency. Brit.
Pomacezw, or PoME#, according to some
botanists, a natural order of plants, but more.
nerally regarded as asub-order of Rosacese (q. v.).
he plants of this order are all trees or shrubs,
abundant in Europe, and chiefly belong to the
POMADE
POMERANIA 303
temperate and colder regions of the northern
hemisphere ; they are rare in very warm climates,
and are not found at all in the southern hemisphere.
They have the botanical characters described in the
article Rosacew (q.v.), and in addition are distin-
ished by having the tube of the calyx more or
Taos globose, the ovary fleshy and juicy, lined with
a thin disc, its carpels adhering more or less to the
sides of the calyx and to each other; the fruit a
Pome (q.v.), 1- to 5-celled, in a few instances spuri-
ously 10-celled; the ovules in pairs, collateral.
Many of the species are prized for the beauty and
oe of their flowers, some produce valuable
timber ; but the order is chiefly remarkable as pro-
ducing a number of the very finest fruits of tem-
— climates. See APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE,
EDLAR, LoQguAT, HAWTHORN, CRATAGUS, AME-
{LANCHIER, ROWAN TREE, SERVICE.—There are
‘about 200 known species.
Pomade, or PoMATUM, is a preparation of fine
inodorous fat, such as lard or suet, used instead of
liquid oil for the hair. It may be perfumed with
various essences.
Pombal, SeBasTIAN JOSEPH DE CARVALHO E
MELLO, MARQUIS OF, the — of Portuguese
| statesmen, was born 13th May 1699, at the castle
| of Soure, near Coimbra. In 1739 he was appointed
] ambassador in London, and six years later was
. sent to Vienna in a similar capacity. Just before
ig ascended the throne of Portugal (1750),
Pombal was appointed secretary for foreign affairs.
Among his first acts was to re-attach to the crown
a number of domains that had been unjustly alien-
ated. When the great earthquake happened at
Lisbon in 1755 Pombal displayed great calmness
and fertile resource, so that next year the kin
made him prime-minister. He crushed a revolt
i ted by the great nobles and the Jesuits, and
in 1759 banished the latter from the kingdom.
Then he abolished slavery in Portugal, set himself
to establish good elementary schools, and published
a new code of laws. Besides this, he effected the
es of the army, the introduction of
colonists into the Portuguese settlements, the
establishment of an East India Company, and
another for Brazil. The tyranny of the Inquisition
was broken. Agriculture, commerce, and the fin-
ances were all improved. In 1758 he had been
made Count of Oeyras, and in 1770 he was created
nis of Pombal. On the accession of Joseph’s
daughter, Maria I. (in 1777), who was under clerical
influence, Pombal, who had himself been high-
handed, if not despotic, especially towards the
Church, was banished from court, while many of
his institutions were abolished. He died at his
castle of Pombal, 8th May 1782.
See Life by G. Moore (1819); John Smith, Memoirs
Pombal (2 vols. 1843); Carnota, Marquis Pombal
( . trans. 1871); and Carayon, Prisons du Marquis
de Pombal—his diary ( Paris, 1865).
Pome (Lat. pomum, ‘ apple’), the form of Fruit
(q.¥.) produced by the Pomaceze (q.v.)—a fleshy,
indehiscent, syncarpous fruit, with calyx attached.
Pomegranate (Punica “granatum), a fruit
much cultivated in warm countries, and apparently
a native of the warmer temperate parts of Asia,
ps also of the north of Africa. It has been
cultivated in Asia from the most ancient times, and
is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. It
has long been naturalised in the south of Europe.
In a wild state the plant is a thorny bush, in
cultivation it is a low tree, with twiggy branches,
flowers at the extremities of the branches, the calyx
red, the petals scarlet. It is generally referred to
the natural order Myrtacece. The calyx is leathery,
tubular, 5- to 7-cleft ; there are 5to 7crumpled petals ;
the fruit (technically called balausta) is as large
as a medium-sized orange, having a thick leathery
rind of a fine golden yellow, with a rosy tinge
on the sunny side, not bursting when ripe; the
cells filled with numerous seeds, each of which is
surrounded with pulp, and separately enclosed in
a thin membrane; the upper and lower series of
carpels being differently attached. Thus the
eae appears to be formed of a great num
me-
r of
dish berries packed together and compressed
Pomegranate ( Punica granatum).
into irregular angular forms. The pulp is sweet,
sometimes subacid, and of a pleasant delicate
flavour, very cooling, and particularly grateful in
warm climates. It is often used for the prepara-
tion of cooling drinks. A kind of pomegranate
without seeds is cultivated and much prized in
India and Persia. Pomegranates have long been
imported in small quantities into Britain from
Portugal and the north of Africa, but have never
become an article of general demand and com-
mercial importance like oranges. There is an
ornamental variety of the pomegranate with double
flowers. The rind of the fruit is very astringent,
and a decoction is used as a garglein relaxed sore
throat, and as a medicine in diarrhea, dysentery,
&e. Deriving its astringency from tannin, it is
used to tan leather. The finest Morocco leather
is said to be tanned with it, and small quantities
are imported into Britain from the north of Africa
for the preparation of the finest kinds of leather,
under the name of Pomegranate Bark. The bark
of the roots is used as an anthelmintic, and is often
successfully administered in cases of tapeworm.
It contains a peculiar principle called punicin,
having the appearance of an oleo-resin, an acrid
taste, and affecting the nostrils like Veratria (q.v.).
Its value was known to the ancients, and it has
long been in use in India. The peagrennr tree
is occasionally cultivated in hothouses or green-
houses in Britain. It bears the winters of the
latitude of London in the open air, and is very
ornamental, but the fruit is worthless. In some
parts of the sonth of Europe it is used as a hedge-
lant. In northern Mexico it grows to great per-
ection, and in some of the southern states of the
American Union; even as far north as New York
it will, if protected in winter, bear fruit, and in
some seasons ripen it.
Pomerania (Ger. Pommern), a province of
Prussia, bounded N. by the Baltic, E. by West
Prussia, 8. by Brandenburg, and W. by Mecklen-
burg. Area, 11,620 sq. m. It is one of the lowest
and flattest regions in Germany, and has few hills
of even moderate height, but numerous lakes and
ponds, The river Oder divides Hither Pomerania
(next Mecklenburg) from Farther Pomerania. The
shores of the latter are lined with sand-dunes.
The islands of Wollin and Usedom form the
northern side of the Stettiner Haff (Lagoon) ; and
farther to the north-west lies the island of Riigen.
Pomerania is essentially an agricultural province,
more than 55 per cent. of the total area being
in tillage, whilst meadows cover another 194 per
304 POMEROY
POMPADOUR
cent., and forests mes 20 cent. Rye and
eee are the principal products; in a secondary
ee wheat, barley, oats, flax, beet-root,
to , hops, and fruit. More than 55 per
cent. of the soil is owned by the nobility, as in
Mecklenburg (q.v.). Commerce flourishes in the
coast towns, Stettin and Stralsund being the most
important. Apart from shipbuilding, machine-
works, and the manufacture of sugar, chemicals,
bricks, &e., which are carried on principally in the
coast towns, the only industries are paper, tobacco,
glass, = mos wares. ne rr are valu-
able. ue ut is reared, especially geese, in
Farther Pomeahia” Greifswald in this rovince is
the seat of a university ; Stettin is the capital.
Pomerania sends fourteen members to the imperial
‘et, and twenty-six to the Prussian Lower House.
Por. (1890) 1,520,889. See Prussia.
Pomerania formed a part of the territory of the
ancient Vandals, When they moved south in the
5th century, it was occupied by Slavic tribes, one
of whom was called Pomerani; hence the name of
the region. From about 1100 it had its own line
of princely rulers, and about 1124 it adopted
Christianity in consequence of the preaching of
Bishop Otto of Bamberg. The native princes
assumed the title of duke in 1170 and joined the
German empire, being put under the suzerainty of
Brandenburg. The duchy was overrun by the
Imperialists in the Thirty Years’ War, and Wallen-
stein besieged Stralsund; they were followed by
the Swedes, who established themselves _per-
manently in Hither Pomerania and in several towns
of Farther Pomerania. In 1637 the last duke of
the native dynasty died, whereupon Brandenburg
claimed the duchy ; the Swedes, however, stuck to
what they held until 1720, and certain districts
in Hither Pomerania were not given up to Prussia
until 1815. See Histories by Kantzow (1835), Sell
(3 vols. 1819-20), Fock (6 vols. 1861-72), and
Klempin (3 vols. 1868-88).
Pomeroy, capital of Meigs county, Ohio, be-
tween the Ohio River and a range.o procera
hills, 133 miles by rail SE. of Columbus. The
yining of coal and the manufacture of salt are
the chief industries. It also contains foundries, a
woollen-factory, &. Pop. (1880) 5560; (1900) 4639.
Pomfret. See PonTEFRACT.
Pomona, the Roman divinity of the fruit
(pomum) of trees. She was beloved by several
of the rustie divinities, as Sylvanus, Picus, and
Vertumnus. Propertius tells us that the last,
after vainly trying to approach her under various
forms, at last succeeded by assuming the figure of
an old woman. In this guise he recounted to her
the lamentable histories of women who had despised
love, and, having touched her heart to pity, sud-
denly transformed himself into a ot eee, aaa
Varro tells us that at Rome the worship of Pomona
was under the care of a special priest, the flamen
Pomonalis. In works of art she was generally
represented with fruits in her lap, or in a basket,
with a garland of fruits in her hair, and a pruning-
knife in her right hand.
Pomona, or MAINLAND. See ORKNEY.
Pompadour, JEANNE ANTOINETTE POISSON,
MARQUISE DE, the most famous among the mis-
tresses of Louis XV., was born in Paris, 29th
December 1721. She was baptised as the child
of i ar Poisson and his wife Madeleine de la
Motte, but it was suspected that her father was
Le Normant de Tournehem, a wealthy ier-
général, who provided for her education. She
rew up a woman of remarkable grace and beauty,
evoted to music and painting, and charming every
one by her vivacity and wit. But her mind was
early depraved by her mother, who constantly
dinned into her ears that she was ‘un morceau de
roi,’ and habituated her to see in the role of
king’s favourite the ideal of feminine ambi-
tion. In 1741 she was Rae to her protector’s
nephew, Le Normant d’Etioles, and soon became
a queen of fashion in the financial world of Paris.
But neither this nor a devoted husband's love could
satisfy her heart, and, as it was impossible to h
for an introduction at court, for two years
sought to attract the eye of the king by waylaying
him when he went out hunting. At len in
February 1745 she attained her object at a ball
given by the ea on the occasion of the dauphin’s
Pope and ere long she was installed at Versailles,
and ennobled by the title of Marquise de Pompa-
dour. Her husband, to whom she had already
borne a daughter, was removed from Paris, but later
had his loss recouped with lucrative offices; her
brother was afterwards made Marquis de Marign A
Ere long she assumed the entire control of pu
affairs, the king being merely an indolent fainéant
who assisted at the spectacle of his reign withovt
even taking an interest in it. For twenty years
the mistress swayed the whole policy of the state,
and lavished its treasures on the gratification of
her artistic tastes, and in carrying out her own
ambitious schemes. She reversed the traditional
policy of France because Frederick the Great lam-
med her, and the proud Maria Theresa addressed
er in a letter under the royal style as Ma cousine.
She filled all public offices with her PR
corresponded with the generals in the field, an
made her own creatures ministers of France, the
Abbé de Bernis and the Due de Choiseul. Her
policy was disastrous, her wars unfortunate ; still
the ministry of Choiseul was the only fairly eredit-
able portion of the reign, which owed to her twen
years of relative dignity. She was a la
patroness of the arts, and heaped her bounty upon
= and painters, yet did not éscape showers of
ampoons—the famous Poissardes, for a
share in which many a wit went to the Bastille.
She loved china, fine buildings, books, and sump-
tuous bindings, and it is said printed with her own
hands a fine edition of the Rodogune of Corneille.
Indeed, she was an artist in everything—‘ elle était
des nétres,’ as Voltaire said truly when he heard of
her death. The king remained faithful to her from
habit rather than affection, and from the réle of
mistress she into that of amie nécessaire,
and retained her difficult position to the end,
relieving him of all business, by diverting him wit
private theatricals in her famons ‘ théAtre des petits
cabinets,’ where she acted charmingly, and at last
even by countenancing his infamous debaucheries
and providing him with mistresses too insignificant
to be rivals. She herself said with the pathos ot
truth, ‘ma vie est un combat,’ and at last her
nerves gave way under the strain, and after a
languor of twenty days she died, 15th April 1764.
She met the inevitable with that queenly Ne og
that marked everything she did. Her breath fi
on the wings of a playful ~~ Stay, Monsieur
Curé,’ she said to the priest who was leaving her
room, ‘ wait a little; we shall go out together.’
Madame de Pompadour was the last mistress of
the king worthy of the name; the descent from her
reign of grace and decorum to the boisterous vul-
garities of Dubarry was profound. She was ‘froide
comme une macrense,’ says Madame du Hausset,
her femme-de-chambre, in her silly but interesting
memoirs, and there can be no doubt that through-
out life ambition was the one passion of her heart.
She secured her reign till her last hour—no sooner
had she closed her eyes than she was forgotten.
The Mémoires (Liége, 1766) attributed to her are of
no value, See the i figue (1858) and Cam-
pardon (1867); E. and J, de Goncourt, Les Mattresses de
le ll ee
POMPEII
305
Louis XV. (vol. ii. 1860); Beaujoint’s Secret Memoirs of
La Marquise de Pompadour (1885); but especially her
Correspondance, with her father and brother, edited by
Malassis (1878), and with the Comte de Clermont, edited
by Bonhomme (1880).
Fompcii, a reag ok at the mouth of the Sarnus,
on the Neapolitan Riviera, founded about 600 B.c.
by the Oscans, and, after them, occupied by the
yrrheno-Pelasgians, and by the Samnites, till
these, about 80 B.C., were dispossessed by the
Romans. From that time down to its destruction,
79 A.D., it became (with Herculaneum) a sort of
Rome-super-Mare, frequented by the aristocracy,
if not by Caligula and Nero, in whose honour it
erected triumphal arches. Fed from the capital
with every luxury and distinction, it included
temples in which the inhabitants were encouraged
to make costly sacrifices with all their adjuncts of
festivity and | ato ; indeed, its public monu-
ments, out of al at alge to its size, were in
number and magnificence such as we can now but
dimly estimate. On February 5, 63 A.D., by an
earthquake in the vicinity, these buildings were
all but levelled with the ground, and some years
elapsed ere the fugitive citizens recovered con-
fidence enough to re-
Pompeii remained a heap of hardened mud and
ashes, gradually overgrown with grass—the wall
of the great theatre and the outline of the amphi-
theatre alone marking its site—till 1592, when the
architect Fontana, in cutting an aqueduct, came
on some ancient buildings. These were long
believed to mark the old Stabie; and only in
1748, under the Bourbon Charles III., were they
recognised as part of Pompeii. Unsystematic,
unscientific excavations proceeded fitfully till 1860,
when the Italian kingdom took in hand the un-
earthing of the city. This was carried out with
admirable ingenuity, care, and suecess—all treasure-
trove being vigilantly preserved, and an archxo-
logical record kept by the official excavators
Fiorelli and Ruggiero, till now Pompeii possesses
a distinction unknown to it in the zenith of its
imperial favour, and attracts the pilgrim from
every clime for the object-lessons it is unique
in affording as to the public and private life of
antiquity.
We cannot give more than the merest indication
of the outline and distribution of Pompeii as now ex-
posed. In form an irregular ellipse, extending from
east to west, in circumference about 2843 yards,
oceupy and _ rebuild
what was once Pompeii.
Reconstruction was
carried out with a haste
and disregard of archi-
tectural law contrasting
strongly with the ear-
lier work—the Forum
especially exhibiting
the inferiority of its
Roman to its Greek
builders. _Tawdriness
replaced simplicity of
decoration — the
columns, capitals, and
tornices being orna-
mented with reliefs in
stucco picked out with
parti-coloured designs,
while private houses,
fantastically restored
and adorned, infringed
every artistic or #s-
= canon to he ger
the gro ue style o
the Peadeues. py
Iutionised as it was for the worse, the city, how-
ever, retained a good deal’of Greek character and
colouring, and had relapsed into more than its
former gaiety and licentiousness, when on the 23d
August (or, more probably, on the 23d November)
79, with a return of the shocks of earthquake,
Vesuvius was seen to throw up a column of black
smoke expanding like some umbrella-pine of the
neighbourhood, till it assumed the proportions of a
great swarthy cloud, dense with ashes, pumice, and
red-hot stones, settling down on the doomed cities
with a force increased by the rain-torrents that
intermittently fell. Amid the impenetrable gloom
that veiled land and sea, the panic of the citizens
was aggravated by repeated shocks of earthquake,
and for three days the flight continued till Pompeii
‘was abandoned by all who could effect their escape.
By the fourth day the sun had partially reappeared,
as if shining through a fog, and the more courage-
ous of the citizens began to return for such of their
roperty as they could disinter. Much was doubt-
ess recovered or possibly stolen; but the desola-
tion and distress were such that the reigning emperor
Titus organised relief on an imperial scale, and
even undertook the clearing and rebuilding of the
city. This attempt was soon abandoned, and
384
House of the Small Fountain, Pompeii.
it had eight gates to which archeology has given
names mostly conjectural. It had outgrown its
walls, however, particularly towards the sea, and
developed considerable suburbs. Its most important
part—not quite one-half, including Forum, adjacent
temples and public buildings, two theatres with
colonnades, amphitheatre, and many private houses
—has already been exhumed, and five main streets
made out and (provisionally) named. It has been
divided, by official arrangement, into nine regiones
(quarters), seven of them wholly or partially ex-
cavated, and each is subdivided into insule (blocks),
bounded by four streets and provided each with a
number, as are also the streets of each quarter.
A trottoir borders the streets, which are straight
and narrow—the broader 24 feet wide, the narrower
14 feet only—and admirably paved with polygonal
blocks of lava. High stepping-stones, placed mostly
at the corners, lead across.from one trottoir to
another, and these retain the impressions of horses’
hoofs, while in the causeway between the wagons
have left deep ruts. The street corners are pro-
vided with fountains, ornamented usually with the
head of a god ora mask. Notices painted in red
letters, and referring to puttietpal elections for
which some particular candidate is recommended,
306 POMPEII
POMPEY
occur frequently on the street walls, while trade-
signs are few and far between. An occasional
‘phallus,’ to avert the evil eye, projects from over
a doorway, and, much more common, one or two
large snakes, emblems of the Lares, are to be seen,
The stuccoed walls, to judge from the Grafftd (q.v.) or
roughly-scratched drawings on them, were as tempt-
ing to the Pompeian gamin as to our own. House-
construction consists mainly of concrete (rubble
held together by cement) or brick, and sometimes
of stone blocks, especially at the corners. Two-
storied, sometimes three-storied houses are numer-
ous, though the upper floors, built of wood, have
heen consumed by the eruption. “Am usually
occupied the ground floors of dwelling-houses, on
their street aspect, let out to merchants or dealers
as at the present day, but not connected with the
back part of the house. They could be separated
from the street by large wooden doors, while inside
they had tables covered with marble, in which
earthen vessels for wine or oil were inserted. The
shopkeeper had sometimes a second room at the
betk;, when he did not live on an upper floor or in
another part of the town. Retail traffic must have
been considerable at Pompeii, to judge from the
number of those shops along the streets, which,
when not so flanked, presented bare walls, occa-
sionally enlivened with a Sere Only a per-
sonal visit can convey an idea of the indoor life of
the Pompeians, with whom the absence of glass,
the fewness of the openings in the street aspect of
the house-wall, and the protection of these with
iron gratings are among the points noted by the
most casual visitor. odels of the interior of an
entire house in its original form are given in the
fuller guide-books to Pompeii—the feature that
most strikes the northerner being the smallness
of the rooms, particularly the dormitories—quite
intelligible, however, when he realises that the
Pompeians led an open-air life, and performed their
toilets at the bath, public or private. As rebuilt
after 63, Pompeii shows little marble, the columns
being of tufa or brick cemented by mortar. A
coating of stueco was laid over wall or column,
and presented an ample field for ornamental _paint-
ing. This must have given to Pompeii its bright,
gay colouring, which, with its reds, blues, and
yellows, on column and capital, on wall and par-
tition, harmonise so well with the glowing sunlight
of the south. On the centre of the interior walls is
generally seen a painting unconnected with the
others—often of a nymph, or a genius, when not
distinctly erotic in theme—typifying faithfully the
voluptuous sensual life of this pleasure-haunt of
paganism.
Thanks to pho phs, to the excellent plans in the
best guidebooks, and to models, the reader, as the next
best thing t» a personal visit, can make a tour of the
sxecratal, portion of Pompeii, and, from the minute and
trustworthy descriptions of the temples, basilicas, public
buildings, and private houses, form a vivid realisation of
the city in its most frequented and animated quarters.
Perhaps the most pthc, es substitute for such a visit
is E. Neville Rolfe's Pompeii, Past and Present, illus-
trated by pete se of the ruins as they are, with
sketches of their original elevations (Lond. 1884). The
student who wishes to enter fully into the whole subject
should read Mazois, Les Ruines de Pompeii (4 vols. Paris,
1812-38) ; Nissen, Pompeian. Studien zur Stdéidtekunde des
Alterthums (| Leip. 1877); Mau, Geschichte der dekorativen
Wandmalerei in Pompeii (Berl. 1882); Overbeck-Mau,
Pompeii (Leip. 1884); K. Lange, Haus und Halle
(Leip. 1885); while Professor Fiorelli’s great work, Gli
Scavi di Pompei dal 1861 al 1872, is a mine of informa-
tion, supplied at first hand by the official excavator, and
besides other matter contains an account of the ingenious
method by which, pouring in liquid plaster of Paris into
the hollows ied by the skeletons of the victims of
the eruption, and allowing it to harden, he obtained a
“perfect cast, consisting of the bones of the deceased
Rome sitio, stn no longer in flesh, but in plaster of
Pompelmoose, or Pometo (Fr. Pampel-
mouse), also * pumelon,’ names for a kina of Shad-
dock (q.v.), all corrupted from the specific name
Pomum melo.
Pompey. Cneius Pompeius Magnus, the rival
of Cesar, was born in 106 B.c., and at seventeen.
fought along with his father in the Social or Italian
war on the side of Sulla against the faction of
Marius and Cinna, When Sulla returned from
Greece to Italy to oppose Marius (84) Pompey
hastened into Picenum, and there an army
of three legions, with which he drove the Fins md
of Marius ont of the district, and then joined Su
For his prudence, valour, and good fortune through-
out the war he was sent to destroy the remains of
the Marian faction in Africa and Sicily. On his
triumphant return to Rome he was honoured with
the name of Magnus, or the Great. His triumph
was an un ented distinction for one who had
not yet held any public office and was aay an
eques. His next exploits were the reduction of the
followers of Lepidus, whom he drove out of Italy,
and the extinction of the Marian in Spain
under the brave Sertorius (76-71). Pompey suf-
fered some severe defeats from Sertorius, and,
indeed, put an end to the war only after his
antagonist’s assassination. Returning to Italy, he
fell in with the remnants of the army of Spartacus,
and thus closed the Servile war. He was now
the idol of the people, and, though legally ineli-
gible for the consulship, was elected for the ey
0, the senate relieving him of his disabilities
rather than provoke him to extremities. Hitherto
Pompey belon, to the aristocratic
>
but of late years he had been looked u with
suspicion by some of the leading men, and he now
publicly espoused the people’s cause. He carried
a law restoring the tribunician power to the prone
and aided largely in introducing the Lex Aurelia,
by which the je ow should for the future be taken.
from the senate, the equites, and the tribuni aerarit,
instead of from the senate alone, In 67-66 Pompey
cleared the Mediterranean of the pirates who
infested it; and during the next four years (65-62)
conquered Mithridates, king of Pontus, Tigranes,
king of Armenia, and Antiochus, king of Syria.
At the same time he subdued the Jews and ca
tured Jerusalem. On his return to Italy he d
banded his army, and entered Rome in triumph for
the third time in 61. But now his star began to
wane. Henceforward we find him distrusted by
the aristocracy, and second to in lar
favour. After his return he was anxious that his
acts in Asia should be ratified by the senate, and
certain lands apportioned among his veterans, But
the senate declined to accede to his wish, and he
therefore formed a close intimacy with Cmsar, and
the pair, together with the plutocrat Crassus
formed that coalition which is commonly called
‘the First Triumvirate,’ and which for a time
frustrated all the efforts of the aristocratic ete f
This small oligarchy carried all before them :
Pompey’s acts in Ania were ratified, and his
promises to his troops fulfilled; Czasar’s ar
were all gained, and his agrarian law, distributing
land in Campania among the poorer citizens, was
. Cwsar’s daughter, Julia, was given in
marriage to Pore and private relationship was
thus made to bi y oe the tie of political
interest. In the year following Cwsar repaired to
Gaul, and there for nine years carried on a career
of conquest that covered him with glory, while
Pompey was idly wasting his time and his energies
at Rome. But Pompey could not bear a rival.
Jealousies arose betwixt the two; Julia died in
54, and thus father-in-law and son-in-law were
908 OF"d “TTA “TOA
"‘ISdNOd AO MAIA SCINVYONVd
eee ty Oe
¥. :
POMPEY’S PILLAR
PONIATOWSKI 307
sundered by a yet wider gulf, which no bridge could
span. Pompey now returned to the aristocratic
party, whose great desire was to check Cesar’s
views, and 4, him of his command. Cvzesar was
ordered to lay down his office and return to Rome,
which he consented to do, provided Pompey, who
had an army near Rome, would do the same. The
senate insisted on an unconditional resignation,
and ordered him to disband his army by a certain
day, otherwise he would be declared a public enemy.
To this resolution two of the tribunes in vain
objected; they therefore left the city and cast
themselves on Czesar for protection. It was on
this memorable occasion that he crossed the Rubi-
con, and thus defied the senate and its armies,
which were under Pompey’s command. The events
of the civil war which followed have already been
recorded in the life of Cesar. It remains only to
mention that, after being finally defeated at Phar-
salia in 48, Pompey escaped to Egypt, where,
byorder of the king’s ministers, he was treacherously
by one of his former centurions as he was
landing from his boat. His head was cut off, and
afterwards presented to Cesar on his arrival in
But the magnanimous Cesar ordered the
execution of the murderer of Pompey. The body
lay on the beach for some time, until it was buried
a freedman, Philippus, who had accompanied
master to the shore.
Pompey’s younger son, Sextus, at his third wife,
endeavoured after his father’s death to prolong tlie
struggle with Cwsar. He secured a large fleet,
manned la ly by slaves and political exiles, and,
oceupying Siei y, ravaged the coasts of Italy. But
in 36 B.C. he was defeated at sea by Agrippa, and
next year was slain at Mitylene.
Pompey’s Pillar, a celebrated column stand-
ing on an eminence about 1800 feet south of the walls
of Alexandria. It is a red granite monolith, of the
Corinthian order, 73 feet high, or with pedestal, 98
feet 9 inches; circumference, 29 feet 8 inches. On
the summit is a circular depression for the base of a
statue. The Greek inscription on the base shows it
to have been erected by Publius, prefect of E yt,
in honour of the wes YN Diocletian, sup y to
record his conquest of Alexandria, 296 A.D. The
ular name was erroneously applied by old travellers.
Ponani, a seaport town of British India, in the
district of Malabar, 30 miles 8. of Calicut. Pop.
12,241, mostly Mohammedans.
Ponapé. See CARoLINE ISLANDS.
Ponce, a seaport of Porto Rico, the second in
importance, about 45 miles‘SW. of San Juan. The
| harbour is spacious. Pop. (1899) 32,612. The depart-
ment produces sugar, cocoa, tobacco, oranges, &c,
Ponce de Leom, Fray Luts, a celebrated
Spanish poet, was born in 1527, probably at
ranada. He studied at Salamanca, entered the
=~ ‘order of St Augustine, and became professor of
Theology there in 1561. His translation and inter-
pretation of the Song of Solomon brought him five
years’ imprisonment from the tribunal of the In-
quisition at Valladolid. Released at length and
reinstated in his chair, he quietly resumed his
lectures with the words: ‘As we observed in our
last discourse.’ In 1580 he published a satisfac-
torily orthodox Latin commentary on the Song of
Solomon, later his De los Nombros de Christo
(1583-85) and La Perfecta Casada (1583), full
of imagery, eloquence, and enthusiasm, and both
in prose. Shortly before his death, which oceurred
in August 1591, he had been appointed
his order. His poetical remains were first pub-
lished by aol o at Madrid in 1631, under the
title Obras Proprias y Traduciones. ‘The latter con-
of translations from Virgil’s Zelogues and the
gics, the Odes of Horace, and the Psalms.
eneral of
His original poems are few, but they are amon
the masterpieces of Spanish lyrical Sonu ¥
There are German monographs by Wilkens (1866) and
Reusch (1873); also a Spanish Life by Tejede (1863).
Ponce de Leon, JUAN, the discoverer of
Florida, was born at San Servas, in Spain, in
1460, was a court page, served against the Moors,
and in 1502 sailed with Ovando to Hispaniola, and
became porte: of the eastern part of the island.
In 1510 he obtained the government of Porto Rico,
and had conquered the whole island by 1512, when
he was deprived of his post. He then, broken in
health, set out on a quest for the fountain of
nel tira youth, and on 27th March 1512 found
lorida, landing a little to the north of where St
Augustine now stands. He secured the appoint-
ment of adelantado of the country, and, after-
staying on his way back to drive the Caribs out
of Porto Rico, he returned in 1521 to conquer his
new subjects ; in this, however, he failed, and lost
nearly all his followers. He retired to Cuba, and
died there in July from the wound of a poisoned
arrow. His remains and a monument are in San
Juan de Porto Rico.
Poncho, an important article of male attire in
Chili, the Argentine Republic, and some other
parts of South America (see GAUCHOS). It con-
sists of a piece of woollen or alpaca cloth, 5 to 7
feet long, 3 to 4 feet broad, having in the middle a
slit through which the wearer’ passes his head, so
that the poncho rests upon the shoulders and hangs
down before and behind.
Pond, See WATER-SUPPLY.
Pond, JoHN, astronomer-royal, was born In
London in 1767, studied at Cambridge, and suc-
ceeded Maskelyne as astronomer-royal in 1811.
His name is identified with numerous improve-
ments in the methods and instruments of observa-
tion; he translated Laplace’s Systeme, and pub-
lished a star catalogue and many valuable papers.
He died 7th September 1836.
Pondicherry, the chief.of the French settle-
ments in India, situated on the Coromandel Coast,
53 miles 8S. by W. of Madras City, is divided into
two parts by a canal, White (European) town
being next the sea. It has handsome streets, a
government house, a college, a lighthouse, and
a cotton-mill employing 1500 hands, besides native
dyeing establishments. Pop. 41,858. It exports
chiefly oil-seeds. The French colony of Pondi-
cherry has an area of 115 sq. m. and a pop. of
140,945. The governor of Pondicherry is governor-
—— of the French possessions in India, The
rench first settled here in 1674. The Dutch took
the town in 1693, but restored it to the French in
1697. In 1748 Admiral Boscawen besieged Pondi-
cherry for two months, but was compelled to raise
the siege. Eyre Coote, however, took it in 1761,
yet it was restored to the French in 1763 with
reduced territory. It was once more taken by
the English under Sir Hector Monro in 1778,
and once more given back in 1783. In 1793 the
English again repossessed themselves of it, but it
was a third time restored to the French in 1816.
Pondoland, a district of Kaffraria, on the
Natal frontier, South Africa, 65 miles long by 30
wide, was annexed to Cape Colony in 1884 and
1887, except East Pondoland, which (with a pop. of
200,000) was annexed in 1894.
Pond-weed. See AQUATIC PLANTS.
Pongwe. See PUNGWE
Poniatowski, a princely family of Poland.
STANISLAS (1677-1762) joined Charles XII. of
Sweden in supporting Stanislas Leszezynski, and
was the chief instrument in saving the Swedish
king at Pultowa. He held his administrative
308 PONT
offices under Augustus IL. and Augustus I11.—His
son STANISLAS AUGUSTUS (1732-98) was the last
king of Poland (q.v.).—JOSEPH ANTONY, son of
Andrew, brother of king Stanislas Augustus, was
commander of the Polish legion in the army of
Napoleon. He was born at Warsaw, \7th May
1762, and trained in the Austrian army. In 1789
the Polish Assembly appointed him commander-in-
chief of the army of the south, with which he
ined brilliant victories over the Russian invaders
1792); but the convention of Targowice (see
OLAND) put an end to the contest in 1793. On
the outbreak of the oe year he joined the
army as a volunteer, but Kosciusko put him in
command of the division charged to defend Warsaw
on the north. On its fall he withdrew to Vienna.
In 1806 the Prussians evacuated Warsaw before
the invasion of the French; and when the duchy of
Warsaw was constituted (1807) Poniatowski was
appointed minister of war and commander-in-chief
for the duchy. In 1809, in the course of the war
between Austria and France, he invaded Galicia,
after having previously retired before stronger forces.
Three years later he joined, with a large body of
Poles, the French army in its invasion of Russia,
and rendered distinguished service at Smolensk and
Borodino, but more especially in the great battle
of Leipzig (1813), when he valiantly held his
ground on the right wing of the French battle-
array. Napoleon rewarded him by making him
marshal of France. After the battle he was left to
cover the retreat of the French army, and, whilst
attempting to swim his horse over the river Elster
to join the main body of his troops, he perished in
its waters, 19th October 1813. His body was
recovered, taken to Warsaw, and in 1816 removed
to Cracow, and placed beside the ashes of Sobieski
and Kosciusko. See (German) Biography by
Boguslawski (Cracow, 1831).
Pont, Timoruy (c. 1560-c. 1630), a pioneer
in Scottish geography and map-making, was the
son of Robert Pont (1524-1606), a celebrated
Edinburgh minister. -He luated at St Andrews
in 1584, was minister of Dunnet in Caithness
(1601-8), and in 1609 subscribed for 2000 acres
of forfeited lands in Ulster. ‘He was,’ says
Bishop Nicholson, ‘by nature and education a
complete mathematician, and the first projector
of a Scotch atlas. To that great pu he per-
sonally surveyed all the several counties and isles
of the kingdom; took draughts of ’em upon the
spot, and added such curso observations on the
monuments of antiquity and other curiosities as
were proper for the furnishing out of future
descriptions. He was unhappily surpris’d by
death ;’ but his collections were rescued from
destruction and oblivion by Sir John Scott of
Scotstarvet, and his maps at last appeared in
Blaeu’s magnificent Theatrum Orbis Terrarum
_ v. Amst. 1654). See Dobie’s Cunninghame
‘opographised by Timothy Pont (1876).
Pontage, an old name for a kind of red Bordeaux
wine, from a family owning large vineyards.
Pont-a&-Mousson, a town of France (dept.
Meurthe-et-Moselle), on the Moselle, 18 miles SSE.
of Metz, with a 13th-c. Gothic church. Pop. 11,261.
Pontarlier, « French town (dept. Doubs), 35
miles SE. of Besancon, on the main Jura route
from Switzerland to France. Pop. 6709.
Pontchartrain, LA«KE, in Louisiana, about 5
miles N. of New Orleans, is 40 miles long and 25
wide, and communicates with the Gulf of Mexico.
The drainage of New Orleans (q.v.) is carried into
the lake through canals.
Pontecorvo, 4 city of the Italian province of
Caserta, on the river Garigliano, 37 miles NW.
PONTIFEX
of with 5172 inhabitants. It has an old
cathedral and a castle. It was long attached to
the States of the Church. Napoleon I. gave the
title of Prince of Pontecorvo to Bernadotte,
afi king of Sweden.
Ponta Delgada, the largest town of the
Azores (q.v.), on the south coast of Sao Miguel.
Pop. 17,940.
Pontefract, or PomFrer, a pleasant market-
town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on an
eminence near the influx of the Calder to the Aire,
13 miles SE. of Leeds, 8 E. by N. of Wakefield,
and 14 NNW. of Doncaster. It stands on the line
of a Roman road, but seems to have arisen round
its Norman castle, which, founded about 1076 by
Ilbert de Lacy, was the scene of the execution or
murder of the Earl of Lancaster (1322), Richard LI.
o-. and Earl Rivers (1483), was taken in the
ilgrimage of Grace (1536), and during the Great
Rebellion sustained four sieges, ig | finally dis-
mantled in 1649, after its capture if Lambert.
There are two old churches, a town-hall (rebuilt
1796), a market-hall (1860), a grammar-school of
Edward VI. (1549), and large market-gardens and
nurseries, the growing of liquorice for the lozenges
called ‘Pomfret cakes’ being a specialty as old as
about 1562. At Ackworth, 3 miles south, is a
Quaker school (1778). Pontefract, called Taddenes-
scylf in pre-Conquest times, seems to have received
its present name between 1086 and 1135, Why is
uncertain, but there is a very full discussion of this
difficult question in Notes and Queries for 1886-87.
The — , which was chartered by Richard III.
lost one of its two members in 1885. i of
rliamen borough (1851), 11,515; (1881)
4,767; (1891) 16,407, of whom 9702 were within
the municipal boundary.
See be Be! Paulden (1702), Tetlow (1769), and
Boothroyd (1807).
Pontevedra, a cathedral town of Spain, in
Galicia, at the head of a bay, 30 miles S. of
Santiago. Cloth and hats are manufactured, and
there are sardine-fisheries. Pop. 19,857.—The ge
vince has an area of 1695 sq. m. and a pop. (1887)
of 443,385.
Pontiac, capital of Oakland county, Michi
on Clinton River, surrounded b ae salle
beautiful lakes, 26 miles by rail NNW. of Detroit.
It contains a state reform school and a |
asylum for the insane, which cost nearly $500,
and has flour and planing mills, foundries, and
brickyards, Pop. (1880) 4509; (1900) 9769.
Pontiac, chief of the Ottawa Indians, in 1746
defended Detroit for the French, and was said to
have led his warriors at Braddock’s defeat in 1755.
After the French had surrendered Canada, his
hatred of the English prompted him to organise a
conspiracy among the Indian tribes with a view to
the extermination of ‘those dogs dressed in red.’
The 7th of May 1763 was appointed for the attack,
which in eight cases was successful, and the
rrisons were massacred; but at Detroit, where
‘ontiae led in person, the commander was _fore-
warned, and a five months’ siege ensued. Peace
was made in 1766. Pontiac himself was murdered
in 1769 by a Kaskaskia Indian, at Cahokia, Illi-
nois, opposite St Louis. See Parkman, The Con-
spiracy of Pontiac wy, and a Diary of the Siege
of Detroit, ed. by F. B. Hough (1860).
Pontianak, capital of the western division of
Dutch Borneo, near the mouth of the river Kapuas,
on the west side of the island. It has some forti-
fications, and a lively trade. Pop. 5000.
Pontifex, the title borne by the members of
one of the two great colleges among the ancient
Romans, instituted for the purpose of preserving
PONTIFICAL
PONTUS 309
and cultivating religious knowledge; the other was
the college of Augurs. The name seems obviously
to be derived from pons, ‘ bridge,’ and the root of
facio, ‘I make ;’ but in what way the pontifices
were connected with bridge-making is obscure. It is
natural to suggest that it was in some way wee
the sacred bridge across the Tiber, the pons sub-
lictus. Tt is customary to speak of the college
of pontiffs as a ‘priesthood ;’ it was not, how-
ever, strictly speaking, such—that is to say, the
mem were not ¢ with the worship of
any — lar divinity, nor did they conduct
ifices. Their duties embraced the regu-
sacri
lation of all the religious rites and ceremonies
of a state—how the gods should be worshipped,
how burials should be conducted, how the manes
of the dead should be appeased. To them was
entrusted the care of the calendar, the proclama-
tion of festival days, &e. They also saw that
every religious and every judicial act took place
on the right day. ‘As they had thus,’ says
Mommsen, ‘an especial supervision of all religious
observances, it was to them in case of need (as on
occasion of marriage, testament, or arrogatio) that
the preliminary question was aaainanch: whether
the matter proposed did not, in any respect, offend
against divine law.’ In matters of religion they
were the supreme authorities ; from their decisions
was no appeal, and they themselves were
— neither to the senate nor the people;
further, they had power to inflict punishment on
such priests as dared to disobey their injunctions
and deviate into schismatical courses. The words
of Festus are: rerum que ad sacra et religiones
pertinent, SUDICES ET VINDICES. Their president
was termed ifex maximus.
The pontiffs, according to Roman tradition,
were instituted by Numa, but as they appear in
all the Latin communities they are regarded by
Mommsen as a thoroughly national Italian institu-
tion, and probably found a place in the earliest
religious organisation of the Latin race. Their
number was originally four, or, including the ponti-
Sex maximus, five, all of whom were taken from
the patricians. In 300 B.c. the Ogulnian Law
penal the number to nine, four of whom were to
be plebeians. The first plebeian, however, who
attained the dignity of pontifex maximus was Tib.
Coruncanius, 254 B.c. Sulla, in 81 B.c., again
increased the number to fifteen, and Julius Cesar
; to sixteen. During the empire the functions of
pontifex maximus were generally discharged by
the emperors themselves; and the name survived
even the establishment of Christianity, occurring
in inscriptions of Valentinian, Valens, and Gra-
tianus ; Pat at length the omer dnpped it,
when it was assumed by the Christian bishops of
Rome, and now this title forms one of the designa-
tions of the pope.
Pontifical, one of the service-books of the
Church of Rome, in which are contained the
several services, whether in the administration of
sacraments or the performance of public hen
in which the bishop or a priest delegated by the
bishop officiates. There were many such collections
for the various national churches; but that which
is now in universal use throughout the Western
Church is the Pontificale Romanum, or Roman
Pontifical, first printed in 1485, revised under
Clement VIIL. in 1596, and repeatedly republished
since that time. The Pontifical contains the
services for ordinations, for religious professions
and receptions of monks and nuns, consecrations,
ictions, as well as of the solemn administra-
tion by a bishop of those sacraments which are
ordinarily administered priests. Besides the
y ers to be recited, the Pontifical also lays down
y ceremonial to be observed.
Pontigny, a village of the French department
of Yonne, 18 miles SE. of Auxerre, with a famous
Cistercian monastery, dating from the 12th cen-
tury. Three English archbishops retired hither—
Becket in 1164, Cardinal Langton in 1207, and St
Edmund of Canterbury in 1240, the last being
buried here. The monastery was devastated by the
Huguenots in 1567, and finally destroyed at the
Revolution; but the church (mainly 1150-70) is
the most perfect Cistercian church in existence.
To the shrine of St Edmund (18th century) in this
church came in 1874 pilgrimage of English Roman
Catholies.
Pontine Marshes (Lat. Pometine Paludes),
a pedigree the southern part of the Cam-
pagna of Rome, extending south-east from Velletri
to the sea at Terracina, 26 miles long by 17 broad.
The district is separated from the sea by sand-
dunes, and is traversed by the Appian Way.
Herds of cattle, horses, and buffaloes feed on its
pasture. Many attempts have been made to drain
these marshes, from that of Appius Claudius (312
B.C.) to the proposals of Captain von Donat (1887),
amongst the promoters of these drainage schemes
being Augustus, Trajan, and the popes Boniface
VIIL., Martin V., Sixtus V., and Pius VI.
Pontoon (Fr. eaten Lat. , ‘a bridge’),
the name given to buoyant vessels used in military
epersnoes for supporting a temporary bridge.
arlborough used clumsy wooden pontoons. Napo-
leon and Wellington had them lighter of tin and
copper. They were flat-bottomed, rectangular
boats, open at the top. Tin cylinders were then
used for some time, but light open boats are
now carried by the pontoon troops of the Royal
Engineers for large brid ae of carrying
artillery, and Berthon’s collapsible boats are some-
times used for small infantry bridges. See BripGE,
Vol. II. p. 447; and for pontoons in connection with
floating-docks, see Dock, Vol. IV. p. 32.
Pontoppidan, Erik, Danish writer, born at
Aarhus on 24th August 1698, was appointed pro-
fessor of Theology at Copenhagen in 1738 and
bishop of Bergen in Norway in 1747; there he
died on 20th Descnber 1764. His writings are
principally historical and theological; amongst
them must be mentioned Annales Ecclesiae Danice
Diplomatice (4 vols. 1741-52), written in German,
and still of use as a book of reference ; Det Danske
Atlas (1781), an unfinished historical and ee
graphical account of Denmark ; Glossarium -
vagicum (1749), a work on Norwegian dialect
words ; Haplanations to Luther's Catechism, used
as a text-book down to the present day ; Marmora
Danica (2 vols. 1739-41), a collection of Danish
inscriptions ; and Norges Naturlige Historie (2 vols.
1752-54.; Eng. trans. Natural History of Norway,
1755), containing accounts of the Kraken, the sea-
serpent, and other marvels,
Pontresina, a tourist centre in the Swiss
canton of Grisons, stands in the Upper Engadine,
on the road connecting with the Bernina Pass, and
is much frequented by Alpine climbers. Pop. 383.
Pontus, the name given by the ancient Greeks
to a country in the north-east of Asia Minor,
bordering on the Pontus Euxinus (whence its
name), and extending from the river Halys in the
west to the frontiers of Colehis and Armenia in the
east. Its southern limits were the ranges of Anti-
Taurus and Paryadres, so that it corresponded
pretty nearly to the modern pashaliks of Trebizond
and Sivas. The name seems to have come into
use after the time of Alexander the Great. Pre-
vious to that Pontus was governed by a satrap
for the empire of Persia. One of these satraps,
Ariobarzanes, early in the 4th century B.0., laid
the foundations of an independent sovereignty. He
310 PONTY POOL
POOLE
was succeeded by a line of princes mostly called
Mithridates, the greatest of whom was Mithridates
VL. (q.v.), one of the most formidable enemies that
Rome ever encountered in the east. On the over-
throw of this potentate by Pompey (65 B.c.),
Pontus was annexed to Bithynia. Subsequently,
a Greek named Polemon was installed (36 B.c.)
monarch of part of Pontus; but in the reign of
Nero this too became (63 A.D.) a Roman Batic
and was called Pontus Polemoniacus. The prin-
cipal towns of ancient Pontus were Amisus, Sinope,
Cotyora, Cerasus, and Trapezus on the coast, and
Amasia (the capital), Comana, and Cabira (Neo-
cesareia) inland.
Pontypool, a market-town of Monmouthshire,
on the Afon Llwydd, 9 miles N. by W. of Newport.
Its 17th-century japanned wares have long been a
thing of the past, and iron and tinplate works,
brewing, and coal-mining now furnish employment.
Pop. (1851) 3708; (1881) 5244; (1891) 5842.
Pontypridd, a town of Glamorgan, 12 miles
NW. of Cardiff by rail, at the junction of the
Rhondda and the Tarf. It has a famous bridge
(see BRIDGE), iron and coal mines, iron and brass
foundries, and chemical and other manufactures—
to which is due its rapid growth from a mere
village at the beginning of the 19th century. Pop.
(1881) 12,317 ; (1891) 19,971.
Pony. See Horse.
Pood, See Pup.
Poodle. ‘The origin of this breed of dog dates
from the beginning of the 17th century or earlier,
as many pictures of that time contain portraits of
poodles. The breed was unknown in Britain until
the beginning of the 19th century. The poodle
is one of the few breeds of dogs which has not
been properly appreciated and cultivated in Britain.
From his great intelligence and cleverness in learn-
ing tricks, he was generally adopted as a cireus or
‘trick-dog;’ but this fact, instead of making for his
credit, has caused the poodle to be treated with
contempt. On the Continent, however, the large
variety of poodle has been universally used as the
Here sportsman’s companion, as he combines
the properties of a land as well as a water dog.
Black Corded Poodle.
(From a Photograph by Gambier Bolton, F.Z.8.)
The poodle varies considerably in his appearance.
and attempts have been made to divide the b
into several sections, such as the large and small
variety, or the corded-coated and fleecy-coated
variety, as also into black Russian and white
German poodles; but none of these divisions are
very clearly defined. The large black Russian
poodle is much the most handsome and agile ——_
men of the race, and may be easily trained to
retrieve. The small white poodle is only fit for a
house dog, but is extremely clever and apt. For ©
some unknown reason the poodle has always been
clipped in a peculiar manner: with the exception
of a few tufts, his body and hindquarters are
entirely bare, while the coat on his shoulders
sometimes eng to an enormous length. On the
Continent the le is left with his natural coat
during the winter, a much more humane plan than
the English habit of keeping him shaved in all
seasons,
Pool, a game played on a billiard-table, Any
number may play. h is provided with a
“coloured ball, taken at random from a pool-basket.
The first in order (white) is spotted on the billiard
spot. The next (red) plays from hand on the
white. Red is called white’s player, The next
(yellow) is red’s player, and so on, in the order
indicated by the marking-board. The owner of
each ball has three dives. If the player holes the
ball he plays on, or any other ball, after havin
first hit the ball he plays on, the owner of the ball
holed loses a life, and has to pay to the player
a& sum previously agreed on, The player pla:
again, from where he stopped, on the nearest ;
and so on until he fails, when the next player
on, or until there are no other balls on the table,
when the striker’s ball isspotted. After the stroke
from hand the player, unless spotted, always plays
from where he is on the table; when he is holed he
pays his next stroke from hand. If the player
noles his own ball or gives a miss he loses a life,
and plays his next stroke from hand. When the
owner of a ball has lost all his lives he is dead,
and plays no more that pool. The first dead may
star—i.e. may come in again with the smallest
number of lives on the board. In the end one or
two of the players, who have not lost all their
lives, remain in. They continue to play until they
have an equal number of lives, when they divide the
pool (a sum contributed by each player, generally
equal to the value of three lives, the star paying
an extra na ). Ifone of the two who remain in
has more lives than the other, and kills his adver-
sary, he takes the whole pool. The above describes
briefly what is called "followin pool. The principal
varieties are selling pool, where the player may
play on any ball he likes; and black pool, where
an extra ball is spotted on the centre spot and has
to be played on under certain conditions, about
which there are no fixed rules. When the black
is holed at black pool each of those in has to pay
a life; if missed or run in off the player has to
y a life all round. There is no pool, and no one
nas any specified number of lives, the game con-
tinuing for a given time (generally half an hour).
Snooker pool is ag: ba in the same way as snooker
(see PyrAmips), the players following each other
as at pool, and the order of play being determined
as at pool.
Poole, a seaport of Dorsetshire, 5 miles W. ot
Bournemouth and 30 E. of Dorchester, It stands
on the north side of Poole Harbour (7 by 44 miles),
an irregular inlet, formed by the projection of
the ‘isle’ of Purbeck, almost dry at low-water, and
having four tides a day. On Brownsea or Brank-
sea Island, just within the narrow entrance to the
harbour, is a castle dating from the time of Henry
VIII. Poole itself has an old town-hall (1572), a
guildhall (1761), a town-house (1822), considerable
shipping, some yacht-building, and a “7 trade in
potter’s and pipe clay. The men of Poole were
ee fighters in days of old by land and sea, as
mecaneers, smugglers, and Cromwellian soldiery.
There was ‘ Arripay,’ or Harry Page, who about
—
till 1885 one.
C. angustifolium).
POOLE
POOR-LAWS 811
1400 kept the seas against France and Spain; and
there was William Thompson, who, with a man and
a boy, captured a French privateer in 1695. Till
1867 the borough returned two members, and then
Pop. (1851) 9255; (1881) 12,310;
1891) 15,405. See works by Hutchins (1788),
ydenham (1839), and Brannon (3d ed. 1859).
Poole, Joun, Votan ge born in 1792, died in
February 1879 at Kentish Town, London, wrote
the immortal Paul Pry, first produced at the
Haymarket in 1825, and several other farces and
comedies, such as Turning the Tables, Deaf as a
Post, ’Twould Puzzle a Conjuror, The Wife's Strata-
gem, &e. Besides these theatrical pieces he wrote
also the satirical Little Pedlington (1839), The
omic Sketch Book (1859), Comic Miscellany (1845),
VUheristmas Festivities (1845), and other books of &
light, humorons kind.
Poole (or Poot; Latinised Polus), MATTHEW,
divine, was born at York about 1624, educated at
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and held from 1648
till the passing of the Act of Uniformity (1662)
the rectory of St Michael le Querne in London.
He retired to Holland and died at Amsterdam in 1679.
His principal work was his Synopsis Criticorum
Biblicorum (5 vols. fol. 1669-76), in which the
opinions of 150 biblical critics were summarised.
In his English Annotations on. the Holy Bible he
had only reached Isaiah Ilviii., but the work
was completed by his friends (2 vols. fol. 1685).
Effective contributions to the Romish controversy
were The Nullity of the Romish Faith (1666) and
Dialogues between a Popish Priest and an English
Protestant (1667).
Poole, Wit.1AM FREDERICK, the compiler of
the ‘Index,’ was born at Salem. Massachusetts,
24th December 1821, and graduated at Yale in 1849.
While there he was librarian of a literary society,
and prepared an index (pp. 154) of periodical
literature, enla in the 2d and 3d editions (pp.
1469), the latter published in 1882, with the assist-
ance of the American and British Library Associa-
tions. A supplement (pp. 496 ), by Poole and W. J.
Fletcher, of ashen: was issued in 1888. A sim-
ilar one was promised for every five years ; further
issues were in 1893 and (after Poole’s death) 1897.
Poole was librarian of the Boston Athenzeum 1856-
69, the Cincinnati Public Library 1869-73, the Chi-
‘0 Public patel 1873-87, and the Newberry
Library, Chicago, from 1887 until his death at
Evanston, IIL, Ist March 1894.
Poona, or PuNA, a town of British India, 119
miles by rail SE. of Bombay, is the military capital
of the can and the seat of the government of
the presidency during the last half of the year.
The city is embosomed in gardens, but its streets
are mostly narrow or crooked, and the houses
r. The ruins of the peshwa’s palace, burned in
827, still remain. Under the peshwas the city
was the capital of the Mahratta princes and power ;
it was occupied and annexed by the British in 1818.
Here have been built the Deccan College and the
College of Science, the latter for training civil
engineers, a normal school and normal college, a
high school, and other educational establishments.
The Europeans live chiefly at the cantonments,
north-west of the city. The natives manufacture
cottons and silks, gold and silver jewellery, ivory
and ornaments, and clay figures. — Pop.
(18515 73,209; (1872) 90,436; (1881) 99,622, to
which must be added 30,129 in the cantonment ;
(1891) 160,460. The visitations of .the sanitary
authorities to native houses during the plague here
in 1897 led to riots and murderous assaults.
Poon-wood is the timber of the Poon trees
of India and Burma (Calophyllum inophyllum and
It is very commonly used in
the East Indies, particularly in shipbuilding, for
planks and spars. See TACAMAHACA.
Poor Clares. See CLARE (ST).
Poor-laws. Charity, like Christianity, had
its origin, or earliest development, in the East.
Among the primitive nations of the world alms-
giving was inculcated as a religious observance,
and is prescribed as such in their sacred records.
Among the European nations of antiquity we find
a provision for the poor adopted as a matter of
state policy. In early times Athens could boast of
having no citizen in want; ‘nor did any disgrace
the nation by begging.’ But war at length brought
Bored in its train, and the Athenian people
ec) the maintenance of those who were muti-
lated in battle, and, at a later period, of the
children of those who fell. Plutarch mentions
Pisistratus as the originator of the first decree,
though others derive it from Solon. By the latter
decree the state provided for the orphans of its
soldiers up to their eighteenth year, and then sent
them into the world with a new suit of armour,
The bounty given to the disabled is mentioned by
Lysias, Harpocration, Aristotle, Isocrates, and
others; it is variously stated at one, two, and
three oboli a day, and it seems to have been
increased with the increased cost of subsistence.
There were also societies for the relief of distress
among the democratic states of Greece, called
eranoi—a sort of friendly societies, in which the
members relieved were expected to pay back the
money advanced to them when they had raised
themselves to better circumstances. But it must
be remembered that these so-called democratic
states were in reality slave-holding aristocracies.
_ Among the Romans the Agrarian Law of Licinius
Stolo (367 B.c.) was framed in order to prevent
the extremes of riches and poverty in the state.
It limited the extent of property in public land
to be held by each citizen, and directed that
all such land above the allotted portion should
be taken away from the holders, and given to
those who had none. The distribution of grain
at reduced prices, which at length became gratui-
tous, was introduced by Caius Gracchus, and lasted
till the fall of the Ronen empire. Augustus
in vain tried to suppress it. In his time 200,000
citizens were thus fed. Cicero makes mention of
this provision as in great favour with the Roman
people, because it furnished them with an abundant
subsistence without labour ; other Roman writers
describe its results as disastrous both to agriculture
and to manners, creating a nation of mendicants,
and causing the land to fall out of cultivation.
In the middle ages the great body of the labour-
ing classes were in a state of serfdom, and looked
to their feudal lords for maintenance. The obliga-
tion to provide for their slaves, or serfs, seems to
have been fully recognised, so that many, encoun-
tering in a state of freedom the miseries of want,
went back to bondage as a refuge from destitution.
The villeins.in Saxon England were attached to
the soil, and received from their lord a portion
of land for the support of themselves and _ their
families. But the Church of Rome constituted
herself the great receiver and dispenser of alms.
The rich monasteries. and abbeys distributed doles
to the poor, as is still done at the mosques under
the Mohammedan system.
In most states of continental Europe the church
remains to a larger or smaller extent the public
almoner, the state ony stepping in to supplement
the offerings of the church sat voluntary charity
when they become deficient. The disseverance
from the church is hardly anywhere so complete as
in England. The laws of different countries vary
as to the degree of want entitling a pauper to
312
POOR-LAWS
relief, the extent to which the right to relief is
matter of positive right, the conditions which give
rise to a claim of relief, the incidence of taxation,
and the obligation on relatives to aliment.
It is only in Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden that
there is any legislative declaration of the right to
relief : and on Seed sige and ee. fe any
special tax im or this ss n the con-
tinent of Europe, generally gion ing, the adminis-
tration of relief falls on the parish or commune,
but the responsibility of supervision undertaken
by central Rapariments varies greatly ; no work-
honse test is applied; and the statistics are not
reliable. In northern Europe there has been a
more decisive severance of poor-law functions from
the church. In Denmark the old law was altered
in 1867-68 to one of elective unions in rural dis-
tricts, the burgomaster and town-council becoming
the poor-law authority in each considerable town.
The overseers are amateurs, and medical aid is
universal. In Sweden the law formerly rested on
the Church Ordinance of 1571, but the statutes of
1871 (translated by Nassau Jocelyn and criticised
by Lammers) have made great changes, the relief
of the able-bodied being prohibited, a direct liabil-
ity being placed on the larger employers of labour,
and a system of poll-taxation introduced. In Nor-
way (where the system of out-quartering still sub-
sists) the poor-law of 1845 was altered in 1863 in
the direction of greater strictness, relief being re-
stricted in theory to orphans and persons of un-
sound mind, and a maximum assessment fixed.
Among other sources of income there is an excise
duty on beer. In north Germany the old law of
1577 was gradually onlatged 6a. by the Conven-
tion of Gotha and Agreement of Eisenach, dealin,
with the matter of settlement. In 1867 a law o
free settlement was passed, and in 1870 by a general
law the period of two years was fixed for panne
domicile. In Prussia this is further byes san y
a statute of 1871, which connects the irks-
regierung, or local government, with the parish
poor-law authority. The peculiar system of Leipzig
(founded on that of Hamburg) is carried on by an
Armendirectorium, amateurs of good social posi-
tion, who make very strict inquiries by means of a
Fragebogen, or question-paper.
In the Hanse towns there was introduced in 1788
a system of voluntary contributions aided 3) fixed
subsidies from the government. This at, ength
resulted in government supplying all deficiencies,
which in the last few years have been 80 per cent.
of the cost of the general poor relief. At the
treaty of Versailles (1870) varia preferred to
remain under her own law of 1816, amended
in 1869. In Belgium, known as the classic land
of pauperism, there is no poor-rate, but large
parochial endowments exist. As in France, there
are hospices civiles for indoor relief, and bureaux
de bienfaisance for outdoor relief. The law may
be enforced on communes by the Deputation
Permanente of each province. One-third of the
Belgian proletariat are inscribed on the poor-lists
(see Laurent, Le Paupérisme et les Associations de
Prévoyance). In Russia the poor-law has been
modified by the communal system of land-tenure
and the large amount of unoccupied crown-land.
Down to 1864 the landowner was bound to feed the
serf, and there were also provincial charitable
societies receiving state aid. The administration
of the poor-law, however, was in that year handed
over to the new Zemstvos, or local representative
assemblies, who tax real property for this purpose.
There is in St Petersburg a Grand Philanthropic
Society with numerous branches ; and many of the
provincial offices of charity were endowed in the
time of Catharine II. with the property of the
monasteries. In Italy there is a remarkable
absence of compulsory provision, except for lunatics
and foundlings, but the charitable foundations
amount to more than thirty millions ster!
The law of 1862, however, requires each charitable
corporation to submit to the supervision of the
representative provincial assembly. In Rome the
Commissione de Carita has many peculiar features.
Holland has no law of settlement.
In Austria each commune is charged with the
relief of its poor. All who have | domicile,
or who, being unable to prove their domicile, are
resident in the commune, are entitled to relief ont
of the eer assessment. There is no speci
rate, and the administration is strictly municipal.
In many provinces private charity is associated
with public assistance, administered by the priest, a
few chosen inhabitants, who are called ‘ Fathers of
the Poor,’ and an officer accountable to the com-
mune, This system is called the ‘Pfarrarmen
Institute,’ and their funds are principally derived
from private sources; but they receive a third part.
of the property of ecclesiastics who die intestate,
and certain fines, &c. The ‘einlager system,’ or
boarding-out system, obtains to a large extent as
—- th old and youn apes
France the law of 1 stinctly negatived
the right to relief. The present system rests
mainly on the legislation of 1850-51, amended in
1872. The law of 1867 secured the intervention of
the prefect. The relief of the poor is not compul-
sory, in as far as its distributors may, after ma’
inquiry, refuse relief, except in the case of found-
lings and lunatics. The minister of the Interior
has a general superintendence of the machinery of
relief, re seg pia! pean gaa begge cugn of
many large hospitals and refu e depart-
mental funds are called upon tor edeipalan relief,
but the commune is the main source of public
assistance. It encou and stimulates volun-
tary charities, and receives gifts for the benefit of
the poor, The administration of the hospitals,
and of the relief given at the homes of the poor
(secours & domicile) is under the separate m
ment of unpaid commissions, who co-operate with
the communal authorities. The dépét de mendi-
cité is a penal establishment for the repression of
vagrancy, and like the créche is departmental.
The work of the public dispensary is largely done
by sisters of charity at a small salary and with
unsatisfactory results, as at Boulogne.
In Holland pauper colonies have been supported
by government for the last sixty years. Vagrants,
after a short imprisonment, are sent to one of
these, under a rigorous system of discipline.
Paupers of good character are sent to maintain
themselves and their families by icultural
labour in free colonies. The working of the system
is pronounced costly and unsatisfactory. i
tion of the chief voluntary —— in dealing
with the poor in Euro) 1
Charities of Europe, by John de Liefde (1865).
The annals of the poor in England are neither
short nor simple. Severe enactments for the repres-
sion of vagabondage and mendicity date from a
very early period. In ancient Saxon times the
bomeebelde was bound to provide for the labourer,
and men who had no master were, by the Folkmote,
assigned to some householder; but when freedom
began to _— this state of things naturally came
to an end. No master was bound to provide for
the freeman, and when he failed to provide for
himself, by honest labour, he generally took to
vagrant begging, often to violence. The statute of
Winchester (13th Ed. L., 1285) shows the poor utterly
uncared for, and the roads infested vagrant
robbers. UP to the reign of Richard II. the sole
idea of English rulers was to treat pauperism as
a crime, and repress it by punishment, and by
POOR-LAWS
313
most unjust and absurd restrictions on the freedom
of labour. The 23d Ed. III. forbids giving alms
to vagrants, on pain of imprisonment; then also
the laws of settlement their origin in the
attempt to chain the free labourer to the land.
The 12th Richard II. (1388), chap. 7, is the
first statute that makes provision for the im-
tent poor. The statutes of Henry VII. en-
eavour to carry out, by the severest measures,
the system of repression. The 27th Henry VIIL,
chap. 25 (1536), introduced the principle of com-
pulsory assistance. Each parish was ordered to
receive and provide for the impotent, and set the
able-bodied to work. Alms were to be collected
into a general fund, and indiscriminate almsgiving
was forbidden, on pain of forfeiture of ten times
the value given. The sturdy beggar was to be
whipped when first caught, next to have his ears
cropped, and for a third offence to suffer death as a
felon and enemy to the commonwealth. In 1547
the following penalties were substituted—viz.
branding, on first conviction, with a V on the
shoulder, and being adjudged a slave for two years,
to be claimed by any one, fed on bread and water,
and eaused to work by beating, &c. Running awa:
from this tender treatment was punishable with
branded on the face, and slavery for life to the
town or parish, on the roads of which the incor-
rigible vagrant was to work in chains. A little
urging was now found necessary to obtain funds for
the maintenance of the poor. The collectors were
gently to ask every man and woman at church
what would give; but if one could not be
persuaded the bishop was to send for the recusant,
and use ‘charitable ways and means.’ At length
the 5th Elizabeth, chap, 3 (1563), provided that he
who obstinately refused to give should be handed
over to the justices, who were empowered to tax
him at their discretion, and send him to jail for
default. Ten years later the power of compulsory
assessment is given to the justices, and abiding-
nae are ordered to be provided for the and
rm. These statutes culminated in the 43d
. Elizabeth, chap. 2 (1601), which has formed the
basis of the poor-law system of England up to the
present time. It taxed every inhabitant of every
| parish for the relief of the poor. It directed the
‘justices in every county to appoint three or four
substantial householders in each parish to be over-
seers of the r, along with the churchwardens.
It ordered the relief of the impotent, and the
apprenticing of children, and the providing of work
for the able by means of ‘a convenient stock of
flax, hemp, wool, thread, iron, and other necessary
ware and stuff.’
The great Act of Elizabeth came but slowly into
operation. Up to the reign of Charles I. there
were many parishes in which no rate was .
and which turned away their r; but the great
evils had been remedied, and there is little legisla-
tion on the subject for the next hundred years.
The 3d William and Mary, chap. 2 (1691), provides
that the persons to be relieved be registered and
examined by the vestry, because evils had arisen
out of the unlimited power of the churchwardens
and overseers giving relief ‘for their own private
ends,’ by which the charge on the parish was
tly increased, contrary to the true intent of
he statute of Elizabeth. This act also gave power
to the ——* to order relief in cases of emergency,
& pro
which afterwards became a fruitful
source of difficulty. The evils henceforth com-
plained of were that many had thrown themselves
on the rates who ought to have been supporting
themselves independently of such aid; that pauper
labour was found interfering with and displacing
ind labour; that the overseers were acting
with unchecked dishonesty ; and justices, with un-
restrained liberality, ordering the money of the
industrious and prudent to be spent upon the idle
and improvident. Efforts were made to remedy
these abuses throughout the reigns of the first three
Georges, by making the justices act with the over-
seers, by rendering the overseers accountable to
the parishioners by means of returns and the power
of inspection, and by the offer of the workhouse to
all applicants for relief. This last provision, made
in the reign of George I. (1723), substituted what
is called indoor relief for the allowance made to
the poor at their own homes, and introduced the
workhouse system. The workhouse established on
Locke’s suggestion by Carey at Bristol was one of
the earliest. All who refused to be lodged in the
house were to be struck off the poor’s-roll and
refused relief. A t increase in the number of
workhouses took place; guardians were appointed
to guard the pauper children from neglect and
improper conduct, and other attempts to improve
their administration made. Workhouse Unions
were also introduced by Gilbert’s Act, 1782, and
a succession of acts for the protection of
parish apprentices. Towards the close of the 18th
century a great relaxation took place in the treat-
ment of the poor. The famous Gpoeabamland Act
of 1793 meant the establishment by justices of a
minimum rate of wages. The 36th Geo. III., chap.
10 and 23 (1796), increased the amount, and ex-
tended the application for relief. It repealed the
workhouse test, and allowed relief to be given in aid
of w Henceforth outdoor relief me the
rule under a variety of systems, which practically
turned the poor-laws into a mode of paying wages.
In 1801 the amount of the rates was reckoned at
£4,000,000. In 1820 it had risen to £7,330,254,
the justices being now the ‘rating’ as well as the
‘relieving’ authority.
In 1817 a commission of the House of Commons
stated their opinion, that, unless checked, the
assessment would swallow up the profits of the
land. Though the two Vestry Acts, which resulted
from the commission appointed in 1817, seem to
have done something to remedy the evils complained
of, a new commission to inquire into the operation
of the poor-laws was found necessary, and appointed
in February 1832. The evidence brought before
this commission, with which the names of Bishop
Blomfield, Sturges-Bowme, Edwin Chadwick, and
Nassau Senior are always connected, revealed a
disastrous state of things. The independence,
integrity, industry, and domestic virtue of the
lower classes were in some places nearly extinct.
The great source of the evil was shown to be the
relief afforded to the able-bodied in aid of wages.
This aid at first reduced the expenditure in wages,
and found favour with farmers and magistrates,
who framed scales of relief in accordance with the
wants of the people. Five modes of outdoor relief
were found in operation : (1) Relief without labour ;
(2) allowance given, in aid of wages, according to
the number of the labourer’s family; (3) the
Roundsman system, the labourers being let out by
the parish, among the employers round ; (4) paris
wee generally on the roads ; (5) the labour-rate,
the ratepayers preferring to divide among them the
pauper labour, and to pay for it, however valueless,
instead of raising a rate. Diminished industry ate
away the very root of capital. Farmers turned
off their men, or refused to employ them at fair
wages, penta d causing a surplus of unemployed
labour ; they then took them back from the parish
at reduced wages, paid out of the rates. From
parish after parish came the reply to the queries of
the commissioners : ‘ All our able-bodied labourers
receive allowance.’ No poor man in such parishes
could save; if it was known that he had a fund of
savings ‘he would be refused work till the savings
314
POOR-LAWS
were gone,’ and he had come down to the pauper
level. In many places pauperism swallowed u
three-fourths of the rent. Nor was the mal-
administration confined to the rural districts; it
extended all over the country, and into the manu-
facturing towns, where outdoor relief was a source
- of constant imposture. The administration of in-
door relief was also full of abuses, from want of
classification, discipline, and employment. Better
food and lodging were provided for idle paupers
than working-people could procure—better, even,
than could be afforded by many of the ratepayers.
In 1834 the commissioners reported that they
found the administration ‘opposed to the letter
and spirit of the law, and destructive of the welfare
of the community.’ The commissioners laid down
the principle that the condition of the =
ought to be below the lowest condition of the inde-
pendent labourer, because every penny bestowed
in rendering his condition more eligible is a bounty
on indolence and vice, and recommended (1) the
cessation of outdoor relief; (2) a central authority
to control the administration ; (3) unions for the
better management of workhouses, and the classi-
fication of their inmates ; and (4) a complete and
clear system of accounts. The bill embodying
these recommendations was brought in, March 17,
1834, passed its second reading in the House of
Commons with only twenty dissenting votes, and
became law on the 14th August as the 4th and 5th
Will. IV. chap. 76. This act was not a change of
law, but of administration. The orders of the new
board restricted overseers, on the formation of a
union, to the collection of rates; appointed paid
relieving-officers to dispense relief under the direc-
tions of the unpaid Boards of Guardians; required
the gradual withdrawal of outdoor relief; and
enforced classification and discipline in the work-
houses. A rapid formation of unions took place
under the new board. In the first eight months
112 were formed including 2066 parishes. The
pauperised districts experienced a great and imme-
diate relief, numbers of paupers going off when
they found that relief involved adequate work or
the strictly-disciplined workhouse; wages rose, and
the expenditure was reduced on an average 20 per
cent. At the accession of George I. in 1714 the
poor-rates amonnted, as nearly as can be estimated,
to £950,000, equal to 3s. 37d. per head on the
pe ulation of 5,750,000. At the accession of George
in 1760 the population had increased to
7,000,000, the poor-rates to £1,250,000—an average
of 3s. 63d. ; while in 1834 the population, estimated
from the last census, was 14,372,000, and the mone
expended in relief £6,317,255—equal to 8s.
per head. In three years the operation of the
Amendment Act had reduced the expenditure one-
third—viz. to £4,044,741. In 1848 the commis-
sioners were exchanged for a public board, which
became one of the government departments, with a
president, in whom was vested the power of the
commissioners, and who held office as one of the
ministers of the crown. Finally, in 1871, the
Poor-law Board was abolished, and its powers
transferred (with various other powers) to a new
body, the Local Government Board (q.v.), which
en peoer gf became the central authority for Eng-
land and Wales in regard to poor-law administra-
tion. The commissioners were unable to withdraw
outdoor relief, which continues to be in England
the most important item. With the aged, the
sick, and orphans the guardians deal at their
discretion; but stringent rules for the relief of the
able-bodied are in operation under the board, whose
orders have the force of laws. In the rural districts
guardians are prohibited from giving relief to the
able-bodied out of the house, unless under a supple-
mental order in emergency. For other places the
general rule forbids relief to be given in aid of
wages, and requires work to be supplied. Excep-
tions are made by the board on the application of
the unions when necessity arises. The expenditure
is strictly ed and examined by public auditors.
A district medical officer, of whom one or more are
appointed for each union, attends to all cases of
sickness among the poor.
The fundamental rule adopted as to the relief of
the poor was that each parish in England and Wales
is bere jfoyh ecgrmect oe own Te ries are
requ appointed in each parish every year ;
and these (till 1894, along with the churehwactane
till then ex officio overseers) have to provide the
requisite funds. This is done by means of a poor-
rate, which the churchwardens and overseers may
pra} on all the occupiers of land in the parish, after
such rate has been confirmed by the justices. The
rate ifies a certain sum in the pound which is
to be levied, and the annual value of the various
lands is then specified. The rate is thus a local
tax on the oceupier of the land, and not on the
owner, unless he himself is also occupier. a
to the mischiefs arising from the officials of
parish distributing the funds at their discretion,
without uniformity of plan, authority was given to
combine various parishes into one poor-law union,
and a central controlling power was created in
1834 in the shape of the Poor-law Board, now the
Local Government Board. When a union is
formed the control of the ee is chiefly
vested in the guardians of this union, who are
elected by each parish, and who Wis Be the
management of the union workhouse. They order
the overseers of each parish to raise their due pro-
portion of funds by a contribution order issued to
such overseers, who are thereon bound to levy the
amount by including it in the next poor-rate. The
guardians are bound to contract for the blneng: =
clothing, fuel, &c. supplied to the workhouse, by
means of sealed tenders, unless the quantity is less
than a stated amount. The guardians profess only
to relieve destitution already existing, and not to
enable persons to keep off impending destitution.
Hence they only supply the bare necessaries of life.
They cannot, for example, advance or lend money
to set up a poor person in trade,
Minute regulations are contained in the con-
solidated r-law orders of the Board as to the
classification of paupers in the workhouse, mode of
admission, diet, discipline, and outdoor relief. It
is provided that every able-bodied person requiring
relief from any parish shall be relieved wholly in
the workhouse, ther with his wife and Longe
if any, and if not otherwise employed. But
relief may be given out of doors in cases of sudden
and urgent necessity, of sickness, accident, and a
few other cases. In general relief is confined to
persons actuully residing in some place within the
union, except in case of casual destitution, or sick-
ness and accident. Whenever outdoor relief is
given to an able-bodied person half of it is to be in
the form of articles of food or fuel. Relief is given
only weekly where the pauper is not required to
be received into the workhouse. No relief is to be
given to able-bodied persons while they are em-
ployed for wages or hire by any person; and every
able-bodied male person, if relieved out of the
workhouse, shall be set to work by the guardians,
and kept so employed while he continues to receive
such relief. erever a person applies for paro-
chial relief, if he or she has a father or grandfather,
mother or grandmother, or child, who is able to
maintain such pauper, the parish officers can
obtain an order from justices to compel such
relative to contribute a sum towards such mainten-
ance. In some cases the epee or overseers
may employ the poor in public works; but this is
POOR-
LAWS 315
seldom done except on occasions like the Lancashire
distress. The law as to the settlement of the poor
is somewhat intricate, and gives rise to much liti-
gation. There are various grounds on which this
settlement is acquired. Thus, every person has,
prima facie, a settlement in the parish where he
was born, until some other is proved ; and there are
so many other qualifications that it is seldom a
birth-settlement is resorted to. By marriage a
woman immediately acquires the settlement of her
husband, if he has one, whether the husband be an
En man or a foreigner. If the husband has no
settlement, then the wife is thrown back on her
maiden settlement. If any person shall be bound
an apprentice by indenture, and reside forty days
under such apprenticeship, or has resided three
years in a parish, or shall rent a tenement in a
parish, and actually occupy the same, and be rated
to the for one whole year, the rent being not
less than £10, and paid by the anes so actually
ae ay the tenement, or shall acquire an estate
in land, however small in value, and reside forty
days in the parish, or shall buy an estate, and the
consideration amount to £30 at least, he shall by
any of these methods acquire a settlement. Unless
a pauper has acquired a settlement in the parish or
union where he receives relief, he is liable to be
removed compulsorily to the parish where he last
acquired a settlement. Paupers who have resided
for one whole year in the parish or union in which
they became’ destitute cannot, however, be re-
moved, The general expense of maintaining the
r is paid out of the common fund, and not
y each parish in the union. When a pauper is
sought to be removed it is necessary to take him
before two justices of the e for examination ;
and, on proper evidence of his settlement, the
justices will make the order of removal, which is
an authority to the overseers to take or send the
uper to the overseers of the parish of settlement.
f, however, the pauper is too ill at the time to
admit of removal without danger, the justices may
suspend the order of removal till he is recovered.
Whenever a pauper is to be removed the removing
nnion is bound to give notice to the union of
settlement; and it is on these occasions that so
many obstinate and costly litigations take place
as to which is the union of settlement. The union
also may appeal to the court of quarter sessions
against the removal order; and the quarter
' sessions may state a case for the opinion of the
Court of Queen’s Bench, if any nice point of law
should arise, as frequently happens. This evil of
litigation was greatly diminished by the Union
bility Act of 1865. The Government
Act of 1894 left the administration of the poor-laws
of England with the guardians and overseers. But
iiiarch wardens ceased to be ex officio overseers ;
the parochial electors appoint the guardians, and
the parish council appoints the overseers, addi-
tional ones being appointed in place of the church-
wardens.
Scotland and Ireland have been legislated for
separately. Their poor-laws are similar to the
English in principle and practice ; both are admin-
istered a central board, which supervises the
local bodies charged with relief, and in both the
rate is levied on the annual value of real property.
In Scotland the usual early legislation was passed
against sturdy beggars and vagabonds. A system of
assessment by the owners in each landward (i.e. non-
urban) parish was set up in 1579 and 1663, and the
general policy of the poor-laws was stated in procla-
mations by the Privy-council in the end of the 17th
century. Until the 19th century, however, the pres
in most parishes were supported out of the volun-
collections at the parish church, administered
by the heritors and kirk-session. In spite of the
opposition of Dr Chalmers, a new system was in-
stituted in 1845. Relief was administered by a
aan ee board, appointed by the ratepayers, the
urgh magistrates, and the kirk-session ; and the
board appointed ‘inspectors of the poor’ as re-
lieving-officers. The Scots law differs from the
English and Irish in allowing no relief to able-
ied adults. Claimants must be aged, infirm, or
disabled. Outdoor relief is the rule. In 1845 a
central board was established, called the Board of
Supervision, controlling the parochial board of each
parish like the LocalGovernment Board in England,
though with less extended powers—thus, although
parochial boards mightcombine tobuild workhouses,
there are no unions, properly so called, in Scotland.
A settlement can be acquired in Scotland by resi-
dence of five years. Children follow the settlement
of their parents, and wives that of their husbands ;
and if no other settlement be proved, then the
settlement of birth is liable. In Scotland the poor-
rate, except in a few cases where the local usage
established in 1845 is followed, is universally im-
equally upon owners and occupiers according
the annual value of the houses, works, farms,
mines, &c., by which is meant the net annual
value, after allowing for repairs, insurance, and
other expenses, and not the annual value
appearing in the valuation-roll. Each parochial
board, however, may exercise an important power of
classifying subjects according to the use to which
they are put, and giving py deductions
from annual value. The tendency of this system
is to approach an assessment imposed upon prob-
able income, the older assessment in Scotland
having gic jg been laid on means and sub-
stance. The parochial boards, originally created
svlely for administering the poor-laws, were gradu-
ally utilised for carrying out the law as to burial-
grounds, the registration of births, deaths, and
marriages, vaccination, public health, vias por end
libraries. The Local Government (Scotland) Act
of 1894 (unlike the English act) transferred the
powers and responsibilities of the parochial boards
to the newly constituted Parish Councils; and in
Scotland the administration of the poor-laws,
especially of the great act of 1845, is the most im-
portant duty of the Parish Council. At the same
time the Board of Supervision is abolished, and its
or transferred to the Local Government Board
or Scotland, a semi-independent body being thus
an by a state department (in Edinburgh,
as before). The Secretary for Scotland is president
of the bcard, which through him is responsible to
parliament.
In Ireland the Poor-law Act was passed for the
first time in 1838, and numerous amending statutes
have followed, the code of laws being substantially
founded on the English acts. Each union has a
workhouse managed by a Board of Guardians
elected by the ratepayers. Every destitute person
has an dhathuta right to relief, which is adminis-
tered almost entirely in the workhouse. The Local
Government Act of 1898 made no essential changes.
There are special acts of parliament regulating the
conditions on which paupers are removable between
England, Scotland, and Ireland ee pte 5
n recent times a new policy has been devised,
and in the German empire carried into practical
effect, of providing against the evils which the
poor-law is intended to alleviate. This policy is
enerally known as that of compulsory insurance,
he German law of 13th June 1883 on sickness
insurance was followed by that of 6th July 1884
on accident insurance, and that of 22d June 1889
on insurance against permanent disability and old
age. Compulsory contributions are collected, to
which the workman, the employer, and the state are
all parties. The disability pension is given after
316
POOR-LAWS
five years’ payment, the old age pension after thirty
years’ payment and after the age of sixty. Where
the wages are below 350 marks the contribution is
14 pfennige per week. The disability pension
starts from a minimum of 60 marks, to which the
state adds 50 marks, the balance depending on the
number of weekly contributions made. ‘The old
age pension is only 106°40 marks, or about £5, 10s.
for the lowest class of salary. The grave diffi-
culties of this scheme (which came into o ion
on Ist January 1891) are sufficiently obvious :
(1) the workman has to keep a card-register all
through life; (2) the employer has to submit to
inspection, and to contribute a fixed sum for all
wages under a certain figure; (3) the annual
ch to the state is expected to exceed £4,000,000
sterling.
A comparison of the statistics of poor-law admin-
istration for England and Walesin 1872 and 1889 is
interesting and encouraging. In 1872, the popula-
tion (1871) of England and Wales being 22,712,266,
there were 977, — of whom 150,930 were
able-bodied adults. The total cost of poor relief
was £8,007,403, while the rateable value of pro-
perty assessed was £107,398,242. In 1889, the
population (1891) being 29,001,018, the correspond-
ing figures were: paupers, 817,190, of whom 104,817
were able-bodied adults; cost, £8,232,472; =
rty assessed, £139,636,307. The burden had
iminished from Is. 5}d. to Is. 14d. per £1 (see
VAGRANTS).
In Scotland in 1890, the population eagr being
4,033,103, the paupers were 92,324; the expendi-
ture, inclading bui dings, was £874,389, contributed
to the extent of 76°8 by assessment, and grants
in aid 17°6, being at the rate of 4s. 4d. per head of
pulation, and Is. 6d. lower than in England.
he cost of the lunatic poor rapidly increases. In
Ireland, the population in 1891 being 4,706,162, the
average daily number, in 1890, of paupers in the
workhouses was 43,536, and on outdoor relief
62,286, together 105,822. In 1889 the total expendi-
ture on poor relief was £853,912. It would be mis-
leading to draw inferences from these figures with
res) to the condition of the respective countries,
as the practical details of poor relief vary tly.
In America the system is on the whole similar to
the British. Every man is entitled by law to relief
from the town of his settlement, the rate being
assessed on whole towns, and not on parishes.
The states have their own poor-laws, but paupers
are removable from one state to another. Thus, in
Massachusetts the unit of poor-law administration
is the town or city, = in each case the
surrounding rural district ; while in New York the
unit, generally ing, is the county. These
areas the burden of the settled poor; the
unsettled poor ee Indians) are a charge
upon the state. In New York one year’s residence
is sufficient to constitute a settlement. The policy
in Massachusetts has been to encourage outdoor
relief as being more economical, and for this reason
to facilitate settlement. Any American becom-
ing a pauper loses his state rights. The acts con-
cernin: Wheckheuues and Paupers in the Revised
Code of Massachusetts may be taken to represent
nerally the state of the law throughout the
nion. The former provides ‘that any town may
erect or provide a workhouse for the employment
and support of all poor and indigent persons that
are maintained by, or receive alms from, the
town; all persons who, being able to work, and
not having means to maintain themselves, refuse
or neglect to work; all persons who live a disso-
lute vagrant life, and exercise no ordinary callin
or lawfal business; and all such ms as spen
their time and property in public-houses, to the
neglect of their proper business, or by otherwise mis-
8 what they earn, to the impoverishment of
emselves and their families, are likely to become
chargeable to the town or the commonwealth.’ The
idle and the vagrant may be committed to the work-
house, and kept to labour, as in a house of correc-
tion. There are provisions for enforcing the claims
of kindred and for the immediate relief of
The administration is in the hands of overseers, but
the counties elect superintendents, eer office
for three years, ee ee ee nsible to a
Board of Supervisors. The New York State Board
of Charities contracts with the counties for the
— almshouses of certain classes of the state
LS gpa rena esc ‘. cece _ Papert ste
of supervising the whole charitable,
and et secterres. system of the commonwealth, and
as annually to the legislature on such questions.
These boards are mainly nominated by gover-
nor. Their functions and the results achieved are
described in Mr Sanborn’s Report to the Massa-
chusetts Centennial Commission, Ist February 187:
and in the Report by Mr Henley to the
Government Board in June 1877 (Parliamentary
Papers, vol. xxxvii.), on the Poor-laws of certain of
the United States, and on the combination there
of private charity with official relief. The Massa-
chusetts state workhouse and almshouse are at
Bridgewater and Tewksbury respectively ; the most
important establishment in New York state is
on Blackwell's Island. Generally the American
system is marked by a high degree of classification.
variety of work, special educational methods, and
liberal treatment in the matter of diet. In the
city of Boston, under special statutes, the author-
ity of overseers is largely superseded by a ‘ Board
mf Directors for Public Institutions.’ e former
practice of levying a small poll-tax on poor immi-
ts was decided by the case of Henderson v.
ickham (1876) to be illegal. With reference to
the efforts made by voluntary associations to assist
and develop the working of the poor-law in
America, Mr Henley reports that this cannot
properly be done except under a well-considered
regulation having the force of law, and a paid staff
of oflicers acting under the orders of representative
and responsible administrators, controlled by in-
dependent auditors.
here is no poor-law in the Australian colonies,
but benevolent asylums for the infirm and destitute
have become general, and hospitals are numerous
in all the rising towns.
See Sir F. M. Eden, he Beats of Oe Deer tae
Bickh’s Public Economy of Athens, translated by Sir G.
C. Lewis (2d ed. 1842); Sir George Nicholls, History of
the Poor-laws (1854-56); Emmi Das Armenwesen
und die Armen, ng in den europtiischen Staaten
(Berl. 1870); Poor ief in different of
eet Mi Poa Genes!
(1887); rott, English Poor-law System, Past
rks on the poor-
law of France by Reitzenstein (Leip. 1881), of Germany
Miinsterbe Thar ed of A cstata by Miscbter (1890}¢
and Sixth Reports of the Poor-law Commission
(1834 and 1839), Annual Reports of Poor-law and Local
Government Boards; Reports on Poor-laws in Foreign
Countries in Parliamentary Pa 1875; the works on
the poor by Mr Charles 1891-97); Gertrude
Lubbock, Some Poor Relief Questions (1895); W.
pdr Better eeas Cau of oe nee — ise
in to o! e ons, the majority and m iy
reports (1895) of the commission 4) ted in 1893; and
G. The Problem of the A ‘oor (1896); also the
NSANITY, INSURANOR, MENDI-
ORKHOUSE.
articles on CHARITY,
CANCY, VAGRANTS,
POOR’S-ROLL
POPE 317
' Poor’s-roll, in the practice of the law of Scot-
land, means the list of poor persons who are liti-
gants, but unable to pay the expenses of litigation,
and therefore are allowed to sue in forma pauperis.
This privilege is only granted on production of a
certificate by the minister of the parish and two
elders, setting forth his cireumstances to their own
knowledge and his general poverty. Notice is
given of this to the adverse party, who is allowed
time to inquire and oppose the <2 ogee Where
the applicant is not in Scotland he may make a
declaration of poverty before a magistrate—e.g. in
Ireland. When the court is satisfied of the poverty
the next thing is for the court to remit the matter
to the reporters appointed by the Faculty of
Advocates, who report whether there is a probabilis
causa—i.e. a plausible cause of action. If this
report is made it is considered conclusive, and the
party is put on the poor’s-roll. This warrant
remains in force for two years, and during that
time the pauper is exempt from all fees of court,
and has the gratuitous services of counsel and
agents, whose names appear on a list made by the
aculty of Advocates and other legal bodies. This
provision for enabling paupers to carry on litigation
is unknown in England or Ireland; for though a
party may also be allowed there to sue in forma
pauperis, no provision is made by the court for
giving him the gratuitous services of counsel and
attorney. There is also a list of poor’s counsel in
the a Court of Justiciary. By an old custom
a el charged with murder may claim the gra-
tuitous services of the Dean of Faculty. See IN
ForMA PAupERIs.
Popayan, capital of the department of Cauca
in Colombia, stands in a fertile plain, 5700 feet
above sea-level, near the river Cauca. It is a
bishop’s see, although its cathedral is now in ruins ;
and it has a university and normal school, and
manufactures woollens. Founded in 1537, it rose
to considerable importance ; but the civil wars and
an earthquake in 1827 have done much to reduce
it. It is still of some consequence for the trade
with Peru. Pop. 9000.
Pope, a fish of the Perch family. See RUFFE.
Pope (Gr. pappas, Lat. papa, ‘father ;’ at first
used Pell bishops, from the 5th century gradually
appro riated in the West to the arraee te Rome,
thongh still used of priests of the Greek Church),
the Bishop of Rome, and supreme pontiff of the
Roman Catholic Chureh. In this article an historic
sketch will be given of the papacy as an institu-
tion. While the op 6 remained pagan the his-
tory of the bishops of Rome is obscure. Tradition
confirmed by the faith of the church represents St
Peter as the first Bishop of Rome. His immediate
successors must have been recognised by Christians
as the heads of Christ’s church in the imperial city.
Rome, the mistress of the world, was regarded by
all men with reverence ; all men came thither. So
among Christians its bishop held a position of
ial dignity, and his judgment in ecclesiastical
controversies was regarded as weighty. The heresy
of Novatian, irregularly ordained Bishop of Rome
during the lifetime of Cornelius (251), illustrated
the importance of ecclesiastical unity, and so in
the end tended to exalt the Bishop of Rome as the
visible head of the church.
Under Constantine the empire became Christian,
and Rome ceased to be the sole imperial city. The
first of these changes vastly increased the dignity
of its bishop ; the second separated Latin from
rm Christendom ; the heresies of the specula-
tive East found no acceptance in the West; the
Bishop of Rome became the champion of ortho-
doxy, and was recognised by the Council of Sar-
dica (347) as having appellate jurisdiction. Before
the end of ‘the 4th century Siricius, in publishing
his decretal on clerical celibacy, assumed that the
law of the Roman Church was binding everywhere.
A great increase in power may be dated from the
reign of Innocent I. (402-417), who claimed, as the
successor of St Peter, superiority over western
Christendom. The weakness of the western empire,
the sack of Rome by the Peas, and the rever-
ence which they Baw to all things Christian, com-
bined to make Innocent the most powerful person
in the Christian city which rose upon the ashes of
n Rome. Leo I, (440-461) maintained the
claim of his see to the patriarchate of the West,
while in Rome and Italy his fearlessness and
enc during the invasions of the Huns and
andals gave him commanding influence. In 476
the empire of the west came to an end; the sole
a 20h of the Romans reigned at Constantinople.
As long as he left Italy alone the papal power was
the stronger for his absence. pate the political
disintegration of the West the church remained
a stable bond of union; its centre was Rome, and
the head of Rome was the pope, who became more
and more regarded as the leader and defender of
the people. bm Theodorie the Ostrogoth,
while master of Italy, abstained from interference
with the bishops of Rome until shortly before his
death, some trouble arose from disputed elections.
The election anciently lay with the clergy and
ple of the city, but as the interference of the
aity led to violence, Symmachus decreed (498)
that thenceforward the election should be decided
by the votes of the Roman clergy. The recon-
quest of Italy by the generals of Justinian im-
ired the pre power, for he treated the pope
ike a rebellious servant. As the imperial power
waned in Italy before the invasion of the Lombards,
the pope again became pre-eminent. Neglected by
her emperor, Rome found a protector in Gregory
the Great (590-604), who was forced by the suffer-
ings of the ple to deal with the Lombards
as a temporal prince. Yet his work was chiefly
spiritual. Under him the right to the patriarchate
of the West was firmly established ; his holiness,
his Se oy i and his reforms were universally
admired ; he exercised ecclesiastical discipline over
the bishops of other lands, and he resented the
indignity put upon his see by the assumption of
the title ‘Universal Bishop’ by the Patriarch of
Constantinople. Under him the Arian invaders of
Italy, the Lombards, were converted to Catholi-
cism ; so, too, were the Arian Visigoths of Spain ;
while the heathen English first received the gospel
from missionaries whom he sent out. Gregory com- .
pleted the work of Innocent and Leo, and was the
greatest of the three founders of the papacy of the
middle ages,
During the 7th century the popes were much
troubled by the eastern emperors, who were still
lords of Rome and some parts of Italy. The
emperors caused elections to the papacy to be
submitted to themselves for confirmation, tried to
force the po es to concur in their heresy concerning
the will o Christ, and treated them as mere officers
of their state. Martin I. (649-654), a strenuous
opponent of the Monothelite heresy, was seized,
carried off to Constantinople, and, after suffering
ill-u , died in exile. ven when the emperors
again became orthodox they still humiliated the
popes. power was growing in
Meanwhile the Ln
western lands: the English turned from Columban
usages, and professed obedience to Rome (664); the
Burgundians and Frieslanders received the gospel ;
and early in the 8th century Boniface won over a
large part of Germany to the faith, acting on a com-
mission from Gregory II. (715-731). In Gregory’s
time the Emperor Leo III. forbade the worship and
even the use of images throughout his empire,
318
POPE
whence he and his successors who adopted the
same policy are called Iconoclasts ones, pr ganare )
Gregory refused to obey his decree, and was upheld
by the Italians and the West generally. The
imperial governor in Italy, called the exarch,
sought to compel the pope to rie his master, and
the Italians rose in the pope’s defence. The Lom-
bards took advantage of the confusion to conquer
the exarchate. They threatened the lands of the
church ; no help was to be had from the emperor ;
Italy was virtually severed from the empire. In
his distress, Gregory III. (731-741) appealed for
help to the Catholic Franks. Twice Pepin brought
an army of Franks to the pope’s relief, and routed
the Lombards; he won back from them all that
had belonged to the exarchate in Northern Italy,
and bestowed it on the Roman see (754). This
was the beginning of the temporal power of the
popes. In return Pepin accepted from the pope
the title of Patrician of the Romans, an acknow-
ledgment of his ed in Rome, and of his duty
as the defender of the church. He had alread
received the papal sanction for the deposition of
the Frankish king and his own coronation; the
kaa action in this matter formed a precedent not
orgotten by his successors. Pepin’s son, Charles
(Charlemagne), in routed the Lombards, and
renewed his father’s donation. At another visit he
declared Leo III. (795-816) guiltless of certain
crimes with which he was charged, and on Christ-
mas Day, 800, Leo crowned him emperor. It was
conti to the feelings of the age that the church
should lack an imperial protector ; the breach with
the eastern empire was complete, and the imperial
throne at Constantinople was held to be occupied
unlawfully, While Leo had allowed his cause to
be judged by a temporal prince, and had accepted
him as master of Rome and emperor, he had
assumed as God’s vicar the right to bestow the
imperial crown, which carried with it the lordship
of the world.
During the struggles that preceded the break-u
of the Frankish empire the popes generally favow
the princes of the West (or Gaulish) Franks, rather
than of the East (or German) Franks. The rise
of separate nations threw political power into the
hands of the great churchmen of the new states.
The pontificate of Nicolas I. (858-867) was marked
v. the successful assertion of the authority of
me in correcting the vices of princes, and com-
pelling the submission of the most ear 5 prelates
of the West, such as the Archbishop of Ravenna,
certain German bishops who upheld their king in
his evil ways, and even Hincmar of Rheims. His
chief weapon against the bishops was a series of
early decretals, now known to have been forgeries
not emanating from Rome. The lofty policy of
Nicolas was pursued, though with less success, by
Hadrian II. (867-872), Meanwhile a dispute
begun in the time of Nicolas was leading the
Greek Church towards schism. During the papacy
of John VIII. (872-882) the Saracens establish
themselves in Southern Italy and threatened Rome,
and the courageous pope sought help on all sides
against them and his Christian enemies. The
anarchy in Italy which followed the extinction of
the Carolingian empire had the worst effects on
the papacy. Things were darkest in the first half
of the 10th century, Competitors for power treated
the — as their tools, and elections to the papacy
were decided either by the nobles of Rome, or the
mob, or any foreign power which chanced to be
master of the city. No reverence was paid to the
papal office, and several of those to it were
men of fierce and unholy lives. Pressed by enemi
John XIL. sent for help to Otto the Great, king o'
Germany, and, by crowning him emperor in ,
revived the empire; he acknowled Otto as his
pa ae and the Romans swore to elect no pope
without the emperor’s consent. Though Otto, his:
peer dar his alent did weer’ denne
restoring to the pa its pro ity,
attempt to Soo my A failed and, oar the
death of Otto IIL, it was again d ed by fall-
ings the —— . = pteraaty jyerees
emperor Hen . regen e paracy
by velgnaion it pad the control of the Roman
nobles, and conferring it on German churchmen of
high character. One of these, Leo IX. (1049-55
commanded the respect of Christendom by
revival of ecclesiastical discipline. He was taken
prisoner when Rig Sepp to check the Norman
invaders of Italy, but the Normans reverenced
their captive, and after his death acknowledged
the pope as the feudal lord of their conquests,
Sicily and Southern Italy. Under the guidance
of Hildebrand (see Gregory VII.) the bopeey
advanced rapidly in power and repute. y a
decree of Nicolas IL. (1059-61) in 1059 the nght
of election was vested in the inals After a
severe struggle clerical celibacy was enforced, and
the clergy thus se from worldly ties be-
came devoted to the interests of their order and
its earthly head. Simony was strictly repressed.
A further advance was made when Gregory VII.
(1073-86) forbade churchmen to receive investi-
ture of their benefices from lay hands. This
touched the sovereignty of lay princes. He was
opposed by the Emperor Henry IV. (q.v.). The
principle at stake was the church’s independence of
the lay fe pgs its dependence on its own visible
head, its consequent salvation from feudal
bonds and abuses. Gregory asserted the highest
claims, and deposed the emperor, who made a
humiliating submission at Canossa in 1077. Po
and emperor each found support, the pope in the
discontent of the Germans and in the Normans,
War broke out, an antipope and rivals to the
emperor were set up. The struggle lasted beyond
the lives of Gregory an enry IV., and was
decided in 1122 by the Concordat of Worms, which,
though a compromise, was a substantial victory for
the papacy. During the struggle the Crusades
brought a vast increase of power to the pope, for
preg made him the head of Christendom in arms
and the director of its forces. Though disturbed
for a few years by a schism, the result of Roman
faction, the reign of Innocent IL. (1130-43) was a
time of greatness. The religious orders had from
the first rise of western monasticism been strong
upholders of the papacy, and each order as it was
founded laid its new-born zeal at the disposal of
Rome. Innocent gained much from the support of
St Bernard, backed by all the strength of the
Cistercian order. Under Hadrian IV. (1154-59),
a native of St Albans, named Nicolas Brakespear,
the rf Englishman who has been raised to the
papal chair, the papacy entered on a struggle with
the Emperor Frederick I., who was determined fully
to enforce his imperial rights. In theory pope and
emperor supplied each the complement of the other’s
power, the one being God's vicegerent in spiritual,
the other in worldly things; but the limits dividing
their spheres of ection were undefinable, and when
both were strong they were almost forced into
hostility. Among the definite causes of dispute
was the rot cy of the pope over certain parts
of Italy which been neathed to the paj
by the Countess Matilda of Tuscany (died itis}.
The popes were upheld by a league of the Lom-
bard cities, which carried on a long war with the.
emperor; he was defeated, and in 1177 submitted
to Alexander III.
The papal authority reached its test height
under Innocent III. (1198-1216), who ruled as the
head of a vast spiritual empire, founded on the
—————
POPE
319
reverence of mankind for righteousness. He was
master in Italy. His strife with two emperors
ended in the success of his ward, Frederick II.,
inheritor of the Sicilian throne, whom he crowned
emperor. By excommunication he forced the kin
of France to put away his our; he depanet
John of England, and compelled him to become his
vassal. The kings of many nations submitted to
his rebukes. The Latin conquest of Constantinople
brought the East for a while under the papal
obedience, and a crusading army be; to extirpate
the heretics of Languedoc. ore important than
all was the foundation of the orders of St Dominic
and St Francis, which wh: the pope well-organised
and generally devoted forces in every land. Inno-
cent was the first pope that exercised full dominion
over the States of the Church. Their position as
temporal sovereigns brought his successors into
collision with Frederick IL., who, already king of
Sicily and Naples, wished to gain Central Italy.
Had he done so he would have made the papacy
dependent on himself. Gregory IX. (1227-41) and
Innocent IV. (1243-54) resisted him by every means,
spiritual and temporal, at their disposal. The
Italian cities of the Guelfic or papal party were
their strongest allies. Innocent declared the em-
peror de’ , and found allies against him in Ger-
many. The l resources were strained ; money
was exto rom foreign countries, especially
from England, and the papacy lost in repute by its
demands: The struggle was continued against
Frederick’s house until it was extinguished. All
danger of subjection to the empire was Send but
the papacy owed its final success to Charles of
Anjou, who was invested with the kingship of
Sicily and Naples. This gave France an interest
in Italy, and led to the subjection of the papacy
to the French king. The imperial power having
fallen, Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) sought to take
the emperor’s place as head of Europe. His aims
were secular and his temper violent. National
monarchies were being built up in England and
France by strong kings. The claims of Boniface
were subversive of their domestic policy; the
to admit them, and he quarrelled wit
both kings. The Italian partisans of Philip IV. of
France seized him; he was brutally treated, and
died soon afterwards.
Philip procured the election of a Frenchman,
Clement ve 1305-16), who resided at Avignon in
Provence, afterwards sold to the papacy. There
the papal court remained for about seventy years,
a period called the ‘ Babylonish Captivity,’ during
which the popes were much under the influence
of their powerful neighbour of France. A long
struggle with the Emperor Louis IV., in which the
popes were successful, injured the reputation of
the papacy. During its course men began to
criticise the character and claims of the papacy.
It was attacked on ecclesiastical grounds the
‘Spiritual Franciscans,’
Ockham, and on
but died there mareetiacely afterwards. Urban
was elected, but a rench Sn sup-
the king of France and the Angevin
hea ot. Naples, Feballed, and elected Clement
Vit. During the schism which ensued the obedi-
ence of Europe was divided between rival popes.
__ In order to heal the schism the cardinals revived
long disused authority of a igen council.
Council of Pisa (1409) failed of its object.
reformation as well as the reunion of the
the
The
The
church was largely desired. In England Wyclif
urged apostolic poverty as the only cure for
abuses. His teaching was of little practical im-
portance, save that it helped forward the revolt
of Bohemia, where the Slavs regarded the Latin
liturgy as a badge of German superiority. Many
orthodox churchmen desired to see the abuses of
the papal court reformed and the churches of the
several countries preserved from undue papal inter-
ference. By the Council of Constance the schism
was closed, and Martin V. (1417-31) was elected
Pope + the council proved unequal to deal with
reform. Martin’s wise administration raised the
papacy from its low estate ; he regained its posses-
sions, and made its power widely felt. The
Bohemian war made another council inevitable ;
it met at Basel in 1432, it attacked Eugenius IV.
(1431-47), raised up an antipope, and ended in
contempt. Meanwhile the Greeks, hoping for help
against the Turks, submitted to the holy see. In
another respect the papacy was specially affected
by the troubles of the Greeks. It readily adopted
the learning and culture brought by the Greeks to
Italy. The genius of Nicolas V. (1447-55) conceived
a new ideal. The 15th century was an of splen-
dour ; its magnificence was conspicuous in the lives
not merely of princes, but even of nobles, merchants,
and bankers. As the papacy Spe ted all earth]
powers in tness, so in the mind of the "pontiff
was Rome its seat to impose on the imagination
of all the world by an exterior grandeur which
should outshine that of the city of vf earthly
potentate. But his was no vulgar ideal of mere
magnificence ; Rome to him was to be the protec-
tress of the arts, the home of learning, the central
point of culture in the Christian world; and all this
was but to typify and render sensible the supremacy
Under Pins I h ed
nder Pius IT. (1458-63) the pope again appear
as the natural head of the forces of Curistendom
united in arms against the infidel. Pius died when
actually setting out on a crusade, and his plans
failed, but they gave the papacy renewed importance
in the eyes of Parva His successors, inheriting
generally the views of Nicolas V. in regard to Rome
as the material expression of papal Loaner did not
inherit the loftiness of his spirit. hilst pursuing
the idea of surrounding the papal dignity with pre-
eminent splendour, some, like Paul II. (1464-71),
betrayed a sympathy for the pagan renaissance
which is unmistakable, and which cannot fail to
have diminished the veneration due to the head of
the church. Other popes, like Alexander VI. (1492-
1503) or Julius IT. (1503-13), were bent on founding
in the Italian states princedoms either for their
relatives or for the papal chair. This is speciall
true of Alexander (Borgia), whose earlier life h
been immoral, and who as pope caused scandal by
his undisguised love of worldly pleasures; whilst
his son Cesar, an able, unscrupulous man, made
matters worse by his crimes. :
Meantime the idea of reform had not_slept—
witness the activity of such a man as Cardinal
Nicolas of Cusa; but efforts like his were
inspired by individual minds of a specially lofty
turn, and at most had the countenance of supreme
authority ; however harry they were local
and were not that general ‘reformation in head
and members’ which had been so loudly and so
earnestly called for. The inevitable day of reckon-
ing came, but in a guise which none expected. In
place of reform the Protestant Reformation effected
a ruthless breach with the t, and instead of the
enforcement of the law of the church that law itself
was repudiated. Events now convinced, but too
late, the most unwilling minds that what priests and
bishops, regulars and seculars, theologians and
zealous laymen had pressed for had been indeed
320
POPE
the need of the time. Rome itself furnished a
lamentable illustration of the ruin that had come
upon the church. Clement VIL. (1523-34), though
he had his own political aims, was as a man not
unworthy of his office, and by character the least
able to bear the brunt of the storm; yet it was he
who witnessed Rome ruthlessly sacked (1527), and
that by the troops of Charles V., who during the
first half of the 16th century was the mainstay of
the Catholic cause, and by his dignity as then
emperor-elect the nised protector of the Roman
Church. The impression made by this event on all
religious minds is well expressed in the measured
but weighty words of Cardinal Sadoleto. ‘If
those,’ he writes, ‘had done their duty on whom
the obligation chiefly rested (I speak not of the
pontiff whose virtues, mildness, and uprightness
are known not as t merely but as admirable),
the priesthood would still be venerated as of old,
and not now exposed to injury and contempt. I
say what I feel, and God and man are my witnesses,
that this best of penam desired to cure these
corrupt morals; but the thing needed the knife,
not a salve, and his nature and kindly spirit shrank
from strong measures.’
From this point the history of the papacy to the
close of the 18th century falls naturally into three
divisions. From 1530 to the early years of the
17th century there takes place a reconstitution of
the papacy on the basis of Catholic reform; next
follows a century of normal activity on the new
basis thus formed; thirdly, a century of decline
in influence, the term of which is marked by the
conclave in Venice which resulted in the election
of Pope Pius VII.
(1) No time was lost in setting about the work
which now all recognised as the bg an need,
The papacy was not prominent in the work of re-
form ; but the countenance given by Rome to men
like Contarini, Pole, and Ghiberti is sufficient evi-
dence that the i themselves did not intend to
be behindhand. e pontificate of Paul IIT. (1534—
50) witnessed two events of considerable importance
to the future of the church—the institution of the
Jesuits, and the commencement of the Council of
Trent. In 1534 Ignatius of Loyola pronounced
his vows in the presence of the pope, and thus laid
the foundations of a society of men specially devoted
to the service of the holy see, with which its
fortunes have subsequently been intimately asso-
ciated. The ideal conceived by Ignatius was that
of an order governed by ‘a general whom all should
be bound to obey under vow, who should be per-
petual, of absolute authority, subject
entirely to the pope, but not liable to be restrained
by any chapters of the order.’ Paul IIL, on Septem-
ber 27, 1540, by the bull Regimen militantis, gave
the papal approval to the ‘form of life’ designed by
the founder. The Council of Trent, whatever be
the import of its dogmatic definitions, is essentially
a council of disciplinary reform; but in this place
it uires notice as Cain a council of which,
though held at a distance from Rome, the control
and effective action really vested in the pope. After
long negotiations the council convoked by Paul IIL.
met at Trent in December 1545. As early as 1542
the papal legates had reached that city; but the
war between France and Germany which then broke
out made the further delay inevitable. It is worth
remarking, as showing the influence already
sessed by the newly-founded Society of Jesus, that
two of its members came to the council as papal
theologians. On April 28, 1552, the sittings of the
fathers were suspended for two years. On November
29, 1560, the then pope, Pius IV., convoked it for
the following Easter. The decree of reformation of
morals and government, consisting of eighteen
chapters, was adopted in the 23d session. It con-
u the
ualifications for riesthood, and for thon erec-
tion of seminaries for derical " 25th
session was passed a series of
The decrees
thus more sharply divided Christendom into the
spiritual subjects and the enemies of the papacy.
he cause of Catholic reform dominated the pol
of Paul IV. (1555-59), and from his time the
comnesnden the aonen, e in its modern
as) Ae goa ractically out a check.
this pert too, falls the establishment of adminis-
trative bodies called ‘sacred con, ions,’ whi
henceforth are the recognised and usual organs for
the exercise of papal wee in the government of
the church. Lesser objects were not neglected.
If modern Rome has been for so long the city in
Europé which has attracted and deserved to attract
a ag. os _ admiration a all “ro this is
argely due to the continuation durin period
of the works under the jeqlestion of
Nicolas V. It is often forgotten that St Peter's
itself was not completed till 1626.
(2) By the beginning of the 17th century the
papacy as an institution had reconstituted itself in
accordance with the circumstances induced by the
Protestant Reformation. Its history in this second
period shows no such stirring events as had marked
the preceding age. But for its future the transfer
of the weight of political power from the House of
Austria to that of France was of decisive import-
ance. The full consequences of the change were
not, of course, perceived immediately, but it is
certain it was dein gerry in Rome as momentous,
and was not viewed with satisfaction.
(3) The conclave which assembled in Rome in
the yore 1700 determined the history of the papacy
in the third period. Among the cardinals the one
who enjoyed the most respect was the Dominican
Cardinal Orsini, the head of a ey of cardinals
whose views are sufliciently indicated by the name
len to them—the Zelanti, He was a man of
illustrious family, dominated by a sense of duty in
all things great and small, of slender intellectual
capacity indeed, but endowed with a rare gift of
discerning merit and capacity in others; free
from petty jealousy, he knew how to gather round
him men of ability, and how to use them when
he had them. But the change in the balance of
power effected during the 17th century determined
the election of Cardinal Albani, to whom was
iven the whole weight of the influence of France.
s Clement XI. (1700-21) he was in the most im-
sais acts of his reign inspired by Louis XIV.
'o outward aypeanes, in the first half of the
18th century, the position of the papacy in its
relations with princes and peoples remained as
it had been before. To some extent also it is
certain that Benedict XIV. (1740-58), by a charm
of character which imp even one so keenly
alive to the weak side of humanity as Walpole,
staved off the evil day. But before his death
the signs of disintegration were unmistakable.
Throughout Europe luxury and an accompanying
dissoluteness of manners had increased to shame-
lessness, whilst the school of infidelity in France
was now fully organised and confident of victory.
The full effect, moreover, of the displacement of
the imperial House of Austria as the political
of the church in favour of France now made i
manifest, and the Jansenist troubles of the 17th
century bore bitter fruit. The whole church of
France had become involved in the quarrel. On
POPE
321
the one side the bishops nominated by the kin
insisted, as in duty bound, upon the acceptation of
the bull Unigenitus issued Ne Benue XI. in 1713,
whilst on the other a large body of the clergy and
a not less large he! of the laity resisted a bull in-
volving assent to a lengthy series of abstract theo-
logical propositions. Of the violence of these theo-
logical quarrels it is now almost impossible to
form an idea, and more than one cool observer
believed schism in France to be imminent. Thus,
whilst the papacy needed every aid to stem the
rising tide of infidelity, it found those on whose
help it should have been able to depend involved in
internecine conflict. The second half of the 18th
century was for the papacy a slow agony, the suc-
cessive stages of which do not call for notice here.
By the suppression of the Jesuits the papacy not
merely deprived itself of an able body of strenuous
defenders, but cast by the very act dismay among
the ranks of many devoted to the church. More-
over, the manner of the fall of the Society of Jesus
was not calculated to lessen the weight of responsi-
bility, or it may be said the odium, attaching to so
grave an act. It fell with dignity, and the cruelties
inflicted upon many of its members called forth
in unlikely quarters soy for the victims. It
was natural that onlookers should be more impressed
b. Smyer more recent occurrences than by the long
in of events which had brought the holy see to
view the suppression of the Order as inevitable.
Even the faithful House of Austria now fell
away, and the Emperor Joseph II. assumed to him-
self and exercised functions which the popes had
ever claimed as pertaining to the supreme ecclesi-
astical power. The fruitless journey of Pius VI.
(1775-99) to confer with Joseph II. at Vienna in
1782 is the outward evidence of the humiliation
of the papacy. Before long the Revolution which
broke foth in France swept away king and priest
and all established institutions in church and state,
involving Catholic Europe in disorder. An out-
break in Rome, fomented by the agents of the
French ambassador, forced the pope from Rome as
4 prisoner (1798); and, after his removal from one
lace of confinement to another, Pius VI. died at
alence on 29th August 1799, Napoleon having,
two years before, in anticipation of his death, given
orders that no successor should be elected, and that
the papacy should be abolished.
A few words must still be given to the present
and fourth period of the modern age of the papacy.
Through the instrumentality of schismatic Russia
the conclave of cardinals met in the monastery
of St Giorgio Maggiore at Venice on the Ist of
December 1799. he conclave lasted for nearly
four months. Just as the conclave of 1700 was
decisive as regards the fortunes of the papacy in
the 18th century, so was this of 1800 as regards
the 19th century. The possible candidates were
numerous ; the choice finally rested on the Bene-
dictine cardinal, Chiaramonti. Nothing better
illustrates the confusion of ecclesiastical ideas in
the 18th century, or a chief source of the weakness
of the church, induced by universal suspicion, than
an accidental expression used by a member of the
conclave, Cardinal Langini, in his private diary.
Explaining the objections felt by some in the con-
clave to Chiaramonti, he notes under 12th March
1800, only two days before the election, ‘ Chiara-
monti, as a Benedictine, being suspected of Jan-
senism.”
No one who reviews the history of the 19th
century can doubt that events have justified the
choice of the cardinals. After enduring shocks
which to human eyes seemed to threaten its very
existence, the papacy las become once more a factor
of the test potency in the civilised world.
t this is so is largely the result of the
385
personal character of Chiaramonti, the new pope,
who as Pius VII. (1800-23) combined a comeitia, -
tory temper with an unconquerable inflexibility
when vital principles were involved. The history
of his relations with Napoleon I. is sufficient of
itself to explain how he, destitute apparently
of all human help, won for himself the respect
of those who would naturally have been the
first to contest his spiritual authority. In the
space of his pontificate he was able to restore the
papacy to the position which it had held a hundred
years before. Under him Lon that restoration
of Catholic life and Catholic aim which has
attracted some of the ablest intellects and most
statesmanlike minds of the century to the service
of the church; and under him and his successors
was accumulated a reserve of Catholic strength
which is one of the most interesting and remarkable
features of the 19th century.
The successors of Pius Vii. by the personal purity
of their lives contributed greatly to advance this
Catholic revival. The reigns of Leo XII. (1823-
29), Pius VIII. (1829-30), and Gregory XVI. (1831-
46) witnessed an increase of zeal on the part of the
Roman Catholic clergy everywhere, and a marked
development of the spirit of loyalty to the holy
see both in them and in the ranks of the Catholic
laity. In France the exertions of Montalembert,
Lamennais, and others firmly established a new
school, which, whilst proleaeny enlightened liberal
doctrines, was founded on the principle that com-
_— and loyal submission to the teachings and
irection of Rome was the first duty of every
Catholic. In England the passing of the act for
Catholic emancipation in 1829 gave liberty, and
with it new life, to Roman Catholics.
Pius IX. (1846-78) was chosen to succeed Gregory
XVI. He had generally been credited with advanced
liberal views, and had exerted himself during the
civil disturbances under his predecessor to secure
some mitigation of the punishments meted out to
the political prisoners. He began his rule with a
proclamation of general amnesty for such offenders,
and for the first two years he maintained a policy
of liberal political reform. At the end of that time
he had practically become a prisoner in the hands
of the revolutionary party, and on November 24,
1848, he esca; in disguise from Rome to Gaeta.
Here he remained till in April 1850 he was brought
back to Rome by the French troops. On Septem
29, 1850, he took the important step, as regards the
English Catholics, of omen omg. hierarchy of
bishops in communion with the Roman see. On
December 8, 1854, he issued the bull Jneffabilis
Deus, by which the doctrine of the Immaculate
Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary was declared
to be a dogma of the Christian faith. Ten years
later (December 1864) he published the famous
encyclical Quanta cura, together with the Syllabus,
or catalogue of errors of the day which called for
special condemnation. Romagna, a portion of the
pontifical states, was occupied by the Sardinian
troops in 1860, and in September of the same year,
after a stubborn resistance made by the pope’s
troops at Ancona, most of the States of the Church
were annexed to the kingdom of Victor Emmanuel.
From that time till 1870 Pius LX. was maintained
in Rome by a French garrison. On the 18th of
July of that year (1870) the Vatican Council, which
the pope had assembled at Rome, decreed the dogma
of Papal Infallibility part of the faith of the church,
Upon the outbreak of the war between France and
Prussia the French garrison was withdrawn from
Rome, and on the news of the defeat of the French
the Sardinian troops moved upon Rome. After a
slight show of resistance Victor Emmanuel’s army
entered the city on the 2lst September 1870, and
from that time the temporal power of the pope has
POPE
ceased to exist. Pius IX. for the rest of his life
remained in the Vatican, refusing to recognise what
had been done. The position in uidoh tee he was thus
placed as a virtual prisoner in his palace aroused
the sym y of the Catholic world at large.
Leo 11.{ 1878), who was chosen as his successor,
has since continued to maintain towards the king-
the attitude taken up by Pius I
ut up in the Vatican palace, Pope
Leo himself of an influence which
has made — sarong and has won for himself the
Naha In Germany his wise
di sat ms mena 1 bout a mitigation of the anti-
Catholie 3 icon In a question of disputed
rights over the Caroline Islands his arbitration was
sought by Germany and Spain, and his award
accepted as final. The state of Ireland caused him
to despatch thither a special envoy to study on the
report to him the nature of the ian
and
‘iiticalties which had arisen there, and the attitude
of the Catholic clergy towards the grave questions
involved in the stru:
tenants. As a
e between the landlords and
t of this mission, in May 1888
Deusdedit I. (Roman)..... 615
67 | Boniface V. (Nea
Sergius,
440 | Boniface VL (Roman)..
Stephen VIL ).
Romanus eo)
(
Leo VIL |Roman)..
Stephen TX. (Roman
Marinus IT.......
7 Roman)......
John X1L1, "eae
855 | Anastasius IV. Gomes
897 | Innocent ITI. (Italian).
the pontiff issued a circular to the bishops of
Ireland in which he condemned as 5 mg
Peps | and . dee of yell
e pope an en heprws
Catholic ra deal
should e@ co! Haber ag
involved in struggles between capital pes
ee tae Pontificalis sive Vite nonnullorum
Ponti. bs spy Ital, SS. iii; Baronius (Pagi), Ann
Ecel. i.-xlii. ; Theiner, Cont, Baroni Ann. ; —
fen Coteueney f of ps "Papacy di rin the
‘ o a,
tion; Ranke’s Hi. of the i eator, History of
the P hrs he te ae (188 8
rans, regorovius, History wv of Rome
in the Middle Ages (1859-72; trans. 98); and
e articles Bunt, Encycnican, INFALLIBILITY, ITALY,
Normans, Rerormation, Roman Catruoiie CHURCH ;
and the se. sede orgy yeah apr dagen ga pe oe
in the f sah Be wae Se cane eee Reena
accession are taken from P. B. Gams’s Series E; aces
the namés of the antipopes Tr given in italics.
Clement VI. (French)... .. 1342
saneces Vi. x 1852
ne FE au cea ae
Gregory V. ( Grecory XI Cee
Sylvester in. (French .». 999 | Urban VI. an V1 (Nenpolt =n 1378
John XVII. (Italian). Vil.
John XVIII. (Roman Boultnee 1X 1X. Neapolitan) 1880
Sergius IV. (Roman). Benedict
Benedict VII, SR Innocent VIL. Tatan). 1404
John XIX. G XI. 221408
= I Alexander V. ( 1409
John en 8 {italteny: bvea ‘1410
Martin V. (Roman)........ ef
(
X. (Italian) Pius IL, (1 asesscees 1458
Benedict X. (Italian). Paul IT. (Venetian)........ M64
Nicolas IL. (French)....... Sixtus IV. (Italian)........ 471
731 | Alexander IT. (Italian). , ..1061 | Innocent Vu. Ttalian),..1484
Gregory VIE (fave) .-+-1078 | Alexander VI. (
Cleme L Pins IIL (Italian). . 1503
Victor ITI. (Italian)....... 1086 | Julius IT. “talian).
Urban IL (French)........1088| Leo X, (Italian).
Callixtus II, (French)
Anacletus,
Lacins IT. (Ttalian)..
Eugenius LI. (Italian), Cas
Hadrian IV. "Bh ish) “KES
ape eed HL (Hatten):
Paschat.
Callixtus,
Lucius IIL. (Italian) ....,.
Urban LL (Italian)....... 1185
Jeees
Colestinus ITL. (Roma
Innocent XIL. (Neapoit:
WEB isto ces atacscastaae, 1691
italian)... ..1700
Clement XII. (Italian)... .
Benedict XIV. (Italian). af
Clement XIII. (Vene-
tian) Fee ee oe
Pine 1k. (itallsa). Msi?
Leo XIII. (Italianj........
Clement )
John XXIL (prench).... 1816
POPE
323
Po ALEXANDER, the greatest t of his
age, omy the most brilliant satirist that England,
or perhaps the world, has ever produced, was born
in 1 oh on the 2lst of May 1688. He was of
good ‘middle-class parentage, but not, as he after-
characteristically endeavoured to make out,
of aristocratic descent. His dfather, Alexander
Pope the elder—whose pedigree he attempted to
derive, ary, Ss very inadequate evidence, from
the Earls of ne—was a clergyman of the Church
of England. His son, the poet’s father, was placed
with a merchant at Lisbon, where he became a
convert to the Roman Catholic Church. On his
return from Lisbon he seems to have followed the
trade of a linen-draper in Broad Street, whence,
after his marriage with Edith Turner, the poet’s
mother, he migrated to Lombard Street. Here,
on oo Ltn i eget a aaalig the yee of
mue lexing controversy, but now satisfac-
toril doekteatnadAlacuanles the yor first saw
the light. In his infancy, and indeed up to the
age of | ten, he does not seem to have been either
weakly or deformed, In the opinion of a kinsman,
‘it was the perpetual application he fell into in his
twelfth year that changed his form and ruined his
constitution ;’ and it is possible that this may
have contributed to and vated a misfortune
which could hardly have due to any such
eause alone. It is at any rate certain that Pope’s
application to study must have been both early
and intense, for deep traces of thought and culture
are no less [cog age than natural precocity of
genius even in his most juvenile poems; and he
certainly owed little to his teachers. His educa-
tion, thanks no doubt to the disabilities created by
his inherited creed, was unmethodical and imper-
fect to the last degree. He seems to have passed
from one incapable Catholic priest and ill-ordered
Catholic seminary to another, until at twelve years
of age he was removed, knowing little more appar.
ently than the Latin and Greek rudiments, to Bin-
field near Wokingham, to which i his father
had by that time retired. Yet in this very year he
wrote his Ode on Solitude, an insignificant but not
unp' 5 pernentes, and at soar accord-
ing to his own accoun composed poem on
Silence, in imitation of Rochester’s Nothing, which
both in manner and matter is astonishingly mature.
It was at the same age that he prod the first
of his works which attracted attention, a Transla-
tion of the First Book of the Thebais of Statius, a
Fact that in it the English heroie couplet, though of
ng roie con
course falling far short of the techna peeemon
it, is
beginning to take the new mould into which, in his
hands, it was destined to be recast. It is durin
the next two years, that is to say, at the marvel-
lously early age of from sixteen to eighteen, that
recognised
Weng suahor
ycherley, then advanced in years, with whom he
com a singular correspondence, the tenor of
which he eres misrepresented in later life.
It was to Wycherley, too, that Pope owed
his first introduction, which took place a little
later, to pare life, whee youth’s ~
ents were quickly recognised, an
where he was not long fh establishing a friend-
ship with Addison, Steele, ght he and
wits and poets of the day. In 1711
blished his Hssay on Criticism, a poem
whether written in 1709 or 1707—and it
{
/
may have been his invincible habit of committing
small acts of dishonesty for still smaller gains
that suggested the antedating of the composition—
was a sufficiently splendid achievement for the age
either of nineteen or twenty-one. It at once, or
nearly at once—for it hung for a little at first at
the booksellers—placed him in the front rank of the
men of letters of his time: Critical opinions differed,
and Ss ig our ve day have barrage to en
as to the of merit y this remark-
able bo ata a t Otte marten came depre-
ciating its critical aphorisms as D paeciairyye others
elevating them into utterances of gnomic wisdom ;
but its excellences of form are not open to question
in any competent paceetss. Young as was its
author, even on the highest computation of his
age, his style had already reached maturity, and
his matchless power of expression is here exhibited,
if over a less varied subject-matter, yet certainly
with a no less unerring mastery than in any of his
later works. The year 1713 witnessed the publica-
tion of Windsor Forest ( written, according to Pope’s
account adopted by Warburton, in 1709), a piece
much admired in its day for the accuracy and force
in its descriptions of nature; and this was suc-
ceeded in the following year by the poem on which
Foes} claim to the gift of poetic imagination may
ps ‘be most securely rested, the Rape of the
ock. Necessarily precluded by the deliberate
triviality of its subject from appealing to the
pred emotions which imaginative poetry of the
serious order arouses, this piece displays, in addition
to the exquisite charm of its ve
cation, a
of delicate fancy which at times almost Teaalls the
creator of Puck and Ariel, and the diviner of the
dream-whispers of Queen Mab.
‘ad thea the a ip or gen of what ir
probably the iest and most prosperous peri
of the poet's lite, His Ieiitiant enaceus hag: not
yet brought with it much pecuniary — but in
the year 1713 a project was set on foot by him,
and warmly supported by Swift and others of his
friends, which was destined not only to add to his
fame, but to place his fortunes on a substantial
basis for life. This was the translation of the
Iliad, a work published by eet in six
volumes, intended to appear yearly; the last
two, as a matter of fact, were issued together
after six years’ intermission in 1720. Most im-
perfectly representative, as might be expected, of
its great original, it is nevertheless a poem so
remarkable for its union of force and el ce, and
one which moves with an animation so inspiriting
and unflagging, that it can be read to-day with no
inconsiderable portion of the pleasure which it
gave to the contemporaries of the poet. The year
of its composition was among the fullest and
busiest of Pope’s life. In 1716 his father removed
from Binfield to a house at Chiswick, where he
resided till his death in the following year. Pope
was now the foremost of the literary lions of
fashionable London, and almost as conspicuous a
personage in the drawing-rooms of ministers and
magistrates as in the coffee-houses of the wits.
At this period, too, his mind, save for an interval
of natural grief at the loss of his father, was prob-
ably as easy as his circumstances. Political
differences, aggravated by well or ill-founded sus-
og? of the elder writer’s jealousy of the younger,
alienated Pope from Addison ; but, though he
had already Le Ae his almost life-long quarrel with
the eccentric John Dennis, it had not yet taken on
a character of any very extreme virulence. In
1718 he purch out of the early profits of the
Iliad the famous villa and unds at Twicken-
ham, which he Neer till his death.
A translation of the Odyssey, less successful be-
cause largely ‘farmed out’ to inferior hands, was
324
POPE
pate in 1725 and the following years; and in
727 appeared the first two volumes of a collection
of Miscellanies, from the joint authorship of Pope
and Swift, a work famous as being the first shot
fired in the war between the poet and ‘the Dunces.’
In March 1728 the third volume appeared, and the
furious and scurrilous retorts wrung from the per-
sons ridiculed in it elicited the retaliatory pub-
lication of the first three books of the Dunciad.
This work Pope represented as having been
written in reply to their attacks, but it (or a first
draft of which) has been ascertained by recent
pays’ to have been in existence as early as 1725,
and to have been merely withheld until its author
had deliberately 5 his enemies into a blind and
headlong charge. ‘Martinus Scriblerus,’ in fact,
played the part of the lance with which the Spanish
picador irritates the bull to frenzy; the Dunciad
was the blade poised ready to transfix him. In
this immortal lampoon—for it is too personal in
all senses of the word to deserve the title of satire
—Pope has rescued the names of a host of insigni-
ficant enemies from oblivion ; and it is the highest
tribute to the extraordinary artistic power of this
m that it can still be read with a pleasure un-
Sopatred by the absolute obscurity of most of its
heroes. e fourth book, add twelve years
later, is of a more serious cast and of a more
general application, and it contains one at least
of the poet’s most admired But its
incorporation with the earlier poem, with its
infelicitous substitution of Cibber for Theobald
as the personification of Dullness, is to be
tted. The Essay on Man, the first part of
which was published in 1733, the Moral Essays, and
The Imitations of Horace conclude the catalogue of
Pope's poetic works. The first, a didactic poem,
intend d to the world the not very
serene ey which Pope had borrowed from
lingbroke, is from the point of view of execution
a masterpiece of weight and wit. The t’s
mastery of terse and epigrammatic expression is
here seen at its highest ; and it has been declared,
no doubt with truth, that the Essay on Man con-
tains more lines which have won their way to the
rank of universally familiar quotation than any
— of equal —— in the language. The Moral
ssays and the IJmitations exhibited the same
ualities exercised upon a series of selected sub-
jects of, for the most a lighter order; and, as
in the case of the still more famous Essay on Man,
it is almost impossible to open a page without
coming upon a line or a couplet which has become
a household word.
The last few years of Pope's life were marked by
no new creative activity, but devoted to the revision
of his published works. He suffered during this
period from asthma, which in time developed dropsy,
a disease which ultimately proved fatal to him. He
died on the 30th of May 1744, at the age of fifty-six,
leaving behind him a literary fame which, despite
the change of taste in try, has undergone no
eclipse in a century and a half. As a man the
figure which he presented to all but a few close
ends was always an unamiable one, and modern
research into the facts of his life has unfortunately
only tended to deepen the impression. It cannot
be denied that many of the smaller and meaner
vices of humanity were painfully prominent in the
character of Pope. His vanity was insatiable, and
his vindictiveness came near to be so: he com-
mitted acts of treachery to men, brutality to women,
and ingratitude to both. He showed an extra-
ordinary and at times an almost ludicrous prefer-
ence for the crooked to the straight path, and much
ak oe dae bd ee t lay Fi Remeane plots
of posterity an contemporary
public, including sometimes his most intimate
friends, Yet it is certain that to these last he must
have revealed many lovable qualities. e was
undoubtedly ble of warm attachment, and his
disposition when a led to by the sight of want
or Doering was soPeinely benevolent. It should
be remembered, too, in excuse for the acrimony of
his satire, that physical misfortune and accidents
of bringing up had combined to render him morbidly
sensitive to the insults of his adversaries, and that
his revenge was not more cruel than his sufferings.
The position of Pope in the a of is
easier to fix than his rank among English poets ;
and the historian of literature can in these days
—— him a far higher place without fear of
challenge than any critical admirer, however ardent,
can hope to secure for him in contemporary esteem.
For the importance and splendour of Pope’s con-
tribution to the development of English poetic art
are beyond the denial of any one conversant with
the facts. It is a truth superior to and inde-
pendent of the endless and irreconcilable contro-
versy as to the essence and ‘true inwardness’ of
poetic matter. The poets of the naturalist revival
at the end of the 18th century regarded Pope as the
brilliant exponent of a false and artificial tanoey of
poetry who had systematically, though of course
unconsciously, led men away from the contempla-
tion of the ‘true truth’ of things. It has on the
other hand been contended with much learning and
ingenuity by Mr Courthope that Pope’s theory of
poetry, if compared with that which it displaced,
was a no less distinct and salutary return to nature
than that of which Cowper became the pioneer in
the later half of the century, and which Words-
worth preached and practised with such notable
results towards its close. But even if this con-
tention leaves us unconvinced, we can still find
abundant reason for recognising as invaluable the
services rendered by Pope to English poetry. He
was virtually the inventor and artificer who added
a new instrument of music to its majestic orchestra,
a new weapon of expression to its noble armoury.
Considered from the point of view of its descriptive
and emotional ca) ities, the heroic couplet as he
received it from the hands of Dryden was an instru-
ment of vast —— but of modulations few and
rude. By force of exquisite sensibility wedded to
untiring study Pope theoretically deduced and
sepa educed its hidden powers; discovered,
iaiee and erent d sige the rules for
‘discoursing’ upon it; and han ton to posteri'
in a form whots easy mechanical tion .
attested by the fact that its powers are but too
much within the reach of the inferior performer.
Considered as a weapon of expression, the heroic
couplet of Dryden was a medieval broadsword
which nly the ty thews of its master could
wield with any effect. In the hands of Pope it
became a rapier of perfect flexibility and temper ;
and he himself discovered, and acquired mastery
over, every trick of fence which it was capable of
executing. To have accomplished this alone would
have sufficed to perpetuate his name; but Pope has
lived and will live in English literature, not only as
the virtual inventor of a new poetic form, but as an
artist without a rival in any see or language in the
adaptation of speech to thought. © one who
brings a fairly sympathetic mind to the perusal of
the Epistle of Eloisa to Abelard will deny to Pope
a measure of the lyrical aift and no mean power
over the softer emotions. t one must admit that
to the taste of the present age there oceurs a certain
coldness and artifici lity in his portrayals alike of
the face of nature and of the passions of man. He
ap rather to the brain than to the heart. Ideas
and not emotions are his province ; but to the metric
presentment of ideas he imparts a charm of musical
utterance unachieved before his time, and a lucidity
\
POPE |
POPLAR 325
of illustration, a brilliancy of wit, a command of
~ apt and terse expression, and a combined ease and
dignity of manner which have never been equalled
since. To have done this is to have well deserved
immortality as a man of letters; whether it is also
to have established a title to the name of ‘ poet,’ as
understood in these days, every man who frames his
own definition of poetry must decide for himself.
The editions of Pope have been fairly numerous. The
first, by his friend Bishop Warburton, was an answer to
tolrlook e’s attack on Pope’s memory, and Le gece
within a few years of his death. Dr Joseph Warton’s
was virtually a reply to Warburton’s; and the controversy
on the er of poet was revived in the 19th century
by Bo and Roscoe, who each published an edition of
his works, and in whose polemics Byron took a memor-
ere: All other editions, however, have been super-
by that of the Rev. Whitwell Elwin and Mr W.
J. Courthope, which was founded on a mass of docu-
mentary material collected by the late J. W. Croker;
iogeeoke of the thor, blished i br hae f
author, was shed in i e
poenarnirs of the poems are ich and valuable, and the
Life disposes finally of many questions concerning Pope’s
character and career which all his earlier biographers
had lacked the material and some the critical impartiality
to determine.
Pope, JOHN, an American general, was born in
Louisville, Kentucky, 16th March 1822, graduated
at West Point in 1842, and entered the engineers.
He served in Florida (1842-44) and in the Mexican
war, and was brevetted captain for gallantry. He
was afterwards employed in exploring and survey-
ing in the west, until the outbreak of the civil
war, when was appointed brigadier-general of
volunteers. In 1861 he drove the guerillas out of
Missouri; in 1862 he captured New Madrid in
March and was made major-general, commanded
the Army of the Mississippi in the operations
of tie Army of Virginia, with dhe rank of brigndiey
t rmy irginia, with the rank of brigadier
in the Pree 5 fifteen days in August
he faced , hut was defeated at the second battle
of Bull Run, on the 29th and 30th. He then
nested to be relieved, and was transferred to
Minnesota, where he kept the Indians in check.
He held various commands until 1886, when he
retired. In 1882 he became major-general. Pope
attributed his defeat at Bull Run to the conduct of
General Fitz-John Porter, who was tried by court-
martial and cashiered ; but this verdict occasioned
much controversy, in which General Grant ulti-
mately took Porter’s side (American Review,
December 1882), and in 1886 the latter was restored
to the army. Pope died September 23, 1892.
Poperinghe, an old commercial town of Bel-
m, in the province of West Flanders, 4 miles
the French frontier, and 8 miles W. of Ypres
by rail. The town has manufactures of lace, linens,
and woollen cloths. Pop. 11,065.
Popinjay (Fr. papegai, Ital. , Low
Gr. pinj . t; a figure a bird put up
as a mark for archers to shoot at being
1 ! pare
another Scottish form for this sense); see KiLwIn-
NING. The green woodpecker is also sometimes
ealled popinjay.
Popish Plo agina:
pit on the part of the Roman Catholies in England
ig the reign of Charles IL, the object of which
was believed to be a general massacre of the Pro-
testants. See OATEs.
Poplar (Populus), a genus of trees, formin
dong with willews the whol of the natural one
Salicacew or Salicines (by some regeuee as a sub-
order of Amentace), and having diccious flowers
arran, in catkins, both male and female flowers
with an oblique cup-shaped perianth. The seeds
have silky hairs, as in willows, and are readily
the name given to an imagi
wafted about by the wind. The species are numer-
ous, chiefly natives of the temperate and cold
regions of the northern hemisphere. They are
large trees of rapid growth, with soft Wood, and
broad, heart-shaped, ovate, triangular, or wena:
shaped, deciduous leaves, on rather long stalks,
Many of them are very. beautiful trees. The cat-
kins appear long before the leaves, and proceed
from distinct lateral buds. Few of the poplars are
of much value for their timber, which is generall
white, soft, and light ; but from their rapid pan
they are useful as yielding firewood, where the
searcity of other fuel renders it necessary to plant
trees for this purpose, and they are often planted
as ornamental trees, producing an immediate effect
of embellishment in a bare situation more readily
than almost any other kind of tree. Besides the
species known by the name Aspen (q.v.), or
remulous Poplar, the following seem the most
worthy of notice. The White Poplar, or Abele
(P. alba), a native of the southern parts of a
and reckoned among British trees, but probably
not indigenous in Britain, is a tree of 80 feet or
apweees with a fine spreading head, and round-
ish, heart-shaped, lobed, and toothed leaves, which
are smooth, shining, and dark- n above, downy
and silvery-white beneath. The wood is used by
cabinet-makers, turners, and toy-makers. It is
little liable to swell or
shrink, and this fact
adapts it for various
urposes. The tree loves
ow situations and clay
soils. This tree has .of
late years suffered in
Britain from some un-
known — = the
potato, dying where it .
previously flourished ;
whilst other poplars,
the most nearly allied,
continue to flourish in
the same localities. The
Gray Poplar (P. cane-
scens) is very similar to
the white poplar, but ne!
more vigorous growth,
a large spreading tree,
the leaves similar to
those of the white
poplar, but not so dark
n above or so white
neath. It is not of
so rapid growth as the
white poplar; and its
wood is harder and
“better, makes good flooring, and is preferable to
ine-deal for the neighbourhood of fireplaces, being
ess apt to take fire ; it is also used for coarse doors,
carts, barrows, &e., and, not being liable to warp,
is esteemed by woodcarvers. The tree generally
Ss a to rot in the heart when forty or fifty years
old. Like most of the other poplars, it fills the
ground around it with suckers. Like the white
po lar, it is a very doubtful native of Britain, and
mgd to the centre and south of Europe. The
Black Poplar (P. nigra), a native of most parts
of Europe, and perenne of England, is a tree 50 to
80 feet high, with an ample spreading head, viscous
leaf-buds, and deltoid or unequally quadrangular,
perfectly smooth leaves. The wood is used for the
sane pu as that of the white and pray
poplars. The ‘cotton’ from the seeds has n
used in France and Germany for making cloth hats
and paper, but these uses of it were not found
profitable. The Lombardy che eed (P. fastigiata
or dilatata) is a mere variety of the black poplar,
Branch and Male Catkin of
Populus alba
D,
ih
with erect instead of spreading branches. It
$26 POPLIN
POPPY
pears to have been introduced into Europe from
the East. It is very common in the Punjab and
in Persia, and now also in Lombardy and other
ie of Italy. It attains a height of 100, or even
50 feet, and is remarkable for its erect form, con-
tracted head, and very ret ge growth. It is often
planted as an ornamental tree, although not so
generally as in the end of the 18th century,
when it was thought preferable for ornamental
urposes to every other tree. It is common in
e streets and squares of towns in Britain, and
is particularly adapted to situations where a long
horizontal line of any kind fatigues the exe, or where
it is seen starting up from a mass of lowerwood
or shrubbery. The wood is almost of no value. It
is generally propagated by layers. The species
commonly known as Black Italian Poplar (P.
monilifera or acladesca), although it is really a
native not of Italy, but of North America, and is
sometimes more correctly called Canadian Poplar,
the female catkins of which resemble a string of
pearls, is frequently planted both as an ornamental
tree and for the sake of its timber, which is useful
for flooring, &e. The leaves are deltoid. It is of
very rapid growth, and attains a height of 100 to
120 feet. The Balsam Poplar, or Tacamahac (P.
balsamifera), a very common ornamental tree in
Britain, is a native both of North America and of
Siberia, and has ovate-oblong leaves, which in
spring are of a delicate yellow tint, and have an
agreeable fragrance, The leaf- buds are viscid. The
resinous exudation of the buds (Tacamahac, q-¥-)
is said to be diuretic and anti-spasmodic; and an
ointment made from the buds is used for tumours,
wounds, and burns. The resinous exudation of
the buds of other species, as the black be
similar properties. The Cottonw
canadensis) of North America, ny abund-
ant on the upper parts of the Mississippi and
Missouri, is valued as a timber-tree, and has been
pretty extensively planted in Britain ; as has also
the Ontario Poplar (P. candicans), a species with
the same balsamic character as P. balsamifera,
and chiefly distinguished from it by its larger
leaves. In size of leaf no other species equals P.
heterophylla, a native of the sonthern states of
North 5 ear hag the leaves of which are often
6 inches long. See ASPEN.
Poplin (Fr. line ; possibly from the town
of Porertaghes a which an old spelling is Pop-
peling), a fabric which has been long made
in France, from which country the manufacture
was introduced into England and Ireland in the
17th century by Protestant refugees. Poplin con-
sists of a warp of silk and a weft of worsted,
and the latter being thicker than the former pro-
duces a corded appearance. The worsted yarn
ves substance to the fabric, and a soft silky
ace is produced by the way in which it is woven.
Poplins may be either plain or figured. The
Irish poplins are nearly all made in Dublin; the
industry has been subject to great fluctuations,
notwithstanding the efforts to foster it. Figured
poplins, which were much used about 1870 for cur-
ns and covering furniture, are at the present
time, in Great Britain at least, employed for these
purposes only to a limited extent.
Po tepetl (‘smoking mountain’), a vol-
zano about 40 miles SE. of the city of Mexico. It
rises in the form of a cone toa height of 17,784
feet above the sea-level. No eruption has been
recorded since 1540; it still smokes, however. It
is often sealed, and in and around its crater (5165
feet in diameter, and nearly 1000 deep) a good
deal of sulphur is obtained.
Po (Papaver), a genus of plants of the
bidurat onler lapaveracess having ow onlge of two
(or rarely three) , which very soon fall off ;
a corolla of four (rarely six) | negeri numerous
stamens on @ receptacle ; 8 crown-
ing the ovary, withont a style, and in the form of
4 to 20 rays; the capsule opening by pores under
the persistent stigma, imperfectly divided into cells
by partitions as numerous as the rays of the stigma,
but which do not reach the centre, and the seeds
extremely numerous. There are numerous species
of poppy, mostly natives of Europe and Asia, some
of them found even in very northern regions, but
most of them in the warmer ecg Prsac J og They
are herbaceous plants, annual, biennial, or peren-
nial, mostly sprinkled with bristly hairs. Th
have a white milky juice; a a eaeaehe
smell, particularly when bruised; pinnatifid or
bipinnatifid leaves, more rarely jagged or toothed
leaves; and large showy flowers, which i
Opium Poppy ( Papaver somniferum):
a, whole plant; », flower and leaf; 6 sips eapeniat d, seed and
section of do. enlarged. (Bentley men.)
become double by cultivation. The capsules are
curious from the manner in which they fling out
their seeds when the plant is shaken by the wind
each capsule being somewhat like a round or pe
pepper-box, with holes, however, not in the top,
where rain might get in by them, but under the pro-
jecting rim. By far the most important species is
that known as the Opium Poppy (P. somniferum),
also called the White Poppy and the Oil Poppy (see
Ortum). But the same species is im t on
account of the bland fixed oil of the seeds, and is
much cultivated as an oil-plant. Poppy-oil is as
sweet as olive-oil, and is used for similar pu’
It is imported into Britain in considerable quanti-
ties from India. The Poppy is also extensively
cultivated for it in Frartce, Belgium, and Germany.
The use and manufacture of this oil were for a long
time, during the 18th century, strictly prohibited in
France, from a mistaken notion that it must par-
take of the narcotic properties of the milky juice
of the plant. The set however, con no
opium or any narcotic principle, and was well
known to the ancients as a pleasant article of
food, fit to be eaten by itself or with bread;
some German cakes have poppy-seed aye 4
sprinkled on the top. The oil expressed from it
is perfectly wholesome, and is much used in
POPPY-HEAD
France and elsewhere as an article of food. It is
believed that one-half of the oil used for cooking
and otherwise for alimen purposes in France is
of this kind. The seeds yield about 40 per cent. of
oil, and the oil-cake is useful for manure or for
feeding cattle. The oil is sometimes used b
| Segond and by soap-boilers; but it is not ana
or burning. In the cultivation of the poppy for
oil the seed is often sown in autumn, where the
severity of winter-frosts is not to be feared; in
more northern it is sown in spring, and some-
times the seed is scattered on the top of the snow
with which the, ground is covered. Being very
small it needs little or no harrowing. Early sowing
is favourable to the size of the plant and the
abundance of produce. Hoeing and thinning are
advantageous. An open but rich soil is best for
the poppy ; and a sheltered situation is necessary,
as in ex situations much of the seed is scat-
tered by the wind. The poppy does not exhaust
the land so much as colza, rape, and some other
vil-plants. Harvesting ought to begin when one-
fourth of rr, of each plant are open. It
is accompli by pulling the plants in such a
manner as not to shake the out of the cap-
sules, and tying them in sheafs, which are placed
ther in an erect or slightly sloping position,
the ripening of the ngots is completed, when
the seed is taken out by shaki § the capsules into
a tub or on a cloth, great care being used to pre-
vent any earth from the roots from getting mixed
with them. Some farmers in Flanders sow poppies
in alternate rows with carrots. The variety of
poppy chiefly cultivated as an oil-plant has flowers
of a dull reddish colour, large oblong capsules, and
brownish seeds; but the white-flowered variety,
with globular eapsules and white seeds, is also
used. The Oriental Poppy (P. orientale), a native
of Armenia and the Caucasus, a perennial species,
is often planted in yardens on account of its very
large, fiery-red flowers. Its unripe capsules have
an acrid, almost burning taste, but are eaten by
the Turks, and opium is extracted from them.
Several species are British, all of them local, rare in
some places, and troublesome weeds in cornfields in
other places apparently quite similar in climate.
Among them is the Corn Poppy or Common Red
Poppy (P. rhoeas), with bright-red flowers, and
deeply pinnatifid leaves, The petals are mucilagin-
ous and slightly bitter; they have a slight narcotic
smell; and a syrup made of them is sometimes used
as an anodyne in catarrhs and children’s complaints ;
but they are more valued for the rich colour
which t we fae A variety with double flowers
is cultivated in flower-gardens, under the name of
Carnation Poppy. Among the ancients the poppy
was sacred to Ceres.
Poppy-head. See Pews.
Population, Information as to the population
of the various communities of the world will be
found in the paragraphs dealing with the subject in
the articles in this work on the various kingdoms
and countries, ancient and modern, and on the
several provinces of those countries, and on the
towns and cities of the world; at Europe, Asta,
AMERICA, will be found tables of the pulation
of the several countries in those great divisions of
the world, so far as ascertainable. The population
of the world (estimated by Behm and Wy er in
1882 at 1434 millions) will be dealt with at WorLD.
The so-called ‘ population question’ is discussed at
MALTHUS; and other articles that deal more or
Jess directly with population, its enumeration and
fluctuations, are CENSUS, REGISTRATION (of Births,
Deaths, and Marriages), and VITAL STATISTICs.
For mortality tables, see INSURANCE. And ques-
tions that emerge in connection with the increase
PORCUPINE 327
and density of population will be found treated
at Corn LAws, Caorrnss, EMIGRATION, FREE
TRADE, INFANTICIDE, LAND LAws, POLITICAL
Economy, Poor-LAws, SocrALism, &c. d see
works by Farr (q.v.), Quetelet (q.v.), Behm (q.v.),
Bodio, Block.
Porbeagle, sometimes called ‘Beaumaris
Shark’ (Lamna cornubica), is a shark found on the
British coasts, in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, on
the American coast, and in Japanese waters. Its
usual er a is 4 feet, but it sometimes attains a
length of 10 feet, and is sometimes caught in
mackerel and salmon nets, and even on haddock
lines. It lives on cuttle-fish, pilchards, herrings,
hake, and smaller cartilaginous fishes. In Mediter-
ranean countries it is eaten as human food.
Porcelain. See Porrery.
Porcellanite, a very hard, impure, jaspideous
rock, eas sagged met with in the immediate vicinity
of intrusive eruptive masses. In most cases por-
cellanite is simply a highly baked and altered
i s rock—shales being frequently con-
verted into porcellanite along their line of junction
with an igneous rock.
Porch, a building forming an enclosure or pro-
tection for a doorway. In medieval and Eliza-
bethan architecture the mas was very common in
domestic architecture. In churches it was almost
universal in England, most often on the south side
of the nave, of stone or flint-work (in East Anglia),
but sometimes also of wood. In France many
splendid porches or portals remain ; they are ga oe
the most beautiful specimens of medieval art. See
also GALILEE. :
Porcupine, a name given to all the members
of a family of Rodentia—the Hystricide. This
family contains a number of well-defined genera,
which include a good many species. The Common
Porcupine ( Hystriz cristata) is found in southern
Europe, as well as in Asia and Africa, and is one of
the largest of rodents; it has a heavy aspect and a
nting voice, whence the name Poreupine (from
the French pore, ‘a hogs and épin, ‘a spine’).
The eae of the New World are sometimes
included in a separate family ; they comprise two
well-marked forms—the Urson (Erethizon dorsatus)
of North America and the Prehensile-tailed Tree
Poreupines (Cercobates) of South America. The
most marked peculiarity of the porcupine is of
course the presence of the quills, which are simply
thickened hairs; gradations between ordinary
hairs and the thickest and longes‘ spines exist to
PORPHYRY
328 PORDAGE
rove this statement. Oc lly the end
in a peculiar eu -shaped extremity. The armature
of spines is of the greatest value to the porcupine,
though their use is entirely for defensive purposes.
It is hardly necessary to deny the popular belief
that the animal can shoot out its je like so
many arrows; the notion has arisen from the fact
Common Porcupine ( Hystriz cristata).
that when the animal erects its spines loose ones.
sometimes fall out. See ECHIDNA, GLOBE-FISH.
Pordage,. See PHILADELPHIANS.
Pordenone, It, a name for the zelicions
painter Giovanni Antonio Licinio ( 1483-1539), born
near Pordenone in Venetia.
Porifera. See SPONGES.
Porism is defined by Simson as a proposition
to demonstrate that some one thing or more thin
are given, to which, as also to each of innumerable
other things, not indeed given, but having the
same relation to those which are given, it is to be
shown that there belongs some common affection
described in the proposition. Playfair defined a
porism to be a proposition aflirming the possibility
of finding such conditions as will render a certain
problem capable of innumerable solutions. Owin
to the loss of Euclid’s three books on porisms, and
the obscurity of the account given by Pappus of
their contents, there has been ha | discussion
among geometers as to the nature of a porism.
The two most important books on the subject are
Simson’s De Porismatibus in his Opera Reliqua
(1776), and Chasles’s Les trois livres de Porismes
d Euclide (1860). Chasles is of opinion that the
porisms were closely allied to the modern theories
of anharmonic ratio, homographic division, and
involution.
Pork. See Pia for the animal from which pork
is procured; Dier and Foop for the properties of
pork as an article of food; and TRICHTNOsIS for
one of the gravest of the diseases affecting the
vig. The great headquarters of the trade in pork
is the United States. This is partly indicated by
the figures given at CuicaGo and Ham; but it
will be shown more clearly by the following figures.
In 1890 the total number of pigs in the United
Kingdom was 2,773,609; in the United States it
was in the same year 51,602,780, with a value of
$243,418,336. While Britain imports pigs and pig-
products (hams, bacon, pork, and lard) to a large
extent (mainly from America), the United States
exports on a vast scale. In the fiscal year 1889-90
the exports were as follows: hogs, 91,148; bacon, .
531,899,677 Ib. ; hams, 76,591,279 lb. ; fresh pork,
279,463 Ib.; pickled pork, 79,788,868 Ib. ; lard,
471,083,598 ib. The value of these pig-products in
that one year 1889-90 was over $67,070,000.
Porosity. By this term we express the experi-
mental fact that no kind of matter completely fills
the space it occupies. On the atomic theory it is
obvious that this must be the case if the atoms of
matter are spherical, or, indeed, if they have any
form save one or two special ones, such as eubes or
rhombic dodecahedrons. The Florentine Acade-
micians, in their attempts to compress water,
proved the porosity of silver by flattening a sp. *re
of that metal, filled with water and soldered, ‘1 -¢
water eseaped through the silver, and stood in fin
drops on its surface. The porosity of liquids is
easily shown by mixing aleohol and water. The
bulk of the mixture is considerably less than the
| sum of the bulks of the components,
Porous Jars. See REFRIGERATION.
Porphyrite, one of the crystalline igneous
rocks. It consists principally of plagioclase. The
ground-mass of the rock is composed of microlites
and minute rod-like crystals of plagioclase, inter-
spersed amongst which may occur crystalline
granules of hornblende, augite, rhombic pyroxene,
mica, ilmenite, magnetite, &c, Sometimes traces.
of a glassy or devitrified base can be detected,
Throughout this ground-mass are scattered por-
phyritically larger crystals of plagioclase, accom-
pons by one or more of the following minerals =
1ornblende, augite, rhombie perme mica, &e,
The rock shows all varieties of colour, and ranges.
in texture from vitreous and eryptocrystalline u
to coarsely crystalline. It is often vesicular an
amygdaloidal. It occurs abundantly in Scotland
(where it forms many of the hill-ranges of the Low-
lands), both in the form of lava-flows and intrusive
sheets, dykes, and masses, Porphyrite is so closel
allied to Andesite (q.v.) that it may be hae is, |
as merely an altered variety of that rock.
Porphyrogenitus (Gr., ‘born in the purple’),
a title given to the Byzantine emperor Constantine
VII. (912-959).
Porph (Gr., ‘purple’), a term original
confined esx Raypelen reek used in sculpture ani
known as porfido rossoantico. It occurs asa dyke or
vein some 65 to 85 feet thick in the ite of Jebel
Dokhan (formerly called Mons Porphyrites) in
Egypt, between Siout and the Red Sea. It is com-
posed of a felspathic base, in which are disseminated
erystals of oligoclase felspar, with some plates of
dark hornblende, and grains of an iron oxide. The
beautiful are or red colour of the porphyritie fel-
spar and the fine-grained base is due to the diffusion
of the red variety of epidote, called Withamite or
Piedmontite. The term porphyry is not now used
to denote any particular rock, but is applied by
architects and others to any igneous rock which,
like the eect rosso antico, has a homogeneous,
compact or fine-grained ground-mass, through
which are scattered distinet crystals of one or
more minerals, By geologists the term porphyry
is seldom used without some descriptive word
bracketed with it, as quartz-porphyry, orthoclase-
ca ht scuite pray, &e. ches we
° yry, one of the greatest Neopla'
sidianoetaen wre born at Tyre, or at Batanea, in
the year 233 A.D. His original name was Malchus
(Heb. Melech, ‘ king’); and gfe alga (‘one clad
in purple’) is but a kind of playful synonym for
this royal name. He is said by Socrates the
historian and by St Augustine to have been cs,
ally a Christian; but this seems improbable,
although it is certain that in his youth he was a
hearer of Origen, or at least held some intercourse
with him at Cesarea in Palestine. What is more
certain is that he at a later time to Athens,
where he studied rhetoric under Longinus, the
well-known author of the treatise On the Sublime,
It was at Rome, however, whither he repaired
about 263, that he found the master who per-
manently moulded his life. Here he became the
most trusted of the disciples of the Neoplatonist
PORPOISE
PORSON 329
Plotinus. After a few years in Rome he went to
Sicily, where, if St Jerome’s account is to be relied
on, he wrote his once celebrated treatise in fifteen
books against the Christians, now known onl
from the replies—themselves lost—which it elici
from Methodius of Tyre, Eusebius of Cesarea, and
Apollinaris of Laodicea. His book itself was burned
by order of the emperors Theodosius II. and Valen-
tinian in 448. e then returned to Rome, and
taught there, where he is said to have died, prob-
ably about 303. His own most famous pupil was
Iamblicus. For a view of Porphyry’s position in
the history of the Neoplatonic school, see NEO-
PLATONISM. He was a very voluminous writer,
and, though no very profound thinker, a learned,
capable, earnest, and high-minded man. His philo-
sophy keeps close to life and — — its
object the salvation of the soul, to be effected by
the extinction of impure desires acti at strict
asceticism together with knowledge of He
was a determined ent of Christianity, and in
his trenchant criticism exposed many of its supposed
errors and imperfections.
Of his writings the chief are the Lives of Plotinus and
Pythagoras ; Sententic ; De Abstinentia ; and the Epistola
ad Marcellam, addressed to his wife. There is a complete
list in Fabricius’ Bibliotheca Greca, v., ed. Harless.
See the works on the Alexandrian school by Vacherot
and Jules Simon, and Zeller’s Philos. der Griechen, vol.
ii. ; also the monograph by Bouillet (Paris, 1864).
Porpoise (Phocena), a genus of Cetacea in
the family Delphinide. The species are like
dolphins, but have shorter snouts. The Common
Porpoise (P. communis) is the most familiar
Cetacean on the British coasts, especially to the
west of Ireland and Scotland. It is found also on
all the coasts of Europe from the Mediterranean
Porpoise ( Phocceena communis).
northwards, on the coasts of North America, and
in the Arctic regions. It is one of the smallest of
the Cetacea, its average length not Meompone J four
feet, although individuals may measure six feet in
length. The body is spindle-shaped, its greatest
diameter being near the triangular dorsal fin. The
skin is perfectly smooth, and destitute of hair.
The upper surface is black with a bluish shimmer,
but the under side is grayish white. There are
from forty to fifty teeth in each jaw, not conical, as
in most of the Cetacea, but com he eye
is small; the opening of the ear is very minute.
like a hole made with a pin. The crescent-
blow-hole, with the horns of the crescent directed
forwards, is situated exactly over the eyes.
The porpoise is gregarious, and large numbers
are often seen together, sometimes swimming in
file, when their backs, rerentios above the su
of the water, su t the idea of a great sea-serpent ;
sometimes gamboling in fine weather, or when a
storm is approaching, or even in the midst of a
storm. T eed on fish, which the teeth are
admirabl ted to catch, and schools of
pursue the vas shoals of herring, acted, he.
into bays and estuaries. They sometimes ascend
rivers, apparently in pursuit of salmon, as far as
the water is brackish, and are not unfrequently
caught on such occasions. The skin, the oil, and
the flesh are all useful. The skin is nearly an inch
thick, but is planed down until it becomes trans-
lucent, and is made into excellent leather, which is
used for covering carriages and for other purposes.
But much ‘ porpoise’ leather is obtained from the
Deeg (q.v.), or white whale, whence come also the
so-called ‘porpoise laces.’ Under the skin is a
pe of fat, about an inch in depth, which yields
oil of the finest quality. The flesh was in former
ieee yg reg cs and sexnmee fit for the
table of royalty, perhaps partly because amon
Roman Catholizs ames accounted i+ In the
time of Queen Elizabeth it was still used by the
nobles of England, and was served up with bread-
erumbs and vinegar. It is now used only in ve
northern regions. An entirely black Porpoise (P.
melas) from Japan has no dorsal fin and onl
patty! Se teeth in all. The name porpoise is
from the old French porpeis, from the Latin porcus,
‘hog,’ and piscis, ‘fish,’ corresponding therefore in
meaning to the modern French marsouin, a corrupt
form of the German meerschwein (‘sea-hog’).
Porpora, Niccoia, musical composer, was
born at Naples, on 19th August 1686, trained there
in music, and, having produced some successful
ons was appointed master of the conservatorio
San Onofrio (1722). Shortly before that he had
established a school for singing, from which came
some of the greatest singers the world has known,
as Farinelli, Caffarelli, Salimbeni, and Uberti.
From 1725 to after 1755 he led an unsettled life,
though he stayed some time at Dresden, at
Venice, in London (with Farinelli, 1734-36), and
in Vienna, composing music, chiefly operas (though
none rises above the level of conventional respecta-
bility), and teaching singing ; at Vienna he taught
Haydn. Of his other musical compositions a series
of cantatas (twelve published in London in 1735),
several sonatas for the violin, and six fugues for
the clavichord are written with considerable fresh-
ness. He died at Naples in 1766 or 1767, and now
is chiefly known through George Sand’s Consuelo.
werriage, a highly nutritious kind of food
made by boiling oatmeal in water, formerly at
least one of bn . ief a of od of ee Se
peasantry. ides oatmeal, porridge ma: made
of barley, beans, or the like,and instead of water
milk may be used.
Porrigo. See Favus, and RrIncworm.
Porsena. See Errurts, Vol. IV. p. 446.
The story of the defence of the bridge across the
Tiber as Wome against Lars Porsena of Clusium in
the time of Tarquin has been told in spirited verse
by Macaulay in his Lays of Ancient Rome.
Porson, RIcHARD, perhaps our greatest Greek
scholar, was born on Christmas Day 1759, at East
Ruston in Norfolk, where his father was parish
clerk. The Rev. T. Hewitt, curate of the parish,
noticing the boy’s omnivorous appetite for books
and his marvellous memory, him educated
along with his own sons, and brought him under
the notice of a neighbouring squire, Mr Norris,
the founder of the Norrisian professorship at Cam-
bridge, who sent him to Eton in August 1774.
Here he remained four years, and in 1778 was
entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, mainly b:
the help of the a Sir George Baker. He
was elected a scholar in 1780, next year won the
Craven Scholarship, and subsequently the first
chancellor's medal. In 1782 he was elected a
Fellow of Trinity. He now began to contribute to
Maty’s Review, his first poy loa being on Schutz’s
Eschylus, and his finest on Brunck’s Aristophanes.
330 PORT
PORTE
He also opened a correspondence with the veteran
scholar David Rahnken of Leyden, His Note
breves ad Toupii Emendationes in Suidam (1790)
first carried his name beyond England as a scholar
of the highest rank. In 1787 appeared in the
Gentl s’ Magazine his three sarcastic letters
on Hawkins’ Life of Johnson; and during 1788
and 1789, in the same — his far more
famous and trenchant Letters to Archdeacon Travis,
on the Spurious Verse 1 John v. 7 (coll. 1790)—
‘the most acute and accurate piece of criticism
since the days of Bentley,’ says Gibbon. Porson
naturally incurred t odium on account of the
side which he took in this controversy, and it is
said that one old Norwich lady, who had him in
her will for a | y of £300, cut it down to £30
when she heard that he had written a book against
Christianity. In 1792 his fellowship ceased to be
tenable by a layman, whereupon some friends
raised a fund to preserve him from want, and
about £100 a year was secured. This he accepted
on condition that after his death the money should
be returned to the donors, but when they refused
to take it back it was used to form a foundation
for the Porson prize at Cambridge. He was also
pointed to the regius professorship of Greek in
the university of wee Be an oflice worth £40
a year. In 1795 he edited the plays of A‘schylus
for the Foulis press at Glasgow, and between 1797
and 1801 four of Euripides, the Hecuba, the Orestes.
the Phanisse, and the Medea. He also collated
the Harleian MS. of the Odyssey for the Grenville
Homer. He married in 1796, but his wife died five
months later, too soon to cure him of his dilatory
and slovenly habits and his thirst for drink. In
1806 he was appointed librarian of the newly-
founded London Institution, with a salary of £200,
but neglected his duties. He was suddenly struck
down with apoplexy in the Strand, 19th September
1808, and died six days later. He was buried in
the chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge. Porson
a stupendous memory, unwearied in-
ustry, great acuteness, fearless honesty, and
masculine sense, but was hindered all his life by
poverty, ill-health, dilatoriness, and fits of in-
temperance. With all his powers he achieved but
little, and to justify comeetencesy admiration
there remain, besides the works already named,
but a few bon-mots, some brilliant emendations,
the posthumous Adversaria (1812), and notes on
Aristophanes (1820), the lexicon of Photius (1822),
Pausanias (1820), and Suidas (1834). His 7'racts
and Criticisms were collected by Kidd (1815).
See ‘ Porsoniana’ in Rogers’ Table- Talk (1856), H. R.
Luard in Cambridge Essays (1857), and the Rev. J.
Selby Watson’s Life (1861). His Correspondence was
edited by Luard for the Cambridge Antiq. (1867).
Port. See STEERING ; also PorT WINE.
Porta, GIAMBATTISTA DELLA, Neapolitan
pliysicist (1543-1615), ‘wrote numerous works on
physiology, gardening, arboriculture, pneumatics,
and refraction, besides several comedies ; his best-
known books being Magia Naturalis (1569) and
De Humana Physiognomonia.—For Baccio della
Porta, see BARTOLOMMEO.
Port Adelaide, See AvELArvE.
Portadown, « market-town of Armagh, Ire-
land, on the Bann, 6 miles 8. of Lough Neagh
and 25 miles by rail SW. of Belfast. It is a place
of considerable trade in agricultural produce, and
manufactures linen, cambric, and sheeting. Pop.
(1871) 6735 ; (1881) 7850; (1891) 8430.
Portage City, capital of Columbia county,
Wisconsin, is at the head of navigation on the
Wisconsin River, and on the ship-canal which con-
nects it with the Fox River, 177 miles by rail NW.
of Chicago. Steamboats ply to Green Bay, Lake
Michigan. Po has grain-elevators and iron-
works, and manufactures leather, clothing,
&e. Pop. (1880) 4346 ; (1900) 5459.
_ Portage la Prairie, the market-town of a
rich agricultural district in Manitoba, on the
Assiniboine River, 56 miles by rail W. of Winni-
It has flour-mills ad, grain-elevators, a
rewery, a biscuit-factory, a paper-mill, &e. Pop.
3600.—In North America portage (from Fr. porter,
‘to carry’) means a place where boats or canoes
have to be carried past rapids or across between
one navigable stream and another.
Portalis, Jean Errenne Marte (1745-1807),!
jurist, practised law in Paris, was imprisoned detew
the Revolution, but under Napoleon was chief au-
thor of the Code Civil. See Cope.
Portal Vein. See Liver, Crrcutation.
uy in Kinet Conzty, pertiy ta Gaues’s Goes
partly in King’s nty, een’s County,
on the Barrow, 44 miles by =a SW. of Dublin. %
was ted by Charles IT. to the Earl of Arlington ;
and here William III. planted a colony of French
and Flemish Protestants. Until 1885 it returned
one member to parliament. Pop. 2357.
Port Arthur, the terminus of the eastern
division of the Canadian Pacific Railwa , on
Thunder Bay, Lake Superior, 993 miles w.
of Montreal. Pop. 5500. See OWEN Sounp.
Port Arthur, or Lusnunko, a naval station
and arsenal on the peninsula stretching. south into
the Gulf of Pe-chi-li, opposite that of Wei-hai-wei,
on the Shantung promontory to the south ; together
they command the entrance to the gulf. The Eng-
lish name is derived from the captain of one of
Her Majesty’s og employed in surveying the
coasts of Corea and Manchuria. In the middle of
the century a miserable Sching shoage 22 the port
was fortified and provided with docks, electric light,
a lighthouse, &c., with the help of German engi-
neers. It was taken by the Japanese in November.
1894; and in 1898 it and Ta-lien-wan, on the east
coast of the peninsula, were ‘leased’ to Russia
(nominally for 25 years, with power to extend the
term). Port Arthur became a naval port closed to
all but Russian and Chinese ships ; part of Ta-lien-
wan issimilarly closed. Wei-hai-wei, taken by the
ee in January 1895, was held by them till
1898, when it was taken over by Britain, to be held
on the same conditions as Port Arthur is by Russia.
The harbour is shallow, and exposed to some winds,
but both strategically and as a coaling-station is
important.
Port-au-Prince, the capital of Hayti (q.v.),
is situated on the west coast, at the bead ot YY bay
of the same name. Pop. 20,000.
Port Breton, in the SE. of New Ireland, Bis-
marck Archipelago, was in 1879 the scene of a dis-
astrous experiment in colonising by French Legiti-
mists under the Marquis du Rays.
Porteullis, a strong timber or iron grating
sliding in the jambs of the entrance to a castle,
which, when dropped to the ground, defended the
gate from assailants.
Port Dar a magnificent landlockeil dee;
water harbour of the Northern Territory of Sout)
Australia. Palmerston, the chief town and port
on its shores, is the terminus of the overland tele-
graph, 1973 miles from Adelaide, and of the cable
to Java, and is the starting-point of a short railway
(146 miles); pop. 800.
Port D'Urban, See Durban.
Port Durnford, a harbour in British East
Africa, a little more 1° S. of the equator.
Porte, SupLime. See CoNSTANTINOPLE.
PORT ELIZABETH
PORTER 331
Port Elizabeth, a seaport of the British
colony of the Cape of Good Hope, stands on the
western shore of Algoa Bay, by rail 85 miles SW.
of Graham’s Town and 3508. of Kimberley. It is
the principal seaport of the east part of Cape
Colony, and also of the Orange River Free State.
Its pablie buildings, solid and substantial edifices, are
the town-house, the provincial hospital, churches,
the Grey Institute, a college, a library (20,000
volumes), a museum, &c. There are two
and several tree-planted squares. The town was
founded in 1820, and the ype which was
not much above 4000 in 1855, had grown to 13,049
in 1875, and to 23,266 in 1891. Two piers were con-
structed to protect the harbour in 1881; and an
aqueduct, miles long, has brought water
to the town since 1878. The value of the imports
has increased from £376,638 in 1855 to an ave
of about £3,000,000; that of the exports (mainly
wool, with ostrich-feathers, Angora goats’ hair,
and diamonds ) from £584,447 in 1855 to an average
of some £2,000,000.
Porteous Mob. At Pittenweem in Fife, on
the night of 9th January 1736, three smugglers,
Andrew Wilson of Kirkcaldy, George Robertson,
an Edinburgh innkeeper, and William Hall, robbed
the Kirkcaldy excise-collector of over £100. All
three were at once arrested, and on 11th March
were sentenced to death. In an attempt to break
out of the Edinburgh Tolbooth (the ‘Heart of
Midlothian’), Wilson, ‘a squat round man,’ stuck
fast in a ing, preventing also the escape of
Robertson ; but the following Sunday, being taken
with him to hear the pouidbanned sermon in St
Giles’ Church, he suddenly seized two of the
four soldiers guarding them, and fastened with
his teeth upon a third, at the same time erying,
“Run, Geordie, run for your life.’ Robertson did
get clear off; Wilson on 14th April was hanged
in the Grassmarket. There was some disturbance
and stone-throwing, when Captain John Porteous,
the brutal commander of the City Guard, fired on
the crowd, and killed or wounded sixteen or
more men and women. For this he himself was
tried and sentenced to death (20th July), but on
26th August was respited by Queen Caroline.
However, on the night of 7th September an orderly
mob burst open the tolbooth, dragged Porteous
out, bore him, pleading for mercy, to the Grass-
market, and lynched him—hanged him from a
dyer’s pole, and slashed at him with Lochaber axes.
A drunken footman of Lady Wemyss and one
other man were tried next year for their share in
the riot ; but both were acquitted, and none of the
ringleaders ever was brought to justice. A bill
the Lords to disqua’ ity we Lord Provost of
inburgh from ever again holding office, to im-
— him for a twelvemonth, to abolish the City
uard, to raze the Nether Port, and to fine the
city in £1500 for Porteous’ widow; but only the
first and last clauses were carried in the Commons,
and these only by a casting vote and after the
fiercest o tion from all the Seotch members.
Indeed, the Porteous Riot paved the way for the
rebellion of the *45.
See'vol. xvii. of the State Trials (1815); Scott’s Heart
of Midlothian (1818); and Criminal Trials illustrative
of the * Heart of Midlothian’ (1818).
Porter, a kind of beer favoured London
rs, hence so called about 1750. BEER,
ol. II. p. 37.
Porter, Davin, an American naval officer, was
born at Boston, Massachusetts, Ist February 1780,
the son of a naval officer who fought through the
Revolution. He was appointed midshipman in
1798, and lieutenant the year after; saw service
against privateers in the West Indies, and against
Tripoli in 1801-3; became captain in 1812, and
captured the first British war-ship taken in the
war. In 1813, with the Essex (32 guns), he nearly
destroyed the English whale-fishery in the Pacific,
and took possession of the Marquesas Islands; but
in March 1814 his frigate was destroyed by the
British in Valparaiso harbour, and Porter returned
home on parole. He afterwards commanded an
expedition against pirates in the West Indian
waters, and was court-martialled for compelling
the authorities at Porto Rico to apologise for im-
prisoning one of his officers. Porter resigned in
1826, and was for a time at the head of the Mexi-
can navy. In 1829 the United States appointed
him consul-general to the Barbary States, and
then minister at Constantinople, where he died,
3d March 1843. Farragut, it is worth noting,
was his adopted son. See the Life (1875) by his
Et)
n.
Davip Drxon PortTER, admiral of the Américan
navy, who was born at Chester, Pennsylvania, Sth
June 1813. He accompanied his father on his cruise
against the pirates, and afterwards was for some
time a midshipman in the Mexican service. He
entered the United States navy in 1829, was em-
am ed on the coast survey from 1836 to 1841, when
e beter, lientenant, and then served till 1845 on
the Mediterranean and Brazil stations, afterwards
returning to the coast survey. From 1849 to 1853
he was en, in command of the California mail-
steamers. At the commencement of the civil war
he was appointed commander of the steam-frigate
Powhatan, and ordered to Pensacola; but afterwards
in command of the mortar flotilla,
t, and in April 1862_ successfully
barded the New Orleans forts. In command
of the sey meng squadron, he assisted to bring
about the fall of Vicksburg (July 1863). A rear-
admiral, he bombarded and silenced Fort Fisher
in December 1864. Till 1869 superintendent of the
naval academy at Annapolis, he was made vice-
admiral in 1866, and in 1870 succeeded Farragut as
admiral of the navy. He died at Washington, 13th
February 1891.
He was the author of three romances, of Incidents and
Anecdotes of the Civil War (1885), and of a History of
the Navy in the War of the Rebellion (1887).
Porter, ENDYMION (1587-1649), groom of the
bedehamber to Charles I., whom he accompanied
(with Buckingham ) to Spain, and attended on the
field during the Civil War—without pret fight-
ing, it would appear. He was a patron of poets
and artists, and wrote many verses. See his Life
and Letters by Miss Townsend (1897).
Porter, JANE, authoress of the Scottish Chiefs,
was born at Durham in 1776, daughter of an army-
su m who died soon after her birth. She was
brought up at Edinburgh and in London, and made
a& great reputation in 1803 by her high-flown ro-
mance, Thaddeus of Warsaw, which was distanced
in its kind in 1810 by Zhe Scottish Chiefs. The
hero of the latter is a stilted and preposterous
figure enough—as little of the historical Wallace as
could well be, yet the book retains its interest for
outhfnl readers, and had the merit of prompting
Root to complete Waverley. Other books were
The Pastor’s Fireside (1815), Duke Christian of
Liineburg (1824), Tales Round a Winter's Hearth
(in collaboration with her sister Anna Maria, 1824),
The Field of Forty peaes (1828), and Sir Edward
Seaward’s Narrative of his Shipwreck and Conse-
uent Discovery of Certain Islands in the Caribbean
(1831), a clever fiction, edited by her, but
almost certainly written by her eldest brother, Dr
William Ogilvie Porter (cf. Notes and Queries,
1880). With this brother she spent some years
at Bristol, and there she died, 24th May 1850.—
Another brother, Ropert KER PorTER( 1775-1842),
he was Ys sap
joi a
332 PORTER
PORTLAND
was a clever battle-painter, and led a wandering
life. He visited Russia on the emperor's commission
in 1804, accompanied Sir John Moore's expedition
in 1808, became knight commander of the order of
Hanover in 1832, was afterwards British consul in
Venezuela, and died at St tamgere | whither his
sister Jane had gone to join him, 4th May 1845. He
ublished books of travel in Russia, Sweden, Spain,
Portugal, Georgi Persia, and Armenia.—Her
en od sister, Axx MARIA PorRTER (1780-1832),
‘lossomed precociously into Artless Tales (1793-95),
followed by a long series of works, among which
need only be aaa Octavia (1798), The te of
Killarney (1804), The Hungarian Brothers (1807),
The Recluse of Norway (1814), The Fast of St
Magdalen (1818), Honor O'Hara (1826), and
Barony (1830).
Porter, Noau, philosophical writer, was born
14th December 1811, at a. Connecticut,
graduated at Yale in 1831, studied theology, and
was for ten years a Noa y, ema pastor. In 1846
he became professor of Moral Philosophy at Yale,
and from 1871 to 1886 he was president of the —
One of the doctorates received by him was the
Edinburgh LL.D. in 1886. Of his numerous works
may be mentioned The Human Intellect (1868),
Books and Reading (1870), Sciences of Nature versus
the Science of Man (1871), Elements of Intellectual
Science (1872), Elements of Moral Science (1885),
Kant's Ethics (1886). Died 4th March 1892.
Port Erin, a port on the south-west coast of
the Isle of Man, on Port Erin Bay, 54 miles W. of
Castletown, has a breakwater 950 feet long, and a
steamboat pier. One mile to the north-east there
is a runic monumental cross. Port Erin forms part
of Rushen parish (pop. 3527).
Port Essi n, an inlet in the Coburg Penin-
sula on the north coast of Australia, forming a fine
harbour. On its shores there was from 1831 to
1850 a penal settlement.
Porteus, BeEILey, was the youngest but one
of nineteen children, and was born at York, 8th
May 1731, his parents being both natives of Vir-
pe He was educated at Ripon and Christ’s
liege, ie and uated as tenth
wrangler in 1752. He was at once made a fellow
of his college, took orders in 1757, and became
domestic chaplain to Archbishop Secker in 1762.
His a were the small ge of Rucking
and Witterscham in Kent (1765), which he soon
exchanged for the rectory of Hunton in the same
county, the rectory of Lambeth (1767), the
mastership of the es wise of St Cross, near Win-
chester ( ibe9 ), the bishopric of Chester (1776), and
of London, in succession to Dr Lowth (1787). He
resigned Lambeth when made Bishop of Chester,
but only gave up Hunton when Re yoy to the
see of London. Bishop Portens died 13th May 1809.
He was a sound Churchman, yet moderate, a great
enemy of profanity and Sunday concerts, and a
warm friend of the West Indian slaves. He was a
judicious observer of the times, as in his prudently
elayed commendation of ee ee His
Jearning was inconsiderable, and the popularity of
his Lectures on St Matthew's G , and especially
his Summary of Christian Evidences, was solely
due to the absence of better books. Porson called
him ‘ Protens,’ and Parr described him as ‘a poor
paltry prelate, proud of petty popularity, and per-
petually preaching to petticoats,’
See the Panegyric, rather than Life, by the Rev. Robert
Hodgson (1811), editor of his works in 6 vols, ; and a very
fall correspondence in Notes and Queries for 1879-81.
Port Famine, the name given by Cavendish
in 1587 to a spot in Patagonia on the north coast
of the Straits of Magellan. From 1843 to 1853 it
was a Chilian penal colony.
Port-Gl Ww, a town of Renfrewshire, on
the southern shore of the Firth of by come 3 miles
ESE. of Greenock and 20 WNW. of pry ot It
was founded in 1668 by the ag ey To of Ww
as a harbour for their city, d of the
- (q-v.) not having yet been thought of. In
1710 it was constituted the head custom-house on
the Clyde, and for a while took the lead of Green-
ock ; in 1775 it was incorporated as a municipality ;
_ by ge saga Bill of — it was to
the rank of a iamen urgh, uniting with
Kilmarnock, be te progeny Ah member. Built on
low alluvial ground, and backed by hills 700 feet
high, it has a Doric town-house (1815), a public
hall (1873), ruined Newark Castle (1597), a wet-
dock of 12 acres (formed since 1834), a large
ait alin: (1874), extensive timber-ponds, ship-
uilding-yards, iron and brass foundries, &e. Pop.
(1841) 6938 ; (1881) 10,802; (1891) 14,685.
Port Hamilton, 2 ous, well-sheltered
harbour, formed by three islands of the Nan-how
group, 30 miles 8. of Corea and 45 NE. of Quelpart
(q.v.). It was annexed by Britain as a ag age
coaling station in 1885, but abandoned the
following year. It was discovered and named by
Belcher in 1845,
Port Hope, « pw of entry of Ontario, on
the north shore of e Ontario, 63 miles by rail
E. of Toronto. It has a good harbour, and a trade
in lumber and grain, and in the town woollens,
buttons, engines, iron castin &c. are manu-
factured. ‘op. (1881) 5581; (1891) 5042.
Port Huron, capital of St Clair county,
Michigan, is on the St Clair River where it issues
from Lake Huron, and at the mouth of the Black
River, 59 miles by rail NNE. of Detroit. The rivers
are crossed by four iron bridges. The city has a
fine custom-house (1877), shipyards and dry-docks,
sawmills, grain-elevators, and machine and rail-
road sho Much pine timber is brought down by
the Black River, A railway tunnel passing under
the St Clair River connects the town with eonia:
in Canada (see St CLAIR); there is also a steam-
ferry to Sarnia, and steamboats ply daily, except
in winter, between Port Huron and Detroit. Pop.
(1880) 8883 ; (1900) 19,158.
Portici, a town of eo on the slope of
Vesuvius, 5 miles by rail SE. of Naples. Its
environs are —— and are dotted over with
country-honses. The royal palace built (1738) by
Charles III. is now an agricultural coll There
are a small fort, fishing, and sea-bathing. Silk-
worms are reared and ribbons made. Pop. 12,272.
Portioners. See Herr, Vol. V. p. 626.
Port Jervis, a village of New York, on the
Delaware River, 88 miles by rail NW. of New
York City. It contains road nem es sere.
and other mills, glass-works, and manufactori
boots and shoes, gloves, and watch-cases. Pop.
(1880) 8678 ; (1900) 9385. -
Portland, (1) the largest city and chief seaport
of Maine, and capital’ of Cumberland county,
on Casco Bay, 108 miles by rail NE. of Boston.
It is situated on a narrow peninsula, embracing
24 sq. m., with broad shaded streets, and handsome
public and private edifices, including a court and
custom-honse, post-office, city hall, observatory,
and Baxter and Mechanics’ Halls. There are
rolling-mills, and locomotives, machinery, boile
stoves, carriages, and shoes manu » an
su, and petroleum refined. The harbour, which
is defended by three forts, is | deep, and well
sheltered ; there are wharves, elevators, and dry-
docks, and an important trade is carried on;
steamers ply direct to ca) in winter, The
place was first settled by an English colony in 1632,
PORTLAND
PORT MAHON 333
In 1866 a fire destroyed $10,000,000 worth of pro-
pt Portland is the seat of Episcopal and
Catholic bishops, and was the birthplace of
Longfellow. Pop. (1890) 36,425 ; (1900) 50,145.
(2) PORTLAND, the metropolis of Oregon, and
eapital of Multnomah county, is on the Willa-
mette River, 12 miles from where it joins the
Columbia (about 100 from the ocean) and 772 by
rail N. of San Francisco. It has railway com-
oe with St Paul = stems Bluffs also,
and is a prosperous port of entry, large ocean-
going ships pete gpd this point. A hand-
some city, well built, with fine, shaded streets, it
has a court-house, a United States government
building, numerous churches and schools, and an
asylum for the insane. There are iron-foundries,
machine-shops, sawmills, canneries, breweries, and
manufactures of furniture, flour, shoes, &c. Clear-
ing-house returns show $93,000,000 for 1890—ex-
ports, $12,000,000. Portland was founded in 1844,
and became a igs 1851. Pop. (1870) 8293;
(1880) 17,577 ; (1890) 46,385 ; (1900) 90,426.
Portland, Duxes or. See BENTINCK.
Portland, IsLe or, a rocky ninsula of Dor-
setshire, connected with the mainland by the Chesil
Bank (q.v.), and 4 miles S. of Weymouth by a
branch-line (1865). It is 44 miles long, 14 wide, 9
in circumference, and 2890 acres in area. From its
highest point, the Verne (495 feet), it shelves with
a. ual and almost unbroken slope to Portland
Bi fae feet), the southern extremity, where stand
two lighthouses (1716-89), showing fixed lights 210
and 136 feet above sea-level, and between which
and the Shambles, a dangerous reef, 3 miles south-
east, a surf, called the Portland Race, is raised by
the rushing of the impetuous tides. The cliffs have
in places n worn into fantastic caverns; and
ancient raised beaches are well marked near the
Bill. Portland is one solid mass of oolitie lime-
stone, which has been largely quarried for building
purposes since the 17th century, when Inigo Jones
employed it for Whitehall and Sir Christopher
Wren for St Paul’s. Goldsmiths’ Hall, the Reform
ba ge we Mall generally are ee built io it;
e yearly ex now ran ween 50,000
and 70,000 tons. as 5a
There are three different qualities of Portland
stone, the three strata lying close together. The
top bed, called Roach, is unsuited for fine hewn
work, since it is full of fossils, but it is hard and
durable, and does well for the walls of docks,
foundations, and the like. The Whit Bed, which
comes next, yields the best stone for fine buildings.
It varies in texture from a fine close grain to the
roe-like structure characteristic of oolitie lime-
stones, and is free from shells. Its colour is a
pleasing grayish white. The Base Bed, not quite
so much quarried as the others, is of finer grain
and whiter than the Whit bed ; but it is softer and
better suited for internal than external architec-
tural work. An analysis of this stone by Professor
Daniell shows the following composition : Silica,
1°20; carbonate of lime, 95:16 ; carbonate of mag-
nesia, 1°20; iron antl alumina, ‘50; water and loss,
1°94; besides which ingredients there is often a
trace of bitumen
uarried in the ‘
ardour.
The formation of a magnificent harbour of refuge
has been described at BREAKWATER, where also a
map is given; most formidable fortifications have
moreover been constructed, the Verne in especial
being crowned by Fort Victoria. Other features of
the ‘Isle’ are its great convict-prison, dating from
1848, and holding upwards of 1500 convicts (see
Prisons); Portland Castle (1520), built by Henry
VIIL, and held for Charles I. till 1646 ; Bow and
resent. Portland stone is also
le’ of Purbeck and the Vale of
Arrow Castle, ascribed to Rufus ; and Pennsylvania
Castle (1800), built by Governor Penn, the t
Quaker’s dson. The inhabitants of the ‘Isle’
long remained a peculiar people, intermarrying, and
preserving, generation after generation, the many
curious customs of their forefathers. The ‘Isle’
itself is remarkable for its copious and excellent
spring-water and for its small breed of black-faced
sheep, whose flesh, well known as ‘Portland
mutton,’ is much esteemed for its flavour. Pop.
(1851) 5195; (1881) 10,061 ; (1891) 11,000.
See Damon’s Geology of Weymouth and Portland
(1860), and an article in the Cornhill (1882).
Portland Beds. See Jurassic SystTEM.
Portland Cement, See CEMENT.
Portland Sago. See AruM.
Portland Vase, a celebrated ancient Roman
glass vase or cinerary urn found during the ponti-
ficate of Urban VIII. (1623-44) in a marble sarco-
pl (of Alexander Severus, it is thought, and his
aother Mammezeea) in the Monte del Grano, near
Rome. It was at first
deposited in the Bar-
berini Palace at Rome,
and hence it is some-
times called the Bar-
berini Vase. It was
bought in 1770 by Sir
William Hamilton
(q.v.), and in 1787 by
the Portland family,
who in 1810 d ited it
in the British Museum,
where it is now shown
inthe ‘Gold Room.’ The
und of the Portland
ase is of dark-blue
glass, and the figure-
subjects which adorn it
are cut in cameo style
in an outer layer of
ue white glass. In
the official British Museum Guide (1890) it is stated
that the composition is sup to represent on
the obverse Thetis consenting to be the bride of
Peleus, in the presence of Poseidon and Eros; on
the reverse, Peleus and Thetis on Mount Pelion.
On the bottom of the vase is a bust of Paris. The
vase was broken to pieces by a lunatic in 1845, but
the fragments were very skilfully united again.
The Portland Vase is 10 inches high, and is the
finest specimen of an ancient cameo cut-glass vase
known. There are only two others of similar
character which approach it in beauty—viz. an
amphora in the Movken Museum and the Auldjo
Vase. But fragments of the same kind of glass
exist with work upon them quite as fine. In the
end of the 18th century Josiah Wedgwood, the
famous potter, made fifty copies in fine earthen-
ware of the Portland Vase, which were originally
sold at twenty-five guineas each. One of these
now fetches £200.
Port Louis, the capital and principal port of
the British colony of Mauritius, is situated on an
excellent harbour on the north west coast, and is
enclosed by a ring of lofty hills. It is defended b
forts (1887-91), is a coaling station of the Britis
navy, and has barracks and military storehouses.
There are three graving-docks beside the harbour, *
through which all the commerce of Mauritius
(q.v.) The drainage has been greatly im-
proved of late. The city contains the govern-
ment house, a Protestant and a Roman Catholic
cathedral, a royal college, &c. Pop. (1889) 61,170.
Port Mahon erg Portus Magonis), the
capital of the island of Minorca (q.v.), is beauti-
Portland Vase.
334 PORT MOODY PORTRAITS
fully situated narrow inlet in the south- | though tobacco, maize, bananas,
anh ot the ialand. oer one of the finest | and cial foals axe ches geval Tara herds of
in the Mediterranean, and is protected by powerful
forts and fortifications. Building stone, shoes,
cottons, cattle, and ay are exported, Pop.
15,842. The town was held by the English from
1708 to 1756, and again from 1762 to 17) It was
they who made it a first-class fortress.
Port Moody. See VANCOUVER.
Porto Alegre, tal of the Brazilian state
of Rio Grande do Sul, stands at the north-west
extremity of the Lagoa dos Patos, by means of
which it communicates with the sea. It was
founded in 1742, is well built, and has about 35,000
inhabitants. It contains a cathedral, an arsenal,
military and normal schools, an episcopal seminary,
and a German club, Most of the wholesale trade
is in the hands of the Germans, who number some
3000. Railways bring the produce of the interior
down to the port, which, however, can only be
entered by ships drawing 8} feet. There are manu-
factories of pianos, furniture, brandy, and beer.
Portobello, a Scottish watering-place on the
southern shore of the Firth of Forth, 3 miles E. of
Edinburgh. Its first house (1742) was built by
one of Admiral Vernon’s seamen in the expedi-
tion against Puerto Bello, and hence it derived its
name; but it dates, like its eastern extension
Joppa, almost wholly from a time later than 1804.
An esplanade, # mile long, skirts the broad level
sands; and there are a Neng ier of 1250 feet
(1871), municipal buildings (1878), half-a-dozen
churches, and manufactures of pottery, bricks,
bottles, &c. Portobello, with Leith and Mussel-
burgh, returns one member to parliament. Pop.
(1841) 3587 ; (1891) 8682. By the Edinburgh Ex-
tension Act (1896) Portobello was incorporated with
Edinburgh.
Portobelo, formerly PuERTO BELLO, a decayed
rec med Colombia, on the northern shore of the
mus of Panamé. It has an excellent harbour,
discovered by Columbus in 1502, but has fallen into
decay since 1739, when it was stormed by Admiral
Vernon. Pop. 1300.
Porto Ferrajo, See Expa.
Porto-Maurizio, « town of North Italy,
stands embowered in olive-groves on the Gulf of
Ce ae ee . of Genoa and 41 E.
N. of Nice, and consists of an old town on
e hills and a new town next the sea, with a
small harbour. Pop. 6500.—The ince has an
area of 468 sq. m. and a pop. of 145,818.
Porto Novo, a small port on the Coromandel
coast of India, 145 miles S. of Madras by rail. Both
the Danes and the Dutch had formerly a factory
here. The place is celebrated for the battle yi
here on Ist July 1781, when Sir Eyre Coote, with
8000 men, defeated Hyder Ali and an army of
60,000. From 1824 on for some years there was an
firon-foundry here, the ore g brought from
jalem. Pop, 7823.
Porto Rico, or Puerto Rico, a West India
island (Spanish till 1898), lies 75 miles E. of Hayti
or St Domingo. An oblong in shape, it has an area
of 3530 sq. m., about five-sixths the area of Jamaica,
and measures 110 miles from east to west, and 40
from north to south. It is traversed from east to
west by ranges of mountains, 1500 feet in av
“height, though Mount El Yunque rises to. 3670
feet. From the base of the mountains rich alluvial
tracts extend to the sea on all sides, and are
watered by innumerable short streams. The
higher are covered with forests. Rain falls
in much greater abundance on the north than on
the south of the island. The principal crops are
sugar, coffee, and rice (the food of the people),
cattle and horses are fed on the low pastures,
Gold, copper, iron, lead, aud coal have been found,
but the industries of Porto Rico are entirely agri-
cultural. The imports consist of cotton and woo
goods, metals, hardware, and machinery, animals
and animal products, and provisions, such as rice,
flour, ale, fruits, &c., to a total value in 1897 of
about $10,715,000; the exports ure coffee, sugar,
molasses, tobacco, corn, cattle, &c., to a value
about $11,011,500, both import and export trade
being chiefly with Spain, the United States, Great
Britain, France, and gig ise popes has
increased from 155,400 in 1 to 4 in 1899,
363,817 being coloured, Chief towns are San Juan,
the capital, Ponce, and ees: Porto Rico was
discovered by Columbus 493; Ponce de Leon
founded a settlement in 1510. It was lo
obedient to Spain, notwithstanding an mpted
uprising fostered by Colombians in 1825. Occupied
by United States troops during the war with Spain
(1898), it was ceded to the United States by the
peace treaty. An act of congress conferred civil
government on the island in 1900.
Portpatrick, a decayed fishing-village in
Wigtownshire, 7? miles SW. of Stranraer by rail.
It is sheltered by high cliffs, and has a pleasant
south-westerly exposure, but the coast is rocky and
~_ foe ee bree one are no facilities od
thing, altho e vi enjoys some repu
tion a a eh aoa eae is but 214
miles direct north-east of Donaghadee in Coun
Down, was long the Gretna Green for Ireland,
the chief place for the im ion into Scotland of
e was a mail-
ad
was found taprectable as a place of shelter
owing to the violence of the south-westerly swell
and the winds that blow for eight months of the
year. The ublic confidence in the harbour received
its death-blow from the wreck of the Orion steam-
ship within the port seventy
sons perished within a few yards of the aor
street. The lighthouse was removed in 1869,
the harbour-works fell quickly into ruin,
after having cost the country £500, Pop.
of parish (1831) 2239; (1891) 1213.
Port Phillip, the of Melbourne, dis
~ te named
covered in 1802 by Lientenant Murray, and
in honour of Captain Phillip, the first governor of
New South Wales (q.v.). Victoria was
originally called the district of Port Phillip.
Portraits, Composire, a method of indicat-
ing the — Keperra ofa i aader the
persons, while at same su) ng the
Eiciton bas thus prepared trpe faces tach tomaposed
ton has thus t con:
of a number of thdividuale’ specially celebrated for
some particular branch of art, science, or occupa-
tion. The results are en ene as of considerable
value to the student of anthropology.
One way of obtaining these composite portraits
is to take full-face pn pe of each person com-
pee the group, of such a uniform size that two
xed horizontal lines pass, one through the inner
angle of the eyes, the other through the line divid-
ing the lips, while a third fixed perpendicular line
equally divides the nose; by this means the photo-
are brought approximately to the same size,
an apne ng portions of the various faces
occupy similar positions. Now suppose there are ten
individuals in the group, and that any one negative
would require half an hour to produce a good pa
then each negative is printed for one-tenth of hal
THE SEA-WALL AT SAN JUAN, PORTO RICO.
Vol. VIII., page 334.
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PORTREE
PORTSMOUTH 335
an hour, and is carefully adjusted so that each suc:
ceeding negative occupies the same position on the
beng as the preceding one ; thus a composite por-
it will result, each of the ten likenesses having
an equal share in its production. Where any char-
tic is common to all or several, that peculiarity
will be more or less pronounced ; where, however,
only one or two persons a peculiarity, it is
scarcely, if at all, noticeable. By taking a nega-
tive of a succession of positives a composite negative
will result capable of indefinite reproduction. The
result is often a highly idealised portrait representa-
tive of the family, or of the poet, statesman, mathe-
matician, gaol-bird, &c., and typical of the group it
represents.
Portree. See SKYE.
Portreeve, once the English name of the prin-
cipal magistrate in a port town, especially in
London (q.v.).
Port Royal. See Jamaica.
Port-Royal des Champs, a convent of Cis-
tercian nuns, nearly 8 miles SW. of Versailles, which
obtained much celebrity during the 17th century.
It was founded for nuns by a member of the family
of Montmorency in the bea = of the 13th cen-
tury, and soon r its establishment obtained from
the pope the privilege of receiving lay persons, who,
without taking monastic vows, desired to live in
religious retirement. The discipline of the convent
having been much relaxed in the 15th and 16th
centuries, one of its worst abuses—that of appoint-
ing the superior, not on account of fitness, but
from considerations of family or other worldly or
political motives—became in the end the occasion
of its com reformation under Marie Angélique
Arnauld (q.v.). The community was removed to
in 1608, and in 1633 to a new convent, Port-
Royal de Paris; and from this time the old estab-
lishment of Port-Royal des Champs was exclusively
devoted to the use of alay community. This com-
munity soon numbered among its permanent
inmates some of the most distinguished scholars of
that age, Antony Arnauld, Le Maistre, Antony
and Louis Isaae le Maistre de Sacy, Nicole,
Lancelot, Séricourt, and others. Their rule of
life was most austere, rising at 3 A.M., brat
many hours to prayer and spiritual reading and
instruction, and a portion of the day to manual
labour. One of their public services was the
establishment of a school, for which they prepared
well-known educational books, the Port-Royal
Greek and Latin Grammars, General Grammar,
Geometry, Art of Thinking (‘Port-Royal Logic,’
new ed. by Professor Spencer Baynes, 1881), &e.
But Port-Royal is best known for its adhesion to the
Jansenist movement (see JANSEN). The nuns of
Port-Royal having refused tosubseribe the formulary
condemning the Five Propositions, a royal order was
issued in 1660 for the suppression of the schooland the
removal of the boarders of Port-Royal des Champs ;
and the abbess and several other nuns were arrested,
and confined as prisoners in other monasteries.
After the ‘Peace of Clement IX.’ they were per-
mitted to return; but the two communities were
laced under separate government. When the
inal — for the repression of the Jansenist party
were taken about 1707 a formal bull was issued by
Pope Clement XI. for the suppression of Port-
Royal des Champs, and the transfer of its property
to Port-Royal de Paris. The nuns were finally
di and distributed over convents of different
ers throughout France. The property of the con-
vent and church was transferred to the Paris house,
and all the buildings of Port-Royal des Champs
were levelled to the ground by order of the king.
See Sainte-Beuve, Port-R (4th ed. 6 vols. 1878);
Charles Beard, Port-Royal (2 vols. 1861).
Portrush, a ‘syria dla in County Antrim,
of mle by rail N. of Coleraine, and 7 W. by S. of
Giants’ Causeway, with which it is connected
by an electric tramway (1883). The town is built
on the isthmus of a short peninsula, looking to the
Causeway cliffs on the one side, and to Inishowen
and almost Malin Head on the other. It has fine
stretches of firm sand for bathing, and has com-
munications by steamer with Morecambe and
Glasgow. Pop. 1322.
Port Said, a town of Egypt, on the west side
of the Suez Canal, on a desolate strip of land
between Lake Menzaleh and the Mediterranean.
The place owes its origin to the Suez Canal (q.v.),
being named after Said Pasha, its promoter, and
depends wholly on the canal trade, being mainly a
coaling station for steamers. Pop. (1882) 16,560.
Portsea Island, 2 small island on the south
coast of Hampshire, has on its west side Ports-
mouth Harbour and on its east side Langston
Harbour, and is separated from the mainland on
the north by a narrow channel, crossed by several
brid It is four miles long by from two to three
b ecu contains the towns of Portsea and Ports-
mou
Portsmouth, the chief naval arsenal of Great
Britain, and an important seaport, market-town,
and municipal, eee: and county borough,
in the south o a stands on the south-
west shore of Portsea Island (q.v.), at the entrance
to Portsmouth Harbour, and opposite the town of
Gosport (q.v.), with which it communicates by
means of a steam-brid It is 74 miles SW. of
London, 44 W. of Brighton, and 23 SW. of South-
ampton. Besides the parish of Portsmouth, the
limits of the municipal and parliamentary borough,
which are co-extensive, include also the parish and
town of Portsea, and the out-wards Landport and
Southsea, and comprise the whole of Portsea Island,
with the exception of a small portion in the north-
east corner. Pop. of the borough (1821) 69,479;
(1851) 72,096; (1871) 113,569; (1881) 127,989;
(1891) 159,255. Portsmouth is for the most part
a mean-looking, dirty town, but has the most
complete fortifications in Britain. These comprise,
on the jandward side, the outer line of the Ports-
down forts and the Hilsea lines; to seaward, the
Spithead (q.v.) forts. A portion of the bastioned
ram , Which formerly encircled both Ports-
mouth and rt, and were so imposing in
appearance, have since 1872 been removed as use-
less. Southsea, which is situated outside the
walls skirting Southsea Common, is rapidly in-
creasing, and is now a fashionable watering-place,
In the town proper there are few objects of note.
Pleasing views may be had from the ramparts and
batteries, of the harbour, the roadstead of Spit-
head, and the Isle of Wight. Many improvements
have been carried out in Portsmouth, including
improved drainage, and the opening of the Victoria
Park in 1878; also a new town-hall has been built
at a cost of £140,000, which was opened by the
Prince of Wales in 1890. Among the few notable
buildings may be mentioned the church of. St
Thomas, whose chancel and transept date from the
close of the 12th century, the nave and tower from
1698, and which contains a ghastly cenotaph in
memory of the murdered Duke of Buckingham.
The Garrison Chapel, Early English in style, and
finely restored by Street in 1867, is a fragment of
the hospital of St Nicholas, founded in 1212 b
Bishop Peter de Repibus. In it Charles Il.
married Catharine of Braganza; and in front of it
is buried the brave Sir Charles James Napier (q.v.),
who died in this neighbourhood in 1853. The
dockyard of Portsmouth, in the district of Portsea,
was till 1872 only 116 acres in extent; but vast
336 PORTSMOUTH
PORTUGAL
works have since then been carried out at a cost of
£2,500,000, which have increased the area to a
total of 293 acres. Of this immense naval estab-
lishment the most noteworthy, if not the most
recent, features are the mast and rope houses,
hemp-stores, rigging-stores, sail-loft, and the oth
docks, spacious enough to admit the largest vessels,
and offering every facility for their speedy repair.
The twelve docks, 22 to 36 feet deep, are lined
with solid masonry, roofed over, and closed by
lock-gates. Of the various building-slips, one of
them, roofed and covered in, is so large that three
or four vessels can be in process of construction
under it at the same time. The Wood Mills con-
tain a number of most ingenious block-makin
machines, the invention of Sir Isambard Brune
(q.¥.), in which rough timber, introduced at one end,
is cut, squared, drilled, bored, and turned into the
required shape. About 150,000 blocks are made
here annually, and the machines require the attend-
ance of no more than four men. In the smithy
reign of Henry VIII. Its defences were commenced
by Edward IV, and strengthened by Elizabeth,
and afterwards in a more thorough manner by
William III. Here, in a house that still remains
in the High Street, and which was then an inn
called the ‘Spotted Dog,’ the Duke of Buckingham
(the ‘ Steenie’ of King James) was assassinated by
John Felton. On the 29th of August 1782, when
its commander, Admiral Kempenfeldt, was writing
in his cabin, the Royal George went down at Spit-
head, and nearly 1000 lives were lost. Charles
Dickens was born at 387 Mile End Terrace,
Commercial Road, Landport, Portsea; and other
worthies of Portsmouth have been Walter Besant,
the younger Brunel, Jonas Hanway, Sir Frederick
Madden, George Meredith, and John Pounds.
See L. Allen’s History of Portsmouth (1817), H.
Slight’s Chronicles of Portsmouth (1828), H. P. Wright's
Story of the ‘Domus Dei’ or Garrison Church (1873)
W. H. Saunders’ Annals of Portsmouth (1880),
Murrell and East’s Extracts from Portsmouth
(1884).
Portsmouth, (1) the metro-
anchors are forged by aid of a Nasmyth’s hammer.
= met,
e N
. ‘e
: 7 é + Se Yor" *
gAdhui . Hye “oe, nN -
"Pvewie te = Ti .
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le Pee at .
x iokham? Fp A Befpe\s
Ss
nestor Havan
Horndean
= and only seaport of New
ampshire, is on the south bank
of the Piscataqua River, 3 miles
from the Atlantic, and 57 miles
by rail NNE. of Boston. Built
on a beautiful peninsula, over-
looking a capacious and deep har-
bour, with smooth rock bottom,
it is a handsome old town, many
of its streets lined with shade-
trees, and is a favourite summer-
resort. It has a custom-house,
and some shipbuilding is still
carried on; the mannfactures in-
clude cotton, hosiery, shoes, iron-
castings, and beer. At Kittery,
on an island opposite, is a United
States navy-yard, with large ship-
houses and a floating balance-
dock, 350 feet long by 105 wide,
with twenty-four pumps. Ports-
| mouth was settled in 1623, and
was capital of the state till 1807.
Pop. (1900) 10,637.—(2) Capital
of Scioto county, Ohio, stands
English Miles among hills in an iron region, on
the Ohio River, at the mouth of
The dockyard also contains the residences of the
superintending officers, and a school of naval archi-
tecture.
Portsmouth Harbour, about 400 yards wide at
its entrance, expands into a spacious basin, extend-
ing inland for about 4 miles, and having a breadth
of 3 miles along its northern shore. rge war-
vessels can enter and lie at anchor at all times of
the tide, there being 4 fathoms of water in the
channel at low water. The outward entrance is
defended by Forts Monckton and Gilkicker, and
Southsea Castle. The position of this harbour is
highly favourable. It is situated in the middle of
the channel, close to the magnificent anchorage of
Spithead, where 1000 ships of the line may ride
without inconvenience, and is under shelter of the
Isle of Wight, and opposite the French arsenal of
Cherbourg.
The local trade of Portsmouth is chiefly a
ported by the dockyard and other public establish-
ments. Brewing is largely carried on. Coals,
tatoes, corn, and timber are imported from
ritish coasts, and potatoes, granite, corn, timber,
cattle, and wine from abrc The only exports
are te (shipped at Fareham) and coal-tar
pitch.
The importance of this port dates only from the
or 2 2 4 5
* the Scioto, and at the south ter-
minus of the Ohio Canal, 106 miles by rail ESE. of
Cincinnati. It has several iron-foundries, rolling-
mills, stone-mills, and sawmills, and manufactures
stoves, nails, steel springs, furniture, machinery,
boots, &c. Pop. (1900) 17,870.—(3) A city and port
of Virginia, on the Elizabeth River, opposite Nor-
folk. Gosport, with its navy-yard, &c. (see Nor-
FOLK), is a suburb, Portsmouth contains a dry-
dock and a naval hospital, and exports naval stores,
iron, lumber, cotton, and early vegetables for the
north. Formerly capital of Norfolk county, it is
now independent. Pop, (1900) 17,427.
Portsmouth, DucueEss or. See CHARLEs II.
Port Townsend, capital of Jefferson county,
Washington, is on Puget Sound, near Juan de Fuca
Strait, 42 miles NNW. of Seattle. It has a good
harbour, and is an important United States cus-
toms station; it is of A strategic importance,
and is well fortified. The industries include shops,
foundries, &c. Pop, (1900) 3443.
Portugal, « a of Europe, on the west
side of the Iberian Peninsula, stretches 350 miles
between 36° 59’ and 42° 8’ N. lat., and varies in
width from 70 to 140 miles between 6° 10’ and 9°
31’ W. long. Its eastern and northern boundaries
are Spain, its western and southern the Atlantic
PORTUGAL
337
Ocean. Details of provincial areas and populations
are given in the subjoined table.
5,049,729
‘The population increases steadily but slowly : in
1851 it numbered 3,487,000; in 1874, 4,160,315;
and in 1881, 4,708,178. But fully 16,500 persons
igrate every year, the majority going to America,
chiefly to i
Physical Aspects.—In respect of its physical
structure and conformation, Portugal forms an
integral part of the Iberian Peninsula (see SPAIN).
The coast is low and flat, and sandy, except for one
or two short distances, as immediately north and
south of the mouth of the Tagus, and at Cape St
Vincent in the extreme south-west. The two
northern "che are diversified by spurs (5000
feet) of the mountains of Spanish icia. The
most important mountain-range of Portugal is the
Sierra da Estrella (6540 feet), a westward continua-
tion of the — Sierra Guadarrama system,
The Sierra Morena is continued westwards in
southern Po: In like manner, the principal
rivers of the country—the Guadiana in the south,
the Tagus in the centre, and the Douro and Minho
in the north—are simply the lower courses of what
are hically Spanish rivers. The Mondego,
whi es the sea about half-way betwee il
Tagus mouth and that of the Douro, is the longest
river that has its sourees-in the country. Portugal
has numerous mineral springs, a large proportion
being peecegated with sulphur. Minerals exist
in fairly rich abundance, but are not worked to
the extent they could be, chiefly from want of
fuel and cheap means of transit. Salt is prepared
in large quantities in the salt marshes; copper,
iron, lead, manganese, antimony, gypsum, lime,
and marble are extracted and in part exported.
About 5500 eco in all are engaged in mining,
the yield of which reaches the total value of
£224,000 per annum.
Climate.—The vicinity to the ocean tempers the
climate of Portugal, and exempts it from the dry
heat by which Spain is visited. The inequalities
of the surface produce, however, diversities of
climate ; for, while snow falls abundantly on the
mountains in the northern provinces, it is never
seen in the lowlands of the southern districts,
where spring begins with the new year and harvest
is over by midsummer. Rain falls abundantly all
the year round, especially on the coast, and from
October to March. Asa general rule, the climate
is healthy in the elevated districts, even of the
southern provinces ; but malaria and fever prevail
in the low flat lands and near the salt marshes.
The mean annual temperature ranges from 60° F.
at Oporto to 63°°5 at Lagos on the south coast.
The animal life and plant life do not differ from
those of Spain (Gy. ).
Occupations.—The soil is generally rich, except
in the mountainous parts ; but sqrimae is every-
where in a backward state, little more than half
the area of the country being put to profitable use.
Arable land oceupies only 153 per cent. ; grass-land,
24 per cent. ; orchards, 7 per cent. ; forest, 3 per
cent.; vineyards, 2}; and olive-groves, about the
same extent. The cereals chiefly wn are
maize, wheat, rye, barley, and rice, but not in
sufficient quantity for the wants of the Pes
gaa vegetables (especially onions), A
fruits (oranges, lemons, chestnuts, almonds, &c.)
are grown in large quantities. But the cultiva-
tion of the vine and of the olive are the most
prosperous branches of industry ; from the former
is derived the rich red wine familiarly known as
Port, from its being shipped at O Porto, ‘the
, The total quantity of wine annually pro-
uced in Portugal amounts to 88,000,000 gallons.
Cattle are reared in the north, sheep and goats in
the centre, and swine in the oak forests of the
south. In the vine districts of the north and
centre the soil is mostly owned by peasant pro-
prietors ; in other parts of the country great estates
are owned by the nobles and let to tenants to culti-
vate. The rearing of silkworms and the keeping
of bees are pursued with some energy. Fish is
abundant in all the rivers and off the coasts.
Tunny and sardines are exported; and of late
attention has been given to the rearing of oysters.
Commerce, &c.—Portugal is not a manufacturing
country ; what industry there is is principally con-
centrated in the two chief towns, Lisbon and
Oporto. In all, some 91,000 — are engaged in
industrial pursuits, and of these nearly 40,000 are
bon £5 ba in bebe | wool. The rest eut cork,
manufacture cotton, linen, silk, leather, glass and
porcelain, paper, and gold and silver filigree,
an on various other industries. In 1889
the mercantile marine of Portugal comprised 443
vessels (43 steam), measuring in all 77,906 tons.
During the four years ending 1887 the Portuguese
ports were entered by an average of 5565 ocean-
going vessels of 3,404,500 tons, but in 1893 by 5873
of 5,793,000 tons; of these totals, nearly half in
number and more than half in tonnage were British.
In 1893, 1450 miles of railway were open, and 300
more in course of construction. The exports, con-
sisting | dome se of wine, copper, salt, cork, fish,
oxen, fruits, vegetables, and wool, average 54
millions sterling in value annually. More than
one-half of this total is for wine, the actual value
ranging between £1,580,200 (in 1879) and £3,751,770
(in 1886). Of this again the greater part is for port
wine, exported to Britain, 3 to 4 million gallons
annually, valued at 1 to 1} million sterling; and
to Brazil, to an annual average of £608,000. France
takes every year about £868,000 worth of the
common wine of the country. The value of all
the exports sent to Great Britain every year
ranges from 2} to nearly 4 millions sterling. Apart
from wine, the principal items are cork, copper,
live oxen, and wool. From Great Britain Portugal
imports chiefly cottons (4 to # million sterling),
woollens, coal, metals, machinery, and butter, to
the annual value of 12 to 24 millions sterling. Her
total imports, which, in addition to the articles
mentioned, embrace bullion, flour and wheat (more
than £1,000,000 annually), glass, live-stock, silk,
timber, linen, &c., reached the value of 11} millions
in 1889, a steady increase from 7} millions in 1885.
Germany, France, and the United States rank
next after Great Britain as sources whence Portugal
draws her imports.
Finance.—I\n spite of her commercial prosperity,
Portugal cuts a bad figure in her financial arrange-
ments. For years there has been an annual deficit,
which is mostly met by loans, so that the national
debt is rapidly increasing. Whereas in 1878 the
national income was £5,673,000, the expenditure
was £7,629,500; ten years later the income had
increased to £8,468,000, but the expenditure was
£10,000,000. The national debt has increased from
£20,974,000 in 1856 to £64,333,000 in 1871, and
£148,490,103 in 1893, besides £4,784,777 of floating
debt. The interest for the country’s loans is
accordingly some £5,000,000, by a long way the
heaviest item in the national expenditure.
Defence.—Every Portuguese above twenty-one
338
PORTUGAL
of age is liable for service in the army.
welve years is the period of service, three years
with the colours and nine in the reserve. On the
footing the army embraces in all abont
33,000 men; the war strength is about 150,000
men of all arms. The fleet ists of 1 ironclad
10 corvettes and screw-steamers, 21 gunboats and
transports, 5 torpedo boats, 13 sailing-vessels, and
7 training and coas ships, the whole manned
by 2850 sailors and officers.
Religion, Education.—The state religion is that
of the Church of Rome, but toleration is extended
to all other creeds. There are three ecclesiastical
provinces presided over by the Cardinal Patriarch
of Lisbon, the Archbishop of Braga, who is:primate
of the kingdom, and the Archbishop of Evora;
these dignitaries rule over fourteen bishops. The
monasteries were dissolved in 1834, their properties,
yielding about one million sterling annually, beg
appropriated by the state. Education is superin-
tended by a council, at the head of which is the
minister of the Interior, and is entirely free from
the supervision and control of the church. Com-
ssa apg erg was enacted in 1844, but is far
2 ing fully enforced, consequently Portugal
lags behind in education and general intelligence.
There are nearly 4000 elementary schools, with
180,000 pupils; 22 lyceums, with 8260 pupils;
numerous private schools; polytechnic academies
at Lisbon and Oporto; and clerical, medical, agri.
cultural, naval, and military training-schools. The
one university at Coimbra (1300), one of the oldest
in ong has five faculties, 75 professors, and
about students. Schools for training in the
industrial arts are in t favour; there are 28
in the country, headed by larger institutes at
Lisbon and Oporto. Lisbon has a learned society
(the Academy of Sciences), and a public library
1796) of 200,000 volumes. There are other
ibraries at Coimbra (1591), with 84,000 vols., and
at Oporto (1833), with 100,000 vols,
Constitution.—Portugal is a constitutional mon-
archy, the crown being hereditary alike in the
come and the male line. The parliament, or
Cortes, consists of the House of Peers and the House
of Deputies. By a law of 1885 the former will,
when the necessary changes have been made, event-
ually consist of one hundred life members elected
Ww the king and fifty elected indirectly, five by
e university and scientific societies and forty-
five by popular electors. The House of Deputies
consists of 149 members, elected directly by all
citizens above twenty-one years of age who —
certain qualifications of property or status. Parlia-
ments are elected every four yess sessions last
three months in the year. The deputies are paid
lls. aday. The executive is wielded by a cabinet
of seven ministers, chosen by the premier (one of
the seven), who himself is selected by the king.
The departments are Interior, Justice, Public Works,
Finance, Marine and Colonies, War, and Foreign
Affairs. The sovereign also consults a council of
state, of not more than sixteen members, nomi-
nated for life, and generally including ex-ministers
and present ministers. Justice is administered by
rural magistrates in 146 district courts, in 3 courts
of appeal (at Oporto, Lisbon, and Azores), and
in the supreme tribunal of the kingdom at Lisbon.
People.—The Portuguese are a mixed race—
originally Iberian or ue, with later Celtic
admixture. Galician blood (derived from the
ancient Gallaici, presumably Gallic invaders)
reer paca in the north; Jewish and Arabic
lood are strongly present in the centre, and
African in the south. The Portuguese differ
essentially from their Spanish brethren, whom they
regard with inveterate hatred and jealousy, mainly
on account of their past attempts to subvert the
independence of Portugal. The opinions of ob-
servers differ as to the national traits of the people,
They seem, however, to be generally sober, good-
natured, Siiiging, sad iotic, but shiftless and
dirty. Both Lisbon and Oporto have a population
exceeding 100,000; no other town reaches 30,000,
Lisbon_is the ‘capital, Oporto the centre of the
rt-wine trade, and the chief town of northern
ortugal.
The colonial ions of Portugal are enumer-
ated in the subjoined list :
Arrica—
Cape Verde Islands............0.ese00 110,926.
Senegambia (Guinva).......... ae 5,045
St Thomas and Prince's Island. 21,000
Ajuda (fort, Guinea Coast )............ 700
Sant the districts of 219,000 pm
or
_ vey Loanda, —— 2,000,
7)80,000 (7) 600,000
1,262 450
102 byt
6,200 30),000
4 70,000-
401,601 3,609,334
See Crawfurd, phage Old and New (1880); and.
Round the Calendar in Portugal (1890); Aldama- 8
Com: io; Murray’s Handbook ; G. B. Loring, A Year
in Joursal ef a Resi-
As Colonias Por-
ey cee (1892); D.
dence in baat ‘ascon
tuguezas (1897).
History.—Romans followed Carthaginians as
conquerors (138 B.C.) of the western Iberians
Celts. Under Augustus the peninsula was divided
into three provinces, one of which, Lusitania, has,
until quite recent times, been regarded as nearly
identical with the present kingdom of Portugal ;
but the Augustan province of Lusitania lay
wholly on the south side of the Tagus. The his-
zt of Portugal was in early times coincident
with that of the Iberian Peninsula as a whole; and,
along with the rest of the Seger Portugal was
thoroughly Romanised in the days of the empire.
After the Romans withdrew, the peninsula was
overrun by Visigoths from the north, and at a
later period by from the south. Under
Roman, Visigothic, and Saracenic rule the people
were prosperous and well governed, but became
enervated by ity ef and unwarlike ease. About
the middle of the 11th century northern rt rigs,
fell under the sway of Ferdinand I. of Castile. In
1094 Henry of Burgundy, who had married a
natural daughter of Alfonso VI, son and successor
of Ferdinand, received. from that monarch the
county of Portugal (from the Minho to the Tagusi
as a dependent fief. Under his widow, Theresa
(1114-28) the country acquired a sense of national
unity and a certain measure of independence.
Their son, Alfonso L, made Po an in-
dependent kingdom (1143)—through the victory
of a picked body of Portuguese knights over
a picked body of Castilian knights in a tourna-
ment—and gained signal advan over the
Arabs, whom he fought for twenty-five years, his
greatest exploits being the victory in the plain
of Ourique, in Alemtejo, in 1139, the capture (with
the help of English crusaders) of Lisbon in 1147,
and of Aleacer do Sal in 1158. The Burgundian
House, which continued in possession of the
throne for 440 years, gave to Portugal some
of its best kings. The immediate successors of
Alfonso I, were engaged in incessant wars
the Moslems and in severe struggles with the clergy
and nobles, who were always ready to combine
against the sovereign ; but, although often baffled
in their attempts to uphold the independence of the
crown, the dignity of the kingdom was, on the
whole, well maintained by the pp. inde ch of
this family, who were, moreover, distinguished as
PORTUGAL
339
the oters and champions of the maritime glory
of Hetagal. Sancho (died 1211), the ‘builder of
cities,’ especially distinguished himself by his care
for the material welfare of his kingdom, and by
his bold Bane against the claims of Pope Innocent
Ill. and that pope’s supporters, the Portuguese
bishops. His son, Alfonso II., summoned the first
Portuguese Cortes. Alfonso III. (1248-79) con-
ue the southern province of the kingdom in
250, and made Portugal what it practically is in
area at the present time. His son Diniz ( Denis)
must be regarded as the founder of Portuguese
commerce and mercantile enterprise. He likewise
encouraged iculture and the industrial arts,
and protec learning, in furtherance of which
he founded in 1300 a university at Lisbon, sub-
sequently transferred to Coimbra. Diniz was suc-
ceeded in 1325 by his son, Alfonso IV., surnamed
the Brave, whose reign was almost wholly occupied
in wars with the Castilians and the Moslems (see
Castro, INEZDE). It was berees his reign that the
friendly commercial relations with ne began.
With Alfonso’s grandson, Ferdinand L., the legiti-
mate branch of the Burgundian House became ex-
tinct in 1383. After some disturbances Ferdinand’s
illegitimate brother, John, was ised by the
Cortes as king in 1385; four months later the
allied Portuguese and English army won at
Aljubarrota a glorious victory over the Castilians,
who had invaded the country. John’s reign (he
died in 1433) was eventful, not merely on account
of the internal reforms which he introduced, and
of his steady maintenance of the prerogatives of the
crown, but chiefly as being associated with the
first of those important eo pase discoveries
and commercial enterprises which made Portugal
for a while the test maritime power of Europe.
During this reign, on May 9, 1386, the treaty of
Windsor cemented the firm alliance and national
friendship between Portugal and England, that
was further confirmed by the marriage of Kin
John to the daughter of John of Gaunt (1387).
To John’s son, Heny the Navigator (died 1460),
is due the merit of having organised several voy
of discovery, which culminated in the acquisition
of the Azores, Madeira, Cape de Verde, and other
islands. At this time, too, the slave-trade began,
the the peat at vivinie lerein Two auch ‘buried
forests’ have been met with in the bogs over a
wide region in north-western Euro) At many
places on the coasts of the British Islands and the
opposite shores of the Continent t with buried
trees out to sea, and has n dredged up
from the sea-bottom at considerable distances from
the land. The only other formations that need be
mentioned are the raised Beaches (q.v.) which are
met with at varions heights above the present sea-
level, and the local moraines and fiuvio-glacial
olay of the higher valleys of the Scottish High-
ids. Some of these moraines come down to the
level of the 45 to 50 feet beach.
The flora and fauna of the period are essentially
the same as at present. In the earlier stages of
the period, however, the flora of north Germany,
Denmark, southern Sweden, &c. was arctic-alpine,
and that flora was accompanied by the northern
mammals, including the reindeer, &c. Later in
the period, as the climate became more genial, the
northern flora and fauna disappeared from the low
grounds of temperate Europe, and the present plants
and animals took their place. Of the more notable
mammals of the period in Britain were Megaceros
(Irish deer), Bos primigenius, and Bos longifrons.
The oldest traces of man met with at this stage
belong to the Neolithic phase.
Several geographical and climatic changes appear
to have supervened in postglacial and recent times.
After the Scandinavian flora and fauna had been
succeeded in our area by the present assemblage of
lants and animals, the climate appears to have
come even more genial than it is in our day.
Great forests spread far north into regions where
trees do not now grow, and reached elevations on
the mountains which they cannot now attain. At
the same time many southern types of molluscs
See DEMONOLOGY,
346 POST-HORN
POST-OFFICE
migrated into northern seas, some of which have
since died out, or still survive in diminished num-
bers and dwarfed in size. To this genial ms
belong the t oaks and other leafy trees in the
lower buried forests of the bogs. Eventnally the
climate changed and became wet and cold. The
British area, formerly continental, was insulated
and of less extent than now—the sea overflowing
the low ground of Scotland up to a height of 45 to
50 feet above its present level. Local glaciers then
made their appearance in many mountain-glens,
and even descended in some places to the sea. The
‘carse-clays’ (45-50 feet terrace) belong to this
stage. The climate was not so favourable for the
growth of t trees, which were now more re-
stricted in their vertical and horizontal range. Over
wide areas the forests decayed and became buried
by mosses and their allies. The general occurrence
out north-western Europe of a second well-
marked ‘ buried forest’ seems to indicate a return
to more genial climatic conditions, giving rise to a
second period of t forests, which gradually over-
spread much of the moory and waste lands. Coin-
dent with this second forest-epoch there be tay
to have been a gain of land, at least in Scotland,
but there is no evidence to show that Britain again
became continental. The second forest-epoch was
succeeded as the first had been by somewhat cold
and wet conditions, under the iniluence of which
the forests decayed, while swamps and morasses
increased. At the same time the Scottish area
became depressed for some 25 feet or ,thereabout
below its present level. The last physical change
of which there is clear evidence is the final retreat
of the sea, while the general aspect of the bogs (in
which the rate of decay exceeds that of growth)
would seem to indicate that we are living under
drier conditions than obtained when the second
forest-epoch came to a close. See EUROPE, STONE
AGE.
Post-horn. See Horn.
Posting, the forwarding of passengers from
lace to place by means of relays of horses. Post-
was long in Britain, as it is yet in some parts
of the Continent, a government monopoly. See
PoOsT-OFFICE.
Post-mortem Examination, Examination
of the body after death is a duty which has fre-
quently to be discharged by medical men in
various circumstances, of which the most import-
ant are (1) cases of sudden or accidental death ;
(2) cases of lingering illness, in which the nature
of the disease had not been determined during life ;
and (3) cases of suspected suicide or homicide.
Such examinations cannot legally be undertaken
until twenty-four hours have elapsed after death,
and permission or warrant must be obtained for
the performance of the examination. In ordinary
cases where the examination is necessary or advis-
able for the pu of throwing light upon the
nature of the fatal illness, and where no judicial
question is involved, the consent of the parents,
relatives, or guardians must be procured. In
medico-legal cases the order of the coroner (in
England) or of the procurator-fiseal (in Scotland
is essential. In such cases the examination shoul
always be performed by two medical men, one of
whom, it is desirable, should be an expert. In all
cases the position of the body and of the surround-
ing objects should be carefully noted, as they often
throw light upon the cause of death. The external
appearances of the body, such as the presence of
rigidity and of putrefactive changes, should be
observed, as affording a certain clue to the period
at which death occurred. In medico-legal autop-
sies every 0 in the body should be careful
oan he onl its condition briefly but ooourahely
noted. A careful microscopic examination should
follow if there be the least doubt as to the nature
of the diseased condition present. Finally, in cases
of sus: poisoning portions of the organs must
be subjected to chemical analysis. The study of
the changes wrought in the various organs by
disease has been one of the most. potent factors in
advancing scientific medicine.
Post-nuptial Contract, See Huspanp AND
WIFE, SETTLEMENT.
_ Post-obit (Lat. post obitum, ‘after death’)
is a bond or security given by heirs and others
entitled to reversionary interests, whereby, in con-
sideration of a sum of money presently advanced,
the debtor binds himself to pay a much
sum after the death of some person, or of him-
self. Whenever, as is not unusual, the payment
is uncertain, and depends on the obliger out! Jing
somebody else, very high interest is required,
or rather a very much larger sum is agreed to be
repaid than what is advanced. These are generally
usurious bargains; but the obligee or tor can
enforce payment = pre amount; toe eegortan there
is a gross case of inadequacy in the
amounting to fraud, Scouts pr Aer will interfere.
Post-office, (1) a government department
whose chief business it Po to convey letters from
place to pees and (2) any office or agency ap-
pointed by that department for the cig pe
despatch, or yar siget of sca ee etter
conveyance is the primary wor the post-offi
many other Paes of business have been cactinad
by it. The word post is derived from the Latin
itus, meaning ‘placed,’ ‘fixed,’ and comes to
ave its particular application from the posts, or
stages, at which on the roads of the Roman empire
couriers were maintained for the purpose of convey-
ing news and despatches. Herodotus mentions
that a system of couriers existed in the Persian
empire ; and Xenophon states that post-stations or
houses were established by King ona Mareo
Polo describes a similar system existing in China
in the 13th century, the stations being only
three miles apart, thus securing great rapidity of
communication. Among the ancient Aztecs in
Mexico a complete system of couriers was likewise
maintained, the stations being about two leagues
apart, and providing a rapid means of communica-
tion by foot-messengers. In all these cases the
posts seem to have been set up for government
service only,
The first letter-post in the modern acceptation of
the word seems to have been established in the
Hanse towns in the early part of the 13th century.
A line of letter-posts followed, connecting Austite
and Lombardy, in the reign of the Emperor Maxi-
milian, which are said to have been o} by
the princes of Thurn and Taxis; and the repre-
sentatives of the same house established another
line of posts from Vienna to Brussels, connecting
the most distant parts of the dominions of Charles
V. The family of Thurn and Taxis continued to
enjoy certain poses in connection with these
posts down to 1867, when they were ceded by treat:
to the Prussian state, and have since been assum
by the German empire.
In England in early times both public and
private letters were sent by special er
only ; later on they were ch gee conveyed by
common carriers plying with their pack-horses,
In the reign of Edward [ ‘ posts’ were established
where horses could be had for hire by messengers
eyeing the royal livery; and in the reign of
Edward II. horses were kept by private persons for
hire, so that private messengers might travel
‘post.’ In 1481, when Edw: IV. was at war
th Scotland, a system of relays of horses was
POST-OFFICE
347
established in the north (probably from York to
Edinburgh) in order to provide the king with the
latest news in hiscamp. This arrangement, how-
ever, ceased on the restoration of peace. In 1548
the charge for post-horses impressed for govern-
ment service was fixed by statute at a DP rs a
mile. Camden mentions the office of ‘ Master of
the Postes’ as existing in 1581; but the duties of
the ‘ Master’ were probably confined to the supply-
ing of post-horses. The foreign or alien merchants
in London established a post-office of their own
from London to the outports in the year 1514,
appointing their own postmasters ; but dissensions
occurred among them, and the matter was referred
to the government in 1568. At this time also the
English merchants complained of unfair treatment
by the foreign-post ; and the consequence was that
@ government set up a post-office for letters to
foreign countries for the benefit of the English
merchants. The first inland post was established
by Charles I., who in his proclamation of 1635
refers to the uncertainty of communication between
England and Scotland. The proclamation thus
proceeds : ‘ Wherefore, he now commands his Post-
master of England for foreign parts to settle a
running post or two, to run night and day between
Edinbu and London, to go thither and come
back n in six days, and to take with them all
such letters as shall be directed to any post-town
in or near that road.’ At the same time by-posts
were to be connected with the principal towns
lying off the main line of posts. In 1 a pro-
Papen prohibited any messengers or foot-posts
to carry letters other bap perigee cape: ri) be
king’s postmaster-general, with certain speci
exceptions. This Telcad t was sisend: Sale
the charge of Thomas Witherings, who, with
William Frizell, had been entrusted with the
English post for foreign letters from the year 1632.
In 1640, in consequence of irregularities, Wither-
ings was superseded in his office, which was then
entrusted to Philip Burlamachi. Eight main
postal lines throughout England were at this
poo set up. The rates of pootnes for a single
letter were as follows: not exceeding a distance
i 2d.; 140 miles, 4d.; for any ter
distance in England, 6d.; to Scotland, In
1649, in the time of the Commonwealth, the court
of Common Council for London set up a post in
rivalry with that of the parliament; but the
Commons promptly put an end to the undertaking.
Material were effected in the post-office by
Cromwell and his parliament in 1657, and an
ordinance bearing on the subject furnishes a motive
for the establishment of posts—‘that they will be
the best means to discover and prevent many
d rous and wicked designs against the Common-
wealth.’ At the Restoration the settlement of the
post-office made during the Commonwealth was
confirmed, and its substance was re-enacted by
statute 12 Carolus II. chap. 35, which act, being
the first strictly legal authority for the establish-
ment of the post-office, has always been looked
upon as its charter. Although in 1635 something
was done towards establishi between
England and Scotland, little was attempted as
a internal communication in Scotland till
1695, when the Scotch parliament passed an act
for the general establishment of a letter-post. In
1683 an upholsterer named Robert Murray set up a
penny poss for the conveyance of letters and small
parcels about London, which business was sub-
pesoently igned to Thomas Dockwra. This under-
taking was, however, seized by the government
as an infringement of its privileges, and
Dockwra was granted a pension of £200 a year
by way of compensation. This system was the
commencement of the London Postal District
service, and Dockwra was afterwards appointed
its controller. About the year 1700 robberies
of the posts were so frequent in the neigh-
bourhood of the Borders that acts were passed
by the Seotch and English parliaments making
robbery of the post punishable with death and con-
fiscation. In 1708 a Mr Povey attempted to set
up a halfpenny post in London ; but this was sup-
pressed as the result of a lawsuit at the instance of
the government. By a statute passed in 1710 the
post-office was remodelled, a general post-office for
the three kingdoms and the colonies being estab-
lished under ‘Her Majesty’s Postmaster-general.’
This officer was empowered to keep one chief letter-
office in London, one in Edinburgh, one in Dublin,
one in New York, and one in the West Indies.
The Irish parliament in 1784 passed an act, givin:
the Irish post-office a separate existence, ana
creating an independent postmaster-general ; but
the offices were again united under the British
postmaster-general in 1831. In the year 1776 a
pene post for Edinburgh and Leith was set up
eter Williamson, and carried on until about
1792, when it was absorbed by the General Post-
office. In 1720 Ralph Allen (1694-1764) obtained a
lease for life of the cross-posts at a rent of £6000 a
tly and so greatly did he improve the revenue
rom this source that he realised an annual profit of
£12,000, which he lived to enjoy for forty-four
years.
The institution of mail-coaches os COACHING )
marks a very important period in the history of the
t-office. Their introduction is due to Mr John
‘almer, manager of the theatre at Bath, who sub-
mitted his scheme to Mr Pitt in 1783. In order
to carry out his plan Mr Palmer was appointed Con-
troller to the General Post-otfice, with a salary of
£1500 a year and 2) per. cent. on any excess of
revenue over £240, a year. The running of
mail-eoaches commenced in 1784, the plan being
carried out, like the later t scheme of Sir Row-
land Hill, in the face of vehement oj ponies on the
part of officers of the post-office. e new method
of conveyance, however, proved most successful,
both on account of greater safety to the mails, and
acceleration of the correspondence. In 1792 Mr
Palmer was suspended from his office, an allowance
of £3000 a year being made to him in lien thereof ;
bunt after a long struggle with the Treasury par-
liament in 1813 made him a grant of £50,000. The
mail-coach era may be said to have covered a
period of sixty years, during which time the great
road engineers so improved the highways that the
peed § the coaches was increased from about six
to fully ten miles an hour. Mails were first sent
by railway in 1830 over the line between Liverpool
and Manchester.
In order of time the next great feature in the
history of the post-office is the uniform penny
tage scheme of Mr (afterwards Sir) Rowland
Pill (q.v.). He suggested his plan of reform. in
1837. It evoked strong opposition within the post-
office and from a section of the public without ;
but it was eventually adopted by a majority of
100 in the House of Commons, and the scheme was
launched on the 10th January 1840. Immediately
rior to that date the inland postage rates were as
ollows for an ordinary single letter :
From any t-office to any place not exceeding 15 miles
from such post-Offce,....... 0.0. .scccceveesesessaeescees 4d,
Above 15 miles and under 20 miles....................45 5d.
Ly " " . 6d.
" 30 " 50 on . Td.
" 50 " 80 . 8d.
" 80 " 120 . 9d.
" 120 ” 170 " .10d.
« 170 " 230 -lld,
« «230 " 300 12d.
For every additional 100 miles
cone dds
and for every letter carried over the Borders an additional $d.
348
POST-OFFICE
The extra halfpenny was charged as an indemnity
for toll dues from which, by the Act 53 of Geo. IIL,
1813, mail conveyances in Scotland having more
than two wheels were not exempt. These were
the initial rates payable for single letters—ie.
letters written u single sheets. If a letter
contained an enclosure the letter became a double
letter, and double postage was claimed. For a
letter weighing an ounce the charge was quad-
rupled, quarter of an ounce in addition
ded an additional rate to the age om Under
the uniform penny postage scheme the postage
was levied according to weight, commencing with
a penny for a letter not exceeding half an ounce,
and a penny for every additional half oance,
tive of distance within the kingdom which
the letter had to be conveyed. The uniformit;
of rate as distance has been maintain
till the present day, though the Rowland Hill
scale has altered. Thus, in 1871 the initial
half ounce letter ceased (as inland letters),
and the scale became as follows: Not exceedin
1 oz., 1d.; not exceeding 2 0z., 14d.; not ex :
ing 4 oz, 2d., and 4d. for every 2 oz. up to 12
oz.; 1d. being charged for each additional ounce.
In 1885 this com ively heavy charge over 12 oz.
was removed. The privilege of Franking Letters
(9-7) enjoyed by members of parliament till 1840,
which was a t loss to the revenue, on
the introduction of the uniform penny postage.
Envelopes were introduced, bearing a revenue
stamp or mark for postage, and known as the
Mulready envelopes, from the name of the artist
who prepared the d ; but the public would
not take to them, and their issue was discontinued.
Postage-stamps were, however, introduced at this
a oe — agers to ne used. The
‘ollowing figures show to what extent cheap pos
has stimulated the correspondence of re dea
In 1839 the number of letters passing through the
post, including franked letters, was 82,500,000 ;
in 1840 the number at once rose to 169,000,000 ;
and in 1890 the number was no less than
1,650,200,000. In addition to this mass of written
matter, besides 217,100,000 t-cards, the follow-
ing articles through the post in 1890: Book-
kets and circulars, 441,900,000; newspapers,
59,300,000. For some years after the introduction
of Rowland Hill’s scheme there was a deficit in the
post-office revenue, but this was soon covered by
the rapid eats of business, and for many years
the post-office has -y in large yearly profits to
the ury. In 1890 the gross revenue from all
branches of post-office business was £12,211,614;
the expenditure, £8,865,527 ; and the net revenu
£3,346,087. H ny pos' is were introdu
in October 1870, and the penny pos upon news-
noe was reduced to 4d. In 1898 2,012,300,000
etters were posted ; post-cards, 360,400,000; book
kets and circulars, 727,300,000; newspapers,
50,900,000 ; parcels, 67,823,000. The revenue for
the year was £12,420,376, and the expenditure
£3,659,713, giving a profit of £3,918,614. Intheend
of 1898 penny postage was introduced throughout
the British Empire, except Australasia and the
Seg and one or two minor ions.
rom 1891 the railway companies were em-
erat to convey single letters for the public,
tween their stations, on behalf of the post-office,
og the letters do not exceed 1 oz. in weight.
uch letters must bear a postage-stamp of the
value of ld., which goes to the revenue, and a
railway stamp of the value of 2d., which goes to
the companies as payment for conveyance.
In March 1891 a system of express delivery for
letters and parcels was established in London and
certain of the more important towns in the king-
dom; and shortly thereafter it was made general
throughout the country. The delivery is effected
by means of the messenger force employed in the
egraph service. When railway, omnibus, or
tramear conveyance only is used by the messenger,
the fee, in addition to the ordinary postage, is two-
pence the first mile, and th for each
additional mile. Higher fees are c for cal»
conveyance.
Postal Union.—Under the terms of a con-
cluded at Berne on the 9th October 1874, the
object of which was to secure ee in the
treatment of correspondence, and the simplification
of accounts, as well as the reduction of rates within
certain limits, and whose provisions were carrie
into operation aggre: S397 the Ist July 1875, the
whole of Europe, the United States of America,
Egypt, British India, and all the colonies of
France were at the outset, or shortly thereafter,
included in the Union, and many other countries
and colonies have since joined it. The rates of
so to the several states concerned will be
ound set forth in the British Post-office Guide.
The international accounts in — of postages
are upon a month’s return of correspondence
taken every third year. The rates of postage to
Great Britain are not always the same as those
i Great Britain, each country having a certain
imited discretion in fixing rates.
Registered Letters.—In 1779 the postmaster-
eneral issued an order that postmasters should
issuade the public from sending letters by
containing cash in gold or silver, rings, or ets,
&c.; but this order was rescinded in 1792. At the
same time tmasters were —— to
accept such letters; but before placing them in the
mail- they were required to copy the addresses
of the letters on the front of the letter bill and to
tie the letters up with the bill. This mode of
giving grea security to letters of value seems to
ave been the initial stage in the development of
the registered letter system. The modern plan of
registration is based on the a that every
registered letter must be si for in passing from
hand to hand; and, although the postmaster-general
gives guarantee (under special conditions) to but a
comparatively small amount, the system affords
almost abectets security of transmission. The
number of letters registered in the United King-
dom in 1890 Fats” a ast xe fee for inland
registration, ition to the ordinary tage,
had for many years been fixed at twonene’ but
on the Ist June 1891 a combined system of regis-
tration and insurance was introduced for letters
and parcels, with fees ranging from twopence to
sixpence, and a maximum insurance of S
Toney Orders.—In the year 1792, by permission
b
of the postmaster-general, some hall Sore clerks
who had charge of the ‘country roads,’ or despatch-
ing divisions, in the London General Post-office
set up a system of remittances for epee to and
from the post-offices in England and chief post-
offices in Edinburgh and Dublin, the pagene on!
at these places acting as agents in scheme.
This was the origin of the money-order system,
which for a long period was carried on by the clerks
on their own account. It was not till the year 1838
that it became a recognised branch of the post-
office establishment. In the earlier years the rates
of commission were very high, thus preventing any
extensive development of the business, but for |
many years the charges have been, es| ly for
small amounts, on a very moderate scale, In the
period from 1859 till the present time the money-
order system has been extended to a great many of
the colonies and to foreign countries, and every year
further extensions are being made. In 1890 the
number of money-order offices in the United King-
dom was 9437. The amount of business done
POST-OFFICE
349
that year was as follows: Inland orders, 9,027,750,
£23,333,417 ; colonial orders, 453,102, £1,631,616 ;
foreign orders, 893,292, £2,200,872
Postal Orders.—In pursuance of the reeommenda-
tions of a committee appointed by the Treasury, of
which the late Mr George Moore, the philanthropist,
was chairman, the transmission of money by means
of postal orders was put into operation on the Ist
January 1881. This simple method of remitting
small sums of money has grown eoely in publie
favour, and each year adds largely to the amount
of business done. In 1890 the total number of
orders issued was 44,712,548, representing an aggre-
gate value of £17,737,802, 4s.
Post-office Savings-banks.—By Act 24 Vict. chap.
19, a system of savings-banks in connection wit
the post-office was established in 1861, affording
great facilities for thrift to the industrial classes
and to young le. -The rate of interest payable
to depositors per cent., calculated u com-
plete pounds remaining with the post-office com-
plete months. No single depositor may deposit
more than in any one year. The number of
offices opened for savings-bank business up to
the 3lst March 1862 was 2532, while on the 31st
December 1889 the number open was 9353. In this
latter year the d its numbered 8,101,120, amount-
ing to £19,814,308, and the withdrawals were
2,757,848, amounting to £16,814,268. On the 31st
December 1889 a total amount, including interest,
remained to the credit of depositors of £62,999,620.
The interest credited to depositors for the year was
no less than £1,443,186. The post-office savings-
bank is largely used by friendly societies, provident
institutions, and penny banks as a safe place of
deposit for their funds. Since 1880 depositors have
been enabled to invest their savings in government
stocks with little or no trouble. On the 3lst De-
cember 1889 the total amount of stock so held was
£4,175,634, distributed over 46,993 persons. Under
regulations of 1888 the minimum amount of stock
rehasable was reduced from £10 to ls. See
AVINGS-BANKS.
Government Insurances and Annuities.—An Act
27 and 28 Vict. chap. 43, 1864, empowered the post-
master-general to t life-insurance policies and
annuities within certain limited amounts ; and the
scheme was brought into operation on the 16th
April 1865. These branches of business have not
developed beyond very narrow limits, and, in so far
as the scheme may have been devised to make life
insurance and the buying annuities on the part of
the less well-to-do more general, the attempt has
hitherto proved a failure.
Pps ¢ es teh back wv bitemcrad
of conveying telegraphic messages for the ic
was in the hands of several rival telegraph com:
ies and the railway companies; but by the Act
I and 32 Vict. chap. 110, 1868, the postmaster-
neral was authorised to acquire, work, and main-
in electric telegraphs; and by Act 32 and 33
Vict. chap. 73 he acquired (with certain exceptions)
the exclusive privilege of sending telegraphic mes-
sages within the kingdom. The nalaal toanafor of
the working system took place on the 5th February
1870. The tariff was, like the inland pos x
uniform tariff within the United Kingdom, the
minimum charge being 1s. for twenty words, with
free addresses. In the first complete year of the
new management (1870-71) the total number of
telegrams of all classes transmitted was 9,850,177.
On the Ist October 1885 the minimum charge for
a telegram was reduced to 6d. for twelve words,
addresses ceasing to be sent free. In the year
1889-90 the number of messages transmitted was
62,403,399. The total sum laid out as capital in
connection with the purchase of the telegraphs was
£10,880,571 ; and the annual interest on this sum,
amounting to £299,216, is not borne on the post-
office votes. In the year 1898 the number of tele-
pe was 68,810,786, and the revenue, £2,130,973.
e number of offices for postal telegraph business
in 1898 was 8175 (see TELEGRAPH). The post-office
had also in 1899 53,000 miles of telephone trunk-
— and connections with — National Telephone
"s exc! See LELEPHONE),
Parcel’ Post.—This the most rion of the
greater undertakings entered into by the post-
office. By the Post-office (Parcels) Act, 1882 (45
and 46 Vict. chap. 74), the post-office was em-
—— to convey parcels by post on different con-
itions from ordinary postal kets ; the remuner-
ation to the railway companies for the conveyance
of the parcels in bulk being fixed at eleven-twen-
tieths of the gross inland postage received for the
oer the post-office performing all duties of col-
ection and delivery. This business was entered
upon by the post-office on the Ist August 1883, the
parcels conveyed being exclusively inland parcels.
At the outset the maximum weight of a parcel was
fixed at 7 lb. On the Ist May 1 the maximum
weight — “yee to ll os = eae
in the eo) tage, the charge for a parcel of 11
Ib. being eet go Is. 6d. In the first pear of the
peeseh-zert the number of parcels transmitted was
upw of 22,900,000. On the Ist July 1885 parcel
business was extended to certain of the colonies and
to foreign countries, and from year to year this con-
nection with places abroad becomes more widely
extended. In the year ended 31st March 1890 the
total number of parcels of all kinds delivered in
the United Kingdom was 42,852,570, the gross
upon which was £952,113. This vast
system of parcel carriage is said not to have
a to any very considerable extent the
parcels business of the railway companies, and
consequently it must be held to be a new con-
venience created for the public, the value of which
it is impossible to estimate.
Inland Revenue Licenses.—Through the medium
of the post-office the inland revenue department
finds a ready means of issuing a great variety of
licenses throughout the country. In the year
ended the 3lst March 1890 the number of licenses
so distributed was 1,518,136, representing a sum
of £908,163.
Mail-packet Service.—Occasional reference is
made in old writings, and in official records, to the
employment of vessels called packets, for the con-
veyance of the mails, but there seems hardly any
continuous account of the services Legge by
those vessels. In the time of Charles I. kets
between Dublin and Chester, and between Milford
Haven and Waterford, en ie be government des-
patches, and in 1639 one Nicholas Herbert agreed
to have his barque in readiness at Whitehaven,
‘with one sufficient master, and other meet and
able sailors,’ to carry letters for His Majesty or
the council at Dublin for £10 per lunar month. It
would seem that for some time anterior to 1788 the
packets belonged either to the crown, to members
of the post-office staff, or to their friends, for in
that year a commission upon fees of public offices
recommended that this system should be aban-
doned, and that contracts should be obtained by
ublic advertisement. The recommendation was,
owever, only partially acted upon at that time,
and no publie contracts were entered into, appar-
ently, until after 1837, at which period the packet
service was placed under the management of the
Admiralty. Another committee in 1848 strongly
urged an extension of the contract system, and a
similar recommendation was made by Lord Can-
ning’s Committee of Inquiry into packet-contracts
in 1853. This committee also recommended that
the stipulation as to the arming of the packets
350
POST-OFFICE
should be omitted in future contracts, and the
committee's views in this matter were then given
effect to, The mail-packet contract business re-
mained in the hands of the Admiralty till the Ist
April 1860, when the whole management was taken
over by the post-office. In order to establish rapid-
ity and regularity of service, it has been necessary
from time to time to grant vast subsidies to the
mail-packet contractors, in those cases where the
exigencies of trade had not secured these condi-
tions; but the growth of commerce and greater
competition have enabled the post-oflice in many
cases to obtain easier terms. At the close of the
17th century a mail-packet was a vessel ef some
85 tons, and in the last ze of the 18th century
a mail-packet on the Falmouth station, reckoned
fit to proceed to any part of the world, was one of
about 179 tons. The packets at this time sailing
to and from the Continent were of about 70 tons
burthen. About 1840 packets performing the
American service were vessels of about 400 or 500
tons burthen. Steam-vessels were first employed
in the packet service in 1821, since which time
vast strides have been made both in the s
and carrying capacity of these ships. The British
mail- kets are to be seen in almost every sea on
the globe. For the Atlantic service steamers of
from 7000 to 10,000 tons are employed, making the
transit from shore to shore in six days. So late as
1829 the time allowed for a ket trip to and
from America was 105 days. e contract services
at home are very numerous, and those to foreign
stations are almost co-extensive with the high seas.
In the year 1889-90 the total payment made by
the post-office for ket services was £665,375,
full details of which will be found in the post-
master-general's annual report.
Rates and ulations.—In the scope of an
article like this it is impossible to review the past
rates of postage and changes of regulations that
have taken place from time to time. The con-
ditions applicable to the business in relation to the
public will be found fully set forth in the Post-
office Guide, which may be consulted at any post-
office, and to which the reader is referred.
Staf.—The highest authority in the post-office
is the postmaster-general. This official is a mem-
ber of the government, a privy-councillor, and
sometimes a cabinet minister. All important
measures of administration, appointments of officers,
and dismissals are under the authority of
the postmaster-general in the form of minutes.
The chief permanent officials are: the secretary,
a financial secretary, four other secretaries in
London, a surveyor-general in Scotland, and a
secretary in Ireland. The several secretaries under
the first secretary take charge of separate branches
of post-office business. Another important officer
is the receiver and accountant general. This
officer is responsible for the whole vast accounting
work of the post-office, the collection of its revenue,
and the distribution of its expenditure. He has
no power, however, except by eflecting economies of
work or reforms of method, to reduce the latter or
to increase the former. The bases of revenue and
expenditure are fixed by higher authority. The
total number of persons employed by the post-office
(1890) is 113,550. Of these 61,054 are established
officers, and 52,496 unestablished and persons not
giving their whole time to post-office work. The
total number of = comprises 89,373 males
and 24,177 females, 1¢ salary of the postmaster-
general is £2509 per annum, and of the chief-
secretary a maximum of £2000. On a change of
government the postmaster-general demits his
Espionage of Letters.—The post-office statute of
Queen Anne contains a prohibition, repeated in
subsequent acts, t letters being opened or
detained by persons in the service of the post-o
except under a warrant from one of the princi
secretaries of state. During the 18th century
such warrants were often granted upon very trivial
pretexts. At Bishop Atterbury’s trial in 1723
copies of his letters, intercepted in the post, were
produced as evidence against him; and it would
seem that about 1735 a system was kept up at
immense expense for the examination of home and
foreign correspondence. In 1782 the correspond-
ence of Lord Temple, then lord-lieutenant of
Ireland, was subjected to such treatment in the
post. The 19th century brought a change for
the better in this respect, and in 1806 Lord Spencer
initiated the custom of recording the dates of all
warrants granted, and ark era upon which
they were issued. Since 1 the warrants have
been preserved at the Home Office; and a House
of Commons return in 1853 shows that, in the pre-
ceding ten years, only six letters were detained
and opened—four in cases of felony. When Sir
James Graham (q.v.) was Home Secre' in 1844
a@ warrant was issued for the arrest and opening
of the letters of Mazzini, the matter contained in
them being conveyed to the Austrian minister.
This act involved the government of the day in
serious public obloquy, and produced a wid ‘:
though groundless, distrust in the security of the
ordinary correspondence of the country. It may
safely held that this power of opening letters
in the post has been very rarely exercised in recent
years.
Dead-letter, or Returned-letter Office.—A depart-
ment of the post-office appointed to deal with
letters, books, newspapers, &c. which cannot be
delivered to the persons to whom they are directed.
When a letter or other postal packet is refused at
the address which it bears it is kept by the post-
master, if an inland letter, &c., one day, and if a
colonial or foreign letter, &c., three days, before
being sent to the returned-letter office. Inland
letters are here opened, and those which contain
the writers’ addresses are at once returned to them ;
while those which furnish no indication of the
addresses of the senders, and contain noth of
value, are at once destroyed, Letters which
the senders’ addresses on the outside, in the form
of medallion or otherwise, are, however, mee
returned without being opened. Foreign
colonial letters, after being retained from one
week to one month, are returned unopened to the
country of origin for disposal. A register is kept
of letters found to contain value. In the year
1889-90 the following numbers of articles were
received in the various offices constituting this
department : letters, 6,311,102; post-cards, 841,076;
book-packets (including circular-letters passing at
book-post rates), 6,661,201 ; newspapers, 551,022 ;
patterns or samples, 27,486 ; Is, 107,863. Of
the letters 119,386 were re-issued to corrected
addresses, and 5,539,551 returned to the senders,
while 214,839 were returned unopened to fore
countries, Of the total parcels received 81,277
were either re-issued to corrected addresses or
returned to the senders. The returned-letter
ere has not only principal offices in London,
inburgh, and Dublin, but branch offices in the
other more important towns.
Offences against the Post-office.—In view of
the vastly important services rendered to the
public by the post-office, involving the imposition
of great responsibility upon its officers, and of
the necessity which obviously exists for the pro-
tection of the revenue (the conveyance of letters
being a state monopoly), the legislature have
thought fit to pass special enactments for the
regulation of the one and the saf of the
—_— "=
POST-OFFICE 351
other. In addition, enactments have been passed
from time to time bearing npon: the other branches
of post-office business. The following are some of
the offences ised in the enactments : Every
person employed by or under the post-office who
secretes, or destroys a post-letter is guilty
of felony, and if it contain a chattel or money the
nishment is increased. Strangers also who steal
tters or other postal packets out of the custody
of the post-office or its officers are likewise guilty
of felony, and similarly punishable; and a person
who fraudulently retains or wilfully keeps or detains
a letter or other postal packet delivered to him by
mistake, or which having been lost in course of con-
veyance he may have found, is punishable by fine
and imprisonment. The moment a letter or other
re packet is put into the post-office, or is
ielivered to a person authorised to receive such
missives for the post, the protection of the statutes
commences, and it ceases on the letter or packet
being delivered at the place of its address. Ifa
postman delay the delivery wilfully, or if an officer
of the post-office disclose or intercept or wilfully
delay a tel hic m , he commits a mis-
demeanour, ivers of post-letters or their
contents stolen or taken from the post-office are
guilty of felony. By the 1 Vict. chap. 36 sect. 2,
any person sending or conveying otherwise than by
post letters or packets not exempted from the
exclusive privilege of the postmaster-general, or
peers otherwise than by the post any services
cidental to conveying letters or kets from
place to place, is liable to a penalty of £5 for every
such letter or packet. This exclusive privilege or
montpaly does not extend to newspapers. re
are, however, exceptions to the general rule as
regards letters or packets. Thus, a letter may be
conveyed by a private friend and not by the post-
office. sent by messengers on purpose, on
the private affairs of the sender or receiver, com-
missions and legal writs, letters of merchants sent
their own vessels or along with goods to which
relate, are likewise excepted. But no person
is permitted even to collect these excepted letters
for gg agg of sending them in the manner
described, for this is in ringing the exclusive
privilege of the post-oflice. oreover, certain
— are expressly prcriie’ from earrying
etters even gratuitously—viz. common carriers,
unless the letters relate to goods in their carts or
wagons ; owners, masters or commanders of ships,
except letters of the owners of the ships or such as
relate to goods on board; and passengers or other
persons on board ships,
By statute the transmission of telegrams within
the United Kingdom is secured to the postmaster-
general as a monopoly, and telegrams enjoy many
of the protective privileges applicable to post-
letters. The postmaster-general has power to
arrest in the post any missive bearing thereon any
words, marks, or desi of an indecent, obscene,
or grossly offensive character. Under the Post-
office (Money Orders) Acts, 1848 to 1883, an officer
of the post-office who with a fraudulent intent
issues a money order or postal order, or re-issues
a postal order previously paid, is liable to penal
servitude not exceeding seven years; and any
person who forges an order, or utters a forged
order, is liable to penal servitude for a longer term.
An officer of the post-office who frandulently em-
les or misappropriates moneys or securities
entrusted to or received by him virtue of his
employment is liable to penal servitude not exceed-
fourteen years.
y 43 and 44 Vict. chap. 33, sect. 3, any n
who, with intent to defraud, obliterates, Y das to, ‘|
or alters any such lines or words on a postal order
as would, in the case of a cheque, be @ crossing of
that cheque, or knowingly offers, utters, or dis
of any order, with such fraudulent obliteration,
addition, or alteration, is guilty of a felony, and is
liable to the like punishment as if the order were a
cheque. By the Act 45 and 46 Vict. chap. 74, relat-
ing to the parcel post, that act is to be deemed to
be a post-office act within the meaning of the Post-
office (Offences) Act, 1837 (1 Vict. chap. 36), and
subject to its ee. The score _
apply to parcels in like manner as they apply to
olher _— kets. Act 47 and 48 Vict. chap. 76
—the Post-oftice ( Protection ) Act, 1884—deals with
a variety of offences under the following heads:
prohibition of placing injurious substances in or
against post-office letter-boxes ; prohibition of send-
ing by post explosive, dangerous, or deleterious
substances, or indecent prints, words, &c.; pro-
hibition of affixing placards, notices, &c. on a
post-office, letter-box, or other post-office pro-
perty; prohibition of imitation of post-office stamps,
envelopes, cards, forms, and marks; prohibition of
fictitious stamps ; prohibition of false notice imply-
ing that any place is a post-office, postal ps han
: ce or post-office letter-box ; obstruction of officers
of the
office or of business in a post-office ; re-
taining of clothin,
by officers of the post-office on
ceasing to be officers; forgery and improper dis-
closure of tel Contraventions of these pro-
hibitions entail penalties generally ranging from
twelve months’ imprisonment with hard labour, or
a fine of £200, to fines not exceeding forty shillings.
Foreign Post-office Systems.—The advantages of
the post are now enjoyed, in a greater or less
degree, by all civilised countries; and the several
systems bear in their main features a general
resemblance to the British system, upon which, in
many cases, they have been modelled. At the
same time details of marked difference may be
observed, each country having adapted its system
to its own particular wants. Thus, in certain
countries subscriptions to the newspapers and
accounts for merchandise are collected by the post-
office ; the parcel post conveys larger and heavier
articles than are conveyed in Great Britain; a
system of sending through the post letters of
eclared value is in force in some; and a different
means is employed for transferring mails to and
from mail trains while running. Besides this, the
classification of postal matter in regard to rates of
postage is not uniform. The amount of matter
conveyed through the post between Great Britain
and certain foreign countries is enormous—e.g. the
ave: number of sacks of mails despatched
weekly in 1890 from Britain to the United States
was 1200, and to the Australian colonies 410.
United States.—The beginnings of a postal ser-
vice in the United States date from 1639, when a
house in Boston was employed for the receipt and
delivery of letters for or from beyond the seas. In
1672 the government of New York colony estal)-
lished ‘a post to goe monthly from New York to
Boston ;’ in 1702 it was changed to a fortnightly
one. A general post-office was established and
erected in Virginia in 1692, and in Philadelphia
in 1693. A deputy postmaster-general for America
was appointed in 1692 ; and by act of parliament
in 1710 (see p. 347) he was directed to keep his
principal office in New York, ‘and other chief
offices in some convenient place or places in other
of Her Majesty’s provinces or colonies in America ;”
a monopoly was established which included also the
transport of travellers, and a tariff was fixed. The
system, however, proved a failure, until 1753, when
njamin Franklin became gy Fg arg
when he was removed from office in 1774 the net
revenue exceeded £3000.
In 1789, when the post-office was transferred to
the new federal government, the number of offices
POTASSIUM
352 POST-TERTIARY
in the thirteen states was only about seventy-five.
A conspectus of the remarkable p n the
ensuing century is supplied in the table below.
Outstanding events in the history of the American
postal service have been the negotiation of a postal
treaty with England (1846); the introduction of
postage-stamps (1847), of stamped envelopes (1852),
of the system of registering letters (1855); the
establishment of the free-delivery system, and of
the travelling post-office system (1863); the intro-
duction of the money-order system (1864), of
tal cards (1873), and, between the last two
tes, of stamped newspaper-wrappers, and of
envelopes bearing requests for the retwen of the
enclosed letter to the writer in case of non-delivery ;
the formation of the Universal Postal Union (1873);
the issue of ‘ postal notes’ payable to bearer (1883);
and the establishment of a oe delivery system
(1885), under which letters bearing an extra ten-
cent stamp are delivered by special messengers
immediately on arrival at the post-office of destina-
tion. Later p is found in the rapidly-growing
system of free rural delivery, and in the exten-
sion (1900) of domestic rates to the island posses-
sions. The Ss pre neg eer is a member of the
cabinet. Under him about 100,000 persons are
employed, of whom some 60,000 are postinasters.
Most of these, except letter-carriers and clerks,
are liable to be removed on the accession to federal
office of a new political y. The following table
shows the increase, during the first century of the
department’s history, in offices, length of mail
routes in miles, revenue, &c., with figures for 1898.
Miles, Revenue. Expenditure,
1875 $37,935 $32,140
20,817 280,804 213,994
406 552,366 495,969
492 1,111,927 1,160,026
115,176 1,850,583 1,932,708
155,739 4,543,522 4,718 236
178,672 5,552,971 5,212,953
240,954 8,518,067 —-19,170.610
231,282 19,772,221 23,998,837
343,883 88,315,479 86,542, 80'
427,990 882, 65,930,717
480,461 $9,012,619 98,033,524
As will be seen, the United States post-office
department, unlike that in Great Britain, is carried
on at a loss; this is due to the large amount of
tal matter of certain classes carried at less than
e cost of distribution, and to some kinds of cor-
respondence carried free. In 1898 there were
12,
registered
pouches, &c.
Articles sent free of postage
Articles of all kinds for foreign countries......
_ The number of post-offices in the United States
is larger than in any other country ; but as —
the number of persons employed the United States
takes third rank. It provides a post-office for
every 1003 persons, while in Great Britain the
proportion is one to every 2105 persons.
See the articles Stamps, TetecrarH. The following
rely may org tho ee mags fm
r early since 3 Her jesty’s
Maile, iy Lew Life of Sir Rowland Hill; The the.
tory of Penny Postage, Sir R. Hill and G. B. Hill
oat: Fifty Years of Public ahd a Sir Hi Cole
1884) ; History of the Post-o, to 1836, H.
oyce (1893); Forty Years at the a, . K
Baines (1895); The Royal Mail (1885), and Post in
Grant and Farm (1895), by the present writer.
Post-Tertiary. See QUATERNARY,
Posy. See Rina.
Potash. See Porassivm.
Potash Water. See AERATED WATERS.
Potassium (aym. K, equiv. 39) is one of the
alkaline metals. e letter K is selected as its
symbol, as the first letter of Kali, the Arabic
word for potash, the letter P being alread taken
as the symbol for phosphorus. The follo are
the characters of this metal. It is of a bluish-
white colour, and presents a strong metallic lustre.
It melts at 146°5° (62°5° C.), and at a red heat is
converted into vapour. Its affinity for oxygen is
so great that on exposure to moist air it Imme-
diately becomes covered with a film of oxide, and
hence it must be kept below the surface of naphtha.,
When heated it burns with a violet flame. Its
intense affinity for oxygen is well shown by throw-
ing it into water, on which, from its low specific
gravity, ‘865, it floats. The metal abstracts
oxygen from the water, and forms oxide of W en
sium (potash); while the epee rogen
carries off a small portion of the volatil
sium, and, taking fire from the heat evolved by the
energetic chemical action, burns with a brilliant
violet flame. The experiment is a very beautiful
one, the burning metal swimming about rapidly on
the water, and finally disappearing with an explo-
sion of steam, when the globule of melted potash —
becomes sufficiently cool to come in contact with
the water.
Potassium does not occur in the native state, and
can ay - a by the ets e its oxide,
tash. In 1] vy prepared it ecomposing
its hydrated oxide (potash) by means of a voltaic
current, but this process is not applicable on the
large scale. It is now usually manufactured
distilling a mixture of carbonate of potash an
charcoal in an iron retort.
If proper proportions are taken, the mixture is
wholly converted into carbonic oxide and potas-
sium, as is shown in the equation :
Carbonate of Potash. Carbonic Oxide.
K,CO, + 2C = K, + 3C0.
Potassium forms two cours with oxygen,
viz. a protoxide, K,0, which constitutes >
and is strongly basic, and a peroxide, K,O,
these the former is the only important one.
Potash can be procured in the anhydrous form
by heating thin slices of the metal in air poly
free from moisture or carbonic acid, It is whi
very deliquescent, and caustic. When moisten
with water it becomes incandescent, and the water
cannot be expelled by any degree of heat. A far
more important substance is the Hydrate of Potash
or Caustic Potash (KOH = K,OH,O). This is
commonly prepared by dissolving carbonate of
potash in ten times its weight of water, and u-
ally adding to the boiling solution a quantity of
slaked lime, equal in weight to half the carbonate
of potash used. The resulting compounds are car-
bonate of lime, which falls as a precipitate, and
hydrate of potash, which remains in solution ; the
changes being expressed by the equation :
pera mutes xine Oumaot Hutt
K,CO, + CaOH,O = CaCO, + 2KOH.
The clear supernatant fluid is removed by decanta-
tion, or by means of a siphon, into a clean silver
or iron basin, and is rapidly evaporated till it flows
tranquilly like oil; it is then either cast into
cylinders in metallic moulds, or is poured upon a
cold slab, and solidifies on cooling. As so obtained
it is very impure, but by solution in alcohol and
evaporation a very pure article is produced.
ydrated potash, on sol g after fusion,
oceurs as a hard, grayish-white, opaque body, with
a crystalline fracture, which meg, be readily again
fused into a colourless oily fluid, but which only
POTASSIUM
353
volatilises at a very high temperature. It is
soluble in about half its weight either of water or
of alcohol, and rapidly absorbs both carbonic acid
and moisture from the atmosphere. It acts as a
powerful caustic, and quickly destroys both animal
and vegetable tissues, and hence its solutions can
only be filtered through asbestos or pounded glass
or sand. Its affinities are so powerful that few
vessels are capable of resisting its influence. Its
solution must be preserved in glass bottles into
the composition of which no oxide of lead enters,
as it has the property of dissolving this oxide
out of the glass. Vessels containing silica iparct
lain, earthenware, &c.) are decomposed, and plat-
inum itself is oxidised when heated in contact
with it.
The salts which potash forms with acids are for
the most part 'y soluble in water, and colour-
less, unless (as, for example, in permanganate of
pice) the acid is coloured. Most of them are
erystallisable, and they all communicate a violet
tint, characteristic of potash, to the flame of spirit
of wine and to that of the blowpi Many of
them occur in animals and vegetables, and the
ashes of plants contain them in large quantity.
Carbonate of Potash, op is obtained by
burning plants in dry pits, dissolving the ashes in
water, evaporating till the sulphates, chlorides, &c.
separate in crystals, and then boiling the mother
liquid to dryness in iron pots. The ee! of
pure carbonate of potash contained in it is-liable to
great variation, and for pharmaceutical ae! gare
it must be dissolved in water and crystallised, the
crystals containing about 20 per cent. of water.
Carbonate of potash is extremely deliquescent, and
is soluble in less than its own weight of water, but
is insoluble in alcohol. It has an acrid, alkaline
taste, and its reaction upon test-paper is strongly
alkaline. It is a compound of great importance,
both as a chemical reagent and as entering large ly
into the preparation of most of the other compoun
of and into the manufacture of soap and
ass. The commercial carbonate is often called
earl Ashes. Bicarbonate of Potash, KHCO,, is
obtained in white rhombic prisms, by passing a
enurrent of carbonic acid through a strong solu-
tion of carbonate of potash. These crystals are per-
manent in the air, but aredecomposed by heat; water
and carbonic acid being evolved, and the simple
carbonate left. This salt is much less soluble than
the carbonate, requiring four parts of cold water
for its solution, which is nearly neutral to test-
per, and has a much milder taste than the preced-
ing salt. It is employed as an antacid in medicine.
The Sulphate, K,SO,, and Bisulphate, KHSO,, ma;
be prepared by treating potash with sulphuric acid.
Nitrate of Potash has been already described under
the Nitre. Chlorate of Potash, KCI10s,
occurs in white rhomboidal tablets of a pearly
lustre. It has a cooling taste like that of nitre.
It fuses at a gentle heat without decomposition,
but on increasing the heat it gradually gives off
all its oxygen, and is converted into chloride of
potassium, according to the equation :
Chlorate of Potash. Chloride of Potassium. Oxygen,
2KCl0, = 2KClL + 30,
It is not very soluble, as it pyar for solution
16 parts of cold and 1°7 parts of boiling water. It
even surpasses nitrate of potash as an oxidising
agent; and if combustible substances, such as
sulphur, or phosphorus, be heated or
forcibly rubbed with it, a detonation or explosion
oceurs. This salt is employed in the manufacture
of Matches 4°), in certain operations in calico-
pes and for filling the friction-tubes employed
firing cannon : the best mixture for these tubes
sae) of 2 parts of this salt, 2 of sulphide
of antimony, and 1 of powdered glass. A mixture
known as White Gunpowder, consisting of chlorate
of potash, dried ferrocyanide of potassium, and
sugar, has been employed for blasting purposes,
but its Soe eorecent is accompanied by so much
danger that it is seldom used. This salt does not
occur as a natural product, but may be obtained
along with chloride of potassium My passing a
current of chlorine gas through a hot solution of
caustic The two salts are easily separated
by crystallisation, as the chlorate is comparatively
insoluble, and the chloride extremely soluble.
pel csp of Potash can only be obtained in
solution. Under the title of Hau de Javelle, it is
sold as a bleaching agent. It is obtained by pass-
ing chlorine through a cold dilute solution of
carbonate BB eer when chloride of potassium
and hy hlorite of potash are formed, from which
the chloride may be removed by crystallisation.
The Phosphates of Potash, formed by the different
varieties of roy ome acid, are sufficiently noticed
in the articles PHosPpHORUS and MANURE. The
Silicates of Potash are important compounds in
connection with the manufacture of glass; the
also enter into the composition of Fuchs’s Soluble
Glass (see GLASS), or Water-glass, and have been
employed as a coating by which the decay of
magnesian and other limestones may be pre-
vented. The Chromate and Bichromate of Potash
are noticed in the articles CHRoMIUM and CALIco-
PRINTING. The haloid salts of potassium may
be passed over very briefly. The Chloride o
Potassium, KCl, is obtained in large quantity in
the preparation of chlorate of potash, or may be
procured by gong. 8 potassium in chlorine gas,
when the result of the brilliant combustion which
takes place is this salt. In its general characters
it closely resembles common salt, NaCl, except
that the former communicates a violet and the
latter a yellow tint to the flame of alcohol. It
is a constituent of sea-water, of salt marshes,
and of many animal and vegetable fluids and
tissues. The Bromide and Iodide of Potassium are
noticed in the articles BROMINE and IODINE.
Fluoride of Potassium, KF |, the property
of corroding glass. There are several sulphides,
the most important — the Liver of Sulphur,
prepared by fusing together carbonate of potash
and sulphur. Besides its use in skin diseases, it is
much a ha by florists to prevent mildew on
roses. The Yellow and the Red Prussiate (or the
Fi nide and Ferricyanide) of Potash are
noti in the article FERRIDCYANOGEN. The
Cyanid of Potassium, KCy, may be obtained com-
mercially by fusing together 8 parts of ferrocyanide
and 3 of carbonate of potassium. This salt forms
colourless deliquescent crystals very solublein water.
It exhales an odourof hydrocyanicacid, and is nearly
as poisonous as that acid. Its great deoxidising
power at a high temperature renders it a valuable
agent in many of the finer operations of metallurgy ;
in a dilute solution, it is a solvent for natural gold,
and is used (the ‘cyanide process’) for the profitable
treatmentof low-grade free-milling ores, in which the
gold occurs in fine particles, not otherwise utilisable.
The following are the ordinary tests for the
potassium compounds : (1) Solution of tartaric acid
added in excess to a moderately strong solution of
a potassium salt gives after some time a white
crystalline Lies ora of cream of tartar (see TAR-
TAric AciD). The result is hastened by stirring
or shaking. (2) Solution of bichloride of platinum
tives a crystalline yellow precipitate, which is a
double salt of bichloride of platinum and chloride
of potassium. If not previously acid, the mixture
to be tested should be acidulated with hydrochloric
acid. (3) The violet tint occurring in the presence
of potassium in the outer flame of the blowpipe,
354 POTASSIUM
POTATO
or in the flame of pate Sas beeeeaeety nation.
(4) The spectrum of a 6 con potassium
ibits a characteristic bright line at the extreme
limit of the red, and another one at the opposite
violet limit of the 4 «bea (q.¥.).
In the following compounds are used :
Caustic Potash, or Hydrate of Potash, KOH, which
occurs in hard white * ee From its power of
dissolving the animal es, it is sometimes used
asa although its great deliquescence renders
it somewhat difficult to localise its action to the
desired spot. In bites of venomous serpents, mad
d &c. it may be applied with advantage, and
it is useful in destroying warts and ingot growths
of various kinds. Solution of Potash, commonly
known as Liquor , is obtained by the pro-
cess already given for the preparation of hydrate of
quor potasse, in combination with a
tonic infusion, is of service in cases of dyspepsia
which are accompanied with excessive acidity of
the stomach, such, for example, as often occur in
habitual spirit-drinkers. It is also frequently given
with the view of rendering the urine alkaline, or of
diminishing its acidity in cases in which that
secretion is too acid. e usual dose is ten drops,
gradually increased to as much as a fluid drachm.
Acetate of Potash, KC,H,0,, is obtained by the
action of acetic acid on carbonate of potash, and
occurs in white foliaceous satiny masses. - In its
passage through the system it is converted into
carbonate, and thus renders the urine alkaline.
In small doses, as from a scruple to a drachm, it
acts as a diuretic, and is of service in some forms
of dropsy. Combined with other potass-salts, it is
much given in acute rheumatism. The two car-
bonates and the sulphurated potash have been
already referred to.
The Chlorate of Potash has come much into use
as a popular remedy for sore throats. For this
purpose it is usually employed in the form of com-
pressed pellets, which are allowed to dissolve
slowly in the mouth.
Potato (Solanum tuberosum ; see SOLANUM),
one of the most important of cultivated plants, and
in universal cultivation in the temperate parts of
the globe. It is a perennial, having her' us
stems, 1 to 3 feet high, without thorns or prickles ;
pinnate leaves with two or more pair of leaflets
and an odd one, the leaflets entire at the 4 Bre
flowers about an inch or an inch and a half in
breadth, the wheel-shaped corolla being white or
purple, and more or less veined, followed by globu-
ar, purplish fruit, of the size of large goose-
berries ; the roots FREE tnbers. The herbage
has a slightly narcotic smell, although cattle do not
refuse to eat a little of it, and the tender tops are
used in some countries like spinach. The tubers
are, however, the only valuable ~ of the plant.
It was long customary to speak of the potato as
a native of mountainous districts of tropical and
subtropical America; but it has never been clearly
determined where it is really indigenous, and where
it has spread after being introduced by man.
Humboldt doubted if it had ever been found truly
wild; but subsequent travellers, of high scientific
reputation, express theinselves thoroughly satisfied
on this point. It has been rendered certain that
long before the Spaniards reached the New World
the 7 ema was cultivated by the’ Incas and other
Andean nations, It seems to have been first
brought to Europe by the Spaniards, from the neigh-
bourhood of Quito, in the beginning of the 16th
century, and to have spread from Spain into the
Netherlands, Burgundy, and Italy, but only to be
cultivated in a few gardens as a curiosity, and not
for general use as an article of food. tt is said to
have been bronght to England from Virginia by
Sir John Hawkins in 1563; and, again, in 1586 by
Sir Francis Drake, to whom indeed a as.
the introducer of the potato, was erected at -,
Anyhow, it cannot have
though 8 is
believed to have planted potatoes both his
os ms name potato. Gerard, vs Herball,
uu in 1597, gives a 7s our pee
os the name of Batata fat gree t so
little were its merits appreciated that it is not
even mentioned in the Com of
Loudon and Wise, published more than a cen-
tury later, in 1719; whilst another writer of the
same time says it is inferior to skirret and
radish! It began, however, to be that it
might be used with advan for feeding ‘swine
or other cattle,’ and by-and-by that it t be
useful for poor people, and for the preven of
famine on failures of the grain-crops. The Royal
Society took up this idea, and in 1663 adopted
measures for extending the cultivation of the
pee, in order to the prevention of famines. To
his the example of Ireland in some measure led,
the potato having already come into cultivation
there to an extent far greater than in any other
European country, and with evident advan to
the people. From Ireland the cultivation of the
potato was introduced into Lancashire about the
end of the 17th century, soon became general
and thence E pier over England; so that before
the middle of the 18th century it had become im-
portant as a field-crop, which it became in the
south of Scotland some twenty or thirty years
later, about the same time in Saxony and some
other parts of Germany, but not until the later
part of the century in some other parts of Germany
and in France. In France the eae was long
supposed to cause leprosy and fevers, and the
extension of its culture was mainly due to the exer-
tions of Parmentier (1778). In Prussia Frederick
the Great took an interest in it, and promoted it
by compulsory tions.
The potato is of great importance as aff
food both for human beings and for cattle ;
next to the principal cereals is the most valuable
of all plants for human food. It is also used for
various purposes in the arts. No food-plant is
more widely diffused ; it is cultivated in su ical
countries, and struggles for existence in ens
even within the Arctic Circle, yielding small and
watery tubers, although the effects of late spring
frosts, or early autumnal frosts, ee its foliage
often prove that it is a plant properly belongi
a climate milder than that of most of Britain.
No more important event of its kind has ever taken
place than the general introduction of potato cul-
ture into the husbandry of Britain and other Euro-
n countries, It exe a beneficial
influence on the general welfare of the ple, and
has increased the national wealth, notwithstand-
ing the occasional occurrence of famine and distress
(notably in the years 1846 and 1847) in Ireland and
elsewhere from the failure of the crop. The results
—due mainly to excessive and imprudent cultiva-
tion of the potato—confirmed two great laws, that
plants long very extensively or almost exclusively
cultivated in any district, however su 1
oy Fogaed be cultivated for a time, are sure to fail
at last ; and that the exclusive, or almost exclusive,
dependence of a people on one source or means of
su
55 1 their interests,
rt is unfavourable to their welfare in respect
ae
POTATO
355
Humboldt calculates that the same extent of
ground which would produce thirty pounds of wheat
would produce one thousand pounds of potatoes.
But are not nearly so nutritious as wheat,
and the constant employment of them as the chief
article of food is not Secournhle to the development
of the physical powers, and is consequently in
its protracted influence unfavourable to mental
All this is too well illustrated in Ireland
energy.
and Highlands of Scotland, in a race capable
of the highest development. It is calculated that
100 parts of good wheat-flour, or 107 parts of the
grain, contain as much actual nutriment as 613
parts of potatoes. The inferiority of the potato in
nutritious power is very much owing to the com-
paratively small quantity of nitrogenous substances
which it contains, in consequence of which it is
most advantageously used along with some vei
nitrogenous article of food, in Britain generally wit
animal food, in some parts of Europe with curds or
with cheese. The potato tuber, in a fresh state,
contains about 71 to 80 per cent. of water ; 15 to 20
of starch, 3 to 7 of fibre or woody matter, 3 to 4 of
gum, dextrine, and sugar, and 2 of albumen, gluten,
and casein. There are considerable differences,
however, in different varieties, in different stages
of maturity, and in different soils and seasons.
Potatoes are used, both raw and boiled, for the
feeding of cattle. For human food they are
yarionsly prepared by roasting or boiling, but
now chiefly by boiling, a process by which they are
freed from all that is narcotic and noxious in their
juice. The water in which potatoes have been
boiled is not wholesome.
The herbage or haulm of the potato has been
used for ing paper, but the results were not
encouraging. Potato pulp produces a kind of cel-
luloid or vegetable ivory, and from potato-leaves
passable or even excellent cigeratee may be
manufactured. The berries yield by distillation a
tolerable spirit.
The varieties of the potato in cultivation are
extremely numerous were exhibited at the
Westminster Tercentenary Exhibition (1886). Any
enumeration or classification of them is impossible.
New ones are continually appearing, and old ones
passing away. Those most advantageously cul-
tivated in particular soils and climates are often
found to degenerate when removed to a small dis-
tance. Potatoes differ considerably in the char-
acter of their herbage—which is sometimes erect,
sometimes straggling—and in the size and colour
of their flowers, but are more generally dis-
tinguished by the size, form, and colour of their
tubers, which are round, long, or kidney-shaped,
white, red, dark purple, variegated,
New varieties of potato are produced from seed ;
but potatoes are ordinarily propagated by planting
the tubers, or cuttings of the tubers, each contain-
ing an eye or bud. Much has been written by
gardeners and agriculturists on the comparative
oe of planting whole tubers or cuttings ;
but the latter method generally prevails.
Potatoes are planted in drills, made either by the
spade or ploug , or in lazy beds, which are always
made by the spade, and are beds in which the sets
or a gc pat over wih one eee ont of
8. e alleys serve, although imperfectly,
for Grains in undrained land. The cultivation oF
potatoes as a field-crop seems to have been first
attempted in lazy beds. They are still common in
many parts of Ireland, but are now scarcely ever
seen in England or Scotland. They are very suit-
able for strong, heavy, and somewhat moist land,
and are profitably used in ee some kinds of
soil to cultivation, but are generally unsuitable for
field-culture, owing to the expense of labour re-
quired. In strong, heavy land potatoes are culti-
vated in raised drills ; in lighter and drier soils the
raising of the drills is unnecessary. Manure is
invariably given, consisting generally of farmyard
dung and artificial manures. Common dressings
consist of from fifteen to twenty-five tons of dun
per acre, with from five to ten ewt. of artificia
manure, such as guano, dissolved bones, super-
phosphate, a little potash, and perhaps nitrate of
soda or salts of ammonia instead of guano. The
cultivation of potatoes, after they are planted,
whether in the field or garden, consists chiefly in
keeping the ground clear of weeds, and in earthing
up plants, to promote the formation of tubers.
Potatoes are taken up by the fork, by turning over
the drills with the plough, or by an implement
specially designed for the purpose, known as a
potato-raiser. Where the crop is grown exten-
sively this implement is now almost universally
, and ot. roan its»work expeditiously and
thoroughly. Garden potatoes are generally
long before they are really ripe, forming a favourite
dish in a very unripe state, when they are far from
being a safe article of food, and contribute not a
little to the prevalence of cholera and kindred
diseases in summer. In recent years the growing
of early potatoes for use in the large towns has
been prosecuted to a large extent and with much
success on the coast of Ayrshire and other similar
parts favoured with a genial climate. To facilitate
this the seed is forced in small boxes in which it is
placed over winter, and from which it is taken in
spring when the shoots are 2 to 4 inches long and
planted in well-manured drills. Potatoes from
seed thus prepared may be dug about three weeks
earlier than if the seed had not been sprouted.
The main field-crop is allowed to ripen thoroughly,
and is capable of being stored for winter and spring
use. The peaks of potatoes in the open air can-
not be successfully practised in most parts of
Britain before February or March, and in many
seasons the later-planted are found as early as the
earlier-planted, and more productive. The storing
of potatoes is variously accomplished in dry lofts
or sheds, in airy cellars or barns, and in pits, which
are sometimes holes excavated to a small depth in
the earth, with the potatoes piled up above the sur-
face of the d, in a conical, or in a roof-like
form, sometimes mere heaps of one or other of
these forms upon the surface of the ground, and
covered with straw and earth to veg ta light and
frost. Potato-pits should always well venti-
lated by means of pipes or otherwise, as without
ventilation the potatoes are apt to heat and sprout.
Potatoes taken from the ground before they are
quite ripe are extremely apt to heat and sprout.
The potato crop is now an important one in
almost all the rotations practised in Britain, al-
though its cultivation is in most districts not quite
so extensive as before its failure from the potato
disease in 1845 and subsequent years, and farmers
are more careful not to depend too much upon it,
It very commonly succeeds a grain-crop, but some.
times is advantageously planted on land newly
broken up from grass.
But, besides its value as a culinary vegetable, the
potato is important in other respects. Its starch is
very easily separated, and is in large proportions ;
hence it is cheaper than any other kind. It is manu-
factured on a very large scale. It is chiefly used in
textile manufactories under the name of farina,
which is converted into dextrine or British gum
(see STARCH). In Holland and in Russia, where
there is much difficulty in keeping potatoes through
the winter, and there is consequently a necessit
for using the crop quickly, large quantities of stare
are made, and this is converted into sugar or syrup
(see SUGAR). The refuse of the starch-manufactories
is all utilised; it is pressed out from the water,
356
POTATO
and used either for pig-feeding or for manure. In
the north of Europe much spirit for drinking is
made from potatoes ; it is called Potato-brandy.
The potato is subject to several diseases, the
chief of which is that serious fungous affection now
commonly known as the ‘0 disease. This
disease was first observed in Germany ; the earliest
known outbreak of a grave character occurred at
Li in 1842. It broke out in Canada in 1844,
and at once proved very destructive. In the
— year it made its Cy in the
British Isles, having been first observed in the Isle
of Wight. Its rav in Ireland in 1846 and 1847
t a terrible famine upon the small farmers
of that country, and at frequent intervals since it
great loss in the potato crop.
It has been proved beyond doubt that a particular
fungus always accom
destructive disease.
jes this peculiar and
he point is still doubted
by some, but it is
now very generally
believed that this
fungus is the main
cause of the dis-
ease. Thismysteri-
ous fungus, Phy-
tophthora _infest-
ans, runs through
a strange grt hy le
every year, and is
by no means easil
kept at bay. It
is believed that,
except in tempera-
tures below 40°
and above 77° F.,
it is always pres-
ent, ready to
pounce upon a
weak potato-plant,
= and liable to de-
velop into an epi-
demic should the
climaticconditions
be favourable to
fungus-life. These
conditions are
damp, dull, calm
weather, and a
moist or wet soil,
or thread of fanges Ph hora enveloped in mists
infestans; d,d, conidia or bud spores; morning and even-
§- Jose ing. The fact that
idia or male ion, and h, oogonia the fun is un-
or tle erry ot ang nine able to beara tem.
jeaf, whe
= not the Phyto hthors, i“, perature above 77°
portions of
aadaréell exit another ta or below 40° is of
Fyehinar, is doubtful (Gardener's practical import-
1891). ance, The tomato
is also subject to
the attacks of the Phytophthora, but the ravages
of the see may be stopped by amy Ay tem-
perature of the tomato-house to over 77° F. On
the potato crop the fungus Diengeoag § makes its
appearance about the third week in July, almost
invariably beginning its attack in the leaves of the
“i a ao There it is first seen in a delicate
white bloom, accompanied by dark blotches, caused
by the spawn of the fungus having pierced the leaf
and set up putrefaction. With favourable climatic
conditions it wi'l now develop with great rapidity
—a eo germ multiplying ten thousand times in
a few days in a temperature from 60° to 68° F.
The fangus ramifies throughout the leaves, blasting
them as it proceeds, and — an offensive
odour which is now unfortunately familiar to the
farmer. The spores of the fungus are so light and
fine that they float through moist air, and are
carried about and spread from one patch of potatoes
to another by insects and birds, "From the leaves
the germs spread to the leaf-stalks, the stems, and
the tubers. The spawn readily pierees the skin of
the tuber, consuming or rotting the cel
corroding the starch, and ultimately reducing the
potato to a black mass of rottenness. In this last
stage of its yearly course of destruction the fungus
provides means of continuing its curious life. It
produces some kind of ‘ resting-spores,’ which, pos-
sessed of amazing vitality, lie dormant during winter
and spring, and carry on the disease to the crop of
the ne year, which in its turn passes the
—— through another round of its mysterious life,
to be handed on again from crop to crop as before.
There is still uncertainty as to the precise character
of these spores; but, what may, their
wrx! of life is great.
Of the many remedial measures that have been
tried, the following have been found most useful
in preventing or mitiga' the o1 t of the
fungus: (1) Earthing up the drills a deep
covering of earth, with the view of preventing the
fungus from pass the
a crop which has been attacked by the d ;
(4) planting varieties which have been known to be
exceptionally successful in resisting the disease ;
(5) growing the potato crop under such general
cultural, sanitary, and manurial conditions as will
ensure to the fullest extent ible the one
and vigorous development of the crop; (6) carefu
selecting and storing of potatoes to be used as seed ;
and (7) dressing the P step een both before ani
after the appearance of the disease, with sulphate of
copper. No certain prevention or absolute remedy
has as yet been discovered, but all these measures
have been carried out with advantage. The dis-
covery of the copper remedy is likely to be of great
importance to potato growers. This is the mix-
ture—about 3 to 6 parts of sulphate of copper and
quicklime to 100 of water—which proved so
effectual in combating the allied parasite fungus
Peronospora infestans, that attacks the vines, and
there is good reason to believe that it be
almost equally successful in averting the potato
disease. It is well known that a vigorous variety
of potatoes grown under conditions favourable to
its healthy development is most successful in
resisting the fun It is with the potato as
with a human being—deprive it of wholesome
food and healthy sanitary pipes and dis-
ease will speedily ensue. The prevalence of this
particular disease in recent years is a sure indi-
cation of a deterioration in the constitutional
vigour of the cultivated potato. The other dis-
eases from which the ag crop is liable to suffer
are Curl, Scab, Dry , Wet , and a fungus
known as Peziza uma, Curl is a disease affect-
ing the foliage and general health of the potato-
plant, and does not seem to be n ly connected
with the presence of any vegetable te or
insect enemy.—Scab is a disease of the tubers
which become covered with brown, oblong, and
finally confluent and cup-shaped spots, whilst under
the surface is a powdering of ute olive-yellow
ns, a pat de called Tubercinia scabies, of the
ivision Hyphomycetes.—Dry Rot is also ascribed
to the growth of a fungns of the same order,
Fusisporium solani, and attacks the tubers either
when stored for winter or after being planted.
It was first observed in Germany in 1830, and
caused great loss in that country throughout many
i. The tissues of the Berge r become
ardened and completely filled with the mycelium
———— eet
POTATO
POTENTIAL 357
of the fungus, which at last bursts forth in little
eushion-shaped tufts loaded with fructification.—
Wet Rot differs from dry rot in the tubers
becoming soft and rotten instead of hard and dry,
and is always characterised by the presence of a
fungus referred by Fries to his genus Periola, but
which Berkeley —- as another form or stage of
the same fungus which: causes or is inseparably con-
nected with dry rot. Both dry rot and wet rot have
often been observed along with the potato disease,
which, however, is always characterised by the pres-
ence of another peculiar fungus.—Peziza la ts
has occasioned heavy losses, chiefly in Ireland, b:
destroying the leaves before the crop has matured.
See books on pee lence: by Pink (1879), Cox
(1880), Fremlin (1883), and Ward (1891), and on
the potato-blight by Bravender (1880).
Potato, Sweet. See SwEET Poraro.
Potato-beetle. See CoLorapo BEETLE.
Potato-fly (Anthomyia tuberosa), a dipterous
insect of the same
eae with the
er Peay
bage-fly, Turnip-fly,
&e. in its perfect
state it is very like
the House-fly. The
3
potatoes in autumn,
and are different
so from the thaggots
p96 o 2 pag 2 House-fly,
- in my, spiny,
SEES bristly, an tanta ;
; f the long tail ending
in six long bristles.
Potato-fly (Anthomyia tuberosa): The pupa is very
1, Larva, or natural size; jike the larva.
3, larva magnified ; 3, Potato-fly.
The Potato-fi
sol Tog
‘ Fly (Zuteryx
Curtis) and the caterpillar of the Death’s-
Moth (Acherontia atropos, Linn.) feed on the
leaves and stems of potatoes, but rarely do serious
damage.
Potchefstroom, a town in the south of the
Transvaal, South Africa, 105 miles SW. of Pretoria.
Pop. 2000.
Potemkin, Grecory ALEXANDROVITCH, the
most celebrated of the Empress Catharine II.’s
favourites, was born near Smolensk on 16th Sep-
tember 1739, the descendant of a noble but im-
verished Polish family. Having entered the
ian army, he managed (1762) to attract the
notice of the ezarina by his han face and
athletic figure; he was attached to her house-
hold, and in 1774 was preferred as her ised
favourite. From 1776, when the Rae ——
of Austria made him a prince the Holy
Roman Empire, till the year of his death he
was the director of the Russian policy in Europe.
It was at his instigation that the of the
Crimea put himself (1783) under Russian pro-
tection. Four years later Catharine paid a visit
to his government in the south, and the ‘hoax’
which then played off on his sovereign is
described by De Segur (Mémoires). He caused
an immense number of wooden painted houses to
be constructed, and grouped into towns and villages
along the route the czarina was to take, and hired
— to act the of villazers, merchants,
lesmen, and agriculturists, engaged in their
various pursuits. The czarina’s vanity was hugely
gratified at the seeming improvements of the
country under her rule, and she covered Potemkin
with titles and honours. Almost immediately
after this a war broke out with the Turks, and
Potemkin was placed at the head of the army,
with Suwaroff serving under him. Otchakoff was
taken after a terrible siege, and Suwaroff won the
soe fights of Bender and Ismail—of all of which
‘otemkin reaped the credit when he entered St
Petersburg in triumph in 1791. That same year
he was seized with sudden illness whilst ecavellicty
between Jassy and Otchakoff, and died October
15, and was buried at Kherson. He was a man of
considerable ability in court intrigue and states-
manship; his skill as a general has been both
affirmed and denied. Personally he was licentious,
coarse in his habits, and utterly tyrannical and
unscrupulous ; in spite of his lavish extravagance
he heaped up an immense fortune.
See Memoirs (Lond. 1812), and the Life in German by
his secretary Saint-Jean (new ed. Karlsruhe, 1888).
Potential, in dynamical science, is a quantity
of peculiar importance. Its value, as a mathe-
matical function in the theory of attraction, was
recognised by Laplace in the Mécanique Céleste.
The name was, however, given by oye Os Green
(1793-1841) in 1828, when its broad dynamical
significance was for the first time explicitly
stated and powerfully developed. The theory of
the potential, in fact, is co-extensive with the
dynamics of what are known as Conservative
done against the forces of the system depends
= upon the initial and final configurations,
and in no ie J upon the particular series of
changes by whi i
instance, the work done nst gravity in lifting
a given mass toa height of 500 feet is exactly the
same whether the mass is lifted vertically up, by
a balloon, say, or more laboriously taken up the
sag Slope of a hill. The earth and the mass
‘orm, so far as gravitation is concerned, a con-
servativesystem. Practically, however, in dragging
@ mass up a slope a certain amount of work, greater
or smaller according to circumstances, must be
done against friction, and this will depend upon the
character of the course taken. We know that the
work so done is lost and cannot be recovered in
dynamic form (see ENERGY). These forces are in
ort dissipative, and so far as their action is con-
cerned the system is not conservative, and the
theory of the potential does not apply. A little
consideration will show that when the forces are
functions of distances only the system will be
conservative. Such forces then have a pennants
and, although this does not exhaust all types of
force-systems which have a potential, it includes
all that are certainly known to occur in nature
around us. The force of gravitation and the force _
between electrified or magnetised bodies evident]
belong to the category just described. In all suc
cases the potential at any point in the field of
force is a definite function of the position, a
mathematical expression having for any particular
ease a definite value, such that the difference of the
tentials of two points measures the work done
in carrying unit quantity (of matter, electricity,
magnetism, &c.) from the one point to the other
(see ELEecrriciry for some further properties of
the potential). If we take the two points very
close to each other, we see at once that the
small difference of the potentials must equal tlie
product of the average force into the papi par
small distance. Thus, in the notation used in the
article Calenlus (q.v.), we have 4 V = Sas, where
V is the potential, 8 the force, and As thie
small distance. Hence 8 = dV/ds or the force in
any direction is numerically equal to the rate of
change of the potential per unit-length in that
direction. When the potential is known a simple
ch the passage is made. For
358 POTENTILLA
POT-POURRI
differentiation in any chosen direction gives the
force in that direction, It is obvious that other
directed quantities besides forces may be expressible
as the differential coeflicients of a single non-
directed or scalar quantity. Thus, in the mathe-
matical theory of Hydrodynamics (q.v.) a very
important distinction is made between motions
witch have a velocity-potential and motions which
have not. In the former the velocity can be re-
presented as a 8 differentiation of a scalar
quantity ; in the latter it cannot. See VorTEx for
an account of fluid motion, which has no, velocity-
potential.
Potentilla, a genus of plants of the natural
order I , sub-order Potentillew, differing from
Fragaria (Strawberry) in the fruit having a dry
instead of a lent r tacle. The species are
very numerous, natives chiefly of northern tem-
perate regions, and some of them of the coldest
north ; most of them perennial herbaceous plants,
with yellow, white, red, or purple flowers, and
pinnate, digitate, or ternate leaves. They are often
called Cinquefoil (Fr., ‘five-leaved’); and some of
the species are favourite garden flowers. A few
are natives of Britain; one of the rarest of which
is a shrubby species (P. fruticosa), forming a large
bush, with pinnate leaves, and a profusion of yellow
flowers, often planted in shrubberies. P. reptans,
a common British species, with creeping stems,
digitate leaves, and yellow flowers, once had a
high reputation as a remedy for diarrhea, from
the astringent property of its root, of which most
of the species partake with it. But P. anserina,
a very common British species, popularly known
as Silverweed, having creeping stems, yellow
flowers, and pinnate leaves, which are beautifull
silky and silvery beneath, has an edible root, wit
a taste somewhat like that of the parsnip. Swine
grub it up with avidity, and it was once much
esteemed as an article of food in some parts of
Scotland, particularly in the Hebrides, where it
abounds and has been a resource in times of famine.
—The name potentilla is said to be derived from
the Latin potens, ‘ powerful,’ and to allude to medi-
cinal virtues now known to merit little regard.
Tormentil (q.v.) is sometimes referred to this
genus.
Potenza (anc. Potentia), a town of South Italy,
ensconced in a valley of the Apennines, 103 miles
E. by S. of Naples. It is surrounded by a wall,
has a fine cathedral, and disused fortifications.
Potenza was shaken by earthquakes in 1273, 1694,
1812, and 1857. Pop. 17,978.—The ince of
Potenza, called Basilicata until 1871, has an area
of 3998 sq. m. and (1889) a pop. of 556,309.
Pot-herbs are not, as might be supposed from
the name, the repre chiefly used 13 eulin
purposes, as supplyi
ying articles of food, but rather
those which are of secondary importance, and valu-
able chiefly for flavouring, as parsley, fennel, &c.
Pot-holes. See Giants’ Kerries.
Poti, a seaport of Russian Caucasus, stands at
the mouth of the river Rion, on the eastern shore
of the Black Sea, 200 miles by rail W. of Tiflis.
Here maize (£242,000), manganese (£85,000), &c.
are shipped to the annual value of £366,000. The
imports do not exceed £2000. Poti was seized by
Russia in 1828. Pop. 3112.
Potidza, a Corinthian colony founded on the
westernmost isthmus of the Chaleidice peninsula
in ancient Macedonia. By its revolt from the
Athenian League (432 B.c.) it brought on the
Peloponnesian war; it was besi and taken by
the Athenians (429 B.c.). The Athenian colony
which was then settled there was destroyed b
Philip of Macedon (356 B.c.). Cassander built
up & new town, and called it Cassandria; this
flourished greatly until it was captured and sacked
by the Huns.
Pot-metal. Tap and pot metals are alloys of
Sr er; icon oqutl pass bt nae Ga ae
metals vary from equi
and 10 of lead. % ; eee
Poto'mac, a river of the United States, formed
Wy two branches which rise in the Alleghany
ountains in West Virginia, and unite 15 miles
SE. of Cumberland, Maryland, from which point
the river flows in a generally south-easterly course
400 miles, and falls into Chesapeake Bay, after
forming an estuary nearly 100 miles long, and
from 24 to 7 miles wide. The largest ships can
ascend to Washington, and the tide reaches
town. A few miles above Washington the river
forms a cataract 35 feet high ; and between there and
Westport it falls more than 1000 feet. The oun?
in _ = of ~~ Mongar aon ag iful,
especially where it breaks thro e Blue Ridge
abe Haste Ferry. Its principal affluents are
the Shenandoah, Cacapon, and Monacacy. The
Potomac forms the greater part of the boundary
between Virginia and Maryland.
Potoroo, or KANGAROO Rat ( Hypsiprymnus),
a genus of marsupials, related to kangaroos. None
of the species are at oe than rabbits. They feed
on roots, for which they dig with their fore-feet.
Two other genera, Bettongia and AZpiprymnus, are
nearly related.
Potosi, capital of a department of the same
name, and one of the most famous mining-towns of
South America, stands in a d and
district, nearly 50 miles SW. of Chuquisaca. It is
built on the side of the Cerro de Potosi (15,381
feet), at an elevation of 13,000 feet above the sea,
and is thus one of the loftiest inhabited places on
the globe. The town has a circumference of some
4 miles; but fully one-half is composed of tottering
and ruined buildings, uninhabited and desolate,
and the whole place, with its squalor, dilapidation,
and dirt, presents a sinister aspect. The public
buildings include a handsome cathedral and a
mint which employs 200 hands; and the reservoirs
are also worthy of mention. The streets are steep
and narrow, and there are no wagons or carriages,
but only llamas and mules. The climate is very
trying: all the four seasons may be experienced in
one day, but usually it is bitterly cold, owing to the
elevation and to the mountains all round, from
which the snow searcely ever melts. Yet is Potosi
one of the B gee =: commercial towns of Bolivia.
English and French manufactures are imported ;
and, as the country ‘in the vicinity produces little
or nothing, all supplies have to be b: t from a
distance. The industry of the ye is limited to
silver-mining. The Cerro is still rich in this ore,
although the production, owing to the exhaustion
of the mines near the summit, and the cg Som
inrush of water in those worked at a lower level,
has greatly fallen off. Potosi was founded in 1545,
and in 1611 had 160,000 inhabitants. Its population
does not now exceed 12,000.—The , a
plateau country, rich in minerals and cattle, has an
area of 54,300 sq. m. and a pop. (1892) of 360,400,
It is second in pop. of the Bolivian departments.
Pot-pourri (Fr.), the name of a mixture of
io Seighanon materials, chiefly flowers, dried, and
usually placed in a vase with a perforated lid, in
order that their perfume may be diffused through
rooms in which it is placed. The principal ingre-
dients are rose-petals, lavender flowers and stalks,
violets, jessamine-flowers, woodruff-leaves, cloves,
orris-root, pimento, musk, sandalwood-raspin
cedar-shavings, &c. But it also, and original ly
signifies a dish of different sorts of viands, a d
POTSDAM
POTTER 359
«corresponds in this sense to the Hotch-potch (q.v.)
of Scotland and the Olla Podrida (q.v.) of Spain.
In — the name is — al a re =
a jieces sti er without mu
Deaceioct-« kind a aabliey
Potsdam, chief town of the Prussian province
of peeaeeebare, and second residence town of the
royal family of Prussia, is situated on an island
beside the lake-like river Havel, 18 miles by rail
SW. of Berlin. It is a handsome city, with broad
streets, public gardens, adorned with statues of
Prussian soldiers, and fine squares. The royal
palace (1667-1701 ), in the park of which are statues
of Frederick-William L, Alexander I. of Russia,
and Generals Bliicher, Gneisenau, Kleist, and
Tauenzien; the town-house, a copy of that at
Amsterdam; and the military orphanage are the
finest of the apres buildings. The ison church,
with a steeple 290 feet high, contains the tombs of
Frederick-William I. and Frederick Il. ; and the
Friedenskirche the tombs of Frederick-William
IV. and the Emperor Frederick III. The Branden-
Gate is a copy of Trajan’s Arch at Rome. In
the immediate neighbourhood of the town are more
than half-a-dozen royal palaces, as Sans-Souci
(1745-47), the favourite residence of Frederick the
Great, surrounded by a splendid park and gardens,
containing Rauch’s monument to Queen Louisa
and other structures ; the palace of Friedrichskron,
formerly the New Palace (1763-70), with nearly
‘200 rooms, many of which contain costly works of
art; Charlottenhof, built by Frederick-William IV.
in 1826; the Marble Palace, the summer residence
of the Emperor William II. ; and Babelsberg, the
private property of the same prince. Potsdam has
an observatory, and a cadet and other military
schools, Its manufactories produce sugar, chemi-
als, harness, silk, waxcloth, beer, &e. Flower-
gardening, especially of violets, is a busy industry.
exander von Humboldt was a native. Pop.,
dncluding the garrison (1890), 53,727. Potsdam
owes its creation as a town to the Great Elector,
Frederick- William, and to Frederick Il. Prior to
that period it was a fishing-village, built on the
site of an ancient Slav settlement. See German
works by Kopisch (1854), A. R. (1883), and Sello
(1888).
Potsdam Beds, a name given in North
America to the Spemenoet division of the Cam-
brian or Primordial strata.
Potstone, Lapis Oliaris of the ancient Romans,
a massive variety of tale-schist, composed of a finely-
felted te of tale, mica, and chlorite. It is
ss of a grayish-green colour, sometimes dark
green. It occurs massive, or in granular concre-
tions. It is soft and easily cut when newly dug up,
; y to the touch, and infusible even before the
lowpipe. It becomes hard after exposure to the air.
It is made into pots and other household utensils,
which communicate no bad taste to anything con-
tained in them, and when greasy are cleandd by the
fire. It was well known to the ancients; and
Pliny describes the manner of making vessels of it.
It was anciently procured in abundance in the isle
of Siphnos (Siphanto), one of the Cyclades, and
iin Upper Egypt. Large quarries of it were wrought
Lake of Como, from about the beginning of
the Christian era to 25th August 1618, when they
fell in, causing the destruction of the neighbouring
town of Pleurs, in which it was wrought into eulin-
ary vessels, slabs for ovens, &c. It is quarried in
the Valais, Moravia, Norway, Sweden, Greenland,
near Hudson Bay, &c.
Pott, Avcusr Friepricu, a great philologist,
was ton at Nettelrede in Hanover, 14th’ Nover ber
1802. He studied philology at Gottingen, habilit-
ated at Berlin in 1830, in 1833 became extra-
ordinary, in 1839 ordinary professor of the Science
of Language in the university of Halle. Next to
W. Humboldt, Bopp, and Grimm, the name of
Pott stands prominent in the new science of
comparative philology. The foundation of Pott’s
reputation was securely laid by his Etymologische
Forschungen auf dem Gebiet der Indogermanischen
Sprachen (2 vols. 1833-36 ; 2d ed. 6 vols. 1859-76),
a work second in importance only to Bopp’s Com-
parative Grammar, His well-known article ‘ Indo-
Pers Sprachstamm,’ in Ersch and Gruber’s
neyklopddie, is a masterpiece of condensation,
and for once of order. For his besetting fault was
a lack of order and perspicuity, which made
Ascoli compare his books to the plain of Shinar
after the confusion of Babel had taken place. But
no student ever brought to his studies a loftier
spirit of devotion, or collected more massive
materials for the foundation of a new science.
So thorou ss was his brag that all soe
rogress of learning since has not strip the
pa 8 from his books on the Gypsies, on Personal
Names, on Numerals, his essays on My iiealagy,
African Languages, or General Grammar. e
died at Halle, 5th July 1887, working to the last.
His most important books, besides those already named
and countless articles and papers in the learned journals,
are De Borussico-Lithuanice tam in Slavicis quam in
Letticis Linguis Principatu (1837-41); Die Zigeuner in
Europa und Asien (2 vols. 1844-45); Die Quinare und
Vigesimale Zéhimethode bei Vilkern aller Weltteile (1847);
Die Personennamen (1853); Die Ungleichheit der mensch-
lichen Rassen, hauptstchlich vom Sprachwissenschaft-
lichen Standpunkt (1856); Doppelung als eins der
wichtigsten Bildungsmittel der Sprache (1862); Anti-
Kaulen, oder mythische Vorstellu: vom Ursprung der
Volker und Sprachen (1863); and Die Sprachverschieden-
heit in Europa, an den Zahlwirtern nachgewiesen (1868),
Pottawattamies, a tribe of American Indians,
belonging to the Algonquin stock. The early
French settlers established a mission amongst them
at Green Bay, and to this day many of them are
Roman Catholics. They sided with the English
both during the Revolution and in the war of 1812,
and afterwards settled in Kansas, where one band
of over 400 now live in houses and cultivate the
ground. Another band, nearly 500 strong, is on a
reservation in the same state, under the care of the
Society of Friends.
Potter, Joun, D.D., an English scholar and
divine, the son of a linen-draper of Wakefield, in
Yorkshire, was born in 1674, studied with great
diligence and success at Oxford, where he took his
d of M.A. in 1694, and in the same year received
holy orders. He was appointed chaplain to Queen
Anne in 1706, professor of Divinity at Oxford in
1708, Bishop of Oxford in 1715, and finally in 1737
attained the highest dignity in the English Church
—the archbishopric of Canterbury. tie died 2ist
October 1747, and was buried at Croydon. Potter's
principal work is his Archwologia Greca (‘ An-
tiquities of Greece,’ 2 vols. 1698), not superseded
until the appearance of Dr W. Smith’s Dictionary
of Greek and Roman Antiquities ; besides which,
however, we may mention his edition of Lycophron
(1697) and of Clemens Alexandrinus (1715).
Potter, PAvL, the greatest animal-painter of
the Duteh school, was born at Enkhuizen in 1625,
and was the pupil of his father, Pieter Potter,
a landscape-painter, with whom in 1631 he came to
Amsterdam. He was also an excellent etcher, and
so precocious that his best etched pieces, ‘The
Herdsman* and ‘The Shepherd,’ were finished in
1643 and 1644 Hig incr 8 He established himself
at the Hague in 1649, where next year he married
the daughter of an architect, but in 1653 he
returned to Amsterdam. He died therein January
1654 at the untimely age of twenty-nine. His
360 POTTERIES POTTERY
best pictures pastoral scenes with animal | Cookworthy’s discovery was of the utmost im
figure, the life-size ee: Bull’ cess, jean one for the — gf seo bea * Bg fine
being especially celebrated. is ‘Dairy | pottery; an e developmen e us
te gaya ~ only Yo} by 48) inches, was sold hich took place under Josiah Wedgwood pet}
in London on 27th June 1890 from the Stover | others was due in no small measure the fine
collection for £6090, or £13 per square inch. The
Rijks Museum at Amsterdam the ‘ Bear-
hunt’ and seven other pictures from his easel.
Very many of his productions are preserved in
Seabed:
See P. Potter, sa Vie et ses Guvres, by Van West-
theene (the Hague, 1867), and Cun Landscape
Painters of Holland (‘Great Artists’ series, 1891).
Potteries, Tue, a district in North Stafford-
shire, 9 miles long by 3 broad, the centre of the
earthenware manufacture in England, includes
Hanley, Burslem, Stoke-upon-Trent, Newcastle-
under-Lyme, Tunstall, and other towns,
Pottery. This term, derived through the
French poterie from the Latin potum, ‘a drinking
vessel,’ is applied to all objects of baked clay.
Pottery may be said to be almost contemporaneous
and co-extensive with mankind; it is found with
the remains of our remotest ancestors, and it is
fashioned amongst the rudest of present day tribes.
The art in its rudimentary condition—merely
moulding wet clay into the desired form, and sub-
mitting it to the hardening heat of the sun or of
fire—is so simple as to be within the capacity of
the least tutored savage. The universality of the
primitive art, and the many different lines alon
which it p , preclude the possibility o
tracing its history in chronological sequence, and
only a few of its more important developments can
be noticed in the historical section.
Pottery as known at the present day is distin-
guished into many classes according to the nature
and purity of the clay employed, the heat to which
it has been ex in firing, the glazes or enamels
with which it has been covered, and the coloured
or other ornamental treatment of its surface.
Briefly, as s material and baking it may be
divided into (1) earthenware, which, ex toa
comparatively low heat, remains earthy in texture
and can be scratched with a steel point ; (2) stone-
ware, fired at a high heat, hard, dense, compact,
and not scratched by the knife ; and (3) porcelain
fired at the highest temperature, semi-fused an
vitreous in structure, and, when sufficiently thin,
translucent. Earthenware again may be sub-
divided according to the manner in which its
surface is treated, being either (1) plain, as
in an ordinary flowerpot; (2) lustred, as in the
black surfaced pottery of ancient Greece; (3)
glazed or coated with a transparent glass or var-
nish ; and (4) enamelled or coated with an opaque
white or coloured glass, which completely conceals
the body over which it is spread.
Manufacture.—The dough-like condition into
which clay can be worked with water, and the
hardness and indestructibility it — by burn-
ing, are the qualities upon which the potter’s art
essentially depends, lay is one of the most
abundant of substances, but it is of wee! qualities
and degrees of purity. The commonest brick clays
are so coarse in texture and so impregnated with
iron and other foreign ingredients that they can be
used only for bricks, tiles, and the very coarsest
kinds of pottery. The purest potters’ clay, known
as china-clay or Kaolin (q.v.), is formed by the de-
composition of granitic rocks, It consists essenti-
ally of the hydrated silicate of alumina with small
proportions or traces of one or more of lime, potash,
soda, and magnesia. The finest china-clay of Great
Britain is found in Cornwall, where it was dis-
covered at Carclaze, 2 miles NE. of St Austell, be-
tween 1755 and 1758 by William Cookworthy.
material which thus became available to them.
Commoner potters’ clay or pipeclay is obtained
principally from Poole in Dorsetshire. The mate-
rials used for the paste or body of typica] varieties.
of porcelain and pottery are as follows: (1) Porce-
lain.—At Sevres, kaolin, 48 parts; sand (pure
white), 48 parts; chalk, 4 parts. At Dresden,
kaolin, 62 parts; felspar, 26 gos broken biscuit-
a 2 parts. At Berlin, kaolin, 76 parts ;
elspar, 24 parts. In England three mixtures are
used: for common china, ground flints, 75 parts ;
calcined bones, 180 parts; china-clay, 40 parts;
clay, 70 parts. For fine china, ground flints, 66
parts; calcined bones, 100 parts; china-clay, 96
ts; Cornish granite, 80 parts. Fine, for model-
ing figures, &c., — sand, 150 parts; calcined
bones, 300 parts; china-clay, 100 parts; potash,
107 parts. The glazes require to be v for
nearly all, so that their fusibility may be ter
or less, according to the more or less fusible char-
acter of the biscuit ingredients. (2) Stoneware,
such as is used for jars, bottles, drain-pipes, &c.,.
is made of several kinds of plastic clay, mixed with
felspar and sand, and tiem ge | a little lime, but.
the materials vary much in different localities.
(3) Earthenware, called also Faience or Delft, is.
made of various kinds of ee. varying in colour
from yellow to white, according to the quality
required ; and more or less of powdered calcined
flints are mixed with it, to give it body and hard-
— Sometimes, as in porous vessels, only clay is
The use of calcined flint was first eo " a
Burslem potter named John Astbury, who in 1720
noticed the fine white character of a powder BE 9
to the eyes of his horse for the cure of some ailment.
He learned that the powder was made from calcined
flint, and thereon he conceived the idea of using it
in his pottery ; and did so with great success. e
ingredients, such as the clay and ealcined flints,
are prepared by ae means, the former in
the pug-mill, whi
is represented in &
fig. 1. This is an
upright, iron-bound,
wooden ip fag with
an axis, A, turned by
machinery; project-
ing from A are seven
arms, b, each of which
has three knives fixed
in it, with the points
outward, and so
arranged that they
spread over the
largest amount of
space in‘ the interior ;
and altogether or
are pl in a spi
manner, so that when
in motion the clay,
which is thrown in
a poly Ps St
r-shaped upper of the vat, is wor' own,
ee is so cut on raatel by the knives that it is
forced ont at an opening at C in the state of soft
pap. This is aided by the knives on the lower
rt of the lowest arm being connected together
ed a Sugg td babies | agers all settlement * the
ttom. is -like clay passes into a large
wooden tank, Pg > it 4 agitated with water
until quite incorporated, so as to resemble milk in
colour and consistency. In another mill (fig. 2), of
Fig. 1.
POTTERY
361
a different construction, the Cornish ite and
calcined flints are reduced to a somewhat similar
This mill is very vreray! constructed, and
consists of a tub-like vat, A, in the centre of which
axle, B, moved by machinery; in the
f the vat is a thick stone-bed, C, consisting
either chert or horn stone. From the upper part
the axis three strong arms, D, D, D, project
spokes of a wheel ; and Sronaly attached
are stout beams, a, pens ownward,
nearly touching the stone-bed, C. As the axis,
its arms and beams, turns round, the beams
some large masses of the Cornish ite or
chert stone round with them, and these triturate
calcined flints and other hard materials, and
Bee cree
=ile i
Poa
stir up the water with which the vat is kept con-
stantly supplied, whilst it overflows in a milky
state, charged with the finely-divided materials,
into a cistern, where it is kept stirred until it is
sufficiently supplied with the solid materials, and
the thick milky liquid is then drawn off, in
proper 4 nap into a vat to which the pre-
pared clay is also passed. The mixture of the so
1s then allowed to subside until the water is nearly
y atin Bh pe Pha is — _ ; and - epee is
depri ts surplus moisture, either by evapora-
tion, or, in the. best works, by a
exhausting apparatus, which does it very quickly.
The composition is then a fine plastic material of
the consistency of tough dough, and is ready for
the potter's use. In preparing the finer materials
for in many other operations are ired,
all, however, having the same object—viz, the
extremely minute division of the substances used.
The prepared clay is taken to the throwing-
machine, or potter’s wheel, which is represented in
fg. 3. This consists of a fixed table, A, through
D
Fig. 3.
which passes the axle, B, and rises a little above its
surface, and having on its upper end a disc, C
which revolves with it. The axle is put into rapid
motion by turning the fly-wheel, D, either by hand
or machinery ; and this causes a rapid revolution of
the dise, C, upon which is placed the soft mass of
clay to be moulded. At E is seen an upright, with
a small sliding-bar regulated by a screw; this is
the guide for the potter to regulate the height of
the vessel he is ooking. ‘When the lump clay is
revolving, the potter,
with his hands or with
upw: till the vessel
pobclaigr etna trey
ex a ight,
and tekoee teat
uired. It is then put
aside for some time to
dry, and ioe . a state
of greatest dou ten-
acity it is Gaede a Fig. 4.
turning-lathe, and by
means of steel tools its surface is accurately
turned and smoothed. But some articles are
formed in moulds, the moulds being made of plaster
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
of Paris. This answers well for fine porcelain in-
tended to be very thin, because the plaster-mould
absorbs much of the moisture in the paste, and
thus partially dries it, so that it admits of hand-
ling, which in a softer state, would be very difficult.
The paste is used so liquid
that it can be red into
the moulds. It is usual, in
casting, to have a peg he for
part, as seen in 4,
5, 6, which re Brgy Pi
bedy, neck and lip, and foot
of the cream-ewer, fig. 7.
The handle is also separate]
moulded, and attached wit!
the aid of a fluid clay paste,
called a slip. For nearly
flat articles, such as dinner-
plates, a plan is adopted
which combines both pro-
cesses: a mould, usually of Fig. 7.
plaster, fig. 8, a, is placed
on the disc of the throwing-wheel, 6, and a thin
Fig. 8.
layer of the paste is pressed on to it, so as com-
letely to take its form; then to the guide-post, c,
s attached an arm, d, with a small brass plate,
362
POTTERY
¢, on its lower side. This plate is cut to the out-
line of half the plate, or dish; as it revolves, this
pares down and
the clay to its own outline,
and to the thickness te which
it is set, there being an ——
ment on the arm of the guide-
| post by which this can be
effected. Sometimes, as in the
case of deep vessels, moulds are
| used for the exterior, and the
) interior is formed by the hand.
This process (fig. 9) ensures
certainty of size and shape,
which is important in making
large numbers of similar articles,
as tea-cups, &c. The mould is
lined with a thin cake of clay,
and when placed on the revolv-
ing dise it is fashioned inside
by hand, and finished off with
a wetsponge. Sometimes metal
or horn tools are used for pro-
ducing mouldings and other raised ornaments, or
for ves, when the turning or throwing wheel is
Being formed, the articles, of whatever kind, are
now taken to the drying-stove, where they are
placed on shelves, and remain there some time,
exposed to a heat of about 85° F. When quite
dry, they are next taken to a workshop near the
kiln, | they are here carefully packed in coarse
earthenware vessels, ed seggars (fig. 10), which
are so made that they can be piled upon one
Fig. 10.
another to a great height in the kiln, as seen in
fig. 11, in which some of the seggars are shown in
section, for the purpose of making the arrangement
intelligible. As the seggars are generally made
large enough to hold a number of articles, which
would, when highly heated, adhere if they touched,
a number of curiously shaped pieces of burned clay
are used for placing between them, so as to make
them rest on points; these are called watches,
cockspurs, triangles, stilts, &e. (fig. 12). In the
seggar filled with plates (fig. 13) the plates are
seen each resting on cockspurs, which prevent them
touching. Another object is gained by this in
burning flat articles such as plates; these, if placed
one upon another, would not be fired equally, but
when they are held apart the heat affects all parts
alike. The seggars are so piled in the kiln that
the centre is hollow, and there are free spaces
between them through which the fire can ascend ;
props, a, a, a, fig. 11, being so placed as to keep
them from immediate contact with the sides all
round. Thus each seggar forms a small oven, in
which one or more pieces of pottery or porcelain
are baked, and the segyars prevent any unequal
heating of the pieces, and also protect them from
smoke, A kiln has generally eight furnaces, and
it is usual to raise six piles of between
f)
many
PUL TT
oan
i
MUERCIDER yee
OU ene ee
mudnnt
|
=
=
=
=
[oe
sa
val
1)
SELLE LLL) Preeti
:
(}
Fig. 11.
use the best coal, as it enables the manufacturer
to make a more certain calculation as to its effects,
and is less liable to smoke and sulphurous vapours,
which might injuriously affect the contents of the
kiln. The baking or firing usually lasts from forty
to forty-two hours, The fire is then allowed to go
out, and the kiln to cool very gradually, after
which it is opened, and the seggars removed, to be
unpacked in a separate workshop.
The articles are now in the state called biscuit-
ware, and are ready for any pattern they may be
intended to bear, and the glaze. Here, however, it
may be stated that it is possible to glaze refracto’
pottery, such as stoneware in the biscuit oven, an
thus avoid the necessity for two firings to the ware,
The glazing is in this case effected by throwing
common salt into the oven when at its highest
temperature. The salt is volatilised and the sodium
separates from the chlorine, and, combining with
the silica it finds in the heated ware, forms a
POTTERY
363
true soda aie ee gy iw which rp he uniform
transparen yer over 2 tte
surfaces which it reaches. In this way al planed
sanitary wares and ordi stoneware jars
bottles are made at one firing. Common pottery
is often figured by printing the design in enamel
colours on transfer-paper,
and, whilst the printing is
still wet, applying it to
the biscuit-ware ; the ware
absorbs the enamel ink, and
the oy a is removed by
water, leaving the pattern
on the ware. It is next
fired in rs, or a muffle,
to fix the colour, and is then
dipped into composition
called glaze, of which three kinds are in the
Staffordshire potteries. The first, for common
pipeclay ware, is composed of Cornish granite, 16
parte tbs 36 parts; white-lead, 53 parts; and
eullet, or broken flint-glass, 4 parts. These
materials are triturated with water, with the same
care and by similar means to those employed in
forming paste, and are reduced with water to
the same milk-like liquidity. Each workman
has a tub of the glaze before him; and as
the articles of biscuit-ware, either with or without
decorations, are brought to him, he dips them
in the , SO as to ensure a uniform coat-
ing over them; and by nice bowen, Hr he pre-
vents any large drops or accumulations on one
part more than another. The porous biscuit-ware
rapidly absorbs the moisture, and dries up the thin
film on the surface of the articles, which are again
p in seggars, and carried to the glaze-kiln,
where they undergo another firing, which melts
the glaze, and converts it into a transparent glass
all over the surface, and renders an pattern previ-
or Dla upon it very plain. The temperature
in A mip or enamel kiln is only increased very
gradually, and is kept up for about fourteen hours,
after which it is allowed to cool slowly, and the
articles are taken
out completed. So
far, this deserip-
tion has applied to
the manufacture of
apes and porce-
ain on a
seale, for general
purposes; but when
_ lt is applied to
more costly and
— works very
special arrange-
ments are required ;
and in the case o
remarkably _fine
pieces, instead of
the ~~ kilns,
which hold _ fre-
quently many thou-
sand pieces, muffle
furnaces (fig. 14)
are used for each
separate article for
Fig. 14. the biscuit, the
glaze, and the
coloured and gilded decorations, which, in porcelain,
are applied on the glaze, and not on the biscuit.
In the decoration of painted pottery and porcelain
the colours employed are coloured glasses ground
to impalpable powders, and mixed with borax or
some other fluxing material. For use they are
generally made liquid with oil of spike, and they
are laid on with hair-pencils, in the same way as
oil-colours. The whole process is exactly the same
as in painting or staining glass; the glaze on the
biscuit-porcelain being true glass, and the enamel
colours being exactly the same as those used by the
glass decorator. The colours may be made by mix-
ing the materials of which glass is made with the
colouring material and the flux, or simply with the
already coloured glass and the flux. When the
former plan is employed the principal colouring
materials made use of are oxide of chromium for
green ; oxide of iron for red, brown, violet, gray,
and yellow ; oxide of uranium for orange, yellow,
black ; oxide of m: ese for violet, brown, black,
and purple; oxide of cobalt for blue, gray, and
black; oxide of antimony for yellow; oxide of
titanium for yellow; oxide of copper for green;
suboxide of copper for red ; sesquioxide of iridium
for fine black Ub peapee mer of iron for brown ;
chromate of lead for pore chromate of barytes
for yellow ; chloride of silver for Gepening reds and
pore urple of Cassius for ruby and purple.
eral these colours are much increased in
brilliancy by the addition of oxide of zinc, which
of itself gives no colour; and the transparent ones
are rendered opaque by the addition of oxide of
tin.
Other fluxes besides borax afe used—as sand,
felspar, boracic acid, minium or litharge, salt, salt-
petre, potash, and soda. For the gilding of pottery
gold-leaf is rubbed down with oil of turpentine ; or
metallic gold is produced by precipitating the metal
from its solution. The finely-divided gold so ob-
tained is washed and dried, and then worked 4
with one-sixteenth of its weight of oxide of bismut
and oil of turpentine, painted on, fired, and after-
wards burnished.
History.—The most ancient pottery of which
we have any trace consists of the rude clay
urns, vases, and other vessels found in the tombs
of the prehistoric races. These remains exhibit
the art of the potter in its most elementary con-
dition, yet they are not devoid of elegance of
form, and the decorative instinct of primitive man
found stg nae expression on them in bands of
incised lines forming lozenges, zigzags, and other
geometrical forms, and in im wavy cord
ash &c. See LAKE-DWELLINGS, STONE AGE,
ROY.
Egyptian,—If we except the races of the far East,
it is to the Egyptians among historical nations to
whom precedence must bé assigned in the art of
the potter. We know that at a very remote period
people made bricks of sun-dried clay cemented with
straw, which were sufficient for the purposes of
construction in a country where there is scarcely
any rainfall. Vases of baked earthenware were
also in use at the earliest period of i od Opry
civilisation, and glazed tiles are preserved which
belong to the epoch of Rameses III., not long
after the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt.
That the Egyptians attained considerable skill as
potters is attested by the lustrous red ware they
made for holding perfumes, wine, honey, and
other delicacies ; but their most remarkable pottery
was their so-called porcelain made of a fine sand
or frit covered with a thick siliceous glaze, blue,
reen, white, purple, or yellow in colour. The
Eine eolour—which is that principally employed—
was produced by an oxide o: elt which yielded
tints of unrivalled beauty and delicacy. This
famous porcelain was made as early as the 18th
dynasty (about 1600 B.c.), and continued to be pro-
duced till the period of the Greek and Roman rule.
It was fashioned into vases, sepulchral figures of
deities, scarabei, beasts, &c.; and it must have
attained a great reputation, for remains of it are
found in most of the ancient countries which had
commerce with Egypt. The unglazed Egyptian
hottle (fig. 15) illustrates the fact, also attested by
364
POTTERY
early Greek ago that the ae “4 well the
statuary figure its origin in the human form.
On these early vases the head,
hands, and other members are
figured, and the body of the vase is
only an exaggerated human trunk.
ssyrian.—In the contemporary
empires of Assyria and Babylon
pottery was also in use at an early
iod. Sun-dried and kiln-dried
pice were made about 2000 B.c.,
and like ptian bricks these were
stamped with the names and titles
15.—Un. Of the reigning monarchs, and the
toe | for which they were destined.
in Gl bricks of various colours,
‘the —_ British occasionally enriched with figures of
Museum. men and animals, were introduced
into constructions, and Semiramis is
said to have adorned with them the walls of
Babylon. In these bricks we have the earliest
example of the employment of materials for colour-
ing like those now in use. The glaze, however, is
=, Ptmmaly Glazed polychromatic bricks were also
used in the construction of the walls of the palace
of King Darius, the moubeenocary of the prophet
Daniel, at Susa (scriptural Shushan). nese
bricks were moulded so as to build together into
regular geometrical patterns, colossal figures of
men, &e. in high relief. The objects most remark-
able for size are the large coffins found at Warka,
supposed by some to be the ‘Ur of the Chaldees.’
The Assyrians and Babylonians used terra-cotta for
historical and legal purposes, making cylinders,
hexagonal prisms, tiles and tablets of it, on which
were impressed extensive writings in the cuneiform
character. Some of the most remarkable of these
tablets contain an account of the campaign of
Sennacherib against Judea and the tributes of
Hezekiah ; others give a record of the flood, the
creation, &e. See BABYLONIA.
Phenician.—Contemporaneously the Hebrews
and Phcenicians practised the art, but of purely
Hebrew work few traces remain. Phe-
nician pottery, however, has been abund-
antly excavated in Cyprus, and may be
taken as a type of the works of both
pee It is ‘gor yes of a cream colour
and of a brick red , ornamented in
horizontal bands, with lines in umber and
red, concentric circles, and other geomet-
rical forms being the most common decora-
tion. They also moulded rude figures of
deities and of domestic animals, the latter
having apparently been used as toys by
children,
Greek.—The most remarkable pottery of
antiquity was the Greek, which seems in
its earliest development to have had a
certain affinity with Phoenician products.
The Greeks claimed the invention of the
potter’s wheel, and the principal cities
contested the honour of the art, which is
mentioned in Homer and attributed to *
Corebus of Athens, Hyperbius of Corinth,
or Talos the nephew of Dedalus. The
Greek vases which remain to this day, princi-
ee recovered from tombs in Greece and in the
ands to which its commerce extended, show
that within a few centuries the art rose from
the rude condition like that shown in prehistoric
ttery till it reached a perfection and variety of
orm and Spee and dignity of decoration not
since attained by the efforts of any people. It was
the triumph of pure art, for the material of which
the body of Greek vases is fabricated is of the
commonest type, and the colours the artists had at
their disposal were few and simple. The archaic
pottery of the Greeks down to about the 7th
century B.C, was like the rude earthenware of pre-
historic times. Their first improvement consisted
in the application of a brown to the surface
of the ware, which enabled them to give force to
the incised ornament, the glaze
Next the
into the peenear) A cps racer body.
potters discovered black pigment which they could
ply over the brown glaze, and thus increase
their decorative resources by ting geometrical
patterns in black, By degrees the purely geometri-
cal forms of ornament were abandoned, and figures
of animals, rising ultimately to the human figure,
were painted in black silhouette on the =
some of the details being touched with white an
ne In the case of the human figure faces and
imbs began to be expressed in white and colour on
the black figures painted on a red ground. Con-
currently, the rough clay body of the vases began
to be wholly or partially covered with an engobe or
slip of clay of much finer quality and colour, the
engobe being applied by dipping the moulded
article into a vessel containin, e slip. With
these developments in material and decorative
variety the forms of the vases and the skill of the
artist draughtsman show steady and continuous
development. Just as the best period in Greek
art approached the favourite method of vase
decoration underwent a total change. The decora-
tive figures, deities and men, were traced on their
red and white “ef surfaces; but, instead of the
figures being filled up in black, the surroun
space—the body of the vase itself—was blacken
giving a black varnished background with
the colour of the underlying body, The de’ of
these figures are indicated with fine lines. Some-
times the faces and limbs are filled up in white, and
the draperies may be parti-coloured. At this stage
Greek pottery reached its greatest loveliness of
form and perfection of ornamentation, the pide
being gr yee refined, delicate, and spiri
Among the most interesting of the Greek vases
which remain to us are certain of the Panathenaic
Fig. 16.—Greek Krater, Amphora and Kylix of later style.
peephorm—peined won at the public games in
Athens—on one side of which was pain an
archaic figure of Athena, and on the other an
appropriate design with the inscription: TQ
A@GENE@EN AOAQN. In most cases also they
contain the name of the archon or chief-magis-
trate of the city for the year, in this way enab| ng
us to find the precise date of the manufacture.
these vases ten are in the British Museum, six of
which bear the name of the archon, and the Louvre
possesses three, which, from the archonic names
they bear, can be referred to 323, 321, 313 B.c.
POTTERY
ag:
365
respectively. At this period the decadence of
Greek oil Mootle: fe set in. ~~ Raden
degenera' ily, figures were multiplied an
crowded in confusion, ornament became florid and
superabundant, and the proportions of the vases
became exaggerated and bad. Subjects themselves
were no longer lofty and heroic, but connected
brhgpe oa hy everyday life, with burlesque
drama, and with jugglery.
In the history i Greek art no subject has
excited more widespread interest within recent
ears than the terra-cotta figurines or statuette
i res and groups found principally in tombs and
about temples of the later period. From 1873
downward a great number of such figures were
excavated from tombs at Tanagra in Beotia; sub-
sequently a very important find was made at
Myrina on the coast of Asia Minor, opposite the
island of Mitylene, and at Tarentum, Corinth, the
Crimea, Cyprus, the Cyrenaica on the African
coast, and in other localities quantities of such
figurines have been obtained. The Tanagrine
figurines were found in tombs which contained no
inted vases; but some glass vessels, lamps, and
inferior black pottery were associated with them,
indicating that the statuettes belong probably to
near the Christian era. The terra-cotta of the
Asian coast comes down to a period as late as the
time of Septimius Severus. The objects from the
Tanagra tombs consist principally of single figures
and groups of draped females and young girls;
subjects drawn from the everyday life of the people,
treated with true Attic grace and ay and
with marvellous sculpturesque feeling. In the
Myrina series, which obviously have a different
inspiration, deities and heroes of mythology form
the most important element—Aphrodite and
Bacchus, Silenus, satyrs, and menads frequently
recurring. The figurines are mostly polychromatic,
sober, earthy colours, not fired in, having been
used to tint them; but in some the colours are
true enamel pigments. Miniature reproductions of
known statuary figures and groups also occur among
these exquisite works in terra-cotta.
Etruscan.—From the fact that much Greek
pottery has been found in Etruscan tombs, this
ware came to be popularly known as Etruscan
pottery. True Etruscan pottery, however, was
rarely painted. The most characteristic ware of
that people, with a body black throughont, had on
its surface moulded ornaments, the alas and
ornamentation showing that it was modelled on
oriental metal-work. his black Etruscan ware,
which was in use from 500 to 320 B.c., was the
source from which subsequently arose the Aretine
and so-called Samian ware of Rome.
Roman.—The only important development made
in pottery under Roman rule was this Aretine or
Fig. 17.—Samian Bowl.
Samian ware. It is evidently imitated in its
decoration from works in metal, in all probabilit
from the chased eups of silver and gold which
began to come into use in Italy, and was a con-
tinuation of the later moulded wares of Greece and
Italy. The Samian ware of the Romans, so called
from having originated in the island of Samos,
was of a bright red colour throughout, but covered
with a lustrous siliceous glaze. The red colour
nearly resembles in appearance and texture a
coarse sealing-wax ; the paste is often remarkably
fine. The vases, generally of small dimension,
were turned on the lathe; the ornaments were
moulded separately, and attached to the vase;
patterns were produced by the repetition of the
same mould, or by placing the -reliefs from
various moulds on the vases. This kind of pottery
was first made by the Romans at Arezzo, but sub-
sequently, or nearly simultaneously, was produced
at Capua and Cume in the Ist century. It after-
wards extended over all the Roman world, and
was made in Gaul and Germany. While under the
republic it was at first extremely fine, the manu-
facture deteriorated under the last of the twelve
Ceesars, and the ware is no longer found under the
Antonines. The names of several hundred potters
are found stamped upon existing specimens of this
ware, some of them evidently of Gaulish origin.
It was extensively imported into Britain and other
remote provinces of the empire. In Britain the
Roman conquerors established the manufacture of
pottery in many localities, making use of the
native clays, e@ ware was generally of inferior
quality, but that of some places is sufficiently dis-
tinctive ; and the discovery of kilns and fragments
enables us to associate certain localities with dis-
tinct classes of pottery. Thus, a black ware was
made at Castor in Northamptonshire, which was
ornamented with reliefs laid on by depositing a
fluid clay on the wet body, and moulding it with
a tool. Characteristic ware was also made under
Roman influence at Upchurch in Kent, and near
Crockhill in the New Forest, Hampshi
Rhodian and Hi: phates jrock know-
ledge of glazes originally acquired by the ptians
Assyrians was continued and transmitted to
the Persians, Arabs, and Moors; and through
oriental influence it came to be a European posses-
sion in medieval times. Under the Knights of St
John of Jerusalem, Persian
potters were set to work in
the island of Rhodes about
the beginning of the 14th
century. For about 100
years thereafter a large
amount of a brilliant
enamelled pottery was
made, and sent out throu
the Mediterranean basin
from that island. The
pottery was distinctly
ersian in form, colour,
and ornamentation, and
under the name of Rhodian
ware existing specimens of
it are greatly treasured.
About the same time there
was planted, under Moorish
influence, on the Spanish
ninsula and in the Z
learic Isles the manufaec- 4
ture of the famous Hispano- =
Moresque enamelled
faience, which is specially
remarkable for the brilliant
metallic lustre of its glaze.
The industry continued to flourish till the final ex-
pulsion of the Moors from Spain early in the 17th
century, after which it rapidly fell away. From
the island of Minorca especially a vast trade in
this ware was carried on; and the name ‘ Majolica,’
given by the Italians to their own more famous
enamelled pottery, is an indication of the predomin-
ant importance of the ware sent out from Majorca
in the middle ages.
. 18.
iapane Mts Vase,
366
POTTERY
Italy.—There can be no doubt that the produc-
tion of brilliant enamelled pottery simultaneously
in the East and the West—in Persia, Damascus, and
Rhodes on the one side, and in the Spanish pen-
insula on the other, exercised a powerful influence
on the origin and progress of the same art in Italy.
But there, under the contemporaneous renaissance
of art generally, the decoration of the pottery
assumed a distinctively European character, and
it attained a much greater freedom, wealth, and
variety of decorative resource than was reached by
any of its predecessors. The use of the fine white
enamel glaze yielded by tin is in Italy first
associated with the name of Luca dell&. Robbia
(1400-81), the great sculptor, who employed it in
coating his terra-cotta relief figures and groups,
works which are now among the most prized
treasures of art. From his time onwards the
application of this tin enamel to earthenware be-
came common in Italy, and it is to such pottery
that the name Majolica properly belongs. One of
the most famous of the many artists who produced
this ware was Giorgio Andreoli, commonly known
Fig. 19.—Deep Dish, by Giorgio.
as Maestro Giorgio, who worked at Gubbio during
the first half of the 16th century. His pieces,
Gubbio ware, are distinguished by a remarkable
iridescence, flashing ruby, golden, and opaline
tints of marvellous Srilliancy with every variation
of light. Among the most famous centres Of
Majolica production in Italy besides Gubbio were
Pesaro, Urbino, Castel Durante, Diruta, Faenza,
Forli, and Venice. The artistic value of the pro-
ducts declined with the waning of art in Italy in
the 17th century,
France.—From Italy the art of making enamelled
faience passed with Catharine de’ Medici into
France, and the manufacture was established on
Italian models in Nevers about 1590, and there it
flourished till the end of the 17th century. But
—— to that time the celebrated Bernard
Palissy in 1555, after unheard-of exertions, had
independently discovered an enamel glaze, which
he applied to his characteristic rustic dishes,
embellished with exquisitely moulded figures, in
high relief, of fishes, reptiles, fruits, and other
figures. But while Palissy was pursuing his in-
vestigations there was being produced in France
a limited number of specimens of a ware which
has become much more famous than the works of
any other pottery, ancient or modern. During the
last fifty years only attention has been prominently
drawn to a few examples of pottery, very distine-
tive in form, exceedingly rich in decorative treat-
ment, and highly original in the method by which
it had been elaborated. At first it was known as
Henri Deux ware, from many of the pieces con-
taining the cypher and emblems of Henry II. and
Fig. 20.—Palissy Dish, La belle Jardiniére.
of Diana of Poitiers. Subsequently, owing to the
acceptance of a false theory of its origin, it was
designated Oirin ware; but, after much investiga-
tion and many suggestions, it has been discovered
that the pieces were made at St Porchaire (Deux-
Sévres) between 1525 and 1555. Henri Deux ware
consists entirely of decorative pieces treated in an
architectural manner, the = of the ware being a
creamy pipeclay, with inlaid ornamentation in
colour, col beautifully modelled masks, trusses,
&e., and a transparent glaze. Only sixty-five
ieces are known, and when any now change
ee it is at an enormous price. In the Hamilton
ac
py
NTS ote
~~~
Fig. 21.—Vase of Henry II. Ware.
sale (1882) a small eup 4 inches high bronght £1218,
and a salt-cellar 4 inches high was sold for £840.
At the Fountaine sale (1884) a candlestick 122
inches high was disposed of for no less than £3675.
Holland and Germany.—The celebrated en-
amelled faience of Holland owes its origin to the
attempts of the Dutch to imitate the oriental por-
celain with which they were made familiar by their
eastern trade and connections. The manufacture
dates only from the 17th century, and from the fact
that it was principally centred at Delft fine pottery
came to be known generally in Britain as Delft
POTTERY
367
= or ‘ Delft.’ To egg the fine ener pes white
e ordinary i tin-enamel glaze was
employed by the Duteh anions, and thelr colantel
decorations were in blue, and at first entirely
oriental in character. Stoneware Bellarmines or
Greybeards (q.v.), and the tall beer-jugs of the Ger-
mans, ly decorated with moulded ornaments,
medallions and inscriptions, &c., although generally
spoken of as Grés de Flandres, are really almost
exclusively of German origin, and may be traced,
ing to their colour and quality, to the neigh-
bou of Cologne, Coblenz, and to Kreussen in
Bavaria, &c. toneware vessels of the same
nature were also made in England early in the
18th century. ,
England.—Till the close of the 17th century
the ware made in England was of a coarse, com-
mon description, and those who could afford the
luxury obtained their peer from the Dutch and
other superior makers.
e first step towards
improvement was
effected by John
Dwight, M.A., who
in 1671 obtained a
patent for ‘making
stoneware, vulgarly
ealled Cologne
ware,’ and by him
the Fulham manu-
facture of stone-
ware was origin-
ated. A still more
marked influence
was produced on
English __ pottery
about the same
time by the two
brothers Elers, from
. 22.—Early Staffordshire Tyg Nuremberg, who
wie. teshan dled drinking cup. settled at rslem.
and there produced
a ware which they called red Japanese. To these
ters we also owe the origin of the process of
salt-glazing of stoneware. Finding their secrets
were discovered by Astbury, they removed to
Lambeth, where they established themselves in
1710. From this time onwards improvements were
introduced in the Staffordshire potteries; but the
great strides which for a time put English pottery
in the foremost rank of the productions of the
world were due to the great potter Josiah Wedg-
wood (1730-95, q.v.). In every department, in
body or paste, in methods of decoration, and
in the employment of artists of the highest
ability, Wedgwood, with pea da by tam and
with unstinted expenditure, aim ter perfection ;
and his efforts alone raised the manufacture of
pottery in England to the poe of an industry
of national importance. way from Staffordshire
tteries of some importance existed at Lambeth,
Bristol, Liverpool, Leeds, Lowestoft, and Swansea ;
but by degrees the manufacture drew more and
more towards Staffordshire, where, in the towns
collectively known as ‘The Potteries,’ embracin
Stoke-on-Trent, Etruria, Hanley, Burslem, an
some others, it now principally centres. Josiah
Spode (1754-1827) made a famous kind of opaque
lain or ‘ironstone china.’ English stoneware
and pottery owe much to Sir Henry Doulton (q.v.)
and Ihis works at Lambeth, in the Potteries, and
near Glasgow.
Peruvian.—In the New World the art of the
potter showed an interesting development among
the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians before the
American continent became known to Europeans.
No knowledge of glazes existed among these
les, but, in the case of the Peruvians especially,
high degree of skill in working cay was
modelled and modified animal
forms with great knowledge and spirit. Their
most characteristic pottery was black, but they
also made vessels of a fine, warm, pubees body,
formed on the potter’s wheel, and having painted
decorations ogous in style to those on archaic
Greek vases.
PORCELAIN.—The substances with which we
have dealt in this brief historical summary up to
this point comprise only pottery, as contradistin-
Ee from porcelain. The term porcelain is of
talian origin, derived from porcellana, the cowrie
shell, owing to the similarity of the white glazed
surface of the ware to the substance of that shell.
Of porcelain there are two varieties, one being soft.
or artificial ag ear the pate tendre of the French,
which ma: looked on as a chemical compound,
and which is wholly fusible at high temperature.
The second variety, hard or kaolinie porcelain (the
French pdte dure), is the true oriental porcelain,
com of two natural mineral substances alone,
Kaolin (q.v.), an infusible white clay, and pe-tun-
tse, a mixture of felspar and quartz, fusible in its
nature, the presence of which gives its semi-fused
translucent appearance to the ware.
China.—It is to the Chinese that the world owes
i manufacture of lain ; ee a —e chrono-
ogical uence, in antiquity of the industry, in
skill oad cain in coking ow materials, and in
richness and variety of the finished products the
Chinese ought to have the first place. When the
Greeks were making their terra-cotta vases the
Chinese were manufacturing porcelain; they had
mastered the secrets of that most difficult of all
ceramic tasks 2000 years before it was accomplished
by Europeans. According to their own records,
pottery was made in the Chinese empire in the
reign of their mythical Emperor Hwang-ti about
2690 B.c. Without assuming.the historical accuracy
of such a precise date, there is no doubt that true
reelain was made in China under the Han dynasty
tween 206 and 87 B.c. From that time onward
the art developed and improved, and, subject to
fluctuations caused by revolutionary troubles, the
Forests manufacture continued to flourish in
hina till recent times. The most famous centre
of the industry was formerly
King-te-chin in the province
of Kiang-si, where it is known
porcelain was made about 580
A.D. In this town alone there
were early in the 18th century
no fewer than 3000 porcelain
furnaces; but the place was
ruined by the Tai-ping in-
surrection. Chinese porcelain
exhibits endless variety in form
and painted decoration. The
mythical dragon, the kylin or
mythical lion, the spotted deer,
domestic fowls and other birds
are favourite subjects on
Chinese ware. Of all Chinese
porcelain that now most sought
after is the old blue ware such
as was at first copied and imi-
tated by the Delft manufac-
turers. Crackle ware, in
which the glaze shows signs of
separation from the body, is a
nliarity of oriental manu-
acture. The Chinese appear
to possess the secret of caus-
ing the cracks in the glaze to be large or minute
at will. Ruby ery ware (the Sang de beuf of
the French) and rich chromatic splashed glazes are
also highly treasured in Chinese porcelain. The
soft sea-green glazed ware known as Celadon glaze
developed ; and the
ped As
ig. 23.—Chinese
Picola Vase,
POTTERY
is assumed to be the earliest form of Sore aged, oer
lain, and genuine ancient pieces are highly valued.
Japan.—A knowledge of Chinese porcelain passed
into Japan as early, it is said, as 27 B.C. ; and it is
known that a co ion of porcelain-makers was
established in that country in 7204.p. In the 13th
century a J ese potter went to China to improve
himself in ‘toa of porcelain-making, and after
his return he carried on the manufacture in his
native country with great success. It is, however,
more in the manufacture of pottery than of porce-
lain that the Japanese exhibit pre-eminent skill.
Their most famous manufacture consists of Satsuma
ware, so called from having been establislied in the
neighbourhood of Kyéto by the formerly powerful
princes of Satsuma. It is of a pale yellowish colour,
covered with minute crackles in the glaze, and very
richly painted and lavishly gilt. The so-called
Satsuma now manufactured is yellower in colour
than genuine old oom, and it is principally made
at Awata near Kydto. The Japanese potters
generally display a remarkable power in moulding
pottery and finishing its surface so as to imitate
other substances, such as woods of various kinds,
basket-work, &c. Among their most remarkable
products as examples of delicate moulding is Banko
ware, which consists of small teapots and other
vessels of a brownish and ge dog unglazed earthen-
ware, saensy tame and thin in y, and very
much appreciated among the native population for
tea-making. The Japanese excel in the manufac-
ture of egg-shell porcelain, so called on account of
the extreme thinness of the body. Among their
other porcelain manufactures K ware is the
most outstanding, being characterised by painted
ornaments in a rich ruby colour, which is generally
lavishly gilt. The chrysanthemum is a favourite
and uent flower in their vases, the crane and
other birds figure most effectively, and figures of
warriors and ladies are frequently employed in the
resourceful and varied ornamentation of Japanese
ware. The principal centres of the pottery industry
in Japan are in the province of Hizen, where at
Arita is produced Imari ware; the province of
Owari, whence comes Seto ware ; Kaga, for ware of
that name; and Mino and Kydto.
Persia,—Chinese porcelain was known in Persia
as early as the 12th century, a circumstance not to
be wondered at, seeing that conntry was then and
for centuries before the principal highway of com-
merce between the far t and Europe. Many
evidences exist of the acquaintance of the Persians
with the ceramic products of China; and at an
early date pottery and a species of soft porcelain
were made in Persia which both in form and decora-
tion were modelled on Chinese originals. But
Persia also had a manufacture of pottery and of
enamelled tiles of an original and distinctive char-
acter, in which on a fine white enamelled glaze
brilliant metallic lustres were employed in a most
effective and original manner.
Porcelain in Europe.—In the 13th century the
early European traveller, Marco Polo, visited the
epee gw of China. In 1487 Lorenzo de’
edici received from the sultan of ta present
of Chinese porcelain, and that is the first record
we possess of the appearance of the ware in Europe.
The Portuguese were the first to import porcelain
direct from the East; and sul nantly) quan-
tities were brought by the Dute ond by the East
India Companies of other nations. No sooner did
the ware become known in Europe than strenuous
efforts were put forth in man quarters to imitate
it. A certain amount of porcelain is all to have
been made in Venice about 1470; but the earliest
Enropean oe of which any examples exist is
that which was made by Francis de’ Medici IT.,
Grand-duke of Tuscany, about 1580. The quantity
made appears to have been small, and the
at the manufacture ceased with the death of
grand-duke in 1587. Nearly a century later the
art was revived at Rouen and at Paris, but it was
not till 1693 that a permanent and well-established
industry was founded in France at St Cloud.
The r it was taken up in other French towns.
At Vincennes it was in 1745; in 1753 Louis
XV. became a partner in that concern. In 1756
the works were transferred to Sévres, and in 1760
that establishment became entirely national pro-
perty; and so it has continued amid all fluctuations
of government to the present day. Hard porcelain
was first made at Sévres in 1764; but the fame of
that establishment rests on its soft porcelain, in
which body, glaze, and enamel colours blend to-
— into a singularly smooth and lustrous
whole.
But in Europe it was in Germany that the secret
of making hard or kaolinie porcelain was first dis-
covered. After years of labour and innumerable
trials, which resulted ~
only in the production
of a kind of opaque
lass or stoneware,
tiger (q.v.), an
alchemist who
entered the service of
Frederic Augustus IT.
of Saxony, succeeded
in 1709 in making a
white hard porcelain
at Meissen, near Dres-
den. The china-clay
and china-stone he em-
— had previously
n discovered by
Schnorr at Aue. Extra-
oer precautions
were taken to prevent
the process of the
manufacture from be-
ing revealed; but,
notwithstanding the
oaths imposed on the
workmen and the other
means employed for
Fig. 24.
Dresden Gandelabrum,,
their supervision, the secret was betrayed by one
rial
factory which continues to this day was established
Stéfzel, who fled to Vienna, and there the im
in 1718. Subsequently factories under national
»rotection were established at Héchst in 1740, at
St Petersburg in 1744, at Berlin in 1750, and at
Ludwigsburg in 1758. Works at which soft porce-
lain was principally made were established at
Doccia near Florence in 1735, at Capo di Monte
near Naples in 1736, and at Buen Retiro in Spain
in 1759; and the products of all these manufactories ~
have attained considerable reputation.
In Great Britain manufacturers have at all times
devoted themselves principally to the making of a
variety of soft porcelain. The works at Chelsea,
Bow, and Derby were established about 1745, and
in 1751 the manufacture began at Worcester, where
itstill continues. Hard porcelain-makin =
by Cookworthy at Plymouth in 1768, after he
discovered china-clay in Cornwall. But his works
continued only for about three years. Cookworthy’s
atent rights were then transferred to Richard
hampion, who continued the manufacture at
Bristol till 1781. In Staffordshire porcelain was
first made at Longton Hall near Neweastle in 1752,
but it was not till about the close of the 18th cen-
tury that Staffordshire porcelain became artistically
and technically fine in the hands of Thomas Minton,
who founded the famous works of Minton & Com-
pany, and of Josiah Spode, whose undertaking
continnes under the firm of Copeland & Company.
POTTERY
POT-WALLOPERS 369
In the later part of the 18th century valuable por-
celain was also made at Lowestoft, Coalport,
Nan , Swansea, and some other centres. The
manufacture of Parian or stat porcelain, which
is an unglazed modification of English soft por-
celain, was introduced by Copeland and Minton
about 1848.
It is a common practice to place on pottery and
porcelain distinctive marks, either painted on or
stamped into the bottom of the article. These
indicate either the manufactory in which the pieces
were made, or the workman, and sometimes the
decorator, employed on them; and in the case of
Chinese and Japanese ware the marks give the
po bags f or date of execution. It is only in the
ease of Sévres porcelain that the habit of marking
a date by letters of the alphabet was practised. In
Chinese porcelain date-marks are found indicating
that the piece was made as far back as the 10th cen-
tury ; but there is reason to believe that many of
these early marks are forged, and at most are only
copies of more ancient examples which have now
ceased to exist. On some pieces of early majolica
the date, place, and name of the artist are given.
The great European manufactories have generally
marks which indicate the place of making only ;
but there are other means of arriving approximately
at the date. The illustrations (fig. 25) show the
marks employed at various important English
works ; but many of the manufacturers imprinted
or impressed their names in full. In connection
with these marks and names it should be borne in
mind that it is easier to forge marks and names
than it is to produce works equal to the originals
X11
ef
i FX ACE Kh Ah.b.
CG
¢
fie> f
(i
alli)
(a
Nina
)
td
ai Cc x. t D
SL. | dp
Fig. 25.—Marks on English Ware :
(1) Pennington lade = 1760-80 ; (2) Plymouth, about 1760; (3) Richard Champion, Bristol, 1772-90; (4) Charles Green, Leeds,
1790 ; (5) Bow, 1730-90 ; (6) Absolon, Yarmouth, about 1790; (7) Chelsea, 1730-84; (8) Swansea, Wales, 1790; (9) Worcester,
1760-80; (10) Yarmouth, about 1790; (11) Derby, 1751-69; (12) Crown, Derby, 1780-1830; (13) Shropshire, 1772-99;
(14) Cookworthy, Plymouth, 1760; (15) Derby-Chelsea, 1770.
imitated, the excellence and value of which causes
such forgeries to be put in circulation. There is a
vast quantity of forged porcelain in existence, and,
2 event imitations of the fine old soft porcelain
of Sevres and of other famous fabriques are very
abundant.
voluminous, Among standard works of ova interest
rts Céramiques
ceramic Art of Great
883); Solon, The Art of the Old
English Potter ("6 ed, 1885); Me rd, Wedgwood
1873); Audsley and es, Keramic
Art of Ja (1881); Garnier, La Porcelaine Tendre de
Sévres (1 et seq.; English trans, nearly simultane-
ously); Bowes, Japanese Pottery (1890); Darcel and
Delange, Receuil ey Faiences Italiennes (1867). For
marks and monograms: Chaffers, Marks and Mono-
388
grams on Pottery and Porcelain (7th ed. 1886), his
smaller Collector’s Handbook (new ed. 1890); Palliser,
The China Collector's Pocket Companion (1874); Graesse,
Guide de ! Amateur de Porcelaine et des Poteries (4th ed.
Dresden, 1873).
Potton, a market-town of Bedfordshire, 11
miles E. of Bedford. Pop. 2006.
Pottstown, a borough of Pennsylvania, on the
Schuylkill River, at the mouth of Manatawny
Creek (both crossed by bridges), 40 miles by rail
NW. of Philadelphia. It contains iron-foundries,
blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, nail-factories, car-
works, &c. Pop. (1880) 5305 ; (1900) 13,696.
Pottsville, capital of Schuylkill county, Penn-
sylvania, is built on the side of steep hills, on the
huylkill River, at the entrance of Norwegian
Creek, 93 miles by rail NW. of Philadelphia. It
is in the midst of a rich anthracite coal and iron
region, and has several iron-furnaces, foundries,
rolling-mills, machine-shops, sawmills, &e. Pop.
(1880) 13,253 ; (1900) 15,710.
Pot-wallopers (from pot, | and wallop, ‘to
boil or bubble’), the popular designation of a class
370 POUCHED MOUSE
POULTRY
of electors forming the constituency of various
English boroughs (e.g. Taunton, Preston) before
the Reform Act of 1 and defined in Sir James
Stephen's Commentaries as ‘ such as cook their own
diet in a fireplace of their own.’ At Taunton in
the 18th century ‘several inmates or lodgers would,
some little time before the election, bring out their
pots, and make fires in the street, and boil their
victuals in the sight of their neighbours, that their
votes be not called in question’ (Defoe’s Tour
through Great Britain, 4th ed. 1748).
Pouched Mouse (Dipodomys), a genus of
small, lean, long-tailed, agile rodents, cheek-
uches, The best-known species is D. philippit,
m the waste regions of California, where it seems
to find a sparse diet of seeds and roots, and in the
dry season no drink but dew.
Pouched Rat (Pseudostoma or Geomys), a
genus of plump, short-tailed, hamster-like rodents,
with cheek-pouches which open externally and are
used as receptacles for food. One of the best-known
ies is P. or G. bursarius, sometimes called
‘Gopher.’ Like the other species it is a native of
North America, and inhabits the territory east of
the Rocky Mountains and west of the Mississippi.
It is a burrower like the mole, active in the warm
weather, hybernating in the cold, sluggish above
ground, but rr active in its subterranean pro-
gress. The cheek-pouches are very large, and are
crammed with roots, seeds, &c., but not with earth
as the Indians used to maintain. Being voracious
gnawers, the pouched rats do much damage to the
roots of trees and crops.
Poughkeepsie, capital of Dutchess county,
New York, on the east k of the Hudson River,
73 miles by rail N. of New York City, is finely situ-
ated on a tableland, about 200 feet above the rivér.
The Hudson is here crossed by a steam-ferry,
and spanned by an important railroad bridge of
masonry, steel, and iron (finished in 1888); the
structure rests on six piers—four in the channel
—and is 3094 feet in length from anchorage
to anchorage, or, including the approaching
viaducts, nearly 7100 feet. Over three spans
are cantilevers, with arms of 160 feet. The
city is well built, with fine public and private
edifices ; Main Street runs back 2 miles from the
river, Speco pr ev is the largest town between
New York and Albany ; its manufactures include
machinery, iron-ware, silk, boots and shoes, cloth-
ing, &e., and it has a rolling-mill, a blast-furnace,
and several breweries. Two miles to the north is
the Hudson River State Hospital for the Insane,
which cost $750,000, and the city contains a
number of charitable institutions. But Pough-
keepsie has most reason to be proud of its educa-
tional facilities. Vassar College (q.v.) is just
beyond the eastern city limit, and the town
possesses also a collegiate institute, a business
college, and several high-class seminaries and acad-
emies, besides the pe lic schools. Poughkeepsie
was settled by the Dutch about 1680; 1778 it
was the state capital, and in 1788 the New York
Convention met here to ratify the constitution of the
United States. Pop. (1870) 20,080 ; (1900) 24,029.
Poulpe. See Ocropvus.
Poultice, an application to diseased or painful
parts, for the purpose of semis pit dpenager
relieving pain, and stimulating or soothing the
skin, according to circumstances. A poultice may
be composed of any moist pulpy substance of
sufficient consistence to retain the water without
dripping or soaking through the flannel or linen
covering in which it is generally applied. The
making of a poultice well, is a matter of some
nicety, and unless the proper consistence is given
to the mass the application is apt to do more harm
than good. The linseed-meal poultice is the
easily made, and most satisfactory of ali soo
applications, The meal is stirred gradi into a
suflicient per of boiling water, in the
bottom of a small basin or teacup, unti
smooth pulp is formed of the proper
and in quantity sufficient to cover completely,
poultice put directly in
contact with the skin. If applied for pain, or
ne eg r rp apenicnt where rg is ents
needed, the oil is unnecessary, an
should be enveloped in cotton-wool or in several
layers of flannel. It can then be borne hotter,
and will retain its heat longer. The bread and
milk, or even bread and water or bran poul is
also very good; as is also the oatmeal-
Laeger to hag te pay may be added
with advantage. or two of yeast ma;
be added, if there are foul di i cuamon
may be used alone, or sprinkled on the surface of
the poultice before it is applied, or it may be made
with a non-irritating antiseptic lotion of
pee water (e.g. corrosive sublimate, 1 to 2000
arrot poultices are in great favour with the people
in some parts of the country. Hemlock poultices,
made of the fresh leaves, or of the dried leaves, with
the aid of some powder of the leaves, form a valu-
able sedative application in painfat diseases ; and
poppy-heads, or even opium, are sometimes infused
in the water of which a poultice is made, for the
same parece, A stimulating poultice be
made by sprinkling oil of turpentine, or chloroform,
or mustard in moderate quantity on the surface
any ordinary poultice. hen considerable irrita-
tion of the skin in a short time is desirable, a
mustard poultice is used. For the danger of
poulticing the eye, see Eyx, Vol. IV. p. 513.
Poul (Fr. poule, ‘a hen;’ Lat. pullus, ‘a
chicken ;’ Eng. let) is the term by which are
known the bi rought by man into domestication,
and usually embraces the ordinary fowl, ducks, geese,
turkeys, and guinea-fowl. From the time when
man to abandon his nomadic manner of life
and settle down into settled habitations, poul
one form or another have been brought into subjec-
tion, taking the place of the wild birds which,
when he wandered, he was able to snare or kill,
but which fled from him when he chose one abode.
Only in Asia is the ordinary fowl found in a wild
state, chiefly in India. Here is yet to be found the
Gallus ferrugineus, or G. bankiva, which, from its
resemblance in every way to the modern fowl and
the freedom with which the two breed together, is
accepted as the progenitor of nearly all our domes-
ticated varieties. At one time it was thought to be
the parent of all, and this was the view of in ;
but later researches have led to a modification of
this opinion; there is no wild breed of fowl to
which the Brahma and Cochin type of fowl can
be traced. The Jungle-fowl of India, or G. bankiva,
has plumage and colour not very dissimilar to the
game fowl, and this type prevails largely in the
great dependency, From the time of the an-
cients penile have been bred and kept. Many
records found in the writings of early days refer
to the fighting qualities of the cock, and in
some countries he was bred ly, if not chiefly,
for this a sag / Theognis, Aristophanes, A
totle, Diodorus, Aischylus, Plutarch, Plato, and
Pliny all make reference in their writings to the
fowl, which seems to have gradually spread over
POULTRY
371
ee being, it is supposed, brought into Britain
by Ro , Since whose time it has been an
important member of our domesticated animals.
The fighting qualities of game fowls have always
been Special
ly studied, and Cock-fi — (q.v.)
was once a recognised sport in the Uni ing.
dom, followed by all classes of society.
Poultry are valued for two pu : (1) for their
flesh, and (2) for the eggs peeiaeed by them. In
those varieties which are gre s bred for the table
the flesh is abundant, fine in texture, excellent
in flavour, and easily digested. It enters very
largely into the food-supply of the country in an
ever-increasing ratio, and is strongly recommended
to invalids or persons of weak digestion. Eggs (q.v.)
are consumed to an even greater extent, and more
generally than can ever be the case with poultry ;
r are within the reach of all persons, and are
used for every form of cooking, as also largely
for manufacturing pu The great and ever-
ing demand in Britain for this class of
food is seen in the vast imports, which have
grown so enormously. In 1864 the value of eggs
zehsoas from the continent of Europe was
028; in 1870, £1,102,080; 1875, £2,559,860 ;
1880, £2,235,451; 1890, £3,428,802; and 1897,
£4,356,807, besides poultry to the value of about half
a million. And in the same period it is estimated
that the eggs and poultry received into Great
Britain from Ireland, which has always been a
large poultry and egg producing country, amounted
one and th uarter million pounds sterling,
that Britain’s poultry and consumption, if
take the value of home production as
that of Ireland, is nearly seven and a half
million pounds annually. A calculation was made
in 1890, for the French minister of Agriculture,
that the income derived from the sale of
and try in that country is £13,496,000—viz.
£6,140,000 for poultry, and £7,356,000 for
The number of fowls is computed at 45,000,000,
po riper fl a value of £4,500,000. It has been
that the daily consumption of in the
United States is 44,000,000, which would represent
an annual value of more than $200,000,000.
Although the breeds of yg | are not so numer-
ous as are those of pigeons, the development of
breeds since the era of poultry-shows been
very great, and we have now some — distinet
varieties, several of which are again subdivided by
different colours. There are about twenty varieties
of ducks, seven of , and six of Turkeys (q.v.
domesticated. Ducks are most prolific layers, an
there is always a good demand for their eggs,
especially by cooks and confectioners. The breeds
of ducks valued for table — and for breed-
ing are almost all good layers—the Aylesbury,
Pekin, and Cayuga breeds being famous; the eggs
of the Rouen breed are rather smaller than those
general purpose breeds; and
s.
Table Poultry.—Characterised by rapid growth,
fine quality of flesh, and great breast development.
err mabe English breed, square bodied, white
legs feet, and five toes; four colours. French.—
Seven varieties, all marked by large size, rich flesh,
chiefly dark-legged. Game.—Have great breast
muscles and fine flesh; not so large as the breeds
already named ; nearly half a score colours of game
fowl may be found. Indian Game.—A very large
breed, bred chiefly in Cornwall ; beautiful in flesh
eaiity, but darker than dorkings or French, and
vier in bone; can be fed up to a t size.
In addition to these may be named Is and
Malays, which are good as table fowls.
Laying or Non-sitting Poultry.—In these the
}
laying powers have been greatly develo (some
varieties producing upwards of 200 eggs nee
and the maternal instinct has been suspended by
disuse. They are chiefly of the Mediterranean
family, but not exclusively so. These Mediter-
ranean varieties have large single combs, a lightish
body, and include Anconas (speckled), Andalusian
(blue), Leghorns or Italians (of which are ten
colours), Minoreas (black), and Spanish (black
with long white faces). Hamburghs.—Under this
term are two families, the Yorkshire and Lanca-
shire Pheasant Fowls ye rk gr and black), as also
the Redeaps, and the teh (pencilled), all very
beautiful, and the most prolific layers we have.
Houdans.—Another French breed, with a crest,
pale legs, and five toes. Polish or Polled.—Havea
very large crest, are good layers, but are delicate ;
of these there are six colours. Scotch Greys.—A
cuckoo-plumaged fowl, with pale legs, flesh,
and suitable for cold climates.
Poultry.—Breeds which are not
specially in any one quality, but well balanced
and all round ; chiefly of the Chinese type—
i.e. heavy in leg and bone, large in size, and with
high tails. Brahmas—A Chinese fowl modified in
Europe and America; two colours. Cochins.—The
which made such a furore in the ‘ Fifties ;’
very handsome, but poor as a layer and moderate
in flesh; five colours. Langshans.—Like the
Cochin, of Chinese origin; an excellent layer of
eggs with buff-tinted shells, and a capital table
fowl; one variety, black in plumage. Plymouth
Rocks.—A variety of American making, cuckoo in
lumage, and excellent in economic qualities.
‘yandottes,—Also.of American origin ; equal as a
layer and for the table; four colours. All these
make excellent mothers, as do most of those in the
table-poultry section, and are very hardy.
Fancy or Ornamental Poultry.—These include
the breeds which are either bred alone for their
beauty or peculiarity of plumage, or by reason of
diminutive size are of no service for economic pur-
poses, a rages the Game Bantams (six
varieties ), tams (thirteen varieties, but con-
stantly being added to, many from China and
J ), Japanese Long-tailed, Silkies, Sultans,
led, Naked Necks, Rumpless, &c.
That poultry can be made profitable is undoubted,
but hitherto all attempts to establish poultry-farms
as such have ended in failure. Considerable profit
is often made by those who breed and exhibit pure-
bred poultry, whilst the advan of having fresh
eggs and home-fed poultry is sufficient inducement
to many who have the opportunities of keeping a
few fowls, apart from the pleasure derived from
them. Poultry can be kept under many conditions,
and have been found to thrive in the most unlikely
places, but all their wants must be artificially
supplied. To maintain them in health they should
have a house dry above and below, with 16 square
feet of floor space for every half-dozen fowls of the —
medium-sized varieties, an outside shelter in which
is placed a dust bath, this being the way in which
their skin and feathers are cleansed, and an open run
without. If they can be given full liberty it is all
the better, for which reason movable houses placed
out in fields or parks are the best; but often it is
impossible to do this, and then not less than 6 square
feet of ground should be allowed to each fowl if
the run is laid in gravel or sand, or 100 square feet
per bird if in , or it will all be eaten off
and the ground left bare. Absolute cleanliness is
essential for them in houses, nests, and runs, and
the ground should be changed every two or three
years, or it is liable to become foul from the rich-
ness of their manure. Fowls naturally eat grain,
slugs, worms, &c., and, if the latter are not obtain-
able in the ground by them, some substitute must
.
372
POULTRY
be provided. For laying birds it is found that soft
food is very beneficial, and it should be given in
the m , With hard corn in the later part of
the day. hens should be provided for apart
from other stock, as require to be in a quiet
lace. The time of incubation is twenty-one days.
When the brood has made its appearance the hen
and chickens should be placed out in a coop, and
the latter fed rey two hours for the first poy oo
every three hours for the next two weeks, and after
that four times a day until they reach hey een
Artificial incubation and gyre y 4 are very large
adopted by poultry-breeders, and have been brought
to a remarkable state of perfection, the machines
now sold working with great regularity and _pre-
cision (see INCUBATION). The advantage of in-
cubators is that they can be used at any period of
the year, and are not dependent upon the weather,
as is the case with hens. The Hearson and West-
meria incubators are the best, and the Westmeria
brooder has proved remarkably successful for all
kinds of ae This gr of working is largely
employed in France and America. Poultry are
polygamons, and from four to ten hens should be
placed with each cock bird, according to breed and
the season of the year.
Poultry-farming.—Many attempts have been
made to establis age iy goers but they have
always ended in failure, and it has come to be re-
ed as an axiom that poultry will not pay. The
reasons for this failure have been twofold : first, that
the amount of _ necessary to keep the fowls in
health when in large numbers, and the consequent
increase in labour, were too heavy charges against
the enterprise ; and second, the placing of a large
number of birds together, under conditions which
were unhealthy, induced disease, and so ruined the
scheme. The great mistake has been made in
attempting poultry-farming as a separate industry,
rather than as part of a r enterprise. Where
it can be grafted upon other work, an addition
to the business of farming or fruit-growing, it can
be, and has been, made successful in several not-
able instances. In these there is no separate charge
for land ; the labour is not on account of it alone;
a rtion of the food needed by the fowls is
obtained by themselves from the ground, and such
as oe is at the first cost; the produce can
generally be sold with what other is going to
market, and especially if dairying or fruit-growing
be also entered into, those who purchase milk or
butter or fruit being generally willing to buy the cogs
and chickens ; and, finally, the land is enriched by
the manure of the fowls, whilst its employment for
other purposes will prevent its becoming foul, the
t danger when only poultry are kept on the
and, for disease is spoodiiy induced by foul ground.
The force of events during recent years has com-
pelled many British farmers to take up what were at
one time regarded as minor pursuits, and branches
of farming which in themselves are not sufficient to
givea cable Poe which reason they were neglected
for larger things—have received attention. Or, as
it has been expressed, ‘commercial poultry will
only pay as an accessory to something else,
whether it be a farm or a household—to eat
scraps which would otherwise be wasted . . . and
to give to the land, in the shape of manure,
properties which cannot otherwise be obtained
except by a heavy outlay.’ When we look to
France, where poultry are bred to such an enor-
mous extent, we find that poultry-farms as
such have no existence, but that fowls are
kept by every farmer and cottager. The same
remarks apply to Italy, Denmark, and Ireland,
from all of which countries England receives |
supplies of eggs and poultry. In the wine districts
of France fowls are permitted to wander amongst
the vines all the year round, except just when the
fruit is forming, and they do a most serviceable
work in cleaning and manuring the ground,
poultry houses are placed in the vineyards, and in
many cases are made sufficiently narrow to pass
between the rows of plants.
In France, in the re and Sussex districts of
esbury, where so many
tubing, and connected with a cylinder, is inserted
into the mouth of the bird. In this cylinder is a
maey of liquid food, made of buckwheat or some
other meal, milk, and a little fat, and it is so
arranged that when a pedal is pressed by the foot
a portion of the food, varying according to the
8 of fattening—for it is increased in brome
day until the process is completed—is inj
through the tube and nozzle into the bird’s ero)
By this means the fattening is carefully and -
fully conducted, and there can be no doubt of the
result, as every one who has tasted a well-fattened
French fowl will be able to testify. In the La
Bresse, Le Mans, and La Sarthe districts of
France the number of fowls fattened every year
is enormous, and the best specimens realise v:
high prices. The flesh is beautifully tender an
white, and much more abundant than would be
ible on an unfattened fowl. InS and
ussex the method adopted is somewhat different,
in that the birds are either fed by hand or with
heavy crank cramming-machines, powerful enough
to force semi-liquid food into the crop of the fowl.
Here the process does not last more than three
weeks. en the birds are killed — are imme:
diately — and placed, before they become
uite cold, on shaping so made as to give
em the appearance. Treland there is
very little fattening carried on, and consequently
the poultry from that country are poor and sell at
about the lowest price on the English market.
Where poultry are kept in large numbers the
best method of housing is by means of movable or
portable dwellings, for these can be transferred
about from place to place, giving the fowls fresh
ground and distributing their manure, which is
very valuable indeed, over the land. Under no
circumstances should more than fifty be kept in
one flock ; and it will be found in practice that a
will not wander far from their home, or mix wi
each other, even if the houses be placed in adjoin-
ing fields. The ordinary methods of management
are applicable here. There can be no question that
the increase in the size of farms, which has taken
lace within the last half of the 19th century, has
lone much to pre ultry-keeping, and the
opposite tendency ought to have a reactive effect
(see PEASANT PRIETORS). Much might be
done in the way of enco ing poultry-keeping by
cottagers, who could maintain them with the
minimum of cost and the maximum of results. A
very important factor in successful pane Soe
is the selection of right breeds, and it is essenti
that the produce should be marketed as speedily
as possible. An egg two days old is worth twice as
much as when two weeks laid, a fact which should
always be borne in mind, but is too often ee
In the great cities and densely populated districts
there is a constant demand for fresh eggs, and at
POUNCE
POWAN 373
z
prices. To secure the best returns all
and poultry should be sent to market clean, well
and in the best possible condition. The
supply of the commoner varieties of poultry pro-
duce is very large, and the prices obtained are
- consequently small, but there is no limit to the
demand for high-class qualities at remunerative
See L. Wright, The Illustrated Book of Poultry (new
ed. 1885) ; Tegetineier, Poultry Book (new ed. 1872), and
Poultry for the Table and Market (1892); Poultry (
and Son); 8. Beale, Poultry-keeping (1883) ;
L. K. Felch, Poultry ture (Chicago, 1886); Pouliry-
ing for Farmers and Cottagers, by the present writer
); also the articles Duck, Goosz, Guinza FowL,
KEY, Eac, Foon, IncusBatton, &c.
Pounce, powdered rosin, or some gum-resin
such as mastic, sandarach, or copal, and also the
oe of euttle-fish bones, formerly used for sprink-
ig over freshly-written writing to prevent blot-
ting ; fine sand was often substituted for pounce.
Pound (Sax. pend, Ger. pfund, Lat. pondus,
‘weight’), long the unit of weight in the western
and central states of Europe, differing, however, in
value in all of them. e symbol ‘lb.’ for it is
racy A general, and is derived from the Latin
word libra. The old —_ pound, which is said
to have been the standard of weight from the time
of William the Conqueror till that of Henry VIL,
was derived from the weight of 7680 grains of
wheat, all taken from the middle of the ear, and
well dried. For the difference between the present
avoirdupois and troy pound, see AVOIRDUPOIS,
WEIGHTs AND MEAsuREs. In the British Phar-
maco' of 1864 the troy ounce was given up,
and pound avoirdupois and the ounce avoir-
=< were adopted. also LIVRE, MARK.
pound weight of silver, a common money
standard among the ancient Romans, was intro-
duced by them into the countries they conquered,
and thus the term ‘pound’ became a designation
of a certain amount of coined money. Thus,
nowadays, the English pound is considered as
something (a coin or otherwise) equivalent to 20
shillings, but originally it denoted the pound of
silver which was coined into 20 shillings. From
Edward IL.’s time the coins were more and more
diminished in size, that monarch coining 25 shillin
from a pound of silver; while from the same weight
of bullion his various successors coined 30, 45, 48,
96, 144, 288, in the time of Elizabeth 60, and under
George I. 66 shillings to the pound of silver, and
this rate still continues, the term ‘pound’ being
severed from its original meaning, and signifying
20 shillings of the present coinage. The soverei
of gold was first struck under Henry VIL; its
value rose to as much as 30 shillings ; under Charles
IL. it was fixed at 21 shillings, and the sovereign
was su ed by the Guinea (q.v.) till 1817 (see
Money, Mint). The pound Scots, originally of
the same value as the English one, sank in value
after 1355 till in 1600 it was but one-twelfth of the
value of the English nd, and was accordingly
worth Is, 8d.; it was divided into twenty shillings,
each worth an English penny. The Treaty of
Union provided that the money thereafter used
should be of the same standard and fineness through-
out the United Kingdom.
Po in English law, means an enclosure,
of which there was generally one in every parish
or manor, in which stray cattle were put and de-
tained until the damage done by them was paid
‘for. Whenever a stranger’s or neighbour's cattle
trespass on another’s lands the latter can seize
them, and take them to the pound, or impound
them, as it is called, damage feasant, and can
keep them there till the expenses are repaid. There
was a distinction between pound overt, or common
und, and pound covert, or close pound; in the
former case the owner of the beasts could go and
feed and water his cattle while impounded, and it
was his duty to do so; but not in the latter case.
Now it is compulsory for the impounder in all
cases to supply the cattle with food, otherwise he
incurs a penalty ; and if impounded cattle are not
sufficiently fed a stranger who feeds them may not
only trespass on lands to do so, but can recover the
costs from the owner of the beasts. Goods dis-
trained, if liable to be stolen or damaged, should
be deposited in pound covert. At Madresfield, near
Malvern, a public pound was repaired so recently
as 1888; but practically they are quite obsolete,
since the law now permits a person distraining for
rent to secure the distress on the premises (see
Distress). In the United States estrays are gener-
ally liable to be sold for the benefit of the poor of
the place where they are found, or for some other
public use.
Poundal, a name sometimes used for the
absolute foot pound second unit of force, which
will produce in one pound a velocity of one foot
per second, after acting for one second.
Pounds, Jounx. See RaGGED ScHooLs.
Poushkin. See PusHKin.
Poussin, Nico.as, a painter of {pee celebrity,
was born at Andelys in Norman y in June 1594,
went at the age of eighteen to Paris, and studied
under Ferdinand Elle, the Fleming, Lallemand,
and others, but mer | improved himself by draw-
i from casts, and drawings and prints after
Raphael and Giulio Romano, in the collection of
M. Courtois, who accorded him access to them.
After a long and hard struggle he attained the
object of his desire—the means of visiting Rome.
He was thirty years of age when he arrived there,
and a considerable period elapsed after that before
he obtained much employment. At length, how-
ever, he received several important commissions
from the Cardinal Barberini, which he executed so
successfully that he afterwards rapidly acquired
fame and fortune. After an absence of sixteen
years he returned to Paris with M. de Chanteloup,
and was introduced by Cardinal Richelieu to Louis
XIIL, who appointed him his painter in ordinary,
with apartments in the Tuileries and a small
salary. But in 1643, annoyed by intrigues against
him, he returned to Rome; and there, after pro-
ducing a large quantity of admirable work, he died
on 19th November 1665. His style is a combination
of classical ideals and Renaissance tendencies ; his
colours have changed so as to interfere with the
harmony of his pictures, whose noble designs may
be admirably studied in the numerous engravings
of them. The finest collection of his works is in
the Louvre; but some of the best are in the
National Gallery, at Dulwich, and in English
rivate collections.—His nephew, Gaspar Dughet
1613-1675), assumed his uncle’s name, and as
GASPAR Poussin became famous as a landscapist,
his “eats of the Roman Campagna being espe-
cially no He worked also in tempera and
fresco. The National Gallery possesses his
‘Sacrifice of Abraham.’
See works on Nicolas Poussin by St Germain, Bouchitté
(1858), and Poillon (2d ed. 1875), with an article by
ly Dilke (E. F. S. Pattison) in L’Art (1882).
Pout. See Brs. The name Horned Pout and
Bullpout are given in America to the siluroid
Amiurus, also called Catfish (q.v.).
Poverty Bay. See GISBORNE.
Powan, another name for the Gwyniad (q.v.)
See COREGONUS.
374 POWELL
POYNTER
Powell, Baven, physicist and theologian, was
born in London in 1796, was educated at Oriel
College, Oxford, in 1821 became vicar of Plum-
stead, and in 1824 was made F.R.S. From 1827
till his death, 11th June 1860, he was Savilian
professor of Geometry at Oxford. He published
a history of congep gagee hy (1834), treatises
on the calenlns (1830), optics (1833), and the
undulatory theory of light (1841); but he is best
known by his contribution on the evidences of
Christianit to the Essays and Reviews (q.v.), and
by other theological works, regarded at the time
as dan ly ‘liberal’ in tendency. These
inthade tbonas on the ant of Worlds (1856),
Christianity without Judaism (1857), Natural and
Divine Truth (1857), and The Order of Nature
(1859).
Powell, Joun Wes.ey, an American geologist
and anthropologist, was born at Mount Morris,
New York, 24th March 1834, and served through
the civil war, in which he lost his right arm and
rose to the rank of major. He was afterwards
professor of Geology in the Wesleyan and, Normal
universities, Illinois; in 1868 spent three months
of hardship and peril in exploring the cafion of
the Colorasto ; and in 1870 a survey of that river
and its tributaries was placed by congress under
his direction. While so engaged he devoted special
attention to ethnological researches, and in 1879
he was made director of the new Bureau of Ethno-
logy ; in 1881 he was appointed also director of the
United States Geological weep’ Major Powell
in 1886 received the degree of Ph.D. from Heidel-
berg and that of LL.D. from Harvard, and in 1887
was president of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science ; in 1879, as vice-president,
he had delivered an address on ‘ Mythologie Philo-
sophy.’ Besides the Exploration od the Colorado
River in 1869-72 (1875), Lands of the Arid Region
of the United States (1879), &c., his works include
ntributions to North American Ethnology, and
Outlines of the Philosophy of the North American
Indians ( Reports of Bur. of Eth.).
Powell, Mary. See MiLTon.
Power is a legal term, to some extent identical
in meaning with such terms as liberty, faculty, &c.
A public officer is empowered to do certain acts
which are not permitted to private persons. An
individual, not under disability, has Fund to bind
himself by contract, and to dispose of his property :
if he chooses to settle his property he may effect
the purposes of the settlement by conferring
powers on himself and others ; he may, for example,
reserve to himself a power of revocation; he may
give power toa n who takes a life interest to
charge the inheritance with portions for daughters,
&c, Powers of appointment are commonly
in English settlements to enable parents to ey
or distribute settled property among their children.
Snch powers must be exercised in good faith, and
with the forms prescribed by the settler who
confers them. A power of attorney is a deed
whereby one person appoints another to do some
act on his behalf or to — him generally. A,
for example, may make B his attorney, to manage
his estate and receive the rents during A’s absence
abroad. Forms of such powers are given in David-
son, Prideaux, and other books of precedents; the
difficult legal questions which arise in to
powers over settled property are discussed in the
treatises of Sugden and Farwell.
Power. For the Mechanical Powers, see
MECHANICS; and for various motive powers, see
AIR-ENGINE, GAS-ENGINE, STEAM, PNEUMATIC
Despatcu, Fve.; see also HoRSE-POWER, TRANS-
MISSION OF Power. For the ‘Great Powers’ of
the world, see BALANCE or PowERr.
Powers, Hiram, American sculptor, was born
a farmer’s son at Woodstock, Vermont, July 29,
1805. While still a boy he went to
Ohio, where he became an apprentice to a clock-
maker, and _ — same — 2 oan the
uaintance a German scu » who taught
him to model in clay. Subsequently ie ae
employed for seven years making wax fi and
fitting them with machinery for the
museum, In 1835 he went to Washington, where
he executed the busts of several distinguished
persons. Two years later he was enabled to
ceed to Italy to study his art, and he resided in
Florence till his death on 27th June 1873. There
he produced his statue of ‘ Eve,’ which excited the
admiration of Thorwaldsen, and in 1843 the still
more popular ‘Greek Slave,’ of which six copies in
marble, with cast copies umerable, were pro-
duced, Of his ‘Fisher Boy’ (1846) ies
were ordered. Among his other works the chief
were ‘Proserpine,’ ‘Il Penseroso,’ ‘Calif r
‘ America,’ and busts of Washington for the state
of Louisiana, of Calhoun for South Carolina, and
Daniel Webster for Boston, as well as those of
J. Q. Adams, Andrew Jackson, Marshall, Van
Buren, and other distinguished Americans.
Powhatan. See PocanonTas.
Powis Castle. See WELSHPOOL.
ook Ovmings’ Act. See IRELAND, Vol. VI. p.
Poynter, Str Epwarp Jonn, painter, was born
in Paris, 20th March 1836, the son of Ambrose
Poynter, architect, and t-grandson of Thomas
Banks, hes eon e bs ao at West-
minster, ton lege, an ich grammatr-
school. Very delicate health pth him to be
sent to Madeira for the winter of 1852-53, and from
this visit arose the earnest desire to become an
artist. The winter of 1853-54 was spent in Rome,
Pe a - made the ee ahi hiwe serie
ighton, then a young man pai is picture
of ‘ Cimabue,’ whe Sllomel Poynter . sone tae his
studio, drawing from the models and ee from
which he was studying for his picture. In 1856 he
went to study in Paris, and in 1860 settled finall
in London. He now made many designs for inated
glass, and drawings on wood for Once a Week and
other periodicals, and for Dalziel’s projected illus-
trated Bible. This led him to study Egyptian
art; and in 1864 he his large ‘Israel in
Egypt’ (1867). His water-colours are numerous,
and he was elected to the Royal Water Colour
Society in 1883. In 1868 he was made an A.R.A.,
in 1876 an R.A. In 1871 he was gs eS Slade
professor, and in 1876 Director for and Prin-
cipal of the training-schools at South Kensington—
appointments which in 188] he resigned as inter-
fering too seriously with his time for painting.
Among the most important of his works are ‘
Catapult’ (1868) ; ‘The Prodigal Son’ (1869) ; ‘The
Ibis Girl’ (1871); ‘The Festival’ and ‘The Golden
Age’ (1875) ;‘Zenobia’ (1876); ‘A Visit to Aiseu-
lapius’ (1880, now at South Kensington); ‘The
Ides of March’ (1883); ‘Outward Bound’ (1886);
‘A Corner of the Market Place’ (1887); ‘ Under
the Sea Wall’ (1888); ‘A Corner in the Villa’
(1889); ‘The Visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solo-
mon’ (1890); and ‘ Perseus and Andromeda’ 1872),
‘The Dragon of Wantley’ (1873), ‘Atalanta’s
Race’ (1876), ‘Nausicaa and her Maidens’ (1879),
all painted for the Earl of Wharncliffe, and now
at Wortley Hall. In the years 1869-70 he did the
cartoons for a large mosaic of St George in the
central lobby in the Houses of Parliament. In
1882-84 he painted designs for the decoration of
the dome of St Paul’s, and cartoons (full size)
for one portion of the dome. Of portraits may be
i
_
POZZO DI BORGO
PRAED 375
mentioned those of Lord nar (1886), Sir Gerald
Graham (1886), and the Earl of Harewood (1888).
In 1894 he became director of the National Gallery.
In 1896 he was made P.R.A. and knighted. See
the article by Cosmo Monkhouse in the Art
Journal for Easter 1897.
Pozzo di Borgo, Carto ANDREA, Count,
was born near Ajaccio in Corsica, 8th March 1764,
and was educated at the university of Pisa. An
advocate in Ajaccio, in 1790 he joined Paoli
(9. .), becoming thenceforth the enemy instead
of the friend of Bonaparte. Paoli made him pre-
sident of the Corsican council of state in 1794, and
su uently secretary of state; but in 1796 he
was obliged to seek safety from the Bonapartes in
London. Two years later he went to Vienna and
elfected an alliance of Austria and Russia against
France. In 1803 he entered the Russian service as
a councillor of state, and was employed in many
important diplomatic missions. After the battle
of Jena he laboured to unite Napoleon’s enemies
inst him, and in in 1809 and 1812. He also
the seduction of Bernadotte, crown-prince
of Sweden, from the Napoleonic cause; and after
the allies had driven Napoleon across the Rhine,
Pozzo di Borgo drew up the famous declaration,
‘that the allies made war not on France, but on
Napoleon.’ the allies to
Ne Epo
and the of Vienna, at the Con OC)
Verona, and in London, but retired from public
on * 1839, -_ “ype od ep eg where ~ hoe
ebruary otice Biographi
Vuhrer (Paris, 1842). peel |
Pozzuolli, @ city of Southern Italy, on the Bay
of Naples, 7 miles W. of Naples, with which it is
connected by tramway, a city particularly interest-
ing from its numerous memorials of classic
Its cathedral was the Temple of Augustus. The
Temple of Serapis or Serapeum had a rectangular
colonnade of twenty-four pillars, surrounding a
round temple with sixteen pillars. Some have
all that the outer enclosure surrounded a
market-place. Some of the pillars still standing
are much eaten into by the lithodomus molluse
(see BORING ANIMALS), showing that this voleanic
coast was for a considerable time submerged to a
depth of 13 feet beneath the sea, and su nently
upheaved in. Part of the ruins are still under
the sea-level. There are the remains of an amphi-
theatre in which Nero fought as a gladiator, and
which could seat 30,000 spectators; in it wild
beasts refused to injure St Januarius and his com-
panions, thrown to them by persecutors. There
are also remains of temples to a and Neptune,
and of the ancient harbour of Puteoli. Behind the
town is the Solfatara (anciently called Forum
Vulcani, as being the entrance to Vulcan’s
forge), a half-extinct volcano, from which issue
currents of hot sulphureous gases, inhaled by
sufferers with chest complaints, and springs of
saline water, used as a remedy for cutaneous
diseases. In the neighbourhood are Avernus (q.v.);
the royal (Italian) hunting-lodge Astoni; ke
Lucrinus, celebrated for its oysters; the rnins of
Baie (q.v.) and Cume (q.v.); and the Lake of
A , With the Grotta del Cane (q.v.). Ofa very
different interest are the military engineering
works, the Stabilimento Armstrong, a little to the
west of Pozzuoli; this is a branch of the famous
Armstrong works at Elswick, near Newcastle,
established here (1888-90) with the ey oes of the
Italian government. Pop. 11,967. e@ ancient
Puteoli was made a Roman colony in 194 B.c.
Towards the end of the republican period it beeame
virtually the port of Rome, and during the empire
was the first emporium of commerce in Italy.
Puteoli was destroyed by Alaric, Genseric, and
Totila, and, though rebuilt by the Byzantine Greeks,
it was sacked by the Saracens (10th century) and
the Turks (1550), and ruined by earthquakes (1198
and 1538). St Paul landed there.—For the voleanic
earth found here and elsewhere, and called
Pozzuolana or Puzzolana, see CEMENTS.
Practice, in Arithmetic, is the name given
to a method, or rather a system of expedients, for
shortening or avoiding the operation of compound
multiplication. The nature of the Sxpedienis will
be best understood by an example: Suppose that
the price of 64,875 articles at £2 17s. 6d. is
required. It is obvious that the price, at £1,
would be £64,875; therefore, at £2, it is £129,750;
at 10s. it is the half of that at £1, viz. £32,437, 10s. ;
at 5s., the half of this last sum, or £16,218, 15s. ;
and at 2s. 6d., the half of this, or £8109, 7s. 6d.
The sum of these partial prices gives the whole
price.
Pracd, WINTHROP MACKWORTH (1802-39),
was born 26th July 1802, at 35 John Street, Bedford
Row, London. is name Winthrop came from
American connections ; Mackworth had been the
surname of his father, who was a serjeant-at-law.
After some training at a private school he went to
Eton. Here he was more famous for literature than
athletics, and was one of the most brilliant con-
pgedines to the well re he Eos Len ae
e passed in 1821 to Trinit; lege, Cambridge,
distinguishing himself rapidly in Greek and Latin
verse, and cultivating the lighter letters with in-
success in Charles Knight’s Quarterly
Magazine, where he had for co-mates De Quincey,
Macaulay, Moultrie, H. N. Coleridge, and others.
In 1825, having won many college honours, he
became tutor to the son of the Marquis of Ailes-
bury, intending to qualify for the bar, to which
four years later he was called. In November 1830
he entered parliament for St Germains. He sub-
uently became member for Great Yarmouth,
and later for Aylesbury, which he represented at
his death on 16th July 1839. From 1834 to 1835 he
was secretary to the rd of Control. f
But for his short life Praed might possibly have
been successful as an orator and politician. As it
is, he derives his existing reputation from the
finished and facile verses which he wrote almost
from his childhood. He is the Coryphzus of the
little band of rhymers whom criticism, according
to its taste and fancy, either dignifies or stigma-
tises as writers of vers de société—a term in its
stricter sense applied to those pieces which treat
only of the sayings and doings of the fashionable
world. The majority of Praed’s efforts belong
exclusively to this class; and in this line his note
is so individual, his rhythm so brilliant, and his
wit so bright, that it has hitherto been found more
easy to fmitate than to excel him. A typical
example of this side of his talent is the poem called
A Letter of Advice. But he is also admirable in
a kind of metrical gure painting oe The Vicar,
which, in the opinion o many reaches a higher
poetical elevation; while in The Red Fisherman,
Sir Nicholas, and one or two other pieces, he not
unskilfully emulates the manner of Macaulay and
Hood. His characteristics as a verse-writer are
point, elegance, and vivacity ; itis his defect that
these excellent gifts are but seldom relieved by
any graver note. His collected verses, : hope in
America long before they were gathered together
in England, escape in 1864 in two volumes, with
a memoir by the Rev. Derwent Coleridge ; in 1887
followed his prose essays ; and in 1888 his nephew,
Sir George Young, edited his political poems. The
best modern study of is to found in
Saintsbury’s Essays in English Literature (1890).
PRAGMATIC SANCTION
376 PRAFECT
Prifect, a common name applicable to various
Roman functionaries. The most important was
the Prafectus urbi, or warden of the city, whose
office at an early period of Roman history
but was revived under Augustus, with new an
tly altered and extended authority, including
ne whole powers necessary for the maintenance
of and order in the city, and an extensive
jurisdiction civil and criminal. The Pra/fectus
pretorio was the commander of the troops that
guarded the emperor's person.
Priefloration. See “sTIvATION.
Prfoliation. See VERNATION.
Premonstratensians. See PREMONSTRA-
TENSIANS.
Premanire, the name given, in English law,
to a species of offence of the nature of a contempt
the sovereign and his government, and
punishable with forfeiture and imprisonment. The
name is derived from the first words (pramunire or
ere facias) of a writ originally introduced
‘or the purpose of repressing papal encroachments
on the power of the crown. The attacks of the
pes on the rights of private patrons, by bestow-
g bishoprics, abbacies, &c. on favourites, often
aliens, and the pope’s insisting on deciding in his
curia cases that ought to have been tried in the
king's courts, were especially unpopular in Eng-
land, and were the immediate cause of various
statutes of premunire. Severe penalties were
imposed on those who gave or sought to enforce
obedience to the papal encroachments. The
Statute of Provisors (1350; see ENGLAND, CHURCH
or, Vol. IV. p. 357) was an early act of this sort;
the first act called Premunire was passed in 1353 ;
but the name of Premunire is specially used of an
act of 1393, in which Richard IL re-enacted and
strengthened the statute of Edward III. Under
Elizabeth it was made a breach of the Statute of
Premunire to refuse the oath of supremacy. By
later statutes a number of offences of a miscellane-
ous description were rendered liable to the penal-
ties of a premunire, as (by 6 Anne, chap. 7) the
asserting that any person, other than according
to the Acts of Settlement and Union, has any
right to the throne of these kingdoms. The know-
ingly and wilfully solemnising, assisting, or bein
oe at any marriage forbidden by the Roya
arriage Act is declared by 12 Geo. IIL chap. 11
to infer a preemunire.
Prienesté. See PALESTRINA.
Prietor was, among the ancient Romans, the
title given to the consuls as leaders of the armies
of the state; but it was specially employed to
designate a magistrate whose powers were scarcely
inferior to those of a consul. The 2 ep me py in
this specific sense of the term, was first instituted
in 366 B.C., as a compensation to the patricians for
being obliged to si with the plebeians the
honours of consulship, It was virtually a third
copeuentp s the pretor was entitled collega con-
sulibus ; he was elected by the same auspices and
at the same comitia. ‘or nearly thirty years
a pepap" alone were eligible for the office ; but in
37 B.C. the plebeians made good their right to it
also. The pretor’s functions were chiefly judicial.
Though he sometimes commanded armies, and, in
the absence of the consuls, exercised consular
authority within the city, yet his principal busi-
ness was the administration of justice both in
matters civil and criminal; and to the edicts of
successive prastors the Roman law owes much of
its development and improvement, Originally
there was only one pretor; but as the city and
state increased, and their relations with other
nations became more complicated, others were
added. In 246 B.C. a second pretor was ted,
to settle disputes that mi sess uaeureee faemens
and foreigners temporarily resident at Rome, for
trading or other purposes, hence called pere-
grinus (‘foreign preetor’), to him from
the original ‘or urbanus (‘city > In
227 two new preetors were appointed, to administer
affairs in Sicily and Sardinia; and in 197 two more
for the Spanish provinces, or six in all. Sulla
increased the number to eight, and Julius Cesar
to sixteen. Augustus reduced the number to
twelve ; but at a later period we read of eighteen
if not more. The city pretorship was reckoned
the highest; and after a person had filled this
office he sometimes received the administration of
a province with the title of propretor or proconsul.
Pretorian Guard (Lat. Pretoria Cohortes
and Pretoriani), a body of soldiers o i for
the purpose of protecting the person and maintain-
ing the power of the emperors. We read of a
pretoria cohors, or select guard of the most valiant
soldiers, attached to the person of Scipio Africanus,
but it is to a that the institution of them
as a separate force was owing. He formed nine or
ten cohorts, each consisting of a thousand men
(horse and foot), but kept oy three of them in
Rome, the rest’ being dispersed in cities not far off.
Tiberius, however, assembled the nine cohorts at
the capital in a permanent camp, and Vitellius in-
e their number to sixteen. Preetorians
served at first for twelve, and afterwards for six-
teen years; they received double pay ; the privates
were held equal in rank to the centurions in the
regular army, and on their retirement each received
20,000 sesterces. They soon acquired a
wer, which they exercised in the most unscrupu-
ous manner, deposing and elevating ou at
their pleasure. pirants for the imperial dignity
found it advisable, and even meet) to bribe
them largely ; while those who acquired that dig-
nity without their assistance were accustomed on
their accession to purchase their favour by liberal
donations. The Pretorians, however, had no
litical or ambitious views ; they were simply an
insolent and rapacious igs gb fond of substantial
tifications, and careless how they got them.
fter the death of Pertinax (193 A.D.) they actually
sold ‘the purple’ for a sum of money to Didius
Julianus; but in the same year their peois
organisation was entirely broken up by Severus,
who formed new cohorts altogether out of the best
legions serving on the frontiers, which he increased
to four times the number of the old. After several
other changes Constantine (312) dispersed them
among his regular legions,
Pragmatic Sanction (sometimes Pragmatic
Rescript ), a solemn ordinance or decree of the head
singdom relating either to church or state
affairs. The term originated in the Byzantine
empire, and signified a public and solemn decree
by a prince ( ikos, ‘business-like,’ later,
‘versed in affairs,’ ‘official’), as distinguished
from the simple reseript, which was a declaration
of law in answer to a question propounded by an
individual. This name is given to several import-
ant treaties, of which the principal are (1) that of
St Lonis in 1269 and (2) that of Charles VII. in
1437, in both of which the rights of the Gallican
Church (a.v.) were ; (3) the instrament
which settled the empire of Germany in the House
of Austria (1439); (4) the ordinance by which
Charles VI., emperor of Germany, having no male
issue, settled his dominions on his daughter, the
Archduchess Maria Theresa; (5) the settlement of
the succession of the kingdom of Naples, which
was ceded by Charles III. of Spain, in 1759, to his.
third son and his descendants,
*
PRAIRIE DOG 377
PRAGUE
Prague (Ger. Prag, Czech Praha), the capital
of Bohemia, and the third largest town of yen nen
Hun , is situated at the base and on the slope of
the hills which skirt both sides of the isleted Moldau,
217 miles by rail NNW. of Vienna and 118 SSE.
of Dresden. It offers a highly picturesque appear-
ance from the beauty of its site, and the numerous
lofty towers (more than seventy in number) which
rise above the ome | noble palaces, public build-
ings, and bridges of the city. The fortifications
have been ually demolished since 1866. The
royal Burg, on the Hradschin (240 feet), the
ancient residence of the Dukes of Bohemia, dates
mainly now from the 16th and 17th centuries, and
has 440 rooms, The neighbouring cathedral of St
Vitus (1344) is still unfinished, ents buildin:
was resumed in 1867. Here are the splendid roya!
mausoleum (1589) and the shrine (1736) of St John
of Nepomuk (q.v.), containing 14 ton of silver. Of
forty-seven other Catholic churches the chief are the
domed Jesuit church of St Nicolas, with its lavish
decorations, and the Teyn church (1407), the old
Hussite church, with the grave of Tycho Brahé,
and its marble statues of the Slavonic martyrs,
Cyril and Methodius. Of five bridges and two
railway viaducts the most striking is the Karls-
briicke (1357-1503), 543 yards long, with gate-
towers at either end, and statues of John of
Nepomuk and other saints. It was greatly
by flood in September 1890, but has since
been restored. Other noteworthy objects are the
town-hall (1381-1884), the Pulverturm (1475), the
new Czech Theatre (1883), the old Jewish grave-
yard, the Theresa Institution for Ladies, the vast
Czerni Palace (now used as barracks), the Picture-
llery, and the Premonstratensian monastery of
trahow. e has, besides, numerous public
gardens and walks in the suburbs, with several
royal and noble parks open to the public in the
vicinity of the city. The suburb of Karolinenthal,
which is trave by the great viaduct of the rail-
way, and is of modern growth, has some fine build-
ings, numerous gardens, barracks, and manufac-
turing establishments ; and somewhat farther north
is the great botanical garden, with the neighbouring
ublic walks on the Moldau. The university,
‘ounded in 1348, had 10,000 students at the begin-
ning of the 15th century ; but subsequently it had
a long period of decay. It received a new constitu-
tion in 1881, having now two co-ordinate sides or
sections, one German and one Czech, with respec-
tively 156 and 140 teachers, and 1470 and 1
students. It a library of 195,000 volumes
and 3800 manuscripts, a fine observatory, museams
of zoology and anatomy, a botanical garden, &c.
The manufactures include machinery, chemicals,
leather, cotton, linen, gloves, beer, spirits, &c.
Prague is the great centre of the commerce of
oe a and the seat of an important transit
trade. op. with suburbs (1880) 293,822; (1890)
310,483; of the town peta (1890) 182,530, of
whom 81 cent. were Czechs, 2 per cent. Protes-
tants, and 10 per cent. Jews.
History.—Prague was founded, according to
oe tae tradition, in 722 by the Duchess Libussa,
t really by German settlers about 1100. In the
14th century its munificently endowed university
brought foreigners to it from every part; but in
1424 Prague was mre, and almost destroyed
by the Hussites, who had made a successful stand
— the Emperor Sigismund’s army. In the
irty Years’ War it suffered severely, and in 1620
the battle was fought at the Weissenberg, near the
city, in which the Elector-Palatine, Frederick V.
(q.v.), was completely defeated, and compelled to
renounce his assumed crown. Swedes and Im-
ialists successively gained possession of the town
ring the war; and acentury later it again fell into
the hands of different victors, having been compelled
in 1744 to capitulate to Frederick the Great, who
here on 6th May 1757 defeated 60,000 Austrians
under Prince Charles of Lorraine. Until the down-
fall of Napoleon the city continued to suffer more
or «less directly from the troubles in which the
House of Austria was involved. Since then, how-
ever, it has made rapid strides, and enjoyed pros-
perity and quiet, except in 1848, when the meetin,
of the Slavonic Congress within its walls calle
forth such strongly marked democratic demonstra-
tions on the Legh of the supporters of Panslavism
(q.v.) that the Austrian government dissolved the
conclaye, and restored = by the summary
method of causing the old and new town to be
bombarded for two days. In 1866 Prague was
oceupied bloodlessly by the Prussians, who here
on 23d August concluded a treaty with Austria.
The jealousy subsisting between the Czech and the
German population was strongly accentuated on the
occasion of the Exhibition of 1891. See Statistisches
Handbuch der Hauptstadt Prag (3 vols. 1882-86).
Praia Grande. See Rio DE JANEIRO.
Prairie (Fr., ‘meadow’) was the name given by
the a, French explorers of the northern portion
of the Mississippi Valley, North America, to the
vast fertile and treeless plains which extend from
Western Ohio and Southern Michigan across the
states of Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas,
Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and North and South
Dakota, including the southern portions of Wis-
consin and Minnesota. The prairie region also
extends northward into Canadian territory. These
t plains or savannas are sometimes flat, but
oftener rolling like the long swells of the ocean,
and rise in gradual elevation from 300 to 1500 feet
above the sea. See AMERICA, Vol. I. p. 215.
Prairie Dog (Cynomys Ludovicianus) is a
small rodent closely allied to the European Marmot
(q.v.); these animals have receiv their ver-
nacular name on account of the barking sound
which they utter. They live associated together in
colonies consisting of numerous burrows excavated
by the animals themselves ; their range is entirely
Prairie Dog (Cynomys Ludovicianus).
restricted to the parks and eo of the Rocky
Mountain plateau region in North America, and
there appear to be two distinct varieties. They
have been popularly supposed to share their habita-
tions, and to live in friendly relations, with rattle-
snakes and owls. As regards the rattlesnake, it is
more than probable that its occurrence in the
burrows of the rodent is to be explained by a
desire to make a meal of its neighbours, while the
owl may have a similar purpose in view; it is also
possible in both cases that the burrows may be
378 PRAIRIE HEN
PRAYER
merely utilised as a temporary hiding-place. The
Prairie Marmot is rather } than a large rat,
and is of a brownish-gray colour, the under surface
grayish white.
Prairie Hen. See Grouse.
Prakrit is the collective name of those lin-
or dialects which are immediately derived
rom, or stand in an immediate relation to, Sans-
krit (q.v.). See also InprA, Vol. VI. p. 102.
Prase, a rarish green variety of Quartz (q.v.).
Pratique is, strictly, a limited quarantine. A
ship is said to have performed pratique when her
captain has convinced the authorities of a port that
his ship is free from contagious disease ; and he is
thereupon permitted to open trade and.communica-
tion with the shore.
Prato (often called Prato in Toscana), a
walled town of Italy, 7 rail " miles SE. of
Pistoia and 11 NW. of Florence. It has a citadel
and a cathedral with frescoes by Filippo Lippi,
though the see has been united with that of Pistoia
since 1653. There are manufactures of straw-plait,
cloth, and paper and brass works. Pop. 15,510.
Prawn, a name applied indiscriminately to
crustaceans belonging to the genera Palemon,
Pandalus, and Hippolyte. They are nearly allied
to shrimps and pe eabeg are mostly but not ex-
clusively marine, and in size from a couple of
inches to over a foot insome tropical forms. There
are many species ; thus, Palemon squilla, Pandalus
annulicornis, and Hippolyte spinus are common in
the Firth of Forth, while others abound elsewhere.
Many of them are semi-transparent, and exhibit
very fine colours; they are also very active
creatures, and most interesting inmates of an
aquarium, but are excessively voracious, and apt
to make great havoc among its other inhabitants.
They are common on the British coasts, ase,
not so abundant as shrimps, and are generally
taken in the vicinity of rocks at a little distance
from the shore. They may be caught in putting
nets or in osier baskets, like those used for trap-
ping lobsters, They are esteemed for eating even
more highly than the shrimp. For illustration, see
CRUSTACEA.
Praxinoscope,. See Zorrrore.
Praxit'eles, one of the test sculptors of
ancient Greece, of whose life little is known,
except that he was a citizen of Athens, and lived
in the 4th century B.c. His cane red works—
nearly all of which have perished—were statues of
Aphrodite (at Cos, Cnidus, Thespia, and elsewhere,
of which that of Cnidus was the most famous),
Eros (at Thespie), Dionysus (at Elis, Athens,
Megara, and other places), Apollo. (the best
representing Apollo as the app tle and
Hermes ing Dionysus (found at Olympia in
1877). Feminine beauty and Bacchic pleasures
were his favourite subjects; and in his treatment
of these he displayed unrivalled sweetness, grace,
and naturalness. His gods and goddesses were not
very divine, but they were ideal figures of the
fairest earthly loveliness.
Prayer is a universally acknowledged part of
the worship due to God; not merely petition,
but according to the New Testament models
and Christian usage, i adoration, confes-
sion of sin, and thankful acknowledgment of
mercies received. It is a simple .and natural
expression of dependence, which seems almost
necessarily to follow from a belief in the existence
of a god. Accordingly we find it both where the
object of worship is one Supreme Being and in
systems of polytheism. According to the Christian
system, however, pare is not the mere spon-
taneous approach of man to God in the endeavour
to appease his wrath, to win his favour, or to
obtain from him any blessing; but the right to
approach him in prayer, and the warrant to rare
advantage in doing so, rest on the revelation of his
own will. Nor is any truth more tably
taught in the Bible, or more ——— rought
into view, both in the Old and in the New Testa-
ment, than that God is the hearer of prayer.
But a difficulty presents itself in respect to what
may be called the theory of mck How can
es ry be supposed to influence divine mind or
will? How can a belief in its power be reconciled
with any view of the divine decrees, from the most
absolute doctrine of predestination to the most
modified scheme which recognises the Creator as
supreme in the universe? Such questions up
the same difficulty which attends all other ques
of the relations between the human will and the
divine, the freedom of man and the sovereignty of
God. But whatever seeming inconsistencies may
be implied in speculation concerning them, the
necessity of prayer and the power prayer are
acknowledged equally by men of the most opposite
views; and generally with an acknowledgment of
the inability of the human mind to solve some of
the problems which are thus to The
extreme predestinarian includes prayer one
means decreed of God along with the end to w
it contributes. And whilst prayer is regarded by
all Christians as of t value in its reflex influence
on the feelings of the worshipper, this is
ever stated as its whole value. It is held by
Christians in Fs that the only true way
of access to is through the mediation of
Jesus Christ; and that prayer can be trul
made, in faith and for thin —- to God
will, only by the help of the Holy Spirit. The
Protestant churches hold that rarer is to be
made to God alone; but in the Roman Catholic
Church, and to some extent in the oriental churches,
payer of a kind is made also to saints, the Virgin
ary, and =p But as the worship (douleia)
of the saints differs from that (/atreia) offered to
God, so the invocation of saints and angels is not
for the pu of obtaining mercy or grace from
them directly, but in order to ask their prayers or
intercession with God on our behalf. For this
practice Catholies rely not on the direct authori!
of Scripture, but on the unwritten word of
conveyed by tradition from very early times. The
inscriptions in the catacombs prove that the church
of the first centuries invoked the saints; and the
famous fathers of the 4th century expressly insist
on such invocation. Protestants hold that prayer
ought to be conducted in a ~—- known to the
worshippers. The Church of Rome has, on the
contrary, maintained the general use of the Latin
language, even though that language is unknown té
most of the worship
Forms of prayer for public use grew up in the
earliest times, naturally and inevitably : the Lord’s
Prayer being doubtless regarded as a warrant and
a model. Apparently the most primitive collection
is that in the eighth book of the pseudo-Clementine
Apostolic Constitutions (q.v.). The prayers in con-
nection with the celebration of the eucharist in the
Greek and Roman communions are dealt with at
Lirurcy. The most important Se
collection of prayers, that of the Anglican Church,
is dealt with in the next article. But most of the
leading reformers prepared prayer-books. Luther's
date from 1523 and 1526, Calvin’s from 1538 (from
ee) and 1541 (from Geneva), John Knox’s
for the Church of Scotland (based on that of
Geneva) from 1554. The growth of Puritan feeling
in Britain led the Nonconformists, Presbyterians,
and others to underrate the advantages of set forms
of prayer, and to exalt the value of what is assumed
PRAYER
PRAYER-BOOK 379
to be the spontaneous utterance of the heart. And
ultimately it became usual to regard liturgical
forms as a pages | Episcopalian and un-Presby-
terian, though the forms of church government are
irrelevant to the question as to the best mode of
ing congregational prayer. Since 1857 a section
of the Church of Scotland has made tentative efforts
towards securing the use of printed forms of public
yer, without wholly excluding extempore prayer
see LEE, RoperT). In 1888 the Assembly sane-
tioned a book of prayer for the use of soldiers,
sailors, and others; and the Luchologion, prepared
by the Church Service Society, has passed through
several editions. In the United States liturgical
forms of prayer have been almost wholly disused
+ Aer the churches save the Episcopal, Lutheran,
and Dutch Reformed, and Moravian
churches, But since the middle of the 19th century
there has been a manifest tendency to aim at
increased ity in Presbyterian prayer, and to
bridge over the gulf that used to separate Presby-
terians from the ancient church in the forms of
blic approach to the mercy-seat of God. Professor
diet tetdeephy she Angticen peuyer-bosk with te
is simply the Anglican prayer- with the
alterations proposed by the Brecbytecioms at the
Savoy Conference (q.v.).
PRAYER FOR THE DEAD, in the Roman Catholic,
Greek, and other oriental churches, is offered with
the intention and expectation of obtaining for the
souls of the deceased an alleviation of their
supposed sufferings after death on account of venial
sins, or of the penalty of mortal sins, remitted but
not fully atoned for during life. The practice of
praying for the dead is usually associated with
he doctrine of Purgatory (q.v.) or with the belief
in a progressive intermediate state (see HELL).
It being once supposed that relations subsist
between the two worlds, that their members may
mutually assist ~~ wie it is — a —
sary consequence of the doctrine of purgatory that
the living ought to pray for the relief of their
suffering. brethren beyond the grave. It seems
certain that some such doctrine existed in most
of the ancient religions. Its existence among
the Jews is attested by the well-known assurance
in 2 Maccabees, chap. xii., that ‘it is a holy and
wholesome thought to pray for the dead, that t
may be | from their sins.’ Catholics conten
that the doctrine as well as the practice is equally
recognisable in the early Christian church. They
rely on the parable of rus and the rich man
(Luke, xvi. 19-31), as establishing the intercom-
munion of this earth with the world beyond the
Frere: and on Matt. xii. 32, as proving the remissi-
ity of sin or of punishment death ; as well
as on 1 Cor. xv. 29, as attesting the actual
practice among the first Christians of performing
or Lope certain ministrations in behalf of the
dead. e Fathers of the 2d, 3d, and still more of
the 4th and following centuries ae rad allude
to such prayers, as Clement Alexandria,
Tertullian, St Cyprian, and especially St John
Ch , Cyril of Jerusalem, and St Augustine.
The liturgies, too, of all the rites withont exception
contain prayers for the dead; and the sepulchral
inserip’ from the catacombs, which reach in
their range from the Ist to the 5th century, contain
frequent prayers in even greater variety. In the
services of the medieval and later church prayers
for the dead form a prominent and striking element
(see REQUIEM). e Protestant churches with-
out exception ra the practice. In the
burial service of Edward VI.’s First Common
Prayer-book some prayers for the deceased were
sonined ; but they were expunged from the
Second Book; and no trace is to be found in that
sanctioned under Elizabeth. Still it is not expressly
prohibited, and it is cherished as a private and pious
aspiration by not a few within the modern Church
of England, as, in Coleridge’s phrase, ‘something
between paver and wish—an act of natural piety
sublimed by Christian hope.’
On the doctrine of prayer, see Bickersteth, 7’reatise on
Prayer (1856); Canon Liddon, Some Elements of Religion
(1872); Newman Hall, Prayer : its Reasonableness and
Efficacy (1875); Jellett, The Efficacy of Prayer (Donellan
Lecture, ); the treatises on Apologetics, and manuals
of Theology, On srry for the dead, see Plumptre, Zhe
Spirits in Prison (1884) ; Luckock, After Death (1879),
and The Intermediate State (1890). For modern scientific
objections, see Romanes, Christian Prayer and General
Laws (1874); Tyndall’s British Association lecture (repub.
1874); and a series of articles in connection with all’s
‘ Prayer Test’ in Contemp. Rev., vols. xx.-xxii., by Tyndal
Galton, and others, with answers by M‘Cosh, the Duke
Argyll, and others. For other questions connected with
yer, see the articles AVE, PATERNOSTER, KNEELING,
Gooase: Sarnts, FalrH-HEALING.
Prayer, Book or Common. By this name
are known the service-book of the Church of
England and the corresponding formularies of
other Episcopal ve either been
1 churehes which
derived from the Church of England or largely
influenced by it, such as the Episco Church of
the United States of America, the Church of Ire-
land, and the Episcopal Church in Scotland. The
full title of the
fruit, which is then known as candied. Jam com-
sists of fruit boiled with an equal weight of suga,
which latter dissolves in the fruit juice set free as
the fruit breaks down. If well made they can be
corres bier in this manner for years, but the quality
eteriorates after twelve or eighteen months, owing
to crystallisation and other changes taking place
in the sugar. Fruit jellies consist of the juice of
the fruit only, boiled with sugar, this vegetable
jelly consisting principally of a substance known
to chemists under the name of pectin. Fruits are
also preserved by covering with water in suitable
vessels, heating to a high temperature, and closing
the vessel whilst hot.
Meat, vegetables, and other provisions may be
preserved with more or less success in a number of
ways, which may be classed roughly under four
headings : (1) desiccation ; (2) use of cold ; (3) by
chemical compounds (antiseptics); (4) by exclusion
of air. The simple process of drying is effective
both with meat and vegetables, and if completely
carried out prevents the ordinary putrefactive
changes from taking place. Dried vegetables are
prepared largely for use on board ship, and the
soup tablets so extensively used nowadays consist
of meat and vegetables dried and pressed together.
Jerked Beef (q.v.) and Pemmican (q.v.) are pre-
pared chiefly by drying in the sun. The use of
cold is mainly a temporary expedient employed
for the carriage of meat from one country to
another. This industry is carried on extensively
in America, Australia, and New Zealand. The
careass is frozen hard by a refrigerating machine,
and packed on board ship in a chamber cooled by
a similar apparatus. Meat so preserved arrives in
Europe in good condition, and if properly thawed
is superior to all but the best home-grown beef
396 PRESERVED PROVISIONS
PRESIDENT
and mutton (see REFRIGERATION). For condensed
milk, see MILK.
Certain chemical substances have the power to
page decay or arrest get pest changes, by
estroying the activity of the germs or ferments
which act as the oe cause. Common salt is
variously applied for the purpose of preserving
meat (the food-value being thereby somewhat
decreased) ; the meat may be immersed in brine,
packed in salt, rnbbed with salt and dried, or
salted and smoked. The method of salting and
smoking ham is described at HAM; the chief pre-
servative element in the wood-smoke is creasote.
Creasote, boric acid, salicylic acid, and sulphur
compounds are all substances that can be used as
food preservatives, but the objection to the use of
chemical agents is that they either have a dis-
tinct taste themselves or have a toxic influence
on the human body. Salicylic acid has been used
in |], quantities for preserving milk and other
foods, but, when taken even in small doses for a
ot gen period, it disturbs the animal economy ;
and in France any food preserved by its means
is now condemned as unfit for human consumption.
The use of creasote is confined to meats which are
usually smoked. Borie acid has no taste, and in
all probability is harmless when taken in the
small quantities present in food preserved by its
means. Milk, fish, poultry, and meat of all kinds
may be preserved for months by its use. A very
ingenious method of using this preservative has
been tried with success. e boric acid is injected
into the large vein of an insensible but living
animal, so that it is carried in the ordinary ciren-
lation to all parts of the body, and the animal is
then killed; meat so prepared has been kept
fresh and ble for about three months. Some
sulphur compounds, notably the bisulphite of lime
and sulphurous acid, are good preservatives, but
they have an objectionable taste. The former is
used by butchers as a preserver of meat in hot
weather.
Exclusion of air is a method of preserving which
is used almost exclusively for cooked foods. Various
—= of coating meat with air-tight coating have
n tried, but they have been carried little
further than the experimental stage. Meat has
been dipped in molten paraffin-wax, gelatine, gutta-
percha, &c.—all of which exclude air; but the
air, or, more correctly, the germs present in the
air, are imprisoned in the tissues of the meat, and
these s ily set up putrefactive changes. The
only process which has successfully accomplished
the desired end is by the use of high temperature
to expel the air and destroy the germs, and then
sealing to prevent ingress of more air. Many have
claimed the credit of this invention, but in all
' probability it was first proposed by a M. Appert of
aris in 1810, The process as now carried on, how-
ever, is the outcome of many minds, Appert’s
original method simply supplying the groundwork.
The various tinned meats, soups, &c. now in the
market are examples of this method of preserving
food. The meat, &c. is — in tins, which are
immersed in a solution of calcium chloride heated
up to a temperature of 270° F., which destro;
both germs and spores. The tins are revinaly
closed, ae a small pin-hole for the escape
of steam. They are heated thus for about three
hours, when the pin-holes are closed by solder,
and the tins are allowed to cool. This process
is mp? successful as far as mere preserva-
tion ins of meat thus treated have been
opened after twenty years, and no sign of putre-
faction has been noted ; occasionally dtromahe some
carelessness the air may not have been thoroughly
removed and putrefaction ensues ; such cmap,
however, are rarely met with in tins sent out by
good firms, A bad tin can be detected before open-
ing by the bulged-ont appearance of the tin, the
of decomposition pressing out the sides or
ends. The objection to the process lies in the
over-cooking to which the meat must be subjected.
This impairs both the appearance and flavour, and
no doubt removes some of the nutritive value of
the meat, although this latter point is denied by
some. Other plans, varying somewhat in detail but
similar in principle, have been patented, and are
in use in some of the food-preserving factories.
Aberdeen and London are centres for this industry,
the former boring five factories, whilst in America.
and New Zealand (q.v.) al amount of capital
is invested in the trade. See SALMON.
The various extracts of meat are in a way pre-
served foods. They consist of the juice and
extractive matter of the meat evaporated down to
a thick consistence, and uently preserved by a
large addition of salt. e@ majority of these
extracts are stimulants rather than foods, some of
them being practically useless. Vegetables are
frequently preserved by the process of pickling.
The vegetables are boiled with vin and spices.
The latter two substances, being antiseptic in their
nature, prevent putrefaction and decay. For the
preservation of wood, see Dry Ror.
Presidency. See INDIA.
President of the United States, the head
of the executive of the United States, is also the
only executive officer who reaches his wwe ion by
election; the appointment of the others being
either in his hands (subject to their confirmation
by the senate) or lated by law. The president is
elected for a term of four years ; eight presidents—
Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Jackson,
Lincoln, Grant, and Cleveland—have been chosen
for a second term, but a third term, although there
is nothing in the constitution to prevent it, is
practically prohibited by the popular prejudice
fainst it. A candidate must be a natural-born
citizen of the United States, not under thirty-five
years of age. The president has a salary of $50,000
a year, and must receive no other emolument
during office from the United States or any state.
He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy of
the United States, and of the militia when in the
actual service of the Union; he has the power to
t reprieves and pardons for offences against the
Jnited States, except in cases of impeachment, and
(by and with the advice and consent of two-thirds
of the senate) to make treaties and to appoint
ambassadors, consuls, and all other officers of the
United States whose appointments are not other-
wise previded for; from time to time he sends to
con a ‘message’ (cf. the ‘Queen’s S *)
giving information as to the state of the Union,
and recommending measures for consideration ; he
may convene both houses, or either house, in special
session ; and, if the two houses d as to the
time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such
time as he thinks fit. The president, like the vice-
president and all other civil officers, may be
removed from office on impeachment by the House
of Representatives for and econvietion by two-thirds
of the senate of treason, bribery, or other h
crimes and misdemeanours. He may require the
opinion, in writing, of the head of any of the
executive departments on any subject re ae to
the duties of his de — seule dataheee
passes congress must have ents 8
to become a law, unless, after he has returned it
with his we pee two-thirds of each house
support it and pass it over his veto.
e Vice-president of the United States, alth
elected along with the president, is no part of the
executive department. His sole function is to
PRESIDENT
PRESS 397
preside over the senate, where he has no vote
unless in the case of a tie; and in practice he has
little influence on the administration, and is
i amare only as an ‘under-study,’ in readiness to
the presidency in the event of its being
vacated by the president’s removal, death, resigna-
tion, or inability. Five vice-presidents—Tyler,
Fillmore, Johnson, Arthur, Roosevelt—have suc-
ceeded in this way. In the event of the removal,
death, i ion, or inability of both the presi-
dent and the vice-president, the secretary of state,
and after him, in their order, other members of
the cabinet, would act as president until the dis-
ability of the president was removed, or a new
president elec On the death of a vice-president
the duties of his office are fulfilled by the president
of the senate.
The election of president and vice-president is
controlled by the electoral ge under which the
le do not vote directly for the candidates, but
‘or electors from their separate states who are
pledged to cast their votes for particular candidates.
state is entitled to a number of electors equal
to its number of senators (two in each case) and
representatives in congress ; these latter range from
one to thirty-four (see table below). At first the
electors simply voted for two candidates, and the
one who received the second highest number of
votes for president became vice-president; but
since 1804 provision has been made for a separate
election of the vice-president. In the event of no
candidate having a majority of the electoral votes
the House of Representatives chooses a president,
voting by states, each state having one vote; if no
vice-president is elected the senate chooses a vice-
resident, voting as usual. Such cases occurred
in 1800-1, when Jefferson and Burr had tied, and
the former was made president and the latter vice-
president; in 1824-25, when none of the four
candidates for the presidency had a majority, and
John Adams, who had received eighty-four
electoral votes, was chosen by the House over
Andrew Jackson, who had ninety-nine ; and finall
in 1836-37, when Richard M.-Johnson, who had
obtained a plurality of electoral votes for the vice-
presidency, was elected by the senate. The terri-
tories have no vote in any case.
For other presidents, see the articles on the
several republics.
The presidents of the United States have been George
Washington (1789-97 ), John Adams (1797-1801), Thomas
Jefferson (1801-9), James Madison (1809-17), James
Monroe (1817-25), Jon Quincy Adams (1825-29),
Andrew Jackson (1829-37 ), Martin Van Buren (1837-41),
William Henry Harrison (March-April 1841), John
‘Tyler (1841-45), James Knox Polk (1845-49), Zachary
Taylor (1849-50), Millard Fillmore (1850-53), Franklin
Pierce (1853-57), James Buchanan (1857-61), Abraham
Lincoln (1861-65), Andrew Johnson (1865-69), Ulysses 8.
Grant (1869-77), Rutherford Birchard Hayes (1877-81),
James Abram Gartield (March-September 1881), Chester
Alan Arthur (1881-85), Grover Cleveland (1 and
1893-97 ), Benjamin Harrison (1889-93), William M‘Kin-
North Carolina. ..12
9 | North Dakota.... 4
Presidio, a Spanish word for ‘a fort,’ applied
pz msg ai four Spanish fortified posts on the
coast of Morocco—Ceuta, Melilla, Alhucemas, and
Pejion de Velez.
FREEDOM OF THE, the expression used
to denote the absence of any official restraint on
the publication of books and other printed matter.
In England, at the Reformation, the control of the
press came to be centred in the crown, the eccle-
siastical in addition to the secular government
being vested in Henry VIII. as temporal head of
the church. The Company of Stationers, who
came to have the regulation of printing and pub-
lishing, were servants of the government, subject
to the control of the Star Chamber. The censor-
ship of the press was enforced by the Long Parlia-
ment, in spite of Milton’s eloquent protest (see his
Areopagitica), and was re-established more rigor-
ously at the Restoration. It was continued at the
Revolution, and the statute regulating it was
renewed from time to time till 1693, when the
Commons by a special vote struck it out of the list
of temporary acts to be continued. Since that
time the censorship of the press has ceased to exist
in Britain. But, though there are no official
restrictions on what shall and what shall not be
published, the authors and publishers of criminal
or injurious matter are amenable to the law of
libel ; and there are certain statutory requirements
in force to enable them to be traced. Every person
who prints anything for hire or reward must,
under a penalty of £20, keep one copy at least of
the matter printed, and write on it the name and
place of abode of the person who employed him to
print it. Eve — who prints any paper
meant to be published must print on the first or
last leaf his name and usual place of business ; and
on failure to do so he forfeits-the sum of £5, and so
does any person publishing the same. There are
a few printed papers exempted from conforming to
the above requirement—as, for instance, papers
printed by parliament or in government offices,
engravings, auction lists, bank-notes, bills of
lading, receipts for money, and a few other similar
matters. In the case of a libel legal publication
is constituted by sending or showing a copy printed
or in manuscript to any person; the sale of a
newspaper or other publication in a shop, or
its delivery to an officer at the Stamp-office, is
also considered an act of publication. The truth
of the statements published may be w as a
plea of defence in an action for libel; in criminal
Pp ings truth is a defence if the publica-
tion is for the public benefit. The ee er of a
book or newspaper may also defend himself by
showing that the matter complained of was pub-
lished by order of either House of Parliament, that
it is a fair criticism on a public person or act, or
that it be chat the honest belief of the defendant,
and is published by him in the course of his official
or moral duty. If a bill shall be filed in any court
for the discovery of the name of the printer, pub-
lisher, or proprietor of a newspaper or other publi-
eation, with the view of rendering him liable in
dam: for slanderous matter, the defendant is
bound to make the discovery required, which,
however, cannot be made use of against him in any
other proceeding than that for which it has been
made. The penalties against newspapers can only
be sued for in the name of the Attorney-general
or Solicitor-general, or Lord Advocate. Certain
regulations also exist regarding the exhibition of
Plays (q.v.). Subject to these restrictions, the
freedom of the press has subsisted in Britain since
1693. At least an equal degree of freedom obtains
in the United States, where privilege is much more
widely extended. See LIBEL.
A more or less rigorous censorship of the press
398 PRESSENSE
PRESTER JOHN
exists in most European states. There is often no
direct supervision previous to publication, but the
official censor has it in his power to stop any publi-
cation which he deems objectionable, to confiscate
the edition, and to prosecute the author and editor,
Newspapers and pamphlets are any subjected
to a stricter censorship than larger works. See
INDEX ; also Odgers on Libel, and Paterson on the
Liberty of the Press, —For Correction of the Press,
see PROOFS.
Pressensé, EpmMonp bE, a prominent French
Protestant theologian, was born in Paris, January
24, 1824, studied at the university there, next
under Vinet at ne, and Tholuek and
Neander at Halle and Berlin, and in 1847 became
a pastor at Paris. He was deputy to the National
Assembly for the Seine department in 1871-76, and
was elected a senator for life in 1883. He received
the D.D. degree from Breslau in 1869 and Edin-
burgh in 1884. He died April 8, 1891. A strong
thinker and vigorous writer, as well as eloquent
preacher, Pressensé took a foremost part in the
great theological as well as ecclesiastical con-
troversies of the day; published many learned and
important books, most of which have been trans-
lated into English and German; and contributed
to the theological and literary magazines on both
sides of the Channel—the article on CHRISTIANITY
in the present work is from his pen.
The following are the most important books: Le
Rédempteur (1564: . trans. 1864); Histoire des Trois
Premiers Siecles de 0 Eglise Chrétienne (4 vols. 1858-77 ;
Eng. trans. 1869-78; a thoroughly revised and extended
e'lition had reached its third volume in 1890); Z’Zglise
et la Révolution Frangaise (1864; Eng. trans. 1869) ;
Jésus ist, son Temps, sa Vie, son Cuvre (1866;
Fang. trans. 1866); Ltudes Contemporaines (1880; Eng.
trans, New York, 1880); and Les Origines (1882; Eng.
trans. 1883).
Pres . Impressment was the mode for-
merly reso to for manning the British navy.
The — had not only the sanction of custom,
but the force of law. It may be traced in English
legislation from the days of Edward L ; and many
acts of parliament, from the reign of Philip and
cen | to that of George IIL, were passed to
regulate the system of impressment, Impressment
consisted in seizing by force, for service in the
royal navy, seamen, river-watermen, and at times
landsmen, when state emergencies rendered them
necessary. The p , an armed party of reli-
able men commanded by officers, Seanily proceeded
to such houses in the seaport towns as were sup-
ery to be the resort of the seafaring population,
aid violent hands on all eligible men, and conveyed
them forcibly to the ships of war in the harbour.
As it was not in the nature of sailors to yield with-
out a struggle many terrible fights took place
between the pressgangs and their intended victims
—combats in which lives were often lost. In point
of justice there is little, if anything, to be said for
impressment, which had not even the merit of an
impartial selection from the whole available u-
lation. Under the laws all eligible men of seafarin
habits were liable between the ages of eighteen an
fifty-five ; but exemptions were made in favour of
apprentices who had not been two years appren-
ticed, fishermen at sea, a proportion of able sea-
men in each collier, harpooners in whalers, and a
few others. A pressgang could board a merechant-
vessel or a privateer of its own nation in any =
of the world, and carry off as many of the best
men as could be removed without actually onion
ing the vessel. The exercise of this power made a
privateer dread a friendly man-of-war more than an
enemy, and often led to as exciting a chase as when
enemies were in pursuit of each other; for the
privateer’s men were the best sailors, for their
tse" that the naval officers could 7 hold on.
itigations of the harsh laws on the subject were
hrequaaiey introduced. As early as 1563 the naval
authorities had to secure the sanction of the local
justices of peace ; in 1835 the term of an impressed
man’s service was limited to five years save in urgent
national necessity. By that time the system was
becoming obsolete ; the navy is now manned by
voluntary service. In recent times, when volunteers
fail, a system of bounties has resorted to.
But the laws sanctioning impressment slumber,
without being repealed.
Pressing to Death. See Peme Forre er
DvuRE.
Prester John, the name applied by medieval
credulity for two hundred years to the sup
Christian sovereign of a vast but ill-defined em
in central Asia. The idea of a powerful
potentate in the far East, at once priest and King,
_ easiest in Europe rd por’ the beep
the 12th to the beginning of the 14th cen » WwW
it was rtedadee thiopia and finally Round a
fancied historical justification in identification with
the Christian king of Abyssinia.
The first mention of a Prester John, sprang from
the ancient race of the Magi of the , occuts
in the Chronicle of Otto, bishop of i
Here, on the authority (1145) of the bishop of
Gabala (Jibal in Syria), we find a circumstantial
account of his power, his Christianity after the
Nestorian pattern, his victories over the Medes and
Persians, and how his p to Jerusalem was
stayed by the intervening Tigris, which Fecge to
freeze over to give him — Again, about 1165,
there was widely current in Boos an extra’ t
epistle ennionsl to be add Prester Lor
to the Greek emperor Manuel. Herein we read
ety wonders enough: how that he ruled
over the three Indies and countless hordes of men,
among them those unclean races which Alexander
the Great shut up within the northern mountains ;
that thirteen great crosses of gold and jewels were
borne before as many armies, each of 10,000 knights
and 100,000 foot ; that all his subjects were virtu-
ous and happy § attendant upon him were seven
kings, sixty dukes, and 365 counts, twelve arch-
bishops, and twenty bishops, while seventy-two
kings with their bes nen were his tributaries ;
before his throne s' a wondrous mirror, in which
he saw everything that was happening in all his
vast dominions ; his kingdom contained the Foun-
tain of Youth, the Sea of Sand, the River of
Stones, and the river whose sand was precious gems,
ants that dug gold, fish that yielded eg pebbles
that give light and make invisible, and, the sala-
mander which lives in fire, from the incombustible
covering of which were fashioned robes for the
presbyter to wear. There is also extant a letter
of date 1177, written by Pope Alexander ITT. and
evidently addressed to the imaginary author of
the grandiloquent epistle of 1165.
About the year 1221 the distant rumour of the
conquests of Genghis Khan again gave strength to
the belief in such a mighty Christian potentate.
M. d’Avezac first pointed out the true historical
source of the story in the Chinese Yeliu Tashi
founder of the empire of Karé-Khitai, who assumed
the title of Gur Khan (su by Op to have
been confounded with n or Johannes), and
fixed his capital at Balasaghun, north of the T’ian
Shan range. He defeated Sanjar the Seljuk
sovereign of Persia in 1141 ata t+ battle near
Samarkand, but, though hateful to the Moslem
historians, of course never made any profession of
Christian faith. Professor Bruun of Odessa identifies
Prester John with the 12th-century Georgian pines
John Orbelian, a redoubtable enemy of the Turks
PRESTON
PREVOST 399
{see Colonel Yule’s Marco Polo, 2d ed. 1875, app. to
vol. ii.). Many writers about the close of the Path
century, as Marco Polo, the Sieur de Joinville, and
even Gregory Abulfaraj, identify him with Ung
Khan, king of the Nestorian tribe of Kerait. Friar
Odoric about 1326 visited the country—the Tendue
of Marco Polo—still ruled over by a prince whom
he styles Prester John, but he adds, with the
cautious gravity of the true historian, ‘as regards
him, not one hundredth part is true that is told of
him as if it were undeniable.’ From this time the
Asiatic phantom entirely disappears from view,
but from the 14th century onwards Prester John
continues a less romantic existence under the guise
of the Christian king of Abyssinia.
See D’Avezac in vol. iv. (1839) of the Recueil de Voy-
ages et de Mémoires of the Paris Société de Géographie ;
Dr Gustav Oppert, Der Presbyter Johannes in Sage und
Geschichte (2d ed. 1870); Friedrich Zarncke, Der
Priester Johannes (1876-79)... See also Colonel Sir Henry
Yule’s article in Ency. Brit. (9th ed.), his Hakluyt Society
Cathay and the Way Thither (vol. i. 1866), and The Book
of Ser Marco Polo (2d ed. 1875).
Preston, an important manufacturing town of
Lancashire, a puaiioel parliamentary, and county
borough, on the north bank, and at the head of the
, of the Ribble, 14 miles from the Irish
Sea, 28 NNE. of Liv 1, 31 NW. of Manchester,
and 209 NNW. of London. Occupying an eminence
120 feet above the river, and built mostly of brick,
it is on the whole well laid out, and is surrounded
with pleasing scenery. The town-hall, built in
1862-47 from designs by Sir G. G. Scott at a cost
of £80,000, is a French Gothic Page with a clock-
ower and spire 195 feet high. In September 1882
were laid the foundation-stones both of the Lanca-
shire county hall and of the Harris free library and
rauseum, to the latter of which in 1883 Mr R.
Newsham ueathed a collection of pictures and
art-treasures worth £70,000. The places of wor-
ship are all of them modern, for even the parish
chureh has been rebuilt. St Walburge’s (Roman
Catholic), by Hansom of cab celebrity, has a spire
306 feet high, the loftiest built in England since
the Reformation, which amply redeems ‘proud
Preston’ from its old ‘no-steeple’ reproach. Other
edifices are the mmar-school (1550; rebuilt
1841), the corn exchange and market-house (1824),
public baths (1851), a covered market (1870),
militia barracks (1856), the infirmary (1869), &e.
Three large public parks were laid out in 1867—
the Miller and Avenham parks, and the former
unsightly ‘Moor’ of 100 acres to the north of the
town. In the first a statue was erected in 1873 of
the fourteenth Earl of Derby ; in Winckley Square
is a monument to Sir Robert Peel. Preston was
constituted an independent port in 1843 ; and great
improvements have been effected at a cost of three-
quarters of a million under the ‘ Ribble Navigation
and Preston Dock Act, 1883,’ these including the
deepening of thé channel so as to admit vessels
of 1000 tons, the construction of a dock of 40 acres,
the erection of warehouses, &e. Arkwright (q.v.),
who was born here in 1732, in 1768 set up here his
famous spinning-frame ; and Preston now is one of
the principal seats of the cotton industry, which
gradually superseded the linen manufacture, its
eele in the 18th century. There are also iron
and brass foundries, iron shipbuilding yards,
engineering and machine shops, steam-boiler works,
rope-walks, &c. A guild-merchant festival, first
clearly heard of in 1397, has been held pom
every twenty years since 1562—the last on 4t
September 1882. Preston, the first of whose royal
charters was granted by Henry VI., returns two
members to parliament. The boro boundary
was extended in 1885. Pop. (1811) 17,115; (1841)
50,073 ; (1881) 100,262 ; (1891) 111,696.
Preston arose whilst ancient Coccium or Rib-
chester, higher up the Ribble, decayed. In Athel-
stan’s reign Amounderness, the hundred in which
it is situated, was granted to the cathedral church
of York; hence its chief town came to be known
as Preston or ‘priests’ town.’ Near Preston, on
17th August 1648, Cromwell totally routed the
royalists under Sir Marmaduke Langdale; and
Preston figures in both the Jacobite rebellions of
1715 and 1745. For Forster’s little army sur-
rendered here to General Willes; and Prines
Charles Edward occupied the town on both his
march to and his ~retreat from Derby. Lady
Hamilton has been claimed, but falsely it seems,
as a native. On Ist September 1832 Joseph
Livesey of Preston and six others here signed a
Petar of total abstinence—the first ever taken in
ngland.
See works by Whittle (2 vols. 1821-37), Dobson (four,
1856-62), Hardwick (1857), Abram (1882), and T, ©.
Smith ( )
Fresespans, a coast-town of Haddington-
shire, 8 miles E. of Edinburgh. Its salt-pans bese
ished from the 12th century till 1825; now brewing
and fishing are the —— industries. Pop. 2623.
To the south-east, on 2lst September 1745, was
fought the battle of Prestonpans, Preston, or
Gladsmuir, when in a five minutes’ rush Prince
Charles Edward’s 2500 Highlanders completely
routed 2300 disciplined soldiers under Sir John
Cope and Colonel Gardiner (q.v.).
Prestwich, 2 cotton manufacturing town of
Lancashire, 4 miles NNW. of Manchester, with a
13th century Gothic church. Pop. (1891) 7869.
Prestwich, Sir Josepn (1812-96), was a Lon-
don wine-merchant till he was sixty, in 1874 became
essor of Geol at Oxford, and in 1896 was
nighted. See the Life by his wife (1899).
Prestwick, the headquarters of golf on the
Ayrshire coast, 24 miles N. of Ayr ; pop. 2000.
Presumption, an inference drawn by the
law in certain circumstances, and used to start
an argument. A person who has ‘ion of
goods is presumed to be the owner till the con-
trary is proved. A man is presumed to be in-
nocent till the contrary is proved. The law of
England presumes that any one who has not been
heard of for seven years is dead. By an act of 1881
for Scotland the heir of a person who has disappeared
for seven years may obtain authority to uplift the
annual income, and thirteen ger later may obtain
full possession of the heritable estate of the person
presumed to be dead; for securing full right to
inherit and dispose of movable estate, the person
must be dead for fourteen years.
Pretender. Sce JAcoBiTEs, STEWART.
Pretoria, the capital of the South African
Republic (Transvaal), 980 miles wall (1893) from
Capetown and 285 miles W. of Lorenzo Marques,
on Delagoa Bay, to which a railway was opened in
1895. Pretoria was founded in 1855 by the Boer
leader Pretorius, has brood streets, and pure water.
It owes its prosperity chiefly to the gold-mines at
Johannesburg, about 30 miles distant. New public
buildings were erected in 1891. Pop. 8000.
Preventive Officers. See CoaAsTGUARD.
Preveza, or PrevisA, a fortified town in the
extreme south-west of European Turkey, stands on
the north side of the entrance to the Gulf of Arta.
It exports valonia acorns, wool, cotton, and oil.
The Venetians held the town from 1683 to 1797.
One year later Ali Pasha drove out the French
garrison and plundered the place. Pop. 6000.
Prévost, Asst. Antoine Francois Prévost
@’Exiles, commonly called the Abbé Prévost, and
400 PREVOST
PRIAM
immortal as the author of Manon Lescaut, was born
of good family at Hesdin in Artois, Ist April 1697.
He was educated by the Jesuits at Hesdin, and at
the Collége d'Harcourt in Paris, at sixteen volun-
teered for service as the last war of Louis XIV.
was drawing to its e but soon returned to the
Jesuits, pm indeed had almost joined the order
when a fresh temptation drew his impulsive and
restless nature once more to the soldier's life. Of
this second period of soldiering little is known, but
it is certain that at twenty-four he joined the
Benedictines of St Maur, and spent the next six
years in a round of religious duties, in study, and
in writing a volume of Gallia Christiana, About
the year 1727, being anxious to be transferred to
Cluny, where the rule was less austere, he dis-
counted his permission, and so found himself
unexpectedly guilty of the sin of disobedience.
He fled to Holland, and spent six years of exile in
that country and in England, and there is even a
dim story of a love entanglement against which he
strove for a while in vain. In 1728 he published
the first and best of his long novels, the Mémoires
dun Homme de Qualité, to which indeed Manon
Lescaut (apparently first published at Amsterdam
in 1733) forms a kind of supplement. His fluent
pen employed itself in further novels—Cléveland,
naturel de Cromwel ; Le Doyen de Killerine—
in translations, and in Le Pour et Contre (1733-40),
a periodical review of life and letters, modelled on
the ‘or, and showing an excellent apprecia-
tion of English books. By 1735 he was back in
France by royal permission, and allowed to wear
the dress of the secular priesthood. He was be-
friended by Cardinal de Bissy, and the Prince de
Conti, whose chaplain he became, and for thirty
years he wrote assiduously over a hundred volumes
of compilations, including a voluminous Histoire
générale des Voyages (of which vol. i., 1746, contains
a fine portrait by Schmidt), histories, moral essays,
translations of Pamela and Clarissa Harlowe, and at
least one novel—Histoire d’une Moderne. In
1741 a lite service thoughtlessly rendered to a
satirical novelist drove him from France to Brussels,
thence to Frankfort ; but he was soon forgiven by
M. de Maurepas, and allowed to return. He lived
in acottage at Saint-Firmin near Chantilly, walked
much in the woods there, and died of the rupture
of an aneurism, 23d November 1763. The story
was long current that after he was thought to have
died of apoplexy, a stupid surgeon, in haste to
begin a post-mortem examination, both brought
him to life and killed him with a single thrust of
his knife ; but this hideous romance first. appeared
about 1782, and was ppleeny disproved by
Harrisse (see his L’ Abbé Pr , 1896). Many
other legends have clustered round Prévost’s ro-
mantic life. Of these the most remarkable is a
poceonty baseless calumny that he killed his own
ather, who had caught him in an intrigue, by
throwing him downstairs. :
Prévost’s is one of the names lifted securely
above the flood of time by one book written in a
moment of happy inspiration. Manon Lescaut
remains fresh, charming, and perennial, from its
perfect and unaffected simplicity, the stamp of
reality and truth throughout, and a style so flow-
ing, easy, and natural, that the reader forgets it
altogether in the os pag > pathetic interest of
the story. The half-dozen figures portrayed have
the likeness of life itself: the young Chevalier des
Grieux, the hero, is a lover of the noblest pattern,
absolutely forgetful of self, and idealising even the
unworthiness of his mistress ; Tiberge is an admir-
able type of the sensible and faithful friend, Les-
eaut, Manon’s brother, of the ruffian and bully;
but the triamph of the book is Manon he f,
charming, light-hearted, shallow, incapable of a
love that she will not sacrifice for luxury, yet ever
moved with a real affection for her lover, constant
even in her inconstancy and her degradation, the
oodness ever shining through the guilt, and at
jast purified by love and suffering. One feels in
this anique book that it is impossible to say where
reality ends and fiction begins, and indeed it
remains to this day unequalled as a thful
realisation of one over-mastering \. mm.
beginning to end a careful reader detects the traces
of a sad experience, for its author had himself a
sensitive heart and warm imagination, joined to a
weak and vacillating character. Both a Tiberge and
a Des Grieux met in himself, for his character and
ideals were pure and elevated, despite the weak-
nesses that grew out of his passionate and a
soul. Compounded, like his hero, at once of weak-
ness and of strength, he is not to be ed with
admiration so much as sympathy and affection, for,
if his sensitive and impressionable heart opened a
door to frailties ill-befitting the habit that he wore,
these frailties at least were natural and not dis-
simulated, and did not corrupt his heart any more
than they did his heroine's,
There is no complete edition of Prévost’s works. His
@uvres Choisies were collected at Amsterdam (39 vols.
1783-85). Of his one masterpiece the editions are
numberless, and there is at least one fair ish transla-
tion, by D. C. Moylan (1841; reprinted ). See the
biography prefixed to Prévost’s Pensées (1764), and
Sainte-Beuve in Portraits Littéraires, vols. i. and iii.,
and Causeries du Lundi, vol. ix.
Prévost-Paradol, Lucten ANATOLE, French
journalist, was born at Paris, son of an actress, 8th
August 1829, passed with distinction through the
Colléwe Bourbon and Ecole Normale, and became
in 1855 professor of French Literature at Aix.
Hardly a year later he was at work in Paris on the
Journal des Débats and Courrier du Dimanche,
and from time to time he published collections of
essays on literature eg nae ae of which the best
is his Essais sur les Moralistes Francais (1864).
In 1865 he was elected to the Academy, and in
1868 he visited England, and was honoured at
Edinburgh with a public entertainment. He had
always been, as a moderate liberal, an opponent
of the empire, but the accession of Ollivier to power
in January 1870 seemed to open upa new era for
French policy, and he allowed himself to accept
the post of envoy to the United States. Scarcely
was he installed when the war with German
broke out, and Prévost-Paradol, his mind unhinged
by the virulent attacks made upon him by the
republican press, and hopeless of the issue of the
struggle before his country, solved his own difficul-
ties by suicide at Washington, 20th July 1870.
Prey, Brrps or. See Brrps or PREY.
Priam, king of Troy at the time of the Trojan
war, was the son of Laomedon and Strymo or
Placia. The name means ‘the ransomed,’ and
was given him on account of his having been
ransomed by his sister Hesione from Hercules, into
whose hands he had fallen, His first wife was
Arisba, daughter of Merops, whom he gave away
to a friend in order to marry Hecuba, by whom,
according to Homer, he had nineteen sons. He
had altogether fifty sons; later writers add as
many daughters. The best known of these are
Hector, Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus, Troilus, and
Cassandra. Priam is represented as too old to
take any active part in the Trojan war, and in
Homer only once ap on the field of battle.
After Hector’s death he went to the tent of Achilles
to beg the body for burial. The oldest Greek
legends are silent respecting his fate; but later
poets like Euripides and say that he was
a by Pyrrhus when the Greeks stormed the
ty.
PRIAPUS
PRICKLY PEAR 401
Pria’pus, son of ag | and Aphrodite, born
at Lampsacus on the He lespont, considered as a
divinity of fruitfulness, especially of flocks of sheep
and goats, of bees, the vine, and of all kinds of
garden produce. His statues usually stood in
gardens, in the form of rude wooden im
painted vermilion, with a club, sickle, and phallic
symbol of exaggerated dimensions.
Pribram, a mining town of Bohemia, 48 miles
by rail SSW. of Prague, employs 6000 men in the
royal lead and silver mines, and various manu-
factures. There is a mining academy, and a church
much frequented by pilgrims. Pop. (1890) 13,412.
Pribylof Islands. See ALAsKA.
Price, Ricuarp, philosopher, was born at Tyn-
ton, in Glamo: hire, on 22d February 1723. is
father was a dissenting minister, morose, bigoted,
and intolerant, in complete antithesis to the dis-
ition of the son. As a boy he read Clarke and
~ Butler, went at eighteen to a dissenting academy
in London, and at the close of his studies became
mr sper" to a Mr Streatfield at Stoke-Newington,
with whom he lived for thirteen years. Legacies
from his patron and an uncle in 1756 enabled him
tomarry. He laboured as a preacher at Newington
Green and at Hackney, and established a reputation
by his somewhat heavy but able Review of the Prin-
Questions in Morals (1758). His apologetic
work, On the = apg of Christianity, ap
in 1766. In 1769 he received from Glasgow the
degree of D.D., and published his Treatise on
i Payments; which was followed by
the compilation of the celebrated Northampton
Mortality Tables, and various other works of
value relating to life assurance and annuities.
In 1771 red his famous Appeal to the Public
on the Subject of the National Debt ; in 1776 his
Observations on Civil Liberty and the Justice and
Policy of the War with America, The latter
brought him the freedom of the city of London
and an invitation from congress to assist in regu-
lating its finances. Price lived long enough to
herald the promise of the French Revolution, and
to be denounced in Burke’s Leflections. He died
April 19, 1791. Price was a believer in the imma-
teriality of the soul, holding that it remained in
a dormant state between death and resurrection,
Their difference of opinion on this subject led
to a controversy of some celebrity between him
and his friend Dr Priestley. His views respecting
the divinity of Christ were what is called Low or
semi-Arian. As a moralist he has a close affinity
with Cudworth, and in some points strangely fore-
shadows the greater name of k Kant. Of his great
treatise on morals the chief positions are these :
actions are in themselves right or wrong; right and
wrong are simple ideas incapable of analysis ; these
ideas are received immediately by the intuitive
wer of the reason or understanding. See the
ife by his nephew, William Morgan (1815).
Price, THomAs (1787-1848), a distinguished
Welsh scholar. See WALES (LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE).
Prichard, James Cow es, ethnologist, was
born at Ross in Herefordshire, 11th February 1786.
The son of a Quaker merchant, he received a
eareful home education at Ross and in Bristol,
where he had many chances of picking =e foreign
There, at St Thomas’s, ndon, and
in Edinburgh he studied medicine; and in 1810,
ra residence both at Cambridge and at Oxford,
he commenced practice in Bristol as a oo
His talents .were soon ised e was
recognised.
inted physician first to the Clifton dispensary
ant St Pater's Hospital, and aiterwunia 1 the
Bristol infirmary. In 1813 appeared his Researches
into the Physical History of Mankind, which at
390
once secured him a high standing as an ethnologist.
The different editions of this work (4th, 5 vols.
1841-51) gave further proofs of the zeal with which
he pursued his ethnological inquiries; and at the
same time he devoted himself much to philology,
which he rightly judged to be absolutely indispens-
able for an enlarged study of ethnology. He made
himself master not only of the Romance, Teutonic,
and Celtic | ut also of Sanskrit, Hebrew,
Arabic; and in The Eastern Origin of the Celtic
Nations (1831; 2d ed. by Latham, 1857) he com-
the different dialects of Celtic with the
nskrit, Greek, Latin, and Teutonic languages,
and succeeded in establishing a close affinity
between them all, from which he argued in favour
of a conimon origin for all the peoples speaking
those languages. Besides several medical works,
he also published an Analysis of Egyptian Myth-
ology (1819; Ger. trans. by A. W. von Schlegel,
1837) and The Natural History of Man (2 vols.
1843; 4th ed. by E. Norris, 1855). As a tribute to
his eminence as an ethnologist, Dr Prichard was
elected president of the Ethnological Society ;
while in recognition of his researches into the
nature and various forms of insanity he was
appointed in 1845 a commissioner in lunacy. This
occasioned his removal to London, where on 22d
December 1848 he died of rheumatic fever. The
first to raise ethnology to the rank of a science, he
was himself a monogenist, maintaining that man
is one in species, and that the negro is the primi-
tive type of the human race.
Prickle (Acu/eus), in Botany, is simply a hard,
pointed hair. See HArrs or PLANTS.
Prickly Heat is the popular name in India
and other tropical countries for a form of skin
disease sometimes known as Lichen tropicus (see
LIcHEN ). It more frequently attacks strangers from
temperate climates than the natives, although the
latter are not altogether exempt fromit. It consists
in a copious eruption of small red papules. The
sensations of itching and stinging which attend it.
are intense, and givé rise to an almost irresistible
propensity to scratching, which of course only
aggravates the irritation. Little or nothing can be
done in the way of treatment, except keeping as
cool as possible.
Prickly Pear, or INDIAN Fia (Opuntia), a
genus of plants of the natural order Cactacew
(q.v.), having a fleshy stem, generally formed of
comp articulations ; leafless, except that the
youngest shoots produce small cylindrical leaves
which soon fall off; generally covered with clusters
of strong hairs or of prickles ; the flowers springing
from among the clusters of prickles, or from the
margin or summit of the articulations, solitary, .
or corymboso-paniculate, generally yellow, rarely '
white or red; the fruit resembling a fig or pear, ©
with clusters of prickles on the skin, mucilaginous,
generally eatable—that of some species pleasant,
that of others insipid. The prickles of some species
are so strong, and their stems grow ng in such
number and strength, that they are used for hedge-
lants in warm countries. The Common Prickly
Pear or Indian Fig (0. vulgaris), a native of Vir-
ginia and more southern parts of North America,
is now naturalised in many parts of the south of
Europe and north of Africa, and in other warm
countries. It grows well on the barest rocks, and
spreads over expanses of volcanic sand and ashes
too arid for almost any other plant. It is of
humble growth; its fruit oval, rather larger than
a hen’s egg, yellow, and tinged with purple, the
pulp red or purple, juicy, and pleasantly com-
ining sweetness with acidity. It is extensivel
used in many countries as an article of food,
In the south of England the prickly vear lives
402 PRIDE
PRIEST
in the open air, and occasionally ripens its fruit.
In America it is cultivated considerably to the
north of its native region. Lime rubbish is often
mixed with the soil in which it is to be planted.
The fruit is imported into Britain, to a ‘small
extent, from the Mediterranean. The Dwarf
Prickly Pear (O. nana), very similar, but smaller,
and having prostrate stems, is naturalised in Europe
as far north as the sunny sl of the Tyrol. The
Tuna (0. tuna), much used in some parts of the
West Indies as a hedge-plant, and also valuable as
one of the species which afford food to the cochineal
insect, yields a pleasant fruit. It has red flowers,
with long stamens, which display a remarkable
irritability.
Pride, THomas, one of the most resolute of
Cromwell's soldiers, was a native of London, and
of humble origin. At first a drayman and brewer,
he enlisted at the commencement of the Civil War,
and by his merit quickly rose to be colonel. He
commanded a brigade under Cromwell in Scotland,
and, when the House of Commons betrayed a dis-
position to effect a settlement with the king, was
appointed by the army to purge it of its Presby-
terian royalist members. By ‘Pride’s Purge’
about a hundred were excluded, whereupon the
House, now reduced to about eighty members,
eon to bring the king to justice. Colonel
ride sat among his judges, and signed the death-
warrant. He died 23d October 1658, and so felt
not the rage of his enemies when his body was dug
up and hanged beside Cromwell’s on Tyburn.
Prideaux, Humpurey, scholar and divine,
was born of an ancient and honourable family at
Padstow, Cornwall, 2d May 1648. He was educated
at Westminster School under Dr Busby, and then
at Christ Church, Oxford, where he qeniuated B.A.
in 1672. His Marmora Ovoniensia (1676), an ac-
count of the Arundel Marbles, procured for him the
friendship of Lord Chancellor Finch (afterwards
Earl of Nottingham), who in 1679 appointed him
rector of St Clement’s, Oxford, and in 1681 a pre-
— of Norwich. After several minor prefer-
ments he was collated in 1688° to the archdeaconry
of Suffolk, and in 1702 was made Dean of Norwich.
He died 1st November 1724. His nine works in-
clude a Life of Mahomet (1697), long very popular;
Directions to Churchwardens (1701 ; 15th ed. 1886);
and The Connection of the History of the Old and
New Testament (1715-17 ; 27th ed. 1876). The last
treats with much learning, but less discernment,
the affairs of ancient Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Juda,
Greece, and Rome, so far as they bear on the sub-
ject of sacred prophecy. See Prideaux’s Letters to
John Ellis, edited by E. M. Thompson (Camden
Soe. 1875).
Pride of China (also called Pride of India
and Bead-tree), a handsome tree of the order
Meliacese (M. azedarach), a native of India,
naturalised in the southern states of the American
Union. It grows rapidly, has | bunches of
flowers, and enormous quantities of small fruit.
A decoction of the bark of its root is used as a
vermifuge.
Prie-dieu (Fr., ‘ pray God’), a portable kneel-
ing-desk ; a chair which may be used for kneeling
in prayer.
Priego, a town of Spain, 46 miles SE. of
Cordova, grows wine and weaves silk. Pop.
15,674.°
Priene, anciently one of the ‘twelve’ cities of
Ionia, stood a little NW. of the mouth of the
Meeander in Caria. Here in the second half of the
19th century the remains of an — Tonic temple
to Athene Polias were examined by an agent of
the British Society of Dilettanti, who carried off
and gave to the British Museum the stone bear-
ing the inscription that recorded its dedication by
Alexander the Great. See Antiquities of Ionia,
part iv. (1882),
Priessnitz. See Hypropatuy.
pe ett e ‘tie, in it mask genset gminotel
), the title, in its mos eral si ion,
of a minister of public wong. bat epeckally
applied to the minister of sacrifice or other media-
torial offices. In the early history of mankind
the functions of the priest seem to have commonly
been discharged by the head of each family ; but
on the expansion of the family into the state the
office of priest became a public one. It thus came
to pass that in many instances the priestly office
was associated with that of the sovereign. But in
many religious and political bodies, also, the orders
were maintained in complete independence, and
the priests formed a distinet and, generally speak-
,
ing, a privileged class, The priestly order, in most -
of the ancient religions, included a graduated hier-
archy ; and to the chief, whatever was his title,
were assigned the most solemn of the religious
offices entrusted to the body. In Egypt the popu-
lation is supposed to have been divided into three
or four castes, at the head of which was the sacer-
dotal, or priests. This division, however, was not
very strictly observed, as the son did not invariably
follow the profession of the father, That of the
priest Be goss most honourable, and two princi
classes of priests were in existence at the earliest
periods—the ont, or rophets, and the ab, or
inferior priests. The first were attached to the
worship of all oe deities of Pe and Me the
greater cities there was hont api, high prophet, or
priest, who presided over the sthers ; af "Thelies
there were as many as four prophets of Ammon.
Their duties appear to have comprised the general
cultus of the deity. They also interpreted the
oracles of the temples. Besides the prophets of
the gods, others were attached to the worship of
the king, and to varions offices connected with the
administration of the temples. The class of priests
called ab, or ‘pure,’ were inferior, and were also
attached to the principal deities and to the per-
sonal bebe» of the monarch. They were required
to be scrupulously neat and clean, entirely shaven,
and ascetic in their diet, bathing and fasting
frequently. The priesthood of India belongs to
the first caste, or that of the Brahmans, exclusively
(see CASTE, INDIA). But, as the proper perform-
ance of such functions requires, even in a Brahman,
the knowledge of the sacred texts to be recited at
a sacrifice, and of the complicated ceremonial of
which the sacrificial acts consist, none but a
Brahman learned in one or more Vedas, and
versed in the works treating of the ritual,
sesses, according to the ancient law, the qualifica-
tion of a priest. See also BuppHISM, LAMAISM.
In sacred history the patriarchal period furnishes
an example of the family priesthood; while in
Melchizedec, king of Salem, we find the union of
the royal with the priestly character. In the
Mosaic Jaw the whole theory of the priesthood,
as a sacrificial and mediatorial office, is full
developed. The priest of the Mosaic law stands
in the position of a mediator between God and the
peoples and, even if the sacrifices which he offered
regarded as but typical and prospective in their
moral efficacy, the priest must be considered as
administering them with full authority in all that _
regards their legal value. The Mosaic priesthood
was the inheritance of the family of Aaron, of the
tribe of Levi (q.v.). It consisted of a High-priest
(q.v.), and of inferior ministers, distributed into
twenty-four classes. The age for admission to the
priesthood is nowhere expressly fixed; but, from
PRIEST
PRIESTLEY 403
2 Chronicles, xxxi. 17, it would. seem that the
minimum age was twenty. In the service of the
temple the priests were divided into twenty-four
, each of which was subject to a chief priest,
and served, each company for a week, following
each other in rotation. Their duties in the temple
consisted in preparing, slaying, and offering
victims, in preparing the show-bread, burning the
incense, and tending the lights of the sanctuary.
Outside they were employed in instructing the
people, attending to the daily offerings, enforcing
the laws regarding legal uncleanness, &e. For
their maintenance were set aside certain offerings
(see Frrst-FRuITs) and other gifts. They wore a
distinguishing dress, the chief characteristics of
which were a white tunic, an embroidered cincture,
and a turban-shaped head-dress. The Jewish priest-
hood may be said to have practically with
the destruction of the temple.
In the Christian dispensation the name primi-
tively given to the public ministers of religion was
preshytros, of which the English name ‘priest’ is
ta form derived through the old French or Nor-
man prestre. The name Fron in classical Greek
to the sacrificing priests of the pagan religion, Gr.
i , Lat. sacerdos, is not found in the New
Testament explicitly applied to ministers of the
Christian ministry ; but very early in ecclesiastical
use it ont as an ordinary designation; and
with all t bodies of Christians—Roman Catho-
lies, Greeks, Syrians, and other Orientals—who
regard the eucharist as a sacrifice (see LITURGY)
the two names were applied indiscriminately. The
priesthood of the Christian church is one of the
grades of the hierarchy, second in order only to
that of bishop, with which order the priesthood
has many functions in common. The priest is
pet as the ordinary minister of the eucharist,
whether as a sacrament or as a sacrifice ; of bap-
tism, penance, and extreme unction ; and although
the contracting parties are held in the modern
schools to be themselves the ministers of marriage,
the priest is regarded by all schools of Roman
divines as at least the normal and official witness
of its celebration. The priest is also officially
charged with the instruction of the people and the
direction of their spiritual concerns, and by long-
established use special districts, called parishes,
are assigned to priests, within which they are
entrus with the care and supervision of the
spiritual wants of all the inhabitants. The holy
order of priesthood can only be conferred by a
bishop, and he is ordinarily assisted by two or
more priests, who, in common with the bishop,
impose hands on the candidate. The rest of the
ceremonial of ordination consists in investing the
candidate with the sacred instruments and orna-
ments of his order, anointing his hands, and
reciting certain prayers significative of the gifts
and the duties of the office. The distinguishing
vestment of the celebrant priest in the mass is the
Chasuble (av ). In Catholic countries priests wear
even in public a distinctive dress, in most respects
common to them with the other orders of Clergy
(q.v.). In the Latin Church priests are bound
to a life of celibacy. In the Greek and oriental
churches married men may be advanced to the
priesthood ; but no one is permitted to marry after
ordination, nor is a married priest permitted to
marry a second time, should his wife die.
In the Church of England, and other Reformed
Episcopal Churches, the term priest is retained as
the designation of the second order of clergy, whose
sage office it is (1) to celebrate the Sacrament of
the Lord’s Supper; (2) to pronounce the forms of
Absolution in the Morning and Evening Prayer, in
the Communion Service, and in the Office for the
Visitation of the Sick; and (3) to preach, though
this last office is, be Fg sey license, sometimes
extended to deacons. EACON, ORDERS ( HOLY).
Priestley, JosEPH, son of a cloth-dresser, was
born at Fieldhead, near Leeds, 13th March 1733.
For some time he was obliged to abandon school
studies, owing to weak health, and betook himself
to mercantile pursuits, but with returning strength
his literary studies were resumed at a dissenting
academy at Daventry (founded by Dr Doddridge).
Though his father and family were strong Cal-
vinists, young Priestley, during his residence at
the emy, felt called on to renounce nearly all
the theological and metaphysical opinions of his
youth. ‘I came,’ he says, ‘to embrace what is
called the heterodox side of every question.’ In
1755 he became minister to a small congregation at
Needham Market, in Suffolk. While here he*
com his work against the doctrine of Christ’s
death being a sacrifice or satisfaction for sin,
entitled Zhe Scripture Doctrine of Remission. In
this he taught that the Bible is indeed a divine
revelation, made from God to man through Christ,
himself a man and no more, nor claiming to be
more, and rejected the doctrines of the Trinity
and the Atonement. In 1758 he quitted Needham
for Nantwich ; and in 1761 he removed, as teacher
of languages and belles-lettres, to an academy at
Warrington ; and here his literary career may be
said first fairly to have begun. A visit to London
led to his making the acquaintance of Franklin,
who supplied him with books which enabled him
to write his History and Present State of Electricity,
nblished in 1767. It was followed by a work on
ision, Light, and Colours. In 1762 he published
his Theory of Language and Universal renege
In 1764 he was made LL.D. of Edinburgh, and
F.R.S. in 1766. In the following year he removed
to Leeds, having been appointed minister of the
Mill Hill dissenting chapel there. A brewery
beside his dwelling gave a new direction to his
energetic and versatile mind; he began to study
chemistry. In 1773 he was appointed literary com-
panion to Lord Shelburne, and accompanied the
earl on a continental tour in 1774. Having been
told by certain Parisian savants that he was. the
only man of understanding they had ever known
who believed in Christianity, he wrote, in reply,
the Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever, and
various other works, containing criticisms on the
doctrines of Hume and others. But, while laughed
at in Paris as a believer, at home he was branded
as an atheist. To escape the odium arising from
the latter imputation, he published, in 1777, his
isquisition Relating to Matter and irit, in
which, ly age spirit and partly
spiritualising matter, he holds that our hopes of
resurrection must rest solely on the truth of the
Christian revelation, and that on science they have
no foundation whatever. On leaving Lord Shel-
burne, he became minister of a dissenting chapel at
Birmingham. The publication, in 1786, of his His- —
tory of Early Opinions concerning Jesus Christ
occasioned the renewal of a controversy, which
had begun in 1778, between him and Dr Horsley,
concerning the doctrines of Free-will, Materialism,
and Unitarianism. His reply to Burke’s Reflections
on the French Revolution led to his being made a
citizen of the French Republic; and this led toa
mob on one occasion breaking into his house, and
destroyin all its contents, ks, manuscripts,
scientific instruments, &c. A brother-in-law, how-
ever, about this time left him £10,000, with an
annuity of £200. In 1791 he was elected to a
charge at Hackney; but his honestly-avowed
opinions had made him unpopular, and he (1794)
removed to America, where he was_ heartily
received. He died at Northumberland, Penn-
sylvania, 6th February 1804, expressing (though
404 PRIEST'S HOLE
PRIMROSE
he agreed that he should be called a materialist)
his confidence in immortality. He was a man of
irreproachable character, serene of temper, fearless
in searching after and confessing the truth. His
services to chemistry are summed up at Vol. IIL
. 147 (and see OXYGEN); recent research fully
justifies Priestley’s title to be called the father of
pneumatic chemistry ; Thorpe, at the British As-
sociation, 1890 (see Nature, xlii. 449), not merely
defended the segeced of his discovery of oxygen
(1774) and of the composition of water (1781), but
denied Lavoisier’s claim to be considered an inde-
ndent discoverer. See J. T. Rutt’s edition of
iestley’s Works (25 vols. 1832), including Auto-
biographical Memoir; and Martineau’s Lssays,
Reviews, and Addresses (vol. i. 1891).
Priest’s Holes, See Secrer CHAMBERS.
Priluki, a town of Russia, 87 miles E. by N.
of Kieff, with trade in corn and cattle. ‘op.
15,231, mostly engaged in the cultivation of
tobacco,
Prim, JUAN, Spanish general, was born at
Reus, 6th December 1814, and rapidly rose to be a
colonel, and so distinguished himself in war and
statesmanship as to be made general, marshal, and
marquis. As progressist he opposed Espartero.
Failing in an insurrectionary sete. in 1866, he
had to flee to England and Brussels, but here he
ided the movement that in 1868 overthrew
sabella. He was war minister under Serrano,
but soon became virtually dictator. He secured
the election of an Italian prince, Amadeo, as king
(in order, as was thought, that the king might be
under the minister's preg day and was thereupon
shot by an assassin as he left the Cortes, 28th
December 1870. He died on the 30th.
_ Prima Donna (Ital.), the first female singer
in an opera.
Primage, « charge (over and above the freight)
id by the shipper or consigner of is for load-
ng the same, to the master and sailors of a ship,
or to the owner or freighter.
Primary Colours, See CoLour.
Primary Rocks. See PALZozo1c.
Primate (Lat. primas), anciently a bishop
holding a ition of pre-eminence. Thus the
bishop of Rome was called primate of the whole
church. In modern times the title belongs only
to such sees as had formerly the dignity of vicar of
the holy see annexed—Armagh, Arles and Lyons,
Mainz, Toledo, Pisa and Salerno, &c. But none
of these any special primatial jurisdiction.
For the primates in the Chureh of England, see
the article ArcuBisHop. The name primus is
applied in the Scottish Episcopal Church to the
presiding bishop. He is chosen by the bishops out
of their own number, without their being bound to
give effect to seniority of consecration or precedency
of diocese.
Primates, the name given by Linneus in his
system to the first order of Mammals (q.v.), which
he placed first (whence the name, Lat. primus,
‘ first’) because he ranked man amongst them.
Prime, the first of the ‘lesser hours’ of the
Roman breviary. See BrevIARY.
Prime-minister, See Treasury, CABINET.
Primero, or Prime, a game at cards popular
in England in the 16th century, but now obeatate.
The same or a very similar game was played in
Italy under the name primera, and in France
under the names prime, ambigu, &c. Primero
belonged to the family of games of which the old
post and pair and the more modern brag and poker
are members,
Primitive Methodists. See Mernopists.
Primogeniture is the rule of law under
which the eldest son of the family succeeds to the
father's real estate in preference to, and in absolute
exclusion of, the younger sons and all the sisters.
See ENTAIL, FAMILY, FEUDALISM, FIRST-BORN,
LAND Laws, SUCCESSION ; and the valuable mono-
graph on Primogeniture (1895) by Evelyn Cecil.
Primordial Zone, a name applied by Bar-
rande to the group of strata which in Bohemia
underlies the Silurian rocks, and is therefore on
the horizon of the Cambrian system.
Primrose (Primuda), a genus of plants of the
natural order Primulacee, having a bell-shaped or
tubular five-toothed calyx, a salver-shaped corolla
with five segments, five stamens, a globose germen
containing many ovules, and a many-seeded capsule
opening by five valves, and generally with ten teeth
at the apex. The dimorphism of the stamens and
istil of primrose, illustrated in the accompanying
igure, is not uncommon in other species of the
genus, and has given rise to the terms thrum
(A) and pin-eyed (B) in the language of florists in
Primroses ; short (A) and long styled (B).
describing varieties of the Auricula and Polyanthus,
The distinction is of some practical importance in
so far as fertilisation of the individual flowers is
affected by the relative positions of the respective
organs. The species are all herbaceous peren-
nials, generally having only radical leaves; and
the flowers in a simple umbel, more rarely with
scapes bearing solitary flowers. Almost all of
them are natives of Europe and the north of Asia.
Some of them are among the finest ornaments of
our groves and meadows ; some are found in moun-
tainous regions. Their fine colours and soft deli-
cate beauty have led to the cultivation of some of
Common Primrose (Primula vulgaris).
them as garden flowers, probably from the very
nning of floriculture. The name Primrose
r. Primevére, Lat. Primula) is derived from the
tin primus, ‘ first,’ and refers to the early appear-
ance of the flowers of some of the most common
PRIMROSE LEAGUE
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND 405
species in spring. The Common Primrose (P.
vulgaris), abundant in woods, hedgebanks, and
pages in Britain and in most parts of Europe,
obovate-oblong, wrinkled leaves, and single-
flowered ope the flowers about an inch broad,
ite.
— w This is the plant to which the
glish name ga specially belongs. Akin to
it is the Cowslip (q.v.), or Paigle (P. veris), and
perhaps still more nearly related is the Oxlip (P.
elatior ), apparently wild in some parts of England,
icularly in the eastern counties, but supposed
some botanists to be intermediate between the
common primrose and the cowslip, which they
therefore regard as extreme forms of one species.
The Polyanthus (q.v.) is a cultivated variety of
the cowslip. The Auricula (q.v.; P. auricula),
an Alpine species, is a favourite garden flower.
The Bird's-eye Primrose (P. farinosa) and the
Scottish Primrose (P. scotica) are both flowers of
exquisite beauty, found in the northern parts of
Britain, the latter chiefly on the coasts of Suther-
land, Caithness, and the Orkney Islands. The
Alps and the Himalaya Mountains produce several
species. The Chinese Primrose (P. sinensis) has
for more than fifty years been very common in
Britain, not only as a greenhouse but a window
plant. It os gpg compound umbels of very
numerous lilac, red, or white flowers, which are
copays in autumn, winter, and spring. Two
varieties occur in the eastern states of the Ameri-
ean Union—the Bird’s-eye Primrose (P. farinosa)
and P. mistassinica, both rare—and several varie-
ties in the western states, the most conspicuous
being P. parryi, with large purple flowers, which
grows on the Rocky Mountains.
Primrose Tanga. This political organisa-
tion was founded November 17, 1883, by Lord
Randolph Churchill, Sir John Gorst, Sir Alfred
Slade, and Sir H. Drummond Wolff. The name
was chosen in reference to the fact that the primrose
was Lord Beaconsfield’s favourite flower (a fact by
some unkindly disputed ; cf. Notes and Queries for
1888, pp. 146, 416); and the fivefold petal of that
flower is taken to indicate the five prineipal
divisions of the British empire in Europe, Asia,
Africa, America, and Australia. This strictly
Conservative society, by the moderation and even
liberality of its professions, by its enlistment and
organisation of women, by its distribution of titles
and badges, and by its choice of an emblem
dear to all and accessible to all, has attained an
enormous growth and ay political influence.
It was originally intended to admit men only,
banded in companies of about 100 to act as mission-
aries of the league; and the effect of admitting
women may be gathered from the fact that the
number of members rose from 957 in 1884 to
237,283 in 1886. The numbers as given by the
society in 1891 were: habitations, 2126, and knights,
dames, and associates enrolled as members, 963,943.
The first d-master of the Primrose League
was the Marquis of Salisbury, K.G. The head
office is at 64 Victoria Street, Westminster. In
July 1890 the first branch in Canada was estab-
lished at jpegs See an article by Sir A.
Borthwick in the Nineteenth Century for July 1886.
Primulacez, 2 natural order of exogenous
plants, containing more than 200 known species,
mostly natives of temperate and cold regions.
They are all herbaceous, or scarcely half-shrubby,
with.leaves generally all radical, and no stipules.
The calyx is generally five-cleft, inferior or half-
superior, regular, persistent ; the corolla, with the
limb divided into as many segments as the calyx,
rarely wanting ; the stamens inserted on the corolla,
one opposite to each of its lobes; the ovary one-
celled, the style solitary, the stigma capitate ; the
capsule with a central placenta and many seeds.—
Many of the Primulacee have flowers of much
Flowers of a few of the Primulacez :
a, Primula sikkimensis ; b, P. obconica ; c, P. sieboldii ; d, common
primrose ( P. vulgaris); e, cowslip (P. veris).
beauty, and some are very fragrant, as the Prim-
rose, Cowslip, Auricula, Pimpernel, &e.
Primum Mobile. See Protemy.
peice Liat inceps), an epithet wit saa
originally applied to the princeps senattés of the
Roman state, and aitaretadda Eocaans a title of
dignity. It was adopted by Augustus and his
successors ; hence the word was afterwards applied
to persons enjoying kingly power, more especially
the rulers of small states, either sovereign or
dependent. The title is now very generally applied
to the sons of kings and emperors and persons of
the blood-royal, sometimes with a territorial title
(Prince of Wales, Prince of Orange), or with an
addition, ‘crown prince,’ ‘prince imperial,’ &c.
In various parts of continental Europe the title
prince is borne by families of eminent rank but
not possessed of sovereignty. Practically in Britain
the term prince is restricted to members of the
royal family (see PRECEDENCE). The eldest son
of the reigning sovereign is by a special patent
created Prince of Wales (see WALES, PRINCE OF).
In France, under the old regime, dukes took pre-
cedence of princes; and many dukes had _prince-
doms as minor titles. Napoleon put his new-
created princes above dukes. In Italy princes
rank after dukes, sons of dukes being called
princes. In Germany the ambiguity of applying
the same title to the members of royal booa
and princely families, not sovereign, is avoided,
the former being styled ‘ Prinz,’ the latter ‘ Fiirst.’
The German Fiirst takes rank below the Duke
(Herzog). Most of the counts who had a seat in
the old German Diet were elevated to the dignity
of Prince on their acquiescence in the dismember-
ment of the German empire (see GERMANY, Vol.
V. p. 177). In a more general acceptation the term
prince is often used for a sovereign or the ruler of
a state.
Prince Edward Island is a province of the
Dominion of Canada, having entered the confedera-
tion in 1873. It is situated in the Gulf of St
Lawrence, and is separated from New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia by Northumberland Strait. The
greatest length of the island is 130 miles; its
readth varies from 4 to 34 miles, and it has an
406 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND
PRINCETON
area of 2133 sq.m.—i.e, about 1,365,400 acres, nearly
all of which are oveupied. Population in 1891
numbered 109,088, or 51 persons to the square
mile. Although discovered by the Cabots, no
claim was made to it by the British on that
account, Possession was assumed by the French,
but little was done towards its settlement until
1715, when its fertility attracted some Acadians
from Cape Breton. It was finally ceded to Great
Britain in 1763. In the first instance it formed
part of Nova Scotia, but in 1768 was made a
separate province. The pop. in 1763 was 4000;
but about that time an emigration set In to the
mainland, and the Acadians were expelled, so
that in 1768 it had been reduced to about 1300
see ACADIA). Until 1799 it was called St John’s
land, but its name was then changed to Prince
Edward Island, in compliment to the Duke of
Kent, who paid it a visit in that year. Prior to
1875 most of the land was the property of absentee
proprietors, and for many years the land question
was a source of difficulty. The local government,
however, passed a measure in 1875 giving them
—— to buy out the landlords, and to sell the
and to the tenants or others on easy terms of
repayment. Out of the 843,981 acres acquired by
the government in that way, all but 97,162 acres
had 5 disposed of up to 1889; and the payments
are being met in a satisfactory manner, the arrears
being very trifling. By this legislation a fruitful
source of irritation was removed, and the agricul-
tural industry—the principal one in the province
—placed on a more satisfactory footing.
n from the water, the appearance of the island is
exceedingly prepossessing. The surface is undulat-
ing, but never exceeds feet ; the soil is very fer-
tile, consisting generally of a light reddish loam, and
occasionally of a stiffer clay, resting in some places
on red sandstone, although in other localities it
seems to be rey alluvial. All kinds of cereals,
roots, and vegetables are raised. Oats and potatoes
from the island enjoy a special reputation, and the
same thing may be said of its sheep and horses.
A natural manure, called mussel mud, and made of
decayed oyster, clam, and mussel shells, is found
on the coasts of the island. It is largely used
by the farmers, and is said to be a most valuable
fertiliser. Although coal is known to exist, it is
not worked, owing to the depth at which it is
found and the cheapness at which it can be pur-
chased from Nova Scotia. There are apparently
no other minerals on the island. The climate is
healthy, being milder than that of the mainland,
and freer from fogs. Winter is long and tedious,
but the summer months are pleasant and enjoy-
able. Prince Edward Island is without doubt the
best fishing station in the Gulf of St Lawrence,
but the habits and feelings of the inhabitants are
so decidedly agricultural that the fisheries have not
received from them the attention they deserve.
They consist chiefly of mackerel, lobsters, herring,
cod, hake, and oysters; while salmon, bass, shad,
halibut, and trout are caught in limited quantities.
In the year 1889 the value of the fisheries was
$886,430; the catch included 13,450 barrels and
99,270 cans of mackerel, 33,940 barrels of herring,
21,196 ewt. of cod, 90,000 lb. of haddock, 748 ewt.
of hake, 3730 lb. of halibut, 56,820 Ib. of trout,
364,100 Ib. of smelts, 18,140 barrels of eels, 41,237
barrels of oysters, 2,060,947 Ib, of lobsters, 13,647
lb. of cod and hake sounds, and 13,852 gallons of
fish oils. The present annual value of the oyster-
fishery exceeds $120,000; and this industry is
capable of vast development. Lobsters in 1889 were
exported to the extent of 918,200 Ib., of the value
of $102,883.
The coast-line is a succession of bays and pro-
jecting headlands; the largest bays are Egmont,
Hillsborough, and Cardigan, which
into the land from opposite ahreotione) M nepeicas.
isthmuses, dividing the island into three distinet
ninsulas, Charlottetown is the capital,
as a pop. of 13,000. Other pe towns are
Summerside (3000), Georgetown, and Souris. The
well watered.
to any = Th rape and chiefly for pp pur-
poses. upbuilding was an important industry
previous to the substitution of iron and steel for
wooden vessels,
The exports for 1890 were valued at $875,964,
divided as follows: Produce of the mine, $20;
forest, $7575; fisheries, $187,743; agriculture,
$664,638 ; manufactures, $14,871; and miscellane-
ous, $1117. Imports were valued at $581,177.
There is a railway, built and worked by the
Dominion government, running from one end of
the island to the other. The island is connected
by telegraph with the mainland, and there is dail
steam communication between the two, al
it is occasionally interrupted during the winter.
In 1891 the people were urging the construction of
a tunnel under the Northumberland Strait, for the
pu of establishing communication with the
mainland all the year round. The Dominion
government directed an estimate of the cost to be
prepared. The tunnel would be some 7 miles long.
According to the census of 1891, the settlers were
largely of English, Irish, and Scotch descent, and
French, Germans, and Scandinavians. The_prin-
cipal religious denominations were ; Roman Catho-
lics, 47,837; Presbyterians, 33,072; Method
13,596 ; Church of England, 6646. The Bishop
Nova Scotia exercises oe authority over the
island, and the Roman Catholics have one diocese,
that of Charlottetown. Free education has pre-
vailed since 1853. In 1889 the district schools
numbered about 436. There are also mar-
schools, private schools, a normal and a model
school, and two coll the Prince of Wales
(Protestant) and St Dunstan’s (Roman Catholic).
The government of the island is administered by
a lieutenant-governor, appointed by the governor-
in-council, and paid out of federal fun The
legislative council consists of thirteen members,
and the assembly of thirty members, the latter
being elected for four years. In the Dominion
senate the province is represented by four members,
and in the House of Commons by six.
Princeites, a name given to the Agapemoné
(q.v.) from the founder.
Prince of Wales. See WALEs (PRINCE OF).
Prince of Wales Island. See PENANG.
Prince Rupert's Drops, See ANNEALING.
Princes Islands (anc. Demonnesoi), a beauti-
ful group of nine islets near the eastern end of the
Sea of Marmora, about 10 miles SE. of Con-
stantinople, the largest being called Prinkipo.
They are a favourite summer-resort of the Con-
stantinople Greeks, and in old times were fre-
uently a place of exile for those in disfavour at
the Byzantine court. See Schlumberger, Les Les
des Princes (1884); 8. 8. Cox, The Ii of the
Princes (New York, 1888).
Prince's Metal, a name, derived from Prince
Rupert, given to an alloy of copper and zinc, in
—_ the proportion of zine is greater than in
Tass,
Princeton, (1) capital of Gibson county,
Indiana, 161 miles esc E. of St Lonis. It has
manufactures of woollens, flour, &c., and is in an
agricultural region, Pop. (1900) 6041.—(2) A
borough of New Jersey, 50 miles by rail SW. of New
York. Pop. (1900) 3899. On January 8, 1777, it
ee ———— ee SC
PRINCIPAL
PRINTING 407
was the scene of a battle between the British
under Colonel Mawhood and the Americans under
Washington, in which the former were defeated ;
here the Continental Con sat in 1783 ; and from
Princeton Washington dated his farewell address
to the army. Princeton, however, is chiefly cele-
brated as the seat of the College of New Jersey,
sea f known as Princeton College, which,
‘ounded by
charter in 1746; under the auspices of the ,
Presbyterian fa of New York, held its first com-
mencement under its second charter at Newark in
1748. Liberal subscriptions were obtained both in
America and in Britain, the Bishop of Durham
being among the contributors, and the General
Assembly of the Church of Scotland ordering a
national collection. In 1756 the college was trans-
ferred to Princeton, on the erection of a hall
named Nassau Hall in honour of William III.
Within it hangs a portrait of Washington. The
College of New Jersey has had several distin-
—— Presbyterian divines for its presidents, as
onathan Edwards and Dr James M‘Cosh. Since
the civil war benefactions have poured in upon the
college; during the twenty years of Dr M‘Cosh’s
P ency these exceeded $3,000,000. Post-gradu-
ate courses have been introduced, and the staff of
instructors raised to about eighty ; the number of
students is now about 1100. Among its graduates
have been James Madison, fourth president of the
United States, and many very eminent men. The
college possesses a school of science and muse-
ums, laboratories, observatories, and libraries with
180,000 volumes. In 1896 it was transformed into
Princeton University. The theological semi p
founded in 1812, is the oldest and largest (nearly
200 students) of the Presbyterian Church in Amer-
ica. With it was associated the fame of the Biblical
Repertory and Princeton Review (‘‘old school”),
founded in 1825, but afterwards united with the
‘erian Quarterly (‘‘ new school”), which was
succeeded by the American Presbyterian Review.
See (anon.) Four American Universities: Harvard,
Yale, Princeton, and Columbia (1895).
Principal. See AcentT and Surety; also
ACCESSARY.
Pringle, THOMAs, minor t, was born at
Blaiklaw (near Kelso), Roxburghshire, 5th January
1789. Lame from childhood, dyspeptic, devout, he
went at seventeen to Edinburgh University, and
found bread if not contentment of mind as clerk in
the Scottish Public Records Office. He took to
writing at an early age, and, besides other litera:
schemes and ventures, started the Edinburg
Monthly Magazine, the parent of Blackwood, in
which his own most important article was on
the Gypsies, from notes supplied by Scott. In
1820 he set sail with a party of twenty-four
emigrants of his father’s family for Cape Colony.
He travelled into the interior with the party,
and had his heart stirred within him to see the
inhumanity practised towards the natives by Eng-
lish and Dutch residents alike. For three years he
lived at Capetown as librarian of the government
library at a salary of £75 a year. He started the
South African Journal, and fought a brave fight
for the freedom of the press. But he was bullied
by the tyrannical and petty-minded governor of the
day, Lord Charles Somerset, his schemes crushed,
and himself rednced to poverty. He returned to
London in 1826, and became secretary of the Anti-
Slavery Society. He died in London, 5th Decem-
ber 1834. His Ephemerides (1828) was a collection
of graceful verse. Those poems that related to
South Africa—the best ‘Afar in the Desert ’—
were reprinted in the volume of African Sketches
(1834), a series of glowing sketches of South
scenery. Pringle’s Poetical Works were
edited, with a florid eulogium, rather than a life,
by Leitch Ritchie (1839).
Printing is the art of taking, by pressure,
prints or copies in reverse of an original design
of a suitable character, coated with a pigment or
ink. The word has a very wide application, and is
used, for payavts in Ss agama with such brsscvesds
rocesses as photographic ‘printing,’ in which no
peat is Slane. § and se en ty Th . A defini-
tion based upon pressure alone would bring within
the category of ‘ prints’ such operations as mould-
ing, stamping, and embossing. The word has,
however, acquired conventional limitations of
meaning, and is now applied usually to the three
methods of copperplate printing (see ENGRAVING),
Lithography (q.v.), and letterpress printing. The
first two being already described, the present
article will be confined to a description of the
latter.
There is no doubt the Chinese practised printing
in some senses of the word many centuries before
it was known in Europe, as has been noticed at
Cuina, Vol. IIL. p. 196. The method commonly
used down to the present time is one apenas,
adopted by Foong Taou in the 10th century.
piece of 7a se wood is cut up into boards of
about half an inch thick, and these into blocks —_
enough for two pages of the book to be printed.
The blocks are planed, squared, and sized or var-
nished. The design to engraved is drawn or
written on thin transparent paper, and transferred
to the surface of the block Tene The en-
ver next cuts away the field, leaving the trans-
erred letters in high relief. Labour being cheap,
a block of this kind can be cut at about the same
expense as it could be set up in movable metal types,
and it needs no proof- ing or correction, For
printing no press is used, the. block being adjusted
on a table, before which the printer stands, having
a bow! of fluid ink on one side and a pile of paper
on the other. In his right hand he has two flat-
faced brushes, fixed on the opposite ends of the
same handle. One brush is dip into the ink
and swept over the face of the block, on which a
sheet of paper is placed ; the back of the popes
is then swept lightly but firmly with the dry brush
at the other end of the handle. This is all that is
needed to fasten the ink on the paper—which is
soft, thin, pliable, and a (ge absorbent of fluid
ink. Printing from movable types was, according
to Professor Douglas, probably practised in China
as early as the 12th or 13th century, as there are
Corean books printed from movable clay or wooden
types in 1317. But the Chinese still prefer block-
rinting ; and printing from metal types in China
is mainly practised for circulating the Bible and
for newspapers, according to methods invented by
Europeans. About 6000 Chinese characters suffice
for a missionary printing-oflice ; but for magazine
work about 10,000 are necessary. For the baseless
tradition that Marco Polo brought the knowledge
of block-printing thence, see PoLo.
The art of printing by the use of movable
types was invented in Europe about the
middle of the 15th century ; but no more definite
statement concerning its origin can be made with
confidence. The name of the country in which the
invention took place, the name of the inventor, the
year of the invention are, up to the present time,
matters of dispute. Modern researches have com-
pletely disposed of as a mere legend the wide-
spread belief that the invention of movable metal
types, cast in a mould from a matrix—the essen-
tial principle of typography—was preceded by or
was the outcome of the use of wooden types,
which it was formerly thought formed the link
between the block-books common in the early
part of the 15th century (see WOOD-ENGRAVING)
408
PRINTING
and the earliest letterpress prints. Equally base-
less is the belief that the first metal types were
cut instead of being cast. The evidence on these
two points is too minute and technical to be
adduced here,
The controversy as to the invention of bag
has lasted nearly four centuries, and it has un-
happily been carried on with a vehemence and
bitterness which perhaps no other controversy, not
a religious one, has ever excited. Up to 1499 it
was universally believed that typography was in-
vented at Strasburg by Gutenberg (q.v.), who
afterwards set up a press at Mainz, from which
emanated the magnificent Latin Bible, for many
ears called the Mazarin Bible, owing to a copy
Lavine been discovered by De Bure in Cardinal
at Paris. Gutenberg’s name
in a single production of his press,
and none of his associates mention his name as the
inventor of printing. In 1499 there was published
at Cologne the Cronica van der hilliger Stat van
Coellen, since known as the Cologne Chronicle, in
which one chapter is devoted to the origin of print-
ing. The chronicler declares that the art was
discovered first of all in Germany, at Mainz on the
Rhine; that it took place about 1440, but that,
although it was discovered at Mainz, the first ‘ pre-
figuration’ was in Holland, in the form of the
Donatuses which were printed before that time ;
that the circumstances of the origin had been com-
municated to the chronicler by Ulric Zell, a con-
temporary printer at Cologne. To these state-
ments may be attributed the commencement of the
controversy ever Since carried on. In 1588 Adriaen
de Jonghe (‘Hadrianus Junius’), in his Batavia,
rinted in the Plantin office at Antwerp, gave the
first circumstantial account of the alle; Duteh
invention, which, he said, he had heard from old
and trustworthy people. This was, it will be
noticed, about a century and a half after the inven-
tion. Junius stated that in 1440 ‘Lourens Jans-
zoon,’ surnamed Coster (q.v.), lived at Haarlem ;
that he one day took a walk in the Hout, and
cut letters on the bark of a beech-tree ; that he
printed these letters on paper for the amusement of
children ; that he invented a suitable printing-ink,
and afterwards began to print whole sheets, with
pictures ; subsequently he used leaden letters, and
then tin ones. Among his workmen was one
Johannes—the surname was not given by Junius—
who in 1441 stole the types and fled to Mainz,
where he opened a workshop, and in 1442 published,
with Coster’s types, the rinale of A, Gallus
and the Tractatus of P. Hispanus. From this
date, as already stated, the question whether
rinting was ‘invented’ in Holland or in Germany
tee been fiercely debated, and scores of books have
been written upon it. The titles of these are
iven in Bigmore and Wyman’s Bibliography of
rinting (3 vols, Lond, 1880-86). The controversy
was renewed with much vigour, and unfortunately
with much acrimony, in 1870; and it has since been
maintained, the balance of evidence, or rather of
probability —for of evidence there is an extraordi-
ard lack—oscillating from time to time to one side
and then to the other. In 1870 the ‘Costerians’
included nearly all the leading bibliographers and
typographical historians. An eminent Duteh in-
vestigator, Dr van der Linde, published a series
of articles, since translated into — (Lond.
1871) under the title of The Coster Legend. The
‘anl sxir of the book was that the documents
wrought forward to support the claims of Coster
were false, and that the arguments in his favour
were devoid of any historical or bg aat. eo
support. Van der Linde showed further that
several of the documents on which the Costerians
relied were actually frauds and forgeries. This
Mazarin’s lib
does not ap
exposure for a time completely routed the sup-
Lect ees Dutch claims. Ha mi the same
author uced a companion volume, Gutenberg—
Geschi und Erdichtung aus den Quellen nach-
ewiesen, but there was little new in it. Mr
essels of Cambridge, a native of Haarlem, next
took up the subject on original lines, and issued
the work Gutenberg: Was he the Inventor of Print-
ing ? (Lond. 1882). He maintained that Van der
‘Linde was untrustworthy, and that his book pre-
sented a more complete chaos of error on the
subject than its predecessors, Mr Hessels spent
several years in examining in Germany all the
documents extant connected with the history of
Gutenberg, and ex a number of falsifications
and forgeries which had passed eurrent. Space
will not here suffice to recapitulate his discoveries ;
his book is indispensable to any one desiring an
accurate knowledge of the subject. The result of
his researches was more negative than positive.
He said that he-had not found anything which
enabled him to answer in the affirmative or in the
negative the question, Was Gutenberg the inventor
of printing? Of the three principal documents.
relied upon by his supporters one is lost entirely, -
and the other two are only pipomegy mee Even if
we accept these transcripts, he says, they point to
Gutenberg only as a printer, but not as the inventor
of printing. In 1886 Dr van der Linde wrote from
the German side another book, 7
book,
issued in 1887, Haarlem the Birthplace of Printing,
not Mainz. This important — virtoally takes.
us back to 1499, when the Col Chronicle de-
clared that the first idea of printing was found in
Holland. The case now stands thus: very crude
and clumsy specimens of A roreas Hay of which
have been quite recently diseovered—are em
allowed to ‘Costeriana.’ On the other hand,
there is the magnificent Bible and Psalter un-
deniably printed by Gutenberg and his associates..
It is difficult to believe that the masterpiece pre-
ceded the rude essays. It is more reasonable to
conclude that, anterior to Gutenberg’s press, there
was a rude school of typography in existence, Im-
portant discoveries may at any time take place. The
contents of many old continental libraries have even
up to the present not been adequately examined.
ossibly within some ancient bindings there exist
at the present moment prints that would settle for
all futurity the controversy which has for
four centuries as to the ‘ origines typographici,’ _
It has been mentioned at GUTENBERG that after
Fust had obtained possession by action at law of
Gutenberg’s office, and while he was carrying it on
as a printing concern, Gutenberg, by the assistance:
of another capitalist, set up a second office. With
two rival establishments in existence, it was im-
ible to keep secret the processes of printing.
n 1462 the city of Mainz was sacked, and the
catastrophe dissolved en ments between em-
pore and employed, and caused many of the
atter to migrate to other countries, taking with
them, of course, their knowledge of the art. Print-
ing spread with marvellous rapidity, considering
the means of transport and of communication then
in existence. For instance, before 1500 there
were 16 master printers at Strasburg, 22 at
Cologne, 17 at Nuremberg, 20 at Augsburg. By
the end of the 15th century the business was
carried on in about 60 places in central and
northern Europe, 21 in the Netherlands, 32 im
Italy, 31 in France, 22 in Spain and Portugal
Vol. VIII, page 408 COMBINATION COLOR OCTUPLE ROTARY PERFECTING MACHINE,
PRINTING
409
H Cotton’s Typographical Gazetteer, 3d ed.
Gator), 1852-66).
Printing was brought to a. agen in 1476 or 1477
by William Caxton (q.v.), who set up his office
within the ‘precincts’ of Westminster Abbey—
but not within the sacred building itself, as often
erroneously stated. See William Blades’s Bio-
y and Typography of William Caxton (2a
ed. Lond. 1882). The first hundred years of the
history of printin
in England was a period of
meat activity.
xford by T
n 1478 printing was done at
. Rood; in 1480 at St Albans b
an unidentified printer now called ‘the School-
master ;’ in the same year in the city of London
by Lettou; in 1521 at Cambridge by Siberch.
the art had spread throughout the country,
when education became more common, and men
began to read about the questions and events of
the day, it began to be seen by the authorities and
rulers that a mighty power for or evil had
arisen in the land. Then it was deemed necessary
to regulate the press. In 1530 censorship was
established in England. It ushered in a period of
lamentable decadence in the quality and quantity
of the printing done. Printers were cruelly
punished, especially during the existence of the
unconstitutional Star-chamber (q.v.). Oppressed,
abused, and often imprisoned, printers lost all
enterprise and all soci ition. For many years
there were no rinters at all. Censorship
was abandoned in 1 Then began a period of
revival, greatly aided by the improvements in type-
founding in middle of the 18th century, and
the prevalence of the ‘Bibliomania’ towards its
close. The 19th century has been one of marvel-
Jous development, following the invention in 1814
of the steam printing-press.
It is believed that printing was introduced into
Scotland in 1507. A patent has been discovered,
of King James IV., which shows that a printing-
press was established at Edinburgh during the
ear named. This patent was granted to two
rgesses of the city of Edinburgh—Walter Chep-
man, a capitalist and speculator, and Andrew
Myllar, a kseller who had learned in France
the art of printing. The ‘prent and expert men’
to use the press came from France. The office was
in the Southgait, now the Cowgate. ® As-early as
1508 several small publications were issued. After
these came the t work for which the press was
ostensibly established—the ‘Aberdeen Breviary,’
in two volumes, forming 1554 pages of small ty
It was intended to become the standard Scottish
service-book. Myllar was probably dead when
it was completed, and with its publication Chep-
. man’s connection with typograph came to an
end. For many years subsequently all works of
Scottish authors were printed in France. The
next printer was Thomas Davidson, a practical
man who in 1541 was chosen to print acts of the
parliament of James V., which placed him in the
position of king’s printer. It is not necessary to
catalogue the names or the works of his immediate
successors. Up to 1600 the average workmanship
of the Scottish printers was about as bad in quality
as that of their later successors has been distin-
ge for its beauty, excellence, and accuracy.
his is not the only noteworthy feature of early
Scottish ty phy. The printers were astonish-
ingly few in number; during 150 years after the
introduction of the art there were only about a
dozen master printers who were natives. During
the first hundred years only twenty-five different
works are known to have been printed in Scotland.
See R. Dickson and J. P. Edmond, Annals of Scot-
tish Printing from the Introduction of the Art to
. the Beginning of the 17th Century (4to, Cambridge,
1890 )—a most exhaustive and trustworthy book.
The first printing-press set up in America was
introduced by the viceroy of Mexico, Antonio de
Mendoza, and the first k printed by it in the
New World was La Escala S. Juan Climaco
(1536). The earliest press in the British-American
colonies was brought over for Harvard College in
1638. The Ba "Psalm Book (1640; see ELior,
JOHN) was its first important work ; but in 1639 it
rinted the Freeman’s Oath and an almanac. The
irst press in Philadelphia was set up in 1685, in
New York in 1693. I. Thomas, History of
Printing in America (2d ed. Albany, 1874).
The practical art of letterpress printing consists
essentially in coating certain relief surfaces with
| sag tag and then transferring that ink to the
‘abric, such as paper. The relief surface may be a
forme of movable types or an engraved design cut
in wood or metal, or a block cast or electrotyped
from week | or the engraving ; and the pee peg
is effec by the press or machine presently to be
described.
Types are ent, cast, or otherwise formed from
various materials, though the printer recognises
only two kinds—wooden ones, which are cut to form
the lai letters used in placards, and metal ones.
All books and newspapers and the great bulk of
jobbing are done from the last named (see TYPES).
A complete assortment of type of any one par-
ticular style is called a ‘fount,’ and may vary in
amount to any extent, according as it may be re-
uired in large or small quantities. The in-
ividual type is a piece of metal about 1 inch
long with a letter, point, comma, or other
printing device cut in relief on one end as
shown in fig. 1. The notch shown on one
side is to enable the compositor to place it
right side up when ‘setting’ without the
trouble of looking at the letter. The differ-
ent founts are arran in one or more pairs ||
of ‘cases,’ a ‘lower’ and ‘upper’ case, the ~
former holding the small letters (technically Fig 1.
called ‘lower case’ letters in consequence), 4 Type-
figures, commas and points, me, to put
between the words, ‘quads,’ The upper case
holds the capitals, small capitals, and the less
often used ‘sorts.’
The cases, wooden trays divided into ‘boxes’ by
Upper Case.
aispilc|pjel|ri|elir/Q|ris(tlviw
H/1/K|LimM|nijo}x|y|z]a z|G
A|B|C|DIE|FI|G §|t
H| I|K|LIM|N|O I | *
PiQ|RISITIV|W T|*
XIY/ Z| J|Ul|e\el4\e ae
f€ | & | fl | MA] Z | se:|— ¢|?
*|k | 8 1/2|3(4]5| 67/8
% e : 9/0
ry» 1 Ss {lw
yjlj mj} 2 h >|, eee
MEL
4
Uy a t Eee) a r sr{sre quao!
Lower Case.
Fig. 2.—Cases,
thin slips of wood, are shown diagrammatically in
fig. 2. The lower case is arranged not alphabeti-
cally, but so that the letters most used will be
nearest the compositor’s hand and have the largest
410
PRINTING
ents, an ingenious ae ay meng for saving
0
com
labour. The arrangement of the lower case varies
slightly in different places, but the principle is the
The proportion of the different letters
in a fount of types is rather
the following table :
same in all.
of the English lan
curious, and is shown
b
c
B voess
f...
&
Provided with a metal instrument called a
setting-‘ stick,’ shown half-filled with type in fig.
3, and with his ‘copy’ before him, the compositor
picks up the necessary letters, &c. one by one,
arranging them in lines in the stick, which may be
Fig. 3.—Setting-stick.
regulated to any width of line; each line is carefully
spaced out to fit accurately into the stick before
proceeding to the next, any ¢talics or other sorts
required being got from other cases, When the
stick is full the matter is carefully lifted with
the fingers, aided by the setting-rule, a piece of
brass rule used in setting the Ticen and shown
in fig. 3, and put into a galley—a brass tray
with wooden sides, abont 18 or 20 inches long as
used in setting such a book as the present work.
This galley when filled contains about a page of
matter in one long column, which is kept together
by wedges driven in against the sides. A proof
is taken at a hand-press, and this is read By a
trained reader to correct any errors which the
compositor may have made, These corrections
are marked on the margin of the proof, and
most of the signs and marks used are shown in
the specimen given in the article Proors. When
the printer’s errors have been corrected by the
compositor a ‘clean’ proof is taken for the author,
and when his alterations are given effect to, the
type is made into pages. If a short number of the
book is required, say only a few hundreds, it is
usually printed direct from the type; but where large
numbers are required, or future editions expected, it
is generally either stereotyped (see STEREOTYPING)
or sage ped er (see ELECTRO-METALLURGY), in
either of which cases the type is not used for
actual printing. In any case the type is taken
from the galleys and arranged in and the
skill displayed by compositors in handling them
without allowing any to drop out is very wonderful.
The pases are ‘locked’ up by means of wedges in
iron frames called ‘chases’ (Fr. chdsse, ‘a frame’),
Fig. 4.—Chase,
one of which with four is shown in fig. 4.
Books are generally printed in sheets of sixteen
pages, or multiples of sixteen (32, 64, or 128); in
the latter case, however, they are cut into sheets
of sixteen after being printed. In making up the
pages to print a sixteen- sheet, two formes, as the
chases ataiatie the type are called, are required
one for each side of the sheet. If a printed sheet of
sixteen pages be opened out, the pages will be seen
to be arranged in the following order ;
Inside of Sheet. Outside of Sheet.
L or | tr a1} 6
2 15 | 14 3 4 13 | 16 1
And the pages in the chase must be so arran or
‘imposed’ as it is called, that, when printed, they
will so appear. When ready for printing or stereo-
typing, as the case may be, another proof is read
for final correction. In some cases where t
accuracy is required, such as in the present work, as
‘many as six or eight proofs are ‘read’ at different
~—
hen the types have been printed or berate. pe
and returned to the caseroom they are distributed by
the compositors into the cases again for further use ;
and this can be done with wonderful rapidity,
though great care must be used to avoid putting
the letters into the wrong boxes. Several very
ingenious machines have been invented for setting
type (see TYPE-SETTING MACHINES) which have
been more or less successful. They are worked some-
thing after the manner of type-writing machines
(see TYPE-WRITER), but are too complicated to be
described in detail within our limits. Several of
the latest of these cast and set the t by one
movement. ‘This saves the labour of re-distributing
the types, as when done with they are melted again.
These machines are used for newspaper work. :
In most printing-offices the men govern themselves
by a voluntary association called a ‘chapel,’ which,
ae often (but not necessarily) connected
with the printers’ society, is independent so far as
the individual affairs of the office are concerned,
The office-bearers are called the ‘father’ and
‘clerk’ to the chapel, and it has elaborate sets of
rules for regulating trade and personal affairs
within the office, :
Letterpress printing surfaces are coated with
ink (see INK) by means of ‘composition rollers.’
These consist of cylinders of small diameter covered
with composition made according to various reci
a — wry glue, serie = Paris white;
glue, sugar, an cerine; glue, glycerine, su
and india rabeaee We. These are relted a
together, and cast in cylindrical moulds of various
diameters, yea ag” to the nirements of the
machine or press. The glue and treacle composi:
tion was first used for printing by the engineers
Donkin and Bacon in 1813; up to this time
the types having been inked by pelt balls. The
present system of inking on machines was in-
vented by Mr Edward Cowper in 1818. Leather
and other substances were tried at first, and the
machines in which they were used were discarded
owing to the unsatisfactoriness of their rolling or
inking arrangements, A good roller must be
tenacious of ink, semi-elastic, and retain its
suction. It must not shrink, become hard in cold
weather or soft in hot weather, The recipe for
making it is varied according to the machine for
which it is required—whether working on fine
surfaces such as engravings, or at a high speed, as
for newspaper work.
The earliest known representation of a printing:
press is dated 1507, and it pictures an apparatus
which is little more than a modification of the
ancient wine-press, The essential feature is a flat
PRINTING
411
board, since known as a platen, which is movable
vertically, and presses on a forme of type laid on
an unresisting hard surface parallel to it. The
two, between which was the paper, were brought
together by a powerful screw, and thus the paper
was squeezed down on the forme. This rudiment-
ary appliance was improved from time to time, as is
shown in various pictures of printing-office interiors.
The wooden printing-press was brought to its
ultimate degree of perfection in the later part of
the 17th century. Moxon, the first technical
writer on printing, described in 1683 what he
called ‘a newly invented press.’ This was the
old wooden press as improved by Blaeu of Amster-
dam (fig. 5).
This press continued to be generally used until
the close of the 18th century. About 1800 Charles
Mahon, third Earl Stanhope, was instrumental in
producing a much improved printing apparatus.
<2 SS.
=
Fig. 5.—Old Common Press.
The press which bears his name was made entirely
of iron, and the strength thus obtained enabled a
forme to be printed on it double the size of that
which could done on a wooden press. There
was a most ingenious system of links and levers,
by means of which the approach to the type of the
platen, and its withdrawal, were accelerated. The
greatest leve and Leese gr e's the test
pressure were obtained when the forme and platen
came into contact. These arrangements enabled
the pressmen to print at the rate of 200 per hour
on one side of the sheet or 100 per hour on both
sides, After this several inventors turned their
attention to the improvement of the hand-press,
Clymer, an American, in his Columbian press,
discarded the screw, the central feature of previous
presses, and gained his power from a combination
of powerful levers. About 1823 an excellent press,
called the Albion, was brought out by Mr ‘a Ww.
Cope of London, in which the pressure was gained
by forcing an inclined bar of steel from a diagonal
to a vertical position, forcing down the platen, the
impression taking place when the piece of steel was
oveny. 364 into the vertical position. The Columbian
and the Albion presses enabled the printer to print
on one side of the paper at the rate of 250 sheets
vd hour. Such presses are now, except for pecu-
iar kinds of work or when very few impressions
of a forme are required, quite obsolete, being
superseded by ‘machines’ on which the various
operations of press-work are done more or less
automatically.
The earliest inventors of ‘printing’ machines
coupled together the two arts of printing on
and on calico and other textile fabrics.
Adkin and Walker in 1772 patented a machine
which was the type of a modern rotary letterpress
maghine. It was ‘for stamping and printing’ on
paper, cotton, and other cloths, ‘whereby the
printing on such materials would be greatly facili-
tated and rendered much less expensive, and more
rfect and exact.’ The words fully and clearly
indicate the advantages of rotary over flat platen
printing. Amongst other suggestions of a cognate
nature made about this time the most remarkable
was that of William Nicholson of London, the
editor of a scientific journal. In 1790 he took out
a patent which foreshadowed nearly every funda-
mental improvement even in the most advanced
machines of the present day. He contemplated an
apparatus in which formes or plates were to be
fastened to the surface of a cylinder; the inking to
be supplied by a roller and distributed by smaller
rollers ; the impression to be cylindrical, the paper
being caused to between the printing cylinder
and one pertiadt geo trs cloth or leather. Nichol-
son never actually constructed a machine, and
although his patent was a marvellous forecast of
the methods soon to be adopted in letterpress
rinting, he cannot be awarded the honour of
Being the inventor of the printing-machine.
Hitherto the evolution of the type-printing
machine from the calico-printing machine has been
completely overlooked by historians of printing,
yet the connection is almost obvious. Nicholson’s
apparatus belon to the same category. The
distinction of first actually making a printing-
machine was reserved for a German printer,
Frederick Kénig (q.v.), who commenced experi-
ments with the modest, and, as it proved, mistaken
view of accelerating by making more automatic the
ordinary hand-press. He came to London in 1806,
and patented a new platen-machine. The idea
was but crude, and never put into execution. It
is not unlikely that about this time Kénig became
acquainted with the ideas patented by Nicholson
(see Goebel, Friedrich Kénig und die Erfindung
der Schnell-presse, Stuttgart, 1883). At any rate
Kénig abandoned his project for accelerating flat
printing. In 1811 he took out a patent for what
we would now call a single-cylinder machine—i.e.
one in which the impression was given by a
eylinder, the inking being done by rollers, and the
r carried through the apparatus on tapes.
he type bed moved to and fro, and the cylinder
had an intermittent or stop motion, affording time
for the feeding of the sheets. The glue and treacle
composition had not been discovered, and leather
inking-rollers had to be used. Mr John Walter of
the Times was so struck with the apparent possi-
bilities of this method of printing that he engaged
Kénig to make for him a double-cylinder machine
which should print two copies of a forme of the
newspaper, but on one side only of the sheet at
once. This was completed in 1814, and on the
28th November of that year a newspaper was for
the first time in any country printed by a machine
driven by steam-power. This machine printed
1800 impressions per hour, completing 900 sheets,
and it was used by the Times for several years.
In 1818 Edward Cowper invented several important
improvements, including a flat ink-distributing
table, with distributing-rollers, forme-inking rollers,
and ink-fountain. These principles are still to be
found in re gp forge = machines. Cowper was
called upon to perfect Kénig’s machine and did so,
mainly by taking away the old inking-apparatus
and substituting his own. In the same year
Koni Gatented a perfecting machine which
resembled two single-cylinder machines placed
with their cylinders towards each other. The
sheet was conveyed from one cylinder to the other
by means of tapes so arranged that in the course of
its track it was turned over and the second side
presented to the second cylinder. At the first
cylinder the sheet received its impression from the
412
PRINTING
first forme, and at the second cylinder it received
its impression from the second forme, Cowper
also improved on this machine, which printed 750
sheets on both sides of the paper per hour. The
rinciple of the first perfecting machine has not
een considerably departed from in subsequent
machines of the same class, but improved methods
have been devised for carrying the sheet from one
cylinder to the other and turning it.
Reference, extremely brief and imperfect, has
now been made to the origin of two out of the
three distinct classes of printing-machines at pres-
ent in use. These are, first, the single-cylinder
machine, printing one side of the sheet at one
operation, from a forme lying on a flat bed; second,
the double-cylinder or perfecting machine, printing
both sides of the sheet at once, also from a forme
on a flat bed. The third class comprises the rotary
machines, printing both sides, but from a circular
forme—the impressing surface, as well as the
printing and the inking surface, being cylindrical,
and capable of continuous rotation. The machines
of the first and second classes are adapted for
single sheets of paper; the rotary machines print
eae or continuous webs, the portion forming a
sheet being severed after printing. It is in this
latter class of machines that the greatest improve-
ments—amounting almost to a revolution in the
art of printing—have been achieved. (For a
technical account of the several classes, see Prin-
ciples and Progress of Printing Machinery, by the
present writer, Lond. 1889.) Limitations of s
| preclude more being given here than a bare list of
successive improvements,
In 1790, as already mentioned, Nicholson patented
a rotary machine, but he never constructed one.
In 1813 Bacon and Donkin patented a machine
in which the types were fixed on a revolving
prism, the ink being appued by a roller, and the
sheet of paper wrapped on another prism. The
machine was a failure, although it embraced
an important feature, the inking-roller made of
composition. Three years afterwards Cowper
pemenrey a method for printing paper for -
mangings and other purposes. his enhatied
another valuable feature—the taking a cast from
the type and bending the cast round a cylinder.
It was a far more practical idea than the subse-
quent one of Rowland Hill, who, to procure a
curved Lippe Rape ras proposed the use of taper-
ing types to fixed on the cylinder. In 1848
Applegath invented a machine, the type-cylinder
of which was vertical and nearly 6 feet in dia-
meter, around it being placed eight other cylinders,
ai
rt
al
}
i
'
/
|
1
)
]
|
—|
)
|
Fig. 6.—The Walter Press,
containing sheets of paper to be printed. These
were fed in from a horizontal position, and then
brought to the vertical position. In 1857 the
Times discarded this machine in favour of one
patented by Hoe of New York, very similar in
construction, but the cylinders were horizontal.
It was found that the complication arising from
eight or ten feeders was most objectionable,
causing frequent stoppages, excessive waste of
paper, and great risk to the machine and the
material, while the working cost was heavy. Each
of the machines printed on one side only. They
were the first machines fitted with ‘flyers ’—a
device for mechanically delivering or taking off the
sheets. It was, however, considered at the Times
office that the acme of improvement could only be
obtained by constructing a machine simple in its
arrangements, capable of printing both sides of the
paper at one operation, and which could print, not
single sheets, but continnous webs of paper, thus
dispensing with layers-on. There were enormous
difficulties in the way of printing, cutting, and
delivering the paper, difficulties which the non-
»rofessional reader could by no means realise.
n 1866 a machine of the kind was constructed
under the superintendence of Mr J. C. Macdonald,
the manager, and Mr Calverley, chief-engineer of
the Times. The Walter Press, as this machine
was named, has since been slightly improved,
but remains practically the same, and is shown
in fig. 6. The types are stereotyped by means of
a papier-maché mould, which, being bent inside a
hollow cylinder, produces, when east, a stereotype
which fits on the printing-cylinder of the machine.
The paper, unwinding from the reel, first passes
between damping-cylinders, then over the printing
PRINTING
413
cylinders, and is finally cut and delivered at the
other end of the machine. Two boys and a man,
who superintends the machine, supply all the
manual labour required. The speed is about 10,000
rfect sheets per hour, equal to 20,000 impressions
y the apparatus previously mentioned. The more
recent machines have an attachment for folding,
which make two, three, or four folds as required.
Mr Walter of the Times is entitled to the
honour of being instrumental in introducing the
system of rotary printing for news-work, just as
his father deserves that of having introduced steam
machine-printing. The Walter press was soon
adopted as the pattern of a number of machines
constructed in Britain and abroad. Some of these
machines much developed the idea of the Walter,
and embodied fresh and important improvements.
In 1870 Messrs George Dunean and Alexander
Wilson, of Liverpool, wrought out their ‘ Victory’
machine, which included the folding arrangement
since added to the Walter press.
By this apparatus seene ers of
various sizes are printed, folded,
delivered, and counted into
quires or any portion required,
at the rate of 200 per minute.
Since about 1870 the rotary
system of printing has been
gradually adopted in the offices
of all newspapers having even
moderately large circulations.
Factories for producing rotary
machines have been established
in various parts of England,
while many such maclrines have
been imported from France,
Germany, and America. The
most improved and the fastest
machines made up to the present
time are those of Messrs Hoe &
Co., of New York and London.
The most improved of these
machines print four or six page
papers at the extraordinary
speed of 48,000 per hour, or 800
per minute. Papers of eight,
ten, or twelve pages can be printed at a speed of
24,000 per hour, and a sixteen page paper at 12,000
per hour. The papers can be pasted down the
centre margins if required, and counted as delivered
in quires of any number fixed upon. The machine
delivers the papers, inset, pasted, cut top and
Fig. 7.—Hoe Double-web Machine.
bottom, turned out as compact as a pamphlet, and,
by the addition of a device largely used in America,
even folded and wrappered ready for post. This
speed is effected by using a reel of paper of double
width, about 8 feet wide, on which can be printed
duplicate sets of plates. So greatly has the art of
Stereotyping (q.v.) been improved that eight stereo-
plates from one forme can now be moulded, cast,
and finished ready for the machine in eight minutes.
Fig. 7 shows the double-web Hoe machine.
The printing business
is divided into three de-
partments — those con-
cerned respectively with
jobbing or commercial
work, with book-work,
and with news-work.
The improvements of late
years in the mechanism
and the processes of the
first two are equally im-
ortant with those in the
ast. The character of
ordinary jobbing work
has been greatly bettered
by the liberal use and
correct selection of col-
ours, by the introduction
of ground tints, and by
the artistic taste infused
into the design. The
Sg ae have pro-
vided the printer with
more beautiful types and
more diversified ornu-
ments, and both presa-
man and compositor have utilised with intelli-
ence and skill the materials at their command.
obbing work is. chiefly done on small platen
machines, invented by an American, G. P. Gordon,
and introduced into Britain as ‘Minerva Presses’
in 1866. There are many varieties now made of
this apparatus. Larger work is done on machines
having one or two cylinders. Those of the
‘Wharfedale’ pattern, invented about 1860 by
William Dawson and David Payne of Otley,
Fig. 8.—Single-cylinder Machine.
Wharfedale, Yorks, have one cylinder, and print
only one side of the paper at a time.
The essential parts of the single-cylinder machine
(fig.8), now constructed by engineers in Europe
and America with small alterations in pattern,
may be regarded as five : the impression appliances
414
PRINTING
of the cylinder; the arrangements for carrying the
forme of type up to and under the cylinder, by
contact of which it receives the impression; the
inking of the type; the laying on of the sheet ; the
taking off or avec of the sheet when printed.
The cylinder, which is a hollow drum, having
an opening on its under side, is placed almost in
the middle of the machine. The table of the machine
on which the forme is placed has racks on its under
surface gearing into the traverse wheels, from which
it derives motion to and fro. By means of racks
it also causes the rotation of the cylinder by which
the impression of the forme is effected. The inking
system may be thus outlined. There is at the
extremity of the machine and running across it a
duct or ink reservoir, with an adjustable side-piece
called the knife, which regulates the outflow of ink.
A composition roller in motion, called a vibrator,
takes a streak of ink periodically and transfers it
to the ink-table, which forms part of the table and
of course moves backward and forward. The ink
is evenly spread or distributed over the ink-table
hy'‘ distributors.’ The table then passes under the
inking-rollers which alone touch the forme and
give it the proper coating of ink. The distributors
and rollers are coated with ‘ composition,’ referred
to on p. 410. The feeding ap is also ingeni-
ous, A pile of paper is laid on to the desk-like
table shown at the right-hand side of the machine,
and a boy stands at the end or at the front side of
it and ‘strokes’ the sheets down till the front edge
of one comes in contact with a series of metal
iogee or clutches called grippers. These open
and take a sheet by its edge, and hold it secure
while the cylinder is turning round, and the print-
ing taking place. At a certain point the grippers
release the sheet, which then goes into the takt -
off apparatus. A second set of grippers seize it
— carry it round the spans kG gar ee
whence 1t eme on to travelling ta) a
comb-like ret Jets called the Sais conllighen tae
and down, having the sheet in front. The pressure
of the air causes the sheet to adhere to this until
it assumes a horizontal position, when it drops on
to the taking-off board. While the first side of the
sheet is being printed, two points, by an ingenious
arrangement, make small holes in the paper; and
when the sheet is turned to print the second side,
these holes are again placed on the ‘ points,’ thus
ensuring correct register.
Machines with two cylinders are called perfect-
ing machines because the ect or print both
sides of a sheet before delivering it. Generally
they may be said to be duplicated single machines,
with two abies bate two tables for type,
and an inking apparatus at either end, much as
described under the single-cylinder machine, The
sheet is printed on one side at the first cylinder,
when a set of grippers on the second cylinder take
ion of it and print the second side, and it is
delivered by the flyer as described. The varieties of
these machines are numerous, and fig. 9 shows the
Marinoni, a well-known type, used in the printing
of the British editions of the present work. These
machines can print in the very finest manner from
1000 to 1500 perfected sheets per hour, according as
they may be complicated with illustrations or not.
When the types are to be printed from direct, as
already mentioned, the chase containing the pages
is put on the bed of the machine. When stereo-
ies or electrotype plates’ are used they are care-
fully dressed to an exact size and thickness, the
latter about ths of an inch. The requisite
number of wooden blocks are then put on the
machine-bed, locked in a chase. These blocks
. are of the proper thickness to make up the plates
to type-height (about 1 inch). The plates are
Fig. 9.—Perfecting Machine.
fastened to the blocks by brass catches at the sides
and ends, and when locked up are as solid as type.
Before printing, however, a laborious process
called making ready has to be gone through.
When many wood-engravings are in the pages
several days may be taken up making ready a
single sheet. This process is for the parpose of
making the impression equal all over and properly
printing the wood-engravings, and can be jud
of by comparing a carefully printed book with a
daily newspaper, which is printed just as it comes
without any making ready. It is too technical
for detailed description within our limits,
It is not long since that it was a firm article
of belief among printers that fine work could
not be done except on a press provided with a
laten. And up to quite recently all paper was
rst thoroughly wetted, then printed, then dried,
and then pressed to restore the surface, of which
the damping deprived it, and to give it a certain
gloss. tween the forme and the platen of the
press or the cylinder of the machine a thick,
soft, yielding blanket was placed, which was sup-
to produce a better impression from the in-
equalities of engravings and type. There has been
a radical change in opinion and practice on these
important points. It has been found, since machines
PRINZENRAUB
PRIOR 415
have been brought to their present segree of Pe
fection, that they give far superior results to those
from presses—their impression is stronger, more
solid, and more uniform, and the sheets can be
laid on them with a precision unattainablé with
hand-presses, Paper is not now made spongy and
stretchable by being wetted, and the result of
working it dry is that the type is brought up with
r brightness, and the de icate lines of engrav-
ings are printed finer, clearer, and cleaner. Im-
provements in ink-making have much conduced to
this desirable result. Paper has been produced for
book-printing with a specially prepared surface,
which admits of a far more excellent impression
than that formerly procurable. The soft blanket
has been discarded, and the packing or covering of
the cylinder is now generally as hard as it can be
got. The te results of these alterations
may be seen by a comparison of the present issues
of an illustrated newspaper with those of fifty
years ago. Up to about 1840 there was actually
no — strong enough to properly print a woodcut
of 48 square inches in superficies ; now, woodcuts of
2000 square inches, or 50 inches by 40, are printed
in the most perfect manner. The coloured supple-
ments of the pictorial journals are often admirable
reproductions of works of high art; it is within the
memory of persons of middle age that the first
ernde attempts were made to print such pictures.
Bisii0GRAPuy.—Historical : In addition to the works
referred to in the text may be mentioned Karl Faul-
mann, I/lustrierte Geschichte der Buchdruckerkunst
(Vienna, 1882), his Die Erfindung der Buchd. nach der
neuesten Forschungen (Vienna, 1891); Theo. de Vinne,
The Invention of ‘Printing (New York, 1877); and Van
der Linde, Geschichte der Erfindung der Buchd., (3 vols.
Berlin, 1886). There is no complete history of printing
mn the English language, but in Bigmore and Wyman’s
Bibliography of Printing (3 vols, 1880-86) some of the
most uséful books will be found under the names of Ames,
Arber, Blades, Dibdin, Herbert, Hansard, Humphreys,
Hessels, Luckombe, Ottley, T. B. Reed, Sotheby, Tim-
perley, and Watson.
Practical.—Southward, Practical Printing (2 vols. 3d
ed. 1887), and Printing Machines and Machine Printing
(1888); Waldow, J/lustrierte Encyklopaidie der Graph-
tschen Kunste (Leip. 1884); Desormes, Motions de
Typographie (Paris, 1888); F. J. F. Wilson, Printing
Machines (3d ed. 1885); F. J. Jacobi, Printing (1890) ;
The American Dictionary of Printing and Bookmaking
1891-94) ; Ringwalt, American Encyclopedia of Printing
New York, 1871). Besides, a multitude of small yet
useful books have been written on separate branches, and
for the use of professional students of the art. See also
the articles Brst1a Paurerum, Book, Book-cius, Intus-
TRATION OF Books, LITHOGRAPHY, PAPER, PRESS
(FREEDOM OF THE), PRroors, STEREOTYPING, TYPES,
Prinzenraub,. See ALTENBURG.
Prior. See Monastery.
Prior, MATTHEW, was born 2ist July 1664.
Some doubt prevails as to his birthplace; but the
bulk of the evidence points to Wimborne Minster
in East Dorset. His father is said to have been a
joiner, who, coming to London, probably to educate
tis son, took up his abode in ee Alley, West-
minster. Young Prior went to Westminster School,
then under the redoubtable Dr Busby. His father
died, and, his mother being unable to pay his school-
fees, he fell into the care of his uncle, a vintner in
Channel (now Cannon) Row, who took him into
the bar to keep accounts. Here his familiarity with
Horace and Ovid attracted the attention of Charles,
Earl of Dorset, and other visitors to the Rhenish
Wine House, with the result that he returned to
Westminster, his uncle finding him in clothes, and
Dorset in books. At Westminster he formed a life-
long friendship with the two sons of the Honourable
George sects. the elder of whom afterwards
became Earl of Halifax. In order to follow his
friends to Cambridge, Prior, against Lord Dorset’s
wish, accepted a scholarship from the Duchess of
Somerset at St John’s College. He was admitted
Bachelor in 1686, and in the following year wrote
with Charles Montague the clever parody of Dryden,
entitled The Hind and the Panther transvers'd to
the Story of the Country-mouse and the City-mouse,
which, according to tradition, greatly annoyed
den, In April 1688 Prior obtained a fellowship;
and his composition of the yearly college tribute to
the Exeter family, a rhymed excursus upon Exodus,
iii. 14, led to his ing to Burleigh as tutor to Lord
Exeter’s sons. rd Exeter shortly afterwards
removed to Italy, and Prior applied (through Fleet-
wood Shepherd) to his former patron Dorset for
advancement. He was, being then twenty-six,
made secretary to Lord Dursley, afterwards Earl of
Berkeley, then going as ambassador to the Hague.
In Holland Prior remained some years, finding
especial favour with King William. In 1697 he
brought over the Articles of Peace at the treaty of
Ryswick ; and, after being nominated Secretary of
State for Ireland, he was made secretary in 1698 to
the Earl of Portland’s embassy to France, continuing
this office under the Earl of Jersey. In this capacit;
he found favour both with Anne and Louis XIV.
In 1699 he became an under-secretary of state, the
university of Cambridge made him an M.A., and
he sueceeded Locke as commissioner of trade and
plantations. In 1701 he entered parliament as
member for East Grinstead. Under Anne.he joined
the Tories, and in 1711 was employed in the pre-
liminaries of the peace of Utrecht, going to Paris
as ambassador in the following year. ith the
neen’s death in 1714 came the triumph of the
higs, and in 1715 Prior, returning to England,
was im hed and imprisoned. In 1717 he was
excepted from the Act of Grace, but was, none the
less, subsequently discharged. The remainder of
his life was passed chiefly at Down-Hall in Essex,
a country-honse purch partly with the profits of
a subscription edition of his poems and partly with
the assistance of his friend Lard Harley, at whose
seat of Wimpole he died, 18th September 1721,
Logs | then in his fifty-eighth year. He was buried
in Westminster Abbey, under a monument decor-
ated with his bust by Antoine Coysevox, given to
him by Louis XIV. His portrait was painted by
Richardson (National Portrait Gallery), by Belle
(St John’s College), Kneller, Dahl, and others.
Of Prior’s abilities as a diplomatist there are
diverse opinions. Pope sneered at them. But
Bolingbroke and Swift extolled them; and it is
stated that the archives at Paris show him to have
been far abler and more resourceful than is generally
supposed. As a poet, in which capacity he is now
remembered, he holds a unique position. Without
much real sentiment or humanity, his verses have a
wit, a , & neatness and a finish, which link
him to the i kw Latin poets on the one hand, and
to the best French writers of familiar verse on the
other. Cowper praised his ‘easy jingle,’ Thack-
eray ‘his good sense, his happy easy turns and
melody,’ fe collected his poems, described by
himself as consisting of ‘Publick Panegyrics,
Amorous Odes, Serious Reflexions, or Idle Tales’
(many of which had been contributed to den’s
and other miscellanies), in 1709, and again, in
extended form, in 1718. By this latter issue he
made £4000. His more ambitious pieces, Solomon
on the Vanity of the World and a peepee of
the old ballad of the Nut Brown Maid, are not
now thought to be his best, although they had con-
siderable popularity with the readers of the 18th
century. But a third long poem, Alma; or, the
Progress of the Mind, an imitation of Butler, is
full of wit and waywardness. His Tales resemble
the French contes too much in their objectionable
416 PRISCIAN
PRISONERS OF WAR
ualities to be palatable to the English taste.
ie survives mainly by his purely playful efforts,
his lyrics and his epigrams, not a few of which
are unsurpassable. In the kind of piece known
to the French as vers d’occasion he is unrivalled,
and his beautiful stanzas to A Child of Quality
have been as fortunate as Gray’s Long Story in
setting the tune to a host of versifiers. In 1740,
long after his death, two volumes were published,
one containing alleged Memoirs, in which there is
little of his, and the other a number of posthumous
verses, among which are some of his best. These
are included in Evans's two-volume edition of 1779.
Thackeray wrote admirably of Prior in his English
Humourists (1853). See his Selected Poems, edited
by the writer of this notice (Parchment Library,
1889); an article by Mr G. A. Aitken in the Con-
temporary Review for May 1890; and the edition
aac ior’s works by R. Brimley Johnson (2 vols.
1892).
Priscian (Lat. Priscianus), surnamed C&sARI-
ENSIS, born or educated in Cesarea, is in point
of reputation the first of Latin grammarians ; his
treatise was in universal use as a text-book during
the middle ages. Priscian flourished in the begin-
ning of the 6th century: Paulus Diaconus calls him
a contemporary of Cassiodorus (468-562 A.p.). He
taught Latin at Constantinople, and enjoyed a
ere sal The work which has preserved
is name is his Commentariorum Grammaticorum
Libri XVIIT. The first sixteen books treat of the
different ts of speech; the remaining two, of
syntax. The work shows great learning and good
sense, and contains quotations from many Greek
and Latin authors no longer extant. Priscian also
wrote six smaller grammatical treatises, and two
hexameter poems of the didactic sort, De Laude
Imperatoris Anastasii and a free translation of the
Periegesis of Dionysius. The best edition of the
mmatical works is that by Hertz and Keil in
eil’s Grammatici Latini, vols. ii. and iii. (1855-60) ;
of the poems, by Bihrens, in Poeta Latini Minores,
vol. v. (1883).
Priscillian, the chief propagator of the doc-
trines professed by the sect known from his name
as Priscillianists. They spread widely in Spain
during the last third of the 4th century, and
lingered there till the middle of the 5th century.
The first seed of their doctrines is said to have been
carried into Spain by a Memphian named Marcus,
whose earliest disciples were Agape, a Spanish
lady, and Helpidius, a rhetorician. _ Priscillian
was a man of noble birth, pious and well educated ;
and his eloquence and nobility of character soon
thered round him a group of devoted followers,
including two bishops, Instantius and Salvianus.
From their hands he received episcopal ordina-
tion, and he established his see at Avila (Abdila).
Hyginus, bishop of Cordova, was the first to take
alarm, but his measures were so gentle that he himself
was covered with reproaches by the ultra-orthodox
and fanatical. riscillian’s most determined
enemies were Idacius, bishop of Emerita ( Merida),
and Ithacius, bishop of Sossuba. He was con-
demned and excommunicated at the synod of Sara-
gossa (381), with three others of the leaders of the
party. They next went to Rome to clear them-
selves before the pope, but were denied andience,
and at Milan on the return journey they met as
little sympathy from Ambrose. Under the vacil-
lating rule of Gratian, however, they prospered,
but their hopes were dashed to the ground by the
usurpation of Clemens Maximus. From the judg-
ment of the synod of Bordeaux (384) Priscillian
appealed like Paul to Crsar, and was at length
summoned to appear at Treves. Martin of Tours
was in favour of tolerant measures, but after his
departure the fanatical party prevailed, and Priscil-
lian, with others of the party, was condemned and
put to death—the first who suffered death for heresy
(385 ).. eed Priscillianists recanted after the
armed of Toledo (400), and soon after that of 447 the
isappear altogether. Their doctrines contain
Manichean and Gnostic elements, strange cosmical
speculations based on primitive dualism, the doctrine
of emanations and astrological fatalism. They
practised rigid asceticism, and eschewed marriage
and the use of animal food. One damning blot on
their morals was that absolute veracity was only
obligatory between themselves. Graver charges,
still were made against their morality ; but it should
be remembered that the only accounts we have are
those of bitter enemies, and their principles, origin-
ally obscure enough, have been made darker by a
cloud of calumny. ‘If the Priscillianists viola
the laws of nature,’ says Gibbon, ‘it was not by
the licentiousness but by the severity of their lives.’
See Mansel’s Gnostic Heresies and Neander’s Church His-
tory ; also Mandernach’s Geschichte des Priscillianismus
(Treves, 1851). Schepps claims to have discovered some of
his writings ; these he edited in vol. xviii. of the
Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum (Vienna, 1888).
Prism, in Geometry, a solid figure which can
be most easily conceived of if we imagine a number
of plane figures (triangles, quadnilaterals, Xe.
exactly similar in form and size to be cut out
paper or any thin plate, and piled one above the
other, and then the whole pile to become one body.
It will thus be seen that the top and bottom of
prism are similar, equal, and parallel to each other,
and that the sides are plane figures, rectangular if
the prism be ‘right’ (i.e. if in the above illustration
the pile of plane figures be built up perpendicularly ),
and rhomboidal if the prism be ‘ oblique’ (i.e. if the
pile slope to one side); but under all cirenmstances
the sides of a prism must be parallelograms. The
top and bottom faces may be either triangles,
squares, parallelograms, or quadrilaterals of any
sort, or figures of five, six, seven, &c. sides, provided
only both are alike; and the number of sides in
the plane figure which forms the top or bottom of
course determines the number of faces of the prism ;
thus, in a triangular prism, there are five faces
in all (three sides and two ends) ; ina quadrangular
prism, six faces (four sides and two ends), &e. If two
risms, one being ‘right,’ and the other ‘ oblique,’
nave their bases of equal area, and be of the same
vertical height, their solid content is the same, and
is found by multiplying the area of the base by the
vertical height. The parallelopiped is a quad-
rangular prism, and the cube is a particular case of
the paral slopiped.
Prism, in Optics, is a triangular prism of glass
or other transparent substance, its two ends being
isosceles triangles, and having most uently a
very acute vertical angle, which gives the prism
the appearance of a long wedge. The prism is a
most important instrument in experiments on the
refraction of light, and, in the hands of the most
eminent optical philosophers, has been the means
of largely adding to the science of optics. See
Optics, REFRACTION, SPECTRUM.
Prisoners of War are those who are cap-
tured from the enemy during naval or military
operations. By the laws or recognised principles of
war, the entire people of a vanquished town, state,
or nation become the absolute ibe rg d of the
victors. In ancient times the treatment of prisoners
of war was very severe. In the Greek wars it was
no uncommon thing to put the whole adult male
population of a conquered state to the sword, while
the women and children were enslaved, Although
the putting to death of prisoners became less fre- ©
quent, they and their families were commonl
reduced to slavery to as recent a period as the 1
PRISONERS OF WAR
PRISONS 417
century. The act of oe in putting to death
the Turkish prisoners of war at Jaffa in 1799 was
universally condemned, and is probably the last
instance of such barbarity. By degrees the more
humane custom of exchanging prisoners came into
| siecosmeat those not exchanged
ment on very poor fare.
ing kept in con-
tee A - ae standing
uent exchanges, large numbers of prisoners
accumulate dation war. In 1811 about 47,600
French were prisoners in England, while 10,300
ish languished in the prisons of France. By
the end of the Franco-German war of 1870-71
about 300,000 French troops had been sent to Ger-
many as prisoners of war, many of the officers
being released on Parole (q.v.).
Prisons. Formerly used for the purpose of re-
straint chiefly, it is only within recent times that
imprisonment has been studied
as a means by which certain high
objects are to be attained, and
which therefore ought to be conducted accordin
to recognised principles. It used to be believed
that ing more was required than to ensure the
security of the victim or culprit, by chains and
fetters if prorat tag it were to inflict on
him some further ily ps and penalties, the
smallest of which was to feed him with ‘the bread
of affliction and the water of affliction’ ordered by
Ahab for the prophet Micaiah. Imprisonment was
not mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon laws as a
ishment, but was enforced when an offender
could not find a surety. In course of time,
however, it was authorised by the common law as
a punishment, as well as specified by statute for
particular offences; nevertheless gaols were actu-
ally used more for securing the persons of those
committed to them than as places of punishment.
Under the common law all gaols belonged to
the king, and by 5 Hen. IV. chap. 10 it was
enacted that none but the common gaol should be
the place of committal for offenders mak before
a justice of the peace. But there were many
‘franchise’ gaols owned by great persons, or by
towns and liberties under their charters, which were
lawful places for carrying out imprisonment ordered
by the persons or bodies to whom these privil
were ted as a part of the criminal jurisdiction
p! in their hands. In many cases these bodies
ad the power of life and death.
In the reigns of Edward VI. and Queen Eliza-
beth a new description of place of confinement
was introduced—viz. the ‘ bridewells’ and ‘houses
of correction’ for vagabonds, &e. By James I.
chap. 4, every county was required to provide such
an establishment with suitable instruments and
pliances in it for setting idle people to work.
other sort of prison is of quite recent introduc-
tion—viz. the reformatory and industrial school,
institutions which are under private management,
but derive the greater part of the funds by which
they are maintained from pus sources, and are
subject to certain general rules and conditions
intended to secure efficiency and to prevent abuse,
compliance with which is ensured by government
i ion. These institutions are for the reception
of juveniles whom modern piileateey has rightly
and successfully contended should not be confined
in the same establishments as adults, nor treated
in the way which is most appropriate for the latter.
Reformatories are places of punishment for juveniles
under sixteen years of age who are convicted of
crime, and sentenced to ten days’ imprisonment or
more. Industrial schools are not places of punish-
ment at all, but are intended to prevent children
becoming criminals through parental neglect or
*miseonduct. A child must be under fourteen years
of age to justify his being sent to an industrial
school. There are therefore (1) prisons to which
391
Copyright 1891, 1897, and
1900 in the U.S. by J.B.
Lippincott Company.
adults are sent for punishment and reformation ; (2)
prisons to which juveniles are sent for punishment
and reformation, called reformatory schools; (3)
prisons or places of compulsory detention to which
uveniles are sent as a preventive measure, called
industrial schools. To the first of these are sent
also persons who are charged with a crime to await
their trial, and persons committed by county
courts for refusing to pay debts which they have
means to pay, or by other courts if they cannot
find sureties when ordered for any reason to do so.
The course of events has led to the prisons of the
first of these three classes being separated into two
divisions which have a distinct history. One of
these comprises the prisons which are geen by
the laws relating to places in which criminals
sentenced to penal servitude may be confined ; the
other comprises the ordinary prisons in which all
sorts and classes of prisoners may be confined, but
in which, as matters now stand, prisoners under
sentence of penal servitude only the first few
months of their sentences. The former are gener-
ally designated convict prisons ; the latter are now
ityled local prisons.
The punishment of penal servitude had its origin
in the system of transportation, and transportation
itself had its origin in banishment or exile. This
was expressly forbidden by Magna Charta, but
existed nevertheless as a practice, because a crim-
inal who had incurred the sentence of hanging and
had taken sanctuary to avoid his fate was per-
mitted in some cases to escape his punishment if
he exiled himself. In course of time the privilege
of sanct was abolished by law (though its
practice existed notwithstanding for some time
afterwards), and consequently the system of self-
banishment which grew out of it; but before then
—viz. in the thirty-ninth year of Queen Elizabeth's
reign—banishment had been legally established by
the Vagraney Act, which gave quarter sessions the
power of transportation.
Transportation was sanctioned by law in the
reign of Charles IL. as a mode of dealing with
incorrigible rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars,
as a punishment for attending an egal prayer-
meeting after a previous conviction of that offence,
and to put down the moss-troopers of Northumber-
land and Cumberland. The transportation was
not at first enforced by any direct action of the
government, but those sentenced to it were left to
out their sentences by removing themselves
to the West Indies or elsewhere under penalty of
hanging if they failed to do so; but in course of
time the process became more systematised, and in
1718 it was found necessary to deliver them over
to a contractor who engaged to take them to His
Majesty’s colonies and plantations in America on
condition of his having property and interest in
their services for a specified term of years. They
were given over to slavery in fact, and the con-
tractor at the termination of the voyage put them
up to auction and sold their services to the highest
bidder. In 1776 it became no longer possible to
send these outcasts to America. Some of the
colonies had for years past continually protested
inst the system; but the war of independence
left no alternative but to put an end to it, and
the government had to find some other mode of dis-
posing of these criminals, estimated in 1778 at 1000
annually. This difficulty originated the practice of
confining prisoners in hulks in the Thames or in
the harbours of Portsmouth, Chatham, &c.
This was intended nary as a temporary expedient
pending the execution of an act devised by Black-
stone, Eden (Lord Auckland), and Howard, for the
batides of penitentiaries in England, which were
intended to provide a separate cell for each of the
inmates, who were during their imprisonment to be
418
PRISONS
coleret on useful labour. Chap. 74 of the 19th
Geo. [IL, after reciting that ‘the punishment of
felons and other offenders by transportation to His
Majesty's Colonies and Plantations in America is
attended with many Difficulties,’ and enacting that
such offenders might be transported elsewhere, and
that offenders who might be sentenced to be burned
in the hand might instead be fined or whipped,
proceeds to say that ‘whereas, if many offenders
convicted of crimes for which Transportation hath
usually been inflicted were ordered to solitary im-
prisonment accompanied by well-regulated labour
and religious instruction, it might be the means
under Providence not only of debarring uthers from
the commission of the like crimes, but also of re-
forming the individuals and inviting them to habits
of industry, it shall be lawful to appoint supervisors
who shall erect penitentiaries where such persons
may be ordered to imprisonment and hard labour.’
The first hulks were established in 1778; and this
fatal temporary expedient serves to illustrate the
sarcasm as to the superior permanency of tem-
porary expedients, for the last hulk was not closed
until a fire destroyed it in 1857; and in fact they
had a perfect representative in Gibraltar prison,
which was constructed on the model of a hulk and
developed all the iniquities of these establishments,
and which was only closed in 1875 after strenuous
opposition to its abolition by the local naval and
military authorities. Many years were destined
to pass before the permanent penitentiary system
became a fact. Great efforts were made to revive
the transportation system, and in 1787 a new penal
colony was founded in Australia. This with the
hulks continued to form the punishment next in
gravity to capital execution until the last hulk
was closed in 1857 and the last batch of convicts
was sent to Western Australia in 1867. It is
not necessary to describe the hulk system, if
system that can be called in which the inmates
were herded together in unchecked association,
a Re os 2 sempre = |e ogeclemeregat
eveloped, as might be ex , among persons 0
the basest aareite. of wheek the cer 3 and the
most demoralised were likely soon to take the lead,
and reduce all down to their own level. They
were described by a committee of the House of
Commons in 1832 as ‘ well fed, well clothed, indulg-
ie, Se riotous enjoyment by night, with moderate
labour by day, so that life in them is considered ‘‘a
pretty jolly life.”’ But the hulks flourished in full
vigour for many years after this date ; and in fact no
— was then made to abolish them, which was
the only way to put an end to the evils so forcibly
commented on.
The history of the phases through which the con-
trol and supervision of the hulks is, how-
ever, of consequence, as it explains the present
administration of the convict prisons and shows
what methods failed, and furnishes warnings against
adopting certain suggestions that are made from
time to time. The hulks were at first, like all
other prisons, placed under the management of the
local justices, who appointed the overseer, and
the overseer spouted the officers; the justices
also made the overseer contractor for the main-
tenance of the prisoners, and as it was obviously
his interest as contractor to cut short the supplies
of food and clothing for the prisoners, they therefore
by this meusure contrived that his interest should
be diametrically opposed to his duty and to the
welfare of the prisoners in his charge. The super-
vision of the hulks resided in the Court of King’s
Bench, who steadily neglected their duty, and the
inspector provided for by parliament was not
appointed. In course of time and by degrees the
ome Secretary usurped power over these estab-
lishments, and his action was endorsed by parlia-
ment in 1815; and their connection with the King’s
Bench was severed in 1825. An was.
pone and after that a superintendent; and
r some other changes the control and adminis-
tration of the hulks was in 1850 vested in the
Board of Directors of Convict Prisons, with whom it
now rests. The control of Millbank Prison, Penton-
ville Prison, and Parkhurst Reformatory was con-
fided to the same body.
Transportation to Australia, which was com-
menced in 1787, for many years provided for only a
small part of the persons subjected to that sentence
or whose capital sentences were commuted for
transportation. Until 1816 an average of only 474
prisoners was transported annually to Australia,
after that the average rose to , and in 1834
amounted to 4920. Transportation in its most
flourishing days was characterised by evils which
rivalled if they did not sometimes surpass those of
the hulks.
Whilst, however, it was in full vigour a step
was taken, feebly and slowly indeed, towards the
creation of the penitentiaries intended in 1776
to form a permanent substitute for transpor-
tation to America. Millbank Prison (q. v.) provided.
means for the confinement of every prisoner in
absolute separation, according to the modern
doctrine, and it was intended that his treatment
should be on the most advanced lier eggens Wy oe ¢
but this experiment went no further at this time.
In 1838 the existence of the terrible evils which
attended the transportation system were en
established by the report of a commission, who sais
that the system was unequal, without terrors to
the criminal class, corrupting to both convict and
colonist, and very expensive, and er recommended
punishment in penitentiaries i ls
arious improvements in the Millbank system
were introduced after this, and finally in 1 it
took the form of ing the convicts through two
stages of discipline in certain prisons at home
before sending them to complete their sentences in
one of the colonies. The first of these stages was
passed in a prison in which each inmate was kept
in complete separation and brought under influences
by which it was hoped to lay the foundation of a
reform in his character; the second in a prison in
which he was employed in useful public works in
regulated association, but confined in a cell by him-
self by night and at all times when not at work or
in chapel. The complete efficiency of this stage
was at first marred by a certain number of convicts
being placed in association at night, but for some
time t the separation has n thoroughly
carried out, the only exception being in the cases
of — who on medical grounds cannot pro-
perly be left alone. The first ey was regulated
according to the system adopted, first experiment-
ally, at the new model prison at Pentonville which
had been erected in 1 When the experiment
had been proved to be successful, convicts were
sent to undergo it at Millbank Prison and at other
prisons of which the construction was suitable.
In those early days of the formation of the con-
vict system the confinement of prisoners in complete
separation was regarded with great prejudice,
This arose from the reports of its results in certain
risons in America, where it had been some years
fore carried out with the accompaniments of
darkness, absolute solitude, absence of any per
ment, and unwholesome sanitary conditions. It
was therefore decided after some experiments, and
as a sort of compromise with the prejudices above
referred to, that the period of separation should be
limited to nine mont Since the date when this
decision was arrived at much greater experience
has been gained, and the unsoundness of the grounds *
on which this limitation was founded has been fully
PRISONS 419
demonstrated (see the Report of the Directors of
Convict Prisons, 1887-88, and the accompanyi
report of an i ga Por the subject by the tietinal
inspector). e whole of the prisons in the United
Kingdom where sentences up to two years are
carried out have gradually been remodelled on the
separate system; and laws enacted recently in
several foreign countries, after full investigation,
permit of the isolation of prisoners under proper
conditions for much longer periods. There is,
therefore, no reason why the separate pros of a
sentence of penal servitude should not endure for
a period equal to that which may be passed in that
condition under a sentence of imprisonment.
The second or public works stage was carried out
in prisons like Portland, which was constructed for
the purpose in 1847. Dartmoor Convict Prison was
opened in 1850 for the same purpose, Portsmouth
Priso m in 1852, Chatham in 1856, &c. In these
the convicts have been employed in large public
works, in farming, &c.
land, the fortifications of that island, the large
extension of the dockyards at Chatham and Ports-
mouth, the forts which protect Chatham, and various
other military and naval works, besides the con-
struction of | prison establishments, attest the
advantages of the system, which also enables the
prisoners to gain a useful knowledge of trades by
which they can obtain employment on their release,
and affords a most useful reformatory influence in
accustoming the prisoners to habits of industry.
From 1844, and more rapidly after 1852, thenumber
of prisoners actually transported gradually dimin-
ish a mm ost Ape Pk Hier ig po riage
isc on free on in Britain r
serving from half to two-thirds of their sen-
tences. In the course of time the opposition of the
Australian colonies to the continuance of trans-
tion led to the abandonment of the system
altogether, and since 1867 no convicts have been
sent to those colonies. The punishment of penal
servitude was by various acts between 1853
and 1864 substituted for transportation. These
acts introduced certain notable modifications in
regard to sentences of the next degree of gravity to
capital punishment. When transportation was
in foree a prisoner on whom such a sentence
was passed might be treated in any of three
different ways. Commencing his sentence in the
local prison, where he remained until it was
thought proper to remove him, he might be trans-
ferred either (1) to Australia, from which in
all probability he never returned, whatever the
length of his sentence ; (2) to Gibraltar or Bermuda,
from which he was brought back to England when
he had served a certain portion of his sentence, and
there discharged; or (3) to the hulks, or to the
‘public works’ prisons substituted for them. If
he went to Australia he was in the early days
assigned as a servant to some free settler, and so
at once d to be actually a prisoner; but in
later years a system was established under which
all prisoners first a certain time in a con-
vict establishment and then were discha con-
ditionally to find employers for themselves. It
also became the practice ultimately to retain all
isoners sentenced to transportation for a cer-
Sata time in a prison in England, conducted on the
separate system, from which they might be sent
either to the hulks or to the ‘ publie works’ convict
prisons which replaced them, or to one of the con-
viet establishments abroad. If sent to the hulks
or ‘public works’ prisons they might either
remain there till discharged, or drafted off to
one of the convict establishments in the colonies.
Whichever of these modes of di ing of the
convicts was followed, in none of them did they
pass the whole of their sentences in the condition
The breakwater at Port--
of prisoners, a most important consideration to
bear in mind. Those who were sent to Gibraltar
or Bermuda, as well as those who did not leave the
country at all, but were confined in the hulks, were
released on free pardon after they had passed about
half of their sentences or alittle more. Those who
went to Australia were released even sooner, but in
their case only on certain conditions, by which a
hold over them was maintained.
When the objections of the Australian colonies
to the continuance of transportation thither made
it necessary to adopt some other plan for disposing
of these prisoners, the Penal Servitude Act, 1853,
was in order to carry out a system founded
on that which had been followed with regard to
prisoners sentenced to transportation, but which pro-
vided for the large majority being retained at home.
Under this act a sentence of transportation could
not be passed for less than fourteen years, and a
sentence of penal servitude was substituted for all
lower terms. But the sentences of penal servitude
permitted by this act were shorter than the sen-
tences of transportation assigned to various crimes
under the old acts, because it was intended that
the whole of the sentences of penal servitude should
be passed in confinement ; the terms were therefore
fixed so as to correspond with the periods which
had actually poms peed in prison by convicts who
had been sentenced to transportation but not actu-
ally sent outof thecountry. Forseven years’ trans-
portation or less was substituted four years’ penal
servitude ; for over seven but not over ten years’
transportation was substituted not under four years
and not over six years; for over ten but not over
fifteen years’ transportation was substituted not
under six years and not over eight years ; for over
fifteen years’ transportation was substituted not
under six years and not over ten years. No
difference was made in life sentences. Power
was taken in this act to release convicts in the
United Kingdom conditionally or on ticket-of-
leave, instead of releasing them as formerly on
free on, It was not intended that this power
should be exercised in the case of sentences of penal
servitude, as they had already been shortened to
the terms actually served in prison under the sen-
tence of transportation, but only in the case of
prisoners sentenced to transportation who were not
actually sent out of the country. The convict
a therefore contained inmates serving under
ifferent conditions : those under sentence of trans-
portation might have a remission of part of their
sentences if well conducted, those under sentences
of penal servitude could get none.
fore long it was found that great disadvantage
in training and reforming the convicts, and in man-
ing them by appealing to better feelings than
those of mere fear, arose from the absence in the
case of prisoners sentenced to penal servitude of the
hope of gaining a remission of sentence; and the
comparison in this respect between these prisoners
and others in the prisons who were under sentence
of transportation gave rise to great discontent
among the prisoners. The consequence was that
in 1857 another act was passed which made the
length of sentences of penal servitude the same as
former sentences of transportation, and thus facili-
tated the application of the system of remission to
sentences of less than fourteen years as well as to
those above that term. The House of Commons
Committee (1856), on whose report this course
was adopted, also recommended the introduction
of a shorter term of penal servitude intermediate
between the highest term of imprisonment then
in ordinary use and the lowest term of trans-
portation or, as it had become, penal servitude.
Accordingly the Act of 1857 authorised a sentence
of not less than three years’ penal servitude for any
420
PRISONS
offence which = be punished by seven years’
transportation. In carrying out this act prisoners
were allowed to gain remission of a portion of these
short sentences as well as all the others.
About this time very warm discussions were
being carried on on the subject of penal systems,
originating partly no doubt in the great change
necessitated by the gradual abolition of trans-
portation; and about 1861-62-63 those who
attacked the system which had actually been intro-
duced were able to point to a recent increase
of crime as a justification of their attacks on it,
more particularly on the ticket-of-leave system.
Great point was given to this feeling, and it was
much intensified, by an outbreak of crimes of vio-
lence in the gon! Say (garrotting), of which the
number rose to eighty-two during the six months
peeeening June 1862, having been only sixteen in
each six months from the beginning of 1860 to
June 1862, The result was that a Royal Commis-
sion was appointed to report on the Penal Servi-
tude Acts and the system adopted to carry them out.
In consequence of the report of this commission
in 1864 another Penal Servitude Act was passed, in
which the government did not fully adopt the rec-
ommendations of the Royal Commission as above
set forth, but they raised the minimum term of
penal servitude from three years to five years, ex-
cept in the case of those who incurred a second
sentence of penal servitude, in whose cases seven
ears was the minimum term permitted. This
atter provision was repealed by the Prevention of
Crimes Act, 1879.
A review by the light of later experience of the
unds on which the recommendation of the Royal
‘ommission was made cannot but lead to the
opinion that the experience of the Act of 1857 had
been too short to justify the formation of any
sound opinion of its effects. As regards the out-
break of violence in the metropolis, this was without
doubt, as su nent events showed, the work of a
small number of men who adopted that form of rob-
— (a very common feature in the history of crime),
and when these men were arrested and received
exemplary sentences the crime ceased altogether.
The remarkable feature of the = gies for 1856-
63 was not that they were especially high in 1862-
63, but rather the extraordinarily low level to which
they had suddenly fallen in 1860, and from which
they rebounded.
he directors of convict prisons in their recent
annual reports had more than once referred to the
anomaly peculiar to the United Kingdom by which
no sentence was ible between two years—which
was practically the limit of a sentence of imprison-
ment—and five years, which is the shortest legal
sentence of penal servitude, and had expressed their
6: pare thatit wasdesirabletore-introduce the power
of sentencing to = servitude for terms as low as
three years, which existed from 1857 until the Act of
1864, and was abolished by that act in consequence
of the report of a Royal Commission, founded, as
the directors showed, on erroneous deductions from
imperfect data. In 189] an act was to
allow of the sentence of three years being im-
posed in future. By the Act of 1857 power was
given to the Secretary of State to release convicts
conditionally before the expiration of their sen-
tences. This system, known as the ticket-of-leave
system, was at the time strenuously attacked,
under the erroneous supposition that it first intro-
duced a system of releasing prisoners before they
had served their full sentences; but this, as has
been already stated, they never actually had done.
On the contrary, under the ticket-of-leave system
they were in point of fact detained to serve in
rison a larger er of their sentences than had
n customary before. Moreover, under the new
system, instead of being absolutely pardoned when
released, they were subject to revocation of their
licenses if they did not conduct themselves well,
by which their abstention from crime was materi-
ly guaranteed.
¢ principle on which the system of punishment
is founded is that those who are subject to it should
suffer discipline of such degree of severity as may
act as a deterrent to them and to others who t
be tempted to become criminals, but that
should at the same time be brought under the
reformatory influences of religious teaching, good
example, and such training in self-control as can
be [pie by offering certain advantages to pews
an conduct, as well as inflicting suitable
punishment for the reverse. Every effort is made
to prevent that mutual contamination which was
such a serious blot on prisons of the old , and
those prisoners who have not been previously con-
victed and are on inquiry found clearly to be only
beginners in crime are formed into a separate body,
who, from the badge by which they are distin-
ished, are called the Star class, and who are
ept strictly a) from all others. The mode of
carrying out the sentence of penal servitude is as
follows : Every convict who receives this sentence
is placed for the first nine months in a prison
in which his whole time is ina
cell, except, of course, the time devoted to public
worship, necessary
he is so far as possible isolated from his fellows.
The remainder of his time in prison is passed
in one of the large establishments in which useful
work is carried on in a regulated association,
and he is able by industry combin
dh ble by industry combined with good
-conduct to earn a remission of nearly one-fourth
of his sentence, besides gaining certain privil
in regard to letter-writing, visits from his friends,
and such like indulgences, and a gratuity to be
paid to him on his discharge. The practice which
existed until 1864 of encouraging industry and
gest conduct by certain increases in the diet was
iscontinued from that date, as it was held that
to allow a prisoner more or better diet than abso-
lutely n led to undesirable contrasts with
r but honest folk who could afford no such
indulgences ; and it will easily be seen that this
principle, which is of course applicable to other
things besides diet, makes it very difficult to devise
a suitable system of rewards for prisoners while
retaining the necessary penal or restrictive condi-
tions of prison life.
At the head of every convict prison is the gover-
nor, whose duty it is to administer and supervise
all branches of the prison. He is assisted so
staff who have to control and regulate the dis-
cipline and employment of the prisoners, and a
staff of clerks, who keep a record of all matters
relating to the prisoners and their sentences, their
conduct, &c.; and also by a steward or storekeeper,
with astaff of clerks, who has thech: of storesand
accounts. The chaplain conducts divine service,
visits and advises the prisoners. He has under
him schoolmasters, who conduct their education.
A Roman Catholic priest is appointed to some
prisons, and in them are collected all the prisoners
of that communion. The medical officer has charge
of matters relating to the health of the prisoners.
The hospital is constructed on the most modern
principles, and provides accommodation for some
patients in separation and for the association of
those for whom the medical officer thinks it neces-
. Tocontrol and supervise these convict prisons
a y called the Directors of Convict {shee r
was created for England and Wales by statute in
1850, whose powers unite those of visiting justices
of ordinary prisons with those of various bodies
which had been created by parliament from time
exercise, &c.; but at all times —
PRISONS
421
to time to govern the various institutions thence-
forw: laced under their m ment—viz.
Millbank Penitentiary, Pentonville Model Prison,
Parkhurst Reformatory, the hulks, and the con-
vict prisons at Portland, &c., by which the hulks
were superseded. A similar body was created for
Treland in 1854, and there a system founded on
and closely resembling that which had been de-
veloped in England was created; but until 1888
(when a convict prison was established at Peter-
head in connection with the convict labour at
the harbour-works) all male convicts sentenced
in Scotland served the greater pee of their
\sentences in convict prisons in England. The
convict prisons are visited frequently by one or
more of the directors, whose duty it is to see
that the governor and the other officers of the
prison are doing their duty, to hear and deter-
mine reports of misconduct of prisoners of such
gravity that the governor cannot deal with them
under the powers vested in him, and to hear and
determine any reports against the prison officers.
To directors also the prisoners can complain or
(geet they consider they are not fairly treated,
or bring forward any requests they have to make,
but which the governor has no power to comply
with. A body of gentlemen from among the magis-
trates is also appointed by the Secretary of State
to act as independent visitors, and so form a further
guarantee against abuses in the prison, and a
channel by which any grievances felt by any
prisoner can be brought forward.
Each day marks are awarded to every prisoner
according to his industry, and these marks measure
daily his progress towards attaining that remission
of about a quarter of his sentence which he is
allowed to earn, as well as towards his promotion
to a higher class, in which he may enjoy certain
privileges before referred to. The punishments
inflicted on those prisoners who misconduct them-
selves consist of close confinement, sometimes in a
semi-darkened cell, reduction of diet, and forfeiture
of the privileges already earned, such as gratuity to
be paid on discharge, periodical letters, visits
from friends, &c., and forfeiture of remissio
flogging with a ‘cat’ or a birch, which is award
only in the gravest cases, such as assaults on
warders, Xe.
The cessation of transportation in 1867, and the
uent accumulation in the United Kingdom of
all prisoners discharged on expiration of their sen-
tences or on conditional license, instead of in a dis-
tant colony, might reasonably have been ee to
increase the amount of serious crime, by the return
of many of them to their former habits of life.
As a matter of fact no such result has followed.
On the contrary, the various influences which have
been at work to check and repress crime, among
which a well-regulated prison system may claim
its due share, have enormously reduced the number
of convicts under senterice.
About the beginning of the reign of Queen Vic-
toria, when the population of England and Wales
was about fifteen millions, there were 43,000 con-
victs in New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land,
besides others in the colonial penal settlements, in
the hulks at home about 3000 or 4000, several
hundreds at Millbank, about 900 each at Bermuda
and Gibraltar, or about 50,000 in all. By 1869 this
number was represented by 11,660 prisoners
under sentence of penal servitude, of whom 9900
were males and 1760 females, and this number had
been further reduced on March 31, 1891, to 4978—
viz. 4654 males and 324 females. In Ireland there
were 922 males and 403 females in 1869, and 434
males and 26 females in 1891. ,
The numberof persons who havereceived sentences
of transportation or penal servitude has diminished
enormously. In the year 1837, 3785 persons were
sentenced to transportation, and 4068 actually
transported ; in 1842, 4481 were sentenced and 4166
transported. In 1869 the number of persons in
Great Britain whose crimes were so grave as to
justify their being sentenced to penal servitude
was 2219; this number has continuously fallen,
till in 1889 it was only 1039, and in 1890 only 828;
Ee during the interval the population of Great
ritain has risen from 25,529, 184 to (1891) 37,740,283.
In Ireland, with a population of about 5,500,000,
in 1869 there were idL sentences of permal servitude,
and in 1889, with a population of about 4,700,000,
there were 83 such sentences. Of the zene
convict prison Vales,
pulation in England and
515 have been acod on the Star class. These are
found secant to be of an entirely different
stamp from the habitual prisoners. They are more
easy to manage, more willing and industrious, and
experience shows that but few of them come back
to a convict prison on reconviction after their
discharge.
As regards the health of the prisoners in convict
prisons, the statistics show that the favourable
conditions under which they are placed on account
of the great attention to sanitary requirements,
the arity of their lives, and the constant
medi care taken of them result in a low
mortality of 10°5 1000 in an average of years;
and this result is brought about in spite of a large
proportion of the inmates of prisons bein,
persons of low , who have led dissipated an
irregular lives. The conduct of the prisoners is,
asa rule, very good, the result of a steady system
of control under which exact discipline is enforced,
and, while good conduct and industry are encour-
aged, misconduct is surely punished. The greater
number of prisoners conform to the regulations so
readily that either they do not incur any report or
punishment of any kind, or at most commit some
trifling breach of regulations ; and in fact the great
bulk of the prison offences are committed by a few
habitual offenders against the rules.
The prisons in which sentences of imprisonment
are carried out have a separate history from that
of those which have been described. There were
so far back as two centuries ago occasional pro-
tests against the abuses and cruelties practi in
prisons, and a notable parliamentary inquiry into
the misconduct of a gaoler named Bembridge was
held in 1730; but until the last quarter of the
18th century the idea that prisoners had any
claim for humane treatment had hardly made any
way beyond the circle of a few philanthropic
reformers; any attempt to use the period of im-
prisonment to improve the nature of the criminal
was almost unknown. The way to better things
was undoubtedly opened by Howard’s visits of
prison inspection about 1776, and in following
years, and by his reports on the condition of the
prisons he visited, followed as they were by pro-
posals for reform and improvements which were
enjoined and encouraged by acts of parliament.
Solitary confinement with labour and instruction
was approved by statute in 1774, and in 1784
general regulations were formed for the treat-
ment of prisoners, among which a proper classifica-
tion of prisoners according to the gravity of their
offences was enjoined. In 1791 justices were enjoined
to visit and inspect these prisons three times in each
uarter, and to report on them to quarter sessions,
n 1814 the peenenet of chaplains was made
compulsory. But compliance with these statuto
reforms did not immediately follow, for indeed it
was a long time before the into the stage
of practical fact. In 1818 there still remained 518
prisons in the United Kingdom, to which more
than 100,000 prisoners were committed in the year,
.
422
PRISONS
and only twenty-three of these had been subdivided |
so as to enable the above classification to be carried
out. In fifty-nine of them the males were not
divided from the females (and in fact there was no
statutory injunction to this effect until 5 Geo. IV.
chaps. 65 and 85). In 445 prisons there was no em-
ployment of any kind for the prisoners; in 100 of
the gaols overcrowding was excessive ; no less than
13,057 prisoners were crowded into the space which,
according even to the moderate demands of those
days, was fit for only 8545. The prisons were in
many cases so ill-regulated that they became scenes
of abandoned wickedness. In 1835 and 1839 most
important legislative steps were taken. Further
es of administration were laid down in the acts
in these years, and inspectors of prisons
were appointed to see that they were carried out.
By the latter act also the vital importance of a
suitable design and construction for gaols as an aid
to good prison management was recognised by the
creation of the office of Surveyor-general of Prisons
to advise in these matters.
Howard had advocated the complete.separation
of gesapae by placing each of them in a cell alone,
and this was provided for in the Penitentiary Act,
1778. The practice was adopted in a few count
ss and it was again enjoined together wit
ily divine service and the absolute separation of
males from females in 5 Geo. IV. chaps. 65 and 85,
but the expense of building these cells fortified a
rejudice against the ‘solitary’ system, which was
ly increased by the too thorough mode in
which it had been carried out in America, A com-
mission which was sent in 1834 to America to
inquire into the matter, however, reported entirel
in favour of the principle of separation if judi-
ciously carried out. Their recommendation was fol-
lowed in the construction of Pentonville Model
Prison in 1842, and the success of the system led
to an extensive reconstruction of ee. prisons on
the same plan, finally resulting in that system
being adopted to the exclusion of any other.
Although some progress in other respects followed
the Acts of 1835 and 1839, there was still so much
imperfection and such want of sree in rules,
diet, labour, &c., that further reforms and stronger
pressure on the local authorities in whom the
see) ag” of the prisons was vested was urgently
called for. These were provided by the Prison Act,
1865, which enacted a code of rules for all prisons,
and required that each male prisoner should be
provided with a separate cell.
In 1878 a further and most important step was
taken by the transfer of the control and pecuniary
charge of all the local prisons to the government,
represented in each member of the United Kingdom
by a body of commissioners appointed by royal
warrant. This measure was ——— by the im-
possibility of ensuring due uniformity in the treat-
ment of prisoners in all gaols so long as they
remained in the hands of so many independent
local authorities, by the great difficulties, amount-
ing to impossibility, in getting some of the local
authorities to provide proper prison buildings, and
nd the unnecessary costliness which resulted from
the existence of so many small and independent
prisons ; for there were still no less than 113 of these
establishments in England and Wales, 57 in Scot-
land, and 38 (besides 95 bridewells) in Ireland.
The consolidation which has resulted from them
has made a very large saving in the cost of
risons. There are now only 58 local prisons in
4g and Wales, 15 in Scotland, and 22 in
Treland. In Scotland the geographical conditions
have led to the adoption of a system of licensed
cells under charge of the police, where prisoners
under sentence not exceeding fourteen days may
be retained. These are allowed in twenty-eight
places to avoid the necessity of sending such
Vergo long distances to serve a short sentence.
he population of these little prisons is for the
most part from one to two, In the years 1876-
77, the last in which the prisons were under the
local authorities, their cost in England, exclu-
sive of new buildings and interest on loans, &e.
90 it was £320,381; and
it has since fallen still further. The diminution
would have been larger but that in various wa
the service has been improved. Roman Catholic
priests are now generally appointed and paid for
their services; the clerical work wage | 1 ly
done by prisoners is performed by paid clerks;
attention is more generally paid to the schooling,
and more money expended on schoolmasters.
These acts have also ensured substantial uni-
formity of treatment throughout the United
ingdom, because all rules are now made by the
Secretary of State or Lord-lieutenant of Ireland.
Prisoners before trial form a separate class in the
prisons, and are now subjected to no more incon-
venience than is pecans to ensure security and due
order and discipline in the prison. They may wear
their own clothes and supply their own diet
choose, have full opportunities of receiving visi!
from their friends and corresponding with th
and are not obliged to perform any unaccustom:
or menial labour for themselves if they will pay for
assistance.
Debtors also are kept a from other prisoners.
The rules made in the Prisons Act, 1 with
to this class of prisoner were no doubt framed
in view of the practice of imprisonment for debt
= had not = been gre by law. He
the act subsequently passed in made it possible
to imprison only those debtors who refuse to pay
when they have the means, and as this is a species
of fraud they. hardly deserve the consideration
which, under the rules, is accorded to them. They
are under no obligation to work, are allowed to
lounge about in association, may provide their own
clothing, bedding, and food, which may include
wine and beer, and are allowed more frequent
visits and letters from their friends than criminal
prisoners.
The Prisons Act, 1865, also allowed the creation
of a class of misdemeanants of the first division,
who might be put in that class by the meget.
court ; and the special sympathy accorded to sedi-
tion and seditious libel led to ao found guil
of these crimes being, by the law of 1877,
in the privileges of this class. They are allowed a
specially furnished room, and may provide their
own clothing, bedding, and food, the services of an
assistant to clean their rooms, and, on give >
full use of books, newspapers, &c., and certain
privileges as to additional letters and visits at the
discretion of the visiting committee. They are not
considered criminal prisoners. Doubts have some-
times been expressed whether the power of mak-
ing a distinction of this sort in the punishment
awarded to different offenders has been wisely
exercised. [t would recommend itself to most
people that such an offender as a cle an, who
18 paerinnes for not conforming to the rubric,
should suffer little or no punishment beyond the
deprivation of liberty, but a fraudulent bankrupt,
or one who committed a criminal assault, or
who incited others to crime and violence, is not
necessarily a proper object for similax consideration
on the ground of his social position being higher
than that of an ordinary typical criminal.
To pass from these special classes to the ordinary
prisoners, the gene Hive that ger pepe
eve risoner is ti to raise himself pro-
ively b indioiey, combined with < con-
uct, through four stages, in each of which he gains
PRISONS
423
some amelioration of his treatment. Commencing
with penal or first-class hard labour—with sleeping
on a wooden bed on which there is no mattress,
and with great restrictions as to books, letters, and
visits—he gradually gains animprovementin each of
these matters, and in each accumulates a small
sum, larger in the higher very than in the lower,
which is either given him or laid out for his benefit
on his discharge. If in spite of these encourage-
ments he still fails to conduct himself in conformity
with the regulations, he may be subjected to
punishment by deprivation of diet, confinement in
a cell which is nearly dark, and in case of violence
apr Oe cenaic with a birch or a cat-of-nine-
i necessity for these punishments has,
however, very largely diminished—a result of the
— of progressive stages; for if ill-conducted or
idle his p' into the higher stages is delayed,
or he may d ed into a lower stage after
attaining toa higher. Comparing the number of
dietary punishments in 1877 (the last year before the
i were brought under the government) with
the number in 1890, it is found that while the prison
population has diminished by one-third, this form
of punishment is less by one-half. Certain powers
for the infliction of punishment reside with the
governor, but corporal punishment or heavier
sentences than he is empowered to award can
only be inflicted by order of the magistrates who
form the visiting committee of each prison, or by
@ commissioner.
The visiting committee are appointed every year
bo aarhar sessions, about twelve to each prison.
eir duty is to visit the prison periodically, to
hear any complaints of the prisoners, to deal with
reports made of the misconduct of any prisoners,
and to fulfil certain other functions more particu-
larly laid down in the rules made by the Secretary
of State; but they have no authority over the
officers. In fact, whereas up till 1878 the local
authorities managed the prison, and the govern-
ment inspected it, the position is now reversed, the
emt manages and the local justices inspect.
inal principle of the prison system is that
every prisoner under sentence should be fully
employed, but the description of employment varies
in the different stages of the sentence. On first
reception, and for a month at least, hard penal
labour is exacted from everybody sentenced to hard
labour, according to their strength and capacity.
The tread-wheel or crank is the typical form of this
* first-class hard labour,’ as it is called ; stone-break-
ing, oakum-picking, and some other forms of labour
are enforced in the case of prisoners who are unfit
for the tread-wheel. After this industrial labour is
allowed, according to the capabilities of the
prisoner, and forms a relief from the dull monotony
of the first-class hard labour. A large proportion
of the prisoners supply the wants of the prison
pulation by weaving, tailoring, &c., and the
ist of trades followed or articles made in the
prisons enumerated in the annual reports reaches
to about 150; but, as may be imagined, there is a
large number of prisoners who know of no industry
which can be followed in a prison cell, and aut
difficulty is found in providing them with work, for
they do not generally stop long enough to learn a
trade to any good purpose. Mat-making and
matting-weaving, which was, it is believed, intro-
duced many years ago as a prison industry, is a
trade which is very easily learned ; but the same
reason which recommends it for prison purposes
makes it appropriate for many charitable institu-
tions, such as blind schools, &c., and enables free
ms who are incapacitated for other work to
nd employment at it. These latter are naturally
anxious to diminish the competition of prison
labour in their trade, though it forms now an
exceedingly small part of that which they have to
contend with, for the product of machinery and
foreign and colonial labour, besides the introduc-
tion of rival materials to serve the same object,
far exceeds the veel from the labour of prisoners
in this country. The number of prisoners employed
in this industry has, however, by the efforts of the
prison authorities, been diminished from nearly 3200
to 747, whose work is, for the reasons given above
and because of the necessary conditions of prison
labour, probably not more than that of one-fourth
or one-fifth the same number of free labourers.
atta A ge y has its medical officer, and a well-
regulated and well-constructed infirmary. The
death-rate has decreased from 10°8 per 1000 to 8-2
per 1000 in J deren in England and Wales. The
absence of diseases due to insanitary conditions
is the main reason of the healthy condition of the
prisoners ; and no doubt the strict temperance—for
no alcoholic liquors form part of the dietary—
and the regular life contribute to this result.
In order that the standard of efficiency may be
maintained in all the prisons, and that opportunities
may be given to both officers and prisoners to com-
municate any complaints they may have to make,
inspectors are eam to visit each prison at
least monthly, and to report to the commissioners
on any point which may require their intervention.
From the time when the prisons were taken over
by the government in 1878 there has been a very
large and almost uninterrupted diminution in the
number of prisoners, who form the prison popu-
lation. In June 1878 there were 21, prisoners,
and the average number during that year was
19,818; in the prisons in England and Wales in
June 1890 there were 14,122, and the average
number of prisoners during the year 1890 was
13,495. It would be absurd to claim this result as
all due to any change of prison management, but
there can be no doubt that this has had its share
in the result, just as in former years bad prison
Pes aera was a potent cause of the increase of
crime.
The indication of the diminution of crime
which is afforded by these prison statistics is
fully corroborated by those which are derived
from other sources. It is found that.during the
fifteen years 1875-90, while the population has
increased by about 25 per cent., the number of
convictions for what is in ordinary language con-
sidered a crime—i.e. offences involving dishonesty,
viol , &e.—instead of increasing in proportion
with the population, has progressively diminished
by about 124 per cent. ; there were 238,680 con-
victions, summary and on indictment, for such
crimes in 1873-74, and only 203,808 in 1887-88.
Convictions for drunkenness are also much fewer
—185,730 in 1873-74 and 166,366 in 1887-88;
and if it were not for the increase in the number
of commitments for offences against the educa-
tion acts—for breach of bylaws and the like, |
which are rather offences against social discipline
than crimes—the total number of commitments
would have very largely diminished. The police
returns show too that the number of the criminal
classes has decreased by about 22 per cent., and
the number of disorderly houses has shown a corre-
sponding diminution.
The design and construction of a prison is, as
may be supposed, a feature of the very first import-
ance. Security is of course one of the essentials,
but there are others almost as important. In look-
ing over old prisons one cannot but be struck with
the massiveness of construction of many of them
—the huge bars and bolts, the large clumsy
locks, the ponderous grated doors, and, some-
times chained to the wall, the heavy fetters with
which the prisoners were loaded. In the old
424 PRISONS
rison at York, built under the inspiration of the
v. Sydney Smith, part of which still exists,
the walls of
ape f is provided for by makin,
the cells of a rough stone, some 6 feet square and
2or 3 feet thick, and grated windows of massive
fron exclude the light. By such means as this it
was intended to ensure the safe custody of the
prisoners without constant personal watchfulness
and supervision by the prison staff. All this is
changed in the prisons of more recent date, but the
security is even greater than before, because in a
gages of modern construction the supervision can
more thorough. In a prison of modern con-
struction the site is surrounded by a wall about 18
feet high, outside of which, unless a road or street
runs along the boundary, a margin of about 20
feet is left unbuilt on as a precaution against the
facilities which chesney against a wall may give
for sealing or breaking through it.
The sere is entered through two pairs of double
gates, having a space between them sufficient for a
wagon to stand in, so that the solid outer gate may
be shut before the grated inner gate formed of iron
bars is opened. At the side of the gate is the
porter’s lodge, and perhaps certain waiting accom-
modation and rooms in which the prisoners may,
under supervision, receive visits from their frien
These gates give admission to the outer court of
the prison. Opposite the gate is probably the
entrance of the main building; the offices of the
governor, chaplain, &c. are placed here. After
passing these the buildings occupied by prisoners
are arrived at.
Every prisoner occupies a cell measuring 13 feet
by 7 feet, and containing 800 cubic feet of air, with
a grated window, part of which is made to open;
in the wall are inlets from a channel for fresh air,
warmed when n hy hot water fire and
outlets for foul air drawn out through flues which
communicate with a furnace and tall chimney in
the roof. On shelves in the wall are the books and
the small utensils provided for the prisoner’s use.
The furniture consists of a stool to sit on, a fixed
table, a wooden bed board and a coir pillow, sheets,
blankets, and , and a mattress for the prisoners
who have the first s In some cells a
crank, or a loom, or such other fixed means of
employment, is provided, and a bell-pull, by means
of which a warder’s attention can be called when
necessary, and an eye-hole in the door through
which the warder can inspect the prisoner.
Rows of cells such as this are arranged alongside
each other, and on opposite sides of a corridor
about 16 feet wide, which is open to the roof; and
there may be aboye the ground-floor two or three
tiers of cells, access to which is given by iron stairs
and a gallery off which the cells open. There are
possibly some cells on a lower level, where usually
the heating apparatus and sometimes the cook-
house, bakehouse, workshops, and stores are situ-
ated; but in the most recent constructions it is
thought better to place these latter in separate
buildings outside the block of cells. A hospital
for sick patients is provided, and a separate block
of cells in which prisoners are placed on first recep-
tion, and where they are cleansed and examined by
the doctor, and their private property and clothes
taken from them, the latter Tae replaced by a
prison suit if the poe is convicted, or if before
conviction he prefers not to wear his own clothes.
There is a tread-wheel house in many prisons, and
often a mill, which is worked by the tread-wheel,
and which supplies flour or water for the prisoners’
use. The department for females is put distant
from that for males, and no male officer is allowed
into the female division unless he is accompanied
by a female warder or matron. Storerooms are
provided where it may be most convenient, for the
rovisions, clothing, materials for manufacture, &c,
he chapel is a prominent feature in the prison, for
prayers are before all the mers who can
attend every morning, and on Sunday there are
morning and evening services. In prisons built
on this model tow the middle of the century
the chapel was divided into little boxes, so as to
isolate prisoners completely from each other. This
construction has for some time been abandoned ;
it failed in its object, and in fact helped to prevent.
detection of an offender, while it was thought to
diminish the influence of the minister and the effect
of the service.
In connection with the offices is a lib of
selected books for issue to the prisoners, which is
under the control of the chaplain. In some part of
the cell block is a bath-house, where prisoners are
required to wash themselves perionioeny and in
connection with the female side of the prison is a
laundry for the washing of the prisoners’ clothing,
sheets, &c., and in which also sometimes washing
is done for people outside on payment. There are
also workshops in which nters, smiths, &e. can
carry on their trades for the benefit of the prison.
Large airy yards surround the blocks in which
the prisoners live. In these they take their dail
exercise under supervision of warders, pacing roun
and round a ring, separated by such an interval
from each other as may prevent oral communica-
tion. Part of the space inside the walls is often
cultivated for vegetables for consumption by the
prisoners.
Since 1869 a new feature has been developed in
controlling the criminal class. By an act passed
in that year and revised in 1871, the latter being
called the Prevention of Crimes Act, any person
convicted on indictment a second time may be
subjected to ‘supervision’ by the police for seven
years after the expiration of his sentence. During
this period he is required to report himself to the
police once a month, and to keep them informed
of his residence; he is also required to prove his
innocence if certain suspicious circumstances are
brought against him. he fails to comply with
the obligation to report himself he may im-
prisoned for a year with hard labour, The convict.
released conditionally before the termination of his.
sentence is subject to similar obligations, and if
there are reasonable grounds for believing that he
is leading a criminal life, or showing himself un
worthy of the freedom conditionally granted him,
or if he should be actually convicted of crime, he
may be returned to prison to undergo the whole
of that part of his sentence which was remitted.
To aid in the work of detecting criminals an
Habitual Criminal Register has been established
in which the names, descriptions, photographs, an
criminal career of all persons who are proved to
have been twice convicted on indictment are
recorded. This register is printed and circulated
to all police forees and prisons, and thus these
authorities have at their command means of estab-
ang, the identification of any prisoner who comes.
into their custody, who is suspected to be an
habitual criminal, and can ascertain what prison
should be applied to for further evidence on the
subject. In order to supply means of ascertaining
whether any person in custody is on the register
of habitual criminals, in cases where no special
identity is suggested, a Distinction Marks Register
has been established, in which all the uliar
marks, or other remarkable nal pecu iarities
of those who have been registered, are classified
and recorded.
It will readily be understood that it would not
aceord with the modern theory of punishment com-
bined with reformation to turn any prisoner adrift
at the prison gate on completing his sentence, to
Ee
PRISONS 425
seek for means of earning an honest livelihood with
all the disadvantages which his connection and
imprisonment obviously entail upon him. The
first statutory recognition that it was right and
expedient to make some provision for prisoners on
oe wes in 32 Geo. III. — 45, by which
justices might convey any such person
k to his ade and at the opening Tf the
chapel of the New House of Correction for Middle-
sex, the chaplain, the Rev. Samuel Glasse, pointed
out that, the discipline and training of the prison
having it might be hoped supplanted the prisoners’
habits of idleness and profligacy by habits of indus-
try, the magistrates might be able to speak of them
according to their merit or demerit to the parish
officers. He observed, however, that this would not
provide for the cases of Irish delinquents who had no
settlement in the United Kingdom, but who were
not few in nuinber, as indeed they are not at this
present day, when they furnish to British gaols an
entirel ap area number of inmates. He
thus show e necessity for mony Ben in more
recent times has been undertaken by societies for
the aid of dise prisoners. In 1823 the Gaol
Act enabled a moderate sum of money to be paid
for the benefit of open me prisoners out of the
rates, or from public benefactions belonging to the
gaol, in order that they might resort to any place
of employment or honest occupation. In 1862
societies for the aid of discharged prisoners received
statu recognition, and the money awarded by
the justices for the assistance of any prisoner, to
an amount not exceeding £2 per head, might be
handed over to these societies for their benefit.
This act was obviously a recognition of societies
which already existed, but it afforded a great
stimulus to the formation of others. The earliest
of the “cra ry So eer according to the list pub-
lished by the Reformatory and Refuge Union, was
the Hampshire Society, which dates from 1802;
Dalston Female dates from 1805; the
Sheriffs’ Fund, which deals with City cases, from
1807. When the prisons were handed over to the
government in 1878 there were about 30 dise
prisoners’ aid societies acting in connection with
the prisons, then 113 in number, and still number-
ing 66, even after the reduction which took place
in the first two years.
The transfer of all prisons to the government in
1878 had a most important effect in adding to the
number of those societies. The Prisons Act had
been passed partly to ensure uniformity of treat-
ment of prisoners in all localities, and those who
advoca the claims of the discharged prisoner
were not slow to perceive that the same P inciple
might be made to apply to the system of helping
them to obtain honest employment on completion
of their sentence ; and, further, that the difficulty
they had met with in inducing many of the local
anthorities to provide funds, or in raising private
subscriptions, might be overcome, now that the
government was responsible, because they were
virtually bound to continue the grants which had
been made by many local authorities, and could
not refuse to make similar grants in places where
the local authorities had hitherto failed to do so.
In connection with this the Commissioners of
Prisons took action with & sige to greg the
appropriation to this purpose man
Tharities ioe nefactions devoted in former lanes
to the assistance of prisoners, but the exact objects
of which were no longer applicable to existing cir-
cumstances. These funds were more or less within
the cognisance of the Charity Commissioners, and
some of the largest of them had already been
diverted to objects quite disconnected from prisons
or prisoners ; but by means of an act passed in 1882
steps were taken by which most of these funds have
been appropriated for the benefit of discharged
prisoners through the agency of the above-named
societies. The government makes to each society
a grant each year proportioned to the number of
prisoners to be relieved, in supplement of any of
their charitable funds ; but, as itis necessary to the
object of the society and of its work that local aid
and local interest should be excited in the work, it is
made a condition that private subscriptions should
be given at least rigesk in amount to the sum the
government are prepared to allow. Besides the
t of money handed over directly to the society,
the bean Caeaker by a prisoner during his sen-
tence may pe him through the agency of the
society, who thus have command over all the funds
available for setting the prisoner out again in a
fresh career, and can take care that it is not wasted
in the indulgence to which a man or woman is
naturally tempted on first release from the restraint
and privation of prison life. The result of this
encouragement has been that there are now seventy-
three societies in active operation in England,
besides many homes and refuges chiefly devoted
to helping women. There are nine discharged
prisoners’ aid societies in Scotland, and only three
in Ireland. It is difficult, of course, to exhibit by
any precise statement the results attained by these
societies, but there can be no sort of doubt that
they do admirable work. It is not, however, by
any means those who spend most money who
produce the best results. Money, no doubt, is an
absolute necessity, but what is even more import-
ant is personal care and interest in the person who
has fallen into crime, perhaps from weakness of
character, from bad bringing up, from misfortune,
from evil connections, or whatever the cause may
be, and who, after the experience of prison life and
the teaching he has received, may desire to enter
upon a new career.
United States.—In the early part of the 19th cen-
tury the most advanced examples of prison discip-
line and construction were to be found in the United
States, and although in the second half of the
century this prominent position has not been main-
tained, the importanceof the improvements initiated
in America cannot be forgotten. Following closely
on Howard’s report, the ‘ Philadelphia Society for
Assisting Distressed Prisoners’ was founded in 1776
—the first of the kind in the world; and, though
dissolved during the war, was reorganised in
1787, and is still at work. Large measures of
reform were quickly secured : by 1790 the principle
of separation was recognised, and in 1794 all con-
victs were separated and secluded; in the latter
ear, also, capital punishment was abolished in
ennsylvania for all crimes but murder in the
first degree. It thus became necessary to devise
some substitute for capital punishment. At
the Eastern Penitentiary at Philadelphia, opened
in 1829, the so-called ‘Pennsylvania System’
of permanent seclusion of convicts was carried
out; the evil effects arising from the rigorous
application of this principle have been already
OA to in this article, and even at Philadelphia
the system is not now strictly enforced, whilst in
all the other American prisons what is known as
the ‘ Auburn System ’—silent labour in association
by day, and separation by night—has been adopted.
In the southern states prisoners are leased out to
the highest bidders for the term of their sentences ;
but this system, which condemns the convicts to a
slavery that is not modified even by considerations
arising from personal ownership, is wossare pd
being abandoned. The first place of detention
for juvenile delinquents was opened at New York
in 1825; the first reformatories on the cottage or
family system were established in Ohio—for
at Lancaster in 1858, for girls at Delaware in 1878.
426 PRISREND
PRIVY-COUNCIL
In 1877 the Elmira (New York) Reformatory was
opened, at which a now famous system has been
opted for the treatment of first offenders under
thirty years of age; the principal features are in-
determinate sentences, the classification of prisoners
into three hg bs the — system, and dis-
charge upon probationary parole, under supervision.
The ae are planned to avoid the evil effects of
monotony. The system in Elmira has yielded good
results, over four-fifths of the discharged inmates
‘having been taught to lead useful lives.
A ve defect all by American critics is
that in the county s and other places of deten-
tion for those awaiting trial all such prisoners are
compelled to associate in a common hall, with all
the evils which follow as a necessary result.
It is said also that politics to a large extent
determine the selection of prison officials, many
of whom are appointed simply for services rendered
to their party; and that the interference of
labour o: isations has had a considerable effect
in the direction of ax a stop to contract
labour—in New York, to labour of any kind—
in the prisons. It may be added that crime has
increased in the United States in a ratio far in
advance of the growth of population ; in 1850 the
prisoners represented 1 in of the population ;
in 1880 they were 1 in 855. In a country where so
many earnest and capable penologists are at work,
however, there is every reason to hope for an ulti-
mate return to better methods.
See the articles BeccartaA, BENTHAM, CaPITaL PUNISH-
MENT, CRIMINAL LAW, EXECUTION, Fry, HOWARD, POLICE,
REvORMATORIES, ROMILLY; those on crimes such as
Arson, ASSAULT, BuRGLARY, Forcery, MurDER, RaPEg,
‘Tuert, &c.; also works by such as Pike, History of Crime
in England (1873-76); Farrer, Crimes and Punishments
(1880); Perry, Prison Labour (Albany, 1880); Wines,
The State af Teles in the Civilised World agree
U.S., 1880); Havelock Ellis, The Criminal (1889);
Punishment and the Prevention of Crime, by the present
author (1885); Major A. Griffiths, Secrets of the Prison
House (1893); the Bulletin de la Société Générale des
Prisons ; and German works by Holtzendorff and Jiige-
mann (1886), Genzmer (1881), Aschrott, Prins, &c,
Prisrend, a town of Albania, 72 miles E. by N.
of Scutari, is one of the richest and most industrious
towns in Turkey. Pop. 39,000.
Pristina, a town of European Turkey, 59 miles
by rail N. of Uskiib. Pop. 8000.
Pristis. See SAWFISH.
Privateer, a ship owned by a private indi-
vidual, which, under government permission, ex-
by a Letter of Marque (q.v.), makes war
upon the shipping of a hostile power. To make
war upon an enemy without this commission, or
upon the shipping of a nation not specified in it,
is piracy. Privateering was abolished by mutual
agreement among Euro) nations, except Spain,
Y the Declaration of Paris in 1856; but the
nited States of America refused to sign the
treaty, for reasons which are given in the article
Paris (q.v.). It is doubtful, however, how far
that abolition would stand in a general war, for
privateering is the natural resource of a nation
whose regular navy is too weak to make head
inst the maritime power of the enemy, especi-
ally when the latter offers the temptation of a
wealthy commerce. It was usual for the country
on whose behalf the privateers carried on war to take
security for their duty respecting the rights of neu-
trals and allies, and their observing generally the law
of nations. While not considered Pirates (q.v.) by
the law of nations, they were looked upon as little
better during the great wars at the end of the 18th
and the beginning of the 19th century, and asa rule
received but scant mercy at the hands of the regular
services, In the wars of 1793-1814 many English
privateers were afloat. But in the same period no less
than 10,871 English ships, with over £100,000,000,
were taken by French ‘ corsairs ;’ the Breton priva-
teer Surcouf took, in two months of 1807, prizes
worth £291,250. At the American Revolution the
new republic fully realised the advantage of its
ition in preying on the mercantile marine of
treat Britain ; and in the war of 1812 British com-
merce suffered severely at the hands of American
privateers, of which it was computed that some 250
were afloat. During the American civil war the
Confederate cruisers were at first regarded in
the north as mere pena ; and the Alabama Claims
originated in the charge against Britain of allowing
the departure of privateers from British ports. In
1870 Prussia made a decree in favour of creating
a ‘volunteer navy.’ See ENEMY, NEUTRALITY,
ALABAMA, BUCCANEERS, CORSAIR, PIRACY, PRIZE;
Norman, The Corsairs of France (1887); Gomer
Williams, The Liverpool Privateers (1897).
Privet (Ligustrum), a genus of plants of the
natural order Oleacee, containing a number of
species of shrubs and small trees with opposite
leaves, which are simple and entire at the ma in;
the flowers small, white, and in terminal panicles ;
the calyx slightly 4-toothed; the corolla funnel-
shaped and 4-cleft; the stamens two, projectin,
beyond the tube of the corolla ; the berries 2-cell
Common Privet (Z. vulgare) is a shrub growing in
— places and about the borders of woods in the
middle and south of Europe, and in some parts
of Britain, now also naturalised in some parts of
North America. It has half-evergreen, smooth,
lanceolate leaves; and berries about the size of
gue. black, rarely white, {ellow, or green, The
owers have a strong and sweetish smell; the
leaves are mildly astringent, and were formerly
used in medicine. The berries, which hang on
shrub during winter, have a di ble taste,
but serve as food for many kinds of birds; they
are used for dyeing red, and, with various additions,
green, blue, and black. A rose-coloured pigment
obtained from them is used for colouring ma)
The wood is hard, and is used by turners, and
shoemakers for making wooden pegs. Privet,
although not spiny, is much used for hedges, often
mixed with some spiny shrub, or with beech. It
bears clipping well, and grows well in the smoke
of towns, also under the shade of trees. A number
of species of [ssh are natives of different parts of
the East, and some of them are now to be seen in
shrubberies in Britain. Most kinds of privet grow
readily from cuttings, but some of the more orna-
mental kinds are increased by grafting them upon
the common or other more vigorous species. It
has now been proved that the shrub the white wax
insect of China deposits the wax on is L, /ucidum.
See WAX INSECT.
Privilege. For the | herr counsel, see
BARRISTER ; for the privileges of parliament, see
PARLIAMENT ; for those of and ambassadors,
see NOBILITY, AMBASSADOR; for privileged com-
munications, see CONFIDENTIALITY, LibEL; for
the sacredness of the confessional, see CONF
DENTIALITY ; see also ARREST, DEBT, SANCTUARY,
SOVEREIGN.
Privy-council, Wherever a feudal system of
vernment has prevailed it has been customary
‘or the sovereign to summon, from time to time, a
council of his ns or nobles “to advise him in
matters of state. This practice was adopted by ©
feudal monarchs rather as a privilege than as a
duty, since it gave them the means of enforcin
from powerful feudatories an acknowl ent
their sovereign rights. The attendance of a baron
at the court of his lord was a tacit admission of
the suzerainty of the latter.
PRIVY-COUNCIL
427
Under the early English kings the royal council
was styled the Aula or Curia Regis. It con-
sisted of the Chancellor, the Justiciary, the Lord
Treasurer, the Lord Steward, the Chainberare:
the Earl Marshal, the Constable, and any other
persons whom the king chose to appoint; the
two archbishops belonged to it as of right; and
the Comptroller of the Household, the Chancellor
of the Exchequer, the Judges, and the King’s Ser-
jeants were occasionally present at its meetings.
he authority of the curia was originally co-exten-
sive with that of the king, in whom all the powers
of government, judicial and administrative, were
united ; but its constitution gradually underwent
a complete change. In the first place, a distinction
came to be drawn between the body of the curia—
the a or commune concilium, which was the
germ of the modern parliament—and the conecilium
assiduum—a permanent committee of the curia,
which was constantly and closely attached to the
person of the king. Then the two councils were
themselves subdivided. The Court ad scaccarium,
or Court of Exchequer, which sprang from the
concilium assiduum, took isance of affairs of
finance, then of actions affecting the revenue,
and lastly of civil suits generally. The Courts of
King’s Bench and Common Pleas—descended from
the magnum concilium—respectively acquired their
separate jurisdictions. These changes had been
accomplished by the end of the reign of King John.
They were merely successive dsloustians of the
royal authority, and left the king’s prerogative as
the fountain of law unaffected. In spite, there-
fore, of the establishment of regular tribunals, the
sovereign still continued to exercise judicial author-
iy, if not personally, at least through the agency
of his chancellor and of the council, whose juris-
dictions, afterwards so clearly distinguishable,
were originally united. In the time of Edward
IIL, however, the Chancery was rapidly becomin,
a separate tribunal ; and by the end of the reign o
his successor its establishment as the great court of
nity had been effected. The concilium assiduum,
also, had become a separate assembly of royal
officials, bound by a particular oath and paid a
regular salary, equally distinct from the courts of
law and equity and from the magnum concilium,
and regarded with no little jealousy by them both.
From the accession of Richard II. to the end of
the reign of Henry VI. the Privy-council were
not inerely the servants but the ministers of the
crown, and acted as a check upon the royal author-
ity. While in theory the king could choose and
dismiss the members of the council at his pleasure,
the exercise of this prerogative was in fact subject
to various restrictions. me of the officers of the
state were members of the council ex officio. The
two archbishops claimed to belong to it as of right.
The presence of other ecclesiastics, with whom the
pal was a higher authority than the royal, intro-
uced a further element of independence, and the
occasional efforts of parliament to wrest the appoint-
ment of privy-councillors from the king made
his influence over the council still weaker. The
Privy-council exercised its control over the royal
authority in two ways. Sometimes it merely
advised and recommended. A more powerful kind
of check was the refusal of the chancellor to affix
the Great Seal to any royal grant of which the
council disapproved. The English sovereigns en-
deavoured to defeat the operation of this check by
the use of a privy-seal, and by retaining the Great
Seal in their own hands. But the privy-seal pee
into the custody of a separate official, and by the
middle of the 15th century the council had succeeded
in bringing every royal grant under its own notice
at each stage in the procedure necessary for obtain-
ingit. In the time of Henry V. the council assumed
the name of Privy-council, by which it is now
generally known. Its functions were then partly
administrative and partly judicial. The fornner
included the control of matters of finance, the
establishment of staples—i.e. markets in which
alone certain commodities could be ig age for
sale—the regulation of the statutes which limited
freedom of commerce between different parts of
England, and the preservation of the peace. The
latter cannot be better defined than in the words
of Mr Dicey: ‘Whenever, in fact, either from
defect of legal authority or from want of the
might necessary to carry their decisions into effect,
the law courts were likely to prove inefficient, then
the council stepped in by summoning before it
defendants and accusers.’
In the third or modern period of its history,
which commenced when the Wars of the Roses
were drawing to a close, the character of the Privy-
council has undergone a variety of changes. The
destruction of the feudal system, and the over-
throw of the old ecclesiastical supremacy, reduced
it to a seateen of absolute dependence on the
crown. At the same time the power of the council
as regards the people was greatly increased (1) by
the sabioctind of particular places to its control—
e.g. Ireland under Po ‘bogs & Act (1494), and the
Channel Islands; (2) by the exercise of the right
to issue proclamations ; (3) by the erection of new
courts under its supervision—e.g. the High Com-
mission and the Court of uests ; and (4) by the
extension of its judicial authority in the Court of
Star-chamber (q.v.). The judicial powers of the
Privy-council were, however, restricted by the Long
Parliament (16 Car. I. chap. 10, sect. 3), and in the
17th and 18th centuries its functions as the adviser
of the crown in matters of government and state
policy were gradually usu by the Cabinet (q.v.).
Present Constitution and Functions.—The list of
privy-councillors now includes the members of the
royal family, the Archbishops of Canterbury and
York, the Bishop of London, the great officers
of state, the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Chief-
justice of England, the Lords Justices of the
Court of Appeal, the President of the Probate,
Divorce, kaa Admiralty Division, the law officers
of the crown, the members of the Judicial Com-
mittee (see below), several of the Scotch judges,
the Speaker of the House of Commons, the
Ambassadors, some of the Ministers Plenipoten-
ti and Governors of Colonies, the Commander-
in-chief, the First Lord of the Admiralty, the
Vice-president of the Board of Trade, the Pay-
master of the Forces, &c., and necessarily all the
members of the cabinet. Members of the council
are in their collective capacity styled ‘His [or Her]
Majesty’s Most Honourable Privy-council ;’ indi-
vidually each member is styled ‘ Right Honourable.’
(The Lord Mayor of London, although styled ‘ Most
Honourable,’ is not a privy-councillor. See Notes
and Queries, first series, iii. 496 ; iv. 9, 28, 137, 157,
180, 236, 284; ix. 137, 158.) Under the authority
of letters-patent dated 28th May, 10 James I. 1612,
privy-councillors take precedence after Knights of
the Garter. Amongst themselves they take rank
according to seniority of appointment when no
other principle of classification is applicable in
the individual instances. Privy-councillors are
appointed by the sovereign without either patent
or grant, and are subject to removal at his dis-
cretion. By the common law, the Privy-council,
as deriving its whole authority from the sovereign,
was dissolved ipso facto upon the demise of the
crown; but, in order to prevent the incon-
venience of having no council in being at the
accession of a new prince, it was enacted (6
Anne, chap. 7, sect. 8) that the Privy-council shall
continue for six months after the demise of the
428
PRIVY-COUNCIL
crown, unless sooner determined by the successor
of the deceased sovereign (cf. Stephen, Comment.
vol. ii. p. 491). It is now understood that no
members attend the deliberations of council except
those who are specially summoned, In ordinary
cases only the ministers, the t officers of the
Household, and the Archbishop of Canterbury are
summoned; but on some extraordinary occasions
summonses are sent to the whole council. (Thus,
on November 23, 1839, the whole of the Privy-
council were summoned to Buckingham Palace to
receive the Queen’s announcement of her intended
marriage with Prince Albert.) Meetings of council
are usually held at intervals of three or four weeks
at the sovereign’s residence ; and six privy-council-
lors at least, with one of the clerks of council,
constitute a meeting of council.
A privy-councillor must be a natural-born sub-
ject of Great Britain. His duties are defined by
the oath of office as follows : (1) to advise the king
to the best of his cunning and discretion ; (2) to
advise for the king’s honour and good of the public,
without partiality through affection, love, need,
doubt, or dread; (3) to keep the king’s counsel
secret; (4) to avoid corruption; (5) to help and
strengthen the execution of what shall be resolved;
(6) to withstand all persons who would attempt
the contrary ; and (7) to observe, keep, and do all
that a good and true counsellor ought to do to his
sovereign lord. The personal security of a member
of the Privy-council was formerly safeguarded by
several statutes repealed by 9 Geo. IV. chap. 31.
Immediately on the decease of the sovereign the
Privy-council assembles and proclaims his suecessor,
the Lord Chancellor affixing the Great Seal to the
proclamation. The members of the Privy-council
are then re-sworn as council of the new sovereign,
after which a privy-council is held, and the sovereign
makes declaration of his designs for the good govern-
ment of the realm, and subscribes the oaths.
The functions of the Privy-council in modern
times depend on a great variety of statutes, and
it is only possible here to give a brief and ve
general survey of the whole field. The subject is
one full of confusion, partly because of the vast
mass of detail which it involves, and partly because
the long historical development which the Privy-
council Tiss undergone has borne its natural er’
of legal fictions, anomalies, and technicalities, It
will be convenient to divide our observations under
four heads :
(1) The Privy il as ymous with the
Executive Government.—It is a commonplace of
constitutional law that the cabinet, which is the
organ of the executive government, is quite un-
known to the law. In theory the cabinet is onl
a committee or inner circle of the creeper f
and the Privy-council is still the only instrument
through which the sovereign can exercise his
prerogative. But the theory no longer corresponds
with the facts; the power is exercised by the
cabinet alone, and the Privy-council is never con-
sulted. This is the sense which must be attached
to the statements that the ‘sovereign in council’ has
wide authority in the colonies, can make and
enforce laws in such colonies as have no repre-
sentative assemblies, and can allow or disallow the
legislative acts of such as do possess them. The
case is the same with orders in council relating to
blockades, reprisals, or embargoes. And, in harmony
with these expressions, it is the regular course in
acts of parliament conferring specific powers on the
executive government to confer them in terms on
the ‘sovereign in conncil.’ In such cases the
mention of the council is purely formal, and if
the power is exercised it will be by the ordinary
eerament (cf. also 13 and 14 Vict. chap. 59, sect.
). It may be added that, as the executive power
is thus dependent on the authority of the legisla-
ture, so no executive act can be done, and no order
in council can be made, which an act of parliament
cannot override,
This is now a recognised mode in which the
legislature delegates defined legislative functions
to the executive; and it is on this principle that
the Board of Trade, for example, can make regula-
tions for carrying out the provisions of an act of
parliament, though the act may simply state, ‘It
shall be lawful for Her Majesty by order in council”
from — = time to a such regulations.
(2) The Privy-council as a separate Department
of State.—As the aula regis was the mother of
rliament and of the various courts of law, so the
rivy-council has given being, in quite recent
times, to several administrative bodies (such, for
instance, as the Board of Trade and the Local
Government Board), to which many of its own
administrative powers have been transferred. The
different stages or methods in this process of differ-
entiation are curious. The Board of Trade, estab-
lished on its present basis in 1782, was at first, and
still is in name, a committee of the Privy-council ;
it is defined in the Interpretation Act, , sect.
12, as ‘the Lords of the Committee for the time
being of the Privy-council, appointed for the con-
sideration of matters relating to trade and foreign
plantations.’ But for all practical payor it is
a distinct department of state, controlled by a
cage who is a member of the government.
he Board of Health, created 1848, was ten years
later superseded partly by the Home Office, partl
by the Privy-esoneil.” In 1871 the Local Geran:
ment was created, in succession to the
Poor-law Board, and to it were transferred man
duties formerly exercised by the Privy-coun
in relation to the public health, such, for ex-
oa as the appointment and control of public
medical officers and the carrying out of the Vac-
cination Acts. In 1889 a new of Agri-
culture was established, and took over the powers
of the Privy-council in connection with the De-
structive Insects Act and the Contagious Di
(Animals) Acts. Neither the Government
Board, nor the Poor-law Board (which, created in
1847, ceased to exist, as we have already mentioned,
in 1871), nor the Board of Agriculture was ever
formally a committee of the Privy-council, but in
each case a portion of the administrative functions
of the council was transferred to the new depart-
ment, and the historical connection is illustrated
by the fact that in all these cases the Lord President
of the council is named first in the list of ex offici
members. The Committee of Council on Eduea-
tion, established in 1839, remains in a different
Lasagne It has not been completely detached
rom the Privy-council and erected into a distinct
department of the administration ; and the member
of the soreremess who presides over it is still known
as the Vice-president of the Council on Education.
But it iscommonly called the Education De: ent,
and its complete detachment would require little
more than a change in the designation of its chief,
and a clear delimitation of the ts and responsi-
bility of the Lord President and the Vice-president
of the Council. The Vice-president of the Council
is already virtually minister for Education.
In 1885 the Secretary for Scotland Act further
transferred to the new secretary the powers and
duties of the Privy-council in connection with the
Board of Manufactures and the Public Health Acts
so far as Scotland is concerned, The Secretary
for Scotland was also entrusted with control over
Scottish education, under the title of Vice-president
of the Scotch Education Department, which is
still pom a standing committee of the Privy-
council,
PRIVY-COUNCIL
429
With to the administrative business which
remains with the Privy-council as a separate depart-
ment of state it must be remembered as a general
principle that the work is actually done by perman-
ent government officials, under the control of the
President of the Council, who is responsible
to parliament and to the country. It is Pelievell
that this is substantially the case even when special
committees are appointed by act of parliament for
Lge administrative pu That the members
such committees are little more than advisers
results naturally from the modern doctrine of minis-
terial ps ogee With this limitation, com-
mittees of the Privy-council exercise in many cases
a delegated legislative power. For example, in the
= of charters to boroughs under the Municipal
rporation Act, 1882, every petition for a charter
is referred to a Committee of Council, which has
power to consider it, and to settle a scheme for
adjusting the mare and liabilities of the existing
local authority. Under the Medical Acts the Privy-
council is entrusted with the supervision of the
qualifications and the registration of medical prac-
titioners ; and kindred powers are conferred by the
eng Act, 1868, and the Veterinary Surgeons
Act, 1881. For the Committee of Council on Edu-
eation, see Epucation. A Universities Committee
of the Privy-council was constituted for England in
1877, and for Scotland in 1889 (see UNIVERSITIES).
The style under which administrative duties are
imposed on the Privy-council varies. Sometimes
it is referred to simply as the Privy-council;
occasionally a clause is added that ‘all powers
vested in the Privy-council by this act may be
exercised by an order in council made by two or
more of the Lords and others of H.M. Most
Honourable Privy-council’ Ye Surgeons
Act, 1881, sect. 18). Sometimes the duty is laid
My ‘the Lords and others of H.M. Most Honour-
able Privy-council, or any three or more of them of
whom the Lord President of the Council, or one of
H.M. principal secretaries of state for the time being,
shall always be one’ (9 and 10 Vict. chap. 96).
(3) The Pricpzouholl in its widest Comprehension.
—The Privy-council, as a body, has in modern
times no lar duties at all, administrative or
judicial. Membership of it is a coveted honour,
conferring rank, precedence, and titular dignity.
It cannot, however, be fairly described as obsolete
or dead, and on rare and abnormal occasions it has
exercised powers not falling strictly within the
sphere of ordinary legislative or judicial authority.
hus, the Privy-council in 1788 took on itself the
duty of inquiring into the sanity of George III.
and receiving the reports of the royal physicians.
In 1821 it determined the constitutional question
of Queen Caroline’s right to be crowned as Queen
Consort. But in general it is a force kept per-
manently in reserve, apart from the working ele-
ments of the constitution. And, as the character
of British constitutional growth has ever been the
adaptation of old expedients to newly felt needs,
the possibility remains that some bf Bente con-
stitutional convulsion may recall this ancient and
honourable body from its merely nominal dignity
to at least temporary life and usefulness.
(4) The Judicial Committee of the Privy-council.
—The most important of all the offshoots of the
Privy-council is the Judicial Committee. Officially
it is merely a committee. In essence it is a court
of law, possessing a wide and (indirectly owing to
its connection with the Privy-council) a peculiarly
elastic jurisdiction, which includes appeals from
the ecclesiastical courts, petitions for the extension
of letters-patent for inventions, and, above all, ap-
is from Indian and colonial courts of law. The
i of this last branch of the appellate jurisdic-
tion of the Privy-council is exceedingly complicated,
and we cannot enter upon it minutely here. Three
distinct and conflicting theories have been promul-
gated upon the subject. (1) According to Pownall
(Administration of the Colonies, 1774), when the
necessity for an appeal from the decisions of the
colonial governors, who, although not properly
qualified lawyers, were yet called upon to preside
in the courts of law, was clearly apprehended, the
one precedent of a judicature within the realm
possessing foreign jurisdiction which presented
itself to the minds of the English sovereign and
his advisers was that of the jurisdiction of the
Privy-council over the Channel Islands. Since the
time of King John (1204) appeals from the royal
courts in Jersey and Guernsey—with the latter of
which Alderney and Sark were for judicial purposes
united—had been brought before the king and his
council in England. Now the English sovereign
claimed—a claim which the colonials acquiesced in,
and which the House of Commons itself had tacitly
admitted—that his colonial settlements and posses-
sions were the demesnes of the crown, lying quite
beyond the jurisdiction or cognisance of the state.
The historical relation between the feudal duchies
of King John and the royal plantations and —
sions abroad being so intimate, no great effort o
administrative imagination was necessary to make
the anal complete. Thus it came to pass
that appeals from the courts constituted in the
various colonies were taken not to the House of
Lords, nor to the courts of law and equity, but
to the king in council. (2) A second theory
is sugges y Macqueen—viz. that the Privy-
council originally entertained colonial petitions
under the octal f of a reference from the peers,
and that, when the intervals, gradually becom-
ing longer, between the sessions of parliament
rende this mode of redress unsatisfactory,
the council came to discharge in their own right
those functions which would have been delegated
to them by the peers if parliament had been sum-
moned. (3) The statute 25 Hen. VIII. chap. 9
appears to suggest a third explanation of the
origin of the appellate jurisdiction of the Privy-
council. Under that act, a subject 4 edges by
the decision of any court in any part of the king’s
dominions might appeal to the king in chancery.
Every such appeal was referred by commission
under the Great Seal to the Court of Delegates,
the decisions of which were, in spite of a distinct
prohibition in a statute of Elizabeth, reviewed
upon petition by the Privy-council. These theories
relate to different periods of time, and thus, al-
though pppereuly pore nea are not necessarily
irreconcilable. One central fact, the right of the
sovereign to entertain an appeal from any colonial
court, is undisputed and indisputable. e know
that, in less than a century, the body to which the
erown entrusted the administration of colonial
affairs was repeatedly reconstituted, and there is no
reason why the judicature for colonial a pan may
not have undergone similar changes in the course of
three centuries. The modern history of the judi-
cial committee is well known. The statute 2 and
3 Will. IV. chap. 92 transferred to the king in
council the jurisdiction of the Court of Delegates ;
3 and 4 Will. IV. chap. 41 formally created the
judicial committee, and vested in it all the judicial
authority of the Privy-council, the Commissioners
of Appeals in prize causes, and the Court of Dele-
tes. The judicial committee comprises the Lord
resident of the Council, the Lord Chancellor, the
Lords Justices, and such other members of the
Privy-council at large as shall hold or shall have held
certain judicial or other offices enumerated in the’
acts. By 34 and 35 Vict. chap. 91 Queen Victoria
was empowered by order in council to appoint by
warrant under her sign-manual four additional
430 PRIVY-SEAL
PROA
paid jud: each being, or having been, a judge
of one of the superior courts at Westminster or
chief-justice of Bengal, Madras, or Bombay, to act
upon the judicial committee. Under the Appellate
Jurisdiction Act, 1876 (sect. 14), provision was
_— for ” peony ogee of adc gr ‘lords
ordinary of ap * for the four paid judges ap-
inted under 34 and 35 Vict. chap. 91, and thus
or the ultimate merging of the judicial committee
in the House of Lords.
The conditions of appeal from colonial courts to
the Privy-council are prescribed, sometimes in the
charters of justice constituting such courts, some-
times by colonial acts, usually by orders in council.
The customary conditions are that the amount at
stake should exceed a certain sum in value, that
leave to appeal should be asked from the court
below within a certain time after the date of the
judgment appealed against, and that proper security
should be found. It is, however, the inherent pre-
rogative right, and on proper occasions the duty,
of the King or Queen in council to exercise an
appellate jurisdiction over a// colonial courts and
in all colonial cases, civil as well as criminal. In
the exercise of this jurisdiction, and in the absence
of any charter or statutory right, the Sovereign in
council may grant special leave to appeal in civil
cases of substantial, general, or constitutional im-
portance, where the judgment appealed against was
plainly wine or attended with sufficient doubt to
justify the judicial committee in recommending that
itshould be reviewed. The Sovereign in council will
not, however, review or interfere with the course
of criminal proceedings, unless it is shown that, by
disregard of the forms of legal process, by some viola-
tion of the principles of natural justice, or other-
wise, grave and substantial injustice has been done.
The decisions of the judicial committee are pro-
nounced by one member of the committee only,
and not, according to the usual practice in divi-
sional courts, the court of appeal, and the House
of Lords, by each of the presiding judges. The
student of the Privy-council reports is unable,
therefore, to tell whether or not their lordships are
unanimous, and, if not, who constitute the majority.
The Lord President of the Council is the fourth
great officer of state, and is appointed by letters-
patent under the Great Seal. The office is very
ancient, and was revived by Charles II. in favour
of the Earl of Shaftesbury in 1672.
Scotland once had a Privy-council of its own, but
it was merged in that of England by 6 Anne, chap.
6. There is a separate Privy-council for Ireland,
which in 1891 consisted of fifty-eight members,
who are sworn pursuant to a sign-manual warrant
directed to the Lord-lieutenant.
See Dicey’s Priry-council (1860; new ed. 1887);
Hearn’s Government of England (ed. iss7 ); Macpherson’s
Practice (1860; new ed. 1873); Macqueen’s Appellate
Jurisdiction of . . . . the Privy-cowneil (1842); Condi-
tions of dager: from the Colonies to the Privy-council
(1888); G. Wheeler, Privy-council Law (1894).
Privy-seal. See SEAL.
Prize, Prize-money, property captured from
an enemy; but the term is generally applied
exclusively to property taken at sea. As be-
tween the belligerent powers themselves the pro-
perty in a ship or other thing captured passes at
once by the mere capture to the captor. Up to
the close of the Crimean war all property of
an enemy even when carried in a neutral ship was
liable to capture, as also was the property of a
neutral if captured on board a belligerent ship.
This involved a claim to the right of searching
neutral ships, a claim which Britain was only able
to enforce during the great war with France in con-
sequence of her mastery of the sea; it was a right,
however, which was continually being disputed,
and the enforcement of it in the case of American
ships led ly to difficulties with the United
States. When the treaty of Paris was signed
in
1856 it was universally agreed that private rt;
in neutral bottoms so long as it payee ednawss 7
of war should no longer be liable to capture (see
NEUTRALITY, ENEMY, bantepage 2 Army prize-
money is distributed according to the provisions of
the Army Prize Act of 1832; a list of those en-
titled to share being sent to Chelsea Hospital
whose treasurer makes the distribution. In na
cases, a ship taken must be sent to a port belong-
ing to the capturing power, where he Court of
Admiralty, on full evidence, adjudicates whether
she be lawful prize or not. If the decision be
affirmative the prize is then sold; or, if a ship-
of-war, a certain allowance is granted i! the
state. The produce of the sale or grant is lodged
in the hands of the Accountant-general of the Navy
for distribution to the officers and men who assisted
at the capture. The net produce of the sale or
grant is first divided rateably among any ships (if
there be more than one) concerned in the capture.
If.under the orders of a flag-officer, he receives one-
thirtieth of the whole ; the commanding officer
then receives one-tenth part of the remainder, or of
the whole if no flag is present; or, if there is more
than one ship present, one-tenth part is divided
between the CO officers. After provision
has thus been made for the flag (if any) and for the
portion of the commanding officer or officers,
remainder of the proceeds is so distributed that
each officer, man, and boy shall receive shares
or a share: commanders and officers of similar
rank receive forty-five shares each; lieutenants
and officers of similar rank, from forty shares to
thirty according to seniority ; sub-lieutenants, &c.,
twenty shares each; midshipmen, &c., twelve
shares; naval cadets, ten shares; chief pettyofticers,
twelve shares ; first-class petty officers, ten shares ;
second-class petty officers, seven shares; able sea-
men, four shares; ordinary seamen, two shares;
and boys, one share each. Warburton’s Prince
Rupert (vol. iii.) ere an interesting distribution
of prize-money in the 17th century.
Prize-court. See ADMIRALTY CouRTs.
Prize-fighting. See PuGiLism.
Prjevalski. See PReJsEVALSKI.
Proa (Malay prahu), sometimes known as
the * flying
proa,’ is a
peculiarly-
shaped canoe
in use by the
natives of the
sce A rie
and on
theChina Seas,
especially
Sik lade
islanders. It
is about 30 feet
in length by 3
in width, and
has the stem
and stern
equally sha‘
so as to eal
backward — or
forward with-
out bein
turned round,
One side is flat,
and in a straight line with the stem and stern; the
other side is rounded, as in ordinary boats. This
peculiar formation would make it liable to be easily
upset, were it not for a framework which projects
,
:
|
|
PROBABILISM PROBABILITIES 431
farming, sopportng «leit hich comm‘ |ehe mamber of pairs among the ringleader is 10-2,
The sail resembles the ordinary lug-sail, and is
formed of mat. Slight variations from this form
are found, but the principle of construction is the
same.
Probabilism. See Casuistry.
Probabilities, CHANCEs, or the THEORY OF
AveraGes. To assign a number which measures
the probability of a future event may at first seem
impossible; and yet the whole business of many
large companies instituted in every civilised country
for the ‘insurance’ or ‘assurance’ of lives, &c. is
mainly based upon the methods of assigning such a
number. When it is certain that a future event
will take place, or will not take place, a fixed num-
ber is selected for each case to indicate that then
the probability amounts to certainty : and these two
measures are the limits of our ataie: Will the sun
rise to-morrow morning in the east? Probability=
1, certainty in favour. Will full moon be seen to-
morrow morning in the east? Probability = 0,
certainty against. Between these two limiting
numbers, 0 and 1, lies the number (a pore frac-
tion) which measures the probability of any unde-
cided event. The number, then, by which we
mark the chance, or expectation, or probability of
anything occurring in the future, must be a fraction
like #, y's, 44%, or ‘273, and can never be so large as
1, which was fixed as the higher limit, certainty :
and by the fractional number assigned to any event
we can readily compare its probability with those
of other future occurrences.
To assign the proper fraction to any future
event will, in general, imply knowledge of a large
number of similar events. Thus, in January, what
is the probability that on next 12th April the sun
will rise bright and unclouded? Relying on the
constancy of nature and the doctrine of averages,
we consult the calendars and weather-notices of the
last 50 years, say, and find that in 17 of these the
result was favourable and in 33 unfavourable. On
these data the probability required is 3), rather
over }. In other words, the odds are nearly 2 to 1
inst the event. The fraction $$ measures or
a the probability that the event will not
happen. More generally, if any future event may
occur in 12 ways and fail in 15 ways, then the prob-
12
j2yi57* and the
= ; jae
probability of failure, igs ie §. In sucha case
ability of its occurring is
the 27 ways are supposed to have each the same
chance of occurrence: and, since the event must
either happen or fail, the sum of the two probabilities
=certainty—i.e.$+$=1. Thus, if § 1s thechance
of an event, 1 — $ = chance that it will not occur.
In a certain town only 4 days of May—taking the
ave of many years—are rainless : what will be
aan mhanee of finding: next 15th May rainless?
Chance = #,: and 1 — # = chance of having rain.
The principle involved in such simple solutions is
the andation of the mathematical treatment of
chance or probability. Of all the occurrences, all
equally possible, which relate to a future event, if
a are favourable and z unfavourable, then p = oa ?
where p stands for probability of the event oceur-
ring. metimes it is easier to find the probability
of the event failing, and subtract that result from
1 as in the examples just given,
Out of 100 sailors who mutinied there were 10
ringleaders. If 2 are selected yA for capital
punishment, find the chance that both will be ring-
00. 99
leaders. The total number of pairs is 0% and
Hence chance required = ue + 0 = xh;
i.e. the odds are 109 to 1 against the event. A bag
contains 5 sovereigns and 4 shillings: if a child is
asked to draw three coins at random, what is the
se sas 3 that 2 will be sovereigns and 1 a shilling?
ere the total number of groups of 3 which can
9.8.7 .
Tog 8 84, which
Of the sovereigns there
formed out of all the 9 coins is
forms our denominator.
are o.8 = 10 pairs, each of which may be drawn
with each of the 4 shillings, giving 40 groups of 3,
which forms our numerator. ae chance required
is 4¢ = ${; ie. the odds are 11 to 10 against the
event.
Sometimes actual trial seems to throw discredit
on the mathematical measure of achance. Thus, if
a die be thrown, the chance of a 5 or any other
number turning up must be } by our definition :
whereas a person may cast a die, say 20 times in
succession, with the result: ace, 4 times; 6 and 4,
each 3 times ; 2 and 3, each 5 times; 5 not at all.
How then explain the mathematical estimate?
Simply that 20 is much too small a number to take
an average from, and the result ‘chance = } for
each side of the die’ refers to the most general case
possible—i.e. a very large number or even an infinite
number of throws. Register for 10,000 throws, then
for 100,000 or 1,000,000, and the results would more
and more approximate to the mathematical result,
and prove that each side has chance = 4 — the die
being of course a perfect cube.
An important extension of the theory is that the
probability of two independent events both occur-
ring is measured by the product of their separate
probabilities. Thus, if A’s chance of passing a
certain examination is $ and B’s 34, then (1) the
chance that both will pass is ¢ x 44 = ;4—1e. the
odds are 7 to 5 against; (2) the chance that both
will fail is (1 - $) (1 — 38) = ~$;; (3) the chance
that A pesens and B fails is ¢ (1 — 38) = gy; and
(4) the chance that A fails and B passes is (1 - #)
+3 =24. _ By comparing these four results we see
that the last event is the most probable of all, the
odds being 25 to 24 in favour of it. Moreover, these
results exhaust the possible alternatives of double
event, therefore the four probabilities should to-
pal amount to certainty: and 5 + y4¢ + de +
$=144=1,Q0.2.D. -
By the same pai we solve man
and curious problems, A town-council of 20,
12 Liberals and 8 Conservatives, have to
choose a deputation of 5 by ballot: find the
yp peawad that it will contain 3 Liberals and
Conservatives. Total number of groups of 5 is
20519..18/ 17.16 5 19. 8.17.16, which daria
useful
ob. 2.8.4.5
our denominator. Number of groups of 3 from the
Liberals is ee . 5 or 2.11.10, and number of
pairs of the Conservatives is roe or 4.7; therefore,
multiplyings2.11.10.4.7=total number of grou
of 5 Winch fulfil the conditions ; and seouivel’ pro
bility is 2-21 10-4-7) oy gap
pees Sees | AE TR BT ‘
the odds are 584 to 385, or more than 3 to 2 against
the event.
When a person buys lottery tickets his chance
of success is found as in our opening paragraphs,
and if re Fe by the value of the money attain-
able the product is called his ‘expectation.’ In this
connection may be noted an important distinction
In other words,
432 PROBANG
PROBUS
between the moral and mathematical values of
‘expectation,’ owing to the assumption that in
such speculations the loss of money paid for tickets
is not to be regarded. If one man of moderate
means risks £500 in order to gain £5 when the
odds are 100 to 1 in his favour, and another risks
£5 to gain £500 when the odds are 100 to 1 against,
the speculation in the former case appears much
more reckless and immoral than in the latter,
although in both cases the stake is exactly equal
to the expectation.
We now reach the most important of all the
applications of the theory of probability, its use
in the calculation of life insurances and annuities.
During the early part of the 18th century the cele-
brated London mathematician De Moivre con-
structed a formula of great simplicity which is
still available, although largely superseded by
elaborate ‘tables of mortality’ which have since
been compiled in all commercial countries, By De
Moivre’s hypothesis, out of 86 children born at the
same time 1 dies every year until all are extinct.
Thus, for a man 40 years old, 86 — 40 = 46, 46 roe
on an average are still before him and 45 others ;
and his chance of life is the average number be-
tween 0 and 46—i.e. ; x 46 = 23. Generally a per-
son’s probability of life or expectation is 4(86 — 7),
where n is the present Actuarial writers have
found that this simple formula agrees with their
official tables, except in the case of young chil-
dren and aged persons. The tables are based
upon long-continued observations of the mortality
in the class of persons dealt with, and from them
the theory of probability is easily applied in caleu-
lating annuities, reversionary payments, and other
results,
For ascertaining the various life contingencies
the Institute of Actuaries employ a table giving
all the ages from 10 upwards, and, beginning with
100,000 persons alive at the age of 10, piace oppo-
site each succeeding age the number of survivors,
till at 98 years none are left. At 40, survivors =
82,284; at 50, survivors = 72,726; therefore the
chance that a man of 40 shall live to 50 is
72,726 + 82,284 = “884, The Belgian tables give
‘832 for the same event in the case of a married
man living in town; and if his wife is 30 years old
her chance of surviving for ten years is ‘862.
These data give the following calculation of the
Leis pe of the four double events occurring 10 years
yence :
Both being alive ‘862 = ‘717
Both d 1 — 832) x (1 — 862) = 023
Husband alive only 832 x (1 — 862) = “115
Wife alive only (1 — 832) x 862 = 145
As we have seen already the sum of these four
probabilities must = 1, which verifies the reckon-
ing. The chance of both these persons being alive
is evidently more than y—i.e. the odds in favour
are better than 7 to 3.
Some of the higher applications of the doctrine
of probability require a knowledge of the infin-
itesimal caleulus, and are of interest only to
experts. It is proved, for example, by integration
and the theory of averages that the mean latitude
of all sags north of the equator is 32°704°; and
when four points in the cireumference of any
circle (radius = 7) are taken at random, the
mean area of the quadrilateral so determined is
a at® x 958,
Tr
There are works on the subject
Boole (1854), Todhunter (1865),
worth (1886), and Procter (1887).
Probang, an instrument of various shape and
material, for pushing obstructions down the wso-
phagus of a choking animal. See CHOKING.
be Morgan (1837),
enn (1866), Whit-
Probate Court, a court created in England
in 1858, in lieu of the old Prerogative Con to
exercise jurisdiction in matters touching the sue-
cession to personal estate. Since the Judicature
Acts of 1873-75 the Probate Court is ineluded in
the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty Division of
the High Court of Justice. If a man at his death
leaves a will, then it must be produced and verified
so as to prove that it is an authentic will, duly
executed and signed in presence of witnesses,
and therefore that the right to the personal estate
is vested in the executors named by the will. The
will is proved in common form by depositing it in
one of the registries of the court, by making afti-
davit of the amount of the property, and by payin
the probate duty (varying from £1 per £50 t to £3
per £100, according to the amount of the pro-
perty). The executors receive a copy of the
will, accompanied by a grant of ministra-
tion ; and this ea copy is usually shown to
bankers, &c. when the execntors lay claim to the
property of the deceased. If the authenticity of
the will is disputed it must be proved by witnesses
in court. If there is no will the personal estate
devolves on the next of kin and widow, if any;
and it is necessary that an application be made to
the court to appoint an administrator. This is
called taking out administration, and the act of the
court appointing administrators is called letters of
administration. See Dixon on Probate (2d ed. 1885).
Probationer, one who is on_ probation;
especially, in Scotland, a sey student who,
having completed his studies and performed the
prescribed exercises, is licensed to preach by the
resbytery, and is entitled to become a candidate
or a pastoral charge.
Proboscidea. See ELEPHANT, Vol. IV. p. 291.
Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus), a
native of Borneo, one of the dog-like (Cynomorph)
Catarrhines, nearly allied to the genus Semno-
pithecus. The nose is very long, especially in the
old males, and is mobile and retractile like a
proboscis. In the young monkeys it is short and
Proboscis Monkey ( Nasalis larvatus).
blunt. There are bushy whiskers, which, with the
long hair on the back of the head, encircle the neck.
The colours—brown, red, yellow, and yo
bright. The adult males are about eet in
height ; the body is lank, and the tail is very long.
In habit these animals are arboreal and gregarious.
Probus, Marcus AURELIUS, emperor of Rome
was born at Sirmium, in Pannonia, early entered
the army, and had the good fortune to attract the
favourable notice of the Emperor Valerian. His
subsequent conduct justified his rapid promotion,
for he greatly distinguished himself on the Danube,
and in Africa, Eeypt, Asia, Germany, and Gaul.
By the Emperor Tacitus he was appointed governor
PROCESS ENGRAVING
PROCLUS 433
of the Asiatic possessions of Rome; and such was
the zealous attachment evinced for him by his
soldiers that on the death of Tacitus they forced
him to assume the purple ; and, his rival Florianus
having been removed, Probus was enthusiastically
hailed emperor by all classes (276 A.D.). His brief
reign was signalised by brilliant and important
successes; the Germans were driven out of Gaul,
and the Barbarians from the Rhetian, Pannonian,
and Thracian frontiers; and Persia was forced to
to a humiliating peace. The external secur-
ity of the empire being established, Probus devoted
himself to the development of its internal resources.
But fearing that the discipline of the army would
be deteriorated by inactivity, he employed the sol-
diers as labourers in executing various extensive
and important works of public utility. Such oceu-
pations, considered as degrading by the soldiers,
excited among them the utmost irritation and dis-
content ; and a large body of troops engaged in
draining the swamps about Sirmium murdered
their excellent emperor in 282.
Process Engraving. See ILLUSTRATION OF
Books, PHoroGrapuy.
Procession of the Holy Spirit. See
Sprrit, CREEDs.
Processions, as solemn and religious rites,
are of very great antiquity. With the Greeks and
Romans they took place chiefly on the festivals of
i hus, Ceres, and other deities; also
before the beginning of the games in the Cireus ;
and in spring, when the fields were sprinkled with
holy water, to increase their fertility. The priests
went at their head, bearing images of the gods and
goddesses to be propitiated, and started either from
certain temples or from the Capitol. Among the
Jews certain processions around the altar were—
and still are to a certain extent—usual on the
Feast of Tabernacles ; and from them the Moham-
medans have adopted their mode of encompassing
the sanctuary seven times at Mecca. Processions
also form a prominent part of the Buddhist wor-
ship. The practice was early introduced into the
Christian church, but seems to have been adopted
Led Chrysostom at Constantinople to counteract
e influence of the Arian processions throngh
the streets to their churches outside the walls.
Ambrose speaks of them as ancient in his day.
During the middle ages processions were arran
on a scale of great magnificence, as at the us
Christi Festival. Since the Reformation they
have been much less elaborate, especially in
mixed countries ; but at Vienna, and still more at
Munich, the Corpus Christi procession is still mag-
nifieent. Processions are either Supplicatory pro-
cesions or Cross processions, and are either directed
to a certain distant place, to some miraculous
image or object, or they are confined to the
streets of the cities and the churches. Banners,
crosses, and images are generally carried in front ;
the clergy follow; and the people make up the
rear, singing hymns or reciting prayers. Proces-
sions to beseech the special mercy of God are
variously to be described as Litaniw, Rogationes,
Stationes, Supplicationes, and Exomologeses ; and
again, they are to be distinguished as being with
or without the Blessed Sacramet, relics, or images
of the Virgin or Saints. Some are extraordina’
and specially arranged ; others are ordinary and fall
under the common ritual, as those on Candlemas,
Palm Sunday, St Mark’s Day, three Rogation
days, and at funerals. The Processional is the
service-book containing the prayers, hymns, and
ceremonial of processions. There is no doubt that,
whatever their general intrinsic value, they offer
in many instances one of the most strikingly
ggg features of the Roman faith, and that
they answer a certain instinctive craving of the
multitude. Processions through the streets are
frequent in modern life as political and social
demonstrations, as during strikes and the like, and,
when not decreed dangerous to order or obstructive
to traffic, are claimed as a privilege of free-born
citizens ; and they have been introduced to break
the quiet of many English towns and villages as
rt of the peculiar warfare of the Salvation Army.
‘or extensive 3, shang , as such, their history
and rites, see PILGRIM, Mrcca, FEsTIvALs, &c.
Prochein Ami. See INFANT.
Pro’cida, an islet of Italy, between the island
of Ischia and the mainland (Cape Miseno), 50 miles
W. by 8. of Naples. Area, 14 sq. m.; pop. 13,131.
On its shores is the city of the same name, with
a harbour, a royal palace, a state-prison, and a
marine school. e le fish coral, tunny, and
sardines, and grow fruits, wine, and oil. The
island was occupied by Britain on two or three
occasions between 1799 and 1813.
Proclamation, a public notice given by the
sovereign or governing power to the people. The
power of prin: proclamations is part of the pre-
rogative of royalty as the fountain of justice. They
sometimes consist of an authoritative announcement
of some matter of state, or act of the executive gov-
ernment affecting the duties and obligations of sub-
jects. The demise of the crown, and accession of a
new sovereign, a declaration of war, and the issue of
new coin are all occasions on which a royal proclama-
tion is issued. In time of war, the crown by a pro-
clamation may lay an embargo on shipping, and
order the ports to be shut. "Bat the most usual
class of proclamations are admonitory notices for
the prevention of offences, consisting of formal
declarations of existing Jaws and penalties, and of
the intention to enforee them; such as the pro-
clamation against vice and immorality, formerly
read at the opening of courts of assize and quarter
sessions in England, In Scotland proclamations
summon the Scottish peers to elect representatives
to the House of Lords.
Proclamations are binding when they enforce the
execution of laws already in being. ‘Towards the
end of Henry VIII.’s reign it was enacted that the
king’s proclamation should have the same force as
an act of parliament; but this ill-judged law was
repealed in the first year of Edward VL. It is now
clear that the sovereign can neither make a new
law, nor dispense with the existing law, unless by
consent of parliament. A meeting which is pro-
claimed is not thereby rendered illegal ; the pro-
clamation is only a notice that, in the opinion of
the government, the meeting is likely or certain to
assume an illegal character. Proclamations are
issued under the Great Seal, and are read aloud by
heralds or other royal officers in the three capital
cities of the United Kingdom ; the reading is pre-
faced with the cry of ‘O yes’ (Fr. oyez, ‘ hear’).
Proclus, the Neoplatonist, called the Suc-
CESSOR ( Diadochos), i.e. of Syrianus, as the head of
the Athenian school, was born in Constantinople
about 411 A.p. He was of Lycian origin, and re-
ceived his first instruction at Xanthus, in Lycia.
He then studied at Alexandria under Arion, n-
aras, Hero, and especially under Heliodorus, with
whom he applied himself chiefly to Aristotelian and
Platonie philosophy. From thence he went to
Athens, where a certain Plutarch, a philosopher,
and his daughter, Asclepigeneia, a priestess of
Eleusis, became his instructors, chiefly in theurgice
mysteries. The vivid imagination and enthusiastic
temperament which in his childhood already had
led him to believe in apparitions of Minerva and
ea naturally convinced him, when all the
influences of the mysteries were brought to bear
434 PROCLUS
PROCOPIUS
upon him, still more of his immediate and direct
intercommunication with the gods; and he came
to distinctly believe himself one of the few
chosen links of the Hermaic chain through which
divine revelation reaches mankind. His soul had,
he thought, once lived in Nicomachus the Pytha-
gorean, and, like him, he had the power to com-
mand the elements to a certain extent, to produce
rain, and to temper the sun’s heat. The Orphic
Poems, the writings of Hermes, and all the mystical
literature of that occult age were to him the only
source of true philosophy, and he considered them
all more or less in the light of divine revelations.
That same cosmopolitan spirit in religious matters
which pervaded Rome towards her cod had spread
throughout all the civilised world of those
days, and Proclus distinctly laid it down as an
axiom that a true philosopher must also be a
hierophant of the whole world. Acquainted with
all the creeds and rites of the ancient Pantheons
of the different nations, he not only philosophised
upon them in an allegorising and symbolising
spirit, as many of his contemporaries did, but prac-
tised all the ceremonies, however hard and painful.
More especially was this the case in the severity
of his fasting in honour of ptian deities—a
ractice, which, if it fitted him more and more
or his hallucinations and dreams of divine
intercourse, on the other hand more than once
endangered his life. Of an impulsive piety,
and eager to win disciples from Christianity
itself, he made himself obnoxious to the Chris-
tian authorities in Athens, who, in accordance
with the og of religious intolerance and fanati-
cism which then began to animate the new and
successful religion against which Proclus waged
constant war, ished him from this city. Allowed
to return, he acted with somewhat more prudence
and cireumspection, and only allowed his most
approved disciples to take part in the nightly
assemblies in which he propounded his doctrines.
He died in 485, in his full vigour, and in the entire
possession of all those mental powers, for which he
was no less remarkable than for his personal
beauty and strength.
As to his system, some modern philosophers
have exalted it to an extent which his own
writings scarcely warrant. Victor Cousin holds
that he has concentrated in it all the _oneecerien
rays which emanated from the heads of the greatest
thinkers of Greece, such as Pythagoras, Plato, and
Aristotle. The predominant law of development
is triadic in character. The existence of what is
roduced in that which produces it, its emergence
m it, and its return to it (ory, mpsodos, ércarpogy )
are the three moments, by the continued repetition
of which the totality of things is developed from
their origin. The final source of this development
is the original essence, elevated above all being
and knowledge, between which and the intelligible
there intervenes an intermediary member—the
absolute unities (adroredets évddes), together forming
the single supernal number. Next to this comes
the three spheres of the intelligible, the intellectual-
bee ger (vonriv dua xai voepir), and a
rank
lectual. The chief property of the first is
of the second, life; of the third, tho
these spheres the first two are again divided into
three triads each, and the triad again into heb-
domads, each separate member regarded as a
divinity. The soul is made of three kinds of part-
souls—divine, demonic, and human, Of these the
divine fall into three orders: the four triads of
hegemonic gods, an equal number of gods free from
the world (dxéAvro), and the gods within the world,
who are divided into star-gods and elementary
gods. The demons are divided into angels, demons
proper, and heroes. The soul enters temporarily
into the material body, but it does not create
matter, which comes directly from the unlimited
—with the limited and the mixed, the components
of the first intelligible triads. §; he considers
as a body consisting of the finest ight, which body
penetrates that of the world. He distinguishes
the principle of unity or divinity in the soul from
thought or reason, It is capable by divine
illumination of mystic union with the Deity. In-
deed, faith alone is essential to the attainment of
Theurgy, which, sag sop| mantic and super-
natural inspiration, is preferable to all human
wisdom ; and in this Proclus chiefly differs from
Plotinus, with whose system he agrees in most
other respects.
There is no edition of the complete works of Proclus,
but that of Victor Cousin (6 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1820) con-
Carmenidcs, and the treatioes ‘De Libertate, Procidentiar
Jarmenides, and the treatises De Li i 7
et Malo (in a Latin translation); his second edition
(1 vol. 4to, 1864) contains in addition to these the Hymns.
Thomas Taylor, ‘the Platonist,) published in 1788-89
translations of the Commentary on Euclid, with the
Life by Marinus; the Six ee eee
Plato in 1816; the Commentaries on the Timeus
1820; the Fragments on the Lost Writings in 1825; On
Providence, and Un Evil, in 1833, The mentarius in
Platonis Timeeum (ed. by Schneider, Breslau, 1847) was
the one among his treatises that Proclus esteemed most
highly. See Z 's Philos. der Griechen (3d ed., 1881,
iii, 2), and other books named under NEOPLATONISM.
Proconsul, a Roman magistrate not holding
the consulship, who was invested with powers
nearly approaching those of a consul, not, however,
extending over the city and its vicinity. The pro-
consul was, at first, one who had held the office of
consul, whose imperium was prolonged to enable
him to bring an unfinished campaign to a close.
The duration of the office was a year. During the
= a oe
later period of the republic, when the consuls were
ear of their consulate at
ly gee at its close to
ither the conduct of a
expected to spend the
Rome, they were gene’
undertake, as proconsuls, eit
war in some province, or its ful administration.
Occasionally the office of proconsul, with the
government of a province, was conferred on a person
who had never held the consulship. Under Con-
stantine of certain dioceses came te be
governed by proconsuls,
Pree ANDREW, the Hussite leader, was
born in 1380. Originally a monk, he served under
Ziska, and on Ziska’s death became commander of
the Taborites. It was under his command that the
fearful raids into Silesia, Saxony, and Franconia
were carried out (see HussiTEs), and he repeatedly
defeated German armies. He and his colesaee
Procop the Younger, headed the internal conflict o'
the Taborites with the more moderate Calixtines ;
and in the battle with the Bohemian nobles at
Lipan, near Béhmischbrod, on the 30th May 1434,
both the Taborite commanders fell.
Procopius, the most eminent of the Byzantine
historians, was born at Cyesarea, in Palestine, to-
wards the close of the 5th century, and, having
studied law, was taken by Belisarius in his train
when he led the Roman armies against the Persians
(526 B.c.), the Vandals in Africa (533), and the
Ostrogoths in Italy (536). He appears to have
displayed remarkable practical as well as literary
talent, for he was on two occasions placed at the
head of the commissariat. Returning to Constant-
inople shortly before 542, he was highly honoured
by Justinian,.and appointed prefect (if it was this
rocopius) of the metropolis in 562, His death
occurred, it is pci, yr about three years later.
Procopius’s principal works are his Historie in
eight ks (two on the Persian war, from 408 to
550; two on the war with the Vandals, from 532 to
PROCRUSTES
PROCTOR 435
546; and four on the Gothic war, going down to
552); De Aldificiis, or six books on the buildings
executed or restored by Justinian ; and Anekdota,
or Historia Arcana, a sort of chronique scandaleuse
of the court of Justinian, in which the emperor,
his wife Theodora, Belisarius, Ais wife Antonina,
and other distinguished persons, are depicted in the
darkest colours. The most valuable of these pro-
ductions is undoubtedly the first, in which Pro-
copius writes with the clearness and fullness of
knowledge that might be expected of a man who
had been an eye-witness of much of what he nar-
rates, and who had oceupied a position that fitted
him to thoroughly understand what he had seen.
He is the principal authority for the reign of
Justinian. The best edition of his complete works
is that by Dindorf (1833-38). See Dahn, Prokopios
won Cdsarea (1866); a work by Renan, Essais de
Morale (3a ed. 1867) ; Haury, Procopiana (1891).
Procrustes (Gr. Prokroustés ; from prokrouein,
‘to beat out,’ ‘to stretch out’), the surname of
a celebrated robber of Attica, named Damastes, or
Polypemon. All who fell into his hands he placed
ona which was either too long or too short for
them, but to which he adjusted them either by
racking or by amputation till they died. This he
continued to do until Theseus overpowered him,
and made him suffer the tortures he had inflicted
on others.
Procter, Bryan WALLER (‘Barry Cornwall’),
was born in London, 2ist November 1787. Edueated
at Harrow, with Byron and Peel for schoolfellows,
he was articled to a solicitor at Calne, about 1807
eame to London to live, and in 1815 began to con-
tribute poetry to the Literary Gazette. In 1816 he
succeeded by his father’s death to about £500 a
ear, and in 1823 married Basil Montagu’s ste)
ter, Anne Benson Skepper (1799-1888). He
had meanwhile published four volumes of poems,
and produced a tragedy at Covent Garden, whose
success was largely due to the acting of Macready
and Kemble. e was called to the bar in 1831,
from 1832 to 1861 was a metropolitan commissioner
of lunacy, and died 4th October 1874.
His works, issued under the pseudonym ‘ Barry
Cornwall’ (a faulty anagram of his real name),
comprise Dramatic Scenes (1819), A Sicilian
and Marcian Colonna (1820), The Flood of T! ly
(1823), and English maybe td (1832), besides memoirs
of Kean (1835) and Charles Lamb (1866). The last
is always worth reading; but his poems may be
safely neglected by the student of poetry, for they
rarely are more than studied if graceful exercises,
harmonious echoes of bygone and contemporary
singers; in Mr Gosse’s words, ‘his lyrics do not
possess | ganss or real pathos or any very deep
magic of melody, but he has written more songs
that deserve the comparative praise of good than
any other modern writer except Shelley and Tenny-
son.’ Yet ‘Barry Cornwall’ will be remembered
as the man whom every one loved—that every one
including a hundred of the gerne of the century :
Lamb, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Leigh Hunt,
Keats, Landor, Scott, Tennyson, Browning,
Matthew Arnold, Swinburne, Hazlitt, Macaulay,
Carlyle, Dickens, aud Thackeray were only a few
of his numberless friends and acquaintances.
See Waller Procter: an Autobii ical
Fragment’ (1877 ), edited by Coventry Tetanets an
article thereon in the Edinburgh Review for April 1878 ;
the critical introduction by Mr Gosse in Ward’s English
Poets (2d ed. 1883); and a long obituary of Mrs Procter
in the Academy for 17th March 1888.
ADELAIDE ANNE ProcTER, Barry Cornwall’s
daughter, was born in London, 30th October 1825,
and died there 3d February 1864, having in 1851
become a Roman Catholic. By her oor ores and
Lyrics (1858-60), first written some of them for
Household Words, she won no small poetical
renown.
Proctor, or PROCURATOR, one who acts for
another. his name was formerly given to a class
of practitioners in the English Admiralty and
ecclesiastical courts ; but proctors are now merged
for almost all purposes in the general body of
solicitors. The King’s or Queen’s Proctor is an
officer (now the Solicitor to the Treasury) who
intervenes to oppose a petition for divorce if he
has reason to suspect fraud ‘or collusion. The
clergy appoint proctors to represent them in the
convocation of their province.
In each of the universities of Oxford and Cam-
bridge there are two proctors, whose duties are
to preserve the of the university, to repress
disorders among the students, and inflict summary
academical punishment. They have the com-
mand of the academical constabulary, and have
also an extensive police jurisdiction in the town.
They patrol the streets after dark, attended
by officers popularly known as ‘bull-dogs.’ The
roctors must be Masters of Arts, and are chosen
ny the colleges according to a certain rotation.
hey nominate two pro-proctors to be their
deputies and assistants. The summary authority
of the proctors extends both to unde uates and
Bachelors of Arts. They vote in the election of
some of the professors and other officers. At
Durham also there are two proctors, who, how-
ever, do not personally patrol the streets, and have
command over only the university police.
Proctor, RicHARD ANTHONY, astronomer
and popular author, was born at Chelsea in March
1834. He was educated first at King’s College,
London, and then at St John’s, Cambridge, where,
however, he devoted himself caret to athletics.
He graduated in 1860 as twenty-third wrangler.
His first literary venture was, in 1865, an article
on ‘Double Stars’ in the Cornhill Magazine, and
from that time he devoted himself to astronomy.
In 1866 he was elected an F.R.A.S., and in 1872
its honorary secretary, but he retired in 1873 to
make a lecturing tour in America. About this
time he communicated to the R.A.S. some maps
ant papers on ‘The Construction of the Milky
Way,’ ‘The Transit of Venus,’ ‘ Star Distribution,’
&e. ; and his name is associated with the accurate
determination of the rotation of the planet Mars,
and with the theory of the solar corona. One of
his undertakings was the charting of the 324,198
stars contained in Argelander’s great catalogue.
His science magazine Knowledge was founded as a
weekly in 1881, and became a monthly in 1885.
He died at New York, September 12, 1888. He
was a man of untiring energy, and, although the
author of fifty-seven books, he found time to culti-
vate music, and was a great chess and whist player.
As an author and lecturer he succeeded in interest-
ing in astronomy a large public in America and
the colonies as well as in England. In 1890-91 a
memorial teaching observatory was erected in his
honour near San Diego, California.
Among his works are Saturn and its System (1865),
Handbook of the Stars (1866), The Constellation
Seasons (1867), Half-hours with the Telescope (1868),
Other Worlds than Ours (1870), Star Atlas (1870), Light
Science for Leisure Hours (1871), The Sun (1871), The
Orbs around Us (1872), Essays on Astronomy (1872),
The Expanse of Heaven (1873), The Moon (1873), The
nd of Science (1873), The Universe and the com-
ing Transits (1874), Our Place among Infinities (1875),
Myths and Marvels of Astronomy (1877), The Universe
of Stars (1878), Treatise on the Cycloid (1878), Flowers
of the Sky (1879), The Poetry of Astronomy (1880),
Mysteries of Time and Space Net The Universe o
Suns ws , The Seasons (1885), Other Suns than Ours
al , Old and New Astronomy (nearly completed in
at his death, and published 1888-90),
436 PROCURATOR-FISCAL
PROFIT-SHARING
* Procurator-fiscal, a legal officer in Scotland
at whose instance criminal proceedings are en
in the local and inferior courts. He is ee
by the sheriff with the approval of one of the prin
cipal secretaries of state, and is not*removable
from office except for inability or misbehaviour, on
a report by the Lord President and the Lord Justice-
clerk. His business is to take the initiative in the
rosecution of crimes. There being no coroner’s
Inquest in Scotland, he does the work which that
functionary does in England by way of inquiry into
the cause of deaths occurring under circumstances
of suspicion. Whenever he has reason to believe a
crime has been committed his duty is to apply for
a warrant to arrest the alleged criminal, to summon
and precognosce witnesses, and to bring the case to
trial. If the procurator-fiscal is informed of a crime
which he thinks was either not committed, or of
which there is no evidence satisfactory, he gives his
concurrence merely to the private party who suggests
it, but does not himself, initiate the p “ding.
When the procurator-fiscal takes the. precognitions
of the witnesses, he sends a copy of them to the
crown counsel, of whom the Lord Advocate is the
chief; and if these counsel think the evidence is
strong enough, and warrants more than suspicion,
the prosecution is proceeded with to trial.
Procyon, See Raccoon.
Prodigy. See OMEN.
Producer Gas. See GAS-LIGHTING, p. 104,
Product. See Epvucr.
Professional, See AMATEUR.
Professor, an officer in a university, college,
or other seminary, whose duty it is to instruct
students, or read lectures on particular branches of
learning. In the early times of universities the
d conferred on students were licenses to act as
ublic teachers ; and the terms Master, Doctor, and
rofessor were nearly identical in signification. As,
however, the body of graduates ceased in the course
of time to have any concern in public teaching, a
separate class of recognised teachers sprang up, paid
sometimes with salaries, in other instances by fees
from their hearers. These were called professors ;
and in the German and Scottish universities they
became the governing body, and sole recognised
functionaries for the purpose of education. In the
universities in which collegiate foundations pre-
vailed, as Oxford and Cambridge, they became, on
the other hand, only secondaries or auxiliaries,
attendance on their lectures not being generally
deemed indispensable, and the necessary business
of instruction being carried on by the functionaries
of the several collides) See UNIVERSITIES, and
the articles on the several universities.
The word professor is occasionally used in a loose
way to denote generally the teacher of any science
or branch of learning, without any reference to a
university. It has been assumed as a designation
not only by instructors in music and dancing, but
by conjurors, athletes, and the like.
Profit-sharing was defined in a resolution of
the Paris International Congress on Profit-sharing
in 1889 as ‘a voluntary agreement under which the
employé receives a share, fixed beforehand, in the
profits of a business.’ It is argued and held to be
proved by those in favour of the system, that
pt eamtices n> advances the prosperity of an estab-
ishment by increasing the poeagees | of its product,
by improving its quality, by promoting greater
tare of implements and economy of material, and
lessens the risk of strikes, labour disputes, and the
antagonism generally between capital and labour.
Upwards of fifty British firms with 11,000 employés
had by 1890 adopted some method of profit-sharing.
Over eighty-one industrial establishments in France,
Alsace, and Switzerland are working on a somewhat
similar principle. Upwards of twenty-nine firms
in the United States have also tried the experiment.
In some of the native banks at Shanghai, every
employé down to the lowest coolie has a share in
the annual division of profits, Profit-sharing has
been tried by firms of painters and decorators;
paper, cotton, and woollen factories, &c.; and the
amous Bon Marché in Paris. The additional fun
thus coming to the workman may be paid to him
directly in cash, or it may be put to his credit with
a view of securing him a share in the capital of the
firm, or it may be a deferred benefit for sickness
and old age. The management of the business, as
a rule, still remains in the hands of the capitalists.
Turgot in 1775 ised a principle of profit-
sharing, but Edme-Jean Leclaire (q.v.), a successful
Parisian painter and decorator, was first. to
carry it toa practical issue. He began by paying
extra wages to his work-people, bonuses were
given to a few, a provident society was established
which was succeeded by a distribution of
Leclaire by wonderful energy and capacity had
risen to the front rank in his trade, and became a
large employer of labour. For the benefit of his
workmen he had established a mutual aid society
in 1838, which he found to be ‘a powerful means of
moralisation and a living course in public law.’
Having thus provided for the sick, as a master who
had himself been a workman he remembered their
hopeless condition when too old for work. He
read w peace, he could lay his hands upon which
tended to help him to improve the social condition
of his workmen. M, Frégier in 1835, when making
inquiries as to the condition of his workmen, sug-
gested the pane of the workmen in the
profits of the master as an expedient for doin
away with the antagonism between capital an
labour. There is evidence that M. Frégier did not
afterwards believe in his own solution. Leclaire
himself at first rejected it, and it was much later,
he says, ‘ through cudgelling my brains, that in 1842
the thing ap to me ible and one of the
simplest to put into practice.’ He had endeavoured
gradually to educate his workmen up to the same
point, and in Jannary 1842 he pledged himself to
this course. The men were still sceptical as to
Leclaire’s intentions, until an object-lesson in the
shape of a bag containing £490 in coin was
thrown on a table before them in Feb 1843,
In the years 1842-47 an average of £750 was
annually divided amongst eighty persons. The
sum received was in proportion to annual earnings.
In 1869 a deed was drawn up which stipulated that
the net profits of the business should be divided
into a certain fixed proportion between the manag-
ing partners, mutual aid society, and the lar
workmen. Between 1842 and 1872 the mutual aid
society and his workmen had received £44,000 ;
down to 1882 the sum had teached £133,045. In
1870 the number who participated was 758, the
dividend to workmen being £2465, or 14 cent,
on annual wages; in 1882 the sum of was
divided amongst 998 persons. In 1884 the number
was 824, the sum distributed being £9200, or about
24 per cent. on wages; in 1889 the amount w&s
£9120. Five per cent. on the capital of 400,000
francs is, like the wages, deducted from the
profits in order to find the net profits. Of the net
profits 50 per cent. goes to labour in cash, 25 per cent.
to management, and 25 periomnt to the provident
society, which has now me half owner of the
capital of the firm. The effect of all this on the
workmen has been to make them sober, thrifty, —
and industrious. Other my and decorators —
in Paris followed suit.
thropist, the founder said: ‘I am simply a
business man. I would rather gain 100,000
rofits, |
?
=)
|
i
|
en called a philane
Vie
.
}
‘ing out sources of loss and
PROFIT-SHARING
PROGRESSION 437
and give away 50,000 than gain 25,000 and keep
the whole for myself.’
The Co-operative Paper Works, Angouléme,
founded by M. Laroche-Joubert, adopted a system
of profit-sharing in entire independence of Leclaire.
The dividend is payable in cash ; provision is made
for the admission of workmen shareholders, and by
1890 one-fourth of the shares were in their hands,
The workmen have no part in the management.
In the years 1879-88 the sum distributed over.and
above wages was £44,880.
In Messrs Godin’s iron-foundry, Guise, employing
about 1600 hands, the workmen’s share of profits
accumulates towards the purchase of .shares in the
firm. The first method adopted was that of the
bonus ; then the system of benefit societies ; and
for many years payments in cash. In 1880 the
sum paid in interest on workmen’s capital was
£9200, and in wages £75,000; the number of work-
men participating was 550; in 1889 the number
was S61. M. Godin said that ‘ever since the
system was established the workmen are interested
in improving the output; they are quick at point-
efect, and they exert
themselves to make new suggestions.” Mr Lowry
Whittle, in his report to the Board of Trade, says
that out of a squalid, ignorant peasantry M. Godin
has produced an industrial community with the
discipline of a regiment and the commercial alert-
ness of the market-place. Since 1881 M. Piat, of
the iron-foundries at Paris and Soissons, has dis-
tributed a portion of net profits. In M. de
Courey’s plan 5 per cent. of the profits are set
aside every year to form a fund upon which every
employé, after twelve months’ service, has a claim
in the proportion of his year’s salary to the total
amount of profits set aside.
But those who have tested any system of profit-
sharing declare that it requires much time and
pains to produce substantial results; and a diffi-
culty in working the system is that profit-sharers
are not unfrequently unwilling to share the losses
of the concern. In France there was founded in
1878 a society for facilitating the practical stud.
of the different kinds of profit-sharing, whic
issues a quarterly Bulletin de la Participation
aux Bénéfices. th on the Continent and in
America there have been experiments made in
co-operative farming, fishing, market-gardening,
and co-operative workshops. Alfred Ige, of
Dolgeville, New York state, a Saxon by birth, the
largest manufacturer of felt shoes and piano felt,
&e., in the United States, has in operation a
system of what he calls earning (not profit) sharing
amongst his employés, which originated in the
conviction that in the creation of wealth certain
of the employés contribute a larger share than is
represented by their wages, and are entitled to
something more than the wages proper. These
real earnings can be determined by book-keeping,
irrespective of any tnarket-rate of wages. He
claims that it is the selfish interest of every
employer, as a means of actual ultimate gain, to
find out what the earnings of each of his workmen
are. The main features of the Dolge scheme are :
a msion scheme, insurance endowment, and
various benevolences. (1) Under the msion
scheme a workman over 21 years of age, and under
50, after ten years’ service, in case of partial or
total inability to work; is entitled to a pension at
the rate of 50 per cent. of wages earned during
the year ing; rising to 100 per cent. after
twenty-five years’ service. The pension fund is
id from yearly contributions set aside by the
rm on behalf of each workman, and in 1891 it
was reported that it would soon be ted al
ing. (2) Fifteen years of service entitles to three
insurance policies of $1000 each: 75 policies of a
value of $138,000 were existing in 1891. Over
$20,000 had been paid in premiums by the firm.
(3) The endowment money is the sum credited each
year on account of more work done than has been
paid for in wages ; the endowment account begins
after five years’ service, and is payable at the age
of 60 or at death. Mr Dolge, for the benefit of lis
work-people, has given a park of 400 acres, assisted
in building houses, maintains a club-house and free
library, and pays $5000 a year to the school society.
Strikes and labour disputes are reported as un-
known at his factories.
In Great Britain any system of esicnorgy » is
not of such long standing as in France. The
system adopted at the Whitwood Collieries of
Messrs Briggs, Yorkshire, lasted beneficially from
1864 to 1875, when it ceased on account of the par-
ticipation of the workmen in a strike against redue-
tion of wages. During that time £34,000 had been
distributed in percentage on ~— This percent-
age was paid when the net profits exceeded 10 per
cent. on the capital embarked, one-half going to
the work-people in proportion to earnings. Pro-
vision was also made for the work-people securing
shares when tle concern became a limited liability
re rest
The method of profit-sharing employed by many
British firms may be gathered from the first rule
which is generally adopted. ‘From and after the
Ist of ai res 18— the surplus (if any) of the
clear profits of the business, beyond such definite
sum as is for the time being reserved to the firm
for their own benefit, shall be divided into two
equal parts; one thereof to be distributed (not of
legal ome but gratuitously) as a bonus to the
employés in the manner defined by these rules,
and the other to be retained by the firm.’
See Leroy-Beaulieu, Répartition des Richesses (1881);
Hart's Maison Leclaire (1883); Taylor’s Profit-shari
(1884); Wright’s Profit-sharing( Boston, 1886); Béhmert’s
Participations aux Bénéfices (1888); Gilman’s Profit-shar-
ing (1889), which contains a full bibliography; Bushill’s
oan Scheme, with list of British profit-sharing
firms; € Verteilung des Geschéftvertrags
(1891); Rawson’s Profit-sharing Precedents (1891);
articles by Schloss in Cont ary Review for 1890 ;
Just Distribution of Earnings, an account of Dolge’s
scheme (1890); the report to the Board of Trade by J.
Lowry Whittle (1891); Bushill’s Profit-sharing and the
Labour Question (1892) ; and the articles Co-OPERATION,
Socraism.
Prognostications. See ALMANAC,
METEOROLOGY, Vol. VII. p. 155.
Frogramme Music. See Music, Vol. VII.
p. 360.
Progreso, the port of Merida, in Yucatan,
from which it is 25 miles N. by two lines of rail-
way. It stands on an open bay, exposed to every
wind, and is one of the worst harbours in the
world ; but it has a very large export trade in
heniquen (Sisal hemp).
Progression, in Arithmetic, is the succession,
according to some fixed law, of one number after
another. A series of numbers so succeeding one
another is said to be ‘in progression,’ Progression
may be of various kinds, but the three forms of
most frequent oceurrence are Arithmetical Pro-
gression (q.v.), Geometrical Progression (q.v.),
and Harmonical Progression. If the terms of an
arithmetical progression be inverted they form a
series in harmonical progression ; thus, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, &e. is an arithmetical progression ; and 1, 4,
4, 4, 4, 4, &c. is a harmonical progression. This
series is principally important in connection with
the theory of music, in determining the length of
the strings of instruments. See HARMONICS.
Progression, MusicaL. The regular succes-
sion of chords or the movement of the parts of a
and
438 PROHIBITION
PROJECTILE
musical composition in harmony, where the key
continues unchanged, is called P ion ; where
a new key is introduced it is not progression, but
Modulation (q.v.).
Prohibition.
PERANCE.
Projectile is the name given to any mass
thrown so as to describe a path in air near the
earth’s surface. The path described is called the
trajectory. The importance of the subject springs
from its close connection with Gunnery (q.v.). Any
mass projected into the air is under the action of
two forces: first, its weight, acting downwards and
practically constant ; second, the resistance of the
air to motion through it, which resistance is a
function of the et and depends also on the
form, size, and mass of the projectile.
If we consider the action of gravity alone, the
problem is a very simple one. Since the force
of gravity is
A always ver-
tical, there
can be no
change in
the value of
ine horizon-
z- tal compon-
° 1 ent of Pehe
Fig. 1. velocity.
2 The projec-
tile, projected from any point O (see fig. 1) at
any inclination, will some time or other reach
the highest point A. At this point the vertical
velocity will be zero; and, if the horizontal velo-
city were here suddenly reversed, the projectile
would travel back along the same trajectory to
O. As it is, the po proceeds along the
th AO’, which must be exactly similar to AO.
short, the trajectory is symmetrical about the
vertical line drawn through the highest point A.
Racketing oe A, let us sup the projectile
to reach P’ after ¢ seconds. hen, if the hori-
zontal velocity is v, the distance of P’ from the
vertical line AB—P’M namely—is measured by the
product vt. But the projectile in falling through
the height AM has acquired a vertical velocity gt,
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Thus
the space fallen through, being measured by the
product of the average speed and the time, is
AM = gt? = igMP%/v? = 4gMP2/o*.
The trajectory is therefore a Parabola (q.v.) with
its axis vertical. *
If we suppose the projectile to be projected with
a velocity whose vertical and horizontal compon-
ents are respectively u and v, then the angle of
projection has its trigonometrical tangent ual
to u/v. The time taken to reach the highest
point is u/g ; and the total range on the horizontal
plane is
See Liquor Laws, and TEM-
00’ = 2.0B = 2 vu/g.
If we interchange v and u so that the tangent of
the angle of projection | ous instead of u/v,
we get still the same range. Generally, then, a
given point, O’, can be reached by two trajectories
with the same initial speed of projec It is
easy to show that the two corresponding directions
of apr are equally inclined to the line that
makes 45° with the horizontal; and the range is
greater according as the components « and v of
the given initial velocity are less unequal in
magnitude. The greatest range is attained when
u=v=V/V2, V being the total velocity of pro-
og ipa when the angle of projection is 45°.
this case the range is V'/g. Thus, to throw
@ ball to a distance of 100 yards or 300 feet it is
necessary to project it with a velocity of at least
100 feet per second (nearly). Prac’ , however,
because of the atmospheric resistance, it would need
a distinctly greater speed ot nae than that
just given to attain the d range. >
i et observation a to oar teat
the ie trajectory is on ro
realised in air. ‘A well riven eieker es ball
—_— = toa pen ee P to de-
scribe a trajectory which is dis’ Faberge
about a vertical line through the hig t Pe
The path will be found to be less curved during
the ascent than during the descent; while
jec fig. 2 the gen-
eral character of a real trajectory, AB’, is compared
ya
Fig. 2.
with the parabolic trajectory, AB, which would
have been described if the air had offered no resist-
ance. AT shows the direction of the initial projec-
tion. The same features causing deviation from the
ohogee form are still more characteristic of the
ong flat trajectories of cannon-balls. These, pro-
jected with very high speeds, have their approxi-
mately horizontal velocities rapidly eut down in
the earlier stages by the resistance of the air.
The first approximately accurate ideas of the
resistance presented by the air to bodies m
— it at high speeds were obtained by Robins
(see BALLISTIC PENDULUM). In our own times
Bashforth, by means of his electric chrotearen
has elaborately investigated the subject (see hi
Motion of Projectiles and The Bashforth Chrono-
graph, 1890, the authoritative treatises on this
branch of gunnery). Bashforth’s results indicate
that Five velocities of from 800 to 900 feet per
second Newton's theoretic law that the resistance
varies as the square of the speed holds —
true. The same law (but with a different co-
efficient) holds for all measured velocities above
1300 feet per second; but between the limits named
the resistance depends on higher powers of the
speed. Between the velocities of 1000 and 1100
feet per second—the velocity of sound in air,
fact—the resistance an very rapidly, varying
for a certain interval as the sixth power of the
velocity. The resistance also depends on the form
of the projectile, a spherical shot bein nearly
twice as much resisted as an ogival-headed shot of
the same diameter and weight. For different sized
projectiles of the same form the retardation due to
the resistance is directly as the square of the dia-
meter and inversely as the weight. It is usual to
express the diameter in inches and the we' ht in
pounds; and the following numbers are for an
ogival-headed projectile, whose weight in pounds
equals the square of its diameter in inches. The
first line gives the velocity and the second the cor-
responding resistance-acceletation (negative) :
Velocity......+4+ 1500 1200 1100 1000 900 800 400
Acceleration .... 818 188 143 79 54 39 10
For a sphere of same weight and size, the resist-
ance-acceleration for 8 lower than 850 feet
per second is given by the formula 1°183 x 10-8n",
where v is the velocity. From this it may be
shown that such a sphere falling in air ean never
mi
.
PROJECTION
PROMETHEUS 439
attain a velocity of 522 feet per second. If pro-
jected downwards with a greater velocity it will be
retarded, since the resistance due to the atmosphere
is greater than the weight of the body. If pro-
jected upwards with as of 800 feet per second
t will reach a height of only 5112 feet instead of
nearly 10,000, and will return to earth in with
a velocity of 351 feet. These results show why
a@ meteoric stone never reaches the earth’s surface
with a velocity of more than a few hundred feet
per t matters not with what relative
speed the meteor may meet the earth. Once it
gets into the atmosphere its kinetic energy is
rapidly dissipated in heat, and much of its sub-
stance yolatilised at the — temperature that
results. Our atmosphere, in fact, acts as a practi-
cally perfect shield to meteoric bombardment.
or projectiles discharged from firearms, see
the articles on Bullet, Cannon, Cartridge, Firearms,
Gun, Rifles, Shell, Shot.
Projection is the representation on any sur-
face of objects or figures as they appear to the eye
of an observer. It thus includes Perspective (q.v.),
and is most simply illustrated by the shadow of an
object thrown by a candle on a wall; the shadow
being the projection and the place of the light the
position of the eye. The theory of projections is
of great importance, both in mathematics and geo-
hy, being, in the former case, perfectly general
fi its application, while in the latter only the pro-
jection of the sphere is required. Projections of
the sphere are of various kinds, depending upon
the position and distance of the eye from the
sphere, and the form of the surface on which the
projection is thrown; thus we have the ortho-
graphic, stereographic, globular, conical, and cylin-
drical or Mercator’s projections, all of which are
treated = ees the vir gS Another we
jection frequently employed is the gnomonic. In
the gnomonic projection the eye is supposed to be
situated at the centre of the sphere, and the sur-
face on which the projection is thrown is a plane
surface which touches the sphere at any one point
(called the principal point). It is evident that a
map constructed on the gnomonic projection is
ay correct only for a circular area whose
circumference is at a small angular distance from
the principal point. From the position of the eye
in the gnomonic projection (which is not suited for
representing large portions of the earth’s surface)
it follows that all great circles or portions of great
circles of the sphere are ng secon ig: by straight
lines, for their planes pass through the eye. The
gnomonie projection derives its name from its con-
nection with the mode of describing a gnomon or
Dial (q.v.). The gnomie and _ ster aphic pro-
ee of erystals is described and illustrated at
YSTALLOGRAPHY.
Prolapsus Ani is a common affection of the
termination of the intestinal canal, and consists in
an eversion of tle lower portion of the rectum, and
its protrusion through the anus. It may depend
on a naturally relaxed condition of the parts, as
in infancy, or may be caused by violent straining
in cases of costiveness, piles, &c. Whenever it
ocenrs the parts should be washed, and if possible
replaced by careful pressure with the hand; and
if they do not easily return the forefinger should be
oiled and pushed up into the anus, and it will con-
vey the protrnded intestine with it, after which
the patient should retain the recumbent position
for some hours. If it cannot be returned by the
above means surgical assistance should be at once
sought. In order to remove the tendency to pro-
lapsns the-patient should regulate his bowels so as
to avoid costiveness, should sponge the parts after
every evacuation with cold water or soap and water,
and if necessary use astringent injections, as, for
example, a weak solution of sulphate of iron, 1
grain to the ounce. In young children the power
of straining, and therefore the tendency to the
occurrence of the protrusion, may be much dimin-
ished by preventing their feet from resting on the
ground during defecation. Dr Druitt (in his Sur-
geon’s Vade Mecum) recommends a plan first sug-
gested by Dr M‘Cormac—viz. that when the stools
are passed the skin near the anus should be drawn
to one side with the hand so as to tighten the ori-
fice. If after the adoption of these means the
bowel continues to descend certain surgical means
must be resorted to, as destroying a portion of the
relaxed mucous membrane by .the application of
nitrate of silver or nitric acid, or removing a part
of the loose skin surrounding the orifice, with or
=o portions of the mucous membrane as
we
Prolapsus Uteri. See Woms.
Proletariate, a term used to denote the
lowest and poorest classes of the community. It
is derived, through the French, from the Tain
ok a the name given in the census of Servius
ullius to the lowest of the centuries, who were
so called to indicate that they were valuable to the
state only as rearers of offspring (proles). The
word has come much into use in the literature of
Socialism (q.v.); see also MARX,
Prologue, a preface or introduction to a dis-
course or poem, as the prologue to Chaucer’s
Canterbury Tales ; but more especially the dis-
course or poem spoken before a dramatic perform-
ance, corresponding to the Epilogue (q.v.) at its
close. This usually stands outside the action of
the piece, an external adjunct to it, being, indeed,
a mere address to the public occasioned hy the
play. The introduction proper, again, belongs to
the action itself, and this we find provided for in
the prologue of Euripides, spoken by one of the
characters, in narrative form, half within and half
without the action; in the separate induction of
many old English plays; and in the preludes and
prologues of modern dramas like Faust.
Prometheus, 2 out culture-hero of Greek
mythology, the son of the Titan Iapetus and of
Clymene, brother of Atlas, Mencetius, and Epi-
metheus. Hesiod tells his history as follows : Once,
under the reign of Zeus, when men and gods were
disputing with one another at Mecone as to which
portions of the victims at sacrifices were to be given
to the gods, Prometheus, to outwit Zeus cut me
an ox, and placed on one side the best parts cove’
with offal, on the other the bones covered with
fat. Zeus was asked to choose, but, finding the
deceit practised upon him, avenged himself on the
mortals by bbs he from them the fire neces-
sary for the cooking of the meat ; whereupon Pro-
metheus stole it in a hollow fennel-stalk, and
brought it to them. Zeus next caused Hephestus
to mould a virgin of wondrous beauty, Pandora
(q.v.), whom Epimetheus was unwise enough to re-
ceive as a present from Hermes, and thus brought
through her all imaginable ills upon humanity.
Prometheus himself was chained to a rock, and an
eagle sent to tear his liver by day, while Zeus
caused it to grow anew during the night. At
length Hercules killed the le, and by the
permission of Zeus delivered the epi, Pro-
metheus. Thus far Hesiod’s legend. In the
splendid tragedy of Aischylus, the Prometheus
inctus, Prometheus is an immortal god, a friend
of the human race, who does not shrink from
opposing the evil designs of Zeus against mankind,
and even from sacrificing himself for their salva-
tion. He is the long-suffering hero, who, although
overcome by Zeus’s superior might, yet does not
440 PROMISE
PROOF
bend his mind. He takes from man the evil gift
of foreseeing the future, but gives him the two
infinitely superior gifts of hope and of fire; and he
is the inventor of architecture, astronomy, writing,
figures, medicine, navigation, the mystery of pro-
a He , the arts of metal-working, and all other
arts which embellish and adorn life. For these
boons conferred on the human race he is by Zeus’s
order chained to a rock in Scythia by Hephaestus,
who fulfils this task reluctantly. Here he is visited
by the Oceanides, by Io, and by Hermes, who en-
deavours to find out that which Prometheus alone
knows, who will be the son of Zeus and his suc-
cessor. Refusing to divulge this secret, he is
struck by Zeus’s lightning and hurled into Tar-
tarus, whence he only re-issues after a time to
undergo new sufferin, He is now fastened to
Mount Caucasus, and the eagle, an offspring of
Earth and Tartarus, comes to torment him daily.
Cheiron the Centaur at last offers himself to supply
the place of Prometheus in Hades—for on no other
condition was he to be liberated than that some
other immortal should offer himself in his stead.
Cheiron, incurably wounded by Hercules, is ac-
cepted by Zeus. Other legends give a varyin
account, and make Prometheus the creator o
man out of earth and water. Many have been the
explanations of this myth, as that it represents the
human mind in the consciousness of its own power,
refusing to obey implicitly the will of Zeus. There
ean be no doubt that Prometheus is a eulture-hero,
analogous to the Maori Mani, and the Finnish
Wainamoinen. The ——* of fire to early
man was a matter of enormous importance, and
the legend of its being originally stolen from heaven
by a primeval hero is very widely spread over the
world. The Greek name means ‘fore-sight;’
Epimetheus (‘after-thought’) is obviously its
opposite ; and the beautifully ingenious identifica-
tion of the solar mythologists with the Sanskrit
Pramantha, the fire-stick of the Hindus, may be
disregarded in the face of the existence of the myth
far beyond the possible range of Aryan influence.
See the article Fire, p. 630; E. B, Tylor’s Researches
into the Early History of Mankind (1865), and Kuhn,
Die Herabkunft des Feuers (2d ed. 1886); older books on
the myth v4 eiske (1842) and Lasaulx (1843), and mono-
graphs by Holle (Berl. 1879) and Milchhéfer ( Berl. 1882).
Promise. See ConTRAct, MARRIAGE.
Promissory-note, a written promise by one
person (the maker) to pay another (the payee)
or bearer a sum of money either on demand or on a
future day. It is in the following form:
£100, Lonpon, lst January 189-.
Three months after date I promise to poy to Mr
William Smith or order One Hundred P; for value
received. Joun Brown.
With certain necessary exceptions, such as the
rules regarding acceptance, the law of a Bill of
Exchange (q.v.) applies equally to notes.
Promotion in the commissioned ranks of the
British army, since the abolition of the purchase
system in 1870, is obtained by seniority to fill a
vacancy, by selection or by brevet for distinguished
services. First appointments are as a rule obtained
from the militia or through the Military Colleges
(see MILITARY SCHOOLS). But three commissions,
one in the Royal Artillery, one in the Royal En-
gineers, and one in the Cavalry, are hers each year
to cadets of the Royal Canadian Military College,
and about ten second-lientenants’ commissions in
the cavalry and line to sergeants who are specially
recommended and hold first-class certificates of
education. Besides these last all the officers of
the Coast Brigade Royal Artillery (about 48), and
of the Coast Battalion Royal Engineers (12), as well
as all the quartermasters (about 315) and riding-
masters (about 45) in the service, are commissioned
Quartermasters
as lieutenants from the ranks. and
riding-masters receive hono commissions, and
are promoted honorary cap and majors for
lengua of service or distinguished conduct in the
field, Other officers are usually promoted, in their ~
regiments, when senior of their rank, on a vacancy
occurring, provided that they are well on
and have passed the necessary examinations ; but
to equalise promotion a step is sometimes given
out of the ent. The highest rank of -
mental officer is that of lieutenant-colonel.
succeeding steps of colonel, major-general, lien-
tenant-general, and general are given to officers
specially selected to fill some appointment carryin
those ranks. The seniors have the preference i
otherwise eligible and not above the limits,
which are fifty-five, sixty-two, and pt rsh
years respectively, Field-marshals, not exceeding
six, are specially selected from amongst the most
distinguished generals. The brevet rank of major,
lientenant-colonel, or colonel may be given to any
officer above the rank of lieutenant, and a lieu-
tenant may be given a captaincy in another regi-
ment for distinguished services. this means a
young and promising officer may be brought for-
ward and placed in an important command. Thus,
a major and brevet-colonel is eligible for pro-
motion to major-general, thereby ing over
many who are senior to him in len If of service ;
but while serving with his ment he does duty
as a major only. Such an officer must, however,
have been exceptionally fortunate to have obtained
at least two brevets—viz. lieutenant-colonel and
colonel, for only one step is given at a time. The
rules governing promotion are constantly altered
by royal warrant. The above rules were dated
1889. Non-commissioned officers are promoted by
selection—the seniors, if otherwise qualified, hav-
ing the petiole caer for distinguished service.
See also Commissions (ARMY), RANK.
Promotion in the navy is governed partly by
seniority and partly by selection. On a midship-
man passing all his examinations for the rank of
lieutenant, ke receives his commission as sub-
lieutenant, and is then advanced to lieutenant,
except in a few special cases, by seniority. Those
specially selected for promotion have either obtained
a first-class in.all subjects of examination, or else
have distinguished themselves on active or other
special service. Advancement from the lieutenants’
to the commanders’ list may be said to nef poe
selection. As there are supposed to be 1 ieu-
tenants on the active list and only 250 commanders,
it is inevitable that this should be the ease, Except,
however, for very distinguished service, lientenants
are not promoted before having served ten years in
that rank, and the promotions are ly to be
found among officers who have ten to fifteen years’
seniority as lieutenants with a proportionate
amount of good service. Promotion from the
commanders’ list to the captains’ is also by selec-
tion; but there is this difference, that as the
number of commanders is only some 70 in excess
of the captains, any commander who puts in the
requisite amount of sea-service can count, with a
fair amount of certainty, on attaining his step,
Captains and admirals are promoted on their respec-
tive lists by pure seniority ; the three admirals of
the fleet are selected for service from admirals
who have command of a squadron either as rear- or
vice-admiral.
Promptorium Paryulorum, an English-
Latin dictiona, , compiled ¢, 1440 by Geoffrey the
grammarian, a friar-preacher at Lynn in Norfolk.
Prong-horn, See ANTELOPES.
Proof. See EvIpENCE; also ENGRAVING.
aes
>
PROOFS
PROPAGANDA 44]
Proofs, CORRECTION OF. The corrections to
be made on a ‘ proof’ of printed matter are marked
on the margin ; and for this purpose an established
set of signs or shorthand is used. The following
imen of a proof exhibits the application of most
these signs :
*To rule the nations with imperial
swoy, to impose terms of peace, to a
spare the humbled, and to rcush the 2 ty.
proud, resigning itto others to de- 3¢
scribe the courses of theSheavens, and 4 |
explain the rising stars; this, to use
the words of the poet of the Aineid
in the apostrophe of Anchises to
Fabius in the Shades was regarded & ,/
as the proper province of a Roman,
more adverse to the cultivftion of the *g
“ physical sciences than that,the Euro- of
pean Greeks,and |seen| we have| that © ;/ ? tr,
the latter left experimental philosophy
chiefly in the hands of the Ksian and = wf
African colonists, The elegant litera- ©
ture and metaphysical specudlatiqns ug
of Athens, her histories, dramas, epics, *¢”.
and orations, had a numerous host of
admirers in Italy, but a feeling of ™ Roman.
indifference was displayed to the
practical science of Alexandria. [‘This 1% Mew /ine.
repugnance of the Roman mind at 4 andiee
home to mathematics and physics, , despotism
extending from the Atlantic to the 470@d,
IndianO cean, from Northern Britain #8 16 >
to the cataracts of the Nile, annihi-
lated in a measure aH pure sciences 1° the
in the conquered districts where they”
had had-been pursued, and prohibiteg” 1 §
attention to them in the mother ~ 18 -
country.
19 Run on
(-Long, indeed, after the age of
Ptolemy, the school in connection 5 Caps.
with which he flourished, remained
in existence 5, &c. . 20 oo
letter. After every mark of correction a
caprTa.s, three for CAPITALS. (6) Correction or insertion of
stops. (7) A word struck out, and afterwards approved of
(Lat. stet, ‘let it stand’). (8) A turned letter. (9) An omis-
sion. (10) A letter of a wrong fount. (11) A word or letter
to be deleted. (12) Alteration of type. (13) A new paragraph.
14) Insertion of a clause. (15) A space to be removed or
iminished. (16) A wrong word. (17) When letters or lines
do not stand even. (18) Mark for a hyphen. (19) No new
paragraph. (20) The manner in which the apostrophe, inverted
commas, the star and other references, and superior or ‘ cock-up’
letters figures are marked.
The immediate object of a ‘reader’ or corrector
of the press is to observe and mark every error
and oversight of the compositor, with a view
to make the printed sheet a perfect copy of the
author’s manuscript. This is on the supposition
that the manuscript itself is quite correct, which is
seldom the case ; and therefore the duty of a good
reader extends to seeing that there are no incon-
sistencies in orthography, punctuation, abbrevia-
tions, &e., and in many cases to the verification
of quotations, dates, and proper names. Where
extensive alterations, omissions, or additions are
likely to be made by writer or editor, it is more
convenient to take the proofs on long slips, before
division into pages. he making of new para-
graphe, or the suppression of those in type, should
avoided as causing trouble and expense.
The duty of securing consistency in spelling and _
punctuation is especially important in the case of
works on which several writers are employed, such
as newspapers and cyclopedias. The corrector has
also to direct his attention to the numbering of
the ; to the arrangement of chapters, vara
graphs, and notes; to running titles, &e. It is
— of his business to observe the mechanical
efects of the work—defective types, turned letters,
inequalities of spacing between words, sentences,
and lines, crooked lines, and to secure symmetry
in verses, tables, mathematical operations, and
such like. In almost all cases two proofs are
taken, and in difficult works, such as those in
foreign languages, tables, &c., even more. Lastly
follows the revision, in which little more is done
than seeing that the compositor has made all the
corrections marked on the last proof. It is usual
for the writer or author to reserve the correction
of the second proof for himself.
The Shankives and monotonous business of a
corrector or reader is more difficult than the
uninitiated would believe. It requires extensive
and varied knowledge, accurate acquaintance with
the art of typography, and, above all, a peculiar
sharpness of eye, which, without losing the sense
and connection of the whole, takes in at the same
time each separate word and letter. See Boox,
PRINTING.
Propaganda (Lat. De Propaganda Fide), the
name of a Congregation (q.v.), and also of a Col-
lege, in Rome, the object of which is to direct and
forward the pro tion of the Catholic religion,
especially among the heathen, although Christian
dissenters from the Roman Church are also included
in the sphere of its operations. The institution
was originated by Pope Gregory XIII. (1572-84) ;
but it was fully organised by Gregory XV., who in
1622 established a special Congregation for the
pu . This his successor, ‘Orban VIIL, ex-
tended and endowed, annexing a college for the
education of missionaries to the several countries.
One great feature of that college has been
to provide for such work natives of the several
countries, who are conveyed to Rome at an early
ige for the purpose of being specially educated in
all the necessary learning of a missionary. This
Congregation conducts the affairs not only of the
missionary countries properly so called, but also
of those in which the hierarchical organisation is
not full and formal. The College of the ci tna
is a noble institution, with some 200 pupils of all
countries, tongues, and complexions, who are not
only maintained and educated gratuitously from a
very early age, but are equipped and sent forward
to their several destinations at the charge of the
institution. It possesses a valuable library (30,000
vols.) and museum, and a polyglot printing-press.
Its great festival is the Epiphany of our ad
His ‘ manifestation to the Gentiles ;’ and this feast
is celebrated by an exhibition of exceeding interest
442 PROPERTIUS
PROPORTION
and curiosity, at which are delivered recitations
in every language represented in the College or
its missions, peoretne ome to fifty or sixty. Of
this festival Cardinal Mezzofanti (q.v.) to be
the guiding spirit.
Propertius, SExrus (for the second family-
name, Aurelius, o given him there is no
aon he the most impassioned of the —
elegiac poets, was a younger contemporary 0
Tibullus, born about nc. in Siakila, protaldy
at Asisium (the modern Assisi). Nearly all we know
of him is gleaned from his ib ar according to
which he came of an undistinguished, comparatively
poor family, lost his father in boyhood, and had a
rtion of his patrimony confiscated, after Philippi,
y the Triumvirs, to reward their veterans, but
retained means enough to proceed to Rome for
education, and, having chosen his residence, like
Virgil and Mecenas, on the uiline, to make
ted the business of his life. The school then
hionable was the Alexandrian, represented by
Callimachus and Philetas, and these he made his
models, drawing from them his learned tone and
his wealth of mythological colouring. In the
political and martial movements of the time he
took no part, though his patriotism was pure and
strong—witness his exultation over the victory off
Actium, his scorn of Cleopatra and her Lager
tuous ambition to dominate the mistress of the
world, above all, his appeal to the Romans to
renounce self-indulgence and to return to their
neglected legends for the civic virtues and the
heroism of ‘the brave days of old.’ Such was his
precept; while his practice was the emotional
poetic life, in the congenial society of Ovid, Virgil
(whose Afneid he has nobly eulogised), the epic
poet Ponticus, and Julius s. Like them he
won the favour of Mecenas, to whom he dedicated
a book of his poems, and even ingratiated himself
with Augustus, whose achievements he duly cele-
brated. But the central figure of his inspiration
was his mistress Cynthia, a lady somewhat older
than he, whose real name was Hostia. For many
years he cherished a glowing ion for this highly
gifted and beautiful, but far from virtuous woman,
till about 24 B.c. he disentangled himself from her
a 86 She died before him; but even after death
she lived in his memory as she still lives in the
ms that have immortalised her. Propertius left
yme, it would appear, only once, on a visit to
Athens, when he may have experienced the ship-
wreck he has so vividly deseribed. The year of his
death has, with probability, been p about 14
B.C. ‘Of his poems only the first book, devoted
entirely to Cynthia, was published during his life-
time; certainly the last of the four was given to
the light, in terms of his will, by his friends. Its
contents are youthful pieces, in which he celebrates
the legends of early Rome in the style of Calli-
machus, and have a special interest in having most
likely inspired Ovid to the composition of his Fasti
—perhaps even of his Heroides. As a poet Pro-
pertins ranks high in Roman literature—the tone
of the later criticism (with Goethe at its head)
being one of increasing admiration for his native
force, his eye for dramatic situation, his power
over the reader's sympathies, giving the effect of
reality to what in the hands of Tibullus or even
Ovid is merely conventional. He has more in
common with Catullus than with either of these,
while he lacks the artistic graces peculiar to the
three, being often rough to harshness and obscure
from defect of tinish.
For the English student there is an admirable text by
Palmer (Dublin, 1880), and good critical notes by Paley
and Postgate in their respective editions, There is no
ane translation of him in any language, Cranstoun’s,
in English (1875), being about the most faithful.
Property. See HerrrapLe AND MovaBLe,
LAND aout PERSONALTY, POSSESSION, REAL.
Prophecy. For the doctrine of prophecy and
its relation A prediction, see Brie, Vol, II,
p. 119. See also the works on the several pro-
vhets cited at the articles ISAIAH, JEREMIAH,
c.; the works on prophecy by Hofmann,
Deine Tholuck, Ewald, Kuenen, Reentt Fair-
(1856 ; ed.
Leathes, 0)
Propolis. See Bex, Vol. IT. p. 21.
Proportion, in Arithmetic and Geometry, is
a particular a of relation subsisting between
groups of numbers or quantities. Not ding
that the idea of proportion is found to exist in
perfection in the mind of every one, yet a good
definition of it is a matter of extreme difficulty,
The two definitions which, on the whole, are
to be least objectionable are that of Euclid and
the ordinary arithmetical definition. The latter
states proportion to be the ‘equality of ratios,’
and throws us back on a definition of the term
ratio, which may most simply be considered as
the relation of two numbers to each other, shown
by a division of the one by the other. Thus, the
ratio of 12 to 3, expressed by 4¢, or 4, denotes that
12 contains 3 four times ; and the ratio of 8 to 2
being also 4, we have from our definition a state-
ment that the four numbers, 12, 3, 8, and 2, are in
proportion, or, as it is commonly expressed, 12
rs to 3 the same ratio that 8 does to 2, or
12:3::8:2. In the same way it is shown that
3:8::135:36; fap ener e ratio of the first
to the second, and = 27-3. at will be
seen from the two arithmetical proportions
ere given, and from any others that can be
formed, that ‘the product of the first and last
terms (the extremes) is to the product of the
second and third terms (the means) ;’ and upon this
property of proportional numbers directly depends
the arithmetical rule called ‘ proportion,’ &e. The
object of this rule is to find a fourth proportional
to three gon numbers—i.e. a number to which
the third bears the same ratio that the first does to
the second; and the number is at once found by
multiplying together the second and third terms,
and dividing the product by the first. Proportion
is illustrated arithmetically by such problems as,
‘If four yards cost six shillings, what will ten cost?
Here, 15 being the fourth proportional to 4, 6, and
10, fifteen shillings is the answer. The distinction
of proportion into direct and inverse is not caly
quite unnecessary, but highly mischievons, as it
tends to create the idea that it is ible for more
than one kind of proportion to subsist. Continued
proportion indicates a property of every three con-
secutive or equidistant terms in a ‘Geometrical
Progression? {in.at iia instance, in the series
2, 4, 8, 16, 32..., 2:4::4:8, 4:8::8:16, &e., or
2:8::8:32, &c. In the above remarks all con-
sideration of incommensurable quantities has
been omitted. The definition given by Euclid is
as follows: Four magnitudes are ee er teeger
when, any pe les whatever being taken of
the first and third, and any whatever of the second
and fourth, according as the multiple of the first is
greater, age to, or less than that of the second,
the multiple of the third is also greater, oe to,
or Jess than that of the fourth; ie. A, B, C, D are
proportionals when, if mA is greater than mB, mC
is greater than nD; if mA is equal to nB, mC is
equal to nD; if mA is less than nB, mC is less
than nD; ” and n being any multiples whatso-
ever, The apparent cumbrousness and circum-
‘PROTECTIVE LEGISLATION
PROTEUS 449
Simon N. Patten (1890); Our Sheep and the Tariff, by
the present writer (1891); Geo. B. Curtiss, Protection
and Prosperity (1896).
[With the above article, by an American protectionist,
Wm. Draper Lewis, should be compared the article
Free Traber, in Vol. IV., by Prof ield Nicholson,
written from the opposite point of view. |
Protective Legislation, a term applicable
to legislation in promotion of Protection as opposed
to Free Trade, is more specially used of legislation
in favour of classes of the community thought speci-
ally to stand in need of it, the Factory Acts (q.v.)
being a notable example. To the same category
helong the Employer’s Liability Act (see LIABILITY),-
the Merchant Shipping Acts, much of the legisla-
tion in regard to mines, Crofters (q.v.), and [rish
tenants (see LAND Laws). The supporters of the
Laissez-faire (q.v.) theory of government, even
when admitting justification for some of those
Measures, protest against others of them or parts
of them as interfering with industry and com-
merce, and —s to limit freedom and establish
@ socialistic state-despotism. The proposal to limit
the working day to eight hours is resisted on the
same ground; and some extend their protest to
free education, free libraries, and government
measures for the housing of the poor. See A Plea
gen latery, edited by Thomas Mackay, with pre-
by Herbert Spencer (1891).
Protector, a title which has sometimes been
conferred in England on the regent or governor of
the kingdom during the sovereign’s minority. It
was given to Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, in
1422, in the minority of Henry VI. Richard, Duke
of Gloucester, was Protector in 1483, prior to his
ascending the throne as Richard III. The Duke
of Somerset, one of King Henry VIII.’s eighteen
executors, was in 1547 constituted Protector during
the minority of Edward VI., with the assistance
of a council, consisting of the remaining seventeen
executors ; a dignity, however, which he enjoyed for
but twenty months. Oliver Cromwell, in December
1653, took the title of Lord Protector of the Com-
monwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. In
1658 his son Richard succeeded to his title and
authority, but was never formally installed in the
Protectorate, which he resigned in the following
year.
Proteids are an important class of substances,
mostly of animal origin, but oceurring also in the
i cape kingdom, of which egg albumen may be
taken as a good example. The various members
of the class are closely related to each other, and
amongst them they make up the greater portion of
the animal organism. The classification of the
proteids is given in the article Animal Chemistry
(q.v.). The most careful analyses of the various
proteids show that they all closely approximate to
the same ultimate composition, and contain about
53°5 per cent. of carbon, 7 of hydrogen, 15°5 of
nitrogen, 22°5 of oxygen, and from ‘9 to 16 of
sulphur. The majority of the proteids exist in
two modifications, the one soluble and the other
insoluble in water. The latter modification can
be obtained from the former by the addition of
aleohol or ether, or of many mineral acids or
metallic salts to their aqueous solutions. Coagula-
tion also takes place in most cases by the applica-
tion of heat, as in the case of egg albumen in
boiling water. The proteids are all dissolved by
strong solution of acetic acid, and by phosphoric
acid. They are also dissolved by alkalies with
formation of alkali sulphide. When heated with
solution of mercuric nitrate containing a little
nitrous acid, they assume a violet-red colour; and
when the solution of a proteid substance in acetic
acid is mixed with strong sulphuric acid, a violet-
393
coloured solution is obtained, which in the spectrum
shows characteristic absorption bands.
By the action of the ecard juice, of pepsin and
dilute hydrochloric acid, and of several other fer-
ments, the roteids are eventually converted into
peptones. The latter are soluble in water, and are
not coagulated by heating. See ALBUMEN, CASEIN,
FIBRIN, and GLOBULINS.
Proteles. See AARD-woLr.
Proterosaurus (Gr. proteros, ‘first,’ sauros,
‘reptile’), a genus of fossil reptiles occurring in the
Permian system, which is the lowest horizon at
which reptilian remains have as yet been detected.
It is of a primitive type, and belongs to a highly
secant: group of reptiles. The skull is imper-
ectly known, but the teeth appear to have been
anchylosed to the bone, and not implanted in dis-
tinct sockets, as was at one time supposed.
Protestantenverein, an association of Pro-
testant ministers, professors, and others belonging
to the ‘liberal’ or advanced school of theology in
Germany, formed in 1863 to promote what its mem-
bers insisted was the spirit of true Protestantism
in opposition to what hey regarded as reactionary
and obscurantist. By the orthodox and conser-
vatives the association was denounced as rationalist
or infidel; and though since 1867 it has held annual
meetings in various towns throughout Germany,
and has several organs in the press of the Father-
land (including the Protestantische Kirchenzeitung
and a Jahrbuch), it and its members have been
treated with marked disfavour by the ecclesiastical
authorities, membership in the association being,
it is alleged, practically a bar to appointments or
preferments. See Schenkel, Der Deutsche Protes-
tantenverein (new ed. 1871).
Protestantism, « term derived from the part
taken by the adherents of Luther in protesting
against the decree passed by the Catholic states
at the second diet of Spires or Speier in 1529,
This decree had forbidden any further innovations
in religion, and enjoined those states that had
adopted the Reformation so far to retrace their steps
as to reintroduce the Mass and order their ministers
to avoid disputed’ questions, and to use and explain
the Scriptures only as they had hitherto been used
and explained in the church. The name is repudiated
by a considerable section of the Anglican Church.
See Cuurcn History, LUTHER, REFORMATION.
Proteus, in the Homeric or oldest Greek
mythology, appears as a prophetic ‘old man of the
sea’ (halios gerén), who tends the seal-flocks of
Poseidon (Neptune), and has the gift of endless
transformation. His favourite residence, according
to Homer, is the island of Pharos, off the mouth of
the Nile; but-according to Virgil, the island of
Carpathos (now Skarpanto), between Crete and
Rhodes. Here he rises at mid= from the floods,
and sleeps in the shadow of the Yoeky shores,
surrounded by the monsters of the deep. This-was
the time when those who wished to make hinr
Borong. must catch him. But it was no easy
task. Proteus, unlike most vaticinal personages,
was very unwilling to prophesy, and tried to escape
by adopting all manner of shapes and disguises.
When he found his endeavours hopeless he resumed
his proper form, and then spoke out unerringly
about the future.
Proteus, a genus of tailed amphibians with
ersistent gills, represented by two or three species
In the caves of Carniola and Dalmatia. They are
lank animals, towards a foot in length; and with
their peculiar habitat may be associated the pale
colour of the flesh, and the embryonic state of the
eyes, which are hidden beneath the surface. It
has been shown, however, that sensitiveness to
450 PROTEVANGELIUM
PROTOPLASM
diffuse light persists. A nearly related genus,
Necturus, lives in North American rivers and
Proteus anguinus.
lakes, The name Proteus animalcule was formerly
used as a synonym for Amoeba (q.v.).
Protevangelium, a very old apocryphal
gospel attributed to James, the brother of the
rd (see APOCRYPHA); also used of a praet:
it has
pel (Ger. Ur-evangelium), from whic
See
es held several of our gospels were derived.
GOSPELS.
Protococcus (Gr., ‘first-grain’), a genus of
very simple unicellular green plants, one species
of which (P. viridis) is everywhere abundant as a
green film on tree-trunks and damp walls, or in
8 ant rain-water. The colour is sometimes
reddish, and the organism may be found passively
encysted during drought, and at other times actively
motile with a couple of cilia. See ALG&.
Protocol (Gr. protos, ‘first ;’ and kolla, ‘glue’),
{1) the rough draft of an instrument or transaction,
and more particularly the original copy of a gov-
ernment despatch, treaty, or other document ; (2) a
record or register. :
Protogene (Gr., ‘ first-born’), a granitic rock,
composed of the same ingredients as true granite,
but the mica is more or less altered so as to
resemble tale, for which it was formerly mistaken.
It received its name because it was eeeene to
have been the first-formed granite. It abounds in
the Alps, and is found also in Cornwall. The clay
produced by its decomposition is greatly valued for
the manufacture of china. Protogene is now recog-
nised to be simply an altered granite.
Proto’genes, a painter of ancient Greece, was
born at Caunus in Caria, and practised his art at
Rhodes, where he worked steadily on through the
din of the siege of 305-304 B.c, A contemporary and
friend of Apelles (q.v.), he was a slow and careful
painter, sparing no pains to secure a natural and
finished piece of workmanship. His best-known
pictures were Ialysus (a Rhodian celebrity ) @
Satyr, ‘Paralos and Ammonias’ (sacred ships of
the Athenians, executed for the Propylea at
Athens), ‘The Thesmothete’ (for the Athenian
senate-honse), ‘Alexander and Pan,’ ‘Cydippe
and Tleptolemus,’ and some portraits.
Protonopsis. See MENopomE.
Proto-notary, « member of the College of
Proto-notaries Apostolic in the papal curia, whose
duties are to register pontifical acts, make and keep
the records of beatilications, &e.
Protophytes (Gr. Protophyta, * first plants’),
a term often applied to the simplest plants, such as
Protococcus in the algoid, and Bacteria in the fun-
goid series, See ALG, BACTERIA.
Protoplasm (proton, ‘first,’ plasma, ‘formed
substance ') is a technical name for living matter.
The term was first applied (1846) by the botanist
Hugo von Moh! to the ‘slimy, granular, semi-fluid’
contents of vegetable cells, but before that Réseb
von Rosenhof (1755) had studied the amaba, which
is a unit-mass of relatively pure living matter,
Robert Brown and other botanists had watched the
rotation of the living substance inside the cells of
some plants, and Dujardin (1835) had described
the ‘sareode’ of Foraminifera as ‘a glutinou
transparent, living jelly.’ After Dujardin an
Von Mohl had thus directed attention to ‘sareode’
and ‘protoplasm,’ observations on both ually
accumulated, the idea began to be mooted that the
two substances were essentially the same, and in
1861 Max Schultze defined the cell as a nucleated
mass of living matter or protoplasm. We cannot
indeed say that the protoplasm is the same in the
cells of plants and animals, for the precise nature
of living matter defies our analysis; but we do
know that ‘the physical basis of life’ has in al}
cases some common characteristics of structure and
behaviour, diverse as are the ways in which its
inherent activity may be manifested.
hae, Regge may be conveniently studied in the
unicellular Protozoa—e.g. Amoeebee and Foramin-
ifera ; in the colourless cells of blood; in the ova
of animals—e.g. of frog and pond-snail; in young
vegetable shoots; or in the cells of a simple plant,
like Chara or Spirogyra. When we submit the
living matter in its natural state to microscopic
examination we usually see a clear semi-fluid
substance, sometimes obscured by granules, some-
times with numerous bubbles or vacuoles, some-
times with hints of a fine network traversing the
whole. This vacuolated and reticular structure is
much more easily demonstrated after the cells have
been ‘fixed’ and stained, and, if necessary, ‘see-
tioned’ according to the practice of microscopic
technique. In this state the network-like appear-
ance of the cell-substance has been demonstrated
in a ro number of cases, and we may fairly
regard it as characteristic (see CELL).
As the students of structure have been led with
increasing carefulness of microscopic analysis to
distinguish between the netted framework and a
more fluid stuff in its meshes, so many physio-
logists distinguish the framework as the acting
part, which lives and is relatively stable, from the
content which is acted on, and is in a state of
physical and chemical change. It is clearly
necessary to discriminate between protoplasm in
the strict sense and the substances with which the
genuinely living matter is associated—food-stuffs
about to be or being utilised, and waste-products
which result from the vital activity. The food-
granules and the waste-products we can analyse—
they may be respectively glycogen and uric acid ;
the living matter we cannot analyse, for it dies at
the moment our analysis begins.
All physiologists are agreed that waste-products
are formed when work is done or while life lasts,
and that living organisms have a characteristic
power of repair. They are ever changing, and yet
they remain more or less the same. Streams of
matter and energy pass into the organism; the
are somehow incorporated into the living capital,
work is done and waste is given off, and the organ-
ism continues from day to day, or from year to
year, relatively intact. For while ‘the transfer
of energy into any inanimate material system is
attended by effects retardative to the transfer and
conducive to prea cng «| the secret of protoplasm,
as expressed by Joly in the language of physics,
is that ‘the transfer of energy into any an
material system is attended by effects conducive to
the transfer and retardative of di .’
So far we have stated facts; 5) ation begins
when we try to express the precise relations of the
SE —
PROTOPLASM
PROUDHON 451
protoplasm to the waste and repair of the organ-
ism. Two somewhat different Chews must be con-
sidered. We may regard protoplasm as a complex
substance or mixture of substances, which shares
directly in the constant chemical and physical
changes or metabolism of the organism. It is the
climax of an ascending series of constructive or
different aspects of one reality, are the respective
conclusions of the agnostic, the materialist, the
idealist, and the monist philosophers who have
theorised about living matter.
See Brotocy, CreLt, Puysiotogy. The technical
literature on protoplasm is not readily accessible, but
references to researches since 1886 will be found in the
1 Zoological Record ; while some of the older in-
synthetic steps, by which food-material 1 es
more and more complex and unstable ; it is subject
as the o ism lives to constant disruptive or
analytic changes, which result in the liberation of
energy and in the formation of simpler and simpler
waste-products. Thus protoplasm is rded as
the changeful central substance in metabolism ; it
is continually being unmade, breaking up, and
wasting as it lives; it is continually being made
the constructive processes of repair. e call
1@ repairing or constructive process anabolism,
and its chemically discernible steps anastates ; we
eall the discharging or disruptive process katabol-
ism, and its chemically discernible steps katastates.
But, on the other hand, we may regard proto-
plasm as a kind of ferment which iafidenteo the
material round about it without itself being so
directly affected as the previous conception implies.
It is the relatively stable cause of metabolism, act-
ing on less stable material of a less complex nature,
acting upon it so that constructive anabolic pro-
cesses or disruptive katabolic processes predomin-
ate for the time.
Furthermore, while all are agreed that in the
life of organisms there is a characteristic alterna-
tion or antithesis between waste and repair, be-
tween discharge and restitution of energy, between
katabolism and anabolism, there is ‘difference of
opinion as to the character of these oe
processes. The English physiologist Gaskell,
prompted by his researches on the functions of
nerves, some of which command activity while
others induce rest, was led to regard what he called
anabolism and katabolism as processes which bear
to — lasm a relation similar to that which sleep
an ide awake life bear to the organism. The
‘winding-up’ process of anabolism or restitution
goes on (autonomically) of itself; the ‘running-
own’ — of katabolism or discharge is deter-
mined stimulus. Anabolism is comparable to
the self-loading, katabolism to the stimulated
firing of a gun. But the German physiologist
Hering, prompted by his researches on colour-
sensations, was led to regard what he called
assimilation and dis-assimilation as two antagon-
istic kinds of activity, both dependent on stimuli
which differ in their Meention and results.
Apart from the precise biological problems which
are raised when we seek to define the limits of our
analytic knowledge of living matter, there is the
great difficulty of forming any conception of the
relation between life and its physical basis. We
may cite Huxley’s famous address on The Physical
Basis of Life and Hutchison Stirling's 7 As
Regards Protoplasm as pre-eminent types of the
numerous endeavours which have been made to
secure accurate thinking about this supreme
problem. Suffice it to say that in two ways we
gain some knowledge of protoplasm or living
matter. On the one hand, we know it as it is
presented to our senses in living organisms, and
the result of our analysis of this presentation leads
us to recognise in a a marvellously subtle
kind of matter and motion, or ultimately of motion.
On the other hand, we have an intimate knowledge
of protoplasm in our own brains, where its activity
is manifested in thought. That we need not
attempt to ot an explanation of ultimate realities
like protoplasm and thought, that thought is only
a function of protoplasm, that protoplasm is only a
form of thought, that thought and protoplasm are
vestigations are cited by Prof. Geddes in the article
*Protoplasm, Ency. Brit. The student will find the
best introduction to modern speculations, such as those
of Gaskell and Hering, in Prof. Michael Foster’s article
* Physiology,’ Ency. Brit., in Prof. Burdon Sanderson’s
residential address to the Biological Section of the
ritish Association (Report Brit. Assoc, 1889), and
Nature, xl. (September 1889).
Protop'terus. See MUD-FISHES.
Prototheria. See Ecompna, MAMMALS,
Protozoa (Gr. proton, ‘first,’ and zéon,
‘animal’), simple unicellular animals, contrasted
with the multicellular Metazoa. Except in a few
cases, each Protozoon is a single cell, a unit-mass
of living matter physiologically complete in itself.
Being such a unit involves being without organs
and without sexual reproduction. Yet a Protozoon
may have parts, and two individuals may unite in
mutual fertilisation. A Protozoon is to any higher
animal, from sponge onwards, as an egg-cell is to
the hody into which it develops. But the excep-
tional cases to which we referred are most im-
rtant—they are loose colonies or aggregates of
tozoa. Formed by the incomplete separation of
dividing units, they bridge the gulf between single-
celled and many-celled animals. Simplest of Proto-
zoa are such forms as Protomyxa, whose life is a
succession of changeful phases, ameeboid, encysted,
flagellate. The others may be classified according
to the predominance of one or other of these phases.
The Rhizopoda, predominantly ameeboid, include
Ameeba and others like it, Foraminifera, Heliozoa,
and Radiolaria. The Gregarines are predominantly
sluggish and encysted. The Infueorians are usually
active, ciliated, or flagellate. These classes of
Protozoa are discussed separately.
Prototracheata. See Peripatus.
Protractor, a mathematical instrument, used
in drawing or plotting, for the laying down of
angles. It is variously shaped, and may be cir-
cular, semicircular, or rectangular.
Proud-flesh is the popular term for coarse and
too luxuriant granulations springing up on Wounds
(q.v.) or Uleers (q.v.). See also INFLAMMATION.
Proudhon, Picrre JosEpH, a noted French
socialist, was born July 15, 1809, at Besancon, in
which town his father was a poor cooper. Through
the good offices of charitable friends, he received
the rudiments of his education at the college of his
native place, and from the first gave great promise
of talent. While still very young, however, he
quitted the institution in order to aid his family,
who had fallen into great distress, and souglit
employment in a printing establishment. Here
he was noted for the most punctual discharge of
duty ; and, in the hours not oceupied in work, he
contrived, by a rare exercise of resolution, to com-
plete and extend his education. In 1830 he declined
an offer of the editorship of a ministerial journal,
preferring an honourable independence as a work-
man to the career of a writer pledged to the support
of authority. In 1837 he became partner in the
development of a new ty phical process ; was
engaged on an edition of the Bible, to which he
contributed notes on the principles of the Hebrew
language ; and in 1838 published an Essai de Gram-
maire Générale, in approval of which a triennial
pension of 1500 francs was awarded to him by the
Académie de Besangon. On this accession of funds
PROVENGAL
452 PROUT
he a visit to Paris; and su uently contrib-
aye the £. opédie Cathotigas of M. Parent
Desbarres the articles ‘ Apostasie,’ * Apocalypse,’ and
pagent 1840 he isu 0 the mek entitled Quest
ce que ropriété? (* What is Property ?’) whic’
atiormends became so famous. The navare of the
doctrine announced in it is sufficiently indicated in
its bold paradox, soon to be widely popularised—
La Propriété c'est le Vol (‘Property is Theft’).
Notwithstanding his attack on property, which
ve great offence to his patrons, Proudhon held
nis pension for the regular time. In 1842 he
was tried for his revolutionary opinions, but was
acquitted. In 1846 he published his greatest
work, the Systéme des Contradictions Economiques,
During the revolution of 1848 Proudhon attained
to great notoriety. He was elected member of
Assembly for the Seine department, but he could
not there gain a = for his extreme and para-
doxical opinions. He found more adequate scope
for his energy in the press, ples several
newspapers, in which the most advanced theories
were advocated in the most violent language. He
attempted also to establish a bank which should
pave the way for a socialist transformation, by
granting gratuitous credit, but failed utterly, The
violence of his utterances at last resulted in a
sentence of three years’ imprisonment, and in March
1849 he fled to Geneva, but returned to Paris in the
following June, and surrendered at the prison of
Sainte Pelagie.
While shut up there he married a young working-
woman. During his imprisonment he gave to the
world the works entitled Confessions d’un Révolu-
tionnaire (1849), Actes de la Révolution (1849),
Gratuité du Credit (1850), and La Révolution
Sociale démontrée par le Coup d’Etat (1852); the
last of which is remarkable, in the light of sub-
sequent events, for the clearness with which it
states the alternative of V’anarchie ou le Césarisme,
as pressed on Louis Napoleon, then president. In
June 1852 he was set at liberty, but in 1858 was
again condemned to three years’ imprisonment,
and retired to Belgium, where he continued to
publish from time to time on his favourite subjects
of speculation. Amnestied in 1860, he died in
obscurity near Paris, January 19, 1865.
The theories of Proudhon cannot be presented in
a clear or systematic form ; we can only give some
account of the most important of them. He held
that property was theft, inasmuch as it peer
ates the valne produced by the labour of others in
the form of rent, interest, or profit without render-
ing an equivalent. He maintained that one service
can be duly repaid only by rendering another,
whereas the owner of land and capital abuses his
position by exacting all manner of service without
giving an equivalent. His famous paradox respect-
ing anarchy, which he regarded as the culmination
of social progress, was simply an exaggerated and
premntare assertion of the great principle that the
ully-developed man should be a law to himself—
that is, the moral progress of man should make
government and external law unnecessary. In the
perfect society order would be secured and main-
tained in the absence of government through the
reasonable self-control of the free individual. ws,
police, the whole machinery of government as now
established are the marks of an imperfectly de-
veloped society. Personally Proudhon appears as
an original and not unattractive character in the
monograph of Sainte-Beuve, which unfortunately
was not finished. His complete works fill 33 vols,
(Paris, 1868-76) ; his correspondence, 14 vols. (1874).
See Sainte-Beuve, Proudhon, sa Vie et Correspondance
(1872); A. Desjardins, Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1896);
the articles ANARCHISM, SOCIALISM, and works there cited,
Prout, Fatuer. See Manony.
Prout, SAMUEL, painter in water-colours, was
born at Plymouth, 17th September 1783. He
studied from nature, and sketched with Haydon
through Devon and Cornwall, his drawings in the
latter county being made for Britton’s Beauties
England and Wales. In 1805 he removed to
London, in 1815 was elected to the Water-colour
Society, and in 1818 went to Rouen by Havre.
The picturesque street-architecture and fine Gothic
remains there made so strong an impression on
his mind that afterwards his principal works were
those in which architecture had a prominent
slace ; and from time to time, in his -career,
ne made excursions, mp ren Se every corner
of France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Italy
for picturesque architectural remains. Prouts
name should be dear to all artists and amateurs,
for there are few who have not been incited or
instructed by his numerous elementary drawing-
hooks, in the slightest of which talent and feeling
for art are conspicuous. His water-colour drawi
are characterised by decision in handling, great
breadth, and clear and pleasing colouring. He
died February 9, 1852.
dns Notes on the Loan Collection of Dressings by Prowt
and his Votes on n Collection 0, i
and Wm. Hunt (1879-80).
Provengal Language and Literature.
The Proven language is one of the six prin-
cipal branches of Latin s , usually classified
by philologists under the title Romance lan-
poses. The name Provengal, which a; to
derived from the Provincia Romana of Cesar,
was not used in the earlier middle ages except
in the restricted sense of the lan or dialect
of Provence proper. The troubadours themselves
used the term len romana (or lo romans).
The term lan ‘oc was also known in the
middle ages, but was afterwards transferred to
designate a province of France. The Pro-
vencal and other Neo-Latin idioms existed as
dialects of the Latin previous to the Germanic
invasions, having pg the ancient languages
of Gaul. Although the Provengal and the northern
French had original rung from the same
stock, they had qraseat y grown distinct from
one another, until at the time of the troubadours
they differed almost as widely as French and Italian.
The Provengal language at the time of the trouba-
dours extended far beyond the boundaries of Pro-
vence proper. It extended over the area from
the Alps to the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean
to the Loire. Beyond France it was known in
the east of Spain—in Catalonia and Aragon, and in
the Balearic Isles—also in Savoy, Piedmont, and
part of Switzerland.
The pure Provencal idiom, in which the poets of
the 12th century sang, was used by the higher
classes over the whole of the district refe to,
but the bulk of the people knew only their own
dialects—viz. the Provengal (proper), Piedmontese,
Gascon, and Catalan, all of which differed but
slightly from one another. At the end of the 13th
century, consequent upon the establishment of the
French domination in the south and the introduction
of ~~ fee ee eee - ey Bee
venca an rapidly to disappear, while the vulgar
dialects still rokelanl ; and tae in them that the
compositions of the later middle ages were written,
The Provencal language was more highly inflected
than any of the other Neo-Latin languages, and was
the earliest of these to be fixed grammatically. It
was highly adapted for lyric poetry, owing to its
melodiousness and its rhyming facilities. The
Pangaea Vidal referring to it says: ‘La parla-
ura francesca val mais et es plus avineus a far
romanz et pasturellas, mas cella de Lemosin val
mais per far vers et cansons et sirventes’ (The
PROVENCAL LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 453
French speech is better and more suited for making
epics and pastourelles, whilst that of Lemosin [i.e.
the oh al is better for making love-songs and
satires). In the modern Provengal dialects there
is to be noted chiefly a greater simplicity of inflee-
tions and grammatical forms and a large admixture
of French words. .
The first employment of the Provencal lan-
guage in writing dates back to about the 9th
century. The few specimens that survive are
mostly writings in Latin, but mixed more or less
with Provencal words and phrases. It is to the
priests and monks that are most probably due the
earliest attempts at composition in the Provencal
language. In order to arouse the religious sym-
ties of the people they composed or translated
rom the Latin into the vulgar idiom pious tales,
allegories, legends of saints, &c. There were also
introduced into the liturgy, along with the prayers
and hymns in pure Latin, others in the popular
dialect. In 813 at the councils of Arles, Mainz,
and Tours preaching in the popular language was
recommended to the clergy. Towards the close
of the 11th century a revival took place in Pro-
vengal poetry consequent upon the _ religious
wars of the Crinaties and the introduction of the
institution of chivalry. The influence of the Moors
of Spain undoubtedly, too, had its effect in the
development of Provencal poetry and culture. The
poetry of medizval Provence has much in common
with that of the Moors.
Although it was in the north of France that
- poetry in the middle ages especially flourished
ll in the south it was by no means so neglec'
as many have sup Among the earliest
compositions in the Provencal language were un-
doubtedly epic romances, treating either of his-
torical subjects, such as the struggles against the
Franks or the wars with the Moors of Spain, or
else of the semi-mythical deeds of Charlemagne
and King Arthur which formed the basis of the
Carlovingian and Arthurian (or Round-Table)
legends. Of these old popular epics which were
sung and so handed down from generation to
generation we but few traces. From the
middle of the 12th century epic bye 3 may be
divided into popular and artistic. the first
class but few specimens remain, but of the artistic
epic they are more numerous, B ater: owing to
the fact that, being recited and not sung, it was
more necessary to commit them to writing.
The Provencals did not cultivate the drain like
the French; in fact the only productions that
might come under this head are pieces on pious
subjects in dramatised form, such as the Mj
of the Passion, the Marriage of the Virgin, &ce.
rovencal literature was essentially poetic, and
its prose works are of little importance. They
were in the early period mostly translations from
the Latin, sermons and chronicles—also the bio-
graphies of the principal troubadours. Later, in
the 14th and 15th centuries, prose works became
more numerous, and included scientific, juridical,
gr ical, and other works. The rig poetry
by far the best-known branch of Provencal
literature. It was in lyric verse that the beter sa
poets gave expression to the sentiments of chivalry
and love—of that adoration and devotion to women
which had become with them a sort of worshi
The word troubadour (in Provencal ¢ ire,
trobador) is derived from the verb trobar (Fr.
trouver, ‘to find, invent, compose;’ from t.
turbare, ‘to move,’ ayoages. thee ‘to seek,’ and
also ‘to find’). This verb was used only with
reference to the composition of lyric poetry.
Hence, strictly speaking, a troubadour means a
poet of the lyric form. Epic poets were styled
noellaires (Fr. nowvellistes, ‘romancers’), he
troubadours were of two classes—viz. professional
and amateur. Amongst the latter were many
nobles and even kings, as, for instance, Richard
Cceur-de-Lion, Alfonso II. of Aragon, the Counts
of Poitou, Provence, and Toulouse; of the pro-
fessional troubadours also many were of high
birth. Generally speaking, the latter were re-
eruited from all ranks of society (merchants,
soldiers, monks, lawyers, &e.), and they were of
various grades. The majority of the troubadours
led a wandering life, frequently travelling beyond
the limits of their own country—more especially
into Spain, visiting Catalonia and Aragon, and
even Castile. Beyond the Alps they visited Pied-
mont, Lombardy, and Tuscany, where many of
them settled. Others—mostly those who were
tired of wandering—attached themselves to the
households of the great feudal lords, wherein they
played an important part. There were no fixed
schools of poetry for learning the troubadour’s
art. They acquired it either by attaching them-
selves as pupils to some celebrated troubadour, or
by visiting the great chateaux which the more
distinguished poets were accustomed to frequent.
The convent, too, was a great school of song;
the monks had both the means and leisure to
cultivate the taste for poetic composition, and
there were many monks amongst the trouba-
dours. At a later period professors of poetry estab-
lished themselves in the chief towns of Provence;
Peire Cardinal settled as such at Tarascon
in the 13th mpeg 4 The first of the trouba-
dours of whom we know was Guillem [X., Count
of Poitiers, a powerful noble of the south of
France. He flourished towards the end of the
llth century. To the first half of the 12th century
belong Cereamon (or Cherchemonde); Marcabrun,
who was originally attached to the service of
Cereamon in his wanderings; Peire d’Alvernh,
a troubadour of great merit; and Bernart de
Ventadorn, who was famed for the grace and
sweetness of his poetry. The second half of the
12th and first half of the 13th centuries was the
most brilliant period of Provencal poetry. Of the
many poets who flourished during this period the
xy, Meee the most distinguished: Gaucelm
Faidit ; Gui d’Uisel ; Peirols ; Arnaut de Marnuelh,
the author of many exquisite love-songs; the
talented Folquet, Bishop of Marseilles; Peire
Vidal of Toulouse, a versatile and most eccentric
poet; Arnaut Daniel, the chief of the artificial
school; Giraut de Bornelh, considered by the Pro-
vencals themselves to be the finest of all their
poets (though Dante and Petrarch both regard
Arnant Daniel as superior to him); Raimbaut de
Vaquieras ; Guillem de Cabestanh, a most melodi-
ous singer; the Monk of Montaudon, a powerful
and unsparing satirist; Raimon de Miravals; Uc
de Saint Cire; Guillem Adhemar; Bertrand de
Born, the author of many warlike sirventes ; Guillem
Figueira; and Peire Cardinal, the great writer of
moral and religious satire. The latter half of the
13th century shows the gpeet of the troubadours
in its decline, and few of the poets of this period
deserve to be classed with those of the previous
one. Towards the close of the century lived
Guiraut Riquier, a — of great renown, who has
been termed the ‘last of the troubadours.’ He
specially cultivated the popular forms of lyric
try, particularly the pastoreta. Among the
nig ist of troubadours (about 400 in all) there
are only about a dozen women-singers of whom we
know. Their works, so far as one can judge from
the scanty fragments that remain, are much in-
ferior in merit to those of the troubadours. The
most distinguished among them was the Countese
Beatrix de Dia, who has been termed the Sappho
of Provence.
454
PROVENGAL LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
The compositions of the troubadours were in-
tended to be sung to the accompaniment of some
musical instrument. In most cases the poets them-
selves composed the melodies for their pieces. The
text was called motz, the melody son. There is no
doubt that many of the troubadours sang and
accompanied their own compositions, But those
who were unable to do so were obliged to have
recourse to professional musicians to sing and
play for them. These professional musicians they
‘ound eae the posiare (Fr. yongleurs) or wander-
ing minstrels. The origin of the yog/ars dates back
to the time of the Romans; they were the descend-
ants of the yoculatores, who took part in tlie ancient
circus-games, The sanare of the middle were &
sort of travelling showmen, who gave performances
at village feasts, and were often accompanied by
trained dogs and monkeys. There were some of
them, however, whose profession was rather more
artistic than mere buffoonery or jugglery; they
é the singers and accompanists of the trouba-
dours. Some were in the service of the trouba-
dours, and travelled about with them ; others went
about independently, singing the pieces they had
either bought or had presented to them by the
troubadours. The latter, as a class, held them-
selves much above the joglars, though it sometimes
fappwene that joglars rose to the ranks of the
troubadours.
It was only from the 12th “moe f that a poetic
system n to be fixed, and the different
branches of lyric verse received distinctive titles.
Previous to that period every lyric poem was
termed vers, from the Latin versus, ‘a hymn,’ be-
cause the early lyric compositions were modelled
on the ecclesiastical verses, whatever their subject
might be. Epic compositions were termed prosa.
The two principal branches of lyric poetry were
the canso or love-song and the sirventes or satire.
The canso was the outward expression of love
and its various phases. In order to write the love-
song (to trobar) it was essential, according to the
éas of Provencals, that the poet should be in
love himself, that he should be inspired by the
ion before he could give expression to it. Their
idea of love, it may be remarked, was not wholly
that of romantic adoration ; hence the many licen-
tious pieces among the lyrics of the troubadours,
The canso generally closed with a few lines in
which the poet apostrophised himself or his song,
and commissioned it to explain his sentiments to
his lady-love. This was termed the tornada. The
term sirventes or sirventesc was used to comprise not
only satirical poems, but generally every class of
lyric composition that did not treat of love. These
were divided into various classes—personal, social,
litical, moral, and religious—the last named
including the songs of the Crusades. In their social
satires the pean a on attacked with energy the vices
and oppression of the nobles. Attacks, too, on the
clergy were frequent, more especially at the time
of the Albigenses war, when the poets sided (with
one or two exceptions) with the heretics inst
the Church of em In doing so they do not
Pe ore have been influenced so much by questions
of doctrine as by hostility to the northern French
intruders, and we do not find any of them putting
forward heretical opinions in their works, with the
single exception of one piece by Peire Cardinal.
he crusades against the Saracens formed a
constant theme enabling the troubadours to
celebrate in song their love of daring and glory.
Most of the crusade-songs we possess relate to
the third crusade, which took place during the
most flourishing period of Provencal poetry. In
these songs they exhorted their countrymen to rise
and take up arms against the infide War in
general—not merely religious—was a favourite sub-
ject with the troubadours. The most famous writer
of warlike sirventes was Bertrand de Born (q.v.), @
typical medieval baron.
he tenso was a sort of dispute or conten-
tion in verse in the form of a jogue between
two troubadours, generally — some question
relating to love or chivalry. ‘Tensos actually did
take p! among the troubadours, although in
many of their poems the antagonists would appear
to be rpm 4 fictitious daw pes This form of aoe
was of eastern origin, and was common
Arabs and Persians, BE
Besides the canso, sirventes, and tenso,there existed
also simpler, more popular forms of lyric verse.
Originally the balada was a poem intended to be
sung in dancing. It consisted generally of three
strophes, and was remarkable for its graceful
dance-like rhythm. The (pastoreta), or
shepherd's cong, was always a favourite form of
verse with the Provencal poets. The alba (or dawn-
song) and the serena (or rates | were also
cultivated by the Provencals. The latter is to
be distinguished from the serenade, and was a
poem depicting the longing of the poet for the
approach of the night and the meeting with his
beloved. Novas—tales in verse (compare the north
French Fabliaux, q.v.)—were few and unim
ant — the Provencals compared with those of
the French. é
The Provencal system of versification was most
highly elaborated, the poets observing the most
intricate metrical rules in their compositions.
An instance of such elaborate verse is the ses-
tina, which was invented by Arnaut Daniel
and imitated by Dante, Petrarch, and other poets.
The sestina was a species of verse consisting
of six stanzas, each of six lines, in which the
rhyming words of the first stanza were
on through all the others in an inverted order,
The opposite of the sestina was the descort,
which was subject to no definite rules as
either metre, rhyme, or length of stanzas. me
ts even purposely sought after discordance. A
istinguished troubadour, Raimbaut of Vaqueiras
(1180-1207), in one of his pieces uses five differ-
ent langonees (viz. Provengal, Tusean, French,
Gascon, and Catalan) in five succeeding verses,
the sixth being a mixture of all five. The sonnet
is frequently supposed to have been of Provengal
origin. But the only two examples we know of
in that langu were by an Italian who a
in Provencal, Dante da Majano, The probabili
is that it was peculiar to the Italians, thou
doubtless it was the outcome of the influence of
Provengal versification. Sonet in Provengal is simply
identical with son, meaning melody.
The two distinguishing characteristics of Pro-
vencal versification are the rhyme and the syl-
labic accent. Some have supposed that in their
predilection for rhyme they were influenced by
the Moors, but it is more than likely it was
natural to the Provengals. The t number of
final syllables of the same sound existing in the
declensions and con tions of their langu
offered great ease 0} Sem and doubtless this
had much to do with the formation of their poetry.
Owing to their excessive regard for form, there is
noticeable in the lyrics of the troubadours a certain
sameness or want of variety of sentiment, and a
tendency to be artificial rather than natural. Yet
the high merit of their poetry must be acknow-
ledged when we consider how rough were the
times in which they lived, and how few li
models they had to guide them. The culture of
the Greeks and Romans had long been extinct,
and of classical literature they knew nothing,
whilst at the time of the highest point of their
development the poetry of northern France, of
°
¥
PROVENGAL
PROVERBS 455
England, of Germany, and of Italy was yet in its
infancy.
Rapid as had been the rise of Provencal
poetry, as rapid was its decline. What more
than anything else was the cause of this decline
was the war against the Albigenses (q.v.) in the
13th century, which proved disastrous to the
nobles of the south of France. Their lands were
laid waste, their castles destroyed. Besides this,
with the establishment of the French domination
in the south the French language began to be
generally used among the upper classes ; thus there
was no longer any encouragement for the trouba-
dours. Their poetry oa to be cultivated as
formerly. The clergy, too, in their fanatic en-
deavours to extinguish heresy, destroyed large
numbers of Provencal works, and in a bull Pope
Innocent IV. styles the Provencal a heretical lan-
Guage, and forbade the use of it to the clergy.
ith the 13th century the real literary life of
the Provengals had cy Lge The two follow-
ing centuries can only be regarded as an after-
period in which the traditions of the troubadours
still lingered on. In the first half of the 14th
century an effort was made to revive the old
poetry. Seven citizens of Toulouse, under the
title La sobregaya companhia dels set trobadors de
Tolosa, established in that city a society of song.
Under the auspices of this society were organised
Jeux Floraux, or poetic contests, at which prizes
were given. The activity of the society was not
confined to Toulouse ; branch societies were formed
throughout the south of France, and even in
Catalonia and Aragon; but, though it existed for
several centuries, this society could never effect
what it aimed at—viz. the restoration of the
brilliant period of Provencal song. In the 14th and
15th centuries prose works became more numerous,
Such were learned treatises—theological, medical,
legal, and philological—local chronicles, and pious
es or legends.
During the following three centuries there are
almost no Provencal works worthy of notice. In
the 19th century, however, a new tie activity
began to manifest itself, commencing with the
poet Jacques Jansemin, or Jasmin (q.v.), and
after him Romanille, the founder of the iety of
the Félibres (which has in view the preservation
of the Provencal language and customs), Mistral
(q.v.), & poet o' t genius, Aubanel, and others.
Poetic festivals, like the Jeux Vloraux, have also
been introduced to aid the movement.
On the subject of the Provencal Language see Diez,
Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen (1836-38 ; 5th ed.
1883),
Raynouard, Choix de Poesjes originales des urs
1816-21); Fauriel, Histoire de la Littérature Provencale
1846); Bartsch, Grundriss zur Geschichte der Proven-
7,
the,
zalischen Literatur (1872), and Chrest Py
(4th ed. 1880); Hueffer, The T'roubadours, a History
Provencal Life and Literature (Lond. 1878); Mahn, Die
Biographien der Troubadours (2d ed. 1878); Gatien-
Arnoult, Monuments de la Littérature Romaine depuis le
Siécle ; Mil& y Fontanals, Los Trovadores en Espaiia
( Jona, 1861); Paul Meyer, Les derniers Trou
dours de la Provence; and Bihmer, Die Pr lisch
pe
ealled simply Provincia (‘the Province’), whence
it derived its name. The Provencal (q.v.) tongue,
however, was spoken over a much larger area
(see also the section on the language and literature
of FRANCE). Provence was overrun in the 5th
century by the Visigoths and Burgundians, for a
time was under the Saracens, and in 879 was mostly
incorporated with Cisjuran Burgundy (q.v.) and
with it was attached to Germany. The main part
of the region remained, however, under the Counts
of Arles, also known as Counts of Provence, and
was practically independent. Early in the 12th
century the countship passed by inheritance to
Raymond Berengar, Count of Barcelona, and under
the protection of his successors Provencal poetry
attained its zenith. In 1245 the last count died,
and the inheritance passed, through his daughter,
to her husband Charles of Anjou, who united
Provence with Naples. Under the Angevin princes
the constitution of Provence, with its three estates
holding the power of the purse, was well balanced
and free ; and it is possible that through Simon de
Montfort (q.v.) the English parliamentary consti-
tution may be indebted to it. The last of the
counts, Charles, grandson of René the Good (q.v.),
poe orn his county to the dauphin of France ;
and it was united to that county in 1486 by
Charles VIII.
Several of Daudet’s works give vivid pictures of Pro-
vencal scenery, life, and character; and there are histories
of Sroveate yy Papon (1777-86) and Mercy (1830), and
descriptive works by Garcin (1833) and Lentherin (1879).
Descriptive sketches of some of the antiquities and archi-
tecture are given in Baring-Gould’s In Troubadour Land
(1891). See also ANJou, FRANCE, AVIGNON.
Proverbs. All attempts to define a proverb,
from the time of Aristotle downwards, have been
unsuccessful. One of the difficulties is to find an
essential difference that will not admit or exclude
too much, and another is the diversity of opinion
among parcemiographers as to where the line should
be drawn. Some would include almost any form
of popular phrase, while others, like Giusti, refuse
to recognise anything that is not a sentence con-
taining a precept or admonition of some sort. In
default of an exact definition we must be content
with descriptions, such as Earl Russell’s—‘ The
wisdom of many, and the wit of one,’ or that of
Cervantes—‘ Short sentences drawn from long ex-
rience,’ or the more complete if less pithy one of
ipriano de Valera—‘Short sayings, sententious
and true, and long since accepted as such by
common consent.’ This last ‘is the merit of
recognising what is in truth the distinctive char-
acteristic of the proverb, that it is a popular
current saying adopted as a convenience by the
community. All the qualities said to be essential
to it, shortness, sense, salt, and the rest, are sub-
sidiary to this. To be current it must be easily
remembered, and therefore, within certain limits,
short ; without sense it would have no value, andl
without salt it would not take the popular fancy.
But there is another quality no less essential than
these which seems to be always ignored, and that
is general applicability. Unless a saying is cap-
able of being applied to a variety of cases it can
never become a proverb. Lord Palmerston’s famous
dictum, ‘Dirt is only matter in the wrong place,’
has sense, salt, and shortness, but it will never be
a proverb. It is of no use except in sanitary
Poesie der Gegenwart (1877).
Proven formerly a maritime province of
France, was bounded on the 8S. by the Mediter-
ranean, and comprised the modern departments
of Bouches du Rhone, Var, Basses-Alpes, and parts
of Alpes Maritimes and Vaucluse. It included a
portion of the Roman province of Gaul generally
iscussion and when dirt is in question. Lord
Derby’s answer, after trying a South African port
specially recommended for gouty subjects, ‘I prefer
vo gout,’ has a much better chance, for it serves
every purpose of ‘The remedy is worse than the
disease,’ and is far richer in salt. A proverb is in
fact a colloquial coin, not for exclusive dealing
at any one particular stall in the market, but
456
PROVERBS
negotiable at the butcher's as well as at the baker's;
it is in this its numismatic character that the
essence of the proverb lies. A wise man's saying
may be ever so wise, pithy, and pointed, but it
is only Ais saying, and nobody is bound to take it
as a settlement of any —— The proverb,
on the other hand, has n adopted time out
of mind and stamped by common consent as the
recogni expression of public opinion. It has
thus become by prescription a legal tender in con-
troversy, while the other is only the cheque of
a presumably solvent capitalist. In ‘this respect
roverbs and ballads are on precisely the same
‘ooting. They derive their authority from popular
suffi , and take their stand not as the issue
of this or that man’s brain, but as the adopted
utterances of the people at large. Bnt there is
this difference between them, that the ballad had
a maker, whoever he may have been, but no man
ever yet made a proverb, He may have made the
original saying, but the forces that made it a
roverb were entirely beyond his control. No man
y taking thought can add one proverb to his
language any more than one cubit to his stature.
It would a mistake, however, to fancy that
every proverb must have had its germ in some wise
or shrewd remark. Some are fables in little, or the
concentrated essence of fables; and, as might be
expected, a | number of the proverbs of the
East, the birthplace of the fable, are of this sort.
Every oriental collection abounds in proverbs like
‘The ant got wings to her destruction,’ ‘They
came to shoe the Pasha’s horses, and the beetle
held out his foot,’ ‘They asked the mule, ‘* Who
is thy father?” “The horse,” said he, ‘‘is my
maternal uncle.”’ By purists, mare these and
others of the same species, including the familiar
‘Pot and Kettle,’ may be denied a place among
the proverbs proper; but they fulfil all the fune-
tions of the proverb, and they serve moreover to
show how near akin are these two venerable
vehicles of old-world wisdom, the fable and the
proverb, Nor is the proverb of necessity the wit
of one. Sometimes it is the simplicity or naiveté
of one, and the wit lies in the application of it by
the many. The Viennese have a good specimen of
this kind. The late Emperor Ferdinand, driven
for shelter one day into a peasant’s house, took a
fancy to some dumplings that had been just cooked
for the family supper. The court-physician, being
responsible for the imperial digestion, remonstrated,
but his majesty’s ious answer was ‘ Kaiser bin
i’, knédel muss i’ haben ’—‘ Emperor I am, dump-
lings L’Il have ’—which became in course of time a
oo comment in cases of pertinacity. Here
we have what is very rare, a proverb traced toa
definite source ; a few instances there are like ‘A
bridge of silver for a flying foe,’ which was, it is
said, a saying of the ‘Great Captain,’ Gonsalvo
de Cordova; but as a rule the proverb is a scrap
of unfathered wit or wisdom that came into the
world nobody knows how. And here, too, we
have a proof that though many regard the proverb
as a mere fossil, there is still vitality in 1t. No
doubt modern society has recourse to proverbs in
conversation much more sparingly than was usual
in the days of our forefathers, and the reasons are
plain enough to see. To accept a proverb as an
answer implies deference to authority and is in
effect an acknowledgment of the wisdom of our
ancestors, There is necessarily an antagonism
between the proverb and individualism or self-
assertion or self-conceit, or whatever other name
we may choose to give it. The office of the proverb
is to hit the nail on the head, to put the matter in
a nut-shell, to bring back discussion to the point at
issue, to check prolix argumentation. In all lan-
guages it condemns loquacity and commends silence.
It is in fact a primitive form of ‘closure.’ If an
Arab or Persian orator waxes fervid on the theme of
— and bombards his hearers with pompous
platitudes about Nature's law, some graybeard will
ask, ‘ Hath God made the five fingers of hand all
ual?’ and solventur risu tab In the nature
of things, therefore, it is impossible that the pro-
verb should be popular among the worshippers of
excellent speech. The Celtic races, it may be ob-
served, never tly favoured proverbs. But for
all that proverbs are very far from being the dry
bones they are sometimes supposed to be. If any
one took the trouble to on carefully all the
proverbs or references to proverbs that came under
his notice in the course of a day, making a note of
allusions in his newspaper, whether in leaders,
parliamentary, law or police reports, letters from
correspondents, critiques, or pufling advertise-
ments; jotting down those he overhears in the
railway carriage or tramear, those dropped in busi-
ness conversation, in chat at the club, in table-talk
at and after dinner; and in fact from breakfast to
bedtime keeping his ears open for proverbs, he
would find probably that they enter into our daily
speech to a much greater extent than he had sus-
apie We are apt to use proverbs automatically.
completely have they oy cerinne themselves that
we talk of git horses, and half-loaves, and a bird
in the hand, and sauce for the goose mechanicall
and without any thought of speaking proverbi-
ally. There is no family perhaps that has not
roverbs or rudimentary proverbs of its own,
Founded on some adventure or drollery or blun-
der of one of its members, and used poe
by all, often to the perplexity of the uninitia
visitor; and what is true of the family is true
of the community on a more extensive scale. It
has its own current sayings, allusions, compari-
sons, similitudes, incomprehensible to the outsider,
but full of meaning to all who are to the manner
born. Of these there will be now and then one
more generally applicable and negotiable than the
rest, with more of the true proverb metal and ring
in it, which in time will the bonnds of the
community and become the property of the nation,
A man sees another bolting out of his house, and
asks what he has been about there. ‘You'll see
when the eggs come to be fried,’ says the other,
making off; which is explained when it is time to
fry the eggs and it is found out that the frying:
has been stolen. It will be first a family joke;
then a parish joke; then a stock saying in the
market-place—‘ very good; time will tell; you'll
see when the eggs come to be fried ;* then a saying
in many market-places; and so at last a proverb.
This is the actual story of one enshrined in Don
Quixote—Al freir de los huevos. ;
As they pass from the family and the community to
the nation, so they pass from one nation to another.
The purely national proverbs form only a portion
of the proverbs in an Jangnegy. It almost seems
as though there had | Ee rom time immemorial a
kind of proverb exchange through which any ser-
viceable proverb in one langu into any
other that stood in need of it; and this makes it a
matter of difficulty, or rather eee to
settle the nationality of many of the best and most
familiar. We are not, however, to dump at once
to the conclusion that proverbs which are identical
or nearly so must be in every instance merely ver--
sions or variants of one common original. ‘To take
an extreme case, our old friend the swallow that
makes no summer is current now in sixty or seventy
versions, and was current more than 2000 years
ago, a date which allows ample time for it to have
netrated into the remotest corners of Europe.
ut it does not by any means follow that none of
these came into existence independently. The
PROVERBS 457
remark is one which must have been made at first
hand in many a tongue on many a spring day.
‘Summer!’ cries the young man, ‘ Lo, a swallow !’
‘Nay,’ says the old one, with that repression of
youthful optimism which is the tag of age,
* One swallow,’ &c. But undoubtedly in most cases
of widely distributed proverbs the probability is on
the side of a common ancestor. It is not easy, for
instance, to see how that one about the gift-
horse’s mouth, which was, as we know, ‘a vu
roverb’ in the time of St Jerome, could ever have
mn independently produced. That two minds
should hit upon precisely the same illustration for
the same thought may be within the bounds of
ibility, but that in each case a proverb should
ie ties fruit of it pushes the coincidence to the
utmost limits of chance.
It is obvious that the greater number of these
roverbs which seem to be common property must
of eastern birth. If we find a proverb in Eng-
lish, German, Italian, and Spanish, and also in
Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani, which is the
more likely—that it has passed from Europe to
Asia, or from Asia to Europe? A wide distribu-
tion argues antiquity, for necessarily the proverb
travels slowly ; and, go back as far as we may, we
find the proverb, the Fable, and the parable work-
ing ther in the East. When David appealed
to Saul it was with ‘a proverb of the ancients,’
and it was with proverbs that the prophets drove
home their words, proverbs that are, many of them,
in use there to this day, like ‘ As is the mother, so
is her daughter,’ and “The fathers have eaten sour
grapes, and the teeth of the children are set on
edge.’ The sayings of ‘them of old time’ cited in
the Sermon on the Mount—‘ Judge not that ye be
not judged,’ ‘The straw in another’s eye thou
seest, but not the beam in thine own,’ and others,
are still current in Syria. ‘One sows and another
— * and ‘Who makes a trap for others falls into
it himself’ are Turkish, and ‘Where the co:
is there the vultures will be’ is a Bengali proverb.
The proverbs that are strictly national have an
interest of another kind. Coming directly from
the people, the chosen vehicles of their sentiments
and opinions, they naturally reflect the habits of
thought, the turn of mind, the way of looking at
things, that prevail among those who use them.
Any one at all versed in comparative rp
will be able for the most part to make a shrewd
guess at the original language from a translated
specimen. They reflect other things too—often
the history of the nation they come from. The
Spaniard, as he was before Ferdinand and Ximenez
bridled Aragon and Castile, makes himself heard
in ‘The king goes as far as he may, not as far as
he would ;’ there are Teutonic proverbs older than
Luther, in which his very spirit seems to speak ;
there are Italian proverbs that, in their cynicism,
distrust of mankind, and open advocacy of lying,
are more eloquent on the state of society in
medizeval Italy than any of her historians. And the
differences they suggest are often curious. The
devil figures prominently in the proverbs of Europe;
but in those of the Latin races he is always treated
with respect, or at any rate credited with astute-
ness, the only exception, perhaps, being the Italian
one that accuses him of weaving a coarse web. In
Teutonic proverbs, on the other hand, he is held
up to ridicule on the score of his amazing sim-
plicity. He tries to get wool off his pigs ; he takes
a donkey for a cow, and remarks how soft-its horn
is; he sits down on a swarm of bees, because
where there is singing going on one may make
one’s self easy ; and so on through a host of pro-
verbs that give a very poor idea of his intellect.
Of the national groups the Spanish is unquestion-
ably the most remarkable. The number of Spanish
proverbs is prodigious. In any other language
5000 or 6000 would be a large collection, But a
Spanish MS. by Yriarte, the Royal librarian, which
was in the Heber library, contained between
25,000 and 30,000, a number which, however
incredible to others, is not at all surprising to
those who know the proverbial aptitudes of the
people and the language. In Spain almost every-
thing has its proverb; every village of the plain,
every herb of the field, has its virtues or vices put
in a compendious shape for general circulation.
And they are as racy as they are numerous, full of
shrewd sense and knowledge of human nature, and
rich in that ve, dry Spanish humour which
never compromises itself by a descent into facetious-
ness. The Spaniard is, no doubt, naturally senten-
tious, but the facilities offered by his rich, sonorous
Castilian should not be overlooked; and among
them must be reckoned its wealth in rhymes, con-
sonant and assonant, of which there is such strik-
ing proof in the number and excellence of the
— rhyming proverbs. Language, it may be
observed, plays an important part in proverbs,
Take, for example, the Scotch ‘Better a toom
house than an ill tenant.” Compared with the
English ‘empty,’ how much more effective is the
Scandinavian ‘ toom,’ to say nothing of the allitera-
tion or inverted rhyme. The Basque proverbs,
from which several of the Spanish are obviously
derived, are of much the same character; and in
both, but especially in the Basque, the resemblance
to the proverbs of the East is very distinct. The
ge ine proverbs have not been as carefully collected
as they deserve, and of course form only a small
group 5 but, relatively to the Euskara-speaking
population of a little over half a million, their
numbers indicate a propensity to the use of
the proverb as strong as the Spaniard’s. The
Italian proverbs, only less* numerous than’ the
Spanish, are more remarkable for wit, often bitter,
than for humour; in the French, on the other
hand, there is little or none of that brilliant wit
and epigrammatic neatness of expression which
distinguish French literature. But this is only
what might be expected. French wit is the pro-
duct of French culture, and proverbs are natural
roductions. Our own, including the Lowland
tech, must be regarded as simply ‘a subdivision
of the great Teutonic group comprising the Ger-
man, the Plattdeutsch, the Dutch, the Danish, the
Swedish, and the Norwegian. Each of these has,
of course, its own peculiar proverbs, but in each
case the main body, it will be seen on comparison,
belongs to a common stock. Next to Spain, the
region richest in proverbs in Europe is probably
that watered by the lower Elbe, and including
Oldenburg, Hanover, Holstein, and Mecklenbur;
—the Anglo-Saxon country, in fact. Compa
with other groups, the Celtic proverbs must be
rated as poor. The Gaelic proverbs, as Nicol-
son’s admirable collection shows and he himself
admits, have been largely recruited from Norse and
Lowland Scotch sources ; and the purely Celtic are
to a great extent made up of sayings in praise of
Fingal, or expressive of the opinion which one clan
has of another, or of itself. The Welsh proverbs
thered by Howell are very flat; and of the Irish
hr Nicolson observes that the wonder is they are
so few, and those few so remarkably deficient in
the wit for which our Hibernian cousins are
specially distinguished—a remark certainly borne
out by the specimens usually given, in which moral
truisms of the copy-book order, like ‘Virtue is
everlasting wealth,” ‘Wisdom excels all riches,’
‘ Falling is easier than rising,’ have a decided pre-
dominance. Among the oriental proverbs the
Arabic hold the first place in respect of quantity,
and perhaps quality likewise, but the Persian and
458
PROVERBS
Hindustani are also excellent, and in the Turkish,
together with abundant worldly shrewdness, there
is sometimes a vein of that is very striking.
It is questionable whether the ‘ tender uty,’ to
use Trench’s phrase, of our own proverb of the
shorn lamb is not rivalled by its Turkish parallel,
‘God makes a nest for the blind bird.’
The bibliography of proverbs is, of course, a subject
which cannot be compressed within the limits of an article.
Even the admirable work of M. Duplessis, Bibliographie
Parémiologique (Paris, 1847), full as it is, has been out-
grown by the proverb literature that has sprung up since
its appearance; and Nopitzsch’s Literatur der ich-
worter (Nuremberg, 1833) is still more out of date. The
oldest collections of proverbs—true proverbs, that is to
say, not aphorisms or maxims of sages—are probably the
French Proverbes ruraux et vulgaux and Proverbes au
Villain, a significant title as indicating the recognised
source of proverbial wisdom. Both of these are of the
13th century, and there are one or two others of the
same sort almost as old. The Marquis of Santillana, the
Spanish poet, st: n, Idier, is the oldest collec-
tor of proverbs of whom we know anything. His colleo-
tion of 625 ‘Proverbs that the old women repeat over
the fire’ was made at the request of John II. of Castile
about the middle of the 15th century, but was not printed
till 1508. The earliest German collections were those of
Johann Agricola in 1528, and Sebastian Franck in 1541,
for Bebel’s ‘ Proverbia Germanica’ (1508), being in Latin,
cannot be counted. Of Italian proverbs the first genuine
collection was the Proverbi of Antonio Cornazzano
(Venice, 1518). Comparatively little attention has been
paid to our own. John Heywood, the dramatist, in 1546
composed in verse A dialogue conteyning in effect the
number of all the proverbes in tle English tunge, which
has a certain interest and value as the first attempt
towards a collection in the language. George Herbert's
Jacula Prudentum is, as its original title of Outlandish
Proverbs implies, merely a collection of foreign proverbs
in an English dress. Howell in 1659 colle a few
which he appended to his Lexicon Tetraglotton, to take
away the reproach against England ‘that she is but
barren in this point, and those proverbs she hath are but
flat und empty.’ The first deserving the name of a col-
lection was Ray’s in 1670, which, though faulty in system
and arrangement, brought together a considerable num-
ber of genuine, racy, popular proverbs, and has passed
through seven or eight editions. The best, that in
Bohn’s Handbook of Proverbs (1855), is supplemented
by a copious * Alphabet of Proverbs,’ to which the com-
nion volume, the Polyglott of Foreign Proverbs (1857),
Sans a useful adjunct, A later collection is Mr W. C.
Hazlitt’s (2d ed. 1882). Scotch proverbs have fared
better. A collection by David Fe nm appeared in
1641, and a much larger one by Kelly in 1721, followed
by Allan Ramsay’s in 1737. Henderson’s was pub-
lished in 1832, and Hislop’s in 1862. A collection of
Gaelic proverbs was made by Donald Macintosh in
1785, and a more complete one Alexander Nicolson
in 1882. Trench’s Lessons in Proverbs (1853) some-
what relieves the poverty of English proverb literature.
In strong contrast to English neglect is the zeal of Ger-
man collectors. Goedeke enumerates seventy-five names,
and Duplessis more than thrice that number of works.
A few of the more notable, after Agricola and Franck, are
Leb Politischer B. garten (1630); Siebenkees
(1790); Wander, Scheidemiinze (1832) and ichwiirter
Lexicon (1867); Korte (1837); Eiselein ( ); Sim-
rock (1846); Sutermeister, Schweizerische 7 i
(1869); Binder, Sprichwirterschate (1873); Schrider,
Plattdildsche Spriickwirderschatz (1875); Rheinsberg-
Diiringsfeld, Sprichwiirter der Germanischen und Roman-
ischen Sprachen (1872-75). The last is probably the
most masterly work on proverbs ever written, It is not
so much a collection as a concordance of proverbs, in
which more than 1700 are traced through all the Teutonic
and Latin languages and most of their dialects. The
chief French collections are Proverbes Communs (15th
century); Lebon, Adages et Proverbes de Solon de Voge
(16th century); Meurier, Z'résor des Sentences (1617);
Oudin, Curiositez ary oy (1640); Pancoucke, Dic-
tionnaire des Proverbes (1749); Tuet, Matinées Sénonaises
1789); Le Roux de Linoy, Livre des Proverbes Francai
1859; the best; over-clabotate in arrangement, but
valuable for its introduction and
Proverbes Basques (1657 ; 1847); Pro-
pst hy + (1876) allt ‘Reseed’ de Pec
t mn ;
(Nios, 1878 ).—Italian : (1526); Pes-
Ar suena oR Pe i ise} Proverbi Toscani
; new 5 3 Bonifacio, Pro-
Fei A scones (1858) ; Fominaseo, is
; Pasqualigo, i Veneti (3d ed. 1882),—
, Sas ae issii Glover (8)
Garay, en Refranes (1545 ;
Valles, Libro de Refranes (1549); i flex
uzman
Philosofta
tesano (1587); Oudin, Refranes Castellanos Ug 7
udo, Re-
(1856 ).—lcelandic: Dr H. Scheving (1847 ).—
Flemish: Willems (1824).—Modern Greek : Negris,
Dictionary of Modern Greek Proverbs (1834).—Russian :
A selection in appendix to Duplessis (1847).—Arabic :
Sealiger and Erpenius, Prout Arabum Centuria
Due (1623); Burkhardt, Arabic Proverbs (1830; 2d ed.
1875); Freytag, Proverbia (1838-43); Landberg, Pro-
verbes et Dictons de la Province de Syrie(1883).—Persian
and Hindustani: Roebuck, (1824).— i and Sans-
krit: Morton (1832).—Behar: Christian (1891).—
Turkish : Decourdemanche, Mille et un Proverbes Turcs
(1878); Osmanische Sprichwirter (1865; K.K. Orient.
Akad., Wien).—Chinese: Hau Kiou Chooan, or the
Pleasing History (1761), contains a small collection,—
Japanese: Steenackers and Ueda Tokunosuké, Cent
Proverbes Japonais (1884),
Proverbs, THE Book or, a canonical book of
the Old Testament, holds the second place among
the Hagiographa, coming immediately after Psalms,
The Hebrew word , translated in the ag 2
paroimia in the LXX. and proverbium in the Vul-
gate, primarily means ‘similitude,’ and is applie-
able to any kind of allegory, simile, or comparison,
especially when made for purposes of instruction ;
and every kind of didactic poetry is also included
under the name. Typical instances of the use of
the word oceur in Ezek. xvii. 2 (LXX.
A.V. ‘parable’), 1 Sam. x. 12 (LXX. prs
A.V. ‘ proverb’), Ps. xlix. 4 Me rps ih sa, xiv. 4
(LXX. threnos, A.V. ‘proverb’); it thus applies
ually to that brief spontaneous product of popular
wit or wisdom which in yay d English parlance
is most usually understood by the word ‘ proverb,’
and also to that special kind of literary production
which the Romans called sententia, the Greeks
gnomé, and which is known to the modern French
as the maxim. The Book of Proverbs as we now
have it is made up of a number of originally separ-
ate collections; besides the general preface (i. 1-7),
usually attributed to the author of chap. i.-ix., it
consists of the following eight parts : (1) i. 8-ix. 18
has more appearance of plan, method, and free com-
Sous than any of the others, and is specially
istingnished by the elaborateness with which its
moral lessons are enforced. Its ification of
wisdom as the first creation of is ‘one of the
most remarkable and beautiful things in Hebrew
literature,’ and clearly marks it as belonging to
a comparatively late phase of Hebrew thought not
far removed from the beginning? of Alexandrian
speculation. (2) x. l-xxii. 16, headed ‘the pro-
verbs of Solomon,’ consists of 376 miscellaneous
distichs, papesiy of the antithetic type, of which a
good example is furnished by the opening verse of
the collection. (3) xxii. 17-xxiv. 22 consists of
PROVIDENCE
PROVISIONAL ORDER 459
thirty-two moral precepts, six of which are distichs,
seventeen in four lines, and the others of various
forms, including a discourse or mashal of some
length against drunkenness (xxiii. 29-35). An
exhortation to heedfulness under instruction is
prefixed (xxii. 17-21). (4) xxiv. 23-34 is super-
scribed ‘These also are sayings of the wise,’ and
contains six sayings or precepts of a somewhat
trite order, including, however, the familiar de-
scription of the sluggard and his vineyard. (5)
xxv. 1-xxix. 27 has the heading ‘These also are
the proverbs of Solomon, which the men of Heze-
kiah, king of Judah, copied out.’ Of the total
number (127) 114 are distichs, six in four lines, and
the rest irregular. This collection is generally
considered by critics to contain more elements of
high antiquity than the rest of the book, and is
specially distinguished by the vigour, freshness,
and originality of its observations and expressions.
{6) Xxx. consists of twelve sets of verses of various
mport, including some riddles of the Hebrew type.
The somewhat obscure heading ought probably
run ‘The words of Agur the son of Jakeh of Massa
(ef. Gen. xxv. 14; 1 Chron. i. 30, iv. 38), and the
opening verses to be read (as in R.V. margin)
«The man said, I have wearied myself, O God, I
have wearied myself, O God, and am consumed,
for lam more brutish than any man, and have not
the understanding of a man ’—the despairing ex-
— of a spirit that has exhausted its energies
n the effort to reach a true knowledge of .
(7) xxxi. 1-9, ‘The words of Lemuel, king of Massa
{see above), wherewith his mother instructed him,’
a warning inst wine and women, and an exhor-
tation to righteousness in judgment. (8) xxxi. 10-
31, an alphabetical piece without superscription,
consisting of twenty-two distichs in praise of the
‘virtuous woman ’—i.e. the wise, energetic, capable
housewife. There are no data that enable us accur-
ately to determine the relative ages of these eight
portions. It seems not unreasonable to suppose
that the book may have been brought into its
resent form by the writer of the first part (i—ix.).
tis not improbable that the book contains indi-
vidual utterances of very great antiquity—as old
as, and perhaps even older than, Solomon himself ;
but it is impossible to pick out these with certainty.
There is no good reason for identifying the main
collection (x. 1-xxii. 16), consisting as we have
seen of 376 mashals, with the 3000 proverbs of
Solomon mentioned in 1 —— iv, 32, though this
has been done by Jerome; that x. 1-xxii. 16 was
not before the compilers of xxv. 1-xxix. 27 is
evident from the number of doublets contained in
the latter series (cf., for example, xxv. 24 and
xxi. 9; xxvi. 13 and xxii. 13; xxvi. 15 and xix, 24,
and numerous other instances). It is probable
that the present book was a slow and gradual
growth; and that the process may have been carried
on to a very late date is shown by the considerable
variations between thes Massoretic and Septuagint
texts.
For a good account of the Book of Proverbs, with refer-
ences to the literature of the subject, see Reuss, Gesch.
d. heil. Schriften Alten Testaments (1890). The most
convenient commentaries are those of Hitzig (1858),
Berthiean (1347; new ed. by Nowack, 1883), and Delitzsch
(1873 ; Eng. trans.). See also The Speaker’s Commentary,
and a homiletical work by Horton (1891).
Providence, a seaport and the semi-capital of
the state of Rhode Island, the second city of New
England and the twentieth in order of population
in the United States, is situated at the head of
navigation, on an arm of Narragansett Bay known
as Providence River, 35 miles from the ocean and
44 miles by rail SSW. of Boston, It covers a wide
area on both sides of the river, which, above its
two bridges, expands into a cove, a mile in circuit,
on the borders of which is a handsome park, shaded
with noble elms. It is a city of large commerce,
manufactures, and wealth, abounding with beauti-
ful villas and gardens. Founded before the con-
ventional type of American cities had been dis-
covered, its streets are pleasantly irregular, and
the site singularly uneven, rising in one place to
204 feet above high-water ; and in one ward, much
of which is still in farms, there are numerous hills
and valleys. Among the many notable public
buildings and institutions of Providence are a city
hall, of granite, which cost upwards of $1,000,000,
and has facing it the state’s soldiers’ monument ;
the state-house ; the custom-house and _post-oflice ;
the Athenzeum, and the buildings of the Rhode
Island Historical Society; the arcade and the
Butler Exchange; a great number of churches,
«schools, and libraries, hospitals and asylums, in-
cluding a noble charity known as the Dexter Asylum
for the Poor; the Friends’ Boarding-school (popu-
larly, ‘the Quaker College’); and Brown tras O
a Baptist institution, founded in 1764, ‘and amply
endowed: it has about 300 students, and ranks
among the leading colleges of the United States.
The city has lost most of its foreign trade, but
instead it has become one of the great manufactur-
ing centres of the country; two small rivers afford
abundant water-power. The chief establishments
are eng: in producing silver-ware, tools, stoves,
engines, locomotives, cottons and woollens, corset-
laces, shoe-laces, lamp-wicks, &e.; and _ besides
there are scores of manufactories of jewellery, many
bleaching-works, &e. Providence was settled in
1636 by r Williams. Pop. (1870) 68,904;
(1880) 104,857 ; (1890) 132,146; (1900) 175,597.
Province (Lat. provincia), a territory acquired
by the Romans beyond the limits of Italy, and
governed by a Roman Preetor Sas Bae propreetor,
or He a@ proconsul (see CONSUL). he senate de-
cided which provinces were to be pretorian and
which consular. As a rule the provinces were
unmercifully plundered by the governors and the
tax-collectors (publicani). Under Augustus there
were twelve imperial provinces, requiring military
occupation, and under the emperor’s immediate
control, and ten senatorial provinces, entrusted
to senatorial management (see ROME). The pro-
vinces of France (q.v.) were superseded at the
Revolution by the departments. The great govern-
mental divisions of India, Canada, and other
countries are often entitled provinces. The sphere
of duty of an Archbishop (q.v.) is his B hth
usually consisting of several dioceses. ‘The mon-
astic orders are or were distributed in provinces of
varying area; the provincial, in its monastic refer-
ence, is the superior of all the houses and all the
members of a monastic order within any particular
province. See GENERAL, MONACHISM.
Provins, a town of France (dept. Seine-et-
Marne), by rail 59 miles SE. of Paris, has remains
of ancient walls, flanked by ruined watch-towers.
The most interesting feature is an ancient tower,
built in the 12th century, vulgarly called Cesar’s
Tower. The vicinity was long famous for its roses,
and they are still eultivated to a considerable
extent. There are numerous flour-mills and dye-
works. Pop, 7888.
Provisional Order is an order granted, under
the powers conferred by an act of parliament, by a
department of the government, by the Secretary of
State, or by some other authority, whereby certain
things are authorised to be done which could be
accomplished otherwise only by an act of parlia-
ment. The order does not receive effect, however,
until it has been confirmed by the ‘legislature.
Till that time it is purely provisional ; and even
after it has been so confirmed and is in reality
460 PROVISIONS OF OXFORD
PRUNELLA
an independent act, it retains the title of a pro-
visional order. Provisional orders are most useful
in facilitating the modification or extension of the
provisions of general acts, so as to adapt them to
the special necessities of particular districts. They
may be obtained with much greater ove and
less cost than a private bill; the confirmatory act
when unopposed may be obtained in a week or
two, and has all the facilities of a government
measure,
Provisions of Oxford. See Monrrorr.
Provisors, STATUTE oF. The object of this
statute, in the reign of Edward IPL (1350),
was to correct and put an end to the abuses which
had arisen in the exercise of the 1 pre tives
as to the disposal of benefices in England. See
ENGLAND (CHURCH OF), Vol. TV. p. 357.
Provo City, capital of Utah county, Utah, is
on the Provo River, between Utah e and the
Wahsatch Mountains, and 46 miles by rail SSE. of
Salt Lake City. It contains flour-mills, tanneries,
&e. Pop. (1900) 6185.
Provost ( Lat. prapositus, ‘set over’), in Church
Law, the chief dignitary of a cathedral or collegiate
church, from which use the title has also n
transferred to the heads of other bodies, religious,
literary, or administrative. The name is also
given to the superiors of certain religious houses
of lesser rank, and the relation of which to the
more important houses is analogous to that of
the priory to the abbey. The head of a cathe-
dral chapter was anciently the archdeacon. At
present, in the Roman Catholic Church, cathedral
chapters are presided over by provosts in Austria,
Prussia, Bavaria, and England, but in other
parts of Germany and in France by deans. In
the Church of England the Dean (q.v.) is the
chief officer of a onthaaral ; but the title of provost
survives, alongside that of dean, in the ttish
Episcopal Church. In the Protestant Church in
Germany, in the north especially, where several
minor churches or chapels are attached to one chief
church, the minister of the latter is called provost
(probst). In England the heads of Oriel, Queen’s,
and Worcester colleges in the university of Oxford,
and the head of King’s College, Cambridge, are
designated provost. The head of Eton College is
also so called.
In Scotland the chief municipal magistrate of
a city or burgh is called provost, the term corre-
sponding to the English word mayor. The provost
presides in the civic courts along with the bailies,
who are his deputies (see BorouGH), The pro-
vosts of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Perth,
and, since 1892, Dundee, are styled Lord Provost.
The Lord Provost of Edinburgh is entitled to the
prefix ‘ Right Honourable,’ which may be attached
not merely to the name of his office, but to his
Christian name and surname. See ADDRESS
(ForMS OF), PRECEDENCE. Within the city and
liberties of Edinburgh the Lord Provost takes pre-
cedence next after members of the royal family.
Provost-marshal, in the Navy, is a person
appointed to have charge of a prisoner before a
court-martial, and until the sentence of the court
is carried into execution. In the British Army the
provost-marshal is an officer, appointed only abroad,
to superintend the preservation of order, and to be,
as it were, the head of the police of any particular
camp or district. He has cognisance of all camp-
followers, as well as of members of the army.
Under the Army Act of 1881 he cannot as formerly
inflict any punishment of his own authority, but
may apprehend any offender and bring him before
a court-martial. It may then be his duty to see
the sentence of the court carried out.
Proxy (contracted for Procu agency
of one person who acts as substitute for another.
Every member of the House of Lords was formerly
permitted, on obtaining a nominal license from the
crown, to appoint another lord of parliament his
proxy to vote for him in his absence. Only a
spiritual lord could be proxy for a spiritual lord,
and a temporal for a temporal lord, and no peer
could hold more than two proxies at the same
time. Proxies were never used in judicial business,
or in committees of the House, nor could a proxy
sign a protest. The practice of admitting proxies
was discontinued in 1867. Shareholders in joint-
stock companies may vote by proxy. Formerly
princely persons were sometimes, for reasons of
state or convenience, represented by deputy at
their own matri ; but marriage
), the
xy is
| not we eye by the law of Tnglend. ? See Man.
E.
RIAGE, Vol. VII. p. 58.
Prudentius, Marcus AvuReELius CLEMENS,
the most important of the Roman Christian
was born in the north of Spain in 348 A.p. Nothi
is known regarding him except what he has hi
told in a poetical autobiography prefixed to his
works. From this we learn that he received a
liberal education, practised as a pleader, di
the functions of civil and criminal judge, and was
ultimately appointed to a high office at the im-
erial court. religious convictions came late
in life, and he devoted the evening of his days to
the com The year of
ition of religious try.
his death is not known. hp ea the chief
are (1) Cathemerinon Liber, a series of twelve
hortatory hymns, the first half for the different
hours of the day, the latter half for different church
seasons (Eng. trans. 1845); (2) abr e304, a
collection of fourteen lyrical ms in honour of
martyrs ; (3) Apotheosis, a defence of the doctrine
of the Trinity inst heretics ; (4) Hamartigeneia,
on the Origin of Evil, a polemic, in verse, against
the Marcionites; (5) Psye. ia, on the Triumph
of the Christian Graces in the Soul of a Believer ;
(6) Contra Symmachum, the first book a polemic
against the heathen gods, the second against a
petition of Symmachus for the restoration of the
altar and statue of Victory cast down by Gratian ;
(7) Diptychon, a series of forty-nine hexameters,
arranged in four verses, on scriptural incidents
and person Bentley calls Prudentius ‘the
Horace and irgil of the Christians,’ which may
be true enough if the critic only meant to say that
he is the first of the early Christian verse-makers.
See the article Hymn, Vol. VI. p. 46.
¥F. St John Thackeray,
Translations from Prudentius (1890), with an excellent
introduction on his life and ®times, language, metre,
and style.
Prud’hommes, Councits or. See FRANCE,
Vol. IV. p. 776.
Prunella. Skeat defines this material as ‘a
strong woollen stuff, originally of a dark colour,’
Fr. prunelle, ‘a sloe,’ whence nella in a Latin-
ised form. _We know this word chiefly from Pope's
fine lines (Zssay on Man, iv. 204):
Worth makes the man, and want of it the fellow,
The rest is all but leather or prunella,
To which passage, in the Globe edition, Mr Ward
notes ‘ because clergymen’s gowns were often made
of this kind of stuff.—The name Prunelle is
also given to a at of plants of the natural
order Labiate. veral _— are natives of
Europe; one only is found in Britain, P. vulgaris,
_—_———
PRUNES
PRUSSIA 461
pularly known as Self-heal, a plant very frequent
in moist and barren pastures, as it is also throughs
most of Europe, central Asia, North America,
and New Holland. It was at one time in consider-
able repute as a febrifuge. It is mildly aromatic
and slightly astringent.
Prunes are dried fruit of nd ai hohe (Prunus
domestica), of the variety called Juliana, largely
prepared in France, and exported thence. Great
numbers come also from Bosnia and Servia.
. the removal of branches from fruit
or forest trees, in order to the greater production
of fruit, the improvement of the timber, or purposes
of ornament. In pruning for ornamental purposes
taste must chiefly be consulted, but reference must be
made to what has been too little regarded in prunin
of every kind—the nature or habit of the tree itself.
Some trees will bear clipping into fantastic forms,
which would be utterly destructive of others. Such
forms, once esteemed as the finest ornaments of a
pleasure-ground, or the neighbourhood of a man-
sion, are rejected by the simpler taste of the present
age, and the ‘topiarian art’ has few admirers. Much
may be done, however, by the removal of branches
to give a finer form to ornamental trees; but in
this, as in the pruning of trees grown for the sake
of their timber, a t mistake is very generally
committed in permitting branches to fs to a
considerable size before they are cut off. It may
be accepted as a general rule that the branches
ieaeved should be small in proportion to the bulk
of the trunk. The removal of twigs and small
branches is attended by no bad effects, and may be
beneficial ; but the removal of large branches is
dangerous. The leaving of stumps or snags is an
vravation of the evil. They rot away and spoil
the timber of the stem; indeed, a hole is not un-
frequently formed, which may eventually lead to
the rotting of the whole of the interior of the trunk
of the largest oak. But in the case of forest
trees pruning may with advantage be in great part
avoided, by taking care to plant at proper distances,
and thinning out the plantations sufficiently in early
iods of their growth. In this way better timber
is obtained and a greater produce from the land.
Pines and firs scarcely ever require pruning, and are
probably in almost all cases the worse of that which
they get, except in the removal of those lower
branches which have actually begun to decay. In
other trees it is sometimes of importance to watch
for branches that would divide the trunk, and to
prevent the division, causing the main stem to
ascend higher before it forms a crown; but to be
of any use this must be done whilst the branches
are still very young. Plantations should therefore
be examined with a view to pruning, at intervals
of not more than two years, after they are six or
eight years old.
n orchards and fruit-gardens pruning is neces-
sary, the object being not to produce timber, or the
utmost luxuriance of trees, but fruit in the greatest
perfection and abundance. The habits of each kind
must be studied. Even in the pranse of goose-
berry and currant bushes regard must be had to
natural diversities, the gooseberry and black-cur-
rant producing fruit chiefly on young wood, whilst
the red and white currant produce fruit chiefly on
spurs from older branches. And so it is amongst
trees ; apricots, for example, producing fruit chiefly
on young wood, cherries mostly on spurs, whilst
luis produce both in the one way and in the other.
e object of the gardener in pruning is to bring
the tree into the condition best suited for producing
fine fruit and in the greatest abundance; and to
this the training of wall trees must also be
accommodated. metimes, in order to produce
particularly fine fruits for the improvement of the
variety by seed, or for the sake of a prize at a
horticultural exhibition, the gardener dation
the number of branches likely to bear fruit beyond
what would otherwise be desirable.
The general seasons of pruning are winter and
spring; but some trees, particularly cherries and
1 other drupaceous fruit trees, are advantage-
ously pruned in summer, as they then throw out
less gum.
Pruning instruments are of various kinds—knives,
axes, saws, bills of very various forms, &c.; and the
averruncator, which may be described as a pair of
scissors, one blade hooked or crooked, attached to
a long handle, and working by a cord and pulley.
It is searcely used except for standard trees in
gardens and orchards.
Frurige is the name applied to a group of
diseases of the skin, characterised by the presence
of papules, scarcely distinguishable in colour from
the normal skin, and so ‘felt rather than seen,’
accompanied by intense itching. One form of the
disease, prurigo senilis, is met with in old people
in consequence of the irritation caused by lice, and
disappears when these are got rid of. In its most
characteristic form, however, it almost always
begins in childhood, and may persist through life :
even when it is got rid of for a time it is very apt
to recur. It chiefly affects the trunk and extensor
surfaces of the limbs, and is worst in winter. The
disease is aggravated by the scratching from which
the sufferer cannot refrain, and the skin becomes
thickened and often eczematous as well. Warm
baths and soothing ointments externally, good
feeding, cod-liver oil, and arsenic or quinine are
generally found to give great relief, and often cure
the disease entirely.
Prussia (Ger. Preussen), by far the largest
and most important state in the German empire,
is a kingdom embracing nearly the whole of
northern Germany. It is bounded N. by the
German Ocean, Jutland, and the Baltic; E.
by Russia (and Russian Poland); 8. by Austria,
Saxony, the Thuringian states, Bavaria, Hesse-
Darmstadt, and Alsace-Lorraine; W. by Luxem-
bourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Prussia
owns besides Hohenzollern (q.v.) and about thirteen
other smaller exclaves or detached territories
lying within the bounds of other German states.
The total area is 136,000 sq. m., with (1895)
31,855,123 inhabitants—i.e. nearly two-thirds of
the entire German empire, with about three-fifths
of the population, equal to about one and one-tenth
the size of the United Kingdom, or one-half of the
state of Texas. The frontier line has a cireum-
ference of 4720 miles, of which 1025 miles are
coast-line (770 miles on the Baltic, 255 miles on
the German Ocean). The following are the pro-
vinces into which Prussia is divided :
Area in sq.m. Pop. in 1880, Pop. in 1895.
East Prussia...... 14,446 1,933,936 2,006,689
i 9,964 1,405,898 1,494,360
: 1,122,330 1,667,304
Brandenburg...... 15,560 2,266,825 2,821,695
Pomerania ........ 11,762 1,540,034 1,574,147
Posen....... ...-11,311 1,703,897 1,828,658
Silesia . 15,743 4,007,925 4,415,309
Saxony........++++ 9,863 2,312,007 2,698,549
Sleswick-Holstein.. 7,360 claret 1,286,416
Heligoland...... oaths eat
Hanover .........- 15,081 2,120,168 2,422,020
Westphalia........ 7,892 2,043,442 2,701,420
Hesse-Nassau...... 6,128 1,554,376 1,756,802
Rhenish Prussia. , .10,543 4,074,000 5,106,002
Hohenzollern...... 447 67,624 65,752
Total....136,075} 27,279,111
Omitting Berlin and Heligoland, the density of
population ranges between 131 (Pomerania) and
(Rhenish Prussia) per sq.m. About one-fifth
of the present area of Prussia has been acquired
31,855,128
462
PRUSSIA
since 1853, the largest gains being made after the
victorious war of 1866. The Prussia of Frederick
the Great embraced of 47,800 sq. m. when he
ascended the throne, and 75,000 when he died. In
1819 the population was 10,981,934; in 1864,
19,254,649 ; in 1871, 24,689,252 ; in 1895, 31,855,123.
PuysicaL FeEATuRES. Mountains.—The greater
part of Prussia, more than two-thirds of its total
area, belongs to the north European plain, while
less than a third, chiefly in the south-west, can be
described as hilly or mountainous. The division
line between the two districts is roughly indicated
by an irregular series of heights beginning with
the Tentoburgerwald, to the east of the upper
Ems, and the Weser Hills, on both sides of the
upper Weser, and thence running towards the
south-east in the Harz Mountains (q.v.), with the
Brocken (3740 feet), and in the northern outliers
of the Thiiringerwald (Finsterberg, 3100 feet;
Inselsberg, 3000 feet). Farther to the south-east
this line of heights is continued by the Riesen-
birge (q.v.), separating Prussian Silesia from
hemia, and forming the northern ranges of the
Sudetic system. None of these ranges rise above
about 5000 feet; the Schneekoppe (5250 feet) in
the Riesengebirge is the loftiest summit on Prussian
territory. The western and south-western parts of
the country, comprising Rhenish Prussia, West-
phalia, and Hesse-Nassau, thus ent off from the
sandy and heathy wastes of the north, are quite
distinct in their physical character from the rest of
Prussia. They are divided by the Rhine into two
portions. On the west side of the river, between
Aix-la-Chapelle and the Moselle, is the elevated
plain known as the Hohe Veen and the Eifel,
which has a mean elevation of 1600 feet, with a
few higher hills (Hohe Acht, 2490 feet). South of
the Moselle, and parallel with that river, stretches
the Hunsruck, with an average height of 1200 to
1500 feet, and farther south is the Hardt, the
name here given to the northern extremity of the
Vosges. On the east side of the Rhine the Sauer-
land, between the Ruhr and the Sieg, with the
Rothaar or Rotl ngebirge, is succeeded farther
south by the Westerwald (Fuchskauten, 2155
feet), between the Sieg and the Lahn, and by the
Taunus (Feldberg, 2885 feet), between the Lahn
and the Main. To the south of the Taunus,
famous for its mineral springs, lies the fertile
valley of the Main, while to the east the Vogels-
berg, chiefly, however, in Hesse, forms a link with
the Hohe Rhin (Wasserkuppe, 3115 feet), which
may be regarded as an outlier of the Thiiringer-
wald. The soil is generally poor in these districts,
though they Rowen special sources of wealth in
their iron and coal mines, The level country
between the Rhone and the Maas, bordering the
Eifel, is, however, extremely fertile; and Hesse-
Cassel is particularly fruitful, cereals of all kinds
growing abundantly. The great northern plain,
which occupies the rest of the kingdom, is varied
by two terrace-like elevations already described
under GERMANY (Vol. V. P. 172). The surface is
diversified with numerous lakes, especially in the
east, on what are known as the Pomeranian and
East Prussian Lake-plateaus, but none of them is
more than 20 sq. m. in area, though altogether
they are estimated to cover more than 300 sq. m,
The soil, consisting chiefly of loose sand interspersed
with a large number of erratic blocks of granite, is
sterile, covered in many places with heaths and
belts of stunted pines. Bn the northern slope,
terminating on the shores of the Baltic, there are
several fertile districts, more especially along those
rivers which have been carefully embanked, as the
Niemen and the Vistula. The southern elevation
of the Prussian plain, running between the Polish
mountains of Sandomir in the south-east and the
Elbe between eburg and Burg in the north-
west, attains a height of about 1000 feet near
Breslau on the Oder, where it is known as the
Trebnitz Heights. Its general character is more
fertile than the northern elevation; while the
country between the two is, for the most part,
extremely sterile. It includes the sandy waste in
which Berlin, the capital, is situated. South of
this tract, and in Silesia and Prussian Saxony, the
country is fertile, including some of the 5 ro-
ductive grain-growing districts of Prussia. Han-
over has much the same character. Great marshes
or peat-moors cover the north and north-west dis-
tricts ; but the valleys that lie among the Harz Moun-
tains in the south are often fertile, and well adapted
for agriculture. The coasts are low, and require to
be protected from the overflowing of the sea by em-
bankments and dykes. Sleswick-Holstein, to the_
north of the Elbe, is in pees sandy and heathy,
like the plain of Hanover, but it has also numerous
marshes.
Rivers.—The northern os is watered by five
large rivers—the Niemen, Vistula, Oder, Elbe, and
Weser—all of which rise beyond the borders of the
kingdom, and the Pregel, Eider, and Ems, which
are exclusively Prussian. In the west the chief
river is the Rhine, which enters Prussia at Mainz,
and thence flows north through a narrow valley
noted as one of the most i parts of Ger-
many. The Rhine, which is navigable throughout
its entire course in Prussian territory, receives
numerous tributaries—as the Lahn, Wied, Sieg,
Wupper, Ruhr, Lippe, Berkel, and Vechte, on the
right, and on the left the Ahr and the Moselle or
osel, the latter of which is navigable for more
than 150 miles within the Prussian dominions.
The Weser, Elbe, Oder, and Vistula, as also the
Spree and Havel, affluents of the Elbe, are of high
importance for the inland navigation of Prussia,
and are each discussed in special articles. Alto-
ther Prussia is said to 119 navigable
rivers, besides nearly fifty others that may be used
by rafts, and ninety canals. Of the last named,
which form a network connecting the chief rivers
of north paper wwag. © the most important are the
Bromberger, the Finow, the Friedrich-Wilhelms,
the Eider, and the Kaiser-Wilhelm canals,
Climate.—The climate of Prussia presents great
differences in the eastern and western provinces,
the former being ex 1 to heavy snowstorms in
winter and great drought in summer, while the
latter have milder winters and a greater rainfall.
At Berlin the annual mean temperature is 48° F. ;
on the Rhine it is 49° (summer, 63°; winter, 34°);
in the east oe and among the mountains
it is below 43° (summer, 61°; winter, 25°).
Productions.—Agriculture and the rearing of
cattle constitute the principal sources of ps tegphacna
and wealth of the rural poral of the entire
monarchy, and the state has hitherto directed its
unremitting attention to the furtherance of the one
and the improvement of the other ; ab: ing oner-
ous land-taxes, advancing poe to landowners,
encouraging cultural institutions, introducing
approved breeds of animals and improved farm
instruments, &e. Rather less than one-half, or -
12,000,000, of the population of the kingdom are
engaged in agriculture as their sole or chief oceupa-
tion. Of the total area 50 per cent. is occupied by
arable land, 94 per cent. by meadows, and 11 percent.
by pasturage. Large estates, as a rule, are only
to be found in the eastern and least populated pro-
vinces of the monarchy. Rye, wheat, oats, barley,
, millet, rape-seed, maize, linseed, beet-root,
potatoes, tobacco, flax, hemp, hops, chicory are ex-
tensively cultivated. The finest grain districts are
the Bérde, near Magdeburg, the low lands on the
Wartha and Netze, and on the Pline ani Madie
PRUSSIA
463
lakes. the north-eastern parts of Pomerania, the
island of Riigen, the valleys of the Oder in Silesia,
of the Saale, Moselle, Saar, and parts of Hesse-
Nassau. Magdeburg is the centre of the beet-root
sugar industry. Western Prussia is noted for its
excellent fruits and vegetables, and its provinces
stand pre-eminent for their wines. Nassau is
specially famous for its Rhine wines. The forest-
lands, which are chiefly in East Prussia, Posen,
Upper Silesia, Westphalia, Southern Hanover,
od Hesse-Nassau, are of great value and con-
siderable extent, occupying an area of 10,000,000
acres. The mineral products of Prussia
include coal, iron, lead, zinc, copper, cobalt, anti-
mony, manganese, arsenic, sulphur, alum, nickel,
black lead, baryta, gypsum, slate, lime, freestone,
salt, amber, agate, jasper, onyx, &c. Prussia
yields about one-half of the annual zine produc-
tion of the world ; and of the total output of coal
in Germany, about three-eighths of that of the
United Kingdom, Prussia produces 93 per cent.
The chief coalfields are in Silesia, Westphalia, and
Rhenish Prussia, which are at the same time the
chief industrial provinces of the kingdom. The
region of the Harz in Hanover is also famous for
its mining industries. All metals, salt, precious
stones, and amber found along the Prussian coast
from Danzig to Memel belong to the crown. Prussia
has upw of 100 mineral springs, of which the
most noted and efficient are the sulphur baths of
Aix-la-Chapelle and Ems, the iron springs of
Schwalbach, Wilhelmsbad, Driburg, and the hot
and saline baths of Reinerz, Landeck, Flinsberg,
Freienwalde, Lauchstedt, Wiesbaden, Schlangen-
bad, and Selters. East Prussia is noted for its
royal studs, and the excellent breed of horses
which it now raises, and of which large numbers
are annnally exported. Westphalia enjoys a
special reputation for the excellence of its hams
and pork, Pomerania for its smoked geese, and
ecmhenberg and Hanover for honey and wax.
Fish of all sorts are abundant in the rivers and
numerous lakes ; seals are taken in the Baltic. The
wooded districts abound in game of every kind,
heasants, partridges, and wild geese being often
and in enormous quantities. Besides stags,
fallow-deer, wild boars, foxes, otters, weasels,
lecats, martens, badgers, hares and rabbits, the
fyns, bear, eagle, and beaver are occasionally met
with.
rong ming ype principal manufactures are
linens, tor which certain districts of Silesia, Prus-
sian Saxony, and Brandenburg enjoy a European
celebrity ; while of late years the cotton manufac-
tories, worked by steam, have maintained a sue-
cessful rivalry with the older linens, worked by
hand-looms. Besides these there are numerous
manufactories of silk, wool, mixed cotton and linen
fabrics ; including fine shawls and carpets in Bran-
denburg, stockings and ribbons in the Rhenish
rovinces, where, as well as in Westphalia and
esse-Nassau, the flax, hemp, and silk and cotton
thread is mainly prepared for the manufacturers.
These districts, moreover, stand foremost in regard
to the preparation and manufacture of iron, steel
(the steel and gun works of Krupp, at Essen, being
world-famous), and other metallic wares, paper,
leather, soap, oil, cigars, and tobacco, and for the
number of their distilleries and breweries; while
Saxony and Silesia have the largest number of
chicory, starch, beet-root, qonparaae and glass
works. Berlin and Elberfeld rank as the two most
important centres of manufacture on the Continent.
In 1893-94 there were 316 beet-root sugar factories
in Prussia, which produced 1,001,804 tons of raw
sugar. In 1894 the total value of the minerals
produced in the kingdom was 576,679,725 marks (of
which nearly two-thirds came from the Rhine-land
and Westphalia) ; while the mineral produce of the
German empire was only 675,000,000 marks.
Commerce.—The commerce of Prussia is materi-
ally facilitated by her central European position,
and the network of river and canal navigation,
which makes her the connecting medium between
several of the great European states, and which,
with (1895) 17,486 miles of railway, 40,500 miles
of public roads (all, or nearly all, formed since the
time of Frederick the Great), and a coast-line of
1000 miles, gives her a free outlet to the rest of the
world. The Prussian mercantile marine in 1889
numbered 2255 vessels of 354,213 tons. The chief
rts are Memel, Pillau, Kénigsberg, Danzig, Col-
re Swinemiinde, Stettin, Wolgast, Stralsund,
Kiel, Flensborg, Altona, Harburg, Geestemiinde,
Leer, and Emden, The principal commercial towns
are Berlin, Kénigsberg, Breslau, Barmen, Elber-
feld, Danzig, Posen, Stettin, Cologne, Magdeburg,
Aix-la-Chapelle, and Frankfort-on-the-Main.
Annual fairs are still held at Breslau, Magdeburg,
and Frankfort-on-the-Oder.
The money, measures, and weights of Prussia
are those in use throughout the German empire.
In accordance with the law of 1872 the mark is the
unit of reckoning, and has gradually displaced
Thalers (q.v.) and ciharerachin. The Prussian
or Berlin Bank, founded in 1765, with numerous
branches in the provinces, is the most important
of those banks which possess the right of issuing
notes.
Religion, &c.—The dominant religion is Protes-
tantism, and since 1817 the Lutheran and Reformed
Churches have been united under the head of one
common evangelical chureh. Everything con-
nected with the external administration of church
matters is under the control of the minister of
public instruction and ecclesiastical affairs, but
every religious community manages its own inter-
nal concerns; the Protestant Shes acting in
conjunction with consistories or boards appointed
by the government, one of which exists in each
province, under the direction of the upper president,
or provincial governor, and a clerical superintendent-
general, who in Posen and Pomerania bears the
title of bishop; while the Roman Catholic Church
is directed by the two archbishops of Posen and
Gnesen, and Cologne, under whom stand the four
bishopries of Culm, Miinster, Paderborn, and
Treves. The four episcopal sees of Breslau, Erme-
land, Osnabriick, and Hildesheim are directly
under the jurisdiction of the pope, while the
district of Glatz, in Silesia, belongs to the arch-
bishoprie of Prague; Katscher, in vppe Silesia,
to that of Olmiitz; and Fulda and Limburg to that
of Freiburg. The results of the census of 1885, as
regards the numbers of the religious bodies, are as
follows: the Protestants of Prussia numbered
18,244,405 (64°4 per cent. of the pop.); Roman
Catholies, 9,621,763 (33°9 per cent.) ; Jews, 366,575
(1°29 per cent.). Roman Catholics are most numer-
ous in Hohenzollern (95 per cent.), Rhenish Prussia
(71 per cent.), Posen, Silesia, Westphalia, and
West Prussia. The higher Roman Catholic clergy
are paid by the state, the parochial clergy chiefly
by endowments. For the Kultur-kampf, see the
article GERMANY, Vol. V. p. 185.
Education.—Education is compulsory in Prussia
between the ages of six and fourteen, and its
management and direction are under the control
of the state. In no country are better or ampler
means supplied for the diffusion of knowledge
among all classes of the community. Prussia has
ten universities—viz. Kénigsberg, Berlin, Greifs-
wald, Breslau, Halle, Géttingen, Miinster, Bonn,
Kiel, and Marburg, which in 1889-90 numbered above
1240 professors and teachers and 15,770 students.
The educational system has already been described
464
PRUSSIA
under GERMANY, Vol. V. p. 176. In 1896 there
were in Prussia 36,000 elementary schools, with
82,200 teachers and 5,236,820 pupils, The ma -
ment of the elementary national schools is in the
hands of the local communities; but the state
appoints the teachers, and in part pays their
salaries, the remainder being supplied by the
public. In addition to the libraries of the several
universities there is the Royal Library at Berlin,
with 800,000 volumes and about 15,000 MSS.
Among the numerous scientilic, artistic, and
literary schools and societies of Prussia the follow-
ing are some of the more distinguished: the
Academy of Arts, founded in 1700; the Royal
Museum of Arts; the Academy of Sciences; the
Natural History, Cae Ea and Polytechnic
Societies of Berlin; the Antiquarian Society of
Stettin ; the Breslau Natural History and Histori-
cal Societies ; &e.
Justice.—Till lately the Code Napoléon was in
force in the Rhenish provinces, and in Hither-
Pomerania the common German law ; but in other
parts of the kingdom the Prussian code, compiled
ander Frederick the Great’s direction, was followed.
A new ape code was promulgated in 1850, by
which all pre-existing seigniorial, municipal, or
ecclesiastical rights of decreeing punishments were
unconditionally abrogated. A partial codification
was brought about in 1862, and in 1869 a code of
commercial law valid for the North German Con-
federation. Since the establishment of the empire
imperial law has precedence of that peculiar to the
various states in a | number of subjects.
Universal criminal and commercial codes are now
in force for the whole empire, and a universal civil
code has been prepared. A common judicature
bill for the empire was passed in 1879. Prussia
has sixteen Oberlandes-gerichte or provincial courts,
one or more in each province. Connected with
that sitting at Berlin is the Privy-council of
Justice, which has jurisdiction over the royal
family and the princely houses of Hohenzollern.
The supreme tribunal of the empire has been estab-
lished, not at Berlin, but at Leipzig, in Saxony.
Army, Navy, &c.—In 1899 the strength of the
Prussian army on a peace footing, according to
official returns, numbered 453,000, of whom 53,000
were cavalry and 64,000 artillery. The army con-
sists of the regular troops and the Landwehr (q.v.),
and in time of war an extra force can be called up
under the title of the landsturm. Every able-bodied
male Prussian is liable to be called upon to serve
between twenty and thirty-nine years of (see
GERMANY). Clergymen of the Roman Catholic
and Evangelical churches and indispensable sup-
rters of families are exempt. reat care is
towed on the education and military training of
officers and men; and, besides numerous admirable
academies, there are several good schools of opera-
tive and veterinary surgery, &c. connected with
the educational department of the army. The
navy of the new German empire is the navy of
Prussia, See GERMANY.
Constitution, déc.—Prussian was an absolute
monarchy till the crisis of 1848, when the decided
movement in favour of liberal views compelled the
king to convoke a national assembly, and submit
to the establishment of a constitutional form of
sideroorer en which has been repeatedly modified.
he national representative y consists of two
bodies: (1) an upper chamber (Herrenhaus, or
* House of Lords’), which is now composed of the
princes of the royal family who are of age, the
chiefs of the mediatised princely houses recogni
by the Congress of Vienna, numberin teen
in Prussia, the heads of the territorial nobility
(about fifty), og ee chosen by the king from
the class of rich landowners, manufacturers, and
‘national celebrities,’ a titled representative chosen
by all landowners in each of the Prussian provinces,
representatives of the universities, the bn
masters of all towns having more than 50.
inhabitants, and an indefinite number of members
appointed by the king for life or for a limited
period; (2) a lower chamber (Adg
or ‘Chamber of Deputies’), composed of 432 mem-
bers, 352 for the old kingdom and 80 for the
vinces annexed in 1867. Every Prussian who
attained his twenty-fifth year, and who has a
municipal vote, has also 4 parliamentary vote, but
not a direct one. Out of every 250 Urwihler, or
electors in the first instance, is chosen a Wadd-
mann, or direct elector. This is the man who,
strictly speaking, votes for a member of parliament.
Representatives are elected for five years, and each
receives twenty marks per diem, the refusal of
which is illegal. In addition to this general house
of assembly there are representative bodies for the
provinces, communes, and circles, which debate
and legislate in regard to local matters within
their several departments. The executive council
of state is composed of eleven ministers appointed
by the king, and holding office without reference
to the comparative strength of political parties.
The president of the council has a salary of £2700,
each of the other ministers receives £1800, By the
reece anal of 1850 all esc it pat
eges arising from titles or station are abroga’
and perfect ee in the eye of the law full
recognised ; liberty of the subject guaranteed in
regard to religious persuasion, the right to hold
meetings unarmed within closed doors, and become
members of societies ; immunity from domiciliary
visits, and inviolability of letters, &e. The mon-
archy is hereditary in the male line. The sovereign
and royal family must profess the evangelical con-
fession of faith. The king, who is not responsible
for the measures of his government, and whose
decrees require the counter-signatures of his
ministers, exercises the executive power, nominates
and dismisses the ministry, summons and dissolves
the chambers, orders the promulgation of the laws,
is commander-in-chief of the forces, has the right of
roclaiming peace and war, granting reprieves, &e.
e bears the titles of King of Prussia, Mark of
Brandenburg, Sovereign-duke of Silesia, Prince of
Orange, Grand-duke of Pomerania and the Lower
Rhine, besides a host of lesser titles. The title
‘German Emperor,’ by which he is now
known, is not, of course, a Prussian dignity. The
eldest son of the king bears the title of Crown-
prince. The ordinary royal residences are the
palaces at Berlin, Potsdam, and Charlottenburg.
he royal domains were ceded to the state by
Frederick- William III. in 1820, on condition of a
rental of 24 million thalers being paid first from
them for the king and his family, which, how-
ever, has been increased in 1859, 1868, and 1889 by
pate of a Krondotation (‘crown-allowance’) to
770,550.
In the year 1898-99 the budget-estimate of the
receipts was 2,187,527,384 marks ($520,631,517),
just balanced by the expenditure. The total
national debt bearing interest was 6,485,222,000
marks ( $1,543,482,836), or about $48°50 per head of
the population, The direct taxes are an income-
tax, land-tax, house-tax, class-tax, and trading-
tax, and amount to about 5s, 6d. per head. The
income-tax yields about 1s. 5d. per head of the
population. 4
Po ulation, Races.—About seven-eighths of the
mation of Prussia are Germans. Of the Slavonic
fr the most numerous are Poles, numbering 24
millions. In Brandenburg and Silesia there are
about 85,000 Wends ; in t Prussia, upwards of
150,000 Lithuanians ; Western Prussia has rather
. PRUSSIA
465
more than 10,000 Walloons, using the French
language; intermixed in its generally German
2 aera Silesia has 55,000 Czechs or Bohemians;
leswick-Holstein, 140,000 Danes—making in all
about 3 millions who do not use the German lan-
guage, or who employ it only as secondary to their
native tongues.
Ranks, Diasios.— Three distinct hereditary classes
are recognised in Prussia—viz. nobles, burghers,
and peasants. To the first belong nearly 200,000
persons, including the higher officials of the state,
although that number does not comprise the various
mediatised houses, of which sixteen are ssian,
and others belonging to different states, but con-
nected with Prussia by still existing, or former
territorial possessions. The burgher p ae includes,
in its higher branches, all public office-bearers, pro-
fessional men, ier = pipe oneal ee
peasantry—to which belong all persons engaged in
a pricultorel mrsuits—are divided into classes, de-
poe on the number of horses employed on the
History.—The lands bounded by the Baltic,
which now form part of Prussia, were early occupied
by Slavonic tribes, nearly allied to the Letts and
Lithuanians. It is conjectured that they were
visited by Pheenician navigators in the 4th century
B.C. ; but, beyond the fact of their having come
into temporary conflict with the Goths and other
Teutonic hordes prior to the great exodus of the
latter from their northern homes, little is known
of the people till the 10th century, when they first
appear in history under the name of Borussi, or
ssians. In 997 Bishop Adalbert of P: e suf-
fered martyrdom at their hands while endeavour-
ing to convert the people to Christianity. Boleslas,
Duke of Poland, succeeded, however, about 1018, in
compelling them to submit to baptism and subjec-
tion. After many futile attempts on the part of
the people to throw off the yoke of Cliristianity and
forelgn domination, they finally made a su
inst Boleslas IV. of Poland in 1161, and
for a time maintained a rude and savage kind
of independence, which the disturbed condition of
Poland prevented its rulers from breaking down.
The fear of losing their freedom if they adopted
‘Christianity made the Prussians obstinately resist
every effort for their conversion ; and it was not
till the middle of the 13th century, when the
knights of the Teutonic order began their ‘famous’
e against them (see TEUTONIC KNIGHTS),
that the Christian faith was established among
them. The inroads of the Prussians on the
territories of their Christian neighbours, and their
advance into Pomerania, were the exciting causes
of this important movement. The knights of the
order, when Fs hinge to by Conrad, Duke of
Masovia, to aid in the subjection of the heathen,
gladly promised their services on condition of bein:
permitted to retain possession of the lands whic
they might conquer; and, having entered the
Prussian territories in considerable numbers, they
entrenched themselves in Vogelsang and Nessau
in 1230, and at once entered upon the conquest
of Prussia. For half a century the belligerent
brotherhood were engaged in war with the people—
winning lands and souls by hard fighting—unti! at
length in 1283 they found themselves undisputed
masters of the country, which they had both civilised
and Christianised after a fashion—that is to say,
by almost exterminating the an population.
During this period of struggle the knights founded
the cities of Thorn, Kulm, Marienwerder, Memel,
and K®énigsberg, repeopled the country with Ger-
man colonists, encouraged agriculture and trade,
and laid the foundation of a well-ordered, pros-
us state. The unhappy wars between the
Enights and the Poles and Lithuanians, together
394
with the moral degeneracy of the order, led, in the
14th and 15th centuries, to the gradual decline of
their supremacy. In 1454 the municipal and noble
classes, with the-co-operation of Poland, rose in open
rebellion against the knights, who were finally
compelled to seek peace at any cost, and obliged
in 1466 to accept the terms offered to them by the
treaty of Thorn, by which West Prussia and
Ermland were ceded by them unconditionally to
Poland, and the remainder of their territories
declared to be fiefs of that kingdom. In 1511 the
knights elected as their grand-master the Markgraf
Albert of Anspach and Baireuth, a kinsman of the
king of Poland, and a scion of the Frankish line of
the Hohenzollern family. Although his election
did not immediately result, as the knights had
hoped, in securing them allies powerful enough to
aid them in emancipating themselves from Polish
domination, it was fraught with important con-
nences to Germany at large, no less than to
the order itself. In 1525 the grand-master was
acknowledged Duke of Prussia, which was con-
verted into a secular duchy (afterwards known as
East Prussia), and renounced the Roman Catholic
religion for Lutheranism, his example being fol-
lowed by many of the knights. The country made
rapid advances under the rule of Albert, who
improved the mode of administering the law,
restored some order to the finances of the state,
established schools, founded the university of
Koni berg (1544), and caused the Bible to be
translated into Polish, and several books of instruc-
tion to be printed in German, Polish, and Lithu-
anian, His son and successor, Albert Frederick,
having become insane, a regency was appointed.
Several of his kinsmen in turn enjoyed the dignity
of nt, and finally his son-in-law, Johann Sigis-
mund, elector of Brandenburg, after having held
the administration of affairs’ in his hands for some
years, was, on the death of the duke in 1618, recog-
nised as his successor, both by the people and by
the king of Poland, from whom he received the
investiture of the duchy of Prussia, which, since
that pe has been governed by the Hohenzollern-
Brandenburg House.
Here it will be necessary to retrace our steps in
order briefly to consider the political and dynastic
relations of the other parts of the Prussian state.
In 1134 the North Mark, afterwards called the
Altmark, a district in the west of the Elbe and
north-east of the Harz, was bestowed upon Albert
the Bear of Luxembourg, who extended his dominion
over the marshy region near Brandenburg and
Berlin (the Mittelmark), and assumed the title of
Markgraf of Brandenburg. During the next two
or three centuries his immediate descendants
advanced still farther eastward, beyond the Oder into
Farther Pomerania. On the extinction of this line,
known as the Ascanian House, in 1319, a century of
strife and disorder followed, until finally Frederick
VI., count of Hohenzollern, and markgraf of Nurem-
berg, became possessed, eo by purchase and
partly by investiture from the oem Sigismund,
of the Brandenbaty lands, which, in his favour,
were constituted into an electorate. This prince,
known as the Elector Frederick I., received his
investiture in 1417. He united under his rule, in
addition to his hereditary Franconian lands of
gel opin and Bairenth, a territory of more than
11, . m. His reign was disturbed by the
insubordination of the nobles, and the constant
incursions of his Prussian and Polish neighbours,
but by his firmness and resolution he restored order
at home and enlarged his boundaries. Under
Frederick’s successors the Brandenburg territory
was augmented by the addition of many new
acquisitions, although the system of granting
appanages to the younger members of the reigning
466
PRUSSIA
house, common at that time, deprived the elec-
torate of some of its original domains. The Dis-
positio Achillea, however, which came into opera-
tion on the death of the Elector Albert Achilles
(1470-86 ), while it separated Anspach and Branden-
burg, ely ees the principle of primo-
geniture in both. The most considerable addition
to the electorate was the one to which reference has
already been made, and which fell to the Elector
John Sigismund through his marri in 1609 with
Anne, daughter and heiress of Albert Frederick
the Insane, Duke of Prussia. In consequence of
this alliance the duchy of Cleves, the countshi
of Ravensberg, the Mark, and Limburg, and the
extensive duchy of Prussia, now known as East
Prussia, became incorporated with the Brandenburg
territories, which were thus more than doubled in
area.
The reign of John Sigismund’s suecessor, George-
William (1619-40), was distracted by the miseries
of the Thirty Years’ War, and the country was
alternately the prey of Swedish and ot
armies; and on the accession of George-William’s
son, Frederick-William (q.v.), the ‘Great Elector,’
in 1640, the electorate was sunk in the lowest
depths of social misery and financial embarrass-
ment. But so wise, prudent, and vigorous was the
eye gigerst of this prince that at his death in 1688
e left a well-filled exchequer, and a fairly-equipped
army of 38,000 men ; Po ~ wemeee, gree
now possessed a ulation of one and a_ ha’
million and an Ae 43,000 sq. m., had been
raised by his genius to the rank of a t Euro-
n power. His successors Frederick I. (q.v. ;
688-1713) and Frederick-William I. (1713-40)
each in his own ky 2 increased the power and credit
of Prussia, which had been in 1701 raised to the
rank of a kingdom. The latter monarch was dis-
tinguished for his rigid economy of the public
money and an extraordinary penchant for tall
soldiers, and left to his son Frederick II. (q.v.),
Frederick the Great, a compact and prosperous
state, a well-disciplined army, and a sum of near!
nine million thalers in his treasury. Frederick I.
(1740-86) dexterously availed himself of the extra-
ordinary advantages of his position to raise Prussia
to the rank of one of the t political powers of
Europe. In the intervals between his great wars
he devoted all his energies to the improvement of
the state, by encouraging iculture, trade, and
commerce, and reorganising the military, financial,
and judicial departments of the state. By his
liberal views in rd to religion, science, and
government he inaugurated a system whose results
reacted on the whole of Europe; and in Germany
more especially he gave a new stimulus to
thought, and roused the dormant patriotism of the
people. Frederick was not over-serupulous in his
means of enlarging his dominions, as he proved by
sharing in the first partition of Poland in 1772,
when » obtained as his portion nearly all West
Prussia and several other distriets in East Prussia.
His nephew and suecessor, Frederick-William II.
(1786-97), aggrandised his ee by the second
and third partitions of Poland in 1793 and 1795.
Frederick- William III. (q.v.; 1797~1840), who had
been educated under the direction of his dl.
uncle, Frederick the Great, sueceeded his father in
1797, at a time of extreme difficulty, when econ-
tinental rulers had no choice beyond being the
opponents, the tools, or the victims of French re-
publican ambition. By endeavouring to maintain
a neutral attitude Prussia lost her political im-
portance, and gained no real friends, but many
covert enemies, But the calamities which this line
of policy brought upon Prussia roused Frederick-
William from his apathy, and, with energy, perse-
verance, and self-denial worthy of all praise, he
devoted himself, with his great minister Stein.
seconded by Count Hardenberg, to the reorganisa-
tion of the state. In the years 1806-10 Prussia*
underwent a complete domestic reorganisation ;
and after the battle of Waterloo, which restored to
Prussia much of the territory lost at the peace of
Tilsit in 1807, the career of was continned.
Trade received a new impulse through the various
commercial treaties made with the maritime nations
of the world, the formation of excellent roads, the
establishment of steam and sailing p packet on the
great rivers, and at a later period through the
organisation of the Zollverein (q.v.), and through the
formation of railways, The most ample and liberal
provision was made for the diffusion of education
over every part of the rage wee and to every class.
In like manner, the established Protestant Church
was enriched by the newly-inaugurated system of
government subvention, churches were built, the
emoluments of the clergy were raised, and their
dwellings improved ; but, not content with that,
the king forcibly united the Lutheran and Reformed
Churches in 1817, a high-handed act most fruitful
in discontent and difficulties. This tendency to
over-legislation has long been the predominating
evil feature of Prussian administration; and the
state, without regard to the incongruous elements of
which it was composed, was divided and subdivided
into governmental departments, which, in their
turn, under some head or other, brought every
individual act under governmental supervision, to
the utter annihilation of political independence.
The people soon perceived that this administrative
machinery made no provision for political and civil
liberty, and demanded of the king the fulfilment.
of the promise he had given in 1815 of establishing
a representative constitution for the whole king-
dom. This demand was not acceded to by the
king, and its immediate fruits were strenuous
efforts on his part to check the spirit of liberalism,
Siding with the pietists of Germany, he introduced
a sort of Jesuitical despotism, which was continued
by his successor, Frederick-William IV. The
Landstiinde or provincial estates, organ in
accordance with the system of the middle ages,
were the sole and inadequate mode of representa-
tion , ager to Prussia in this reign, notwithstand-
ing the pledge made to the nation for a full and
general representative government. The accession
of Frederick-William IV. (1840-61) seemed to open
a better prospect to the friends of constitutional
freedom. . Huber, | Sand, George........ Madame Dudevant
and W. E. Aytoun. and a (née Dupin).
Gath phe A0d onde s oe Chas. Dickens. ... J.P. F. Richter. Scott, Leader .,...... Mrs Lucy E. Baxter
Breitmann, Hans ....Chas, G. Leland. .(see article Juntus). (née Barnes ).
Brown, Mrs........- Goce Rose. = ~‘| Kerr, Orpheus C..... H. Newell. Scriblerus, Martinus.Swift, Pope, and
Browne, Matthew....W. B. Rands. Arbuthnot.
Browne, Phillis......Mrs Hamer. .- Washington Irving. Sealsfield, Charles....K. A. Postel.
Bystander. . -Goldwin Smith. Letitia E. Landon. | Selkirk, J. B.. James B. Brown.
CS.C....... ....0. 8. Calverley. Oswald Crawford. Robert Barr.
Caballero, Fernan....Cecilia Bo von ’ John Skelton.
Faber. Paget. Rev. George Rose.
ws $e of Roumania. T. C. Haliburton.
.C. L. Dodgson. Leslie Ward.
...H. Jones.
..1st Lord Lytton.
Amédée de Noé.
one (author).
Dagonet ......+++++- . R. Sims.
Danbury Newsman. .J. M. Bailey.
secees M. de Sainte-Mars.
Joseph. ..+.. C. A. Sainte-Beuve. Miller, Joaquin......
Delta (A). ..seseee++ D. M. Moir. Mi 6 cxedetur te
= .Mrs Johnstone. Nasby, Petroleum V.
yA rere Hon. Mrs Boyle. Nerval, Gerard de...
Axeaxd tabs tobe Charles Lanib. Nimrod..... 0.0.15.
Mrs Mary Ann Cross ‘orth
(née Evans).
Ettrick wv. .-.- James Hogg.
renbemge eee Francis E, Sinedley.
my .es++++-Mary Anne Hearn. O'Dowd, Cornelius
.....+-Mrs Sara P. Parton.
ward..... Mrs I. Fyvie Mayo.
Sedgsadeve Theodora Boulger.
Pseudopodia (Gr., ‘ false feet’), blunt, irregu-
processes of protoplasm thrown out and drawn
in again by amcehe and some other animals. See
AMCBA, PROTOPLASM, RHIZOPODA.
Pseudoscope (Gr. pseudés, ‘false,’ and skoped,
‘I see’), an pial natrament through which, by
means of an arrangement of prisms, objects are
..M. Soltykoff.
..Marie Henri Beyle.
..8. M. Krachvinsky.
. Countess d’Agoult,
..J. H. Walsh,
. Sarah Smith.
Al ellen
.. Wm. Combe.
..T, A. L. von Jacob-
Robinson.
Professor Hausrath,
..J. G. Holland.
..Earl of Lytton. W. M. Thackeray.
Alfred Tennyson in . .Bamuel L. Clemens. *
Examiner, 1852. ...Miss H. Keddie.
C. H. Miller. . Joel Chandler Harris.
E. Douwes Dekker. Editor of The Gentle-
D. R. Locke. man's Magazine.
G. Labrunie. Thomas Hughes.
©. J. Apperley. . H. Dunckley.
Prof. John ilson, . .Frangois Marie
F. L. von Harden- Arouet.
berg. Chas. F. Browne,
..-Mme. Olga de Novi- lorence....Mrs G. James.
koff (née Kiréetf). | Wethereil, Elieabeth..Susan Warner.
«.-Charles Lever. Winter, John Strange.Mrs H. B. V. Stan-
J. M. Barrie, nard.
G. rg sys ZAGKI .. cece cesess Capt. R. J. Morri-
Matt. Jas. Higgins. son, °
seen with their relict | cng bidet: convex
appears concave, and a figure in intaglio appears
be eut in relief. It was discovered by Wheat.
stone when experimenting on the Stereoscope (q.v.).
Psittacidz. See Parrot.
Pskoy, « decayed town of European Russia,
9 miles SE. of take Pskov (50 milan tong by 13
472 PSORALEA
PSYCHOLOGY
broad), by rail 188 miles NE. of Riga and 160
SSW. of St Petersburg. Like Novgorod it was
celebrated for its republican institutions after the
12th century. During the 14th and 15th centuries
it was one of the Hanse towns, and had then
a 4 toe three times as large as at present.
In 1510 it was annexed to Moscow. During the
wars with Lithuania Pskov was a stronghold of
great importance. It contains a cathedral and
numerous venerable churches and - monasteries.
Fish, obtained from the Jake, and flax are the
principal articles of commerce. Pop. 21,684.—The
government has an area of 17,069 sq. m. and a pop.
(1885) of 948,071 ; (1891) 1,029,053.
Psoralea, a genus of plants of the natural
order minose, sub-order Papilionacew. The
flowers are blue, purple, or white. Some of the
species are natives of India, others of other warm
countries.—P. esculenta, the Bread-root of North
America, and Prairie Apple of the Canadian boat-
men, is a herbaceous perennial, about a foot high,
with a carrot-like root, swollen above the middle,
and abounding in farinaceous matter. It is used
as an article of food, both boiled and raw.
Psori‘asis (from the Greek word psora, which
signifies a cutaneous eruption, supposed by some to
be the itch) is now employed to signify a disease
characterised by slight elevations of the surface of
the skin covered with whitish scales. The erup-
tion begins in small rounded spots, which may
remain small, or may enlarge indefinitely, the
centre becoming more normal while the inflamed
margin continues to extend. The spots are covered
by white silvery scales, not easily detached from
the skin, which, however, when they are removed,
is seen to be red and dry. The parts most often
affected are the fronts of the knees and backs of
the elbows ; whatever other parts may be attacked,
these are rarely free from the eruption, and the
distribution is always nearly the same on the two
sides of the body. Itching is often absent alto-
gether, and very seldom severe. ‘The disease ma:
occur at any age, but usually first manifests itself
in youth, rarely before the age of six. It is
extremely apt to recur: it is rare for a person to
suffer from it only once.
Numerous causes have been assigned for the
disease ; it has been attributed to scrofula, gout,
and many other constitutional states; and doubt-
less it may be associated with them. But, with the
exception of heredity, no cause has been satis-
factorily shown to lead to its development. It
frequently occurs in persons otherwise in perfect
health, and, except in very severe cases, does not
interfere in any way with their employments.
If left to itself, the disease generally tends to
persist indefinitely. But in the great majority of
cases it is very amenable to treatment, both local
and constitutional. Locally, ointments containing
tur, resorein, pyrogallic acid, Xe. are most in use ;
internally, arsenic is far the most valuable remedy.
Where it has failed, iodide of “aya? in large
doses, liquor potassie, and carbolic acid have some-
times su ed. But some cases resist the most
varied and persevering efforts for their cure; and
nothing has yet been discovered which will prevent
the tendency to recurrence of the disease.
Psyché (Gr., ‘the soul’), an exquisite creation
of the later mythology of Greece. She was the
youngest of the three daughters of a king, and so
beautiful that mortals mistook her for Aphrodite
(Venus) herself, and did not dare to love, but only
to worship her. This excited the — of the
goddess, who sent Eros (Cupid) to inspire Psyche
with a passion for the most contemptible of all
men; but Eros was himself wounded as deeply by
her glances as ever he had wounded others with
his darts. He accordingly caused her to be carried
to a beautiful palace of pleasure, and here ev
night he visited her, unseen and unknown,
left her before morning broke. Thus arene might
have enjoyed perpetual delight had she remem-
bered the advice of her unknown lover, who warned
her not to seek to know who he was. But her
jealous sisters, whom against her lover's injunc-
tion she had allowed to visit her, played upon her
curiosity, and uaded her that she was embrac-
ing a monster in the darkness of night, Lighting
a lamp when Eros was asleep, she saw with rapture
that she was the mistress of the most handsome of
the s, but in her excitement she let a drop of
hot oil fall on the sleeper’s shoulder. This awoke
Eros, who upbraided her for her mistrast, and
vanished. Psyche gave way to the most ion-
ate grief; she tried in vain to throw herself into a
river, then wandered about from temple to temple,
inant for her lover. At length she came to the
palace of Venus, where she was seized by the god-
dess, and kept as a slave. Eros, however, who
still loved her, invisibly hel and comforted the
hapless maiden, reconciled her to his mother, and
was finally united to her in immortal wedlock. In
works of art Psyche is represented as a_ beautiful
maiden with the wings of a butterfly. Her story
was considered as an allegory of the p of
the human soul through ly ion and mis-
fortune to pure celestial felicity ; but it must not
be forgotten that it is merely a version of one of
the most widespread folk-tales in the world. See
CupIp, and Zingow’s Psyche und Eros (1881).
Psychic Forces. See THrosopny; and for
the Psychical Research Society, see APPARITIONS.
Psychology may be briefly defined as_ the
sola of mental phenomena. g {bon having long
occupied a doubtful place as a department of meta-
physics, supplemented by many empirical o|
tions, its character as a science dealing with a
special order of facts, and many of the laws of
occurrence of these facts, may now be said to be
established. At the same time opinion is still far
from unanimous on many of the most important
points of psychological doctrine, especially on such
— Cs involve a philosophical view of the nature
of mind.
The chief different wae of conceiving and defin-
ing the mental facts with which psychology has to
do may be traced to the influence of rival philo-
sophical hype as to the nature of mind.
Thus, in the first place, we have the view that
psychology deals with the facts of the conscious
mind which, when knowing, feeling, or striving, is
always conscious of itself as knowing, feeling, or
striving—i.e. is self-conscious. This is the view,
for instance, of Sir W. Hamilton. But it has many
difficulties. We can hardly ascribe self-conscious
ness to the lower animals or to vi eg a Pear ate
and yet some kind of mental life clearly belongs to
them: so that it would seem that mental life and
self-consciousness cannot be identified. Further,
many psychologists (including Hamilton) are of
opinion that there are mental phenomena un-
accompanied by self-consciousness even in mature
human life. And if self-consciousness is thus
recognised as belonging to mental life only under
certain conditions and at a comparatively dovelcars
stage, it will be one of the main purposes of psycho-
logy to examine these conditions and trace its
growth. In the second place, a materialistic view
of mind is connected with the attempt to make
brain-physiology play the part of a psychology.
It is plain, however, that a sensation or a feeling
of soeren or pain is a fact of an entirely different
order from a n disturbance. The one may
accompany or even cause the other (or both may
PSYCHOLOGY
473
be only different aspects of the same ultimate
existence), but the characteristic nature of the
mental fact is not reached by the most thorough
investigation of its physiological conditions, while
the latter are in many cases much more obscure
than the acne they are adduced to explain.
In the third place, an attempt has been made
(sometimes apart from any philosophical hypo-
is as to the nature of mind) to start with
certain mental facts—called presentations, sensa-
tions, or feelings—regarded as ultimate or inde-
pendent, and to trace the laws and manner of their
combination and succession. This method has
been worked with excellent result by the English
Associationist psychologists. By a similar method,
and by treating presentations as forces, Herbart
and his followers have elaborated a mechanism of
the mind and reduced psychology to mathematical
form. The difficulty of this mode of conceiving
mind is to explain how a series of sensations—or
any interaction of presentations—can generate the
consciousness of a self persisting through changing
states; and even to give any meaning to sensation
or presentation without regarding it as experienced
by i ewritge to mind. On these grounds many
psychologists, while influenced by the scientilic
method of the Associationists and of Herbart, hold
that presentation or sensation is only conceivable
as belonging to a subject or mind. So far, mind
must be assumed by the peyohologist as implied in
the experience of which he has to trace the develop-
ment. This subject, or mind as the condition of
experience, ma adinitted to elude psychological
observation. Hume says: ‘I never can catch
myself at any time without a perception, and
never can ainerts anything but the percep-
tion '"—i.e. it is the empirical ego, or mind with
its content of experience, which is the object of
chological observation. But the pure ego, or
subject, is nevertheless implied by every mental
fact. chol may, in this way, be distin-
guished from other sciences as dealing with sub-
jective facts, or, rather, with the subjective aspect
which belongs to all facts—i.e., as Dr J. Ward puts
it, with the phenomena connected with presenta-
tion to a subject.
Method of Psychology.—lf this view of the
subject-matter of psychology be adopted, it is
clear that the ultimate source of our knowledge
of mental facts must be the knowledge each person
has, through self-consciousness, of his own mental
states. The mental attitude of attending to these
states is called Introspection. The nature and
value of introspection have been much disputed.
But the arguments of Comte and others to show
that the process is impossible, and psychology only
another name for a department of physiology, prove
too much: for were introspection impossible we
should not even know that there are such things
as mental states. It may be admitted, however,
that the introspective attitude involves an effort
of reflection which modifies the mental state we
‘seek to observe. Consequently many obscure ele-
ments of mental life may elude its cognisance, and
only become known through their effects upon the
flow of ideas; while, on the other hand, states of
intense mental concentration exclude it, and can
only be observed introspectively in the weakened
form of memory-images. It is even held by many
writers that this is the sole method of introspective
observation: that all introspection is retrospection.
In this way the results of introspection are apt to
lack aceuracy, and (as each observer is limited to
his own consciousness) they also lack objective or
universal validity. To supply these wants the
introspective or subjective method has been supple-
mente by objective observation both of the physi-
logical antecedents and concomitants of mental
facts, and of the expressions, products, and records
of conscious life. The latter are to be found in the
emotional expressions and actions of normal men;
in the emotional expressions and actions of children,
undeveloped races, the insane, and the lower ani.
mals; in language; and in social customs and
institutions. To this side of psychological study,
which involves the application of the comparative
method to psychology, contributions of the greatest
value have been made in the Zeitschrift fiir Volker-
psychologie und Sprachwissenschaft, edited by Laz-
arus and Steinthal. Further, within recent years
attempts have been made to apply experimental
methods to psychology. Experiments on reaction-
time, for instance—i.e. on the time taken to react
upon stimuli—lead to the determination of the time
taken ae by mental operations of different kinds
and different degrees of complexity. Similar ex-
perimental methods have been adopted for inves-
tigating the accuracy of reproduction, the number
of things that can attended to at a time, &c.
Laboratories, such as that at Leipzig, of which
Wundt is the head, exist both in Germany and in
America for the | seagate of these experimental
investigations. The results of many experiments
have already been recorded; but it would be
premature at present to estimate the value of these
results for the science of psychology. Amongst
the experimenters who keep the bearing of their
investigations always in view, mention should be
made of eg ped ( Bettrage zur experimentellen
Psychologie, 1889 and following years).
sycho-physics.—The experimental _ inquiries
above referred to may to a large extent be traced
to certain investigations (chiefly) of E. H. Weber's
on minima sensibilia and on the relation between
the intensity of the sense-stimulus (which can be
measured objectively) and the intensity of the
consequent sensation (which cannot be directly
measured ). His experiments were further carried
out and their results formulated and elaborated
into the science of psycho-physics by G. T. Fechner
(Elemente der Psychophysik, 1860 ; reprinted 1889).
tf parche physics Fechner means the exact science
of the relations between body and mind, this science
being based upon facts and the mathematical
relations they involve. The generalisation arrived
at from experiment is by Fechner called Weber's
Law, and expressed by him in the following
(amongst other) terms: There will be the same
sensible difference of intensity between two sen-
sations, provided the relative intensities of the
stimuli producing them remains the same. Thus,
an increase of 1 to a stimulus whose strength is
expressed by 100 will be experienced as of the
same intensity as an increase of 2 to a stimulus
whose strength is 200, or of 3 to a stimulus whose
strength is 300, &c. The literature of porsiey
physics is oceupied with the experimental verifi-
cation, the mathematical development, and the
interpretation of this law. But neither its experi-
mental basis nor its interpretation is quite satis-
factory. Experiment supports it only within a
certain range of sensibility. It is limited first of
all by what Fechner calls the ‘fact of the thresh-
old ’—i.e. the fact that a certain amount of
stimulus is required to produce any sensible effect
whatever; and secondly, at the other end of the
scale, when the stimulus is beyond a certain in-
tensity, the relation ceases to hold good, while
within these two limits its verification cannot be
said to be exact. Further, it is only in the sense
of pressure and the muscular sense that we can
accurately measure the intensity of the stimulus
in the form in which it reaches the nervous end-
organs ; in hearing and sight the objective stimuli
undergo physical or chemical changes in the sense-
organ before reaching the extremities of the nerve-
474
PSYCHOLOGY
fibres. Again, all the experimental methods for
establishing the law assume the equality of least
sensible differences. Thus, if there be stimuli
measured respectively by 100, 101, 200, 202, causing
sensations 2, 2, y, y’, such that 2’sis only just
distinguishable from 2, y’ only just distinguishable
from y, it is assumed that 2’ -a=y -y, an
ae which neglects the important fact
that there is no mental content a oe
either to (2 — x) or to ( , Oe y). Finally, even
the law can be held to established, it is not
clear that it requires to be interpreted (with
Fechner) as properly psycho-physical. It ma:
also be held that the law is really physiological,
the intensity of the stimulus being modified in this
way by irradiation in the nerve-centres; while
Wundt has attempted a psychological interpreta-
tion of it, maintaining that it holds of the relation
between mere sensation and the ‘apperception’
of the sensation by the direction of attention to it.
Mental ‘ Faculties.’.—The observation and de-
scription of mental facts have led to a classification
of them, according to their degrees of likeness, into
certain orders; and these have been frequently
spoken of as different powers or functions of the
mind, In the earliest stage of psychological in-
quiry we even have them descri as different
— of the soul. In this way Plato distinguishes
esire, anger, and reason, and locates them in the
lower part of the body, in the heart, and in the
brain respectively. But the classification which
had most influence upon mig koe writers was
Aristotle’s. His distinction of thought and desire
is the origin of the dual classification of intellectual
and active powers (each with many subdivisions)
which was for long almost unanimously adopted.
A tripartite classification—Cognition, Feeling, and
Desire or Will—was put forward 4 the ae
fia of Kant’s time, accepted by Kant, and since
is time (in Great Britain since Hamilton's time)
has been very generally adopted. The value of
such classifications is easily, and has often been,
overestimated. In the first place, it is clear that,
although such functions or faculties may be dis-
tinguished, they do not operate apart from one
another. No concrete state of mind consists merely
of ragga or merely of will; nor can it be pro-
perly called by one of these names, except as a
means of describing it by its most prominent char-
acteristic. In the second place, it has to be borne
in mind that it is no explanation of a mental fact
to refer it to a mental faculty. To maintain, as
Kant, Hamilton, and Lotze did, that there are
certain fundamental conscious functions or con-
scious elements which cannot be reduced to some
single function or element, gives no real support
to the view which seems to underlie much of the
‘ faculty-psychology ’—the view that mind is a con-
geries of distinct faculties, and psychology a process
of labelling facts and putting each into its proper
compartment. To refer phenomena to memory,
generalisation, &c, as their causes is to mistake a
name for an explanation.
The it erg 2: chology’ described and demol-
ished by the English Associationists and by Herbart
is, however, rather a mode of thonght into which
certain writers have frequently tapaad than a method
which they have consciously adopted and defended.
And the quest for a simple and uniform mental ele-
ment from which all the wealth of conscious life
has been derived is not therefore successful, because
the faculty-psychology is unsuccessful. Herbart
regards the interaction of presentations as account-
ing for all mental phenomena; in a similar way H.
Spencer seeks to derive mind from a succession of
somethings which can only be described as races. 9
ous to nervous shocks. But the difficulty of bot!
is to pass from this objective element to the feeling
of racers or pain, aptly described by Hamilton as
subjectively subjective, or to the phenomena of
Volition. Accordingly, many psychologists who are
at one with Herbart and the A ionists in
rejecting the conception of faculties as a mode of
explaining facts yet hold that the final analysis
we can reach of consciousness or of mental pheno-
mena does not enable us to derive subjective feeling
(of pleasure or pain) from presentation, or activity
from either, the three elements being involved in
the simplest state of consciousness (the term ‘ con-
sciousness,’ as ayaa. reagag from ‘self-conscious-
ness,’ being here as a quite general term for
any mental state),
Aittention.—Many of the most important contro-
versies of Parchology centre in the question of the
nature and extent of the activity involved in con-
sciousness. In its simplest form this activity is
seen in the subjective reaction involved in sore
hending a presentation ; in its most developed form
it is the act of will which determines a course of
conduct upon which momentous issues are known
to hang. In the latter case, as well as in the
former, the critical point is the direction of Atten-
tion. Now attention is generally allowed not to
be a special ‘ faculty,’ or separate activity different
from the elements of consciousness already de-
scribed. It is simply consciousness ed as
active and as concentrated on some portion of its
objective content, whereby the intensity of that
portion is ine The point in dispute is
chiefly whether this active concentration is ulti-
mately determined by the strength of external
factors. It is clear that the direction of attention
is conditioned by the previous mental groupings
of ideas. Further, attention involves a mus-
cular adjustment—at any rate when directed to
objects of sense, and also (although in a less
marked degree) when directed to a train of thought.
These facts are differently interpreted. On the one
hand, Bain, Ribot, and others find the basis of
attention in the muscular adjustment; on the
other hand, the muscular adjustment is looked
— as the organic expression and development
of subjective activity ; and this subjective activity
is held to be involved in the simplest state of con-
sciousness. The one view looks upon the external
as determining and even somehow producing the
internal, According to the other view the process
is one in which a subjective or spiritual factor
expresses itself through and gradually extends its
control over an organic and physical environment.
tion.—Sensations are commonly defined as
the simple mental states which result from nervous
stimuli. This physiological reference enables us to
distinguish the Special Senses, with their clearly
defined organs adapted to the reception of different
kinds of external stimuli, from Organic or General
Sensibility, which arises from the state of the
internal organs of the body (such as the alimen-
tary canal, the lungs, and the heart), and from the
Motor Sensations. These last (which play so im-
portant a part in the development of knowledge)
are due to the central excitation of a motor or
efferent nerve, and the consequent contraction of
the muscle in which it terminates (see MUscLE,
Nervous SysTeM). The sensation both modi-
fies and is modified by the conscious state into
which it enters. We have no experience, and
can form no yalid conception, of the mere sensa-
tion. For the subject which experiences it, it is
merely an element in a complex and ever-changing
whole. This is a point which has been commonly
overlooked by the Associationist psychologists.
They started with a succession of disconnected
mental molecules, called sensations, and attempted
to trace the growth of mental life from their com-
bination. But this is to begin with an abstraction.
PSYCHOLOGY
475
The earliest stage of mental life would rather seem
to be a vague manifold into which distinction is
just being brought; and the growth of knowledge
consists not only in the addition of new elements,
but in drawing new lines of distinction and forming
new groupings of elements. And these distine-
tions and groupings may be said to be determined
the varying intensities of different elements in
changing mental content, or by the continuous
redistribution of attention.
Ideation.—The mental content thus varies in the
distinctness of its parts, which may even dieanpee
from consciousness and afterwards reappear. ‘This
reinstatement in consciousness is called Represen-
tation or Ideation, and the represented or ideal
contents are called Images. The circumstances
determining the succession of ideas and forma-
tion of en are, first, new sense-impressions ;
secondly, voluntary direction of attention; and
thirdly, the mutual influence of the mental
elements. It is the last of these which is referred
to under the title of Laws of Association. In
the article AssocIATION OF IDEAS an account is
given of the way in which one concrete experience
recalls another. In every case of association a
process would seem to be involved. A
of the present mental content coalesces
with a resembling portion of a past mental state,
and the revival of this portion involves the re-
instatement in consciousness of the other elements
with which it was previously connected. The
latter, which is the properly reproductive process,
is thus due to the fact that consciousness is not a
collection of atomic sensations, but a continuous
os k edge b f
ion is the knowledge by means of sensa-
tion of an individual object or thing. The nucleus
of the percept is thus one or more present sensa-
tions which coalesce with revived or ideal elements
belonging to the same sense, and combine with
revived or ideal elements belonging to other senses.
These ntative and representative elements are
bound together and presented as a single mental
content, which we refer to a portion of the body or
to a thing in space beyond the body, and to which
we ascribe qualities corresponding to our sensa-
tions. In brief, Perception, as distinguished from
Sensation, involves, first, complexity of elements ;
secondly, localisation ; and thirdly, individualisa-
tion and objectification. The complexity consists
of the elements of present sensation, and of the
ideal group with which the former coalesce or com-
bine. The localisation clearly involves the perce
tion of space. The individualisation and objectifi-
cation may be accounted for by the following con-
siderations: (a) The various sensations grouped
ther in a percept—e.g. the resistance, touch,
colour, taste, smell of an orange—are so related
that modification of one of them commonly involves
modification of the others. Thus they come to be
perceived as a group. (4) Not only are motor sen-
sations involved in fixing attention on other sensa-
tions, but the greatest distinctness of the other
sensations is commonly accompanied by conditions
which admit also of sensations of touch and resist-
ance. Hence the object comes to be experienced
as offering resistance or as an obstacle. (c) In this
way the other sensations come to suggest touch
aad resistance, and thus to be referred to a thing
in space which offers resistance to our muscular
energy. This forms the psychological basis of
the distinction between primary and secondary
qualities of matter. :
The above account traces the perception of
objects in so far as it is mainly dependent upon
active touch—i.e. touch plus its attendant motor
sensations. To active sight—i.e. sight plus its
attendant motor sensations—a perception is due
which differs from the preceding (@) in the absence
of the sensation of resistance: so that we do not
derive from active sight alone a knowledge of
objects outside of and opposed to our own bodies,
and our apparently direct perception of distance,
solidity, &c. by sight is really a derived percep-
tion ; (6) in the vastly greater number of elements
simultaneously presented, so that the simultaneity
of perception which characterises the developed
perception of space is mainly due to visual percep-
tion.
Space and Time.—As the preceding paragraph
points out, objects or things are perceived as in
space. Similarly, our conscious life is apprehended
as a succession—i.e, as in time. The whole of our
experience may thus be said to be conditioned by
Space and Time: the phenomena of external per-
ception by space, those of internal perception by
— The niet Pa a ee io irecsenacey re
the object-world and the subject-world respectively.
Regardi g both space and time there neat several
uestions which admit of being kept distinct.
irst of all, there is the question as to their reality
—are they real existences, or simply modes of our
subjective perception? This is a question which
properly lies outside psychology, and KEES p to
metaphysies. Then there is the question of the
way in which we form concepts of space and
time. Geometry depends upon such a conception
of space. The points, lines, and surfaces of geo-
metry are not percepts, but abstractions from per-
ception, formed as other concepts are formed.
at then is that in perception from which we
are able to form concepts of space and time? It
must itself be a spatial or temporal percept. It is
then with regard to the pone of space and
time that the most difficult psychological question
enters. And the question regarding both per-
ceptions is affected by the secular controversy
concerning the existence and the function of an
a priori factor in mind.
hus we start with two oppose views of the
reeption of space : first, the Intuitive or Nativist
heory, according to which space is an innate idea
(or, as since Kant it has more commonly been put,
is the form in which we perceive objects), and is
not derived from sensations, but is a form of per-
ceiving, belonging a priori to the mind, and con-
tributed by it in the production of experience ;
secondly, the Empirical theory, according to which
space is the worked-up product of sensations. The
universal and necessary character of the spatial
perception has been brought forward in defence of
the former theory. But it is important to remem-
ber that certain sensations—odours, tastes, and
even sounds—are localised only indirectly, as be-
longing to a visible or tangible object. And this
fact at once suggests the lines upon which an
empirical analysis of space should be carried out.
By Herbart space has been derived from a series
“if sensations which can be repeated in the same
and in reverse order. By Bain it has been held
that it is due to muscular sensation—movement
giving the perception of empty space, resistance
iving that of space filled or body. Sensations
both of movement and resistance accompany touch ;
and sensations of movement accompany sight to an
extent which is not nearly equalled in the other
senses. In addition to this, however, we must
take account of what Lotze calls the ‘local signs’
which belong to tactual and visual sensations.
These local signs are due to the extended nature
of the sense-organs of sight and touch, and are
elements in sensation by which sensations arising
from the stimulation of different portions of the
retina (or of the skin) are distinguished from one
another. The simultaneous distinctness in sensa-
tion which is due to these ‘local signs’ is gradually
476
PSYCHOLOGY
interpreted by motor sensations, and out of these
elements there gradually emerges the perception
of one’s own body, by relation to which other
things are localised in space. Thus, although the
perception of space is implied in that of y, the
two perceptions grow to clearness together. Even
—— this empirical analysis, however, it may
still be held—as Lotze holds—that there is an a
priori mental tendency to form the perception of
space.
The opposed views of Nativism and Empiricism
are applied to the perception of time as well as
to that of space. And the perception of, time only
seems a simpler question than the othér because
we are apt to confuse the snecession of presenta-
tions on which it is based with a presentation of
succession, which, of course, would be a presenta-
tion of time. The elements from which this pre-
sentation of time is derived may be somewhat as
follows: When a number of presentations are
successively presented, each grows fainter as atten-
tion passes from it, and hence arises a vague dis-
tinction between present and not-present. After-
wards, on the same series being repeated, the
second member will be rising in intensity when
the first is presented, and therefore in full intensity ;
when the second is presented, the first will be sinks
ing in intensity, while attention will be ing on
towards the third, whose intensity will therefore be
rising; and so on throughout the series. Hence
the vague distinction of present and not-present
becomes more definite as a distinction of past,
present, and future, and this is the presentation of
time.
Memory and Expectation.—Both of these are
distinguished from the mere succession of ideas
and images by involving a reference to one’s own
conscious life as a succession in time. When an
image is remembered its various parts have a fixed
order and position, it is accompanied by a number
of attendant or accessory ideas, and it is recog-
nised as belonging to one’s past self. The expected
im has not always the same fixed position or
number of attendant ideas ; but it, too, is referred
to self—one’s future self, and it is characterised by
an element of striving or tension and by an increas-
ing degree of intensity. The phenomena of memory
and expectation are a recognised difficulty for the
theory which seeks to derive mind from the succes-
sion of presentations.
Thought.—In the process of thinking different
mental contents are related ther—generalised
into notions or concepts, discriminated, and, in the
higher forms of thought, arranged in an ordeyl
manner under some scientific or other ideal.
Thinking is further distinguished from perception
and imagination by dealing with classes of thin,
rather than particular objects, and by being mainly
voluntary, whereas perception is mainly automatic.
But the distinction is not an absolute one. In
imagination and even in perception a process of
voluntary selection may be involved, and every
clear perception involves a conception of a class
to which the object is referred. Further, the re-
mrs, Day mn which is characteristic of thinking
may be found, though in a less explicit manner,
involved in perception: for the percept has been
shown to consist of a variety of elements connected
together in definite ways. Carrying the analysis
further, we can find no conscious content without
such relations. This has been commonly brought
out by emphasising the necessity of difference for
consciousness. Thus, Hobbes made the assertion
that ‘to have always the same sensation and to
have no sensation at all come to the same thing ;’
and this has been formulated by Bain into the
Law of Relativity, that all consciousness is con-
sciousness of difference ; not, indeed (as Bain some-
times puts it), that we are conscious only of differ-
ence, but that all consciousness involves difference
or discrimination; as it may also be shown to
involve likeness or assimilation and synthesis.
Relations are thus involved in all consciousness
equally with elements related. ‘Feelings’ and
‘relations between feelings’ (to use Mr cer's.
terminology ) must be regarded as equally ultimate
in mind, The English Associationists made con-
sciousness begin with separate units of sensation
or ‘feeling ;’ and those writers who have received
and carry on the tradition of the Associationists
have devoted much attention to determining the
nature of these relations. But if the ultimate
datum of consciousness is not separate atoms of
presentation, but what Dr Ward calls a presenta-
tion-continuum, and if the growth of mind consists
not merely in additions to that continuum, but in
drawing new lines of distinction and connection
within it, we may see how neither the so-called
‘feeling’ nor the so-called ‘relation between feel-
ings’ is independent and conceivable by itself, and
how both are simply abstractions from the state of
mind which—even at its simplest—is a concrete
henomenon. In other words, what is character-
istic of thought as well as what is characteristic of
sensation is involved in all consciousness.
Feeling and the Emotions.—The term Feeling is
of very ambiguous signification in psychology.
But there is a ees general agreement to use
it for the second of the three elements in the tri-
ite division of mind (although, unfortunately,
it has not been restricted to that use). The psy-
chology of feeling has two chief problems to deal
with : first, to determine the nature and conditions
of pleasure and pain, as contrasted with other ele-
ments of mental life ; and secondly, to analyse into
their elements, and trace the growth of, the com-
plex feelings or emotions. The Emotions are com-
plex states of mind in which a feeling of pleasure
or pain is predominant. This feeling is connected
more or less distinctly, with a presented or ideal
object, and is complicated with elements of organie
sensation, and, usually, with tendencies to action
or elements of desire. These complex states of
feeling, or emotions, take very various forms,
according to the elements of which they are com-
, and their mode of origin, The classifica-
tion of the emotions and the nature and origin
of such emotions as sympathy and the moral sen-
timent are still vexed questions of psychology.
Desire and Volition.—In these phenomena we
have the development of the active element in
mind complicated with feeling and manifestin
itself in muscular activity. riters who
this active element as ultimately due to the play
of merely presented or external factors have at-
tempted to derive volition from spontaneous move-
ment (Bain) or from reflex action (H. Spencer )—
factors which enter consciousness merely as motor
presentations. As op to this we have the
view that the fundamental act of will is the direc-
tion of attention to certain ideal elements or groups.
Whether this direction of attention is itself deter-
mined solely by pleasure and pain is a question
which has raised more controversy than perha
any other question in psychology (see WILL). In
Desire there is present the conception of an object
or ideal end, accompanied by feeling and by an
element of striving. Normally, when the conce
tion of the end has been associated with defini
means to its realisation, the desire is followed b:
a volition or act of will. The development of voli-
tion is a process of growing complexity and definite-
ness. Beginning with the act of attention, the
power of will is gradually extended over the bodily
movements controlled muscles in connection
with the motor nerves, Movements which are at
PSYCHROMETER
PTERODACTYL 477
first random, reflex, instinctive, or merely expres-
sional, are brn within its operation. Fugther,
will grows side by side with reason and imagination,
is called into operation not by sense-presentation
only, but in response to images and concepts, and
can thus be regulated by reason. A double tend-
ency is at work in this development: the associative
and automatic tendency of acts frequently repeated
to become habitual; and the intellectual tendency
by which ends and the acts tending towards them
are brought into rational order. In this way the
individual comes to act for permanent ends and
from fixed principles, and to develop a definite
character.
Lirerature.—tThe first scientific treatise on psychology
was Aristotle’s work De Anima. In modern philosophy
at intuitional and spiritualist theory of psychology is to
be found in Descartes and Leibnitz, an empirical and
materialistic theory in Hobbes. The Association-psycho-
logy, which traces descent from the sem es Se at philo-
sophies of Locke and Hume, and from the physiological
chology of Hartley ( Observations on Man, 1749), may
ie reat now in the works of James Mill (Analysis of the
Phenmena of the Human Mind, J. 8. Mill’s ed. 1869),
J. S. Mill (Examination of Hamilton’s Philosophy, 5th
ed. 1878), and A. Bain The Senses and the Intellect, 3d
ed. 1868; Zhe Emotions and the Will, 3d ed. 1880; Men-
tal and Moral Science, 3d ed. 1875). Belonging to the
same school, but conditioned throughout by the doctrine
of evolution, is H. Spencer's Principles of Psychology
(2d ed, 1870-72). To the Herbartian influence is due
the exhaustive text-book of W. Volkmann von Volkmar
{Lehrbuch der Psychologie, 34 ed. 1884). Independent
views, which are yet influenced by Herbart, are worked
out by Lotze ( Medicinische Psychologie, 1852; book iii.
of ‘Metaphysics, Eng. trans. 1884; Microcosmus, Eng.
trans, 15885; Outlines of Psychology, Eng. trans. 1886)
ind by J. Ward (article ‘Psychology’ in Ency. Brit., 9th
ed.). Experimental psychol is represented by the
works, among others, of Wundt, Ebbinghaus, Miinster-
berg, Ribot, Pierre Janet, and by many contributions to
German, French, Italian, English, and American journals.
A useful summary of results is given by G. T. Ladd,
Elements of Physiological Psychology (1887). Founded
largely upon these is the brilliant work of W. James,
hag, 0 of Psychology (1890). Important text-books
are Sully’s Vutlines of Psychology (1884) and The Human
Mind (1892), Baldwin’s Handbook of Psychology: Senses
and Intellect (2d ed. 1890) and his Elements (1893),
Dewey’s Psychology (1889), J. C. Murray’s Handbook of
Psychology (1885), Hoffding’s Outlines of Psychology (Eng.
trans. 1891), and Maher’s Psychology ( R. Catholic, 18904,
Wundt’s Lectures on Animal and Human P: y
were translated in 1894: C. Lloyd Morgan has es
An Introduction to Comparative Psychology ( 894) and
Psychology for Teachers (1893); and G. T. Ladd a
Primer of Psychology (1894). See also PHILOSOPHY, and
other articles cited there.
Psychrometer, an instrument for measuring
the tension of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere :
a wet and dry bulb Hygrometer (q.v.).
Ptah. See Eaypr, Vol. IV. p, 234.
Ptarmigan (Zagopus), a genus nearly allied
to the true Grouse (q.v.), differing chiefly in havin
the toes as well as the legs thickly clothed wit!
short feathers. Hence the name Lagopus, a name
used by Pliny, from the resemblance of the foot to
that of a hare. The species are natives of the
northern parts of the world, of elevated or of aretic
regions. With the exception of the ‘Red Grouse’
(L. seoticus), the species change colour on the
approach of winter, assuming a white or nearly
white plumage. All are esteemed as food. The
Common Ptarmigan (L. mutus) occurs in a few
ts of Scotland, but not in England or Ireland.
t is resident in the Lofoden Islands, in Scandi-
navia, on the Ural and the Altai ranges, &c., and
oceurs on the Alps and the Pyrenees. The winter-
plumage is pure white, except a black band above
the eyes of the male, and some black on the under
feathers of the tail. In both sexes the wings are
always white, but have dark shafts to their quills.
In summer the males are predominantly grayish
brown above, with blackish head, shoulders, and
breast, with white belly, with black tail-feathers
In the females a tawny colour
tipped with white.
Common Ptarmigan Laren mutus), summer and
winter plumage.
erent In autumn, again, the plumage is
ifferent, with numerous streaks of slate-gray on
the upper parts. The white winter-plumage is
doubtless protective amid the snow, and may be
the result of the cold ; the summer-plumage is not
less harmonious with the surroundings. It seems
that some moulting is associated with each of the
changes, but precise observations are wanting. A
rough nest is scraped in the ground; the eggs (eight
to ten) are laid in May, and havea buff colour. Ptar-
migans are monogamous, but sometimes gregarious.
They feed on tender shoots and berries. Among
the related species are the following: L. rupestris
(Siberia, Arctic America, &c.), L. scoticus, or
Grouse, L. lewcurus (Rocky Mountains), L. hemi-
leucurus (Spitzbergen), and L. albus, or Willow-
grouse (in both hemispheres). Most of the ‘ ptar-
migan’ sold in British markets are willow-grouse.
See Grouse, and Howard Saunders, British Birds.
Pteria, See BocHaz-Kevt.
Fterichthys (Gr., ‘wing-fish’), a genus of
extinct Ganoid fishes, remains of which occur in
Devonian strata. The head and body were covered
Pterichthys.
pectre fins
with bony sculptured plates, and the
i the name
(to the en ike appearance of whic’
refers) were large and prominent.
Pterocles, or PreRocLETES. See SAND-GROUSE.
Pterodactyl (Gr., ‘wing-finger’), a remark-
able winged reptile, the remains of which are met
478 PTERODACTYL
PTOLEMY
with in the Jurassic and Cretaceous systems.
There are numerous forms of Pterodactyl which
are included in the extinct order Ornithosauria.
The head was relatively large and snout-like, the
long jaws being furnished with simple and pointed
teeth, implanted in separate sockets. The eye-
orbit was very large, the sclerotic having generally
a ring of bony plates, and the nostrils approxi-
mated to the orbits. The neck was long and bird-
like, consisting of proccelous vertebrae which were
longer than the dorsals—the latter varying from
seventeen to twenty in number. From three to
six vertebree are anchylosed to form the sacrum.
The tail is generally short, but long-tailed forms
are also met with. The scapular arch and keeled
Pterodactylus crassirostris,
sternum in their general characters resemble those
of the carinate birds. There are four digits on each
limb—the outer digit of the manus (corresponding
to the fifth of the typical series) being immensely
elongated for the support of a membranous expan-
sion (patagium), which was also attached to the
sides of the body to embrace the hind limbs and
tail. The other digits of fore and hind limbs ter-
minated in curved claws. Most of the bones are
hollow like those of birds. The body was probably
naked.
Many forms of Pterodactyl are known, in some
of which the skull is less bird-like than that
shown in the accompanying illustration. In
Rhamphorhyncus the extremities of the jaws are
usually edentulous, and were perhaps sheathed in
horn ; the base of the jaws, however, was furnished
with teeth which were inclined forwards. In the
same form the tail was long, and provided at the
extremity with a leaf-like steering membrane. In
Dimorphodon the jaws are ‘provided with stron
teeth in front and much shorter ones behind ; an
the tail was long.
Some pterodactyls were small—Ptenodraco being
not larger than a sparrow. Others were about the
size of a woodeock. Yet others, however, were
much larger—some having a spread of wing of 5 or
6 feet, and even of 25 feet in the case of certain
forms from the Cretaceous rocks of England. The
form of its extremities shows that ‘the Pterodac-
tyl was capable of perching on trees, of roc.
against perpendicular surfaces, and of stan ing
firmly on the ground, when, with its wings folded,
v a“ crawl on all fours, or hop about like a
ird.
Ornithosaurians are well represented in the
Mesozoic strata of Europe and North America. *
One of the richest repositories of their remains is
the famous lithographic stone of Solenhofen, in
which the fossils usually occur in a fine state of
preseyveues ante the impression of the mem-
ranous Wing being sometimes clearly seen. See
Nicholson and Lydekker'’s Palawontology.
Pteromys. See FLYING ANIMALS.
Ptero'poda (Gr., ‘wing-footed’), a class or
sub-class of molluses, having two lobes of the
‘foot’ developed into wing-like swimming organs.
They live in the open sea, and are carnivorous.
Distributed in all seas, they often oceur in immense
shoals, and afford food to fishes and Cetaceans.
The body is bilaterally symmetrical, but this is
doubtless secondarily acquired. In some (Theeoso-
mata) the viscera are covered with a delicate shell ;
the others (Gymnosomata) are naked, but all
the larve have shells. The thin caleareous or
gristle-like shells are abundant in the Ooze
(q.v.) of some regions. It is very likely that
the Pteropods should be ranked not as a
separate class of molluscs, but as a sub-class
of Gasteropods. Of the Thecosomata the
genera Hyalea and Cymbulia are representa-
Mom as Clio _ 7 Reamorensss are of
tymnosomata. Fossil Pteropods a) even
in. the Cambrian strata. soe meen
Challenger Report (1889). Some Pteropods
are sometimes called ‘ sea-butterflies.’
Ptolemaic System. See Pro.emy.
Ptolema’‘is. See Acre (St JEAN D’).
Ptolemy, name of the Macedonian kings
of Egypt The first, a son of , was
called Soter (‘Saviour’) by the Rhodians,
whom he defended against 5 var oe Polior-
cetes. He became one of the greatest of the
generals of Alexander the Great (q.v.), and
on Alexander's death became ruler of Egypt.
For the other Ptolemies, his successors, seé
Eeyret, Vol. IV. p. 241; and for their patronage
of literature, ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL,
Ptolemy, properly CLAupIus ProLemzus, a
celebrated astronomer and geographer, was a
native of Egypt, though it is uncertain whether
he was born at Pelusium or Ptolemais in the
Thebaid. Nothing is known of his personal
history, except that he flourished in Alexandria
in 139 A.D., and there is probable evidence of
his having been alive in 161. The chief of his
writings are the Meyd\n Zwwrakis rhs ‘Aorpovoulas,
which, to distinguish it from the next mentioned,
seems to have n denominated by the Greeks
and by the Arabs after them megisté, ‘the
greatest,’ whence was derived the name Almagest
(with Arab article a/, ‘the’), by which it is gener-
ally known ; the Tetrabiblos Syntaxis, with which
is combined another work called Karpos or Centi-
loguium, from its containing a hundred aphorisms
—both works treating of astrological subjects, and
held by some on this account to be of doubtful
genuineness ; a treatise on the phenomena of the
fixed stars, or a species of almanac; and the Geo-
graphia, his great geographical work, in. eight
5 The rest of his works are of inferior im-
rtance, and consist of descriptions of various
inds of Projections (q.v.), the theory of the musi-
cal seale, ehicnalantaal and metaphysical treatises,
and a summary of the hypotheses employed in his
great work, the Admagest.
Ptolemy, both as an astronomer and geographer,
held supreme sway over the minds of almost all the
scientific men from his own time down till the
16th-17th century; but, and in astronomy specially,
he seems to have been not so much an independent
investigator as a corrector and improver of the
work of his predecessors. In ease he de-
pended almost entirely on the labours of Hippar-
chus. But, as his works form the only remaining
—
PTOLEMY
PTOMAINES 479
authority on ancient astronomy, the system they
el eg is called the Ptolemaic System, after the
author.
As a geographer Ptolemy is the corrector and
improver of the works of a predecessor, Marinus
of Tyre, about whom, except from Ptolemy’s
writings, little is known. tolemy’s improve-
ments and suggestions are at once more valu-
able and correct; but it is sometimes difficult
to separate his data from those of Marinus,
His geography is divided into eight books, all
of which, with the exception of the first, eighth,
and a portion of the seventh, are nothing more
than a catalogue of places, with their latitude
and longitude (to 12ths of a degree), with a
brief general description prefixed to each continent
and country or tribe, and interspersed here and
there with remarks of a miscellaneons character
on any point of interest. The rest of the work con-
tains details regarding his mode of noting the posi-
tions of places—by latitude (mékos) and longitude
(platos)—with the caleulation of the size of the
oe of the earth, and of the extent of surface
then known. The latitudes were calculated from
Ferro (q.v.) in the Canaries, chosen as the western-
most part of the world; but he counted it only
24 degrees W. of Cape St Vincent, instead of the
real distance, 9° 20’. He took the rallel of
Rhodes for his chief line of latitude, thinking it
‘ocenpied the mean position in the zone of climate
into which he divided the earth. He describes the
mode adopted by him of projecting the surface of a
hemisphere on a flat surface, and shows its superior-
ity over the projections of Eratosthenes, Hippar-
chus, and Marinus. He also constructed a series
of twenty-six maps, together with a general map
of the world, in illustration of his work. See MAp.
The ProLeMaic System of astronomy, so called
from Ptolemy, its chief expounder, was really
originated long before his time, and was, in
fact, merely an attempt to reduce to a scientific
form the common and primitive notions concern-
ing the motions of the heavenly bodies. It was
implicitly adopted by Plato, Aristotle, Hipparchus,
and (with the exception of the Pythagoreans, and
probably of Pythagoras himself) all the eminent
physicists and philosophers of ancient times ; pass-
ing from them to the Byzantines and Arabs, who,
especially the latter, were the means of dissem-
inating it through western Europe, where it con-
tinued? to be the universally established doctrine
till the 16th pagent The primary and funda-
mental doctrines of this system are that the earth
is the centre of the universe, and that the heavenly
bodies revolve round it in circles, and at a uniform
rate. These notions, which are naturally suggested
by the first general aspect of things, having, pre-
vious to any accurate observation, established
themselves as unquestionable axioms, phenomena
which were found on closer examination to be
inconsistent with them were explained by the
introduction of additional hypotheses. The belief
that the earth is the centre of the universe was
supported by its accordance with the relation
of the primary elements of which the material
world was supposed to be composed. Thus,
earth, the most stable of the elements, held the
lowest place, and supported water, the second in
order; above water was placed air, and then fire,
ether being supposed to extend indefinitely above
the others. In or beyond the ether element were
certain zones or heavens, each heaven containing
an immense crystalline ee shell, the smallest
enclosing the earth and its superineumbent ele-
ments, and the larger spheres enclosing the smaller.
To each of these spheres was attached a heavenly
body, which, by the revolution of the crystalline,
was made to move round the earth. The first or
innermost sphere was that of the moon, and after
it in order came those of Mercury, Venus, the
Sun, Mars, hoy oa Saturn and the fixed stars,
ight in all. o this system later astronomers
ded a ninth sphere, the motion of which should
produce the Precession of the Equinoxes (q.v.), and
a tenth to cause the alternation of day and night.
This tenth sphere, or primum mobile, was mopped
to revolve from east to west in twenty-four hours,
and to carry the others along with it in its motion;
but the Ptolemaic astronomers do not venture to
explain how this was done, although, since the axis
of motion of the primum mobile was that of the
equator, its extremities being the poles of the
heavens, while that of the ninth sphere was the
axis of the ecliptic, some explanation was certainly
necessary. As observations of the heavens in-
creased in accuracy it was found that the heavenly
motions were apparently not uniform, and this
was explained as follows: The acceleration of the
sun on one side, and retardation on the other
side of his orbit is only gh Gapher and_ results
from the earth not being in the centre of the sun’s
sphere, C (see fig.), but at E, and consequently
his motion appears to be slowest at P and quickest
at R. The alter-
nate progression
and ion of
the planets was
accounted for by
supposing them to
move, not direct]
with their crystal-
lines, but in a
small cirele, whose
centre was a fixed
point in the erys-
talline, and which
revolved on its axis .
as it was carried round with the latter; thus (fg)
the planet was carried round the small circle ABD,
as that circle was carried round PQR (now sup-
posed to represent the planetary crystalline). The
planet while in the outer portion of ,its small circle
would thus have a forward, and in the inner por-
tion a backward motion. The larger circle was
ealled an eccentric, and the smaller an epicycle.
This theory of eccentrics and epicycles satisfied
the early astronomers; but further investigation
showed its incompleteness, and in later times it
was found necessary to explain newly-discovered
discrepancies by heaping epicycle upon a
till a most complex entanglement resulted. As
soon as astronomers came to understand and test
the Copernican Theory (see CopERNICUS), this
venerable and disorderly pile of hypotheses, which
had received the papal seal of infallibility, and
had in various forms held supreme sway over the
minds of men for twenty centuries, at once
erumbled to atoms and sunk into oblivion. See
ASTRONOMY.
The Almagest and the Geography were the standard
text-books to succeeding ages, the first till the time of
Copernicus, the second till the great maritime discoveries
of the 15th century showed its deficiencies. They have
through numerous editions, the best of which are,
‘or the Almagest and the most of Ptolemy’s minor works,
that by Halma ( Paris, 4 vols, 1813-28) ; and for the Geo-
graphy, the Latin versions of 1482 and 1490, published
at Bowe, the editio princeps of the Greek text by Erasmus
(1533), the Elzevir edition (1619), those of Wilberg and
Grashof (1844), Nobbe (1845), Miiller (Paris, 1883), and
the photographic reproduction of the MS, in the monas-
tery of Mount Athos by Langlois (Paris, 1866), The
catalogue of stars has been frequently reprinted separately,
the best edition being that of Francis Baily, in vol. xiii.
of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society (1843),
Ptomaines. It has been known for a very
long time that food which has undergone putre-
R
480 PTOMAINES
PUBLICANI
faction may, under certain circumstances, act as a
violent poison, setting up severe catarrh, and pro-
ducing symptoms of a more general nature. Stale
mussels, fish, and sausages have even a popular
reputation on account of their poisonous qualities.
A ptomaine was first obtained by Marquardt in
1865, and described by him as similar to coniine ;
in 1869 Siilzer and Sonnenschein isolated a crystal-
lisable ptomaine which resembled in its qualities
atropine and hyoscyamine. Of recent years atten-
tion has been called to this question from another
point of view, and one of special interest to the
medical jurist. At a trial at Rome, on the occa-
sion of a supposed murder, a material was extracted
from the ly which had markedly poisonous
qualities, similar to those of delphinine. It was
supp those who undertook the prosecn-
tion that this poison had been administered to the
deceased, but on the side of the defence it was
pointed ont that the extract, though similar in some
respects to sag eee was in others quite distinct,
producing on the frog’s heart very different effects.
Attention having been called to the subject,
scientific investigators, especially those of Italy
and Germany, busied themselves in extracting these
poisonous materials, ptomaines (Gr. ptoma, ‘a
corpse’), from putrescent animal matters, and in-
vestigating both their chemical and physiological
roperties. ‘These ptomaines can hardly be said to
ales a very distinct group of bodies from a chemical
point of view, for some, like putrescine and cada-
verine, are amines; others are amido-acids, like
creatinin; and neurine, which has choline and
muscarine closely allied to it, is trimethy]-vinyl-
ammonium-hydroxide. It is even questionable
whether they may be said to possess an alkaline re-
action, at one time supposed to be a common pro-
perty of all ptomaines, and one which related them
to the vegetable alkaloids, for Salkowski has
recently shown that creatinin, a ve J that has been
long known and apparently carefully investigated,
when pe pure gives ped reaction ye rar atin
or, nor does it the power of combinin
With acids like a feo (Bdleten too, has polnited
out that it is scarcely possible to look upon
ptomaines as powerful reducing agents, since many
of them, especially those rich in oxygen, are
deficient in this power.
Neither from a physiological point of view can
we look upon the ptomaines as sui generis, and in
the first case because many of them are produced
by the action of organisms during their life. As
well-known examples let us instance creatinin and
nenrine, which are produced every day in our living
bodies, showing that during the putrefactive wt
cess we cannot be said to find substances which
stand alone, and are invariably different from those
formed during digestion and assimilation. ciegae
in respect to their poisonous properties, not only
are some of them perfectly harmless or poisonous
only in a minor degree, but it is highly probable
that some of the most poisonous products of the
action of putrefactive and other o isms are
bodies (albumoses) of quite a different chemical
constitution. It is therefore probable that in a
few years, when more positive information is at
our command, the term ptomaine will either be
dropped altogether or restricted in its In
the meantime scientific men are actively inves-
tigating these bodies, and throwing much light on
several involved problems of chemical physiology
and preventive medicine.
See Selmi, Sulle Ptomaine ed Alkaloidi Cadaverici
(Bol 1878); Panum, ‘Das putride Gift, die Bac-
terien’ ( Virchow’s Arch., Bd. 60, § 301); Nencki, ‘Zur
Geschichte der basischen Fiu roducte’ (Journ. f.
oe ee eee Brieger, Veber Ptomaine ( Berlin,
); also the article Py aia.
Ptosis (from the Gr. piptd, ‘I fall’) signifies
a drooping or falling of the uppee rene and arises
from weakness of the muscle w elevates it, or
from palsy of the third or motor oculé nerve. If
it is congenital, or oceurs without any apparent
cause, and resists medical treatment, it may be
removed by a surgical } peggacrr by which the eye-
lid is brought under the action of the coeiptun! .
frontal muscle, which receives its nervous power
from another source.
Ptyalin, Pryauism. See SAuiva.
Puberty is the period of life at which the
reproductive organs in both sexes to be fune-
tionally active, and is marked by other important
changes in the structure and functions of the body.
Among the peoples of northern Europe it begins
in girls at from twelve to fourteen, and in boys
about two years later. In girls both growth and
development are about this period much more
rapid than in boys; the breasts enlarge, and the
figure becomes full; the temperament changes;
and the menstrual flow begins to aaeees, In na
the most obvious changes are the breaking of
voice and the growth of hair on the face. The
changes begun at this time are not fully completed
nor the bodily and mental vigour adult life
established for at least eight or ten years after the
commencement of puberty. The health —— this
period is specially siable to be disturbed by adverse
influences, particularly in the female sex; and
overstrain, both of the physical and mental powers,
should be carefully guarded against.
Publicani (from Lat. pudblicum, ‘that which
is public or belongs to the state’), the name given
by the Romans to those ms who farmed the
public revenues (vectigalia). These revenues were
ut up to auction by the censors, and were ‘sold’
‘or a period of five years. They were derived
chiefly from tolls, tithes, harbour-duties, the tax
paid for the use of public pasture-lands, mining and
salt duties; and from the —_— taxes they col-
lected, publicani were classified as decumant, pecu-
arii or scriptuariit, and conductores portoriorum.
As the state required them to give security for the
sum at which they had purchased the collecting
of the taxes, and as this sum was usually much
greater than the wealth of any single individual,
companies (societates) were formed, the members
of which took each so many shares and were thus
enabled to carry on conjointly ae far
roe the pee of et acre shareho ot
very societas had also a -manager Neots ses! E
who reaied at Rome, and transacted all forei
correspondence with the inferior officers who
directly superintended the collection of the taxes.
The publicani belonged to the order of equites, and
formed from their immense profits a po
capitalist class. Under the empire the land-tax
and poll-tax came to be collected by officers of
state—in senatorial provinces, the quaestor; in
imperial provinces, an Le eager procurator assistant
to the governor; while provinees like Jud
administered by an eques, the governor was himse’
at the same time procurator. The customs, on the
other hand, even in the days of the empire, were
still commonly leased out to publicani, and so un-
doubtedly in Judwa. No doubt territorial princes
like Herod Antipas also employed. this method of
collecting their taxes.
The lessees again had their subordinate officials,
who would usually be chosen from the native
population. But even the principal lessees in later
times were not necessaril mans. Zaccheus, the
tax-gatherer of Jericho (Luke, xix. 1, 2), was a Jew,
The tariffs were often very indefinite, opening a
door to arbitrariness and rapacity. Hence in Bs
Testament phraseology the terms publicans and
PUBLIC HEALTH ACTS
PUEBLOS 481
sinners are synonymous, while in the rabbinical
re tax-gatherers appear in a still less
favourable light.
Public Health Acts. See Hyciene.
Public-houses. See Iyn, Licenstne Laws.
Public Lands. See Homesreap, INDIAN
ORY, PRE-EMPTION, UNITED STATES.
Public Prosecutor. Sce Prosecutor.
Public Schools. The nine great public
schools of — are Eton, Harrow, Rugby,
Winchester, Westminster, Shrewsbury, Charter-
house, St Paul’s, and Merchant Taylors’. See the
special articles on each, and EDUCATION.
Public Worship Regulation Act. See
EccLEsIASTICAL Courts.
Puccinotti, Francesco, author of the Storia
della Medicina and of other works which give him
a place in medical literature, was born at
Urbino in 1794, and, thanks to the Scolopian
Fathers, was already an accomplished classical
scholar when in 1811 he repaired to Pavia for a
th h course of mathematics, physics, and
natural science, in which metapliysies, ethics, and
civil history were not neglected. From these
studies he passed on to that of medicine at the
Roman University, and uated with much dis-
tinction in 1816. The local malaria first engaged
his attention. A work ardently opposing the pre-
valent Brunonian doctrine, and advocating a return
to the rational medicine of Hippocrates, produced
a salutary effect on his contemporaries, and was
followed up by his able treatises on Pernicious
Fever (1821) and on Inductive Pathology (1828).
Academic honours now fell thick on him, and he
passed from one medical chair to another, till, com-
promised in the patriotic movement of 1831, he
was de from the professorship of Pathology in
the university of Macerata. Excluded from aca-
demic, he redoubled his literary activity, which
bore fruit in his still classic treatises on medical
jurisprudence and on nervous maladies. In 1835-
37 he made a special study of the cholera epidemic
at Leghorn, at the same time giving to the world
his masterly translation of Aretzeus. In 1838 the
Tuscan Archduke appointed him professor of
Medical Jurisprudence in Pisa University, and
there he published his Lezioni Speziali sut Mali
Nervosi, his work on the Cachexiw, and on the
maladies induced by the rice-culture (Risaie),
and, above all, his masterpiece, the Storia della
Medicina, in three volumes, representing the labour
of twenty years. He died, 8th October 1872, in
Florence, and, by special decree of the municipality,
was buried in the ‘ Westminster Abbey of Tuscany,’
the church of Santa Croce.
Puck, or Rosin GoopreL.ow, a familiar figure
in the fairy-world of old English folklore, im-
mortalised by Shakespeare in the Midsummer
Night's Dream. His characterisation here keeps
close to popular tradition in the a= tricks and
mischievousness attributed to him. The name is
really a generic term for a fairy, and we recognise
it further in the Icelandic puki, the Irish , the
Welsh pweca, even the Cornish pixie, and the Puk
and Niss Puk of the Frisians and Danes. The
Pucks occasionally perform kindly domestic fune-
tions, are small and dwarf-like in Re Lespigomer
attach themselves to particular households, and
are easily propitiated by offerings of cream and
kindly names like the Irish ‘good people,’ the
Scotch ‘good neighbours.’ They may assume the
form of a horse, a hound, or the like, and are
even confounded with such dancing lights as the
Will-o'-the-Wisp or Jack 0’ Lanthorn. Obvious
suggest themselves with the Silesian
Rubezahl, the Scotch Brownie, the Norse Troll,
whose more malignant aspects connect them with
the wider world of Demonology (q.v.). Robin
Goodfellow once filled a prominent place in the
popular ony one meet him at full length °
in the 1628 black-letter tract, Robin Goodfellow ;
his mad pranks, and merry Jestes, full of honest
mirth, and is a fit medicine for melancholy (repr.
in Halliwell). Henslowe’s Diary tells us that
Sey wrote a = on a adventures ; we find
im again in Drayton’s hidia, Burton’s
ppsoag: Seed Melancholy, Ben eens Masque of
Love ored. As b, Hobgoblin, aoe the
Lubber-fiend also the allusions to him in our earlier
literature are endless.—The name Puck was taken
for its ig met the well-known New York counter-
part to Punch.
See J. O. Halliwell’s I/lustrations of the Fairy Mytho-
logy of A Midsummer Night's Dream (Shakesp. Soc.
1845); W. J. Thoms’s Three Notelets on Shakespeare
(1865); and W. C. Hazlitt’s Fairy Tales, &c., illustrating
Shakespeare and other English Writers (1875).
Pud, or Poop, a Russian weight which contains
36 Ib. avoirdupois (40 1b. Russian ).
Pudding-stone. See CoNGLOMERATE.
Pudukota. See Inp1A, p. 110.
Puebla, the third city of Mexico, capital of a
state of the same name, stands on a fruitful plain,
7120 feet above sea-level, and 68 miles (by rail
116) SE. of the city of Mexico. In the vicinity
are Orizaba, Popocatepetl, and other lofty moun-
tains. It was founded in 1531, and is one of the
handsomest towns in the republic, with broad,
straight, clean streets; many of the houses, which
are generally three stories high, have quaint fronts
of red and white tile-work. The city contains
nearly fifty churches, theological, medical, art, and
normal schools, a museum of antiquities which
dates from 1728, two large libraries, a number of
hospitals, &e. On the great square stands the
cathedral, a Doric building with two towers, the
interior of which is decorated in the most sumptu-
ous manner with ornaments of gold and silver,
paintings, statues, &c. Puebla has a thriving
trade, and an air of cheerful activity, not common
in Mexico, pervades the place. In 1889 there were
twenty-two factories; the chief articles produced
are cottons, paper, iron, glass, porcelain, leather.
Pop. (1895) 91,917. Puebla was besieged for two
months by the French, and then taken by storm,
17th May 1863.
Pueblo, capital of Pueblo county, Colorado,
on the Arkansas River, at the mouth of Fountain
Creek, 117 miles by rail S. by E. of Denver.
Through its iron fe steel industry it has rapidly
become the second city of the state and an im-
portant railway centre ; immense quantities of raw
materials and fuel abound in the vicinity. The
rincipal establishments are those of the Colorado
1 and Iron Company, which include two blast-
furnaces, steel-works, a rail-factory, bar- and nail-
mills, and a pipe-foundry. In 1890 a Mineral
Palace was erected to hold a permanent exhibit of
Colorado’s mineral productions—from stone and
coal to pure gold—valued at almost $1,000,000.
Pop. (1880) 3217 ; (1890) 24,558; (1900) 28,157.
Pueblos (Span. pueblo, ‘village’), a semi-
civilised family of American Indians in New
Mexico and Ariana: dwelling in large single
habitations, which are sometimes capacious enough
to contain a whole tribe. These edifices—which
are often five or six stories high, and from 130
to 433 yards long, with many rooms (53 to 124) on
each floor—are commonly constructed of adobe or
sun-dried brick; the ground-floor is invariably
without doors or windows, entrance being effected
by a ladder leading to the seeond story; and
482 PUENTE NACIONAL
PUERPERAL FEVER
indoors ladders take the place of staircases every-
where. A somewhat pyramidal aspect is given
the whole building by each successive story reced-
ing a few feet from the line of that below it. Each
family of the tribe has a separate apartment, and
there are also rooms for general council-
chambers and for tribal dances. In New Mexico
there are nineteen such vill with over 8000
occupants, who are skilful agriculturists, employ-
ing irrigation ditches extensively, and rear horses,
cattle, and sheep. Spinning and weaving and the
manufacture of pottery also are carried on. The
Moguis of Arizona are a related tribe, numberin,
some 1800, in seven villages built on the summit o
isolated hills. The Pueblos are under Roman
Catholic missionaries, and are making steady pro-
gress in civilisation and education, although on
their Christianity they have grafted eau of their
old pagan beliefs and customs, to which they
obstinately cling. They were first visited by the
Spaniards about 1530, at which period their habits
and their habitations were very much the same as
to-day. It is evident, however, from the wide area
over which the ruins of old pueblos and remains of
ancient pottery have been found, that they were
at one time very much more numerous than they
are now.
Puente Nacional, a town of Colombia, in
Santander department, on the Rio Suarez. Coal
and iron are mined, and there are some trifling
manufactures, Pop. 12,000.
Puerperal Fever. In its most general sense
this term may be applied to 7 acute febrile
disease affecting women during the puerperal or
lying-in state. In this sense it might be taken to
include the febrile states induced by the targa of
searlatina, typhus, and other zymotics. But, while
the zymotic poisons induce manifestations in the
puerperal woman in some respects widely differin
rom the results of their action in the non-puerpe
state, their features are quite distinct and -
nisable, and the special characteristics of their
action depend on the nliar condition of the
subject for the time being, and not on any differ-
ence in the specific character of the poisons. The
term puerperal fever is now in its narrower sense
restricted to that special acute febrile disease
resulting from the septic infection of the puerperal
woman, and may be considered to be synonymous
with the term puerperal septicemia.
It is a frequent and much dreaded disorder, and
accounts for a very large number of the deaths
—s from child-bearing. 7 — rasp ae
and symptoms were recognised by Hippocrates and
by him regaried as due to the Sameteadiin of the
lochia or discharge after childbirth—a view which
held und for nearly 2000 years—for in 1680
Sydenham taught practically the same opinion.
érom this time until 1847 various views as
to its cause and nature prevailed. But in this
year the true nature of the cause was recog-
nised by Semmelweiss of Vienna, who noticed
that in a clinic in the maternity which he con-
ducted, and which was attended so! ely by midwives,
puerperal fever scarcely ever occurred, while in
another attended by students, many of whom came
pes he from the dissecting-room, its ravages were
appalling. From this he argued, after careful
analysis of his observations, that the students
—— into the maternity a poison that induced
in the women they attended and examined the
disease, which was conspicuous by its absence in
the ward attended by the midwives only. Abnand-
ant evidence has accumulated since to show that
his views were correct, and it has been shown that
of all the canses of this malady the poison termed
*cadaveric (i.e. derived from the decomposing dead
body) is one of the most active and fatal. Modern
research has shown us that the activity of this and
other septic poisons is due to the influence of microbie
organisms or ‘germs,’ and we are well aware that
a great variety of such germ-bearing substances
exist, each capable of inducing the symptoms and
condition which we wae, 49 under the name of
por septicemia, us, while the results are
to intents the same, the causes may vary con-
siderably in their ultimate nature, and be
derived from a variety of sources ; for example, the
cadaveric poison already referred to, the pus from
a septic Resse sewage gas, &c, It would seem
that the septic poison may be introduced into the
system in two different ways, and this distinction
has an important clinical and practical bearing.
(1) The so-called Heterogenetic mode includes
those cases in which the poison is applied to the
tissues of the patient directly, as from the hands of
the accoucheur. The microbe then enters
tissues and produces its effects by developing in and
influencing the vitality of the tissues themselves,
(2) The so-called Au etic mode. In this case
a piece of the retained placenta, blood-clot, or
slough remains in the genital tract. Putrefactive
changes set in as the result of mierobie infection,
and the products of the putrefaction enter the
system and exert their morbid influences upon it.
In this class of cases the patient as it were manu-
factures the immediate poison in her own body
(hence the term). But it will be evident that in
both the ultimate cause is the presence of microbie
organisms, The symptoms may occur in from two
to fourteen days after labour. They begin with a
rigor or ‘chill,’ followed by a rapid rise of pulse
and temperature. Thereafter pain in the abdomen
usually sets in and the lochia become fetid or
suppressed. The local manifestation of the disease
consisting of inflammatory changes varies in kind,
degree, and site. Almost all the organs may be
involved, more especially the uterus, peritoneum,
kidney, liver, &c. In some cases the influence of —
the poison is so overpowering and rapid that death
ensues before any gross change in the tissues occurs,
but usually there is abundant evidence of the
extent of the anatomical chan
Once the disease is fairly established the prcemete
is grave in a high degree. The chances of recovery
where the —— is sree cor er
are very much greater in the autogenetic varie
than in the other. The seat of the mischief can be
attacked, and the decomposing matter either entirely
removed, or the putrefactive —— stopped by the
use of efficient antiseptics. here the sepsis has
been introduced directly (hete etic form) the
possibility of direct interference is almost ni/, and
the matter resolves itself into a contest between
the vitality of the victim and the activity of the
poison, in which the former often succumbs,
The preventive treatment (prophylaxis) of this
scourge is, however, one of the triumphs of modern
medicine. Up to 1870 the special home of puerperal
septicemia was the lying-in hospital, where the
atmosphere and furniture were saturated with the
septic material derived from the emanations and
excreta of previons patients. Such institutions
were seldom long free from outbreaks of this
scourge, and from time to time epidemics arose with
a virulence and effect that made the total mortality
appalling. But from 1870 and onwards the in-
creasing knowledge of the influence of pm poison
in disease-production and the power of antisepties
in keeping this influence in check began to tell,
with the result that such outbreaks are now cae
unknown and the Fragen § is praemcally redu
to nil. No better illustration of this advance can
be fonnd than the experience in the Royal Mater-
nity Hospital of Edinburgh. In 1879 the new
PUERPERAL INSANITY
PUERTO DE SANTA MARIA 483
hospital was opened, and though it was constructed
on the most advanced sanitary ideas several fatal
eases occurred during the first three or four months
after its opening. ie source of the mischief was
never discovered; but a vigorous antiseptic and
aseptic course was instituted in the management
of the practice, and since then no single case of
septicemia has oceurred.
A similar result has been attained in the great
maternity hospitals on the Continent, and indeed
it is found everywhere that the more rigorous the
antiseptic practice the more nearly ect is the
immunity from the disease. In no department of
ical medicine have the discoveries and teach-
of Lister produced more brilliant results, For
while it t well have been said that until
recently a woman in entering a maternity hospital
took her life in her hands, it now appears that
since antiseptics in midwifery have been rigorous!
adopted a woman is actually safer in such an insti-
tution than in her own home. For while careful
antiseptic practice is practically a routine in the
hospital, it is apt to be faulty in a private house by
reason of some constructional fault in the dwelling
or ignorance or carelessness on the part of the
attendants. And thus, while septicaemia is practi-
cally stamped out of hospital practice, it is still far
too common in private.
The chief points attended to in hospital practice
are (1) the thorough cleanliness of the ding
and clothes of the patient—all soiled articles being
at once removed and disinfected before being
washed. (2) The scrupulous cleansing of the wards
and delivery rooms from time to time. (3) The
extreme personal cleanliness of all attendants—
aecoucheur and nurses—the hands being carefull
disinfected on every occasion before a patient is
touched. (4) The rigid exclusion from the clinics
of all who are in attendance on infectious or septic
cases or in the post-mortem or dissecting rooms.
(5) The prevention of septic absorption by the free
use of antiseptic lotions and dressings. hile such
ice can, with due care, be constantly main-
ined in hospital, it is obvious that the conditions
of private — render its application more
difficult ; and while antiseptics have rendered the
disease immensely less frequent, it is doubtful if we
ean hope for the almost complete immunity in
private which we have attained in hospital practice.
Poceperal Insanity comprehends the forms
of mental derangement which may attack a woman
pregnancy, parturition, and the puerperal
The occurrence of insanity during preg-
nancy is extremely rare; it is much more frequent
during the early puerperium, and is liable to
occur, but with less frequency, during the whole
period of lactation. The affection presents many
varieties, such as acute mania (which is probably
the commonest), delusional mania, melancholia,
As regards frequency, it would seem that
about 8 per cent. of all cases of insanity have a
el a origin. This is derived from a ve
arge number of cases, and the proportion in dif.
ferent places varies eeety. A very large propor-
tion of the cases show a hereditary tendency to
insanity, but it occurs to a great extent no ae
those in whom no such taint can be recognised.
Primipare are more frequently the victims than
those who have borne several children; and there
seems no doubt but that it is more apt to appear
in those whose physical state has become depressed
from one cause or other.
Illegitimacy seems to exert a potent influence in
the prodnetion of this disorder. This comes out in
Clouston’s statistics. He says that 25 per cent. of
insane puerperal women are unmarried. This
apparent close relation may be somewhat mislead-
ing, because while these unfortunates are no doubt
durin
pe
the subjects of t mental distress, and often of
physical hardships leading to lowered vitality—
conditions which certainly favour the development
of this disorder—yet it must be borne in mind that
this is the very class who most uently seek
the shelter of lying-in hospitals, from whose wards
the statistics are chiefly derived. It may generally
be said that a deneaven: state of the nutritive sys-
tem precedes attacks of insanity, and whatever
tends to induce this favours the development of an
insane attack. About 70 per cent. of those attacked
become acutely maniacal. There is great excite-
ment, incoherence, and often great and dangerous
violence. There is continuous garrulity, and the
language is frequently markedly profane or obscene.
Violent explosions occur from time to time, often
characterised by homicidal and suicidal tendency.
The melancholic form is characterised by an
attitude and expression of great mental depression,
rere is slow, and replies can only be elicited with
ifficulty. The eyes are lustreless and downcast,
and the whole bearing suggests profound dejection. -
Suicidal attempts are not uncommon in the melan-
cholic forms, and must always be guarded against.
The symptoms usually appear within the first seven
days after labour, and may develop with great
rapidity. In both the melancholic and maniacal
forms there is an aversion to food, the tongue
becomes coated, and the secretory and excreto
functions are greatly disordered. Sleeplessness
very pronounced, and hysterical outbursts, delu-
sions, and hallucinations occur, and mania or
melancholia rapidly supervenes. It is satisfactory
to know that in spite of the violence of this dis-
order the chances of ultimate recovery are very
are Upwards of 80 per cent. recover entirely.
ost of maniacal cases get well within eight
weeks, the melancholic within six months. In a
small proportion of the cases recovery is deferred
until nine months, after which the chances of com-
plete recovery are considerably diminished. In
this connection it should be noted that the rapidity
of recovery depends on appropriate treatment being
early begun. Experience shows that the majority
of cases in which treatment is early begun get
rapidly well, and that the chances of recovery are
diminished in proportion as the treatment is de-
ferred. Repugnant then as may be the removal of
the patient to an asylum, there can be no doubt
that, in the great mei of cases, this is the
proper course to adopt. When one recalls the fact
that most of the cases have a suicidal or homicidal
tendency which it is often difficult to guard against
in a private house, and at the same time under-
stands that early recovery depends on early treat-
ment, the propriety of the patient’s early removal
scarcely admits of question.
See Clouston, Mental Diseases; Bevan Lewis, Text-
book of Mental Diseases; Lloyd, ‘On Insanity and
Diseases of the Nervous System in the Child-bearing
Woman’ ( American System of Obstetrics, vol. ii.).
Puerto Bello. See Porroseto.
Puerto Cabello, a seaport of Venezuela, in
Carabobo state, 78 miles W. from Caracas. It
stands on a long, low, narrow peninsula on the
Caribbean Sea, and has a safe, deep, and room
harbour, defended by a fort and batteries. It is
the port of Valencia, which is 34 miles distant b.
rail. There is an active foreign trade, which
averages 1} million sterling annually; the chief
exports are coffee, cacao, indigo, cinchona, cdtton,
sugar, divi-divi, and copper ore. Pop. 10,145.
Puerto Cortez, a port of Honduras (q.v.).
Puerto de Santa Maria, a seaport of Spain,
stands at the mouth of the Guadalete, on the Ba
of Cadiz, 22 miles by rail (all round the bay) NEL
of Cadiz and 8 SW. of Xeres. It is one of the
484 PUERTO PLATA
PUFFIN
rincipal export harbours for sherry, and manu-
chaos silk, soap, hats, leather, spirits, beer, &c.
The bull-fights here in May are among the most
famous in the country. Pop. 22,125.
Puerto Plata, the chief port of the Domini-
can Republic, on the north coast of the island of
Hayti. It has an open roadstead, but exports a
good deal of tobacco, mahogany, sugar, coffee,
cocoa, divi-divi, &e, The value of imports and
exports varies from £230,000 to £300,000 a year.
Pop. 6000.
Puerto Principe, a city of Cuba, 50 miles by
rail W. of Nuevitas, its port on the north coast.
It is the centre of a grazing and cattle-raising
country, and is the largest inland city of Cuba.
Pop. (1899) 25,102.
Puerto Rico, See Porto Rico.
Puff-adder (Clotho or Echidna arietans), one
of the most venomous and dangerous vipers of
South Africa. Its popular name refers to its habit
of pufling itself up when irritated. It attains a
length of 4 or almost 5 feet, and is often as thick
as a man’s arm. Its head is very broad ; its tail
suddenly tapered; its colour brown, chequered
Puff-adder ( Clotho arietans).
with dark brown and gray or white. The puff-
adder is very sluggish, and often lies half buried in
the sand of the desert, its head alone being raised
above ground, Its poison is used by the Bushmen
for their arrows. The River-jack (Clotho nasicor-
nis) is also South African ; the male bears a scaly
spine between the nostrils.
Puffball ( Lyeq verdon), a Linnean genus of
Fungi, now divic ae into many genera, belonging
to the section Gasteromycetes. They mostly grow
on the ground, and are roundish, generally without
a stem, at first firm and fleshy, but afterwards
powdery within; the powder consisting of the
spores, among which are many fine filaments,
loosely filling the interior of the peridium, or
external membrane. The peridium finally bursts
at the top, to allow the escape of the spores, which
issue from it as very fine dust. Some of the species
are common everywhere. Most of them affect
rather dry soils, and some are found only in heaths
and sandy soils. The most common British species
is L. gemmatum, generally from one to two and a
half inches in diameter, with a warty and mealy
surface. The largest British species, the Giant
Puffball (ZL. giganteum), is often many feet in
circumference, and filled with a loathsome pulpy
mass when young; but in its. mature state its
contents are so dry and spongy that they have often
been used for stanching wounds, Their fumes,
when burned, have not only the power of stupefying
bees, for which they are sometimes used, in order
to the removal of the honey, but have been used as
an anesthetic instead of chloroform, The same
properties belong also to other species. Some of
them, ina young state, are used in some countries
as food, and none of them is known to be poisonous.
Puff-birds (Bucconide), a family resembling
Kingfishers in form, but living on insects like Fly-
catchers; they also resemble the Bee-eaters, and
are found only in South and Central America. See
BaRBET, and Sclater’s Monograph of the Jacamars
and Puff-birds (1882).
Puffendorf. Samvet, BARON vVoN PuUFFEN-
pORF (or Pufendorf), writer on jurisprudence,
was born on 8th January 1632, at Chemnitz, in}
Saxony. He began the study of theology at Leipzig, ;
but in 1656 went to Jena to study national law
and mathematics. Whilst acting as tutor to the
sons of the Swedish ambassador at Copenhagen
war broke out (1658) between Denmark and
Sweden, and Puffendorf was thrown into prison.
During the eight months he was kept there he
thought out his Elementa Juri. nti Uni-
versalis. It was dedicated to the Elector Pala-
tine, who appointed Puffendorf to the professorship
of the Law of Nature and Nations at Heidelberg.
He next exposed the absurdities of the constitution
of the Germanic empire in De Statu Reipublica
Germanice (1667), which raised a storm of con-
troversy. In 1670 he was called to fill the chair
of the Law of Nations at Lund, and there wrote
the work on which his fame now rests, De Jure
Nature et Gentium (1672), a work based upon the
system of Grotius (q.v.), but completed and ex-
tended in the line of Hobbes’ speculations. Some
years later the king of Sweden made him his
istoriographer, with the dignity of a councillor
of state. In his official character he published a
dry history of Sweden, from the expedition of
Gustavus Adolphus into Germany to the death of
Queen Christine. In 1688 the Elector of Branden-
burg invited him to Berlin to write the — of
the life and reign of the Great Elector. He died
in that city on 26th October 1694.
See Lorimer, Institutes of Law of Nations (vol. i.
1883); H. von Treitschke, in Preussische Jahrbiicher
(1875); and Droysen, Abhandlungen sur neueren
Geschichte (1876).
Puffin (/ratercula), a genus of birds of the
Auk family, characterised by a gaily-coloured bill
—red, orange-yellow, and bluish gray—with a
horny frontal sheath divided by transverse grooves
A ( i vy } e
Puttin ( Fratercula arctica).
into several distinct pieces. At the end of the
breeding season these furrows deepen, and the
sheath is shed. There is in fact an annual moult
of the bill-sheath and of the horny plates above
and below the eyelids. In form, size, and colour
the new bill-sheath differs markedly from the
old one. The genus Fratercula embraces three
PUG-DOG
PUGILISM 485
“p pane of which only one, the Common Puffin
. arctica), a bird a little oy than a pigeon,
uents the rocky shores of the Atlantic Ocean.
Tt oceurs in many parts of England and in Wales,
while on the coast and islands of Scotland and
Ireland it is often abundant, especially at the
prestiog season, when the birds con te in
large colonies. The egg, which is of a dull white
marked with pale brown or lilac, is laid sometimes
in a crevice of a cliff, sometimes in the burrow of
a rabbit, or in a cavity made for the tag er
The n , Which is covered with sooty black
down, remains in the nest for three weeks, and is
fed on small fishes. The adult birds feed on erus-
taceans and other marine animals. On land they
waddle rather than walk, but they swim and dive
well, and their flight is rapid though seldom rp
In various localities the puffin is popularly called
Sea- , Coulterneb, and Tammienorie. In the
Pacific the genus is represented by the Horned
Puffin (Ff. corniculata). There also is found the
closely allied genus Lunda, with bright yellow bill.
The he of the puffin are much sought after, and
the flesh of the young birds is used as food. For
details as to the strange moulting and renewal of
the bill, see Zoologist (July 1878).
Pug-dog. This breed of dog is generally sup-
posed to have been brought over from Holland,
where it is very common. Its origin there is
unknown. The pug may be described as a minia-
ture bulldog, though he differs in the shape of his
ears, which should fall forward like a terrier’s, and
of his tail, which should curl tightly agains his
get The broad under-jaw and wide skull of
bulldog are rarely seen, but should be present
in a perfect specimen. Some xoark ee to 1860,
London and Lard Willoughby d'icresby paid grest
on an illonghby d’Eresby pai t
attention to the breeding of pugs, and Rscast ge
distinct strains known as the Morison and Wil-
longhby pu Large prices were paid for pure
specimens of either strain, but when the fashion in
ladies’ dogs took another direction prices came
rapidly down. The two strains have been so often
recrossed that it is difficult to obtain a pure speci-
men now. The pug is only fit for a house-dog, as
he is useless for any active work. Beyond a ten-
dency to get very fat he is well fitted for this, as
his short, smooth coat is easily cleaned, and he is
a handy size.
Puget Sound, a large inland sea in the north-
west of Washin 7 Us. communicating with
the Pacifie by the Admiralty Inlet and Juan de
Fuea Strait. It is divided into several branches,
penetrates far into the interior, and is everywhere
navigable for the largest vessels, which in most
laces can ride close to the shores, and load or un-
oad without wharves. Great quantities of pine
and fir are shipped from a country rich in timber.
Pugilism, or Boxtne (Lat. pugil, ‘a boxer ;’
com ‘ pugnacity,’ from pugnus, ‘a fist’). ‘To
box’ is almost as old as our | itself: no
special explanation is required to show what boxing
is; every one knows that it is fighting—real or mimic
—with the hands alone, all weapons being foreign to
the ‘science.’ As pugilism, in what has always
its highest standard—prize-fighting—is now sup-
to be extinct, it may be of interest to give a
ief sketch of its past, when it pias a more im-
portant part—or was thought to do so—than it does
now in the formation of the national character.
Although now the taste for it seems quite as
firmly implanted in the colonies and in the United
States, England has been emphatically the home
of pugilism; and it is certain that in no other
country at any time was such a fair, manly, and
humane system of combat established as that
under which the English settled their quarrels,
especially after the rules of the prize-ring were
issued. These, known now as the ‘old rules,’
dated from the time of the first recognised champion
of England, in whose name they were framed to
ensure regularity and fair-play in prize-fights, and,
as a seenel consequence, in all others, the P.R-
—an accepted abbreviation for Prize Ring—bein
the standard authority in such matters, the roy:
academy of athletics, as it were. This was soon
after 1740, and the rules held for nearly a
penn but in 1838, after a fatal battle, they were
revised, entirely in the direction of diminishing the
danger of such contests.. At the same time it should
be remarked—and those unacquainted with the
subject may possibly be surprised to learn—that
fatal results to prize-fights were extremely rare,
and in most instances occurred through what may
be termed accidental or secondary causes, In
Broughton’s rules ‘ minute time’ was allowed be-
tween the rounds—each bout of the struggle being
called a ‘round,’ and lasting until one or both o
the men were down; but this was altered in the
new rules to half a minute. It was proper!
decided that if a man could not recover himself
sufficiently in that time to face his antagonist he
must be so weak or stupefied that further fighting
would be dangerous. In Broughton’s time, too,
the seconds were allowed to carry their principals
to the ‘scratch ;’ this was forbidden by the new
rules on the same grounds as the previous altera-
tion. The purpose of both sets of rules was to
secure fair-play and to foster a kind of rude
chivalry, objects not without value when we
remem the classes most likely to come under
their influence, and the angry quarrels either code
was intended to regulate’ No man was to be
struck while he was down; and no man might be
struck below the belt—the belt in practice being a
handkerchief tied tightly round the waist. With
prize-boxers these handkerchiefs were the ‘ colours’
of the men, chosen by themselves and worn by
their partisans. Kicking, biting, and the horrible
‘gouging ’—once so frequent across the Atlantic,
but now happily seldom heard of, owing to the
spread of pugilism—were all ‘foul,’ and their
practice instantly lost a man the battle. There
were two seconds, or, as they were sometimes
called, bottle-holders, to each man: their duty was
to lift their principal when he fell; to carry him
to his corner—always selected by tossing a coin, the
winner of the toss naturally choosing the side of
the ring which placed him with his back to the
sun; to sponge or sprinkle him with water; to
wipe the perspiration or blood from his face; and, as
their second title implies, to refresh him with sips
from the era or Bg hore seg bet =
to carry in their jacket ets a supply of powder
resin, which the bokee would x eh his hands
to enable him to clench them ti; ss when he grew
tired ; but this practice was made ‘foul’ by the new
rules. The ‘scratch,’ to which allusion has been
made, was a mark in the centre of the ring which
the combatants had to ‘toe,’ face to face, before
hostilities could commence. It was also an in-
dispensable formality for the men and their seconds
to shake hands prior to the first round, all six
crossing hands to do so, something like one of the
figures in the Caledonian quadrilles; this pre-
vented anything like a sudden rush y either of
the men upon his un sy ooh: foe. he ‘ring’
itself was a square of D4 eet, marked out by four
corner and four middle stakes, round which ran
two ropes at a height from the ground of 2 and 4
feet respectively.
For many years prize-fighting maintained an
enormous popularity, and an existence which, if not
actually legal, was scarcely to be distinguished
486 PUGILISM
PUISNE JUDGES
from it. The popularity perhaps remains, but the
: ity or oa tag ane Ey is og eeope) omg the
.R. is generally regarded as a thin the ;
and even boxing may be prohibited. ‘Boxing?
was once equivalent to ‘pugilism,’ the general
nee eae ge ng vres, but is aoe Narr
ex vely reserv ior ‘sparring’ wit nt
loves. These, of course, are iam | to protest the
njuries which the naked knuckles might inflict, al-
though a very ee amount of punishment can
be dealt even with the largest gloves. Broughton
was followed by a series of champions, amongst
whom the most famous were probably Jolin Jack-
son (1769-4845)—known as tleman Jackson;
Jem Belcher; Tom Cribb (1781-1848), the most
fearless, honest, and simple-minded of gladiators ;
Spring; and Tom Sayers (1826-65), with whom
the series practically closed. All these have been
honoured with handsome monuments, especially
Jackson and Cribb, who lie respectively in Bromp-
ton Cemetery (London) and Woolwich churehyard ;
while the funeral of Sayers was almost a national
demonstration, the heterogeneous procession which
followed being one of the longest, if not actually the
largest ever seen even in London. Another boxer,
John Gully (1783-1863), might have been champion,
but he retired from the ring and actually became
M.P. for Pontefract (1 ), an owner of ex-
tensive coal-mines, and, what to many of his
admirers was a fact of much enter importance,
his racers thrice won the Derby; and he |
life as a journeyman butcher! The popular idol
at one time was Jack Shaw (1789-1815), the
life-guardsman, a pugilist of herculean strength,
but not so polished in science as some of his
compeers. His patrons offered to buy him out of
the regiment when it was ordered abroad, and to
back him for the championship; but the heroic
man refused, and, with thousands of his
comrades, fell in winning the crowning victory
for his country. It is said that he killed, or placed
hors de combat, ten French cuirassiers at Water-
loo before he was himself slain. Many men of
the highest standing have deemed it essential to
reserve the prize-ring. The great Duke of Well-
ington was its firm supporter; Sir Robert Peel and
Lord Palmerston lent their influence to it, and Lord
Byron, who was a pupil of Jackson, refers to him in
really a respectful style in the notes to Don Juan.
Hoare Borrow’s fight with the ‘Flaming Tinman’
is truly Homeric ; and he lauds boxing as he lauds
all th English. Thackeray, too, whose nose
is said to have been broken in a school fight with
a future church dignitary, devoted one of his
Roundabout Papers to the fight between Sayers
and Heenan. It would occupy too much space
to continue this catalogue of admirers, but did
we “4 so it Seo crgee! how Lape was the
popular tone of thought not so very long ago.
The P.R. may undoubtedly claim to have fur-
nished an item in ee meer s for when the
allied sovereigns visited London after the peace of
1814—the most important and brilliant gathering
of potentates on record—it was deemed fitting by
the highest authorities to show them a display of
boxing, supported by the best pugilists of the day—
a display greatly admired by the visitors. A year
or two later the Grand-duke of Prussia saw a prize-
battle and shook hands with the victor. The Shah
of Persia in 1873 was also greatly delighted with a
similar exhibition. The real decadence of the ring
dates from the establishment of police in ey |
county of England, which rendered it well-nig
impossible to ‘ get a fight off;’ the leading patrons
of the sport withdrew disgusted at the continual
disappointment, leaving the boxers to the influence
of a very different class, From the absence of
any legal restraint, there had always been danger
of disorder and riot, to check which no adequate
force could be provided ; yet latterly such scenes
grew more frequent and worse in character, so that
the demand from its opponents for the su
of the ring gained in strength, while the efforts of
those who would preserve it were proportionately
weakened.
As with most other extensively followed games,
the prize-ring had a dialect of its own, a ‘flash
lingo,’ a few specimens of which may amuse the
er. The fists were ‘mauleys,’ ax when both
boxers struck with the came baad at the same
time, the blow was called, aptly enough, a ‘ counter-
hit,’ or only a ‘counter.’ When one struck with
the right and the other with the left at the same
time, the blow was a ‘cross counter.’ ‘Countering’
was the most exciting, and the severest mode of
inflicting punishment.
In consequence of the police difficulties attending
rize-fights on the old lines, they have P dag
rifted into exhibition matches, in which the ‘ gate’
is an important factor. These fights are conducted
under the Queensberry rules, so called from the mar-
gs of thatname who first drew them up(about 1890),
hey modify the conditions considerably, and as
loves are used (thinly stuffed, from 4 to 6 ounces
in weight) they are nominally bo: contests and
are presumably legal. They generally end in one
of the combatants being ‘ ked out’—that is,
rendered insensible long enough to be unable to
continue the fight. A blow on the point of the
jaw or on the heart or stomach is the usual method
of accomplishing this end. They are ph pecan 3 con-
ducted under the auspices of some athletic club on
a platform enclosed with a 24-feet ring, a charge
being made for admission. They are very po
in the United States, where the bigges
taken place, such as that in which Fitzsimmons beat
Corbett in 1897, and when Jeffries beat Fitzsim-
mons in 1899. In the latter case the money drawn
for admission amounted to $75,000 (£15,000), of
which sum over £12,000 was divided between the
pugilists.
See Egan’s Boxiana (5 vols, 1818); Fistiana (1863);
American Fistiana’ (New York, 1876) ; * Pendragon,
Modern Boxing (1878); H. D. Miles, Pugilistica (2 vols.
1880); J. B. O'Reilly, Ethics of Bowing and. Manly
Sport; and Pollock and Grove’s Fencing, yr and
G, Allanson-
restling (Badminton Library, 1889); R.
Winn, Boxing (Isthmian Library, 189i »
Pugin, Aucustus WELBY, architect, was born
in London on Ist March 1812, the son of a French
architect, Augustin Pugin (1762-1832), in whose
office, after schooling at Christ's Hospital, he was
trained, chiefly by making drawings for his father’s
books on Gothic buildings. Whilst working with
Sir C. Barry he designed and modelled a bea, <2 part
of the decorations and sculpture for the new Houses
of Parliament (1836-37). Early in life he became
a convert to Roman Catholicism ; and most of his
plans were made for churches and other ecclesias-
tical edifices belonging to that communion, the most
successful being perhaps a church at yg
Killarney Cathedral, Adare Hall in Ireland, an
the Benedictine chapel at Douai. He died insane
at Ramsgate, on 14th September 1852, He enriched
the literature of his profession by Contrasts...
between the Archit of the 16th and 19th
Centuries (1836), a Treatise on Chancel Screens
(1851), and The True Principles of Christian Archi-
tecture (1841). See B. Ferrey’s Recollections of
A. W. Pugin and his Father (1861).
His son, EpwAarpD WELBY PUGIN (1834-75),
sneceeded to his father’s practice, and was the
architect of many Roman Catholic churches, &e.
Pug-mill. See Brick.
Puisne Judges. See Common Law.
t fights have _
—s
PULASKI
PULLEY 487
Pulaski, Casmrr, a Polish count who fell in
the American revolution, was born in Podolia, 4th
March 1748, took an active part in the war against
Russia, and lost his estates and was outlawed at
the partition of Poland in 1772. In 1777 he went
to America, and for his conduct at the Brandywine
was given a La of rely which he com-
manded until h 1778. e then organised
‘Pulaski’s legion,’ a corps of lancers and light
infantry, in which he enlisted even prisoners of war
and deserters. In May 1779 he entered Charleston,
and held it until the place was relieved ; a furious
assault which he had made on the British was
repelled, but he afterwards followed and harassed
them until they left South Carolina. At the sie;
of Savannah on the 9th of October he fell in the
assault at the head of the covaley. and died on
board the brig Wasp two days later. In 1824
Lafayette laid the corner-stone of a monument to
oa in Savannah, which was completed in
1855.
Luter, an Italian t, born at Florence,
3d December 1432, and died in 1484 (or 1487), was
an intimate friend of Lorenzo de’ Medici and of
Politian, He is the author of a celebrated poem,
Il Morgante giore (‘ Morgante the Giant’), a
burlesque epic of which Roland is the hero. This
3 dem one of the most valuable sources for the wv!
dialeet, the niceties and idioms of whic’
have been ey by Pulei with t skill (see
ITALY, Vol. VI. p- 254). The first edition appeared
at Venice in 1481, and the book has since been fre-
quently reprinted. Pulci wrote further a humorous
novel (printed in Classici Italiani, Milan, 1804)
and several humorous sonnets.—His brother BErR-
NARDO (born circa 1430) wrote an el on the
death of Simonetta, mistress of Julian de’ Medici,
and the first translation of the Eclogues of Virgil.
—Luwca, another brother (born 1431), wrote a poem
in honour of Lorenzo de’ Medici’s success in a
tournament ; J/ Cirvfo Calvaneo, a metrical romance
of chivalry ; Dri @d Amore, a pastoral poem ;
and Epistole Eroiche.
Pulex. See Fea.
Pulicat, a town of British India, 20 miles N.
of Madras, the first settlement of the Dutch in
India; pop. 4967. It stands on an island in a large
inlet of the sea called the Lake of Pulicat.
Pulko’wa, a village of Russia, 10 miles S. of
the site of a magnificent observatory (59° 46’ 18”
N. lat. and 30° 19’ 40” E. long.), the ‘St Peters-
burg observatory,’ built by the Czar Nicholas in
1838-39. In 1882 one of the largest telescopes in
the world was erected here.
Pulley, one of the mechanical powers, consists
of a wheel, with a groove cut all round its cireum-
ference, and movable on an axis;
the wheel, which is commonly
called a sheave, is often placed
inside a hollow oblong mass of
wood called a block, and by the
sides of this block the extremi-
ties of the axle of the sheave
are supported; the eord which
P passes over the circumference of
w _ the sheave is called the tackle.
Pulleys may be used either singly
Fig. 1. or in combination ; in the former
ease they are either fixed or
movable. The fixed pulley ( fig. 1) gives no mechani-
eal advantage; it merely changes the direction in
which a force would naturally be applied to one
more convenient: thus, W can be raised without
lifting it directly by merely pulling P down. The
single movable pulley, with parallel cords, gives a
mechanical advantage = 2 (fig. 2); for a little
consideration will show that, as the weight, W, is
supported by two strings, the stress on each strin
is 4W, and the stress on the one being suppo
by the hook, A, the power, P, requires merely to
support the stress on the other
string, which passes round C. =
The fixed pulley, C, is only of
service in changing the naturally
upward direction of the power
into a downward one. the
strings in the single movable
soir are not parallel there is a
iminution of mechanical advan-
Lenmar P must be more than
of W to produce an exact
counterpoise ; if the angle made
py the strings AB and BC is 120°,
must be equal to W; and if
the angle be greater than this
there is a mechanical disadvantage, or P must be
—_ than W. The following are examples of
ifferent combinations of pulleys, generally known
as the first, second, and third systems of pulleys.
In the first system one end of each cord is fastened
to a fixed support above; each cord descends,
passes round a pulley (to the lowest of which the
weight, W, is fastened), and is fastened to the
block of the next pulley, with the exception of
the last cord, which passes round a fixed pulley
above, and is attached to the counterpoise, P.
The tension of a string being the same in all its
parts, the tension of every part of the string
marked (1) in fig. 3 is that which is produced by
the eee os of P; consequently, as the last moy-
able pulley is supported on both sides by a string
having a tension, P, the tension applied in its sup-
port is 2P. The tension of the string marked (2)
Fig. 2.
j
Fig. 3. Fig. 5.
is therefore 2P, and the second movable pulley is
supported by a force equal to 4P. It may similarly
be shown that the foree applied by the strings
marked (4) in support of the last pulley (which
is attached to W) is 8P. Hence we see that,
according to this arrangement, 1 lb. can pope
4 lb. if two movable eget are used; 8 Ib. if
there are three movable pulleys; 16 Ib. if there
are four movable pulleys; and if there are n mov-
able pulleys 1 lb, can support 2" lb. It must be
noticed, however, that in practice the weight of
the cords, and of the pulleys, and the friction of
the cord on the pulleys must be allowed for; and
the fact that in this system all of these resist the
action of the power, P, and that to a large extent,
has rendered it of little use in practice.—The
second system is much inferior in producing a
mechanical advantage, but it is found to be much
488 PULLMAN
PULSE
more convenient in practice, and is modified accord-
ing to the pu for which it is to be used ;
two prevalent forms are given in figs. 4 and 5.
In system one string round all the
pulleys, and, as the tension in
every part of it is that produced
by the weight of P, the whole
force applied to elevate the lower
block with its attached weight,
W, is the weight P multiplied
by the number of strings attached
to the lower block ; in fig. 4 W
= 4P, and in fig. 5 W = 6P,
the pulleys in the upper block
being only of use in changing the
direction of the pulling force.
This system is the one in common
use in architecture, in dock-
yards, and on board ship, and
various modifications of it—such
as White’s pulley, Smeaton’s
niley, &c.—have been intro-
uced; but the simpler forms
shown above have been found to
Ww answer best.—The third system
(fig. 6) is merely the first system
Fig. 6. inverted, and it is a little more
powerful, besides having the
weight of the pulleys to support the power, instead
of acting in opposition to dt, as in the former
petngear., 5 mechanical advantage can be traced
out by finding from the form of the combination
the ratio between the run of the tackle over the
last sheave and the vertical ascent of W, when
motion is set up. Theoretically, the larger the
number of movable pulleys in any one combina-
tion the greater is the mechanical advantage
afforded by it; but the enormons friction pro-
duced, and the want of perfect flexibility in the
ropes, prevent any great increase in the number of
pulleys,
Pullman, Georce Mortimer, the inventor of
the well-known ‘cars,’ was born in New York
state in 1831, ex in the business of moving
and raising buildings, and as early as 1859 made
his first sleeping-cars, and in 1863 the first on the
model with which his name is now associated (see
RatLways). The Pullman Palace-car Company
was formed in 1867, under his presidency, and now
works nearly 1500 cars. In 1880 he founded an
industrial town near Chicago, by which it has since
been absorbed. On the 19th of October 1897 he
dropped down dead in the streets of Chicago.
Pulmonaria, See LuNcworr.
Pulmonates, See GAsTEeROPODA.
Pulo-Penang. See PENANG.
Pulpit (Lat. pulpitum), an elevated tribune
or desk, from which sermons, lectures, and other
solemn religions addresses are delivered, In great
churehes the pulpit is commonly placed on the
north side of the nave against the wall, or in
juxtaposition with a pillar or buttress (see also
AmBo). The pulpits of the Low Countries and
of Germany are often masterpieces of elaborate
carving in wood and stone, frequent subjects for
treatment being the Conversion of St Paul, the
Call of Peter and Andrew, and Adam and
Eve (as in the wood-carved pulpit by Verbruggen
in St Gudule at Brussels). dotnetonas the canopy
or sonunding-board is the part most elaborately
adorned by carving in wood or stone, as in
the pulpit at Fotheringhay, Northamptonshire.
Amongst the masterpieces of Niccola Pisano are
the beantifully wrought marble pulpits of the
baptistery at Pisa, and of the cathedral at Siena.
Some are adorned by bronze-work. The pulpit
(in Arabic, mimbar) forms one of the scanty
appliances of
ohammedan
worship.
Dollman’s Ez-
amples of
Ancient Pulpits
in England
(1849).
Pulque, a
lavoutita bever-
age of the Mexi-
cans and of the
inhabitants of
Central America
and some
of South Amer-
ica; made from
the fermented
juice of different
species of Agave
(q.v.).
Pulsatilla,
or PASQUE
FLOWER, a
species of Ane-
mone (A. pulsa-
tilla), of the
natural _ order
Ranunculacee,
The species is a
perennial herb
with doubly pin-
natifid or doubly
trifid leaves, and Pulpit (Fotheringhay, Northampton-
a simple one- shire, 1440).
flowered scape.
It is nareotic, acrid, and poisonous. The pulsatilla
is a native of many parts of Europe, and of chalky
astures in several parts of England. It has widely
vell-shaped bluish-purple flowers. Other species of
Anemone have similar properties, A. pratensis and
A. patens, the former a native of Europe generally,
the latter of Siberia. They all emit, when bruised,
a pungent smell, and contain, as their principal
constituent, a peculiar pungent essential oil, which
in combination with Anemonic Acid, forms an acri
and very inflammable substance called Anemonine
or Pulsatilla Camphor, and is sometimes used in
medicine. Pulsatilla is a favourite medicine of
the homeopathists. Easter eggs are coloured
prea in some places with the petals of the pasque
ower,
Pulse (Lat. pris), a name for the edible seeds.
of leguminous plants, as corn is the name for the
edible seeds of Peas and beans are the
most common and important of all kinds of pulse ;
next to them may be ranked kidney-beans, lentils
chick-peas, pigeon-peas, &c. The best kinds o
pulse are very nutritious, but not easy of digestion,
and are very apt to produce flatulence.
Pulse (Lat. pulsus, ‘a pushing or beating’).
The phenomenon known as the arterial pulse or
arterial pulsation is due to the distension of the
arteries consequent upon the intermittent injection.
of blood into their trunks, and the subsequent con-
traction which results from the elasticity of their
walls. It is perceptible to the touch in all except-
ing very minute arteries, and, in exposed positions,
is visible to the eye. The pulse is usually ex-
amined at the ial ar’ at the wrist, the
advantages of that position being that the artery
is et superficial, and that it is easily com-
pressed against the bone. It is usual and con-
venient, though not quite accurate, to include
under the term the conditions observed between.
the beats, as well as those produced by them.
PULSE
PULTOWA 489
The condition of the pulse depends mainly on two
factors, each of which may vary indepen mats of
the other : first, the contraction of the heart, which
propels the stream of blood along the artery ; and
, the resistance in the small arteries and
capillaries, which controls the rate at which it
leaves the artery. The first determines the fre-
uency and rhythm of the pulse and the force of
the beats ; but the tension of the artery between
them and their apparent duration bore mainly
upon the peripheral resistance. ‘Feeling the
pulse,’ therefore, gives important information be-
sides the rate of the heart’s action, and implies
much more than the mere counting of pulsations.
Dr Broadbent says, ‘A complete account of the
pulse should specify (1) the frequency—ie. the
num beats per minute, with a note of any
irregularity or intermission or instability of the
rhythm ; (2) the size of the vessel ; (3) the degree
of distension of the artery between the beats;
(4) the character of the pulsation—whether its
access is sudden or gradual, its duration short or
long, its subsidence abrupt or slow, note being
taken of dicrotism when present; (5) the force or
strength of both the constant and variable pressure
within the artery, as measured by its compressi-
bility ; (6) the state of the arterial walls.’
The of the pulse varies with age, from
130 to 140 per minute at birth to 70 to 75 in adult
males, and with sex, being six or eight beats more
in adult females. In some individuals it deviates
considerably from this standard, and may even be
habitually below forty or above ninety without any
of disease. It is increased by exertion or excite-
ment, by food or stimulants, diminished in a lying
posture or during sleep. In disease (acute hydro-
cephalus, for example) the | ge may reach 150 or
even 200 beats; or, on the other hand (as in
apoplexy and in certain organic affections of the
heart), it may be as slow as between thirty and
twenty.
The normal lar rhythm of the pulse may be
interfered with either by the occasional dropping
of a beat (intermission), or by variations in the
force of successive beats, and in the length of the
intervals separating them (irregularity). These
varieties often occur in the same person, but they
may exist independently of each other. Irregn-
larity of the pulse is natural to some persons; in
others it is the mere result of debility ; butit may
be caused by the most serious disorders, as by
— of the brain, or by organic disease of the
eart.
The other qualities of the pulse are much more
difficult to recognise, though of no less importance,
The degree of tension or resistance to compression
by the fingers varies greatly: in a soft or ‘low-
tension’ pulse the artery may be almost imper-
ceptible between the beats; in a hard or “hls
tension’ ses it may be almost incompressible.
An unduly soft pulse is usually an indication of
debility ; an unduly hard one is most characteristic
of disease of the Kidneys (q.v.) and gout. But the
tension, like the frequency of the pulse, undergoes
considerable variations in health from tempora:
causes, and may in certain individuals be habitu-
ally above or below the average without actual
disease.
pe te of the beats is a measure of the vigour
and efficiency of the heart’s action. A strong pulse
is correctly regarded as a sign of a vigorous state of
the system ; it may, however, arise from hyper-
trophy of the left ventricle of the heart, and remain
as @ persistent symptom even when the general
ers are failing. strength of the pulse usually
indicates vigour, so weakness of the pulse indicates
debility. Various expressive adjectives have been
attached to special conditions of the pulse, into
the consideration of which our space will not
permit us to enter. Thus, we read of the jerking
pulse, the hobbling pulse, the corded pel the
wiry pulse, the thrilling pulse, the rebounding
pulse, &c. The full significance of ch: of the
pulse in disease can only be appreciated by con-
sidering them in connection with the other signs
and symptoms of the case. See MEDICINE (Vol.
VIL. p. 115), CrrcuLATION, HEART, PALPITATION ;
and especially The Pulse, by Dr Broadbent (1890).
Pulsometer. See Pumps.
Pulszky, Francis Avretivus, Hungarian poli-
tician and author, was born at Eperies, 17th Bep-
tember 1814, and after a course of legal studies
travelled abroad, publishing (1837) a successful
book on England. In 1848 he was appointed to a
government post under Esterhazy, but, suspected
of s in the revolution, fled to London, where
he wrote for the — When Kossnth came to
1s Pulszky e his companion, and went
with him to America (described in White, Red, and
Black, 1852). His wife wrote Memoirs of a Hun-
garian Lady (Lond. 1850), and Tales and Tradi-
tions of Hungary (1851). He was condemned to
death by the Austrian government in 1852, but,
after living in Italy from 1852 to 1866, was par-
doned in 1867. He has sat in the parliament, and
been director of museums and libraries throughout
the country. His autobiographic memoirs (4 vols.
1879-82) were translated into German. See F. W.
Newman, Reminiscences of Two Exiles (1889).
Pulteney, WituiAM, Earl of Bath. This
statesman, descended from a Whig family, was
born in 1684, the son of Sir William Pulteney,
member of parliament for Westminster. He was a
student of Christ Church College, Oxford, where
his oratorical power was early displayed. He
entered parliament as member for Heydon, York-
shire, and was a most graceful and brilliant speaker,
full of epigram, and a master of all the arts of
parliamentary attack. At first, and for many
ears, the friend and colleague of Walpole, he
nally became so disgusted with that minister’s
indifference to his claims that in 1728 he placed
himself at the head of a small group of malcontent
Whigs styled the ‘ Patriots,’ and was henceforth
Walpole’s bitterest and perhaps most formidable
opponent, being the leader of the coalition against
him in the Commons as Carteret was in the House
of Lords. He was Bolingbroke’s chief assistant in
the paper called the Craftsman, which involved
him in many political controversies, and called
forth some of his finest Mee wares In 1731 he
wrongly ascribed to Lord Hervey the authorship of
a senrrilous pamphlet; a duel was the consequence,
fought with swords in St James’s Park, when both
combatants were slightly wounded. On the resig-
nation of Walpole in 1741 Pulteney was sworn of
the Privy-council, and soon afterwards created Earl
of Bath ; and from that time his popularity was gone.
Horace Walpole places him amongst his Royal
and Noble Authors, but though his prose was
effective and his verse graceful, he was probably
still better known as the author of a once popular
political song, ‘The Honest Jury, or Caleb Tri-
umphant,’ than by his more serious writin He
died in 1764, a wealthy but disappoin man.
See Lecky, ord he England, ii. 417 et seq., and
Walpole, by John Morley.
Pultowa, or Potta’vA, a town of Russia,
situated on a tributary of the Dnieper, by rail 88
miles SW. of Kharkoff and 449 NE. of Odessa, It
manufactures tobacco and leather, and has four
annual fairs, the most important in July, when
wool, horses, cattle, leather, hides, and coarse wool-
lens and other stuffs are sold to the amount of
£2,500,000 annually. Pop. 43,214. The town isa
490 PULTUSK
a Dia |
PUMPS
bishop’s seat, and is famous as the scene of Charles
XIL.’s defeat by Peter the Great on 27th June 1709.
Pultusk, a town of Poland, 32 miles N. of
Warsaw. Here Charles XII. of Sweden defeated
the Saxons in 1703, and here, too, on December 26,
1806, was fought a fierce battle between the
Russians and the French, the latter being ulti-
mately victorious. The town was destroyed by
fire in 1875. Pop. 19,946.
Pulvermacher’s Chains. See Evecrricity
(MEDICAL).
Puma, or Covauar (Felis concolor), ~ large
Carnivore distributed in North and South America
between 60° N. and 50° S. lat., but rare in those
parts which have been long settled. It is some-
times called the American ‘lion,’ ‘panther,’
(‘painter’), or ‘catamount,’ and is about the
size of a leo The far is thick and close,
dark yellowish red above, lighter on the sides,
and reddish white on the belly; the muzzle,
chin, throat, breast, and insides of the legs are
more or less white. But the colouring varies a
little in different localities. Young pumas have
dark-brown spots in three rows on the back, and
scattered markings elsewhere. The long tail_is
covered with thick fur, and is a 4 coiled. The
ae have very diverse haunts—the forest, the
ush, and the grassy pampas; they have no fixed
lairs, but roam about by night from place to place
in seareli of prey. They are agile in their move-
ments, and can leap and spring well, but swim onl
under compulsion. Many kinds of mammals fall
victims to the pumas, and they are the more
disastrous to flocks and herds because of their
habit of killing many more than they devour. To
the booty which they have secured but merely
tasted they will afterwards return. They rarely
attack man, but one puma has been known to
kill fifty sheep in a nig! t, drinking a little of the
blood of each; hence their extermination in many
zions. The two sexes live apart, but pair in
winter and summer. Two or three young are born
at once, and are left a good deal to themselves,
thongh after the first birth the mothers are cer-
tainly affectionate. In spite of its restless and
voracious instincts the pnma may be readily tamed,
and is said to become gentle. The skin is some-
times used, and the flesh is occasionally eaten.
Pumice, a general term for the cellular, spongi-
form, filamentous, or froth-like parts of lavas.
This highly porous and froth-like structure is due
to the abundant escape of vie through the rock
while it was in a state of fusion. Under the micro-
scope the rock is seen to be a glass, crowded with
minute gas or vapour cavities and abundant crys-
tallites. Owing to its porous structure pumice
Tt floats in water. It is usually a form of
some highly acid lava, such as obsidian; but now
and n basic lavas give rise to pumice (Canary
Islands, Hawaii). The latter is dark brown or
black, and often shows metallic tarnish; the
former, which is much the more common, is white
or gray, and sometimes yellow. It is a hard but
brittle rock, and is much used for gerne! wood,
ivory, metals, glass, slates, marble, lithographic
stones, &c., in preparing vellum and parchment,
and for rubbing away corns and callosities.
Great quantities are exported from the Lipari
Isles; and that from the quarries in the Peak of
Teneriffe, 2000 feet above sea-level, is better and
cheaper. Pumice occurs as the crust of some kinds
of lava, and is offen ejected in the form of loose
cinders during volcanic eruptions. Sometimes im-
mense quantities are thrown into the sea and are
often floated for great distances. Eventually the
cinders get water-logged and sink to the bottom.
Abundant fragments were dredged up from abys-
mal depths by the © expedition. After
the eruption and earthquake in the Straits of
Sunda in 1883, the seaport of Folok Batoung was
closed with a barrier of pumice 19 miles long, two-
thirds of a mile broad, and from 13 to 16 feet deep.
Pumpernickel, a kind of rye-bread (made of
unbol flour), much used in Westphalia. The
etymology is disputed.
Pumpkin, See Gourp.
Pumps, machines for lifting liquids to a higher
level, els (1) the Lift or ee fae Pump, (2) the
Lift and Force Pump, ae Pulsometer, (4) the
Chain-pump, (5) Spiral Pumps, (6) the Centri
Pump, (7) the Jet-pump, (8) the Persian Wheel,
(9) Sov: whnele
(1) The Lift or Suction Pump (fig. 1).—A is the
cylinder (the ‘ neelh et or oem at the top;
is a pipe (the ‘suction-pipe’) communicating
with toe saben to be caients C is a ‘discharge-
pipe,’ which may be reduced to a mere spout; D
is a valve, opening up-
ve yer ; E is another
valve, also opening w
wards only, Bey borne a
F; F is the ‘ bucket,’ a
hollow eylindrieal piece of
wood or metal which is
made, by leather or by
hemp or other king, to
fit the barrel just so
closely that water cannot
travel between the bucket
and the barrel; G is the
piston-rod, driven by hand,
steam, windmill, or animal
ade and moving the
pucket up and down in
the barrel. Each upward
stroke of the piston at
first lifts air, of which
none can travel back past
the bucket; a partial
vacuum is produced in B;
water ascends in B until
the external atmospheric
pressure is balanced by the
partial prc es pres-
sure below plus the
weight of the water col-
umn in B; as F now
descends, air gets to the
upper side of the valve,
and is lifted on the upstroke, and so on; 80
that, if the valve D be not more than at most 33
feet above the water below ioe practice 25 feet
or less), water will be, step by step, pushed up
B by the external atmospheric pressure until the
valve D is under water; thereafter the succeedin:
strokes of the pump operate on the water above
and force it into the np torneo C, the external
atmospheric pressure keeping the space below D
filled with water. The power expended is applied
(1) in lifting water; (2) in overcoming the pum
friction ; (3) in overco the water-friction ; and,
(4) where the pump is are in producing
eddies and broken water. A lift-pump must be
very carefully proportioned and constructed in
order to utilise, in water-lifting, one-half of the
whole power expended in working it. Such pumps
must work slowly, so that the valves may close
properly ; and an air-vessel is, if C be not a mere
spont, required on C so as to minimise shock and
render the outflow less intermittent, by the com-
pression and elastic expansion of the air contained
in it. The outflow is also regulated by driving
two or three pumps off the same shaft and properly
timing their relative motions.
Fig. 1.
PUMPS
491
The Lift and Force Pump (fig. 2).—The
is solid, and the valve E, instead of being
by the piston, is fitted in the discharge-
pipe. During downward motion of the piston
water is forced past the valve E; it cannot return ;
Fig. 2.
and water may thus be foreed to considerable
heights.. Sometimes (fig. 3) the piston is made to
fit, not the barrel, but the stuffing-box, B, which
can be tightened down on it so as to make the
fit good. An air-vessel, or a loaded hydraulic press
called an ‘accumulator,’ is fitted on the discharge-
pipe so as to minimise shock and intermittence ;
and double ae are very generally employed,
either directly driven by steam-engine pistons or
driven by a flywheel. Force-pumps are used for
d wells and mines, hydraulic presses, boiler
f creasoting timber, hydraulic lifts, steam fire-
engines both land and marine, and hydraulic power
supply.
Py The Pulsometer.—Two chambers, A and B,
converge above and communicate with a single
stomped, 8 a ball-valve shuts off either A or B,
but not both at the same time, from the steam;
A and Beach have a discharge outlet and a suction
inlet, both these having valves. The whole is
filled with water; the steam drives water from,
say, A into the discharge-pipe : condensation takes
place and the ball-valve is pulled over, so as to
shut off the steam from A: the steam then acts
in B in the same way as it had done in A, while in
the meantime A, where there is a partial vacuum,
is being filled with water from the suction-pi
The two chambers thus act alternately. he
whole contrivance can be hung by chains and
let down to the required —— ; and it is greatly
in use in contractors’ wor
(4) The Chain-pump.—This pump is formed of
plates called lifts or buckets, fastened, now gener-
ally by their centres, to an endless chain and
moving upwards, in a case or ‘ barrel’ which is in
places constricted so as just to let the buckets
Fig. 3.
pass. Chain-pumps are noisy and somewhat apt
to break down ; bat they can lift very gritty -
muddy material. Dredging-machines (q.v.) with
their buckets are a variety of this device.
(5) Spiral Pumps.—An Archimedes’ Screw (q.v.)
is rotated round its axis so as to make water slip
up the inclined plane of the screw. They are very
economical in power, and they work so regularly
that they act as meters.
(6) Centrifugal Pumps (figs. 4 and 5).—The
water enters by the supply-pipes, A, A, which lead
to the central orifices of the fan, B, B; it then
traverses the passages, C, C, formed by the vanes
and the side covering-plates, D, of the fan. The
fan is made to rotate from the shaft, E. The water
acquires a rotatory motion while passing throu,
the of the rotating fan ; it then enters the
whirlpool-chamber, F, and is discharged by the pipe,
G, at the cireumference of F ; and the velocity of
Fig. 4.
rotation of the fan determines the height to which
the water will rise in the ob aig Ad agi This
velocity cannot conveniently be made to exceed a
certain limit; hence the utility of centrifugal
pumps is tically limited to low lifts; but as
they can Se yninds very large they can deal with
enormous quantities of water; and they are much
used for pumping’
in docks, canals,
marsh and polder
draining, land-
reclaiming, and
the like.
they have no
valves they are
little liable to
become choked.
In nearly all
modern centrifu-
of which
Se bo reduce the
ultimate velocity
of outflow and
correspondingly
to increase the
pressure, is dispensed with; and the same end is
attained without wasting energy through friction
in the vortex, F, by shaping the vanes of the fan so
as to reduce the velocity. See Cotterill’s Applied
Mechanics,
(7) The Jet-pump, now not much used, is practi-
cally a Giffard’s Injector (q.v.) worked by water
from a height instead of by steam.
(8) The Persian Wheel.—An under-shot wheel
(mill-wheel in which the water flows under the
wheel) in which little buckets are carried by the
rim of the wheel so as to pick up water from the
stream and deliver it at the top of the wheel,
(9) Scoop-wheels or flash wheels: equivalent to
breast water-wheels with reversed action; driven
by windmills or by steam, they raise water in
their buckets and deliver it a few feet higher up ;
in some cases they have curved blades, and the
water is delivered at the centre of the wheel.
See Pumps and Pumping Machinery, by Frederick
Colyer, C.E. (Lond. 1886); also see AtR-PUMP.
Fig. 5.
~
492 PUN PUNCTUATION
Pun, the name given to a pla: rds that The ormance of Punch, as generally repre-
agree or resemble dtp why fn cond | but differ in sented. ceeeaie the assistance of only tvo persons
sense, a verbal quibble by means of which an incon-
ous and therefore ludicrous idea is unexpectedly
Sit into the sentence—as, for example, in the
answer to the grave question, ‘Is life worth living?’
—‘ That depends on the liver.’ We find this
form of witticism in Aristophanes and Cicero, and
in old England it was not unknown even in the
pulpit. sermons of Bishop Andrewes and the
Church History and other works of Thomas Fuller
abound in puns of all degrees of goodness and bad-
ness; they meet us strangely enough even in the
gravest situations in the ies of Shakespeare,
and there is at least one in Liddell and tt’s
Greek i Dr Johnson said that the man who
would make a pun would pick a pocket; but this
sentence bears too hard upon the best beloved of
English writers, Charles Lamb, a hardened punster,
not to mes of Sydney Smith, Hook, Hood, the
prince of punsters, and Bishop Wilberforce. Boswell,
while relating Dr Johnson's dislike to puns, ven-
tures his own opinion that ‘a good pun may be
admitted among the smaller excellencies of con-
versation.’ But a pun of the best kind has a value
infinitely higher than this: there is tenderness as
well as wit in Fuller's phrase of the Holy Innocents
of Bethlehem—‘ the infantry in the noble army of
martyrs,’
See §, , No, 61, L. Larchey’s Les Joueurs des
Mots ( 1866), aad Hohines’s rhea of the Breakfast
Table. The Hon. Hugh Rowley’s Puniana (1867) and
More Puniana (1875) contain many hundred examples,
among a few good puns,
Punch, a beve introduced into England
from India, and so called from being monly made
of five (Hindi, ) ingredients—arrack, tea,
sugar, water, and lemon-juice. As now prepared,
punch is a drink the basis of which is alcohol of
one or more kinds (especially rum), diluted with
water, flavoured with lemon or lime-juice and
spices, and sweetened with sugar ; sometimes other
i ients are added according to taste, especially
wine, ale, and tea. ‘Rack-punch’ takes its name
from Arrack (q.v. ee red before-
hand (of rum and brandy with milk), bottled, and
served cold—even iced. Whisky-toddy, made with
whisky, hot water, and sugar, is a kind of punch,
the name toddy being Hindustani.
Punch, with his wife Judy and dog Toby, the
chief ¢ in a popular comic puppet-show,
of Italian origin, the name being a contraction of
Punchinello, for Puleinello, the droll clown in
Neapolitan comedy. The word is a diminutive
from pulcino, ‘a young chicken.’ The identifica-
tion with Pontius Pilate, as well as of Judy with
the betrayer Judas, is entirely without foundation.
Many believe the modern Punch to have originated
in a survival of the Macecus, the fool or clown
of the ancient Atellane (q.v.), just as the Italian
Arleechino and Brighetta are of their other Oscan
characters. But the line of descent is certainly
obscure enough, and it is at least not improbable
that some trace of the old Ludi Osci, transmitted
through the Vice of the mystery plays, may lurk in
the modern drama of the hook-nosed hunchback
Punch and his unfortunate wife Judy. The full-
grown modern drama, which can scarcely be looked
on as a school of the domestic virtues, is ascribed
to an Italian comedian, Silvio Fiorillo, about 1600.
The exhibition soon found its way into other
countries, and was very popular in England during
the 17th century. Its popularity seems to have
reached its height in the time of Queen Anne, and
Addison has given in the Spectator a regular criti-
cism of one of the performances. In 1812 Ouseley
saw at Tabriz in Persia a Gypsy a ¢ pplcenin very
like our Punch and Judy. See also MARIONETTES,
—one to the theatre and work the
the wher 66 Maar the box of puppets, blow the
trumpet, and sometimes —_ up the dialogue with
the hero of the piece. z . yetitrcsar pth
pu are managed simply by putting
Dee ie dress, naking the coal finger and
thumb serve for the arms, while the forefinger
works the head.
Punch, or the Lonpon Cuarrvart, the English
comic journal excellence, is a weekly i
of wit, humour, and satire in prose and v.
copiously illustrated by sketches, caricatures, an
emblematical devices. It draws its materials as
freely from the most exalted spheres of foreign
politics as from the provincial nursery ; and, dealing
with every side of life, is not less observant of the
follies of Belgravia than of the iarities of
Whitechapel. Punch gives due place to Irish bulls
and dry Scotch humour, and does its best to present
them in the raciest vernacular. Stern in the
exposure of sham and vice, Punch is yet kindly
when it makes merry over innocent foibles. Usuall
a censor morum in the guise of Joe Miller, a geni
English Democritus who laughs and provokes to
laughter, Punch at times weeps with those that
weep, and, jocis remotis, pays a poetical tribute to
the memory of the departed t. The wittiest
of serial prints was founded in 1841, the first number
appearing on the 17th July of that year, and
under the joint editorship of Henry Mayhew an
Mark Lemon, soon became a household word,
while ere long its satirical ents and witty rhymes
were admittedly a power in the land. “Punch is
ised as an English institution, and in corners
of Europe where an Englishman rarely comes the
frequenters of the café may be seen puzzling over
the esoteric wit and wisdom of Cockayne. "Their
contributions to Punch helped to e Dou
Jerrold, Gilbert & Beckett, Tom Hood, Al
Smith, Thackeray, Shirley Brooks, Tom Ta: lor,
and F. C. Burnand famous; as their ill ms
did H. K. Browne, Doyle, Leech, Tenniel, Du
Maurier, Keene, Linley Sambourne, and Furniss.
It should be noted that this genial comic oe has
done memorable service in purifying moral
standard of current wit in England.
See CHARIVARI, CARICATURE, the articles on the chief
contributors, &c.; A Jorum of Punch, by Athol Mayhew,
rather unduly magnifying hew’s share (1895); and
The History of Punch, by M. H. Spielmann (1895).
Punchestown, a racecourse close to Naas,
20 miles SW. of Dublin, where are held in April
the steeplechases of the Kildare Hunt. There are
stone monuments near,
Punctuation is the art of marking the divi-
sions of a sentence by means of conventional signs
—the full stop or period (.), colon (:), semicolon (;),
comma (,), dash (—), mark of exclamation (!),
mark of interrogation (?), inverted commas (i),
and brackets—(),[]. Broadly speaking, there are
two principal systems of punctuation, the -
matical and the logical. The system most fre-
quently followed in British printing-honses is
neither of these, being a set of empirical rules, in
which the logical element is almost entirely want-
ing, the grammatical is present to some ‘extent,
but the ruling factor is ap
Commas are too often held in profound ana
being scattered at random amongst the words as i
from a pepper-box. These lawless little adjuncts
ean be found, in the best-printed books, insinuatin
themselves between subject and verb in even sho’
sentences. The printing-offices of the United States
are to some extent uniform in their practice. The
system they follow is much better than those in
tly arbitrary fancy, -
PUNCTUATION
PUNJAB 493
Britain, and is based principally upon grammatical
laws. The old-fashioned method of putting in a
comma (or even a stronger stop) wherever a reader
would naturally pause to take breath when reading
aloud (as at this point of this sentence) has little
in reason to commend it. Punctuation is confessedly
difficult, pera. owing to the vast differences in the
style of different writers, and partly owing to the
conflicts between logical meaning and grammatical
word-arrangement which in some cases are inevit-
able. Given a sensible system, practical experi-
ence is the best teacher. In theory little more can
be done than to lay down a few general maxims for
guidance.
In the first place, follow a logical method of
sentence subdivision: let the first and foremost
aim be to bring out the meaning clearly and unam-
peers, in so far as this can be done with the
help of stops. Use commas and semicolons spar-
ingly, especially commas; use them, indeed, only
w they are absolutely necessary. The sentence
should stand on its own feet, not rest upon a lon
array of comma crutches. It is not as a gener
rule necessary to set commas to fence or adorn
every adverbial clause. Especial care is required
in punctuating sentences that contain relative
clauses. If the relative sentence is entirely sub-
ordinate to the main sentence, or if it gives addi-
tional information, separate it by a comma or com-
mas ; if on the other hand it belongs essentially to
the structure of the thought expressed by the main
sentence, put no comma. For example, in ‘the
man who had an impediment in his speech,’ written
without the comma, the relative clause points out
this particular man and distinguishes him from
some other or others who have been also spoken of :
it fulfils in fact the function of an article or demon-
strative pronoun. In the same sentence printed
with the comma, ‘the man, who had’ &e., the rela-
tive clause gives an entirely new piece of informa-
tion, and is no longer demonstrative. The colon
is generally put before a long quotation. It would
be well to confine the use of it to this and to one
other ease—namely, to part a general statement
from the immediately following particular —
tion of it or exemplification of it in detail. for
dashes, it is difficult to summarise the rules for
their use. They are commonly employed to indi-
cate a sudden break or change in the grammatical
structure or the logical development of the sent-
ence, as well as to put ironical emphasis upon a
word or words thrown to the end of the sentence,
as in Heine’s phrase, *Géttingen is noted for its
rofessors and its—sausages ;’ but even this would
fe better without such a clumsy advertisement of
the humour. A dash may precede an enumeration
of mere names or dates or objects expressed in very
brief terms. One dash may also be put before and
one after a short clause that merely explains in
other words or makes clearer a statement that has
just been made ; both dashes, and not one dash and
some other stop, should be used, except where the
second would fall at the end of a sentence. But
for this p , especially where the parenthetical
nature of the added explanatory clause is more
rominent, brackets are frequently employed.
Eepiiasions are most appropriately used com-
pound sent or sent that embrace anti-
thetical statements. In the former class of sentence
they should mark off the subordinate sentences
from the main sentence or co-ordinate sentences
from one another; in the latter class they should
separate the antithetical sentences, which generall
begin with ‘but’ or some equivalent. e mar
of exclamation has another besides its legitimate
use: it is frequently put after absurd or highly
improbable statements. The mark of interrega-
tion too has a secondary use: placed in brackets
immediately after a word it throws doubt upon its
correctness, either as according with fact or as
bis philologically or grammatically correct.
Of course these are only qucendl vale Many
exceptions even to them must necessarily occur.
The golden rules in all cases of doubt are two: (1)
let logic or, better, common sense be the supreme
guide ; (2) punctuate so as to bring out the sense
It is greatly to be desi that British
printing-houses would come to some agreement as
toauniform and systematic method of punctuation.
See H. Beadnell’s Spelling and Punctuation (4th
ed. 1891).
Pundit (Hindi, pandit; Skr. pandita, ‘a
learned man’), in India a teacher, especially a
Brahman learned in Sanskrit and in Hindu litera-
ture, law, and religion. Of late native pundits
have done good service as geographical explorers
in districts, such as Tibet, not accessible to
Europeans.
Pungwe, a river of Portuguese East Africa,
forming the | pence waterway to Manicaland and
Mashonaland ; its mouth is situated some 25 miles
NE. of Sofala and 130 SW. of the Zambesi delta.
After some diplomatic difficulties between Britain
and Portugal, it was agreed (1891) by Portugal
that British commerce should have unimpeded
access by this route to the British sphere in the
interior, the Pungwe being made freely navigable
for British vessels. In 1894 nearly 200 miles of the
railway to the interior had been laid. See Berra.
Punic Wars. See CARTHAGE.
Punishment will be found described in the
articles in this work on Criminal Law, Imprison-
ment, Prisons (p. 420), Flogging, Execution, Pillory,
&e. See also the description of Tortures, Boot,
Guillotine, Thumb-serew, Branks, Jougs, Ducking-
stool, Stocks, &c.; the articles on tle several
crimes; and W. Andrews, Old-time Punishments
(1891). The question of future punishment is
treated in the article HELL.
Punjab, or PANJAB (pdnj-ab, ‘five rivers ;’
the Pentapotamia of the (reeks ), &@ Separate pro-
vince of India, occupying the north-west corner,
is watered by the Indus and its five great affluents
—the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.
It is bounded on the W. by Afghanistan, on the
N. by Cashmere, on the E. by the Jumna and the
North-western Provinces, and on the 8. by Raj-
putana and Sind. The area under direct British
administration is 106,632 sq. m.; that of the
native states, thirty-four in number, under British
control is 35,817 sq. m. Pop. (1881) 18,850,437
in British province and 3,861,683 in the depend-
ent states ; (1891) 20,803,000 in British territory
and 4,256,670 in the feudatory states. The capital
is Lahore, but both Delhi (formerly in North-
western Provinces) and Amritsar (the religious
capital of the Sikhs) are larger. The whole of the
northern parts are traversed by spurs from the
Himalayas, which enclose deep valleys. On the
west the Sulaiman Mountains run parallel to the
Indus. In the south the surface is not broken by
any important eminence, except the Salt Range,
varying from 2000 to 5000 feet high, between the
Indus and the Jhelum. The country, divided into
six doabs, or interfluvial tracts, and frequently
> fee of as the plains of the Indus, has a general
slope towards the south-west. The climate in the
plains is most oppressively hot and dry in summer,
reaching in May 87°4° to 116-6° F. in the shade at
several stations ; but is cool, and sometimes frosty,
in winter. Little rain falls except in the districts
along the base of the Himalayas. The soil varies
from stiff clay and loam to sand; but, in general,
is sandy and barren, intermixed with fertile spots,
Rivers anc canals afford ample means of irrigation.
494 PUNKAH
at Lie
PURCELL
The indigenons v tion is meagre. Trees are
few in number and small, and fuel is so scarce
that cow-dung is much used in its stead. Wheat
of excellent quality is produced in considerable quan-
tities, and indigo, s' , cotton, tobacco, opium,
tea, rice, barley, millet, maize, and numerous
vegetables and fruits are grown. The manufactur-
ing industry—cottons, wood-work, iron, leather,
gold and silver lace, silk, and shawls—is very con-
siderable, and is carried on for the most part in the
rreat Sgjtotm as re rans ay eee &e.
unjab exports indigo, grain, salt, metals, spices,
tea, sobnes, Saaeinavered cottons, hidés, and
leather to Kabul, Cashmere, Turkestan, and
Tibet; and imports dyes, goats’ wool, raw silk,
fruits, ghee, horses, furs, timber, and shaw] cloth.
The total value of this trade reaches annually
299,900. The inhabitants are of various races,
chiefly Sikhs, Jats, Rae. and Pathans. Of the
whole population, nearly 56 per cent. are Moham-
medans; Hindus constitute nearly 38 per cent. ;
and Sikhs 6 per cent. The Jats are the most
prominent race, and are said to have formed the
core and nucleus’ of the Sikh nation and military
force. For the history of the Punjab, see Srkus.
Punkah, a gigantic fan for ventilating apart-
ments, used in India and tropical dee It
consists of a light frame of wood, covered with
calico, from which a short curtain depends, and
is — by ropes from the ceiling; another
rope from it passes over a pulley in the wall toa
servant stationed without; the servant pulls the
punkah backwards and forwards, maintaining a
constant current of air in the chamber.
Puno. See Perv, pp. 79-80.
Punt, a heavy, oblong, flat-bottomed boat,
useful where stability and not speed is needed.
Punts are much used for fishing and wild-fowling.
Some are fitted for oars; but the more usual mode
of propulsion is by poles operating on the bottom.
Punta Arenas, (1) the chief port of Costa
Rica on the Pacific, stands on a ‘sandy point’
epee | into the Gulf of Nicoya, and is connected
4 ilway with Esparza, 14 miles east-north-east.
he principal export is coffee, and after that india-
rubber, hides, dye-woods, and tortoiseshell. Pop.
8000.—(2) A town in Patagonia (q.v.).
Pupa (Lat., ‘a doll’), the sage which inter-
venes een the larva and the adult in the life
of insects with complete metamorphosis.
salis, aurelia, nymph are almost synonymous terms,
but pupa is more general and is sometimes applied
to stages in the metamorphosis of other animals
besides Insects (q.v.).
Pupil. See Inrant, and Eve, Vol. IV. p. 507;
for Pupil-teachers, see EDUCATION.
Puppet. See MARIONETTES,
Purana (Sansk., ‘old’) is the name of that
class of religious works which, besides the Tantras
(q.¥.), is the main foundation of the actual popular
creed of the Brahmanical Hindus (see InprIA, Vol.
VI. p. 106). According to the popular belief, these
works were compiled by Vydsa, the supposed
arranger of the Vedas (q.v.), and the author of the
Mahabharata (q.v.), and an antiquity far
beyond the reach of historical computation, A
critical investigation, however, of the contents of
the existing works bearing that name must neces-
sarily lead to the conclusion that in their present
form they not only do not belong to a remote age
but can barely claim an antiquity of a thousand
years, though they contain materials much more
ancient. Cosmogonic and theogonic doctrines
epic stories, legendary lore, and miscellaneous an
encyclop@dic matter constitute their contents,
They recognise the Hindu trinity, but are of
sectarian tendency; the claims of one god or one
holy place being in the various books or
of them insisted on as worthy of special, if not
exclusive, reverence. The Purdinas are usually
said to be eighteen in number (with a subordinate
Upa-purina to each); and these are subdivided
into three groups of six. The first two are devoted
to Vishnu and to Siva; the third, which should have
fallen to Brahma, is mainly devoted to the several
forms of Vishnu, Krishna, Devi, Ganesa, and
Surya. They are written in epic couplets, and the
eighteen chief Purdnas are calculated to contain
400,000 couplets.
), and, with a Sanskrit commentary, ar
Pandit (3 vols, eae 1887); the M deya and
cin Puranas, in the Bibliotheca Ti and
jendralih Mitra.
Purbeck, Iste oF, a peninsular district of
Dorsetshire, 12 miles long and 5 to 9 broad, is
bounded N. the river Frome and Poole Har-
bour, E. and 8. by the English Channel, and W,
by the little stream of Luckford Lake, which runs
from Lulworth Park to the Frome. The coast is
bold and precipitous, with St Albans Head, 360
feet high ; inland a range of chalk downs curves
east and west, vena a maximum height of 655
feet. The geology of the ‘isle’ is very interesting,
The Purbec S are a group of strata forming
the upper members of the Jurassic System (q.v.) ;
the Purbeck Marble, belonging to the upper section
of these, is an impure fresh-water limestone, com-
posed almost wholly of the shells of Paludina
carinifera (see DiRT-BEDS). Nearly a hundred
quarries are worked ; and the et still form
a curious kind of trades’ guild. Of old the ‘isle’
was a royal deer-forest, Swanage and Corfe Castle
are the chief places.
See Robinson’s A Royal Warren, or Rambles in the
Isle of Purbeck (1882), and J. Braye’s Swanage (1890).
Purcell, HENRY, the most eminent of English
musicians, was born at Westminster in 1658, and
was son of Henry Purcell, one of the gentlemen of
the Chapel Royal appointed at the Restoration. He
lost his father at the age of six, and was indebted
for his musical training to Cooke, Humfrey, and
Dr Blow. His compositions at a very early age
gave evidence of talent. In 1680 he was chosen
to sueceed Dr Christopher Gibbons as organist of
Westminster Abbey; and in 1682 he was made
organist of the Chapel Royal. He wrote numerous
anthems and other compositions for the church,
which were rly sought after for the use of the
various cathedrals, and have retained their place
to the present day. Purcell’s dramatic and chamber
compositions are even more remarkable. Amon,
the former may be mentioned his opera Dido an
4ineas, written at the age of seventeen, his music
to the Tempest, his songs in Dryden’s King Arthur,
his music to Howard’s and Dryden’s Indian Queen,
to D’Urfey’s Don Quixote, &e. A t many of his
cantatas, odes, glees, catches, and rounds are yet
familiar to lovers of vocal music. In 1683 he com-
sed twelve sonatas for two violins and a bass.
reell studied the Italian masters deeply, and
often made reference to his obligations to them.
In originality and vigour, as well as richness of
harmony and variety of expression, he far surpassed
both his predecessors and his contemporaries. His
style foreshadows that of Handel. His churel
music was collected and edited from the original
MSS. by Vincent Novello, in a folio work which
a pakren in 1829-32, with a portrait and essay on
his life and works. A complete edition of his
a
PURCHAS
PURIM 495
works, many of which are still in MS., was under-
taken by the Purcell Society, instituted in 1876.
Purcell died of a in 1695, and was
buried in Westminster Abbey.
Purch SAMUEL, was born at Thaxted in
Essex in 1577, and educated at St John’s College,
roo % —— ee by bss king in a
to vicarage o} ttwood, which he soon resign
to his brother, as the chosen labour of his life
required residence in London. Later he became
rector of St Martin’s, Ludgate, and chaplain to
Archbishop Abbot, and died in September 1626, if
not ina debtor's cell, yet in difficulties. His great
works were Purchas his Pilgrimage, or Relations
of the World and the Religions observed in all ages
(1613 ; 4th ed. much en! , 1626), and Hakluytus
Posthumus, or Purchas his Pilgrimes: containing
a Hi. of the World, in Sea Voyages and Land
Travels by Englishmen and others (4 vols. folio,
1625). The fourth edition of the former usuall
accompanies the latter as if a fifth volume, although
a quite distinct work. Purchas himself thus
describes the two books : ‘These brethren holding
much resemblance in name, nature, and feature,
et differ in both the object and the subject. This
[ihe Pilgrimage] being mine own in matter, though
rTOW ¢ in form of words and method;
whereas my Pilgrimes are the authors themselves,
acting their own in their own words, only
furnished by me with such necessaries as that
stage further Po warts and ordered according to
my rules.’ Another work is Purchas his Pilgrim:
tcrocosmus, or the History of Man; relating the
wonders of his Generation, varieties in his Degenera-
tion, and necessity of his Regeneration (1619).
Purchase-system. See Commissions.
Purfleet, a village of Essex, on the north bank
of the Thames, 15 miles by rail E. by 8. of London
and 8 miles E. of Woolwich, contains government
powder-magazines, built in 1781.
Purgation. See OrpEAL.
Purgatives. See ArERIENTS, CONSTIPATION.
Purgatory (Lat. purgatorium, from purgo, ‘1
cleanse’) is the name given to a place of purgation,
in which, according to the Roman Catholic and
Oriental churches, souls after death either are $e
fied from venial sins (peccata venalia) or un ergo
the temporal punishment which, after the guilt of
mortal sin mortalia) has been remitted,
still remains to be endured by the sinner (see
ATONEMENT). The ultimate eternal happiness of
their souls is su to be secured ; but they are
detained for a time in a state of purgation, in order
to be fitted to appear in that Presence into which
nothing imperfect can enter. Catholics hold as
articles of their faith (1) that there is a purgato:
in the sense explained above, and (2) that the souls
there detained derive relief from the prayers of the
ell gre — ens poetic - the mass, The
seriptural grounds alle; »y them in support of
this view axe 2 Mace. nit 43-48, Matt. xii. pias,
xii. 48, 1 Cor. iii. 11-15, 1 Cor. xv. 29; as well as
certain less decisive indications contained in the
language of some of the Psalms. And in all these
passages they argue not alone from the words
themselves, but the interpretation of them
by the Fathers. The direct testimonies cited by
Catholic writers from the Fathers are very numer-
ous, from the days of Clement and Origen down;
amongst the Latins Augustine being one of the
most rtant (though at times he speaks doubt-
aly} in Gregory the Great the doctrine is found
in all the fullness of its modern detail. The epi-
taphs of the catacombs, too, supply Catholic con-
troversialists with some testimonies to the belief
of @ purgatory, and of the value of the intercessory
prayers of the living in obtaining not merely
repose, but relief from suffering, for the deceased ;
and the liturgies of the various rites are still more
decisive and circumstantial. Beyond these two
points Catholic faith, as defined by the Council
of Trent, does not go; and the council expressly
prohibits the popular discussion of the ‘more difti-
cult and subtle questions, and everything that
tends to: curiosity, or superstition, or savours of
filthy lucre.’ As to the existence of purgatory
Greek and Latin churches are agreed; and they
are further that it is a place of suffering ;
but, while the Latins commonly hold that this
suffering is ‘ by fire,’ the Greeks do not determine
the manner of the suffering, but are content to
regard it as ‘through tribulation.’ The decree of
union in the Council of Florence (1439) left this
point free for discussion. Equally free are the
uestions as to the situation of urgatory ; as to
the duration of the purgatorial suffering; as to the
probable number of its inmates; as to whether
have, while there detained, a certainty of
their ultimate salvation ; and whether a ‘ particular
judgment’ is on every one immediately after
death. For Patrick’s Purgatory, see DerG (LOueH).
The medizval doctrine an practice regarding
P tory were among the leading grounds of the
protest of the Waldenses and other sects of that
age. The Reformers as a body rejected the
doctrine. Protestants generally reply to the
arguments of Roman Catholics on the subject of
penpeeny by refusing to admit the authority of
ition or the testimonies of the Fathers, and
at the same time by alleging that most of the
passages quoted from the Fathers, as in favour of
purgatory, are insufficient to prove that they held
any such doctrine as that now held by the Roman
Catholic Church, some of them properly relating
only to the subject of prayer for the dead (see
PRAYER), and others to the doctrine of Limbus
(q.v.). That the doctrine of purgatory is the fair
development of that which maintains that prayer
ought to be made for the dead Protestants gener-
ally acknowledge. As to the alleged evidences ,
from Scripture, they are commonly set aside by
Protestants as irrelevant or wholly insufficient to
support such an inference. The doctrine of purga-
tory in its historical connection with other eschato-
logical doctrines is touched on in the article HELL.
Purging Nut. See Puysic Nut.
Purgstall. See HAMMER-PURGSTALL.
Puri. See Juccrernaut.
Purification of the Blessed Vi
Mary, Feast or, a festival in commemoration
of the ‘ purification’ of the Blessed vig Mary,
in accordance with the ceremonial law of Lev. xii.
2. This ee, was appointed for the fortieth
day after childbirth, which, reckoning from
December 25 (the nativity of our Lord), falls
upon February 2, on which day the purification
is celebrated. The history of Mary’s compliance
with the law is related in Luke, ii. 22-24. The
date of the introduction of this festival is un-
certain. The first trace of it is about the middle
of the 5th century, and in the Church of Jerusalem.
In the Western Church it was known to Bede. Its
introduction in the Roman Church in 494 was
made by Pope Gelasius the occasion of transfer-
ring to a Christian use the festivities which at that
season were annexed to the pagan festival of the
Lupercalia, See CHURCHING OF WOMEN.
Purim, a Jewish secular rather than religious
feast, in honour of the deliverance of the nation,
recorded in the Book of Esther, held on 14th to
15th Adar. Apparently it spread but slowly ; still
Josephus tells us that y his time it was observed
over all the Jewish world. Most modern scholars
496 PURITANS
PURPLE EMPEROR
consider it an adaptation of a similar Persian feast,
Furdi (‘ Poérdiyan’), and e has shown
that the two names are identical. See EsTHEr.
Feritans, 6 name first given, according to
Fuller, in 1564, and according to Strype in 1569,
to those clergymen of the Church of England who
refused to conform to its liturgy, ceremonies, and
discipline as arranged by Archbishop Parker and
his coadjutors. The history of Puritanism within
the church is sketched at ENGLAND (CHURCH OF),
Vol. IV. pp. 358-359. In spite of the sharpest
repressive measures, the principles of the part
amongst the clergy who believed that the chure
did not se te itself markedly enough from
Roman Catholicism and needed further reforma-
tion ually spread among the serious portion of
the laity, who were also called Puritans. But the
name appears not to have been confined to those
who wished for certain radical changes in the forms
of the church. The character that generally
accompanied this wish led naturally enough to a
wider use of the term ; hence, according to Sylvester,
‘the vicious multitude of the ungodly called all
Puritans that were strict and serious in a holy life
were they ever so conformable.’ This is the sense
in which the Elizabethan dramatists use the word.
From this very breadth of usage one sees that there
were different di of Puritanism. Some would
have been content with a moderate reform in the
rites, discipline, and liturgy of the church; others
(like Cartwright of Cambridge) wished to abolish
Episcopacy altogether, and to substitute Presby-
terianism ; while a third party, the Brownists or
Independents, were out-and-out dissenters, 0 posed
alike to Presbyterianism and Episcopacy. During
the reigns of James I. and Charles I. the spirit o
Puritanism continued more and more to leaven
English society and the English parliament,
although the most violent efforts were made by
both monarchs to extirpate it. Up till the time
of the Synod of Dort (1618-19) both the Puritans
and their ares in the church had been sub-
stantially Calvinist ; the strong tendency towards
inianism amongst churchmen raised a new
ground of controversy between the Puritans and
the other sections of the church, both Landian
and Latitudinarian. The policy of Laud and
the outrages practised by Charles on the English
constitution led many who were not at all Genevan
in their ideas to op both church and king
for the sake of the national liberties. In the
memorable ‘Westminster Assembly of Divines’
(1643) the great majority of the ministers were
Presbyterians. But the more advanced Puritans,
who were predominant in the army and the parlia-
ment, ultimately triumphed in the person of
Cromwell (q.v.). The Restoration (1660) or
Episcopacy, and the Act of Uniformity (1662)
threw the Puritans of the church into the position
of dissenters. Their subsequent history is treated
under the different forms of dissent. "Before the
Civil War broke out so great were the hardships to
which the Puritans were exposed that many of
them emigrated to America, to seek liberty and
on the solitary shores of the New World.
here they became the founders of the New
England states, and cultivated unmolested that
form of Christianity to which they were attached.
Nowhere did the spirit of Puritanism in its evil as
well as its good more thoroughly express itself
than in Massachusetts. In Scotland Puritanism
dates rather from the ‘Second Reformation’ of 1638
than from the original establishment of Presby-
terianism after the Reformation.
See Neal’s History of the Puritans (ed. by Toulmin,
5 vols. 1822); the histories Stowell (1849; new ed.
1878) and Marsden (1850); Baoony The Genesis of the
New England Churches (New York, 1874); Ellis,
Puritan Age in Massachusetts (Boston, 1888); the
works cited at 8. R. Garprver, with his Constitutional
Documents of Puritan Revolution (1890); the articles
in this work on INDEPENDENTS, BRowNE, Prespy-
TERIANISM, WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY, PRYNNE, MaR-
included are those of Man Adams, Good’
Clarkson = ape
Purkinje’s Figure, named after the physio-
logist J. Purkinje (1787-1869), bor Be at
Breslau and at Prague; see Eye, Vol. IV. p. 512.
Purl, a beverage made by warming a pint of
ale with a quarter of a — Of milk, and cate
sugar and a wine-glassful of gin, rum, or brandy.
Purley. See Tooke (Horne).
Purmerend, a town of North Holland, 10
miles N. of Amsterdam ; pop. 4980.
Purniah, a town of British India, in the presi-
dency of Bengal, 230 miles NNW. of Calcutta, has
a trade in jute. Pop. 16,500.
Purple Colours. Painters in oil and water
colours produce various shades of purple by mix
certain red and blue pigments. For work in
French ultramarine, often called French blue, is
mixed with vermilion or some madder red (madder
carmine is best), or one of these reds with cobalt
blue if a pale purple is wanted. For permanent
paces in water-colours the same blues are used ;
ut one of the madder reds, not vermilion, should
be mixed with them. A much richer purple than
any of the above mixtures will give is Pi
duced by Prussian blue and one of the lakes from
cochineal—viz. carmine or crimson lake—but it is
not permanent. This purple, as well as that
obtained by mixing Indian red with indigo, also
fugitive, was much used a water-colour painters
in past years. Purple madder is the only simple
praca pigment available for the artist which is
urable, and it is unfortunately costly, All
purples are changed to neutral and gray tints by
the addition of any yellow pigment. For house-
painting moroon lake with a little French blue
gives a useful purple; but some of the above
mixtures also are occasionally used.
There are several ways of dyeing textile fabrics
of a purple colour. The most famous of all ancient
dyes was the Tyrian purple, which is said to have
been discovered’ at Tyre many centuries before the
Christian era. Among the Romans this colour was
exclusively employed for dyeing the imperial robe.
It was obtained from shellfish belonging to the
genera Murex, Purpura, and Bueccinum; at least
it has been sup that it was pre} from one
or more species of each of these. The colour was
so costly that in the time of Augustus one pound
of it sold for what would amount to £36 sterling.
About the year 1851 what is believed to be the
same or a closely similar purple was obtained from
uric acid by a peculiar treatment (see MUREX;
Dyrinc, Vol. IV. p. ; and PHcNicrA).
Archil (q.v.) seems to have been the Pay eee
urple dye known in the middle ages. rple of
assius is a compound of gold and tin used in
colouring Glass (q.v-) and in porcelain and
enamel painting. It was discovered at Leyden
by Andrew Cassius about 1683. A preparation
of this colour was formerly used for painting
miniatures in water-colour; but for this purpose
purple madder, being cheaper, has taken its place.
Purple Emperor (Apatura iris), one of the
largest of British butterflies, and one of the most
richly coloured. The expanse of wings is from
to 3} inches. The wings are strong and thick,
PURPLES
PUSEY 497
the flight is very vigorous. The male flies especi-
=F high, and
wi
Purples.
See WHEAT.
Purple
Woo d or
PuRPLE HEART,
the heartwood of
Copaifera pubi-
fer and C.
Purple Emperor. cteata, a very
handsome wood
of a rich plum colour. The trees producing it are
natives of British Guiana, and its chief use in
England has been for making ramrods for guns.
Purpura, «2 genus of marine Gasteropods,
from oh species of which (e.g. P. patula), as
well as from Murex, the famous Tyrian es dye
was derived. P. lapillus (the Der helk) is
common on most. British coasts, and from it also
the dye is procurable. See WHELK.
Purpura, or THE PuRPLEs, is a malady which
is often erroneously placed amongst the diseases of
the skin. It is in reality a blood disease, and is
characterised by the appearance of small round
spots, of a deep purple colour, which are seen first
and most abundantly on the legs, and afterwards
extend to the arms and trunk. be | are accom-
ied by no local pain, are not effi by pressure
Traine due to a a of blood extravasated beneath
the cuticle or in the structure of the skin itself),
do not rise above the cprhcie | surface, and are
sometimes intermixed with livid patches resem-
bling bruises; and, before disappearing, both the
round spots and the patches undergo the same
change of colour which a bruise undergoes. These
spots are not peculiar to the skin, but occasionally
occur upon internal surfaces and in the tissues of
viscera. Passive haemorrhages from the mucous
membranes frequently accompany the external
symptoms. There is usually much debility, and
often a tendency to faintness. The duration
of the disease varies from a few days to a year or
more. Slight cases are devoid of danger, and even
the hemorrhagic cases usually recover, unless the
bleeding has been excessive or the blood has been
extravasated into a vital organ.
Precisely similar appearances occur in the course
of other diseases, especially scurvy, severe anzemia,
scarlet fever, and smallpox. But the name pur-
pura should be restricted to the cases in which no
such disease is discoverable.
The causes of purpura are obscure, The treat-
ment which succeeds best varies in different cases,
but the main indication always is to correct the
condition of the blood. rsenic, turpentine,
acetate of lead, gallic acid are the drugs which
are generally most beneficial; rest in bed, light
diet, and laxatives are desirable at the commence-
ment. When there is reason to believe that the
disease is dependent upon depressing influences a
nutritious diet, tonics, and stimulants are required ;
but chalybeates should be avoided. If the hwmor-
rhage proceeds from accessible parts, local measures,
waah as the employment of ice or strong astringents,
should also be had recourse to.
Purser, the name formerly given to the officer
in the navy who had the charge and issue of the
provisions, slops, soap, tobacco, &c., and who
also kept the ship’s books ; the title was one of the
oldest in the service, but the holders: of it for long
only — as warrant-officers, and their duties
and responsibilities were in many respects very ill-
defined. In the old war-days they were looked
upon with great dislike by the seamen, as they
were credited with enriching themselves at the
expense of the men, and unquestionably the oppor-
tunities for sharp practice in their duties were con-
siderable, as also for making money by methods
which were not always legitimate; much of this,
however, was due to the laxity of the system of
victualling and of keeping the ship’s accounts in
those days. In 1844 this branch of the service was
completely reo ised, paymaster being substi-
tuted for the title purser ; and the officers ape oe
ing it are now drawn from a much higher class
than formerly, coming generally from the same
station in life as the combatant officers. See Pay-
MASTERS.
Purslane (Portulaca), a genus of plants of
the natural order Portulacez, having a bifid calyx,
four or six petals, eight or sixteen stamens, and a
capsule dividing around the middle. Common
Purslane (P. oleracea) grows in cultivated and
waste grounds on the seashore in almost all
tropical and subtropical parts of the world. It is
cultivated as a pot-herb. It is a short-lived annual,
with spreading and rather procumbent stems, and
obovate fleshy leaves, which, as well as the young
shoots, are frequently used in salads. The young
and tender shoots are pickled in France like gher-
kins. Purslane is not so common in British gar-
dens as it once was. Some species of Portulaca,
such as P. grandiflora, of which there are several
brilliant varieties, and P. gilliesii, are choice half-
hardy annuals occasionally cultivated in British
gardens. They are reared in hotbeds in sprin
and planted out in the flower-garden in the end o
May, or they are grown in pots exclusively for the
purpose of decorating the greenhouse.
Pursuivant. See HERALD.
Pus is a well-known product of inflammation,
and occurs as a thick yellow creamy fluid, differing
from all other sertdd exudations in containing a
large number of corpuscles, having a soft and fatty
feeling when rubbed between the fingers, a peculiar
odour, usually an alkaline reaction, and a specific
gravity of about 1-032. Like the blood, it consists
of certain definite microscopic elements, and of an
intercellular fluid or serum in which they swim.
Of microscopic elements we have (1) the pus-
corpuscles, which, both in their microscopical and
chemical relations, seem to be identical with the
lymph-corpuscles, or colourless blood-cells; in
iameter they range from ‘004 to ‘005 of a line,
and each corpuscle consists of a cell-wall, which
often appears granular, of viscid transparent con-
tents, and of one or more nuclei, which can be
rendered much more apparent by the addition of
acetic acid. The other elements are (2) molecular
ules and (3) fat-globules. The serum of pus
is perfectly clear, of a slightly yellow colour, closely
resembling blood-serum, and coagulates on heating
into a thick white mass.
The chemical constituents of pus are water
(varying from 769 to 907 in 1000 parts), albumen
(from 44 to 180), fats (from 9 to 25), extractive
matter (from 19 to 29), and inorganic salts (from
6 to 13), in addition to which mucin, pyin, glycin,
urea, &c, are occasionally present. f the inor-
ganic or mineral constituents the soluble salts are
to the insoluble in the ratio of 8 to 1, and the
chloride of sodium (the chief of the soluble salts)
is three times as abundant as in the serum of the
blood. The mode of formation of pus is described
in the article SUPPURATION.
Pusey, EDWARD BovuveRIk, was born in the
year 1800 at Pusey in Berkshire. He was descended
from a family of Flemish refugees; his father was
498
PUSEY
the youngest son of the first Viscount Folkestone,
and had assumed the name of Pusey when the
estates in Berkshire were bequeathed to him b
the last representatives of the Pusey family. He
was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford,
and was elected a Fellow of Oriel College in 1823,
As soon as he had completed his studies at Oxford
he passed to Germany, partly to study German,
which was in the Oxford of those days practically
an unknown tongue, partly to study oriental
languages, and partly to become acquainted with
the latest forms of German theological teaching. In
1827 he returned to England, and in the following
year the Duke of Wellington girs him sees
rofessor of Hebrew at Oxford, a position which
e retained until his death. Although his fame in
other respects has caused his Hebrew lecturing to
be forgotten, he laboured most unweariedly in
the duties of his chair, and attracted a great num-
ber of pupils. His first work was an essay in which
he sketehed the causes that contributed to the
Rationalistic character of recent German theology.
He acknowledges his indebtedness to Professor
Tholuck for some portions of this essay, but the
elaborate proof of his position was his own work
executed with characteristic thoroughness. It was
severely commented on as leaning very decidedly in
are myiewyscy Br! Raitonsliene Sane Sy
which it dealt: the charge was tly exaggerated,
besides being caused in part # vagueness of ex-
pression throughout the volume. His main position
was unassailable: German Rationalism he main-
tained was the consequence of the spiritual deadness
of the orthodox Lutheranism of the day. He was
misunderstood as if he had attacked the creed of
the Lutherans in its orthodox portions : as a matter
of fact he only wished to attribute Rationalism to
the want of life in the Lutheran body. But many
of his statements were in later years very unsatis-
factory to himself, and he withdrew the work from
circulation. The whole aim of his life was to prevent
the spread in England of Rationalism such as that
with which he had become familiar in Germany.
Hence, when in 1833 John Henry Newman with the
same va began the issue of the Tracts for the
Times, Pusey very soon joined him ; and they, with
Keble, were the leaders of this eventful effort. Their
object was not to attack the statements of Ration-
alistic teachers; there was as yet no call for that
in England; but they desi to stir up in the
Chureh of poe a spiritual vitality and power
which would of itself the best preservative
ainst the infection of the Rationalistic spirit.
or this pu they attempted not to reform, but
to restore ; they appealed to the idea of the church,
to its divine institution, to its services, to its sacra-
ments, to its formulas of faith, to its history, and to
the examples of the holiest lives in former genera-
tions. They endeavoured to make the church live
again before the eyes and minds of men as it had
lived in times past. In this connection Pusey
wrote his contributions to the Tracts for the Times,
especially those on Baptism and the Holy Eucharist.
His sermons also were vigorous appeals to live the
Christian life, and careful expositions of the doc-
trines which the church from the first had taught,
With a similar purpose also in 1836 he commenced
the translation of the writings of the ancient fathers
of the Christian church under the title of the
Oxford Library of the Fathers. Dr Pusey’s chief
contributions to it were a translation of St Augus-
tine’s Confessions and of several of the works of
Tertullian. The result of these efforts—to which,
with the exception of his professorial duties, Dr
Pusey entirely devoted himself—was most conspic-
uons, and extended far beyond the ranks of those
who were called by their opponents either New-
manites or Puseyites. But the work was checked
i
y the action of the authorities at Oxford.
ewman’s celeb Tract 90 was condemned in
1841, and in 1843 Pusey was sus) ed for three
ears from his office of preac in k
he oceasion of this suspension was a sermon on
the Holy Eucharist which he preached before the
University, and which a board of six doctors of
divinity, without allowing Pusey a hearing, or
specifying the points on which he was supposed to
be in the wrong, pronounced to be contrary to the
teaching of the Church of England, As soon as an
opportunity offered Pusey reiterated his teaching,
and this time he was unmolested. But before his
suspension was over Newman had joined the Roman
Catholic communion, and with him went several of
his leading disciples. All rumours pointed to the
certainty of Pusey soon following ; but those who
knew him best were assured tliat never for one
moment did he entertain any thought of leaving
the Church of England. With Keble he at once
set himself to reassure those who were reelin
under the blow of Newman’s departure; an
it was mainly the moral weight of Pusey’s
work and character which prevented the won
efforts of Newman between 1833 and 1841 from
resulting in a catastrophe greater than any which
the English Church has ever experienced.
unfailing loyalty to the church and deep convie-
tion of God's presence with it, his buoyant hope-
fulness even in the darkest days, and his great
patience cheered and settled many anxious hearts,
and stopped others who were on the point of follow-
ing Newman. His attitude would have had a yet
wider result, except for the sad events which fol-
lowed in rapid succession in the ten years subse-
quent to Newman's secession. The new power
which a civil court had uired over doctrinal
suits—which was exhibited in the judgment in
the Gorham case—the constant at of bishops
and others upon the Oxford movement, the practi-
cal inhibition of Pusey from all ministerial work
in the diocese of Oxford by Bishop Wilberforce,
whereby it was made to appear that the church
disowned his teaching—these and other less import-
ant but significant events caused the departure to
the Roman Church of another band of distinguished
men, including Archdeacon (Cardinal) Manning
and Archdeacon Wilberforce. But still Pusey
laboured on, carefully defining the exact position
of the English Church, as against Roman claims
on the one hand and against Zwinglianism and
Erastianism on the other.
Only the chief of his numerous writings during
this period can be alluded to. They included a
lengthy letter on the practice of confession, The
Church of England leaves her children free to whom
to open their griefs (1850), a treatise the form of
which makes it appear to belong to a moment of
controversy, although the matter is really of per-
manent value; a en defence of his own position
in A Letter to the Bishop of London in 1851; a work
on The Royal Supremacy not an arbitrary authority,
but limited by the be pad dion Church of which Kings
are members, in 1850; a larger book on The Doctrine
of the Real Presence, as contained in the Fathers
(1855), and as taught in the Church of i,
(1857). In this class of writings may be included
also Dr Pusey’s Hirenicon ( i, in 1865, ii. in
1869, iii. in 1870). The object of these volumes.
was to clear the way for reunion between the
Church of England and the Church of Rome on
the basis of tholic, as distinct from Roman
Catholic, doctrine and practice.
The reform of Oxford University, which was
undertaken after the report of the first Royal
Commission on the Universities, and which
destroyed for ever the integrity of the o: i
most intimate bond between the University pos
—_.
PUSEY
PUTEAUX 499
the Church, greatly- occupied Pusey’s mind. His
evidence before the commission, his remarkable
let on the comparative advantages of Col-
iate and Professorial Teaching and Discipline,
and his assiduous work on the Hebdomadal
Council for many years are proofs of the interest
that he took in the welfare of his university, and
of the importance that he attached to a close
connection between education and religion.
From 1860 onwards the tide had turned. The
teaching for which the Tractarians had laboured
and suffered was at that time beginning to be
recognised, and those disciples of the Oxford move-
ment who had survived the shock of the events of
the last twenty years were spreading its principles
throughout the country. ut the fruits of the
into! and persecution of which Oxford had
been the scene were also ripening in the form
of the spread of religious indifference, based on
Rationalistie views of revelation. This was the
enemy which from the first Pusey had dreaded,
He had at least the satisfaction of knowing that,
as a result of the movement in which he taken
so prominent a part, the inner life of the English
Church was far better able to bear the onset of
such a foe, and to estimate the moral and spiritual
ravages which it would make, than was the
Lutheran body of the 18th century, or even the
Church of England in 1830. Against such teach-
ing he contended for the rest of his life. All his
sermons before the university and most of
his later books deal with it. It was with this
pee that he prosecuted Professor Jowett for
statements in his commentary on St Paul’s
Epistles, and that he took so prominent a
part in the later controversy about the Athan-
asian Creed. His chief works in this connec-
tion are the Lectures on the Book of Daniel, and
What is of Faith as to Everlasting Punishment?
The former, delivered in 1863, vigorously attack
those writers who would assign to the Book of
Daniel a date as late as the 2d century B.c. Apart
from the marks which the lectures bear of the
heated controversy of the time when they were
delivered, they are a monument of the author's
intellectual power, wide pr an and solid learning.
The other book is against the denial of everlastin
mnishment: its sobriety and fullness, the famil-
ity which it shows with all the issues raised in
the controversy, its deep religious feeling, its calm
and calming tone make it one of the most remark-
able of Pusey’s works. Of a kindred character,
although in a different field, are the last two
university sermons which he wrote—on the rela-
tion of science to faith and on the nature of
ap ae 5
wo other works must be noticed. Pusey in-
herited from his ako agg in the Hebrew chair
the task of completing A Catalogue of the Arabic
Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library (1835). It
was a most toilsome duty, and occupied his time
for six years. Pusey’s Commentary on the Minor
Prophets (1860-77) was his contribution to a com-
mentary on the whole Bible which he had in his
mind for man sei and on which he enlisted
the labonrs of Keble and many others, Pusey
alone completed his task; death, advancing years,
or the claims of other duties prevented the others
from contributing their share.
In private life Pusey was a man of warm
affection, and widely known for his gentleness,
sincerity, and humility. He rarely went into
society in nee life; at first he withdrew from it
for purposes of study and to save more money to
give to the poor, but from the time of his wife’s
eath in 1839 he avoided all social amusements,
But he was always accessible to any one who
wished his advice on religious questions; in fact,
he was constantly sought as a spiritual guide b;
persons of every station. His charity aa boond
only by his income ; besides abundant gifts to poor
people, he spent large sums of money in helping to
rovide churches in East London, in building St
viour’s, Leeds, and in founding and supporting
sisterhoods, His capacity for aeaty and for literary
work was immense. He worked only at what it
was his duty to study, but within that line he
spared neither time nor pains in thoroughly master-
ing every detail. His power of keeping his main
object before his mind without being confused by
its details, and of grouping the details in their due
secant can be seen in almost any of his works,
pponents of all schools gave him the credit of
being confused ; but an occasional confusion in his
manner of expressing his thoughts did not prevent -
him from knowing his own mind with singular
clearness. He died on 16th September 1882.
Canon Liddon, left unfinished
Bee present writer and
at his death, was com
on’s literary executors
the Rev. R. J. Wilson, the
(5 vols. 1893-99).
Pushkin, ALEXANDER SERGEIEVICH, was born
at Moscow, 26th May 1799, and educated at
Tsarskoe Selo. In 1817 he entered the service of
the government, but on account of his liberal
opinions was for some time transferred to Bessarabia.
n 1820 he published a romantic poem, Ruslan and
Liudmila. Next came his Prisoner of the Cau-
ae Le) tad Fountain o pory 5a hey (1826),
‘zigant (* The Gypsies,’ 1827), and Eugene Onegin
(1888 ; Eng. trans. 1881), a clever novel in verse
somewhat after the style of i Ll Beppo. In
1829 he published Poltava, which has Mazeppa for
its hero, About the same time he wrote his fine
tragedy Boris Godunov. Besides these works of
considerable length, he was the author of many
graceful lyrical poems, deservedly popular through-
out Russia. e also left some prose writings,
consisting of a geet A the Revolt of Pugachev
(in the reign of Catharine), several tales, and
miscellaneous essays. He was appointed Russian
historiographer with a pension of 6000 roubles.
He was mortally wounded in a duel, and expired
at St Petersburg, January 29 (February 10) 1837.
Pushkin is considered the wee poet whom
is writings show ver-
The last-named poem was translated into English verse
by Spalding (1881); the Daughter of the Commandant
was ted in 1891; and a translation of the Poems,
with introduction and notes by Ivan Panin, appeared at
New York in 1889. Pushkin’s name is also spelt Poushkin
and Pouchekin. See the section on the literature under
Russia, and works there cited.
Pushtu, or Puxutvu, the language of the
Afghans proper (see AFGHANISTAN), is, according
to Darmesteter, not intermediate between the
Tranic and Indic branches of the Aryan stock, but
is directly derived from the Zend, with Persian,
Hindustani, and Arabic admixture. See Trumpp’s
Pashté Grammar (1873), Strangford’s Letters and
Papers (1878), and Darmesteter’s Chants Populaires
des Afghans (1890).
Pustule, a circumscribed elevation of the
cuticle, containing pus: in fact, a small abscess in
the skin. Pustules occur in many skin diseases—
eczema, acne, scabies, ecthyma, boils, &c.; also
very prominently in smallpox. For Malignant
Pustule, see ANTHRAX.
Puteaux, 2 town 2 miles from the western
boundary of Paris, on the left bank of the Seine,
500 PUTEOLI
PUTRID FEVER
opposite to the Bois de Boulogne. Many Parisians
have fine villas here. There are manufactures of
dyestuffs and chemicals, dyeing, and calico-print-
ing. Pop. 15,106.
Pute’oli. See Pozzvoi.
Putnam, a town of Connecticut, on the Quinne-
bang River, 56 miles by rail ENE. of Hartford,
has manufactures of cottons, boots and shoes, &c.
Pop. (1900) 7348, including Putnam city (6667).
Pu ISRAEL, a general of the American
Revolution, was born in what is now Danvers,
Massachusetts, 7th January 1718. In 1739 he
bought a farm between Pomfret and Brooklyn,
Connecticut, and for many years devoted himself
to its cultivation, gaining meanwhile a high repu-
tation for courage by such personal exploits as
following a she-wolf into her lair and killing her
single-handed. In 1755 he left as a captain in a
contingent of 1000 men which Connecticut sent to
repel a threatened French invasion of New York,
and was present at the battle of Lake George. In
1758 he was captured by the savages, tortured, and
then bound to a tree, and was about to be burned
to death when a French officer scattered the fire-
brands and rescued him. In 1759 he received a
regiment, in 1762 he went on the dreadful West
India agg e gt which resulted in the capture of
in
Havanna, an 1764 he hel to relieve Detroit,
then besieged by Pontiac (q.v.). Ten years of
which he made
age at home succeeded, duri
is farmhouse into an inn, and was conspicuous
among the ‘Sons of Liberty.’ In 1775, after
Concord, he was given the command of the forces
of Connecticut, and was ranking officer on the day
of Bunker Hill, though not in actual command at
either the redoubt or the rail-fence. He was next
appointed wy congress one of the four major-
generals, and held the command at New York and
in August 1776 at Brooklyn Heights, where he was
defeated by General Howe on the 27th. He after-
wards held various commands, and in 1777 was
appointed to the defence of the Highlands of the
udson. While at Peekskill a lieutenant in a
loyalist regiment was captured as a spy and con-
demned to death; and, on Sir Henry Clinton’s
sending a mp fo truce Latico, § vengeance if
the sentence should be carried out, Putnam wrote
a brief and characteristic yok * Headquarters,
7th August 1777.—Edmund Palmer, an officer in
the enemy’s service, was taken as a spy lurking
within our lines ; he has been tried as a spy, con-
demned as a spy, and shall be executed as a spy,
and the flag is ordered to depart immediately, —
Israel Putnam.—P.S.—He has accordingly been
executed.’ In 1778, in western Connecticut,
Putnam made his famous escape from Governor
Tryon’s d ns by riding down the stone steps
at Horseneck. The next ae he had a stroke of
aaa Pca the rest of his life was spent at
uy
ome. e died 19th May 1790. See Life by
Increase N. Tarbox (1876), and article b : en
ia o
fessor John Fiske in Appleton’s Cycl
Amer. Biog. (1888).
His cousin, Rurus Putnam, born 9th April
1738, served nst the French from 1757 to 1760,
and then settled as a farmer and millwright. On
the outbreak of the war he received a lientenant-
colonel’s commission, and rendered good service as
an engineer. In 1778 he hel his cousin to
fortify West Point. Afterwards he commanded
a regiment till the end of the war, and in 1783 he
was promoted to brigadier-general. In 1788 he
founded Marietta, Ohio; in 1789 he was ao.
a judge of the supreme court of the North-west
Territory ; and from 1793 to 1803 he was surveyor-
gn of the United States. He died in Marietta,
May 1824.—Israel’s grand-nephew, GEORGE
PALMER PUTNAM, born in Brunswick, Maine, 7th
February 1814, in 1840 became in the book-
firm of Wiley & Putnam, New York, established a
braneh in London in 1841, and in 1848 returned to
the United States and started business alone. In
1852 he founded Putnam's Poly mg In 1863 he
retired from business, but in 1866 he established
the firm of G. P. Putnam & Sons (now G. P.
Putnam’s Sons). He died 20th December 1872.
He wrote and omen several books, and was the
author of the first Plea for International Copyright
(1837) printed in America.
Putney, a suburb of London, in Surrey, 6 miles
WSW. of Waterloo, on the south side of the tidal
bie which, here —s ~ ards ene %.
¢ y a new granite bri ( "
to Fulham, and founded and opened by th Prine
0 es. Itisa t rowing place, the starting-
int of the Oxford and Cambriige boat-race ; and
rom its i access to Town, the river, Putney
Heath, and Wimbledon Common, has grown rapidly
of recent years, its principal feature that there are
no poor. The parish church, with a 15th-century
tower and the Sientey of Bishop West of Ely, was
mainly rebuilt in 1836; in the churchyard is
Toland’s grave. Putney is the birth of
Thomas Cromwell and Gibbon, the residence of
Mr Theodore Watts and Mr Swinburne, and the
deathplace of Pitt and Leigh Hunt. From Put-
ney’s old bridge Mary Wollstonecraft tried to
drown herself; and on Putney Heath Pitt fought
his duel with Tierney (1798), Castlereagh his with
Canning (1809). Pop. (1851) 5280; (1881) 13,235;
(1891) 17,771.
Putrefaction is the term given to the decom-
amar of organic substances when accompanied
y an offensive smell. It was long supposed to be
ordinary chemical change due to the complexity,
resulting instability, and affinity for oxygen of
organic matter. It is now known to be the result
of the living activity of certain minute plants called
Bacteria (q.v.), which also cause Fermentation
(q.v.) and many diseases (see GERM). The spores of
these plants are present in great numbers in the
lower levels of the air, in water, and on the surface
of the earth ; and, as they are only about ‘001 mm,
in diameter and two to four times as on 2 is not
surprising that they were not seen, and that putre-
faction was supposed to be spontaneous. But, if we
boil an infusion of organic stuff and so kill the
bacteria in it, and, while the steam is coming freely
off, close it up with a plug of cotton wool, which,
while allowing free access to air, prevents an
germs or ag from reaching the fluid, it wi
remain without any change for years, but will
begin to putrefy in a day or two if the plug be
removed. A low pos ove although it not
kill the bacteria, will stop their growth and the
resulting destructive owe pad hence the use of
freezing food on shipboard. Salicylic, carbolic,
and other acids also check growth, but there seem
to be only a few poisons, such as corrosive sub-
limate, chlorine, and bromine, that actually kill.
Drying stops growth and kills the developed plant
in a few days, but the spores will live for a long
time in a dried condition. The effect of oxygen is
various : some species require it, while others are
hindered in their wth by it; and a h pres-
sure of oxygen will kill even those kinds that need
a certain amount in a few days. Of the precise
chemical changes that take place as a result of the
life of bacteria we are still largely ignorant; the
chief final results of these changes are deseri
under FERMENTATION. For an investigation in
the causes of putrefaction, see Tyndall’s Floating
Matter of the Air (1881).
Putrid Fever, See Jam Fever.
PYAMIA 501
PUTTY
Pu a composition of whiting and drying oil
aceon aso a thiek paste, used by painters and
glaziers, which in time becomes very hard.
Putty-powder is the binoxide or dioxide of
tin, SnO.. It is prepared from the scum or crude
oxide which forms on the surface of melted tin,
which is removed and purified by calcination, and
then nd to powder. Putty-powder is used for
polishing stone and glass, for making white
enamel, and for giving g an opaque colour.
Putumayo, or [¢A, a tributary of the Amazon,
rises in Colombia, and flows SE. for 950 miles.
Puvis de Chavannes, PIERRE, a painter of
marked individuality, sometimes said to belong to
the ‘decorative school,’ was born at Lyons, 14th
December 1824. See a work by Vachon (1895).
Puy, Le, or Le Puy-EN-VELAY, a town of
France (dept. Haute-Loire), 70 miles SW. of Lyons
rail, consists of the new town in a valley and
old town, this latter one of the most eg Ss
in France. Puy (Berry, ui or peu, ‘a hill;’ Ital.
poggio ; Lat. podium; Gr. pee tr is the name
commonly given in the highlands of Auvergne and
the Cevennes to the truncated conical peaks of ex-
tinct voleanoes. The town of Le Puy stands on the
steep slopes of Mount Anis (2050 feet), from the
summit of which starts up age ear) | the basaltic
mass called Mont Corneille, crowned by a colossal
figure (53 feet) of the Virgin, made of Russian
eannon brought from Sebastopol. The most notable
building is the Romanesque cathedral (6th-12th
century), with a venerated image of the Virgin and
ancient cloisters ; it is situated in the highest part
of the town. There are other ancient and interest-
ing churches and a museum. Lace and thread
work are manufactured. Pop. (1872) 18,961;
(1891) 20,038.
Puya, the largest of the Bromeliacex (q.v.),
found in Chili as far south as 40°S. It equate the
Agave (which in its characters it somewhat
resembles) in height, and greatly surpasses it in
the thickness of its half-woody stem. When the
plant is mature it thrusts, forth from its crown of
spiny leaves a huge panicle of yellow flowers,
which may be from 6 to 9 feet in height. The
plant has een grown under cover in Ge. and, and
will thrive in the open air in the Mediterranean
regions of Europe.
Puy-de-Doéme, a central department of France,
containing an area of 0 sq. m. and a pop.
(1891) of 564,266. The western side of the depart-
ment is an elevated volcanic region, studded with
numerous extinct cones, and greatly broken by
corries, erosion valleys, crater lakes, &e. (see
France). The highest cones are Puy-de-Sancy
(6188 feet) and Puy-de-Déme (4806); on the east
side the Forez Mountains (5380) march with the
frontier. The principal .rivers are the Allier, a
tribu of the Loire, and the Dordogne. The
soil is, in general, thin and poor; but its voleanic
character fosters vegetation, especially in the valley
of om ig Agriculture and cattle-breeding are
the chief occupations. The climate is uncertain,
and severe in the mountains. The principal
minerals are coal and lead. Hot and cold mineral
springs are abundant, among the most frequented
being those of Mont Dore (.v.), Chateauneuf, St
Nectaire, at, Chateldon, The department
is subdivided into the arrondissements of Ambert,
Clermont-Ferrand, Issoire, Riom, and Thiers.
Capital, Clermont-Ferrand.
Puzzle-monkey. See ARAUCARIA.
Puzzola‘na. See CEMENTS.
Pwllheli, a brisk little seaport and ular
pesecing pect, 22 miles by rail 8. by W. Mf Car.
narvon in Wales, with lobster and oyster fisheries,
It is a municipal borough, uniting with Carnarvon,
&c. to return one member. Pop. of parish, 3232.
Pyzmia (from the Gr. pyon, ‘ # ase and haima,
‘blood’), or purulent infection of the blood, is a
disease whose exciting cause is the introduction of
decomposing pus or wound discharges, or the pro-
ducts of decomposition of animal fluids, into the
circulation, through an ulcer or a wound, or an
imperfectly closed vein (see PHLEBITIS and PUER-
PERAL FEVER). The term Septicamia is applied
by some to the same disease, by others only to
very grave cases of Beals while by many it is
restricted to cases of blood-poisoning by putrid
animal matters in general, such as those obtained
from decomposing hides or dead bodies, or borne on
foul air or septic gases. The two conditions have
a general resemblance to each other. The poison
is rapidly absorbed and diffused, and the blood
unde’ certain changes, the nature of which
chemistry has as yet failed to detect; it is certain,
however, that the blood contains micro-organisms
(micrococeci and bacteria; see GERM). ithin
twenty-four hours, in very acute cases, there
are severe shiverings, headache, and giddiness
followed by heat, perspiration, and accelerated
circulation. In twenty-four hours more the
patient may be in a hopeless condition, delirious,
and poe pests 9 In less acute cases the symp-
toms closely resemble those of typhoid fever, and
in this form the disease is a common cause of death
after surgical rations ; such cases are invariably
characterised es the formation of secondary
abscesses in the lungs, liver, kidneys, and other
internal o , in the various glands (the parotid
gland in President Garfield’s case), in the joints,
and in the tissues immediately under the skin.
The pus of such abscesses always contains bacteria.
There is usually more or less delirium. The patient
merally dies of exhaustion. Recovery is rare.
t is chiefly, however, in the presence of predispos-
ing causes, such as previous illness, prostration
from oo disease or surgical complaints, or
from difficult parturition, unhealthy occupations,
&c., that the poison acts so severely ; these, with
the occurrence of putrefaction in a wound, may
convert a comparatively slight local mischief into
infection of the whole mass of the blood.
ing in mind the manner in which pyemia
originates, it is clear that this disease is one to be
prevented rather than cured. Until comparatively
recently, when it was acknowledged that pyzemia
was the cause of death in 10 per cent. of adi cases
of amputation, and of 43 per cent. of all fatal
primary amputations, the careful preparation of a
patient before operation was, with Justice, most
strenuously insisted on. ‘Patients must be
strengthened,’ said Mr Callender, ‘ by tonics, such
as quinine and iron; and their secretions must be
set right by appropriate alteratives; this treat-
ment must be continued for a considerable period.’
Diet should be attended to, and intemperate
patients ‘should be accustomed to a more healthy
mode of life.’ After operation, also, patients should
be adequately supported with nutritious diet, and
with stimulants and opium if necessary. No judi-
cious surgeon will ever neglect such measures. But
the really essential matter in the prevention of
pymia is the prevention of putrefaction in the
wound discharges. This las been clearly pe
by the brilliant results achieved by Sir Ae
ter and other surgeons at home and abroad, who
have adopted the saleees method of treatin
wounds (see ANTISEPTIC SURGERY). For seve
ears Lister’s wards in Glasgow Royal Infirmary,
ormerly aids by pyemia, remained free of the
disease after the adoption of the antiseptic system ;
after two years’ practice of this treatment purulent
infection disappeared from the wards of the hospital
502 PYAT PYM
at Lyons, where it formerly had a permanent home;| Pye, Henry JAMES, poet-laureate, was born in
and similar testimony might be quoted from every | London, 10th aay 1745, and educated at
quarter and to my extent. The use of antiseptics, | College, Oxford, in 1772 being made a D.C, He
and followed out intelligently, may | held a commission in the Berkshire militia, in 1784
adopted 7
be said to have abolished the risk of purulent
infection in wounds from operation or injury.
Even when the disease has shown itself, the use
of antiseptics (perchloride and other salts of mer-
eury, carbolic acid, boracie acid, oka, eign
iodoform, thymol, eucalyptol, &c.) should be re-
sorted to locally. The bowels, skin, and kidneys
may be acted on by suitable purgatives, diapho-
retics, and diuretics, with a view to the elimination
of the K pale but the patient must be carefully
watched for signs of depression, which must be
combated with opium and stimulants, both of
which should be given in small and frequently
repeated doses. Quinine in moderately large doses
is very serviceable throughout the whole course of
such a case; larger doses may occasionally be given
to reduce excessively high temperatures, though
antipyretics in general must be used with extreme
caution. Various antiseptic drugs have been re-
commended for internal use, such as salicylic acid
and the salicylates, the hyposulphite of sodium,
and the hyposulphites generally. This treatment,
combined with the most assiduous nursing and
generous dieting, and the appropriate surgical
management of such secondary a’ as form,
will sometimes prove successfu
Pyat, Fevix, a French journalist and com-
munist, born at Vierzon (dept. Cher), on 4th Octo-
ber 1810, studied law and in 1831 was admitted
to the bar, but chiefly wrote articles, feuilletons,
and plays, often with strong political allusions,
He signed Ledru-Rollin’s appeal to the masses
to arm in 1849, and, the attempt having failed,
escaped to Switzerland. After that he found refa
in Belgium and England, and was a member of the
‘European revolutionary committee.’ Returning
to France on amnesty in 1870, he made himself a
leader of the Paris communists and took a foremost
part in the destruction of the Vendome Column ; on
the fall of the Commune he escaped to London. He
was tried and condemned to death, in absence, in
1873, for his share in the misdeeds of the Communal
Government, but was pardoned in 1880. Marseilles
chose him one of her deputies in 1888. He died
5th August 1889 at St Gratien.
Pycnogonidz, « very remarkable group of
Aniropat animals, perhaps intermediate between
Crustaceans and Arachnids. The body consists of
a fused cephalothoracie region, three thoracic
segments, and a radimentary abdomen, The head
usually bears a tubular proboscis, a pair of man-
dibles, a pair of slender Palps, and a pair of egg-
carrying ; but mandibles and palps may be
absent, and the egg-carrying legs are sometimes
restricted to the males. Be-
sides these there are four pairs
of clawed limbs, into which
prolongations of the gut ex-
tend. There is a dorsal heart ;
| respiration is effected through
the skin. The males usually
earry the eggs. There is a
metamorphosis in develop-
ment. The pronceante are
sometimes called ‘sea-spiders’
and also Pantopoda. They
are all marine, and some of
Pycnogonum littorale. them live among alge, or are
; to be found under stones on
the beach, whilst others are dredged from deep
water. They seem to feed by sucking other
animals. See Hoek, Challenger Report (iii. 1880) ;
and Dohrn, Fauna d. Golfes v. Neapel (iv. 1881).
was elected member for that county, in 1790 sue-
ceeded Warton as laureate, and in 1792 was ap-
poe a London police magistrate. He died at
inner, near Harrow, 13th August 1813. The
works of ‘ poetical Pye ’(in Seott’s phrase), who, as
the editor of i fees Viston of J remarked,
was ‘eminently respectable in eve but his
poetry,’ are nearly twenty in number, and include
Alfred (1801), besides birthday and new-year odes.
Pygmalion, grandson of the king of Cyprus,
in love with an ivory statue of a maiden ie bal
made, prayed to Aphrodite to give it life; and, his
prayer being ted, married the maiden. There
is no classical authority for calling her Galatea.
In his P: lion and Galatea W. 8. Gilbert fol-
lowed a German play.
Pygmies. See Dwarr; Quatrefages, Lee
P es (1887) ; and for the two ft; of py;
w aon Biehles saw in the Central Africas | omy
see In Darkest Africa (1890), and Burrows, In the
Land of the Pigmies (1889).
Pylades. See Orestes.
Pym, Jou, was born of a old Somerset-
shire stock at Brymore, near Bridgwater, in 1584.
He entered Teanlaaaer Hall (now Pembroke Col-
lege), Oxford, in 1599, as a gentleman-commoner,
but left in 1602 without taking a d and then
proba studied law at one of the Inns of Court.
e married in 1614, but in 1620 was left a widower
with five young children, and next year was first
returned to parliament by Calne. This seat he
exch: in 1625 for Tavistock. He at once
pee himself to the Country party, and pro-
Spanish match, and absolutism with a vigour
brought him three months’ durance. He was one
of the members who presented a petition to James
I. at Newmarket, when ‘Chairs!’ cried the king,
‘chairs! here be twal kynges comin’ !’ and in 1
the year after the accession of Charles I., he took a
prominent a in the impeachment of the Duke
of Buckingham. In the pens of 1628 he
stood second only to Sir John Eliot, whom he ably
supported in the debate on the Petition of Right,
but whom he opposed in the matter of tonnage and
poundage, deeming the privileges of parliament
inferior to the liberties of the kingdom. In the
Short Parliament (1640), when, in Clarendon’s
words, ‘men gazed on each other, looking who
should begin, much the greater part having never
sat before,’ Pym on 17th April ‘brake the ice by
a two hours’ discourse, in which he summed up
shortly and sharply all that most reflected 4
the prudence and justice of the government, that
they might see how much work they had to do to
satisfy their country.’ And lastly, in the Tong
Parliament, having meanwhile joined hands wit
the Scots, and ridden with Hampden through Eng-
land, urging the voters to their duty, Pym on 11
November named Strafford, twelve years earlier
his friend and ally, as the ‘principal author and
promoter of all those counsels which had ex
the kingdom to so much ruin.’ In the im h-
ment of Strafford which followed, resulting in his
execution under a bill of attainder, Pym took the
leading part ; and Pym’s is the chief credit of this
masterstroke of policy, which deprived the king of
the one man of resolute temper and pha genius
who supported his cause. In the p in
against Laud Pym was also conspicuous, as in the
nareying of the Grand Remonstrance and in every
other crisis of moment up to the time when war
became inevitable; he was the one of the ‘Five
to war against monopolies, istry, the
les, pap thet:
. .
PYRACANTHA
PYRAMID 503
Members’ whom Charles singled out by name. On
the breaking out of hostilities he remained at his
in London, and there, in the exercise of the
unctions of the executive, rendered services to
the cause not less valuable and essential than those
of a general in the field. While the strife was yet
cautiug he died, through the breaking of an inter-
nal abseess, at Derby House on 8th December
1643, having only the month before been appointed
to the og gg post of Lieutenant of the Ord-
— Pg g ’ was or ee 7 bhangra
with great pomp and magnificence, but ai
the Hest ea ora ee ti cast out into a
in St t’s churchya
. *The most popular man,’ says Clarendon, ‘and
the most able to do hurt that hath lived in any
time.’ And such Pym was, only emphasis ought
_ to be laid upon the ‘able.’ He was no demagogue,
no revolutionist, as neither was he a narrow pre-
cisian. His intellect, on the contrary, was ‘in-
tensely conservative,’ in Mr Gardiner’s phrase; he
was a champion of what he believed to be the
ancient tution against those who he thought
were striving to ae it. ae ee an
English coun gentleman, who li the good
things of this Ife and was not so circumspect in
his conduct but what scandal made free with his
name, en instance, that ‘Master Pym
had succeeded the Earl of Strafford in the affections
of my lady Carlisle.’
See John Forster’s Eminent British Statesmen (vol. iii.
1837); Goldwin Smith’s Three English Statesmen (1867);
and other works cited at Cuartes L, Exior (Sir Joun),
and SrrRaFrorD. -
Pyracantha. See Crarzaus.
id, in Geometry, is a solid fi , of
wed ce base is a ‘hie vostitineed figure, and
the sides are triangles, converging to a point at the
top or ‘apex.’ Pyramids, like prisms, are named
from the form of their bases: thus, a pyramid
having a triangle for its base is a triangular pyra-
mid, with a square base, a square pyramid, with
any four-sided figure for its base, a quadrangular
id; or it may be pen nal, hexagonal, &e,
ids may be either ‘right’ or ‘oblique’ (see
Prism). A right pyramid, with an equilateral
figure for its base, has all its sloping edges equal ;
but this is not the case if the pyramid be oblique.
The most remarkable property of the pyramid is
that its volume is exactly one-third of that of a
prism having the same base and vertical height ;
and it follows from this that all eager having
the same base and height are po bes to one another.
The word (Gr. pyramis) is of Egyptian origin.
Pyramid, a structure of the shape of the
metric figure so called, erected in different parts of
the Old and New World, the most important being
the ids of Egypt, which were reckoned among
the seven wonders of the world. They are about
seventy-five in number, of different sizes, situated
chiefly between 29° and 30° N. lat., and are masses
of stone (or rarely brick), with square bases and
triangular sides. Although various opinions have
psa as to their use, as that they were erected
‘or astrological, astronomical, and metrological pur-
poses, for resisting the encroachment of the sand
of the desert, for aries, reservoirs, &c., there
is no doubt that they were really nothing more
than the tombs of monarchs of Egypt who flourished
from the first to the twelfth dynasty. With the
exception of some very late ee in Nubia,
none were constructed after the twelfth dynasty ;
the later kings were buried at Abydos, Thebes,
and other places, in tombs of a totally different
construction. The pyramids of Egypt may be
described as monuments built over the sepulchral
chambers of kings. The Egyptian monarch was
ever careful to Le gh! his ‘eternal abode.’ For
this purpose a shaft of the size of the intended
sarcophagus was first hollowed in the rock at an
incline suitable for lowering the coffin, and at a
convenient depth a rectangular chamber was ex-
cavated in solid rock. Over this chamber a
cubical mass of masonry of square blocks was then
laced, leaving the orifice of the shaft open. Addi-
ons continued to be made to this cubical mass
both in height and breadth as long as the monarch
lived, so that at his death all that remained to be
done was to face and smooth the exterior of the
step-formed mound by adding courses of long blocks
on each layer of the steps, and then cutting the
whole to a flat or even surface, This outer
masonry or casing has in most instances been
strip, off. Provision was made for protecting
the vertical joints by placing each stone half-way
over another, The masonry is admirably finished ;
and the mechanical means by which such immense
masses of stone were raised to their places must
have been powerful and elaborate. The finer
stones were quarried at Tura and other places on
the opposite k of the Nile; sometimes, how-
ever, granite taken from the quarries of Syene was
employed for the casing. The entrances were
ly filled up, and the protected by
stone portcullises and other contrivances, to pre-
vent ingress to the sepulchral chamber. The sides
of the pyramids face the cardinal points, and the
entrances face the north, The most remarkable
and finest ids are those of Gizeh (Giza),
Section of Great Pyramid of Gizeh:
, entrance passages ; F, Queen’s Chamber; D, King’s
Chamber ; G, well ;'H, subterranean apartment,
A,B
situated on the edge of the te Se Desert, near
Memphis, on the west bank of the Nile. Of the
three largest and most famous the First or Great
ramid was the sepulchre of Chufu, the second
king of the fourth a (3733-3666 B.C. accord-
ing to Brugsch). Chufu is the Ch of Hero-
dotus, the Chembis or Chemmis of Diodorus, and
the Suphis of Manetho. Its height was originally
481 feet, and its base 774 feet square; in other
words, it was higher than St Paul’s Cathedral,
on an area about the size of Lincoln’s Inn Fields.
Its slope or angle was 51° 50’. It has, however,
been much despoiled and stripped of its exterior
blocks for the Huilding of the mosques and walls
of Cairo. The original sepulchral chamber, 46
feet x 27 feet, and 10 feet 6 inches high, was hewn
in the solid rock, and was reached by a e,
320 feet long, which descended to it from t!
entrance at the foot of the pyramid. The excava-
tions in this direction were subsequently aban-
doned, and a second chamber, with a triangular
504
PYRAMID
roof, was constructed in the masonry of the pyra-
mid, 17 feet x 19 feet, and 20 feet high. This was
reached by a j e rising at an inclination of
26° 18’, terminating in a horizontal passage. It is
called the Queen’s Chamber, and occupies a posi-
tion nearly in the centre of the pyramid. The
monument—probably owing to the long life attained
by the monarch—still progressing, a third chamber,
called the King’s, was then constructed by prolong-
ing the ascending passage of the Queen’s Chamber
for 150 feet further into the very centre of the pyra-
mid, and after a short horizontal passage, making
a room 17 x 34 feet, and 19 feet high. To dim-
inish the pressure of the superincumbent masonry
on the flat roof five small chambers ( E in fig.) were
made vertically in succession above the roof, the
apex of the pointed uppermost chamber (in which
the name of Chufu is scrawled) being rather more
than 69 feet above the roof of the King’s Chamber.
The end of the horizontal passage was carefully
finished, and cased with slabs of red syenitic
ranite exquisitely fitted together; and in the
riety the fourth part of a circle, or ;. but
signifying, in Astronomy, an instrument used for
the determination of enguler measurements. The
quadrant consisted of a limb or are of a circle equal
pe the a of ree aes
uated into degrees an egrees,
was the first who applied telescopic sights to this
instrument. Quadrants were adjusted in the same
way as the mural circle. Various innate defects
of the quadrant—such as the impossibility of seeur-
ing exactness of the whole are, concentricity of
the centre of motion with the centre of division,
and perfect stability of the centre-work—led to its
being mipaeery by the repeating circle, otherwise
called the Mural Circle (q.v.). Hadley’s Quadrant
is more properly an octant, as its limb is only the
eighth part of a cirele, though it measures an are
of 90°. Its principle is that of the Sextant (q.yv.).
Quadratic Equations. See Equations.
Quadrature. The ‘quadrature’ of a
curve is effected when a square is found which has
the same area as the given curve. Practically it is
effected when nef rectilinear fi of area
has been found, for it is easy hes to obtain the
equivalent square. The quadrature, regarded as
an arithmetical process, consists in finding the area
of the curve in terms of any square unit.
The great problem in quadrature has been the
Quadrature of the Circle. The workers in this
subject may be divided broadly into two classes :
(1) trained mathematicians, who clearly understand
the nature of the problem and the difficulties which
surround it; (2) those who do not understand the
nature of the problem or its difficulties, and who
think that they may 4 by good fortune, succeed
where others have fail The number of the
workers of the second class became greatly dimin-
ished when the search for ‘perpetual motion’
became general. And, at the present day, the
ranks (now fortunately small) of the perpetual-
motionists and the circle-squarers are almost
entirely composed of unfortunate individuals whose
mental capacities are small, in too many cases the
impairment of their faculties having been brought
about by a development of their fruitless idea into
monomania. Apart from its great historical interest
to the mathematician, the subject scarcely merits
detailed notice, except in so far as such notice
be useful in preventing further waste of men
energy by some who, were their energies properly
directed, might succeed in increasing the sum of
useful knowledge.
The nature of the problem may be understood
from the following brief account, Let an equi-
angular x-gon be inscribed in a circle, and let its
corners be joined to each other and to the centre.
The area of each triangle so formed is jar cos @,
where a is the base of the triangle, r is the radius of
the circle, and @ is one-half of the vertical angle.
Hence the area of the polygon is 4nar cos @; and
this can be made as nearly equal to the area of the
circle as we please by making n sutliciently large.
In the limit, when x is infinite, the two areas are
equal. But, when x is infinite, @ vanishes and na
becomes the circumference, c, of the circle. Hence
the area of the circle is 4cr—that is to say, it is
ual to the area of a triangle erected on the radius
of the circle as base and of height equal to the cir-
cumference of the circle.
The arithmetical quadrature of the circle would
therefore be effected if we could find the value of
the ratio of the circumference to the diameter—that
is, the value of + in the equation c=2rr. The
geometrical quadrature would be effected by finding
a geometrical method of drawing a 8' it line
equal in length to the circumference,
—
oJ ie
4
QUADRATURE
QUADRATURES 515
It has long been known that the arithmetical
solution of the problem is impossible, for it has
been proved that the quantity 7 is incommensur-
able. And proofs have been advanced that the
trical quadrature is also impossible; but
proofs are by no means simple, and do not
always convince those who are able to judge of
their accuracy. Still, a from such proofs, the
mere consideration of the fact that (discounting
incapable workers) the question has been fruitlessly
attacked by the ablest mathematicians of past
centuries should be sufficient to deter any reason-
able person from engaging in the quest: for it
follows that the pro a: of a solution being
possible is excessively small—too small to justif
the staking of a man’s sanity, or at least the useful-
ness of his life, upon the result. Any mathema-
tician who now considers the question seeks not
for a solution, but for a simple and convincing
proof that a solution is impossible. (It must be
remembered that a ‘geometrical’ solution means
a solution which involves no more postulates than
op lagacoel ans + eet
ames Gregory, in 1668, gave a proof of the
impossibility of the geometrical quadrature which
Hu pens, although he at first objected to it,
finally admitted in so far as it applied to any
sector of a circle. Newton also gave a proof of this
limited problem, but his proof is not conclusive.
Archimedes was the first to give a practical
measurement of the quantity 7. By a considera-
tion of the inscri and escri 96-gons he
proved that it lies between 3}§ and 319. This
result is correct only to the second decimal figure.
Two Hindu measurements are 3°1416 and 3:1623.
Ptolemy gives 3°141552. A great improvement on
we results was made by Peter Metius in the
6th century. His result was correct to the sixth
decimal place inclusive; but its correctness was
accidental, for he gave two fractions between
which the result lay and took the arithmetical
means of the numerators and the denominators in
order to obtain his final numerator and denomin-
ator—a totally unwarranted method. Vieta gave
the result correct to the ninth decimal place inelu-
sive; Adrianus Romanus gave it correct to the fif-
teenth; and Van Ceulen gave it to the thirty-sixth.
Snell introduced considerable improvements in the
method, and gave 55 decimal res, Abraham
Sharp gave 75, Machin 100, De y 128, Vega
140. e latter result is only correct to 136 places.
Montuela cites an Oxford manuscript in which the
result (given to 154 places) is correct to 152 places.
In 1846 Dase gave a result with 200 decimals, and,
in the following year, Clausen gave 250. In 1851
Shanks hg 315, which were extended by Ruther-
ford to ; and, shortly afterwards, Shanks gave
527, which he extended to 607. An interesting
experimental method was adopted by R. A. Smith.
He tossed a thin rod upon a preety planked
floor, the length of the rod being three-fifths of the
breadth of a plank. If/ be the length of the rod,
while 4 is the breadth of a plank, the probability
of the rod intersecting a seam is 2//rb. From the
result of 3204 tosses, he found = 3'1412. The
true value to 20 places is 3°14159265358979323846,
Any one who is desirous of a more detailed
historical account may consult De Morgan’s article
on the subject in his Budget of Paradozes (1872).
Guadraturcs, METHOD oF. This name is
epP ied to any arithmetical method of determining
area of a curve. When the exact area is
known a square whose area is equal to it can be
found—hence the term ‘ quadratures.’
It has been shown, under the heading CALCULUS,
that the area of a curve whose equation is y = f(x)
is fydz, and can therefore be found when the
integral can be evaluated. Hence the approximate
determination of the value of a definite integral is
obtainable by the method of quadratures.
Let it be required to find the area bounded by a
portion of a curve, the ordinates at its extremities,
and the axis. The usual method of procedure is to
divide the portion of the axis which is included
between the two ordinates into a number of equal
parts, and to erect ordinates at the points so
obtained. The area is approximately equal to
the product of one of the given equal parts into
half of the sum of the two extreme ordinates
ther with the sum of all the intermediate
ordinates. To obtain. a very accurate result by
this process the number of equidistant ordinates
must be so great that the portions of the curve
which are intercepted by successive ordinates are
~ nearly straight.
better method, due to Simpson, consists in
drawing, through the first, second, and third points
obtained as above on the curve, a bola whose
axis is parallel to the ordinates, and repeating this
process with the third, fourth, and fifth points, and
so on—the points being chosen so that the total
number of points is even. The area of the given
curve will approximately equal to the sum of
the areas of the various portions of the bolas
included between successive ordinates when these
ordinates are sufficiently close together. It is
therefore approximately equal to one-third of the
product of one of the given equal portions of the
axis into the sum of the extreme ordinates together
with twice the sum of all the odd intermediate
ordinates and four times the sum of all the even
intermediate ordinates.
When the successive equidistant ordinates are
very close together, the area is approximately
equal to the product of the common intercept on
the axis between successive ordinates into the sum
of all the ordinates. The labour involved in the
estimation of an area by this process would be
fatal to its employment unless the number of
ordinates was small. But, if the ordinates were
few in number, considerable error would in general
result unless a correction could be applied. This
method is adopted in that process which is known
as the method of quadratures par excellence, and
which is as follows: Let %, 4, .. + Yn be the
several equidistant ordinates, and let a be the
intercept on the axis between y, and y,. Also let
s be the sum above referred to; and Tet AM="n
—Yo S)=Yo-Yp Ke; A *YW= AR -~ AYy
AY, = AYe- AY» Ke. ; and so on. The value of
the whole area is (not s, but)
8- F5(Ye + Yo) — Yr (Ana — SY)
— ty S( Ayn + A7Yy) — Pos 2( A %Yng — A3Y0)
— rho S(O yng t O4Y0)— aE Lhe 2( A 8yng— AY), &e.
It will not in general be necessary ‘to proceed
beyond the fifth difference. As an example we
shall find the area of the curve y = z* between the
limits z = 10 and w = 15. In this case all differences
beyond the third vanish, and a/n = 0°5 if we make
eleven ordinates in all. The following table repre-
sents the results :
x y ay | d*y| ay
0 10 1000
1 10 | 1157-625 | 157°625 | 15-75
173°375 ; 0°75
2 ll 1331 is0°878. | 18°. | ows
8 115 1520°875 . 17°25
207°125 0-75
4 12 1728 eo5ies | 18 0-78
5 12°5 | 1958-125 18°75
243°875 % 0-75
6 13 2197 963-375 | 29°5_ | os
7 13°5 | 2460°375 20°25
283-625 0-75
8 14 2744 Soueas || 2t 0-75
9 145 | 2048625 | 355-975 | 21°75
10 15 3375
516 QUADRIGA
QUAGGA
Hence we have s = ——— x05= gcd ey
§ x 05 x (%p + H) = 75; vy x 05 x (Ay,
aye) = COE; x OS x (Oty, + A%
= of . We therefore get by this method,
approximately, for the value of the area the quan-
tity 10156°67._ The correct value is 10156-25, and
so the error is less than one in twenty thousand.
This method is of extreme utility in the evalu-
ation of definite integrals when rigorous processes
are not attainable,
Quadriga. See CHARIOT.
narilateral, the name given in ‘history to
the four fortresses of North Italy—Mantua, Verona,
Peschiera, and Legnago—which form a sort of
outwork to the bastion of the mountains of the
Tyrol, and divide the north plain of the Po into
two sections by a most powerful barrier. They
The Quadrilateral.
have figured in all the later wars that have been
fought in North Italy, especially in the wars
between Austria and the different Italian states. —
Russia has a similar combination of four fortresses
in Poland, called the Polish Quadrilateral. See
NOVOGEORGIEVSK.
Quadrille, a dance of French origin, intro-
duced about 1808 into England. It consists of
consecutive dance movements, generally five in
number, danced by four or more couples, opposite
to, or at right angles to, each other. See
DANCING.
Quadrille, a game at cards, very fashionable
about two centuries ago. It is very similar to
the Spanish game of Ombre (q.v.), with the
necessary alterations to fit it for a four-handed
game. When whist came into fashion after 1740,
quadrille began to lose favour.
Quadrivium. See Epucation, Vol. IV. p. 205.
Quadroon, the offspring of a mulatto and a
white person ; the name indicates a man or woman
who is ‘ quarter-blooded.’
uadru’‘mana (Lat., ‘four-handed’), in the
zoological system of Cuvier an order of Mammalia,
which he placed next Bimana, and which con-
tained the animals most nearly resembling man
in their form and anatomical character—viz. the
monkey and lemur families. See ANTHROPOID
Apes, MAMMALS, MONKEYS.
Quadruple Alliance, a league formed
August 1718 between England, France, Austria,
and Holland to counteract the ambitious schemes
of Alberoni. It was made upon the basis of the
Sg Alliance which was formed in the January
of 1717 between England, Holland, and France,
and by which the clauses in the treaty of Utrecht
having reference to the accession of the House of
Hanover in Engine, the renunciation the
Spanish king of his claims on the French
and the accession of the House of Orleans to the
French throne should the young king, Louis XV.,
die without issue, were gui teed. The Spanish
eet was destroy y Byng off Cape
while the French crossed the tials and inflicted
several defeats upon the Spaniards; and at length
Philip was compelled to dismiss his ambitious
minister, and accept the terms of the Quadruple
Alliance, January 19, 1720.
Questor was anciently the title of a class of
Roman magistrates, reaching as far » accord-
ing to all accounts, as the period of the ki The
oldest queestors were the questores icidié (‘in-
vestigators of murder,’ ultimately ie accusers),
who were two in number. Their office was to con-
duct the prosecution of persons accused of murder,
and to execute the sentence that might be pro-
nounced. They ceased to exist as early as 366 B.C.,
when their functions were transferred to the Trium-
virt Capitales. But a far more important though
later magistracy was the guestores chess to whom
was entrusted the charge of the public treasury.
They appear to have derived the Page of
classici from their having been originally elected
by the centuries. At first they were only two in
number, but in 421 B.c. two more were added.
Shortly after the breaking out of the first Punic
war the number was increased to eight; and as
pours after province was added to the Roman
epublic they amounted in the time of Sulla to
twenty, and in the time of Cesar to forty. On its
first institution the questorship ignseene? was
open only to patricians ; but after 42] B.c. plebeians
became eligible.
uagga (Lquus—or Asinus ), one of
te three species of striped wild te cng or more
properly wild asses, peeuliar to Africa, of which
the zebra is the ty: Formerly found in poe
south of the V River, beyond which its range
seldom extended, it is believed to be now quite
extinct. The illustration represents the last
of its species owned by the Zoological Society ; it
(From a Photograph by Messrs York & Son, London.)
was sent from the Cape by Sir George Grey in
1858. The quagga was a handsome animal, more
strongly built than the mountain zebra and Bur-
chell’s zebra. The upper parts of the body were dark
rufous brown, becoming gradually more fulvous,
and fading to white at the ramp and ventral
the dorsal line dark and broad, widening over the
crupper. The head, neck, mane, and shoulders
were stri with dark brown, gradually waxing
fainter till lost behind the shoulder. It was usually
QUAIL
QUAIN 517
found in herds of from ten to a hundred, but often
seen in troops of many hundreds on the plains of
the Oran ree State and Cape Colony, and often
associated with the white-tailed gnu, not seldom
with ostriches. The quagga was swift and endur-
ing, but could be run down by a first-rate horse.
Its extinction was mainly wrought by the Orange
Free State and Transvaal Boers, who slew thou-
sands annually for their skins. In the old days it
was tamed with success, was more tractable than
the zebra, and even bred in captivity. The term
qussge is a corruption of the old Hottentot name
Quacha, bestowed in imitation of the peculiar bark-
ing neigh of this quadruped. The qu is not to
be confounded with Burchell’s zebra, which is often
erroneously called quagga by hunters of the South
African interior.
Quail (Coturniz), an Old-World genus of the
Partridge family (Perdicide), ranging over the
temperate Palearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental
regions, and in the Australian region to New
Zealand. The = are the smallest of the par-
tridge family. Six species are described in this
restricted genus. The best known is the Common
Quail (Coturnix communis). In size it is about
74 inches long ; the general colour above is brown,
varied with buff, and on the under parts buff.
The male is somewhat smaller in size, is brighter,
and has a reddish throat and two dask-eove
bands descending from the ear-coverts and ending
at the throat in a blackish patch acquired at the
second year. Quails fly rapidly, and take long
and fatiguing
journeys.
mense
ii tries bordering
Wy the mubocren
Wy Tanean, — especi-
Wally during the
been
brought to
|}Rome in one
day, and in the
small island of
the
> I
~ N
Common Quail ( Coturnix vulgaris). Capri,
Bay of Naples,
over 160,000 have been netted in a single season.
in
ny remain to breed, but the majority pass north-
wards. In England quails are spring visitors; they
are ming scarcer, but at times there is a great
influx. Northwards the numbers are fewer, but
nests have been found in the northernmost main-
land of Scotland, and in the Orkneys, Shetlands,
and Onter Hebrides, and in summer they reach the
Faroe Islands. A few remain on the south-west
coast of England and in Ireland during winter, but
the majority leave in October; many the winter
in the south of Europe and in North Africa; and
the species is resident in the Canaries, Madeira,
and the Azores. It is also found at the Cape, in
Madagascar and Mauritius, and in Egypt, while
in Palestine, as of old (Exod. xvi. 13), quails
come up at night and cover the land. It ranges to
India and China, and passes the cold season in
those countries. Its flesh is considered a delicacy,
and in the countries they commonly visit the
arrival of the quails is eagerly ex Quails
feed chiefly on insects and slugs, but also on grain
and seeds, and they seek their food in the evening.
In habit they are unsociable, unamiable, and
pugnacions with their own species. They are
partly polygamous, partly monogamous, The
female is, however, an excellent and careful
mother. She builds her nest of bits of plants, and
lays from seven to fourteen eggs, pear-shaped,
light brown in colour, with Pr shading. The
Aces Pgah full grown in six weeks, and two bevies
may be reared during the season. The call-note of
the male is three-syllabled, and from it the quail
is known as ‘ wet-my-lips,’ or ‘ wet-my-feet,’ and
the species has also for the same reason been
named C. dactylisonans. The other s
genus are C. delegorguii (named after the dis-
eoverer Delegorgue) and C. coromandelica, found
in South Africa and India respectively in addi-
tion to the common quail; C. pectoralis, found
in Australia and Tasmania; ©. caineana, found
in China; and C. novezelandie, formerly abundant
in New Zealand, but now almost extirpated by -
the erodes The Button-quails, a setictoony
group, including twenty species or more ran:
aan the genus Turnt ne eae lus, are dis-
tributed in Barbary and in the Ethiopian, Indian,
and Australian regions. Australia possesses a
us, Synoicus, = to itself, which includes
our species. e American Quails, of which
there are about fifty or sixty species, are included
in the family or sub-family Odontophoride, and
differ in habit from all the Old-World forms in
perching upon trees. The Virginian Quail (Ort
irginianus), known as the Partridge and the Bob-
White, from its calling-note, and the Californian
Quail ( Lophortyx silifarniass have been introduced
into England as game-birds, but they have not yet
become resident there.
Quain, « family of eminent medical men. (1)
JONES QUAIN, born in November 1796, at Mallow
in Ireland, studied medicine ‘at Dublin and Paris,
and in 1829 was appointed lecturer on Anatomy
and Physiology in the Aldersgate School of Medi-
cine, London. Two years later he was made pro-
fessor of Anatomy and Physiology at London
University, and held that t until 1836. He
died in London on 27th January 1865. That
well-known students’ text-book, Quain’s Elements
of Anatomy, was originally written by him;
é first edition appeared in 1828, the tenth in
1890. Jones Quain published also a series of
elaborate Anatomical Plates (1858) and a transla-
tion of Martinet’s Pathology (1835).—(2) RICHARD
QUAIN, brother of the above, was born at Fermoy,
Ireland, in July 1800, studied at London, and
was appointed professor of Anatomy and Clinical
Surgery in University College, London, in 1837.
He was likewise appointed a per res pie A
to the Queen, and was elected president of the
Royal College of Surgeons in 1868. He died in
London on 15th September 1887. Amongst his
works the principal are Anatomy of Arteries, with
folio plates (1845), Diseases of the Rectum (1854),
Observations on Medical Education (1865), Some
Defects of Medical Education (1870), and articles
on Dislocations of the ae and the Knee ; he edited
along with others the fifth edition of (Jones) Quain’s
Anatomy. By his will he left nearly £75,000 to
University College, Lemiems Ae eg a in
modern lan (especially English) and in
natural selieree 13) Sir | RICHARD QUAIN, Bart.,
first cousin to both the above, was born at Mallow
on 30th October 1816. He was Lumleian lecturer
at the Royal College of Physicians ( Diseases of the
Muscular Wallis of the Heart) in 1872, and Har-
veian Orator (The Healing Art in its Historic and
Prophetic Aspects) in 1885, and was made physi-
cian-extraordinary to the Queen. He edited the
Dictionary of ‘Modicine (1882; 2d edition, 1894),
and contributed to the Trans. of the Med. and
Chirurg. Soc., the Lond. Jour. of Medicine, &e.
Dr Quain was made LL.D. of Edinburgh in 1889,
president of the General Medical Council in 1891,
ies of this
518 QUAKERS
QUARLES
was created a baronet in 1891, and died 13th
March 1898.—(4) Smr JouN RiIcHARD QUAIN,
born at Mallow in 1817, the half-brother of Jones
and Richard Quain, was made a judge of the Court
of Queen’s Bench in 1872, and justice of the High
Court of Judicature in 1875, He died 12th Septem-
ber 1876. Along with H. Holroyd he published
The New System of Common Law ure (1852).
Quakers. See FRrENps.
Quantification of the Predicate, «
on belonging to Logic, and introduced by Sir
- Hamilton. According to the Aristotelian Logic,
ropositions are divided, according to their quality,
fate affirmative and negative, and, according to
their Quantity, into universal and _ particular
(‘AH men are mortal,’ ‘Some men live eighty
years’). If we combine the two divisions we
obtain four kinds of propositions. Sir W. Hamil-
ton affirmed that the statement of the Quantity
of these various propositions is left incomplete ;
only the subject of each has its quantity expressed
(all men, some men, no men); while there is
implied or understood in every case a certain
quantity of the 7 Thus, ‘All men are
mortal,’ is not fully stated ; the meaning is, that
all men are a part of mortal things, there being
a probably ) other mortal things besides
men. t this meaning be expressed, and we have
a complete proposition to this effect: ‘Add men
are some (or part of) mortals,’ where quantity is
pees we not only to the subject, but also to the
predicate. The first result of stating the quantity
of the predicate is to give eight kinds of proposi-
tions instead of four; the next result is to modify
the process called the Conversion of Propositions.
Limitation (All A is B, some B is A) is resolved
into simple conversion, or mere transposition of
peyy oe without further change. ‘All A is some
;’ ‘Some B is all A.’
The multiplication of varieties of propositions is
attended with the further consequence of greatly
increasing the number of syl/ogisms, or forms of
deductive reasoning (see SYLLOGISM). In the
scholastic logic, as usually expounded, there are
nineteen such forms, distributed under four figures
(four in the first, four in the second, six in the
third, five in the fourth). By ringing the changes
on eight sorts of propositions, instead of the old
number, four, thirty-six valid syllogisms can be
formed in the first figure. Whether the increase
serves any practical object is another question.
Sir W. Hamilton also considered that the new
system led to a simplification of the fundamental
laws of the syllogism.
fessor De Morgan also invented and carried
out into ecw detail a plan of Sinbeing the
quantity of the predicate, It should be noted that
in the Contemporary Review of 1873 Professor
Jevons, following Mr Herbert ‘Spencer, ised
the fact that the discovery of the quantification of
the predicate, regarded by him as the most fruitful
discovery in abstract logical science since the time
of Aristotle, was fully contained in George Ben-
tham’s Outlines of a New System of Logic. This
work was published in 1827, and reviewed by Sir
W. Hamilton in the Edinburgh Review, long ere
he himself published anything on the doctrine of
quantification. Boole’s system of logic was based
on his doctrine of quantification of the predicate.
See Jevons’s Logic; Bowen's Treatise on Logic
(Cambridge, U.S., 1866).
Quantocks. See Somersersuire.
uarantine (from the Fr. qguarantaine, ‘a
iod of forty days’) is a forced abstinence from
communication with the shore which ships are
compelled to undergo when they are last from some
port or country where certain diseases held to be
infectious, as yellow fever, e, or cholera, are
or have Lael shale. Where” a quarantine is
established it is a punishable offence for any
pores in the suspected ship to come on shore, or
or any one to disembark any merchandise or
from her, except at lazarettos, which are estab-
lishments provided for the reception of goods or
passengers or crew, and where such partly ng eee
cesses as the sanitary science of the time bes
are applied. Prolonged quarantine in bad quarters
is apt to diseases in typhus, &e,
from quarantine she
uce new
has a clean bill of health, and a yellow flag with
a black spot if not clean; at night a white light
is exhibited at the same permit
hold intercourse after performing quarantine is
called Pratique. Quarantine is not of necessi'
limited to a sea-frontier ; and it is enforced at the
frontiers between contiguous states. Hi de-
clares quarantine tions for maritime inter-
course to have been first established by the
Venetians in 1127 A.D.; but the practice must
have been greatly older on land-frontiers ; and the
precautions of the Jews against lep indicate
that a species of quarantine was enfo' by them.
The law for regulating quarantine in tain is
6 Geo. IV. chap. 78, amended by 29, 30 Vict.
chap. 90; power to proclaim any place subject to
quarantine and prescribe regulations being vested
in the Privy-council. See BILL or HEALTH.
Quarles, FRANCIS, a minor religious poet,
belonged to a Essex family, and was born at
the manor-house of Stewards near Romford in
1592, being baptised on 8th May. He studied
at Christ’s College, Cambridge, and at Lincoln’s
Inn, and was successively cup-bearer to the
Princess Elizabeth, secre to the famous
Archbishop Ussher, and, like Middleton and
Ben Jonson, Caner to the city of London
(1639). He married 1618 a who bore
him eighteen children, and penned shortly after
his death a touching short memoir, prefixed
to Solomon’s Recantation (1645). les was a
bigoted royalist and churehman, suffered losses
and calumny in the cause, and died 8th September
1644. He wrote abundantly both in prose and
verse, and his books were extraordinarily popular
in their day. Nor are his Divine Rinbtone and
Enchiridion entirely unworthy of their reputation.
Pope’s lines in the Dunciad are familiar to every
one :
Or where the pictures for the atone,
And Quatien & an ved tor bentiins ob his Own.
But the clever gibe is not entirely justifiable, for
the Emblems, in spite of verbose and dull if edify-
ing moralising, helpless bad taste, not infrequent
bathos, and ever present monotony, shows wealth
of fancy, excellent eve sense, felicity of expression,
and occasionally a bright though intermittent flash
of the true poetic fire. And the Enchiridion, a
collection of short essays and meditations, affords
many an example of compact and aphoristic
prose, while its antithesis and word-play are often
effective and sometimes fine,
His poetical works include A Feast for Wormes (1620);
Hadassa, or the Hi: 5 toe npscciab gai 1621); Argalus
jong poem not directly
; first extant ed. 2s
QUARRY
QUARTERMASTER 519
Oracles delivered in Certain Eglogues (1646).
includes the Enchyridion (1640) ; Observations cone
Princes and States upon Peace and Warre (1642) ; Judge-
ment and Mercy for Afflicted Souls (1646); The Profest
Royalist (1685) 3 and Virgin Widow, a worthless
Peessy 649). The only com edition is that by the
Rev. Grosart in the ‘Chertsey Worthi ibrary’
{3 vols, 1880-81).
Quarry. See BurLpine Sronr, BLasTING.
the fourth part of a Gallon (q.v.). The
ordinary guart-bottle is a deception, containing only
the sixth part of a gallon, and often less,
Quartan Fever. Sce Acuvue.
Quarter, a measure of weight, equal to the
Roark part ofa. hundredweight—ie to 38° Th
avoirdupois. As a measure of capacity, for measur-
ing grain, &c., a quarter contains 8 bushels.
Quarter-day. See Term.
uarter-deck, that part of the upper deck
which extends from the mainmast or gangway
amidships to the poop, or where there is no poop, to
the stern ; in modern turret and barbette war- ho
it generally extends from the after-turret or barbette
to the stern. It is the place of honour, and is con-
sidered the ‘ King’s or Queen’s Parade ;’ and every
officer and man stepping upon it salutes it, as a
mark of respect to the majesty of the throne.
‘HLM. quarter-deck’ is used as a promenade by
officers only, at sea the weather side, and in harbour
the starboard side being reserved for senior officers.
Persons of distinction and officers are received on
the quarter-deck ; and when the captain addresses
the men, or confers rewards or honours on any
individual, it is on the quarter-deck that the officers
and men fall in for the purpose.
Quartering. See HeRAupry; also Execu-
TION, TREASON.
rly Review. John Murray, conscious
of growing power and influence of the Zdin-
burgh Review, and strongly disapproving of its
Whig opinions, set about the organisation of a
work which should counteract what he believed to
be its dangerous tendencies. Accordingly, in
September 1807, he wrote to Canning with a
view of securing his interest in ‘a work of the
_ ge talent and importance.’ Though Canning
oes not seem to have replied directly, his
cousin, Mr Stratford Canning, introduced Gifford
(q.v.) to Murray in January 1808, and arrangements
were afterwards made whereby he became its first
editor. Murray sagaciously concluded on reading
a review on Marmion in the Edinburgh (1808) that
Scott’s feelings as a gentleman and a Tory must be
wounded, and that he would break his alliance with
the whole Whig clique. He judged truly, and in a
conference with him at Ashiesteel, in October 1808,
he secured his assistance and co-operation. Scott
not only wrote to his brother Thomas, C. K. Sharpe,
Morritt, and Southey, on behalf of the first number,
but sent a letter of advice to Gifford,and became him-
self a considerable contributor. The first number.
rather more literary than political in tone, appeared
at the end of February 1809. “An edition of 4000
was sold at once, of which 850 went to Ballantyne
in Edinburgh. The publisher bravely persevered,
though up to the fifth number not one had paid its
expenses, and though £5000 of capital was embarked
in the undertaking. By 1817 it was an assured
suecess, 14,000 being printed, and Southey, who was
its ‘sheet anchor,’ wrote that ‘ Murray is a happy
fellow living in the light of his own glory.’ Great
drawbacks were Gifford’s unpunctuality, and
occasional ill-health. Only two numbers appeared
in 1824—No. 60, due in January, in August ; and
No. 61, due in April, in December. Gifford
resigning the editorship in 1824, was succeeded
by John T. Coleridge, who edited only four
numbers ; his successor was John Gibson Lockhart
(q.v.). Murray’s original offer to Gifford as editor
was 160 guineas a number for contributions, and
£200 a year as editor ; when he invited Lockhart to
London his offer was £1000 a year, which could be
made £1500 by contributions, and a share for three
years, the profits of which would not be worth less
than £1500 per annum. Besides Scott and Southey,
George Ellis, Heber, Barrow, Croker, and Captain
Head were considerable contributors, Croker had
99 articles in the first 100 numbers. ©
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1 ews 329 / PER gaol 2 rR ck the siege strove to keep aglow the expiring
fire of patriotism. He sat in the National Assem-
blies at Bordeaux and Versailles, and aroused great
enthusiasm by his impassioned if somewhat vague
orations. He died at Versailles, 27th March 1875.
Quinet’s latest books were La Création (1870), a
characteristically bold and imaginative incursion into
the domain of science; La ublique (1872); and
TD) Esprit Nouveau (1874). Le Livre de Promiede + aero
posthumously.- His wife published in 1870 moires
@Ezil; his Correspondance Inédite followed in 1877
2 vols.), his Lettres d’Exil & Michelet et & Divers Amis
1884-86 (4 vols.). Anedition of his @uvres Completes
in 26 vols, (1857-79) was prepared by an influential
committee as a national tribute of res to the poet,
the prophet, and the patriot. See the bi hy by
Chassin (1859); Edgar Quinet depuis l Exil (1889), by
his widow; Richard Heath’s Edyar Quinet : His Early
Life and Writings (1881); also the essays by Professor
Dowden in Studies in Literature (1878), and E. Montégut
in Mélanges Critiques (1879).
Quinine is an alkaloid having the chemical
formula C.,H,,N,0,,3H,0. Along with cinchoni-
dine, cinchonine, and a large number of other
alkaloids, it is present in the bark of numerous
species of Cinchona and Remijia, of which these
substances constitute the active medicinal P va
ciples. Good barks yield an average of 5 to 6 per
cent, total alkaloids, of which one-half is quinine
and cinchonidine, the other half consisting of the
other alkaloids in varying proportions. Quinine is
by far the most important from a medical and com-
mercial point of view ; the yield of it varies ly,
14 and 8 per cent. being the extremes. Quinine
is obtained from the powdered bark by treatin
it with lime, and then extracting the mixture wit
alcohol, neutralising with an acid so as to obtain a
salt of quinine, and finally purifying the product.
In 1820 Pelletier and Caventou isolated pure
quinine, and demonstrated that it was the chief
active ingredient in the bark. Many attempts
have since been made to prepare it artificially, but
without success. For the introduction of the bark
into Europe, and the culture of the tree in South
America and (recently) in India, see CINCHONA.
Quinine itself is not used in medicine, owing to
the inconveniences arising from its insolubility in
water, but many of its salts are, and two of them,
the sulphate and hydrochlorate, are included in
the British Pharmacopeia along with numerous
es ter of cinchona-bark containing them.
he sulphate is the most commonly used prepara-
tion, and it is popularly known as quinine. It
oceurs in small, silky, snow-white crystals, which
have a purely and intensely bitter taste, and are
sparingly soluble in water (1 in 700 parts); its
solutions have a bluish or fluorescent colour even
when very dilute. In alcohol or dilute sulphuric
acid it is very soluble. The hydrochlorate closely
resembles the sulphate, but is much more soluble
in water (1 in 34 parts), and its solutions are not
fluorescent. When treated with excess of chlorine
water and a few drops of ammonia solution, solu-
tions of quinine give a clear emerald n colour ;
if — of potassium be added this changes
toaru .
Preparations of quinine, and especially the sul-
phate, are very largely used in medicine. Locally
applied dilute solutions (2 to 4 gr. to the oz. of
water) have a germicidal, antiputrefactive, and
antifermentative action, hence they are used as
lotions in hay fever, diphtheria, cystitis, and
rae we patel As f — tonie small gone
(4 to 2 grains) are frequently given in general
debility, atonic dyspe ia, Ep scrofula, con-
valescence from acute diseases, and other conditions
where tonic treatment is required. It is also of
abi value as an antipyretic and antiperiodic. In
ealthy persons it does not reduce the bodily tem-
perature, but in typhus, typhoid, rheumatic, and
some other fevers it is extremely valuable in this
respect. A dose of 3 to 15 grains may be given in
these cases. In certain fevers it does not reduce
temperature. In malarial affections of all kinds it
is supreme, and at present no other known drug
can compare with it in efficacy. In intermittent
fevers and ague the best plan is to begin its
administration about eight hours before the attack
is expected, and continue it in hourly doses for
three or four hours until 15 to 30 grains have been
given. It cuts short or aborts the recurring febrile
attacks, It is also of great value as a prophylactic
in persons who are exposed to the risks of malarial
poisoning. In such cases three grains twice daily
is usually considered a sufficient dose.
Quinine is also largely given in neuralgia and in
inflammations. Large doses are very apt to irritate
the stomach, and sometimes produce a train of
symptoms known as cinchonism. There is singing
in the ears, dizziness, deafness, a feeling of fullness
in the head, and disturbance of vision—all of
which usually pass off without leaving any ill
results. In some cases the effects are more severe,
and may lead to dangerous depression and collapse,
especially if the patient be already weakened by
disease. Certain persons are very susceptible to
the action of quinine, and suffer from cinchonism
after small doses. In others skin eruptions, edema
of the face, irritation of the bladder and kidneys,
and other disagreeable effects are sometimes seen.
Workers in quinine-factories also occasionally suffer
from skin eruptions. These accidents are, how-
ever, comparatively rare.
The sulphate of cinchonidine and sulphate of
cinchonine are also included in the British Phar-
macopeia. They have the same actions and uses
as quinine, but are very much less used. They
seem, however, to be efficacious, and are cheaper.
See works by J. E. Howard (1876), C. R, Markham
(1880), Manson (1882), and Fliickiger (1884),
536 QUINOA
QUINTILIAN
uinoa (Chenopodium Quinoa), a valuable
foot nine a native of Chili and high table-
land of Mexico, which much resembles some of the
British species of Chenopodium (q.v.). In the
countries in which it is indigenous it is much
cultivated for its seeds, which form a principal
food of the inhabitants. The meal made from
some varieties of the seed has a somewhat peculiar
flavour, but it is very nutritious and is made into
a kind of porridge and cakes. The plant is some-
times cultiva in British ens for its leaves,
which are a good substitute for spinach.
Quinoline, a pungent colourless liquid obtained
by the distillation bones, coal-tar, and various
kaloids. It is the base of many organic bodies,
and is isomeric with Leucol (q.v.).
uinquagesima (Lat., ‘fiftieth’), the Sunday
meee preceding Ash-Wednesday. The
common explanation of the name Quinquagesima,
and of Se ima and Septuagesima, the two pre-
ceding Sundays, is that the Sundays are, roughly
speaking, about fifty, sixty, and seventy days
respectively before Easter. Quinquagesima, indeed,
is exactly fifty days before the Octave of Easter—
ie. Low Sunday (q.v.). But probably the terms
were adopted without any intention of expressing
definite numbers, and simply on a false analogy
with Quadragesima, the Latin name of Lent.
Quinqueremes, vessels with five banks of
oars, however arranged (see TRIREME), may be
regarded as the first-rates of the ancient navies.
uinsy (originally squinancy; Fr. esquinancie ;
trot Gr. ey ye also 43 Cynanche
Tonsillaris and Tonsillitis, or as ‘inflammatory
sore throat,’ isan inflammatory affection of the sub-
stance of the tonsils, attended when fully develo,
by suppuration (see PALATE). The inflammation
is seldom limited to these glands, but extends to
the uvula, the soft palate, and the pharynx. The
i usually manifests itself by difficulty in
swallowing, and a sense of heat and discomfort in
the throat, often amounting to considerable pain.
On examination the throat at first exhibits un-
natural redness, with enl ment of one or both
tonsils, The uvula is enlarged and elongated,
its end either dropping down into the pharynx,
and, by exciting the sensation of a foreign body,
giving rise to much irritation, or else adherin
to one of the tonsils. The tongue is usually rece
and the pulse rapid, and there are the ordinary
symptoms of that form of constitutional disturbance
known as inflammatory fever. The inflammation
terminates either in resolution (if the attack is not
severe, and yields readily to treatment) or in sup-
puration, which may be detected by the oceurrence
of slight rigors, and by the increased softness of the
enlarged tonsil, The matter which is discharged
has sometimes a very fetid smell, and the fetor
may be the first indication of the rupture. The
pain almost entirely ceases with the discharge of
matter, and recovery is then rapid. ‘The disease
usually runs a course of from three to seven days ;
hut it may be prolonged if, as sometimes happens,
the two sides are successively affected. It almost
invariably terminates favourably. It is most
common esnies the of fifteen and twenty-
five. The ordinary exciting cause of this disease
is exposure to cold, especially when the body is
warm and perspiring; and certain persons (or
even families) are so subject to it that slight
rapeee is almost sure to induce it.
The patient should remain in the house (or, in
cold weather, even in bed), and should be kept on
low, non-stimulating diet. According to Sir
Morell Mackenzie, the best treatment at the com-
mencement of the attack consists in the adminis-
tration of guaiacum. He gives it in the form of
lozenges, each containing three grains, and one to
be sucked every two hours, and states that by this
means the disease may goerety, be averted.
Bak king -soda (bicarbonate of soda) applied to
aff part on the tip of the forefi
or half-hour — has the same rc
severe cases the patient ma le uen Mi
with hot water, ley inhale fog ey -
ing water, and apply hot poultices or
to the side of the neck. Blistering and leechin
will sometimes give relief, but if suppuration
once established they do harm rather than
If the tonsils are very much enlarged they Id
be pricked with a lancet to let out the pus.
Quintain was an instrument used in the
ancient practice of tilting on horseback with the
lance. It consisted of an upright post, surmounted
by a cross-bar turning on a pivot, which had at one
end a flat board, at the other a bag of sand. The
object of the tilter was to strike the board at such
speed that he would be well past before the bag of
sand, as it whirled round, could hit him on the
back. At Offham in Kent, 7 miles WNW. of
Maidstone, there are the remains of an old quintain ;
and at the May games held at St Mary Cray in
Kent, near Bromley, in 1891 the quintain was also
revived,
uintal, a French weight corresponding to the
pen ‘ hundred weight,’ aod ual to 100 pounds
(livres) ; on the introduction of the metrical system
the same name was employed to designate a weight
of 100 kilogrammes (see GRAMME). The me
quintal, equivalent to 220 lb. avoirdupois, is thus
more than twice as heavy as the old one.
Quin MANUEL José, whose patriotic odes
obtained for him the surname of the Se
Tyrteus,’ was born at Madrid, 11th April 1772,
studied at Salamanca, and established himself as
an advocate in his native city, where his house
became a resort of the advanced liberals of the
time. Besides his Spanish Plutarch ( Vidas de los
Espaiioles Celebres, 1807-34), a work which is
reckoned one of the finest Spanish ics, he
published one or two tragedies, and an excellent
selection of Castilian Lririge On the on
of Ferdinand VII. in 1814 Quintana’s liberalism
caused his imprisonment for six years; but he
ultimately forsook the liberal cause, held office,
and died 11th March 1857.
Quintett, a musical composition for five solo
voices, or for five instruments, each of which is
obligato. Quintetts for strings have been written
by herini, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schubert,
Onslow, &c.; for other combinations of instru-
ments, generally including the pianoforte,
Mozart, Schubert, Schumann, Brahms, and
Of vocal quintetts one of the most notable is that
in Wagner's Meistersinger.
Quintilian. M. Fabius Quintilianus was
born about 35 A.D. at Calagurris (Calahorra), in
Spain, and attended in Rome the prelections of
Domitins Afer, who died in 59. After this da‘
however, he revisited Spain, whence he return
in 68 to Rome, in the train of Galba, and
to practise as a pleader in the courts, in which
capacity his reputation became considerable. He
was more distinguished, however, as a teacher
than as a practitioner of the oratorical art, and
his instructions came to be the most eagerly
sought after among all his contemporaries, h
pupils including Pliny the Younger and the two
grandnephews of Domitian. As a mark of this
emperors favour he was invested with the
insignia and title of consul; while he also holds
the distinction of being the first public teacher
who benefited by the endowment of Vespasian
and received a fixed salary from the imperial
QUINTUS CURTIUS
QUITO 537
His professional career as a teacher
of eloquence commenced probably about 72, but
after twenty years of labour as advocate and
teacher he retired into private life, and died prob-
ably soon after 96. His reputation rests securely on
his great work entitled De Institutione i
Libri XII., a complete system of rhetoric, which
he dedicates to his friend Victorius Marcellus,
himself a court favourite and orator of distinction.
It was written—as he tells us in his preface to
his publisher Trypho—after he had ceased to be a
blic teacher, and was the fruit of two years’
Lioar. In the first book he discusses the pre-
liminary training through which a youth must
before he can begin those studies which are
requisite for the orator, and he gives us an elaborate
outline of the mode in which children should be
educated in the interval between the nursery and
the final instructions of the grammarian. The
second book treats of the first principles of rhetoric,
and contains an inquiry into the essential nature
of the art. The subjects of the five following
books are invention and a ment; while that
of the eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh is style
(locutio), with memory and delivery. Of these the
eighth and ninth discuss the elements of a good
style; the tenth, the practical studies requisite ;
the eleventh, appropriateness, memory, and
delivery. The last, and in the author's view
most important, book is devoted to the various
requisites for the formation of a finished orator,
such as his manners, his moral character, his
mode of undertaking, preparing, and conducting
causes, the style of eloquence most advan us
to adopt, the age at which pleading should be
n, and at which it should be left off, and other
al ics. The entire work is remarkable for
its sound critical judgments, its purity of taste,
admirable form, and the perfect familiarity it
exhibits with the literature of oratory. The con-
densed survey of Greek and Roman literature with
which the tenth book commences has always been
exchequer.
admired for its clearness, width of intellectual
m , and vigour. Quintilian’s own style is
aa veer for thane’ he is not free from the love of
florid ornament and poetic metaphor characteristic
of his age, he was saved from its extremes by his
good sense, which refused to sacrifice clearness and
simplicity to effect, and still more, by his whole-
some admiration for Cicero. The style of Seneca
he discusses almost as fully as he does that of
Cicero, denouncing it as a dangerous model for the
orator to follow. He makes an obvious effort to be
fair in balancing his praise and blame, but a careful
reader detects an undertone of dislike, whether to
Seneca’s philosophy or his person. Nineteen longer
and 145 shorter Declamations (ed. C. Ritter, 1885),
which have been ascribed to him, are now believed
to be spurious, as they evidently belong to different
authors, and even different epochs.
The best edition of Quintilian’s works is that of Bur-
mann (1720); of the Jnstitutio Oratoria, those by Spald-
ing, completed by Zumpt and Bonnell Riba the
last volume (vi.) containing a lexicon, Halm (1868-69),
and the hand-edition by Meister (1886-87). Of Book x.
alone there are editions by Professor J. E. B. Mayor
(1872, incomplete ), Hild ( Paris, 1885), Frieze (New York,
1889), and Principal Peterson (Oxford, 1891). There are
lish translations by Guthrie (1805) and the Rev. J. 8.
Watson (Bohn, 1855-56), See Karl Pilz, Quintilianus :
ein Lehrerleben aus der romischen Kaiserzeit (1863), and
C. Ritter, Die Quintilianischen Declamationen (1881).
Quintus Curtius. See Currius.
mipu, the language of knotted cords which
ar seni by the tiene of Peru previous to the con-
quest of their country by the Spaniards. A series
of knotted strings was fastened at one end to a
stout cord; the other ends hung free. This was
used for the purpose of conveying commands to
officers in the provinces, and even for Pegg
historic annals. The colours of the strings an
the order of their arrangement, the character and
number of the knots, their distance from the cord
to which they were connected, and the methods of
their interlacing were the principal elements in
this ‘knotty language.’
imus (see MArs).—The QUIRINAL (Lat.
Collis Quirinalis) is one of the seven hills of
ancient Rome (q.v.), and next to the Palatine
and Capitoline the oldest and most famous quarter
of the city. For Quirites, also, see ROME.
Quisealus. See GRAKLE.
Qui Tam actions are actions so called in the
law of England from the first words of the old
form of declaration by which informers sue for
penalties, the plaintiff describing himself as suing
as well for the crown as for himself, the penalty
being divided between himself and the crown.
Quitch. See Coucu-crass.
Quito, the capital of Ecuador, and of the pro-
vince of Pichincha, lies in 0° 14’ S. lat., on the east
side of the great plateau of Quito, at the foot of
the voleano of Pichincha (q.v.), at an eleva-
tion of 9351 feet above the sea, Its site, eut up
with numerous ravines, is very uneven; but the
streets are laid out regularly at right angles,
plunging into and scaling the sides of the valleys
which come in their course. The city is well
paved, but the sidewalks are very narrow; and
the streets are lit only with candles or kerosene
lamps—oftenest those placed before shrines at the
street-corners. The srpereee of Quito is very
picturesque, and its utiful environment of
mountains, together with its clear, healthy, and
pat nig climate, maintaining an eternal spring,
renders it one of the most charming cities of Sout
America ; yet the abrupt changes from the hot sun
of mid-day to the chills of evening make pneumonia
and diseases of the chest very common. The chief
edifices are built of stone, the others of adobes or
sun-dried bricks, covered with tiles. In the great
onsets stand the quaint cathedral, with its green-
ed dome, the repay ace, the municipal
building, and the capitol, built of brick and stucco,
with wine-shops on the ground-floor and the two
halls of congress on the third story. Other public
buildings include the university, a seminary, an
institute of science, an observatory, a museum, a
library of 20,000 volumes, a penitentiary with 500
cells, a hospital with 500 beds, a lunatic asylum, a
retreat for lepers, a score of churches, and three
times as many monasteries. Most of these last are
in a very dilapidated condition, for which it is hard
to find any explanation but laziness ; for they still
retain their lands and revenues, and the offerings
of the faithful, who are nearly all Indians, are as
constant as ever. Indeed, Quito is the paradise of
priests—of whom there are more than 400 in the
city—and the bells are jangling all day long; for
Ecuador is the most faithful province of the pope,
and the one state in the world which still refuses to
recognise the unity of Italy and the condition of
affairs that resulted from the occupation of Rome.
There are only two or three good shops, and no
hotels ; the daily market in the square before the
monastery of San Francisco is the general purchas-
ing-place, and the religious houses serve for hostels.
The city boasts a telephone system, but water is still
purveyed in great jars borne on the shoulders of
carriers. The manufactures include cottons and
woollens and beer; the drying of bird-skins
(humming-birds’), the copying of religious paint-
ings, and the production of images of the Virgin
and .of saints rank as important industries.
Founded in 1534, Quito has suffered frequently
538 QUIT RENT
QURAN
from earthquakes (especially in 1797 and 1854) and
from revolutions (recently in 1877 and 1883). Pop.
about 50,000, mainly Indians and mestizoes. See
Monnier, Des Andes au Para (1890); also Vincent,
Around and About South America (1890).
Quit Rent, a term used to denote various
nominal rents; properly speaking, a quit rent is
a rent reserved in lieu of all services, use on
ying it the holder of the land goes quit and free.
Tn old records it is called white rent, because it
was paid in silver money, as distinguished from
corn rents, The preg begs Act, 1881, empowers
an owner of land to redeem any quit rent to which
it may be subject.
Quoad Sacra, See Parisu.
uoin (Fr. coigne, from Lat. cuneus) is gener-
alte wedge or an angle. In aypwec 4 the quoin
is a wedge inserted beneath the breach of a gun,
for raising or ere y - the muzzle. Quoin, in
Architecture, is one of the stones forming the solid
corner of a building. Where the work is of brick
or small materials the quoins are usually of ashlar.
Quoi a game much practised in many
districts of Great Britain, seems to have been
derived from the ancient game of ‘throwing
the discus,’ which was such a favourite amuse-
ment of the Greeks and Romans. The discus
was a circular plate of stone or metal, 10 to 12
inches in diameter, and was held by its farther
edge with the right hand, so as to lean upon the
forearm, and was cast with a swing of the arm,
aided by a twist of the whole body. It was gener-
ally thrown edge foremost, and upwards at ay
angle of 45°, so as to give it as great a range as
possible, and the player who threw it farthest was
the winner. Sometimes a kind of quoit was used.
The modern game of quoits differs very considerably
from this. quoit is a flattish ring of iron, gener-
aily about 8 inches in external diameter, and be-
tween 1 and 2 inches in breadth; the weight accord-
ingly varies a deal, but may in any match
be fixed beforehand. The quoit is convex on the
ore side, and slightly concave on the under, so
that the outer edge curves downwards, and is sharp
enough to stick into the ground. The mode of
Playing is as follows : Two pins, called ‘ hobs,’ are
iven into the ground from 18 to 21 yards apart;
and the players, who are divided into two parties,
stand at one hob, and in peel succession throw
their quoits (of which each player has two) as near
to the other hob as they can. The its are
counted as in bowls or in curling. To facilitate the
sticking of the quoits at the point where they strike
the nd, a flat circle of clay—about 1 or 2 inches
in thickness, and 14 feet in radius—is placed round
each hob; this iene to be kept moist. The
quoit, when to be thrown, is sped with the right
hand by one side, and pitched with an upward and
forward jerk of the hand and arm, which give it a
whirling motion, and cause it to strike the ground
with its edge. Players acquire such hap in
this game that they can very frequently ‘ring’
their quoit—that is, land it so that the quoit sur-
rounds the hob.
Quorn, or QuORNDON, a village of Leicester-
shire, 24 miles SE. of Lo: ves name
to a celebrated kennel (and hunt) of foxhounds.
Pop. 1816. See FoxHuntina.
Quorra. See NIGER.
orum is a | term denoting a certain
option number Sat ate a larger number as entitled
or bound to act for certain purposes. Thus, in
statutes me rar commissioners or trustees of a
public work it is usual to name a certain number
of the whole body as sufficient to discharge the
business when it may be inconvenient for all to
attend. For the origin of the expression, see
JUSTICE OF THE PEACE, Vol. VI. p. 38.
Quotidian Fever. See Acur.
Quo Warranto, the title of a writ by which
@ person or corporate body is summoned to show
by what warrant a particular franchise or office is
claimed. In the re of Charles IL. and James
IL. the writ was used oppressive, for the purpose
of depriving cities and boroughs of their liberties.
At the present day an information in the nature
of a quo warranto may be filed, with the leave of
the court; disputed questions in regard to muni- —
cipal offices, &c, are sometimes brought to trial in
this way. The information is now regarded as a
form of civil process,
Quran. See Koran.
~~
R
is the eighteenth letter in our
alphabet. In ancient Egyptian
there seems to have been no
clear distinction between the
sounds of r and /, both of which
are liquid trills, the breath
escaping over the vibrating
: edges of the tongue—in the one
case over the tip, in the other
over the sides (see L). Co uently the hiero-
lyphie picture of the ‘lioness,’ from which our
Sheer 7 is derived, was used almost interchangeably
with the picture of the mouth (see ALPHABET),
which became the source of the letter r. But the
Semites, who obtained their alphabet from the
Egyptians, made a clear distinction between the
two sounds, and hence the two ptian symbols
were ised, the tailed hieratic form of the
Egyptian picture of the mouth being exclusively
opted as the Semitic sign for r. It was called
resh, ‘the head,’ because in the hieratic form, 9, it
resembled the oval of the head supported on the
neck. In the lapidary writing of the Phenicians
the letter became angular instead of rounded, and
the Semitic form, 4, without alteration into
the earliest Greek alphabet. When the direction
of the Greek writing was reversed the form was
somewhat rounded, giving for the sound of r the
symbol P, which was called rd. The Semitic name
resh or rhos would become rhosa in Greek, but as
in Greek an s normally disappears between two
vowels, this would give rhoa, and finally rhd,
= to the coalescence of the vowels. In the
pri tive Greek Ey as in the Pheenician, the
‘orms of the signs for 4, d, and r differed little, and
confusions arose. Hence the signs were differen-
tiated in various ways. In the early Greek alpha-
bet which found its way into Italy the tail of
P was curved round, giving the form B with a lower
loop, to denote 6, while for d the tail was short-
ened and finally disappeared, giving D, For ra
short tail was added, giving the form R, which
ultimately became R, while the form P was retained
to represent r in the Eastern alphabet and in the
Western to represent p. The tail of R be; to
make its appearance in the Greek alphabet before
it was transmitted to Italy, but subsequently dis-
appeared, other ways of avoiding the confusion
between the forms having been invented. For the
rare and capital forms the old R has been
retained, but in minuscule writing we use r and 2,
the first of which is an uncial form derived from RF ;
the second, called the r rotunda, coming from the
old Roman cursive, in which the vertical stroke
of R has nearly disappeared, being represented
only by the small tag at the top of 2.
@ sound of r is a true consonant in the north
of England, where it is exaggerated in the North-
umberland burr. In Sanskrit it is vocalic; in the
south of England it is often reduced to a semi-
vowel or even to a vowel; while in the Midlands,
in Scotland, and in France it preserves the proper
sound of a trilled liquid which it had in Latin and
Anglo-Saxon. After a guttural vowel it is hardl
heard, farther being pew almost indistinguishable
from father. The r is a survival of the old
English sound, the pronunciation harwm for ‘harm,’
arum for ‘arm,’ and boren for ‘born,’ reproducing, it
is believed, the medieval English sound, which is
now less resonant than it formerly was. The sounds
of rand / are often interchanged. In the Indian
alphabet the Semitic symbol for r represents 7, and
the symbol for 7 represents r. The Japanese sign
for r was obtained from a Chinese sign for /, and
some Polynesian and South African peoples replace
r by the easier sound of /, as is also done by
English children, who, however, often prefer w,
sa) for ‘very.’ The sound of r is usually
the last which children learn to pronounce. In
English 7 uently replaces r and occasionally r
Be aces 7, as in ‘turban’ hey raitigreg Mea wien 2
r disappears, as in ‘speak’ from O.E. N,
‘pin’ from O.E. preon, Boggs Re 0. Fr. para-
lysie, and ‘cockade’ from QO. Fr. cocart. It is
ee sara dpe tne Peavey 8 alee
rom O, , in ‘partridge’ from Lat. ia,
‘cartridge’ from Fr. cartouche, in ‘corporal’ from
Fr. caporal, and in ‘culprit’ from Lat. culpa, It
is also intrusive in zron and bride-groom. Phere is
a modern tendency to insert a final 7, as in ‘ taters’
for ‘potatoes’ and ‘ Victoriar’ for ‘ Victoria.’ In
the words our, your, their, her, the ris a survival
of an old genitive suffix. Sometimes r is trans-
; as in ‘horse’ from hross. In Latin r
supplants s between two vowels and sometimes at
the end of words, as in ‘arena’ for asena, ‘dari’
for dasi, ‘ plurima’ for plusima, ‘honor’ for honos,
‘arbor’ for arbos.
Ra. See Ecypt, Vol. IV. p. 234.
Raab (Hung. Gyér), a town of Hungary, stands
on an extensive plain at the confluence of the Raab
and the Little Danube, a branch of the t river
of that name, 67 miles WNW. of Buda-Pesth. It
contains numerous as a! edifices, among which
is a beautiful cathedral. The manufactures are
chiefly tobacco and cutlery. Pop. 22,981.
Raalte, a town of the Netherlands, in the pro-
vince of Overyssel, 11 miles NNE. of Deventer.
Pop. 5795.
Raasay, one of the Inner Hebrides, lies between
the Isle of Skye and the mainland of Scotland, and
belongs to Inverness-shire. It is 13 miles sey
from north to south, 34 miles in greatest bi th,
and 24 sq. m. in area. Pop. (1841) 647; (1891)
438. The western side of the island is bare and
uninteresting. On the eastern and more sheltered
side there is some striking scenery. Dun Caan
(1456 feet) is the highest point, and Brochel Castle,
on the east shore—now a mere ruin—the chief
object of interest.
Rabanus Maurus (or more correctly Hra-
banus), a great Carolingian churchman and divine,
was born of noble parents at Mainz about 776,
and had his education at Fulda and at Tours
under Aleuin, who surnamed him Maurus after
the favourite disciple of St Benedict. He was
next placed at the head of his school at Fulda,
where he trained scholars like Walafrid Strabo
and Otfrid of Weissenburg. In 822 he became
abbot, but’ resigned in 842 to retire to the neigh-
bouring cloister of Petersberg, whence in 847 he
540 RABAT
RABBIT
was called to the archbishopric of Mainz. The
chief event of his reign was his severity against
the too logical monk Gottschalk for his views on
predestination. He died in 856. His writin
show erudition but little originality. They include
Commentaries on the Old Testament, St Matthew,
and St Paul’s Epistles, homilies, doctrinal treatises,
rf deo and a Latin-German glossary to the Bible
(Graff's Diutiska, vol. iii.). wo these are
De Bon i poem 44 ave ary
xxii., sive tymologiarum us, a kin encyclo-
predia of its time.
His yore Omnia. (so called) fill vols. cvii.-cxii. of
ry vice ‘atrologie Cursus Completus—a reprint of the
Co —_ edition of Colvenerius (6 vols. folio, 1627), to
which are prefaced the Lives by his disciple Rudolphus
and by Joannes Trithemius, See the studies by Spengler
(1856), Kohler (1870), and Richter (1882),
also called NEW SALLEE, a seaport of
Morocco, and one of the most picturesque towns of
the empire, is situated on the south side of the
0 a ge at its entrance into the Atlantic. It
stands on cliffs in the midst of gardens, and is over-
looked by a large citadel. The most conspicuous
object is, however, the tower of Beni-Hassan (180
feet high), rivalling the great towers of Seville
(Giralda) and Morocco (Kutubiya); near it is the
ruined mosque of Almanzor, originally intended to
be made the largest in the world. Ruins still exist
of the sultan’s ee that was immortalised by the
feats of Dick Whittington’s cat. Carpets, shoes,
and mats are made, and woollens dyed. But,
owing to the silting up of the mouth of the river,
the commerce of Rabat has much declined. For-
merly it was the centre of the Euro) trade with
Moroeco; it still exports olive-oil, grain, hides.
flax, wool, maize, and millet. There is a small
import of cotton-stuffs, sugar, candles, and tea.
Pop. 26,000. See English Illustrated Magazine
(February 1890); also SALLEE.
Rabbi (Heb., ‘my master,’ ‘my teacher’), an
honorary title of the Jewish Masters of the Law,
which is first found applied after the time of Herod,
oy to the disputes between the two
schools of Shammai (q.v.) and Hillel (q.v.). It
was in common use at the time of Christ, who is
addressed as such by his disciples and the common
people. Other forms of the same title are Rab
‘master’ ), Rabbdn (‘our master’), and the Hellen-
istic Rabboni (‘my master’). The title Rabban
was first given to the grandson of Hillel, Gamaliel
(q.v.), a8 prince-president of the sanhedrim, and
was only borne by seven other exalted chiefs of
schools. At present nothing but the degree of
Morenu (‘our teacher’), bestowed upon a candi-
date who proves his erudition in the written and
oral law and all its bearings before a college of
rabbis, is wanted to render him eligible for the post
of a rabbi, which, however, carries no authority
whatsoever with it, save on a very few ritual
points. It is a mere ignorant error to hold that
the rabbi of our day is a kind of ‘priest’ in the
sense of the Old Testament. He is simply the
teacher of the young, delivers sermons, assists at
marriages and divorces, and the like, and has to
decide on some ritual questions. Up to the times
of the removal of Jewish disabilities in Europe
(see Jews, Vol. VI. p. 328) he had on some occa-
sions also to give judgment in civil matters. For
the later Jewish, or so-called Rabbinical, literature,
see JEws, Vol. VI. p. 331 et seq. ; for Rabbinical
Jews and Rabbanites, see the same article, p. 330.
Rabbit (Lepus cuniculus), a well-known rodent
in the same genus as the hare, from which it
differs in some external features and yet more in
its habits. The rabbit is smaller than the hare,
with shorter head, ears, and legs; the ears are
shorter than the head, and have no black at
their apex, or at most a very small one ; hind-
legs are not so much longer than the fore-legs as
they are in the hare; the predominant colour is
gray. Moreover, the rabbit brings forth blind and
naked young, which it nurtures in the safe retreats
afforded by the burrows. These burrows are often
of great length, have a crooked course, and gener-
ally several openings, Rabbits live socially, and
refer for their warrens places where the soil is
oose and dry, and where furze or other brushwood
affords additional shelter. They feed Noth oe
herbs, and tender bark. Their reprod is
very prolific, for breeding may oceur four to eight
times during the year, the period of gestation lasts
only thirty days, three to eight young are born at
once, and sexual maturity is reached in about six
months. i
Vol ‘VIII am TEN-WHEEL PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE WITH COMPOUND CYLINDERS.
o +, page 5M.
RAILWAYS 555
for economy of fuel is the adaptation to the loco- | doing duty in one cylinder or pair of cylinders is
motive of the ‘compounding’ principle which has | made available through its expansive power in
effected such a revolution in steam navigation. By | another and larger cylinder. Engines formed on
this invention (see STEAM-ENGINE) the steam after | this plan are used extensively on the London and
Fig. 3.—Compound Express Passenger-engine, North-Eastern Railway.
North-Western Railway, the North-Eastern, and
the Great Eastern. A saving of from 10 to 15 per
cent. in fuel is claimed by advocates of compound
locomotives, the objection being a complication of
parts.
Considerable diversity has hitherto existed in
the type of locomotive on various lines; but the
policy now adopted by nearly all the leading com-
panies of manufacturing their own rolling-stock,
and the obvious advantage of having interchange-
able parts, has led of late to the gradual adoption
of a more uniform style of construction for the
different kinds of service required. As a general
rule inside cylinders are in use on the through
lines of the United Kingdom, it being contended
by many authorities that for high speeds the
placing of the weightier parts of the machine close
to the centre of gravity minimises oscillation. It
is held further that the moving part of the
machinery is better protected by being placed
within the wheels. On the other hand, the
objections to be urged are the increased cost and
Fig. 4.—Typical American Engine.
(From ‘‘The Railways of America.” )
complication of the driving-axle and the compara-
tive inaccessibility of the valves and pistons for
purposes of repair. Outside cylinders have been
adopted on the London and South-Western Railway
and on other lines ; and, supported by the
bogie-truck, this form of engine approxi-
mates closely to the type in use on
American airoede. The bogie-truck con-
sists of a separate frame carried by two or
more sets of wheels and attached to the
engine or carriage by a central pivot; by
this contrivance the wheels adapt them-
selves more readily to inequalities or to
sharp curves. The boiler on English loco-
motives is invariably carried on astiff plate
frame, while in the comparatively cheaper
form in use in the United States the
running portion of the machinery is at-
tached directly to the boiler by means of
a bar frame, which in Britain is thought
to throw undue strain upon the structure.
Be that as it may, the types of passenger
express engines in England and in the United
States are undoubtedly approximating more and
more closely (see fig. 4). The large single-driving
wheel at one time generally used on express loco-
| the different services to be performed.
motives is now more rare, except in the case of
some of the new compound engines, but for high
speeds it possesses some advantages. For goods-
engines the six-coupled wheel, inside cylinder type,
Fig. 5.—Six-coupled Goods-engine, L. & Y. Railway.
is in most general use, while the forms of tank-
engines for local and suburban lines and for shunt-
ing purposes vary with the different companies and
Of acces-
556
sories to working perhaps the most important
added in recent years is the injector, a contrivance
for picking up water in transit from troughs placed
between the rails. It is the invention of Mr Rams-
bottom of the London and North-Western Railway,
and is in use on some lines where long distances
are run without stopping.
In the matter of fuel some very successful ex-
periments have been made on the Great Eastern
RAILWAYS
plement ordinary forms of railway construction
may be mentioned the atmospheric railway de-
scribed at PNEUMATIC DespatcH. Later develop-
ments in the form of electrical power (see ELECTRIC
RAILWAYS) promise in the future more formidable
rivalry.
The overhead railways of New York are sup-
ported on iron columns, and traverse the principal
streets, affording accommodation to an enormous
number of passengers. Liverpool
has also adop' an overhead
Fig. 6—Elevated Railway, Sixth Avenue,
Railway in the use of oil refuse in conjunction
with coal, and liquid fuel is now employed on
several of the company’s locomotives and station-
ary engines (see FUEL). The use of liquid fuel by
itself in locomotive work is open of course to some
objections, such as the starting of the fires and the
sudden reduction of temperature when the fuel is |
shut off, but these do not apply where the two
Fig. 7.—Train on the Manitou and Pike’s Peak Railway.
fuels are interchangeable. The consumption and
cost of coal alone per mile passenger express train
may be taken at 34 Ib. of fuel and Std. To do
the same work 103 lb. of liquid fuel and 15 Ib. of
New York.
| feet.
railway for communication along
the line of docks. The project for
the carriage of ships and their
cargoes by railway was brought
to a practical test by the Chig-
necto Ship Railway (1889-92),
across the narrow neck connectin,
Nova Scotia with the mainland.
Lines have also been surveyed
across the Central American
isthmus. The rack system of
railways, which was the earliest
form of iron road, has been since
adopted with advan for the
working of lines having steep
grades. The Mont Cenis (1865)
and Rigi Railway (1871) in
Switzerland are among the best-
known instances of this form of
construction. The Zermatt Rail-
way, 22 miles in length, opened
in 1891, is the best example of
the ‘combined’ working. The
engine (metre gauge) has four
oyiincdete, the outer pair of which
are connected with wheels run-
ning on ordinary rails. The inner
pair operate a central toothed
wheel which runs on a single
racked rail laid on such portions of the line as
are of steep gradient. The two sets of cylinders
ean be wicked separately or together as required.
A similar line has been constructed ascendin:
Pike’s Peak in Colorado to a height of 14,134
The highest points reached by the loco-
motive are Galera, a village in Pern, 15,635 feet,
and those touched by a line from Galera rising 215
feet higher. The railway cross-
ing the Andes in South America,
from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso,
is to be worked on this system for
some 17 miles, and on part of the
state railways in Bosnia and
Herzegovina it is employed.
The Lartigue system of light
railways, of which several short
lines have been constructed—one
in Ireland and others in France—
comprises only a single rail. The
carriages or receptacles for goods
are balanced on either side,
pannier fashion, on a pyramidal
structure of wood or iron, 3 or 4
feet in height, which carries the
rail (fig. 8). A ‘bicycle’ railway
has been proposed and an experi-
mental line constructed in the
United States, the engine and
carriages being retained on the
single rail by an overhead support
held between small horizontal
wheels. In the French ‘ gliding railway’ (1888) a
thin film of water is kept between the rails and the
| sledge which supports the carriage.
Carriages.—The builders of the earliest railways
coal are used, say 254 lb., at a cost of 24d. Of did not intend them for passenger so much as for
various contrivances designed to supersede or sup- | goods traffic,
On the Stockton and Darlington
—eE——eEeEeEeEeE—eE—E——E—Eow
RAILWAYS
557
laced on suitable wheels
passenger business which
was encouraged, and until comparatively recent
a the coach was the model for railway-carriage
ilders. Third-class mgers were accommo-
dated in open wagons, with or without seats. So
late as 1845 many of these vehicles had no windows,
slight ventilation being provided by venetian
blinds. On several of the lines no (He were
supplied in third-class i even for the night
journeys. The first-class passe booked their
tickets as in coaching days, an
their | was packed on the
roof of the ——e to which they
were allotted. the passenger
traffic increased the public. bee
came more er in their
demands, and grad more at-
tention was given to the comfort
- Banos homage and the —
ern management is to
to the en of _ car-
riages, especi in long-distance
trains. pers er of the gradual
decrease of second-class ngers, many of the
——s a aie perenne that br but,
owing companies who still retain it lowering
the rates dearly to the level of third class, the
numbers have considerably increased again in
1896-97. Composite carriages for first and third
class in most express trains are fitted with lavato-
ries and every comfort for both classes. Drawing-
room, luncheon, and dining cars are also provided
for day ——s: and sleeping-cars for —
trains are fitted with all the luxury of a first-c
hotel. There were in 1897 of locomotives in E ing.
land 16,600, in Scotland 2092, in Ireland 787—total,
19,479; of carriages: England 51,294, Scotland
7163, Ireland 2954—total, 61,411 ; of wagons: Eng-
land 493,428, Scotland 136,017, Ireland 18,030—
total, 647,475.
The cost of the passenger express locomotive
may be put at from £2500 to £3500; the more
powe: engines, if made by locomotive builders,
ng d cost ——— to — 0, but, pon arr
carriages and wagons, they are usually built
by the companies rr cg A goods-engine
such as that illustrated would cost £1800 to y
and a tank-engine (without tender) £1500 to
£2000. The cost of a Pullman carriage is from
£2000 to £3500 ; of an ordinary first-class carriage,
£550 to £700; second, £450 to £600; third, £350
to £450; of a coal wagon carrying eight tons, £60
to £70; net mage ing ten tons, £70 to £90.
Brakes.—The supply of brake-power has been
the subject of many ingenious patents, and is
dealt with in a separate article in this work. The
use of continuous brakes of some approved form
on all passenger-trains in the United om was
made com ry by the Railway Regulations Act
of 1889. the article BRAKEs.
Railway Construction.—The cost of constructing
railways is dependent on many conditions, such as
cost of labour, the nature of the district traversed,
and value of the land required. In England the
last-named item has been a very serious one, and
heavy parliamentary expenses have also added
larguy to the cost per mile, which, including equip-
ment, averages £44,710 for the United Kingdom.
The most expensive railway system in the world
is the underground system known as the ‘Inner
Circle’ line of London. A circular railway of this
description was recommended by a parliamentary
committee in 1864. The scheme has been carried
out by two companies, the Metropolitan and the
Metropolitan District, which have since extended
their respective —— into the suburbs. This
eircle, including the purchase of land, which was
line ordinary coaches
were used for the sma’
the heaviest item, has cost from £600,000 to nearly
£1,000,000 per mile. The Metropolitan line from
Bishop’s Road to Farringdon Street was opened on
10th rene pen, but the circle, owing to neial
and other difficulties, was not completed until
October 1884. Another very costly section of rail-
way is that of the South-Eastern between Charing
Cross and Cannon Street, London, which includes
two large stations with hotels and two bridges over
the Thames in its length of two miles. e cost
of this short piece of line has been over £1,000,000
Fig. 8.—The Lartigue Railway.
r mile. In other countries the land acquired has
of much less value, and in many cases has
been given by the government. Moreover, the
traffic has not been so heavy, and co: uently
lighter works have sufficed than those which the
Board of Trade require in Great Britain. The
average cost of railways in the United States is
thus under £12,000 per mile, and in Western Aus-
tralia the railways have been built and equipped
at about £4400 per mile. In flat tracts, such as the
rairies, where the traffic is light, the rails can be
id with but little prepared roadway ; but this is
an exceptionally favourable condition, engineers in
most cases having to span rivers (see BRIDGES),
pierce hills or mountains (see TUNNELS), cut
through elevations, and carry the line over low-
lying ground on embankments. In an ordinary
ony soil the cost of cutting and embankment
my be taken at from Is. to ls. 3d. per yard,
with about 2d. extra for trimming slopes, &c. In
the case of chalk, hard rock, or sand the cost
would sore, Ha much higher; and the length
of cartage is also another important item. e
roadway having been completed, a_ substantial
bedding of vel, burned clay, or other suitable
material is laid, and in this are imbedded the
‘sleepers,’ to which the rails are fixed. A
nayvy will dig and throw out into a barrow in a
day of ten hours in common ground from 8 to 10
eubic yards, in stiff clay or firm vel about 6
eubic yards, and in hard ground, where picking is
required, from 3 to 5 cubic yards. e ‘steam
navvy’ is now largely senere in railway work,
and does in one day the work of from seventy to
eighty men (see EXCAVATOR).
n laying out a line it is of great importance that
heavy Gradients and sharp curves should be avoided,
as the former add to the cost of working and the
latter interfere with s| Some of the sharpest
railway curves in the United Kingdom are on the
narrow gauge Festiniog line, where there are curves
as sharp as the sweep of Oxford Cireus—of but 116
feet ol, hachae ve short lengths. This line runs to
a point 700 feet above Portmadoc in less than 12
miles, giving an average gradient of one in 92, and
a maximum gradient of one in 80. On the Sleaford
and Bourne section of the Great Northern Railway
the line, on the other hand, is practicall level, the
gradients averaging about one in 400. The advan-
a of an eas ient will be seen from the
following calculation: If an engine and tender,
weighing together 56 tons, is capable of drawing a
maximum load of, say, 40 loaded wagons, weighin
560 tons, at 25 miles per hour on the level, it wi
558
RAILWAYS
only take the following loads over the gradients
saied below, and the speed would also be con-
siderably reduced.
1 in 100..........
Lim OO. is nisisne " ees e300
" Lie BO octiciiess 6 o et as
Before the Board of Trade will sanction the
opening of a line it has to be satisfied as to the
stre| of the bri that a minimum distance
of 6 feet has been left between the lines, and as to
other conditions.
The form of ‘permanent way’ has altered con-
siderably since the laying of the first railways.
The first wrought-iron rails used on the Stockton
and Darlington weighed 28 lb. to the yard. The
cheapening of steel which followed the invention of-
the mer process has led to the use of that
material for rails throughout the world, and the
size of the rails has been successively inc
until between 80 and 85 1b. per yard is the usual
weight. In British ran oc Bh moar the rails are
supported on cast-iron chairs held by wooden
wi , and the chairs are spiked on to transverse
en sleepers. On American and colonial lines
chairs are dispensed with, and the rails are spiked
direct on to the sleepers. The P sepa are made b
‘fish-plates’ bolted on each side of the rails, an
the bolt-holes are made oblong or elliptical to
permit of the ex ion and contraction of road
under i mperatures. Blocks of stone
were sometimes in the early history of rail-
ways to eee the metals, but the rigidity ob-
tained was found to be very destructive of rolling-
stock, and wooden sleepers lying on gravel ballast
are now almost universally employed. Iron sleepers
have been found serviceable in some countries
where wood is liable to the attacks of insects.
Light Railways.—In order to benefit the agri-
cultural and other interests in districts too poor
to make or support a railway on the usual terms,
the Light way Act was in 1896 to
empower the construction of lines of cheaper con-
struction and simpler working than the ordinary.
To avoid the heavy parliamentary expenses, the
bill gives power to a Light Railway Commission to
make inguisy. and if it is satisfied, to issue orders
(subject to the approval of the Board of Trade) for
the construction of such railway, County, Burgh,
and District Councils are also empowered to initi-
ate such railways, or otherwise to advance part
of the n capital, and the Treasury ma
also advance a like sum at 34 per cent. not Posaed.
ing one-fourth of the whole capital. Several acts
have been passed for the construction of light rail-
ways in Ireland as a means of relieving distress.
Under the act of 1890 government voted £136,200
for this purpose.
Signals.—At a very early stage of railway work-
ing ne pw of signals was found to be necessary.
In 1830, when the Liverpool and Manchester line
was opened, a flag by day and lamp by night were
adopted ; but this soon proved i uate for the
trathe, and in 1837 the managers of the Grand
Junction Railway erected poles about 12 feet in
height, with discs and lamps turned throngh a | b
uarter circle by Tt pape: working a lever at
the base. About 1842 a semaphore signal, some-
what similar to those now in use, was introduced.
Up to 1846 there were no ‘distant’ signals, but in
that year this extra precaution was adopted. The
successful concentration and interlocking of the
levers working both points and signals was effected
in 1856 at the Bricklayers’ Arms Junction, and
in 1859 the first: interlocking frame was fixed at
Willesden Junction. Since that date the interlock-
ing and concentration of signal and point levers
has made rapid progress, and of the total signals
and points in the United Kingdom over 91 per
cent. are thus protected, The now in use
may be classified as ‘home,’ ‘distant,’ ‘starting,’
‘advanced starting,’ and ‘dise,’ the last named
used on coe sidin; By the interlocking of
points and signals, if the signalman has for in-
stance moved a lever that opens a |e of —
to enable a train to come out of a siding on to the
main line, the ‘home’ and ‘distant’ signals must be
at ‘danger’ to stop any train from a greg on
~ main line, and it is impossible for him to lower
them.
In the working of a railway the telegraph plays
a very important part. By its means trains are
started and protected throughout their journey s
the signalmen are placed in communication with
each other, and are warned if the signals are not
acting properly. On the London and North-
ber oe ber are over 11,000 miles of pe
used for pure! ilwa: rposes, apart from
6800 maflaa of ing ot rd teks the intro-
duction of telegraphy on the railway errr were
laced at certain points, and kept fixed at ‘danger’
or a certain time before another train was allowed
to pass. In 1853, however, the absolute block-tele-
graph pans was introduced. Under the absolute
lock there can be only one train in a given section
at the same time, while under the ‘ permissive”
system there may be more than one train in each
section. Taking A and B as the stations at each
= = the wag ehranael tee the a
iock system is thus a ; a ee
station fi gives to station B what is called the ‘Be
Ready’ signal, which indicates the nature of the
approaching train. The man at station B, if the
previous train has passed his cabin, and he knows
that the section between A and B is clear, repeats
this signal to the next box. The train is then
despatched from A, the signalman at that box
giving the warning ‘ Train on Line,’ which the man
at B acknowledges, and at once gives the ‘Be
ety oe to C, and so on. As soon as the
train has passed B, the man in that box telegraphs
‘Line clear’ to A, who acknowledges the message.
Of the double lines in the United Kingdom over 94
r cent. are worked on the absolute block system.
n most single lines the ‘train-staff and ticket’
system is adopted. In this case, supposing there
are three trains at the terminus of a line or section
to proceed to the other end, the first and second
start with a ticket, but the third carries a staff
which is the a key for the box in which the
. 0
man
a man, one of
the latelayers, is stationed at
‘distant’ signal, and as the semaphore is raised to
‘danger’ he places on the rails two detonati
signals, which are exploded by the engine as
over them. If the engine-driver hears no
explosion se mer cia line is a me
auge.—In deciding upon the gauge to
adopted the constructors of the first railways natu-
rally adopted that of the tramroads then in exist-
ence—viz. 4 feet 84 inches, that standard having
been fixed upon as being in common use for the
.
Ew Oo m&x«a ——_— — —_
RAILWAYS
559
ordinary vehicles of the country. On all the lines
built by George Stephenson, and most of the other
leadin a eae in the United Kingdom, this 4
feet 8 inches gauge was adopted ut in 1838
Brunel, in his desire to secure double the attained
speed and eapacity of the then constructed rail-
ways, determined upon a 7-feet gauge for the
Great Western Railway. This brought about the
now historic battle of the broad and narrow gauges.
The Eastern Counties (the eee Great Eastern ),
ed for traffic in 1843, a 5-feet way, the
onian 5 feet 6 inches, and in Ireland there
were 5 feet 2inches and 6-feet gauges. So long as
lines of different gauges serving separate districts
did not come into contact the inconvenience of
breaks of gauge were not felt, but when the broad
narrow ga’ met at Gloucester in 1845, and
at other points ee on, the evil effects were soon
felt. Goods and rs had to be transferred
from the one set of carriages to the other, and no
services were possible until at a later
iod the Great Western laid a third rail to
accommodate the 5 eel trains. So serious
became the difficulties which arose through the
breaks of gauge that in 1845 a commission was
appointed ; it reported in favour of the narrow
gauge, and in August 1846 an act was
enacting that thereafter it should not be lawful
to construct any railway prthog, conver of
passengers on an uge other than 4 feet 84
inches for Great Britain and 5 feet 3 inches for
It was, however, provided that railways
constructed before the passing of the act on any
other gauge should be allowed to maintain their
independence. The Great Western, therefore, con-
tinued to maintain its broad gauge, and as late as
1867 there were 1456 miles of line on this system,
having junctions at twenty-six points with the
narrow ga’ In 1869, however, the directors of
the Great Western realised the disadvantages of
their isolation ; the narrow gauge has been gradu-
ally adopted on the system, and the date fixed for
the final disap; ce of the broad gauge was the
20th May 1 Parliamentary sanction has, how-
ever, been given to various cxenpennls: narrow
gauge lines. In most European countries the gauge
adopted has been about the same as the British
standard, with the exception of Spain and Russia,
where the gauge is somewhat wider.
Aceii The number of persons killed on
the railways of the United Kingdom in 1890
was 1076, and injured 4721. Of those killed 118,
and of the injured 1361, were ngers ; but
of the fatal accidents only 18, and of the injuries
496 were due to causes beyond the control of the
passengers—viz. accidents to trains—the others
arising from various causes, especially want of
caution on the part of individuals themselves.
Taking the number of enger journeys, exclusive
of those of season-ticket holders, at 817,744,046, the
rtion of ngers returned as killed by acci-
ents beyond their own control was one in 45,430,294,
and of injured one in 1,648,677. In the case of rail-
way servants 12 were killed and 147 injured by
train accidents, and 487 killed and 2975 injured by
other accidents. -The number of persons employed
on the railways of the United Kingdom is estimated
at 346,426, so that one in every 694 was killed
and one in 111 injured by train and other accidents.
These are very high proportions, but it is only fair
the rs to say that every precaution is
taken to secure the safety of employés. Too often,
however, salutary tions are broken and
mechanical appliances for their protection neglected
by the men themselves. The proportion of deaths
and injuries has moreover steadily declined of late
. It having been su; that many acci-
Jente were due to men eoekiig overtime, railway
companies have now to make periodical returns as
to the hours of labour on their systems.
Speed.—Mr Worsdell, the locomotive engineer
of the North-Eastern Railway, with a powerful
engine and a sscnripea Baril train attained on
one occasion a nore of 86 miles an hour. On the
Philadelphia and Reading Railroad in the United
States in August 1891 a distance of about 3
miles was run at a rate of 90 miles an hour. Mr
Strondley, engineer of the Brighton line, said
that a light engine could easily attain 100 miles an
hour. e actual running-time of trains is of course
considerably below such limits. The fastest speed
in ordinary service and the largest proportion of
high-speed trains are to be found on the railways of
Great Britain—the careful finish of the road-beds,
the fencing of the track, and the comparative
absence of level crossings giving an undoubted
advantage in this respect over all foreign systems.
The best regular running-time as yet made
on railways was in the ‘race to the North,’
between the East and West Coast routes, com-
menced in 1888. The London and North-Western
in May of that year announced their intention
of uci their time between Euston and
Edinburgh from 10 to 9 hours. The East Coast
companies accepted the challenge, reducing their
time from 9 to 84 hours, and in August the time
by both routes was reduced to 8 hours. The dis-
tances to be covered were by the East Coast 393
miles, and by the West Coast 400} miles, the
jot on the former being more favourable.
e ‘race to the north’ was resumed between the
rival caro in 1895, when on 22d August the
west route did the journey from London to Aber-
deen, 540 miles, in 8 hours 40 minutes, an ave’
of 63°3 miles per hour, including stoppages. e
expense and risk of these high-pressure speeds led
to an agreement, and the rivalry was hss Se
The fastest train now performs the journey from
London (King’s Cross) to Edinburgh in 7 hours 45
minutes, to Perth in 9 hours 25 minutes, and to Aber-
deen in 11 hours 20 minutes, including stoppages.
On the New York Central in 1891 a special run was
made from New York to Buffalo, a distance of 437
miles, in 440 minutes, including three stops aggre-
gating 15 minutes. The following may be taken as
the best express services now regularly running
in different parts of the world in miles per hour,
including and excluding stops respectively :
England—London to Leeds, G.N.R........ 48°4 51
United States—New York to Philadelphia. .47-9 49°8
aes WORM 2 5) seg sino sewers 43 44
Germany—Berlin to Hamburg............. 87°3 40°65
The ave rate for express trains may be taken
as midlor, ait trains running above 40 miles an hour
being taken as ‘express’ in Great Britain and the
United States, and all above 29 miles an hour on
the Continent :
“6 without stops 44°6
“8 “ 86°2
"5 “ 85
tf “e 84:3
7 a 83°5
“ 82
ss 82
r “ 81-2
et 81°
“ 31°6
41-4 “ ;
Grand Trunk line the best service is 36°8 miles
including stops, and 38°2 excluding stops. The
best service in India is from Bombay to Calcutta,
about 25 miles an hour. The distance from Mel-
560
RAILWAYS
bourne to Sidney is run at 33 miles an hour in-
cluding stops, and 37 miles exclu stops.
Fares and Rates.—The stan English pas-
senger fares may be taken at about 14d. per
mile first class, Boe per mile second class, and
ld. per mile third class. The experience over a
series of years has shown a constant increase in
the volume of third-class travel, which in 1890
formed {ths of the whole business in the
United Kingdom. In 1872 the Mi Company
decided on the abolition of the second class, and in
_ the ees grapes — = acca ia
mpany an e jonian Compan y
adopted the same policy. The Midland Cienane:
however, by running man drawing-room and
sleeping cars at an extra fare, practi re-estab-
lished the three classes. In the United States the
average fare may be taken at 14d. per mile, extra
charge ae made for drawing-room and sleeping
ears. The following official statistics as to the
comparative fares per kilometre in the different
countries of Europe were published by the French
government :
Pirst Class. Second Class. Third Class, Free Baggage.
Proce es 3 ot 2 to.4 kilogs.
Italy... sega 87 53 ioe
Belgium...,. 9°5 75 60 none
With regard to goods, the c on British
railways are higher on the whole, but the speed
of the goods-trains and the character of the
service is superior. With long hauls in some
— countries of course lower mil rates
can be charged. The grain rates in America have
been reduced to about 4d. per ton per mile, and on
Indian railways, with cheap labour and fuel, a
standard of 4d. per ton per mile has been reached.
Capital, nue, &¢c.—The act of parliament
authorising the construction of the Stockton and
Darlington Railway, the first used for nger
traffic, received the Royal assent on 19th April
1821. The first rail was laid on 23d May 1822, and
on 27th September 1825 the ron was opened
with great ceremony. Four hundred and fifty pas-
sengers were conveyed in the first train. Whe
16,449 miles of railway working in the United
Kingdom, representing a capital cost of £600,895,000,
and beg traffic a revenue of £56,898,000,
of which £24,893,000 was received from passenger
fares and £32,005,000 from the conveyance of goods
and minerals.
At the close of 1897 there were 21,433 miles of
railway open for traffic. The authorised capital
for the construction of railways was £1,089,765,095,
of which English railwa: had £896,411,043,
Scottish railwa, £153, 887,505, and Irish railways
£39,466,457. e total receipts of these rail-
ways were £93,737,054, of which £79,759,776
was taken in England, £10,438,957 in Scotland
and £3,538,321 in Ireland. Of the total capital
stock of the railways in the United Kingdom,
£103,061,275 is guaranteed, £279,321,045 deben-
tures, £269,373,440 preferential, £425,501,582 ordi-
nary stocks and shares, and £12,507,753 loans.
The gross receipts of all the companies is derived
from—passengers, £40,518,064; goods, £47,857, 172 ;
mails and parcels conveyed r trains,
£6,482, 164 ; and miscellaneous items, e number
of passengers carried was 1,030,420,201, of whom
935,159,878 were third-class. The total working
expenditure was £53,083,804, equal to 57 per cent.
of the —_ receipts; the net receipts were
£40,653, , fiving a percenas of 3°73 in the
total capital. f the working expenditure,
£13,712,718 was for locomotive power ; £4,371,121
for v5 and renewals of carriages, 3
£8,610, for maintenance of permanent way,
&e. ; and £16,505,464 for traffic expenses. The rail-
way companies paid £116,329 as compensation for
personal injuries sustained in 1897, and £315,088 as
ba temas for damage and loss to traffic.
e railway system of the United om has
not been developed according to any plan previously
marked out, nor does it owe any of the position
which it now holds to support or assistance given to
it by the state. It is the outcome of private enter-
— carried on in very many instances under
werner spite of pe natieee yer a
rejudice, and at an expendi capital greatl
fn pweoet: of that which would have bees
under more favourable conditions. In 1 the
Duke of Wee ee at the head of the
government, was asked to appoint some engineers
to lay out four or more a s, lines which would
form the great highways for the locomotive.
duke’s reply was that he did not like railways;
and Mr Goulburn, the Chancellor of the Exchequer,
declined to take any action in the matter, on
th und that interference with vested interests
would create an amount of opposition which the
heres ig cond —— Phe va! Je 3
rise speedily supplied the impe' to railwa:
evelopaaanew hie the national vernaeedt Catan
to give. The Liverpool and chester Railway
was opened for c¢ in 1830, and in 1838 there
was a completed line between London and Birming-
ham, During the interval of the opening of these
two lines—now absorbed in the London and North-
Western system—fifty-six acts of parliament were
passed authorising the construction of 1800 miles
at a total estimated cost of 45 millions.
The Railway Mania.—A_ later iod marked
with greatly increased activity on the part of pro-
moters and engineers culminated in the ‘Railway
Mania,’ followed by a great financial colla
Parliament had required as a condition prevedent
of considering any new railway bills that a bs red
of ten per cent. of the estimated cost should be
lodged with the accountant-general by the pro-
moters, and five cent. for parliamen ex-
nses, On the Soh of November in 1845, the
atest date at which the Board of Trade would
receive plans of new railways, there had been
lodged 1263 bills, with plans and sections for new
railways, representing a capital of 563 millions,
and requiring the deposit of a total sum of 59
millions, The amount required for payment of the
deposit exceeded by more: than millions the
whole amount of gold and coin in the Bank of
England and notes in cireulation. The publication
of these figures created alarm, and a panic ensued,
the stocks of existing railways were greatly de-
preciated, and the premiums on the shares of the
er ype aes yin had been overs
y a wild spirit of speculation, disappeared, an
wide-spread nile end. comsanencial disaster ensued.
The result was that, of the 1263 companies which
were promoted, 120 only survived the ordeal of -
parliament.
Railway Administration.—Up to 1891 there had
been passed over 4000 separate acts of parliament
authorising the construction of new or dealing with
the constitution and working of existing companies.
in order to compensate to some extent for the lack
of original design and system in connection with
the railways, the companies have resorted to numer-
ous plans for amalgamation, fusion, purchase, or
working agreements between themselves. There
were in 1891, after numerous changes and dissolu-
tions, 516 railway companies in the United King-
dom, Of the railways owned by these companies
266 are worked or leased by other companies. The
RAILWAYS
561
‘Great Western, for instance, has thirty-six railwa:
of which it is the lessee, and has joint-ownership
of nine other lines. The movement of the traffic
over the separate systems of railways is provided
for under the Clearing-house Association (see
CLEARING-HOUSE); and in 1888 an act was passed
giving to the Board of Trade authority to call for
returns, and deal with the schedule of rates and
classifications of the companies.
The earliest railways were authorised on the
supposition that they would, like canals, be high-
ways for the use of carriers. A scale of maximum
tolls was prescribed in each act, and the canal
classification of goods adopted. Later on the rail-
ppewrasics prepared a new classification. Each
ilway act also contained a clause authorising the
railway company to charge a reasonable sum in
addition to the maximum tolls, in order to cover
arriers’ services, risks, and profit ; and from about
the year 1845 each railway act prescribed a scale
of maximum charges for conveyance. To these
maximum rates most of the companies were allowed
toadd aterminal charge for the services of load-
ing, unloading, covering, collection, and delivery,
&e. Al the compas had thus power to
certain rates, the maxima were seldom
enforced ; but even with the lower level of: actual
charges the traders were dissatisfied, and demanded
frequent inquiries into the working of railways.
‘Three such inquiries were held between 1866 and
1884, but the companies were on the whole acquitted
of the charges brought against them. As the result
of the inquiry of 1872 the Railway Commission
was appointed to specially deal with disputes
between traders and the railways. In 1885 the
government made an attempt to deal with the
whole subject of railway rates, but it was not
until 1888 that an act was . The later
part of 1889 and the whole of 1890 were occupied
with inquiries before the Board of Trade and a
joint committee of both Houses of Parliament, as
the rates and classifications of the railways,
and the result has been acts which came into force
on Ist August 1892, amending the powers and
classifications of nine of the leading lines.
Zone System.—In 1889 a new departure was in-
rated on the Hungarian state railways by the
introduction of the Zone system for passengers,
under which each station, taken as a point of
departure, is considered as the centre of certain
zones, which increase in a regular ratio, and in
which the fares are arranged on a simple plan.
This was followed by the introduction on the
Austrian railway system of the Kreuzer tariff,
which is a combination of the Zone and Kilometer
systems; and in 1891 the Zone system was also
applied in Hungary to the goods traffic.
Booults of Railway Working.—At the time when
the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was com-
pleted, ten miles an hour travelled by the fast
stage and mail coaches was about the limit of
8 attainable. At that time the po ion of
the United Kingdom was about 25 millions; in
1891 it was nearly 38 millions. At the opening of
the London and Birmingham Railway there were
3026 stage-coaches, 54 four-horse and 49 pair-horse
mail-coaches in use. The full seating capacity of
these vehicles, each being licensed to earry fifteen
gers, would represent 16,500,000 individual
journeys in the course of the year, and it may be
safely assumed that not more than 10 millions of
such journeys were made. The extent of corre-
spondence among the population was officially
stated at 82 millions of letters. In 1890 the
number of passengers carried on the railways was
$17 millions. On the basis of work done by stage-
coaches in 1837, we should require over a quarter
of a million of these vehicles to move the passengers
400
now conveyed over the 20,000 miles of railway.
On 30th November 1830 the first of Her Majevtr
mails was transferred from the mail-coach to the
railway. The increased facilities thus afforded con-
verted a uniform penny post from a theory into a
reality when that system came into operation on
5th mber 1839. In 1890 the Post-office cele-
brated the jubilee of the penny postage, and in that
dazed 1650 millions of letters, 207 millions of
rost-cards, 442 millions of book-packets, and 159
millions of newspapers. To have conveyed this
would have required more than thirty times the
number of coaches which carried the mails half a
century since. The news in those days was carried
at an average 5 of 83 miles per hour. The
— carry the mails at an average speed of
over 40 miles per hour.
The total traffic in coal on the railways of the
United Kingdom amounted to over 126 millions
of tons in 1 Of the total meat supply of Lon-
don the railway companies convey about 64 per
cent. ; whilst of milk four companies alone import
about 22 millions of gallons each year. The suppl
of vegetables, fruits, and flowers for London an
other large towns is also mainly dependent on the
railways. The fish trade of the country also owes
its development mainly to the railway facilities of
recent years—in 1890, 383,000 tons of this valuable
item of our food supplies were conveyed by rail
from the ports to inland markets.
State Ownership of Railways.—It may be assumed
in general that way construction and develop-
ment has been less hampered by state inter-
ference in the British Islands and in the United
States and Canada than in any other parts of the
world, and it is precisely in these countries that
railways have attained their highest development.
In other British colonies the government has either
built or subsequently purchased the lines. Rail-
way construction in France was undertaken in a
much more methodical manner than in Great
Britain. The country is partitioned out among six
great companies, and competition has thus been
entirely avoided. The government owns about
one-third of the capital invested, and will ulti-
mately about the middle of the 20th century become
the absolute proprietor of the various systems. The
state has the right to fix fares and charges, and to
determine the amount of new mileage to be con-
structed from time to time. So far as technical
skill is concerned, the railways of the ae are
well m: , but the accommodation provided is
far inferior to that in Great Britain or the United
States ; nger-trains are comparatively few
and crowded, and the freight service is very slow.
The main lines are very remunerative in their
operations, but the local roads are mostly worked
at a loss. In Germany the roads are owned and
managed by the government, and political and
military considerations are paramount in the work-
ing of the system. The lines have been cheaply
constructed, the cost being less than half per mile
that in Great Britain. The tendency in most:
other European countries is towards state ownership
or control of railways. The Russian government
since 1880 has been actively engaged in buying up
private railways and building new lines, and at
the present time some 40 per cent. of the system
is owned by the state. In Belgium the whole of
the lines have been so purchased by the govern-
ment. In Austria only one line is a state railway.
Railways in the United States.—By far the
greatest and most rapid development of railway
construction in proportion to population has taken
place in the United States, and the working of
railways in all parts of the world owes much to the
characteristic inventive genius of Americans. The
building of railways has not been hampered on the
562
RAILWAYS
American continent by undue legislative restric-
tions. State ownership has never been seriously
discussed ; land has been cheap oi free for occupa-
tion ; the distances to be traversed are great, and
it is small wonder, therefore, that the iron road
has in most districts preceded or superseded the
ordinary highway. Before the date of the cele-
brated locomotive trial which evolved the ‘ Rocket,’
an engine was run in America called the ‘Stour-
bridge Lion,’ a machine made in England, and im-
— by the Delaware and Hudson Canal Railroad
mpany. The first railroad in the United States
was, however, begun in 1828 by the Baltimore and
Ohio Company, a section of 15 miles from Baltimore
to Ellicott’s Mills being opened in May 1830.
Horse-traction was first on this line. Ameri-
can engines are now found competing with English-
built machines in many parts of the aa in-
cluding the British-Australian colonies.
It is, however, in the matter of carriage con-
struction that the American railroad engineer has
marked out an independent path and obtained the
most striking results. For many years European
railway carriages adhered closely to the model of
the old stage-coach. The longer distances travelled
on the American continent, and the republican spirit
which objected to the division of classes, led to the
adoption across the Atlantic of the long railroad
car, with a central between the seats. The
great size and weight of these structures necessi-
inc attention to such details as springs,
coupli and brakes, and in the provision of such
accessories for comfort and safety American rail-
road practice has long been in advance of that in
any other part of the world. Republican sim-
plicity notwithstanding, the demand for improved
accommodation gave rise to drawing-room, sleep-
ing, and dining-room cars, and the stock turned
out for these $e by the Pullman and Wagner
companies challenges comparison with the pro-
vision made for the travel of royalty in the Old
World. The ‘Vestibule’ trains running on most
of the trunk-lines for long distances—say between
New York and Chicago—represent the highest
ideal yet obtained of luxurious travelling. il-
way stock of this character is mostly owned by
independent companies, whose officials collect the
extra fares for the accommodation.
In the United States, nearly one-half the total
mileage was constructed between 1880 (93,526
miles) and 1897 (184,428 miles), while previous to
1850 the greater portion of the railroads made were
in the states bordering on the Atlantic, and were
for the most part isolated lines employed for local
traffic. A great development to this form of enter-
rise was given by the discovery of gold in Cali-
ornia, and lines were rapidly pushed towards the
centre of the continent. The great civil war at the
commencement of the next decade emphasised the
necessity of direct communication with the grow-
ing Pacific states to cement the Union, and govern-
ment assistance was freely given both in land-
nts and money to the two companies, the Union
Pacific and Centeal Pacific, which, building respec-
tively from the east and the west, met near Salt
Lake City in May 1869, the total length from the
Missouri River to San Francisco being 1700 miles.
Since that date five transcontinental lines have
been completed, including the Canadian Pacific
Railway on British territory. The rate of general
railroad. construction has varied considerably, but
the most active period was that between 1880 and
1890. In 1882 11,569 miles were built, and in 1887
no less than 12,878. A large extent of this mil
was built in advance of the necessities of the dis-
tricts traversed, and in other cases existing lines
were paralleled, to the heavy loss of the interests
concerned. These periods of over-construction and
resulting competition, combined with a n
reduction of mileage rates as the centre of nari
cultural production moved westward across
continent, caused at times much depression in
railroad securities. The system of finance under
which the companies borrow money on mortgages
with foreclosure powers (not by owners of
British railway debentures) has also caused heavy
loss to investors in American rail many of
which have been reorganised, with the accompany-
ing ‘assessment’ or ‘ wipingout’ of juniorsecurities.
The average mileage constructed 1887-97 was 3535.
To remedy the effects of over-competition, a
system of ‘pooling’ receipts was adopted by the
various trunk-lines. Under this plan the receipts
from any given description of traffic were made into
a common purse, and divided among the companies
concerned in an agreed ratio, The state railroad
commissions were ees ad deal with traffic
originating or ing out of their respective terri-
sorles but in Tess the Interstate (omnonen Com-
mission was appointed with federal authority to
deal with questions affecting railway traffic. Under
the law appointing the commission, ‘pooling’
receipts was made illegal, and the well-known
‘long and short haul’ clause, establishing uniform
mileage rates, was, contrary to the result, expected
to peonees disastrous results to railway revenues.
he outstanding railway capital in the United
States in 1897 was $10,635,008,074, of which rather
more than half, or $5,364,642,255 consisted of capital
stock, while the funded debt amounted to 35,270,-
365,819. The cost per mile of completed road was
$59,620. The gross earni were $1,122,089,773,
equal to 10°55 per cent. on the investment, and the
net earnings ,565,009, or 3°47 per cent. on the
outstanding capital; other sources of income
amounted to $125,090,010, and the total income
was $494,655,019. The interest on indebtedness
was 4°09 per cent., and the average dividends on
stocks 1°52 per cent. Passengers to the number
of 504,106,525 were carried, with an average dis-
tance of 24°78 miles, while 788,385,448 tons of
freight were carried an average distance of 124-15
miles. The average receipts per passenger per
mile were 2°03 cents, and per ton of goods per mile
0°80 cents, the latter a lower average than in most
=, countries, the distances hauled being un-
usually t.
Colonial and Foreign Railways.—Canadian rail-
ways follow closely in their characteristics the
construction and methods of working of the lines
across the boundary. The return of 1890 gives
a total of about 14,000 miles completed, the
a proportion of the mil being divided
tween two companies, the Grand Trunk and the
Canadian Pacific. The nominal capital, including
advances made and aid by the Dominion
Any i was $786,447,000, or $56,174 per mile.
he earnings were returned at $46,844,000, and the
net profits at $13,930,000. rs were carried
to the number of 12,821,000, and 20,787,000 tons of
freight.
In Mexico for many years the line from Vera
Cruz to the capital, constructed in 1850 at a heavy
cost by British capital, was the only railway in
existence ; but routes connecting with the systems
of the United States were subsequently constructed
under American auspices. .
Of railways in other Central American states the
Panama line constructed by American capital, as
the first transcontinental route, claims chief atten-
tion. Other routes between the Atlantic and
Pacific are under construction, and a great scheme,
traversing the Isthmus from north to south, was
discussed and steps taken for the necessary surveys
at a meeting of representatives of the various re-
publics held in 1890 at Washington. The project.
RAILWAYS
563
vies in magnitude with the Trans-Siberian railway
scheme in the Old World. The Argentine Con-
federation represents the chief railway development
in the southern half of the continent.
In the early days of railway enterprise in India
the agency of private companies guaranteed by the
state was exclusively employed, and nearl the
great trunk-lines of the country were made under
this system. The government gave the land for
the lines free of charge, and guaranteed interest
generally at five per cent. on the share capital and
a lower rate upon the debentures for ninety-niné
years. Any surplus earnings after the guaranteed
rates were paid were divided equally between the
government and the companies. oreover, the
government retained the right of buying the under-
takings at specified dates on payment of the value
of the stock calculated at its market price on the
tag dig the three preceding years. In this wa
the Indian apatt 4 was acquired in 1880.
the Eastern Bengal in 1884, the Sind, Punjab, and
Delhi in 1885-86, the Oudh and Rohilkund at the
end of 1888, and the South Indian in 1890. In
1870 a new policy of railway development, by
the d agency of the state was inaugurated ;
and in 1880-81 the system of encouraging private
enterprise by state assistance was again adopted.
agencies are now employed. In some
instances—notably the Bengal and North-Western
line—railways have been constructed without any
ey assistance ; in others a subsidy or
limited guarantee has been granted. The agency
of private companies has also been en by
the government both in the construction and work-
ing of state lines. In all cases the government has
the power of taking over*the railways at specified
periods on stated terms. In 1884 a select com-
mittee reported in favour of a more rapid extension
of railways than had been taking place, and recom-
mended the broad gauge—i.e. 5 feet 6 inches—
except in tracts where the metre or smaller gauge
was already in successful operation, and for local
lines where the traffie could only be light. The
first railway opened in India was that of the Great
Indian Peninsular Company from Bombay to
Tannah, traffic being commenced on 4th May
1853, and at the close of 1890 there were 16,996
miles in working. Of this total 8077 miles were
state lines worked by companies, 4680 miles
state lines worked by the state, 25884 miles were
worked by guaranteed companies, 381 by assisted
companies, 5394 miles were owned by native states
and worked by companies, 124 miles were owned
by native states and worked by state railway agency,
547} were owned and worked by native states, and
vy Sor were in Portuguese and French territory.
e first railway in Australasia was projected in
1850 in New South Wales by private Mnprirote
but was completed by the government. ith a
few small exceptions the railways of the Austral-
asian colonies are owned and worked by the
eine The dates of opening of the first
nes and latest mileage returns of each colony are :
Victoria (13th September 1854), 2762 miles; New
South Wales (29th May 1855), 2182 miles ; Queens-
land (31st July 1865), 2113 miles; South Australia
(26th April 1856), 1810 miles ; Western Australia
2ist January 1864), 569 miles ; New Zealand (lst
mber 1863), 1965 miles; Tasmania (10th Feb-
ruary 1871), 374 miles. In Australasia in 1870
there were but 948 miles of railway, but in 1890
there were about 12,000 miles. The distribution of
this total is shown above. It is unfortunate that
in Australia different gauges have been adopted,
so that where the systems join transhipment of
and p rs is . The Victorian
es are built on the 5 feet 3 inches auge, which
is also the national standard in South Australia,
but this colony has also 700 miles on the 3 feet 6
inches gauge. In New South Wales a 4 feet 8}
inches gauge is the standard, but there is also a 5
feet 3 inches line. In Queensland, Western Aus-
tralia, Tasmania, and New Zealand all the railways
are on a3 feet 6inches gauge. The capital cost per
mile of the Australasian lines has been: Victoria,
£13,612; New South Wales, £12,532; Tasmania,
£8436; New Zealand, £7582; Queensland, £6766 ;
South Australia, £6444; and Western Australia,
£4374 per mile. In Cape Colony the first railway
was opened 26th June 1860, and when the govern-
ment took over the railways in 1873 there were
only 634 miles ; in 1890 there were 1890 miles.
i China the first short railway at Woosung was
torn up after a few months’ working, but the line
to the ing collieries was not disturbed. Some .
100 miles ct the Tien-tsin line has since been con-
structed, and plans are under discussion for the
construction of a trunk route. See the articles
on the several countries.
Railway Mileage.—The dates of the opening of
the first railways, and the mileage in 1891, of the
principal countries are as under :
ae “" 1st January 1869 . é
Weddars> tiara seeny 9th February 1866......
See Francis, History of the English Railway (1851) ;
W. Galt, Railway Reform (1865); Smiles, Lives of George
Solas ( Krthur Helps Life of T. B a
Engineering (1871); ur Helps, Life of 7. Brassey
(1872); Francis Trevithick, Life of Trevithick (1872) ;
Adams, Railroad and Railway Questions (1878); Red-
man, Law of Railway. Companies as Carriers (1880);
Burdett’s ial Intelligence (1891); Barry and Bram-
well, Railways and Locomotives (1881) ; en
Acts, 1830-66 (1867), and Supplement to, 187 1883);
Minot, Railway Travel in Europe and America (1882);
Clifford, Private Bill Legislation (2 vols. 1 $
Ivatt’s Railway Management of Stations (1885); Wari
State Purchase of Railways (1887); Professor Marsha:
on State Ownership, in Zrans. Brit. Assoc. (1890);
Jeans, Railway Problems of Working in Different
Countries (1887); M‘Dermott, Life of Firbank (1887),
and The Railway Clearing-house (1887); Williams, Our
Tron Roads (1888), and The Midland Railway (1883 ;
new ed. 1888); H. Grierson, Railway Rates, English and
Foreign (1886); Findlay, Working and Management of
an English Railway (1889); Acworth, Railways of Eng-
land (1889), and Railways of Scotland (1890) ; odges,
Law of Railways, by Lely (7th ed. 1889); Hyde,
Royal Mail (3d ed. 1889); Foxwell and Farrer, Kapress
Trains, English and Foreign (1889); Fisher, Railway
Accounts and Finance (1891); Railways of America
(1890); Bradshaw’s Railway Manual ; Board of Trade
Railway Retwrns (of capital, revenue, accidents, brakes,
signals); Poor’s Manual of the Railroads of the United
States (annual) ; iy att of Interstate Commission of the
United States ; and for foreign works on railways, see the
Catalogue of M. Dunod, Paris.
564 RAIMONDI
RAIN
Raimondi. See Marcantonio.
Rain. Whatever lowers the temperature of
the air below the point of saturation, or the dew-
point, may be ed as a cause of rain. Various
causes may conspire to bring about this change of
temperature, but by far the most important of
these originate in winds and other movements of
the atmosphere. The more prominent principles
of the connection of the winds to the rainfall are
these : (1) When the winds have traversed a con-
siderable extent of ocean before reaching land the
rainfall is large; (2) when the winds, on arriving
at the land, advance into higher latitudes or into
colder regions the rainfall is largely increased, for
the simple reason that the air is now more rapidly
brought below the point of saturation ; (3) if the
winds, even though they arrive directly from the
ocean, have not traversed a considerable breadth
of it, the rainfall is not large—indeed, in the case
of the sea-board of Lower California the mean
annual amount, as at San Diego, is only 10 inches ;
(4) if the winds, even though they have crossed a
great extent of ocean, yet on arriving at the land
at once advance into lower latitudes or into warmer
regions, the rainfall is small; (5) if a range of
mountains lie across the onward course of the
winds, the rainfall is largely increased on the side
facing the winds, but reduced over the region on
the other side of the range; the reason being that,
as the air on the windward side of the ridge is
suddenly raised to a greater height in crossing the
ridge, the temperature is still more redu by
mere expansion, and a more copious precipitation
is the co uence. On the lee side, as the air
descends to lower levels, it gradually gets drier,
and hence the rainfall of necessity diminishes with
every stage of the descent to lower levels.
Attention may be here drawn to the diminished
velocity of the wind over land as compared with
the open sea, as has been fully shown by the obser-
vations of the Challenger expedition. From these
it has been proved that an envelope of stiller air,
or air of less velocity as compared with that of
the ocean, broods over the land, and by its presence
forces the wind blowing across the land toa greater
height, thus augmenting the rainfall. This drag-
ging effect of the land on the wind, and the import-
ant consequences resulting from it, explain how it
is that during north-easterly storms of rain the
foreshores of the Firth of Forth, Moray Firth, and
Pentland Firth, which look to the north-east,
receive a much heavier rainfall than other parts of
Scotland in these cireumstances. On the Ayrshire
coast the annual rainfall at Ayr is 38 inches, but
at Girvan it rises to 51 inches. Both stations are
close to the coast, the only difference being that
the hills to the eastward approach much nearer the
coast at Girvan.
For short periods the heaviest rainfalls oceur
with thunderstorms, and with tornadoes, water-
spouts, and other forms of the whirlwind, for the
reason that not only is their pte expansion due
to the rapid ascent of the air, but also to great
rarefaction produced by the extreme velocity of the
gyrations of the air round the axis of the whirl-
wind. One of the heaviest rainfalls yet recorded
in the British Islands was 2°24 inches in 40 minutes
at Lednathie, Forfarshire, during a severe thunder-
storm on 18th June 1887. At Camberwell, London,
3°12 inches fell in 2 hours 17 minutes on Ist August
1846. Of heavy falls during one day the followin
may be mentioned: Ben Nevis Observatory, 7
inches, 3d October 1890; Seathwaite, 6-78 inches,
Sth Wag Semen hance 6°00 inches, 7th September
1870; Newport, Wales, 5:33 inches, 14th July
1875; and Camusinas, Argyllshire, 5°60 inches,
2th January 1868.
Jn the United States, where severe thunder-
storms and tornadoes more ages occur, the
daily rainfalls seg Oy these amounts.
Thus, during the years 1 the following heavy
rainfalls of one day were recorded: Brownsville,
Texas, 12°94 inches in September 1886; Pensacola,
10°70 inches, June 1887; Key West, 7°80 inches,
September 1889 ; Chattanooga, 7°61 inches, March
1886 5 Shreveport, 7°54 inches, January 1885; and
a day’s rainfall of from 5 to 7 inches is repeatedly
recorded in the United States. These amounts are
tly exceeded in lower latitudes. Thus, on the
hasi Hills, India, 30 inches on each of five suc-
cessive days have been recorded; at Bombay, 24
inches in one night; and at Gibraltar, 33 inches in
26 hours.
As regards the ocean little is yet known from
observation. This, however, is clear, that in the
equatorial belt of calms between the regions swept
by the two trades the rainfall of the ocean reaches
the maximum ; and the of the Atlantic and
Pacific which are longest within the belt of calms
as it shifts northward and southward with season
have the heaviest ocean rainfall. But, though the
cloud-screen is unquestionably dense and the rain-
fall frequent and heavy, the observations of the
Challenger and the Novara show that the state-
ments generally made as to these are very greatly
exaggerated. Roo the open sea in the ons of
the trades the rainfall is everywhere small, owing
to the circumstance that these winds are an im-
mediate outflow from anti-cyclonic relent, their
dryness being further increased since their course
is directed in regions that become constantly
warmer.
The trades, however, deposit a larger rainfall
over islands and other land-surfaces which they
traverse; the amounts being proportional to the
height of the land, but more icularly to the
degree in which the high land ranges he across
the paths of the winds. Thus, at Ascension,
which is within the south-east trades the whole
year round, the annual rainfall is 8°85 inches; and
at St Helena on the coast 5°36 inches, but on the
high land in the interior of the island it rises to
24 inches, In the western division of the Pacific,
for some distance on each side of the equator, the
rainfall is very slight, and extensive guano d ts
are formed on Malden and other islands scattered
over that region. In Mauritius, on the weather
shore of the island, the annual rainfall is about
30 inches ; but at Cluny, 16 miles inland, it is 146
inches, the latter place being in the neighbourhood
of extensive forest-clad mountains.
The heaviest rainfalls of the globe are brought
by the winds which have traversed the greatest
extent of ocean within the tropics. These con-
ditions are most completely fulfilled from June to
September by the winds which, beginning their
course from about 30° 8. lat., blow home on
southern Asia as the south-west monsoon, which
accordingly distributes a heavier rainfall over a
larger portion of the earth’s surface than occurs
anywhere else in any season. On these summer
winds the rainfall of India chiefly depends, and
the ‘lie’ of the mountain-systems with respect to the
winds intensifies the effects. The following in
inches are the annual amounts at different points
in the west from Surat southward: Surat, 41;
Bombay, 74; Mahabaleshwar, 263; Banca, 251;
Honawar, 139; Calicut and Cochin, 115. In the
west of Ceylon the rainfall is also large, being at
Colombo 88, at Galle 90, at Ratnapura, inland
among the hills, 150; but in the east of the island
before reaching which the monsoon is deprived of
much of its moisture, it is considerably Jess, bei
at Mannar 91, at Jaffna 49, and at Trincomalee
The rainfall is also very large in Burma, being at
Akyab 194, Sandoway 214, Diamond Island 119,
Val
———
RAIN
RAINBOW 565
Rangoon 99, Tavoy 197, Mergui 162, and Port
Blair 117. In the north-east angle of the Bay
of Bengal, and thence north to Bhutan, where the
summer monsoon curves to a westerly course up
the valley of the Ganges, the rainfall is great,
rising at Cherra-punji, in the Khasi Hills dis-
trict, to 472 inches—or nearly 40 feet—being the
t known rainfall anywhere on the globe.
Owing to this diversion in the course of the mon-
soon, the valley of the Gan enjoys a generous
rainfall. On the other hand, the rainfall is small
over the plains of the Punjab, being at Multan
6°79, and at Kurrachee 7°25, increasing over the
i parts of the province, at Lahore 21, Um-
la 36, Simla 70, and Dharmsala 122.
The key to the distribution of the rainfall over
the East Indian Archipelago and Australia is the
distribution of pressure from south-eastern Asia to
Australia, with the resulting prevailing winds.
During the winter months pressure diminishes
re sa | from Asia southwards, and northerly winds
prevail. Now, as these winds have travelled a
great breadth of ocean, they arrive in a highly
saturated state and deposit a heavy rainfall over
these islands and the north of Australia. The
ee to which these rains penetrate into Aus-
ia depends entirely on the strength of the
winter monsoon. On the other hand, during the
summer months pressure increases from Asia south-
wards, and southerly winds set in from Australia
to Asia, distributing in their course a very large
rainfall over the islands of the Eastern Arehi-
pelago, rising at several places to 30 inches a
month. The small rainfall in such islands as
Timor, which are more immediately sheltered, as
it were, by Australia during these southerly
‘winds, impresses on the region well-marked dry
and wet annual seasons. These marked differences
among the climates of this archipelago really
depend on the geographical distribution of land
and sea in this part of the globe, and must there-
fore be regarded as permanent differences, and as
having played no inconspicuous part in the unique
distribution of animal and vegetable life which is
so characteristic of the archipelago. Since in the
summer of the southern hemisphere the winds blow
from the sea inland, and in the winter from the
land seaward, it follows that generally the summer
is the rainiest season. In the interior, along the
Murray River and its affluents, the rainfall every-
where is necessarily small. In the north of New
Zealand the winter rainfall is the heaviest, but
farther south, where the wet westerly winds prevail
with some constancy at all seasons, the rainfall
is distributed pretty equally through the year, and
is of course largest on the western slopes of these
islands. Thus, while in the east it is at Dunedin
34 and at Christchurch 28 inches, in the west it
is at Hokitika 120, and‘at Beaby, inland, 106
inches.
Europe as regards its rainfall ens be divided
into two regions—the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean, and the rest of the continent. A
vast ocean on one hand, a great continent on the
other, and a prevalence of westerly winds rule the
distribution 3 the rainfall in western and northern
Europe. Now, since these westerly winds have
traversed a vast extent of ocean before arriving at
the land, they distribute a large rainfall, particu-
larly on hilly regions opposing their course. Thus,
over a large part of the Highlands of Scotland
more than 80 inches fall annually, and over fully
one-third of the British Islands the annual amount
exceeds 40 inches. On the other hand, in eastern
districts on the lee side of the great mountain-
ranges, the rainfall does not ex 30 inches over
a large ion of England, and in some of the
Galateares districts of Scotland. In the
west of Norway it is 72 inches at Bergen, 46 inches
at the Lofoden Isles, and 10 inches at the North
Cape; over large portions of Sweden it is 21 inches,
and in Russia and Siberia it varies from 20 to 2
inches. Spain presents great extremes, from 70 in
the north-west to 13 inches at Sara; In the
oe of France and Germany it varies from 20 to
inches, rising, however, on approaching the
Alps to more than 100 inches. In western Euro
the ter part of the rain falls in winter, but in
the interior of the continent in summer. The
summer climates of the extreme south of Europe
and in the north of Africa, situated at compara-
tively low levels, are practically rainless, owing to
the northerly winds that set in with considerable
force at this time of the year towards the heated
plains of the Sahara.
The summer winds in the south-east of the
United States are southerly; and, as they have
previously traversed a considerable extent of ocean,
they arrive well but not super-saturated, and pour
down a monthly rainfall of 6 inches or more from
Louisiana to Chesapeake Bay. The comparative
equableness of the rainfall over the eastern states
is the result of no mountain-ridges lying athwart
their }eaag and of the winds passing into higher
latitudes and therefore cooler regions. Again,
the distribution and amount of the summer rain-
fall in the west and north of the United States is
really determined by the low atmospheric pressure
which has its centre in the region of the Rocky
Mountains. To the west of this low pressure
winds are generally north-westerly, and as the
thus pass into hotter regions the summer rainfall
in these parts of the United States and Canada
is either nothing or very small; whereas on the
east side winds are southerly, and the rainfall con-
sequently equals, or even exceeds, that of the finest
agricultural districts of Great Britain.
As regards the rainfall of the two extreme
months, January and July, the following show in
inches the amounts for various places : Vera Cruz,
5‘10 and 35°90; Para, 6°51 and 3°26; Manaos, 7°33
and 1°82; Buenos Ayres, 2°37 and 1°70 ; Corrientes,
5°24 and 2°67 ; and in Africa, Alexandria, 1°95 and
0°20; Algiers, 443 and 0°04; Senegal, 0°28 and
3°00; Sierra Leone, 0°69 and 24°20; Capetown,
0°28 and 3°83; Durban, 5°00 and 1°70; and Zanzi-
bar, 2°02 and 2°35. The explanation of these and
similar differences is found in the seasonal changes
of the wind. The South African colonies present
the strongest aspects of climate, so far as the rain-
fall is concerned, being divided into two totally
distinct classes, the climates of the Natal coast
and of the inland regions where the rains occur
during the summer months, and the climates of the
other regions where the rains fall chiefly during
the winter months, The driest region of Africa is
doubtless the Sahara, and the wettest the region
from the Victoria Nyanza northwards, including
the gathering-grounds of the Nile.
See MeTroroLocy, Rarin-GAucE; also BLOOD-RAIN,
and, for showers of frogs and fishes, SHOWERS. For maps
of annual rainfall of the globe, see Loomis in Silliman’s
Amer. Jour. Sci., Murray in Jour. Roy. Scot. Geo. Soc.,
and Hann in Climatological Atlas. For particular coun-
tries, Symons, and Buchan for the British Islands;
Raulin for France and Algiers; Blanford and Elliot for
India; the Dutch for East India Islands; Tod, Russell
Hector Ellery, and Wragge for Australasia; the Signal
Service for the United States ; Carpmael for Dominion of
Canada; the Meteorological Services of the different
European countries, &c.
Rainbow. The rainbow is the best known
of all optical meteorological phenomena, consist-
ing of a coloured arch formed opposite the sun
on falling raindrops, and visible whenever the
necessary conditions of a passing shower on one
side and a clear and not too high sun on the
566 RAINBOW
RAIN-GAUGE
other occur. Two bows are frequently seen, each
exhibiting the full spectrum of colours from
red to violet; but in the inner or primary
bow the red is the outer edge and violet the
inner, while in the outer or second bow the
order is reversed, the red being inside and the
violet on the exterior. The colours are always
arranged in a oe aes order, Bye of the ae
spectrum—viz. a » yellow, green, blue,
indigo, and violet, bas shade imperceptibly into
each other. The cause of this breaking up of the
sunlight into its constituent colours is explained
in most physical and meteorological text-books (see
Light, by Professor Tait, chap. x., or Meteorology,
by E. Loomis, par. 416), but may be briefly sum-
marised as follows :
For the primary bow (fig. 1), let PQR represent
the section of a raindrop, and SP a ray of light
falling on it. The ray enters the drop at P, meets
the surface again at R, is reflected to Q, where it
leaves the drop in the direction QE. The ray is
refracted or bent on entering the drop at P and
in on emerging at Q—the amount of this refrac-
tion depending on the acuteness of the angle at
which the ray meets the surface. Now it may be
shown that there is a particular point P, such that
any ray from S$ striking the surface below P
emerges again above Q, and any ray above P also
emerges above Q—the former owing to the more
acute angle of the reflection, and the latter to the
cos, refraction on entering and leaving the
rop. The course of two such rays is shown by
the dotted lines in fig. 1. Q is thus a turning-
— in the emerging rays, and near it a very
rge number of rays pass out, and an observer at
E sees a bright im of S in the direction EQ.
This statement applies to any one colour of sun-
light ; but, as the refrangibility increases from red
to violet, the latter is bent more at P and Q, and
the line EQ lies at a flatter angle. The observer,
therefore, sees the violet rays reflected on drops at
Fig. 2.
a less altitude than those that reflect the red, the
other colours being intermediate. The a
being spherical, thie reflection takes place in
directions, the fixed condition being the radius of
the bow, that is the angle between the line from
the observer to the bow and that g from the
sun to the observer,or, in other words, the observer’s
shadow. For red ag this angle is 42° 39’, and for
violet 40°13. If the sun were a luminous point
each colour would be sharply defined, but as the
dise of the sun subtends an angle of about 30
= colour is broadened to this amount, and they
overlap.
Exactly similar reasoning explains the secondary
bow (fig. 2). The light that forms it has been
twice reflected, at R and at R’, the point Q lies
above P, and rays entering either above or below
P all emerge below Q. — at the
will show that the greater bending of the more
refrangible rays makes the line more nearly
vertical, and therefore the violet rays form the’
outer edge and the red the inner of the secondary
bow. e radius of the red is 50° 5’, and of the
violet 54° 0’. The space between the bows gets no
reflected light, but that inside the primary and
outside the secondary is oer. illuminated by
rays such as are indicated by dotted lines in
fig. 1 and their equivalents in fig. 2, which are
not shown. These rays ‘interfere’ (see INTERFER-
ENCE) with each other, and cause alternations of
colour which appear as spurious bows inside the
primary and outside the secondary, They can
Pg be seen with strong sunlight and small drops
of rain.
The radius of the primary bow being rou, 40°,
it is evident that it cannot be seen when the sun is
at a greater elevation than this, as the highest
rt of the bow would lie below the horizon.
ence in the latitude of Edin rainbows
cannot be seen for several hours about noon at the.
time of the summer solstice. If the drops of water
be very small the interference of the rays causes
such a complete Atri erg of the colours that
the bow aapeer white: this is the case generally
with a fog-bow.
Intersecting rainbows have frequently been seen.
When the sun is reflected from a surface of still
water a bow is formed by the reflected image as
well as by the sun itself. Lunar rainbows often
occur, but the feebleness of the moon’s light usually
prevents any colours being observed. There are
many popular weather prognostications connected
with rainbows, all dependent on the fact that they
imply local ing showers. ‘A rainbow in the
morning is the shepherd’s warning: a rainbow at
night is the shepherd’s delight,’ is easily understood
when we remember that the rainbow is formed
orp the sun, and that weather-changes in
the British Islands generally pass from west to
east.
Rainey’s Corpuscles, See GREGARINIDA.
Rain-gauge. Rain-gauges measure the quan-
tity of ae which falls, and are of various con-
structions. One of the best is that known as
Symons’ rain-gauge, consisting of a funnel-shaped
receiving vessel, and a glass measure of much
smaller diameter so as to allow as nice uation
as may be desired. In the fig. a is the funnel-
asad: receiving vessel (shown in section in the
fig.), 5 inches in diameter, with an upright, sharp-
edged and strong rim, in order that 1t may retain
its circularity; 6, the vessel which receives the
rain collected ; and ¢, the graduated glass measure
which measures the amount in tenths and hun-
dredths of an inch, If desired it may be graduated
to still ter nicety. Another excellent gauge
is one which is a modification of Glaisher’s gauge,
brought into use by the Meteorological Office.
diameter of this gauge is 8 inches, and there is
added to it a vertical cylinder on the top of the
—————
RAINIER
RAJMAHAL 567
receiving funnel, to retain the snow as it falls and
vent its being blown out of the gauge, as is
ikely to happen when the funnel is shallow.
Beckley’s is perhaps the best continuously record-
ing rain-gange, and is now very generally super-
ec, A Osler’s so long in use.
Since different amounts are collected at different
heights above the
ground, it is indis-
eno, if uni-
ormity and com-
parability is to be
veges that the
rims of rain-gauge
be placed at one
uniform height
above the ground.
The height now
generally adopted is
12 inches. The
points it is neces-
sary to secure at the
height adopted are
(1) the prevention
of in-splashing as
the rain-drops strike
, the ground and are
Symons’ Rain-gauge. broken into minute
droplets, a la
number of which in their second descent fall
into the gauge; (2) the prevention of out-
a ag which occurs when the funnel is very
shallow; and (3) the protection of the gauge as
much as ible from strong winds, which so
seriously interfere with the amount collected, by
placing it as near the ground as can be done con-
sistent with the prevention of in-splashing. These
conditions are best fulfilled by using the gauges
named, and placing their rims 12 inches above the
and. It has been proved from carefully con-
ueted experiments that rain-gauges with diameters
varying from 3 inches — collect amounts,
when in positions exactly similar, within about
3 per cent. of each other. Accordingly, gauges
with diameters exceeding 8 inches imsure no
ter accuracy than smaller ones, being onl
really required in the case of continuously record-
ing gauges to hold the self-registering apparatus,
On the other hand, gauges of from 3 to 5 inches
diameter, such as Fleming’s and Jagga’s, give good
trustworthy results.
Special care should be taken that the gauge and
its glass measure be kept clean; that it be firmly
fixed and the rim — in a horizontal position ;
and that it be made of a material which will stand
exposure to the weather well. It should be placed
in a situation as open as can be secured for it,
particularly towards the directions from which the
rain chiefly comes; and in each case it should be
as distant from any neighbouring house, tree, or
other object at least as far as the height of the
object itself.
Rainier, Mount, or TAcomA, one of the highest
ks of the Cascade Range (q.v.), was in eruption
uring part of 1894.
Rainy Lake, forming 4 rtion of the boun-
dary line between Ontario and the United States,
lies west, and 100 miles distant from the nearest
int, of Lake Superior, and is about 50 miles long.
fe discharges by Rainy River into Lake of the
Woods. There were gold finds on the Canadian
side in 1896-97.
Raipur, « town in the Central Provinces of
India, standing on a plateau (950 feet), 180 miles
E. of Nagpur, has numerous tanks and groves, an
old fort (1640), and a trade in grain, lac, cotton,
&e. Pop. 23,759.
Raised Beaches. See BracuEs (RAISED),
UPHEAVAL.
Raisins are dried grapes, used for cooking, for
dessert, and in the manufacture of wines. They
are produced in aeet quantities in the south-
eastern provinces. of Spain—Malaga, Alicante, and
Valencia—and in Asia Minor—the islands of Cos
and Samos—and the adjacent districts on the main-
land; smaller quantities are wn in Provence,
Southern Italy, the islands of the Greek Archi-
pelago, and Crete. _ Currants (q.v.) are a small and
peculiar variety produced in Greece, in the Morea,
and the Ionian Islands. The grapes intended for
raisins are dried either on the vines, after the
stalks of the bunches have been partly cut through,
or spread out on the ground ; it is only in case of
continued bad weather or persistent want of sun-
shine that they are dried by artificial heat. The
better qualities are left on the stalks and dried in
bunches; these are expo for use as dessert.
All less estimable qualities are intended for cook-
ing purposes, and, to a less extent, for the prepara-
tion of artificial wines or the improvement of wines
of inferior quality. Raisins are rich in sugar, and
it is this property that makes them serviceable to
the mannfacturers of wine. The bunches intended
for table use are sometimes dipped in water upon
the surface of which swims a lave of olive-oil, or
in a strong potash lye. The object is to make the
skin soft and give it a glossy lustre. The raisins
wn in Spain are large and blue, and are known
in the market as ‘ Malaga raisins’ and as ‘lexias,’
the former for dessert, the latter for cooking. The
raisins of Asia Minor are shipped principally at
Smyrna (q.v.), and embrace the Elemé and similar
varieties, which are long and light brown in colour,
and sultanas, small light-brown grapes, with a
thin and delicate skin no seeds or kernels.
Britain imports in all annually from 493,600 ewt.
(1886) to ,100 ewt. (1887), valued at £813,000
(1886) to £1,022,400. From Spain Britain imports
every year raisins to the average value (ten years
ending 1889) of £808,370, and from Asia Minor to
the value of £399,300 (1889). Of late years raisins
have been successfully dried in California ; but in
1890 the United States still imported raisins to the
amount of 36,914,330 lbs., of the value of $1,997,103.
Rajah, or more correctly RAJA (from the Sans-
krit rdjan, ‘king,’ cognate with the Lat. reg- of
rex), originally a title which belonged to princes of
Hindu race who, either as independent sovereigns
or as feudatories, governed a territory. Now, how-
ever, the title has a much wider extension : it is
used of independent sovereigns, of subject or ‘ pro-
tected’ princes, of petty chiefs, of great landowners,
and of some persons of eminence who are neither
rulers nor landowners.
amahendri (formerly often spelt Rajah-
mundry), a town of India, in the presidency of
Madras, stands on the left bank of the Godavari,
30 miles from its mouth. It has a museum, a
provincial school, two Is, and some Christian
churches. From 1753 to 1758 it was held by the
French. Pop. 24,555.
Rajmahal, 4 decayed town of India, stands
on a steep eminence on the right bank of the
Ganges, 170 miles NNW. of Caleutta. It was long
the chief town of the Bengal and Bahar provinces,
but is now deserted and ruinous, being only note-
worthy for the remains of its palaces, formerly
helonging to Shah Shuja and Kasim Ahi, and as a
station in an important transit trade.. Its com-
mercial value has been lessened in consequence of
the Ganges often shifting its bed at this point. In
the beginning of the 19th century it had 25,000
inhabitants, and now only about 4000.
568 RAJON
RALEIGH
Rajon, PAvt ApovpHe, an etcher, was born
at =p in 1842, and trained in Paris, partly at the
School of Fine Arts. About 1865 he turned to
etching, and gained immediate success with his
first plate, ‘ Rembrandt at Work,’ after Meissonier.
Standing in the front rank of French etchers, he
won several medals at the Salon exhibitions, and
produced numerous beautiful etched portraits and
plates for books. In 1872 he visited England, and
published in London in 1873 a portrait of J. 8. Mill
after Watts, as well as in subsequent years many
other plates. His greatest achievements were ‘The
Emperor Claudius,’ a picture by Alma Tadema,
the portrait of Darwin by Ouless, and those of
Tennyson, Joachim, and Mrs Anderson Rose by
Watts. He died at Auvers-sur-Oise on 8th June
1888. See Twelve Etchings by P. A. Rajon, with
Memoir by F. G. Stephens (1889).
Rajp an administrative territory of
India, embracing twenty native states and the Brit-
ish district (2711 sq. m.; Pop: 460,722) of Ajmere-
Merwara. It lies between Sind (on the W.), the
Punjab (on the N.), the North-western Provinces
(on the E.), and several native states of Central
India (on the S.). Its total area is 132,461 sq. m.,and
its total pop. (1881) 10,268,392 ; (1891) 12,089,330.
The most important of the native states are Jaipur,
Jodhpur (or Marwar), and Udaipur (or Mewar);
next follow Ulwar (Alwar), Bhartpur, Kotah, and
Bikaner. This region is crossed by the Aravalli
Mountains, and consists in great part of sandy,
barren plains, though there are of course numerous
fertile valleys and other tracts. It gets its name
from the ruling race or predominant Aryan tribes,
called Rajputs. They are a proud aristocracy, own
the soil, and have furnished paling dynasties to
very many of the native states of India. Yet in
1881 they numbered only 479,554. At the time of
the Mohammedan invasions in the 11th century
the Rajputs ruled over half-a-dozen strong states—
Kanauj, Ajmere, Anhilwara, Udaipur, and Jaipur.
From the end of the 16th to the middle of the 18th
century these states acknowledged the supremacy
of the Mogul emperor of Delhi. Then they were
made to recognise the Mahrattas as their masters :
since the Mahrattas were crushed Ww the British
the Rajput states are independent allies.
Rajshahi, See Rampur BAULEAH.
Rakoezy March, a simple but grand military
air by an unknown composer, dating from the end
of the 17th century (see NATIONAL Hymns), said
to have been the favourite march of Francis
Rakoezy II. of Transylvania. The Hungarians
ado it as their national march, and in 1848 and
184 it is alleged to have had the same inspiriting
effect_on the revolutionary troops of Hungary as
the Marseillaise had on the French. The air most
enerally known in Germany and elsewhere out of
ungary as the Rakoczy march is one by Berlioz
in his Damabiation de Faust ; Liszt also wrote an
‘orchestral version of the original.
Rakshas. See DemonoLocy.
Raleigh, the apie of North Carolina, is near
the Neuse River, 157 miles by rail SSW. of Rich-
mond, Virginia, The town is regularly built on an
elevated site, with a central Union Square, from
which four principal streets radiate, each 99 feet
wide. In the square stands the capitol, a large
domed building of granite, which cost over
$500,000. The city contains also state institutions
for the blind, deaf and dumb, and insane, a gaol,
and has iron-foundries, machine and ear shops, and
manufactories of clothing, ca , and farming
implements. Pop. (1880) 9265; (1900) 13,643.
Raleigh, Sm Water, the typical gallant and
hero of we seme heroic age, was born of an
ancient but decayed family at the manor-house of
Hayes, near Budleigh in East Prt haerge 1552.
He was the second son of his father’s
who herself had been married before, and
borne her husband the famous Humphrey and
Adrian Gilbert. He entered Oriel College, Ox-
ford, in 1566, but left without a d , most prob-
ably in 1569, to volunteer into the Seeuuet cause
in ce. Here he served his spentions® to
arms, but, beyond the fact that he was present at
Montecontour, we know little of this of his
life. In 1578 he joined Humphrey Gilbert’s luckless
expedition, having most probably already crossed
the Atlantic ; and early in 1580 he landed in Cork
at the head of a troop of one hundred foot to act
against the Irish rebels. He quickly attracted
notice by his dash and daring, took in the
assault of the fort at Smerwick and subsequent
massacre of the six hundred Italian and Spanish
prisoners, and seems to have approved thoroughly
of all the drastic measures taken by the government
to stamp out rebellion. He saw some months of
further hard and thankless service in Munster, but
in December 1581 returned to England.
He now made his entry to the circle of the
court as a protégé of the favourite Leicester, and in
February 1582 accompanied him in his convoy of the
Duc d’Alencon to the Netherlands. Almost imme-
diately after his return he became prime favourite
of the queen, whose heart was still susceptible
a the weight of almost fifty years. Fuller’s
well-known story of how he first caught her eye by
flinging down on the eigen his fine plush cloak to
save her feet from the mire is most likely com-
pletely apocryphal, but well befits the romantic
temper of the times and the manner of fantastic
devotion with which the Virgin Queen loved to be
wooed or worshipped by the fine gentlemen of her
court. Raleigh was now in the prime of manly
beanty ; his tall and handsome figure, dark hair,
high colour, lofty forehead, resolute and manl
bearing, alert expression, and spirited wit combin
to form an imposing personality, and all the
advantage that nature had > st aaghe he heightened
by a gorgeous splendour in dress and in jewels. But
he was proud, haughty, and impatient, and every-
where, save in his native Devonshire, the broad
accent of which he preserved all his life, he made
himself a multitude of jealous and envious enemies.
He was consulted confidentially on Irish affairs,
but never to the last took a public place in the
queen’s counsels, perhaps because his royal mis-
tress, with all her fondness, distrusted his ambi-
tion, and divined that he lacked that sagacity of
the statesman which she geen in the less
splendid Burghley and Walsingham. The playful
name of ‘Water’ by which she called him seems
itself to =, a recognition of that instability of
character which was his constant foible and, in the
fullness of time, the occasion of his ruin. But
meantime she heaped her favours lavishly upon
him : in April 1583 he received two estates; next
month the ‘farm of wines,’ a license duty of twenty
shillings a year from every vintner in the kingdom,
which at one time yielded £2000 a year; and in
March 1584 a grant of license to rt woollen
broadeloths, which Burghley estimated had yielded
him in the first year as much as £3950. About
the close of 1584 he was knighted ; in July 1585 he
was pppoe Lord Warden of the Stannaries, in
September Lientenant of Cornwall, in November
Vice-admiral of Devonshire and Cornwall; and in
the same year he was elected to parliament as one
of the two county members for Devonshire. In
1587 he succeeded Sir Christopher Hatton as Cap-
tain of the Queen’s Guard. ring the summer
of 1584 he leased of the queen the stately mansion
of Durham House, spent much money on its —_—_
and kept it as his town-house from that time down
RALEIGH
569
to 1603. It was not till about the beginning of
1592 that he came into jion, on a ninety-nine
— lease, of the splendid park and castle of
herborne alienated from the see of Salisbury.
In 1583 Raleigh risked £2000 in Sir Humphrey
Gilbert’s last ill-fated expedition, and on the news
of his half-brother’s loss took up a fresh charter of
discovery and colonisation. In April 1584 he sent
out a fleet under Amadas and Barlowe to explore
the coast north of Florida. They made a pros-
us voyage, and formally took ion of a
istrict to which Elizabeth was pleased to give
the name Virginia. Next year Raleigh fitted
out a stronger expedition under Ralph Lene and
Sir Richard Grenville, but the hundred men who
lived a year under Lane’s command on the island of
Roanoke returned to England in Drake’s fleet com-
pletely dispirited with their hardships. Soon after
they set sail, Sir Richard Grenville arrived with
three ships, and left on the island fifteen men
well furnished with stores. One of the hundred
colonists—the first citizens of America—Thomas
Hariot, in his account of the colony and the
causes of its failure, speaks of the herb, ‘called
by the inhabitants Yppowoc,’ which was destined
to become one of the closest comforts of life to
half the world. Raleigh himself took to the new
luxury, and would enjoy it in pipes of silver, the
moan sitting by him while he smoked. In May
587 he sent out three ships, under Captain Charles
White, with 150 colonists, seventeen of whom were
women. They found the fifteen men had perished,
and ere long misfortune after misfortune over-
took themselves. White returned to England for
supplies, and at length, after many delays and
di ties, reached Virginia in August 1590 to find
the settlement ruined and the colonists dispersed,
never afterwards to be seen. It was the last
direct attempt of Raleigh himself at the colonisa-
tion of Virginia. The undertaking, says every:
‘required a prince’s purse to have it thorough]
followed out ’—it is sup 1 that Raleigh himself
had spent forty thousand pounds upon it.
Already in May 1587 the appearance of the
handsome young Earl of Essex at court had
endangered Raleigh’s ramount place in the
favour of the queen. Hatton and Leicester long
ere now had shown their jealousy of him, but this
impetuous and petulant boy openly flouted him,
and at length drove him from the court to Ireland,
He had already received in the spring of 1587 a
grant of 42,000 acres in Munster, and with char-
acteristic vigour he at once set about repeoplin
this tract with English settlers. He was in Irelan
when the Invincible Armada appeared in English
waters, but he hastened to the south of England to
superintend the coast defence, and he was present
with the fleet a trusted counsellor throughout that
glorious week of toil and triumph. His vessels
scoured the seas in privateering enterprises, which
tified at once his inborn hate of Spain and
elped to ide the means for his vast expense
and his Virginian ventures. His over-zealous sea-
men sometimes transgressed the forbidden limit of
piracy, but the Treasury winked at such accidents
or made itself a receiver by claiming a share of the
plunder. Raleigh sailed with Drake on his Portugal
expedition of 1589, but by the autumn of that year
was in in Ireland, where he quickly became a
warm friend of Spenser, with the endless fame of
whose great poem his name is imperishably linked.
The poet had settled on his estate at Kileolman
three years before, and here the ‘Shepherd of the
Ocean’ [Raleigh] visited him, and read him his
of The Ocean’s Love to Cynthia { Elizabeth],
which Mr Gosse thinks must have contained at
least 10,000 lines, the extant 130 stanzas being
a fragment. In Colin Clout’s Come Home Again
we read how Raleigh carried the poet into the
resence of the queen, who took delight to hear
is poem, and commanded it to be published.
In his Youghal garden during this breathing-
space Raleigh planted tobacco, as well as the
first potatoes that grew on Irish soil. He quickly
recovered all his influence at court, and busied
himself with further schemes for reprisals on the
Spaniards down to the moment of his fall. His
famous tract, A Rep of the Truth of the Fight
about the Iles of the Acores this last Sommer,
appeared anonymously in 1591. It is a splendid
piece of rag inp prose, and three hundred
years later it gave the inspiration to Tennyson’s
noblest ballad. Early in 1592 Raleigh pre-
pared a new expedition to seize the Spanish
treasure-ships, but again his doting mistress
forbade him to sail with the fleet, which he
lad reluctantly to entrust to Frobisher and Sir
John Borough. Hardly had he returned before
she seems to have discovered his intrigue with
Bessy Throckmorton, one of her own maids-of-
honour—an infidelity to her own supremacy which
her jealous temper could not brook. In July 1592
Raleigh was committed to the Tower, and it was
more than four years before he was again admitted
to his mistress’ presence. He bore his imprison-
ment with characteristic impatience, and vexed
the air with ex rated complaints of his loss
expressed in the fantastic fashion of the time.
Meantime Borough had captured the Madre de
Dios, a huge carrack, which he brought into Dart-
mouth in September. So great was the excitement
and such the rapacity of the vultures that gathered
to the spoil that none but Raleigh could control
the tumult. He was sent down to Dartmouth with
a keeper, and Sir Robert Cecil describes with
astonishment his popularity and influence among
his sailors and his countrymen. ‘But his heart is
broken,’ he writes his father, ‘for he is extremely
pensive longer than he is busied, in which he can
toil terribly.’ Raleigh now married Bessy Throck-
morton, and for the next two years lived with her
in qui happiness, building and gardening at
Sherborne. About 1593 his imagination seems
first to have been fired by the descriptions of
Guiana, with its vast city of Manoa and its El
Dorado, and in 1594 he sent out Captain Whiddon
to Trinidad to make inquiries for him. In February
1595 he himself sailed with five ships, explored the
coasts of Trinidad, sailed up the Orinoco, and had
his imagination set aglow for life by the tropical
splendours of vegetation that he saw, and still
more by the auriferous quartz and glittering stones
he found, and marvellous stories of stores of gold
beyond brought to him by the native Indians. Six
months after his return he sent Captain Lawrence
Keymis to make further Si pad and later
Captain Berry, but he himself failed to rouse any
eat public interest in England in his splendid
ton of a new world and untold wealth from the
mines of Guiana, Early in 1596 he published The
Discovery L's the large, rich, and beautiful Empire of
Guiana (Hakluyt Society, edited by Sir R. Schom-
burgk, 1848), a splendid piece of vigorous prose.
la Yous 1596 he sailed in the expedition under
Howard and Essex to Cadiz, and it was his advice
that governed the whole plan of action in that
8 jendid triumph which a second time shattered
the naval strength of Spain. His faults ever fell
from him in the hour of action, but never before or
again in life did he show such tact and temper as
in the skilful persuasions by which he forced the
Lord Admiral and Essex to agree to his plans.
Yet he was mortified to the heart, as he lay in his
ship suffering from a wound in the leg, when their
lack of energy allowed the Spaniards, two days
later, to burn the whole fleet of treasure-laden
RALEIGH
570
earracks before his eyes, His spirited Relation of
Cadiz Action remains the best history of the
exploit. Despite his heroic conduct, it was almost
the midsummer of 1597 before Raleigh was x
admitted to court and allowed to take up his place
as Captain of the Guard. Cecil showed himself
friendly to him, and Essex was glad of his support
in his desire for a more active opposition to Spain,
once at once set himself to prepare and victual
ships for the projected expedition, which at length,
in July 1597, was permitted by the queen to set
sail from Plymouth. A desperate storm compelled
many of the ships to put back for shelter, but at
length Raleigh met Essex off the island of Flores.
They agreed to attack ther the Isle of Fayal,
and Essex sailed off first, but Raleigh reached the
harbour before him, and, after poe! three days,
on the fourth landed his men and carried the town by
storm. Next morning the squadron of Essex made
the harbour, to find all the laurels of the ‘Island
Voyage’ already reaped. Essex’s mortification was
prea’, and was made greater by his cold reception at
ome. His surly temper grew upon him, and soon
his helpless failure in dealing with Tyrone’s rebel-
lion in Ireland and his insane attempt at an insur-
rection in the streets of London brought him to
the block. His hatred of Raleigh had become so
desperate that he charged him, together with Cecil
and Cobham, with a plot to murder him in his
house—an absurd accusation, which Sir Christopher
Blount on the scaffold confessed was ‘a word cast
out to colour other matters.’ In 1600 Raleigh suc-
ceeded Sir Anthony Paulet as governor of Jersey,
and in his three years’ rule did much to foster its
trade and relieve its fiscal burdens. About this
time also he was active in parliament, advocating
freedom of tillage, and of church-going, and the
repeal of the more vexatious monopolies. His
Irish estates he sold in 1602 to Ric Boyle.
In the dark intrigues about the succession that
filled the closing years of Elizabeth’s reign Raleigh
took little part, while the crafty Cecil and the
faithless Lord Henry Howard got the ear of James
and for their own advantage poisoned his mind
against Raleigh and Cobham. The king had long
been an admirer of Essex, and no doubt knew from
the beginning that Raleigh was indifferent to his
cause. The cowardice, timid love of peace, and the
whole personal habits of the royal pedant, as well
as his overweening conceit of his own judgment in
affairs of state, were all naturally repugnant to the
bold, self-reliant hero who had so long been a trusted
contidant of the t-hearted queen. He met
James on-his southward progress at Burghley in
Lincolnshire, and was greeted with a wretched pun
worthy of its souree—‘On my soul, man, I have
heard but rawly of thee.’ Ere ong he was stripped
of, or forced into resigning, all his offices, the
captaincy of the Guard, the wardenship of the Stan-
naries, the wine-license monopoly, the governor-
ship of Jersey. All this must have cut Raleigh to
the heart, and as he was at no time guarded in his
tongue it is possible enough he may have in his haste
spoken, or at least listened to, words expressing a
reference for Arabella Stuart to the rule of the
ttish king. But the only witness against him
was the miserable Lord Cobham, and he made and
unmade his eight several charges with such facility
as to make them of no value at all. Neither in the
‘Main’ nor the ‘Bye’ Plot was there any really
adequate evidence of Raleigh’s complicity, and the
refusal of the crown to allow him to be confronted
with his accuser is of itself almost enough to justify
belief in his innocence. ‘But one thing,’ says
Kingsley, ‘comes brightly out of the infinite
confusion and mystery of this dark Cobham
plot, and that is Raleigh’s innocence.’ Raleigh
was arrested on the 17th July, and in his first
despair tried to kill himself. The trial began at
Winchester on November 17th, the prosecution con-
ducted by the attorney-general, Sir Edward Coke,
who disgraced his robe by a brutality almost
beyond belief. Raleigh’s defence was splendid, and
for the first time in his life he made his way into
the hearts of all Englishmen by the dauntlessness of
is and the burning eloquence of his words.
Coke could call him ‘a monster,’ ‘a viper,’ ‘the
rankest traitor in all England,’ ‘damnable atheist,’
and ‘a spider of hell,’ and Chief-justice Popham
could jeer at him as an atheist as well as traitor;
but it was too much for Englishmen to believe that
the hero of Cadiz and of Fayal had ‘aS h heart,”
and all his unpopularity fell from him from that
hour. Dudley leton, who heard the trial, wrote
that when it he would have gone a hundred
miles to see Raleigh hanged, but ere it was closed
he would have Bets a thousand to save his life.
Yet he was condemned to death, and only on the
scaffold was his sentence commuted to tual im-
preoeenns Sherborne he had conveyed to trustees
‘or his wife and eldest son, but an invalidity in the
deed of conveyance was soon found, and the un’
wife’s application to the king was met with the
words, ‘ I maun hae the lond, I maun hae it for Carr.’
In January 1609 it was given to the favourite, a pay-
ment of bein; eascompensation. Wi
the Tower 38, employed himself with study
and with chemical experiments, and was treated on
the whole with fair indulgence. The young prince
Henry came often to him, for he greatl mired
the noble captive: ‘No man but my father would
keep such a bird in a cage,’ said he. But he died in
November 1612, and the promise he had wrung from
his father to release Raleigh the next Christmas was
ooh ee to be forgotten. The chief fruit
of Raleigh’s imprisonment was his History of the
World, the first and only volume of which, extend-
ing to over 1300 folio , although coming down
but to the second man war with Macedon
(170 B.c.), was published in 1614. It is written
throughout in admirable English ; but the preface
is the most interestin rtion, for the subject
itself is dreary, though lightened by glimpses of
autobiography and occasional flashes of fire—
scorching satire wrapped in ambiguous phrase. Its
sale was suppressed in January 1615 as ‘too sau
in censuring the acts of kings.’ Oliver Cromwell,
writing to his son Richard, in 1650, says, ‘ Recreate
yourself with Sir Walter Raleigh's History ; it is a
y of history, and will add much more to bec
understanding than fragments of story.’ The book
was written for the young prince, and his death
took from the author all heart to complete his work.
Other writings of Raleigh’s —— were The Pre-
rogative of Parliament (written 1615, published
in 1628), which must have ed the king still
further ; The Cabinet Council, published by John
Milton in 1658; A Discourse of War, one of his
most perfect pieces of writing ; and Observations on
Trade and Commerce, an appeal for free trade,
suppressed like the rest.
n January 30, 1616, Raleigh was released from
the Tower throngh the influence of Sir Ralph
Winwood and Villiers, expressly to make prepara-
tions for an expedition to the Orinoco in search
of a gold-mine which he maintained existed there.
He engaged not to molest the dominions of the
king of Spain, but he had been brought up on the
old Elizabethan theory of no beyond the
line, and doubtless he thought he had everything
to gain and nothing to lose by a desperate ventur
and that the gold he would bring home would gil
over any formal breach of his promise. It seems
difficult to understand how James can have ex-
pected that such an expedition could be made
without a collision with Spain, and we find that he
——
RALEIGH
RAM 571
was careful to give himself the cowardly safeguard
of allowing Raleigh to go with his old sentence still
hanging over his head, as well as communicating
his route to Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador.
And so in April 1617 the hero sailed to the doom
which fate was weaving for him, while James even
then was drawing into ever closer relations with
Spain, and beginning his negotiations for the
Spanish marriage. 5, om sailing Raleigh asked
leave, but in vain, to make an attack on Genoa, an
ally of Spain. His small fleet was manned, some
fi gentlemen excepted, by ‘the very scum of the
world, drunkards, blasphemers.’ Storms, desertion,
disease, and death followed them from the first, and
ere they reached the mouth of the river Raleigh
was himself stricken down by sickness and com-
pelled to stay behind with the ships, and entrust
the command of the party who went to seek the
mine to Keymis. He did not give his men distinct
orders to avoid fighting with the Spaniards, and
when they found in their way a new Spanish town,
San Thomé, they attacked it and burned it down,
but never reached the mine. In the fight youn
Walter Raleigh was struck down, as he shouted
the words, ‘Come on, my men! This is the only
mine you will ever find.’ Keymis lost control of
his men, and came sadly back to his admiral,
whose bitter reyroaches made him drive a knife
into his heart. The men now refused to return
with Raleigh to the mine, whereupon he asked
them if they would follow him in an attack on
the Mexican fleet, telling them in his desperation
that he had in his ion a commission from
France. At length, on the 2lst of June 1618, he
arrived at Plymouth with his ship, the Destiny,
alone and utterly cast down. His kinsman Sir
Lewis [Judas] Stukely was sent to bring him u
to London; at Salisbury on the way he len 5
illness to gain four days’ time to write his touching
Apology for the Voyage to Guiana, Surrounded by
a ring of spies, chiefest among whom was Stukely,
he in intrigued for an escape to France, but
was betrayed at every step. James dared not
allow him to a‘ r before the council of state, but
had him formally examined before a commission of
six, among them Coke, Archbishop Abbot, and
Bacon, besides resorting to the infamy of sending
a spy to gain his confidence and discover his secrets.
Ta his perplexity Raleigh damaged his cause by
contradictory statements and confessions, and his
judges seem to have convinced themselves that he
never had any intention to find the mine at all,
as appears from the Declaration of the Demeanour
and Carriage of Sir Walter eigh, a feeble
statement, though drawn up by the master-hand
of Bacon. He was condemned to die the next
morning (29th October 1618) on the old sentence,
and neither the entreaties of the queen nor_his
own moving eloquence could save his life. ‘You
will come to-morrow morning,’ he said to an old
friend he met on his way back to prison ; ‘I do not
know what you will do for a place. For my own
part, I am sure of one.’ One of his kinsmen warn-
ing him that his enemies would take exception at
his high spirits, ‘It is my last mirth in this world,’
said he ; ‘do not grudge it to me. When I come to
the sad parting, you shall see me grave enough.’
His high courage never left him to the last. He
wrote some verses the night before, and, says Dean
Tounson, ‘he ate his breakfast heartily, and took
tobacco, and made no more of his death than if it
had been to take a journey.’ Of the eup of sack
brought him he said, ‘It is good drink, if a man
might stay by it.’ The speech he made on the
‘old was masterly in its persuasive eloguence—
‘as he stood there in the cold morning air,’ says
Mr Gosse, ‘he foiled James and Philip at one
thrust, and conquered the esteem of all posterity.’
He asked to see the axe, and touched the edge
with the words, ‘This gives me no fear. It is a
sharp and fair medicine to cure me of all my
i ” To some one who objected that he ought
to lay his head toward the east he answered,
‘What matter how the head lie so the heart be
right,’ than which, as Mr Gardiner well says, no
better epitaph could be found for Raleigh’s tomb.
The best edition of Raleigh’s works is that in 8 vols.
arora at Oxford in 1829, with the 18th-century Lives
y Oldys and Birch prefixed. Sir Egerton Brydges edited
the ine in 1814, 1600) ae 4 gpa orn
ymow . ere are ves
(1800), r (1833), Mrs Thomson (1830), Edward
wards (the fullest, vol. i., life; vol. ii., letters, 1868),
J. A. St John (1868), Louise Creighton (1877), Edmund
Gosse (1886), and William Stebbing (1892). Gibbon
thought of treating the subject, but abandoned it,
saan glowing essay in Miscellanies (vol. i. 1859) is
excellent; so also, but in a different way, is the treat-
ment in 8S, R. Gardiner’s History (vols. i-iii.).
Ralik. See MArsHALL IsLANDs.
Rallidz. See Ram.
Ralston, WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN, Russian
scholar and folklorist, was born in 1828 of Scotch
ancestry —his surname eely Shedden. He
studied at Trinity College, Cambridge (1846-50) ;
was called to the at the Inner Temple in 1862,
but never practised ; and from 1853 to 1875 held a
t in the library of the British Museum. He
our times visited Russia; in 1886 was elected a
ae member of the St Petersburg Im-
perial Society of Sciences ; and besides many review
and magazine articles, and a translation of his
friend Lb, pegged Liza (1869), published Krilo,
and his Fables (1869), Songs of the Russian People
1872), Russian Folk-tales (1873), and Early
ussian History (1874), the last his Ilehester
lectures at Oxford. He was also a splendid racon-
teur. He died in London, 6th August 1889.
Ram, an ironclad ship intended to run into
and sink an enemy’s vessels, For this purpose
it is provided with a heavily armoured stem
projecting below the water-line in the form of
a beak (see figs. 7 &c. in article Navy), In
action the ram is propelled at full speed against
her an nist, and if she succeeds in striking
her the blow is supposed to be sufficient to
erush in her side and sink her immediately.
In the British navy rams had formerly a separate
rating, and in the United States the Katahdin was
built especially for this purpose; but all line-of-
battle ships are now in effect rams, and the name is
applied to the part of the stem of the battle-ship
used in striking. The ram was first employed during
the American civil war in the action between
the Federal fleet and the Confederate armour-
clad ram Virginia in Norfolk Roads in 1862, when
the Federal frigate Cumberland was rammed
and sunk by the Virginia. In 1866 the Austrian
ironclad Ferdinand Max rammed and sunk the
Italian ironclad Re d'Italia at the battle of
Lissa. In 1879 the Peruvian ironclad ram Huascar
rammed and sunk the Chilian corvette Zsmeralda.
In 1875, while the Channel Fleet were off the
Trish coast, the Vanguard was accidentally
rammed by the Jron Duke, and sank in an hour.
During the German naval manceuvres of 1878 the
Grosser Kurfirst was rammed by the Kénig
Wilhelm, and sank immediately, 280 of her crew
being drowned. It is but just to say that the Cum-
berland, the Re d'Italia, and the Esmeralda were
not under control when they were rammed, and the
result of all engagements fought since the intro-
duction of rams has shown that when an attacked
vessel is under control and properly handled ram-
ming can easily be avoided ; but at the same time
it now plays an important part in naval tactics,
572 RAMA
RAMBOUILLET
Rama is, in Hindu mythology, the name com-
mon to three incarnations of Vishnu, of Parasurdma,
Ramachandra, and Balarima. See VISHNU.
Ram‘ad the ninth month in the Moham-
medan year. In it Mohammed received his first
revelation, and every believer is therefore enjoined
to keep a strict fast throughout its entire course,
from the dawn—when a white thread can be dis-
tinguished from a black thread—to sunset. Eating,
drinking, smoking, bathing, smelling perfumes, and
other bodily enjoyments, even swallowing one’s
spittle, are strictly prohibited during that period.
ven when obliged to take medicine the Moslem
must make some kind of amends for it, such as
Bs a certain sum of money upon the poor.
uring the night, however, the most necessary
wants may be satisfied—a permission which,
practically, is interpreted by a profuse indulgence
in all sorts of enjoyments. The fast of Ramadan,
now much less observed than in former times, is
sometimes a very severe affliction upon the ortho-
dox, particularly when the month—the ae being
lunar—happens to fall in the long and hot days of
midsummer. The sick, travellers, and soldiers in
time of war are temporarily released from this
duty, but they have to fast an equal number of
days at a subsequent period when this impediment
is removed. Nurses, pregnant women, and those to
whom it might prove really injurious are expressly
mispees = from fasting. The principal Lay og treat-
ing of the fast of Ramadan are found in the second
Surah of the Koran, called ‘The Cow.
Ramayana is the name of one of the two
great epic poems of ancient India (for the other,
see the article MAHABHARATA). Its subject-matter
is the history of Rima (q.v.), and its reputed
author is Valmiki, who is said to have taught his
poem to the two sons of Rima. But though
this latter account is open to doubt, it seems
certain that Valmiki was a real personage, and,
moreover, that the Rimdyana was the work of
one single poet—not, like the Mahabharata, the
creation of various epochs and different minds.
As a poetical composition the Ramayana is there-
fore far superior to the Mahabharata ; and it may
be called the best great m of ancient India.
Whereas the character of the Mahabhdrata is
pte ep its main subject-matter overgrown b
episodes of the most diversified nature, the Rama-
a has but one object in view, the history of
ma. Its episodes are rare, and restricted to the
early portion of the work, and its poeticai diction
betrays throughout the same finish and the same
poetical genius. Whether we apply as a test the
vt of the religious life, or the geographical and
other knowledge pe tg bp in the two works, the
Ramayana appears the older. Since it is the chief
source whence our information of the Rama incar-
nation of Vishnu is derived, its contents may be
gathered from the article Visunvu. The mii-
yana contains professedly 24,000 epic verses, or
Slokas, in seven books—some 48, lines of six-
teen syllables. The text which has come down to
us exhibits, in different sets of manuscripts, such
considerable discrepancies that there are practi-
cally two recensions. The one is more concise in
its diction, and has less tendency than the other to
that kind of descriptive enlargement of facts and
sentiments which characterises the later poetry of
India; it often also exhibits grammatical forms
and peculiarities of an archaic stamp, where the
other studiously avoids that which must have
appeared to its editors in the light of a gram-
matical difficulty. There can be little doubt that
the former is the older and more genuine text.
A complete edition of the older text, with two com-
mentaries, was published at Madras in 1856, at Calcutta
in 1860, and at Bombay in 1861. Of the later version
erp det tye romp Dye nd tew
but with an Italian translation in ical prose (
miki in nh vers, by HT. He Gn, appenred
in 1870-75 in five large volumes. See Williams, /ndian
Cero (1863); and Weber, Ueber das Raémdyana
Rambouillet, Caruering DE Mb yas
MARQUISE DE, one of the most accomplished
illustrious women of the 17th century, was born
at Rome in 1588. Her father was Jean de Vivonne,
afterwards Marquis of Pisani; her mother, Julia
Savelli, helen pel to an old Italian family, and
through her mother was connected with the Flor-
entine banking house of Strozzi. At twelve Cathe-
rine was married to Charles d’Angennes, son of
the Marquis de Rambouillet, who succeeded to the
family estates and title on the death of his father
in 1611. From the very beginning she disliked
alike the morals and manners of the French court,
and she early determined to gather round herself
a select circle of friends. At once virtuous, spirit-
uelle, sympathetic, and reciative, she ered
together in the famous Hétel Rambouillet for a
long series of years all the talent and wit of
France, and in her salon met for the first time on
an equal footing the aristocracies of rank and of
a. For fifty years she received the wits, critics,
scholars, and poets of Paris: Malherbe, Racan,
Balzac, Voiture, Corneille, Mé * i
Scarron, Saint-Evremond, Benserade, La e-
foucauld. But half of the glory of the Hétel
belonged to the brilliant women who frequented
it, among them Mademoiselle de Seudéry, the
beautiful Duchesse de Chevreuse, the Marquise
de Sablé, who inspired the Maximes of La Roche-
foucauld, Mademoiselle de la Vergne, afterwards
Madame de La Fayette, the inimitable Madame
de Sévigné; but os beyond all by her
splendid beauty and faultless grace, the idol of
both sexes, shone the sister of the t Condé,
and the heroine of the Fronde—the chesse de
Longueville. As the centre of this group eigen
the vy ge de Rambouillet— la de Mar-
uise,’ ‘the divine Arthénice’—and her beautiful
aughter Julie (the Parthénie of Clélie), after
fourteen years of suing, wife of the Duke of Mon-
tausier, who presented her with the famous Gar-
land of Julia, a collection of love-verses, illustrated
with exquisite paintings on vellum.
The frequenters of the Hétel were celebrated for
the elegance of their manners and the refinement
of their language; but the latter, on the lips of
imitators, degenerated into extravagant affectation
and palpable ay rag = mark for the comic satire
of Molitre in Les Précieuses Ridicules and Les
Femmes Savantes. It must be remembered that
the title Précieuse originally meant ‘ distinguished’
in its best sense, and that the ladies of the coterie
a generation before had been proud to wear it.
Madame de Rambouillet’s good taste in everything
was conspicuous, and she led the fashion also in
the decoration of houses. Her famous ‘ Chambre
bleue,’ furnished with blue velvet relieved by gold
and silver, with large windows from floor to cei
and her alcove with its ruelle—at first ado ted
merely to save her from the heat of the fire, w
she could not bear—were imitated in many a great
house in France. Her importance declined under
Louis XTV., who distrusted clever women, but she
survived till December 1665.
See the Historiettes of Tallemant des Réaux and the
Dicti ive deg Précit of Somaize; Réderer’s
Mémoire pour servir a U Histoire de la Société polie en
France pendant le Dix-septiéme Siecle (1834); Victor
Cousin’s Jeunesse de Mde. de Longueville, Mde. de Sablé,
de, ; Livet’s Precieux et Précieuses (1859); Brunet ére’s
Nouvelles Etudes Critiques (2a ed. 1886).
_—
RAMEAU
RAMSAY 573
Rameau, JEAN PHILIPPE, a French musician,
was born at Dijon, 25th September 1683. At
eighteen he went to Milan, but soon returned to
France, to Paris, Lille, and Clermont in Auvergne.
Here he acted as organist to the cathedral, and
wrote his Traité de 7’ Harmonie (1722). Removing
to Paris, he published Nouveau Systeme (1726),
Génération armonique (1737), and Nouvelles
Réflexions (1752). In 1733, at the mature age of
fifty, he produced his first opera, Hippolyte et
Aricie, the libretto of which was written by the
Abbé Pellegrin. It created a great sensation, and
Rameau was forthwith elevated to the rank of a
rival to Lully (see OPERA). Rameau’s best opera
was Castor et Pollux, produced at the Académie
Royale de Musique in 1737. Between 1733 and
1760 he com twenty-one operas and ballets, as
well as numerous harpsichord pieces. Louis XV.
created for him the office of composer of chamber
music, granted him letters of nobility, and named
him a Chevalier de St Michel. Rameau died 12th
September 1764. See A. Pougin’s essay (Paris,
1876).—Rameau’s nephew, well known as givin
the title to a singular dialogue of Diderot’s, whic
Goethe thought worthy of translation into Ger-
man, had actual existence, being Louis Sébastien
Mercier (1740-1814), author of the famous Tableau
de Paris.
Ramée, DeLA. See Ramus, and OumpA.
Rameses, the name of several Egyptian
monarchs, of whom two, the first and the second,
were specially famous (see Ecypt, Vol. IV. p.
240). It is usual to identify the warrior king
Rameses II. with the Pharaoh of the oppression,
and Rameses III. with the Pharaoh of the Exodus,
though there is some difficulty in the identifica-
tion. The mummy of Rameses II. was found at
Deir-el-Bahari in 1881, that of Rameses IIL at
Boulak in 1886. The story of Rhampsinitus (q.v.)
seems to refer to Rameses III. For the treasure-
city called Rameses, see PITHOM.
Ramie. See Baumert.
rose mages village of Brabant, Belgium, 14
miles by rail N. of Namur, is memorable as the
ease near which, on May 23, 1706, the French
orees under Marshal Villeroy and the Elector of
Bavaria were defeated by Marlborough, with the
loss of almost all their cannon and , and
thirteen thousand killed and wounded. This
victory compelled the French to give up the whole
of the Spanish Netherlands.
Rammohun Roy. Raji Ram Mohan Rdi,
founder of the Brahmo Somaj (q.v.), was born at
Radhanagar in Bengal, in May 1772, his ancestors
being Brahmans of high birth. He studied Persian,
Arabic, and Sanskrit, and soon began to doubt the
foundations of the ancestral faith. He spent some
time studying Buddhism in Tibet, and gave offence
there by his frank criticisms. He incurred the
enmity of his family for his religious views, and
lived at Benares till 1803. For some years he was
revenue collectorin Rangpur. In 1811 he succeeded
to affluence on the death of his brother. He pub-
lished various works in Persian, Arabic, and Sans-
krit, the object of the whole being the uprooting
of idolatry. His influence was powerful in securin
the abolition of suttee. He also issued in English
an abridgment of the Vedanta, giving a digest of
the Vedas, the ancient sacred books of the indus.
In 1820 he published The Precepts of Jesus, the
Guide to Peace and Happiness, accepting the
morality preached by Christ, but rejecting belief
in His deity or in the miracles, and wrote other
mphlets hostile both to Hinduism and to Christian
rinitarianism. In 1828 he a the association
which grew into the Brahmo Somaj, and in 1831
visited Enyland, where he was received with all
but universal friendliness and respect. He took a
lively interest in the Reform agitation, and gave
valuable evidence before the Board of Control on
the condition of India, but overtasked himself, and
died at Bristol, 27th September 1833.
See Miss Carpenter’s Last Days of Rammohun
(1866). There is also a full Beak memoir ( Tats
and his English works have been edited by Jogendra
Chunder Ghose (2 vols. 1888).
Ramnagar, two towns of India: (1) a town
of the North-western Provinces, stands on the right
bank of the Ganges, 2 miles above Benares. It
contains a palace, the residence of the rajah of
Benares, which rises from the banks of the sacred
stream by a number of fine ghats or flights of
stairs. There is a fort, and whips and wicker-work
chairs are manufactured. Pop. 11,859.—(2) A town
of the Punjab, on the Chenab River, 28 miles NW.
of Gujranwala. It was a place of great importance
in the 18th century, being then known as Rasul-
nagar, but was stormed by the Sikhs under Ranjit
Singh in 1795, and its name changed to Ramnagar.
It is now a place of only 6830 inhabitants, who
make leathern vessels, large fair is held here
every April.
Rampart forms the substratum of every per-
manent fortification ; see FORTIFICATION.
Ramphastidz. See Toucan.
Rampion (Campanula rapunculus ; see CAM-
PASULAL a perennial plant, a native of Europe,
rare in England, with
a stem about two feet
high, and a panicle of
ve pretty pale-blue
bell - shaped flowers.
The radical leaves are
ovato-lanceolate and
waved. The root is
white and _ spindle-
shaped, and was for-
merly much used for
the table, under the
name of Rampion or
Ramps. The plant is
now little cultivated in
Britain, but is still
commonly wn in
France for the sake of
its roots, which are
used either boiled or
as a salad, and of its
young leaves, which are also used as a salad.
Rampur, the capital of a native state of India,
in the North-western Provinces, stands on the river
Kosila, 110 miles E, by N. of Delhi. It manufac-
tures damask, pottery, sword-blades, and jewellery.
Pop. (1891) 73,530.—The state, entirely surrounded
by British territory, has an area of 899 (another
authority says 945) sq. m. and a pop. of 541,914.
Rampur Bauleah, chief town of the Rajshahi
district (area, 2361 sq. m.) of Bengal, stands on the
north bank of the Ganges, is a centre of silk and
indigo trade, and has an English Presbyterian
mission ; pop. 21,407.
Ramsay, ALLAN, Scottish poet, was born in
the parish of Crawford, Lanarkshire, October 15,
1686. His father was manager of Lord Hopetoun’s
mines at Leadhills, and his mother, Alice Bower,
was the daughter of a Derbyshire miner. At four-
teen he was put apprentice to a wigmaker in Edin-
burgh, and followed that calling till his thirtieth
year, by which time he had become known as a
poet, having issned several short humorous satires
and realistic descriptions, which were printed as
broadsides, and Peg in his shop or on the street for
He had also written (1716-18) two
Rampion
(Campanula rapunculus),
a penny each.
574 RAMSAY
additional cantos to the old Scots poem of Christ's
Kirk on the Green, felicitous pictures of rustic life
and broad humour. Ramsay now abandoned wig-
making, and commenced business as a bookseller
in the High Street, with a sign of Mercury over
his door. r he removed to the Luckenbooths,
and there flourished under the heads of Drummond
and Ben Jonson, adding to his business a circulat-
ing library—the first established in Scotland.
Down to 1755, when he retired to a villa of his
own erection, ‘honest Allan’s’ career, worldly
and literary, was eminently prosperous. Neither
Puritan nor profligate, social in his instincts, yet
careful and industrious, Ramsay never allowed his
sar and vanity as a poet to withdraw him from
usiness. One brief cloud overcast the t’s
successful career. He built a theatre in Edinburgh
at his own expense, which was almost immediately
shut up by the magistrates, in virtue of the act
passed in 1737 prohibiting all dramatic exhibitions
without special license. ides his loss he sutfered
much from the attacks of the churchmen of the
day. His application to Lord Advocate Forbes for
‘some ag , was unsuccessful; yet his mis-
fortunes had left him a decent competency, and
he spent the last two or three years of his life in
cheerful retirement in the vag but picturesque
octagonal house he had built on the north side of
the Castle Hill, and here he died 7th January
1758. He had the gratification of seeing his only
surviving son, Allan Ramsay (1713-84), fast rising
into distinction as a portrait-painter; in 1767 he
was appointed principal painter to the king. A
complete edition of the elder Allan’s poems with a
biography was published by Chalmers (1800); a fine
edition, with the music of the songs, and engray-
ings by David Allan, in 1788. A good selection is
that by J. Logie Robertson (1887). A monument to
Ramsay by Steell was erected in Edinburgh in 1865.
The following are his principal works: Tartana, or the
Plaid (1721); a collected edition of his ot published
by eres in 1721, by which it is the t
realised i ; Fables and Tales (1722); Fair
Assembly (1733) ; Health, a Poem (1724); The Tea-table
Miscellany, a collection of the most choice songs, Scottish
and English (1724), to which a second volume was pub-
lished in 1725, a third in 1727, and a fourth in 1740;
The Evergreen, ‘being a collection of Scots Poems wrote
by the Ingenious before 1600, published in 1724; The
Gentle Shepherd, a Pastoral Comedy (1725); a second
collection of Poems (1728); Thirty Fables (1730). See
the Life by Oliphant Smeaton (‘ Famous Scots,’ 1896 ).
Ramsey, EpWARD BANNERMAN BURNETT,
Dean of Edinburgh, was born in Aberdeen, 31st
January 1793, the dson of Sir Thomas Burnett,
Bart., of Leys. is father, Alexander Burnett,
was sheriff of Kincardineshire. Edward was the
fourth son, and when very young he was taken by
his grand-unele, Sir Alexander Ramsay, who sent
him to school near his own house at Harlsey in
Yorkshire. In 1806 Alexander Burnett succeeded
to Sir Alexander’s estates, assumed the surname
of Ramsay, and soon after was created a baronet.
\Edward Burnett Ramsay took a eo degree at St
John’s College, Cambridge, in 1814, was ordained
in 1816, and held a curacy in Somersetshire until
1824, when he removed to Edinburgh as curate
of St George’s. Two years later he was made
incumbent of St Paul's, Carrubber’s Close, but this
he exchan in 1827 for the curacy of St John’s,
of which Bishop Sandford was incumbent. On the
bishop’s death in 1830 Ramsay succeeded to the
charge ; and in 1846 he was appointed dean of the
diocese, having already (1844) declined the bishopric
of Fredericton, as he afterwards (1847 and 1862)
did those of Glasgow and Edinburgh. In 1860 he
received the nee of LL.D. ‘fom Edinburgh
University. He died 27th December 1872. Ramsay
RAMSGATE
did a very t service for the Scottish Episcopal
Church by his work in connection with the Church
Society, of which he was the first secretary and
really the founder, and out of which grew the later
Representative Church Council. But it is for the
sake of his books—or rather of one of them—that
his fame is secure, ‘
Among his works, besides sermons, &c., are Memoirs
of Sir J. E. Smith and Dr Chalmers, Diversities of
Christian Character (1858), Faults in Christian Believers
(1859), Pulpit Table-talk (1868), The Christian Life
(1869), anda number of others, But the book with which
his name will always be identified is the Reminiscences of
Scottish Life and Character, which had its origin in two
lectures (* Recent in Scottish Manners and
Habits’) delivered in Edin in 1856-57, and pub-
lished in a small octavo of 64 pp. in 1857; the thi
edition (1859), bearing the title of the Reminiscences,
eS A second series ( Xxxviii.,
221) ap in 1861. ee the Masncis, by toonso Tiaaie
prefi to the 22d ed. (1874).
Ramsbottom, a manufacturing town of Lanca-
shire, on the Irwell, 4 miles N. of Bury. The first
Sir Robert Peel established ecalico-printing here,
and it now has manufactures of co calicoes,
’
ropes, machines, &e. Pop. (1861) 4134; (1881)
16,142; (1891) 16,726. r
Ramsden, JEssE, a mathematical instrument-
maker, was born at Salterhebble, near Halifax in
Yorkshire, in 1735, and began life as a cloth-
worker. About 1755 he moved to London, and
shortly afterwards to work as an engraver.
His skill recommended him to the mathematical
instrument-makers, the daughter of one of whom,
Dollond, he married. Being of an inventive turn,
he spent his best efforts in effecting improvements
in the sextant, theodolite, equatorial, eter,
micrometer, mural quadrant, and the like. He so
improved the sextant that its range of error was
diminished from 5 minutes to 30 seconds. He
made the theodolite for the ordnance survey of
England. He devised the mural circle, and made
the first for Palermo and Dublin. He spent several
years over an instrument for graduating mathe-
matical instruments (see GRADUATION ), and pub-
lished an account of it as tates of an Engine
a Dividing Mathematical Instruments (47).
or this the Commissioners of Longitude awarded
him £615. He was elected a Fellow of the Hoss
Society in 1786, and was voted the Copley m
in 1795. He died at Brighton on 5th November
1800. Descriptions of some of his improved instru-
ments will be found in Phil. Trans. (179 and 1783).
See Life by Lalande in Journal des Sgavans (1788).
Ramsey, (1) a seaport and watering-place in
the north of the Isle of Man, 14 miles NNE. of
Douglas, and by rail (1879) 18 NE. of Peel. It
stands on a spacious bay, with a sandy beach
and a background of wooded hills (1842 feet), and
from the beauty of its surroundings and the salu-
brity of its climate has risen into a favourite resort
of tourists and pleasure-seekers. It has two prome-
nades, a park, salt-water lake, a pier 730 yards
long, and steamboat communication with Liver-
pool, Fleetwood, Glasgow, Greenock, Whitehaven,
and poe Pop. (1851) 2701; (1871) 3861;
1881) ; (1891) 4803.—(2) A market-town of
untingdonshire, 12 miles NNE, of Huntingdon,
It has a branch-line (1863) and remains of a mitred
Benedictine abbey (969). Pop. of parish (1851)
4645; (1891) 4684,
Ramsgate, a watering-place and seaport of
Kent, in the south-east of the Isle of Thanet, 72
miles E. by S. of London, 4 SSE. of me and
15 ENE. of Canterbury. From a smal fish
ag it began to increase in importance durin
the 18th century through successful trade wit!
‘Russia and the East country,’ and through the
BOP | Hm
RANCH SCENE, IDAHO.
Vol. VIIL., page 575.
RAMUS
RANDALL 575
- among its 5)
formation here (1750-95) of a harbour of refuge for
the Downs. That harbour, 51 acres in extent,
with a sea-entrance 250 feet wide, is enclosed on
the east and west by two piers 670 and 520 yards
long. The aspect of the place, which George Eliot
calls ‘a strip of London come out for an airing,’ is
familiar through Frith’s ‘ Ramsgate Sands’ (1854) ;
1 features are an obelisk marking
the spot where George IV. in 1821 embarked for
Hanover, an iron promenade pier (1881 ), the fine
Granville Hotel, a beautiful Roman Catholic
church by the Pugins, a Benedictine monastery,
college, and convent, and a Jewish s: e and
college, erected by Sir Moses Montefiore, who, like
the elder Pugin, was a resident. To the north is
i (a.¥.), beloved of Dickens; and to the
west Pegwell Bay, with Ebbsfleet, the landing-
ee of St Augustine, and also, traditionally, of
engist and Horsa. Here, too, is Osengall Hill,
with an early Saxon cemetery. Ramsgate was
incorporated in 1884. Pop. (1851) 11,838; (1881)
22, ; (1891) 24,676. See James Simson’s Historic
Thanet (1891). ‘
us, Petrus. Pierre de la Ramée, an
illustrious French ‘humanist,’ was the son of a
r labourer, and was born at the village of Cuth,
in Vermandois, in 1515. In his twelfth year he
t a situation as servant to a rich scholar at the
llége de Navarre, and, by devoting the day to
his master, obtained the night for study, and made
rapid progress. The method of teaching philo-
sophy then prevalent dissatisfied him, and he was
Ted to place a higher value on ‘reason’ than on
‘authority ;’ when taking his degree in his twenty-
first year he even maintained the extray t
thesis that ‘all that Aristotle had said was false.”
Immediately after he began lectures on the Greek
and Latin authors, coupes to combine the study
of eloquence with that of philosophy. His audience
was large, and his success as a teacher remarkable.
He now turned his attention more particularly to
the science of logic, which, in his usual adventur-
ous spirit, he undertook to reform. His attempts
excited much hostility among the Aristotelians,
and when his treatise on the subject (Dialectica
Partitiones) appeared in 1543 it was fiercely assailed
by the doctors of the Sorbonne, who managed to
get it suppressed by a royal edict, and his lectures
‘or a time suspended. But Ramus had at this
time two powerful friends, Cardinals Charles de
Bourbon and Charles de Lorraine, through whose
influence he was, in 1545, appointed principal of
the Collége de Presles. In 1551 Cardinal Lorraine
succeeded in beanie for him a chair of
Eloquence and Philosophy at the Collége Royal.
He mingled largely in the literary and scholastic
disputes of the time, and ultimately embraced Pro-
testantism. He had to flee from Paris; after 1568
he travelled in Germany and Switzerland ; but on
returning to France in 1571 he perished in the
fatal massacre of St Bartholomew, 24th August
1572. It was believed that he was sasaneinated by
the direct instigation of one of his most persistent
enemies,
Ramus holds an honourable place in the list of
intellectual reformers. His assault on scholasticism
as a method of thinking is vigorous, and his
exposure of its puerile and useless subtleties is
thorough. His system of logic, by which his name
is best known, is marked by its Incid definitions,
its natural divisions, and its simplification of the
rules of the syllogism ; but it rea ly adds little to
logical science. hat strikes one most, however,
in Ramus is his universal intellectual activity. He
wrote treatises on arithmetic, geometry, and a gebra
which were text-books for a hundred years; he
was among the earliest adherents of the Coperni-
tan system of astronomy; Latin, Greek, and
en, his pen, and he seldom handled a su
which he did not to some degree elucidate. ‘His
followers were a widespread, and for long a power-
ful body of thinkers and teachers ; France, Eng-
land, the Low Countries, Germany, Switzerlan: ;
Denmark, and even Spain had their Ramists.
See monographs by Waddi m (Paris, 1855), Des-
maze (1864), and Lobstein (Stroch 1878). ” ,
Rana. See Froc.
Rancé, ARMAND DE (1626-1700), the founder
of the Trappists (q.v.).
Ranching, the business of cattle-breeding as
pursued on a large scale in the unsettled districts
of the United States from the Mississippi to the
Pacifie coasts, and from the Bad Lands of the
Upper Missouri to the Gulf of Mexico. The name
is derived from the Spanish rancho, properly
‘mess’ or ‘mess-room,’ but used in Mexico also
for a herdsman’s hut, and finally for a grazing-
farm, as distinguished from a hacienda, a planta-
tion or cultivated farm. The speciality of ranch-
ing is that the cattle are raised and kept in a half-
wild condition, with little or no house shelter pro-
vided and no artificial feeding. The life of the
‘cowboys’ and ranchmen, if no longer so wild and
adventurous as it once was, is still sufficiently free,
open, and exciting to have great charms for enter-
rising youths ; and amongst rancheros are to be
ound not merely hereditary cattle-breeders and
rough frontiersmen, but accomplished university-
bred men, who in their scanty leisure cherish their
Old-World tastes for literature and music. To
these are added not a few men whose past history
would hardly bear looking into—helping to provide
the materials of a sitangsly mixed society.
Large fortunes were made in the wild old days,
but the gradual settlement of the ranchin country
has seriously embarrassed the business of the ranch-
man. The old Sead tem, g of the south often had
ranges, under Spanish land- ts, extending over
several hundred square miles, and would brand
many thousand calves each year. Herds would be
‘on the trail’ for from two to four months, the
cattle from Texas crossing Red River, and passing
through Indian Territory and southern Kansas to
the railway; but the gradual settlement of the
country and the extension of railways render these
long trails impracticable and needless. The t
events of the ranchmian’s year are the ‘round-up,’
when stock is taken, the cattle are branded, and
such full-grown cattle gathered into a herd as are
suitable for market; and the departure of the
herds for market or port—times of hard work and
severe strain for all concerned. In the south there
is but one annual round-up; on the more civilised
ranges of Wyoming, the Dakotas, Colorado, and
Montana there are two round-ups in the year—one
early in spring, to brand the calves and ascertain
the losses during winter, another in autumn, wher
the steers over three years old are separated from
the main herd and sent for sale. Besides the
branding of ownership there is a special ‘road-
branding’ of cattle for identification ‘on the trail.’
The cattle in the south are still mainly the coarse,
long-horned Texan breed; in the north-west the
original long-horns have been crossed with fine-
grade northern cattle, and produce larger and less
wild animals and finer beef.
See Brinson, The Beef Bonanza (1880); Roosevelt,
Ranch Life and the Hunting Trail (1889),
Rancidity, the partial decomposition of butter,
oil, and fats. See PUTREFACTION.
Rand or Ranpt, THE. See JOHANNESBURG.
Randall, JAmzs RyveEr, the author of ‘ Mary-
land, my Maryland,’ was born in Baltimore, Ist
French grammar, rhetoric, morals, and vp! all
gaged ject
576 RANDAZZO
RANGOON
Jan 1839, tanght for a while in a Louisiana
col on and then turned to journalism. Shut out
from ea gs a delicate constitution, he still
ve powerf i to the southern cause by his
yrics. These include, besides ‘ Maryland’ (1861 ;
called forth by news of the of the first
Massachusetts troops through the streets of Balti-
more, and the uent bloodshed), ‘Stonewall
Jackson,’ ‘ There's Life in the Old Land Yet,’ and
others, Since 1866 he has edited a paper in
Augusta, Georgia.
Randazzo, a town of Sicily, at the northern
foot of Mount Etna, with some old Norman
churches. Pop. 9908.
Randers, a town in Jutland, on the Randers-
Fiorde, 20 miles from its mouth in the Cattegat.
Pop. (1870) 11,354; (1890) 16,617.
Randolph, Epmunp JennrNGs, an American
statesman, was born at Williamsburg, Virginia,
10th August 1753, studied at William and Mary
Coll and was admitted to the bar. In 1776 he
helped to frame the constitution of Virginia, and
became the state’s first attorney-general. In 1786-
88 he was governor of Virginia, and in 1787 he was
a member of the convention which framed the con-
stitution of the United States. He was working
hard at a codification of the state-laws of Virginia
when, in 1789, he was Cree by Washington
attorney-general of the United States. In 1794 he
was made secretary of state, but after the presi-
dent’s signing of the Jay (og At tae with Eng-
land he resigned in order to be to vindicate his
own conduct. Meanwhile he was practically ruined
by the responsibility which he had incurred, as
part of the duties of his office, for certain funds
provided for foreign service; and, though he
returned to the bar, he had to assign his lands
and slaves. He died 13th yp pomed 1813. See
Moncure D. Conway, Omitted Chapters of History,
disclosed in the Life and Papers of Edmund Ran-
dolph (1888).
Randolph, Joy, ‘of Roanoke,’ was born at
Cawsons, in Virginia, June 2, 1773. He was a
second cousin of Edmund Randolph, and boasted
the Indian princess Pocahontas among his ances-
tors. In 1799 he was elected to congress, where
he became distinguished for his eloquence, wit,
sarcasm, invective, and eccentricity, and for thirty
years was more talked and written about than any
‘American politician, Tall and m , peculiar
in dress and manners, he was described as a strange
mixture of the aristocrat and the Jacobin. He
was the Democratic leader of the House of Repre-
sentatives, but quarrelled with Jefferson, and
7) the war of 1812; he opposed also the
Missouri Compromise, and tised its northern
supporters as ‘ Doughfaces ;’ and he sided against
Jackson on the nullification question. From 1825
to 1827 he sat in the senate, and in 1830 he was
appointed minister to Russia. By his will he
manumitted his numerous slaves, and provided for
their settlement in a free colony. e died in
Philadelphia, June 24, 1833. See Lives by Gar-
land (2 vols. 1850) and Henry Adams (‘ American
Statesmen’ series, 1882).
Randolph, Sir Tuomas, a trusted agent of
Queen Elizabeth, was born in 1523, lived abroad
for safety’s sake during Mary’s reign, and after
Elizabeth’s accession was frequently employed in
diplomatic missions to France, to Russia, and
especially to Scotland. He was first sent thither
in 1559, and at many a critical juncture for more
than twenty years thereafter he played his mis-
tress’ cards in the perplexed and corrupt game of
Scottish politics. He was twice shot at, in 1566
wa. ordered by Mary to leave the court, and in
1581 had to flee from Scotland for his life. He
died in 1590.
occasionally too glow ms, and six plays:
feuteus’ or the Jovia! PR The Con:
eth og ase: Aeageten, od tapi Dear
ooking- 5 Am: , or the Im e .
and Hey for Honesty. His works were edited by
W. Carew Hazlitt in 1875.
Ranelagh. This building was erected in 1742
on the site of the ens of a villa of the last Earl
of Ranelagh at Chelsea. Its rotunda was 150 feet
in diameter, with an orchestra in the centre and
tiers of boxes all round. The chief Smenean
romenading, as it was called, round and roun
he area below, and taking refreshments in the
boxes, thé orchestra peaking eee is thus
described by Smollett: ‘One half of the company are
following one another’s tails in an eternal circle, like
asses in an olive-mill, . . . and the other half are
drinking hot water, under the denomination of tea,
till nine or ten o’clock at night to keep themselves
awake.’ But Johnson thought ‘the coup d’eil
was the finest he had ever seen;’ and Wal
whose letters contain many allusions to Rane ‘
writes, 29th June 1744: ‘Every night I go to
Ranelagh, which has totally beat Vauxhall. No-
body goes anywhere else; everybody goes there.’
The last ee of Ranelagh was when the
installation ball of the Rage of the Bath was
given there in 1802. It was closed on 9th September
1803, and built upon next year. Its site is now part
of the Chelsea Hospital garden.
Ranelagh, Norrs and Sours, two suburbs of
Dublin, lying south of the city.
Range. See CANNON, GUNNERY.
Rangoon, the capital of Lower Burma, stands on
the Hlaing or Rangoon River, about 20 miles from
its entrance into the Gulf of Martaban. The oxy
city is almost entirely of modern construction, bui
since the British took ion of the place in
1852, The town extends along the left ban
Hlaing, the docks being 0 dager to it at the suburb
. s. oo other : e of the river. sane
the town is the large military cantonment, grou
round the fortified. hill (166 feet) on which stands
the Shway-Dagon ‘the most venerated
object of worship in all the Indo-Chinese countries.’
It is built of brick, is lavishly gilded, and tapers up
toa cone $21 feet above the ground (see illustration
under BurMA). According to the tradition, it was
erected in the 6th century B.C. to serve as a refuge
to eight hairs from the head of Gautama Buddha.
The streets are laid out regularly; the river is
carefully embanked; there are five markets and
an excellent ee ee the thoroughfares are
systematically lighted and traversed by tramway
cars; and there has been an elective municipality
since 1883. Forts and batteries protect the town.
The principal buildings are the public and govern-
mental offices, the Anglican cathedral (whose
foundation-stone was Lord Dufferin in
1886) and the other European churches, the native
pagodas, a lunatic asylum, the chief gaol of Lower
RANGPUR
RANKE 577
Burma, the Phayre Museum in the horticultural
gardens, St John’s College, the high school, a hos-
ee. &c. Along the river-side are numerous rice-
ing-mills and sawmills. Pop. (1852) 25,000;
1872) 89,897 ; (1881) 134,176; (1891) 181,210. A
ittle less than one-half are Burmese, and the
natives of India are nearly as many. Rangoon is the
principal port in all Burma, about 86 per cent. of
the total trade of that country passing in and out
at this port. Its trade has grown at a wonderfully
rapid rate since the British took possession of
Lower Burma. In 1852 the port was entered by not
more than 125 small vessels, and even in 1 the
total imports and exports together had only risen
to £2,131,000. By 1878 the statistics of the port
stood at 559,000 tonnage of vessels entering ; value
of imports £3,777,700, and of exports £4,414,300.
' Since 1890 the port is entered by about 1000 vessels
annually of some 1,000,000 tons burden; the total
imports (excluding coasting trade) are valued at
about £5,000,000 a year, and the total exports at
£9,000,000. The chief exports are rice, teak, india-
rubber, raw cotton, and other articles mentioned in
the article BuRMA. Since the incorporation of
Burma with British India, Rangoon ranks as fourth
of the commercial cities of the Indian Empire. A
town has existed on the site of Rangoon since the
6th century B.c. It was always called Dagon
down to the capture of the place by the Burmese
ign Alompra towards the end of the 18th
century. That prince rebuilt the place and called
it Ran It was taken by the British in 1825,
and held until 1827; they captured it again in
1852, and have kept possession of it ever since.
ur, a town of Bengal, on the Margene
an arm of the Brahmaputra, and 110 miles SE. of
jiling. It is the capital of a district in a great
well-watered, fertile, well-tilled plain of sandy
loam. Pop. 14,500.
jit Singh, the founder of the Sikh king-
dom in the Punjab of India, was born at Gujran-
wala on 2d November 1780, the son of a Sikh chief,
His father died when he was twelve and his mother
when he was seventeen years old. He at once began
to show his ambition and capability for rule, and
after the shah of Afghanistan had given him the
vince of Lahore he directed all his energies to
he founding of a ease vag which should unite all
the Sikh provinces under his own personal rule (see
Srkus). He died on 27th June 1839. He procured
from an Afghan prince, as the price of his assist-
ance in war, the famous Kol-i-nur diamond (see
DiAmMonD). See Sir L. Griffin, Ranjit Singh
(Oxford, 1892).
Rank in the military forces of the British
empire is not confined to the commissioned classes ;
the various grades of non-commissioned officers,
and even the titles nner, driver, sapper, or
private are officially styled ranks. Lance or acting
rank is a temporary advancement. Thus, a private
or sapper is first made a lance-corporal, and a
nner or driver an acting-bombardier, before
ing per tly promoted. Until so promoted
they rank only as private soldiers. Similarly a
lance-sergeant is a corporal acting as sergeant, and
holds only the lower rank.
Officers of the army and royal marines may
hold either regimental or army rank or both. U
to captain inclusive, rank is purely regimental.
Afterwards a captain may be promoted in his regi-
ment to the suecessive ranks of major and lieuten-
ant-colonel, or while still remaining a captain in
his regiment he may become a major or lieutenant-
colonel in the army by Brevet (q.v.). The rank of
colonel is purely an army rank, obtainable only by
brevet or on receiving an appointment, ona as
ee ene aeneeel, which carries that rank.
The several grades of General (q.v.) are also army
ranks only. Local rank is sometimes conferred on
an officer to enable him to exercise command over
others senior to him in a certain locality (South
Africa, Egypt, &c.). Temporary rank is often
similarly granted, and some appointments carry
such rank ; for instance, a colonel appointed quar-
termaster-general in India becomes a temporary
major-general while so em loyed, and reverts to
the lower rank at the end of his five years’ term of
office unless promoted in the meantime. Honora
rank is held by officers of the ordnance-store an
reeaghent departments and by Quartermasters
(q.v.) and riding-masters. Officers of the militia,
yeomanry, and volunteers also, after a certain
number of years’ service, receive a bp of honorary
rank. S ntive rank includes all rank other
act f brevet, honorary, local, and temporary
rank, held by officers unless they are on the unem-
ployed half-pay list. Half-pay rank as lieutenant-
colonel (£200 a year) may be taken by an officer
after seven years’ service as major. Relative rank
is held by army chaplains and veterinary surgeons.
It carries with it all precedence and advantages
attaching to the military rank with which it cor-
responds, and regulates rates of lodging-money,
number of servants and horses, rations of fuel and
light (or allowances in their stead), detention and
prize-money. It does not entitle the holder to
salutes from ships or fortresses, nor to the turning
out of guards, and, of course, it does not confer any
right tocommand. The corresponding ranks in the
army and navy are shown in the following table,
where the asterisks denote ‘according to date of
commission,’ and the dagger ‘ junior of the rank.’
Navy. , Army.
Admiral of the Fleet.............. ranks with Field-marshal.*
Admirals ....... .. rank «» Generals.*
Vice-admirals ae « ~Lieut.-generals.*
| pee Reger poe <7 w Major-generals.*
ptains of the Fleet........... ” . «
Commodores, Ist and 24 class..f » Drig--generals.
Captains over 3 ) service. ... ww « Colonels.*
Captains under 8 years’ service... « Lieut.-colonels.*
Commanders... ...........602.0006 " w — Lieut.-colonels. t
Lientenants of 8 years’ standing.. w Majors.*
Lieutenants under 8 years’ standing » » Captains.*
Sub-lieutenants ................4. ” « Lieutenants.*
_ Seenet Sind th ” 2d Lieutenants.*
Ranke, Lroro.p von, the greatest of German
historians, was born on 2lst mber 1795, at
Wiehe, about half-way between Gotha and Halle.
Although he studied theology and philology at
Halle and Berlin, and in 1818 n to teach at
the gymnasium of Frankfort-on-Oder, his chiefest
bene, er were given to the study of history, to
which they were directed pesipally by his Luther
studies and the reading of Scott’s romances, The
two works, Geschichte der romanischen und german-
ischen Volker von 1494 bis 1585 (1824) and
Zur Kritik neuerer Geschichtschreiber (1824), pro-
eured him a call to Berlin as professor of History
in 1825. The latter of these works, and Analecta
to his subsequent books, expound his views of
the functions of history, and the methods of
the ideal historian. History is the record of
facts. It should know nothing of the political
party, or church polities, or subjective views of the
writer. It should be based upon sound document-
ary evidence, critically examined and sifted. In
1827 he was sent by the Prussian government to
consult the archives of Vienna, Venice, Rome, and
Florence ; four years he spent in this work, and
returned with a mass of the most valuable historical
materials. The results of his labours were seen in
Fiirsten und Volker von Siid-Europa im 16 und 17
Jahrhundert (1827) and other books dealing with
Servia, Turkey, and Venice; and Die rémischen
Pépste im 16 und 17 Jahrhundert (1834-37 ; 9th ed.
578 RANKINE
RANUNCULACEZ
1889), the most finished of his books,
certainly one of his great masterpieces of historical
writing. Then he turned his attention to central
and northern , and wrote in quick succession
Deutsche I im Zeitalter der Reformation
(1839-47); Zwélf Biicher preussischer Geschichte
(1847-48 ; new ed. 1871-74); Franzdsische Geschichte
(1852-61); Englische Geschichte (1859-67; 4th ed.
9 vols. 1877-79), the last two treating chiefly of the
same two centuries as the books on south Europe ;
and Zur deutschen Geschichte, vom Religionsfrieden
bis sum Dreissiqjdhrigen Krieg (1869). Later periods
and special periods of German history aré treated
of in books on the Origin of the Seven Years’
War (2d ed. 1874), the German Powers and the
Confederation (1871), Zur Geschichte von Oester-
reich und n cwischen den Friedensschliissen
su Aachen und Hubertsburg (1876); the history
of Germany and France in_ the 19th century
(1887), and mon phs on Wallenstein (1869),
Hardenberg (5 vols. 1877-78), and Frederick the
Great and Frederick William IV. (1878). To the
above must be added a book on the revolutionary
wars of 1791 and 1792 (1875), another on Venetian
History (1878), and Die Weltgeschichte, of whose nine
volumes (1881-88) he lived to see only seven pub-
lished. This last work, which is the copestone of
Ranke’s historical labours, was begun when he was
an old man of eighty-two; yet at that great age he
kept two schooled historical assistants busy, studied
critically the Greek and other sources, dictated and
worked eight to ten hours a day, and published
one volume a year regularly, until he died, on 23d
May 1886, having rested from his beloved work
only a few short days. Even his long life—he was
over ninety when he died—would hardly have
sufficed for the thorough works he accomplished
had he not been a man of unwearied industry,
with a marvellous memory, and a swift and in-
tuitive sedgreens as to the value of historical
material, His style is not brilliant, yet sufficiently
clear and interesting. He always wrote from the
standpoint of one who had the whole history of
the world before his mind’s eye. This and his
skill in the portraiture of historical personages
often lend the deepest interest to his narratives.
His point of view was, however, that of the states-
man; and he fails to give due prominence to the
social and popular sides of national development.
Ranke married an Irish lady in 1843, and was en-
nobled in 1865. He continued to lecture until
1872. His lectures exercised a great influence upon
those who sat at his feet to learn, as is seen in the
works of the school of historical writers,
Waitz, Von Sybel, Giesebrecht, and others. A
collected edition of his Werke was published at
Leipzig in 47 vols. in 1868; several of them have
been translated into English.
See his autobi hical Zur eigenen gy macoved
{see yan Vou G 1590) and monographs by Winckler
1885) and Von Giesebrecht (1887).
Rankine, Wi.u1AM JoHn Macquorn, was
born of good Ayrshire family at Edinburgh in
1820, and had his education at the iy ae f
there. He learned engineering under Sir
Macneill, and was appointed in 1855 to the chair at
Glasgow. He died 24th December 1872. Rankine
was an incessant worker, and his books on Civil
Engineering, The Steam-engine and other Prime
Movers, Machinery and Millwork, Shipbuilding:
Theoretical and Practical, and Applied Mechanics
were quickly accepted everywhere as standard
text-books ; and no modern work in the region of
mathematical physics has higher value than his
contributions to the new science of Thermo-
Gynamnien, and to the theories of Elasticity and
ot Waves. His more important papers were col-
lected, with a Life by Professor Tait (1881).
B.
Another side of his nature was seen in his
humorous and patriotic songs, collected as
and Fables (1874).
Rannoch, a bleak, desolate moorland of north-
west Perthshire, with a mean elevation of 1000
feet above sea-level, and m 28 miles by
15. Its surface is mostly a broad, silent,
Lydoch (5} miles x 4 mile; 924 feet above sea-
level), which winds amid flat and dismal scenery.
Stretching eastward from the moor is Loch Ran-
noch (9§ miles x 14 mile; 668 feet), which is over-
hung by Schiehallion, contains a crannog wi
later fortress, and sends off the Tummel 29 miles
eastward and south-south-eastward to the Tay.
Loch Tummel (2? miles x 4 mile; 480 feet) is an
oxen of this river, on which are also the Falls
of Tummel, 20 feet high.
Ransom—corrupted from the Latin redem;
—is the price paid by a prisoner-of-war, or on
his behalf, in consideration of his bei
The conqueror had the option of slaying his
risoner ; but for his profit, he would make him
ris slave, or sell him into slavery. The transition
would be natural to accepting compensation from
the prisoner himself, a setting him at liberty.
In feudal warfare the ransoms formed a large
portion of a soldier's ; those for persons
of low degree belonging to the individual sents,
but those for princes or great nobles to the king.
Ransoms were sometimes of large amount, more
than the immediate family of the captive could
pay. His retainers were then required by feudal
usage to contribute; as in the case of redeemin
King Richard I. for £100,000, when twenty sbil-
lings was assessed on every knight’s fee, and the
clergy subscribed li . David Bruce of Scot-
land was ransomed for 100,000 marks, and ae
John of France for £500,000, payable in instal-
ments, After the battles of St Quentin and Grave-
lines, in the war between France and Philip of
Spain, the ransoms due by French prisoners to the
Prince of Orange, Counts Egmont and Horn, and
a few other superior com ers were estimated
at 2 million crowns; the Due de Longueville paid
Connt Horn 80,000 crowns as his ransom.—In
modern warfare, where the fighting is performed by
professional soldiers, pecuniary ransoms are never
resorted to, freedom being granted to prisoners in
exchange for others of corresponding rank captured
on the opposite side.
Ranters. See METHODISTS.
Ranunculacez, a natural order of exogenous
plants, mostly herbaceous, rarely shrubs, and gener-
ally natives of cold, damp climates. Some are CI
within the tropics, but almost exclusively in very
elevated situations. The number of known species
exceeds 1000. They occur in all quarters of the
globe, but most abundantly in Europe. The leaves
are generally much divided, and have dilated
sheathing stalks. The calyx is of 3-6 deciduous
hypogynous sepals ; the corolla of 3-15 hypogynous
petals, in one or more rows, sometimes assuming
Hod 6 remarkable forms, as in larkspur, aconite,
and columbine; rarely absent, in which ease the
sepals are gaily coloured. The stamens are nee
,
sometimes united into a single many-celled pistil ;
the ovary with one or more ovules.
consists of dry achenia, or is berry-like or follicular.
Acridity is the prevailing character of the order,
" RANUNCULUS
RAPE 579
and the leaves of some species readily luce
blisters ; but this Borer? disappears when they are
dried or heated. Many are narcotic and poisonous ;
. some are used in medicine, as aconite and helle-
bore. The seeds of Nigella sativa were formerly
used instead of pepper. The fruit of the May
Apple or Wild Lemon (Podophyllum peltatum) of
North America may be eaten, but is very acid.
Many of the order produce flowers of great Bice
as some species at Ranunculus (q.v.), Anemone
(q.v.), Larkspur (q.v.), Peony (q.v.), Columbine
(q.v.), Clematis (q.v.), &e.
Ranunculus, a genus of plants of the natural
order Ranunculacee; having five sepals; five
petals, with a nectariferous pore at the base of
each petal, often covered with a scale; many
stamens situated on a receptacle, and ovaries
accumulated into a head. The species are numer-
ous, herbaceous plants, mostl rennial. Some
of them adorn meadows with their yellow flowers,
familiarly known as Buttercups ; others, known by
Ranunculus asiaticus, garden varieties.
the name of Crowfoot, are troublesome weeds in
gardens and tures. Many, as the Spearworts,
are found chiefly in moist places, and some are
al ther aquatic, covering the surface of ditches,
ponds, and rivers, where the water is shallow, with
a carpet of verdure exquisitely studded with beauti-
ful white flowers. One species, the Asiatic Ranun-
culus, or Garden Ranunculus, exclusively the
ranunculus of florists, a native of the Levant, has
been cultivated in Europe for almost 300 years.
The cultivated varieties are extremely numerous,
brilliantly coloured, and very symmetrical in form.
The ranunculus is propagated by seed, by offset
tubers, or by dividing the clusters of tubers. The
roots are often taken up in summer, after the
leaves die, and kept in a dry place till the be-
ginning of the ensuing winter or spring. The
ranunculus loves a free and rich soi mble-
flowered varieties of some other species, with taller
stems and smaller white or yellow flowers, are
cultivated in flower-gardens, sometimes under the
name of Bachelors’ Buttons. The acridity of many
species of ranunculus is such that the leaves,
brnised and y poet) to the skin, produce blisters ;
and those of 2. sceleratus, a pretty common British
species, are said to be used by beggars to cause
sores, in order to move compassion. L. Thora, a
Swiss species, is of extreme acridity, and hunters
were accustomed in former times to poison darts
and arrows with its juice. Water distilled from
the leaves of 2. fammula, a British species, with
rather tall stem and ovato-lanceolate leaves,common
by the sides of ditches, &c., is an active and power-
ful emetic, producing almost immediate vomiting,
and res gre of being used with great advantage in
cases of poisoning. Yet the leaves of R. ficaria— _
sometimes called Pilewort and Lesser Celandine, a
very common British species, adorning hedge-banks
with Sp atl See flowers in spring—are capable
of being used as a pot-herb. Pastures in which R.
acris, R. repens, &c. are very abundant are injured
by them, and they ought to be diligently grubbed
out; they are particularly eee to give an
unpleasant taste to milk and butter; but it is
thought not improbable that a moderate mixture
of these plants with the other herbage is even
advan us, and that they may act as a condi-
ment. eir acridity is lost in stn , and they
are not injurious to hay. The small tubers of Pile-
wort, or Celandine, are used for the cure of
hemorrhoids ; but their acridity also disappears
when a $ are boiled, and they are then a pleasant
article of food. R. aquatilis, a British species,
very abundant in streams in many parts of Britain,
is eaten with avidity by cattle, the acridity so
general in the other species being wanting in it.
Ranz des Vaches (in German, Kuhreigen), a
name applied to certain simple native melodies of
the Swiss Alps, which are usually sung by the
herdsmen, and played by them when driving their
herds to and from the pasture, on the Alphorn or
Kuh-horn (q.v.). The associations of pastoral life
recalled by these airs to the Swiss in foreign
countries have been said to produce an almost irre-
sistible longing for home, or nostalgia.
nen (contracted from rapparee, ‘an Irish plun-
derer’), familiar in the phrase ‘not a tans wap a.
—— tae _ \ the = xs George L,
which passed for a halfpenny, though not reall
worth a fourth of that ped There was also :
small Swiss coin called rappen, worth a centime.
Rapallo, a winter health-resort of Northern
Italy, 17 miles by rail ESE. of Genoa, with a
castle and the pilgrimage chureh of the Madonna
(1557) on the onte Allegro. Off here the
Venetian fleet defeated the Genoese in - 143].
Pop. 2625,
Rape, or CoLeseEeD (Brassica napus ; see
BRASSICA), an annual plant much cultivated on
account both of its
herbage and of its oil-
producing seeds. It is
a native of Europe and
—_ of England ;
ut it is hard to say
where it is truly in-
digenous and where
naturalised. It is so
nearly allied to Bras-
sica rapa (Turnip), B.
campestris _ (Swedish
Turnip, Colza, &c.),
B. oleracea (Kale,
Cabbage, &c.), and
B. precox (Summer
Rape) that botanical
distinction is difficult,
particularly as to some
of the cultivated varie-
ties. The root of rape
is slender, or in culti-
vation sometimes be-
comes carrot-shaped
(see NAVEW), but it
never becomes turnip-
shaped. The cultivation of ra)
is very general in
many parts of the continent of Europe, from which
it seems to have been introduced into England at
least as early as the 16th century ; and in the 17th
580 RAPE
RAPHAEL SANTI
century, if not sooner, large quantities of oil were
aaion its seeds, chiefly in the fenny and other
alluvial districts of the east of England, where also
it has long been most extensively employed for
feeding sheep. On the Continent it is not unusual
to sow rape in order to green-manuring, ploughin
its herbage into the soil, a mode of enriching lan
much more common in some parts of Europe than
it is in Britain. Rape delights in a rich alluvial
soil, and is particularly suitable for newly-reclaimed
and fens, in which the turnip does not succeed
well; and it is also extensively cultivated in the
chalk and oolite districts of the south of England.
When cultivated for green-manuring rape is usually
sown broadcast, but when intended to produce
seed it is generally sown in drills, and receives
manure and culture the same as the turnip. In rich
soils rape sometimes attains a height of three or even
four feet, so that the sheep turned in are hidden
beneath the leaves, and seem to eat their way into
the field. They eat the stalks even more greedily
than the leaves. A too exclusive feeding on rape
is, however, apt to produce diseases, which a
sprinkling of salt, a supply of hay, &c, are found
useful in preventing. nen the seed is ripe rape
is cut with the sickle; and, after a short time
allowed for drying, the seed is thrashed out, when
the haulm is often burned, a wasteful wee as
its decay affords more abundant and useful manure,
and indeed cattle are fond of it as food. Rape-cake,
the mass of seeds from which oil has been obtained
by crushing, is used for feeding oxen and sheep,
but is very inferior to linseed-cake and some other
kinds of oil-eake. Ground into dust, it is a very
valuable manure. Rape-oil is extensively used for
. machinery and for lamps; but the oil and cake so
called are not exclusively obtained from this plant,
nor are the names Colza-oil and Rape-oil used to
discriminate the produce of different plants, although
in some parts of Europe the name Colza is given to
varieties of Brassica campestris and B. oleracea,
which are cultivated in the same way as rape. B.
precor is also cultivated in some places, being
sown in spring and reaped in autumn. The seeds
of other eruciferous plants are also crushed in-
discriminately with these, and the oil and cake sold
by the same names (see OILS, OIL-CAKE).—The
name Rape is from Lat. rapa, ‘a turnip ;’ Colza
is throngh the French from the Dutch koolzaad,
‘cole-seed,’
Rape is having carnal knowledge of a woman
without her conscious consent, and such consent
must not be extorted by violence or threats of
violence. The Criminal Law Amendment Act,
1885, provides that a man is guilty of rape if by
rsonating a woman's husband he ds in
tration suffices to constitute the crime. As regards
evidence in cases of this sort, the most important
question will usually be, How far is the su
injured person to be believed? That d on
man
mar though as a matter of law rape may be com-
| mitted on a prostitute, since even she cannot be
compelled to submit to outrage,
chief witness is shown to be unc
almost invariably breaks down;
within which and the pe
the first complaint ; (3) any marks of violence on her
dress or person, and her agitated or calm demean-
our; (4) the scene of the alleged crime, and the
probability of strenuous resistance a’ public
notice ; (5) whether the prisoner fled or not; (6)
any marks of violence on his dress or person. (7) If
apprehended soon after the alleged act the accused
is usually asked to submit to medical examination.
Refusal to do so is a strong ap of at least
intercourse. The thing to be guarded against is
either a false charge made b;
money or, on failure of this attempt, persisted in
from spiteful motives, or an accusation made by
one who after consenting resists too late, or who
tries when by any accident the fact of connection
becomes known to whitewash her character.
The law which protects women st the class
of crime of which rape is the chief been made
much wider of late years, cae: Be the Criminal
Law Amendment Act of 1885, which contains pro-
vision against various kinds of procuration. As
regards the abduction (1) of a woman on account
of her fortune ; (2) by force with intent to marry ;
(3) of an unmarried girl under the of eighteen
with intent to have carnal knowledge of her, it
need only be remarked that the first two are felonies
punishable by fourteen years’ 1 servitude, and
the third a misdemeanour punishable by two years’
imprisonment with hard labour.
n the United States the crime is everywhere
treated as a felony, and punished with imprison-
ment for life or for a number of years; but the
punishment is somewhat different in the different
states of the Union. See also ABDUCTION.
Raphael Santi, born at Urbino in 1483, died
at Rome 1520, was the son and pupil of Giovanni
Santi, a painter, whose death took place in 1494,
Apprenticed about 1495 at Perugia, Raphael learned
his profession from Perugino, and became such a
clever imitator of his style that to this day the
early pictures of the diseiple are confounded with
those of his teacher. Raphael, in fact, ——
Perugino’s drawings (Academy of Venice), he'
to work at Perngino’s pictures, and finished altar-
et in fact if the
the
1aving connection with her. Previously the point
was doubtful. A husband cannot under any circum-
stances commit rape on his own wife, her consent
at marriage being irrevocable; but. Mr Justice
Stephen is of opinion that under certain cireum-
stances he may be convicted at least of an indecent
assault. Nor can a boy under fourteen be guilty
of this crime, for in law (whatever be the physical
fact) he is absolutely presumed incapable; but
both husband and boy may be charged with assist-
ing others in committing it. Rape is a —
punishable with penal servitude for life. To th
every one who unlawfully and carnally knows any
irl under the age of thirteen years is also liable.
he attempt to have unlawful carnal knowledge of
any girl under thirteen, and the act or attempt in
the case of a girl between thirteen and sixteen
ere when the accused reasonably believes her to
over sixteen), or in the case of any female idiot
‘under circumstances which do not amount to rape,’
gre misdemeanours, punishable by two years’ im-
prisonment with hard labour. The merest pene-
p from Perugino’s d Examples are
the Resurrection of the Vatican and the Vi
and Child, with and without attendant saints, at
Berlin. The presence of eee during these
years at Perugia, Urbino, and Citta di tello
may be traced by his sketches at each of these
places. His first patrons were the Duke and
princesses of Urbino, ecclesiastical corporations
at Citta di Castello, and ladies of the high
families of Baglione and Oddi at
earliest commissions were those of Citta di Cas-
tello, where (1502-3) the most important of his
early works, the Crucifixion in the Dudley ecol-
lection, was painted. An Assumption of the
Virgin, now at the Vatican, was executed shortly
after for Maddalena degli Oddi. Distinct features
in these pieces are dependence as to form on Peru-
gino and Pinturicchio, combined with a Ss for
grace and pure colour essentially original. In a
arri of the Virgin of 1504 (Milan gallery),
these qualities are found in conjunction with exact
repetitions of hi ae de figures. It is probable
that about 1504 Raphael to discern the
gs, of which the chief are(1) her character —
“tt
RAPHAEL SANTI 581
of the Vatican Coronation, and ly the
Epiphany of that series, already some
acquaintance with the more advanced methods of
the Florentines. Yet for some time lon the
ount influence of Perugino remained mani-
est, and Raphael showed Peruginesque influence
in such pictures as the Connestabile Madonna,
now at St Petersburg, the Vision of the Knight in
the National Gallery, the little St Michael and St
George, or the Marsyas of the Louvre, and the
Graces belonging to the Due d’Aumale at
Chantilly. The painting of the Graces is obvi-
ously connected with a journey which Raphael
e to Sienna in 1505, when he gave assistance
to Pinturicchio in drafting the preliminary design
for frescoes in the Piccolomini library. It was there
that he copied the Graces, of which the sketch is
reserved at the Venice Academy. At Sienna
phael probably heard of the competition between
Leonardo and Michelangelo, who were rivals in
1505 for the decoration of the town-hall of Florence,
and there is good cause for thinking that he accom-
panied Perugino to that capital to be near the lists
of this artistic tournament. But before starting
he probably took commissions, which gave as a
finel result the Virgin, Child, and Saints, in full
length, called the Madonna Ansidei, now at the
National Gallery, and the Virgin and Child with
four saints, called the Madonna of Sant’ Antonio,
belonging to the eo cage # both of which
erugia. h
advar of greater independence. His a
displa.
were delivered at e Madonna of
Terranuova, a group of half-lengths at the Berlin
Museum, was completed at Florence. Raphael
was now on the path which Perugino had trod
before him, had a painting-room at Florence and
@ painting-room at Perugia, but was not satisfied
as his master had been with that finality which
caused Perngino to remain stationary in the rut
of an old style. He determined to acquire and
assimilate some of the boldness of Michelangelo,
and the principles which Leonardo had been teach-
ing to the students of his academy at Milan.
When, after a short absence at Florence, he
resumed work on the Ansidei and Sant’ Antonio
Madonnas at Perugia, Raphael gave as much
as he could of the new spirit which was in him to
those compositions, without being able to alter
their archaic character. In the second of these
pictures some heads, recast in a new mould, reveal
the influence of Da Vinci; for it is characteristic
of Raphael that, after witnessing the struggle of
that master with Michelangelo, he came for a time
to the conclusion that Leonardo was the better
man so far as grace and expression were in ques-
tion, though for action the spirit of Michelangelo
might be preferable. The Terranuova Madonna
shows the straggle in which Raphael was engaged.
It has the brightness and sweetness of the Umbrian
with the breadth of execution of the Florentine.
But similar characteristics — the five
small predellas which once form of the
Madonna of Sant’ Antonio, whilst the ‘Sermon
on the Monnt,’ in Lord Lansdowne’s collection
at Bowood, and part of the predella of the Ansidei
Madonna, display the influence of the works of
io, Filippino, and Ghirlandajo.
It is not historically proved that Raphael and
Da Vinci were intimate, but all the pictures which
left Raphael’s easel at Florence in 1505-6 recall
ardo in expression, concentration of lines and
light, tempe tN yee. and subtle combina-
s of movement and tints. Examples are Ma-
donnas and Holy Families, of which the most con-
i are that of the Gran Duca, the small
, the Cardellino, and Casa Tempi, at
Florence, and the Virgin in Green at Vienna. But
in portrait more than elsewhere the lessons of Da
Vinci are visible, and the likeness of Maddalena
Doni at Florence is inspired by the Mona Lisa
of the Louvre. Of special interest to Englishmen
as a creation of this time is the St George, which
was sent by the Duke of Urbino to Henry VIL. of
England, in return for the garter given by that
prince to Guidubaldo of Montefeltro. Attractions
in other ways are the painter’s own likeness at the
Uffizi, in which we discern that the grace of his art
was also displayed in Raphael’s person, the Ma-
donnas of Orleans, of the Palm, of St Petersburg,
and Canigiani, in which Raphael finally appears
as a pure familiar with the arts of all his
Florentine contemporaries.
The Entombment to which Raphael now turned
his attention was finished for Atalanta Baglioni,
and recalls in many ways the misfortunes which-
attended the worthless family of that name, which
had so long governed Perugia. The sketches for
the picture contain incidents that remind us of a
massacre in which Atalanta lost her son. The
picture in the Borghese palace is an embodiment of
all the new a which Raphael uired at
Florence, realising the perfect drawing of Da Vinci
and the sculptural shape of Michelangelo, allied
to nb ue softness, and colour such as onl
Raphael could give. The result is perhaps a little
stiffness, which is happily avoided in a graceful
predella representing lope, Faith, and Charity.
As this fine work advanced to completion Raphael
became very evidently attracted by the style of
Fra Bartolommeo ; and, under the influence of that
master of monumental painting, he brought in
re to perfection the Apostles attendant on the
ternal, in a fresco at San Severo of Perngia,
whilst he composed and finished the Madonna del -
Baldacchino at Florence. ok, the progress of
these works Raphael got into a large practice at
Florence, where he reigned supreme in the absence
of Perugino, Leonardo, and Michelangelo. Some
of the best work of his Florentine period was now
produced—the small Holy Family with the Lamb
at Madrid, much in the spirit of Da Vinci; the St
Catharine of the “Louvre; the Bridgewater and
Colonna Madonnas; the Virgin and Sleeping In-
fant of Milan; the | Cowper Madonna; tlie
Bella Giardiniera, and the Esterhazy Madonna.
From the days of Giotto and Masaccio to those
of Raphael Rome had always attracted to its
centre painters and sculptors of acknowled
skill in other cities of Italy. Michelangelo had
left Florence for the Vatican, and Raphael in 1508
did the same at the instigation of his relative
Bramante, who was in great favour with Julius
IL., and not without support from Michelangelo,
The plans of this pope were gigantic. He laid the
ation of the new cathedral of St Peter be-
cause old St Peter’s was tottering to its fall, and he
caused the tne my chambers to be decorated afresh
because he disliked the frescoes of the old masters
at that time covering their walis. He employed
Raphael because Perugino, Sodoma, and others
had failed to satisfy his taste. The date of
Raphael’s engagement to paint the ‘Camere’ of
the Vatican is now fixed with certainty as 1509.
In the ceiling of the chamber ‘of the Signature’
the space is divided into fields, in which the
Temptation, the Judgment of Solomon, the Crea-
tion of the Planets, and Marsyas and Apollo were
inserted side side with medallions enclosin
allegories of Theology, Philosophy, Justice, an
Poetry. All these pictures exhibit an expanded
style, in which the spirit of Perugino, quickened
by the subtler spirit of Leonardo and Fra Bar-
tolommeo, becomes associated with the antique.
Never before had the artist had such an oppor-
a of study as now. When at Rome he was
enabled to visit the treasures of old sculpture and
582
RAPHAEL SANTI
gems at the Vatican, and the collections of the
cardinals Rovere and Medici. On the walls of the
camera Raphael the Disputa, in which he
represented the Eternal, Christ, Mary, and the
apostles and ls presiding in heaven over the
sages of the Trinitarian controversy. Here Raphael
practically entered on a method of painting with
which he not been very familiar; but he gained
confidence as he proceeded, and, ually descend-
ing from the higher parts to the lower, he equally
plied the models and precepts of Leonardo and
ra Bartolommeo, became bolder and more ener-
getic in the conception and rendering of form, and
nearly succeeded in equalling the power of Michael-
angelo himself. It was a bappy time during which
the youthful master laboured at this composition,
the time when he longed to add to the art which
he knew so well that of poetry, in which Michel-
angelo excelled. His sketches for the Disputa
are filled with snatches of sonnets, which, as he
soon saw, were entirely beneath the mark. But
if his friends should reject his verses, they could
praise his picture, which is indeed the noblest
work that had then been completed at Rome. The
School of Athens immediately followed the Dis-
puta, taking Raphael into the pre-Christian period
of Plato and Aristotle. The picture embodied old
philosophy and sciences, It was laid out in a
temple planned for Raphael by Bramante, in which
the philosophers met, pe rieweae clad in the
dress of the ancient Greeks, surrounded by statues
and bas-reliefs, which all gave occasion to the
inter to transport his spectators into an almost
orgotten realm. The manner in which he repro-
duced antique character and costume, in action,
movement, and expression, is acknowledged to
have been worthy of the man who succeeded in
displaying with a single effort the | rhs up made
by Italian painters from the days of Giotto to those
> | Ghirlandajo. The Parnassus which came after
the School of Athens takes us back to the of
Greek verse, showing us Apollo and the Muses
attended by the poets from Homer to Ovid, and
escorted by Dante. Raphael’ admirably trans-
formed the antique into something living and
— to the moderns, infusing into F age and
res the life of a scenic actu “36 e legory
of Prudence, which came next, is less natural than
the Par , but x d from atfectedness by
grace of lines and skill in pictorial treatment. The
‘subordinate pictures of the i accepting the
Decretals, Justinian receiving the Pandects, and
Augustus saving the manuscripts of Virgil are
worthy adjuncts to the principal themes. Julius
IL asked Raphael to introduce his portrait into
the Decretals, and the likeness of the pontiff with
a beard enables us to fix the date of the comple-
tion of the Chamber of the Signature in the middle
of August 1511. On the same day that Julius
II. was privileged to witness the completion of
Raphael's first cycle of wall-paintings he officiated
at mass in the Sixtine Chapel, where the first half
of Michelangelo’s ceiling was uncovered.
Darin e progress of the works in which
he employed and formed the talents of his
disciples, Giovanni da Udine, Penni, and Giulio
Romano, Raphael divided his time between the
labours of the Vatican and easel-pictures. The
portraits of Julius IL. and the Virgin of the Popolo,
of which copies have come down to us, were exe-
cuted ; drawings were furnished to the copper-
plate-engraver Marcantonio for the Massacre of
the Innocents; and Madonnas and Holy Families
were composed, of which it is only possible here to
give the names—Madonnas of Alba at St Peters-
barg, of Garvagh at the National Gallery, of Mr
rs, of the Diadem at the Louvre. Nothing
id exceed the impatience of Julius to get the
chambers of the Vatican properly decorated.
urged Raphael not in vain to the
Heliodorus, and ina pg ne short
master produced, with clever help from
ciples, ceiling, in which the Eternal
Noah, Abraham's Sacrifice, Jacob's
the Burning Bush. In all these
Raphael's mastery is Great, and his fi
Eternal are majestic. The Expulsion
and the Mass of Bolsena one pee that
a pictorial license the pontiff is t as
scenes are enacted. The death of Julius
1513 but slightly teers the labours of
painter, who gave a noble rend of Leo X.
and his suite in the picture of the Defeat of Attila.
The Deliverance of Peter, which closed the decora-
tions, was an effective piece of composition,
which Raphael for once indulged in contrasts of
torch and moonlight and glare balanced by A serke
ful pone The constant employment of ples
enabled Raphael, in the three years which elapsed
between the nomena of the two chambers—i.e,
between 1511 and 1514—to finish the Madonna di
Foligno at Rome, the Isaiah of St Agostino at
Rome, the Galatea of the Farnesina, and the Sibyls
of the Pace, not to speak of the mosaics of the
Popolo ordered ay Aaeetiee Chigi. In many of
these works Raphael’s style is equal to that of
Michelangelo at the Sixtine, with the additional
charm of a grace which was his own. He also laid
the antique under contribution with great skill
and success, and his art was that of a master who
works without hesitation because ready for every
form of effort that can be required of hi Ina
ver mood he also painted at this time the severe
Watcane of the Fish at Madrid, in a playfully
E
ee
FF
: rtpee
Fries
iy
sweet mood the Madonna della Sedia at ce 5
whilst in portraits such as Altoviti at Munich, and
Inghirami at Florence, he rises to the fect
rendering of features and expression which finds
its greatest triumph in the Leo X. of Florence,
Raphael, who had been greatly favoured by cere
became a personal favourite of Leo, who sel
him to succeed Bramante as architect of St Peter's
in 1514, and afterwards made him inspector of
Roman ruins. But he was as impatient as his pre-
decessor to get the Vatican cham finished, and
he successfully obtained from the masters the
frescoes of the Camera dell’ Incendio, which all illus-
trate scenes from the lives of Leonine popes: the
Fire of Borgo, in which all the remnants of Roman
buildings known to Raphael are introduced, the
Battle of Ostia against the Saracens, the Corona-
tion of Charlemagne, and the Oath of Leo IIL
But Raphael was now too busy to attend per-
sonally to wall-painting, and much of his attention
was taken up with the composition of the cartoons
which he executed, with help from assistants, for
the tapestries of the Sixtine Chapel. It would be
impossible to describe these masterpieces or the
tapestries made from them in the space here at
our command. The cartoons may be seen at the
Kensington Museum, the tapestries at the Vatican.
They are masterpieces worthy of a pilgrimage ; the
first completed in December 1516, the second
woven at Brussels in 1519. At this period of his
career Raphael was a welcome guest in the best
circles of Rome, painted the likenesses of the
pope’s relatives, Giuliano and Lorenzo de’ Med
and was asked in vain for peas by the Duke
Ferrara. His portraits of the Duke of Urbino,
Castiglione, Bembo, Navagero, and his decoration
of Cardinal Bibiena’s rooms at the Vatican tell of
the company which he frequented. When Leo X.
succumbed to Francis I. after Marignano Raphael
followed the pontiff to Florence and Bologna, and
found there the new patrons for whom he executed
the Sixtine Madonna, the St Cecilia of Bologna,
RAPHANIA
‘
RAPP “583
and the Ezechiel of the Pitti. The labours sub-
sequently completed were immense, including the
Spasimo at Madrid, the Holy Family and St
Michael, which the pope sent to the king of France
in 1518, and the likeness of the vice-queen of
Aragon, followed by the celebrated portrait of the
Violin-player of the Sciarra collection at Rome.
Wall-painting, with help from the assistants, was
iligently carried on, and produced the cycle of
the Psyche legend at the Farnesina, the gospel-
scenes of the Loggie of the Vatican, and the frescoes
of the Hall of Constantine. The last work done in
the master’s painting-room was the Tri
which was nearly finished when Raphael died of a
i fever canght in the excavations of
‘He expired on the 6th of April 1520, after
a week’s illness.
See Castiglione, Cortiviano (Padua, 1766); Pungileoni,
Elovio Storkodt Raffuctio Sant (Urbine, 12); Ramohr
foe
Dresden, 1881);
Entwickel
in the Vatican); and Ra,
the present writer and G.
Ihania, or Ercorism, is a disease which
‘was much more prevalent some centuries ago than
it is at present. The name raphania was first
given to it by Linneus, who thought the morbid
toms were dependent upon the mixture of
us Raphanistrum, or jointed charlock, with
the wheat used as food. It was suspected, as
early as the end of the 16th century, that the
disease was due to the development of a fungus in
the grain, and this fact is now established beyond
doubt, although some writers hold (as Linneus
did) that this morbid state is also produced by the
presence of poisonous plants, especially Lolium
temulentum, or darnel, among the grain. ficiency
of proper food probably contributes to cause the
i , for it rarely occurs when ergot is used
medicinally. Although rye is the ordinary seat of
the poisonous fungus, wheat, rice, and other grains
are liable to be similarly affected, and to produce
similar results. See Ercor.
There are two forms of the disease—the spas-
modic and the gangrenous. In both, symptoms of
irritation of the digestive organs are the first to
pear. In the ve form tingling or itching
various parts of the body, with loss of sensation
in the feet and hands, are the most constant
symptoms. Violent contractions of the muscles
may occur, giving rise to intense pain, and some-
times epileptic convulsions supervene. In the gan-
grenous form the extremities are painful, red but
cold, and not easily moved; and after a varying
time gangrene supervenes. With rd to treat-
ment, the main t ing is to replace the toumons
flour by easily digested, wholesome food. Whatever
be the form of treatment adopted, the mortality in
the gangrenous form is usually 90 per cent. e
spasmodic form is much less destructive to life.
hia, the name of a group of palms (see
Vol. VIL. p. 722), the leaves, bark, and pith of
which are used for various purposes. The bast
of one South American species, R. tadigera or
Jupati-palm, is largely used by gardeners every-
where for tying up plants, in fastening grafts, &c.
And — = oo of bd leaves of another Lean
found in agascar, &c., are supposed to be what
was taken for ‘roc’s quills,’ the feathers of the
fabled Roe (q.v.).
Raphoe, a market-town of Donegal, 15 miles
SSW. of Londonderry. Its former see was united
to Derry in 1835. Pop. 986.
Rapidan, a river of Virginia, and tributary of
the Raiahennodk (q.v-).
Rapids. See WATERFALLS, RIVER, NIAGARA,
Nive, ParanA, &e.
Rapier, a light, highly-tempered, edgeless,
thrustin weapon, finely pointed, and about 3 feet
in len It was for long the favourite weapon
in duelling, and was worn by every gentleman.
At present it is worn only on occasions of court
ceremonial, and answers no other purpose than to
incommode the wearer. Instructions for Fencing
(q.v.) are for fencing with the rapier or foil. See
Sworp.
Rapin de Thoyras, PAUL DE, a French his-
torian of England, was descended from a Pro-
testant Savoyard family, which settled in France
in the 16th century, and was born at Castres, in
edoc, March 25, 1661. He studied at the
Protestant college at Saumur, and passed as advo-
cate in 1679, but had no liking for the profession ;
and when the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
(1685) foreed him to leave France he sought em-
ployment without success in England, and after-
wards in Holland, where he enlisted in a corps
ap
authorities, clear, rapid, and accurate in narration,
methodical in the arrangement of its materials,
comparatively impartial in spirit, and yet betray-
ing on the var of the author an honourable
reverence for law and liberty.
Rapin with the invasion of Britain by the
Romans, a ends with the accession of William III.
The work was continued to the death of William IIT. by
David Durant ( Hague, 2 vols. 1734). The best edition
of the Histoire in its augmented form is by Lefebvre de
Saint-Mare ( Hague, 16 vols. 1749 et seq.). The original
was translated into English by tle Rev. Nicholas ‘Tindal
(Lond, 15 vols. 1725-31), and subsequently by John Kelly
(in 2 vols. fol.).
Rapp, Gerorce, founder of the Harmonists,
also known as the sect of Economites, was born
in Wiirtemberg in 1770, and, after an attempt to
restore the church of New Testament days in Ger-
many, emigrated with his followers to America in
1803 and settled in Butler county, Pennsylvania.
There he established a settlement which he named
Harmony. In 1815 the community removed to In-
diana and founded New Harmony (q.v.); but this
was sold in 1824 to Robert Owen, sad Rapp and his
followers returned to Pennsylvania, where, on a
tract of 2400 acres forming Masntae township, in
Beaver county, they built the village of nomy,
on the right bank of the Ohio, 17 miles N.W. of
Pittsburg. There they engaged in manufactures
and agriculture, and there Rapp died 7th August,
584 RAPP
RASK
1847. The Economites rigid economy, live
lives of celibacy, and have nired t wealth,
consisting of oil territory and other real estate, rail-
way stock, hank shares, &ce, The Harmony Society
is a voluntary association living under certain rules
of their own adoption, to which every one who is
admitted must subscribe, and, while the property of
the association is held in common, any person on
becoming a member renounces all right to claim
any of the common estate should he afterwards de-
sire to withdraw. At one time the membership
numbered 600, but at present there are less than 100.
Rapp, JEAN, Count, a French general, was
born at Colmar, in the French department of Hant-
Rhin, 27th April 1772. He was intended for the
church, but his taste for a military life led him to
enrol himself (1788) in the mounted ‘chasseurs’
of the French army. Rapp distinguished himself
by dashing gallantry in Germany and Egypt, and
on the death of Desaix at Marengo he me
aide-de-camp to Napoleon. His brilliant charge
at Austerlitz upon the Russian Imperial Guard
was rewarded with the grade of general of division
(1805). For his services at Lobau he was named
a Count of the Empire (1809). He opposed the
Russian expedition, but accompanied the Emperor
throughout the whole of it. His obstinate defence
of Danzig for nearly a year against a powerful
Russian army gained for him greater renown, and
his chivalrous and considerate treatment of the
unfortunate inhabitants during the siege was
warmly a by them. The Russians, con-
trary to the articles of capitulation, sent ae and
his garrison prisoners to Russia, and he did not
return to France till July 1814, On reaching
Paris he was well received by Louis XVIIL; but
in 1815 he went over to his old master, and was
appointed commander-in-chief of the army of the
hine, and peer of France. After Waterloo Rap
in submitted to Louis. Re-created a peer o
see (1819), he held various offices about the
court, and died at Paris, 8th November 1821. See
his Memoirs (1823), and Spach’s Biographies
Alsaciennes (1871).
pahannock, a river of Virginia, rises in
the Blue Ridge of the ears ap A ountains, re-
ceives the Rapidan (above this point it is some-
times called the North Fork), and flows about 125
miles south-east to Chesapeake Bay. It is tidal
and navigable to Fredericksburg. The Rappa-
hannock and the Rapidan were the scenes of some
of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War, at Frede-
ricksburg, Chancellorsville, and the Wilderness.
Rappee’ (Fr. rdpé), a coarse kind of snuff. See
ToBacco.,
Rappers on the north shore of the Lake
ot Zurich, err a castle fitted up in 1869 by a
Polish nobleman as a Polish National Museum ;
pop. 2800.
Raratonga, See Cook IsLanps.
Rarey. See Horsr, Vol. V. p. 795.
Ras (= Heb. rosh), an Arabic word, signifying
‘head,’ * promontory,’ occurs in the names of many
capes on the Arabian and north African coasts,
and also in Sicily and Malta.
Rashes, affections of the skin, characterised
by a red superficial efflorescence, diffused or in
patches, ay fenbe under pressure, and usually
ending in desquamation. To this division of
cutaneous disorders belong Measles, Scarlatina
(or Scarlet Fever), Erysipelas, Erythema, Roseola
(or Scarlet Rash), and Nettle Rash. Of these
rashes Measles, Scarlatina, and Erysipelas are
rather to be regarded as fevers or blood diseases
than as cutaneous diseases in the true sense of
the phrase.
Rashi (from the initials of Rabbi Shelomo
Izaaki, often erroneously called Jarchi), the
sreatest Jewish commentator and ex was
rn about 1040, at Troyes, in France. il i.
philosophy, medicine, epee civil and ecclesi-
astical law, and exegesis were the chief branches of
his learning ; and to a rare proficiency in them he
united a complete mastery over the whole range
of Scripture and the Talmudical sources. In order
further to P dogpeces himself for his gigantic task he
travelled for seven years, visiting the schools of
Italy, Greece, Germany, Palestine, Egy t. His
chief work is his Commentary on the whole of the
Old Testament. Rashi’s style is extremely brief
and concise, yet clear and pogo obscure and
abstruse only to those who lack the necessary pre-
liminary knowledge. Acco to the fashion of
its day, it is replete with allegorical or rather
poetical illustrations, gathered from the wide fields
of the Midrash within and withont the Talmud.
This Commentary—entirely translated into Latin
by Breithaupt, and partly also into German—was
the first book ever printed in Hebrew (
1474). Of his numerous other works may be men-
tioned his Commentary on the Babylonian Talmud ;
a Commentary to the Pirke Aboth; the Pardes,
treating of Laws and Ceremonies ; a Collection of
1 Votes and Decisions; a Commentary on
Midrash Rabbah; a Book of Medicine; and a
Poem on the Unity of God. He died 13th July
1105; and such was his piety and his surpassing
eminence that later generations wove a shining
garland of legends around his head.
Rask, Rasmus Curistian, philologist, was
born at Briindekilde, near Odense, in the island of
Fiinen, 22d November 1787, studied pth pe aye
and in 1808 published his first work on the rules of
the Icelandic lenges Leics the years 1807—
12 he occupied himself with drawin "h gram-
matical systems for most of the Garnemie lavonie,
and Romance tongues, and in comparing them with
those of India. e then visited Sweden, and in
1813 proceeded to Iceland, where he lived for three
years. On his return to Copenhagen he was
po ent sub-librarian to the university, and in
1818 published his splendid researches concernin,
the origin of the Icelandic langu After spend-
ing a year (1817) in Stockholm, where he published
his admirable Anglo-Saxon grammar and the first
critical edition of the Snorra Edda and the Edda
Saemundar, he went to St Petersburg, and there
devoted himself for two years to the nay of the
oriental languages, principally Sanskrit, Persian,
and Arabic, while at the same time he also
acquired a competent knowledge of Russian and
Finnish. Thus equipped, he proceeded to Astra-
khan, and then commenced a rage be the
country of the Turkomans, the Caucasus, Persia
(adding meanwhile the Mongol and Manchu dia-
lects to his already enormous linguistic acquisi-
tions), and finally Ceylon, where he made himself
acquainted with Singhalese and Pali, and wrote
his Singalesisk Shriftlaere (1822). In 1823 Rask
returned to Copenhagen, laden with learning and
rare manuscript treasures, of which the greatest
part was presented to the university. In 1825 he
Was appointed pres of Literary History, in
1828 of Oriental Languages, and in 1831 of Ice-
landic, But his immense labours had exhausted
his energies, and lie died, 14th November 1832, at
the early sae of forty-five, a victim of hard work.
Rask also wrote on Frisian
mmar espe
ancient Egyptian chronology (1827), on Hebrew.
chronology (1828), grammars of several languages,
and a t number of miscellaneous articles in the
learned journals of the North, which were collected
after his death, and published (3 vols. 1834-38).-
There are English editions of his Anglo-Saxon,
RASKOLNIKS
RAT 585
Danish, and Icelandic nmars. See the Lives
by Petersen (1870) and Rénning (1887).
Raskolniks, the name of a variety of sects in
the Russian Chureh. See Russta.
Raspail, Francors VINcENT (1794-1878), a
French chemist, doctor, and revolutionist, whose
eamphor-system (1845) was a forerunner of anti-
septic surgery. See a monograph on him by Saint-
artin (Paris, 1877). :
Raspberry (Rubus Ideus), the most valued
of all species of Rubus (q.v.). The characters
of the leaves, flowers, and fruit of raspberry are well
Raspberry (Rubus Ideus).
illustrated in the accompanying figure. The wild
berry has scarlet fruit, and is found in thickets
and woods throughout the whole of Europe and
the north of Asia. It is common in Britain. The
raspberry has long been in cultivation for its fruit.
There are many cultivated varieties, with red,
ellow, and white fruit, much exceeding the wild
ind in size. The root is creeping, perennial ; the
stems only biennial, bearing fruit in the second
year, woody, but with very large pith. Planta-
tions of raspberries are most easily made by means
of suckers. The raspberry loves a light rich soil,
and is rather partial to a shady situation. The
tall kinds are unsuitable in situations much
exposed to winds, as the stems are easily broken.
The rows are generally about 4 feet ee the
plants 3 to 4 feet apart in the rows, youn;
stems are thinned out to allow free access of a4
to those which are left. Stakes are often used to
support the stems, or they are variously tied
ther. The fruit is used for dessert ; for jams,
jellies, &c. ; for making or flavouring many
of sweetmeats ; and, mixed with ly, wine, or
vinegar, for the pre tion of Raspberry Syrup,
Raspberry Vinegar, &e. Different preparations of
it are used in medicine in cases of fever, inflam-
mation, &c. Raspberry vinegar is a
— and cooling drink in fevers.
ermented either alone or along with currants and
cherries, yield a strong and very agreeable wine,
from which a very powerful s frit can be made..
Some of the other species of Rubus most nearl
resembling the raspberry produce also ble
fruits. 2. odoratus is a highly ornamental shrub,
a native of Canada and_the northern
America, is frequent in European
gardens, but rarely produces fruit in Britain.
Raspe, J. E. See MUNCHAUSEN.
Rassam, Hormvuzp, Assyriologist, was born,
the son of Chaldean Christian parents, at Mosul
in So 9 eT in 1826. He gained the friend-
ship of Layard, and assisted him in his excava-
tions at Nineveh in 1845-47 and 1849-51, and then
succeeded him, until 1854, as British agent for
conducting Assyrian explorations. His dest
suecess was the finding of the palace of Assur-
bani-Pal (Sardanapalus). After holding in the
following years political offices at Aden and
Muscat, he was sent (1864) by the British govern-
ment to Abyssinia, to demand the release of the
Europeans kept in prison by King Theodore ; but
that potentate cast him also into prison, and only
released him with the rest of his captives after his
army had been defeated by Sir R. Napier in 1868.
From 1876 to 1882 Rassam was employed by the
trustees of the British Museum in making explora-
tions in Mesopotamia, and discovered Sepharvaim
(Sippara) and Kuthah. He published The British
Mission to Theodore, King of Abyssinia (1869).
Rastatt, or RAsTapT, a town and first-class
fortress in en, stands on the Murg, 3 miles
from its junction with the Rhine, and 15 miles
SW. of Carlsruhe. Steel wares, beer, and tobacco
are manufactured. From 1725 to 1771 the town
was the residence of the Margraves of Baden-
Baden. The present fortifications were erected in
1840-48 by Austrian engineers to protect the
northern entrance to the Black Forest. Rastatt
is memorable for two congresses—the first in
1714, when a treaty of peace, which brought the
war of the Spanish Succession to a close, was
signed between Marshal Villars and Prince Eugene;
and the second in 1797-99. On the breaking u
of this latter congress without any definite result
the three French plenipotentiaries set out for
Strasburg; but they scarcely got beyond the
pees of Rastatt when they were attacked by
ustrian hussars, and two of the three slain, whilst
the third was left for dead in a ditch. Their papers
were carried off, but no further spoil was taken.
It seems that the Archduke Charles gave orders
to the hussars to drive the French representatives
out of Rastatt and take away their papers; the
killing was the work of the officers, misunder-
standing their orders. The town payee a promi-
nent part in 1849 as the stronghold of the revolu-
tionists in Baden. Pop. (1890) 11,570.
Rat, a name applied to the larger species of the
rodent genus Mus, but especially to the Brown Rat
(M. decumanus) and the Black Rat (MM. rattus).
Like the mice, which are included in the same
nus, rats are agile and graceful animals, skil-
ul in burrowing, predominantly nocturnal. The
bright eyes, large ears, naked muzzle, soft fur, and
long scaly tail are familiar external characteristics.
The brown or Norway rat measures about eight
inches in length, not including the tail, which is
usually shorter than the body. It is grayish-brown
in colour, with flesh-coloured ears, feet, and tail.
Black varieties sometimes occur. It is believed to
have travelled onpeone westwards, perhaps from
China, and did not reach France or Britain till to-
wards the middle of the last century. In 1727
swarms swam across the Volga, and rapidly spread
over Europe, dispossessing the black rat which
had arrived some centuries before. According to
some, the black rat was brought to Britain in 1732
in ships from the East Indies, As a common
stowaway in ships, it has been distributed over the
world, reaching America about 1775. The black
rat is smaller and slimmer than the brown rat.
The head and body measure six or seven inches
in length; the tail is an inch or two longer.
The head is more slender than in the brown
rat, and the ears are rather larger. In most
the colour is glossy black, but white and piebald
varieties may occur. It is less fierce than the
brown rat, and seems to be less distinctively a
burrowing rodent, preferring the upper parts of
houses to the cellars. Its original home seems to
586 RAT
RATEL
have been in the East, perhaps in Persia, but it
must have reached northern Europe by the 13th
century at least, for its troublesome presence is
noticed by Albertus Magnus.
These species of rat have similar habits, and the
stronger, larger, and fiercer form sometimes tends
to exterminate the other, this being one of the few
instances which Darwin gives of his conclusion that
the struggle for existence is keenest between closely
allied species. As to the habits of rats, it is well
known that they find their way everywhere; no
door is shut to them; they gnaw and burrow
through almost all obstacles. They run and leap,
they climb and swim. They are fond of animal
food, but will eat almost anything ; corn, fodder,
all kinds of human food, eggs, young birds, small
mammals, all is grist to their mill. In illustration
of their voracity it is often related that in a
slaughter-house near Paris thirty-five dead horses
were picked to the bones in a single night. When
ressed by hunger they display much boldness,
and their skill in stealing even such unmanageable
C
Black Rat (Mus rattus); Brown Rat (Mus decumanus).
goods as eggs is well known. Their senses, espe-
cially of smell and hearing, are acute, and their
intelligence is well developed. The mothers are
careful of their tender offspring, but the males dis-
play the reverse of parental affection. The albinos
are delightful pets. Brehm cites several strange
observations in.regard to the so-called ‘ rat-kings,’
which consist apparently of a number of diseased
rats with entangled tails. It is said that over two
dozen individuals have been found thus entangled.
Rats are very prolific, breeding four or five times a
year. Four to ten young are brought forth at a
birth, after a very short gestation of about three
weeks. Moreover, the young become sexually
mature in about six months. All the conditigns
favour rapid increase, and plagues of rats by no
means easy to cope with not unfrequently occur.
Rats do much damage in various ways—by their
burrows, by their voracious gnawing of all sorts of
things, by their omnivorous appetite. They under-
tine walls, destroy woodwork, devour stores.
When pressed with hunger they may attack large
mammals, and even man himself sometimes falls
a victim. They have been known to eat holes in
fat pigs, to gnaw off the legs of birds, and even to
destroy the soles of elephants’ feet. Their destruc-
tion may in many cases be left to their natural
enemies—birds of prey and carnivorous mammals
—but it is often necessary to resort to the use of
Te and poisons. One of the most effective ways
of destroying them is to feed them with a mixture
of meal and plaster of Paris, Their skin is some-
times used for making glove-leather; and their
flesh, according to The Farmer's Friends and Foes,
by Theodore Wood (1887), is, if similarly cooked,
superior to rabbit.
here are several genera nearly related to Mus—
e.g. Nesocia, of which an East Indian species, the
Bandicoot-rat (N. bandicota), may measure over
a foot in length; Hapalotis, represented by little
jerboa-like animals in Australia; Echinothrix,
with one species in Celebes, a rat with a very long
muzzle, and spines among the fur; Cricetomys,
represented by a formidable African species (C.
gambianus) of large size and ferocious voracity.
ir
To some more remotely related rodents the term
rat is often Mg some applied—e.g. to the Water-
vole (Arvicola amphibius ; see VOLE), and to the
American Musk-rat ( Viber zibethicus). See MOUSE,
RODENTIA.
Rata (Metrosideros robusta), a New Zealand
tree related to various species of Ironwood (q.v.).
The seed is believed to be swallowed by a cater-
pillar, and to sprout in its interior, the fosterin
grub being of course killed. The tree begins life
as a climber, attached to other forest-trees, and
attains a height of 150 feet ; but when it has killed
the supporting stem the rata is able to sustain its
own weight and to grow on as an independent tree,
attaining slttesebety, a height of near 200 feet.
The wood is very hard, formerly much used for
making clubs, and is valuable for shipbuilding.
See Abercromby, Sea and Skies (1889).
Ratafi‘a, a flavouring essence made with the
essential oil of Almonds (see ALMONDs). The name
is sometimes given to other essences.
Ratak. See MARSHALL ISLANDs.
Ratcliffe Tables. See FRIENDLY Socreries.
Rate. See Borovcu, County, Poor-LAws,
and (under Tax) TAXATION.
Ratel (Mellivora), a genus of quadrupeds of
the Bear family (Arctoidea), nearly allied to the
Glutton (q.v.), from which it differs in having one
false molar less in each jaw and the upper tuber-
cular teeth slightly developed. The general aspect
is similar to that of the badgers, but heavier and
more clumsy. Three species are known, which
inhabit Africa and India; one species, the Cape
Ratel (M. ratel or capensis), inhabits the south of
The Cape Ratel ( Mellivora ratel).
Africa, and is said to feed much on bees and their
honey, its thick fur protecting it against their
stings; the other inhabits the north of India,
prowls about by night, is a voracious devourer of
animal food, and often scratches up recently
interred bodies from their graves. The Cape ratel
is about the size of a badger, gray above, black
below. It is easily tamed, and is amusingly active
in confinement, continually running about its cage,
and tumbling strange somersaults to attract the
attention of spectators, from which it seems to
derive great pleasure.
——————
RATH
RATIONALISM 587
Rath, the Irish name for a prehistoric hill-fort.
See HILL-FORTS.
Rathenow, 2 town of Prussia, on the right
bank of the Havel (here crossed by a stone bridge),
43 miles by rail W. by N. of Berlin. Optical in
struments, wooden wares, machinery, bricks and
tiles, are made. Pop. (1885) 13,072 ; (1895) 18,418.
Rathkeale, a town of Ireland, on the river
Deel, 19 miles SW. of Limerick by rail. Pop. 2549.
Rathlin, a crescent-sha island off the coast
of Antrim, 64 miles N. of lycastle. Measuring
64 by 14 miles, and 3398 acres in area, it has fine
cliffs, consists of columnar basalt and limestone,
and attains a maximum altitude of 449 feet. The
soil in the valleys is fertile, but fishing is the
leading industry, the kelp-manufacture being quite
extinct. Rathlin is identified with the Ricinra of
Ptolemy, Ricnia of Pliny, and Raghlin or herin
(‘ fortress of Ireland’) of later writers. St Columba
established a church here in the 6th century ; and
Bruce in 1306 took refuge in a castle, now a ruin.
Pop. (1841) 1039; (1891) 365.
Ratibor, a town of Prussian Silesia, stands on
the left bank of the Oder, 44 miles SSE. of Oppeln.
It is the chief town of the principality of Ratibor,
which, a sovereign duchy from 1288 to 1532, has
since 1742 been subject to Prussia. The town
manufactures tobacco, shoes, paper, glass, sugar,
furniture, &c., and has large ironworks. Pop.
(1875) 17,269; (1890) 20,578.
Ratich, WoLFGANG (sometimes called RATKE
or Latinised as RATICHIUS), educationist, was born
at Holstein in 1571, based a new system of educa-
tion on Bacon’s philosophy, which he expounded to
the German princes at Frankfort in 1612, and had
an oo igeoge 4 of putting into practice at Kéthen
in 1618, by favour of the prince of Anhalt. His
principle was the realistic one of proceeding from
things to names, and from the mother-tongue to
the study of foreign ones. But he got inte bad
relations with the clergy and with his Deane |
and was actually imprisoned for eight mon A
second chance given him at Magdeburg in 1620
ended also in failure, and after some years of
ineffective wanderings he died at Erfurt in 1635.
There are monographs on him by Krause (1872), Stérl
(1876), and Schumann (1876); and see R. H. Quick,
Essays on Educational Reformers (1868; new ed. 1890).
Ratio. See Proportion, FLUXxIONs.
Ration, in the British Army, is the allowance
of provisions granted to each officer on service and
in some colonies, and to each non-commissioned
officer and soldier at all times unless on furlough
or otherwise specially provided for. The ordinary
ration is # lb. of meat, with 1 Ib. of bread (‘ best
seconds’), increased by } lb. of meat when in camp
or abroad. Sometimes a ry ration (tea or
coffee, sugar, salt, &c.) is also issued, 1}d. being
then deducted from the pay of the recipient.
When men are not supplied with bread and meat
rations an allowance of 6d. per diem is granted
them. The bread ration may be increased dur-
ing operations in the field, though not above
1} lb. of bread or 1 Ib. of biscuit, and the officer
commanding may direct the issne in addition of
wine, spirits, or any other article of subsistence
equivalent thereto. The families of soldiers accom-
panying them abroad are allowed the following :
wife (married under regulations), half a ration ;
each legitimate child under fourteen, quarter ration.
A ration of forage at home consists of 10 1b. of oats,
12 lb, of hay, and 8 Ib. of straw for each horse. An
extra 2 lb. of oats is allowed in camp. Staff-
officers and mounted officers of infantry provide
their own forage except on active service, and are
granted a pecuniary allowance of about Is. 74d.
(varying with the locality) per day to enable them
to do so.
The full navy ration consists of the followin
articles: Daily—1} Ib. of ship-biscuit or 14 lb. of soft
bread, 4 pint of spirit, 2 oz. sugar, 1 oz. chocolate,
4 oz. tea; 1 lb. fresh meat and 4 lb. of fresh vege-
tables, when these are procurable ; otherwise, 1 lb.
salt pork, with 4 = split peas, or 1 Ib. of salt
beef, with 9 oz. flour, } oz. suet, and 14 oz. of
currants or raisins. On alternate salt-beef days—
2 oz. preserved potatoes. Weekly—{ pint oatmeal,
4 oz. mustard, } oz. Reppert, } pint vinegar. The
sailor’s ration is issued free of any stoppage.
Rational as ‘a system of belief regulated
by reason,’ might be expected to mean the opposite
to) mane dh crass ignorance, and perverse ses
judice ; and the growth of rationalism would then
mean the of civilisation, the development
of the intellectual and moral nature of men and
nations. It is nearly in this sense that Lecky uses
the word ; attributing to its wholesome influence
the decay of the belief in magic, witchcraft, and
other hideous superstitions, and the substitution of
a oe tolerance in place of blind zeal for perse-
cution.
But in ordinary English usage, general as well
as theological, the connotation of the word is
substan of different. It is generally employed
as a term of reproach for those who, without utterly
denying or attempting to overthrow the foundations
of religion, make such concessions to the enemy as
tend to subvert the faith ; who admit the thin end
of a wedge that pressed home will rend and destroy
the fabric. They rely, more or less exclusively and
blameworthily, on mere human reason instead of
simply, resem and fully accepting the dicta of
the divine wo’ An atheist would not be spoken
of as a rationalist, nor would an irreligious, blas-
heming freethinker. Rationalists in ordinary par-
ote are those who are more ‘liberal’ or ‘advanced’
than the main body of the orthodox ; in especial
those who take a ‘low’ view of inspiration, and
minimise or explain away the miraculous details of
the history of revelation and redemption. Ration-
alism is not so much a body of doctrine as a mood
of mind, a tendency of thought shown in the
attempt to apply to religious doctrine, the sacred
story, and the sacred scriptures the same methods
of research and proof as are used in mere human
science and history, and the literatures of all times
and ples. This feature is also recognised,
though with apecerst: by Lecky in his wider use
of the word: ‘ Rationalism,’ he says, ‘leads men
on all occasions to subordinate dogmatic theolo
to the dictates of reason and conscience. . . . It
predisposes men in history to attribute all kinds
of phenomena to natural rather than to miraculous
causes ; in theology to esteem succeeding religious
stems the expression of the wants and aspira-
tions of that religious sentiment which is implanted
in man; and in ethics to regard as duties only
those which conscience reveals to be such.’ Ration-
alism, not being a system but a temper or drift
of mind, has different aims at different times;
just as ‘liberalism’ in polities was not the same
thing before 1832 as it came to be after, or in 1832
what it was in 1867, 1885, or 1890. Opinions are
heard in sermons and expounded in books by theo-
logical professors in 1891 without proving serious
stumbling-blocks to the majority, which in 1860
would by all but a small minority have been re-
garded as distinctly rationalistic. Thus, till latel
it was alarming rationalism to dispute the Mosaic
authorship of Genesis, the Solomonic authorship
of the Song of Songs, and the Davidie authorship
of any of the Psalms; now the newer view is
assumed by many orthodox teachers. And in the
last quarter of the 19th century scholars earnestly
588 RATLIONALISM
RATISBON
eoupers views which they themselves treated as
highly dangerous rte ¢ or thirty years earlier.
Rationalism of this kind is a transition stage, but
not necessarily a transition to unbelief.
The rationalistie temper may be traced in almost
every age of the church's ape, a no doubt the
extremer representatives of the Petrine party in
sub-apostolic times regarded Paul’s views as lax
and rationalistic. If the Reformation was not
rooted in rationalism (as to Catholics it seems
to have been), many of the contentions of the
reformers were such as all rationalists t and
sympathise with. Zwingli was a rationalist to
Luther and the Lutherans ; Socinus was of course
a rationalist of an extreme type. The dry and
barren dogmatic orthodoxy of Germany in the 17th
century fostered a rationalism as cold and un-
spiritual. In the England of the 18th —
uring the Deistie controversies, the Evangelicals
of Germany thought, not altogether unjustly, that
some of the most conspicuous 5g Lasygtied of the
deists were not themselves free from the charge
of rationalism; and the Evangelicals of Scotland
ed the ‘moderates’ of the 18th century,
however orthodox in dogma, as thoroughly ration-
alistic in spirit. Rationalism is not so much
opposed to orthodoxy as to mysticism, and what
was called variously fanaticism, enthusiasm, ‘ high-
flying,’ and methodism. A soulless orthodoxy has
not seldom been opposed by a fervent piety that
by a not unnatural antithesis has tended to run
into heretical extremes; while, on the other hand,
actual rationalists have often been foremost amongst
the champions of religion, and of revealed religion,
against radical freethinking, deism, naturalism,
and materialism.
In Germany the term rationalism is more definite
in its reference than in England, but is not always
used in quite the same sense. The two defective
and mutually opposed schools of thought that Kant
sought to supersede by his critical philosophy were,
on the one hand, a shallow empiricism, and on
the other a baseless and overweening metaphysical
dogmatism or rationalism. Bacon also contrasted
empirical philosophers with rationalists who spin
their systems as spiders do cobwebs out of their
own bowels. Wolff presents the most conspicuous
example of the philosophical rationalism which
held that all that is in heaven above and earth
beneath could be ‘proved’ by pseudo-mathematical
methods: and as God, responsibility, and immor-
tality were amongst the things that could be
proved at endless length and in various ways,
this philosophical rationalism led directly up to a
rationalist theology, which consisted mainly in a
series of dogmas to be demonstrated from the philo-
sophical axioms, including some at least of the
doctrines of revealed religion, What in revelation
could not be demonstrated according to this scheme
was disallowed or explained away. Practical
religion became in the Aufkldrung a system of
mere utilitarian morals.
Kant prepared the way for a deeper view of man,
history, and the universe; but his own explicit
statements on positive religion were pronouncedly
rationalistic: and the negative side of his philo-
sophy was well calculated to lay the foundations
of another school of theological rationalists (often
called Vulgér-rationalismus), of whom Tieftrunk
(1759-1837), Bretschneider (1776-1848), and Weg-
acheider (1771-1849) may be taken as representa-
tives. De Wette (1780-1849) shows the transition
to Schleiermacher, who (though in the English
sense of the word he was an outspoken rationalist)
combined what was best in the opposing schools of
rationalists and supernaturalists, founded a higher
and truer religious philosophy, and heralded even
the ‘ pectoral theology ’ of the mediation school.
But it was notin the 8 of speculation and
dogma, but in that of biblical criticism, that Ger-
man rationalism accomplished its main work, and
left its deepest mark on subsequent theological
development. In the early 18th cen the
‘Germans in- Greek were sadly to seek,’ as
English scholars thought: the Germans them-
selves admitted that in studying the Scriptures
they failed to escape from dogmatic presupposi-
tions, and that it was the English divines who ap-
proached the New Testament in a historical spirit,
which in the Germany of that day caused mis-
givin It is noteworthy that ler (1725-91),
‘the father of rationalism,’ obtained the doctorate
for a thesis written against Whiston, Bentley, and
other English scholars in defence of the ‘three
heavenly witnesses’ of 1 John, v. 7. Semler in
the schools, supported by Lessing and Herder in
literature, was soon teaching that the books of the
Bible must be studied as human productions: Eich-
horn (1752-1827) thoroughly accepted and applied
that principle. Rationalist criticism was carried
to an absurd length by Paulus Spat tee | who
taught that the Gospels contained natural and
not supernatural events, and whose most ingenious
but inept ‘explanations’ of the miracles of the
New Testament, ‘retaining everywhere the husk
but surrendering the religious kernel,’ were made
a laughing-stock by Strauss. Strauss’s ‘ mythical
theory’ (excessively rationalist in the English sense
of the term) was in its turn superseded by Baur
(q.v.) and the new Tiibingen school, whose epoch-
making work marks the opening of the most recent
period in scriptural criticism. e ‘notes’ of the
newer criticism, whether more or less rationalist
from the older English point of view, are the con-
viction that all truth is one, whether derived from
the natural sciences, historical research, the dic-
tates of conscience, or the records of divine revela-
tion, and the willingness to accept what is appar-
ently established by the consensus of scholars even
where this involves giving up the belief in the
inerrancy of Scripture. Many of the contentions
of self-confident and aggressive rationalism have
long since mutually destroyed one another. No-
thing can be more contrary to the true historic and
scientific spirit than the assumptions of a reckless
sciolism : there is a false and a true rationalism ;
and it should be remembered that much that is
now most surely believed by all has at one time
or another been branded as rationalistic.
See the church histories; Tholuck, Vi ichte des
Rationalismus (1853) and Geschichte des ionalismus
(1865, unfinished), and earlier monographs by Stdudlin
and Riickert ; H. J. Rose’s essay On the State of Religion
in Protestant Germany (1825), and Pusey’s Historical
Inquiry into the Causes of the ionalist Character of
the Feat tn the, Prertet A. S. Farrar, Criti-
why Cairns,
Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century (1881); eiderer,
The Development of Theology in Germany since Kant
(Lond. 1890); also the articles in this work on CuuRcH
History, RerorMation, DersM, ExrGgsis, and works
there cited, with the articles on the chief rationalist
critics and thinkers,
Ratisbon (Ger. REGENSBURG), a town of
Bavaria, stands on the right bank of the Danube,
82 miles by rail NNE. of Munich. Formerly a
free city of the empire and seat of the Diet, Ratis-
bon presents a strongly marked medieval character,
with narrow crooked streets, and high, many-cor-
nered, gabled houses. Among its churches the most
—“——
RATNAGIRI
RAUCH 589
remarkable is the noble Gothic cathedral, begun in
1275, but not completed till 1534, and restored in
the 19th century. The Church of St James, for-
merly belonging to the Irish (Scot) Benedictines,
dates from the 12th century, and is built in the
pure Byzantine style. The old town-hall was
used for a century and a half (1645-1806) as the
pee of meeting for the imperial diet. At the
Iden Cross Inn Charles V. met the mother of his
son Don John of Austria. There are numerous
interesting private dwellings, as the Thurn and
Taxis Palace, with library (40,000 vols.), picture-
gallery, &e., the royal villa, and others. A stone
ridge (1135-46), 1024 feet long, connects Ratisbon
with the busy trading suburb of Stadt am Hof.
The manufactures include porcelain and stoneware,
brass and steel wares, leather, tobacco, lead-pencils,
chemicals, &c.; and there is an active trade, espe-
oa ls corn and salt. Pop. (1875) 31,487; 1890)
37,365. Originally a Celtic town, asbona
(whence Ratisbon), this place was made by the
Romans a frontier fortress. Later it was the
capital of the Dukes of Bavaria. Frederick IT.
declared it (1245) a free imperial city. During
the 14th century it was the chief seat of the Indo-
Levantine trade, and was one of the most popu-
lous cities of southern Germany. Here were signed
the Ratisbon Interim (q.v.) in 1541 and the armis-
tice between France and Austria in 1684. The
city was stormed by Duke Bernhard of Weimar
in 1633, and by both the Austrians and the French
in 1809. It was ceded to Bavaria in 1810. See
works by Weininger (7th ed. 1884) and Janner (3
vols, 1883-86).
Ratna giri, a coast-town of India, 136 miles 8.
E. of Bombay, with a fort and sardine-fishery.
‘op. 12,616.—The district has an area of 3922 sq.
m. and a pop. (1891) of 1,105,926. j
Rattan, a walking-stick made from the stem of
@ palm that grows in Sumatra. See PALM, p. 7'
Rattany. See RHATANY.
Rattazzi, Ursano, an Italian statesman, was
born at Alessandria, June 29, 1808. He studied
law at Turin and practised as an advocate with
great snecess at Casale. After the proclamation
of the constitution in 1848 he was elected member
of the Second Chamber for Alessandria, and began
his political career as a democrat. His eloquence
and liberal principles raised him to the ministry :
Gioberti made him minister of the Interior and
later of Justice; but after the defeat of Novara he
was obliged to retire along with the rest of the
ministry. When Napoleon IIL. threatened the
liberty of Piedmont, Cavour, Rattazzi, and their
parties joined together to defeat his schemes, and
in 1853 Rattazzi took the portfolio of Justice under
Cavonr, and presented the bill for the abolition of
convents. Being accused of weakness in suppres-
sing the Mazzinian movement in 1857, he retired
from office early in the following year. In 1859,
however, he was back again in office as minister of
the Interior. The threatened cession of Savoy and
Nice, which he opposed, led to his retirement in
1860. Having changed his views on this point, he
was in March 1862 entrusted with the formation of
@ new ministry, but had to resign at the end of the
year in consequence of his opposition to Garibaldi ;
once more prime-minister for six months in
1867, he lost the post for the same reason. He
ied at Frosinone, June 5, 1873. A want of
stability was his chief drawback as a statesman.
His "oy were edited by Scovazzi (8 vols. Rome,
1876-80). See a Life by Morelli (Padua, 1874), and Rat-
tazzi et son Temps ( Paris, 1881).
Rattlesnake (Crotalus), a genus of highly
venomous snakes, with a rattle of horny
at the end of the tail. A long fang is borne
on each maxilla, and is perforated by a canal, down
which the venomous secretion of a modified salivary
gland flows when the rattler strikes. Behind
each fang are several reserve fangs, which replace
it after breakage—a not unfrequent result of
the bite. There are about fifteen species, exclu-
sively American. Of these the Banded Rattlesnake
(Cc. Rosvidas) is reir nag distributed from Maine
to Texas. Its maximum length seems to be about
four feet, and the rattles have been known to
consist of twenty-three rings, but forms and rattles
so large are very rare. The predominant colour of
the body varies from yellow to almost black.
Among the other species are C. durissus (Mexico
to Brazil), C. molossus (Mexico and Arizona), C.
lucifer (California and other western ions), the
Diamond Rattler—C. adamanteus (California and
Mexico), the Horned Rattler—C. cerastes (Cali-
fornia, Arizona, and Mexico).
Rattlesnakes are naturally sluggish and prefer
defensive to offensive tactics, except when on the
track of their natural prey—rabbits, rats, squirrels,
and other small mammals. Not afew ideas about
rattlesnakes must be dismissed as false: they do
not fascinate or charm mammals or birds, though
these may be overcome by an almost paralysing
Rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus) in act of striking.
fear; the rattling does not lure prey nor attract
mates, but is pa Ba a reflex expression of excite-
ment, apparently warning off molesters on whom
the snake is doubtless unwilling to expend energy
in the exhausting act of striking; finally, the
number of rin oes not necessarily indicate the
age of the animal, though new rings seem to be
ded at successive sloughings. Rattlesnakes are
generally nocturnal. The young are brought forth
alive, e poison is very deadly, rapidly paralys-
ing the nerve-centres and affecting the respiratory
and circulatory functions. When a man is bitten
it is customary to ligature above the wound, to
suck out the poison, to use stimulants freely, and
to inject antidotes such as permanganate of potash.
Often, however, the result of the bite is fatal (see
SNAKES).
Rattray, a police burgh of Perthshire, on the
Ericht, opposite Blairgowrie. Pop. 2227.
Rauch, CuristiAn DANIEL, sculptor, was born
at Arolsen, in Waldeck, 2d January 1777. In
1797 he became valet to Frederick-William III.,
king of Prussia, but, resolving to devote himself to
art, was enabled by the generosity of a nobleman to
study at Rome, where he enjoyed the friendship
of Thorwaldsen, Canova, and Wilhelm von Hum-
boldt, the Prussian minister. In 1811 he was called
hy the king of Prussia to Berlin to execute the monu-
mental statue of Queen Louisa now at Charlotten-
burg. Rauch was not, however, quite satislied
with this triumph of his art, but commenced a new
statue of the queen, which he finished eleven years
afterwards, a masterpiece of sculpture, now in the
palace of Sans Souci. After this he lived princi-
Pally at Berlin, but occasionally visited me,
‘arrara, and Munich. He laboured indefatigably
590 RAUHES HAUS
RAVENNA
in his profession, and by 1824 had executed
seventy | oben in marble, of which twenty were
of colossal size. His works include two colossal
bronze statues of Field-marshal Bliicher (1827), a
bronze statue of Maximilian of Bavaria (1835),
and statues of Albert Diirer, Goethe, Schiller,
and Schleiermacher. His masterpiece is the mag-
nificent monument of Frederick the Great (1851)
which adorns Berlin. He died at Dresden, 3d
December 1857. See Life by Eggers (1873-90).
Rauhes Haus (‘the Rough House,’ 80 called)
is the name of a great institution founded and
managed by Johann Heinrich Wichern (1808-81)
at Horn, near Hamburg, in connection with the
German Home Mission (Jnnere Mission). It is
partly a refuge for morally neglected children ;
ly a boarding-school for the moral and intel-
ectual education of children of the higher classes ;
lastly, a training-school for those who wish to
become teachers or officials in houses of correction,
hospitals, &c., in promotion of the objects of the
Home Mission. fe was opened on November 1,
1831, by Wichern with twelve neglected children.
By the addition of new houses the whole has, how-
ever, been very much enlarged, and has of late
almost wn into a colony. A printing-office, a
bookbinders’ shop, and book-selling form part of
the institution. The children live in families of
twelve, each family being under the paternal
superintendence of a young artisan, who employs
the children according to their capabilities, partly
in indoor, partly in outdoor manual labour. In
connection with the Rauhes Haus there was
founded in 1845 a kind of conventual institute for
the education of young men as heads or superin-
tendents of similar institutions. See works on the
subject by Wichern (1833-83).
Raumer, Frreprich Lupwic GEORG VON,
German historian, was born at Worlitz, near
Dessau, in the duchy of Anhalt, on 14th May 1781,
studied law at Halle and Gittingen, and entered
the Prussian state service in 1801. In 181] he
ted the chair of History and Politics at
Breslau ; in 1819 he was called to fill the similar
chair at Berlin. He was for some time secretary
of the Berlin Academy. In 1848 he was sent to
Paris as ambassador of the German parliament.
He died on 14th June 1873. The first scientific
historian to popularise history in German, Von
Raumer wrote Geschichte der Hohenstaufen (6
vols, 1823-25), his best book, based on critical
research, and bly written ; Geschichte Euro-
seit dem Ende des 15 Jahrhunderts (8 vols.
832-50); Beitrdge zur neueren Geschichte (5
vols. 1836-39); and edited the useful Histor-
isches Taschenbuch from 1830. In the years 1830-
43 he made extensive journeys, going as far as
the United States; the observations made during
these trips were written in several books dealing
with England (1835 and 1841), Italy (1840), the
United States (1845), &c. See his Lebenserinner-
ungen und Briefwechsel (2 vols. 1861).
Raumer, Kari Grora von, geologist and
geographer, a brother of the preceding, was born
April 9, 1783, at Wirlitz, studied at Géttingen and
Halle, and at the Mining Academy at Freiberg,
was Sppentes professor of Mineralogy at Breslau
in 1811, was translated in 1819 to Halle, and
finally, in 1827, was appointed professor of Miner-
alogy and Natural History at Erlangen, where he
died June 2, 1865. His most ambitions book was
Geschichte der Péidagogik (1843-51 ; 5th ed. 1878-
80), a portion of which was issued separately as
Die Erziehung der Méddchen (4th ed. 1886). His
most pepeler woks were, after these, Beschreibun
der Erdoberfldche (6th ed. 1866); Paldstina (ath
ed. 1860); and Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Geographie
(1832; 3d ed, 1848). He also wrote books more
immediately connected with his special study,
as Geognostische Fragmente (1811), Versuch eines
ABC-Buchs der Kristallkunde (1820-21), &c.
See his Autobiography (Stuttg. 1866),—His son,
RupDOLF von RAuMER (1815-76), from 1846 a
professor at Erlangen, won a high reputation in
the field of Teutonic philology.
Ravaillac, Francois (1578-1610), a bankrupt
schoolmaster, who, after long imprisonment and
a brief service in the Order of Feuil was moved
by fanaticism to stab Henry IV. (q.v.) of France.
e was torn asunder by horses. See Loiseleur,
Ravaillac et ses Complices (1873).
Ravelin. See ForTIFICATION.
Raven (Corvus corax), a species of Crow (q.v.),
now somewhat rare in Britain except in remote
regions or on rocky islands. It is, however, widel
distributed in Europe, northern Asia, and N
Raven (Corvus coraz).
America. The plumage is glossy black, with @
parplish tis lustre on some cing The bill and
egs are also black. In length the raven measures
about two feet. The males are rather larger and
more lustrous than the females. Very early in the
year the bulky nest is built on a cliff or tree; the
three to five eggs are bluish-green, with brownish
spots. The raven’s note tends to be harsh, but is
refined at the pairing season, and the bird may be
trained to parrot-like imitation with remarkable
success. The flight is powerful, and the bird often
soars high. On small mammals, such as rats, the
raven is fond of feeding, and its attacks on game
and even lambs have led to its extermination in
many districts. In Scandinavia the raven was
sacred to Odin, but in many countries it is a bird
of ill omen. Instances are on record of ravens
which lived for four-score years, and there is no
doubt that its natural longevity is great. Three
varieties or sub-species of the raven are recognised
in North America. See Crow; and R. W.
Schufeldt, The Myology of the Raven (1890).
Ravenna, a city of Italy, 43 miles E. of
Bologna, once close to, but now some 5 miles from
the ‘Adriatic, with which it is connected by the
Corsini Canal, is enclosed by a wall 3 miles tong,
with five gates. It has been the seat of an arch-
bishop since 438, and a museum, a public
library, a picture-gallery, municipal buildings (with
a leaning tower), a theatre, &c. It has manu-
factures of silk, linen, paper, and glass, and a trade
in wine and agricultural products. The streets
are wide, and the squares are adorned with
statues of the popes. The outward aspect of the
.
Ee
RAVENSBURG
RAWLINSON 591
town and its buildings is dull and disappointing,
but the interiors of the churches are exceedingly
interesting. Pop. 12,100; of commune, 60,573.
Possibly a essalian settlement, afterwards
held by Umbrians, Ravenna A aeryt to Rome
as one of the cities of Cisalpine Gaul south of the
Po. It first became famous under Ai tus as
the station of the Adriatic fleet, with Classis—a
flourishing suburb—as its port, a site marked now
only by a church, and separated from the sea by
the t mand forest celebrated by Dante, Boccaccio,
Dryden, and Byron. Deserted by the sea, and
strongly entrenched by canals and marshes,
Ravenna became the refuge of the Em
and afterwards by the Franks, by whom it was
gifted to the pope. A republic in the early part
of the 13th century, governed by its own dukes in
the 14th, subject to Venice after 1440, it was won
by Pope Julius II. in 1509, and continued papal
until it became national in 1860. .
Ravenna, ys account of its numerous
ancient churches, holds a unique position as ‘the
Pompeii of the 5th and 6th centuries’—that marked
transitional period in early medieval history. There
are at least six churches of the time of Galla
Placidia (390-450), the sister of Honorius and
mother of Valentinian III. SS. Nazario e Celso
is her mausoleum, and there lie her brother, her
second husband Constantius IIL, and her son.
Theodoric, leaving, with rare religious toleration,
the cathedral of St Urso (almost entirely rebuilt,
1734) and the other churches to the Catholics,
erected for his Arian Goths the basilica of St
Martin (now St Apollinare Nuovo, with its marvel-
lous mosaic processions of martyrs added about
560, when it was ‘reconciled’) as a cathedral, a
baptistery (now St Maria in Cosmedin), and St
Teodoro (now St Spirito). St Vitale (with con-
temporary portraits in mosaic of the emperor and
Theodora )—the model for Charlemagne’s cathedral
at Aix-la-Chapelle—and the magnificent basilica
of St Apollinare in Classe belong to the of
Justinian. The round campaniles, perhaps of the
10th century, form another pone Raa, feature
peculiar to Ravenna.
Dante died at Ravenna, September 14, 1321, and
is buried there. A column, 2 miles from the walls,
commemorates the fall of Gaston de Foix at the
head of the French army of Louis XIL, after a
bloody and useless victory over the papal and
Spanish troops, April 11, 1512. Byron resided at
Havecne from June 1819 to October 1821.
Ravensburg, « town of Wiirtemberg, 11 miles
by rail NE. of Friedrichshafen, on Lake Constance.
‘op. (1890) 12,267.
Ravenscroft, THomAs (1592-1640), musical
com and author of Melismata (1611); and of
a collection of lm-tunes for four voices, The
Whole Book of Psalms (1621) by various composers.
Some of the tunes, such as St Davids, Canterbury,
Bangor, and many others, which have since become
popular, are by Ravenscroft himself.
Ravenspur. See HumBer.
Ravignan, Gustave Francots XAVIER DELA-
CROIX DE, a celebrated Jesuit preacher, was born
at Bayonne, December 2, 1795, was professor at
Montrouge, and became famous in 1837 as preacher
at Notre Dame in Paris. He died 26th February
1858. He published an Apol of his order in
1844, and in 1854 a more lengthened work with
the same view, Clement XIII. et Clement XIV.
See memoirs by Poujoulat (1858) and De Ponleroy
(1860 ; Eng. trans. New York, 1873).
Ravinala. See TRAVELLER’s TREE.
Rawal Pindi, a town and important military
station of the Punjab, lies between the rivers Indus
and Jhelum, 160 miles by rail NW. of Lahore.
Since the extension of the railway to Peshawar,
and since the last Afghan war, the town has in-
creased at a rapid rate. Pop. (1868) 28,586; deep!
52,980; (1891) 73,460. here are an arsena
(1883), a fort, a fine public park, several European
churches, including the garrison church, in which
Bishop Milman of Caleutta, who died here, was
buried (1876), and the headquarters of the Punjab
Northern State Railway. The place carries on an
active transit-trade with Cashmere and Afghan-
istan. Here the Sikhs surrendered after their
defeat at Gujrat (1849), and here too was held,
in 1885, a t durbar or review, at which the
Ameer of Afghanistan met Earl Dufferin, Gover-
nor-general of India.—The district (area, 4861 sq.
m. ; pop. 820,512) contains many of the towns
connected with the Indian campaign of Alexander
the Great.—The division has an area of 15,435 sq.
m. and a pop. of 2,520,508.
Rawitsch, a town of Prussia, 64 miles by rail S.
of Posen. Pop. 12,919.
Rawlinson, Str Henry CRESWICKE, Bart.,
orientalist and diplomatist, was born at Chadling-
ton in Oxfordshire, 11th April 1810, and entered
the East India Company’s army in 1827. In 1833
he proceeded to Persia to assist in organising the
Persian army. During the six years he spent in
that country he began to study the cuneiform
inscriptions, and made a translation of Darius’
famous Behistun inscription, which he published in
the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. After he
left Persia he held command of Kandahar during
= troublous ose of eee Ne
was appoin itical agent at Bagdad in
1844, and Seal nara there in 1851. He showed
great bravery in the field, and remarkable skill and
resource in diplomacy. In 1856, now made K.C.B.,
he was appointed director of the East India Com-
pany. In 1858-59 he was again in Persia as British
minister; and was eer member (1868) and
vice-president (1876) of the Council of India. In
1865-68 he satin parliament for Frome. He held
the presidency of the Royal Geographical Society
(1871), to whose Proceedings he contributed valu-
able papers, a trusteeship of the British Museum
1879), and a directorship of the Royal Asiatic
iety. He was made a baronet in 1891; and he
died 5th March 1895. The ‘father of Assyriology,’
he wrote A Commentary on the Cuneiform Inscrip-
tions of Babylon and Assyria (1850), Outline of t
History of Assyria (1852), The Cuneiform Inserip-
tions of Western Asia (with Norris and George
Smith, 5 vols. 1861-70), and England and Russia
(2d ed. 1875). See the Life by his brother (1898).
That brother, GzorGk RAWLINSON, orientalist
and historian, was born at Chadlington in Oxford-
shire in 1812, took a first-class in classics from
Trinity College, Oxford, in 1838, and was elected
a Fellow of Exeter College in 1840. In 1859 he
preached as Bampton Lecturer on Historical Evi-
dences of the Truth of the Scripture Records, and
two years later was chosen Camden professor of
Ancient History. In 1872 he was made a canon
of Canterbury. His historical publications cover
nearly the entire history of the ancient Orient.
The series opens with the standard edition of
Herodotus (4 vols, 1858-60 ; 3d ed. 1876), which was
592 RAWMARSH
RAZOR-BILL
followed by The Five Great Monarchies of the
Ancient Eastern World (4 vols, 1862-67), The Sixth
Great Oriental Monarchy of Parthia (1873), The
Seventh or Sassanian Empire (1876), History of
Ancient Egypt (1881), and History of Phanicia
(1889). The same ground is also covered in part in
the smaller popular works, Egypt and Babylon from
Scripture and Profane Sources (1884), Manual of
Ancient Hist (1869), Religions of the Ancient
World (1882), &c. Besides these, he has written
several books of biblical exposition and. religions
criticism, as Contrasts of Christianity with the
Heathen and Jewish Systems (1861), a series of
sermons preached before the “ag 4 of Oxford ;
Esther, Nehemiah, &c., for The Speaker's
Commentary ; Exodus with a commentary (1882-
85); Moses, his Life and Times (1887); Kings of
Israel and Judah (1889); Isaae and Jacob (1890) ;
brief essays contributed to Present Day Tracts ;
and the article PHa:niciA in the present work.
Rawmarsh, a town in the West Riding of
Yorkshire, 2} miles N. by E. of Rotherham, with
china and iron works, and neighbouring collieries.
Pop. (1851) 2533 ; (1891) 11,983.
Ray, a popular name a awa to many of the
flat cartilaginous fishes or Smacbrenche Skate
( Raia batis), Thornbacks (R. clavata), Electric Rays
(Torpedo), Sting-rays (e.g. Trygon), Eagle-rays
(e.g. Myliobatis) are representative. They lead
a somewhat sedentary life at the bottom of the
sea, moving sluggishly by undulations of the pec-
toral fins which form a large part of the flat body.
They are all carnivorous. The true rays, of which
skate and thornback are typical and very common
species, form the family Raiidwe. Many attain a
large size, sometimes measuring six feet across.
The flesh is edible, but strongly flavoured and not
very highly esteemed. See CARTILAGINOUS FISHES,
DEVIL-FISH, ELECTRIC FISHES, SKATE.
Ray, or Wray, JOHN, naturalist, was born at
Black-Notley, near Braintree, in Essex, 29th
November 1628. From Braintree free-school he
went up to Cambridge, where he was fellow, Greek
lecturer, mathematical tutor, and junior dean in
Trinity College, but after a time began to devote
himself entirely to the study of natural history.
At the Restoration he accepted Episcopal ordina-
tion, but was ejected by the ‘ Black Bartholomew’
(1662). Thereupon, accompanied by a kindred
spirit, Francis Willughby, a friend and former
mupil of his own, Ray travelled over most of the
nited Kingdom, collecting and investigatin
botanical and zoological specimens; and in 166:
they started on a tour through the Low Countries,
Germany, ee and France, with a similar object,
Willughby taking the zoology under his charge,
and Tay the botany. In 1667 Ray was elected
a Fellow of the Royal Society, to whose 7ransac-
tions he occasionally contributed valuable papers.
In 1672 his friend Willughby died, leaving him
guardian to his two sons. After several changes
of residence, in 1679 Ray settled down in his native
village, where he died, 17th January 1705. As a
botanist and zoologist he ranks very high, the
classification of plants which he proposed being
practically in the main the foundation of what is
now known as the ‘Natural System’ of classifica-
tion (see Borany). Ray’s zoological works are
considered by Cuvier as the foundation of modern
zoology. The chief of his works on botany are
Methodus Plantarum Nova (1682): Catalogus
Plantarum Anglia (1670), the basis of all the sub-
sequent floras of Britain ; and Historia Plantarum
(3 vols, 1686-1704). His zoological works include
the Synopsis Methodica Animalium (1693) and
three posthumous volumes on Birds, Fishes, and
Insects, published by Dr Derham. He was also
the author of some theological works, His friend
Willughby, having collected the materials for an
extensive work on the animal Lot Pte. left to Ray
the task of arranging and classifying them (see
WILLuUGHBY). See Memorials of Ray (1846), and
his ence (1848), both edited by Dr E.
Lankester for the Ray Society, which was founded
in 1844.
Ra the Christian try, labourers,
and small farmers, who lived under Turkish rule,
or rather misrule, in the Balkan insula. The
word means ‘cattle,’ and as cattle these le
were treated by their Turkish masters in
Servia, Bulgaria, and the neighbouring states.
Raylei Lorp, physicist. John-William
Strutt, oigh, Baron Haylie, was born 12th
November 1842, studied at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, and was the senior wrangler (1865), Smith’s
prizeman, and fellow of his college (1866). He was
po of Experimental Physies at Cambridge
rom 1879 to 1884; in 1888 sueceeded Tyndal! as
pos of Natural Po pe 32 at the
nstitution; and is D.C.L., LL.
He has contributed much to the scientific periodi-
cals, edited Clerk-Maxwell’s Heat, and is author of
The of Sound (1877-78). In 1894, with
Professor Ramsay, he separated from atmospheric
nitrogen the new argon—hitherto undetected,
but constituting about 1 per cent. of the atmosphere.
Raynouard, Francois Juste Marir, ti
and philologist, was recat at Brignolles, 18th BoP
tember 1761, studied at Aix, and in 1791, an advo-
cate and a deputy, joined the Girondins, and was
for a time imprisoned. His poems and ies
were successful, and in 1807 he was elected to the
Academy, of which he became perpetual secre
in 1817. A member of the imperial legislative
body from 1806, he continued to produce dramas,
but towards the fall of the Empire turned his
attention to linguistic and particularly Provencal
studies. His researches into the origin and trans-
formations of this tongue led to many valuable
discoveries, though his theories as to the relation
of the language of the tronbadours to the other
Romance tongues are not now accepted. Ray-
nouard died at Passy, near Paris, 27th Octo
1836. .
His chief writings are Eléments de la Grammaire
Romane (1816); Choiz de Poésies Oriyinales des Trouba-
dours (6 vols. 1816-21); Grammaire comparfe des
Langues de l'Europe Latine dans leur Rapports avec la
Langue des Troubadours (1821); and Lexique Roman,
ou mm de la Langue des Troubadours (6 vols.
Razor. See BEARD, CUTLERY.
Razor-bill, or Razor-Bittep Auk (Alcea
=
Ravzor-bill ( Alea torda).
torda), a species of Auk (q.v.), very common on
RAZOR-FISH
READE 593
the coasts of Britain and of all the northern parts
of the Atlantic Ocean. gee ont A Mew
congregate in great num on cliffs and islan
for the breeding season. A single egg; measur-
ing about 3 inches in length, and of a white or
lig it brown colour streaked with dark brown, is
laid in a erevice or under a ledge of rock. The
male helps to sit on the e The razor-bill
measures about 17 inches. 1e plumage is of a
lossy greenish black on the upper parts and
poe AR white underneath. It is a handsomer
bird than the Guillemot (q.v.), and can be readil
distinguished from it at a distance by its upturn
tail. The flesh of the razor-bill is used for food,
and the eggs are esteemed a delicacy. They are
Jess easily obtained than those of the guillemot,
being usually laid in concealed situations.
Razor-fish, or Razor-sHELL (Solen), a genus
of bivalves of which the common British species
S. siliqua and S. ensis are familiar examples. The
shell is remarkably elongated, and gapes at both
ends, the — are short, the foot is | and
powerful. The species are numerous, and inhabit
“~e “
Razor or Solen-fish (Solen siliqua).
the sands of all seas except in the coldest parts of
the world. Some of the tropical species have shells
of great beauty. The solens burrow in sand
making vertical holes 2 or 3 feet in depth, and
ascending and descending by means of their foot,
which is capable of being elongated and contracted
to bore a for the animal, and to drag it
through. They are used for food, and also by
fishermen for bait. To obtain them, a hooked iron
implement is used. Another method is to drop a
quantity of salt on the mouth of the hole, which
causes them to come up, when they are quickly
seized.
Re ite DE (Rex insula), is a small, low-lyin
island off the coast of the French department o
Charente-Inférienre, opposite the city of La
Rochelle, from which it is separated by the Pertuis
Breton. It is about 18 miles long and 3 broad,
measures 28 sq. m., and has about 16,000 inhabit-
ants, who are chietly engaged in the preparation of
salt (32,000 tons annually). The west coast is
rocky; on the east side there are some good har-
bours. Ovyster-farming has of late become an im-
ag branch of industry (35,000,000 annually ).
ine is made and exported. The chief town, St
Martin (pop. 2788), was fortified by Vanban. Ars
and La Flotte have each about 2000 inhabitants.
Reade, CHar es, novelist and playwright, was
born at Ipsden House on 8th June 1814. The
pet of eleven, he came on both sides of good
ineage, his father an Oxfordshire squire, his
mother a clever Evangelical; from her he ‘in-
herited his dramatic instinct.’ After five years
(all flogging) at Iffley, and six under two other
and milder private tutors, in 1831 he gained a
demyship at Magdalen College, Oxford, and in 1835,
having taken a third class in honours, was duly
elected to a lay fellowship. Next year he entered
at Lincoln’s Inn, and in 1843 was called to the bar,
er having made the first of many tours
abroad and at home, and developed a craze for
trading in violins. ‘I studied,’ he tells us, ‘the
great art of Fiction for fifteen years before I pre-
sumed to write a line of it ;’ and it was not till 1850
that he put pen seriously to paper, ‘ writing first
for the stage—about thirteen dramas, which no-
body would play.’ Through one of these dramas,
however, he formed his platonic friendship with
Mrs Seymour, a warm-hea: actress, who from
1854 till her death in 1879 kept house for him. She
animated, counselled, guided him; and, apart
from his are and lawsuits (which were many),
his life after 1852 is little except a record of the
production of plays and novels, by the former of
which he generally lost money, by the latter won
rotit and fame. The plays include Masks and
‘aces (1852), written in conjunction with Tom
Taylor, and having Peg Woffington for its leading
character; Gold (1853), the germ, and Sera Nun-
(1865), the dramati form, of Never too
e; and Drink (1879), an adaptation of Zola’s
LD’ Assommoir. his eighteen novels may be
mentioned Peg Woffington (1853); Christie John-
stone (1853), Newhaven fisher lass ; Jt is Never
too Late to Mend (1856), a tale of prison abuses
and life in Australia; The Cloister and the Hearth
oe: ), its hero Erasmus’ father, condemned, like
e himself, to celibacy; Hard Cash (1863),
oe private lunatic ca ums ; Griffith Gaunt, or
ealousy (1866); Foul Play (1869), in conjunction
with Dion Boucicault, against ship-knackers ; Put
Yourself in his Place (1870), against trades-unions ;
A Terrible Temptation (1871); and A Woman-
hater (1877), for woman’s rights. His last years
clouded by sorrow and ill-health, he died at Shep-
herd’s Bush on Good Friday, 11th April 1884, and
was buried in Willesden ‘churchyard beside his
* beloved friend.’
Charles Reade was not one of the test
novelists of the century (who number sires, at
most four); but of the second order he is perhaps
the best. He is sometimes coarse, theatrical some-
times rather than dramatic, and sometimes even
dull, weighed down with authorities—the blue-
ks, books of travel, and the like, with which
he fettered his imagination. With the greatest
novelists one is conscious only of the story, with
him one is always conscious of the story-teller ;
some tone or mannerism from time to time jars
upon us. And yet what a story-teller it is. ow
he carries us with him, stirs us, saddens, gladdens,
terrifies, delights. No novels are better than his
to read aloud. For they hold the listeners spell-
bound, and ‘ Bravo!’ or oftener just a long-drawn
‘Oh!’ attests Reade’s magnificent powers far
better than can all the fine-spun criticisms in
which A. concedes and B. denies him the gifts of
humour and pathos; in which M. declares that
* Reade invented the True Woman,’ and N. that
‘of the woman who is essentially of our time he
has never had even the faintest conception ;’ in
which X. discovers ‘in the short Wandering Heir
at least half a dozen situations all new and all
strong,’ and Y. pronounces it ‘very decidedly the
worst of Reade’s shorter stories.’ These things need
not lex us, the simple admirers of Griffith Gaunt,
of the fight with the pirates, of the bursting of the
reservoir, and of the scenes at the gold-diggings.
At the same time we may rejoice in the unanimous
verdict that is sed by the critics on The Cloister
and the Hearth. \t Mr Swinburne—from whom
praise is praise indeed—places ‘among the very
greatest masterpieces of narrative. Its tender
truthfulness of sympathy, its ardour and depth
of feeling, the constant sweetness of its humour,
the uent passion of its pathos, are qualities
in which no other tale of adventure so stirring
and incident so inexhaustible can pretend to a
594 READER
REALISM
moment’s comparison with it—unless we are
foolish enough to risk a reference to the name
by which no contemporary name can hope to stand
hiher or shine brighter, for prose or for verse,
than does that of Shakespeare's greatest contem-
porary by the name of Shakespeare.’
Charles Reade: A Memoir (2 vols. 1887), his
brother and a nephew, is a most unhappy — bio-
craphy. The Gentleman's Magazine sor 1 contains
two articles by Sir W. Besant and ‘Ouida ;’ and in his
Miscellanies (1886) is Mr Swinburne’s article from the
Nineteenth Century. Readiana (1882) is a collection of
the novelist’s a oy on ane Extracts from his works,
with an introduct land, appeared in 1891.
Reader, See LAy-READER.
Reading, 4 municipal, liamentary, and
county borough, the capital o Berkshire, on the
Kennet, near its influx to the Thames, 36 miles by
rail W. of London (by road 39, by river 74). Its
strong castle was wholly demolished by Henry II. ;
and the splendid Benedictine abbey, founded in
1121 by Henry L, who was buried here, is repre-
sented by considerable ruins and a fine gateway,
restored in 1861, and surrounded by public gardens.
irae raiomr ray were held within its hall ; and the
last of its mitred abbots was hanged by Henry VIIL.,
with two of the brethren. ere are handsome
municipal buildings and two excellent town-halls,
a lofty clock-tower, a free library, concert-room,
museum, &c. Other buildings are the Italian
assize courts (1861) ; a large grammar-school (1486 ;
rebuilt 1870-71), of which Dr Valpy was long head-
master; St Lawrence’s Church (1434; restored
1868) ; and the Royal Berkshire Hospital. Univer-
sity Extension (Oxford) College, opened in 1898,
has accommodation for six hundred students ; and
the largest (59 acres) of three public parks was
gifted in 1891 by Mr G. Palmer. Reading is an
important mart for corn and-other agrieultural pro-
duce, and has manufactures of iron, paper, sauce,
&e., whilst two of its industrial establishments are
world-famous—Huntley and Palmer’s huge biscuit-
factory and Sutton’s seed-emporium. Reading,
which is in the diocese of Oxford, gives title to a
suffragan bishop. Its representation was redu
from two to one in 1885, when, however, the parlia-
mentary borough was extended. The first charter
granted by Edward III. Pop. (1851) 21,456 ;
(1881 ) 46,054 ; (1891 ) 55,752 ; neaeRE 5 borough (1891)
60,054. Reading suffered much from the Danes
between 868 and 1006, and in 1643 surrendered to
Essex after a ten days’ siege. It was the birthplace
of Archbishop Land, Justice Talfourd, and Goldwin
Smith, but not of Miss ra eb who is often
claimed as a native. It has memories also of
Chaucer and Bunyan,
See works by Coates (1802-9), Man (1816), Doran
(1835), and J. B. Jones (1870).
Reading, city of Pennsylvania, capital of
Berks pp on the left bank of the Schuylkill
River, 58 miles by rail NW. of Philadelphia. It
is pleasantly situated on an ascending plain, and
from the neighbouring hills draws its water-supply
and abundant iron ore. The principal manufac-
tories of Reading are its iron and steel works.
These include many rolling-mills, forges, foundries,
fur t hine-sl , nail-works, &e. It has
also manufactories of shoes, hats, beer, cigars,
leather, paper, bricks, &e. Settled in 1748, i
became a city in 1847, and is the seat of an Epis
copal rane Very many of the inhabitants are
of German descent, and half the news: spans are in
that language. Pop. (1890) 58,661 ; at ) 78,961.
Readi a town of Massachusetts, 12 miles
by rail N. by W. of Boston, with boot and shoe
and furniture factories. Pop. (1900) 4969.
Reading Beds. See Eocene System.
Reading In. See Iypuction.
Reagents. See Bacrert, Vol. I. p. 649
- Real, a silver ee a a in
in, Mexico, and other old Spanish possessions,
ie the veth of the piastre, or jth of the age
the frane of the new Spanish decimal system, an
has a value, varying with the exchange, of about
2hd. The real was first coined in Spain in 1497.
It is also a money of account in Portugal,
the equivalent of 40 reis. In Java it is the name
of a weight for ea and silver articles, correspond-
ing to 17 dwt. 14 gr. troy weight.
Real is a term used by lawyers to describe the
nature of certain rights and actions. The rights of
an owner of property are real eh cme e has
a right to claim some specific thing and hold it
inst all other persons. Contractual rights, on
the other hand, are personal—i.e. they are
only against the person who is bound to orm
the contract. orms of action are classified
according to the nature of the right which is in
dispute. The Roman law gave an action in rem
for the recovery of any thing, whether movable or
immovable, which was withheld from the person
entitled ; an action in personam was the form in
which compensation could be obtained for breach
of contract or other wrongful act. In Scotland, and
in other countries where the Roman law has been
studied and followed, real rights and real actions
are defined very much as they were defined by the
civilians ; England has taken a course of its own.
At the time when the common law was taking
shape land was of primary importance. The owner
of chattels (movable Leary: oi was entitled to
damages if his pores was detained from him or
converted to the use of another; but he had no
real action to recover the thing itself. A
action was an action to recover land or some right
connected with land. Some interests in land
(e.g. the interest of a tenant under a lease) were
rded as personal rights against the owner; in
technical language the interest of a tenant for
years is a chattel real, or a chattel which savours
of the realty. Tle English law of property frames
all its rules with reference to t somewhat
arbitrary distinctions. Thus, for example, on the
death of an owner his real property at once
to his heir or to the devisee named in his will; his
personal property (including his chattels real)
to his executor or administrator for distribu-
tion among the persons named in his will or the
next-of-kin. Real ag vey was formerly favoured
in 80) io See by the law, but modern legislation
has made property of all kinds equally accessible
to creditors, and the rules which apply to land
have been considerably simplified and improved.
Realgar. See ARSENIC.
Realism in philosophy is diametrically opposed
to Nondivaliiel: a pene oe the belief that
and species are real things, existing independently
of our conceptions and their expression, and that
these are alike actually the object of our thoughts
when we make use of the terms. Again, as
opposed to Idealism, the word implies an intuitive
cognition of the external object, instead of merely
a mediate and representative knowledge of it.
In art and literature the word Realism or Natural-
ism is employed to\describe a method of representa-
tion Without idealisation, which in our day in _
France has been raised to a system and claims a
monopoly of truth in‘its ic treatment of the
facts of nature and life, It claims that the
enthusiasms and ex ions of romanticism must
give place to'a period of reflection and criticism ;
that we must not select from the facts put before
our eyes, but merely register them and the sensa-
tions they engender for themselves alone, apart
REAL PRESENCE
REAPING 595
from all considerations of mere beauty, to say
nothing of religion or morality; and that the
experimental romance must hereafter follow the
i methods of science, in being based alone
on ‘human documents’ supplied from the close
observation of the present, or from laborious erudi-
tion—the retrospective observation of the past.
As a gospel this militant Realism is the offspring
of the Positive philosophy and the physiol
and pevehology of the age; and in effect, in the
hands of its apostles, it has e a new
morality which reforms not by recept but ex-
ample, not by the attraction o' the good, but
the repulsion of the evil. The practical result is
that for French realists there is in the moral world
ay, the evil, in the visible world only the ugly,
and the triumphs of our modern fiction are the
pitiless impersonality of Madame Bovary, the cold
oe ie of Salammbé, the brutal vulgarities of
la, the refined sensualism of Bourget and Guy
de Mau t, the pretentious inanities of the
Goncourt brothers, and the dreary pessimism of
Dostoievsky and Tolstoi. If realism were perfect
it would include all reality, order as well as dis-
order, the general as well as the particular, the
lofty as well as the low. For there are men and
women who are neither selfish nor drunken, nor
lecherous ; your experimental cesspool is not Paris,
your Paris is not the universe ; your hospital-wards
may contain cases of all moral maladies, but you
forget the moving world of health and life outside
its walls; your vaunted collection lacks one speci-
men, not the rarest, and certainly the most beauti-
ful. For the dream is as true a leaf of life as the
sober vision, and idealism is the permanent revenge
of man over the inequalities of life—the protest of
creative mind against external fatality. Idealistic
art seizes life at its richest moments, and presents
it preserved for ever by its immaterial essence from
inconstancy and d ation. This so-called real-
ism is not reality—the steps of true art must ever
be elimination and eralisation ; its postulates,
the eternal conventions of form, style, language,
and subject, necessary use they are elemental.
Real Presence. See Lorp’s Supper, TRAN-
SUBSTANTIATION.
Real-schulen, See EpucatTion, Vol. IV. p. 208.
Reaping, the act of cutting corn, was from
time immemorial until far through the 19th
century performed with an instrument called a
reaping-hook or sickle. The sickles in use among
the ancient Jews, Egyptians, and Chinese appear to
have differed very little in form from those employed
in Great Britain. The reaping-hook is a curved
instrument of about a foot and a half in length,
tapering from a breadth of about two inches at the
butt-end, where it is fixed into a wooden handle.
The edge is sometimes serrated; but, as a rule, it
has long been made plain and sharp like a knife.
In many parts of the British Isles it was su
lanted by the scythe in the earlier half of the
9th century. In other parts it lived until the
modern reaping-machine was ready to take the
lace of it as well as of the scythe. The sickle or
k did its work admirably, but it was neces-
sarily slow. On small farms in some districts it is
still employed; and occasionally on large farms,
when the ¢ is much laid and twisted, it is
resorted to, “by the scythe corn can be cut at a
rather less cost per acre than with the hook ; but
the work is not always so neatly done. As nice
a stubble will be left by a hand with the
scythe, and often nicer than by the hook, but the
sheaves are not, as a rule, so tidy after the scythe,
though they will stack rather earlier. Of a fair
working crop an adept at the seythe would cut 2
or 2} acres per diem. The average, however, would
not exceed 14 acres. In fact, if the crop is heavy,
that extent is a very hard day’s work.
An attempt to trace the history of the reaping-
machine would carry us far back into the earlier
stages of agriculture. Pliny the Elder, who was
born early in the Ist century of the Christian era,
found a reaping-machine in Gaul. He says: ‘In
the extensive fields in the lowlands of Gaul vans
of large size, with projecting teeth on the edge, are
driven on two wheels through the standing corn
by an ox yoked in a reverse ition. In this
manner the ears are torn off, and fall into the van.’
Palladius, about four centuries later, found a simi-
lar appliance for reaping corn in Gaul. He gives
a more detailed but similar description of the
machine. Fig. 1, copied from Mr Wooderoft's
Appendix to Specifications of English Patents
‘or Rea Saacanciehinane, represents what is con-
ceived, from the descriptions, to have been the
form of this ancient reaper.
In modern times the idea of a mechanical reaper
—— to have originated with Capel Lofft (q.v.),
who in 1785 suggested a machine something after
the pattern of the ancient one descri above,
Between that time and the Great Exhibition of
1851 in London, from which the general use of
mechanical reapers may be said to date, the
patents taken out for reaping-machines were very
numerous. Among the most promising of these
may be mentioned those of Mr Gladstone of Castle-
as; Mr Smith of Deanston; Mr Kerr, Edin-
burgh ; Mr Scott of Ormiston ; Mr Dobbs, an actor
in Birmingham ; Mr Mann of Raby, near Wigton ;
and the Rev. Patrick Bell of Carmylie, Forfar-
shire. In 1826 Mr Bell constructed an efficient
and simple machine, which long continued in use,
and several features of which are observable in
the reapers of the present day. The inventor of
this, the first machine of the kind in Scotland,
received a public testimonial from agriculturis
in consideration of the services he thus rende
to agriculture. In America Mr Hussey and Mr
M‘Cormick took out patents for reaping-machines
of superior character in 1833 and 1834 respectively.
The movements of the cutters of these machines
were various. A few were advancing only, some
sidelong and advancing, others reciprocating and
advancing, a large number continuous and advanc-
ing, and others continuous and alternate, The
reci ting and advancing motion is that now
—- joyed on the machines in use.
he principal difference in the machines now so
largely used for cutting corn is in the form and
character of the entters, and in the mode of deliver-
ee grain after it is cut.
he cutting-knives are of two kinds—one, obtuse-
angled and serrated ; the other, acute-angled and
for the most part plain. Both are attached to a bar,
and are made to work through another bar of iron
fitted with hollow fingers, called guard-fingers,
which, projecting forwards, catch the standing
corn, and retain it firmly until it is eut. The
serrated knife saws through it, the plain knife
clips it, as it were, the finger-guard forming the
fixed blade of the scissors,
596 REAPING
REAUMUR
The delivery of the sheaves divides the
machines into three kinds—(1) those delivered
by manual labour ; (2) those delivered by mechani-
cal labour, or self-deliverers; and (3) combined
reapers and binders, which deliver the sheaves
ready bound. The delivery of the sheaves by
manual labour is now chiefly at the back of the
machine, the side-delivery being generally aban-
dloned, unless in the self-deliveries. In delivering
the grain, a man, with a short-handled rake in
his hand, sits upon the machine almost opposite
the cutting apparatus. With this he inelines the
rvrain towards the knife; and, when sufficient has
n cut to make a sheaf, he rakes it off the
platform of the machine, on to which it has fallen,
and deposits it on the ground. With the back-
delivery the sheaves must be tied up and removed
out of the way of the machine before it comes
Fig. 2.—Samuelson’s Self-delivery Reaping-machine.
round again. Such a reaper, therefore, always
requires a full supply of hands to attend upon it.
Carefully handled, this machine will take up laid
and twisted crops admirably. Its cost ranges from
£18 to £25.
The mechanical or self-delivery machines, as
they are generally called, are of two kinds—one
lays the cut corn in swathes, the other deposits it
the grain towards the cutter. By an ingenious
eccentric motion, the rakes are made to sweep the
sheaves off the platform at intervals of about 12
feet apart, to the side, and out of the way of
the horses. The self-deliverer costs from £25 to
£30.
The more recent automatic combined reaper and
binder promises to supersede entirely all other reap-
ing-machines. The general appearance and arrange-
ment of Howard’s i steel-frame sheaf-binder
is shown in fig. 3. he cutting portion of the
binder is very similar to that of an ordinary reaj
ing-machine. The cut grain as it falls back on the
machine is conveyed by an endless web over the
top of the driving-wheel to the knotter. Here it
falls into two arms called compressor jaws. These
retain it on the knotter table till a sheaf of the
prescribed size has accumulated. ‘Whenever a
sheaf of the desired size has been delivered to the
compressors, these relieve the ig which sets
in motion the needle (carrying the binding twine
and the knotting apparatus. The needle is cir-
cular, and in its course it the band (twine)
round the sheaf, when the band is caught by the
knotter, and almost instantaneously a firm and
secure knot is tied, while the needle is drawn back
ready to operate on a new sheaf. As soon as the
knot is tied and the string cut, the sheaf is ejected
from the machine in a horizontal position, dropping
gently on the ground on its side quite clear of the
machine’ (Bool: of the Farm). With a moderate
crop of standing grain the binder in its various
improved forms does its work in a most admir-
able manner, though when the crop is badly ‘ laid’
it cannot be used satisfactorily. It is expedition
and su! es all other ioathecla in neatness an
thoroughness of work. When the binder was
first introduced wire was the binding material.
There were strong objections to its use, however,
and it was not until twine was substituted that
the invention made any headway. There are now
several British firms engaged in making binders,
which are gaining Or ie sree year by year. A
binder costs about £50.
See Woodcroft’s Aeeretin to Patents Fae Reaping-
machines; Mr Jacob Wilson’s ‘ y
en SS atl
Fig. 3.—Howard’s Binder.
in sheaves. Samuelson’s sheaf-deliverer will be
made plain by fig. 2. The machinery consists of a
series of four rakes—two toothed and two plain—
attached to an upright shaft in such a manner as
to admit of a free ascending, descending, and hori-
zontal motion. The two toothless rakes or ‘dum-
mies’ are shorter in the arms by six inches than
on Reaping-machines,’ in 7'ransactions
oy Highland Society for January 1864;
t of Farm Implements and Book
4 the Farm. by Henry Stephens; J.
Morton’s Cyclopedia of Agriculture.
Reason. See the articles in
| this work on Psychology, Logic,
Induction, Syllogism, Kant, Philo-
sophy, and works cited under these,
| Réaumur, RENE ANTOINE
FERCHAULT DE, physicist, was
born at La Rochelle, 28th Feb-
ruary 1683, and studied in the
Jesuits’ College at Poitiers, and
afterwards at Bourges. In 1703 he
went to Paris, where he attracted
general attention by the publication
of three geometrical Memoirs ; and
in 1708 he was elected a member
of the Academy of Sciences, and
| was charged with the supervision
of the work Description des Divers
Arts et Métiers, ose under
the auspices of the government.
Réaumur lightened his labours with occasional
researches into various subjects of natural history.
These researches occupied him from 1708 to 1715,
and were followed by a series of investigations
into the condition of the woods, auriferous rivers,
and turquoise mines of France. The collections
of Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences from 1722
the other two, and are merely employed to incline | till 1725 contain a number of papers by Réaumur,
REBEC
RECEIPT 597
in which he details his discoveries of the mode of
producing steel from iron, and of the mode of
tinning iron. For these and other researches he
received from the French government a sum of
12,000 livres, which he spent in promoting and
encouraging the industrial arts in his native
country. in 1739 he succeeded in producing an
ue glass which was equal to the lain of
‘ony and J. His invention of the Thermo-
meter (q.v.) which bears his name need not be
more than mentioned here. He died of a fall from
a horse, 17th October 1757, leaving behind him a
voluminons collection of works on all the subjects
above stated, also a treatise on ‘the silk of spi ers,’
a number of Memoirs (1731-40), containing his
thermometric researches on air, and on mixtures
of fluids with fluids or solids, and his Mémoires
r servir & [Histoire des Insectes (Amsterdam,
{9 vols. 1737-48).
Rebee (Arabic rebab), an ancient musical
instrument of the violin kind, of which the body,
ins' of consisting of two hemispherical poh
ments, like other instruments of the same tribe,
was narrow towards the neck, and_ graduall
enlarged till it rounded off at the lower end.
Milton, in his L’ Allegro, characterises this instru-
ment as the ‘ jocund rebec.’
Rebecca Riots, a series of popular outbreaks
which a ane in Carmarthenshire in 1843-44,
and quickly spread over Pembroke, Cardigan, and
Brecon. grew out of the impatience of the
= at the great increase of toll-gates on public
s, and owed their singular name to their adopt-
ing as a motto Genesis, xxiv. 60. Bands of men five
hundred strong, their leaders disguised in women’s
clothes, scoured the country by night, threw down
the toll-bars, and then dispersed. A strong force
of soldiers was poured into the country, but the
rioters offered an obstinate resistance, and were
not put down without great difficulty and consider-
able bloodshed. The commission appointed by
f° ‘ernment to inquire into the causes of the out-
found that it grew out of a genuine public
ance, whereupon measures of relief were intro-
uced. The rioters seized were punished lightly.
Rebellion. ‘The Great Rebellion’ generally
means the revolt of the Long Parliament inst
the authority of Charles I. (q.v.). See also CRomM-
WELL, FALKLAND, HAMPDEN, &c.; ENGLAND
(p. 352); and the works of 8. R. Gardiner. The
revolts on behalf of the House of Stuart in 1715
and 1745 are often, ahora! in Seotland, spoken
of emphatically as ‘ Rebellion’ (see JACOBITES).
The term is applied in the United States to the
secession of the southern states.
Rebus, an enigmatical representation of a name
or thing by using ——— devices for letters,
syllables, or parts of words. The term probably
originates from the device speaking to the beholder
non verbis sed rebus. Devices of this kind, allusive
to the bearer’s name, were exceedingly common in
the middle ages, particularly in England. In many
instances were by ecclesiastics and
others who had not a right to armorial ensigns.
See BapcE.
Récamier, Mapame (née JEANNE FRANCOISE
JuLtre ADELAIDE BERNARD), a famous French-
woman, was born at Lyons, 4th December 1777.
She grew up a girl of remarkable and beauty,
and at fifteen she was married to M. Jacques
Récamier, a rich banker about thrice her own
Her salon was soon filled with the brightest wits
of the literary and political circles of the day, but
fortunately for herself Madame Récamier
a temperament that saved her from temptation
and almost scandal. For Madame de Staél she
a warm affection that survived the exile
required by the jealousy of ong eer Soon after
this her husband was completely ruined, and
Madame Récamier visited Madame de Staél at
t in Switzerland (1806). Here she met
Prince August of Prussia, who alone of all her
innumerable admirers is supposed to have touched
her heart. Indeed a marriage was arranged, pro-
vided M. Récamier would consent to a divorce.
The good man did not refuse, but his kindness
was too much for the generous heart of Madame
Réeamier, who decla she could not leave him
in his adversity. The most distinguished friend
of her later years was M. de Chateaubriand. In
1846 he became a widower, and he then wished to
marry Madame Récamier, whose husband had been
dead since 1830, but the lady declined the honour
without interrupting the current of their friend-
ship. Chateaubriand died 4th July 1848, and she
followed him to the grave on 11th May 1849.
See Souvenirs et Correspondance tirés des Papiers de
Madame Récamier, edited by her niece, Lenor-
mant (1859), and Madame Récamier, by the same (1872) ;
also the biography by Brunier (1875), and the Letters of
Benjamin Constant to her, at length published in 1881.
Recanati, 2 town of Italy, 15 miles S. of
Ancona, has a Gothic cathedral with a monument
to Pope Gregory XII. Here Leo i was born.
Po 4. Porto Recanati, 6 miles NE. on the
Adriatic coast, las a pop. of 3040.
Receipt is the technical as well as popular
term signifying a legal acknowledgment of money
received in disch of a debt or demand. In
England it is often believed that a written receipt
is the only legal proof of payment; the fact being
that it is only one mode of proving it. If the
money be paid in presence of witnesses, or even
without witnesses, provided a jury or judge believe
the statement on oath of the party paying it, this
is in land quite as evidence of the pay-
ment as if a written receipt were given; and even
a written receipt is conclusive only where it is
under seal, or endorsed on a conveyance under the
Conveyancing Act of 1881, unless the purchaser
had notice to the contrary, or on a marine policy
between assured and underwriter, In other cases
a receipt is only prima facie evidence, and may be
explained. If a receipt is in writing and the sum
paid exceeds 40s. it must be stamped with a penny
receipt-stamp (which may be an adhesive stamp),
to be cancelled before delivery, otherwise the
receipt is inadmissible as evidence of paynient; but
on payment of certain penalties the receipt may
be after-stamped with an impressed stamp. Not
only is a receipt proper subject to stamp-duty,
but also any note or memorandum given to a
person on payment of money, and acknowledging
payment of any part of a debt or demand, whether
= nig or not; so receipts given on payment of
bills of exchange or promissory-notes are liable
to stamp-duty. But a mere acknowledgment of
indebtedness, as a receipt ‘on loan,’ or an IO U,
is not stampable asa receipt. There are several
exceptions from liability to stamp-duty. Such are
receipts for deposits with bankers to be accounted
for; receipts for any parliamentary taxes or duties,
or for any payment to the Sovereign ; receipts by
officers, seamen, marines, or soldiers for wages or
pay; receipts for purchase of government stock
or for money due under Exchequer Bill; receipts
written on any bill or note of the Bank of England
or of Ireland, on the back of duly stamped bills
of exchange or promissory-notes, or upon the back
of duly stamped instruments acknowledging the
receipt of money ; and generally receipts to or by
vernment departments. At one time, under the
et of 1803, it was supposed to be the duty of the
debtor to provide stamped paper for a receipt, the
598 RECEIVING STOLEN GOODS
RECORDER
creditor being liable in a penalty of £10 if he
refused to si This act, however, is repealed, and
the better view is that when the debtor tenders
nenee be gency Phage: ues give. a proper
ise , the form o ng regu-
leted in aieioue In Scotland the ra t of money
cannot be proved by witnesses where the debt was
created by writing, and it is not allowed to dispute
the validity of a Written receipt except in cases of
fraud. It is only in the case of ready-money sales
that receipt of the _— can be — by parole.
See Tilsley’s Stamp Laws (3d ed. 1871).
Receiving Stolen Goods. See THert.
Recent Period, See PosTGLAciIAL AND
RECENT SYSTEM.
Recidivists, in France, are the habitual crim-
inals. In 1883-84 the French government proposed
to send them to New Caledonia, giving them a
certain measure of freedom; but against this
proposal the Australian colonies protested most
vigorously. See NEw CALEDONIA.
Recife. See PERNAMBUCO.
Reciprocity, in Political Economy, a term for
an arrangement ‘between two countries having a
protective tariff against other countries, to admit
each into the other’s territories certain specified
taxable articles of commerce duty-free or at_excep-
tionally light duties. The classes of articles are
arranged to balance one another on one side and
the other. Such mutual arrangements are some-
times called Fair Trade (q.v.) as opposed to Free
Trade (q.v.) and thoroughgoing Protection (q.v.),
and has been advocated as between Britain and
her colonies. The mutual relation between Canada
and the United States, advocated in 1885-91 by
a powerful party in Canada as well as on the
other side of the frontier, proposed a complete
commercial union—Zollverein {9- v.); so that, while
between Canada and the United States there
should be no tariff at all, all s from the rest
of the world (including Great Britain) should have
a strong protective tariff to face. See A. J.
Wilson's Reciprocity, &c. (1880).
Recitative. See Music, OPERA.
Reclamation, See Waste LANDs.
Reclus, Jean Jacques Eiste, pher, was
born at Sainte-Foix la Grande (Gironde) on 15th
March 1830, and educated at Montauban and under
Carl Ritter at Berlin. In consequence of his ex-
treme democratic views he left France after the
coup d'état of 1851, and spent the next seven years
in England, Ireland, North and Central America,
and Colombia. He returned to Paris in 1858, and
mblished Voyage @ la Sierra Nevada de Sainte-
‘arthe (1861), and an introduction to the Diction-
naire des Communes de la France (1864), For being
concerned in the Communistiec outbreak of 1871 he
was banished from France, but returned under an
amnesty in 1879. Whilst living in exile in Switzer-
land he bopen his t masterpiece, Nouvelle Géo-
cae niverselle (17 vols. 1876-94). A pro-
essor at Brussels since 1893, he has also written a
pps geograph entitled La Terre (2 vols.
867-68 ; Eng. trans. 1871 and 1887) ; Histoire d’un
Ruisseau (1866); besides Les Phén es Terrestres
(1873) and Histoire d’une Montagne (1880). .
Recognisance is a kind of judicial bond
entered into with a court of record, the object of
which. is to secure the doing of some act, as the
appearance of witnesses at a criminal trial, or the
keeping of the peace by one who has threatened
or assaulted another. 1e form of it is thus: ‘A B
doth acknowledge to owe to our lady the Queen
the sum of ten pounds,’ or some other sum, to be
levied of his goods if he fail in the condition
endorsed; and then a condition is added, which
states that, if the thing secured is
sance is to be void. This is the mode by
which justices of the peace secure the attendance
of the prosecutor and witnesses at the
risoner who has been committed for trial, or the
uture good behaviour of one who has committed a
breach of the If the thing secured is not
performed, then the recognisance is estreated—i.e.
extracted and put in force, a debt of the amount
specified being forthwith due to the crown,
Recoil. See Cannon, GUNNERY, MONCRIEFF
Pits.
Recollets (Lat. recollectus, ‘ to-
gether’). See FRANcIScANS, Vol. IV. p. 793.
Record, as a legal term, is used in the United
Kingdom to signify anything entered in the rolls
of a court, and especially the formal statements or
pleadings of ies in a litigation, In eral
the rule is Bp settled that plead yes
make up the record do not enter into d of the
evidence, but merely set forth the conclusions or
inferences, leaving the details of evidence to be
supplied at the trial before a jury, or, if there is
no jury, at the hearing before the judge or court,
One of the incidents of a Court of Record is that
the court or judge can commit for contempt any
person who insults the court or wilfully o'
the business. A trial by means that one
of the parties has set up some former decision of
the court, while the other denies that such a deci-
sion ever existed; whereupon the only mode of
solving the question is by producing the record
of the former action, and so settling the dispute.
In Scotland the closing of the record is a step
which requires the sanction of the judge, who
closes the record after each party has said all he
wishes to say by way of statement and answer.
Recorde, Rosert, mathematician, was born
about 1500 at Tenby, in Pembrokeshire, Wales.
He completed his education at Oxford, bu
wishing to make medicine his profession, remov
to Cambridge, where in 1545 he received the
degree of M.D. In 1547 he was in London, en-
gaged in the composition of The Urinal of Physic
(1548), and was about the same time appointed
pbysinien to Edward VI., as afterwards to —
ary. Ten years later we find him in the de’ :
_— in London, where he died miserably in 1558.
is works are all in the form of dialogues between
a master and his pupil, and are written in the rude
English of his time; they are The Grounde of
Artes, teaching the Perfect Woork and Practice
of Arithmeticke (1543); The Pathwaye to Know-
ledge (1551), an abridgment of Euclid’s Zlements ;
The Castle of Knowledge, containing the re
tion of the Sphere both Celestial and Material,
(1551), an astronomical work, in which he com
the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems ; The Whet-
stone of Wit (1557), a treatise upon algebra. In
the appreciation of the general results derivable
from algebraic formule he is far beyond his con-
temporaries, with the sole exception of Vieta (q.v.).
Recorder is a judge of a city or borough court
of quarter sessions. He must be a barrister of
not Jess than five years’ standing, is appointed
the crown, holds office during behaviour,
the salary is paid by the city or borough out of the
borough ok He sits as sole judge of the court
of quarter sessions for his district, but he cannot
grant licenses or be an official in licensing matters,
or order rates to be levied. The recorder is not
peoeibised from practising at the bar, and indeed
is salary is usually small. He can appoint as
deputy, in case of necessity, a of five
years’ standing, and, if need be, an assistant-
recorder, In London he is elected by the
Mayor and aldermen, and as ‘mouthpiece of the
—"
RECORDER
RECORDS 599
city’ he certifies the customs of London. He is
chief judge in the Mayor's Court of London, and
is one of the judges sitting at the Central Criminal
Court, commonly called the Old Bailey. Among
the many well-known men who have held this post
were Lord Coke and Lord-chancellor Jeffreys.
There is no such office in Scotland, but the sheriff
discharges similar duties.
Recorder, the name of an old musical instru-
ment somewhat like a flageolet, but with the lower
part wider than the upper, and a mouthpiece re-
sembling the beak of a bird.
Records, Pustic (Lat. recordari, ‘to remem-
her’), contemporary authenticated statements of
the proceedings of the legislature, and the inde:
ments of those higher courts of law which are
distinguished as Courts of Record. An act, 1 and 2
Vict. chap. 94, sets at rest the question what is
legally to be held a record, by providing that the
word records shall be taken to mean all rolls,
records, writs, books, proceedings, decrees, bills,
warrants, accounts, papers and documents whatso-
ever belonging to Her Majesty, or then deposited,
or which ought to be deposited, in any of certain
places of custody which are enumerated. This
statute, together with the Act 40 and 41 Vict. chap.
55, and the Order in Council of 5th March 1852,
has placed under the care of the Master of the
Rolls the vast mass of documents stored in the
Public Record Office.
Parchment is the material on which the greater
portion of the records are written. The so-called
‘rolls’ of the Exchequer and Common Law Courts
are comparatively short skins attached at the top
after the manner of books, but the lines of the
writing run parallel to the line of binding. In other
cases they are sewed together consecutively, as in
the case of the Patent and Close Rolls, and then
form true ‘rolls’ of t length. Some records
are in the form of books, as Domesday ; others are
filed—i.e. each document is pierced with a strin
or gut passed through it, the whole being fasten
together in bundles, Many of the later records
are written on ee
The early parliamentary records and statutes
are principally in Norman-French, which continued
in partial use till the time of Henry V.; all the
other great series of records, except those of par-
liament, are in Latin down to the reign of Geor,
Il. or later, except during the Commonweal
when English was substituted.
Public records, which can be traced in germ
before the a. gradually expanded under the
Norman and Plan net kin They enabled
the subject to defend and maintain those feudal
rights and privileges which were gradually trench-
ing on royal prerogatives, and to protect himself
from arbitrary exactions ; while to the king they
furnished precedents which could not be questioned
for his calls of military service and taxation.
The various courts being the King’s Courts, and
following the sovereign from place to place, their
earliest depositories were the cb oe palaces in
different parts of England; but when the higher
courts were permanently established at Westmin-
ster, ‘treasuries,’ or places of custody for the
records of the different courts, were appointed.
A portion of the public records were, as
far back as Henry III.’s reign, deposited in the
Tower of London and the New Temple; and in
the reign of Edward III. the Tower had become a
permanent treasury. The parliamentary committee
of 1837 enumerated among the places of deposit a
room in the Tower over a gunpowder magazine,
and close to a steam-engine in daily operation; a
chapel at the Rolls, where divine service was per-
formed ; underground vaults at Somerset House ;
damp and dark cellars at Westminster Hall; the
stables of the late Carlton Ride; and the Chapter-
house, Westminster. From the reign of Edward
Il. downwards the attention of liament had
often been called to the safe custody and arrange-
ment of the records us an object of solicitude. e
fullest examination in recent times was made by a
committee of the House of Commons in 1800, whose
wr gees presents the most comprehensive account
of the records in existence. commission was
appointed to go on with the work which the com-
mittee had begun, and was renewed six times
between 1800 and 1831. All the several record
commissions directed the commissioners to cause
the records to be methodised, regulated and
digested, bound and secured, and to have calen-
dars made, and original papers printed; and
numerous valuable publications have been issued
by the commissioners from time to time. The new
edition of Rymer’s Federa, the calendar of Inquisi-
tiones Post Mortem, and the editions with excellent
indexes of the earlier Patent and Close Rolls and
the Rolls of the Curia Regis are especially to be
noted. An inquiry as to the materials for English
history to be found in the Vatican and other foreign
libraries was instituted about 1834 by the Record
Commissioners, and the results were printed under
the title ‘Appendices to Report on the Fadera,’
but have never been formally —— Copies,
however, were disseminated, and may be consulted
in the British Museum Library and elsewhere, but
the report itself has never appeared. Following
this example, em have been employed by the
Public Record Office at Paris, Simancas, Venice,
and Rome for many years, and the results of their
labours have been partly published, while the
remainder may be consulted at the Record Office.
A full investigation into the proceedings of the
Record Commissioners was made by a committee
of the House of Commons in 1835, and since 1840
annual reports have been issued by the Deputy-
keeper of the Records. By the statutes referred to
above the Master of the Rolls is empowered to
appoint a deputy-keeper of the records, and, in
conjunction with the Treasury, to do all that is
requisite in the execution of this service. He
makes rules for the management of the office, and
fixes what fees may be demanded. He allows
copies to be made, which, when certified by the
deputy and assistant keepers, and authenticated
with the seal of the office, are producible as evi-
dence in courts of law. The Home Secretary
directs from time to time such of the catalogues,
calendars, and indexes, and such of the records as
he thinks fit, to be printed, and sold at prices fixed
him. All Record publications ma rocured
directly from the Queen’s Printers, t Hardin
Street, Fleet Street, and detailed catalogues o
them may be obtained from the same source.
The present Public Record Office, a handsome
fireproof building in Fetter Lane, was begun in
1851 on a plan which admits of extension as the
records of the kingdom accumulate (for it must be
remembered that modern documents as well as old
form the subject of the deputy-keeper’s care), and
rovision has been made for the transfer into his
ds of the records which are growing from day
to day in the great administrative and legal depart-
ments of the state, as soon as they have ceased to
be needed for frequent reference.
The principal contents of the Record Office ma;
be classified under seven principal groups. Reco
of (1) the Superior Courts of Law, including the
Courts of Chancery, Queen’s Bench, and Common
Pleas, and the Exchequer, with its important fiscal
as well as a ta machinery ; (2) Special and Abol-
ished Jurisdictions, such as the Gores of Arches,
Chivalry, Requests, and Star-chamber , (3) Duchy
600
RECORDS
of Lancaster; (4) Palatinate of Durham; (5)
Palatinate of Lancaster; (6) Principality of Wales;
(7) State Papers and Departmental Sestids, in-
eluding the archives of the Admiralty, Colonial
Office, Foreign Office, Home Office, Treasury, and
other departments,
Several handbooks to this enormous mass of
materials have been published, of which the most
useful are An Account of the most 1 -wrvad Public
Records of Great Britain, by C. Purton Cooper
(2 vols. 8vo, 1832); Oficial Handbook to the Public
Records, by F. 8. Thomas (8vo, 1853); Our Public
Records, by A. C. Ewald (8vo, 1873); and A Guide
to the Principal Classes of Documents preserved in
the Public rd Office, by S. R. ill-Bird
(8vo, 1891). An introduction to the art of search-
ing for materials, whether historical, topographical,
genealogical, or legal, is afforded by the present
writer's Records and Record-searching (8vo, 1888),
while a person not nainted with the ancient
legal hands cannot do better than consult C. T.
Martin’s edition of Wright's Court Hand Restored.
This contains useful glossaries, lists of abbrevia-
tions, ancient alphabets, and specimens of the old
handwritings, which vary greatly from century to
century. See PALZOGRAPHY.
The bulk of the national records may be
imagined from the fact that, to cite only two
classes of documents, there are more than 18,000
Close Rolls, and many thousands of Coram mone
and De Banco Rolls, each of the latter in the
Tudor period containing from 500 to 1000 skins of
parchment.
The supreme needs of such a depository are
indexes, and indexes to indexes. The latter require-
ment is tolerably supplied by the ‘ List of Calend
Indexes, &c.’ in appendix ii. to the 41st Report o
the Deputy-keeper (8vo, 1880); but the indexes
themselves to which this list of 748 items is a
directory are sadly deficient. They do not furnish
idance to a twentieth part of the mass of
ocuments, and many of them are merely eclectic.
A recent addition to this series is ‘General’
Plantagenet Harrison’s voluminous MS, Index to
the De Baneo and other rolls, which has been
bg at the public expense.
umerous charters of the greatest antiquity are
to be found in the Public Record Office, and there
of course is preserved Domesday Book ; but, under-
standing by ‘ records’ a fairly continuous series of
official documents, we may say that the earliest
are the Pipe Rolls or Great Roll of the Exchequer.
That for 31 Henry L stands alone, but is soon
followed by an unbroken series of Pipe Rolls
extending from 2 Henry II. down to modern days,
These are accounts of the revenue of the kingdom
both as regards receipt and expenditure, and they
contain items of the test possible historical
interest. The Pipe Roll Society peep rene 1884)
is gradually printing them. ext in order of
antiquity are the Patent Rolls, which begin with
3 John and come down to the present day, and
the Close Rolls, which present a similarly un-
broken series from 1204. The former contain
matters ent or open to the public, such as
grants of offices, crown-lands, liberties, confirma-
tions of previons grants, grants to corporate bodies,
patents of hononr, licenses, ons, ratifications
of treaties, proclamations, safe-conducts, presenta-
tions to benefices, restitutions of temporalities to
bishops, abbeys, &c
The Close Rolls contain mandates, letters, and
writs of a private nature which were closed or
sealed up, and record the directions of the king as
to domestic and public matters, orders to the
sheriffs on all kinds of questions, and directions as
to raising subsidies. 1¢ historical value of these
two sets of Rolls is immense, as in the earlier years
all the state aaa both foreign and
domestic, is recorded in one or other of them,
Other records of t value which date either
from the reign of Edward J. or from still earlier
times are the Carte Antique, early transcripts of
charters ranging from Ethelbert, king of Kent, to
Edward I. ; Charter Rolls, containing the ki
grauts of land, dignities, &c. ; t Rol
accounts of lands and property forfeited to the
crown; Feet of Fines, records of the endings of
fictitious suits as to land, which are in realit
deeds of conveyance, ranging from 7 Richard I.
to William IV.; Rotuli Curie some of
which are as early as Richard L., are records
of the cases decided in the King’s Court up to
the reign of Edward 1, by whom the court was
divided into the King’s Bench, Common Pleons
and Exchequer ; Coram Rege Rolls, or records
the crown side of the King’s Bench, ineluding
Assize, Eyre, Coroners, and Gaol Delivery Rolls ;
De Banco Rolls, or records of the Court of mon
Pleas ; Inquisitiones Post Mortem, a treble series
(Chancery, Wards and Liveries, Exchequer) of
inquiries as to the land held by tenants in capite at
time of decease, and as to their heirs; Originalia
Rolls of the Exchequer, containing entries of any
service, rent, or salary reserved in grants or
charters; Subsidy Rolls, also Exchequer docu-
ments, often oe the names the tax-
payers under villages and towns, and most valuable
to the to pher; Pell Records, including the
Liberate ls and Issue Rolls, consisting of entries
of payments of salaries, pensions, &c.; Customs
Rolls for various ports; Memoranda Rolls (Ex-
chequer), enrolments of writs of Scire Facias, in-
formations, outlawries, and a multitude of other
matters; Pardon Rolls, enrolments of pardons up
to 2 James I.; Quo Warranto Rolls, respecting
usurpations of offices or franchises ; Oblata or Fine
Rolls, offerings to the king for renewals of charters,
enjoyment of lands, offices, and privileges ; Parlia-
ment Rolls, petitions to and proceedings in parlia-
ment, inning from the reign of Edward I. ;
Statute lis, the Journals of the Lords and
Commons from Henry VIIL, and other parlia-
mentary records.
The foregoing are more or less continuous reco!
but there are some of an occasional character or ©
limited annual duration, but still of great import-
ance, such as the Hundred Rolls, presentments of
unjust claims of privileges such as free warren
frankpledge, and assizes of bread and ale; the
Liber Niger, and Liber Rubens Scaccarii, and Testa
de Nevill, lists of tenants im capite and knight’s
fees ; Taxatio Ecclesiastica, an account (1291) of the
taxation of benefices ; Inquisitiones Nonarum, which
included a valuation of benefices in the fourteenth
year of Edward III. ; French Rolls, Norman Rolls,
Gascon Rolls, copies of treaties, truces, orders,
summonses, grants of safe-conduct, and other
items respecting the affairs of those parts of France
that were under the English crown; Valor Eeclesi-
asticus, a valuation of benefices in 26 Henry VIIL. ;
Baga de Secretis, trials for state offences of a
specially secret nature, from Anne Boleyn to the
tuart adherents of 1715 and 1745; Royalist Com-
position Papers (1649-60), containing statements
as to estates and families of Royalists.
The state rs (Domestic, Foreign, Colonial,
Irish, and Scotch) originally sprung from t
Privy-council and Chancery, and inelude the corre-
spondence of the Privy-council, secretaries of state,
and other public departments, with miscellaneous
domestic papers from the time of Henry VIII.
These, being the correspondence of the highest
litical officers of the pa, relate to an in-
nite variety of matters. ey have been care-
fully arranged, and more than 120 volumes of
RECORDS
601
calendars, covering a large portion of the field,
have now been published. . .
The activity of the authorities of the Public
Record Office has, however, not been confined to
the records stored in Fetter Lane, for since 1858
the Master of the Rolls has issued, under the
authority of the Treasury, more than 200 volumes
of the series known as Chronicles and Memorials
of Great Britain and Ireland. These are carefully
edited texts of the ancient chroniclers, such as
William of Malmesbury, Gervase of Canterbury,
William of Newburgh, and Matthew Paris, collated
with MSS. in English and continental libraries,
and a abe by specially selected editors.
The Historical Manuscripts Commission, thou
not in name a department of the Record Office,
in reality closely connected with it. In answer to
requests from this body, private libraries and
muniment rooms all over England, Ireland, and
Scotland have, almost without exception, been
thrown open to authorised ins’ rs, who have
rted on their principal contents. Since
1870 many volumes of reports on these collections
have been published, embodying transcripts of
documents of special interest, and giving brief
abstracts of a host of others.
The Literary Search Room at the Public Record
Office is open from 10 to 4 every day, except
Saturday, when it closes at 2 o’clock, and a few
public holidays, when the office is shut up. Any
respectable person may, on entering his name and
address in a book kept in the lobby, attend and
consult almost any document he may desire to see.
A few of course are subject to special reservation.
Scotland.—The public records of Scotland were
undoubtedly numerous and multifarious as early as
1282, as from an inventory of muniments
exainined in that year by the order of Alexander
Ill, ; and another inventory of Scottish rolls and
writs was compiled at the command of Edward I.
of England in 1291. Few, if any, of the docu-
ments mentioned in these lists are now known to
exist. In 1651 the records of the Scottish parlia-
ments and courts of justice were removed by Crom-
well to the Tower of London. The more important
of these, to the number of 1609 volumes, were
restored in 1657, and the remainder, after the
restoration of Charles IL, were packed in eighty-
five hogsheads and shipped on board a frigate for
Scotland ; but in a violent storm they were trans-
ferred to a smaller vessel, which went down with
its precious cargo. The control of the records has
from very early times been entrusted to the Clerk
of the Rolls and isters, or Lord Clerk Register,
one of the high officers of state, who had a seat
in the Scotti liament, and to whom, and his
deputies and other officers appointed by him, it
was assigned to superintend both the formation
and custody of the public records. These were at
first in the inconvenient form of rolls, but in the
ign of David II. the practice was introduced of
writing them in books. By an act of 1463 the
ogy, tote and age were appointed to be put
in ks; but the accounts in the Exchequer
continued, nevertheless, to be kept in rolls till the
pou: of another act in 1672, appointing them to
ye written in books. Originally the records were
kept in the Castle of Edinburgh, but in later
times they were deposited under care of the Clerk
Register, in the igh Parliament House, now
part of the Advocates’ Library ; and shortly before
the Union the whole records were transferred to
that depository, where they continued till the
erection of the large building called the General
Register House (1787). The ister House serves
the pu of preserving and making available the
national muniments, as well as accommodating the
whole offices of record connected with the supreme
court. The Lord Clerk ister and his depute
have now merely the custody of the records, their
preparation being entrusted to another class of
Under the Scottish records are included the Acts
of Parliament and of Privy-council, and the records
of the supreme courts of justice; also the records
of the Great Seal, Privy Seal, and Signet. An
important class of records are the Retours of Services.
A service is by the law of Scotland, in cases of
intestacy, necessary to transmit a right to real
property to the heir from his ancestor. At present
this service consists of the decision of the sheriff
of the county or the sheriff of Ch ; but the
form in use till 1847 was by retour, a writing which
contained the verdict of a jury returned in answer
to a brieve from Chancery for finding the heir at
the death of his ancestor. The register of retours
contains services from 1545.
The registers connected with the transmission of
heritable rights are even more important. After
several unsuccessful attempts to introduce a system
of registration, the Register of Sasines was estab-
lished by Act 1617, chap. 16. By the system then
introduced, since continued with modifications in
detail, all instruments requisite to the trans-
mission of real property must, in order to convert
mere mal right into real right, be put on
record for publication. Besides the general register
in Edinburgh there were particular registers for the
various counties kept at their respective county
towns; but any instrument might be recorded either
in the particular or the general register. Volumes
were issued from the General Register House to
the local recorders of sasines, which, when filled,
were returned to the General Register House,
This arrangement was changed by the Lands
Registration Act of 1868, providing for the entire
discontinuance of the particular registers before
the last day of 1871, and enacting that all writs of
this class thenceforth recorded in the general
register in Edinburgh, which register is so kept
that the writs applicable to each county are
recorded in separate series of volumes. By means
of the ister of Sasines any title to real pro-
perty can ascertained with certainty and pre-
cision, and may, if necessary, be traced back nearly
three centuries. It is also obligatory to record in
separate registers all instruments n for the
constitution, transmission, and extinction of volun-
tary encumbrances. See REGISTRATION. This
spar while confirming the credit of the proprietor,
also operates in favour of the security of creditors.
There is a special Register of Entails, in which.
in terms of Act 1685, chap. 22, deeds of entail
must be recorded at the sight of the Court of
Session. There are also the records of the various
commissariats, which include testaments and other
relative documents. The object of registration in
all these cases is publication; but charters by
paujects, dispositions, bonds, contracts, and other
probative writs may, under Act 1698, chap. 4, be
recorded in the Register of Deeds for preservation.
A third object of registration is execution, Every
deed constituting a personal claim of debt, or an
obligation to perform some lawful prestation, if
intended to be made the subject of personal dili-
gence for payment or performance, must be regis-
tered previously to execution being issued on it.
Calendars of state papers relating to Seotland pre-
served in the English Record Office have been
—— published; while the publication of the
Scottish records in the Register House has been
going on at intervals since 1811. These include
the Acts of Parliament, Register of the Great
Seal, Register of the Privy-council, Exchequer
Rolls, Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer, and
other records.
602 RECOVERY
RECUSANTS
See Ayloffe’s Calendars of Ancient Charters (1774);
Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland, vol. i. appendix to
eer Re of the ‘ic Record Commissions ; the
Publications—preface to the earliest volume of
each series.
TIreland.—Many of the records perished durin
the wars prior to the final reduction of Ireland,
and those which survived these commotions were
long exposed to mutilation and destruction from
the unsatisfactory arrangements for their custody.
A commission was appointed in 1810 for the pre-
servation and arrangement of the Irish Records,
whose labours, conducted with considerable success,
were terminated by the revocation of the com-
mission in 1830. In 1847 commissioners were again
appointed to investigate the state of the records, in
consequence of whose labours a bill for their safe
custody was prepared, but afterwards abandoned.
In 1867, however, the Public Records (Ireland)
Act was passed, and from 1869 the Reports of the
Deputy-keeper of the Irish Records have been
annually published. These include some docu-
ments and calendars in their appendices, notably
a calendar of ‘ Fiants’ (fiant litere patentes) from
Henry VIII.
Three volumes of a calendar of the Irish Patent
and Close Rolls were published in 1861-63; and
some other publications, including volumes of fac-
similes of national MSS, have been issued by the
Irish Record Office. This department since its
formation in 1869 has done a great work in the way
of collecting records from various depositories and
arranging and cataloguing them. The records are
open to searchers on payment of fees, but the
rege Keen may dispense with fees if he thinks
that literary profit will accrue to the public from
the searchers’ work. One important feature of the
Irish Record Office is the collection of Parish
ae gop made under Acts 38 and 39 Vict. chap. 59,
and 39 and 40 Vict. chap. 58. This is an example
which should be followed in England.
Recovery. See ENTAIL.
Recruit, a person who voluntarily adopts the
rofession of arms and enlists in the army. See,
‘or the conditions, ENLISTMENT, ARMY, REGI-
MENT.
Rectifying is a process applied to alcohol,
abenen. eg other volatile liquid, by which the
last traces of impurities are removed by distilla-
tion. Many varieties of stills and condensers have
been devised for this purpose, for further reference
to which see DISTILLATION, and ALCOHOL.
Rector (Lat. ‘ruler’), in the Church of Eng-
land, is a clergyman who has the charge and cure
of a parish where the tithes are not seaptopriate,
and who accordingly has the whole right to the
eeclesiastical dues therein; where the tithes are
impropriate the parson is a Vicar (q.v.). In the
Episcopal Churches of the United States and (since
1890) tland all incumbents are called rectors.
See also EDUCATION, and UNIVERSITIES.
Rectum, the terminal portion of the intestinal
canal, named, from its comparatively straight
course, the rectum (see DIGESTION), is the seat
of various affections requiring medical or surgical
assistance. Some of these affections, as fistula,
fissure (see ANUS), piles, prolapsus ani, have
already been considered. Amongst the other
diseases of the rectum of sufficient importance to
claim notice in these p are—
(1) Stricture of the Rectum, which may be either
of a simple or malignant nature. Simple stricture
consists in a thickening and induration of the sub-
mucous tissue, less often of the muscular or mucous
cont of the rectum, so as to form a ring encroach-
ing on the calibre of the tube. It is situated most
often about an inch from the anus, and the con-
traction is so great and unyielding that it is often
difficult to a finger through it, It may occur
as the result of injury or operation, of old ulcera-
tion (e.g. from dysentery ), of syphilis, or without
ascertainable cause. The symptoms are constipa-
tion and great pain, and a straining in evacuating
the feces, which, if not liquid, are passed in a
narrow, flattened, or worm-like form that is
very significant of the nature of the case. In an
advanced stage of the disease diarrhwa and pro-
lapsus often supervene. However great may be
the constipation, strong purgatives must be alto-
gether avoided. Soft and unirritating ev
must be procured by such medicines as the confec-
tion of senna combined with sulphur (see PILEs),
or injections of castor-oil or of tepid water. The
diet should be regulated so as to assist the action
of the medicines, Nutritious soups are serviceable,
since, at the same time, they support the strength
and leave little matter to be excreted. ual
dilatation by suitable bougies often gives great
relief, but must be steadily persevered with, as the
contraction is almost certain to recur. ———
stricture—most commonly due to the scirrhous,
but sometimes to the epithelial form of eancer—
is by no means a very rare affection. Until ulcera-
tion sets in the symptoms are like those of simple
stricture, only exaggerated in raphe but after-
wards there is a dise of fetid muco-purulent
matter streaked with blood. In this disease the
treatment can, in most eases, be only palliative.
Sometimes, however, if the tumour is low down
and localised it may be removed with at least
temporary relief. If complete obstruction occur,
or is threatened, the surgeon var A resort to the
formation of an artificial anus in the loin or groin
as a last resource.
(2) Spasm of the sphincter ani muscle is char-
acterised by extreme pain in the region of the anus,
especially when an attempt is made to evacuate
the bowels. The muscle contracts so firmly that
the surgeon cannot easily introduce the finger into
the rectum. The spasm may be caused by piles,
by fissure of the anus, by ulceration of the rectum,
and sometimes a by mere constipation.
It is often reliev the app ication of the bella-
donna ointment of the British Pharmacopa@ia.
(3) Neuralgia of the rectum, known also as proe-
gia, is sometimes met with, and is especial
prone to attack children and gouty persons. It is
usually relieved by the judicious use of aperient
medicines and such treatment as is used for other
forms of Neuralgia (q.v.).
' (4) Pruritus podicis, or itching of the anus, is a
very common and extremely troublesome affection.
Sometimes it depends on the presence of thread-
worms, of old piles, constipation, or some other
local cause of irritation, while in other cases it is
one of the manifestations of some constitutional
condition. The treatment must depend upon the
exciting cause. See works on the rectum by
Allingham, Cripps, Henry Smith.
Reculver, « village of Kent, 1 mile from the
sea, and 9 miles W. of Margate, with remains of
the Roman station Regulbium. Pop. 208.
Recusants, persons who refuse or neglect to
attend at the worship of the established church on
Sundays and other days appointed for the pe
The offence as a legal one may be held to date
1 Elizabeth, chap. 2; but there were four classes
punishable under the statutes against recusancy
—simple ‘recusants;’ ‘recusants convict,’ who
absented themselves after conviction; ‘popish
recusants,’ who absented themselves because of
their being Roman Catholics; and ‘popieh re-
cusants convict,’ who absented themselves after
conviction. Protestant dissenting recusants were
RED
RED CROSS 603
relieved from the penalties of recusation by the
Toleration Act of 1 Will. and Mary, chap. 18.
Catholics were partially relieved in the year 1791,
and completely by the cipation Act of 1829.
Red, Most of the sro ag red pigments
have been already noticed. For carmine and
crimson lake prepared from cochineal, and also
for the Sadler reds, see LAKES. The reds of
which oxide of iron is the ape, ingredient—
viz. Indian red, Venetian red, and light red—are
referred to under OcHRES. Vermilion (q.v.) is
one of the finest and most beautiful reds, It has
now been ascertained, however, that it is not
always quite so permanent, at least as a water-
eolour pigment, as was formerly supposed. For
house-painters’ use this colour is often adulterated
with red lead, which, though forming a useful
paint for some common pu , is fugitive. The
substances used a arene textile fabrics red are
noticed under the head DYEING.
Redan. See Fortirication, SEBASTOPOL.
Redbreast ( Erythaca rubecula), a bird of the
family Sylviide, well known in the British Isles
because of its very general distribution, its early
and | =f associations, its conspicuous plumage,
and the fact of its being resident. Its range is
—, extending northwards, and now it is
ound breeding in the Hebrides and Orkneys; in
spring it is found on the island of Jan Mayen, in
autumn it visits the Faroes, but it has not yet
been recorded in Iceland. Southwards it breeds
throughout Europe (but only locally in the south
of aes ), in North-west Africa and the a
Madeira, and the Azores; eastwards to the Ura
Mountains. In winter its migrations extend to the
Sahara, Egypt, Palestine, and Persia. The red-
breast, known familiarly as Robin of Robin Red-
breast, is about 53 inches long, olive-brown in
colour on the upper parts; chin, throat, and upper
breast reddish orange, bordered with bluish gray on
the sides of the neck and shoulders; under
dull white; bill black; legs and feet brown; the
body fairly full and round, the legs slender. The
female is usually but not always duller than the
male. In habit robins are domineering and pug-
nacious ; solitary, or found oe § in pairs, preferring
lantations, but coming near dwelling-houses when
‘orced by severe weather. Nesting begins in March.
The nest of dead leaves, dried grass and moss, and
lined with hair and feathers, is made in banks,
hollow trees, and sometimes in strange and extra-
ordinary places. The eggs, five to seven, are
usually white with light reddish blotches, or pure
white. Two or three broods are produced in the
season. In autumn the Pate by forced by their
parents to migrate, and at this season there is
generally a great influx of robins from the northern
rts of the Continent, where they have been
ing the summer. The food consists chiefly of insects
and worms ; often of berries and other fruits; and
in winter bread-crumbs and scraps of meat. Its
is sweet and plaintive, but of little compass,
and not much noticed when other ters abound.
The widely distributed robin of the United States
and Canada is a Thrush ( Turdus migratorius).
Redear, « popalar bathing-resort in the North
Rid of Yorkshire, 10 miles by rail NE. of
Middlesborough. Its smooth, firm sands stretch 10
miles from the mouth of the Tees to Saltburn.
Pop. (1851) 1032; (1891) 2818.
Red Cedar. See JUNIPER.
Red Crag. See PLiocenr System.
Red Cross, THE, is the badge and flag adopted
every society, of whatever nation, for
aid of the sick and wounded in time of war,
recognised and authorised by the military author-
ities of its own nation, and enjoying certain privi-
leges and immunities under the treaty known as
the Convention of Geneva. Hence ‘Red Cross
Society’ has become a generic name for all such
voluntary efforts, and cannot be monopolised by
any one of them. For three centuries or more a
medical service has been attached to armies, and
was long thought sufficient for every emergency,
but the revelations made during the Crimean war
(1853-56) were terrible. The merciful mission of
Miss Nightingale and her companions, while reduc-
ing the losses by one-half, threw light upon shock-
ing defects, and compelled the acknowledgment of
want of organisation in ovseything connected with
the health of the troops and care for the wounded.
Nevertheless, when the war broke out (1859) in
Lombardy similar inefficiency was apparent. Loud
complaints arose, but the first practical result
ensued from the publication by M. Dunant of his
Souvenir de Solferino. The account of this battle
(June 24, 1859), which lasted fifteen hours and in
which 300,000 combatants were » Was so
heart-rending as to force public tion to the
necessity for supplementing the medical and _sani-
i volunteer societies trained and
in time of The book was dis-
cussed at Geneva at a meeting of the Société
Genévoise d’Utilité Publique, February 9, 1863,
a date which may be taken as the starting-point
of the Red Cross. An international conference
was then convoked, which assembled at Geneva,
October 26, 1863, and included among its thirty-
six members delegates from fourteen governments
and six associations. A posed code of inter-
national enactments was ussed, and the main
recommendations agreed to were (1) the forma-
tion in each country of a eommittee to co-operate
with the army sanitary service in communication
with the government, and occupying itself in time
of peace with preparing supplies of hospital stores,
training nurses, , and during wars furnishin,
the same in aid of their respective armies, neut
nations being invited to assist such national com-
mittees ; (2) the declaration of the neutrality of
hospitals, of the officials of the sanitary service,
of the unpaid nurses, of the inhabitants of the
country aiding the wounded, and even of the
wounded themselves. The conference suggested
the adoption of the same distinctive and uniform
badge Mage red cross on a white ground) for all
hospitals and sanitary officials as well as for the
volunteer pow de ey A treaty, the Convention
of Geneva, embodying these resolutions was signed
at a second conference at Geneva in 1864 by twelve
out of sixteen representatives there assembled, and
it has since been acceded to by every civilised
nation. International conferences have been held
at Paris (when the convention was extended to
naval warfare), Berlin, and Vienna, but the resolu-
tions at Geneva have not been materially
altered. The International Committee still con-
tinues at Geneva, as a centre of communication
between belligerent states, facilitating the action
of the different societies and the transmission of
relief offered by neutrals, The English Order of
the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem, the National
Society for Aid to the Sick and Wounded in War,
the Eastern War Sick and Wounded Relief Fund,
the Stafford House Fund, the French Société de
Secours aux Militaires Blessés, the Russian Johan-
niter, and the Austrian Samariter Verein are among
the best known of the numerous Red Cross socie-
ties. The Red Cross Societyin the United States,
since June 6, 1900, is organised under a charter
granted by congress, he International Com-
mittee at Geneva publishes quarterly, since 1869,
the Bulletin International des Sociétés dela Croix
Rouge. See also The Red Cross: Its Past and
604 RED CROSS
REDESWIRE
Future, by G. Moynier (trans. by J. Furley, 1883),
a Red Cross knight of the foremost rank, having
been the first to enter Paris with provisions, anc
having received for his many and great services
the gold medal from the committee at Versailles,
and decorations from the various French Red Cross
societies, which contains the text of the Conven-
tion of Geneva; Under the Red Cross, by Pearson
and M‘Laughlin ; Notes and Recollections, by W.
M‘Cormack. See AMBULANCE.
Red Cross, Tue Royat. This decoration was
instituted by Queen Victoria in 1883. It is con-
ferred on any ladies, English or foreign, recom-
mended by the Secretary of State for War, for
special exertions in st pn for the nursing, or
for attending to sick and wounded soldiers and
sailors. The decoration is a cross of crimson enamel
gold-edged, attached to a dark-blue ribbon red-
edged, one inch in width, tied in a bow and worn
on the left shoulder,
Red Deer, or Stac (Cervus elaphus), a large
and very handsome animal, inhabiting some of the
forests of Europe, West Asia, and North Africa.
Those living in the more northern parts are smaller.
In Britain red deer are found on Exmoor, in the
Highlands of Scotland, and in some parts of Ireland.
Stag, Hind, and Calf (Cervus elaphus).
The full-grown animal stands over 4 feet at the
withers, and is dark reddish brown in colour, slightly
grayish in winter. The Antlers (q.v.), with which
the rival males fight, belong to what is called the
elaphine type, having protrusive brow-tines, well-
marked bez-tines, a rounded beam, and terminal
snags ‘arranged in a cup or crown.’ As usual,
they are shed in the spring of each year, and gain
‘points’ with each year’s fresh growth, a ‘royal
stag’ having twelve, though this is not the maxi-
mum. Darwin mentions an antler 30 inches in
length with fifteen snags, and another with thirty-
three, while Flower refers to ‘a pair of antlers,
weighing 74 lb., and with forty-five points.’
he male stags are distingnished by the posses-
sion of antlers, and are rather larger and stronger
than the females. Their voice is also stronger, for
they bellow very loudly when enraged or when
challenging their rivals. The combats are very
fierce, and sometimes fatal even to both com-
batants, for their antlers sometimes interlock in-
extricably. In fighting, the projecting brow-tines
fori most effective weapons. The breeding season
is in September or October, but the young are not
born till the end of May or the beginning of June.
As in most species of Cervus they are first slightly
spotted with white. In the first year young
male has only a hint of antlers, in the second year
only small unbranched beams ; thereafter a tine is
ined each year. Nearly allied is the North
merican Wapiti (C. canadensis), and there are
closely related species or varieties in Persia,
mere, and Tibet. Baillie Grohmann in S; in the
Alps (1896) has much about red deer. DEER,
DEER Forests, STAG-HOUND; Red Deer, by R.
Jefferies (1884); and The Red Deer, by Mac
and others (‘ Fur and Feather’ Series, 1896
Redditch, a town on the borders of Worcester
and Warwick shires, stands on an acclivity 13 miles
SSW. of Birmingham by rail, Needles, pins, fish-
hooks, and fishing-tackle are made extensively,
Pop. (1851) 4802 ; (1881) 9961 ; (1891) 11,295.
Reddle, RAppLE, or Rep CHALK (Scot. Keel)
an impure peroxide of iron (ferrie oxide) associated
with very variable proportions of clay or chalk, or
sometimes other substances. It varies ly too
in hardness, some kinds being difficult to crush
and others quite soft. In colour it Brags from a
ale brick-red to a tint occasionally hip as
fright as vermilion. It is found in many places
abroad, and in England in Somersetshire, the
Forest of Dean, at Wastwater in Cumberland, and,
of a quality valuable for polishing optical glasses,
near Rotherham in Yorkabine Some kinds of it
are used for marking sheep, others for ters’
and masons’ pencils, and the finer qualities for
artists’ crayons. Red ochre is one of the varieties.
Red Earth, the name given to the reddish
loam or earth which so frequently oceurs in regions
composed of limestones. is earth is the insoluble
residue of those portions of the calcareous rock
which have’ been dissolved by rain. Such red
earths are of common occurrence in limestone
caverns. See CAVE.
Redemptionists, one of the names of an order
of monks devoted to the redemption of Christian
captives from slavery. They are more frequently
led Trinitarians (q.v.).
Redemptorists, called also LiGvoRIANS, a
congregation founded by St Alfonso Liguori (q.v.).
Redesdale, the valley of the river Reed in
Northumberland, extending almost from the Seot-
tish border in a south-easterly direction for over 16
miles, until it opens up into the valley of the Tyne,
the river joining the North Tyne at Reedsmouth,
It is for miles a mere mountain vale, sloping up-
wards into bleak and dreary moorland, but it has a
quiet beauty of its own that is not easily forgotten
by the traveller. The river springs out of the
Cheviot Hills, which lie athwart the head of the
dale, and down its course from Carter Toll on the
border lay one of the chief roads into England.
Watling Street itself traverses its middle and upper
nart. Near the southern end of Redesdale is the
amous field of Otterburn (q.v.), but 16 miles from
the border, which point again is but 10 miles from
Jedburgh. The men of Redesdale of old were
brave and turbulent, and bore more than their _
share in Border feuds and forays.—Redesdale gave
from 1877 the title of earl to John Thomas Freeman
Mitford (1805-86), who was son of the Boe pe
John Mitford (died 1830), first Baron esdal
and who himself from 1851 was Chairman
Committees in the House of Lords, and a deter-
mined enemy of change in ecclesiastical matters.
Redeswire, Raip or THE, a battle fought 7th
July 1575 close to the English border at the
leading across the Cheviots into Redesdale, about
6 miles ESE. of Chesters in Roxburghshire. A
number of Scots attacked an English force to
avenge the slaughter of a countryman, but were
RED-EYE
RED SEA 605
beaten back and on the point of being Sr i
routed, when the provost and townsmen of Jed-
burgh arrived hot from the 10 miles’ march, and at
once set on the enemy. The Englishmen were
soon completely defeated, with the loss of several
considerable prisoners. There is a prosy ballad on
the subject in Scott’s Border Minstrelsy.
Red-eye, or Rupp (Leuciscus erythrophthal-
mus), a fish belonging to the same genus as roach,
chub, and minnow. It is common in lakes, slow
rivers, and fens, in many parts of Europe and in
England. It much resembles the Roach (q.v.), but
Red-eye or Rudd ( Leuciscus erythrophthalmus).
is shorter and deeper. It is richly coloured, the
name Rudd referring to the colour of the fins, the
name Red-eye to that of its iris. The fish is better
eating than the roach, and sometimes attains a
weight of 2 lb.
Redgrave, RicHarp, painter, born in London
on 30th April 1804, in 1826 was admitted a student
of the Academy, and was elected an A.R.A. in
1840, an R.A. in 1851. From 1847 onwards he took
a prominent part inart instruction, and in 1857 was
appointed Inspector-general of Art Schools, which
ee, with that of Surveyor of the Royal Pictures,
he resigned in 1880, being then created a C.B. In
1882 he was placed on the list of retired academ-
icians, and next year he ceased to exhibit, having
since 1825 contributed 145 pictures to the Academy,
besides forty sent elsewhere. He wrote, with his
brother, A Century of English Painters (1866), and
edited several valuable catalogues. He died 14th
December 1888. See Memoir by his daughter (1891).
ALOYS VON, the famous champion of
Swiss independence, was born in 1765, in the canton
of Schwyz. After serving in Spain he returned to
Switzerland in 1788. As captain-general of the
canton of Schwyz he repulsed the French Repub-
licans, May 2, 1798, at Morgarten. After the
formation of the Helvetic ey ayy Reding was
one of those who eagerly worked for the restitution
of the old federal constitution. In 1802 he founded
in the eastern parts of Switzerland a | e, with
the intention of overthrowing the centra vern-
ment. Reding went to Paris in order to gain over
the First Consul, but failed. Till 1803, and again
after 1809, he acted as Landamman or chief-magis-
trate of Schwyz. He died 5th February 1818.
Red-letter Days, See BLack Lerrer.
Red Liquor. See CALico-PRINTING, p. 645.
Redoubt. See Fortirication.
Redout Kalé, a fortified post on the Black
Sea coast of Russian Cancasia, is situated in a
marshy region at the mouth of a small river, about
10 miles N. of Poti. It was the chief shipping-
place for Circassian girls to Turkey, and was cap-
tured by the British fleet in 1854,
Redpole. See LINNET.
Red River, the lowest western branch of the
Mississippi, rises near the eastern border of New
Mexico, flows eastward through Texas, forming the
entire southern boundary of Indian Territory, thence
south-east through Arkansas and Louisiana, and
enters the Mississippi below 31° N.-lat. It is 1600
miles long, and receives numerous branches, the
Washita (Ouachita) the most important. It is
navigable for seven months to Shreveport (350
miles). A few miles above is the Great Raft, of
driftwood, which formerly blocked up the river.
Red River of the North, a navigable river
of the United States and Canada, rises in Elbow
Lake, Minnesota, near the sources of the Mississippi,
and flows south and west to Breckinridge, then
north, forming the boundary between Minnesota
and North Dakota, and so into Manitoba and
through a flat country to Lake Winni Its
course is 665 miles (525 in the Uni tates ).
The Red River Settlement was the origin of Mani-
toba (q.v.). For the Red River Expedition, see
CANADA, Vol. II. p. 695, and RIEL.
Red Root (Ceanothus), a genus of deciduous
shrubs of the natural order Rhamnacee. The com-
mon Red Root of North America (C. americanus),
which abounds from Canada to Florida, is a shrub
of two to four feet high, with beautiful thyrsi of
numerous small white flowers. It is sometimes
called New Jersey Tea, an infusion of its leaves
being sometimes used as tea. It serves also as an
astringent, and for dyeing wool of a cinnamon
colour. A Mexican oe yma has blue flowers, and a
California kind is used for evergreen hedges.
Redruth, a town of Cornwall, on a hillside
(414 feet) in the centre of a 2 aed mining-district,
9 miles by rail W. by 8. of Truro. It has a town-
hall (1850), public rooms (1861), a miners’ hospital
(1863), &ce. William Murdock (q.v.) here in 1792
first used for lighting purposes. Pop. (1851)
7095 ; (1871) 10,685 ; (1891) 10,324.
Red Sea. The Red Sea is an arm of the
Indian Ocean, de roages north-north-west from the
Gulf of Aden, with which it communicates by the
Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, 13} miles across. Its
length is about 1200 miles, and its width in the
central portion is between 100 and 200 miles, the
greatest breadth being about 205 miles; it narrows
towards the southern entrance, while in the north
it is divided by the peninsula of Sinai into two
gulfs, the Gulf of Suez, 170 miles long by 30 miles
wide, and the Gulf of ‘Akaba, 100 miles in length.
The Arabian coasts of the Red Sea are usually
narrow sandy plains backed by ranges of barren
mountains; the African coasts towards the north
are flat and sandy, but farther south high table-
lands rise some distance inland, culminating
still farther sonth in the lofty mountains of
Abyssinia. A marked feature in the configura-
tion of the Red Sea is found in the large exist-
ing and upraised coral-reefs running parallel to
both the eastern and western shores, those to the
east being more extensive and farther from the
coast than those to the west; the most important
are the Farisan Archipelago in the eastern reef,
and the large island of Dahlak, lying off Annesley
Bay, in the western reef. In addition to the islands
of organic formation mention may be made of the
voleanic group lying in 14° N. lat., the largest of
which, Jebel Zugur, is 10 miles long, 7 miles wide,
and 2074 feet in height ; farther north, on the islet
of Jebel Teir, is a voleano which was active until
quite recently. A dangerous reef, the Daedalus,
lies directly in the path of steamers in 244° N.
lat., and a igtihionee has been placed on it. The
principal harbours on the Red. Sea are Mocha,
odeida, Lokeyyah, Jiddah, and Yenbo‘ on the
Arabian coast, and Massowah, Khor Nowarat, and
Suakim on the African coast.
606 RED SEA
RED WATER
In ancient times the Red Sea was used as a
means of communication by the Phoenicians and
other maritime peoples, until the discovery of the
route round the Cape of Good Hope diverted the
traffic into another channel, only to be revived,
however, on a much more extensive scale with the
construction of the Suez Canal.
The tides are very variable, depending largely on
the direction and force of the winds, which also to
a great extent determine the direction and velocity
of the surface currents. The hot climate is due
to the almost cloudless sky, and consequent want
of rain, the altitude of the sun, and the absence
of rivers. The mean temperature of the air gener-
ally ranges between 70° and 94° F. during the
day, thongh readings of over 100° are often regis-
tered in the shade; but during the night the tem-
perature may fall to the freezing-point, owing to
radiation in the clear atmosphere. The prevailing
wind on shore is north-north-west almost univer-
sally, but from October to May south-south-east
winds prevail over the southern portions of the
sea, a belt of calms and variable winds occurring in
the central regions, while in the northern portions
the usual north-north-west winds are met with.
Evaporation is very great, and the air over the
water is always very moist in the summer ; hurri-
canes are unusual, but rain-squalls frequently occur
with the southerly winds, and moderate gales and
sandstorms, called ‘dragons’ in the popular lan-
guage of the Arabs, are not uncommon.
The mean temperature of the surface water in
the Red Sea varies at the northern end between
about 65° and 79° F., in the central regions between
75° and 86°, and at the southern end between 78°
and 89°; readings of over 100° have been recorded
at the south end of the sea. The temperature of
the water below the surface decreases down to a
depth of about 200 fathoms, from whence down to
the bottom a mean temperature of about 71° is
found all the year round; this agrees with the
temperature conditions prevailing in the enclosed
seas of the East Indies, for instance, according to
the observations made on board the Challenger,
the depth at which the minimum temperature
occurs (i.e. 200 fathoms in the Red Sea) indicating
the depth of water over the barrier separating the
Sea from the open ocean. In winter, in the north-
ern part, the whole body of water from surface to
bottom usually has a mean temperature of 71°.
The salinity of the water is almost constant at
about 1°030 (ordinary ocean water is about 1°026),
and this is due to the fact that no rivers flow into
it, little rain falls, and the evaporation is excessive.
It has been estimated that, were the Red Sea
entirely enclosed, it would become a solid mass of
salt in less than two thousand years, but this is
prevented by an inflow of water through the Strait
of Bab-el-Mandeb, and it is also known that a
current of very salt water flows out underneath the
incoming surface current.
The greatest depth in the Red Sea is about 1200
fathoms, and the mean depth of the whole area
about 375 fathoms. From the point of greatest
depth, which is near the centre, the bottom rises
towards each end. Owing to the absence of rivers
the deposits approach in character those formed in
the open ocean, being largely composed of Foramin-
ifera, Pteropods, and other pelagic shells. The
marine fauna and flora are extensive, and have
been described by Haeckel and other naturalists ;
it has been shown that a migration of the Red Sea
and Mediterranean fanne is taking place along
the Suez Canal. The origin of the name—
the Lat. Mare Rubrum and the Gr. Erythra
Thalassa—is much disputed. The Hebrew name
is Yam Stiph, which Gesenius explains as the ‘sea
of reeds’ The path by which the Israelites went
out of Egypt was along the course of the valley
called Wady Tumeilat, apparently an old arm of
the Nile now silted up. The Lake of Ismailieh
(Zimsah) was then most probably the head of the
Gulf of Suez, but the exact point of passage of this
arm of the sea still remains obscure,
Redshank. See SANDPIPER.
Redstart ( Ruticilla phenicura), a bird of the
family Sylviidee, ranging in Europe from the North
Cape to the wooded regions of central and southern
Europe ; in. Asia to the valley of the Yenesei in
summer, and to Palestine, Arabia, and Persia in
winter; in Africa from the Canaries and Madeira
and Sen to Abyssinia in winter. In Great
Britain it is a summer visitor to most parts, though
unaccountably absent from some ; in Ireland it has
been very seldom recorded, but since the summer
of 1885 it has nested annually at Power's Court,
County Wicklow. The male is about 5} inches
long, has the head, back, and wing-coverts slate-
gray; the forehead and preatuuat white ; chin,
throat, and cheeks jet black; wings brown, with
ale outer edges ; the tail and upper tail-coverts
Pri ht rufous chestnut; the rest of the under parts
buff; bill black ; legs and feet brown. The female
has the upper Pesky —_ brown, under
lighter, the tail less brilliant, and no ht colours
on the head. The redstart is a bird of livel.
manners. Its food consists of flies, gnats,
Redstart ( Ruticilla phanicura).
butterflies, and other insects; the young are fed
a igs on caterpillars. The nest is built of moss
and dry grass, lined with hair and feathers, in
holes in trees or walls; the eggs are usually six in
number, and of a light blue colour. The song is
slight, but soft and melodious ; the alarm note is a
laintive whect. In some parts of the country this
ird is called the ‘Fire-tail,’ start being derived
from the Anglo-Saxon steort, ‘a tail.’ The Black
Redstart (R. titys) is now a well-known visitor to
many parts of the English coasts, especially of
Devon and Cornwall, in autumn and winter, and
also to the east and south coasts of Ireland. It is
more rare in Scotland, but it has been found as
far north as the Pentland Skerries. It has been
recorded in Iceland, the Faroes, southern Scandi-
navia, and Denmark. From Holland southwards
it is abundant in spring. Its home is in southern
Europe and northern Africa, whence it ranges
eastwards to the Ural Mountains, Palestine, and
Nubia. Other species of redstart are found, one
(R. mesolerea) in Cyprus, Asia Minor, and Persia ;
another (the Indian Redstart, R. rufiventris) from
Lebanon eastward ; and a third (R. ochrurus) in
the Cancasus and Armenia.
Red Water (disease). See BLack WATER.
REDWING
REED 607
Redw (Turdus iliacus), a species of Thrush
(q.v.), well known in Britain as a winter bird of
It spends the summer in the northern
parts of Europe and Asia; it occurs in Iceland, and
straggles even to Greenland: its winter range
extends to the Mediterranean, Persia, Northern
India, and Siberia as far as Lake Baikal. In size
it is somewhat smaller than the song-thrush or
mavis. Its flight is remarkably rapid. The general
colour is a rich clove-brown on the head, upper
— of the body, and tail; the wing-feathers
ker, but with lighter external edges; the lower
parts mostly whitish, tinged and streaked with
—
Redwing ( Turdus iliacus).
brown; the under wing-coverts and axillary feathers
t reddish orange. The redwing arrives in
Britain rather earlier than the Fieldfare (q.v.),
and, like it, hig a in large flocks, but is less
numerous and less gregarious. Its food consists
of insects, small snails, and berries. It has an
exquisite, clear, flute-like song, which it pours
forth from the summit of a high tree, gladdening
the woods of the north.
Redwood, See PINe.
Ree, Louau, a lake in the centre of Ireland,
between Connaught and Leinster, is an expansion
of the river Shannon (q.v.).
Reed, the common English name of certain tall
meme growing in moist or marshy places, and
aving a very hard or almost woody culm. The
Common Reed (Phragmites communis, former]
Arundo Phragmites) is abundant in Britain pat
continental Europe, in wet meadows and stagnant
waters, and by the banks of rivers and ditches, It
ws chiefly in rich alluvial soils. The culms are
to 10 feet high, and bear at the top a large, much-
branched panicle, of a reddish-brown or yellowish
colour, having a shining appearance, from numerous
long silky hairs which spring from the base of the
spikelets. The two outer glumes are very unequal;
and the spikelet contains 3 to 4 perfect florets, with
a barren one at the base. The culms, or stems, are
used for making garden-screens, for a fences,
for thatching houses and farm-buildings, for making
a bemework to be covered with clay in partitions
and floors, for battens of weavers’ shuttles, &e. So
useful are reeds in these ways, and particularly for
thatching, that it is found profitable in some p
to plant them in old clay pita, &c. Probably they
might be planted with advantage in many peat-
mosses where they are now unknown. The plant
is not very common in Scotland ; but in the fenny
districts of the east of England it covers | tracts
ealled reed-ronds, and similar tracts oceur in man
parts of Europe. Nearly allied to this is A 0
donaz, the largest of European grasses, plentiful in
the south of Europe, and found in marshy places as
far north as the south of the Tyrol and of Switzer-
land. It is 6 to 12 feet high, and has very thick,
hollow, woody culms, and a purplish-yellow panicle,
silvery and shining from silky hairs. The woody
stems are an article of commerce, and are used by
musical instrument makers for reeds of clarionets,
mouth-pieces of oboes, &c. They are also made
into walking-sticks and fishing-rods; and see the
article WRITING. The creeping roots contain much
farina and some sugar. Of Arundo Karka (called
Sur in Sind) the flower-stalks are very fibrous;
and the fibres, being partially separated by beating,
are twisted into twine and ropes. The Sea Reed is
Ammophila (q.v.)—or P: —arundi:
Reed, in Music, the mer vatery Beal of several
instruments, such as the clarionet, n, oboe, and
bagpipe, so called from its being made from the onter
layer of a reed (Arundo sativa or donax) found in
the south of Europe. The name is also applied to
the ing part of the o , though made of
me Reeds are generally divided into two
kinds—the beating , used in the organ, clarionet,
&e., requiring to wecpeees within a tube to pro-
duce a musical sound, and the free reed, used in
instruments of the harmonium and concertina
kind. The Organ (q.v.) reed (fig. 1) consists of a
metal tube, a, with the front part cut away and
having a metal (brass, German-silver, or steel)
tongue, 6, covering the orifice, attacheil at the
upper end, and bent forward at the lower end to
permit of vibration. The admission of a current
of air to the outer tube causes the tongue to vibrate
against the edge of the He Ba in the tube a, pro-
ducing a musical note, the pitch of which is deter-
tues by the length of the free end of the reed ;
Fig. 1. Fig. 2
this is regulated by a strong movable spring, c,
pressing against it, the quality of the sound” de-
agree on the length and form of the outer tube.
n the Clarionet (q.v.) reed the mouth forms the
outer tube. The reed in the drone of the bagpipe
is on the same principle as the organ reed, and
is made of a piece of reed tube a few inches long,
cut across a knot at one end so as to make a stop.
A slit is ent in it with a knife to make the tongue.
It is shown in fig. 2, a, in situ, the outer tube
being shown in section; the air enters from the
bag in the direction of the arrow, the free end is
the stopped one. The double beating reed (fig.
2, 6) is that used in the bassoon, oboe, and the
chanter of the bagpipe, and consists of two reeds,
shaped so as to be tied together in the form of a
tube at, one end, either with or without the aid of
a metal pipe, to fit the end of the instrument, and
thinned away at the other end, where the two
meet with a little space between them in the
608 REED BIRD
REFLECTION
centre. The air being blown into the thin end
causes the two reeds to vibrate against one another.
The free reed, shown
in fig. 3, consists of a
metal tongue, 6 and
c, fixed at one end to
a metal plate, a,
having an elongated
slot large enough to
allow the free end of
the tongue to vibrate
throngh if on the
admission of a cur-
rent of air; and this
vibration forms the
note, the pitch of
which is regulated by the length of the reed.
Reed Bird. See Bos-o-Link.
Reed Mace. See TypHa.
Reef. See Corat.
Reel, a lively dance, popular in Scotland, which
may be danced by two couples, but admits a greater
number, The music is in general written in com-
mon time of four crotchets in a measure, but some-
times in jig time of six quavers.
Reels. See Boxssrns.
Rees, ABRAHAM (1743-1825), a native of Mont-
gomeryshire, and Unitarian minister for forty years
at the Old Jewry, London, compiled an Encyclo-
pedia (q.v.) on the basis of Ephraim Chambers’.
Reeve (Sax. geréfa), a title applied to several
classes of old English magistrates over various
territorial areas: thus, there were borough-reeves,
over borouglis ; rt-reeves, in trading-towns, in
rts, as in London (q.v.); Aigh-reeves, &c. The
sheriff (q.v.) is the shire-reeve. The reeve in
Chaucer is what is still called grieve in Scotland, a
land-steward.
Reeve, CLARA, novelist, daughter of the rector
of Freston in Suffolk, was born at Ipswich in
1729, lived a quiet life, and died unmarried, 3d
December 1803. She translated Barclay’s Argenis
(1772), and in 1777 published the Champion o
Virtue, a Gothic Story, renamed next year The Old
English Baron. It was dedicated to Richardson’s
oe and was avowedly an imitation of
Walpole’s Castle of Otranto, with its extrava-
ances toned down. She — four other
novels, and The Progress of nce (1785).
Revi, 108m, was born in 1752, and educated
at Merton College, Oxford. Called to the bar about
1780, he became chief-justice of Newfoundland
(1791-92), one of the Anger y (1800), a super-
intendent of aliens (1 14), and law clerk to the
Board of Trade, and died in 1829. He published
much on law, and a widely popular edition of the
Bible, with selected scholia (9 vols, 1825).
_Reeves, JoHn Sims, one of England's greatest
singers, was born at Shooter's Hill, Kent, on 26th
September 1818. At fourteen he was a clever per-
former on various instruments, and was appointed
organist and director of the choir in the church of
North Cray in Kent. He first appeared in public
as a baritone at Newcastle in 1839. This début
was a complete success; and he acquired fresh
fame, but as a tenor, in London, In order to per-
fect his voice and style he studied at Paris ( 1843)
for some time, and then appeared at Milan in the
tenor part of Edgardo in Lucia di Lammermoor.
He returned to agens in 1847, and, coming out
at Drury Lane as Edgardo, was immediately recog-
nised as the first English tenor, a position he main-
tained for many years. He was en in 1848 at
Her Majesty’s Theatre, and in 1851 sang as first
tenor at the Italian Opera in Paris. After ceasing
to sing on the stage (after 1860) he became popular
Fig. 3.
all over the country as a ballad-singer at concerts,
He es ly excelled in singing oratorio parts,
his first oratorio réle having in Judas Mace-
cabeus in 1848; from that year enwards he
almost regularly at the annual musical fest
vals. His voice was of wide and of great
natural purity and sweetness. He made his last
appearance on 11th May 1891, and died at Worth-
ing, Sussex, 25th October 1900. See his My Jubilee
(1889), and the Life by Sutherland Edwards (1881).
Refectory. See Monastery.
Referendum, See SwitZERLAND.
Reflection. A surface on which a beam or
light falls may be either rough or smooth. If it be
rough, the greater part of the incident light is irreg-
ularly scattered by the innumerable surface-facets,
so as to be reflected or dispersed in all directions ;
if it be smooth, a proportion (but never the i
of the incident light is nageltety reflected or turn
back in definite paths, smooth, dustless mirror
is not visible to an eye outside the track of rays
reflected from it. If the polished surface be that
of a transparent substance (eg. glass) optically
denser than the medium conveying the light to it,
comparatively little light is reflected ; but the more
oblique the incidence, the smoother the poe, and
the greater the difference between the optical
density of the glass and that of the medium in
which it is immersed, the greater the proportion
reflected. Thus less light is reflected from glass
under water than from glass in air ; and patties
if the light travel in the denser medium and strike
the bounding surface between it and a rarer
medium—as where light ascending through water
strikes its upper free surface—it will, if its obli-
quity of incidence exceed a certain limit, be almost
totally reflected ; the small loss that ensues arising
wholly from absorption, while no light is trans-
mitted into the air above. This may be shown by
holding a clear tumbler of water above the head :
the image of objects beneath is seen reflected in a —
bright mirror surface; and a phenomenon of the
same order is seen on thrusting a test-tube contain-
ing air below the surface of water, when it will
appear to have a lustre like quicksilver. If the
reflecting surface be that of an opaque body the
bulk of the incident light is reflected, a percen
being lost by absorption. What has been
about light applies equally to ether-undulations of
all kinds, and therefore the theory of reflection has
general reference to radiant heat, light, actinic
raduation, and electro-magnetic undulations (see
MAGNETISM). Reflection arises in all cases from
a difference in the transmissibility of ether-disturb-
ances on the two sides of the bounding sur
On reflection from polished surfaces we have, so
far as regards the directions of the reflected rays,
the following laws observed : (1) The incident ‘ ray,’
the normal (7.e. a line drawn perpendicular) to the
surface at the point of incidence, and the reflected
‘ray’ all lie in one plane, the ‘ plane of incidence ;’
and (2) the angle of incidence (the angle which
the incident ‘ray’ makes with the normal to the
reflecting surface) is equal to the angle of reflec-
tion (the corresponding angle between the normal
and the reflected ‘ray ’). These laws apply equally
to ether-waves of all lengths, and therefore to light
of all colours; and they also hold whatever
be the shape of the surface. If the surface be
“omg their application is simple; and if the sur-
face be curved we have, in effect, to consider the
curved surface as made up of indefinitely small
facets, to each of which the above laws can be
applied. The geometrical consequences of these
laws make up what used to be called Catoptrics,
that part of geometrical optics which deals with
reflection ; and this coincides in its propositions
REFLECTION
609
with that part of kinematies which gives an
account of the reflection of waves. ere
ether-waves (using the term ‘waves’ in its most
general sense) are assumed to travel through
optically homogeneous media, and can conse-
quently be traced out by imaginary lines drawn
at right angles to the wave fronts or along the
directions pursued by the waves, these imaginary
lines being called ‘rays.’
Plane ecting Surfaces.—(1) Rays which are
parallel to one another before striking a plane
surface are parallel after reflection. (2)
Tr teheeaie ing ane or converging towards a
point, Q, be reflected from a plane mirror, it will
appear after reflec-
tion to diverge from
or converge towards
a point, g, situated
on the opposite side
of the mirror and at
an distance
from it. In fig. 1,
the rays diverge
Q; after reflec-
tion they appear to
diverge from q. If,
on the other hand, the course of the light is such
that the rays ap) before reflection to converge
u , they will after reflection a
Q. (3) A consequence of the pi ing
ition is that when an object is placed before
ae mirror the virtual image is of the same
form and magnitude as the object, and at an equal
——. distance from the
mirror on the other
f i side of it. The right
i PS
i
i
site to the left hand
of the object; so
placed parallel to one another, light from an
object. between them is reflected back and fore, so
dd the mirror had been a real object; and a
new virtual image is produced, apparently as far
hand of the im
taken as looking
towards the mirror,
is necessarily oppo-
Fig. 2. that no one ever
sees himself in a single plane mirror as others see
him or as a photograph shows him, but he sees all
his features reversed. (4) When two mirrors are
as to appear on each occasion of reflection as if it
came from images more and more remote from the
mirrors, On each occasion the course of the
mre of light is the same as if the virtual
behin:
behind the reflecting mirror as the virtual object
had been in front of it. Thus, in fig. 3, where AB
and CD are mirrors, the distance Q-CD = CD-q1;
1-AB=A ; and so on indefinitely ; and also
Gan = AB-¢7; 7¢-CD =CD-q’; and so on inde-
nitely ; so that if the mirrors were perfectly plane
and parallel, and if they reflected all the light
Cc A
Fig, 3.
which fell on them, an observer between the
mirrors would see in this experiment (which is
called the endless gallery) an indefinite number of
mages. A variation of this experiment, carried
out with mirrors not parallel to one another, but
403
inclined at an angle which is some aliquot part of
180°, gives the seer of the Kaleidoscope (q. v.).
(5) When a beam of light is reflected from a mirror
and the mirror is turned through a given angle the
reflected beam is swept throu i an angle twice as
great. This principle is utilised in the construc-
tion of many scientific instruments, in which the
reflected beam of light serves as a weightless
pointer, and enables us to measure the deflection
of the object which carries the mirror. (6) When
a beam of light is reflected at each of two mirrors
inclined at a given
angle the ultimate de-
viation of the beam is
(if the whole path of
the light be within one
plane) equal to twice
the angle between the
mirrors ; for —
in fig. 4, the angle SDB,
which measures the
ultimate deviation of
the original beam SA,
is easily proved equal
to twice the angle
BCA seendet en the et
mirrors. is proposi- Fig. 4.
tion is applied in the
Quadrant (q.v.) and Sextant (4.v.). (7) When a
wave of any form is reflected at a plane surface it
retains after reflection the form which it would
have assumed but for the reflection, this fornn
being, however, guided by reflection into a differ-
ent direction.
Curved Reflecting Surfaces.—In these we have
to trace out the mode of reflection of incident rays
from each ‘element’ or little bit of the reflecting
surface ; and this leads, through geometrical work-
ing, to such propositions as the following: (1)
Parallel rays, SP, travelling parallel to the axis of
a coneave paraboloid mirror (fig. 5) are made to
converge so as all actu-
ally to accurately
through F, the metri- Pp
eal focus of the para- ms
boloid; and, conversely, f
if the source of light ts \
at F, the rays reflected
from the mirror emerge
parallel to one another—
a proposition of great
utility in lighthouse
work, search-lights, &c.
(2) If the paraboloid
mirror be convex, parallel Fig. 5,
incident rays have, after
reflection, the same course as if they had come
from the geometrical focus of the paraboloid. (3)
In a concave ellipsoid mirror, light diverging from
one ‘focus’ of the ellipsoid is reflected so as to
converge upon the
other ‘foeus’ of the
curved surface; ‘and
j
Meso es,,
|
\
\
by a convex ellip- <
soidal mirror light oe
converging towards [A \4
the one foens is made
to diverge as if it had
come directly from
bos = ere (4)
na hy oid re-
flector the two geo- Fig. 6.
metrical foci have
properties corresponding to those of the ellipsoid.
(5) In spherical reflectors, which are those most
easily made, there is no accurate focus except
for rays proceeding from the centre and return-
ing to it. When parallel rays are incident on »
610 REFLECTION
REFORM
concave spherical mirror we see from fig. 6 that
if they be parallel to the axis of the mirror each
ray is made to pass after reflection through a point,
gq, Which is nearer to F (a point midway between
the mirror and its centre, O) the narrower is the
cil of rays. If, therefore, the Oye of rays
genes narrow in comparison with the radius,
OA, the rays will after reflection approximately
converge u F, which is called the principal
focus of the mirror; and the princi focal
distance, AF = 4AO = jr, where r is the radius
of the spherical mirror. The farther any ray is
from the axis AO, the farther from is the
int, g, to which that ray is reflected; and the
ifference, Fy, is called the longitudinal aberration
for that ray. The reflected rays from the various
rts of the mirror form by their intersection a
austic (q.v.), the apex or cusp of which is at F.
If, ins of using a parallel beam of incident
light, we have light coming from a point at a
definite distance along the axis, we find (see fig. 7)
first that any ray a
P. to A travels back
along AO, whence the
focus of reflection is
A + somewhere in the line
a Q AOQ; and that any
ray, QP, is reflected to
a point, g, such that
the angle &po = qPO;
Fig. 7. and therefore (since by
Euclid, vi. 3, QO: gO::
ae P) if the pencil be relatively very narrow, so
t t Op comes to be equal to QA, and gP to gA,
we have QO: gO:: QA: gA. This proportion
reduces to the equation V q + 1/AQ = 2/AO;
whence we can readily find Ag when AQ and AO
are known. Thus, if, for example, the radius of
curvature AO be 12 inches (the principal focal
length being then 6 inches), and if é be 40 inches
from A, we have 1/Aqg + 1/30 = 2/12; whence 1/Aq
= 8/60 and Ag = Thinches. The same formula may
be written 1/d + 1/d' = 1/f, where d and d’ are the
distances from A of the two fog ome * foci, g and
Q, and / is the principal focal length. The two
gh ae foci are reciprocal ; if light start from
Me he be reflected to Q. As Q, the source of
ight, approaches O, g also approaches O; when Q
is at O, ¢ also is at O; as Q continues to move to-
wards F, g moves out more and more rapidly beyond
O; when Q is at F, g is at an infinite distance, or
the reflected rays are
rallel ; when Q is be-
ween F and A the re-
flected rays are diverg-
ent, as if from a virtual
focus on the p ite
side of A. the
mirror be convex, fig.
8 shows that AO and
AQ have, with respect
to the reflecting sur-
face, opposite signs ;
so also have AO and
Q; so the equation
Fig. 8. re
above becomes 1/Aqg + 1/AQ = — 1/AO; whence
taking the same numbers as before, Aq is equal
to — 5 inches; a virtual image, seeming to come
from a point 5 inches on the other side of the
reflecting surface.
As to the cme rf of the light reflected there
are some peculiarities to be observed. From the
surface of a transparent body, of greater optical
density than the surrounding medium, light polar-
ised in the plane of incidence and reflection is
more largely reflected at oblique incidences than
light polarised at right angles to that plane;
when the angle of incidence is such that the
reflected and refracted rays tend to be at right
aap to one another, the whole of the light
aoe ed is ae ight the plane of Night aah
reflection ; an t polarised at t angles
to that plane be made to fall upon glass at the
ienlar angle of incidence just referred to, it
will not be reflected at all, but will wholly enter
the glass. Plane-polarised light polarised in any
other plane than that of incidence or one at right
— to it, is, after total reflection in glass, found
to elliptically polarised (see POLARISATION) ;
and this phenomenon is always presented in reflec-
tion from metals. In the case of electro-magnetic
radiation (see MAGNETISM) theory and practice
concur in indicating that conductors are
while non-conductors are bad reflectors; and the
same general proposition holds good with reference
to those more frequent but otherwise similar ether-
oscillations to which the phenomena of Radiant
Heat, Light, and Actinism are due.
Reflex Action. See Nervous System.
Reform is a comprehensive name for those
changes in the law by which the House of Commons
has been made a tru Bie sy: emsgne body. In the
18th century only olders voted in English
county elections ; in many boroughs the prensa
was restricted to members of the corporation ;
boroughs of this class were usually under the
—— ee org — or of view — y eerie
who rega’ them as a rty. In
1745 Sir F. Dashwood sated t an anaatonent to the
address, claiming for the people the right to be
freely and fairly represented ; in 1766 Lord Chatham
took up the cause of Reform; Wilkes press an
excellent scheme of redistribution in 1776; in 1780
the Duke of Richmond proposed annual parlia-
ments, universal suffrage, and equal electoral
districts ; but his plan met with no support. Pitt
entered public life as an avowed reformer, and in
1785 he introduced a measure of redistribution ; the
part of his scheme most open to objection was the
roposal to compensate owners of rotten borou
is bill was rejected, and he dropped the- subject.
The king was opposed to ¢ , and in the public
mind reform came to be identified with the revolu-
tionary opinions which were bg, M7 revail
in France. Fox and Grey kept alive the demand
for a wider franchise and a better distribution of
‘sid and after the lapse of years the bin:
riends of reform found an able leader in Lord J.
Russell. His first motion on the subject was pro-
in 1820, and in 1830 he accepted office under
rd Grey. A Reform Bill was brought in, and the
second reading was carried by a majority of one,
A subsequent defeat in committee compelled the
government to dissolve. The country declared
unmistakably for Lord Grey; his second Reform
Bill was passed in the Commons by a large majority.
It was rejected by the Lords, and the same fate
would have befallen a third bill introduced in 1832,
but the resistance of the Lords was overcome by
the threat to create as many new peers as might
be roams! to pass the bill. After something like
a cogeest | of discussion the first Reform Act received
the royal assent. The greater 0h of the labourin
classes were still unenfranchised; the Radi
reformers were still unsatisfied; but the i
and Tories were unwilling to disturb the settlement
of 1832. Agitation was stimulated by the so-called
People’s Charter put forth in 1838 ; but it was not
till 1852 that Lord J. Russell reopened the question
of Reform. Successive governments continued to
— in abortive schemes, until at last in 1867 Lord
Derby and Mr Disraeli succeeded in passing the
act by which household and lodger franchises were
extended to the boroughs. In 1884 Mr Gladstone
proposed to assimilate the franchise in counties to
REFORM
REFORMATION 611
that which had been given to the boroughs; but
the Lords refused to pass any bill for er the
franchise until the details of the government scheme
of redistribution were before them. The action
of the Lords led to considerable agitation in the
autumn recess. The bill was re-introduced in an
autumn session ; and the question at issue between
the two Houses was settled by a very remarkable
act of compromise. The government = not
only to communicate their plan of redistribution to
the leaders of the opposition, but to settle the
details by mutual arrangement; Lord Salisbury
and Sir Northeote attended meetings of the
cabinet, and conferred with ministers for that
pu The results of this conference were
embodied in a series of bills which were
into law before the general election of 1885. Two
points in the measures of 1884-85 have been some-
what severely criticised—the adoption of single-
member districts, a mode of distribution which
sup) the opinions of all local minorities (see
REPRESENTATION), and the addition of twelve
members to the House of Commons, which was
already too | a body for deliberative purposes,
At end of the reign of George III. there were,
ina lation of 22,000,000, only 440,000 voters.
The ‘orm Bill of 1832 added less than 500,000
voters to the electorate; the reform of 1867-68
increased the electorate from 1,136,000 to 2,448,000.
At the passing of the measures of 1884-85 the
electorate had by natural growth risen to about
3,000,000 ; and the Act of 1884 added at once about
000,000 more to the list of voters. Of the new
electors, about 1,300,000 were in England and
Wales, 200,000 in Scotland, and 400,000 in Ireland.
See the articles PARLIAMENT, CHARTISM, GLADSTON
Russet (Ear); May’s Constitutional History ;
the speeches of Gladstone, Bright, Disraeli, &.
Reformation. The religious revolution of
the 16th century, known as the Reformation, is
the greatest event in the history of civilisation
since si eae gave place to Christianity as the
faith of the leading nations of the world. It marks
the Lc gad importance of this revolution that the
age which preceded and the age which followed it
belong to two different phases of the human spirit.
With the Reformation begins what is distinctively
known as Modern Europe, while the epoch that
preceded it bears the equally distinctive designa-
tion of the Middle Ages. As a revolution in which
all the countries of western Europe were more or
less directly involved, the subject of the Reforma-
tion has necessarily been treated in the different
accounts of these countries. In the articles on
Luther, Charles V., Henry VIIL, Calvin, Knox,
and others further details will be found regarding
the aims and methods of the revolution in the
various countries where it declared itself. Here,
therefore, it will be sufficient to indicate briefly
the general causes which produced it, the seer
course and character it took among the different
peoples, and its chief results for the human spirit
at
The central fact of the Reformation was the
detachment from papal Christianity of the nations
distinguished by the general name of Protestant.
By this severance an order of things came to an
end under which Christian Europe had been con-
tent to exist from the close of the 8th century.
From the gd 800, when, by a mutual under-
standing their respective functions, Charle-
magne was crowned oo of the Romans by
Pope Leo III., western Europe had come to rd
the papacy as the essential condition of individual
and rate life, as prime a necessity in human
affairs as the sun in the course of nature. Thus
conceived, the power of the church underlay all
buman relations. It was the consecration of the
church that constituted the family; the church
defined the relations of rulers and their subjects,
and the church was the final court of — on
the ultimate questions of human life and destiny.
In the nature of things such a power could never
be realised as it was ideally conceived. Yet during
the llth and 12th centunes, the period when the
power of the po was most adequate to their
claims, they undoubtedly went far to make the
idea a reality. But the energies of the human
_ were bound sooner or later to issue in
evelopments with which medieval conceptions
were fundamentally irreconcilable. the 13th
century, along every line of man’s activity, there
were already protests, conscious and unconscious,
against the system ST pited in the pope at Rome.
The most remarkable of these protests was the
order of ideas associated with the name of Joachim
of Flora in Calabria (died 1202). Under the name
of the ‘Eternal Gospel’ (used for the first time in
1254) these ideas ran a course which for a time
seriously threatened the existence of the medieval
church, The new teaching struck at the very root
of the papal system, for its essence was that the
hour had come when a new dispensation, that of
the ig Spirit, should supersede the provisional
for elivered by Christ. During the second
lf of the 13th and the first half of the 14th cen-
tury the influence of these ideas is traceable in
every country of Christendom, and it was only the
unflinching action of the church that postponed its
disintegration for other three centuries. The
numerous sects which either sprang from or were
quickened by this movement speak clearly to the
revolutionary fever that had seized on men’s spirits
and was impelling them to other ideals than the
traditions of Rome. Mainly the offspring of the
third order of St Francis, these sects swarmed
throughout every Christian country under the names
of ins, Beg ards, Fratricelli, Flagellants,
Lollards, Apostolic Brethren, &c., and everywhere
read discontent with the existing church. Even
ohn Knox (in answer to a letter by James Tyrie, a
Scottish Jesuit) claims Joachim of Flora as an ally
in the work which it was the labour of his own life
to achieve—the ruin of the papacy, and the pro-
motion of what he deemed a purer gospel.
Simultaneously with this manifestation of re-
volutionary feeling there were tendencies in the
+ ape of pure thought in essential antagonism to
the teaching of the church. The labour of the
thinkers of the middle ages was to reconcile faith,
as inculeated by religious authority, with human
reason as they found it embodied in the accessible
writings of Aristotle. In the 13th bearel how-
ever, the Arabic texts of Aristotle, and nota iy that
of the great commentator Averrhoes, made their
way into the Christian schools, and thenceforward
a leaven of scepticism was a present element in all
the universities of Europe. As the result of the
teaching of Averrhoes, a name of the most sinister
import to every true son of the church, material-
ism and pantheism became common creeds among
thinkers, and the notion spread even among in-
telligent laymen that Christianity was not the
absolute thing the church had taught them to
believe. In Dante’s (died 1321) fierce exclamation
that the knife is the one reply to him who denies
the immortality of the soul we have the outburst
of a ionate faith in presence of a widespread
libertinism of thought.
But the most serious menace against the integrity
of the papal system lay in the political development
of Europe during the last three centuries of the
middle ages. As the countries of western Euro
became more and more individualised, their peoples
grew every year into a fuller consciousness of dis-
tinct national interests and national ideals. While
612
REFORMATION
this was the tendency of the various nations, the
pope during these centuries gradually lost his
position as the disinterested umpire of Europe,
and sank into an Italian oe with a temporal
policy of his own which led him to seek allies
among other potentates as they fell in with
his own special ends of the moment. But such
alliances naturally gave offence to the princes
excluded from them, and led to a suspicious dis-
content with the Roman see, which, as was after-
wards proved in the case of England, needed only
the requisite occasion to flame into outright re-
bellion. The nae of Philip Augustus (died
1223)—‘ Happy din, who has no pope!’—
expressed the feeling, which every century grew
stronger, that the pope would become an impossible
factor in ny ae Heong To this feeling should
be added the fact that, as the middle classes grew
in intelligence and well-being, they looked with
envy on the immense wealth of the clergy, and
grumbled at the large sums that annually went to
the coffers of Rome.
During the 14th and 15th centuries mediwvalism
gave every sign of an exhausted phase of human
evelopment, By the so-called Babylonish Cap-
tivity, when the papal residence was fixed for
seventy years at Avignon (1305-76), and by the
Great Schism (1378-1417), during which the spec-
tacle was seen of first two and afterwards three
popes claiming to be the vicars of God on earth,
the papacy sutfered a loss of prestige in the St of
all Europe which it never afterwards fully re-
covered. It was the further misfortune of the
ehurch during this eclipse of its ancient glory that
all spiritual life seemed to have gone out of every
rank of its clergy. Testimonies from perf eae 4
prove beyond question that by the end of the 15t
century the clergy had become po unfit to be
the spiritual guides of the a The sources of
intellectual life had equally failed wherever the
old Layrrera a & authorised by the church continued
to be the subject of teaching and study. In the
later half of the 15th century scholasticism had
become the veriest trifling which ever e the
mind of man. In all the interests of man’s well-
being, therefore, a renaissance was needed to evoke
new motives and supply new ideals which should
lift humanity to a higher plane of endeavour. Such
a renaissance came, and fortunately the church
did not prove equal to suppressing this second
burst of life as it had suppressed that of the 12th
and 13th centuries.
It was again in Italy that the new life first
declared itself. While north of the Alps scholas-
ticism reigned in all the schools, the movement
known as the Renaissance (q.v.) had in Italy been
in full course for above a century. In itself the
Renaissance was as far as possible from leading
men to higher ideals in religion ; yet in two of its
results it gave a direct wear to the Reforma-
tion. Inspired by the life of antiquity, the human-
ism of the Renaissance pagan the church and
uickened that moral disintegration which was
the prime cause of the religious revolution. On
the other hand, through its opening of men’s minds
by new studies and new measures of things, the
Renaissance lightened the load of tradition, and
made a new departure in the life of Christendom a
less formidable conception. In Erasmus (1467-1536),
who has ers been as a true nurs-
ing father of the Reformation, we clearly discern
these two results of the revival of the ancient litera-
tures. In so many words he states his grave fears
lest the church should be wholly ised by the
universal imitation of classical modes of thought
and speech; while his own aaring criticism
of the church and its traditions proves how much
he owed to the so-called ‘ new learning,’
The very zeal with which the revival py ae A History of the Papacy during the Period of
the Reformation ; Ranke, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter
der Reformation; Gieseler, Lehrbuch der Kirchen-
geschichte (vols. iv. and v. in trans. published by T. and T.
Clark, under the title of A Compendium of Ecclesi-
astical History); Beard, Life of Luther ; Késtlin, Life of
Inther (a trans. of the abridged life is published by
Longmans); Déllinger, Die Reformation, thre innere
Entwickelung und thre Wirkungen (the most powerful
statement from the Catholic point of view); Zeller,
Histoire d@’ Allemagne, tome vii. (189k); M’Crie, Reforma-
tay = age , oem aes de France ¢ _— se)
i ise oO uguenots ; Bungener, win, sa Vie,
son (Euvre, et sex Ecrits (1863); Nancpeubeilfe, Johann
Calvin ( vol. i. 1869); Burnet, History of the Reformation
(in England); Sti , Memorials of the Re ion ;
Fronde, History of England (first four vols.) ; Brewer,
Reign of Henry VIII. ; Dixon, History of the Church of
England from the Abolition 4, the Roman Jurisdiction ;
Worsley, The Dawn of the Reformation : Its Friends and
its Foes ; Aubrey Moore, Lectures on the History of the
Reformation ; Lee, Lectures on the History of the Church
of Scotland ; Cunningham, History of the Church tf
md; Grub, Ecclesiastical History of Scotland;
Bellesheim, Hi of the Catholic Church of Scotland
(vol. ii.—Hunter Blair’s trans.). Seebohm’s Fra of the
Protestant Revolution, though somewhat one-sided, is an
excellent little handbook for the whole period.
Reformatories and Industrial Schools.
When the time arrived that statesmen and re-
formers combined to study the causes of crime with
the view to systematic efforts for its repression, it
soon became evident that the most effective method
would be to check the first development of it in the
young. Close observers agreed in the fact that by
far the larger number of habitual criminals com-
menced their malpractices before they were twenty
oo. old, and pei 60 per cent. when under
fteen. Hanging an os eer did not check
the growth of the class of juvenile criminals. In
the early part of the 19th century there were said to
be in London two hundred flash houses frequented
by 6000 boys and girls, who had no means of liveli-
hood but thieving. Something had even at that
time been done to provide a better mode of dealing
with these ig people. The Marine Society, for
taking charge of friendless children and sending
them to sea, dates from 1756. The Philanthropic
Society’s Farm School at Redhill was founded
about 1788, and some other schools were no doubt
established not long after this ; but the first official
attempt to solve the difficulty was the foundation
of Parkhurst Reformatory, under an act of parlia-
ment passed in 1838. Previously to this it appears
to have been the practice to grant pardons to young
offenders on ition of their being placed under
the care of some charitable reformatory institution,
and the preamble of the act above named refers to
this practice as having proved so beneficial that
it was considered expedient to carry it more fully
into effect. It made escape from these institutions
or breach of their rules Aesapersae and converted
the buildings at Parkhurst, lately used as a
military hospital, &c., into a reformatory prison for
young offenders sentenced to transportation or im-
prisonment. Parkhurst Reformatory was in fact
a prison, though conducted according to a special
system designed more with a view to reform than
to Sacre
n 1854 an advance was made by enabling courts
to on a prisoner under sixteen years old a
direct sentence of detention in a reformatory for
not less than two or more than five years, in
addition to imprisonment in gaol for not less than
fourteen days. The reformatory was subject to
inspection by an officer appointed by the Secretary
of State, and the certificate of the Secretary of
State was to make it a legal place of
detention. Treasury contributions towards the
maintenance of the reformatory were authorised,
and a compulsory contribution by the parent in
relief of the Treasury charges. In 1857 another
step was taken by enabling quarter sessions and
borough councils to edateibate to the establish-
ment of a reformatory, providing that the plans
were approved by the Secretary of State. These
local authorities were also empowered to contract
with other reformatories for the reception of
juvenile prisoners from their jurisdictions. The
authorities were by this act allowed to grant
licenses on probation to the inmates of reformatories
after at least half their sentence had expired. The
effect of the Act of 1854 had been gradually to
supersede Parkhurst, so that whereas in 1849 it
had about 700 inmates, and in 1854 about 536, on
the 3lst December 1864 there were ard 68 ; and it
was therefore closed in that year. Inthe year 1866
the consolidated and amended act now in force was
passed. It retained all the foregoing provisions.
A sentence to reformatory is restricted to those
offenders who are under sixteen and not below ten .
years old, with the exceptions mentioned below.
he sentence must be not less than two nor more
than five years, but they must also be sentenced to
ten days’ previous ee or more, A child
under ten years may be sent to a reformatory only
if he has been previously charged with an offence
or sentenced by a judge or court of general quarter
sessions. The reformatory to which a young person
is to be committed is selected by the court which
— the sentence, but it must if possible be con-
ucted rsp ty ie the religious persuasion to
which the child belongs, and there are securities
616 REFORMATORIES AND
INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS
for its being removed to such school if not origin-
ally committed to it, No school can be compelled
to receive a child. The selection of the school is
in practice generally a matter which the governor
of the prison arranges with the m rs after the
sentence is , except when a local authority
has a general agreement with some school,
A reformatory may be established wholly by
private individuals, or by quarter sessions in
counties, or by town-councils in quarter sessions
boroughs, or by private individuals with contribu-
tions ion these local authorities, but the state
provides no reformatories, and the local authorities
are not obli to do so. Plans of any buildin,
proposed to be used as a reformatory must be su
mitted to and approved by the cighaoe! of State.
The rules of reformatories are made by the
managers, but must be submitted to and approved
by the Secretary of State. The expenses of main-
taining the reformatory are met partly by sai
contributions, os from local rates, partly from
funds provided by the Treasury, and partly by pay-
ments exacted from the parents or guardians, By
the report for 1890 of the inspector it appears that
there were fifty-five reformatory schools in Great
Britain, including three ships. Of these ten were
in Scotland. There were seven in Ireland.
The growth of the reformatory system in Great
Britain is shown by the following figures. In 1854
twenty-nine children were committed to reformatory
schools in England; in 1857, 1304; in 1877, the
largest number recorded—viz. 1896; and in 1890,
1299. The total population of the reformatory
schools in Great Britain seems to have risen
gradually until 1881, when it attained its maxi-
mum—viz. 6738; since which it has fallen gradually,
and on 3lst December 1890 there were under
detention 5031 males and 823 females, or together
5854, of whom 4164 males and 737 females were
actually in the schools, the remainder being mostly
on license, but 52 had absconded or were in
prison. The cost of these schools in the latter
ear was £119,336, of which £78,862 was provided
y the Treasury, £5488 by the parents, £24,055 by
local rates, £2793 by subscriptions and legacies,
£799 by voluntary associations, and £2619 interest
on investments and sundries. This leaves a
balance of expenditure over receipts of £5519;
and, as the inspector’s report shows that there
was a profit on industrial operations of over
£13,416, it is presumed that the deficiency was
supplied from that source. The net cost per head
in after deducting profits of labour may be put
at about £19 per annum, for both boys and girls
in England. In Scotland the boys cost about £17
and the girls over £22. Testing the result of the
reformatories and industrial schools by the com-
mittals of juvenile offenders to prison, it appears
that, taking for comparison the number so com-
mitted in 1856—viz. 11,808—there were up till 1873
or 1874 more years in which the number was above
8000 than below it. Since the latter year it has
fallen, until in 1890 there were only 3456 boys
committed to prison in England and Wales, The
young persons who commit crimes needing the
. punishment of detention in a reformatory are
therefore evidently largely diminishing, a result
which corresponds with the diminution in adult
crime, with which it is so closely connected.
The industrial schools may be said to have grown
out of the reformatory schools—the first act relat-
ing to and recognising them having been in
1854, since which their history much resembles that
of the reformatories, the consolidating act which
now ry bom them having with that for reforma-
tories been in 1866, Subsequent acts have
much extended their scope, especially those which
followed the establishment of compulsory educa-
tion, and encouraged or enjoined school boards to
establish and make use of them. Industrial schools
are intended for children who have not been con-
victed of crime, and this is their distinctive note as.
compared with reformatories. A child must be
under fourteen, and cannot be detained above the
age of sixteen. The circumstances which justify a
magistrate committing a child to an industrial
school are—if he has been found begging, wander-
ing without settled abode or proper guardianship
and visible means of subsistence ; who is destitute,
an orphan, or having a surviving parent in prison ;
whose mother has been twice convicted of crime ;
who frequents the company of thieves, &e. If a
child under twelve is charged with a punishable
offence, but has not previously been convicted of
felony, he may be sent to an industrial school ; so
also may a refractory child on the application of
its parent or guardian; a Sir iig ony Remap ood child,
or one either of whose parents has convicted,
may also be sent to an industrial school. The
Education Act, 1876, requires the school authorit;
to take steps to send all children to industria’
schools who are liable to be sent for the above
reasons, unless it is in any case inexpedient, and
further requires it to apply to justices for orders
compelling the attendance at school of children
over five and under fourteen whose education is
habitually neglected by their nts, and author-
a _ committal of such children to an industrial
school.
Day industrial schools, in which, as their name
implies, children can be trained and fed, but not
ged, were authorised by the same act. The
mode in which an industrial school may be estab-
lished is substantially the same as has been de-
scribed for reformatories, but in addition the school
authority has the same power as the prison author-
ity. The provisions to ensure proper build
and suitable rules, and as to inspection, are also
similar in the two cases, and a child may be licensed
from an industrial school as from a reformatory.
So also are the provisions for meeting the expenses
of these schools. The report for 1890 of the
inspector of reformatory and industrial schools
shows that there are now in Great Britain 141
industrial schools, including 8 ships, 10 truant
schools for school board cases, and 19 day industrial
schools. Of these 7 are established by county
authorities, 1 by the corporation of Birmingham,
and school boards man 8, besides the truant.
schools and day industrial schools.
The development of these schools is shown by
the number under detention in each year to be in
the direction of steady increase. In 1864, 1668
children were under detention; in 1890 this had
risen to 22,735. These figures include the truant
schools, but do not include the day industrial
schools, which commenced in 1879 with 287 scholars,
and in 1890 had 3698. The number of admissions
corresponds in steadiness of increase with the fore-
going figures, In 1861, 608 boys and 400 girls were
almitted ; in 1862, 422 boys and 169 girls ; in 1866,
the year of the consolidated act, the numbers rose
to 1444 boys and 539 girls; and in 1890 there were
3483 boys and 849 girls, besides 1510 to truant
schools, and 2517 to day industrial schools. (A
small deduction should aj ay be made from
these figures for pon i The foregoing figures.
giving the number under detention in various years
are apparently to be taken ‘to mean that these
numbers were all under order of detention at the
same time.
The cost of ordinary industrial schools in 1860 was
£58,701. The year of highest cost was 1885, when
it rose to £386,400. In 1890 it was £360,947. This
includes truant schools. Of this latter the Treasury
contributed £194,403; the rates, £42,198; school
REFORM CLUB
REFRACTION 617
boards, £67,936; the parents paid £16,656, and
subscriptions provided £34,489. The cost of day
industrial schools rose from £3272 in 1879 to
£25,558 in 1890. Of this latter sum the Treasury
found £6891 ; rates, £1071 ; school boards, £11,260 ;
and parents, £3382. The total ordinary cost of a
ehild in an industrial school ranges from £14 to
nearly £18 per annum.
The statutes in force for regulating reformatory
and industrial schools in Ireland differ somewhat
from those in Great Britain, and in Ireland far
more children in proportion to population are sent
to industrial schools than in Great Britain, so that
the Royal Commission in 1884 reported : ‘It is cer-
tain that the certified industrial schools in Ireland
are regarded as institutions for poor and deserted
children rather than for those of a semi-criminal
elass, and the result of this feeling is that the
managers of many of these institutions refuse to
take children who have been found to have com-
mitted a criminal offence, and who might legally
be convicted of that offence and sent to a reforma-
tory. All taint of criminality having been removed
from the schools, numbers of children are sent to
them who do not always come under the provision
of the act, and who are sent merely on the ground
of destitution. There can be no doubt that many
children are sent to the industrial schools in Ire-
land who would not be so sent in England ; whilst
in consequence of it it is to be apprehended that
numbers of children who are proper subjects for
these institutions are left on the streets as waifs
and strays.’ There were in Ireland, at the end of
1890, 816 children on the lists of the reformatory
schools (a decrease as compared with the previous
year), of whom 744 were actually in school. There
were 8609 children on the rolls of the industrial
schools (an increase on the previous year), of whom
7767 were actually in school—the remainder mostl
on license. The reformatory schools in Irelan
cost £17,190 in 1890, of which imperial taxes bore
£11,890, local taxes £5518; and the industrial
schools, £158,274, of which imperial taxes bore
£95,842, local taxes £37,262, a decrease of cost
compared with the previous year for reformatory
schools, but an increase for industrial schools.
The most famous of the continental ref
is that at Mettray, about 5 miles from Tours. The
‘Colony,’ as it is called, was established in 1839 by
M. Demetz, a French magistrate and philanthropist,
in conjunction with the Vicomte Bretignéres de
Courteilles. Its inmates, numbering ither
orphans, foundlings, or delinquents—are taught
and employed in agricultural and various industrial
labours. The relapses into crime of those who have
left the colony have amounted only to about 4 fn
cent. In the United States there are nearly fifty
reformatories for juvenile offenders under the control
of a state or city, with an average number of inmates
exceeding 12,000; and the reforma' results
attained are excellent. The New York House of
Refuge, which dates from the year 1824, is the oldest
in the country, and indeed was the first reformatory
for juveniles in the world which was established b:
law and placed under legislative control. Desti-
tute, abandoned, or neglected children, as well as
delinquents, may be sent to the House of Refuge,
and ‘there be dealt with according to law ’—..e.
detained, as a rule, until reformed or come of age.
In American reformatories the inmates spend at
least half their time in productive labour, but the
whole course of treatment is distinctly educational.
At Rochester, New York, the House of Refuge was
in _ turned Lataly ae peo on os which
ved so successful that it was ua! Fy
cad is now in effect a school SP cctacbaey, thers
various trades are taught. The in cost for
each inmate is about per annum.
‘orm Club. See Ciuss, and L. Fagan’s
Reform Club (1887).
Reformed Churches, a term employed in
what may be called a conventional sense, not to
designate all the churches of the Reformation, but
those in which the Calvinistic doctrines and still
more the Calvinistic polity prevail, in contradis-
tinction to the Lutheran (q.v.). The influence of
Calvin proved more powerful than that of Zwingli,
which, however, no doubt considerably modified
the views prevalent in many of these churches.
The Reformed Churches are very generally known
on the continent of Europe as the Calvinistic
Churches, whilst the name Protestant Church is in
some countries almost equivalent to that of Luth-
eran, One chief distinction of all the Reformed
Churches is their doctrine of the sacrament of the
Lord’s Supper, characterised by the utter rejection
not only of transubstantiation, but of consubstan-
tiation ; and it was on this point, mainly, that the
controversy between the Lutherans and the Re-
formed was long carried on. See LorD’s SUPPER,
and SACRAMENT. They are also unanimous in
their rejection of the use of crucifixes, and of many
ceremonies retained by the Lutherans. Churches
belonging to the Reformed group are those of Eng-
land (in some respects) and Scotland, some churches
of various rts of Germany, the Protestant
Churches of France, the Netherlands, Switzerland,
Hun; , Poland, &c., with those in America
which have sprung from them.
See the articles CONFESSIONS OF FarTH, ARTI
PRAYER-BOOK, LUTHER, ZWINGLI, CALVIN, KNox;
works on the distinctions betwéen Lutheran and Reformed
Churches by Schweizer (1856), Hagenbach (1857), Merle
d’Aubigné (1861), Schneckenburger (1855).
Reformed Presbyterians. See CAMER-
ONIANS.
Refraction. When a beam of light, travelling
in a transparent medium, impinges obliquely upon
the surface of another transparent medium, what
ocenrs in the vast majority of cases is that a part
of it is reflected (see REFLECTION) and a part of
it enters the second medium, but in so doing is
refracted or bent out of its former course. If,
for example, the light travel in air and impinge
obliquely upon glass, the course of the refracted
portion is bent so that the refracted light travels
more directly or less obliquely through the glass ;
and, conversely, if the light travel in glass an
impinge upon an air-surface, the portion which is
re into the air will travel through the air
more obliquely with respect to the refracting sur-
face than the original light had approached it.
The law of refraction was discovered by Snell
in 1621, and is the following: the refracted ray
is in the same plane with the incident and the
reflected ray, and is therefore in the plane of inci-
dence (see REFLECTION ); and the sine of the angle
of incidence bears to the sine of the angle of refrac-
tion a ratio which remains constant, for any two
media, whatever be the angle of incidence.
In fig. 1 a ray, AO, impinges on a denser medium
at O; the angle of incidence is AON (ON being at
right angles to the refracting surface); the re-
fracted ray, instead of going on towards a’, is bent
so as to through A’, Draw a circle cutting AO
and OA’ in ¢ and e’; draw ed and c’d’ at right angles
to NN’; these lines, cd and e’d’, are, for the radius
Oc, the sines of the respective angles AON and
A’ON’. These sines bear to one another a certain
pf rtion, ascertained by measurement ; let it be
:2; then Snell’s law is that any other ray, say
from B, will be so refracted that the sines, similarly
drawn, will bear to one another the same propor-
tion of 3:2. Between air and water the ratio of
these sines is almost exactly 4:3; between air and
Ref
fe
618
REFRACTION
crown-glass it is nearly 3: 2. Now observation
shows that light passing from water into crown-
lass is so refracted that the sines have the ratio
: 4, or 9:8, so that the rays are less bent than
when they pass from air into any of these media.
The ratio of these sines when air is one of the pair
of media involved is called the refractive index of
the other medium; thus, water has, for sodium
monochromatic light and at 18° C., a refractive
index of 1°3336, and crown-glass one of 1°5396; and
the ratio of these refractive indices, ascertained
with respect to air, governs the ratio of the sines,
whether air be one of the pair of media experi-
mented on or not. A direct consequence of this is
that, if light pass successively, say, through air,
glass, and water, the ultimate deviation will be
the same as if the glass had been absent: and so
for any number of intervening terms, it being
always assumed that the bounding surfaces are
rallel to one met and if a parallel beam of
ight, ing thro’ air, come to traverse an
cater ot wes eget agit -surfaces, and if it
regain the air, it will be found to travel parallel to,
if not directly in, its original course.
The observed fact that light is differently bent in
its course by different refracting media shows that
there is a difference between bodies in their power
of receiving light through their bounding surfaces,
Newton, in accordance with his corpuscular theory
(see LicuT), interpreted this as showing that when
the luminous corpuscles come very near the surface
of a denser substance they are as it were jerked
or made to swerve out of an oblique path and
hurried in by the attraction of the denser substance
so as to enter that substance more directly; and
that when the light quits the denser substance it
is retarded by a similar attraction. The conse-
uence of this would be that light would travel
n the denser medium perhaps not appreciably
faster than in air, but with a mean velocity cer-
tainly not less. On the undulatory theory, how-
ever, refraction is a necessary consequence of a
slower travel of ether-disturbances in the denser
medium.
In fig. 2 A is a plane wave-front, advancing
oblique’ y towards nf the surface of a denser
medium, At the end of a certain time the wave-
iront is at A’; after an equal interval it is at A”.
During the next equal interval a gradually diminish-
ing breadth of the wave is traversing the original
medium with the original velocity ; but a steadily
widening portion of the wave-front enters the
denser medium and is there hampered. At the
end of the interval the disturbance, that
is to say, the wave-front, will be found to have
—— round into the position and direction
sented by a, just as a line of soldiers would tend to
do on obliquely entering more difficult ground.
During the next equal interval the wave-front
advances lel to itself, but traverses smaller
distances in equal times, so that aa’ is less than
AA’. To this explanation it is essential that in
optically denser media light should travel more
slowly : and it has been absolutely established that
this is the case. Optical density, so called, does
not, however, always coincide with mass-density :
enepy 22 of carbon, which is lighter than glass,
has for sodium light a refractive index of 1°63,
while crown-glass an index about 1°5, and flint-
lass one abont 16. If the course of any ray
tween any two points ‘in the two respective
media be studied, it will be found that no other
path between the two points could have been
traversed in so short a time.
If we go back to fig. 1, and assume the rays to
pass from A’, B’, &c. towards O, we find the ra:
Rem ee from the denser medium more phi
parallel to SS’; a ray from C’, so far as it
refracted at all, emerges parallel to SS’; and for
ae
.
Fig. 2.
rays approaching O from points between C and S’
the construction for the refracted ray becomes
impossible. The angle C’ON' is the critical ang
beyond which there is no refraction, but to
reflection (see REFLECTION). This angle is such
that its sine is equal to i where » is the ratio
between the refractive indices of the denser and
the rarer medium. For water and air it is, for
sodium monochromatic light, 48° 27’ 40”. Where
this ratio » (the ‘relative index of refraction’) is
high, this critical angle is small and total reflection
is well marked, as in the sparkle of the diamond.
When a spherical wave impinges on a plane
surface it is modified into a hyperboloid, the centre
of curvature of the central portion of which is
farther away than or nearer than the centre of the
sphere in the ratio of the refractive index of the
second medium to that of the first. An eye within
a rarer medium will thus see the image of a point
situated within the denser medium as if it were
nearer than it really is; hence a stick appears bent
when partly immersed obliquely in water; and,
owing to differences in the amount of refraction at
different angles, the bottom of a tank looked down
upon appears sunk in the middle.
In fig. 3 light starts from a point X, and impinges
directly upon a spherical surface of a denser medium;
the centre of curvature of the spherical surface is
at C. During a certain interval of time the front
of the wave advances from A’ to A; during the.
next equal interval it would, but for the denser
REFRACTION
619
medium, have been at BRD. It has not, however,
so far as R in the time; the central part of
wave-front has only got as far as R’, where
AR:AR’:::1. Any non-axial ray, such as
XP, which would have reached Q, can only have
igi a disturbance at P, which would have
travelled from P in some direction to a distance
not equal to PQ, but to PQ reduced in the same
tatio of 1:1. We might then, knowing y, the
relative index of refraction of the denser medium,
draw, with centre P and radius = PQ +p, an are
of acircle; the disturbance will have got to some
int on that circle. Doing the same for all the
's, we have a series of circular ares which may be
connected by a line drawn so as to touch them all.
This line will be a curve; and it will, for some
distance from the axis, coincide very nearly with
the are of a circle whose centre is at X’, so that the
wave-front will travel in the denser medium
roximately as if it had originally come from
". The relation between the distances AX, AX’
and AC is given by the formula y,/AX’ - Wy AX
= (4 — ”)/AC, where 4, is the refractive index of
the original, and y, that of the refracting medium.
For example, let «4, = 1 (air) and », = 1°5 (crown-
glass); AC =2 inches; AX = - 1 inch (ie. the
source of light is one inch to the /eft of A); then
13/AX’' + 1/1 =4/2; whence AX’ = - 2, or the
light travels in the denser medium as if it had
come from a point 2 inches to the left of A. If the
wave-front be plane as it approaches A, that is
uivalent to AX = —- infinity or »,/AX=0;
whence AX’ is equal to + 6, or the light conv
on a point in the denser medium 6 inches to the
right of A. If, however, a plane wave-front
approach A in the denser medium, that is equiva-
lent to AX = + infinity; but, as the i
medium is now the denser one, wy) = § and », = 1;
whence, by the formula, AX’ = — 4, and the con-
vergence is on a point 4 inches to the left of A.
These distances of the points of convergence for
plane waves, at - 4(=/) and bil by Doge A,
are the Principal F Distances for the curved
surface and the media in question; and they bear
numerically the same ratio to one another as the
ere indices do; from hex nee AX
t revious equation, we get — + if
=] . which shows, still keeping to our numerical
example, that when the object lies at a greater
distance than 4 inches to the left or 6 inches to the
ight of A, the image is a real one on the opposite
e of A; whereas when it is at a less distance
from A, X and X’ are on the same side of A, and
the image is virtual. X and X’, thus determinable
when one of them is known, are i é foci ;
and they are interchangeable, so that an object at
either will produce an image, real or virtual as the
case may be, at the other.
The refracting medium may not be of indefinite
extent, but may be bounded in the path of the
light by another surface. If this be symmetrical
with respect to the first spherical surface we have
a lens; and then, by repeating our calculations of
the refraction at the second surface as if the image
produced by the first were itself an object, we
arrive at the formule given in the article on
LENSES.
If a parallel beam of light enter one plane surface
and be there refracted and emerge by another which
is not parallel to the first, we have the essentials of
a Prism. Assume the incident light to be mono-
chromatic ; then fig. 4 shows the incident beam SP
taking the course SPQR.
The elements of the pro-
blem are, « being the rela-
tive index of refraction of R
the prism: (1) # sin QPn’
= sin SPn; (2) « sin n’
= sin RQm; (3) angles
QPn’ + PQn’ = angle A,
by the geometry of the
figure ; and (4) angles SPn A
+ RQm = angles A +
mn'n, this last being the Fig. 4
Deviation peataced by the
prism. T four equations contain seven terms ;
and it is sufficient to measure three of these, say the
angles A, SPn, and mn’n, in order to ascertain the
rest, including «, the relative refractive index of the
prism for the particular monochromatic light em-
ployed. If, however, the light employed be not
monochromatic but mixed, as ordinary daylight,
we find that the prism sends each wave-length—
each colour- on-producing component of the
daylight (see CoLouR)—to a different place, and
thus produces a Spectrum (q.v.). Each wave-
length has its own « and its own deviation; the
more rapid, shorter waves being the more refran-
gible by a given piece of glass.
If in fig. 4 the prism be turned so that S and R
lie symmetrically with reference to the angle A,
the deviation is then a minimum; and in that
ition of minimum deviation a monochromatic
mg divergent from S, will come to focus at R.
In examining the spectrum of light from a source
8 it is n to turn the prism so as to ensure
sharpness by producing this minimum deviation for
each part of the spectrum in succession. When
the deviation is a minimum everything is sym-
metrical; SPx = RQm; QPn’ = nm’: whence
by equations above, SPnx = 4(A + mn'n), and
QPn’'=4A; whence uw = {sin HA +mn'n) + sin
4A}, which determines », when A (the angle of the
prism) and mn’n (the deviation) have been meas-
The refractive indices of liquids and of
gases are determined by enclosing them in hollow
prisms of glass whose walls are made of trul
parallel glass ; the parallel glass produces no devi-
ation. liquids the angle of total reflection or
‘critical angle’ may also be oneity measured ;
then the sine of this angle = 1/z. e refractive
index varies with changes of density, ~ — 1 being
approximately proportional to the density : and it
bears certain intimate relations with the molecular
constitution of the refracting matter.
Why ether-disturbances of differing Esa
are differently refracted in such a medium as g
is not yet perfectly clear. The fact that ether-
disturbances of greater frequencies are propagated
more slowly through optically denser matter may
be fairly inferred to arise from a mutual interaction
of the ether, periodically stressed and released, and
the matter amid whose molecules the disturbance
is pro’ ted. The question is complicated by the
downright absorption or non-transmission of many
ticular wave-lengths, and by the be-
aviour of some particular transparent substances
which produce anomalous dispersion: for example,
iodine vapour refracts red light more than blue, and
blue more than violet ; and fuchsine refracts blue
and violet light less than it does red, orange, and
620 REFRACTION
REFRIGERATION
yellow, while it absorbs the rest. Further, it is
found that in these cases of anomalous dispersion
the substance generally has in the solid form a
surface-colour different from that seen through its
solution ; and there are always absorption-bands,
on the red side of which the yap ented is
increased, while on the other side it is diminished,
as if the molecules themselves took up oscillations
of particular periods and hurried on the pro -
tion of slightly slower or retarded that of slightly
more rapid oscillations of the ether. It appears as
if this kind of action were never wholly absent; the
spectrum produced by a prism never wholly coin-
eides with the diffraction spectrum in which the
deviation for each wave-length depends directly
upon the wave-length itself; and the spectrum
produced by a prism say of crown-glass does not
exactly coincide in its visible distribution of colours
with a spectrum of equal length made by a flint-
lass prism, This is called the Irrationality of
ispersion. If now we take two prisms, such as C
(crown-glass) and F ( flint-glass) in fig. 5, and
a beam of light through; then, if the
angles of these prisms be suitable, the
rays dispersed by the one will be col-
lected by the ener, and there will on
the whole be deviation without disper-
sion; but not absolutely so, on account
of the irrationality of dispersion of both
prisms, the effect of which is that a cal-
culated ratio of angles and refractive
indices which will cause deviation with-
out dispersion for any given pair of wave-lengths
will, to a very slight extent in most cases, fail to
do so for the other wave-lengths present in the
mixed light transmitted through the system. By
the use of three prisms three wave-lengths may
similarly be achromatised.
DovusLeE REFRACTION.—The wave-surface de-
veloped when a disturbance baie pero at a point
in a homogeneous medium, like glass, is spherical in
form. In uniaxial crystals (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY)
the disturbance travels with two wave-fronts, one
spherical, the other ellipsoidal ; and the two wave-
fronts are coincident along the direction of the
optic axis. Of such crystals some are itive,
such as quartz and ice, and in these the sphere
encloses the pre green : in negative tals, such as
Iceland spar and tourmaline, the ellipsoid encloses
the sphere. If then a beam of light, plane-fronted,
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
fall upon a slice of Iceland spar, the disturbance
at any point such as A (fig. 6) is transmitted from
that point in two portions ; one ar is refracted,
according to the principles of fig. 2 in article
REFRACTION, as an ordinary refracted ray, O; the
other is refracted in a way determinable by using
in the construction, ins of the spheroid or ares
of a circle, the corresponding ellipsoid, or arcs of
the appropriate ellipse, and it gives rise to the
extraordinary refracted ray, E. The
smaller circle is to that of the greater as
tangent to the greater circle, at right angles
XA, cuts SS’ in T; tangents TO’ and TE’ to
smaller circle and the ellipse are also drawn so
to pass through T; the ray XA is deflected so
to pass through the points at which these tangents
touch these curves; and thus there are two re-
fracted rays, and an eye towards OE will see two
images of X. The light in the ordinary ray O is
found to be polari (see POLARISATION) in a
plane containing both the incident ray and the
crystalline axis ; the extraordinary ray E is polar-
ised in a plane at right angles to this. In binaxial
erystals the three optical axes are dissimilar, and
the wave-surfaces me complex : there are two
refracted rays. If a doubly refracting substance be
put between two crossed Nicol’s prisms (see POLAR
ISATION), light passes; and by this means it is
found that many substances ordinarily not double
refracting become so when exposed to unequal
stress, as by pressure, heat, or rapid cooling.
CoNICAL REFRACTION.—In certain cases Heh
passing as a single ray through a plate of a b
S-yeialiieed body, emerges as a hollow cone of rays;
and in others a single ray, falling on the plate,
becomes a cone inside the crystal, and emerges as a
hollow cylinder. These extraordinary oneness
pe Pr
were predicted from the wave theory of
W. R. Hamilton (q.v.), and experimentally
by Lloyd. See Preston’s Theory of Light (1890).
Refrigerants ‘are remedies which obey. thirst
and give a feeling of coolness,’ although they do
not in reality diminish the temperature of the
body. The following are the rants in most
common use for internal administration: water,
barley-water, dilute phosphoric or acetic acid,
citric and tartaric acids taken in combination with
bicarbonate of potash as effervescing Cnn ee
grapes, oranges, lemons (in the form of Lem ie,
3-3 tamarinds, chlorate of potash (ten grains
issolved in water, and sweetened with syrup, to
be taken every third or fourth hour), and nitrate of
potash, which may be taken in the same manner as
the chlorate, or as nitre-whey, which is popenet by
boiling two drachms of nitre in a pint of new milk;
the strained milk may be given in frequent doses
of two or three ounces.
Refrigeration. In refrigerating machines
there is a transference of heat from the sub-
stance which is to be refrigerated to the cooling
agent, which is evaporating fluid, bre eager gas, or
a material which promotes evaporation of the liquid
to be cooled, If 80°025 pound-Centigrade units of
heat be withdrawn from a pound of water at 0° C.
it will become a pound of ice at the same tempera-
ture. If this heat be withdrawn from the water
by an evaporating liquid there are two conditions
which must be fulfilled; the evaporating liquid
must evaporate very rapidly, and the latent heat
a oe (i.e. the ee absorbed from —
uring evaporation ) must as great as possible.
Ether boils at 35°5° C. (95°9° F.), and has at 0° C.
(32° F.) a vapour-pressure of 18°4 em. (7°36 inches)
of mercury; at 0° C. it requires 94 lb.-Centigrade
units of heat to evaporate a pound of it; and at
that temperature its evaporation ought pecne it,
to be able, if the whole of the heat required for
evaporation were withdrawn from water, to freeze
94 + 80°025 times its weight of water at 0° C., so
that a ton of ice (2240 lb.) would be produced by
the evaporation at 0° C, of a minimum of 1907 Ib.
of ether. Alcohol is more advan s than ether
in respect of its higher specific heat, but is pre-
ponderatingly less so in res of its lesser vola-
tility. Liquid ammonia at -35° C. (-31°
F.), and has at 0° C. a vapour-pressure of 318 cm.
REFUGEE
REGENERATION 621
127-2 inches), or more than four atmospheres : it
thus extremely rapidly volatilised at 0° C.; and,
as its latent heat of evaporation is as much as 294,
the production of a ton of ice would thus only
demand the evaporation of a minimum of 610 Ib. of
iquid ammonia. Liquid sulphurous acid (boiling-
point, —10°8° C. or 12°6° F.; vap. pr. at 0°C., 116°5
em. or 46°6 inches, or about 14 atm.; lat. h. of
evap. 9456) is also a volatile liquid presenting
considerable advantages. Machines for using ether
have been constructed by Siebe, Siddeley and
Mackay, Duvallon and Lloyd, Mihl, and others.
The e is caused to evaporate rapidly by an air-
pump or pumps worked by steam ; it cools brine or
a solution of calcium chloride, and this cools the
water to be frozen or the air to be refrigerated ;
the ether vapour is condensed by pressure and cold
and used over again. Ammonia was first used by
Carré in 1860; ammonia gas driven off by heat
from its solution in water is condensed in a cooled
vessel under its own pressure; the original am-
monia vessel is now cooled, and the liquid ammonia
rapidly evaporates (its vapour being absorbed),
chilling its surroun ings. Anhydrous liquid am-
monia has been used by Reece and others. M.
Raoul Pictet of Geneva has used sulphurous acid,
the apa of which is hastened by an air-
—- greatest difficulties in machines of
is nature are (a; from chemical action of the
liquid employed ) the difficulty of making joints to
withs' great pressures, and the cost of con-
densing the evaporated refrigerant. Messrs Tessié
du Motay and A. I. Rossi have introduced a solution
of 300 times its volume of sulphurous acid gas in
—— ether; the sulphurous acid and the ether
are ily evaporated off together A the air-pump,
and on condensation the ether settles down first,
absorbing the sulphurous acid ; so that there are no
ressures to deal with, and no sulphuric acid pro-
uced which may corrode the metal, but only ethyl.
sulphuric acid, which does no t harm.
air-pump or sulphuric acid has also been
employed to promote the evaporation of the liquid
itself which is to be refrigerated. In Mr A. C.
Kirk’s —— (British patent 1218 of 1862), and
in the Bell Coleman apparatus, greatly employed
for producing cold dry air for use in the refrigerating
chambers of dead-meat-carrying steamers, the prin-
ciple is that ee and cooled air will, when
allowed to expand against an external resistance,
so that it does mechanical work during expansion,
lose heat equivalent to the energy which it has
expended. In the former the same air is alter-
nately compressed in one place and expanded
against some resistance in another.
Porous jars, used to keep water cool, are ros 1
the simplest kinds of refrigerating apparatus ; the
evaporation at the outer surface of the jar of the
water passing through the porous earthenware tak-
ing latent heat from the water (see EVAPORATION ).
For details as to refrigerating
Bondie’s Ice-making Machinery (Spon,
Spon’s Dictionary of Engineering (‘ Ice-
1996) ; ’s Encyclopedia of the Industrial Arts
artificial ce,’ p. mig pon so articles saps!
'REEZING Mixtures, Ick; and for Refrigeration
the Earth, see Eartu, TEMPERATURE.
Refugee, a name given to persons who have
fled from religious or political persecution in
their own country, and taken refuge in another,
especially to Flemish refugees during the persecu-
tion by Alva in the Low Countries, and to French
Protestants who fled to England in or after 1685,
when Louis XIV. of France revoked the Edict of
Nantes. See HuGuENoTSs, EXTRADITION, PoLITI-
CAL OFFENCES.
Regalbuto, a town of Sicily, 25 miles WNW.
of Catania. Pop. 9610.
i consult
New York) ;
ia, the ensigns of royalty, including more
particularly the apparatus of a coronation. The
crowns are descri at Vol. III. p. 589. The
regalia, strictly so called, of England consist of the
crown, the sceptre with the cross, the verge or rod
with the dove, the so-called staff of Edward the
Confessor (made in reality for Charles II.), the
orbs of king and queen, the blunt sword of mercy
called Curtana, the two sharp swords of justice,
spiritual and temporal, the ampulla or receptacle
for the coronation oil, the ae spoon (prob-
ably the only existing relic of the old regalia), the
armillze or bracelets, the ree of chivalry, and
various royal vestments. All these, with the ex-
ception of the vestments, are now exhibited in the
Jewel-room in the Tower of London. Their total
value is estimated at £3,000,000. See BLoop
(THOMAS); and W. Jones’s Crowns and Corona-
tions: History of Regalia in all Countries (1883).
The proper regalia of Scotland consist of the
crown, the sceptre, and the sword of state. For
the crown, see Vol. III. p. 589. The sceptre is of
the time of James V.; the sword was a present
from Pope Julius IL. to James IV. in 1507. During
the Civil War the es op were removed by the
Earl Marischal for safe custody from the Crown-
room of Edinburgh Castle, their usual place of
deposit, to his castle of Dunnottar (q.v.); and
from the Restoration to the Union the regalia
continued to be kept in the Crown-room as
formerly. From the Union till 1818 the regalia
remained locked in a chest in the Crown-room
away from public gaze; but in 1818, an order
being obtained from the Prince-regent, the chest
in the Crown-room was broken open, and the
crown, sword, and sceptre’ were found as they
had been deposited at the Union, along with a
silver rod of office, supposed to be that of the Lord
High Treasurer. They are now in the charge of
the officers of state for Scotland, and are exhibited
in the Crown-room. See Sir Walter Scott’s Account
of the Regalia of Scotland (1819).
Regality, Burcus or. See Borouau.
Regals. See Orcan, Vol. VII. p. 639.
Regatta. See Yacut, Rowrne.
Regelation. See Icr.
Regeneration is a theological expression
denoting the spiritual change which passes on all
men in becoming Christians. There are various
interpretations of the mode and meaning of this
change, but its necessity in some shape or another
may be said to be admitted by all branches of the
Christian church. By all man is supposed, as the
condition of his becoming truly Christian, to
from a state of nature to a state of regeneration,
from astate in which he obeys the mere impulses
of the natural life to a state in which a new and
higher—a divine—life has been awakened in him.
The words of our Lord to Nicodemus: ‘Verily,
verily, I say unto thee, except a man be born
again, he cannot see the kingdom of God,’ are
accepted as the expression of this universal neces-
sity the Christian church. It may be further
stated that every branch of the Christian church
recognises, although under very different conditions,
the Holy Spirit as the author of this chenge. The
change in its real character is spiritual, and spiritu-
ally induced. According to a large portion of the
Christian church, however, the change is normally
involved in the rite of baptism. In the Catholic
view baptism constitutes always a real point of
transition from the natural to the spiritual life.
The grace of baptism is the grace of regeneration ;
and among the direct effects of baptism are (1) the
remission of all sin, original and actual; (2) the
remission of the penalties due for sin both temporal
and eternal ; (3) the bestowal of sanctifying grace
622 REGENERATOR FURNACE
REGIMENT
and the infused virtues ; (4) the imprinting of an
indelible ‘ character’ on the soul; besides (5) making
the recipient a member of Christ and the church,
and qualifying to receive the other sacraments.
The usual Protestant doctrine of baptism is
explained at BAPTISM; and see also GORHAM.
Protestants hold for the most part that regenera-
tion is a special, conscious process which takes
place independently of baptism or of any other
outward tact or ceremony. It implies a sen-
sible experience—an awakening whereby men come
to see the evil of sin, and the divine displeasure
against sin, and, through the Holy Spirit, are born
again, put away their former evil life, and begin
to live a new divine life. Technically, Conver-
sion (q.v.) is the action upon man, Regeneration
the agency of God.
Regenerator Furnace. See Guass.
Regensburg. See Ratispon.
Regent, one who exercises the power without
having the name of a king. In a heredita’
monarchy there are various circumstances which
may necessitate the ee. a of the sovereign
power—as the devolution of the crown on a minor
too young to be entrusted with the kingly office ;
the incapacity of the sovereign by illness, mental
or bodily ; and the case of absence from the realm.
A regent under the title of Protector (q.v.) has
often been appointed to exercise royal authority in
the sovereign’s minority, the latest instance in
England being during the minority of Edward VL;
and regents and councils of regency have been
sometimes named by the sovereign to provide for
the probable nonage of his heir. ring the
frequent absences of the first two kings of the
House of Hanover in their continental dominions
it was the practice to appoint regents or Lords
Justices (see Vol. VI. p. 379) to exercise the powers
of sovereign. In 1788, when George III. became
incapacitated from exercising the kingly office by
insanity, it becamea question whether his eldest son,
then of full age, had a right to be regent, or whether
the nomination rested with parliament. The chief
political authorities of the time were divided in
their judgment, but the king’s recovery ended the
discussion. On the return of the malady all parties
were unanimous that the regency should be con-
ferred on the Prince of Wales, and this was done
by parliament. In 1830 a Regency Bill was passed,
providing for the administration of the government,
should the crown descend to the Princess Victoria
before she attained eighteen heres of age; and in
1840, one providing that the Prince Consort should
be regent in the event of the demise of the Queen,
her next lineal successor being under age. For
university regents, see article UNIVERSITIES.
Reggio (anc. ium Julii), a seaport of South
Italy, stands on the Strait of Messina 9 miles SE.
of the city of Messina in Sicily. It is the seat of
an archbishop, and has a fine cathedral. Mannfac-
tures of silks, scented waters, gloves, stockings,
and caps—the last three made from the byssus
of the Pinna (q.v.)—the cultivation of fruits, wine,
and olives, and fishing are carried on. Pop.
23,853. The ancient Rhegium was founded by
Greeks in the 8th century. It was taken and
destroyed by Dionysins of Syracuse (387 B.c.), the
Romans (270), Alarie (410 A.p.), Totila (549), the
Saracens (918), and captured by Robert Guiscard
1060), Pedro of A n (1282), and the Gari-
Idians (18) In 1783 it was ruined by an
earthquake.—The ince has an area of 1221
sq.m. and a pop. of 397,208.
0, « city of Central Italy, stands on the
ancient Via Emilia, 17 miles by rail SE. of Pi
and is still surrounded with walls. It has a
cathedral of the 15th century, one of the finest
theatres in Italy, a model lunatic asylum, a natural
Fm 4 and an antiquarian museum, a library, Xe.
Pop. 18,634, who manufacture silk, hemp, turn x
leather, &c., and on considera trade,
especially in timber, io is the birthplace
Ariosto. During the later middle ages it was an
independent city, but was subject to the D’Estes
from 1409 onwards. The bishopric was founded
in 450.
am Majestatem, a collection of ancient
nay ot my have been compiled by order of
David L., king of Scotland. The authenticity of the
work has been controverted, the prevalent opinion
being that it is a compilation from Glanville’s
Tractatus. Some authorities attribute the collect-
ing of it to a commission of Edward 1, others to
an unknown author after the war of independence
(14th century).
Regicides, the men who were a ted on the
Samentae committee to try Kee Charles L,
ut in a narrower sense the men, sixty-seven in
number, who actually sat in trial upon him. Of .
these only fifty-nine signed the death-warrant.
After the Restoration the regicides were brought to
trial on a ch: of high-treason, Twenty-nine
were condemned to death, but only ten were
executed, nineteen, together with six others who
were not tried, being imprisoned, most of them
for life. More than twenty who were already dead
were tried and condemned all the same, and
Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, three of them,
were exhumed and han at Tyburn, and then
reburied at the foot of the scaffold. For regicides
in a wider use of the term, see ASSASSINATION,
and E. Régis’ Les Régicides dans U’ Histoire et dans
le Présent (1890).
Regillus, Laxg, lay in Latium, to the south-east
of Rome, probably near the modern i; itis
celebrated in the mira yes his of Rome
as the scene (496 B.C.) of a = battle between
the Romans and the Latins, fighting on behalf of
the banished Tarquin, in which the latter were
entirely defeated. :
Regiment, in most modern armies, is a tacti-
cal unit consisting either of four squadrons of
cavalry, some six or seven Batteries (q.v.) of artil-
lery, or three or four Battalions (q.v.) of infantry—
the engineers and other troops being similarly
grouped, In the British army the cavalry regiment
consists of eight troops (four angi reg having a
war establishment of 666 of all ranks (32 being
officers) and 614 horses. It is a tactical unit com-
manded by a lieutenant-colonel, with adjutant,
quartermaster, paymaster, medical officer, veterin-
ary surgeon, transport officer, band, and artificers.
As regards the infantry the regiment is not a
tactical unit. The name is often still given to
single battalions owing to the fact that previous to
1881 it was used indiscriminately for try co
whether they consisted of two battalions, as did
the first twenty in the Army List, or of four, as did
the 60th. But in that year 133 battalions of the
line were reorganised to form 67 regiments, which
should each consist of two battalions of line infan-
try, two or more battalions of militia, and what-
ever volunteer battalions there might be in the
territory allotted to each regiment for recruiting
urposes and called its Regimental district. The
he Cameron Highlanders (the old I were left
an exception with one battalion. It had been pro-
a to link them as a third battalion to the Scots
juards ; but this arrangement was not carried pan
and in 1897 a second battalion was specially rai
to complete the regiment. At the same time the
Guards retained their old organisation—viz. three
battalions of Grenadiers, two of Coldstreams, and
ween
—=———-— ° =
REGIMENT
REGISTERS 623
two of Seots Guards—and the 60th Rifles and Rifle
Brigade, each of four battalions, are allotted to
the regimental district at Winchester. The two
West Indian ments (single battalions) have
since been fi into a regiment of two battalions.
Like the regiments of the native armies of India,
no militia or volunteer battalions are attached to
it. A territorial regiment is therefore a purely
administrative unit, and has no war establishment.
It is commanded by a colonel, assisted by an
adjutant and quartermaster, and its depét com-
ies, two for each line battalion, train recruits
the service companies.
The Royal Regiment of Artillery is also a ly
administrative organisation, including all the horse,
field, and mountain batteries and garrison com-
—— of the regular army. The corps of Royal
gineers similarly comprises all the officers and
men of that arm. Militia and volunteers are
attached to each, and they are each represented
at the War Office by a deputy-adjutant-general.
The word regiment to be applied to bodies
of British troops in Elizabeth’s reign ; iments
are spoken of at the time of the Armada, 1588, and
as composing the force in Ireland, 1598. From
that time forward the army and militia of Britain
have been organised into regiments. Charles L.
and the parliament each raised regiments, all of
which were disbanded at the Restoration, with
the exception of the Lord-general’s Regiment of
Foot and his Life Guard of Horse. These two were
meters { 1661) and form the present Coldstream
(ry and Royal Horse Guards. In the same
year a Scotch corps of 1700 men, which had taken
service in France in the time of James L., returned
io England, and was included in the British army
as the Ist Foot. See Army, Vol. Lp. 433. In
1693 was raised the Ist troop of Horse Grenadier
Guards, and the 2d troop in 1702. These were
re-formed in 1782 as the Ist and 2d Life Guards,
Regimental o are those who are actually
doing duty with a regiment, battalion, battery, or
company as combatants, in contradistinction to
those who may be on the staff or otherwise
employed.
imental badges, mottoes, and devices are
detailed in the Queen’s lations, and emblaz-
oned, with the battles and campaigns in which
either of the battalions of the regiment has been
en , on its colours or appointments.
egimental pets are animals which accompany
the troops on all occasions and have a recognised
place on parade. ned infantry battalions have
them—e.g. the Royal Welsh Fusiliers always have
a white goat, which since the year 1844 has been
larly presented to them by the Queen.
‘or Regimental Schools, see ARMY, Vol. I. p. 439.
Regimental district (formerly brigade depét) is
the territory allotted to-each infantry ent of
the British army. The localisation of the forces
followed naturally on the adoption of a short
service system. e increased number of recruits
annually required necessitated the spreading of
reerniting agencies over the country, and the
desirability of obtaining men from a district to
which they would afterwards return as reservists
was obvious. The original scheme of 1873 has
been modified in many ways, and may be briefly
summarised as follows: For the pu of com-
mand, the United Kingdom is divided into 14
districts—ten for England, one for Scotland, and
three for Ireland (the Channel Islands command
does not share in the localisation scheme), under
general officers. Each of these districts has a float-
ing body of regular troops, and is subdivided (with
the exception of the Thames, Woolwich, and
Aldershot districts) into a certain number of regi-
mental districts—69 altogether.
To each of these regimental districts are assigned,
normally : (a) Two line battalions—if ible one
at home and one abroad (see, however, IMENT );
(4) regimental depéts composed of two companies,
under a major, two captains, and two subalterns,
from each line battalion belonging to the district ;
(c) the militia and volunteer battalions of the
district, as well as the infantry of the army reserve.
The linked battalions of the line together with the
inilitia battalions form a territorial regiment—to
which the volunteer battalions are attached. If
— a territorial regiment draws its recruits
rom its own district, and the promotion of officers
of the line takes place in the regiment and not in
a particular battalion. Militia recruits are trained
at the dept, and every effort made to draw close
the connection between the line and the militia.
Each regimental district is in charge of a lieu-
tenant-colonel, who superintends the recruitin
of the district, and commands the auxiliary an
reserve forces in it. His staff comprises an
adjutant, quartermaster, paymaster, medical officer,
an the usual non-commissioned officers.
a, capital of the Canadian province of
Assiniboia and seat of government of the North-
west Territories, 357 miles by rail W. of Winnipeg.
The chief buildings are the lieutenant-governor’s
residence and the headquarters of the mounted
police. Pop, 2000.
Regiomontanus, a German mathematician
and astronomer whose name was Johann Miiller,
was born at Kénigsberg in Franconia, 6th June
1436. From his birthplace he called himself in the
mediwval fashion Johannes de Monteregio; since
1544 Regiomontanus is the name by which he has
been known. He was trained by the Austrian
mathematician George Purbach ( 1433-61 ), studying
under him at Vienna and elsewhere. In 1461 he
accompanied Cardinal Bessarion to Italy in order
to learn Greek. He sojourned in Rome, Ferrara,
Padua, and Venice ; returned for a time to Vienna,
and was called by Matthias Corvinus to his court
at Buda; but in 1471 he settled in Nuremberg,
where a learned and wealthy citizen, Bernhard
Walther, subsidised him so as to enable him to
construct mathematical and astronomical instru-
ments and found a famous printing-press. The
two laboured ether at the correction of the
‘ Alphonsine Tables,’ and jointly published Zphem-
erides 1476-1506 (1473), of which Columbus and
other early navigators made much use. Regiomon-
tanus not only worked at astronomy, but restored
the study of algebra in Germany, extended the
science of ben, paar ea and published treatises
on water-works, burning-mirrors, weights and
measures, &c, He was summoned to Rome by Pope
Sixtus IV. to assist in reforming the calendar,
was made Bishop of Ratisbon, but died at Rome,
6th July 1476.
Among his works are De Doctrina Triangulorum
1463); De Quadratura Circuli Col Calendarium
1473); De Reformatione Calendarium (1484) ; De Com-
ete Magnitudine (1531); De Triangulis Omnimodis
(1533). See Ziegler, Regi t ein geistiger Vor-
laufer des Kolumbus (1874).
Register of Voice, See Voice.
Registers, PArisH. The place which parish
registers now fill was formerly, but only in very
small part, supplied by monastic registers, which,
however, as a rule registered only deaths of import-
ant persons, so as to be able to tell when masses
became due, and were usually confined to the
families of founders, benefactors, and the like.
Entries were also sometimes made in the missals of
parish churches, and the monastic chronicles often
contain necrologies, whilst mortuary rolls were
regularly sent round from monastery to monastery,
624 REGISTERS
REGISTRATION
These were in effect the sole early public registers,
bat nan necrologies were sometimes kept by
the chaplains of great families—e.g. Friar Brackley
has left one of the Pastons and Mawtbys—and Burn
(History of Parish Registers) mentions several
entered in the flyleaves of private books of devo-
tion. But it is mainly to the monastic cartularies
and to inquisitions post-mortem and proofs of age
that we must go for information on births and
deaths of the pre-Reformation times.
It is probable that the injunction of Thomas
Cromwell in 1538, ordering parish registers to be
kept under the system now in vogue, was intended,
like Edward VI.’s scholastic foundations, to meet
one of the immediate difficulties involved in the
suppression of the monasteries. Had this injunc-
tion been pret — on we ayer te in
possession of complete registers from that date
onwards. But, Perhaps owing to the fall, soon
after, of the author of the injunction or to the
general laxity of the incumbents, very little heed
was taken of it, and the evil which this neglect
entailed became so crying that Elizabeth in 1597
issued a stringent order that not only should
the registers be better kept, but copies of them
should be yearly sent to the bishop of the diocese,
an order which in 1812 was supplemented by
an act enjoining the preservation, arrangement,
and indexing alphabetically of the names on the
registers. t nothing has been of much value
against the incorrigible neglect of the incumbents
and bishops. ly transcripts are practically
non-existent, and even those of the 18th century
are most imperfect. In the returns of the popula-
tion abstracts in 1801 it was discove that
amongst 11,000 parishes in England 812 registers
dating from 1538 alone existed, and later returns
in 1 showed that even that small number had
decreased ones the negligence of the clergy in
the interval. ese last returns give full details
as to the date of the commencement of each register
in England. The only hope in the future for the
preservation of the remnant lies in the instant
removal from the parish churches (or, as is too
often the case, the incumbent's library) of the
actual registers and of the transcripts from the
bishops’ registers to the Public Record Office or to
some kindred institution, otherwise further loss
must be expected in spite of the fact that many of
the clergy are at last waking up to their duty in
the matter and many have transcribed and indexed
their mi regs while some have been printed by
the Harleian Society arth private individuals.
A full list of the prin isters was issued in
1891 by Dr G. W. Marshall. Other standard works
on the subject are Bigland’s Observations on Parish
Registers (1764) and Burn’s History of Parish
Registers (1829; 2d ed. 1862), while ures on
the same subject have been printed by Mr Chester-
Waters (1870; new ed. 1887) and Mr Taswell-
Langmead.
From these works the reader may see how the
registers often contain much valuable information
as to the history of the parish, many incumbents
slightly thsi | their strict duty by putting
down noticeable and curious incidents which oc-
curred from time to time. The proper fees for
searching are one shilling for the first year (which
includes births, marri , and burials, though
some clergymen try to charge them se rately)
and sixpence every subsequent year. It seems
doubtful if the searcher may take general notes,
but he may copy one entry per year without being
compelled to pay the further fee of 2s. 7d. which is
the clergyman’s due if he is asked to give a certi-
fied copy. Most custodians of registers, however,
are extremely liberal, and seldom take fees when
the object of the search is a literary one.
Registration may be described as an account
of certain transactions and legal facts inserted in
a book called a register and kept at a public office.
The purpose in view usually is to preserve an
authentic and exact record of the transactions, to
secure for them a means of publicity, or to simplify
the methods of proving them. _The practice of
inscribing a copy of private documents in a public
register seems to have been originally introduced
by the Emperor Leo in reference to gifts—the
object being to enable heirs to ascertain to what
claims the estate was liable before deciding whether
to accept the inheritance. A system of registration
is now employed in many different departments
and for very various purposes. The extent to
which registration is carried varies very much in
different countries; on the whole, however, it is
more carefully enforced and more widely applied
in continental states than in England or America,
In France and Italy, for example, in almost all
transactions parties resort to a notary, who draws
up the documents relating to the business in hand.
Such notarial transactions are to a certain extent
ublic acts, and are presumed to be valid and
inding, until they have been im ed and set
aside by a separate proceeding instituted for that
purpose. Further, in these countries all documents
executed in the presence of a notary having any
reference to certain subjects—for example, to the
creation or transfer of an interest in land—are
transcribed by him in a public register, and so
become available for general information.
In England all judicial decisions and the whole
proceedings of the higher courts in their various
stages are registered ; and with registrars attached
to the Privy-council, the supreme court, and the
county courts, affidavits, pleadings, &c. are filed.
Probates of wills and letters of administration,
both of which are really judicial p: ings, are
registered either in the py istry of the
on, or in one of the
Probate Division in Lon
district registries, which are situated at various
ayer throughout the rege Land _ registries,
‘or officially recording the title to, dealings with,
and charges on land, are of two classes—viz.
registries of title and registries of assurances. The
former are authentic and self-explanatory records,
behind which one cannot except in case of
fraud. The latter merely contain a statement
of the existence of documents or assurances affect-
ing the title to the land, giving an epitome of each
document, and leaving the persons concerned to
draw their own conclusions as to the effect of those
documents on the title to the land. The whole
subject of land registration has been much dis-
cussed of recent years in England, and several
attempts to establish a system of registration have
been made without much success. Lord West-
bury’s Act (25 and 26 Vict. chap. 53), establishing
a general land registry for England and Wales, has
notoriously proved a failure. The present statute
regulating the general registration of land is the
Land Transfer Act (38 and 39 Vict. chap. 87),
which creates an office of land registry in London ;
but in the case of this act also practical results have
been very small. The doubts and complications sur-
rounding titles to land in England are so appallin,
that, though a compulsory system of registration
universally recognised to be | gargs liament
has not dared to enforce it. Bills of sale must be
registered within seven clear days after execution,
or, if executed out of England, then within seven
days after their arrival in England ; farther, a bill,
if still existing, must be re-registered every five
ro Under the Merchant Shipping Acts eve
ritish ship must be registered, as also must all
changes of ownership in a ship, whether by sale
mortgage, death, or bankruptey; in the Uni
REGISTRATION
625
Kingdom the —- officer of customs at the port
of registry is the registrar. Among the other prin-
=
&
>
The Trachea (windpipe), Bronchi,
and one of the Lungs in section.
these two ways, then, the size of the chest-cavity
may be increased, The result of this enlargement
is that the pressure of the air within the cavities of
the lungs is lowered; air therefore from without
rushes through the nostrils (one ought not to
breathe through one’s mouth) down windpipe
into the lungs, and thus a fresh supply of oxy.
is introduced. The movements whieh produce
result are known as the inspiratory movements.
In making an expiration the reverse effects are
produced ; the chest-cavity is made smaller, the
pressure of the air in the lungs increases, and some
rushes out rue 5 the nostrils into the air until
the pressures inside and outside are equalised.
ordinary expiration is effected by the elasticity of
the lungs, by the fall of the ribs, unsuppo >
the contraction of the muscles that caused an
inspiratory movement, by the elasticity of the
cartilages of the ribs which were twisted during
inspiration, and by the elasticity of the abdomina
wall which was forced outwards by those viscera
pushed downwards by the diaphragm, An ordinary
inspiration is therefore the result of a number of
active muscular contractions, while an ordinary
expiration is the result of mere passive elasticity
of the parts concerned. There are certain other
respiratory movements to be considered. During
inspiration and expiration the glottis (the opening
between the v chords of the larynx ; see the
illustration at LARYNX) undergoes a rhythmical
widening and eras this movement is ter
in fo than in quiet breathing. And during in-
spiration the nostrils dilate; in most cases perhaps
the inspiration has to be rather a forced one he-
fore they do so, Forced respiration occurs when
the supply of oxygen is insufficient, or when
carbonic acid accumulates in the blood, Any
muscle that can aid in enlarging and decreasing
the size of the chest-cavity is called into play. The
average amount of air, in the case of an individual
5 feet 8 inches in height, that in and outof the
lungs at each inspiration and expiration is about
20 cubic inches; this is called the tidal air, By
means of forced inspiratory movements the ingoing
tide may be increased by 120 cubic inches; by
means vs forced expiration the outgoing tidal air
may be increased by 90 cubic inches. After the
most forced expiration possible there always remain
within the lungs about 90 cubic inches of air, So
that if we take as deep a breath as possible, and
then make as forced an expiration as we can, we
shall drive out 120 + 20 + 90 = 230 cubic inches of
air. This is termed the respiratory capacity. Since
the tidal air is only 20 cubic inches, and 180 cubie
inches remain in the chest after an ordinary expira-
tion, it follows the air directly chan during
respiration is not that really within the lungs
themselves, but is that within the nose, windpipe,
and larger bronchi, the pipes that result from the
branching of the windpipe. Therefore the changes
of the air within the essential parts of the lungs
are the result of diffusion between it and the purer
air of the bronchi, aided by the rush with which
the tidal air flows in,
The ordinary iratory movements differ in the
two sexes and at different periods of life. In young
children the chest is altered in size chiefly i the
movements of the diaphragm, and the protrusion of
the abdominal wall during inspiration is therefore
very marked. In men also it is the diaph
which is chiefly operative, but the ribs are also
moved. In women it is the movement of the ribs,
especially the upper ones, which is the most exten-
sive. The respiratory rhythm is the relation of the
acts of inspiration and expiration to each other as
regards time. It may be expressed as follows:
In. =3, Ex. =4, pause=3. The number of
respirations in a healthy person is about fourteen
RESPIRATION
661
_
or eiguteen per minute; it is greater (nearl
double} in cluldhood. It varies according to eed
cumstances, exercise, rest, health, disease, &e. ;
in disease it may fall as low as seven or rise toa
aan -
roportion of respiratory movements to
Fiske tt is about one to four, or one to five; in
health they vary together. Since the heart and
the lungs are contained in the same air-tight
cavity, it follows that the variations in size of the
heart as it beats must rhythmically affect the
pressure of the air in the lungs, causing a succes-
sion of minute puffs of air to leave and enter the
nostrils. Similarly the alterations in pressure
within the chest-cavity affect the heart. Increase
of pressure or expiration must (owing to the
ment of the valves) help the Mant to flow
ont of the heart. Decrease of pressure or inspiration
must, for the same reason, help the flow of blood
‘into the heart. The pressure which the expiratory
muscles, aided by the elasticity of the parts con-
cerned, can exert is on the average equal to that
of 4 inches of mercury. The inspiratory muscles
ean lower the pressure within the chest-cavity by
@ pressure equal to that of about 3 inches of mer-
eury below that of the atmosphere; the greater
part of the energy of the inspiratory movements is
used in overcoming the elasticity of the lungs,
chest-walls, and abdominal walls. The respirato’
sounds are two in number: (1) the tubular sound,
heard over the windpipe and the larger bronchi,
bably due to friction of air in these ;
I) the vesicular sound, heard over the whole
chest during inspiration, probably caused by the
sudden dilation of the small air-chambers of the
lungs, and to friction in the smaller passages.
During a quiet expiration there may be no sound ;
when present it is very soft and indistinct, prob-
ably due to the air ing out of the alrehunbene
he Nervous Mechanism of the i Move-
ments.—Although all the muscles concerned in the
movements of breathing are voluntary muscles—
ie. can be made to contract by an act of will—yet
respiration is normally an entirely involuntary
act. This is obvious from the fact that during
sleep, or during absence of consciousness caused in
any way, respiration goes on as well as durin
wakefulness. Further, although we may at will
breathe or cease to breathe, yet we cannot by any
effort of the will suspend the respiratory move-
ments for longer than at most a few minutes at a
time. We have seen how many are the muscular
movements involved in breathing, and it is obvious
that the adjustment as to time and intensity of
contraction of all these muscles must be a very
nice one—in technical phrase, they must be co-
ordinated, Such co-ordination must always be the
result of a nervous mechanism, and this co-ordina-
tion, together with the fact of the rhythmical
nature of the respiratory movements, suggests that
the whole must be under the dominance of a
nervous centre. The position of this centre has
been ascertained by experiment; the whole of the
upper of the brain may be removed, and yet
breathing will be unimpaired ; but if a certain part
of the medulla (see BRAIN, and illustration, Vol. IL.
p- 388) be injured or removed then all respiratory
movements cease at once; the centre must there-
fore be in that part of the medulla. The centre
is bilateral, for destruction of one-half of the
medulla is followed by pone of the respiratory
muscles of that side only. Further, we must con-
elude that, since inspiration is in its muscular
movements antagonistic to expiration, there is an
ratory centre and an expiratory centre in each
of the two halves of the respiratory centre ; but, as
already noted, the expiratory centre is active on]
in forced respiration. The similar centres on eac
side are so co-ordinated that they act as one centre.
This compound centre then is to be regarded as
lating the respiratory movements. e have
said that if the medulla be injured the respiratory
movements cease at once, and that from this it is
concluded that the respiratory centre is in the
medulla; but in young animals it seems that the
movements may continue after destruction of the
medulla, or may be produced by the reflex stimula-
tion of some centre by irritating the skin. This
subsidiary centre must be in the spinal cord; but it
almost certainly is a subsidiary centre, though the
matter is not quite settled yet.
Now is the centre ‘automatic’ in its discharges
of nervous impulses, or is it reflexly stimulated into
action by the arrival of stimuli from some other
part of the body? We know by ordinary experience
that the centre may be influenced from without, by
impulses arising from higher parts of the brain, as
when by will we alter the respiratory rhythm, or
when it is affected by emotions, and also by im-
pulses arising from the stimulation of sensory
surfaces, as when cold water is dashed against the
skin. It is found by experiment that the centre
may be influenced in two distinct ways: (1) by
nervous impulses ; (2) by changes in the blood.
Nervous impulses may affect either the inspira-
tory or the expiratory part of the centre. It seems
that all afferent nerves—i.e. nerves in which the
impulses travel towards and not away from the
central nervous system—may influence the respira-
tory centre (see Nervous SYsTEM). But the vagi
(nerves that are distributed to all the viscera)
seem to be in specially close relation, beginning
as they do close to the respiratory centre in the
medulla, and ending in the lungs. If one vagus
be eut there is not much effect upon the breath-
ing; but if both are cut then the breathing be-
comes slower and deeper. If the end nearest the
centre of one of ther be stimulated the respira-
tory rhythm is generally quickened ; by a certain
strength of stimulus it may be made normal; if
the strength of the stimulus be further increased
the inspiratory movements may be made before
expiration is finished; this effect increased to a
certain extent must obviously result in a stand-
still of all respiratory movements ; the chest-walls
remain in the inspiratory place. But occasionally
it happens that stimulation of the central end of a
vagus, after both have been cut, produces a further
slowing of the movements—they may indeed le
entirely stopped; in this case the chest-walls
remain in the expiratory phase, From these results
it is concluded that the vagus contains two kinds
of fibres that affect the respiratory centre, one kind
that increases the respiratory movements, another
that inhibits them; and, further, that when one
kind is active in causing increased inspiratory
movements the other kind is active in causing
depressed expiratory movements. Further, if air
be drawn out of the lungs, thus imitating expira-
tion, an inspiratory effort is made; if air be forced
into the lungs, thus imitating an inspiratory move-
ment, an expiratory effort is made. Therefore we
may conclude that expiration stimulates the in-
spiratory centre, and that inspiration stimulates the
expiratory centre. That the effects from which
these conclusions are drawn are due to the stimu-
lation of the vagus endings in the lungs is shown by
the fact that they do not occur when the vagi have
been divided ; and that they are not due to altera-
tion in the state of the essential gases of the blood
is shown by the fact that they may be produced by
foreing an indifferent gas, such as nitrogen, in and
out of the lungs. The respiratory pump is there-
fore a self- ating mechanism.
If we cut the vagi the respiratory rhythm usually
becomes slower, and the movements are deeper ;
662
RESPIRATION
therefore normally stimuli are constantly ing
up the vagi to the centre, and accelerating the dis-
charge of impulses by the centre, Still, an accelerat-
ing effect is not the same thing as an initiating
stimulus, Further, since respiration goes on when
the higher parts of the brain are removed, impulses
proceeding from above are not essential ; and since
when the spinal cord is cut below the medulla the
movements of the nostrils and vocal chords con-
tinue (although of course all others cease), the
centre works independently of sensory impulses
arriving from any nerve, except the cranial nerves ;
and since these cranial nerves may be divided, if
the medulla and spinal cord be left intact, without
any effect upon the respiratory movements, we
may conclude that the centre is automatic in its
action, but may be influenced from without.
The more venous the blood the greater is the
activity of the centre; when the blood reaches a
certain state of impurity convulsions arise. We
may conclude that the state of the blood affects
the centre directly, and not reflexly, by stimulat-
ing the endings of afferent nerves in various parts
of the body ; use if the supply of blood be eut
off from the medulla alone the same effects are
roduced. Venous blood differs from arterial
lood in containing less oxygen and more carbonic
acid. The deficiency of oxygen is the cause of
the greater activity of the centre, because if an
animal breathe an atmosphere of nitrogen the
carbonic acid does not accumulate in the blood,
and yet convulsions occur; whereas if the animal
breathe an atmosphere containing sufficient oxygen
but excess of carbonic acid, then the convulsions do
not occur, but the animal may become unconscious
through some of the higher centres being poisoned.
When in action the centre discharges motor im-
pulses down various nerves to all the muscles con-
cerned in the respiratory movements. If any of
the nerves be cut the movements of the muscles
supplied of course cease, since they are no longer
stimulated by impulses proceeding from the centre.
The Chemistry of Respiration.—We have now
to explain the of oxygen from the air-
chambers of the lungs into the blood that circulates
in the vessels of the chamber-walls, and the pas
of carbonic acid from the blood into the air within
the lungs.
In order to understand what follows we shall
have to study the laws of diffusion (see also Dirru-
SION). A gas consists of a great number of separate
molecules moving with great speed. The number of
these molecules in a cubic inch of a nie ordina’
temperature and pressure) is estim about 10°
or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000. Each molecule is
so sinall that the space between adjacent mole-
cules is large compared with the size of the mole-
enles ; therefore, each molecule during its move-
ment has a large path free from collision with other
molecules, The average speed of a molecule varies
with the temperature, increasing as the tempera-
ture rises. The molecules lying near the surface
of any mass of gas will constantly impinge upon
the boundaries; these impacts are so numerous
and so close that they produce an apparently
continuous pressure all over the boundary. This
pressure obviously depends only upon the density
(number of molecules in unit-space) and the tem-
perature (average speed of the molecules) of the
gas. Further, the molecules of a gas are so far
apart that when two or more gases are mixed their
molecules interfere so little with each other that
each gas exerts the same pressure upon the walls
of the containing vessel as it would do were it
alone present. In such a case the total pressure is
the sum of the two or more partial pressures of the
several gases, If the —— in which a gas is enclosed
be diminished the molecules are brought nearer to
each other, until a point is reached at which many
of the molecules mj nore act upon each other in
—_ & way as to more com,
us a liquid in the lower of the
vessel with its gas in the upper part. complex
molecules are still in motion, and in’ or
diffusion, constantly takes place between the two
regions. The a s pparecspr a Bes
gaseous region de only upon 8 -
alarecieae density) of tue The number
Gotan the liquid depends only upon the state
(temperature and density) of the liquid. When
the diffusion takes place in a cl space a state
is soon reached. In
of equilibrium of interchan,
the lungs the liquid molecules of the oxygen of the
blood are being constantly moved pore common
surface between the air and the blood ; the inflow
therefore of oxygen from the air into the blood is
ter than the outflow from the blood to the air»
n the other hand, the gaseous carbonic acid in the
air is constantly removed from the common surface
between it and the blood ; and therefore the outflow
of carbonic acid from the blood into the air is
xreater than the inflow from the air into the blood.
his picture of the state of matters that ne
er
will be
the interchange of in respiration is
than the reality. The further complexity
ing the
described immediately.
We must know what are the laws gov
diffusion when the gas above the liquid is not the
gas of the liquid, as is the case when air rests upon
a surface of water. Some of the molecules of the
air will become entangled in the liquid, —_ form
the liquid of the particular within the
other liquid, and then the state of affairs will
as before, so far as the , and their
liquids, of the air are concerned, and a state of
equilibrium between each of these gases and its
own liquid will be formed. But now suppose
that the liquid and the have a special chem-
ical affinity for one another, as is the case with
the oxygen of the air and a substance in the blood,
and as is the case with the carbonic acid of the
blood and a substance or substances in the blood.
As soon as the gas has diffused into the liquid the
chemical compound will be formed; but now the
reverse effect will begin, dissociation of the com-
pound will occur, but slowly, because a greater
violence of collision is necessary. Therefore, other
things being equal, less pressure will be needed to
maintain equilibrium, because fewer liquid mole-
cules of the compound will become gaseous, and
therefore fewer gaseous molecules need become
liquid to preserve equilibrium. Indeed, it is found
that at a certain temperature and a certain pressure
the dissociation scarcely takes place at all; but if
temperature be raised, or if the pressure be jowered
to a certain point, then the dissociation will be
very rapid.
These laws of diffusion apply to the gases of the
blood. In the investigation of these gases a
sample of blood is pl under the receiver of an
air-pump (thus imitating, though ex ting,
the normal pumping action of the chest-walls), the
gases extracted are through various solu-
tions which retain the several gases, and thus they
may be estimated and examined. The aot of
oxygen obtained from arterial blood is haeee
that obtained from venous blood. arterial
blood of a dog yields for every 100 vols, at ordinary
pressure and 0° C, 58°3 vols. of mixed gases when
the external pressure is reduced to zero, This
mixture is composed of 23°2 vols. of oxygen, 34°3
vols. of carbonic acid, and 1°8 vols, of nitrogen.
If blood took up as much of these gases by mere
diffusion as water does, it would contain 0°86 vols.
of oxygen, 1°2 vols. of carbonic acid, and 1°6 vols.
of nitrogen. Therefore it is evident that, while
RESPIRATION
the nitrogen is merely diffused into the blood, the
oxygen and the carbonic acid must be combined with
some substance or substances in the blood. If we
gradually lower the external pressure of the atmo-
sphere upon the blood we notice that at any given
temperature (at which the combination can exist)
the pressure may be lowered to a certain point
without much coming off, and that at that
point the gases Neaiat to come off rapidly. This is
another ‘ers that the are combined and not
merely absorbed in the blood ; for in case of simple
absorption the gases come off in equal amounts for
equal lowerings of pressure. The amount of the
gases that can be taken from blood-plasma (free
from blood-cells) is 0-26 vols. of oxygen, 35°26 vols.
of carbonic acid, and 2-24 vols. of nitrogen. The
great mass of the oxygen is, therefore, not in the
plasma, but in the corpuscles ; while the mass
of the carbonic acid is in the plasma. The oxygen
is found to be united to the red colouring matter,
of which the red blood-cells are chiefly composed.
This substance is called hemoglobin. It is not
80 to determine in what combination the
carbonic acid exists in the plasma. A certain
amount is found in the red corpuscles (though the
above figures do not show it); indeed, some writers
consider that the hemoglobin of these cells is the
chief carrier of ae —_ The pair of pe
pressure upon -plasma, so far as 8
carbonic acid, is much Phe same as it is upon solu-
tions of sodium hydrogen carbonate. Some writers
believe that the carbonic acid exists in the plasma
in the form of sodium bicarbonate. Others believe
that it may be in the form of bisodium hydrogen
— The presence of red blood-corpuscles
as a very marked effect upon the disen ment
of carbonic acid under lowered pressure ; it hastens
it considerably. This effect appears to be due to
the ce of oxyhzemoglobin.
The total pressure of the atmosphere is 760
mm. of mercury. The partial pressure of oxygen
in the air is 159°6; of carbonic acid, practically zero
of ni , 600°4. Oxygen does not leave arterial
blood until the partial pressure falls to 29°64, nor
venous blood until the pressure falls to 22°04;
these therefore are the partial pressures of oxygen
in arterial and venous blood. Carbonic acid does not
leave arterial blood until the partial pressure falls
to 21°18, and venous blood until it falls to 41°04.
Therefore blood exposed to air would readily gain
oxygen and lose carbonic acid. But the air in the
part of the lungs where the respiratory interchange
takes place is not the same as the air surroundin
the body; the partial pressures of expired air wi
be nearer the true numbers; they are—of oxygen,
121°6; of carbonic acid, 33°4; of nitrogen, 600. But
even expired air is not the same as air within the
alveoli; for the air taken in and out of the lungs
(tidal air) only enters and leaves the larger respira-
tory passages near the opening into the outer air;
from these it diffuses into the air of the alveoli.
The —— pressures of this air have been esti-
mated by introducing a collector into the alveoli and
taking out sea Ma Specimens of air collected in
this way have n found to have the followin
ope pressures: Oxygen, 27°44; carbonic acid,
06; nitrogen, 705°5. . It is difficult to believe
that this is a correct estimate, for the difference be-
tween vost gators pressure in the alveoli and that in
the expired air is so enormous. However, assum-
ing it to be correct, the following diagram will show
the direction in which diffusion must take place.
Venous Blood. Alveolar Air.
27°44
21°04
The vertical line represents the alveolar and
663
eapill wall; the arrows show the direction in
which the gas molecules must diffuse. But if we
compare the partial pressures in venous blood, in
arterial blood, and in alveolar air, a very remark-
able fact appears,
Venous
Alveolar Air. Blood, Arterial Blood.
Oxygen........... 27°44 22°04 . 29°64
Carbonic Acid..27-06 41°04 21°04
The venous blood flows through the lungs, and
issues as arterial blood, and yet the partial pressure
of oxygen in arterial blood is higher than it is in
al air, the ich it must have
come; while the pressure of carbonic acid in
arterial blood is lower than it is in alveolar air, the
to which it has d. We must therefore
conclude that the living alveolar wall has exercised
some influence upon the gases in virtue of its secret-
ing and excreting activity; it has done work
inst the molecular energies that produce diffu-
sion. But the numbers given by various authors
for the ial pressures of the gases in the various
places differ, so that perhaps no esr reliable
conclusion can be drawn from them. Still in any
case the slight differences of jal pressure,
especially of oxygen, render the validity of any
explanation of the rapidity of interchange
within the lungs in terms of ordinary diffusion
extremely doubtful. A possible aid to the inter-
change has recently been suggested in the sudden
stroke of the heart, which would have an accelerat-
ing effect upon the liberation of gases from a fluid
under low partial pressure; just as a tap upon the
sides of a glass containing soda-water will cause
bubbles of carbonic acid to be’ given off. Further,
as already stated, some carbonic acid is combined
with hemoglobin. This combination is, like oxy-
hemoglobin, dependent upon the partial pressure
of the carbonic acid, and is easily given off when
that pressure is lowered. Possibly the hemoglobin
et an important carbonic acid carrier in the
Effects on Respiration of the Quality and Quan-
tity of the Gases of the ‘Atnomphare< Vee respira-
tory mechanism, as well as the whole body, is
adapted to work with air of a certain composition,
and at a certain pressure. The mechanism can
adapt itself, within certain limits, to variations of
composition and pressure. We have to state what
these limits are, and what happens when they are
overstepped. We shall study first of all, because
of its practical importance, the results of breathing
in a confined space, or in one insufficiently venti-
lated. The effect upon the air of course is that the
re rir of oxygen is lowered, and that of car-
nic acid increased. The first effect upon a per-
son experiencing such a state of affairs is that a
sense of mental and muscular fatigue occurs when
the proportion of carbonic acid rises to 0°1 per
cent., the normal proportion being 0°04 per cent. ;
and this is not due to the carbonic acid, but to the
presence of organic matter, derived probably from
the clothes, of the amount of which the carbonie acid
happens to be a measure ; for if pure carbonic acid
be introduced into the air of a room, until the pro-
portion rises to 1 per cent., no di ble sensa-
tions are experienced in breathing it. If the pro-
rtion of oxygen be still further diminished, or if
y shutting the trachea of an animal all supply
of oxygen to its blood be cut off, the oxygen of
the blood begins to be used up, and carbonic acid
begins to accumulate, and asphyxia sets in. There
are three stages of asphyxia. (1) The breathing
becomes deeper and more rapid, the blood-pressure
rising at the same time. (2) The respiratory
movements continue to increase in force an
664
RESPIRATION
rapidity, extra muscles are called into play, the
expiratory movements are especially marked ; then
all the muscles that can possibly aid in expiration
are used, the excitement spreads to nearly all the
muscles of the body, and convulsions set in; these
violent efforts exhaust the body. (3) A stage of
quiet, due to exhaustion, oceurs ; a few long-drawn
inspiratory gasps are made, these die out; the
whole body is convulsively stretched out, and
death intervenes. When the trachea of a dog is
artificially closed these events run their course in
from four to five minutes; the convulsions appear
at the end of the first minute, and cease suddenly
within the second minute. In drowning death is
often hastened by the entrance of water into the
lungs. The time at which death from drowning
oceurs varies with the state of the animal at the
time of the oceurrence. Young animals—e.g. a
puppy—in which the respiratory changes are less
active than in adults, may survive an immersion
of fifty minutes; but a full-grown dog rarely
recovers after having been 14 minute under water.
For man, see below, p. 667. By training, as in
the case of divers, the respiratory centre may be
accustomed to bear the searcity of oxygen for
much longer than it can normally.
We next consider the effects of changes in the.
partial pressures of the of the atmosphere,
the total pressure remaining more or less un-
changed. rtial pressure of oxygen, as
ne noted, rome in Shien. nereased
partial pressure of oxygen results in the pheno-
menon known as apnea. After several very deep
inspirations the state known as apnea occurs, and
it is easy to hold the breath for a longer time than
usual, The usual explanation of this has been
that the oxygenation of the blood is so complete
that there is enough to last some time, and the
centre is not stimulated by its absence or by the
presence of the reducing stuff in the blood. ter
authorities regard the cessation of respiratory move-
ments which ocenr when oxygen is rapidly forced
into the lungs by rapidly succeeding respiratory
movements as due to fatigue of the respiratory
apparatus, Increased partial pressure of carbonic
acu tends to the accumulation of carbonic acid in
the blood, ultimately producing a state of narcosis
without convulsions. Decreased partial pressure of
carbonic acid results merely in the carbonic acid of
the blood being able to leave the blood with greater
readiness. Alterations in the partial pressure of
nitrogen have no effect. Ozone, instead of making
the blood more arterial, as one might expect, makes
it more venous, and causes irritation of the respira-
tory Carbonic oxide combines with the
hemoglobin with more avidity than oxygen ; con-
sequently it interferes with due respiration. Sul-
vhuretted hydrogen, acting as a reducing agent,
ax ultimately the same effect. Nitrous oxide
(langhing gas) produces narcosis, and is used as an
anesthetic, mne gases—/ydrogen, marsh-gas,
and other neutral —have no effect. Some—
chlorine, ammonia, &c.—cause spasm of the glottis,
and so cannot be breathed,
Another point to attend to is the effect of varia-
tions in external pressure, the proportional com-
ition of the atmosphere remaining unchanged.
udden and great diminution of pressure will cause
fatal convulsions, due to the sudden liberation of
bubbles of the gases of the blood within the vessels;
these plug up the smaller vessels, and affect the
working of the valves of the heart, and cause
asphyxia. If the pressure be gradually diminished,
as in ascending a monntain, no effect even at con-
siderable heights is experienced beyond a feeling of
‘distress’ often accompanied by bleeding at the
nose. ‘This is due to a derangement of the vascular
system, the walls being constructed to meet a
certain external pressure, If only the respi
interchange of gases were concerned, the to
external pressure might be reduced from 760 mm
to 300 mm., corresponding to a pressure of
oxygen of 76 mm., and to an altitude of 17,000
feet, before the combination of oxy, with
hemoglobin, at the tem re of blood,
would be seriously aff In various of
the world there are people living at an altitude of
11,000 feet. If the pressure be further reduced
asphyxia occurs, but it is not quite the same
asphyxia as that which results from absence of
oxygen ; the characteristic convulsions are often
absent, while a rapid onset of feebleness amount-
ing almost to paralysis occurs. Increase of pressure
up to a pressure of several atmospheres is followed
only by symptoms of drowsiness, due probably to
increased pressure upon the whole o ism rather
than to a direct derangement of respiration. At a
pressure of fifteen atmospheres, which corresponds
to a partial pressure of oxygen of three atmo-
spheres, the animal dies of asphyxia with conyul-
sions as though from a deficiency of oxygen. The
production of carbonic acid is diminished with
increase of pressure—i.e. the oxidations of the
whole body are lessened, Ata certain point these
oxidations cease, and the animal dies. All living
things are killed by a too great pressure of oxygen.
The oxidations of some other substances—e.g.
phosphorus—are analogous ; at a certain pressure
es will not burn.
he effect of variations in temperature must not
be overlooked. By variations in temperature we
mean of course variations in the temperature of
the body and of the blood, and not merely varia-
tions in the temperature of the racing ee
medium, for these have normally, in warm-blood
animals (the temperature of cold-blooded animals
varies with that of the merge privy east re
no effect upon the temperature of the , owing
to the regulating mechanism afforded by the
vessels of the skin and vaso-motor system (see
CrrcuLATION). The temperature of an Eskimo
is nearly the same as that of an African; and in a
Turkish bath the temperature only rises a very
little. In cold-blooded animals the oxidative and
chemical processes of the body decrease with a
lowered temperature, and increase with increase of
temperature; but the reverse is the case with
warm-blooded animals, for the temperature of the
body in an atmosphere of low temperature is
kept up by increased oxidation ; but in fever—i.e.
when the temperature of the blood is actually
raised—the chemical activity of the body of a
warm-blooded animal rises. Such an animal dies
when the temperature of its blood rises to 45° C.
or 50° C., a mammal at 45° C., and a bird at 50° C.
Death is due to the fact that when the tempera-
ture rises to this point the partial pressure of the
oxygen of the air is no longer sufficient to main-
tain the combination of oxygen with hemoglobin.
Theoretically a higher temperature might be sur-
vived if the external partial pressure of oxygen
were proportionally increased,
INNER OR TISSUE RESPIRATION. —We now come
to the last and most interesting part of our subject.
—the manner in which the oxygen of the blood
enters the tissues, the use made of this oxygen by
the cells of the tissues finally resulting in the for-
mation of carbonic acid, and the manner in which
this carbonic acid leaves the tissues and enters the
blood. The term ‘inner respiration’ is by some
writers restricted to the interchange of the gases
between the tissues and the blood; but it is
usual and more convenient to include in that term
what is known of the uses made of the ue
by the cells. We have spoken with confidence
this respiratory action of all the cells of the
RESPIRATION 665
bedy, but we must not forget that it has not
always been be.ieved in, and even now is doubted
by some. The original theory was that the oxygen
was used, and the carbonic acid formed, in the
lungs only. This was disproved when it was
shown that there is more oxygen and less carbonic
acid in the blood coming from the lungs than in
that going to them. Next it was, and still is by
some, thought that the oxidations take place within
the blood; the cells of the tissues were i ined
as pouring oxidisable matters into the blood.
Usually very little matter capable of taking
oxygen away from a loose combination can be
found in the blood, but in that of asphyxiated
animals more of such matter was found ; this was
2 i9graen: by supposing: that in asphyxia the oxidis-
able excreta from the cells accumulated in the
blood through insufficiency of oxygen; but it has
recently been shown that this reducing stuff only
exists in the red blood-cells—i.e. in the reduced
hzemoglobin—while lymph, which we might expect
to find rich in such matters, it being into the
lymph that most of the excreta of the cells are
poured, is totally devoid of it. Lastly, the supposi-
tion that the cells of the tissues use the oxygen
directly is so much in harmony with all our present
ideas of animal physiology and with the facts of
comparative respiration (one-celled animals breathe,
an plants breathe, and in these there is no eir-
eu blood) and of embryology (the embryo
mammal breathes though its blood-vessels are not
connected directly with those of its mother) that
one is dis to believe it without further proof.
The mode of interchange of gases between the
blood and the tissues must be the same as that
with which we are already familiar—viz. the
diffusion from a place of high partial pressure
to one of lower partial pressure. The fact that
a low partial rs aly of oxygen is constantly
maintained within the tissues is one of the pheno-
mena that constitute the mystery of life. We
have already seen that even in outer respiration
the living cells of the essential membrane of the
lungs may apparently do work against partial
pressure, absorbing more oxygen and excreting
more carbonic acid than the differences of pressure
will account for ; it is therefore extremely probable
that a similar state of activity is characteristic of
the cells of the other tissues. Taking the more
obvious facts first, we know that with any weight
of body—i.e. with a given amount of tissue to be
supplied with oxygen—the amount of oxygen taken
in and of carbonic acid excreted varies with the
activity of the organism and with the amount of
work that it is doing; it is greater in youth than
in old age, in wakefulness t in sleep, during
the activity of secreting glands than when these
are at rest, during the performance of muscular
work than in re ; in this case it is the excretion
of carbonic acid rather than the intake of oxy
which is especially marked. This last peculiarity
brings us face to face with a remarkable state of
affairs. The partial pressure of oxygen within
muscular tissue is always practically zero—i.e.
however low the external pressure of oxygen may
be, none will leave the muscle. The effect of this
of course will be, so far as ordinary diffusion is
concerned, that oxygen will always be leaving the
blood and entering the tissues. This oxygen is in
some way stored up within the muscle-cells, so
that a muscle will work for a considerable time
without any fresh supplies of oxygen, even in an
atmosphere of nitrogen. This explains the fact
noted above, that during muscular work the excre-
tion of carbonic acid is in excess of the absorption
of oxygen A supply of oxygen, however, is neces-
sary for the maintenance of the irritability of the
musele, which soon falls off without it, probably
before the supply of stored oxygen used for the
rformance of its work has been exhausted. This
is about all that is known of the chemical chan
connected with respiration within a cell. The
oxygen enters it by diffusion, possibly aided by
some vital activity; the rapid storing away of the
oxygen and consequent readiness to ahaee more is
in reality an example of such activity ; the oxygen
is made use of within the cell for maintaining its
life, for producing heat, for producing rapid decom-
positions which supply the energy of muscular
contraction ; finally the carbonic acid leaves the
cell and enters the blood, possibly aided in this
process by some process other than a simple diffu-
sion. The respiratory changes of other tissues are
probably similar to those of muscle ; within them,
within the lymph that bathes them, and within
their secretions there is practically no free oxygen,
while the pressure of carbonie acid, owing to its
constant production within the cells, is greater
within the cells, their secretions, and the lymph
that bathes them than it is in venous blood.
There is another fact about respiration which is
stilla puzzling matter, and, since it results from the
changes within the cells, is likely to remain so for
some time. All the food of a meal, or its equiva-
lent, is in about six hours oxidised into carbonic
acid, water, and urea. This is obvious without any
elaborate calculations from the fact that we may
eat every six hours and yet not gain in weight,
while, a from the indigestible parts of the food,
which do not affect the problem, the chief matters
that leave the body are those mentioned above.
Yet food-stuffs outside the body are not affected by
oxygen at the temperature of the body. Various
suggestions as to the possible reason for this have
been made ; but, since the phenomenon is obviously
dependent upon the vital processes of cells, sug-
gestions in terms of the principles of ordinary
chemistry cannot carry us far.
Further information ing respiration will
be found in the last editions of the text-books
of physiology recommended at the end of the
article upon that subject. The diseases of the
respiratory organs are dealt with in separate
articles, BRONCHITIS, CONSUMPTION, PLEURISY,
PNEUMONIA, TUBERCLE, Xe.
Historical.—Aristotle (384 B.c.) thought that
the object of respiration was to cool the pou
He observed that the warmer the animal the
more rapid the breathing, and transposed cause
and effect. Galen (131-203 A.D.) experimented
upon the mechanics of respiration, and knew some-
thing of the nervous mechanism. He believed
that ‘soot’ and water were excreted from the body
by the lungs. Malpighi (1661) described the struc-
ture of the lungs. Van Helmont (1664) discovered
carbonic acid Rack (1757) observed that carbonic
acid is breathed out of the body. Priestley (1774)
discovered oxygen. Lavoisier (1775) discovered
nitrogen, found the composition of the air, and
taught that the formation of carbonic acid and
water resulted from the combustion that took place
in the lungs. Vogel proved the existence of car-
bonic acid in the venous blood; Hoffmann found
oxygen in arterial blood. Magnus extracted and
analysed the gases of the blood in both states.
Comparative.—Most of the Protozoa, all the
sponges and stinging animals, and many simple
worm-types live in water, which washes their
surface and saturates their substance, the oxygen
dissolved in the water serving the same purpose
as that mixed with the air. While many worms
breathe simply through their skin, many of the
aquatic forms have structures specialinnk: for res-
piration—modifications of the legs or tentacles or
vascular outgrowths of the body-wall. In Echino-
derms respiration is effected by the tube-feet, and
666
RESPIRATION
sometimes by hollow ‘skin-gills’ as well. The
crustaceans usually breathe by gills or through
the skin; in Peripatus, Myriopods, and insects
air-tubes or trachew ramify throughout the body.
Scorpions have plaited sacs or ‘lung-books,’ which
man rd as modifications of trachew ; and these
are developed in spiders also, with or, rarely, with-
out the addition of ordinary air-tubes. The king-
crab has a unique arrangement, consisting of
slaited sacs or ‘gill-books,’ adapted for breathing
in water. Some molluscs breathe simply by the
skin, others have external gills, most have gills
sheltered by the mantle, and air-breathing forms
like snails have a mantle-cavity which serves as a
lung. In Balanoglossus there are numerous res-
piratory clefts opening from the pharynx to the
exterior; Appendicularia and young Tunicates have
a pair of these; in adult Tunicates the primitive
clefts are replaced by numerous secondary slits on
the wall oF the pharynx, through which water
drawn in by the mouth into an atrial or
peribranchial chamber and thence to the exterior ;
the same is true of Amphioxus. Clefts from the
wall of the pharynx to the exterior are, indeed,
characteristic of vertebrates, but beyond amphibians
they are transitory embryonic structures, never
used for breathing. This loss of functional gill-
clefts is associated partly with the development of
an embryonic birth-robe known as the allantois,
which secures the aeration of the embryo’s blood,
and partly with the transition from aquatic to
terrestrial life. In the hagfish the nasal sac opens
into the mouth; in fishes this is only true of the
double-breathing Dipnoi; in all other vertebrates
air throngh the nostrils in and out of the
mouth and lungs. In the hag and lamprey there
are purse-like gill-pockets, and the respiratory
arrangements are otherwise uliar, In fishes
gill-filaments are borne on the skeletal arches
separating the gill-clefts, and the blood-vessels
— out on the filaments are washed by currents
of water. Young Elasmobranchs have at first ex-
ternal gills and afterwards the internal gills charac-
teristic of all fishes. The Dipnoi have gills, but
they also come to the surface and gulp air, using
their air-bladder as a lung, and thus pointing the
way to amphibians. For, while almost all am-
phibians have gills in their youth, all the adults
are lung-breathers, though some retain their gills
as well. Among higher vertebrates there are
many peculiarities, such as the single lung of
most serpents, the balloon-like air-sacs around the
lungs of birds, and the adaptations of cetaceans
as aquatic lung-breathers, but the essential charac-
teristics of pulmonary respiration are the same in
all, The hemoglobin, so important
in respiration, occurs first in Nemer-
teans, and is present in some other
worms, some Echinoderms, a few
Arthropods, some molluses, and in
all vertebrates except the Tunicates.
Amphioxus, and a few exceptional
fishes, But though hemoglobin is
not present in most invertebrates,
snalogous pigments are common,
ne ceca one called hemocyanin,
which turns bluish when oxidised.
ARTIFICIAL REsPIRATION.—When
death is imminent owing to a cessa-
tion of the natural respiration movements, it may
sometimes be averted by an imitation of them
carried on regularly for some time. Such a
condition may occur in disease (e.g. asthma,
epilepsy), though very rarely ; it is most common
in suffocation, either by drowning, choking, or
strangulation, and is sometimes met with also
in ning by noxious vapours (e.g. carbonic
acid, carbonic oxide, coal-gas, chloroform, &e.).
In order that any method may have a chance of
being successful it is of course n that the
entrance of air into the lungs be not impeded,
either by a piece of food or by water in the wind-
pipe, or by the tongue falling back and closing the
upper opening. A piece of food may sometimes be
removed through the mouth by the finger; if this
fails the windpipe should be opened (see TRACHE-
oTomy). In those apparently drowned the body
should first be laid on the face, with the head low,
and the thorax and abdomen pressed upon in order
to expel fluids which may have been drawn into
the trachea and bronchial tubes. The tongue may
need to be held forward; this may be done by an
assistant, or an elastic band round the
tongue and the chin will effect the object.
umerous different methods have been devised
for effecting the objects aimed at, and no general
consensus of opinion has yet been arrived at as to
which is the best. The methods fall into three
divisions: (1) insufflation, or blowing of air into
the lungs, either by the mouth or means of
bellows ; (2) manual methods, in which external
manipulations of the chest-walls are made to effect
the entrance and exit of air; (3) electrical stimu-
lation of the respiratory muscles. In all cases
where artificial respiration is uired ev
moment is of importance. It is doubtful whether
life can ever be restored when the heart has ceased
to beat for more than a few seconds; and when
breathing has stopped failure of the heart's action
is always imminent. That method is therefore
best which can be applied with the least possible
loss of time, so that under ordinary circumstances
the methods which require bellows or electric
batteries are out of the question. Direct insuffla-
tion, or blowing of air into the patient’s lungs by
the mouth applied to his mouth, is now pf
ever used except in the case of very young chil-
dren. Of the manual methods those most in use
Fig. 2.
are Marshall Hall’s (1856), Silvester’s (1857), and
Howard's (1877). he second is certainly the
most easy to learn, but is more fatiguing to carry
out for a length of time than either of the others.
In Marshall Hall’s method the body is laid upon
its face and rolled ‘in what may be termed cradle
fashion’ from this position on to one side and @
little beyond it (inspiration), and then back on to
the face (expiration). In Silvester’s method the
RESPIRATORS
RESTORATION 667
tient is laid on his back on a plane, inclined a
tle from the feet upwards, and the shoulders
are gently raised by a firm cushion placed under
them, which also throws the head hank The
0) then the patient’s arms just above
the elbows, and raises them till they nearly meet
above the head. This action imitates inspira-
tion. The patient’s arms are then turned down,
and firmly pressed for a moment against the sides
of the chest. A deep expiration is thus imitated.
In Howard’s wa the patient is laid on his
back with a cushion below the middle. The
operator kneels astride his hips, places his hands
with spread outwards over the lower part
of the chest-wall, and alternately bends forward,
throwing his weight on the chest to imitate expira-
tion, springs back to allow the elastic recoil of
the chest-wall to imitate inspiration.
Whatever method be adopted, the movements
must be gently, regularly, and perseveringly carried
on, at the rate of from ten to fifteen times in the
minute; and when the faintest natural effort at
respiration is observed they must at once be timed
so as to reinforce and not to oppose it. In some
eases life has been restored under artilicial respira-
tion when no respiratory movements have occurred
peck am or ts nore! hours. In _ wore . ae
ly in that of persons apparently drowned,
artificial respiration should be conducted in a
warm atmosphere, 90° F., or even more if possible,
and should be supplemented by warmth applied to
the body and by vigorous friction. n those
apparently drowned recovery is very rare after
complete immersion for five minutes or more. If
stunning or fainting has occurred at the moment
of immersion, so that the respiratory movements
have been annulled or much diminished for the
time, less water will have entered the lungs, and
the chance of recovery may be greater. In other
modes of death by suffocation, such as choking or
strangulation, the action of the heart may continue
longer, and restoration to life be therefore possible
after a longer deprivation of air.
various methods is given by Dr B. W. Richardson in the
Asclepiad for 1890, p. 201.
Respirators are worn over the month (oral)
or mouth and nose (ori-nasal) for changing the
ue pees of the air inspired. The name was
rst given by Mr Jeffreys to an apparatus he
contrived about 1835 for the purpose of warming
the air, formed of numerous layers of fine per-
forated metal with wire soldered to them. Their
value in diminishing the risk of catching cold,
which in many cases is undoubted, probably de-
pends at least in part on their affording protection
to a sensitive portion of the skin; they act, in
fact, as an additional article of clothing. But
they are of most value to those who are not able to
breathe through the nose in the natural way.
Respirators have been largely used of late years in
diseases of the nose, throat, lungs, &c. for impreg-
nating the inspired air with medicated vapours ;
for this purpose they are constructed with a cham-
ber containing a sponge or cotton-wool which is
kept charged with the substance whose action is
desired (carbolic acid, creasote, encalyptus, or pine-
oil, &e.). Respirators have been also devised for
freeing the inspired air of impurities—e.g. in the
case of firemen, who have to go into an atmosphere
strongly charged with smoke; of needle-grinders
and others whose work gives rise to much irritating
dust; of those who are exposed to foul gases, &c.
See FILrer.
Respite, a temporary delay of the execution of
jacminal See REPRIEVE.
Respondentia is a loan raised by the master
of a ship, when he has no other means of doing so,
soe security of the cargo or goods on board the
ip. The contract has reference to a particular
voyage, and the conditions are that if the subject on
which the money is advanced be lost by sea, risk, or
superior force of the enemy the lender shall lose
his money ; and that if the S arrive in safety
the loan shall be repaid with a greater than ordinary
rate of interest, called marine interest. When the
ship herself is hypothecated the contract is called
Bottomry (q.v.). As a matter of fact the term
respondentia is now seldom used, and generally
the expression bottomry is employed whether the:
vessel or her cargo or both be the security. J
Respousibility. See INSANITY, Devan!
HusBAND AND IFE, EVIDENCE, CAPACITY;
(LEGAL), LIABILITY.
Responsions. See Oxrorp, Vol. VII. p. 682.:
Rest-harrow (Qnonis), a genus of plants of
the natural order Leguminose, sub-order Papilion-
acew, having a 5-cleft bell-shaped calyx, the
standard of the corolla large and striated, the keel
beaked, the pod turgid and few-seeded. There are
many species, chiefly natives of Europe, and gener-
ally herbaceous or half-shrubby. The Common
Rest-harrow (0. arvensis) is abundant in pastures
and by waysides in Britain. Its lower leaves have
three leaflets, the upper are simple; the flowers
are axillary and rose-coloured, or occasionally
white. The plant is half-shrubby, with somewhat
spiny stems; viscid; and its smell strong and
unpleasant. The roots are tough and woody,
whence its English name. It is sometimes a
troublesome weed, but only in neglected pastures,
and disappears before careful cultivation.
Restiacezx, a natural order of pre nearly
allied to Cyperaceze, mostly natives of the southern
hemisphere, and abounding at the Cape of Good
Hope and in Australia. They are herbaceous
plants, or sometimes half-shrubby, have simple
stems and narrow leaves, and are hard, wiry, and
rush-like. They have generally a creeping root-
stock.
Restigouche,. a river of Canada, rises in
eastern el flows south-east into New Bruns-
wick, then east and north-east into the Bay of
Chaleurs, forming part of the boundary between
the two provinces, Its length is about 200 miles.
Restoration, the resumption of monarchical
vernment on the return of Charles II. to his
ingdom, May 29, 1660. A form of prayer for
that day was annexed to the Common yer-
book from then until 1859; and, in commemora-
tion of Boseobel (q.v.), ‘Oak-apple Day’ was lon
also celebrated by the displaying and wearing o
branches and sprigs of oak, with gilded oak-apples.
Restoration, in its true sense, means bringing
back or replacing what has gone; but of late years
the word has come to have a new meaning.
Restoration now means making new imitative
work to take the place of decayed or fractured
work, and in this sense it applies to pictures,
sculpture, furniture, and architecture; but as
applied to architecture it is allowed a still wider
meaning—viz. the pene) | up anew and with new
materials portions of buildings which have ceased
to exist, such new work being designed afresh in
imitation of what was pS ea once to have
existed. The new meaning of the word restoration
only applies to works of art, including all the
decorative arts. The ‘restoration’ of pictures and
sculptures has long ago been condemned as dimin-
ishing the value of such works of art. For instance,
at the British Museum and other public gal'eries
it used to be the custom to employ a sculptor to
668
RESTORATION
‘ restore ’ antique statues by making new arms, legs,
or noses, or even heads, to replace such features as
were missing ; and, although sculptors of note were
employed to do this, it was eventually decided
that the results were not satisfactory. The truth
is that up to that time it had not been understood
that a work of art is the creation of an individual
—his rendering of an idea—and that another artist,
even if living at the same time and in the same
mental atmosphere, would hardly grasp that idea so
ous as to be able to supply a portion of the
work if missing, and much less could one living
hundreds of years afterwards be successful in so
supplying the missing portion.
t is, however, with reference to building that
restoration in this new meaning is chiefly con-
cerned. Roughly a by the end of the 17th
century all appreciation of the artistic qualities of
our Setar buildings had ceased, the art had
died out, and given place to the Renaissance (q.v.)
style of architecture. But about the middle of the
18th century the artistic qualities of mediaeval archi-
tecture began slowly again to obtain a hold upon
the people. It seemed to be looked upon as quaint
and romantic, and strange rude imitations of it
were made, such as Strawberry Hill, which was
built by Horace Walpole. Such work is now
— y deseribed as ‘Carpenter’s Gothic,’ per-
aps se the restorers often put in wood-
framed windows with pointed arches in feeble
imitation of medizeval work.
The first attempts to reproduce Gothic work
followed upon the decay of the Renaissance style of
architecture, and constituted the germ of the modern
restoration movement, or Gothic Revival, as it is
generally called, This movement to work
actively about the beginning of the 19th century,
and was largely accelerated by a revival of activity
in the Established Church of England. An impulse
was given to the restoration movement by a society
called the Camden Society, and afterwards the
Ecclesiological Society, which was composed of
churehmen and clergy, and started at Cambridge
in the year 1840. The members of this society
studied the history and usages of the church before
the Reformation, and by that means found out
why our medieval churches were constructed in
the form in which they have come down to us, and
what was the use to which their furniture, such as
rood-screens and rood-lofts, sedilia, piscina, credence
tables, aumbries, and the like, was put. Before
the formation of this society men had already
studied medieval architecture, and had recognised
that there are five distinct styles following one
upon the other—viz. Saxon work, Norman work,
rly English, Decorated, and Perpendicular work
(see ARCHITECTURE, GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE).
This classification was first made by Thomas
Rickman, and these terms which he gave have
been adhered to. Our medieval churches are
generally composed of two or three and sometimes
of all the styles ; but the modern Gothic revivalists
desired, and in many cases still desire, to see the
buildings complete in one style, and consequently,
if an ancient building is com chiefly of one
style, they would destroy all the subsequent work
and replace it by work designed in the same style.
The subsequent work thus destroyed is generally
spoken of as ‘debased’ work.
Under the influence of the Camden Society the
Perpendicular clerestory and flat roof were taken
off the Round Church at Cambridge, and the
resent high-pitched roof, which was thought to
more correct, was put on. Each one of the
styles was in fashion in its turn, strangely enough,
each becoming fashionable in the order in which
they were naturally developed. As might be ex-
pected, the movement produced specialists, of whom
Sir Gilbert Scott was the most noted. Into his
hands was placed nearly every cathedral church
in England, as well as a countless number of
ish churches ; however, he did but follow in the
steps of the elder Pugin. Long before his death a
ery of discontent arose, Even those who had felt
that it might be possible to imitate the mediaeval
work accurately, so as to replace missing features,
saw that this was a hopeless task, for not a single
suecessful example of ‘ restoration ’ could be pointed
to. Ruskin wrote strongly against ‘restoration,’
urging the folly of attempting to reproduce a lost
work of art or any portion of it, and giving it as
his opinion that the only right method of treating
our ancient buildings—such indeed as had not been
destroyed by ‘restoration’—was to repair them
structurally by Propping leaning walls and mend-
ing leaky roofs. is words did but sound the
note which was in the minds of many, and in
1877 a society was formed in London calling itself
the Society for the Protection of Ancient Build-
ings, and having among its members men of all
professions, including the cle: This society
done its best to point out to those who still believe
in the possibility of ‘restoration’ the destructive
character of such work—destructive both of works
of art and historical evidences—and it has u the
importance of keeping our ancient buildings in
thorough and constant repair so as to avoid the
necessity of wholesale renewal or rebuilding.
society also urges that no purely ornamental feature
should ever be renewed any more than the antique
statue should have its missing features replaced,
and that where new features have of necessity to be
introduced every effort should be made to keep them
harmonions with, but dissimilar from, the ancient
work. As examples of ‘restoration’ works we oan!
give the north transept of Westminster Abbey
the west side of Westminster Hall, nearly the
whole of St Alban’s Abbey, the west front of
Salisbury Cathedral (where an attempt has even
been made to produce medieval seulpture), Chester
Cathedral, Worcester Cathedral ; and, in fact, not
a cathedral remains in England that does not bear
marks of the movement. As has been shown, the
‘restoration ’ movement had its origin in England,
it has met a check, and shows signs of d ying out;
although it has spread to Scotland, the Continent,
and even to India. Fortunately government has
put a check upon it there, and we may hope
that restoration as understood by the school of
Sir Gilbert Scott is now ancient history,
Restoration of Pictures. The restoration
and the cleaning of pictures may be considered to-
gether: though cleaning, of course, more strictly
applies to the removal from their surface of the
accretions of dust or discoloured varnish which
obscure their beauties, while restoration refers to
the reparation of actual flaws in their surfaces of
paint, or in the canvas or wood upon which the
paint is laid, When a mastic varnish has been
used by the painter, and has become discoloured
and opaque, it may be removed by careful and
gentle friction with the points of the fingers, ES
viously covered with a resinous powder, which
frays off particles of the hardened coating in the
form of a fine white dust, When copal varnish
has been applied, its removal is more difficult and
dangerous, and is usually effected by an applica-
tion of weak alcohol, mpl of turpentine, and oil.
A pad of cotton wool is saturated in this mix-
ture, and passed over the surface of the varnish
which it dissolves and removes; a similar pad
steeped in pure oil being applied at intervals to
stop the action of the spirit when it threatens to
disturb the colour beneath the varnish. When
portions of the paint or of the ground of primin
on which it has been laid have been removed,
*
RESTORATIONISTS
RESURRECTIONISTS 669
these are sometimes filled up to the level of the
remaining portions with glue, size, and chalk, and
then carefully repainted with dry colour to match
the surrounding portions of the surface.
The injuries of time to the various materials
upon which colours are laid are very various, and
require careful and skilful treatment. In panel
pictures worm-holes must be carefully filled be
with the last-named composition, and match
with the adjacent portion as just described. If
the wood has split, its edges must be carefully
brought together, and fastened securely with ‘ but-
tons’ of hard wood ; or the entire back may be pro-
tected with a kind of grating of mahogany spars,
so adjusted as to admit of a slight contraction and
expansion of the panel in varying temperatures.
If the el be too far gone to admit of this treat-
ment, the wood is carefully removed by tenon-saws,
planes, and files, till only the surface of pases
and colour remains, which can then be remoun
on canvas or a fresh panel. If the picture is on
canvas which has become decayed, it may be
‘relined’ by having its back securely fastened,
by paste or glue, to a new canvas, and afterwards
ed, a process which has the effect of restorin
evenness to a cracked surface of paint; though i
the artist has worked with a thick impasto the
raised points of colour are apt to become flattened,
and the character of the handling to be slightly
altered. When a fresco has to be removed from
a wall this is usually effected by pasting its sur-
face on paper, and then with a chisel slowly de-
taching the mortar which bears the colour from
the stones upon which it has been laid, each por-
tion, as it is gradually withdrawn, being coiled on
a large cylinder. All the operations to which we
have referred require extreme caution and t
immed for their successful accomplishment. When
hey are entrusted to careless and untrained hands
damage is certain, and it is impossible to estimate
the immense amount of injury to works of art that
has been etfected by ignorant picture-restorers,
Proper care of a picture, however, and preservation
from damp and dust, will obviate the necessity for
its being subjected to restoration; and such pro-
tection may be most simply effected by carefully
closing in its back, and by covering its surface
with glass, which answers all, and more than all,
the preservative purpose of varnish, with the addi-
tional advantage that it does not chill and dis-
colour with time. Glass is being largely adopted
in the great epg galleries, for covering even oil-
pictures, and it has only one disadvantage—its
tendency to reflect the objects placed opposite it,
and so to interfere with the ready and complete
examination, as a connected whole, of the entire sur-
face of a large, and especially of a dark, painting.
Restorationists, « general name for those
who hold the belief in a general apocatastasis, or
‘restoration’ of all things, in which, after a purga-
tion proportioned to the various moral conditions
of their souls at the time of death, all men would
be restored to the favour of God. The title itself
is especially associated with a body of Universalists
which flourished at Boston, U.S., in the first half
of the 19th century ; but for the doctrine, see the
article Heit, Vol. V. p. 631, and the articles
APOCATASTASIS, and UNIVERSALISTS.
Resurrection, This expression denotes the
revival of the human body in a future state after it
has been consigned to the grave. We find traces
of this doctrine in other religions, in Zoroastrianism,
and especially in later Judaism, but the doctrine is
peculiarly Christian. In the earlier Hebrew Serip-
tures there is no mention of it. It is not to
found in the Pentateuch, in the Psalms, nor even in
the earlier prophecies. It is supposed to be alluded
to in Isaiah (xxvi. 19), and in Ezekiel (xxxvii.) in
the well-known chapter as to the revival of dry
bones in the valley of vision; and in the last
chapter of Daniel (xii. 2) there is the distinct
affirmation that ‘many that sleep in the dust of
the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life,
and some to shame and everlasting contempt.’
There is also a well-known passage in Job (xix.
25-27) which was long thought to refer to the
doctrine of the resurrection of the body; but all
recent criticism denies the validity of this refer-
ence. It is therefore not till the later Judaism
that the doctrine appears, and it is sometimes
said, doubtfully, to have been derived from
Persia or elsewhere. In the time of our Lord
it had become a formal doctrine of the Phari-
sees. The general body of the Jewish ple
seem also to have believed in it; the Sadducees
alone disputed it. It appears, in fact, to have
become bound up in the Jewish mind with the
idea of a future life, so that an argument which
proved the one proved the other. It should be
added that Mohammedanism (q.v.) cherishes gross
beliefs on this head.
It remained for Christ and His apostles to reveal
clearly the doctrine of the resurrection of the body,
and to connect it with the fact of Christ’s own
resurrection as its special evidence and pledge.
The following may be stated as the main points
involved in the doctrine as revealed in the New
Testament: (1) The resurrection of the dead is
ascribed to Christ Himself; it will complete His
work of redemption for the human race (John v.
21; 1 Cor. xv. 22 sq.; 1 Thess. iv. 14; Rev. i. 18).
(2) All the dead will be raised inners
receive judgment according to their works, ‘they
that have done good, unto the resurrection of life ;
and they that have done evil, unto the resurrection
of damnation’ (John v. 21-29; 1 Cor. xv. 22; Rev.
xx. 11). (3) The resurrection will take place at
‘the last day,’ by which seems to be meant the
close of the present world (John vi. 39, 40, xi. 24;
1 Thess. iv. 15). (4) The great event is repre-
sented as being ushered in by the sound of a
trumpet, a representation probably borrowed from
the Jewish practice of convening assemblies by
sound of trumpet (1 Cor. xv. 52; 1 Thess. iv. 16).
(5) As to the character of the change through
which our bodies are raised after the lapse of ages,
and yet retain their identity preserved, there is
nothing distinctly made known. The possibility
of such a change was evidently a subject of argu-
ment in the primitive Christian age, and the apostle
argues strongly in its favour (1 Cor. xv. 32 sq.)
from occurrences which are scarcely less mysterious
in the natural world.
The Gnostics denied the resurrection of the body,
and made the change a purely spiritual one. The
Catholic belief was greatly developed by Tertullian,
Jerome, and Augustine, who, however, insisted
that the resurrection body, though identical with
the original one, is a glorified body. A third view,
represented in ancient times by Origen, and re-
cently by Rothe, affirms that the spirit must
always have a bodily organism, and that the per-
fected personality necessarily assumes a spiritual-
ised embodiment; in this view resurrection is
limited to perfected spirits.
See the articles IMMORTALITY, CONDITIONAL IMMOR-
TALITY; also those on HEAVEN and HELL. There is a
full bibliography in Alger’s History of the Doctrine of the
Future Life (Phila. 1864); and see the Excursus in
Godet’s Commen on St John; Westcott’s Gospel of
the Resurrection (1866; 5th ed. 1884); and Macan’s essay
on the Resurrection of Jesus Christ (1877).
Resurrectionists, or Bopy-sNATCHERS, the
names popularly given to those who made it their
business to dig corpses out of their graves and sell
670 RESURRECTIONISTS
RETIREMENT
them as ‘subjects’ to lecturers on anatomy.
Gradual progress in the science of anatomy led to
its more thorough study by —_ increased num-
bers of medical students; and from about the middle
of the 18th century professors of anatomy found
that the supply of subjects, heretofore mainly
obtained from the bodies of executed criminals,
was altogether inadequate to meet the wants of
the surgical and medical schools. The resurrec-
tionists invented a new profession to supply the
lack, and in the first quarter of the 19th century
drove a most flourishing trade—the graveyards in
the outlying parts of London being especially the
happy hunting-grounds of the confraternity. As
the business became 0 ised, grave-diggers and
sextons were bribed to leave graveyards unlocked
and keep out of the way when a body was bein
raised. A very short time, usually at dead o
night, sufficed ; an expert pair of resurrectionists
being able in about forty-five minutes to prise up
the coffin out of a yoke: Laem grave by means of a
age crowbar for the purpose, to burst in the
id, and remove the corpse. resurrected
after this fashion seem to have been worth £8 or
£10—offering large profits and quick returns to this
precarious and risky trade. The body-snatchers
carefully replaced the clothing in the coffin; the
stealing of the naked corpse being by the law of
England a-misdemeanour only, whereas the re-
moval of the clothes was of course a felony, punish-
able by transportation. So notorious did the
practice of resurrectionism become that in many
parts of the country painful precautions against
it were regularly taken. Heavy gratings were
securely fixed over new-made. graves, spring-guns
were set, and often the relatives of deceased persons
sat armed by their graves night after night until
it was assumed that the corpses would be no longer
serviceable to ‘the doctors’—a custom that sur-
vived in some places till far on in the century.
Guard-houses or towers were sometimes built for
the accommodation of the watchers. To the
pular horror of this degraded calling, recruited
rom the worst cl » was added a strong
suspicion that resurrectionists would on occasion
manufacture corpses—a suspicion confirmed in the
notorious case of Burke and Hare (see BURKE,
WituiaM). The passing of the Anatomy Acts of
1832 and 1871 rendered the lucrative trade of the
resurrectionist superfluous ; but in out-of-the-way
— there are still traces of the old terror of
-snatchers sup! to drive out silently at
pe a in with india-rubber tires, the horses
g also shod with india-rubber, and the occu-
pants of the gig provided with pitch-plasters to
clap on the mouths of any likely victims. Single
instances of a special kind of resurrectionism have
occurred more recently; it is practised expressly
with the hope of obtaining a reward from the
relatives of the person whose y is stolen. Thus,
the American millionaire, A. T. Stewart, died in
April 1876, and was embalmed and duly buried
in a triple coffin in the family vault in a New
York graveyard ; two and a half years afterwards
the body was removed, and a reward of $25,000
was offered by advertisement for its restoration,
The body-snatchers, represented by a regular prac-
tising lawyer, demanded $200,000, then $100,000,
and after three years restored the body on -
ment of $20,000. The body of the Earl of eawder’,
who died at Florence in December 1880, was
removed from the mausoleam at Dunecht, near
Aberdeen, a year afterwards; the body was found
in a wood close by in July 1882, and the male-
factor condemned to five years’ penal servitude.
See Lonsdale’s Life of Dr R. Knox (1870); Mrs
H. B. Rodger, The Aberdeen Doctors (1893); and J.
Blake Bailey, The Diary of a Resurrectionist (1896).
Retainer is, in English law, the act of en-
gaging an attorney or counsel to attend to a certain
suit or case, The retainer of an attorney may
be either verbal or in writing; but the retainer of
counsel is usually by written memorandum handed
to his clerk, together with a small retaining fee.
A general retainer is given by a party who wishes
to secure the services of counsel in all actions
brought by or against him. The term retainer is
also used to denote the right of an executor to
retain a debt due to himself from his testator’s
estate.
Retford, East, a market-town of Nottingham-
shire, on the right bank of the Idle, an affluent of
the Trent, 24 miles E. by S. of Sheffield and 138
NNW. of London by the Great Northern Railway.
It has a handsome town-hall (1867), a oo
school (1552; rebuilt 1858), paper-mills, iron-
foundries, &e. It was first form inedrporated
by James I., the municipal boundary ex-
tended in 1878. The iamentary borough was
extended in 1829 to take in the whole wapentake
of Bassetlaw—since 1885 one of the four county
divisions. Pop. of reerio ge borough fa aggl Aer
(1881) 9748; (1891) 10, See ’s History
of Retford (1828).
Rethel, a town of France (dept. Ardennes),
prettily situated on the right bank of the Aisne,
24 miles NE. of Rheims, woollen and other
manufactures. Pop. 7377.
Retimo (Rhithymnos), a seaport of Crete, on
its north coast, 40 miles W. of Candia; pop. 8000.
Retina, See Eve.
Retinité. See PrrcusTone.
Retinos’pora, See Cypress.
Retirement of officers from the British army
is governed by royal warrants issued from time to
time. The rules of 1889 permit officers to retire
voluntarily with gratuities or pensions, and oblige
them to retire at certain ages, or after a period
of non-employment, on Fm Voluntary
retirement on a gratuity of £1200 is allowed to
officers other than those of the Coast Brigade Royal
oo Coast Battalion Royal Engineers, Royal
Malta Fencible Artillery, Riding-masters and
Quartermasters (q.v.), after twelve years’ service,
and to others on a sion according to rank and
service. With certain modifications, the maximum
rates are captains, £150 a year; majors, £250;
lientenant-colonels, £450, The age for compulsory
retirement is rey ght for captains and officers of
lower rank, with the exceptions named above, forty-
eight for majors, fifty-five for lieutenant-colonels
and colonels, sixty-two for major-generals, and
sixty-seven for lieutenant-generals and generals.
Non-employment for five years in an rank also
entails retirement. Officers of the Indian Staff
Corps and captains of the Royal Engineers do not
come under these rules. The pensions granted in
cases of retirement for age are, generally speaking,
£50 more than those cited above, but for the three
ranks of a ges: officers they are £600 to £700,
£750 to £850, and £900 to £1000 according to age.
Certain additions, ees. in the form of
gratuities, are allowed to purchase officers and
officers of the late East India Company’s Artillery
and Engineers, in consideration of their altered pros-
ts. The pensions of officers of the Indian Staff
‘orps are subject to regulations laid down from
time to time hy the Secretary of State for India,
They are considerably larger in amount than those
granted to the other branches of the service, and
are affected by numerous rules as to furlough,
length of service in India, &c., but no pension can
be earned by less than twenty years’ service.
Officers of the Coast Brigade Royal Artillery and
RETORT
RETZ 671
Coast Battalion Royal Engineers, inspectors of
army schools, riding-masters, and quartermasters
can earn a maximum pension of £200 a year, or the
two first-mentioned classes if retired for age yaya
five years) may receive the full ay of their rank.
For the Royal Malta Fencible Arallery the maxi-
mun rates of retired pay are captains, £200 a year ;
majors, £300 ; lieutenant-colonels or colonels, £365.
Tidcatnentel officers receive retired pay at rates
corresponding to those granted to other officers
and on similar conditions as to age. Some of the
highest rates are chaplain-general, £600; com-
missary-general, £800; director-general, Medical
Stalf, £1125.
The army estimates for 1891-92 provide for a total
of £1,853,632 on account of retired pay and gratui-
ties (£1,543,950), half-pay (£75,550), allowances to
widows, &e. (£164,563), rewards for distinguished
services (£12,400), pensions for wounds (£15,200)
for officers ; for warrant officers and non-commis-
sioned officers, £1,856,207. In 1898-99 the corre-
ding res were £1,938,206 for officers, and
1,802,335 for warrant officers, &c.
In the navy officers are placed on the retired
list at sixty-five years of if admirals or vice-
admirals, sixty for rear-admirals, fifty-five for
ins, fifty for commanders, and forty-five for
lieutenants, with the option in each case of retiring
five years earlier. Lieutenants and commanders are
also retired compulsorily if they have not served for
five years afloat, captains after seven years without
service, and flag-officers after ten years. In 1891-98
were some 2500 naval and marine officers on
the retired list, costing about £760,000 a year. See
Pensions, DISCHARGE.
Retort, a vessel employed by chemists for the
purpose of distilling or effecting decomposition by
the aid of heat. It may be made of glass, earthen-
ware, or metal, according to the purposes for which
it is to be employed. Glass retorts are the most
cominon, and their ordinary form is seen in the
figure. They may be employed for the production
Retort fitted with Liebig’s Condenser :
A, bulb of the retort. into which the liquid to be distilled is
put; D, the receiver, into which the end of the retort is
— ;. BB, the condenser, receiving a supply of cold water
rom E by means of the pipe ©, the heated water escaping at
F; G, the heating apparatus, a Bunsen burner in this case.
of such products as do not require any extraordinary
degree of cold for the condensation of their vapour
—as, for instance, for the production of hydro-
eyanic or nitric acid. The globular vessel in which
the neck of the retort is inserted is from its function
termed the receiver. Cold may be apes to the
neck of the retort—for the purpose of condensing
the vapour—in various ways, as by the application
of a cold wet cloth, by a current of water, or by a
special apparatus known as Liebig’s Condenser,
sown in the figure at BB.
In ordinary cases requiring a higher temperature
than glass could bear earthen retorts are used ; for
the preparation of hydrofluoric acid retorts of lead
are employed ; while for the preparation of strong
sulphuric acid platinum is the best material for
the retort. Iron retorts are employed in the
laboratory for the preparation of oxygen from black
oxide of manganese and some other processes, and
in gas-works for the destructive distillation of coal.
See DISTILLATION.
Retours. See Recorps (Scotland),
Retreat, a period of retirement to a religious
house, for self-examination, meditation, and prayer.
Retreats commonly last either three or seven days,
and are condu by a cleric, who delivers ad-
dresses daily. They are in use both in the Roman
and, among the High Church party, in the Anglican
Chureh.
Retriever. As the name implies, the retriever
is a breed of dog trained to find out and bring back
any killed or wounded game. The work of the
retriever was long done by various breeds of dogs,
such as the pointer, setter, or spaniel, but, in
addition to it spoiling these dogs for their regular
work, they were found to be too hard-mouthed,
the worst fault ible in a retriever, as he wastes
more in game injured than would have been lost
without him. Crosses with the Newfoundland
were tried, and gradually two kinds of retriever
were introduced. One variety, known as wavy-
coated, was probably the result of a cross with the
setter; and the other, known as curly-coated, is
from the water-spaniel or le. Not much
attention was paid to the retriever until the intro-
duction of dog shows, about 1850, but since that
time the b has been kept free from any fresh
cross, with a great improvement in the appearance.
The two varieties of retriever differ only in coat;
the curly coat should curl closely and firmly all
over the body, the wavy coat should fall straight
and thick. An intelligent large head, with a full
clear eye, should always be seen in the retriever.
Legs and -feet need to be large and strong. The
retriever should not be too small, as it needs a
powerful dog to retrieve a hare successfully. The
retriever makes a very good watch-dog, and number-
less bad specimens of the breed are to be found
fulfilling this vocation only. The pure retriever is
gentle in temper and easy to command.
Retrograde, in Astronomy, a term applied to
the motion (real or apparent) of a celestial body
when that is opposite in direction to the yearly
course of the sun from west to east. The superior
Planets (q.v.) retrograde when in opposition (see
CoNJUNCTION). As their motion is then nearly
parallel to the earth’s, they, moving more slowly
than it, appear to fall behind for a time. This
period of retrogradation is of course longer for the
planets whose motion is slower, and less for those
whose speed more nearly approaches that of the
earth. The inferior planets, which move faster
than the earth, retrograde when in inferior con-
junction. Their course being then nearly parallel
to the earth’s, they gain upon it, and appear to
pass the sun from east to west. Thus Venus,
when nearing the end of her appearance as an .
evening star, descends each night nearer to the
western horizon, until so near the sun as to be lost
in his rays. Passing then to his west side, the
planet reappears as a morning star.
Retz, Jean Francois PAuL DE Gonpt, Car-
DINAL DE, was born at Montmirail in 1614, of a
family originally Italian, that had acquired great
estates in Brittany and formed connections with
the noblest families of France. His uncle was
Archbishop of Paris, and he was early destined for
the church in spite of amours, duels, and every
672 RETZ
REUMONT
form of unclerical behaviour, A friend reproachin
him with his debts, ‘ Cwsar,’ said the splendi
young prodigal, ‘at my age owed six times as
much as I do.’ Retz was entangled in political
intrigues from his childhood up, even under the
watchful eye of Richelieu, and, having at length in
1643 obtained the coadjutorship with reversion of
the archbishopric of Paris, he skilfully used the
position to make the Paris populace devoted to
Rimself. He plotted actively against Mazarin, and
was one of the main instigators of the outbreak of
the Fronde in October 1648. Dering the next four
years he rose and fell with the fortunes of his
rty, receiving, however, a cardinal’s hat from
Home: until 1652, when he was flung into prison,
first at Vincennes, then at Nantes. After two
ears he made his escape, wandered in Spain and
ngland, appeared at Rome—where, it is said, he
secured the election of Pope Alexander VII.—and
at length in 1662 made his peace with Louis XIV.
by resigning finally his claim to the archbishopric
in exchange for the abbacy of St Denis and restora-
tion to his other benefices, with arrears. He spent
the rest of his life mainly in quiet at Paris, at
Commerey, and St Mihiel in Lorraine. His enor-
mous debts, reaching to four millions of franes,
he provided for in 1675 by determining to ‘live
for his creditors,’ making over to them fis whole
income save 20,000 livres. He died at Paris, 24th
Augnst 1679.
etz was connected by marriage with Madame de
Sévigné, and figures in a perhaps too pleasing light
in her delightful letters. His Mémoires, comin
down but till 1655, throws much light on the dar
and troubled intrigues of the Fronde, and displays
quite remarkable skill in narrative and elaborate
character-drawing. His own character has been
sketched with faithful, if unkindly, truth by his
great antagonist, La Rochefoucauld, and the sum
of the whole is contained in the words: ‘He has
raised up the greatest disorders in the state with-
out having formed any plan how to profit by them.’
The earliest edition of his masterpiece in a kind
a to French literature appeared at Nancy in 1717,
ut the first adequate edition was given in the 24th
vol. of Michand and Poujoulat’s collection (Paris, 1836).
Later and better editions are 3 Gérnzez (1844) and
Champollion-Figeac (1859); but the best is that in the
series of *Les Grands Ecrivains de la France,’ edited
successively by A. Feillet, J. Gourdault, and R, Chan-
telauze (10 Bie i.-ix., 1872-88). See works by Curnier
2 vols. 1863), Topin (3d ed. 1872), Chantelauze (3 vols.
1878-79), and Gazier (1876),
Retz, Rats, or Raz, GIuEs DE, a 15th-century
monster of iniquity, was a Breton of high rank and
family connections, who distinguished himself
under Charles VIL in the struggle with the English,
fighting by the side of the Maid at Orleans, and
hearing the alms-dish at the coronation of the king.
He was made marshal of France in 1420, and soon
after retired to his estates, where for over ten years
he is alleged to have indulged in the most infamous
orgies, having kipnapped or enticed to his castle
as many as 150 children, who were sacrificed as
victims to his unnatural lusts or his sorceries. He
was at length hanged and burned at Nantes in
1440, after a trial closed by his own confession,
It should be noted that the whole story is by no
means free from suspicion, and, moreover, that
both the Bishop of Nantes and the Duke of
Brittany were active personal enemies of Retz.
Attempts have been made to find in him an his-
torical original for ‘ Bluebeard’ by persons ignorant
of the world-wide diffusion of stories of forbidden
chambers and punishments for curiosity.
Baring-Gould’s Book of Were- Wolves (1865).
Retzsch, Frrepricn Avevst Moritz, painter
aud engraver, was born in Dresden, 9th December
1779, and studied at the academy of his native city,
where he became a professor in 1824. He died 1)th
June 1857. He has acquired great celebrity by his
etchings in outline of Schiller and Goethe—those of
Goethe's Faust bei ; pees ly well known—
Fouqué’s tales, and Shakespeare. His masterpiece
is ‘The Chess-players’ (Man —— Satan).
Retzsch likewise painted admirably in oils.
Reuchlin, Jonann, also known by his Gree-
ised name of eae humanist and one of the
first promoters of Hebrew studies in Germany, was
born at Pforzheim in the Black Forest, 28th -
ber 1455. He received his earliest education at
Schlettstadt, and in 1473 was appointed travellin,
companion to Prince Friedrich of Baden. In th
capacity he visited Paris, where he studied Greek
under Hermonymus of Sparta, besides assiduously
prsaece the composition of Latin. Two
ater Reuchlin went to Basel, where he continued
his study of Greek, and wrote his Latin dictionary,
Vocabularius Breviloquus (1476). In the same
year he paid a second visit to France, studied law
at Orleans (1478) and at Poitiers, then, returning
to Germany (1481), set up as lecturer at Tiibingen.
In 1482 and again in 1490 he was in Italy on the
business of Duke Eberhard ; in 1492 we find him
studying Hebrew under a learned Jew, Jacob
Jehiel Loans, the imperial physician. In 1496
Reuchlin went to Heidelberg, where he became the
main promoter of Greek studies in Germany, though
not a public lecturer. In 1498 he was sent to Rome
by Philip the Elector-palatine, and applied himself
niore vigorously than ever to the study of Hebrew
and Greek. uchlin returned to Stuttgart in
1499, and in 1500 obtained a judicial appointment.
In 1506 appeared his Rudimenta Lingue Hebraica.
His Hebraic studies, which embraced the post-
liblical Jewish literature, were drawing him into
bitter strife with learned Jews, Jewish proselytes,
and the Dominicans, and directly and powerfully
helping on the Reformation. It was in 1510 that
Johann Pfefferkorn, a Jewish proselyte, in the
true spirit of a renegade, called upon princes and
subjects to persecute the religion of his fathers,
and especially urged the emperor to burn or confis-
cate all Jewish books except the Bible. Reuchlin
remonstrated, maintaining that no Jewish books
should be destroyed except those directly written
against Christianity. This tolerant attitude drew
upon Reuchlin the enmity of the Dominicans, and
particularly the inquisitor, Jakob von Hoogstraten.
These enemies of Reuchlin held ion of the
universities of Paris, Louvain, Erfurt, and Mainz;
but all the distinguished and independent thinkers
in Germany were on the side of the brave and
humane scholar. Among the Reuchlinists we may
especially mention the names of Ulrich von Hutten
(q.v.) and Franz von Sickingen (q.v.); and to this
controversy we owe the Epistole Obscurorum Vir-
orum (q.v.). A quarrel broke out between Ulrich
Duke of Wiirtem g ecat the Swabian League, in
the course of which Reuchlin became a prisoner of
Duke Wilhelm of Bavaria, who, however, in 1520
appointed him professor at the orga | of Ingol-
stadt, In 1522 the plague broke out at Ingolstadt,
and Reuchlin taught once more for a term at
Tiibingen, but soon after fell sick and died at
Liebenzell, near Hirschau, on the 30th of June.
Reuchlin edited various Greek texts, published a Greek
grammar, a whole series of polemical pamphlets, and a
satirical drama (against the Obscurantists), and in De
Verbo Mirifico aud De Arte Cabbalistica shows a theo-
sophico-cabbalistic ri, See Lives ih Barham
(Lond. 1843), x (1871), Horawitz ( ), and a
work on him by Holstein (1888),
Reumont, ALrrep von, a German historian,
was born at Aix-la-Chapelle on 15th August 1808,
and died there on 27th April 1887, having from
REUNION
REUTER 673
1829 to 1860 followed a diplomatic career, chiefly in
Italy. His numberless works deal mainly with
Italian oye and one of the best known, his
Lorenzo de’ Medici, appeared in English in 1876.
Réunion, formerly called [Lz pz Bourson, an
island belonging to France, and lying in the Indian
teens ds clive is shaperti reat
. x elli in pe, it an
area of 764 sq. m., being 38 wie in length and 28
in breadth. Pop. (1894) 171,750, mostly Creoles,
but including 15,000 n and nearly 30,000
natives of India. The backbone of the island is a
volcanic range, culminating in two highest peaks,
the Piton de Neiges (10,069 feet) in the centre of
the island, and in the south-east Piton de Four-
naise (8612 feet), one of the most active voleanoes
in the world. The central parts of the island
between these volcanic peaks consist of plateaus
and terraces, separated by deep cauldron-shaped
valleys and narrow, but profound, gorges and
ravines. Piton de Fournaise is surrounded by a
vast desert called the Pays Briélé (‘Burnt
Land’). Except in the mountainous parts the soil
is in 2 ewig very fruitful. The scenery is often
beau Streams, although not large, are very
_ mumerous, and fall in cascades to the sea. The
climate is hot, but on the whole not unhealthy.
_ Rainfall averages 45} inches in the year. Cyclones
sometimes occur during the hotter and rainy part
_ of the year (November to April), and high spring-
tides occasionally do serious damage during the
_ remaining drier months. One-third of the island
is cultivated, one-third under timber, and one-
sixth is land. Tropical fruits, sugar (the
staple crop), coffee, vanilla, cinchona, maize, v
; tates (potatoes, &e.), spices, tobacco, and similar
products are grown. The total trade is estimated
at 14 million sterling—exports, £650,000 ; imports,
£700,000 to £900, By far the most important
article of export is sugar (£450,000); coffee, vanilla,
rum, potatoes, and tapioca are the other chief
exports. The imports consist principally of rice,
claret, and in a secondary degree lard, live cattle,
fish, grain, coal, oils, flour, and cloth. The capital
of the island is St Denis, on the north coast, with
33,000 inhabitants, a college, a botanic garden, &c. ;
it is a bishop’s seat. The remaining towns are St
Paul, on the north-west, with 29,000 inhabitants,
and with marine workshops; St Pierre, on the
south-west coast, pop. 25,009; Pointe des Galets,
the new port, between St Denis and St Paul; and
Salazie, with warm mineral springs, a health-resort
of 6000 inhabitants. The coast towns are connected
a railway 78 miles long. The colony costs
rance some £170,000 every year, and is adminis-
tered by a governor and a council of thirty mem-
bers. Réunion and Mauritius were discovered by
the Portuguese navigator, Mascarenhas, and named
after him the Mascarene Isles. The French took
ion of this island in 1649, and called it
Sackon, which was changed to Réunion at the
Revolution, and to Isle Bonaparte in 1809. Réunion
has been the official name since 1848. The island
was in the possession of Britain from 1810 to 1815.
See Bory de St Vincent, Voyages (1804); Maillard,
Note sur la Réunion paneaye Roussin, LZ’ de la
Réunion (4 vols. 1882-90) ; W. D. Oliver, Crags and
Craters: Rambles in Réunion (1897).
Re'us, a town of Spain, 58 miles by rail SW. of
Barcelona and 4 N. of 8 seaport, Salou. The pros-
x dad the place dates from about 1750, when a
number of English merchants settled there. It is
a busy centre of the cotton, silk, and silk ribbon
repares wine, and manufactures soap,
industries,
brandy, and leather. Pop. 27,505.
_ Reuss, « tributary of the Aar in Switzerland,
rises on = northern face of the St Gothard, flows
4
northwards past Andermatt and Amsteg, between
which places its bed lies at the bottom of a wild
and narrow gorge, spanned by the Devil’s Bridge
and other wonders of Swiss roadmaking, and enters
the southern end of the Lake of Lucerne. This it
leaves again at its northern end, at the town of
Lucerne, and, still going nearly due north, reaches
the Aar near Windisch (Aargau). Its length is
90 miles ; its basin, 1317 sq. m.
Reuss, the name of two sovereign principalities
of Germany, lying between the kingdom of Saxony
on the E., the Scsolen duchy of that name on
the N., and Bavaria on the 8. Since 1666 the
omega of the House of Reuss have been
ivided between the Elder and the Younger lines.
The eneeelity of Reuss-Greiz (the Elder Line)
is 122 sq. m. in extent, and had (in 1890) 62,759
inhabitants. The chief town is Greiz(q.v.). The
rincipality of the Younger Line is Reuss-Schleiz-
ra. Area, 319 sq. m.; pop. (1890) 119,555.
Capital, Schleiz (q.v.). Of both principalities the
surface is hilly, being traversed by the Franken-
wald (Thiiringer Wald), whose summits reach
upwards of 2000 feet in height. The chief rivers
are the Saale and the White Elster, the valleys
of which are well cultivated. More than a third
of each state is covered with forests; cattle are
fattened on the extensive meadows; and woollen,
cotton, and silk goods are woven. The reignin
gern of each state is a hereditary sovereign, an
each state always bears the name of Heinrich
erg ). He is the executive. Reuss-Greiz has a
legislative assembly of twelve members, of whom
nine are chosen by the people for six years ; Reuss-
Schleiz-Gera has an assembly of: fifteen members,
of whom twelve are chosen for three years by the
people.
Reuss, Epvarp, a learned Protestant theo-
logian, was born at Strasburg, July 18, 1804. He
first studied philology at Strasburg, then theology
there, at Gottingen, and at Halle, and oriental
a at Paris under Silvestre de Sacy; next
qualified as privat-docent in the theological faculty
at Strasburg, and filled a chair as ordinary pro-
fessor from 1836 to 1838, and in after the re-
establishment of the vinfvansiey tom 1872 to 1888,
He died April 15, 1891.
His chief works are Geschichte der heiligen Schriften
Neuen Testaments (1842; 6th ed. 1887; Eng. trans.
1884) ; Geschichte der heiligen Schriften Alten
Testaments (1881); and Histoire de la Théologie Chrét-
tenne au Siécle Apostolique (1852; 3d ed. 1864; Eng.
trans. 1872); Histoire du Canon des Saintes Ecritures
dans UV Eglise Chrétienne (1862; Eng. trans. Edin. 1884) ;
and La Bible, Traduction lle avec taire
(19 vols. 1877-79). With Baum and Cunitz he com-
menced in 1863 the publication of a monumental edition
of Calvin’s works (44 vols, up to his death),
Reuter, Fritz, German humorist, was born
at Stavenhagen (‘Stemhagen’) in Mecklenburg-
Schwerin, on 7th November 1810. His father, the
ie Sagres sent him to Rostock and Jena to
study law. But in 1833 he was arrested and
condemned to death—in common with other
members of the Jena Burschenschaft (q.v.) Ger-
mania he had indulged in wild students’ talk about
the fatherland and national unity; that was his
only offence. The capital sentence was, however,
commuted to one of thirty years’ imprisonment.
Young Renter was drag from one fortress
og to another in Silesia, Prussia, and Mecklen-
urg, and often subjected to great hardships and
even wanton cruelty, and did not regain his free-
dom until Frederick-William IV. ascended the
throne of Prussia in 1840. Although a general
amnesty gave him back his liberty after seven
pee of imprisonment, his career was spoiled and
1is health incurably ruined ; an affection of the
674 REUTER
REVELATION
stomach created in him an abnormal craving for
strong drink, which he never conquered. It was
eleven years more before he settled down to his
life’s work. His father, a stern and severe man,
having in the meantime turned his back upon him
as a good-for-nothing, he tried to resume his legal
studies, learned farming, taught pupils, but lived
chiefly on the kindness of a frien and on a small
annuity left him by his father, who died in 1845.
Reuter began to write first in High German ; but
having thrown into rough verse form, in Low Ger-
man, the jokes and merry tales of the countryside,
he published them—Leuschen un Rimels (1853 ; 18th
ed. 1889), and the book became at once a great
favourite with all who spoke and read Low Ger-
man. Two years later he wrote an ne a suc-
cessful Low German poem, Reis’ nah Belligen (12th
ed. 1884), describing in broad humorous fashion
the ape of certain ts to Belgium in
search of culture. The next seven years (1856-63),
at Neubrandenburg, were the period in
which he wrote his greatest books. The first of
these were a second volume of Lauschen un Rimels
(1858 ; 15th ed. 1889), and the deeply tragic poem
Kein Hiisung (1858; 11th ed. 1891), picturing the
wretchedness of the semi-serfs on the t Meck-
lenburg domains. The rest, except Hanne Niite
1860; 13th ed. 1884), a poetic narrative in which
irds = jee prominently as ore characters,
were all written in prose in Low German ( Platt-
Deutsch), and were published under the general
title of Olle Kamellen, which may be given in
English as Old-time Stories. These books, more
especially Ut de Franzosentid (1860; 17th ed. 1891 ;
Eng. trans. as The Year ’13, 1873), Ut mine Fes-
tungstid (1862; 15th ed. 1891), and his master-
piece, Ut mine Stromtid (1862-64; 17th ed. 1891),-
spread Reuter’s fame abroad through all Germany,
and lifted him to the proud position of Germany’s
greatest humorist next after Jean Paul; as a liter-
ary artist he ranks in many respects above Jean
Paul. These tales have the indubitable flavour of
real life: they deal with the characters and doings
of rural Mecklenburg, are told with the verve of
the born story-teller, and are bathed in the purest
and sunniest humour. Like every true humorist,
Reuter is master of a tender pathos. Uncle Briisi,
in Stromtid is one of the greatest creations 0}
German literature. The best witness to Reuter’s
own character is the history he wrote (Ut mine
Festungstid) of the miserable seven years he spent
in prison ; the book has not one word of bitterness
or a single trace of revengeful feeling throughout ;
ie amp ay and humour are its dominant notes.
‘ides the works quoted, Reuter also wrote Schurr
“ag leap = poet ax ipetied country
ife, partly autobiographical ; Dorchlduchting (1866 ;
11th ed. 1886), a kind of humorous historiced novel;
the satirical Urgeschicht von Meckelnborg (1874),
and others. Reuter lived at Eisenach in Thuringia,
at the foot of the Wartburg, from 1863 till his
death on 12th July 1874.
His Sdémmtliche Werke were published in 13 vols, at
Wismar in 1863-68 ; to these Adolf Wilbrandt added two
more in 1875, er with a biography. The 7
volumes of a popular edition (1877-78) have each gone
through several editions. Other biographies of him have
been written by Glagau (2d ed. 1875) and Ebert (1874).
See also Gaedertz, Frits-Reuter-Reliquien (1885) and
Reuter Studien (1890), and consult M‘Calluin’s Studies
in Low German Literature (1884).
Reuter, Baron Pavut Juitus, well known
from the familiar newspaper heading ‘ Reuter’s
Telegram,’ was born at Cassel, 2ist July 1821. In
Aix-la-Chapelle he formed in 1849 an organisation
for collecting (partly by pigeon post) and trans-
mitting by telegraph commercial and financial
news; and in 1851 he transferred his headquarters
to London. As tel
hs extended throughout
the world he multip the ramifications of his
system till it embraced the remotest regions. He
even maintained couriers where the tel did
not reach—e.g. between Pekin and Kiachta, In
1865 Reuter converted his business into a limited
liability company, and in 1871 he was made a baron
of Germany. In 1872 the Shah of Persia gave him
the sole right of making railways, working mines,
forests, &c.—a monopoly never made atective,
and annulled in 1889, when the concession of the
Imperial Bank of Persia was conferred on him.
He died 22d February 1899.
Reutlingen, a town of Wiirtemberg, 8 miles E.
by 8. of Tiibingen and 20 8S. of Stuttgart. as
of its honses are old and picturesque. The church
of St Mary (1247-1343), with a tower 243 feet
high, is a noble pee — Bhabeses 2 and cotton
yarns are spun, and cloth, leather, cut , hosiery,
paper, eer are manufactured. pentane pe
‘ormerly a free imperial town and a member of
the Swabian ue; it came to Wiirtemberg in
1802. Pop. (1890) 18,542.
Reval, or REVEL, a Russian sea capital of —
Esthonia, stands on a small bay on the south side
of the Gulf of Finland, roe Helsingfors (52
miles distant), and 232 miles by rail WSW. of St
Petersburg. It is divided into the (old) sppet and
(new) lower towns. The former contains the cathe-
dral, the castle, governor’s residence, and the houses
of the (German) nobility. The new town extends
outside the city walls. There are several medieval —
guild-houses, in some of which are preserved valu-—
able archives, and an important museum of anti-
uities. Reval exports cereals (chiefly oats), spirits,
ol and pe poet eee the ae more
than 24 millions sterling; and imports cotton, coal, —
and other s to the value of 6} millions. There "]
is little industry, brandy, vin , and wool being —
manufactured a small extent. Pop. (sory L
64,578, of whom more than one-half were
Esthonians, and nearly one-fourth of German
descent. Reval was founded by Waldemar II. of —
Denmark in 1219, and became a foorthing ae
town. It was long held (from 1346) by the Livonian
Knights, was made over to Sweden in 156], and —
was besieged by Peter the Great and annexed to
the Russian empire in 1710. In 1713 a naval har-
bour was founded. See works by Bunge (1874),
Amelung (1884), and Hansen (3d ed. 1885). ag
Revalenta Arabica, See LENTIL. RP
Reveillé (the true French form being réveil),
the morning call for troops. See BUGLE.
Revelation is a familiar theological exp
sion, commonly applied to the knowledge of Him- —
self which God has given to man in Holy Scripture. —
In itself, however, the word is properly used not
merely of the divine knowledge communicated to”
us in Scripture, but of all divine knowledge com-
municated through whatever source. Conscience
and reason are in themselves modes of a J
in so far as they witness to us of the divine la
which bind our moral life, and in harmony with
which the health and i 5 po of that life can —
alone be found. Histo also a species of revela
tion, unfolding, as it does, the same divine la
collectively in the race. Then nature reveals
divine power, om, and goodness ; an
the interpreter of nature, in so far as it
known the great laws governing the material a
verse, truly makes known the divine will to us, —
But it is with the Scriptures of the Old and New —
Testament that the idea of revelation has come to—
be especially associated. The Holy a re
by all Christians regarded as in a special sense th
medium of divine revelation to the human rac
God having therein made known more fully ane
REVELATION
675
clearly than elsewhere His will and character. But
at the same time we must not confound revelation,
in its fact and essence, with the books of Scripture.
These books are Saly the highest or most distin-
guished form or ium of revelation, which, in
itself, and essentially, must always imply com-
munication from one mind to another, and, in a
religious sense, from the divine to the human mind.
Scripture is, in its several books, regarded as the
pre-eminent medium of this contact or interchange
of the divine and human, as the record of special
communications which God made in time past to
holy men, ‘who spake as they were moved by the
Holy Spirit.’ It contains, in short, a revelation for
us; but the revelation is not the record, but the
knowledge which the record conveys to our minds.
See Brae, INsPrraTION.
Revelation, Book or, the last book of the
New a a — ribet gy A the res
extant the title is simply ‘ er ie.
Revelation] of John’ Pg Pena peri and
thus does not beyond what the book itself
declares. The further designation of the author
in the textus receptus (followed by the Authorised
Version) as John ‘the divine’ has no good MS.
authority, but is an echo of the undoubtedly early
tradition which identifies him with the author of
the fourth gospel (who was called os, trans-
lated ‘the divine,’ first by Eusebius, because he
ins his Bospel not with the poets genealogy of
Jesus but with the doctrine of the ivinity of the
), and of the tradition which identifies the
author of both works with John, the son of Zebedee,
one of the twelve apostles. Other comparativel
ancient forms of the title, still more explicit in this
sense, are ‘The Revelation of John the Divine and
list,’ and ‘The Revelation of the Apostle
and Ey list John.’
The ‘Apocalypse of John’ is included in the
Muratorian canon ; it was also reckoned by Origen
among the ‘homologoumena’ or ‘acknowledged’
peer rien reap age sso rg - was
eld in high esteem by Irenens, Hippolytus,
Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian. Justin
Martyr (circa 147) makes reference to it as the
work of the apostle John, and it was used by
Theophilus of Antioch (circa 180) and Apollonius,
and commented on by Melito of Sardis (circa 170).
Outside the Catholic Church it was accepted by the
Montanists. On the other hand, it was rejected by
those whom Epiphanius calls Alogi and by the Mar-
cionites, while within the Roman church its claims
were disputed by an ecclesiastic named Gains or
Caius; his arguments in turn were controverted
in an apologetic writing by his contemporary,
Hippolytus. It is mentioned as one of the ‘anti-
legomena’ or ‘disputed’ works by Eusebius; it is
absent from the Syriac, and from the Memphitic
and Thebaic (Egyptian) versions of the Scripture,
and from the lists of Cyril of Jerusalem, Gregory
Nazianzen, and Ch tom, as well as from the
eanon of the Council of Laodicea, and from the so-
ealled ‘apostolic canons.’ There is no trustworthy
evidence that Papias knew it.
As regards authorship, the book itself claims to
be written by ‘John, the servant of Jesus Christ,’
‘who bare witness of all things that he saw ;’ and
it is to be observed that many of the incidental
references to it in early writers are evidently mere
repetitions of this statement. But the tion
of the Apocalypse into the canon was no doubt
partly determined by the belief that this John was
the son of Zebedee. This belief is implied in the
Muratorian pres prego? ae poet tle is
categorically sta’ y Justin Martyr and lrenzus.
Dionysius AI Alexandria (circa 250), however, while
isputing the eanonicity of the book, found
himself unable to overcome the arguments of
certain who had preceded him against its apostolic
authorship, and he accordingly assigned it to ‘some
other’ John—perhaps (he thought) John the Pres-
byter. Eusebius with some definiteness assigned
it to the last named.
As to the time of its com
from consistent. The au
ition tradition is far
r of the Muratorian
ent, for example, incidentally places it
earlier than the Pauline epistles; but Irenzeus
expressly states that it ‘was seen towards the
close of the reign of Domitian.’ This statement of
Trenzeus is sometimes interpreted as implying that
the book was also written then ; but more probably
he intended his readers to understand that it was.
written after Domitian’s death—under Nerva, or
perhaps even in the reign of Trajan, to which
riod, according to Irenzeus, the apostle survived.
t Tertullian seems to suggest the time of Nero
as the date. Jerome dates the sup) banish-
ment of John certainly, and the writing probably,
in the 14th year of Domitian ; but in this, perhaps,
he is only repeating Irenzeus. There is some reason
to think that this date is partly derived from
an interpretation of Rev. i. 9 which is not now
usually accepted. Epiphanius mentions the time
of Claudius. The place where the revelation was
received is professedly Patmos, and ancient writers
usually assumed that it was also committed to
writing there.
The discussions of the Apocal by Melito and
others have not been preserved; but from the
earliest extant commentary—that of Victorinus
(circa 300)—it may be inferred that no systematic
attempt at a consistent interpretation of the work
as a whole was undertaken by any ancient writer.
Attention was for the most part confined to two or
three isolated sagen It need hardly be said that,
as regarded the millennium, the ancient church
was entirely of the ‘futurist’ school, and that in
those quarters where the spocalyess was most
pri as an authentic vision of the future the
interpretation always tended to be literalist and
‘chiliastic.’ As for another conspicuous feature—
the beast and the number of the t (see APOCA-
LYPTIC NUMBER )—it is surprising how early the key
to this enigma seems to have been lost. Irenzeus
confesses ignorance, and can only resort to timid
and tentative conjecture. Victorinus,: however,
gmap Rev. xiii. 3 as having reference to Nero;
and so also did Sulpicius Severus. To Origen and
the Alexandrians, with their allegorising methods
of interpretation, the problems of the Apocaly
were of comparatively little interest. Later, afte
the time of Constantine, the ‘ beast’ was identified
with Rome, or the seven heads of the beast
with seven world-empires, and Augustine was one
of the first to give currency to a form of ‘preter-
ism,’ holding that the millennium began with the
Christian era—a belief which m2 became active
in the 11th century. With the lapse of time came
almost inevitable modifications, both of the pre-
terist and of the futurist view, alike among those
who held that the threefold series of visions (seals,
trumpets, vials) in the book related to chronologi-
eally successive events, and to those who, with
Augustine, viewed them as parallel (theory of
‘recapitulation’ ). Medieval sects recognised the
pacy in the woman on the scarlet beast, an inter-
retation which afterwards in one form or another
Penashe widely current throughout the Protestant
domain, and still holds its ground in many quarters.
Modern Criticism.—The modern criticism of the
Apocalypse may in a sense be said to have n
with Luther, who in the preface to the first edition
of his New Testament (1522) declared that for many
reasons he was unable to accept this book as either
apostolic or prophetic—‘ My spirit cannot adapt
itself to the book,’ The chief reasons he alleged
676 REVELATION
were the little prominence it gave to Christ, and
the peculiar manner of its teaching, so unlike the
rest of the ——o teaching or that of Christ him-
self. In 1530 he somewhat modified the language
he had used, but he never withdrew his unfavour-
able opinion. The prevailing view of the Lutheran
divines of the 16th and 17th centuries (Carlstadt,
Flacius, and others) was that the —a can
claim at best only the third and lowest degree of
canonical authority. Zwingli in 1528 refused to
regard it as Scripture or to admit the validity
of doctrinal proofs derived from it. Calvin abstained
from commenting on it, Its ‘deutero-canonical’
character, however, was never made prominent in
Britain, and was gradually lost sight of even in
Germany. Mention may perhaps be made of the
English work of Abauzit on the Revelation (1730),
which called forth some controversy at the time of
its ap ce; but, strictly s| ing, the dis-
cussion of the critical problems of the book did not
enter upon its modern phase until the time of
Semler, ‘the father of modern biblical criticism,’
who in 1769 and following years, from a comparison
of the fourth gospel with the jpocelypes, argued
that an — ic authorship could not possibly be
claimed for both, and, starting from this canon,
denied it to the latter. The same view was taken
w by Schleiermacher and his immediate disciples,
the most brilliant of whomn—De Wette—ultimately
gave out this ‘disjunctive canon’ as one of the
most firmly established conclusions of modern
criticism (1826); so also Ewald (1828). To obviate
the force of some at least of Semler’s ments,
those who wished to maintain the apostolic origin
of both works found it important to make ont an
earlier date for the A ypse than the currently
accepted tradition, following Irenus, had assigned
to it. In their efforts to do so they were powerfully
supported from 1845 onwards by the Tibingen
sehsel, which had also accepted the ‘disjunctive
canon,’ though choosing the opposite alternative
to that adopted by Schleiermacher, and main-
tained the apostolic character of the Apocalypse,
ranking it indeed as one of the five undoubtedly
nuine remains of the mares age ( Baur, followed
y Schwegler, Zeller, 8. Davidson, &c.). Various
opponents of the Tiibingen school followed Semler
and De Wette in arguing for the non-apostolic
authorship of the A ypse at least. Thus,
Liicke and Neander attributed it to some unknown
John; Ewald, Bleek, Diisterdieck to the presbyter
John; Hitzig to John Mark. Meanwhile all
sections of the historical school of exegesis were at
one in the effort to see and if possible understand
the book in the light of the actual circumstances
of its writer. Among the details that came into
greater clearness were the historical references in
the beginning of chapter vi., the indication of date
supplied by xi. 1, 2, and a very probable explana-
tion of the number of the beast (‘Nero Cesar’)
which was first given by Fritzsche in 1831 and after-
wards rediscovered, independently it is said, by
Benary, Hitzig, and Reuss in 1837. Much of the
evidence pointing to an early date for the book
was, as already indicated, Rope welcome to
those who still maintained the apostolic anthor-
ship alike of the Gospel and of the Revelation, for
it was becoming increasingly plain that the differ-
ences of language and conception between the two
works were peculiarly inexplicable if both were
assumed to belong practically to the same period
in the life of their common author.
On the other hand it was felt to be difficult
wholly to set aside the traditions which pointed to
a later date, especially as these best explained
some of the doctrinal peculiarities of the book, and
many of the phenomena presented by the condition
of the ‘seven churches’ to whom the book is
primarily addressed. The two-sided character of
the evidence, both external and internal, as to date
is indeed obvious when one looks at it with any
care; and as early as the middle of the 17th century
it had occurred to Grotius (1644) that the problem
raised by it might perhaps
—~ thee the book was Wie P by its = author
at different times, ‘atmos partl:
at Ephesus. V. fn the beginning of oth
century (1811-16) offered a different solution—that
it was written partly by the apostle John and
partly by the presbyter John, a eet ee
to have had some attraction for eiermacher,
and, temporarily at least, for Bleek. The theory
of a composite origin of the work has in a
variety of forms come into very great prominence
quite recently. Thus, retin? A to the acute
analysis of Vélter in his singularly able and
instructive work On the Origin of the Apocalypse
(1882; new ed. 1885; compare the appendix to
Simcox’s Com ), the o
written by the apostle in
4-6; iv. l-v. 10; vi. 1-vii. 8; viii. ; ix.; xi. 14-19;
xiv. 1-7; xviii. 1-xix. 14; xiv. 14-20; xix. 5-10.
To this the apostle himself three years later
(68-69 A.D.) added x. 1-xi, 13; xiv. 8; xvii. It
received subsequent additions by other hands in
the time of Trajan (xi. 15, 18; xii. ; xix. 11, 12;
xx. ; xxi. 1-8), of Hadrian (v. 11-14; vii. 9-17;
xiii. ; xiv. 4, 5, 9-12; xv. l-xvii. 1), and of
Antoninus Pius (prologue, the eee to the
churches, &c.). A new line of investigation in the
same direction was opened by Vischer, who (The
Revelation of John a Jewis Aeccatapes, 1886)
sought to show that the groundwork of the com-
posite book was primarily not Christian but Jewish,
written in Hebrew, but translated and freely
adapted by a Christian redactor. This view was
accepted by Harnack (1886), and substantially,
though with large modifications, by Pfleiderer
(1887) and veo (1888). Schin also (1887)
and Sabatier (1888) maintained the composite
character of the work, holding it, however, to be
essentially of Christian o end of Ist century ),
but with incorporation of Jewish fragments. The
most powerful and suggestive of recent works
based on the theory of composite origin is that of
Spitta (The Revelation of John, 1889), who distin-
ishes a Christian A) ypse, dating from about
A.D., Which he attributes to John Mark (i. 4-6,
9-19; ii. 1-6, 8-10, 12-16, 18-25; iii. 1-4, 7-11,
14-20; iv. 1-4, 5a, 6a, 7-14; v.3 vi.; viii. 1;
vii. 9-17; xix. 9b, 10a; xxii. 8, 10-13, 16-18a, 20a,
21) and two Jewish Seager dating respectively
from Pompey’s capture of Jerusalem in 63 B.C.
(x. 1b, 2a, 8-11; x1. 1-13; xiv.’ 14-20; xv. 2-4, 6,
8; xvi. 1-12, 17, 21; xvii. 1-6; xviii. l-xix. 8;
xxi. 9-27; xx. 1, 2, 3a, 15) and from Caligula’s
time, about 40 A.D. (vii. 1-8; viii. 2-13; ix.;
x. la, 2b-7; xi. 15, 19; xii. 1-14; xiii. ; xvi. 13-
16, 176-20; xix. 12-21; xx. 1-15; xxi. 1, 5, 6).
These three sections of the work correspond
roughly, it will be seen, to the visions the
seals, the trumpets, and the vials. The work of
redaction, Spitta holds, was done towards the end
of the Ist century. He finds the original number
of the beast (616) in the name of igula (Gaius
Cesar), and considers that it was only afterwards
adapted to that of Nero (666), The treatises on
the Revelation by Erbes (1891) and Schmidt (1891)
are in tendency similar to that of Spitta. The
subject they deal with is still under active dis-
cussion; but it is already felt by all competent
judges that the investigation thus inaugurated is
like y to lead to valuable results, and ultimately
perhaps may be found to afford an be eb
solution of most of the still unsolved problems
connected with the Apocalypse, and so make it,
re
REVELS
REVERE 677
instead of being the obscurest, one of the clearest
documents relating to the development of thought
and feeling in primitive Christian times.
Literature.—For the text of the Apocalypse, which is
more unsettled than that of any other New Testament
book (the five uncial MSS. present the unusually large
geben of 1650 various readings in somewhat over
verses), B. Weiss’s edition, with critical notes
(Leip. 1891), ought to be consulted. On the modern
critical questions, besides the recent works of Vélter,
Spitta, and others already named, the best introductions
are those of Reuss (6th ed. 1887), Weiss (2d ed. 1889;
Eng. trans.), and Holtzmann (Zinl. 2d ed. 1886; also
introduction to his Hand-Commentar on Revela-
tion, 1891). Of older works see also Bleek’s Lectures on
the Apocalypse (1862; Eng. trans. 1875). Much useful
information is given in Gloag’s Introduction to the
Johannine Writings '* ); also in Farrar’s Zarly Days
of Christianity (1882), Renan’s L’ Antechrist (1873; Eng.
trans.), and ‘ard’s L’ Apocalypse et son Interpréta-
tion historique (1888). Of commentaries the most im-
Piss), or useful are those of Ewald ( Latin, 1828), Liicke
1832), De Wette (1848), Ewald ( 1862 ; Eng.
and Spitta
Reuss (1878), Holtzmann (1891),
— being specially useful for the account
( ; this
it takes of mass of current aj
presu’
tnfullled prophecies f hg tin her aya
Pp ies of the as v
great; most them i ait the
this Those, for example,
who, following the indication of Augustine, think that
the millennium y come or even is already
may fairly be called preterists. Of those we may
‘i
tion Grotius, who identified Gog and Magog with the
Turks in Europe, and Hengstenberg, who judged the
millennium to have ended in 1848. All those, on the
other hand, who think that the millenni in any
definite sense that can have been intended by the author,
is yet to come, may equally justly be called ‘ P
but are of various degrees, some that
followers of Mede (1627). A
schools ought to be classed those interpreters of the
spiritualising or eg gry Hosters who were represented
in ancient times vt the Alexandrians, and whose method
has often been found in modern times a convenient
refuge for exegetical timidity or helplessness. Recent
commentators with any character for argh we, Ba lose
have, as a rule, been vega” af cautious in ing with
the predictive element in the Apocalypse, some main-
taining that its prophecies admit of a variety of fulfil-
ments, but without attempting concrete inte: tions
of the past, and still less definite forecasts of future,
deny that the
tr Lee ji in S
ew
Readers, 1383), Milligan (in Schaff's Commentary, 1883,
and in £; itors’ Bible, 1889), and Simcox (in Cam-
idge Bible for Schools and Colleges, 1890).
Revels, MAsTER oF THE, the name of an officer,
also called ‘ Lord of Misrule,’ formerly attached to
royal and other distinguished houses. It was his
function to preside over the amnsements of the
court, or of the nobleman to whose house he was
attached, during the Christmas holidays. The
universities of Oxford and Cambridge and the
Inns of Court had also their Lord of Misrule.
This officer became a permanent appendage to the
English court in the reign of Henry VIII., and his
duties included the keeping of the tents and
pavilions which accompanied the sovereign on a
royal progress, as also the keeping of the dresses
and masks used in entertainments given at court,
and the Peoviting of new ones when required. In
Queen Elizabeth’s time the Mastership of the
Revels was divided into several distinct offices.
The office practically fell into desuetude about
the end of the 17th century. See Foots (FEAst
or); and Chambers’s Book of Days.
Revenue. The public revenue of the civilised
states of the world is in every case treated of in
the articles on the several countries in the section
dealing with finance ; thus, the various elements of
the British revenue at different periods, as com-
pared with the expenditure, is somewhat fully
given at GREAT BRITAIN, Vol. V. p. 376. The
inland revenue is distinguished from the Customs
Duties (q.v.), and includes (1) the Excise (q.v.),
comprising alcohol duty, liquor and luxury licenses;
(2) Stamps, with the ‘death duties —probate,
account, legacy, and succession duty ; (3) Taxes—
hai gre and income tax, land-tax, inhabited house
uty (see TAXES). The right of the Commons to
regulate taxation and the outlay of the national
income is treated at PARLIAMENT, Vol. VIL. p.
774. Below is a comparative table of the gross
revenue of at a civilised states for the
years 1889 or 1890:
United States...... £80,616,000
Past 94,787,000 | Italy............++ 405,
Great Britain. 89,304. German Empire 62,692,000
‘Hungary.. 87,581,000 | Spain............++ 886,
000
The revenue of Canada is £7,970,000; Cape
Colony, £4,340,000 ; New South Wales, £9,063,397 ;
Victoria, £8,676,081 ; British India, £56,166,000.
In 1895-96 the revenue of Great Britain exceeded
£100,000,000 ; in 1897-98 it was £106,614,000, be-
sides £8,000,000 from local taxation; and with that
of all the dependencies was well over £200,000,000.
—For Revenue Officers, see COASTGUARD.
Reverberatory Furnace, a furnace so con-
structed that ores and other materials may be
heated in it without coming in direct contact with
the fuel. It consists essentially of three parts—
viz. a fireplace at one end; in the middle a flat
bed or sole, on which the material to be heated is
placed ; and at the other end a chimney to create
a draught and to carry off the smoke or fume.
Between the fireplace and the bed a fire-bridge is
laced, and the whole built over with a flat arch,
ipping towards the chimney. The flame plays
over the fire-bridge, and the heat is reflected, or
reverberated, on the material beneath; hence the
name. See Copper, LEAD, and IRON (puddling
furnace).
Revere, PAu, famous for his midnight ride,
was born in Boston, Massachusetts, Ist January
1735, the son of a goldsmith from Guernsey, whose
trade he followed after serving as a lieutenant of
artillery in the expedition against Crown Point
(1756). He also eng in copperplate printing,
and before the Revolution constructed a gun-
powder-mill. A keen patriot, he was one of the
party that destroyed the tea in Boston harbour,
and he was at the head of a volunteer committee,
consisting of thirty young mechanics, who formed
a secret society to watch the British. When it
was known that the latter intended to move
Revere crossed over to Charlestown, and on Apri
18, 1775, the night before Lexington and Concord,
at a signal rode on to Lexington and to Lincoln,
rousing the minute-men as he went; at Lincoln he
678 REVEREND
REVIVAL
was stopped, but a companion succeeded in reach-
ing Concord. During the war he rose to lieutenant-
sotunal of artillery ; afterwards he returned to his
ldsmith’s work, and in 1801 founded the Revere
pper Company at Canton, Massachusetts. He
diet 10th May 1818. His ride is the subject of a
well-known poem by Longfellow.
Reverend (Lat. reverendus, to be
a title of respect io to the clergy. In the
Anglican Church deans are ‘Very verend ;’
bishops, ‘ Right Reverend;’ and archbishops,
‘Most Reverend.’ In Scotland the clergy in
general are ‘ Reverend,’ while it is the practice
to apply ‘Very Reverend’ to the moderator of
the General Assembly for the time being, and
to the gy ra of a university, being a clergy-
man. he style Reverend is generally adopted
by and given to the clergy of the different
dissenting bodies; and in 1876 the Privy-council
decided on appeal that there is no law restricting
it to ministers of the Church of England. There
have, however, been instances in which some dis-
senting ministers have repudiated it. See ADDRESS
( ForRMs OF).
Reversion is the right to the enjoyment of
money, or of any kind of property, postponed until
or contingent on the ing of a given event.
Reversions are usually divided into three classes :
Absolute Reversion, in which the emergence of
the rights is certain, Contingent Reversion, and
Reversionary Life Interests. In the first case,
when the date of the emergence is also fixed, the
value of the reversion is dependent merely pron
the operations of interest (see INTEREST). When
the date of the emergence of the reversionary
right is uncertain, the purchase in an individual
case must always be a 5) lation; but if there
are a sufficient number of such rights, postponed
to events of which there are sufficient observations
from which to deduce laws of arene then the
marketable value is easily calculated. For example,
respected ),
it is required to know what is the immediate value
of £100 payable certainly on the death of a man
aged sixty. Here the value of the reversion is
£100, under deduction of the prior life interest,
which in this case is the present value of annuity
equal to the interest of £100 on the life of a male
aged sixty. When an assurance company buys a
reversion, it is simply buying that which it sells
when it grants a policy of life assurance. In the
former case, however, an office, to secure its ex-
nses and profits, will assume a high rate of
interest and a long life; in the latter case, for the
same reason, it will assume a low rate and a short
life. By the Sale of Reversions Act, 1867, no
purchase of a reversion is challengeable on the
ground of undervalue merely. Where the rever-
sion is contingent, problems arise whose solution
requires the utmost skill on the part of the actuary.
For instance, B, aged thirty, wishes to borrow £100
on the security of a sum payable to him in the event
of his surviving A, aged fifty-eight. Here the
security being doubtful, it could only be rendered
marketable by assuring a sum to be paid in the
event of B dying before A ; and there would remain
the important question of what this sum should
be, so as to cover the loan and the premiums of
assurance with yearly accumulations on both, The
value of a reversionary life interest is found by
deducting the valne of a joint life annuity from
the value of the annuity on the life of the survivor
(see the Institute of Actuaries’ text-book, part ii.).
In law a reversion is that right to property which
remains after some particular estate has
which had been granted by the owner. Thus, if A
has a life estate in B’s property, and after he dies
the property returns to B, B is said to have the
reversion or to be the reversioner. The landlord
of property let to a tenant is called the reversioner,
because the moment the lease determines, the whole
of the property and possessions vest in him. In
Scots law reversion means the right of redemption
retained by a borrower over an estate disponed in
security,
Reversion, a term used to describe the tend-
ency of animals and plants to show characteristics
of some ancestral form. Thus, horses have occa-
sionally transverse bars on the iegs and shoulders,
one . lue Pigeon like the wild paps escape
ivia) sometimes appears even in a ‘ectly pure
breed. See ATAVISM, and DEGENERATION.
Review. See PERIODICALS.
Reville et ey A and uninhabited
island group in the ific, miles west of the
coast of Mexico, to which it belongs. The largest
of the islets is 20 miles long.
Réville, ALBERT, a French Protestant theolo-
gian, was born at Dieppe, November 4, 1826, studied
at Geneva and Strasburg, and was pastor of the
Walloon Church at Rotterdam in 1851-72. Then he
lived near Dieppe until his call in 1880 to the chair
of the History of Religions in the College of France.
égomenes de UHistoire di (1881 Toy
le ire des ;
trans, 1884); The Native Rel Mexico and Pert
(the Hibbert Lectures for 3 Les Religions des
ra Non-civilisés (1883); and La Religion Chinoise
Revising Barrister. See BARRISTER.
Revival, or REVIVAL OF RELIGION, a term
employed to denote an increase of faith and pi
in individual Christians, particularly after a Ly.
of relinion declension, and also an increase li-
a communit)
through the revival of those who are already reli
y
irreligious. Such religious movements uently
extend, more or less generally, over a neighbour-
hood, or sometimes over a country. Instances of a
similar kind are recorded in the Scriptures as oceur-
ring both in the history of the Jews and in the
early history of the Christian church, particularly
in the effusion of the ng Hh on the day of
Pentecost, and afterwards in connection with the
ministry of the ager when many were converted
through a single discourse, or, in other cases,
evidently within a short time. In the middle
revivals took place in connection with the Crusades
and under the auspices of the monastic orders (see
CuurcH History); and sometimes with repulsive
adjuncts, as in the case of the Flagellants (q.v.)
and the Dancing Mania (q.v.). The Reformation
of the 16th century, and the more partial move-
ments of the same kind which preceded it, are also
regarded as essentially revivals of religion—the
Reformation itself the greatest which has taken
place since the apostolic age. In Scotland there
were notable ‘works’ in 1625 at Irvine and Stew-
arton, in 1630 at Kirk-of-Shotts, and in 1638. After
the Reformation the next wide-spread movement
of the kind was that in the first half of the 18th
century from which the Methodist churches origi-
nated. It was accompanied with many cireum-
stances similar to those which have attended later
revivals of religion. The term revival did not
begin to be hagpeee oj employed till after this
riod ; and the revival which took place in New
ingland and other parts of North America about
the same time under Edwards, Bellamy, and the
REVIVAL OF LEARNING
REVOLVER 679
Tennents was generally designated the Great
Awakening. The beginning of this revival seems
to have had no connection with the Methodist
movement in England, although rime wes tons they
became connected through Whitefield’s visits to
North America. There were revivals at Cambus-
lang in 1742, and at Moulin in Perthshire in 1798-
1800. A very extensive revival in Wales resulted
in the formation of the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist
Church, but was not confined in its effects to those
who became connected with that chureh. Local
revivals also in some instances attended the ministry
of evangelical ministers of the Church of England ;
and in America there were revivals in 1796, in
1812-15, and — in 1827-32. In 1839 the
attention of all Scotland was drawn to a religious
movement at Kilsyth, originating in the preach-
ing of Mr William C. Burns (q.v.), and this -was
followed by similar occurrences in a number of
other places, more or less evidently connected with
it. The great American revival of 1859-61
in New England, particularly in Connecticut
and Massachusetts, and rapidly extended to New
York and over the middle and western states. It
was not generally attended with scenes of great
excitement; strong but calm religious feeling
was its general characteristic. It spread all over
the United States, and it was believed that in a
single year half a million converts were received
into the churches. A similar movement took place
in Ireland, and rapidly extended over the whole
north, and subsequently to Scotland, Wales, and
some parts of England. As a rule it was free
from excitement, and characterised by little else
than the intensity of religions feeling displayed.
Another remarkable revival, which extended over
cam yeaa part of Great Britain in 1874-75, origi-
n in the efforts of two American evangelists,
Messrs Moody and Sankey, and was characterised
the almost entire absence of sensationalism.
e Salvation Army carries on its work largely
by methods known as revivalistic. Revivals of
religion have occurred also in other parts of the
world. Though evangelical Christians generally
pai ig revivals as 7 ve wee divine works of
ace, t agree in deploring the extravagances
An Vereenlastsiew that have not unfrequently
accompanied them and done grievous harm to the
cause of religion.
See a Fulfilling of the peice math eon Ed-
wards, The Work of God in Northampton, Massachusetts
(1736); Robe’s Narrative (1742); Pringle, Surprising
‘Accounts of the Revival of Religion in the United States
(1802); lect: on the subject by Sprag
Finney (1835); Mrs Lundie Duncan, ig Aa? Revivals
of Religion in the British Isles (1840); Fish, Handbook
of Revivals ere) Porter, Revivals of Religion (1877);
Overton’s Evangelical Revival of the 18th Century (1886);
and the journals and biographies of the W White-
field, the Haldanes, and other eminent evangelists,
Revival of Learning. See RENAISSANCE.
Revolution, any extensive change in the con-
stitution of a country. suddenly brought about.
The most important events in modern history speci-
fically known under this name are the "English
revolution of 1689 (Guizot by ‘ Revolution’ means
the ‘Great Rebellion’); the American revolution of
1776; the French revolution of 1789; the revolu-
tion of 1830 (‘the July revolution’), which deposed
Charles X. and raised Louis-Philippe to power ;
the revolution of 1848 (‘the revolution of Febru-
ary’), which established the second republic ; and
the revolutions by which the existing South Ameri-
can republics (including that of Brazil in 1890, and
of Chili in 1891) were established or are from time
to time modified. The revolutionary period par
excellence is the years 1848 and 1849. The French
‘change of constitution in 1871 is not usually spoken
of as a revolution, though in effect it was one. For
the Revolutionary Tribunal, see DANTON.
Revolver, in Firearms, is a weapon having
barrels or chambers which revolve upon a com-
mon centre, and are fired in turn by one lock
mechanism. Revolving firearms date from the
commencement of the 17th century, when hand-guns
having two or more barrels were mounted to turn
upon an axis, and so arranged that the powder-
ace came successively under the action of the
ock ; the barrels were not rotated by pulling the
trigger, but were turned by the hand. The cele-
brated Marquis of Worcester invented several such.
In 1815 Le Norman, a Parisian gunsmith, produced
a pistol with five barrels, Devisme one with seven,
but neither proved successful. The ‘Mariette,’ made
with from four to twenty-four barrels, was the first
to become popular, although from its weight, cum-
brous mechanism, and short range, it could have
been of little use except at close quarters. This
pistol was the precursor of the ‘ pep r-box’ pistol,
to which it was closely allied; the barrels of both
were bored in a solid mass of metal, and made to
revolve as the hammer was raised to full cock.
Not so old as the principle of revolving barrels,
but still an invention of past generations, is that
of a revolving chamber or breech-piece, pierced
with cylindrical apertures to contain the charges,
and so arranged that each chamber came succes-
sively into line with the barrel and lock common
to all. E. H. Collier in 1818 patented an im-
proved carbine with three revolving chambers,
which ap to have been an eflicient weapon.
Colonel Samuel Colt produced his world-renowned
revolver in 1835. This consists of a rifle barrel,
a revolving cylinder with six or seven chambers,
each furnished with its own nipple and cap, and
a lever trigger, which operates the mechanism
required to turn the chambers and fire the weapon.
The double-action revolver, is one in which by
simply pulling the trigger the hammer is raised
and released, and the chambers turned; whilst
in the single-action revolver the hammer is raised
by the thumb of the firer and released by the
igger. Breech-loading revolvers are of two kinds
solid frame revolver, which requires the
empty cases to be forced out by a diminutive
ramrod (generally attached to the pistol by a
swivel), and the self-extracting revolver, of which
there are many kinds, The regulation istol of the
British army is that illustrated here. By pressing
Webley’s Revolver Pistol (Mark I.).
the lever, e, the bolt securing the top of the hinged
frame is released, and the barrel turning upon the
hinge raises the chambers, whilst the extractor-
rod coming into contact with a spur-lever, fli
out the fired cases and returns into position ; the
chambers are thus ex for loading, and upon
the barrel being raised the breech-bolts snap home,
680 REVUE DES DEUX MONDES
REYNARD THE FOX
and the eg is ready for firing by palling the
igger. This principle is the most popular of any
mp wi pe for self-extracting revolvers, and it has
proved efficient. There are many types of revolvers,
self-extracting and other, but, with the exception of
pen weapons and some single-action solid-frame
revolvers popular in America, the principle adopted
by the British and other governments is that most
generally used. Messrs Smith & Wesson of Wor-
cester, Massachusetts, were the first to popularise
the hin self-extracting revolver, and amongst
many other models they now make one in which the
hammer is covered, and the pistol can only be fired
when firmly grasped by the hand ; as a safety bolt,
which effectually and automatically bolts the firing
mechanism, projects through the haft, and has to
be pressed in before the trigger can be drawn back
to raise the hammer and fire the weapon. This
pistol is perfectly safe, and insures immunity from
such accidents as arise from careless pending.
For military pu the revolver is generally
made of half-inch calibre, and such a weapon has a
range of from 100 to 300 yards, whilst at 50 yards
ten consecutive shots have been placed in a 4-inch
bull’s-eye. At shorter ranges its precision is equal
to that of the finest duelling pistol. Revolvin
arms of | size are as Cannon (q.v,) an
Machine Guns (q.v.); and for further particulars of
revolving firearms consult Galand, Le Revolvre de
Guerre (2d ed, 1873); Gould’s Modern American
Pistol and Revolver (Boston, 1888); and British
service publications.
Revue des Deux Mondes, the best known
of the French m es devoted to literature, art,
and H sespate criticism, was founded in Paris in 1831
by Francois Buloz, It had appeared during 1829,
but was languishing until purchased. by Buloz, who
firmly established it. Many of the best French
writers have contributed to its pages.
Rewa, a state of India, called also Baghel-
khand (q.v.).—REWA KANTHA is the name of a
political agency under the government of Bombay,
containing sixty-one small states, of which five are
tributary to the British government, and most of
the remainder to Baroda. The territory included,
covering an area of 4792 miles, with a total popula-
tion of 543,452, lies mainly along the south bank
of the lower Nerbudda with patches north of it,
and on the west borders on Broach, Baroda, and
Ahmadabad.
Reward, in a legal sense, means some
encouragement which the law holds out for exer-
tions in bringing certain classes of criminals to
justice. By statute 7 Geo. IV. chap. 64, the
courts of assize may order the sheriff of the county,
in which certain offences have been committed, to
pay to persons who have been active in securing
the speaneee of offenders charged with murder,
or with feloniously shooting, cutting, stabbing,
wounding, or poisoning, or with rape,. burglary,
housebreaking, robbery, arson, or cattle-stealing, or
with being accessary before the fact to any of such
offences, or to receiving any stolen property, a
reasonable sum to compensate them for expense,
exertion, and loss of time. So by a later statute
(14 and 15 Viet. chap. 55) courts of quarter
sessions are authorised, in the case of any of the
above offences which they have jurisdiction to try,
to order such compensation ; but the payment to
one person must not exceed £5. If any one is
killed in endeavouring to apprehend a person
charged with one of these offences, the court may
order compensation to be made to the Pggony & The
amount to be paid in all such cases is subject to
regulations which may be made from time to time
by the Secretary of State. By statute (24 and 25
ict, chap. 96) it is a felony, punishable by penal
sorvinads to vee
renders the Rote. r, aioe cing publisher Halle
to forfeit £50. For several years the offering of
rewards by the government has in England
discontinued on grounds of public policy. For
example, during the series of murders in White-
chapel in 1888-90, the Home Office, though urgently
requested to offer a reward for the discovery of the
criminal, steadily refused to do so.
Rewari, a town of the district of Gurgaon, in
the extreme south of the Punjab, 50 miles SW. of
Delhi by rail, an important centre for trade be-
tween Punjab and Rajputana. Pop. 23,900.
Reybaud, Marte Rocu Lovis, a clever French
writer, was born at Marseilles, 15th August 1799,
travelled in the Levant and India, and returned to-
Paris in 1829 to write for the Radical and
edit the Histoire scienty, et militaire bo pay
tion Francaise en Egypte (10 vols. 1
Dumont d’Urville’s autour du M
(1833), and Orbigny’s Vowoge dans les deux
ees (1836). is studies in social science
bore it as Etudes sur les Ré 3 OU
Socialistes modernes (2 vols. 1840-43 ; 7th ed, 1864),
which gained him the — rize (1841) and a.
lace in the Academy of Moral Sciences (1850).
is unusually original satiric novel, Jéréme Paturot
ala recherche d’une Position sociale (1843), became
widely — and was followed by the less suc-
cessful Jéréme
va de Dipsthines VASY. Dertoal woe 4
meilleure des i ( a an
active part in politics, first voted with the Left, but.
sent by the Assembly to Algeria to visit the -
cultural colonies establ een
Reyk’'javik. See IceLanp, Vol. VI. p. 62.
Reynard the Fox, « well-known popular
epic the characters of which are animals instead
of men. It belongs to the series of Beast-fables.
(q.v.) which have delighted the popular megs oa
tion from early ages and in all lands, from India
to the Bushmen’s country in South Africa (see
Fase). The stories that relate the knaveries of
Reynard the Fox seem to have originated for the:
most part in northern France and Flanders from
the 10th century onwards, and to have been com-
and recom repeatedly in various forms.
in the 12th and following centuries. The authors.
or editors, so far as they are known, belonged
chiefly to the ecclesiastical orders. The several
versions differ not only in respect of language and
of style, but also in the choice and arrangement of
the episodes and incidents narrated. All turn
upon the knaveries of Reynard the Fox, as prae-
tised by him in his quarrel with Isengrim the
Wolf, who in all encounters generally comes off
second best. The best versions, as the typical
Flemish and Low German (to be referred to in
detail lower down), reach a high level of literary
excellence. The episodes are woven together into:
a veritable epic; the versification is agreeable and
easy ; the characters are consistent and well-sus-
tained ; the contemporary manners, and the locali-
ties and circumstances, that make the background of
REYNARD
THE FOX 681
the story are true and realistic ; and the story is told
without any other obvious purpose beyond that of
affording honest amusement. These features do
not, however, characterise all the versions : some
have been clearly written for a satirical pol ea
some are loosely-connected strings of ill-told adven-
tures, others drag out a long and weary length
through innumerable indifferent verses, whilst in
others still the characters are simply men disguised
as animals. The earliest versions were in in ;
but they seem to have been soon supplanted by
French in the 12th century, and in their new dress
the stories attained a much wider popularity.
Since the beginning of the 16th ae all
the editions printed can be traced back to one of
two sources, a Flemish or a Low German, both of
which, however, are based upon French forms of the
ic. The task of tracing the connections between
the numerous versions that exist in the different
tongues is one of great complexity and difficulty.
It will suffice in this place to enumerate the more
important, with mention of one or more trust-
worthy recent editions. The best Latin version,
Isengrimus (ed. by Mone as Reinardus Vulpes,
Stuttgart, 1832; and by Voigt, Halle, 1884), which
possesses considerable literary merit, was written
in Flanders about 1146-48 by an unknown author.
The Isengrimus printed in J. Grimm's Reinhart
Fuchs ( Berlin, 1834) is not an older, but a later and
abbreviated, form of the same poem. The best
French versions that survive were edited by Méon
4 vols. Paris, 1826), with a supplement by Cha-
ille (1835), and by Martin (4 vols. a
1882-88). They were written between the middle
of the 13th and the middle of the 14th rigs and
run to enormous length, the separate cycles or
upings of the episodes being called ‘ branches.’
ficon's work includes three cycles: (1) Roman du
Renart, apparently the work of three if not more
Sataes: Phecie de St Cloud, a priest of Lacroix in
Brie, and a Norman priest Robert de Lison; (2)
Oouronnement de Renart, attributed to Marie
de France; and (3) Renart le Nouvel, by Jacque-
mars Gielée of Lille, about 1290. The last two
are transparent satires upon certain of the monastic
orders. There is a fourth cycle, a voluminous
compilation or imitation by a priest of the neigh-
bourhood of Troyes, made near the middle of the
14th century, and entitled Le Renart Contrefait
ed. F. Wolf, Vienna, 1861). The oldest extant
igh German version, Reinhart Vuhs or Fuchs
(ede Reissenberger, Halle, 1886), more usually
called Reineke Fuchs, was adapted by some one
unknown, early in the 13th century, from a
still older version, I[sengrimes N6t, itself a trans-
lation made from old French sources about 1180
by an Alsatian, Heinrich der Glichesaere. The
Flemish version which has been the basis of most
of the translations, continuations, and editions
that have been made since the invention of Ba
ing is entitled Reinaert de Vos (ed. Martin, Pader-
born, 1874). It was written by one William, but
whether William de Matoc, William Utenhove, or
more probably an unknown William, is uncertain,
and dates apparently from the middle of the 13th
century. The source upon which it is built is the
nineteenth ‘branch’ in the Roman de Renart (last
in vol. i. of Méon). The text that has been almost
exclusively used in the later translations, &c., is
that of a second edition, deviating in some respects
from William’s own, notably in the infusion of a
didactic, satirical tendency; the author of this
second edition is not known. It was from a prose
version of this second edition, published at Gouda
in 1479, that Caxton made his translation of The
History of Reynard the Fox (1481 ; reprinted Edin.
1884). Upon this same edition was based the Low
German version, Reinke de Vos (ed. Prien, Halle,
1887), which has been more often translated
rhaps than any other version. Who the Low
erman translator was is not known, in spite of
the question having greatly exercised many special-
ists. The editio princeps of Reinke is that of
Liibeck (1498), and next to it stands that of
Rostock (1517). There are Danish (by A. H.
Weigere, Liibeck, 1555), Swedish (Stockholm,
1621), and several other High and Low German
editions, for which, however, see the bibliograph
prefixed to Prien’s Reinke. Nevertheless specia
mention must be made of Gottsched’s High German
rose version (1752) and Goethe’s well-known
igh German poem, with Kaulbach’s scarcely less
known illustrations to the same. Popular High
German translations are contained in Simrock’s
Deutsche Volksbiicher (vol. i. 1845) and Marbach’s
Volksbiicher (vols. xv.—xvii.).
The outline of the story, according to the Flem-
ish Reinaert, is as follows: Nobel the Lion, kin
of animals, was holding court one Easter-tide. Al
the animals, great and small, came and paid
homage to him except Reynard the Fox. Several
amongst them ory wear of the knaveries of Rey-
nard, the loudest being Isengrim the Wolf, Rey-
nard’s old comrade and enemy. He was followed
by Tibert the Cat and Pancer the Horse ; but Grim-
bart the Badger spoke up for his uncle Reynard.
Then came Chanticleer the Cock, bringing his dead
daughter slain by Reynard. For this and his
other misdeeds the Fox shall, it is resolved, be
cited to ae before the Lion and be tried.
Bruin the Bear is sent tosummon him. Reynard
received him with soft words, told him of some
honey hidden in a split tree, and contrived to get
Bruin caught fast in the cleft of the tree; there
the ts found him and nearly beat him to
death, but at last he got away and went back to
court. The next messenger sent was Tibert the
Cat. Him, however, Reynard persuaded to catch
mice in a place where a noose hung, in which the
Cat got caught; and he too was terribly beaten
before he got away. At last Grimbart the Badger
offered to undertake the office of messenger; and
he persuaded Reynard to go with him to court.
On the way the Fox makes a sort of private confes-
sion of his rascalities and misdeeds to his relative
the Badger, especially of the tricks he has played
off upon the Wolf. The animals again came forward
with their accusations. Reynard defended himself,
but was condemned to death. As he was about to
be hanged on the gallows, he i leave to make
a eae confession of his evil deeds. In the course
of his speech he dropped a hint that he knew
where an immense treasure was hidden, and then,
at the Lion’s request, tells all about it. His father,
old Reynard, and Isengrim the Wolf, and Bruin
the Bear had conspired together to slay the Lion
and make Bruin king in his stead ; but he (Reynard )
had stolen their treasure, with which they thought
to hire soldiers, and had gone and hidden it. He
could not suffer the noble Lion to be slain and the
wicked Bear to be made king in his place. The
Lion thereupon pardoned him, and caused Bruin
and Isengrim to be seized and evilly entreated.
But when he asked Reynard to go and show him
where the treasure was, Reynard excused himself,
saying he was under an oath to make a —
to Rome. The Lion then let him go; an Reyna *
taking with him Cuwaert the Hare and Belin the
Ram, set out on his pilgrimage. On the way he
passed his own home, and induced Cuwaert to go into
the house with him, and there killed him. And he
put his head in a satchel (made from the skin of
the Bear) and gave it to Belin, and bade him carry
it back to the Lion, telling him it contained valuable
letters. When the Lion saw Cuwaert’s head he
was exceeding wroth, and bade them let the Wolf
REYNOLDS
682
and the Bear go free out of prison; and he gave
the Ram into their power, and decreed Re to
be an outlaw.
To this the Low German version adds a continu-
ation, partly a repetition of the same incidents
under disguise and y an actual continuation
of the story, ending in a single combat between
the Fox and the Wolf, in which the former by
trickery beat his antagonist. Finally he returned
to his own home, honoured with the favour and
protection of the Lion.
English readers should consult the Introduction to W.
J. Thoms’ edition of Caxton’s Reynard (1845), Carlyle’s
Miscellaneous Essays (not quite accurate), and F. 8.
Ellis’s History of Reynard the Fox (1894). Seé also L.
Sudre, Les Sources du Roman de Renart (1893).
Reynolds, JoHn FvLtTon, an American
neral, was born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 20th
Be tember 1820, graduated at West Point in 1841,
and became commandant there in 1859. As
brigadier-general he fought at Mechanicsville and
Gaines’s Mills, and was taken prisoner at Glendale,
but exchanged in August 1 At the second
battle of Bull Run his own bravery induced his
brigade to stand fast, and so prevented a complete
rout. In November he was commissioned major-
neral, and in 1863 commanded a corps at
Reletbalats: He was killed at Gettysburg,
where he commanded the left wing, on Ist July
1863. The state erected a granite shaft on the
spot where he fell, and his men a bronze heroic
statne on the field; and in 1884 an equestrian
statue was unveiled in Philadelphia.
Reynolds, Sir Josuva, P.R.A., portrait and
subject painter, was born at Plympton Earls, near
Plymouth, on 16th July 1723, the year of Kneller’s
death. His father, a clergyman and master of
Plympton grammar-school, intended him for the
medical profession ; but he developed a strong
aptitude for painting, was continually studying
the plates in Cats’s Book of Emblems, Dryden’s
Plutarch, and the other volumes that came in his
way, and at the age of eight had mastered the
Jesuit’s Perspective, and applied its principles to
drawings executed by himself. In October 1740,
accordingly, he was sent to London to study art,
and Slaean in the studio of Thomas Hudson, a
portrait-painter, of very moderate abilities, much
employed at the time. In 1743 he returned to
Devonshire, and some of the portraits of local
worthies which he then produced still exist. In
the following year he was again in London pursn-
ing his art; but in the beginning of 1747, after the
death of his father, he settled in Plymouth Dock,
now Devonport, where he learned much from a
study of the works of William Gandy of Exeter.
In 1749 he made the acquaintance of Commodore,
afterwards Lord, Keppel, who invited him to
eet omy him on a cruise in the Mediterranean ;
d, after painting many of the British officers in
Minorea, he made his way to Rome, where he
studied Raphael and Michael Angelo, and in the
Vatican caught a chill which permanently affected
his hearing, and necessitated his use of an ear-
trumpet during the rest of his life. He also visited
Bologna, Genoa, Florence, Parma, and Venice.
—— to England in October 1752, he soon
afterwards established himself in a studio in St
Martin’s Lane, London, and attracted notice by
his portraits of the second Duke of Devonshire and
Commodore Keppel. Before long he was in
excellent practice, and in the year 1755 he had no
fewer than a hundred and twenty sitters, of whom
he produced portraits in which the influence of the
Italian masters, and especially of Correggio, is
clearly visible; works in which he was certainly
aided by such assistants as Marchi, but which he
impressed with hjs own character and individuality.
He soon removed to Great Newport Street; and
finally, in 1760, he purchased a mansion on the
west side of Leicester Square, to which he added a
studio and reception-room.
t of his fame, and a
He was now at the hei
valued friend of his most celebrated contem
In 1764 he founded the famous literary club of
which Dr Johnson, Garrick, Burke, Goldsmith,
Boswell, and Sheridan were members ; all of whom
were portrayed by his brush. He was one of the
earliest members of the Incorporated Society of
Artists, and contributed to its exhibitions till 1768,
when, on the establishment of the Royal Academy,
he was elected its first president ; and in the follow-
ing year he received the honour of knighthood from
the king. In 1769 he delivered the first of his
Discourses to the students of the Academy, fifteen
of which have been published. They are full of
valuable and well-considered instruction, and, along
with his papers on art in the Jd/er, his annotations
to Du Fresnoy’s Art of Painting, and his Notes
on the Art of the Low Countries (the result of a
visit to Belgium and Holland in 1781), show a
correct and cultivated literary style. He con-
tributed his picture of Miss Morris as ‘Hope
nursing Love’ to the first exhibition of the Royal
Academy, along with his portraits of the Duchess
of Manchester, Mrs Blake, Mrs Crewe, and Mrs
Bouverie; and in 1771 pe his subject of
‘Count Ugolino and his Children in the Dun ‘
usually regarded as his most successful effort in the
direction of historical art. In 1784 he sueceeded
Allan Ramsay as painter to the king; in the same
ear he finished and exhibited his portrait of Mrs
iddons as the ‘Tragic Muse,’ in the possession of
the Duke of Westminster, undoubtedly his greatest
portrait, a work existing in several versions, of
which one is in the Dulwich Gallery ; and in 1787
he undertook three subjects for Boydell’s Shake-
speare Gallery, executing ‘Puck,’ ‘The Witch
Scene from Macbeth,’ and ‘ The Death of Cardinal
Beaufort.’
Hitherto he had devoted himself with little
interruption to his art, having speedily recovered
from a slight attack of paralysis from which he
suffered in 1782; but in July 1789 his sight
became affected, and he ceased to paint, though
he was still able to enjoy intercourse with his
friends, The following bond was embittered by an
unfortunate dispute with the Academy regarding
the appointment of a professor of Perspective,
which led to his resignation of the presidentship,
a resolution which he afterwards reconsidered and
rescinded ; and on the 10th of December 1790 he
delivered his last Discourse to the students.
Gradually his strength sank—for, unknown to his
a rei was ergy _ . painful form
of liver complaint—and he peacefully expired on
the 23d Sortuery 1792. J
It is in virtue of his portraits that Reynolds
ranks as the head of the English school of art.
In the dignity of their style, the power and
expressiveness of their handling, the variety and
pt espa me of their attitudes, in the beauty
of their colouring and the delicacy of their flesh-
painting, his portraits have never been surpassed,
e was at home alike in portraying the strength
of manhood and the e of the gentler sex; and
his pictures of children have an especial tender-
ness and beauty which have given a world-wide
celebrity to works like ‘Master Bunbury,’ ‘The
Strawberry Girl,’ and ‘Simplicity.’ His efforts in
the higher departments of historical and imagina-
tive art were less successful, and too often these
can be regarded only as among the failures of a
great artist. In his technical methods Reynolds
was unfortunately most careless and uncertain.
He was continually experimenting in new processes
RHABDOMANCY
RHAMPSINITUS 683
and untried combinations of pigments, with the
result that even in his own lifetime his works
deteriorated, especially in their flesh-tints.
Personally Rayackie was a man of fine and
varied culture, and he was distinguished by an
exquisite urbanity, the expression of a most
amiable and equable disposition, which was
exceptionally fitted to win and retain friendship.
His dignified gentleness, his mild reasonableness,
tamed even the fierceness of Dr Johnson; and
there was more of truth than is usual in poetic
panegyric in the lines of Goldsmith which speak
of this painter as
Still born to improve us in every part,
His pencil our faces, his manners our heart.
The first great collection of the works of Reynolds
was brought together by the British Institution in
1813, and numbered 142 pictures ; another gathering
was formed by the same body in 1823 ; 154 examples
of his art were included in the South Kensington
Portrait Exhibition of 1867; and 231 were exhibited
in the Grosvenor Gallery in 1883-84. His authentic
works have been estimated by Taylor to number
between two and three thousand; and from these
some 700 engravings have been executed, some
of them—such as the mezzotints of J. R. Smith,
John Dixon, William Dickinson, Valentine Green,
and James M‘Ardell—ranking among the finest
examples of the art.
See Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Knight, &c.,
James Northcote, R.A. (1813); The Literary Works
of Sir Joshua Reynolds: with Memoir of the Author,
., by William Beechey, R.A. (1835); Life and Times
of Sir Joshua Reynolds, by C. R. Leslie, R.A., and Tom
Taylor (2 vols. 1865); A Catalogue Raisonné of the En-
= Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds, by Edward
ilton, M.D. (2d ed. 1884); W. M. Conway, Artistic
Development of Reynolds and Gainsborough (1886);
and the monograph by Claude Phillips (1894).
an eeomancy. See DIvINATION, DIVINING
D.
Rhadamanthus, in Greek Mythology, the
son of Zeus and Europa, and brother of Minos of
Crete. He settled in Bootia, where he married
Alemene. So great was his reputation during life
for the exercise of justice that after death he was
appointed a judge in the under-world, along with
inos and ye
Rhetia, an ancient Roman province embracing
a large part of the Alpine tract between the basins
of the Po and the Danube, now included in the
Grisons and the Austrian Tyrol. Its inhabitants
were brave and turbulent, and were only subdued
by Drusus and Tiberius after a desperate resist-
ance. The province was then formed, to which
Vindelicia was soon added; but later Rhetia was
subdivided into Rhetia Prima and Rhetia Secunda
(Vindelicia). The only important town in Rhetia
was Tridentinum (Zrent); the colony of Augusta
Vindelicorum (Augsburg) was in its northern part.
—For Rhewtic Beds, see TRIASSIC SYSTEM.
Rhamnacez ( Bickthorns), a natural order of
exogenous plants, consisting of trees or shrubs;
often spiny; with simple, generally alternate
leaves, and stipules minute or wanting. This
order contains about 250 known species, natives
of temperate and tropical countries, and ve
generally distributed over the globe. The prevail-
ing principle in the buekthorns is a bitter extrac-
tive which is acrid or astringent, tonic and anti-
febrile. Some of them are used in dyeing (see
Buckruorn, and FRENCH BERRIES), some in medi-
cine (see Rep Roor), and the fruit of some is
pleasant (see JUJUBE); whilst Hovenia dulcis, a
native of China and Japan, is remarkable for the
thickening of its flower-stalks after flowering, so
as to form a succulent sweet red pulp, with a
flavour resembling that of a pear. The lotus of
the ancient Lotophagi, celebrated by Homer, is
the fruit of Zizyphus lotus, a small shrub abundant
Ly Sicily, Barbary, Tunis (see Lotus). The
of Rhamnus frangula yields a superior char-
coal for the manufacture of gunpowder.
Rhampsini'tus, a Grecised form of the Egy
tian name Ramses, apparently Ramses III., the
builder of the pavilion of Medinet Abu at Thebes.
Brugsch makes Rhampsinitos a Greek form of
Ramessu nuter (‘Ramses the God’); Maspero,
Ramsis-si-nit (‘Ramses, son of Neith’), a title
never borne by the Theban kings, but first used by
the Saitice princes, which fixes the date of the tale
to the period of Psammetichus and his dynasty.
Of him Herodotus (II., 121 e¢ seg.) relates a story
substantially the same as ane the most wide-
spread folk-tales of the Aryan world. The king
nired an enormous treasure, and to secure it
built a treasury of stone. The architect left one
stone loose, so nicely adjusted as to be unnoticed,
yet = a of being taken out and replaced with-
out difficulty. Before death he entrusts the secret
to his two sons, who from time to time plunder the
king’s treasure at their will, until at length the
elder is irony, pe in a snare set by the king. Accord-
ing to his desire, the younger brother cuts off and
carries away his head, so that he may remain un-
known. The king now orders the headless body
to be bas ope unburied, protected by a guard of
soldiers, but the younger brother lades an ass with
skins of wine, allows some of it to run out, and is
relieved in his distress by the soldiers, to whom in
gratitude he BM his wine so freely that they all
sink into a drunken sleep. Thereupon he shaves
the right half of all their beards, and carries his
brother’s body to his mother. The king next sends
his daughter to find out the clever thief. She pro-
mises her love to those who reveal to her the most
ede things that have ever happened to
them, and when the young man in his turn relates
the strange es of his life she seizes him ; but
he cunningly slips his brother’s dead hand into hers,
and so esca) The king is so much struck with
wonder and admiration that he promises the clever
thief his danghter in marriage, since he su
all mankind in vwapebee for, while the Egyptians
oe all the world, he surpassed the Egyp-
ns.
Such is the oldest recorded version of Asbjérns-
sen’s ‘Master-thief’ and Campbell’s ‘Shifty-lad,’
Dr Barbu Constantinescu’s Roumanian pyPsy story
of ‘The Two Thieves,’ a variant of the story of
Trophonios and Agena in the treasury of
CS gape at Hyria (Paus. ix. 37), of Augeias in
Elis, and of Hermes (dpxds ¢n\n7Gv), as well as
of the Hindu legend of Karpara and Gata, or that
of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves in the Arabian
i ng The story occurs in the oldest version
, h century) of the romance of the ‘Seven Wise
asters,’ the Dolopathos, sive de Rege et Septem
Sapientibus, from which Ser Giovanni probably |
derived the story as found in his Pecorone ( written
circa 1378), where it is related of an architect
named Bindo who stole a golden vase from the
treasury of the Doge of Venice. It will be found,
more or less perfect, in every collection of European
folk-tales, whether Norse, Gaelic, modern. Greek,
French, Breton, Albanian, Sicilian, Hungarian,
Dutch, Tyrolese, Danish, or Russian, as well as
Kabyl, Mongolian, Tibetan, and Singhalese.
Maspero defends the story as fundamentally
Egyptian, or at least Egyptianised long before
Herodotus, in spite of the Greek dress in which
the historian has clothed it. It has been objected
by some that the idea of a movable stone is not
gyptian, and is but ill adapted to the size of the
stones used in building; but at Dendera have
684 RHAPSODISTS
RHEIMS
been found a series of crypts communicating with
the temple by narrow formerly opened
and closed in a similar manner, the stone sculp-
tured like the rest of the wall. Again, Wilkinson
objected that the soldiers wore no s; but bas- |.
reliefs and statues show that Egyptians of pure
race wore according to individual taste ;
and besides the soldiers of police in question
belonged to a tribe of Libyan origin, named Maziou,
who usually wore the F
See Liebrecht’s translation (1851) of Dunlop's His-
tory of Prose Fiction; A. Schiefner in vol. xiv. of the
Bulletin of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences; W.
A. Clouston’s Popular Tales and Fictions (1887); and
_ Sr Contes Populaires de UEgypte Ancienne (2d
Rhapsodists (Gr., from riaptein, ‘to stitch
together,’ and ddé, ‘an ode’), a class of men in
ancient Greece who travelled from place to place
reciting poetry. They are distinct from the pro-
fessional minstrels (aoidoi) of the Odyssey, although
their legitimate successors ; but they also seem, at
first at least, to have been composers of epic poetry,
although it is hardly probable that this was often
the case after the 6th century B.c. We find distinct
traces of the public recitation by rhapsodists of the
Homeric poems as early as 600 B.C., at places so far
apart as Sicyon, Syracuse, Delos, Chios, Cyprus,
and Athens. Indeed at Athens ancient law pre-
scribed the recitation of Homer once every four
ears at the festival of the Great Panathena.
o the early rhapsodists mainly belongs the credit
of the wide diffusion of the Homeric poems through-
out the Greek world. They themselves were held
in high esteem and richly rewarded ; but in later
days the art came to ractised in a mere
mechanical manner, and the influence of the rhap-
sodists ebbed accordingly. In Plato’s Jon we get
a picture of the wens as he was about the
middle of the 4th century B.c. Ion is a native of
Ephesus who goes from city to city reciting Homer
to crowds of hearers, appearing on a platform in a
richly-embroidered dress, a golden wreath on his
head. He adds dramatic force to his declamation,
and brings Homer home to his hearers’ hearts,
being himself by Homer. Moreover, he
interprets Homer in a continuous exposition, and
is proud of his fluency of ideas. Ion is described
as devoted exclusively to Homer, but there
were a few of his hentieeia who gave themselves
also to Orpheus, Musiens, Hesiod, Archilochus,
or Simonides. It is unlikely that Homer was ever
sung to music, although in earlier times there were
heroic lays which were sung to the accompaniment
of the lyre. As lyric poetry became more dis-
tinctly cultivated, such epic lays came to be simply
declaimed, the rhapsodist holding a branch of bay
in his hand instead of a lyre.
Rhatany, or RATTAny, a half-shrubby plant,
of the natural order Polygalew, a native of the
cold sterile tablelands of the Andes in Pern and
Bolivia. It is called Ratanhia in Peru. It is
valued for the medicinal properties of the root,
which are shared more or less by other species of
‘the same genus, also natives of South America.
In the British Pharmacopcia the dried roots of two
species (Krameria triandra, Peruvian Rhatany,
and K. ivina, Savanilla Rhatany) are officin
under the name Kramerie Radix. The roots vary
a good deal in size and thickness, but are always
rough-looking, and reddish in colour. The bark
has a money astringent taste, and when chewed
tinges the saliva red; the wood is nearly tasteless.
The dried root is a powerful astringent, and is
employed in diarrhoa, mucous discharges, passive
hemorrhages, and cases where an astringent or
styptic action is indicated. The finely-powdered
root is also a frequent constituent of tooth-powders,
Rhatany root is imported from various parts of
South America, but chiefly from Lima. It is
extensively imported into Portugal in order to
communicate a rich red colour to wines. Its
uliar properties are due to rhatany-tannic acid,
ound in the root-bark to the extent of 20 per cent. ;
it also contains a red colouring matter.
_ Rhazes, or RAz1, Persian physician and alchem-
ist. See MEDICINE (p. 117) and ARABIA (p. 366).
Rhé, Le ve. See RE.
Rhea, an ancient Cretan rend, Seon Reg e ter
of Uranus and Gea, wife of her brother the Titan
Cronus, and by him mother of the Olympian deities
Zeus, Hades, Poseidon, Hera, Hestia, Demeter.
She was early identified with the Asiatic nature-
goddess Cybele, the Great Mother, who was wor-
shipped on mountains in Mysia, Lydia, and
Phrygia. Her Cretan Curetes corresponded to the
Phrygian Corybantes, many of whom mutilated
themselves like Attis in the frenzy of their orgies.
The ular priests of Cybele, the Galli, made
themselves eunuchs for conscience’ sake. A Sibyl-
line oracle decreed the introduction of the worship
of the Great Mother at Rome in 204 B.c., and in
217 a temple was dedicated on the Palatine. The
cult became widely extended under the been 2
In the 2d century A.D. the rites of the Ta i
and iobolia were added, in which candidates
were baptised for purification and regeneration
with the blood of sacrificial bulls and rams, See
the article CYBELE.—RHEA SYLVIA was the mother
of Romulus (q.v.).
Rhea, also called Nandu and American Ostrich,
a genus of South American birds, which form,
according to the most recent researches, a some-
what isolated group, though nearer to the ostriches
than to any other birds. They are incapable of
flight, but the wings are rather better developed
than in any other of the so-called ‘Struthious’
birds ; they present an interesting archaic character
in the persistence of a claw upon each of the three
digits, thus recalling very forcibly the origin of
the wing from a prehensile forelimb. As in the
ostrich and the apteryx, the feathers have no after-
shaft, and the colour of the eggs is white. The |
male bird ineubates. There are three distinct
5 agree R. americana, R. macrorhyncha, and
. Darwini, which are to be distinguished by their
geographical range as well as by external and in-
ternal differences of structure. The first-named
species inhabits the southern half of the continent.
: gesagt on 5 which is darker coloured, especi-
ally on the head, is found in north-east Brazil. 2.
Darwini, in which most of the feathers have white
tips, is found in south-eastern South America.
They all prefer grassy plains (campos), herd in
troops, and run with great rapidity.
Rhea Fibre. See Banmeria.
Rhegium. See ReGGro.
Rheims, or RErMs, a city in the French depart-
ment of Marne, situated on the Vesle (a tribu
of the Aisne), 100 miles ENE. of Paris by
Strongly fortified with detached forts since the
Franco-German war, when it was for a time the
German headquarters, it is well built, and from the
material employed in building, which is the chalk-
stone of the district, and from the prevalence of the
older style of domestic architecture, has a pietur-
esque appearance. It is built on the site of Durocor-
torum, which is mentioned by Cesar as the capital
of the Remi, from which people it subsequently took
its present name. Christianity may have found an
entrance into Rheims at an earlier period, but it
was not till about 360 that it became a bishop's
see. Under the Frank rule it was a place of much
importance, and it acquired a deeply religious
RHEINGAU
RHENISH ARCHITECTURE = 685
interest from its having been the scene in 496 of
the baptism of Clovis and his chief officers by the
bishop, St Remy (c. 438-533). In the 8th century
it became an archbishopric, and from 1179, when
Philip Augustus was solemnly crowned here, it
became the place for the coronation of the kings of
France, who were anointed from a vessel of sacred
oil, called the Sainte Ampoule, which a dove was
said to have carried to St Remy from heaven.
Joan of Are brought the dauphin hither, and the
only sovereigns in the long series, down to 1825,
not crowned at Rheims were Henry IV., Napoleon
L, and Louis XVIII. In 1793 the cathedral was
attacked by the populace, and the sainte ampoule
smashed by a sans-culotte; and in 1830 the cere-
mony of coronation at Rheims was abolished.
The cathedral, although the towers of the original
design are still unfinished, is one of the finest extant
specimens of Gothic architecture. It was built
between 1212 and 1430, and in 1877 the govern-
ment voted £80,000 towards restoration. Its nave
is 466 feet long by 99 in breadth, with a transept
of 160 feet, and the height is 144 feet. Its grandest
features are the west facade, which is almost un-
rivalled, with its magnificent doorway (figured in
Vol. IV. p. 59), and the so-called Angel Tower,
which rises 59 feet above the lofty roof. The
stained glass is remarkable for its uty; the
organ is one of the finest in France; and two sur-
vive out of six gag ie tapestries. The Roman-
esque church of St Remy (mainly 1160-80), with
the saint’s shrine, is nearly of equal size, but of
less architectural pretension. Iso noteworthy
are the hdtel-de-ville (1627-1880); the ancient
* Maison des Musiciens’ and archiepiscopal palace ;
the Porta Martis, a Roman triumphal arch; the
Lycée, representing a former university (1547-
1793); and statues of Louis XV. and two natives,
Colbert and Marshal Drouet. Rheims is one of
the principal entrepéts for the wines of Champagne
(q.v.), and the hills which surround
the town are planted with vine-
yards. It is one of the great centres
of the woollen manufacture in
France, and its manufactures, em-
bracing woollen s (especially
merinoes), mixed fabrics in silk and
wool, &c., are known in commerce
as Articles de Reims. Pop. (1872)
71,397; (1891) 101,699. See the
article Douay; and Justinus,
Rheims, la ville des sacres (1860).
Rheingau, a district, 14 miles
long, stretching along the right bank
of the Rhine, from opposite Mainz
to the village of Lorch, 8 miles
below Bingen, formerly belonged to
the archbishopric of Mainz, and now
forms part of the administrative
district of Wiesbaden in Prussia.
Protected by mountains, from the
north and east winds, and ex
to the mid-day sun, the Rheingau
produces wines of the best quality,
as Johannisberger, Riidesheimer,
Marcobrunner, Assmanshiuser, &c.
Rhenish Architecture, the
style of the countries bordering on
the Rhine when the arts first revived
after the fall of the Roman empire.
They and Lombardy being at the
time of Charlemagne part of the
same empire, Lombard Architecture (q.v.) has con-
siderable affinity with those north of the Alps.
Some very early examples of this style are still
to be found in Switzerland. Architecture received
great encouragement from Charlemagne and his
successors, and the Rhenish style made great pro-
gress up to the beginning of the 13th century,
when the fashion of copying the Gothic architec-
ture of France superseded it. It is, however,
a well-marked style, and is
complete and perfect in
itself. Like the Lombard
style, it is round-arched,
and has some remarkable
peculiarities. Many of the
earliest churches seem to
have been circular (like
the cathedral ‘at Aix-la-
Chapelle, built by Charle-
magne), but in course of
time the cireular church
was absorbed into the
Basilica, or rectangular
church (see ROMANESQUE
ARCHITECTURE), in the
form of a western apse.
Most German churches
thus have two apses—an
eastern and a_ western.
They also have a number
of small circular or octa-
gonal towers, which seem
to be similar in origin to
the Round Towers of Ire-
land. They exemplify in
a remarkable manner the
arrangements of an ancient Fig. 1.—Plan of Church
lan of the 9th century, at Laach,
‘ound in the monastery of
St Gall, and supposed to have been sent to the
abbot, as a design for a perfect monastery, to aid
him in carrying out his new buildings. The arcaded
galleries at the eaves, and the richly-carved capitals,
are among the most beautiful features of the style.
Examples are very numerous from about 1000 to
EES
ye
Fig. 2.—Elevation of Church at Laach,
1200 A.D. The three great specimens of the style
are the cathedrals of Mainz, Worms, and Spires.
The last is a magnificent building, 435 feet long by
125 feet wide, with a nave 45 feet wide, and 105
feet high. It is grand and simple, and one of the
686 RHENISH PRUSSIA
RHETORIC
most impressive buildings in existence. There are
also numerous fine examples of the style at Cologne
—the Apostles’ Church, St Maria im Capitol
and St Martin’s being amongst the most finishe¢
examples of Rhenish architecture. The illustra-
tions of the famous church of the Benedictine abbey
at Laach, near Coblenz, explain the peculiarities of
lan and elevation above referred to. The vaults
in this ease being small, the different spans were
managed (although with round arches) by stilting
the springing; but in great buildings like Spires
and Worms the vaults are necessarily square in
plan, in this round-arched style, and the nave
embraces in each of its bays two arches.of the side
aisles—a method also followed by the early Gothic
architects. From the use of the round arch and
solid walls, the exteriors are free from the great
mass of buttresses used in Gothic buildings, and
the real forms are distinctly seen (see APSE).
Rhenish Prussia (Ger. Rheinprovinz, Rhein-
land, or Rheinpreussen), the most western and most
thickly peopled of the provinces of Prussia, lies on
both sides of the Rhine and the Lower Moselle, and
is bounded on the W. by Luxemburg, Belgium,
and the Netherlands. Long and narrow, it extends
from Cleves in the north to Soro agg in the
south, has Cologne near the middle of its area,
Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) and Treves near its
western boundary, and Coblenz (the capital),
Elberfeld-Barmen, and Essen near its eastern boun-
dary, whilst Bonn lies south-east of Cologne, and
Diisseldorf and Crefeld N. by W. of it. Area, 10,419
. m.; pop. (1885) 4,344,527 ; (1890) 4,710,313, of
whom about 3,400,000 are Roman Catholics, and
10,000 Walloons. The surface is everywhere more
or less mountainous, except in the extreme north,
reaching 2500 feet on the west of the Rhine, but
only 1800 on the east side. The soil of the higher
tracts is not very fertile, and is largely forest land ;
but the valleys of the Rhine, Moselle, and Nahe
are very fruitful, and so are the flat districts in the
north. Of the total area, 64 per cent. is cultivated,
including meadows and vineyards, and nearly 31
r cent. under forest. Grain, potatoes, beet-root,
bacco, hops, flax, &c. are the more important
crops. Much wine and large quantities of vege-
tables are grown. More than sixteen million tons
of coal are mined in the year, also large quantities
of iron, zine, and lead ore. The “ee sip me of
Aix-la-Chapelle and Burtscheid have a European
reputation. Industry and manufactures are pro-
secuted with the —— energy and success, this
protines ranking first in all Prussia in this respect.
ron, lead, zine, and sulphuric acid (at Essen,
rg Remscheid, &c.); cloth and buckskin
( Aix- Chapelle and Burtscheid); silk, velvet, and
similar wares (Crefeld, Elberfeld-Barmen, Miil-
heim), cottons (Cologne, Miinchen-Gladbach, and
Elberfeld-Barmen), linen (Gladbach and Neuss),
leather (Malmedy ), glass and pottery, paper, chemi-
cals (Duisburg, Aix-la-Chapelle), soap, sugar, beer,
spirits, and perfume (eau de Cologne) are all manu-
factured on a large scale. There is a university at
Bonn. This province was formed in 1815 out of
the duchies of Cleves, Jiilich (Juliers), Guelders,
and Berg, and numerous minor territories. It is
defended by the four fortresses of Cologne, Coblenz
(Ehrenbreitstein), Wesel, and Saarlouis.
Rheostat, the name given by Wheatstone to
an instrument for varying an electric resistance
between given limits. Many forms have been
suggested and used by Pouillet, Jacobi, Poggen-
dortf, Wheatstone, and others. The most service-
able is perhaps Sir W. Thomson’s modification of
Wheatstone’s double-cylinder rheostat. In it a
platinum or platinoid wire is wound round two
parallel cylinders, one of which is metal and the
other of some insulating material, In any position
the part of the wire which is effective as a resist-
ance is the part that ison the insulating cylinder
up to where it comes in contact with the metal
cylinder. By means of a gearing of toothed wheels
and screw shaft the two cylinders are turned simul-
taneously in one or the other direction, while at
the same time a nut travels to or fro and guides
the wire as it leaves the one cylinder and coils
itself round the other. See ELEcrRiciry.
Rhesus Monkey, or Boonper (Macacus
rhesus), a widely distributed and common Indian
monkey. -Like the Entellus (q.v.) or Hanuman, it
is in part migratory, visiting the Himalayas in
summer, and sometimes found at a level of 8000
feet. The body is stout, the limbs are strong, the
skin hangs in loose folds about the neck, breast,
and abdomen. The hair is grayish or brownish on
the back and lighter beneath ; the naked parts are
copper-coloured ; the large ischial callosities are
bright red. It is a very intelligent and mischievous
monkey, and readily tamed when young. It is
=n
Rhesus Monkey (AMacacus rhesus).
held in almost as great veneration by the natives
of India as the Hanuman itself; and the killing of
one of these animals is apt to arouse the grea‘
popular indignation. The monkeys live in a
in the forests, chiefly in hilly districts, and t
the cultivated grounds to away grain and
other produce, which they store up for themselves
among rocks. The native farmers leave a share
for the monkeys, believing this to be necessary to
avert their anger, as otherwise they would next
year destroy the whole crop whilst green.
Rhetoric (Gr. rhétorikz) in its broadest sense
may be regarded as the theory and practice of
eloquence, whether spoken or written. It aims at
expounding the rules which should govern all prose
composition or speech designed to influence the
judgments or the feelings of men, and therefore
treats of everything that relates to beauty or force
of style, such as accuracy of expression, the strue-
ture of periods, and figures of speech. But in a
narrower sense rhetoric concerns itself with a con-
sideration of the fundamental pp erp ee
to which particular discourses of an oratorical kin
are composed. The first to reduce oratory to &
system were the Sicilian Greeks ; its actual
is said to have been Corax of Syracuse (c. 500
B.C.), He divided the speech into five parts, proem
narrative, arguments, subsidiary remarks, and
under.
RHETORIC
RHEUMATISM 687
peroration ; and he laid great stress on the rhetori-
cal capabilities of general probability. Later
masters of rhetoric were Tisias ; Gorgias of Leon-
tini, whose style was burdened with too much
ornament and antithesis; Antiphon, the earliest
of the so-called ‘Ten Attic Orators,’ and the first
writer of speeches for others to deliver in court.
The speeches given by his Leon pupil Thucydides
throughout his yrds) and the orations of Ando-
cides, second of the Ten, are severely free from
the florid ornament of later days. Lysias was an
orator rather than a rhetorician ; tes first
thoroughly taught rhetoric, which he defined as
the ‘science of persuasion,’ as a technical method
and discipline. His most celebrated yeas were
Hyperides, Speusippus, and Iseeus. The great De-
mosthenes was a pupil of the last. His opponent
#Eschines, and his contemporaries Hyperides,
Lycurgus, and Dinarchus complete the ‘Ten.
Anaximenes of Lampsacus com the oldest
extant manual of rhetoric, but the great classical
work on this subject is the analytical masterpiece
of Aristotle. According to him its function is not
to persuade, but to discover the available means of
persuasion in any subject. He regards it as the
counterpart of logic, and arran; its uses as (1)
the means by which truth and justice assert their
superiority to falsehood and injustice ; (2) the only
method of persuasion suitable to popular audiences ;
(3) a means of seeing both sides of a case and of
discerning the weakness of an adve ’s argu-
ment; (4) as a means of self-defence. The means
of persuasion he groups in two classes: (1) the
inartificial proofs, such as statements of witnesses,
contracts, and the like; (2) the artificial proofs,
whether these are (a) logical, demonstration or
pence 4 demonstration by argument; (b) ethical,
when the speaker induces confidence by the weight
of his own character; or (c) emotional, when he
works persuasively on the feelings of his hearers.
Of these artificial proofs, first comes the logical,
and this depends on the enthymeme, ‘a syllogism
from abilities * and signs; next is the sennis
Of the materials of enthymemes, the topics or
commonplaces of rhetoric, Aristotle distinguishes
between the common, general heads applicable to
all subjects as to their — or impossibility,
and the special, those drawn from special arts or
faculties.
He divides the three provinces of rhetoric thus :
(1) Deliberative rhetoric, concerned with exhorta-
tion or dissuasion, and future time, its ends expedi-
ency and inexpediency ; (2) Forensic rhetoric, con-
cerned with accusation or defence, and with time
past, its ends justice and injustice ; (3) Epideictic
rhetoric, concerned with eulogy or censure, and
usually with time present, its ends being honour
and disgrace, or nobleness and shamefulness. In
his first two books Aristotle deals with invention,
the discovery of means of persuasion ; in the third,
with expression and arrangement ; and he begins
- the subject Ww discussing the art of declamation
or wexntigs nder verbal expressions he discusses
the use of metaphor, simile, proverbs, rhythm, and
variety of styles, as the literary and controversial,
whether the political or the forensic.
Aristotle’s method dominated the Peripatetic
school, but later began to be modified by the florid
influence of Asia, the originator of which was
Hegesias of Magnesia. he school of Rhodes
followed more closely Attic models, and gained
t fame through its conspicuous leaders Apol-
onius and Molon (c. 100-50 B.c.). _Hermagoras of
Temnos (c. 120 B.C.) composed an elaborate system
which long retained its influence. Later rhetoricians
were Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Longinus, Her-
mogenes, Apsines, Menander, Theon, and Aph-
thozius. Among the earliest Roman orators were
Appius Claudius Ceeus (c. 300 B.c.), Cato the
Censor, Ser. Sulpicius Galba, Caius Gracchus,
Marcus Antonius, and Lucius Licinius Crassus.
The instructors in formal rhetoric were Greek,
and the great masters of theoretical and practical
rhetoric alike, Cicero and Quintilian, were both
formed by Greek models. The former contributed
to a discussion of its theories no less than three
treatises, De Oratore, the Brutus, and the Orator ;
the latter’s famous Institutio Oratoria still retains
its value. Quintilian strove hard to reform the
taste of the time, which had become Asiatic
i exclusive attention to the form and per-
petual exercises in the schools on imaginary sub-
ects—the suasorie and controversie of the elder
meca. The Dialogus de Oratoribus, long ascribed
to Tacitus, was another protest against modern
fashion. ape puenaee Pliny’s Panegyric long re-
mained a model for later orators. During the
first four centuries of the empire rhetoric con-
tinued to be taught by ‘sophists’ at Athens,
Sm odes, Tarsus, Antioch, Alexandria,
and Massilia. These were in. most esteem under
Hadrian, the Antonines, and Marcus Aurelius—
among the most celebrated were Theodotus,
Polemon, and Adrian of Tyre. Throughout the
middle ages rhetoric formed one of the subjects of
the trivium ; its leading authorities were Marti-
anus Capella, Cassiodorus, and Isidorus, The
subject re-awoke with the revival of learning, and
was taught regularly in the universities, the pre-
scribed public exercises and disputations keeping
it long alive; but in later generations it has con-
stantly languished, in spite of more or less laborious
or effective attempts to fan it into life by the sen-
tentions Blair, the solid Campbell, and the saga-
cious Whately. In America, however, consider-
able attention is paid to it as a branch of general
education. :
See Aristotle’s Rhetoric, with notes by E. M. Cope
and J. E. Sandys (3 vols. 1877), the Introduction and
ge oe dle to (1867), and Translation by J. E.
C. Welldon (1886); C. Ritter, Die Quintilianische De-
clamationen (1881); R. Volkmann, Die Rhetorik d.
Griechen u. Rimer ( 1872); Book iv. of St Augustine’s
treatise On Christian Doctrine ; and J. Bascom’s Philo-
sophy of Rhetoric (New York, new ed. 1885). For the
practical art of Rhetoric or Oratory, see M. Bautin,
Art of Extempore Speaking (1858); the Abbé M. Delau-
mosne, Art ot Crehaed : system of Delsarte, trans. F. A.
Shaw (Albany, 1882); Professor J. H. M‘Ilvaine, Elocu-
tion: the Sources and Elements of its Power (1870);
V. A. Pinkley, The Essentials of Elocution and
(Cincinnati, 1888); C. J. Plumptre, Lectures on Elocu-
tion (1869); G. L. Raymond, Zhe Orator’s Manual :
Vocal Culture, Emphasis, and Gesture (Chicago, 1879);
and C. W. Bardeen, Rhetoric (New York, 1884),
Rheumatism (from the Gr. rhewma, ‘a flux’)
is a term which has been, and still is, rather
vaguely and extensively used in the nomenclature
of disease. But there is one very definite affection
to which it is always applied ; after this has been
discussed the other senses in which it is used will
be considered,
Acute rheumatism or rheumatic fever is indicated
by general febrile symptoms, with redness, heat,
swelling, and usually very intense pain, in and
around one or more (generally several, either simul-
taneously or in succession ) of the larger joints, and
the disease shows a tendency to shift from joint
to joint or to certain internal serous membranes,
especially the pericardium and the endocardium ;
rheumatism being the most common origin of peri-
carditis, as has diay already shown in the article
on that disease. The pulse is strong and full,
there is headache, but seldom delirium, unless in
very severe cases; the tongue is covered with a
creamy thick fur, the tip and edges being red ; the
urine is turbid, and abnormally acid ; and the skin
688
RHEUMATISM
is bathed in a copious en with so charac-
teristic a smell (resembling that of sour milk) that
the 15, ere can often recognise the disease
almost before he sees the patient. The joints are
extremely painful, and the pain is much increased
by pressure, and consequently by movement which
ves rise to internal bays Hence the patient
ies fixed in one posi from which he dares not
stir.
The usual exciting cause of acute rheumatism is
exposure to cold, and especially to cold combined
with moisture, and hence the greater prevalence of
this disease amongst the poor and ill-clad. Sleep-
ing in damp sheets or upon the damp ground, the
wearing of wet clothes, and sitting in a cold damp
room, es ly if the sitter was previously warm
from exercise, are examples of the kind of exposure
which is apt to be followed by this disease, eu-
matism is not, however, a universal sequence to
exposure to the cold. It only occurs when there is
a special [reeds or, as it is termed, a rheu-
matic diathesis or constitution, and the diathesis
may be so strongly developed as to occasion an
attack of acute rheumatism, independently of ex-
posure to any apparent exciting cause. Acute
rheumatism is often associated with Chorea (q.v.) ;
but the exact nature of the relation between the
two is not known. Searlet fever is the only other
disease which seems specially liable to be followed by
acute rheumatism. Men are more subject to the dis-
ease than women, but this probably arises from their
greater exposure to atmospheric ges on account
of the nature of their occupations. The predis-
position is certainly affected by age ; children under
ten years being comparatively seldom attacked,
while the disease is most prevalent between the
age of fifteen and forty. Above this age a first
attack is rare, and even recurrences are less frequent
than earlier in life. Persons once affected become
more liable to the complaint than they previously
were, The disease is hereditary in a considerable
roportion of cases; and even when it cannot be
Gased in previous | agrees the predisposition is
very apt to exist in several members of the same
family. The exact nature of the disease poison is
unknown. Dr Prout rded lactic acid as the
actual materies morbi, but, though certain facts
tend to confirm this view, it cannot be regarded
as satisfactorily proved.
In the great cop phe of cases acute rheumatism
ends in recovery; and permanent damage to the
affected joints is rare. It is, however, extremely
apt to recur, either in the early stages of con-
valescence, or after an interval of months or years.
The chief danger arises from implication of the
heart, which very frequently occurs; probably in
about one-half of those suffering for the first time
either the pericardium or endocardium or both are
affected. The younger the patient the greater the
liability to these complications, which usually result
in more or less permanent impairment of the heart’s
action (see HEART, PERICARDIUM). Another con-
dition, much less common, but extremely fatal,
is known as rheumatic hy ia, and is char-
acterised by a very rapid rise of temperature to 108°
or 110°, with h symptoms in the form either of
drowsiness or of violent delirium.
The patient should be strictly confined to bed
between blankets (i.e. without sheets), and be
clothed in flannel ; he must be carefully protected
from draughts, and from undue pressure of the bed-
clothes, and supplied with light nourishment and
diluent drinks. Under such conditions, without
other treatment, most cases recover in the course
of time. Till the last quarter of the 19th century
there was no general ment as to what more
should be done. When bleeding was used for most
acute diseases this one was no exception. When
that practice was abandoned numerous are were
used, in some cases with apparent success. jinine,
iron, lemon juice, colchicum, large blisters to all the
affected joints, were all recommended; more in
favour than any of these were alkalis in large doses.
But in 1876 Stricker in Berlin and ea pe in Eng-
land called attention to another method of treatment
which is now almost universally adopted. Though
new to Europe it has long been in use elsewhere,
for the natives of South Africa have from time
immemorial treated the disease by willow-top infu-
sion. This method consists in adminis’
of Salicin (q.v.), or one of its derivatives (salicylic
acid, salicylate of soda, &c.). The last is at present
most largely used. It is usually given in doses of
15 or 20 grains every two or three hours at first;
but its action needs to be carefully watched, as it
often causes considerable depression and other
uncomfortable symptoms, It is admitted by almost
all observers that it has a remarkable effect in
reducing the fever, relieving the pains, and cutting
short the attack; but under this treatment, as
without it, relapses are frequent. In rheumatic
hyperpyrexia the only treatment that has been
found effectual is immersion in a tepid bath as often
as the temperature rises to a
Convalescence is usually very slow, and it is neces-
sary to keep the patient in bed and on low diet for
some time after the fever has disappeared to diminish
the tendency to relapse. At this stage tonics, espe-
bers / quinine and iron, are generally useful.
Chronic Rheumatism.—Chronic painful affections
of the joints sometimes follow rheumatic fever and
are clearly a consequence of it. The name is often
erroneously applied to chronic and insidious forms
of gout. There is another form of disease to which
most of the cases of so-called ‘ chronic rheumatism’
belong, probably distinct from both rheumatism
and gout, popularly so called, though it is often
called ‘rheumatic gout,’ which deserves separate
mention,
Osteo-arthritis (chronic rheumatic arthritis and
rheumatoid arthritis are among its many other
names) is characterised in most cases by a very
chronic course, by pain and stiffness in one or more
of the joints, with creaking on movement, bob 4
destructive changes of the cartilages of the aff
joints, with enlargement of the ends of the bones in
their neighbourhood. It is more common in women
than in men; most often begins at or after middle
life, though occasionally even in childhood ; and is
apt to affect those who are weakly and who have
had a life of hard work with defective nourishment.
There is no special liability to affection of the
heart as in true rheumatism. In the treatment of
this ailment hot baths and douches, particularly
with certain mineral waters (e.g. those of Bath,
Aix-les-Bains), and a warm dry climate are very
valuable; a generous diet is essential. Of droge,
cod-liver oil and arsenic are most often serviceable ;
but many others, iron, quinine, guaiacum, &c., are
also of use. Under any treatment, however, com-
plete recovery is exceptional ; but the disease, even
when severe, does not much shorten life.
Gonorrheal rheumatism is a form of joint-disease
closely simulating acute rheumatism which occurs
in some cases of Gonorrhea (q.v.). The affection
does not, however, flit from joint to joint in the
same way, and is not amenable to the same treat-
ment.
Muscular rheumatism is the name usuall on
to painful affections of the muscles for which no.
clear cause is discoverable; it usually depends
either on defective digestion or imperfect excretion
of waste pos from the system, and eliminant
treatment, by alkalis, purgatives, or diaphore is
usually indicated, But it is very doubtful wh
the cause is the same as in acute rheumatism.
RHEYDT
RHINE 689
RHEUMATIC DISEASES OF ANIMALS.—These are
Jess common than the corresponding affections of
men. Horses are not very liable to acute rheu-
matism, but suffer from a chronic variety,
which occurs especially in conjunction with in-
fluenza. When affecting the limbs it often ex-
hibits its characteristic tendency to shift from
one part to another. In cattle and sheep rheu-
matic disorders are more common and acute
than in horses. The specific inflammation some-
times involves most of the fibrous and fibro-serous
textures throughout the body, inducing general
stiffness, constipated bowels, and high fever. This
is rheumatic fever—the chine-felon or body-garget
of the old farriers. Sometimes the disease mainly
affects the larger joints, causing intense pain, lame-
ness, and hard swellings; occasionally it is con-
fined to the feet and fetlocks, when it is recognised
- as bustian-foul. Cattle and sheep on bleak exposed
pastures, and cows turned out of the dairy to feed
on strong alluvial grazings are especially subject to
rheumatism in its several forms. Amongst dogs
ism is known under the name of kennel
lameness, and is very troublesome and intractable
in low, damp, cold situations. Blood-letting is
rarely admissible except in the most acute cases
amongst cattle. In all animals a laxative should
at once be given, with some saline matters and
colehicum, and when the pain and fever are great
a little tincture of aconite may be added. For
cattle a good combination consists of one ounce of
nitre, two drachms of powdered colchicum,
two fluid drachms of the Pharmacopeeia tincture of
aconite, repeated in water or el every three
hours: half this dose will suffice for horses. With
a simple laxative diet dogs should have a pill
night and nr tieare containing five ins of nitre
and two of colehicum. Comfortable lodgings, a
warm bed, horse-rugs on the body, and bandages
on the legs will greatly expedite a cure. In chronic
cases, or after the more acute symptoms are
‘subdued, an ounce of oil of turpentine and two
-drachms each of nitre and Msgs es eolchicum
should be given for a cow, half that 7 for a
horse, and one-fourth for a sheep. artshorn and
oil, or other stimulating embrocations, diligently
and uently rubbed in, will often abate the pain
cand swelling of the affected joints.
Rhevd a town of Rhenish Prussia, 19 miles
rail W. by S. from Diisseldorf, has manufactures
of silks, velvets, cottons, machinery, hardware,
paper, dyeworks, and breweries. Pop. (1880)
9,087 ; (1890) 26,962.
Rhime. See RuyMe.
Bhin, Bas and HAvt, until 1871 frontier
departments of France, corresponded pretty nearly
to what are now the two administrative districts of
Lower and Upper Alsace, in the German imperial
territory of A’ Lorraine (q.v.)—Bas Rhin cor-
responding to Lower Alsace, and Haut Rhin to
Upper Alsace. See also. BELFORT.
Rhine (Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhijn,
Lat. Rhenus), in every way one of the most import-
ant rivers of Europe. A large number of rivulets,
issuing from glaciers, unite to form the youn
Rhine; but two are recognised as the principal
sources—the Nearer and the Farther Rhine. The
former emerges on the north-east slope of the Gott-
hard knot (7690 feet above sea-level), and only a
dozen miles from the cradle of the Rhone, on the
other side of the same mountain-knot; the Farther
Rhine has its origin on the flank of the Rheinwald-
horn (7270 feet), not far from the Pass of Bernar-
dino. The two mountain-torrents meet at Reiche-
nan, 6 miles SW. of Coire (Chur) in the Grisons
canton, after they have descended, the Nearer Rhine
5767 feet in 28 miles in a north-east direction, the
408
Farther Rhine 5347 feet in 27 miles along a northerly
course. At Coire the united stream strikes due
north, and, after ploughing its way for 45 miles
between Switzerland and Austrian Vorarlberg,
enters its clearing basin, the Lake of Constance
(1306 feet above the sea). It leaves this lake at
its north-western extremity, a little below Constance,
its water a deep transparent green, and flows
generally westwards, in three or four wide
curves, ‘to Basel, separating Baden on the north
from Switzerland on the south. Along this stretch
the river (490 feet wide) plunges down the falls of
Schaffhausen, nearly 70 feet in three leaps, and
races over narrow rapids at three separate places
where the terminations of the Jura Mountains
intrude into the bed of the river; from the left it
receives the waters of the Swiss Aar. Basel is
280 miles distant from the source of the Nearer
Rhine following the windings of the channel, but
only 85 miles as the crow flies.
t Basel (742 feet) the river, now 225 yards
wide, wheels round to the north, and traversing
an oj shallow valley that rates Alsace
and the Bavarian Palatinate from en, reaches
Mainz (50° N. lat.) in Hesse-Darmstadt, north-
north-east from Basel. This valley is fenced in
by the Black Forest on the east and by the
on the west; in it stand the cities of
Miilhausen, Colmar, Strasburg (on the Ill, 2
miles from the Rhine), Germersheim, Spires,
Ludwigshafen, and Worms, all on the Alsatian
side, and Freiburg, Baden, Rastatt, Carlsruhe,
Mannheim, Heidelberg, and Darmstadt on the
opposite side of the river. Along this section the
ine splits into many side arms that flow parallel
to the main stream, and is studded with green
islands. Nayigation, however, which begins at
Basel (although boats ply for short stretches on the
upper waters above tha’ A pent even as high as Coire)
is facilitated by artificial means, in that the current
is made to flow in a carefully kept, straightened
channel. Of the numerous affluents which add
their waters to the volume of the Rhine along this
section the largest are the Neckar and the Main,
both coming from the right, and both navigable ;
the Ill, which falls into it from the left, is also
navigable. A little below Mainz the Rhine (685
tay wide) is turned west by the Taunus range;
ut at Bingen it forces a e through, and
ursues a north-westerly direction across Rhenish
ssia, past Coblenz, Bonn, Cologne, Diisseldorf,
Ruhrort, and Wesel as far as the tech frontier.
which it reaches a little below Emmerich, and
opposite Cleves ; here it is 1085 yards wide and 36
feet above sea-level. The first half of this portion
of the river from Bingen to Bonn is the Rhine of
eg ee legend, the Rhine of romance, the Rhine
of German patriotism. Its banks are clothed with
vineyards that yield wine esteemed the world over
(see below); the rugged and fantastic crags that
hem in its channel are crowned by ruined castles ;
the treasure of the Nibelungs rests at the bottom
of the river, but higher up, at Worms; the Binger-
loch (see BINGEN) and the Mouse Tower of Bishop
Hatto, the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, the rock of
the siren Lorelei, the commanding statue of Ger-
mania ( the trophy of German victory in 1870), and
innumerable other features lend interest to this the
middle course of ‘Father Rhine,’ as his German
children call him. It still inspires them, as in
1870, when Max Schneckenburger’s Wacht am
Rhein (written in 1840; the music by K. Wilhelm,
1854) was sung by them with the greatest enthu-
siasm as they poured into France. There is the
Rheinlied, too, of Nikolaus Becker, with Alfred de
Musset’s retort, Nous l’avons en, votre Rhin alle-
mand, both of them written in 1841. Between
Bingen and Bonn the steep rocky walls that fence
690 RHINE
RHINOCEROS
in the river approach so closely together that in
many places there is not room for carriage-road
and the railway to run alongside; they have to
find a way through tunnels. Mainz ( feet) is
the head of steamboat navigation from Rotterdam.
The Nahe enters the Rhine at Bingen, the Moselle
at Coblenz; from the opposite (right) side the
Lahn enters just above Coblenz. A few miles
below this town gigantic rafts are formed out of
smaller ones, floated down from the Black. Forest
and the woods towards Lorraine and the Palatinate,
and are then steered by the numerous men who
live on them right down to Dordrecht in Holland,
where they are sold. Below Bonn the Rhine is
joined by the Sieg, Wupper, Ruhr, and) Lippe, all
from the right,
At Bonn the river enters the plains, and almost
a, — “ ing banged frontier
its delta begitis. é principal arm, carrying two-
thirds of the valauaa Bean under the name of
the Waal, and later the Mermede, due west past
Nimeguen until it reaches Dordrecht. East of the
Biesbosch it picks up the Maas ( Meuse) from the left.
At Dordrecht the river again divides, one branch, the
old Maas, running out to sea ; the other, the Noord,
going up north-west to Rotterdam, just above which
town it is joined by the Lek, another main arm of
the deltaic complex, and below which town it once
more unites with the Old Maas. The arm that
strikes off northward at the point where the delta
begins soon divides, sending one branch, the Yssel,
due north to the Zuider , Which it reaches on
the east side near Kampen ; the other branch is the
Lek, which runs into the Waal-Maas arm above
Rotterdam. A thin stream called the ‘ Winding
Rhine’ leaves the Lek half-way between Arnheim
and Rotterdam ; but it again splits at Utrecht into
two LepeaxEE of bake: the Old ceca mee pag
comparatively speaking, manages the help o
a canal and locks to struggle into the North Sen at
Katwyk, a little to the north-west of Leyden,
while the other channel, the Vecht, flows due
north from Utrecht until it enters the Zuider Zee,
a short distance from Amsterdam. For consider-
able distances in these delta regions the rivers are
only kept from overflowing the country by artificial
banks or dykes.
The area drained by the Rhine is estimated
to be 75,773 sq. m., and its total length to be 760
miles, of which 550 in all are navigable. By
means of the Ludwigs Canal it is connected wit!
the Danube; the Rhone and Rhine Canal unites
it with the Rhone, and so with the Mediter-
ranean; another canal provides a roca be-
tween it and the Marne, a tributary of the
Seine; and yet a fifth unites it with the Zuider
Zee at Amsterdam. The fisheries of the Rhine are
of considerable importance; salmon, carp, pike,
sturgeon, and lampreys—the fish of test valne
—are taken principally near St Goar, between
Bingen and Coblenz. The waters are partly re-
stocked from the fish-hatcheries of Hiiningen in
Upper Alsatia (see PiscIcULTURE).
Commercially and historically the Rhine is one
of the principal rivers of Europe. It was the
Romans’ strongest bulwark against the Teutonic
invaders. The Romans, and after them the Franks,
encouraged commerce to travel up and down its
waters, and kept its channel open. Under
Charlemagne the ravages caused by the Teutons
having broken throngh the Roman guard along the
Rhine and inundated Gaul were rapidly obliterated,
and the Rhine valley became the principal focus of
civilisation in the early empire. Except between
1697 and 1871 the Rhine was always a purely
jerman river; at the peace of Ryswick, Foe J
Lorraine was appropriated by France, and the
Rhine became part of the dividing line between
France and Samer. In 1801 Napoleon incor-
porated the whole of the left bank with France ;
and in 1815 the arrangement in force before 1801
was restored ; and after 1871 the Rhine became once
more wholly German, From the days of the Roman
supremacy down to the beginning of the 19th cen-
tury navigation was always more or less hampered
by the riparian sovereigns, ee 3 the greater part
ot the time a large number of duodecimo prince-
lings, who levied vexatious dues on the shipping that
sailed up and down past their towns and territories.
From 1803 all the powers concerned, except Hol-
land, abolished most of the shipping dues on their
own vessels ran the Rhine, and Holland
followed suit in 1831; but it was not until Ist July
1869 that the river was declared an absolutely free
waterway to the ships of all nations, The first
steamboat churned up its waters in 1817; now
some scores ly all the way between Rotterdam
and Mainz, and others along other stretches. More
than 18,000 vessels of abont 2,000,000 tons burden
pass the frontier town of Emmerich going up
stream every — There have been various
schemes for utilising the mechanical power of the
Rhine current by means of turbines and electro-
motors. For the political organisation (1805-13)
taking its name from the Rhine, see CONFEDERA-
TION OF THE RHINE.
RHINE-WINE indica‘ strictly speaking, the
wines produced in the Rheingau (q.v.), the most
valued and costly being those of Castle Johannis-
berg, Hochheim (whence the word Hock, applied in
England promiscuously to all white Rhine wines),
Riidesheim, Steinberg, Griifenberg, Rauenthal,
Marcobrunn, Assmannshatsen Geisenheim.
Except the wine of Assmannshausen ( Assmanns-
hiiuser), which is red, these wines are of a white or
light golden colour, and have an exquisite bouquet
and a dry piquant flavour. In a wider sense the
term Rhine-wine includes the wines of nearly all
the valleys lying contiguous to the Rhine—those of
Baden, Alsace, the Moselle, Hesse-Nassau, and the
Palatinate.
See the illustrated Rh K. Stieler . trans.
1878; new ed. 1887); the’ guidebooks of nth and
Baedeker ; Simrock’s Rheinsagen (th ed, 1883) and Das
malerische und romantische inland (4th ed. 1865);
and the history of the river from Celtic to modern times,
by Mehlis (3 vols. Berlin, 1876-79).
Rhinoceros. This genus, representing a dis-
tinct family of ungulate mammals, contains only
five distinet species, to which another (J. lasiotes
Sclater) re be perhaps (at present, however, doubt-
fully) added. These five species are distributed in
the hotter parts of the Old World as follows : Africa
contains two forms, which are often called the
‘Black’ and the ‘ White’ rhinoceros, These terms
are, however, very inapt, since both of them are of
a grayish black ; in colour there is but little differ-
ence between &. simus and R. bicornis. They
may, however, be ge TE by other points—
the first species is much | r, and has a flat
nose and square upper lip, while J?, bicornis has
the upper lip prolonged so as to enable it to seize
and break off branches. Correlated with this
structural difference is one of habit; 2. simus
grazes, while 2. bicornis feeds pena Lome shrubs.
number of other species have been stated to
occur in Africa, but it appears that these ‘species’
have been for the most part founded upon unim-
portant differences in the length of the two horns
with which these animals are furnished. In Asia
there are at least three well-marked species of
rhinoceros. The large one-horned species, J. wni-
cornis, occurs only in Nepal, Bhotan, and Assam ;
it is a very big species. A specimen in the Zoo-
logical Society’s Gardens measured over 10 feet in
length and a little more than 5 feet in height at
RHINOCEROS
RHIZANTHEZ 691
the shoulder.
Rive it the appearance of being ‘ armour-plated.’
he African species have a smooth, though of
course very thick, skin. The second Asiatic rhino-
ceros is 2. sondaicus, which is smaller than the
last, though also one-horned ; it occurs in Java,
Burma, and the Sundarbans near Calcutta. The
two-horned Asiatic rhinoceros (R. sumatrensis) is
found in Malacea, and 2. /asiotis, from Chittagong,
eastern Bengal, is hardly separable from it.
It has enormous folds of skin, which
Rhinoceros unicornis.
(From a Photograph by Gambier Bolton, F.Z.S.)
Rhinoceroses were more abundant in earlier periods
of the earth's history than they are at present;
one form ( Aceratherium) existed without the char-
acteristic horn or horns, while another (Dicera-
therium) had the horns i. side by side instead
of following each other. The animals are now a wan-
ing race, and African hunters report their dimin-
ished numbers in that continent. One of the princi-
1 authorities npon African rhinoceroses—Mr F. C.
Selous—has brought forward facts which tell of the
approaching extinction of these great quadrupeds in
South Africa, ‘Twenty years ago,’ he says, ‘this
animal (2. simus] seems to have been very plenti-
ful in the western half of South Africa; now
(1881), unless it is still to be found between the
Okavango and Cunene rivers, it must be almost
extinct in that portion of the country. And this is
not to be wondered at when one reads the accounts
in Andersson’s and ——— books of their shoot-
ing as many as eight of these animals in one night
as they were drinking at a small water-hole; for it
must be remembered that these isolated water-
holes at the end of the dry season represented all
the water to be found over an enormous extent of
country, and that therefore all the rhinoceroses that
in happier times were distributed over many hun-
(reds of square miles were in times of drought
dependent upon perhaps a single pool for their
supply of water. In 1877, during several months’
lunting in the country to the south of Linyanti,
on the river Chobe, I only saw the spoor of two
square-mouthed rhinoceroses, though in 1874 I had
found them fairly plentiful in the same district;
whilst in 1879, during — months spent in
hunting on and between the Botletlie, Mababe,
Machabe, Sunta, and Upper Chobe rivers, I never
even saw the spoor of one of these animals, and all
the Bushmen that I met with said they were
finished.’ The rhinoceros has got the reputation
of being a savage creature, pal there are terrible
stories of encounters; these, however, appear to
have been greatly exaggerated, though individuals
may be vicious at times. All the species of
rhinoceros have been exhibited in Europe with
the exception of 2. simus,
The rhinoceros, united with the horse and tapir,
forms the Perissodactyle division of the Ungu-
lata (q.v.). The Asiatic rhinoceroses are dis-
tinguished from the African forms by the presence
throughout life of functional incisor teeth. Pro-
fessor Flower has shown that in other ( osteological )
characters the African species are to be contrasted
with the Asiatic; in spite of its two horns, R.
sumatrensis is more closely allied to R. unicornis
than to R. bicornis; even the fossil species are
referable for the most part to one or the other
group. The Siberian PR. tichorhinus, of which a
specimen, J sc reserved through its being frozen,
was found by the Russian naturalist, Pallas, be-
longs to the African group, which is sometimes
separated under the generic name of Atelodus.
Rhinoplastic Operations. When a por-
tion or the whole of the nose has been destroyed
by accident or disease, the deficiency may be
restored by a transplantation of skin from an
adjoining healthy part. When the whole nose has
to be replaced, the following course -is usually
adopted. A triangular piece of leather or gutta-
percha is cut into the shape of the nose, and is
extended on the forehead with its base uppermost ;
its boundaries, when thus flattened, are marked
out on the skin with ink. Any remains of the old
nose are then pared away, and a deep groove is cut
round the margins of the nasal apertures. When
the bleeding from these incisions has stopped, the
marked portion of the skin of the forehead must be
carefully dissected away, till it hangs by a narrow
strip between the eyebrows. When the bleedin
from the forehead ceases, the flap must be twis'
on itself, so that the surface which was originally
external may remain external in the new position,
and its edges must be fastened with stitches into
the grooves prepared for their recéption. The nose
thus made is to be supported with oiled lint, and
well wrapped in flannel to keep up the temperature.
When complete adhesion’ has taken place, the
twisted strip of skin may be cut through, or a little
slip may be cut out of it, so that the surface may be
uniformly smooth. Either at the first operation or
subsequently a new columna (the front part of the
septum) is usually formed from the skin of the
upper lip. When only a part of the nose, as one
side only, or the septum, requires to be restored,
modifications of the above operation are required,
and the skin, instead of being taken from the fore-
head, is taken from the cheek or the be lip.
This operation is called the Indian Method, having
been introduced from the East and first success-
fully performed in Europe by Carpue in 1814.
It has almost entirely superseded the Talia-
cotian Operation, first performed by Tagliacozzi
or Taliacotius (1546-99), professor of Anatomy and
ton, gt f at Bologna, and described in his famous
wor Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem (1597).
He took the skin for the new nose from the arm of ,
his patient; and there is no reason why the opera-
tion which he describes, although inferior in many
respects to that at present adopted, should not be
successful. The difficulty and irksomeness of keep-
ing the arm sufficiently long in apposition with the
face (a period of about twenty days) is the chief
objection to his method. For further details, see
Holme’s System of Surgery, or Erichsen’s, or any
other surgical manual.
Rhizanthezx, one of the five classes into which
Lindley divides the vegetable kingdom. There are
three natural orders comprised in the class—viz,
Balanophoracex, Cytinacez, and Rafflesiacee, but
they have been placed widely apart in the botanical
ae of other botanists. The species comprising
them agree only in being destitute of true leaves,
in having short amorphous stems or none, and in
being parasitical on roots. The structure of the
flowers, which are in some instances very large,
692 RHIZOCARPS
~ ie ee
1 _
RHODES
plant, the Fangua” Melatencta of
ecaries, long
celebrated for arresting h: Others like-
wise are used as styptics. Cytinus hypocisti
(Cytinacer ) grows on the roots of species of Cistus
in the south oS eens its eer phe vert as -
astringent in morr! and dysentery. —
peers: Gubbssioten (itbaethanese) springs
up suddenly after rain in Peru, like a fungus.
arious species of Balano: abound in Northern
ia. ey are found in the Himalayas at an
elevation of 10,000 feet, producing great knots on
the roots of maple trees, oaks, &c.
Rhizocarps. See SALVINIA.
Rhizome, See Roor.
Rhizo’ a (Gr. rhizon, ‘a root,’ and poda,
* feet’), a division of the 1
of which the living matter of the cell flows out in
i In other
important are the Lobosa, with the Amoeba as
type, the Heliozoa or Sun-animalcules, the Radio-
laria, and the Foraminifera. See AmMazBa, Fora-
MINIFERA, PROTOZOA, RADIOLARIA.
Rhode Island, the smallest of the United
States, and one of the original thirteen states of
the Union: the state takes its), t 1891, 1897, and
name from the island of Rhode in the U.S. by J.B.
Island in Narragansett Bay. Its | Mpptecctt Company.
length from north to south is not quite 50 miles,
and its width is about 40 miles; land area, 1053
sy. m. Rhode Island has thus a land surface but
little over gkyth as great as that of Texas, the largest
state; but, while it ranks only thirty-fourth among
the states and territories in point of pees
in density of population (407 per sq. mile) it yields
only to the District of Columbia. Tts name is
referred by some to a sup’ resemblance of the
island of Rhode Island to Rhodes in the Mediter-
ranean, while by others it is considered to be a cor-
ruption of Roodt Eylandt (‘Red Island’), a name
bestowed upon this island by the early Dutch.
There are no mountains in the state, but the
surface is considerably diversified. The northern
and eastern sections are hilly, and the land slopes
toward a level region in the south. The most
important elevations are Woonsocket Hill, Mount
Hope, Diamond Hill, and Hopkins Hill. The
coast along the Atlantic Ocean measures about 45
miles, but Narragansett Bay, which penetrates
inland some 30 miles, affords with its various
inlets about 350 miles of shore washed by tide-
water. The southern coast west of Point Judith
is low and sandy, with numerous fine hes, and
many marshes and ponds of salt water. To the
west the shores are formed by high rocky cliffs
interspersed with beaches of sand. Newport,
Narragansett Pier, and Watch Hill, on the ocean
coast, are among the most famous seaside resorts
of the country ; and Block Island, about 10 miles
tn of Point Judith, is also a favourite watering-
place.
The western part of the state is marked geologi-
cally by the Archean formation, which is character-
istic of much of New England, but an extensive
coal-bearing area of the Carboniferous period
stretches under the bay across the eastern part of
the state into Massachusetts. It is the most eastern
bed of anthracite in the United States, but thus
far the coal which has been mined has been of
inferior quality. There are deposits of iron ore,
and exoullant limestones and granite. Traces of
the terminal moraine of the glacial period are
visible in the state, and in many places the soil is
zoa, in the members | q
stony or rocky, though in some localities it is
moderately fertile. Agriculture, however, except
in the way of market-gardening, is by no means a
at occupation. ‘ :
Rhode Island enjoys a itime climate, milder
and more equable than that of other portions of
New England. The rivers of the state are of
little importance for navigation, but are of
value in furnishing water-power, and have played
a prominent in developing
the — al principal Cgc Bos the
navigable to Pawtucket, oonasquatucket,
the Pawtuxet, and the Pawcatuck.
Newport has one of the finest harbours in
world ; and the bay affords an extensive area
ith excellent at Bristol,
Warren, and Providence. Formerly these
ihrer oe fle ere pinity
of 1812, and, though a
considerable coasting trade is still carried on, com-
merce from that time ceased to be a
industry. It was replaced by
which has ever since been the characteristic oceupa-
tion of “= poo ;
of the
industi
Rhode Island. In 1790 Samuel Slater, who
been an apprentice in En: , built at Pawtucket
Falls the first eotton-mill of America. a
the mill throughout with a complete set of
cnlioo yaaa still holds the first
the industries of the communi
Rhode Island has five counties and five cities, —
Providence and Newport, the state capitals, Paw-
tucket, Woonsocket, and Central Falls. It sends
two members to congress. The common school
system, established in 1828, is of the highest order ;
but on account of the number of foreign-born
persons attracted to the mill villages, and the diffi-
culty in such communities of securing lar
attendance at the schools, there is a remarkable
prevalence of illiteracy. In 1897 there were 59,428
ge enrolled at the elemen schools, with
1 teachers ; 2909 pupils and 131 teachers in
high schools ; and 850 students and 76 professors at
Brown University (1764), one of the oldest and best
colleges of the country.
The Northmen are supposed to have visited
Rhode Island in the 10th century ; and the ‘Old
Stone Mill’ at Newport (q.v.) has been claimed as
their work. The first permanent settlement was
made at Providence by r Williams in 1636,
He and other settlers pure lands from the
Indians, and, as a result of the wise policy dis-
played toward the natives, Rhode Island suffered
ess from trouble with the Indians than poe fr
her sister colonies. Rhode Island was the
(1790) of the original thirteen states to the
constitution. She took an active part in the Revo-
Intion, the war of 1812, and the civil war.
(1730) 17,935 ; (1830) 97,199 ; (1880) 276,581 ; (1890)
345,506 ; (1900) 428,556.
Rhod an island of the Mediterranean be-
longing to Turkey, formerly an important, wealthy,
and independent state of ancient Greece, lies
12 miles distant off the south-west coast of Asia
Minor. It is 49 miles long and 21 broad, and is
traversed in the direction of its greatest i
north-east to south-west—by a chain of mountai
which in Mount Artemira (the ancient Atabyris)
reach a height of 4070 feet. The soil is on the
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RHODES
RHODIAN LAW 693
whole fertile, and produces wine, oranges, figs,
olives, and other fruits. Nevertheless, much land
lies waste, and the population is decreasing—34,000
in 1843; 28,000 in 1890, all Greeks except 7000
Turks and 2500 Jews. The harbours are neglected,
and the trade is inconsiderable (£140,000 a year).
Sponges are the most valuable article of export.
The first historic inhabitants of ancient Rhodos
were Dorian Greeks from A: Situated be-
tween the three ancient continents, a position
highly favourable to the development of com-
mercial enterprise, the Rhodians at an early period
became very prosperous and affluent. Their three
most ancient towns were Lindus, Ialysus, and
Camirus, and they planted numerous colonies not
only on the neighbouring shores, but also on the
coasts of Italy, Sicily, and Spain. With Cos and
Cnidus these three towns formed the Doric Penta-
polis, a religious league. The island submitted to
the Persians in 490 B.c., but was freed from their
yoke by Themistocles after the battle of Salamis ;
the Athenian supremacy, however, soon took the
place of the Persian. Athens and Sparta supported
the democratic and the oligarchical parties in the
island respectively, and struggled one against the
other for power over it. But in 404 B.c. Lindus,
Ialysus, and Camirus founded the city of Rhodes
see below); after this event the history of the
Jand is comprised in that of the new city. The
internecine struggle between the oligarchical party
eng oo by Sparta) and the democratic (supported
y Athens) went on until Rhodes submitted to
Alexander of Macedon in 332 B.c.; but after his
death the Rhodians revolted again. Then began
their most prosperous period; they became the
first naval power in the Agean, their ships bein,
well built, and always splendidly manned an
manceuyred. As allies of the Romans, they
Liga the Macedonians, and later the empire of
ria, especially Antiochus the Great ; but on the
whole they preserved a steady neutrality. Later
still they won great glory by beating off Mith-
ridates the Great, who laid siege (88 B.c.) to the
city. After coquetting with Ptolemy, the Rhodians
finally sided with Cesar ; but, venturing to oppose
Cassius, the city was plundered by him (43 B.c.),
and her ships all carried off or destroyed. This
struck a fatal blow at her naval power. Under
Vespasian Rhodes was made a Roman province,
and continued so, subject to Byzantium after the
division of the Roman empire, until it was captured
by the Saracens in 653 (or 672) ; who kept it, how-
ever, only five or six years. When the Crusades
began, Rhodes was a convenient stopping-place for
the Christian fleets. In 1125 it was plundered by
the Venetians; in 1204 a Rhodian chief asserted
the independence of the island, but thirty years
later he felt compelled to put himself under the
Eersienty of Venice. In 1248 the city was sur-
prised by the Genoese, but they were soon turned
out by the Byzantines, and so Rhodes came back
to the eastern emperor. ‘In 1309, after a three
ears’ siege, the city fell into the hands of the
Kni hts Plospitallers (q.v.) of St John, and they
ade it their headquarters. The Turks besieged
them there in 1480, and in in 1522-23; on both
occasions there was terrible fighting, the Turkish
losses being 25,000 and 90,000 to 100,000 men
during the two sieges respectively. The Knights,
who under their grand-master D’Aubusson (qv)
beat off their enemies in 1480, were compelled,
in spite of their valour and the skill of their grand-
master, De Lisle Adam, to capitulate on honour-
able terms in 1523 ; they sailed away to Crete. The
island has remained a Turkish possession ever since.
The city suffered severely from earthquakes in 227
B.c. (when the Colossus was thrown down), 157
A.D., 515, 1364, 1481, 1851, 1856, and 1863.
The city stood at the northern extremity of the
island, on the slopes of a natural amphitheatre,
and was built on a regular plan, the unity and
harmony of its architecture being due to the cir-
eumstance that it was the work of one man,
Hippodamus of Miletus, the builder of the Pirzeus.
It was girt about by strong walls, surmounted by
towers, and was provided with two excellent
harbours. At the entrance of one of its ports stood
the gigantic statue of Helios, the Colossus (q.v.).
Besides this statue, one of the seven wonders of
the ancient world, 3000 others, of which 100 were
colossal, adorned the city, even in the Ist century
A.D. The city was rebuilt on the same scale of
architectural splendour after each successive de-
struction by the earthquakes. The arts were
prosecuted with assiduity, the city being remark-
able for the number and excellence of its paintings,
sculptures, and statues; the most important sur-
vivals are the Laocoon (q.v.) and the Farnese Bull
(at Naples); and intellectual activity manifested
itself here long after it had declined in most
parts of Greece. Parrhasius and Protogenes are
celebrated amongst the painters of Rhodes, Lysip-
pus, Chares, Agesander, Polydorus, Athenodorus
amongst her sculptors, and Cleobulus (one of the
seven wise men), Timocreon (the scurrilous poet),
Eudemus (the Aristotelian), Panzetius (the philo-
sopher), and others amongst her writers. Her
8c) a of goon was bed Pea a} ear’
meridian of ancient geographers passed throug!
Rhodes. The island produced also many celebrated
athletes, The existing city dates for the most
t from the period of the Knights’ occupation.
he streets are narrow and winding, the houses
solidly built, with flat roofs ; but the famous street
of the Knights, running down to the harbour, is
long and comparatively wide. The principal
buildings that survive are the church of St John
(now a mosque, but in part destroyed by a -
powder explosion in 1856), the Knights’ hospital,
and the grand-master’s palace. 1e city walls
still stand; but the harbours are neglected and
vat 4 choked with sand. Rhodes is the seat of a
sreek archbishop. There is a little trade. Pop.
about 10,000. C. Torr’s excellent Rhodes in
Ancient Times (1885) and Rhodes in Modern Times
(1887), where other books are referred to.
Rhodes, the Rr. Hon. Ceci. Joun, statesman,
was born 5th July 1853, the fourth son of the vicar
of Bishop-Stortford in Hertfordshire, and after
attending the local grammar-school was sent for
his health to Natal, where his brother was a
planter. He subsequently went to the Kimberley
diamond diggings; there he soon became con-
spicuous and amassed a fortune. He came back
to England and entered at Oriel College, Oxford,
and though his residence was cut short by ill-
health, he ultimately took his degree. He entered
the Cape House of Assembly as member for
Barkly. In 1884 General Gordon asked him to go
with him to Khartoum as secretary ;_ but Rhodes
had just taken office in the Cape’ ministry. He
sent £10,000 to Mr Parnell to forward the cause
of Irish Home Rule. In 1890-94 he was prime-
minister of Cape Colony ; but even before this he
had become the ruling spirit in recent extensions
of British territory, as in securing the charter for
the British South Africa Company (see MarTa-
BELELAND). Zambesia (q.v.) is not unfairly called
Rhodesia. For the Jameson raid into the Trans-
vaal, which he was believed to have prompted, see
JAMESON (L. S.). Since 1898 he has strenuously
romoted an African Continental telegraph and a
ape to Cairo railway, There is a (eulogistic) Biog-
raphy and Appreciation by ‘Imperialist’ (1897).
Rhodian Law was compiled by the Rhodians
694 RHODIUM
RHODOPE
after they had obtained the soversignty of the sea,
The only rule that we know now, although the
entire code was adopted by the Romans under
Antoninus Pius, is the principle of general aver-
sans ‘If a cargo be pret to lighten the ship,
contribute to make the loss incurred for
the benefit of all’. The medieval naval law of the
Rhodians was not of Rhodian origin. It consisted
of four distinct parts, of very different dates, but
mostly of practical value.
Rhodium (sym. Rh, at. wt. 104, sp. gr.
12°1) is one of the metals of the platinum group.
It is a white, very hard metal, resembling alum-
inium rather than silver. It fuses less easily than
platinum. It is ductile and malleable when pure
and after fusion, and insoluble in all acids; but
when alloyed in small quantity with platinum,
copper, bismuth, and lead it dissolves with them
in aqua regia. It usually forms about one-half
per cent. of the ore of platinum, from which it is
extracted by a somewhat complicated process.
Three oxides, two os and a chloride of
rhodium have been obtained and examined by
chemists, The chloride unites with several soluble
chlorides to form crystallisable double salts, which
are of a rose colour (whence the name rhodium,
from the Gr. rhodon, ‘a rose’). The metal was
discovered in 1803 by Wollaston.
Rhododendron (Gr., ‘ rose-tree’), a genus of
trees and shrubs of the natural order Ericew, hav-
ing ten stamens, a very small calyx, a bell-shaped
or somewhat funnel-shaped corolla, and a capsule
splitting up through the dissepiments. The buds
in this and nearly allied genera, as Azalea (q.v.),
are scaly and conical. The species are numerous ;
they have evergreen leaves, and many of them are
of great beauty both in foliage and in flowers. A
few small species are natives of continental Europe
and of Siberia; but the ter number belong to
the temperate parts of North America, and to the
mountains of India. 2. maximum, so designated
when the far larger Indian species were unknown,
is common in Britain as an ornamental shrub. It
is a large shrub or small tree, which forms im-
netrable thickets on many Pai of the Alleghany
ountains, and has a magnificent appearance when
in flower. The leaves are large, oblong, acute,
stalked, leathery, dark green and oom | above,
rusty brown beneath. The flowers are large, in
umbellate corymbs, varying in colour from pale
carmine to lilac. This species is quite hardy in
Britain; as is also R. ponticum, a very similar
species, with narrower and more pointed leaves,
which are of the same colour on both sides, a native
of western Asia, and apparently also of the south
of Spain. R&R. Catawbiense, a native of the southern
roe of the Alleghanies, with la) »urple flowers ;
. Caucasicum, the name of which indicates its
origin; and R. arboreum, a native of Nepal, with
very dense heads of 1 scarlet flowers, and leaves
4-6 inches long, attaining in its native country «
height of 30 or 40 feet, are also fine species, and
well known, Most of the extremely numerous
varieties now common in our gardens and shrub-
beries have been produced from them by hybridis-
ing or otherwise.—Many splendid species of rhodo-
dendron were discovered in the imalayas, the
Khasia Hills, and other mountainous parts of India,
by Dr Hooker and others ; and many of them have
been introduced into cultivation in Europe.
R. Falconeri is described as in foliage the most
superb of all, the leaves being 18 or 19 inches long.
It is a tree 30-50 feet high, with leaves only at the
extremities of the branches. It grows in eastern
Nepal at an altitude of 10,000 feet. R. argenteum
has flowers 44 inches long, and equally broad,
clustered, and very beautiful. 2. Maddeni, R.
Aucklandii, R. Edgeworthii, and others have white
re. _ Dathousia Sg sem ng ons an epi-
te, on magnolias, lau
Tes a slender shrub bearing ee three to ae
white lemon-scen is, inches long, at
cadet cock branch. Je dMutsalie’ ieee fragrant
Rhododendron arboreum.
white flowers, said to be larger than those of any
other rhododendron. All these belong to the
Himalayas. In more southern latitudes, as on the
Neilgherry Hills and on the mountains of Cove
R. nobile prevails, a timber-tree 50 to 70 feet high,
every branch covered with a blaze of crimson
flowers. R. Keysii and R. Thibaudiense, also
natives of the north of India, have flowers with
nearly tubular corolla. 2. ferrugineum and R.
hirsutum are small species, shrubs from 1 to 3
feet in height, natives of the Alps, and among the
finest ornaments of alpine scenery. They are called
Alpenrose (Alpine Rose) by the Germans. They
have small carmine-coloured flowers in umbellate
clusters. The mountain-slopes glow with their
blossoms in July and August. he flora of the
Himalayas contains a number of similar small
species. R. anthopogon and R. setosum, dwarf
shrubs with strongly-scented leaves, clothe the
mountains in eastern Nepal, at an elevation of
12,000 feet and upwards, with a mantle,
brilliant with flowers in summer. 2. nivale is the
most alpine of woody plants, spreading its small
woody branches close to the ground at an elevation
of 17,000 feet in Sikkim. 2. la I a pro-
cumbent shrub, with small flowers, grows as far
north as human settlements have reached in Europe,
Asia, and America, Some of the species of this
enus narcotic properties. An oil obtained
rom the buds of R. ferrugineum and R. hirsutum
is used by the inhabitants of the Alps, under the
name Olio di Marmotta, as a remedy for pains in
the joints, gout, and stone, 2B. chry: um, &
low shrub, with golden yellow flowers, a native of
Siberia, is also used in gout and rheumatism,
cinnabarinum, a Himalayan species, poisons goats
which feed upon it, and when used for fuel causes
inflammation of the face and eyes. But the flowers
of R. arboreum are eaten in India, and Europeans
make a palatable jelly of them.
Rhodope, the ancient name of a mountain-
chain (7474 feet) extending along the borders of
Macedonia and Thrace. The Turks eall it Deseet
Yailasi, the Bulgarians Despoto Dagh, both titles
having reference to the numerous (Greek) monas-
teries that stud its sides. Of these the most
famous is the vast fortress-monastery of Rilo, in
the north-west of the range, standing on its
southern side in the midst of magnificent pine
RHONDDA VALLEY
RHUBARB 695
forests. Rilo has for generations been the focus
of the national Bulgarian church and the mainstay
of Bulgarian nationality. See Fortnightly Review
(April 1891).
Rhondda Valley, in Glamorganshire, South
Wales, is noted as a centre of coal-mining and for
its fine scenery. The railway connecting the whole
valley directly with Swansea through the tunnel
of Blaengwynte was opened in 1890.
Rhone (Lat. Rhoddnus), the only important
French river which falls into the Mediterranean,
takes its rise in the Swiss Alps, on the western
side of Mount St Gothard, at an altitude of 5752
feet, and not far from the sources of the Rhine.
Its entire se gp from its source to its mouth
in the Gulf of Lyons, is 504 miles, and the area
of its river-basin 38,170 oo m. It first runsin a
south-westerly direction through the canton of
Valais, along a narrow valley between the Bernese
and the Pennine divisions of the Alps, until near
tigny it takes a sudden turn to the north and
its waters into the Lake of Geneva (q.v.).
t issues from the lake at its southern extremity,
proceeding west, and then forces a passage through
the Jura. The municipality of Geneva has taken
advantage of the strong and steady current of the
river where, ing through the city, it is divided
by an island into two arms, to utilise it for indus-
trial purposes. A system of 20 turbines with 4400
horse-power has been constructed in a building in
the bed of one of the arms, at a cost of £285,000;
and 54 this means, in 1890, 220 motors with some
1600 horse-power were at work. Formerly the
river used to disappear for some distance near Fort
l’Ecluse into the subterranean channel La Perte du
Rhone ; but the vault or covering of the gorge into
which it plunged has now been blown away by
blasting agents. At St Génis the Rhone turns
back suddenly to the north-west, and then once
more flows westwards through a more level country
as far as Lyons, where it is joined by its largest
tributary, the Saéne (283 miles long), from the
north. “From Lyons it follows a southern direction
past Vienne, Valence, Montélimart, Avignon, and
Arles, where ins its delta, emb between
two main arms, the Greater and the Lesser Rhone.
Its most important affluents are, on the right, the
Ain, Sadne, Ardéche, and Gard; on the left, the
Arve, Istre, Dréme, and Durance. From Lyons
southward the Rhone is easily navigable for good-
sized vessels; but the up-navigation, owing to the
rapidity of the current and the sudden shifting of
sandbanks, is attended with considerable ai -
culty, and is at times almost impracticable. On
account of these and other obstructions, which are
test near the mouths of the river, communi-
cation with the Mediterranean is in great part
dependent upon canals, Canals likewise connect
the Rhone with the Rhine by the Saéne, with the
Seine, the Loire, and the Garonne.
Rhone, a department of France, part of the
former Lyonnais, has an area of 1077 * m. and a
pop. (1891) of 806,737 (741,470 in 1881). It lies
almost wholly in the basin of the Rhone and the
Sadne, its eastern boundary being formed by these
rivers. The surface is almost entirely hilly, being
broken up in all directions by low spurs of the
Cevennes. Corn, potatoes, wine, and fruits are
the principal products. Nearly one-half the area
is cultivated, one-eighth is vineyards, one-ninth
under forest, and nearly one-sixth meadows. Some
13 million gallons of wine are made annually. The
department is industrially one of the most im-
portant in France; all the branches are carried on
at Lyons (q.v.), the capital of the department.
Arrondissements, Lyons and Villefranche. See
also BoucHES-DU-RHONE.
Rhubarb (Low Lat. rheubarbarum, from Gr.
rhéon barbaron, literally ‘ barbarian rheum ;’ rhéon
is an adjective from rha, ‘the plant found near
the river Rha’—i.e. the Volga; the botanical
name being simply rheum), a genus of plants of
the na order Polygonacez, closely allied to
Rumex (dock and sorrel), from which it differs in
having nine stamens, three shield-like stigmas,
and a three-winged achenium. The species, about
twenty, are large herbaceous plants, natives of the
central ee ges of Asia, with strong, branching,
almost fleshy roots ; erect, thick, branching stems,
sometimes 6 or 8 feet high ; the stems and branches
whilst in the bud covered with large membranous
sheaths. The leaves are large, stalked, entire or
lobed ; the flowers are small, whitish or red, gener-
ally very numerous, in large loose panicles of many-
flowe’ elusters. The roots are medicinal; but
it is not definitively known what species of rhubarb
yields the valued rhubarb of commerce, which
comes from inland parts of China or Chinese
Tartary. The bulk of it reaches Europe now
direct from China, but the best, in limited quanti-
ties, is brought oapiitn, Russia. It is commonly
known in Britain as Turkey Rhubarb, because it
was formerly brought by way of Asiatic Turkey.
The leaf-stalks of rhubarb contain an agreeable
mixture of citric and malic acids, and when young
and tender are much used, like oe for tarts
and various kinds of preserves. kind of wine
mer. also be made of it. For these purposes
different kinds of rhubarb are now very exten-
sively cultivated in Britain, and in other temperate
and cold countries. A number of species have
been introduced into cultivation for their leaf-
stalks. The cultivated kinds, R. undulatum, R.
rhaponticum, and R. hybridum, with endless
varieties produced by the art of the Upp mee
all have eae. heart-shaped, undivided leaves,
and the leaf-stalks flattened and grooved on the
sper side. The leaf-stalks are often also of a
dish colour, which in some of the finest varieties
pervades their whole flesh. Rhubarb is cultivated
on a most extensive scale by market-gardeners. It
See oe
Rhubarb (Rheum officinale).
is forced in winter and early spring by being
placed in pots within houses, or by is pots
inverted over it, and dung and straw heaped
around; and forced rhubarb is more tender and
delicate than that which grows in open air, The
stalks when blanched are much less harsh in taste
and require less sugar to be rendered atable.
It is largely grown also in many parts of the
United States.
696 RHUBARB
RHUS
The well-known medicinal R. ae differs
considerably in appearance from the kinds pre-
ferred in kitchen-gardens ; the petioles are nearly
round, and the under side of the leaf is covered
with small, erect hairs. The numerous varieties
of commercial rhubarb may be thrown into two
groups: (1) Asiatic Rhubarbs—Chinese, ing
under the names of Russian, Muscovy or Turkey,
Canton or East Indian, Batavian or Dutch
trimmed, yielded probably by 2. officinale and
a variety of R. palmatum; Siberian, by 2&.
rhaponticum; Himalayan large, ces emodi,
andi by R. webbianum ; kharan or
Bucharian, by R. undulatum. (2) European Rhu-
barbs—English, by R. rhaponticum and R. officin-
ale ; French, by Rh rhaponticum, compactum, and
undulatum; Austrian bec et ), by BR. rhaponti-
cum. R. palmatum is believed to produce some of
the best ian rhubarb. Whether 2. officinale
occurs in Shan-hsi and Sze-chwan, from which pro-
vinces the true rhubarb is chiefly obtained and sent
to Hankow, is not definitively known. The export
of rhubarb from China (the so-called Turkey Rha-
barb) has largely increased of late years. The
average shipments of the four years ending with
1889 were 7 ewt. per annum, inst less than
4000 ewt. twenty years before. The Chinese rhu-
barb is of very variable ceeiie whole chests
of 14 to 3 ewt. sometimes affording but a few
pounds of sound roots. The Shan-hsi rhubarb
used to be the best in the market, the roots
being , smooth, and extremely fragrant. It
is now, however, of inferior quality, and dried
with less care, apparently in ovens, in which case
it soon rots in the centre, or is attacked by insects,
Sze-chwan furnishes a good and cheap rhubarb,
esteemed in the London market, where it is known
as ‘high-dried Shanghai rhubarb.’ The roots are
small, rough on the exterior, deficient in flavour,
and when cut give out little scent. The plant
from which the Java rhubarb is derived is not
known; it resembles the Chinese in smell and
taste, but its activity is one-fourth less,
The rhubarb pec is distributed through an
immense traot of country in the central provinces
of China; probably several species yield the same
drug. According to Professor Maximowecz, R.
palmatum is probably the src roducing the
drug whose reputation dates from the time of the
Arabian and Greek physicians. It was introduced
by Dr oriprg <8: 5 Russia to Great Britain, and
cultivated at Edinburgh by Sir A. Dick prior to
1774. Garden rhubarb (2. riaponticum) was in use
in England in the time of Charles II. The medi-
cinal root is now grown extensively in England,
France, Germany, Austria, St Petersburg, and
other parts of Europe. It is very difficult to
peor pn be between the true Chinese rhubarb
and the root obtained in Europe by the culture
of various species of Rheum. According to Cauvet,
the Euro may be distinguished from the
exotic by (1) the rectilinear disposition of its
rays, from the centre to the circumference ; (2)
the presence upon its circumference of a brown
zone, relatively large and specially very distinct ;
and (3) the absence of the radia systems
(stars) so numerous in the Russian rhubarb, less
frequent, but always easy to pr ye in the
Chinese. In the true rhubarb the rays are
dispersed irregularly over the fractured surface.
Some English rhubarb, pes! obtained from R.
Hoag, singe is realily distinguished from Chinese
by being less marbled upon the fracture, and by
the absence of the diamond-shaped meshes upon
its surface. There were formerly three elaseifien:
tions of rhnbarb—Russian, Turkish, and Chinese
or East Indian, bnt these are now reduced to
European and Chinese, Before the opening of the
treaty in China most of the rhubarb con-
sumed in Europe was obtained from the Chinese
at Kiachta, saeinly selected and brought overland
through Russia, which has entirely lost this prized
monopoly, the quantity now conveyed there over-
land from China being i jificant. Chinese
rhubarb, received direct, is distinguished by the
small size, dark colour, and irregular shape of the
holes with which it is pierced ; by the outer surface
being frequently marked with whitish reticulations,
which are more evident when the powder has been
rubbed off; and by the transverse surface showing
a number of star-like marks, but no cortical layer.
The plant is hardly cultivated in China, but grows
wild. The root-stocks are dug up when from
six to seven years old, just ‘ore the flower-
ing season. They are then peeled, cut in ——
measuring 4 to 5 inches, bored th h the middle,
placed on strings and hung up to dry. There is
considerable diversity of form in the China rhu-
barb, arising from the various operations of par-
ing, slicing, and trimming; but these forms are
not found in the same package, the drug being
usually sorted into what are commonly known as
‘rounds’ and ‘flats.’ The Indian rhubarb is fre-
= in parts of the Panjab Himalayas from
000 to 14,000 feet. It is less active than the im-
ported rhubarb, and has been often pronounced
worthless; but, according to Dr Watt, this is owing
to the fact that an inferior variety reaches the
plains. The whole sour stems are eaten
stewed and raw, while the leaves of this and other
species are dried and smoked in Tibet and in the
tern Himalayas.
Rhubarb is not individually mentioned now in
the official trade returns, but is included with
‘unenumerated drugs.’ Since 1870, when the im-
ports were 343,000 Ib,, and the average prices
ranged from 3s. 4d. to 5s. 6d. per Ib., the supplies
have increased and prices have fallen by one-
The production of ee wn rhubarb root now
amounts to about 12,000 lb. annually, of which
from three to four thousand pounds are ex .
a rhubarb consists of mucilage, oxalate
of lime, an albuminoid containing nitrogen and sul-
phur, crystalline resins, tannin, gallic acid, sugar,
chrysophane (decomposable into chrysophanic acid
and glucose), rheotannic acid, and emodin.
Rhubarb may be briefly described as a cathartic,
an astringent, and a tonic. As a cathartic it
chiefly operates by increasing the muscular action
of the intestines; and when the cathartic action
is over there is generally more or less constipation.
Rhubarb is one of the best aperients for general
use in infancy, in consequence of the certainty of
its action, and of its tonie and astringent pro-
perties, which are of much importance in the treat-
ment of many infantile diseases attended with
imperfect digestion and irritation of the intestinal
canal. In adults it is serviceable in chronic
diarrheea and dysentery, when it is expedient to
clean out the bowels, It is also a useful aperient
in convalescence from exhausting disease, as being
free from the risk of overacting ; and, for the same
reason, it is a useful medicine for persons who are
constitutionally liable to over-purgation from trivial
causes.
Rhuddlan, a decayed town of Flintshire,
North Wales, on the Clwyd, 3 miles SSE. of
Rhyl. Its ruined castle, dating from 1015, and
dismantled after its capture by the Roundheads in
1646, was the scene of the betrayal of Richard II.
by Perey (1399) ; at the marsh of Morfa Rhuddlan,
across the river, Offa defeated Caradoc (795).
With Flint, &c., Rhuddlan returns a member to
parliament. Pop. 1242.
Rhus. See SumAcu.
RHYL
RHYME 697
Rhyl, a watering-place of Flintshire, North
Wales, at the mouth of the Clwyd, 30 miles NW.
of Chester. A mere fishing-village so late as 1830,
it has fine sands, a promenade pier 705 yards long,
built in 1867 at a cost of £17,000, an esplanade, an
aquarium and winter garden, a dozen hotels, baths,
&e.; and, though the country around is flat, it
commands fine views of the Snowdonian mountains.
Pop. (1851) 1563 ; (1881) 6029 ; (1891) 6491.
Rh or, more properly, RIME (the former
epeling hang merely Sue tora confusion with the
reek rhythm), is itself a native Teutonic word ;
A.S. rim, Icel. rima, Ger. reim, and O.H. Ger. rim
(whence Fr. rime, Ital. rima); probably
with Gr. dp@ués, ‘number.’ In early lish rime
vend the same is true of Ger. reim and the other
forms of the word in other northern tongues as well
as in the Romanic) meant simply a poem, a num-
bered_ or versified piece (compare Lat. numeri,
‘numbers’ = verses, versification) ; but it has now
come to signify what is the most prominent mark
of versification in all these tongues—viz. the re-
currence of similar sounds at certain intervals. As
there may be various degrees and kinds of resem-
blance between two syllables, there are different
kinds of rime. When words begin with the same
consonant we have A/lliteration (q.v.), which was
the prevalent form of rime in the earlier Teutonic
poetry, as in Anglo-Saxon. In Spanish and Portu-
guese we find employed a peculiar kind of rime
called Assonance, consisting in the coincidence of
the vowels of the corresponding syllables, without
regard to the consonants; this accords well with
the character of these languages, which abound in
full-toned vowels, but is ineffective in English and
other languages in which consonants predominate.
In its more usual sense, however, rime denotes
correspondence in the final syllables of words, and
is chiefly used to mark the ends of the lines or
verses in poetry. Complete identity in all the parts
of the syllables beginning with the same consonants
constitutes what the French call rich rime, as in
modéle, fidéle ; beauté, santé. They designate as
poor rimes most of such rimes as English verse
allows—collocations of similar syllables beginnin
with different consonants, as and rage, nuit
and instruit. ‘This difference of taste,’ says Mr
F. W. H. Myers, ‘seems partly to depend on the
more intimate /iaison existing in French pronunci-
ation between the consonant and the syllable which
follows it—which syllable will often consist of a
vowel sound very rapidly pronounced, like the
terminations in the accented é, or very indetermin-
ately pronounced, like the nasal terminations in
mandn. If the consonant which gives the whole
character to terminations like these differs in the
two rhyming lines, there seems to be hardly enough
substance left in the rhyme to satisfy the ear’s
desire for a recurring sound. This view is illus-
trated by such Englis' pa los as alone and flown,
where an additional richness seems sometimes
ined from the presence of the 7 in both the
r jming syllables.” Undoubtedly one of the
delights of rime is expectance, but that of uni-
formity in variety, rather than of monotonous
and absolute uniformity. Although such rimes
are not only allowed but sought r in French,
in English they are deservedly considered faulty,
or rather as not true rimes at all. No one thinks
of makin lore rime with explore. Rimin
syllables in English must agree in so far, an
differ in so far: the vowel and what follows it—if
anything follow it—must be the same in both; the
articulation before the vowel must be different.
Thus, mark rimes with lark, bark, ark, but not with
remark. In the case of mark and ark the absence
of any initial articulation in the latter of the two
makes the necessary difference. As an example
of rime where nothing follows the vowel we may
take be-low, which rimes with fore-go, or with O/
but not with Jo. To make a perfect rime it is
necessary, besides, that the syllables be both
accented ; free and merri/y can hardly be said to
rime. It is almost needless to remark that rime
depends on the sound, and not on the spelling.
Se h and enough do not make a rime, nor ease
an
Such words as roaring, de-ploring, form double
rimes; and un-fortwnate, im-portunate, triple rimes.
In double or triple rimes the first syllable must be
accented, and the others ought to be unaccented,
and to be connie identical. In the sacred Latin
hymns of the middle ages the rimes are all double
or triple. This was a necessity of the Latin lan-
guage, in which the inflectional terminations are
without accent, which throws the accent in most
cases on the syllable next the last—do-l/orum, vi-
rorum ; sup-plicia, con-vicia. Although rimes occur
chiefly between the lal haga of different lines,
they are not unfrequently used within the same
line, especially in popular poetry :
And then to see how ye're negleckit,
How huf'd, and cud, and disrespeckit.
And ice mast-high came floating by.
Whien two successive lines rime they form a
couplet ; three form a triplet. Often the lines rime
alternately or at greater intervals, forming groups
of four (qguatrains) or more. A group of lines
embracing all the varieties of metre and combina-
tions of rime that oceur in the piece forms a
section called a stave, sometimes a stanza, often,
but improperly, a verse. In the days of elaborate
Acrosties (q.v.), verses constructed in shapes, and
other conceits, it was the fashion to interlace rimes
in highly artificial systems; almost the only com-
plex arrangements now current in English are the
various forms of the sonnet, and the Spenserian
stanza. Tennyson has accustomed the English ear
to a quatrain‘in which, instead of alternate rimes,
the first line rimes with the fourth, and the second
with the third.
It is a mistake to suppose that rime is a mere
ornament to versification. Besides being in itself
a peoaieg musical accord, it serves to mark the
endings of the lines and other sections of the metre,
and thus renders the rhythm more distinct and
appreciable than the accents alone can do. So
much is this the case that in French, in which the
accents are but feeble, metre without rime is so
undistinguishable from prose that blank verse has
never obtained a footing, notwithstanding the war
once w: by French scholars against rimed versi-
fication. ‘The advantages of rime,’ says Guest,
‘have been felt so strongly that no people have
ever adopted an accentual rhythm without also
adopting rime.’ The Greek and Latin metres of
the classic period, depending — time or quantity,
and not upon accent, were able to dispense with
the accessory of rime; but, as has been well
observed by Trench (Introduction to Sacred Latin
Poetry), even ‘ the peor peace of Greece and
Rome was equally obliged to mark this (the diyi-
sion into sections or verses), though it did it in
another way. Thus, had dactyls and_spondees
been allowed to be promiscuously used throughout
the hexameter line, no satisfying token would have
reached the ear to indicate the close of the verse;
and if the hearer had once missed the termination
of the line it would have been almost impossible
for him to recover it. But the fixed dactyl and
spondee at the end of the line answer the same
purpose of strongly marking the close as does the
rime in the accentuated verse; and in other
metres, in like manner, licenses BD ipie wes in the
beginning of the line are excluded at its close, the
698 RHY MER
RIBBON
motives for this r strictness being the same.’
It is chietly, perhaps, from failing to satisfy this
necessary ition that modern unrimed verse is
found unsatisfactory, at least for re sen poetry ;
and it may be doubted whether it is not owing to
the classical pees ap of scholars that our common
we gs blank verse got or maintained the hold it
Das.
The objection that rime was ‘the invention of a
barous age, to set off wretched matter and lame
metre,’ rests mainly on ignorance of its real history.
It cannot be considered as the exclusive invention
of any particular people or age. It is something
human, and universal as poetry or music—the
result of the instinctive craving for well-marked
recurrence and accord. The oldest poems of the
Chin Indians, and Arabs are rimed; so are
those of the Irish and Welsh. In the few frag-
ments of the earliest Latin poetry that are extant,
in which the metre was of an accentual, not quanti-
tative kind, there is a manifest tendency to ter-
minations of similar sound. This native tendency
was overlaid for a time by the importation from
Greece of the quantitative metres; yet even under
the dominance of this exotic system riming verses
were not altogether unknown; Ovid especially
shows a liking for them :
Quot celum stellas, tot habet tua Roma puellas ;
and in the decline of classicality they become more
common. At last, when learnin to decay
under the wah mae of the northern nations, and
a knowledge of the quantity of words—a thing in a
great measure arbitrary, and requiring to be learned
—to be lost, the native and more natural property
of accent gradually reappeared as the ruling prin-
ciple of Latin rhythm, and along with it the tend-
ency to rime. It was in this new vehicle that the
early Christian poets sought to convey their new
ideas and aspirations. The rimes were at first
often rude, and not sustained throughout, as if
lighted upon by chance. Distinct traces of the
option of rime are to be seen as early as the
hymns of Hilary (died 368), and the system attained
its greatest perfection in the 12th and 13th cen-
turies. In refutation of the common opinion that
the Latin hymnologists of the middle ages borrowed
the art of rime from the Teutonic nations, Dr Guest
brings the conclusive fact that no m exists
written in a Teutonic dialect with final rime before
Otfried’s Evangely, which was written in Frankish
about 870, Alliteration had pet acme been the
guiding principle of Teutonic rhythms; but after a
struggle, longer protracted in England than on the
Continent, it was superseded by end-rimes.
See the articles ALLITERATION, BLANK Verst, Hexa-
meter, Merre, Ope, Porrry, and Sonnet; also Guest’s
Sr ee ms (ed. by Professor Skeat, 1882),
where the whole subject is learnedly and elaboratel
treated; Trench’s Sacred Latin Poetry (1864); F. Wolf,
Ueber die Lais, Sequenzen, und Leiche (Heid. 1841);
and Schipper’s Englische Metrik ( Bonn, 1881-89),
Rhymer. See Tuomas THE RHYMER.
Rhymney, 4 town of Monmouthshire, on the
river Rhymney (running to the Bristol Channel
near Cardiff), 24 miles W. of Tredegar. It is the
seat of ironworks. Pop, (1861) 7630 ( 1891) 7733.
Rhynchonella. See Bracnropopa. :
Rhynchophora, See Wrervin.
Rhynchops. See Skimmer.
Rhyolite. See Liparire.
Rhys, Joux, was born near Ponterwyd in
Cardiganshire, June 21, 1840, served a pupil-
teacher's apprenticeship, and after the course at
Bangor Normal College kept a school in Anglesey
down to the end of 1865, when he entered Jesus
College, Oxford. He was elected to a fellow-
.| short sy
ship at Merton in 1869, and next continued his
studies at the Sorbonne, Heidelberg, Leipzig, and
Géttingen, returning in 1871 to become of
schools for Flint and Den In 1877 he was
Fae professor of Celtic in the University of
xford, in 1881 was elected a fellow, and in 1895
rineipal, of Jesus College. His Lectures on Welsh
hilology ( eng and Celtie Britain (1882) confirmed
a reputation already gained by contributions to
Kuhn's Beitrdge zur vergl. iforschung, the
Revue ique, and the Archeologia Cambrensis.
He gave the Hibbert Lectures on Celtic Heathendom
in 1886, and at the close of 1889 the Rhind Lectures
at Edinburgh, Professor Rhys is a contributor to
the present work.
Rhythm may be defined as measured or timed
movements, regulated succession. In order that a
number of may constitute a pleasing whole,
a certain relation or proportion must be felt to per-
vade them, and this exemplified in the arrange-
ment of matter into visible objects, as in sculpture,
architecture, and other Di ceed arts, produces a
rhythm which is usually called symmetry. Rhythm
bi eg to the movements of the body produces the
ance. ‘The rhythmical ent of sounds
not articulated aera music, while from the like
arrangement of articulate sounds we get the
‘| cadences of prose, and the measures of verse. Verse
may be defined as a succession of articulate sounds,
regulated by a rhythm so definite that we can
readily foresee the results which follow from its
application. Rhythm is also met with in prose;
but in the latter its range is so wide that we never
can anticipate its flow, while the pleasure we derive
from verse is founded on this very anticipation.’
The rhythm of verse is marked in various wa;
In Greek and Latin, during their classic peri
quantity, or the regulated succession of long
Hables, was the distinguishing mark of
verse. In the languages d ied from these the
rhythm depends upon accent. The recurrence of
similar sounds, or rime, is also used, along with
accent, to render certain points of the rhythm more
Saree as well as to embellish it. METRE,
HYME,
Rhytina, a genus of Sirenia, akin to the
dugong and manatee, of which only one es
has been made known—the Rhytina stelleri, dis-
covered by Behring and the naturalist Steller
when they were wrecked on Behring Island in
1741, and described very fully by Steller. At that
date they were extremely plentiful in this part
of the northern Pacific, but were soon almost
extirpated by the Russian hunters and traders.
Nordenskitld’s inquiries led him to believe that
individuals were seen till the middle of the 19th
penenny. clans species nay spay: “ee by its
size, sluggishness, and its hav orny plates
i prec of tooth, The skin was scone and hair-
less. The Vega expedition brought home many
skeletons.
Riad, See WAnABIS.
Riazan, a town of Russia and capital of a i
ernment, stands near the right bank of the Oka,
115 miles by rail SE. of Moscow. A straggling,
ill-built town of wooden houses, it sends wheat to
Moscow. Pop. 30,327.
Ribalta, Francisco (1550-1628), and JUAN
(1597-1628), painters of the school of Valencia.
Ribble. See Preston.
Ribbon, Riband, or Rrezanp (a Celtic word).
The principal ribbon manufacturing centre is Cov-
ours England, and St Etienne and Basel a’
as , more recently, the middle Rhine. Ribbons
were also formerly made in Derby and Leek. In
Coventry the ribbon industry was comm
RIBBON-FISH
RIBEAUVILLE 699
Bird at the beginning of the 18th century.
ag? ke at that time a city of 12,817 inhabit-
ants. @ population Baia | with the progress
of the ribbon industry, until in 1861 it was 41,638.
In 1860 there were 8886 looms; but in 1885 not
one-third of this number was employed, and the
number is much less now. In 1861 there were
40,600 people dependent > aap ‘the ribbon trade, in
1881 not more than a fourth. The ruin and migra-
tion of the trade to the Continent arose from two
causes—first, strikes, particularly the great one of
1860; second, the French treaty of 1860, before
which this branch was protected by a duty of 15 to
30 per cent. The great competition of 1 and
St Etienne then soon ruined the production of
Coventry, for at these old centres labour was then
much cheaper, the hours of work longer, and taste
and 7's superior, icularly at St Etienne.
Crefeld, Moscow, and especially Paterson in New
Jersey, are also manufacturing centres. Amongst
the various kinds of ribbons woven in Coventry
are the following: Taffeta, -grain, twill, satin,
satinette, ottoman-satin, and terry, plush, brocade,
faille, plaids, watered satins, birthday-ribbons, and
book-markers, sarsnets, orientals, waistbands, and
other plain and figured narrow fabrics. Of the
names which Cape ga a of > elope
gros-grain is a ri silk ; , & velvety or pile
surface ; satin, a smooth polished surface, he. ; nid
there are mixtures of these various fabrics, generally
woven in stripes, faille with satin, satin with terry,
velvet with satin, plain and eure in conjunction,
making an infinite variety of decorative effects both
in weaving and colour. ‘
The construction of the fabric of a ribbon is like
that of broad silks—viz. the threads or warp (Fr.
chaine) lengthwise ; those at right angles, or shot
across the ribbon, the shute or weft (Fr. trame).
The warp consists of many threads, the shute which
interweaves the warp of one, or at most a few only,
according to the number of colours or style of fabric
required, There are two kinds of looms or methods
of weaving, hand-looms and power-looms, the latter
having gradually but spots deg 2 the former,
except for very artistic wor hese two looms are
also of two kinds, those which weave plain goods and
those which weave figured or patterned work. The
latter are called ag oa looms (see WEAVING) ;
in these every warp-thread is so isolated as to be
under mechanical control, and can be raised or not
independently of every other thread. These warp-
threads are raised by means of the ‘harness’ to
allow of the shute to between the whole or
parts of the warp-th: according to the pattern
or style required. The harness is com
‘leishes,’ the purpose of which is to raise at will the
warp-threads, each of which requires one leish.
The term ‘shed’ is applied to the warp when separ-
ated horizontally by the harness for the shuttle to
pass between ; this is called the ‘opening,’ that in
the upper surface being termed the top shed, and
the lower part the bottom shed. The shuttle con-
tains the quill in which has been wound the ‘filling,’
which is tym of the shute or weft-thread, and
is propelled in the shuttle between the warp-threads
by hand or by other power, generall steam-power.
In front of this complicated mechanism is the
‘slay’ or ‘reed,’ which is a comb-like apparatus
through which the warp-threads pass before they
receive the shute into its resting-place in the fabrie,
The Jacquard arrangement is placed on the top of
the loom, and consists of perforated cards, with the
requisite machinery to work them. See SILK.
Ribbon-fish, a name given to several genera
of Acanthopterous fishes having the body much
compressed and band-like, the dorsal fin extending
the whole length of the back, the anterior rays
being long and distinct, the skeleton soft, and
the skin naked and et xh They are true deep-
sea fishes, and are widely distributed, thoug'
nowhere abundant. Some authorities divide them
into two groups—the Trachypteride, having lon
ventral fins, and occasionally attaining to a ant
of 10 feet, with a thickness of scarcely an inch; and
the Regalecidz, with the ventral fins represented
by single, oar-like filaments. The best-known
species is Regalecus banksii, the Dealfish (q.v.).
Ribbonism, the name assumed by a group of
secret associations among the lower classes in
Ireland throughout the falf century extending
from 1820 to 1870, at its greatest height from about
1835 to 1855. _ Its origin and organisation are alike
wrapped in obscurity, but it appears in the begin-
ning at least to have been political in its aims, and
O’Connell’s opinion seems most probable, that it
ad out of the northern Defenders who banded
themselves to oppose the Orange organisation.
Earlier associations with somewhat similar aims
were the Whiteboys and the Threshers, and, in
|S encrqeend corners of the island, the Carders,
jhanavests, and Caravats.
Ribbonism, according to O’Connell, was more
political in the north, in presence of the organisa-
tion of the Orange lodges; in the south it flowed
rather into what he characterised as ‘driftless acts
of outrage.” Although everywhere condemned by
the Catholic clergy, it included none but Catholics
within its numbers, and it maintained its influence
by asystem of oaths and secret signs and passwords.
Of these many were made known to the authorities
by informers, but they were found to contradict com-
etely rather than mt differ from each other.
Bne striking feature of Ribbonism, as distinguished
from most Irish patriotic associations, was the fact
that its adherents belonged exclusively to the very
lowest and most ignorant classes, the humbler
peasantry, farm-servants, labourers, and _ petty
shopkeepers, hardly even the smallest farmers or
their sons apparently belonging to it in any part
of Ireland. So far as there was any unity in
its aims, it aimed at making itself a public con-
science on all agrarian questions; but, as A. M.
Sullivan pointed out, the Ribbonism of one period
and of one district was not the Ribbonism of
another. ‘In Ulster it professed to be a defen-
sive or retaliatory league against Orangeism. In
Munster it was at first a combination against
tithe-proctors. In Connaught it was an organisa-
tion against rack-renting and evictions. In Leinster
it often was mere trade-unionism, dictating by its
mandates and motoring Wy its vengeance the
sapere) or dismissal of workmen, stewards,
and even domestics. This latter phase generally
preceded the disappearance of the system in a
particular locality, and was evidently the lowest
and basest form to which it sank or rotted in
decay.’
The name, which of course originated in a green
badge worn by the members, does not appear to
have been attached to it till about 1826; and its
influence seems to have grown gradually till about
1855, from which time it began rapidly to decline
before a healthier public opinion and a growing
political intelligence that recognised the greater
advantage of more open and legitimate agitation.
Here and there traces of a demoralised Ribbonism
survived, capable of an occasional outbreak into
malignant crime, but its declaration as illegal by
the Westmeath Act of 1871 was hardly better than
a mere flogging of the bodies of the slain.
See W. Stewart Trench, Realities of Irish Life (1868),
and A. M. Sullivan, New Ireland (1877).
Ribeauville (Ger. Rappoltsweiler), a town of
Upper Alsace, pleasantly situated amid vineyards
at the west foot of the Vosges, 33 miles SSW. of
700 RIBERA
RIBS
Strasburg. Excellent wines are made ; cotton and
calico are manufactured, and there are
numerous flour, oil, and saw mills, Pop. 5902.
Ribera, Jusere, called SPAGNOLETTO (‘ Little
Spaniard’), was born at Jativa, near Valencia, on
sth January 1588, and died at Naples in 1656.
He studied a few years with Francisco Ribalta at
Valencia, then crossed the sea and continued his
studies in Rome, Parma, and Modena. He settled
in Naples, where he adopted the boldness of Cara-
vaggio’s style, and became the ablest painter among
the naturalisti, or artists whose treatment of sub-
jects was based on a vigorous, bat generally coarse,
representation of nature, in opposition to that
formed on the aes | of conventional or academic
rules, He attrac’ the attention of the viceroy,
became court-painter, and was elected member of
the Academy of St Luke at Rome in 1630. His
realism is Toreible and generally gloomy: he
delighted to represent horrible an ae sub-
jects, such as the martyrdoms of SS. tholomew,
anuarius, and Lawrence, ‘ Prometheus,’ &c. .
vator Rosa and Giordano were his most distin-
guished pupils. He executed several etchings
marked by force and freedom.
Ribes (from Arab. ribaz), a genus of shrubs
belonging to the natural order Ribesiacew, familiar
examples of which are the Gooseberry and the Cur-
rant of gardens. The species are chiefly natives of
the temperate and colder regions of the northern
hemisphere ; some are found at high elevations in
tropical America and on the Pacifie coast, from
California to Chili. They are found also on the
mountains of Northern India, in tlie colder regions
of Africa and Europe, but western America is
the home of the largest number of the species.
They are twiggy shrubs, often, as in the Gooseberry
(R. ularia and R. speciosum), armed with
spines, clothed with deciduous alternate leaves,
usually palmately lobed. The flowers are axillary
in racemes, rarely solitary—small but often showy
in the mass, as in 2. speciosum and R, sanguineum,
the former a native of California, often to be met
with trained to walls in British gardens ; the latter,
enjoying a wide range in the northern United
States, is also a very popular shrub in British
ae well known under the name Scarlet or
lowering Currant. The calyx is the most con-
spicuous organ of the flower. It is persistent or
adheres to the fruit after it is ripe, a feature very
familiar in the gooseberry. The fruit is a berry,
not in all species succulent, as in the gooseberry,
currant, and others, but sometimes, as in J. san-
guineum, almost entirely pulpless when ripe.
The most important product of the genus is the
fruit, which consists of sweet mucilage mixed with
malic and nitric acid along with an astringent
substance. The gooseberry, the Red Currant (22.
rubrum), and the Black Currant (2. nigrum) are
natives of Britain—that is, they find a place in the
British flora, though there are anthorities who
doubt whether they are truly indigenous, bein
rather disposed to think that where they are found
wild they are merely escapes from cultivation.
They have, however, been cultivated in British
gardens for centuries, and the fact that they attain
to higher perfection as fruits in Britain than in any
other country in Europe—that in France, Italy,
and Spain, although the plant is well known, the
fruit is always inferior owing to the greater warmth
of the climate—is strongly in favour of the pre-
sumption that the plants are indigenous to Britain
(see CURRANT. GOOSEBERRY, GROSSULARIACE#).
The fruit of R. oxyacanthoides, R. lacustre, and
others, natives of North America, are pleasant to
eat and have similar properties to those ascribed
to the gooseberry and currants.
Rib-grass. See PLANTAIN.
Ribs are elastic arches of bone, which, with the
vertebral column behind, and the sternum or
bone in front, constitute the osseous of the
walls of the chest. In man there are twelve ribs
on each side, The first seven are more directly
connected through intervening cartilages with the
sternum than the remainder, and hence they are
termed vertebro-sternal or true ribs ; while the other
five are known as false ribs, and the last two of
these, from being quite free at their anterior ex-
tremities, are termed floating ribs. ) ete
" "
1304 w " a rol along ny pe 1 in
2045 « oI "
ee slippery angular stones
as 48 an egg.
Rivers in flood, even in the ge track, sometimes
attain a velocity of over 5 miles an hour, and
torrents may even flow as fast as 20 miles an hour.
The course of a river is ually carved ont and
shaped by the flow of the water. The sediment
and stones carried along are powerful erosive
— in the torrential and valley tracts, and the
cha
racter of the valleys or roduced depends
largely on the geological Saecurs of the ion,
The course of a river is frequently determined by
lines of faults, but perhaps more often it appears to
be independent of the nature of the strata. Some
great rivers, notably the Volga, press against the
right bank, cutting it into a steep cliff, while the
left bank is left as a very gentle py oo This is
explained by the directive influence of the earth’s
rotation (see EARTH, Vol. IV. p. 165).
Rivers are of very great importance as agents
of change in dynamic geology, the form of
valley they excavate being determined partly
the nature of the rocks, partly A the climate, In
rainless or arid regions steep-walled Cafions (q.v.)
are cut to a great depth across high plateaus;
in rainy regions subaerial denudation leads to the
formation of wide valleys of much gentler slopes.
Bars of more durable rock crossing the course of a
stream lead to the formation of Waterfalls (q.v.) or
rapids from the rapid erosion of the softer strata
below. The river above the obstruction is reduced
to what is termed the base-level of erosion; the
velocity of the current is checked, and wide alluvial
deposits are laid down on either side. In course of
time the bar of hard rock is completely cut through
by a gorge, and the gradient of the stream is ulti-
mately rendered uniform. In this way the common
features of gorge and meadow are produced again
and again along the course of a stream. ‘The
deposits of alluvium form terraces along the vall
track of a river, and as the stream cuts its chann
deeper they are left at various heights as monu-
ments of its erosive power. When a river is fairly
established in its valley it is, geologically speaking,
a more permanent feature than lakes or mountains,
Upheaval, which acts very slowly, may even elevate
a range of mountains across its course, yet all the
while the river, cutting its way downward, re-
mains at the same absolute level. The Uintah
Mountains, as they were upheaved, were divided
in this way by the Green River, the chief tribu-
tary of the Colorado. In limestone regions the
solvent power of river-water on carbonate of
lime leads to the formation of Caves (q.v.)
and underground rivers, which as a rule eme
from their subterranean channels on lower groun
Sometimes they do not reap’ on land, but dis-
charge their fresh water through openings in the
bed of the sea. Such sub river entrances
are not uncommon along the shores of the Adriatic,
off the coast of Florida, and in other caleareous
regions. When a river advances along a near!
level plain toward the sea its carrying power
off; gravel, sand, and finally mud are deposited
on its margin, and the stream pursues a liar
winding course. During a flood the swift and
muddy stream rises, overflows its banks, and widens
out on the level land, The current is at once
checked and a long bar of deposit forms along each
RIVER
737
margin. These are increased in height by each
successive flood, and, the river-bed being simultane-
ously silted up, broad muddy rivers like the Missis-
sippi, Po, and Hoang-ho come in time to flow along
the top of a gently sloping natural embankment,
the sides of which are termed levees in Louisiana.
Professor Lapparent, calculating from Dr Murray's
data regarding the amount of sediment carried
down by rivers, finds that they would suffice to
wear the entire surface of the land down to sea-
level in four million years. The entrances of rivers
into lakes or the sea are usually marked by great
banks of deposit (see DELTA), or by bars of gravel
or sand, n some cases, however, such as the
River Plate, the Thames, and Tay, the mixture of
river and sea water is gradual, and the sandbanks
are spread over a very large area, but not built
up into a delta at any one place. Professor
Osborne Reynolds has shown, by a remarkable
series of experiments, that the form of the sand-
banks is due to the outline of the coasts of the
estuary and to the tides. In a few instances, such
as the Forth, rivers enter deep arms of the sea in
which neither banks nor bars are formed. The
Congo sweeps directly into the ocean, throwing
down great banks of deposit along the continen
slope to right and left, but leaving a deep cafion-
like gully for the bed of the stream itself ; a similar
condition occurs where the Rhone enters the Lake
of Geneva.
The ultimate source of all rivers is the condensa-
tion of water-vapour from the atmosphere in the
form of rain, snow, and even dew. If the land
were composed of impermeable rocks all the rain-
water not lost by evaporation would run off
directly over the surface, and rivers would onl
flow during and immediately after showers.
of the rainfall, Booeecel' soaks into
the soil, which retains it as in a sponge, especi-
ally if the land be marshy, and allows it to flow
gradually as superficial sprin Some also
pereolates deeply into the rocks, ultimately emerg-
ng as deep-seated springs at a t distance.
e indirect and permanent supply of water to
rivers by springs and by the oualaw of lakes is
independent of local rainfall at the time, and serves
to maintain the volume of the river ata certain
minimum during the dry seasons. When a river
flows toward a region of great evaporation and
small rainfall, such as exists in the interior of each
of the great continents, evaporation removes more
water than is supplied by the remote tributaries,
and the stream may fail to fill the hollow it
enters, and therefore cannot overflow into the sea.
This is the case with the Oxus entering the Aral
Sea, and the Volga entering the Caspian. It may
be that evaporation is so far in excess of contribu-
tions from distant rainfall or snow-melting that
the river dries up as it flows, and its last remnant
is absorbed in the desert sand. This is the fate of
the Murghab, the Heri-rud, the Zerafshan, and
many other rivers of central -Asia.
Contrasted with these cases are those in which
the periodical or occasional increments of direct
inflow increase the volume so much as to cause a
{ rise of level or even extensive inundations.
annual inundations of the Nile are due to
the monsoon rainfall on the t mountains of
Abyssinia, which increases the discharge at Assouan
to fifteen times the amount of the river at its lowest.
The Orinoco is another instance of seasonal rains pro-
ducing tremendous inundations, over 40,000 square
miles of the Llanos being said to be laid under
water by the summer rains. The Amazon is an
instance of a river which is always more or less
in flood as the various tributaries attain their
greatest height at different seasons. In June,
when the highest level occurs in the main river,
411
20 or 30 miles of forest on each side of its banks
are laid under water for hundreds of miles. The
Ganges overflows its banks in summer when the
monsoon rainfall is reinforced by the melting of
snow on the Himalayas. Where the seasons of
maximum rainfall and of snow-melting are different,
as in the Mississippi, the Tigris, and Euphrates,
there are two regular floods in the year.
The danger of flooded rivers arises from the
suddenness with which the water rises and overflows
narrow valleys or even plains. Frightful devasta-
tion follows the bursting of glacier obstruction
lakes in mountain-valleys (see LAKE). The
great rivers of Siberia remain frozen at their
mouths long after the ice and snow have been
melted in the interior, and broad strips on their
margins are necessarily laid under water by the
natural outflow being stopped. The most serious
floods in the Danube and Theiss have resulted from
the constriction of the channel at the Iron Gates,
which prevents the flood water from passing away
as rapidly as it comes down; the current of the
Theiss is sometimes reversed for many miles. The
widening of the channel has been repeatedly at-
tempted as a remedy by increasing the outlet ; and
an elaborate system for regulating the river here,
to be completed in 1895, was begun in 1890.
In other cases, such as the tributaries of the Loire,
and the southern rivers of the Argentine Republic,
the melting snow swells the torrential track,
and, on account of the abrupt change of level
and the flatness of the plain, the lower part
of the rivers cannot carry away the immense
volume of water rapidly enough, and floods result.
In some instances torrential rivers have been
successfully diverted into lakes, which regulate
their outflow, preventing either dangerously high
or extremely low water. Great rivers which have
embanked their course above the level of the plain
are the most dangerous of all when flooded. The
Fag hone by the bursting of the levees on the
lower Mississippi necessitates a great expenditure
in strengthening the embankments, and the most
disastrous inundations recorded in history have
followed the bursting of the banks of the Hoang-ho
(q.v.) and its consequent changes of course.
River-water is spoken of as fresh, but it always
contains a certain amount of solid matter in solu-
tion, varying from two grains in the gallon or less
in rivers draining hard crystalline rocks to fifty
ins in the gallon or more in limestone districts.
he nature of the salts dissolved naturally differs
according to the —— character of the country
traversed, but all samples of river-water differ from
sea-water in containing a much smaller proportion
of chlorides, and a very much larger proportion of
carbonates and of silica.
The temperature of rivers as a rule follows that
of the air, but is subject to variations on account
of the effect of rain. During sudden floods in
summer the temperature of the water may fall
many degrees in a few hours as the melted snow
or hail precipitated on the lofty mountains is
carried toward the sea.
The great rivers of Europe and Asia, such as the
Rhine, Danube, Volga, Indus, Ganges, Bralima-
putra, Yang-tsze-kiang, afford access to the sea to
enormous populations. The Amazon, with its plain
track extending for nearly 3000 miles, is in many
ways less like a river than a fresh inland sea; but
the Mississippi and St Lawrence, although less
extensive, are of greater value for carrying sea
traffic to inland places. In their torrential and
upper valley tracks rivers are of use chiefly for
transporting timber and driving machinery. It
is interesting to note that in Switzerland, Norway,
and Sweden, where there is no coal, there exist
exceptional facilities for the use of water-power on
738 RIVER
RIVERS
account of numerous mountain-torrents, In hot
countries riyers are of the utmost service in t-
ing agricultural land; the Zerafshan and Murghab
are entirely consumed in that service, and since the
completion in 1890 of the barrage on the Nile no
water to the Mediterranean in the low Nile
months except along irrigation canals.
THE LARGEST RIVER-SYSTEMS.
ee nee sot,
mut m,
cu. miles, cu. miles,
Amazon.. 3400 «2834 | 528-0
Congo. 2600 1213 4190
Bile ws. awe 8700 $02 43
Mississippi 4100 673: 126-0
Niger 2600 .% x
OUssinsess 3200 »e ae
la Plata. 2300 905 «8=:189°0
Lena 2900 ne ay
Yenisei 3200 ve au
Men 3 $200 409 «= 1250
Macke: A 2300 ae 4
Ganges and Beabaaputes iso BASS
Ganges an ma) .. 588,000 1800
inbesi é 1600 “se =
St Lawrence . 2400 339 87°3
Winnipeg-Nelson 1500 or ee
Yukon... 2200 6 as
Orinoco . 1400 603 122°2
Amur... 2800 oe «e
Hoang-ho. 2500 118 23°6
Indus...... 1900 104 260
Danube we 1700 199 67°5
Murray....... 1500 ae
The statistics of this table, in which account is taken
. en and di are — itis?) —_
urray’s in Scot, Geog. Mag. iii. . 65.
The le ein all cases and the areas of basins in' those
for which no rainfall statistics are available are according
to the statistical tables in Justus Perthes’ Taschen-Atlas,
Rivers in Law.—A distinction is made between
public navigable rivers and private fresh-water
rivers. Where the tide ebbs and flows, the owner-
ship of the bed is in the crown for behoof of the
a lic, and, ah rage the crown is entitled to
eepen the channel or perform any other operation
on the alveus that may improve the navigation.
The banks, however, beyond the foreshore are the
rivate ew ead of the riparian owner. It is settled
n England—and an opinion to the same effect has
been delivered in Scotland—that the public have
no common law-right to set up even a towing-path
along the bank of a navigable river ; but, of course,
such a privilege of roadway along a public water-
way may be established by prescriptive possession,
Above the flow and reflow of the tide all rivers
and streams are prima facie private, although,
either by immemorial uses or by act of parliament,
many have become subject to public rights of navi-
zation. In the case of private rivers the alveus
longs to the proprietor through whose ground the
river runs; or, if the river se tes the lands of
two owners, each is owner of the soil of the bed to
the middle of the stream. The waters of a stream
passing through or between the lands of different
proprietors may be subject to two kinds of rights,
natural and acquired. Natural or proprietary
rights are those possessed by every riparian pro-
prietor ; they consist principally of a right to a
reasonable use of the water, while it is flowing
gy) his land, and a right to have the water flow
n its accustomed manner, without sensible dis-
turbance or diminution by the superior or inferior
riparian proprietors. Thus, although each proprietor
may employ the water while it is within his own
pane, he must allow it to onwards to the
ferior proprietors in its original channel, and
cannot alter its level, either where it enters or
leaves his property. The riparian proprietor, either
in a public or private river, may protect his side of
the stream by embankments; but such embank-
ment must be constructed only for defence, and not
in onch 0 sasener 65 3) Sie ees ee
current u te equired ts,
on the ake hi a are those easements neck
entitle a ri proprietor to interfere with a
natural stream of water to an extent not justified
by his natural or proprietary rights—by diminish-
ing or obstructing the flow of water, by polluting
it, &e, Such acquired rights in respect of water
may exist in the inhabitants of a district by virtue
of immemorial custom, and, both as to and
extent, are regulated wholly by prescriptive use.
The pollution of rivers has of late years, in con-
sequence of the extension of manufactures, caused
serious concern. No person has a right to poison
or pollute a stream, and if he do so any of the
persons whose lands abut on the stream lower
down may bring an action to recover dam
While, however, this right to object to an existing
nuisance may be excluded by acquiescence or by pre-
scription, it is so excluded only to the extent of the
actual use or possession, and any material increase
of the pollution or annoyance may be challenged
and interdicted by the injured ies. At com-
mon law, indeed, in every question of river-pollu-
tion, the real question of fact is whether there has
been any material increase of pollution beyond that
which is natural to the jar stream, or
that which has existed there for the prescriptive
riod. Questions of river-pollution are eminently
itted for submission to a jury, and are generally dis-
ape of in that way. The whole cireumstances raust
considered ; for example, the size and character
of the stream, the uses to which it can be and is
applied, the nature and importance of the use
claimed and exercised by one , as well as the
inconvenience or inj to the other party. In
England, where the pollution of a stream amounts
to a public nuisance, the party causing it may be
prosecuted by indictment, or proceeded against
information at the suit of the Attorney-gen
All the chief modern sanitary acts have provisions
re ing the pollution of water ; but most of them
are loath or deal with the pollution of water used
for special pu In 1868 a Royal Commission
was appointed to consider the question of river-
lJution, and its recommendations were followed in
876 by the Rivers Pollution Act (39 and 40 Vict.
chap. 75), which is applicable to both Scotland and
England. See Higtins, On the Obstruction and
Pollution of Water-courses (1877).—For fishing
rights, see SALMON, and TROUT.
n the United States the common law of England
was at first followed; but in some of the states it
is aspreeey — _ hi common law is in-
applicable. ining rights have been specially
deneerninail in some districta ; and the laws as to
irrigation yp have been elaborately defined in
Colorado and elsewhere.
Rivera, a department in the north-east of
Uruguay, separated by a mountain-chain from
Brazil. Area, 3790 sq. m. ; pop. 17,087.
Riverina, a name given to the extensive graz-
ing districts in the western part of New South
ales, Australasia.
Rive RICHARD WoopvVILLE, or WIDVILE,
EARL, — esquire to Henry V., and during his
son’s reign was made Governor of the Tower
(1424) and knighted (1425). He fought in France
and in England, in the Wars of t e Roses for
the Lancastrians. He took to wife J:
Luxembourg, widow of the Duke of Bedford, and
it was their daughter Elizabeth whom Edward IV,
married. This led Sir Richard Woodville to chan
over to the Yorkist side, and his royal father-in-
law made him su vely Constable of England,
Baron Rivers (1448), and Rivers (1465). But
the favour shown to the Rivers offended
uetta of —
RIVET
ROADS 739
the old nobility, and their avarice aroused the
enmity of the people. In 1469 Earl Rivers was
seized and beheaded at Northampton, but accounts
differ as to who were his executioners—whether
Robin of Redesdale or the officers of the Duke of
Clarence and the Earl of Warwick.—His son
ANTHONY, known as Lord Seales during the
father’s lifetime, succeeded to the earldom in 1469.
He stuck closely to his royal brother-in-law, who
made him captain-general of the forces, After
Edward’s death he acted on the council of regency
for his infant son, but was seized by order of
Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and put to death at
Pontefract in 1483.
Rivet, a metal pin for connecting two plates of
metal or other material together. The rivet is put
through holes in both plates, and the projecting
ends are then beaten down so as to represent the
head of a nail on each side, and thus hold the
plates in close contact. Rivets are of most essen-
tial importance in boiler and tank making, and in
building iron ships. They are usually put through
the holes and beaten down while -hot, in order
that the contraction of the rivet, as it cools, may
produce more intimate contact of the plates. Bot
steam and hydraulic riveting-machines have been
in use for a good many years.
Riviera (‘seashore ), a term applied to the
narrow strip of coast-land bordering the Gulf of
Genoa, strictly from Nice to Spezzia, but generally
understood to include the whole coast of the
department of the Alpes Maritimes, and the Italian
coast as far as horn, West of Genoa it is
called the Riviera di Ponente, or western coast,
and beyond Genoa the Riviera di Levante, or
eastern coast. From Hyéres to Genoa is 203
miles ; from Genoa to Leghorn, 112; sheltered on
the north by mountains, the district enjoys an
exceptionally favoured climate, no other ion
north of Palermo and Valencia being so mild in
winter. The western section is the mildest and
most frequented. It abounds in the most striking
and beautiful scenery, and is planted with numer-
ous health and fashion resorts—Nice, Monaco,
Mentone, Ventimiglia, San Remo, Bordighera,
&c. ; and west of Nice are Hyéres, Fréjus, Cannes,
Grasse, Antibes. The various sections of the coast
of ‘La Provence Maritime’ have each certain dis-
tinetive peculiarities, but none of them is entirely
exempt from occasional cold winds. The Saracens
held posts on this coast, and levied blackmail for
centuries. The famous Corniche (Ital. Cornice)
road leads along the coast from Nice to Genoa.
There are guide-books by Baedeker, Murray, C. B.
Black, Dr Hugh Macmillan, and Miss Dempster, Mari-
time Alps (1884); A. J. C. Hare’s The Rivieras (1897);
Spark’s The Riviera (1880), and works cited at the article
Mineman: meaner’ and especially Zhe Riviera, Ancient
and Modern, by Ch. Lentheric, an invaluable and stand-
ard work (trans. by C. West, 1895),
Riviére, Brrron, was born in London, August
14, 1840, son of a drawing-master at Cheltenham
College, and afterwards at Oxford. His ancestors
were French Huguenot refugees. He studied at
Cheltenham College, and at Oxford, where he
graduated B.A. in 1867. He had exhibited at
the Royal Academy as early as 1858, and —
in 1864, but from the appearance of ‘The
Poacher’s Nurse’ in 1866 he has been continuous!
represented by a succession of pictures, whic
have wn in vigour and impressiveness, in
dramatic power, in humour, in pathos, no less
than in mastery of technique. No painter of his
time approaches him in his treatment of wild
animals, and many of his masterpieces in this kind
have reached the widest ni rage through en-
gravings. He was made A.R.A. in 1878, R.A.
in 1881. Of his numerous works we may here
merely name ‘Daniel in the Lions’ Den,’ ‘ Per-
sepolis,, ‘A Roman Holiday,’ ‘Giants at Play,’
‘ Acteon,’ ‘ Vee Victis,’ ‘Rizpah,’ and ‘A Mighty
Hunter before the Lord.’ See Armstrong in Art
Journal Annual (1891).
Rivingtons. See LoNGMANSs. 3
Ri'voli, a town of Northern Italy, 8 miles W.
of Turin, with two royal castles and some industry.
Pop. 5314. It was not near this place, but near
Rivoli, 12 miles NW. of Verona, that Napoleon
won on 14th and 15th January 1797 one of his most
decisive victories over the Austrians.
Rizeh, a town of Asia Minor, on the coast of
the Black Sea, 40 miles E. from Trebizond, manu-
factures linen and copper utensils. Pop. 30,000.
Rizzio. See MAry QUEEN oF Scots.
Roach (Leuciscus rutilus), a fish of the family
Cyprinidz, abundant in England, the south of Scot-
land, and many countries of Europe. It measures
from 10 to 15 inches; the body generally has a
silvery appearance, the back is a dull green, the
lower fins are red, and there are no barbels. The
roach is gregarious in habit, and large shoals are
Roach (Leuciscus rutilus),
found usually in lakes, but towards the breeding
season they migrate up streams and rivers to
spawn. Even at best it is not highly esteemed for
food, its flesh, like that of all the Dpprielie: being
soft and flavourless,
Roads. Roads form a primary element in the
material advancement of a nation, being essential
to the development of the natural resources of the
country. Canals and railways have no doubt, in
modern times, superseded to some extent the com-
mon highways ; still these retain their importance,
were it only as essential auxiliaries,
The Romans were great constructers of roads, and
regarded them as of vital importance for conquest
and the maintenance of their empire. They are
said to have learned the art from the Carthaginians.
Except where some natural barrier made it impos-
sible, the Roman roads were almost invariably in
a straight line ; probably because the chief means of
transport then in use were beasts of burden, and
not wheeled vehicles, which made the preservation
of the level of less consequence. The substantial
character of the Roman roads is well demonstrated
by the fact that they have in some instances borne
the traffic of 2000 years without material injury.
The plan of construction was pretty uniform, bein
that described in the article on the APPIAN Way,
one of the earliest and most famous of them;
another was the Flaminian Way (q.v.). They
varied in breadth from 15 to 8 feet, and had often
raised footpaths at the side, and blocks of stone
at intervals, to enable travellers to mount on horse-
back (see also PAVEMENT). The Roman empire
was ultimately intersected by roads—not merely
Italy, Spain, Gaul, Illyricum, Macedonia, Thrace,
&e., but even in Egypt. In Britain the main lines
of Roman roads were four; Elton (in his Origins
740
ROADS
4 English History) gives them as follows: ‘The
Yatling Street represents the old route
from Kent to Chester and York, and northwards
in two branches to Carlisle and the neighbourhood
of Neweastle. The Fosse Way ran diagonally
through Bath to Lincoln, The Ermin Street led
direct from London to Lincoln, with a branch to
Doncaster and York; and the obscure Ikenild
Street curved inland from Norwich to Dunstable,
and was carried eventually to the coast at South-
ampton.’ Watling Street and Ikenild or Icknield
Street have separate articles in this work.
The roads made by the Romans in Great Britain
gradually fell into decay, and the attempts that
were now and then made to repair them were
insufficient to prevent England falling into a worse
state with respect to its highways than most
other European countries. In 1 one of the
earliest laws on the subject of roads was R
It directed that all trees and shrubs be cut down
to the distance of 200 feet on either side of roads
between market-towns, to prevent the concealment
of robbers in them. The first toll for the —
of roads was levied by the authority of Edward III.
in 1346, on roads which now form part of the
streets of London. In 1555 an act was passed
requiring each parish to elect two surveyors of
highways to keep them in repair by compulsory
labour ; at a later period, in place of the compulso’
labour, the ‘statute labour-tax’ was substituted.
But long after this the roads even in the neighbour-
hood of London were wretchedly bad, and in the
other parts of the country they were still worse.
For the most part, indeed, they were mere horse-
tracks; the chief advan in following them
being that they led along the higher grounds, and
so avoided bogs. These trackways were usually
impassable in winter, being narrow, and in many
places so deep and miry as to be liker ditches than
roads, So late as 1736 the roads in the neighbour-
hood of London were so bad that in wet weather a
carriage could not be driven from Kensington to
St James’s Palace in less than two hours, and
sometimes stuck in the mud altogether. Much
curious information on the state of the roads and
means of conveyance in England ayy the long
period which ela from the decay of the Roman
roads to the middle of the 18th century, will be
found in vol. i. of Smiles’s Lives of Engineers. The
Highlands of Scotland were opened up by the
roads made by General Wade about 1725.
In laying out a new line of road the skill and
ingenuity of the engineer are taxed to make the
gradients easy, with as little expense as possible in
excavating and embanking, and to do so without
deviating much from the direct course between
the fixed: points through which the road must
To succeed well in this an accurate survey of the
tract, including the relative levels of its different
parts, and the nature of the strata, is a necessary
preliminary. The formation of an extended line of
road often involves the construction of extensive
bridges, viaduets, and the like, which require the
greatest engineering skill.
The Lagorsares of easy ients or inclinations
in roads is well unders' ina eg way ; but
it gives a more precise idea of it to state that,
while, for example, the traction force requisite to
draw a wegen weighing 6 tons along a level
macadamised road is 264 |b., on a road of the same
kind with an ascent of 1 in 50 the traction force is
just double, or 533 1b., the speed of the wagon being
miles an hour. Compared with this, a s .
coach travelling on the level at the rate of 6 miles
an hour, and weighing 3 tons, requires a traction
force of 362 lb. ; but the resistance on a hilly road
is less unfavourable to the coach than to the wagon,
because with an incline of 1 in 70 the forces neces-
sary to draw the two vehicles are about equal, and
the force is proportionally greater for the wagon as
the incline increases. Experience seems to show
that for a macadamised road the maximum slope
should be 1 in 40, although a horse with a moderate
load can easily enough trot over a gradient of 1 in
33. On the other hand, as it is not desirable for
drainage to have a road perfectly level, the best
than on ‘metalled’ ; hence the um
slope of the former should be less than that of the
latter, from the greater tendency of a cart or coach
to slide down the smoother surface.
What is the best transverse form for a road has
been a much-debated question among engineers.
It should be higher in the middle than at the sides ;
but some have thought it should be much
than others. As a road can be better kept clear of,
water by a slight inclination in the direction of its
length than by any form which can be given to its
- Cross Section of a Road :
A, foundation of rough pavement or concrete; B, broken
stones.
cross section, it has been found preferable that it
should be as nearly flat as possible, every
of its breadth will then be equally available
or traffic ; whereas it is almost necessary to keep
on the centre of a highly convex road, and con-
sequently wear deep furrows there, by confining
the wheels and horses to pretty much the same
track. The figure shows a transverse section of a
road in the form of a segment of a circle—the most
sueroets form—with only a slight rise in the centre.
he slope from the side to the middle should not
exceed 1 in 36.
As respects the construction of the road itself,
the first point to consider is the foundation or sub-
road. 1e majority of roads have no
foundation. In such cases the surface on which
the road-material is to be laid is generally made as
solid as possible by means of efficient Grahaagal and
by rolling and beating wherever there are embank-
ments formed. It is the question whether or not
a road should have a foundation of rough pave-
ment below the broken stone — as is the
essential point of difference between two t
rival systems of Telford and Macadam. Telford,
who to construct roads in 1803, con-
sidered it of great importance that there should
be such a foundation. He made it of stones
varying in ~~ from 9 inches at the centre to
3 inches at the sides of the road, these being
set with their broadest edge downwards, and no
stone being more than 4 inches broad upon the
upper edge; upon these were placed a coa‘ of
broken stones not exceeding 6 inches in -
ness. The Gl w and Carlisle and the poses hese
roads are excellent py of the enduring
character of those made on Telford’s nag
Macadam (q.v.) preferred a yielding and soft
foundation to one which was rigid and unyiel rj
so that even on ground, if it were but
firm enough to allow of a man walking over it, he
considered an artificial bottoming unneces-
. His roads were formed endiraly of anges
pieces of stone of such a size as to pass ly
through a ring 2) inches in diameter. Th
plan, first put into practice about 1816, has
now fewer advocates than Telford’s, or than
ROADS
741
the one subsequently proposed by Mr Thomas
Hughes, where a concrete of gravel and lime is
employed for the foundation of the road. But
experience has shown that, except in the case of
streets with very heavy traffic, Macadam’s plan of
employing angular pieces of stone is superior to
every other as a mere covering for roads, whether
they have an artificial foundation or not. So
pular at one time was the system of macadamis-
ing that expensively paved streets were torn up to
be re-formed on the new plan. The advantage
of angular pieces of stone is that they dovetail
into each other, and do not roll about like gravel.
A few of the best metropolitan roads which are
not paved have a Concrete (q.v.) foundation with
a layer of broken granite on the top of it. But
even for the first-class macadamised roads of
London the more general construction is to have
a bottom or foundation of ‘hard core’ laid upon
the natural surface levelled to receive it. This is
composed of some cheap or waste material which is
sutliciently hard and strong, such as fragments and
chips of building stone and brick, or pieces of
en-up concrete, the whole layer being a foot
thick until it is reduced by heavy rollers to about
9inches. To fill up the interstices in this bottom,
and to form a bed for the ‘macadam,’ a 5-inch
layer of ballast is next put down and also
compressed by rolling. The surface layer of the
a | consisting of rough broken granite, is then
laid down, first one layer 3 inches thick, and then
a second layer of the same thickness. Both layers
are separately rolled to a combined thickness of
4 inches, sand and water being put on the surface
of the upper layer beforehand. The London
macadamised roads over which there is a less
heavy traffic have a somewhat thinner ‘hard core,’
covered with 4 inches of broken granite without a
ballast layer. Broken flint is sometimes used
instead of granite, and these second-class roads are
only in some instances rolled. All roads of this.
nature should, however, be rolled.
In some English counties where flints are abun-
dant the roads are made altogether of this material.
Large pieces—say 7 inches or more across—form
the bottom or foundation, which is 12 or 13 inches
thick, and above this a 6-inch layer of flints, broken
to the usual size of 2} to 2) inches across, forms
the surface, which is not generally rolled. In some
of these country roads broken bricks or other hard
waste material are put in as a bottom layer, with
broken flints above. Large pieces of flint make
an excellent foundation for such roads; but this
material is too brittle to form a good surface layer.
The roads in many parts of Scotland and also in
some English counties are macadamised with some
variety of trap rock, such as basalt or dolerite
(see BASALT). These are usually called whin-
stones, a term also applied to some very hard sedi-
mentary rocks. Most of these form a good road
covering. In the granite districts granite is used ;
Guernsey granite is one of the most durable kinds
for heavy traffic. Hard limestone forms a very
smooth and pleasant road; but many limestones
and most sandstones are too soft for road metal,
the stone for which should be tough as well as
hard. Greywacke rock is also used.
The construction of paved streets is noticed
under PAVEMENT; but we may state here that
experience has shown that for heavy traffic the
best road or street for a town is that formed of
asphalt, 2 inches thick, on a foundation of concrete
6 inches thick. Its qualities of durability and
cleanliness outweigh the disadvantage of its
slipperiness. See ASPHALT.
it will be apparent from what has been said that
drainage is in great part secured by the plan on
which a road is made. What further drainage a
road requires can in Legge Maha ee be effected by
ditches on either side. here this is not possible,
as in the case of portions situated in cuttings more
or less deep, proper drains require to be constructed.
In such circumstances a drain is either made down
the centre, with branch-drains from the sides run-
ning into it; or drains are formed along the sides,
with gratings at proper intervals to take in the
surface-water.
Cyclists have established a Roads Improvement
Association, which seeks to stimulate the local
authorities to keep the roads in good repair.
See works on road-making by W. M. Gillespie (new
ed. 1871), Codrington (1876), Gilmore (1876), Law and
Clark (new ed. 1881), F. W. Simms (new ed. 1884), and
Threpp (1887); also Jusserand’s English Wayfaring Life
in the Middle Ages ( Eng. trans. 1888 ), and W. C. Sydney’s¢
England in the Eiyhteenth Century (1891).
Roads in Law.—Roads are included under the
general name of highways, a highway being defined
as a place over which a right of walking, “niga, or
driving is enjoyed by the public generally. It is
called the King’s (or Queen’s) highway, because the
sovereign is protector of the commerce of his sub-
jects, and as such empowered to make regulations
or traffic by sea and land. Highways are of several
kinds—footways ; foot and horse ways, sometimes
called bridle-paths; pack and drift ways, used for
driving cattle and -horses ; foot, horse, and cart
ways, over which the public may travel with vehicles
of all ordinary descriptions. Navigable rivers are
also descri as highways. Where a sy of
Way (q.v.) belongs not to the public generally, but
to the owners or occupiers of land or house property,
the way in question is private, not public, and the
right to use it is classed among Easements (q.v.).
A cw way may exist over a place which is not
a thoroughfare, as, for example, a street closed at
one end. Highways are created by an express or
implied grant, whereby the owner of the land
dediestes it to the use of the public, by the
necessity of things or by act of parliament. If an
owner permits the public to pass and repass over
his land without interruption, it is presumed that
he intends to grant a public right of way ; he loses
his right to exclude the public, and the way is a
highway for ever, unless it should be closed by
a public authority under an act of parliament.
Public rights may be limited to a particular
purpose, as where the inhabitants of a parish have
the right to use a way in going to or coming from
church. If a highway be out of repair ngers
may go over adjaconrs land; but this is a right
to he exercised with caution. Any obstruction
placed upon a public way is a Nuisance (q.v.),
and may be abated or removed by any person
ieved. Every part of a highway is equally
open to the public; a foot passenger may walk on
the carriage-way, and a blind or aged person has
as good a legal right to be on the road as any
one else. But passengers must use ordinary
care to guard themselves against accident, and they
must comply with the well-known ‘Rules of the
Road’ (q.v.)—a person driving must keep to the
left on meeting another vehicle, and to the right
on passing another vehicle ; and if he transgresses
these rules without justification he will be liable
for the consequences. No person is justified in
using a highway for any purpose, however useful,
which interferes with the general right of the
public to pass and repass. us it has heen held
that a local authority cannot lay down tramway
lines so constructed as to damage the wheels of
carriages using the street, although the tramway
might be for the convenience of the public gener
aly. On the same principle it was held an indict-
able nuisance for a saeeapt company to place its
posts on a strip of land adjoining the road. Nothing
742 ROADS
os a
ROARING
but an act of parliament can legalise such uses of
a public way. .
Subject to the rights which he has conferred on
the public, the owner retains his right of poeny
in the land. If the land on both sides of a high-
way belongs to the same owner, it is to be pre-
sumed that his rights extend over and under the
road ; if the land on one side belongs to A and on
the other side to B, each is presumed to be owner
up to the middle line of the way, If, for mere,
a mine should be opened in the neighbourhood of
the road, the adjoining owner or owners would
have the right to mine under it, so long as sufficient
support is left for the surface of the road). If a gas
or water company without authority of parliament
takes up a road to lay its pipes, this is not only a
nuisance but a trespass, for which re cog Bi
recovered by the owner of the land. It has been
held that a person loitering on a rg wpb for the
purpose of hing may be indicted for trespassing
on the land of the adjoining owner.
The repair of a carriage-way involves a regular
outlay, and there are some cases in which this
burden is imposed upon the owner of the land,
ratione tenure, as a of the service by which
he holds his estate. But the general rule of com-
mon law is that the inhabitants of a parish must
repair the highways within the same; they are
liable to indictment if they fail to perform this
duty, and no agreement they can enter into will
relieve them of their liability. Many townships,
&e., which are not separate poor-law parishes are
separate highway parishes by ancient custom. The
management of highways seperently maintained
| Aca parish was regulated by an act passed in
1835, and amending acts; a parish surveyor was
elected by the ratepayers; in parishes over 5000
population a board might be elected. Under an
actof 1862 many parishes were grouped in districts.
The highway board of a district consisted of way-
wardens elected for the parishes therein, and of the
acting justices who reside in the district. Under
the Pablic Health Act an urban sanitary authority
was made the highway authority within its district.
Many of the main roads throughout England were
constructed or improved under Turnpike trusts,
constituted by acts of parliament. Turnpike
trusts and highway boards have alike been super-
seded by the provisions of the Local Government
Act of 1878 and subsequent acts. The control of
the main roads of a county now rests with the
county council, and the burden of their mainten-
ance is a county charge. The rural district coun-
cils are the higeway authorities for highways other
than main roads, and have the powers of the sur-
veyor of highways. In boroughs the powers of the
county council are exercised by the corporation.
The parish councils take charge of the repair of foot-
paths. Tolls had been generally abolished before
these sweeping changes in road management; see
ToLL. Legislation as to road-engines and motor-
cars is treated at TRACTION-ENGINES.
In the law of Scotland a highway is said to be
inter regalia ; but it seems that the presumption is
that the land over which a road belongs to
the adjoining owner or owners. Public rights of
way are acquired by actual use for the prescriptive
period of forty years. There were formerly two
classes of is—statute-labour and turnpike ; by
the Roads and Bridges Act, 1878, the management
of all roads was vested in county road trustees ; by
the Local Government Act of 1889 the powers of
the road trustees were transferred to the county
council; in the burghs they are — by the
town council or the commissioners of police.
For an outline of the English law, see Wright and
Hobhouse, Local Government in England ; for the Scotch
law, Goudy and Smith, Local Government.
Roanne, «a town of France (dept, Loire), 52
miles by rail NW. of Lyons, stands on the left
bank of the Loire, which becomes navigable here,
and is crossed by a stone bridge (1820), The prin-
cipal church is St Stephen’s (15th to 17th cen-
tury). Roanne has besides an old castle with
antiquarian collections, a new hdtel-de-ville with
a museum, some manufactures, and a large transit
trade, especially’in Lyons manufactures, in iron
and coal, and oriental wares, Pop. (1872) 18,615;
(1886) 30,060; (1891) 29,744.
Roanoke, a river‘of Virginia and North
paiema! formed by the union, a mile above
Clarksville, Virginia, of the Dan and Staunton
rivers, which rise in the Alleghanies, flows south-
east through the north-eastern portion of North
Carolina, and empties into Albemarle Sound. It
is navigable for steamboats to Weldon (130 miles);
its length is 230 miles.
Roanoke, « city of Mie ay! on the Roanoke
River, 258 miles by rail W. of Norfolk, at the
junction of the Shenandoah Valley and the
orfolk and Western railways. In 1880 it was
a secluded hamlet; by 1890 it was grown to a
bustling city, with a court-house, opera-house,
hotels, churches, gaol, gas and electric lights,
large machine-shops, steel and iron wi a
rolling-mill, tobaceo-, spoke-, and canning-f.
bottle-works, &c. Pop. (1880) 669 ; (1900) 21,495.
Roaring, popularly known as a disease, is only
a symptom oF dleteas ta horses. It consists in a
more or less loud unnatural sound emitted d
the act of inspiration, As a rule it is first -
fested by an animal making a slight noise, but
this slowly increases in loudness and intensity,
in many cases the animal es useless whilst
still comparatively Ee Whistling is a modifica-
tion of roaring, and is due to similar causes. The
disease is found to be due, in the t majority of
cases, to a wasting, atrophy, and fatty degenera-
tion of the muscles of the x, but more particu-
larly of those of the left side. This is partly at
least explained by the fact that the nerve supply-
ing the motor power to the left side is given off
deep within the chest, winding round the or
aorta, whereas that on the right is given o! ores
the first rib, just at the entrance into the chest, and
that the left nerve is more apt to be implicated in
diseases of the organs within the chest. Still this
theory is not quite sa , as the same
anatomical arrangement is found in other animals,
yet roaring from muscular atrophy is not known
among them, and many ‘roarers’ whose
has been known from birth have never suffi
from chest affections, whilst others severely affected
with chest disease have not become roarers. Again,
mares and ponies are not nearly so prone to become
roarers as males and r horses,
The development of roaring is often due to catarrh,
strangles, or some other disease affecting the res-
piratory organs; but it is generally concluded that
these diseases are not sufficient of themselves to
cause it, provided there be no hereditary taint, this
hereditary taint alone being sufficient in
instances to induce without the advent of
another disease. There no cure for it, all
attempts made in this direction having hitherto
proved abortive. In 1887 an operation for the cure
of roaring was reintroduced by Dt lee Mates
yrinei veterin surgeon to Her ’s
he Similar operations had been perlomet
by Giinther, in Hanover, so far back as 1834. It
consists in making a long incision into the laryn«,
the animal being under chloroform, and removin
the arytenoid cartilage and vocal chord of the
pesalynes side, Some horses were slightly bene-
ted, but many became worse than before the
ROARING FORTIES
ROBERT III. 743
operation, and had to be destroyed. This proved a
great disappointment to the veterinary profession,
as hopes had been held out that at last a cure for
roaring had been discovered.
Roaring is now included by the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England among the hereditary
unsoundnesses, and their veterinary officers are
instructed to disqualify all horses exhibited at the
great Guuaial show that give any signs of this
ae hereditary disease. See works by George
leming (1889) and T. J. Cadiot (trans. 1893).
Roaring Forties, a sailor’s term for a region
of the great Southern Ocean lying south of 8.
lat. (especially south of 45°), where the prevailing
winds are strong WNW. and NW. winds, often
stormy. It is owing to these winds that the out-
ward voyage to Australia is made by the Cape,
and the homeward voyage by Cape Horn. the
same name is sometimes given by analogy to a belt
of the North Atlantic about 40°-50° N.
Robben Island (Dutch, ‘seal island’), an
islet at the entrance of Table Bay, 10 miles NW.
of Capetown. It contains a lunatic asylum and
a leper colony, the management of which latter
institution caused some discussion in 1889 and 1890.
Robber Council. See Evrycues.
Robbery is the taking and carrying away,
either with violence or with threats of injury, of a
thing which is on the body or in the immediate
presence of the person from whom it is taken,
under such circumstances that in the absence of
violence or threats the act committed would be a
theft. In order to constitute the crime, the robber
must actually obtain ion of the goods.
Further, it is well established that no sudden
snatching of property unawares from a person is
sufficient to constitute robbery, unless some injury
be done to the person, or there be a previous
struggle for the possession of the property, or some
force used to obtain it. By statutory law in Eng-
land and Ireland (24 and 25 Vict. chap. 96) the
punishment for robbery is imprisonment or penal
servitude, varying according to the nature of the
violence or threats used. By the Criminal Pro-
cedure (Seotland) Act, 1887 (50 and 51 Vict. chap.
35), the jurisdiction of sheriffs has been extended
to robbery and certain other crimes which formerly
were cognisable only by the Court of Justiciary.
It is, however, to be noted that this extension of
jurisdiction does not render bailable crimes, such
as robbery, which were not formerly bailable. By
the above-mentioned statute it is now competent,
under an indictment for robbery, to convict of
reset or theft, or attempt to rob, An act of robbery
committed upon the high seas constitutes the
offence of piracy at common law; and each state
is entitled to visit the crime with the penalties
which its own laws may determine. In England
cases of piracy are now tried at the Central Criminal
Court and at the assizes,
Robbia, Luca DELLA, sculptor and modeller of
figures in relief, was born at Florence in 1399 or
1400, worked all his life there, and died there
on 20th Febrnary 1482. He designed and executed
between 1431 and 1440 ten panels of Angels and
Dancing Boys for the cathedral, which Professor
J. H. Middleton ealls one of the greatest pieces of
sculptured work in the 15th century. Another great
work by him was a bronze door, with ten panels of
figures in relief, for the sacristy of the cathedral,
made between 1448 and 1467. In marble he seulp-
tured, in 1457-58, the tomb of Federighi, Bishop of
Fiesole (now in the church of San Francesco outside
the city). The frame that surrounds this monument
is le of exquisitely painted majolica tiles. His
name is closely associated with the production of
figures in glazed or enamelled terra-cotta, made by
a process which, though he did not invent it, he
yet perfected greatly. Amongst the works he
executed by this process are numerous medallions,
some white, some polychrome, and reliefs.—His
principal pupil was his nephew ANDREA (1435-
1525), who worked chiefly at the production of
enamelled reliefs, retables, and medallions, these
last for the most part reproductions of the Madonna
and Child. Nearly all his works were of religious
subjects; they were made chiefly for Florence,
Arezzo, and Prato.—His son GIOVANNI (1469-
1529?) continued the activity of the family in this
style of work; his best productions are the frieze,
representing the Seven Works of Mercy, outside a
hospital at Pistoja, and a fountain in the sacristy
of St Maria Novella in Florence.
See Cavallucci and Molinier, Les Della Robbia, leur
Vie et lewr Giuvre (1884); Leader Scott, Luca Della
Robbia (in the ‘Great Artists’ series, 1883—to be used
with caution); and M. Reymond, Les Della Robbia
(Florence, 1897).
Robert I, (OF ScoTLAND). See Bruce.
Robert II., king of Scotland 1371-90, was
born 2d March 1316, two years after the battle of
Bannockburn. His father was Walter Stewart
(q.v.), his mother Marjory, only daughter of Robert
the Bruce; and both parents he lost in infancy.
Throughout the disastrous reign of his uncle,
David II., he was one of the most prominent of the
riotic nobles of Scotland, twice acting as regent
uring his exile and captivity, and fighting at
Halidon Hill (1333) and Neville’s Cross (1346).
On David’s death (22d February 1371) he obtained
the crown, and became the founder of the Stewart
dynasty, in virtue of the law of succession settled
by the Council of Estates at Ayr in 1315. ‘Aman
not valiant,’ Froissart describes him, ‘with red blear
eyes, who would rather lie still than ride;’ and
partly from disposition, partly from the infirmities
of age, Robert proved a peaceable, if not exactly a
pusillanimous ruler. Such wars as were —
with England were not only conducted, but
organised, by his powerful and intractable barons,
particularly the rls of Douglas, Mar, March,
and Moray, who shaped the policy of the country
very much according to their pleasure. The misery
inflicted on both sides of the Border by the raids of
these warlike chiefs, and the reprisals of the Eng-
lish wardens—the Percies and others—were fright-
ful; famine and pestilence became chronic; but
the most celebrated incidents of Robert’s rei:
were the invasions of Scotland by an English mili-
and naval force under the command of the
Duke of Lancaster (‘old John of Gaunt, time-
honoured Lancaster’) in 1384, and again by Kin
Richard II. himself in 1385, which wasted the lan
as far as Edinburgh and Fife, and the grand
retaliatory expedition of the Scotch in 1388,
which culminated in the battle of Otterburn (q.v.).
Robert died at his castle of Dundonald in Ayiibiee)
19th April 1390. He married first, in 1349, his
mistress, Elizabeth Mure of Rowallan, and secondly,
in 1355, Euphemia, daughter of the Earl of Ross
and widow of the Earl of Moray.
Robert III., king of Scotland 1390-1406, son
of the preceding, was born about 1340. His baptis-
mal name was John, but this name, out of hatred
to the memory of John Baliol, was changed on his
accession to the throne by an act of the Scot-
tish Estates. His imbecility as a ruler virtuall
placed the reins of government in the hands of his
ambitious brother, Robert, Earl of Menteith and
Fife, in 1398 created Duke of Albany, during
whose regime the Scottish barons first began
to exercise that anarchic and disloyal authority
which, in the reigns of the first three Jameses,
threatened to destroy the power of the sove
744 ROBERT OF BRUNNE
ROBERTSON
reign altogether. The principal events in Robert's
reign were the invasion of Scotland in 1400 by
Henry LV. of England, who, at the head of a large
army, penetrated as far as Exlinburgh, but did not
inflict much injury on the country—more, however,
from clemency than impotence—and the retaliatory
expedition of the Scotch, two years after, under
Archibald Douglas, which resulted in the terrible
disaster at Homildon Hill (q.v.). Robert had
two sons, the eldest of whom was David, Duke
of Rothesay (1378-1402), a youth not destitute of
parts, but shockingly licentious, As long as his
mother lived he kept within bounds, comparatively
speaking; but after her death, says Buchanan,
the gave an unbridled license to his- passions ;
laying aside fear and shame, he not only seduced
married ladies and virgins of good family, but those
whom he could not entice he forced to his em-
braces.’ Albany received orders from the king to
act as his guardian, and after a short time starved
him to death at Falkland ; for which he underwent
a mock-trial by his own creatures, and was of
course declared innocent. Robert now became
anxious for the safety of his younger son, James,
and, after consulting with Archbishop Wardlaw of
St Andrews, he resolved to send him to France ;
but, while proceeding thither, the vessel in which
he sailed was intercepted by an English cruiser,
and James was taken prisoner (1405). When his
father received the melancholy news he gave way
to paroxysms of grief, and died at Rothesay Castle,
4th April 1406.
Robert of Brunne. See BRuNNE.
Robert of Gloucester. See GLoucsster.
Roberts, Davin, landscape and architectural
painter, was born at Edinburgh (in Stockbridge)
on 24th October 1796, and was apprenticed to a
house-painter. In 1818 he advanced to the grade
of scene-painter, and in 1821 went to London to
— scenery for the stage of Drury Lane. All
his while he was studying artistic drawing and
painting, and in 1826 and 1827 he attracted the
attention of the Same with pictures of Rouen and
Amiens cathedrals in the Royal Academy exhibi-
tions. Then for several years he travelled in Spain,
Morocco, Egypt, Palestine, Italy, Belgium, making
drawings of grand and impressive buildings anc
landscapes with sage edifices, and working
them up into pictures. From among this work the
following stand out—the drawings from Spain for
the illustrations to the Landscape Annual (1835-
38); the magnificent volumes of The Holy Land,
Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia (1842) ;
numerous interiors of churches, as St Miguel at
Xeres, Holy Nativity at Bethlehem, St Jean at
Caen, St Paul at Antwerp, St Peter’s at Rome,
the cathedrals of Milan and Seville; and the
grandiose pictures, ‘Departure of the Israelites
from Egypt’ (1829), ‘Ruins of the Great Temple
at Carnac’ (1845), ‘ Jerusalem from the South-east’
(1845), ‘ Destruction of Jerusalem’ (1849), ‘Rome’
(1855), and ‘Grand Canal at Venice’ (1856).
Roberts’ style is essentially spectacular, in
grand broad effects, with magnificent architectural
arrangements, to which the details are of course
nerally sacrificed. He was elected an A.R.A. in
839, an R.A. in 1841; and died 25th November
1864. See Life by James Ballantine ( 1866).
Roberts, Sir Freperick, British general, was
the son of an India officer, General Sir Abraham
Roberts, and was born at Cawnpore on 30th
September 1832. He was brought to —
when two years old, educated at Clifton, Eton,
Sandhurst, and Addiscombe, and entered the
Bengal Artillery in 1851. His first taste of
actual warfare was got in the hot time of the siege
of Delhi, during the Mutiny, and he took an active
part in the subsequent operations down to the
relief of Lucknow, acting on the staff, in the
uartermaster-general’s department, and he won
the V.C. He — emg Pies of eos
quartermaster-general in the Abyssinian expedi-
tion of 1868, and in the Lushai expedition of
1871-72. On the outbreak of the Afghan war in
1878, Roberts, now major-general, was appointed
to command the Kurram division of the army. He
forced in brilliant fashion the Afghan position on
the peak of Peiwar Kotul (8500 feet above sea~
level), and was rewarded with a knight-commander-
ship of the Bath (1879). After the murder of Sir
Louis Cavagnari and the escort of the British mission
at Kabul, he was given the command of the force
sent to avenge them. He defeated the Afghans av
Chardsia on 6th October, took possession of Kabul
on the 12th, and assumed the government of the
country, Yakib Khan ha’ abdicated. Events
followed quickly: the fortified cantonment of
Sherpur was occupied by the British army, the
fortress of Bala Hissar in Kabul was dismantled,
Yakib Khan was sent a prisoner to India, the
Asghens began to concentrate on Kabul, General
Roberts sought to check them, and there was much
sharp fighting round the city, Abdul Rahman
was proclaimed Ameer, and eral Burrows was
crushingly defeated at Maiwand, and the British
ee of Kandahar besieged by the followers of
yub Khan. On 9th August Sir F. Roberts set
out with 10,148 troops, 8143 native followers, and
11,224 se animals on his memorable mareh
through the heart of Afghanistan. Reaching Kan-
dahar three weeks later, he immediately gave battle
to Ayub Khan, and routed him completely, cap-
turing all his artillery and his camp. He revisited
England towards the close of the year and was hon-
oured with a baronetey ; on his return to India he
was appointed commander-in-chief of the Madras
army iss); and in 1885-93 was commander-in-
chief in India. In 1895 he was made Field-marshal
Lord Roberts ‘of Kandahar and Waterford,’ and
commander of the forces in Ireland; he commanded
in chief in South Africa in 1899-1900, and in 1900
was made commander-in-chief of the British army.
He is also G.C.8.L, LL.D. ( Cantab.), &e.
See a Life by C. R. Low (1883), but especially Lord
Roberts’s own work, Forty-one Years in India ( ).
Robertson, FrepericK WILLIAM, was born,
eldest of the seven children of an artillery captain,
in London on 3d February 1816, and spent his.
first five years at Leith Fort. He had his school-
ing at Beverley, Tours, and Edinb Academy,
and from the \nginelse was marked as an
and imaginative child, gentle and unseltish, of
singular purity of spirit and uprightness of charac-
ter, and with an A ther un-childlike sense of
the dignity of duty. a short time of study
at Edinburgh University, and a year of wearing.
drudgery in a solicitor’s office at Bury St Edmunds,
he returned to his home at Cheltenham to prepare.
for the army, but while waiting for his commis-
sion was, after much misgiving, persuaded of his.
vocation to the min x e matriculated at
Brasenose College, Oxford, on 4th May 1837, and
five days later came the offer of a commission in a
cavalry regiment. At Oxford he lived a secluded
life, and gave himself with fervour to the study of
the Scriptures. From the bepaninn he felt no
real affinity with Newmanism, but clung firmly to
the Evangelicalism of his upbringing, tem by
a charity and tolerance all his own. Although he
did not compete for honours, he read hard, espe-
cially in Plato, Aristotle, Butler, with Shelley,
Coleridge, and Wordsworth. He was ordained by
the Bishop of Winchester in July 1840, and for
nearly a year thereafter held a curacy at Win-
chester. THis health now broke down at once
ROBERTSON
745
from over-devotion to work and a course of ascetic
austerities through which, in this period of bond-
age to the letter, a hypersensitive conscience
cated him to seek after a higher level of
ristian life. A walking tour on the Continent
restored him to health, and at Geneva he married,
after a short acquaintance, a daughter of Sir
George William Denys. In the summer of 1842
he became curate to the incumbent of Christ
Church, Cheltenham, and here for nearly five
years he laboured with unbroken devotion, despite
depression of spirits, conviction of failure, and
a painful and prolonged mental struggle through
which he fought his way upwards to certainty
in_ his p of the realities of Christian truth.
His faith in Evangelicalism was first shaken by
the intolerance and bitterness of its partisans,
and the spiritual agony of the revulsion shook his
soul to its foundations, and again broke down his
health. In September 1846 he set out for the
Continent, and, after three months of travel and
preaching at Heidelberg, returned a follower of no
school to accept the curacy of St Ebbe’s in Oxford.
Here the power of his preaching had already made
itself felt among his.poor and even among the
und nates, when in August 1847 he accepted
an invitation to Trinity Chapel, Brighton.
He had now grown to his full stature as a dis-
ciple of Christ, and his rare union of prt naw
with dialectic power, the beauty ai.d freshness of
his thought, his earnestness, originality, wide sym-
pathy, and knowledge of the human heart at once
arrested public attention. He brought the religion
of Jesus to bear on everyday life and the perp ex-
ing social problems of the time, and pointed out
the path to the true liberty, equality, and frater-
aie in service and disciplineship as sons of God
and joint-heirs with Jesus Christ. But his motives
were misunderstood by many, and, eee after
the excitement of 1848, he was branded for his
sympathy with working-men as a revolutionist
and enemy of social order, and subjected to much
misrepresentation and many a cruel and unjust
attack. He established the Working-men’s Insti-
tute in Brighton, and. taught its members how
to govern and to respect themselves, and he flung
himself with a ionate and chivalrous enthusiasm
into every battle waged in his day against tyrann
and wrong. Stern in denunciation of moral po
he was tolerant of intellectual error, and thus his
influence, like his Master’s, extended to men
hitherto outside the pale of Christian pathy.
The strength and absolute sincerity of his convic-
tions, and the broad rationality and certitude on
which these were based, gave new strength to many
a troubled and doubting heart, and added in almost
unexampled degree the seal of power and com-
prehensiveness to his ereay ‘o him the Incar-
nation was the centre of all his ; Christ, God’s
idea of human nature realised. He was no mere
negative theologian, for the central point of his
preaching was ever the historical reality of the life
of Christ, revealing at once sonship with God and
brotherhood with man. Men are sons of God by
virtue of His image stamped upon them in creation ;
they become so de jure by baptism, but de facto by
faith. The suffering of Christ makes atonement
for our sins by making possible in us the potential-
ity of sympathetically suffering for others; while
faith converts this potentiality into an actual
reality, as the foundation of union with God and
the spring of Christ-like grea within us. The
characteristic fruit of faith is a pervasive love to
Christ and to one another; and one of the privi-
leges that flow from it is an elevation from the
bondage of the letter, and a security in the freedom
of the spirit. Hence came Robertson’s honest
tefnsal to sign the petition for an enactment
against opening the Crystal Palace on Sundays—
a a api binding the chains of Judaical
legalism on the Christian conscience which cost
him much odium and inspired one noble sermon.
Robertson gras the idea of the vast compre-
hensiveness of the Christian ideal, with its unity
of spirit under diversity of form, recognising that
theological systems must be continually modified
by new conditions of life and thought in the his-
torical development of the ages. The intolerant
absolutism of the Evangelical school, and the High
Church subservience to form, as well as its search
for an ideal in the Christianity of the past rather
than in the present or the future, were alike re-
ugnant to him; yet he possessed all the emotional
ervour which used to be claimed as the monopoly
of the one, and which he loved in his own day to
ise in the fresh enthusiasm of the other,
ther with the strength of thonght and the
philosophic breadth usually associated with the
more liberal theology. e himself summed up
the cardinal principles of his teaching in these
propositions: (1) The establishment of positive
truth, instead of the negative destruction of error.
(2) That truth is made up of two opposite proposi-
tions, and not found in a via media between the
two. (3) That spiritual truth is discerned by the
irit, instead of intellectually in propositions ; and
therefore Truth should be taught suggestively, not
dogmatically. (4) That belief in the human charac-
ter of Christ’s humanity must be antecedent to
belief in his divine origin. (5) That Christianity,
as its teachers showed, works from the inward to
the outward, and not vice versd. (6) The soul of
goodness in things evil.
In the pulpit Robertson’s voice was low but clear
and musical, with occasional startling modulations,
and that peculiar thrill of suppressed emotion which
is the innermost secret of eloquence. He s
almost motionlessly erect, his fine face, delicate
and mobile features, and deep blue eyes all elo-
quent in harmony with his words. Intensely
sensitive as he was, all self-consciousness vanished
as he spoke, his brain and heart aglow with a fire
of earnestness that burned up ny ysical strength,
His sermons were kneaded with his heart’s blood,
hence their reality, as he never spoke what had not
become a part of himself. In preparing them he
jotted down bis thoughts on scraps of paper, next
wrote out his main ideas with some fullness in
logical sequence of thought, then made on a small
slip of paper a brief abstract of the whole with
merely the heads and a few of the leading thoughts.
This he took with him into the pulpit, but hardly
had he warmed to his subject ere it was crushed in
his grasp and flung aside as useless.
During his last years Robertson suffered intense
in from a disease of the brain, which was
eightened by the excitability and unrest of his
temperament, and the misrepresentations that fell
like blows upon a hypersensitive nervous Meee
tion. He preached his last sermon in Trinity
Chapel on 5th June 1853, having resigned because
his vicar had refused on entirely inadequate grounds
to confirm his nomination of a curate. After a few
more weeks of cruel suffering he died, 15th August
1853, with the last words on his lips, ‘I must die.
Let God do His work.’ Eight days later he was
laid in the Extra-mural Cemetery at Brighton
amid the sorrow of the entire population of the
town, Its citizens knew well what Stopford
Brooke’s binds tg twelve years later revealed to
the wider world, that his whole life had been a
passionate Imitation of Christ.
Robertson of Brighton published in his lifetime but one
sermon—the four series (1855, 1855, 1857, 1859-63) so
well known over the English-speaking world, and consti-
tuting so unique a monument of religioas genius, wor?
746
—
ROBERTSON
not written for delivery or preservation, but are eco’ 4
recollections sometimes dictated by the preacher
to the younger members of a family in which he was
interested, sometimes written out by himself for them
when they were at a distance. Yet another volume, 7'he
Human &c., was issued in 1880. Other works that
have also been published are Expository Lectures on St
Paul's Epistle to the Corinthians (1859); Lectures and
Addresses (1858); An Analysis of ‘In Memoriam’ (1862) ;
a translation from Lessing—The Education of the Human
Race (1858); and Notes on Genesis ( 1877). Life and
Letlers—the latter only inferior in value to the sermons—
by the Rev. Stopford A. Brooke, appeared in 1865, and
has already taken its place among the classics of English
biography.
Robertson, Joseprn, Scottish antiquary, was
born, a small shopkeeper’s son, at Aberdeen, 17th
May 1810, and was educated at oy Academy, and
the grammar-school and Marischal College of his
native city. An Episcopalian and Conservative,
he was apprenticed to a lawyer, but took early to
writing, and, after six years of literary work at
Edinburgh, was a pole iy Bad editor at Aberdeen,
Glasgow, and Edinburg m 1839 to 1853. He
was in that year appointed curator of the historical
department of the Edinburgh Register House.
received in 1864 the degree of LL.D., and died
13th December 1866. He was an originator of the
Aberdeen Spalding Club (1839-70), for which he
edited four works; and for the first edition of this
encyclopedia he wrote eighty articles (Columba,
Culdees, Cuthbert, Mary Stuart, &c.), pert gf of
which have, with revision, been retained. Of his
other works may be noticed The Book of Bon-
Accord, or a Guide to the City of Aberdeen (1839),
Catalogues of the Jewels, Dresses, Books, and Paint-
ings of Mary Queen of Scots (Bannatyne Club,
1863), the invaluable Concilia Scotia: Ecclesia
Scoticane Statuta, 1225-1559 (2 vols. Bannatyne
Club, 1866), and an admirable article in the
Quarterly Review for June 1849 on ‘Scottish
Abbeys and Cathedrals.’ See the Memoir prefixed
to a reprint of the last (Aberdeen, 1891).
Rebortson, THoMAS WILLIAM, dramatist,
was born at Newark-on-Trent, on 9th eat
1829. The family had for some generations bac
been actors and actresses, and young Tom was
ore Fy up almost on the boards, About the
middle of the century the Lincoln circuit, with
which his father was connected, ceased to pay ; the
company was broken up, and Tom ed to
London. There he struggled for a living, acting
as prompter and s manager, writing unsuccess-
ful plays, acting himself, writing for newspapers
and ines, Fun amongst them, translating
French plays, and so forth; but Robertson was
never an actor of any mark. His first success as a
dramatist was with David Garrick, in 1864, the
title réle of which was one of Sothern’s great
things. This was followed by the production of
the comedy Society at Liverpool (1865), where, and
later in London, it was received with the warmest
approval. His next enc Ours (1866), aes
by the Bancrofts at the Prince of Wales’s Theatre,
London, thoroughly established Robertson’s fame ;
and from that time his pen was kept incessantly
ag Caste (1867), Play (1868), ool (1869),
M.P. (1870)—all brought ont by the Kendals at
the Prince of Wales’s—and Home (1869) and
Dreams (1869), the former at the Haymarket, the
latter at the Gaiety, were all equally successful.
But in the midst of his triumphs Tom Robertson
died, in London, on 3d February 1871. His best
comedies still retain their popularity, thirty years
after they were first produean. This is owing in
the first place to the excellence of their construe-
tion and stagecraft, and in the next to their bright
and merry humour, their wholesome, healthy tone,
their happy contrasts, and the sunny spirit that
shines pos = them. See his Prine i
Works, with Memoir by his son (2 vols. 1889), and
the Life and Writings, by Pemberton (1893).
Robertson, W1LL1AM, the historian, was born
19th September 1721, at Borthwick in Midlothian,
of which parish his father was minister. He went |
to school at Dalkeith, at twelve entered the uni-
versity of Edinburgh, and at twenty-two was
ordained as minister of Gladsmuir, On the sudden
death of his father and mother soon after, the care
of a younger brother and six sisters devolved upon
him, and this duty he at once cheerfully undertook,
although his income was but £100 a year. At the
same time he was assiduous in preaching, in cate-
chising, and in all the duties of his o His
vigour and patriotism he showed by joi a bod
of volunteers formed for the defence of inbur
against the Jacobite rebels in 1745, and after the
surrender of the city he offered his services to the
royalist commander at Haddington. As early as
1751 we find Robertson taking a prominent in
the debates of the General Assembly, and indeed
his influence soon became supreme as leader of the
* Moderate’ in the church, He carried the
deposition of Gillespie in the Assembly in 1752,
and in 1757 the acquittal of Carlyle of Inveresk
before the Synod for having been present at the
rformance of Home’s tragedy of glas on the
inburgh stage. From 1759 till his death he was
joint-minister with Dr Erskine of Greyfriars
hurch, Edinburgh, and in the same ~~ was
appointed chaplats of Stirling Castle. Still further,
in 1761 he became a royal c¢ pas. in 1762 prin-
cipal of the university of Edinburgh, and in 1764
the office of king’s histori her was revived in
his favour, with a salary of a year. Tonpuee
offers of golden preferment in the English chu
were held out to him, but these he was too sensible
and honest to accept. All this was because of the
splendid and immediate success of his History of
otland (1753-59), which earned the warmest
pane from Hume, Horace Walpole, Lord Chester-
eld, Bishop Warburton, David ick, and Baron
d’Holbach, if not Dr Johnson—‘ Sir, I love Robert-
son ; and I won’t talk of his book,’ said the doctor
to Boswell. Next followed the History of the Reign
of the Emperor Charles V. (3 vols. 1769), to which
was prefixed an admirably synthetic and suggestive
View of the State of Society in Eu the
subversion of the Roman Empire to ginning
of the Sixteenth Century. This is the most valuable
of Robertson’s works. The field has been often
since traversed by authors who have discovered
much new material, but all the use they have
made of it has become an indirect tribute to the
natural sagacity of Robertson. He received £4500
for the copyright, and_was gratified by the most
a yes from Voltaire and Ac or Kass
ist of America appeared in 1 ; An His-
torical Di isition pte 1 ser the Know which
the Ancients had of India in 1791.
near Edinburgh, 11th June 1793, and was buried
in the Greyfriars churehyard.
Robertson's Histories are still excellent ar
although in every case they have been left behin
by the more valuable works of a later day. Their
merit is great, considering the slenderness of the
materials then available and the fact that he lived
almost half a century before the modern conception
of the scope and method of history awoke. None
of his contemporaries philosophised on defective
data with greater dignity or less unconsciousness
of 18th-century limitations; but it is true that
many of the remarks in his review of the state of
Europe display a quite remarkable sagacity and
power of generalisation. His — is clear and
correct, but is formal, and lacks vigour
and spontaneity.
ROBERTSON
ROBESPIERRE 747
See the short account of his life by Dugald Stewart;
Carlyle’s Autobiography; Brougham (a grand-nephew,
who, a boy of fifteen, had stood beside the historian’s
grave), Lives of Men of Letters of the Time of George III. ;
and Lord Cockbur..’s Memorials of his Life and Times,
for an interesting sketch of his appearance and conver-
sation in his last years.
Robertson, Rey. Witu1Am Bruce, D.D.
(born 24th May 1820, died 27th June 1886), always
called ‘of Irvine’—his first and only charge—
was ordained to the United Presbyterian church
there in 1843. As a student he had spent many
hours with De Quincey, and largely owing to
his advice had finished his thoanciad course
at Halle, chiefly under Tholuck. Serious ill-
ness in 1871 incapacitated him from ever resum-
ing regular work. Between 1871 and 1878 he
was much in Italy. Thereafter he was able to
undertake occasional preaching, his sermons and
week-day lectures at Cambridge, 1879-81, being
the most memorable. Pousused ti a strong sense
of humour, he could make it serve the highest ends,
or could pass at once without effort or jar to the
most solemn subjects. Gifted with a striking pres-
ence and a sonorous, well-regulated voice, Calvinist
in doctrine, but catholic in sympathy; a staunch
Presbyterian, but with a keen eye to the artistic
beauty of cathedrals ; an ardent admirer of Luther,
but a loving student of the liturgy and hymns of
the Roman Chureh ; a seer sailor tebe a theologian,
he made music and painting, seulpture and archi-
tecture all minister by illustration and analogy to
the evangelical setting forth of the ae and cross
of Christ. Unfortunately he published nothing
beyond a translation of the Dies Ire and one or
two sacred songs.
For other poems and jottings of a few of his sermon:
see his Life, by Rev. foray ly D.D. (1889); P|
ii) of Irvine, the Poet Preacher, by A, Guthrie
Robes, MIsTREss OF THE. See HOUSEHOLD.
Robespierre, MAximitien Marre Istpore,
was born of a legal family, originally of Irish
origin, at Arras, 6th May 1758, is mother died
in 1767, his broken-hearted father two years later,
and the four children were brought up by their
maternal grandfather, an Arras brewer. Maxi-
milien, the eldest, early showed unusual promise,
and was educated at Arras and at the Collége
Louis-le-Grand at Paris, where Camille Desmoulins
was a fellow-student. He was admitted avocat in
1781, and next F Se was named criminal judge by
the bishop of Arras, but resigned his place soon
after to avoid passing a sentence of death. All
through life a fanatical devotee of the gospel
according to Rousseau, his sentimentality and
taste for verses made him popular among the
Rosati at Arras. He drew up the cahier or fist of
grievances for the guild of cobblers, and was
elected to the States-general in 1789 as one of
the deputies for the tiers état of Artois. He
soon attached himself fo the extreme Léft—the
‘ thirty voices,’ and though his first speeches excited
ridicule, it was not long before his earnestness and
his high-sonnding phrases commanded attention.
‘That young man believes what he says; he will
go far,’ said Mirabean, forecasting his future with
the divination of genius. Indeed his influence
ew daily, both in the Jacobin Club and in the
Sammbly, and thousands amongst the mob of
triots outside became fanatical in their admira-
ion of his sincere cant and his boasted incorrupti-
bility. Three days after the death of Mirabeau he
ealled upon the Assembly to prevent any deputy
from taking office as minister for four years, and in
the following month (May 1791) carried the motion
that no member of the present Assembly should be
eligible for the next. This policy grew out of the
narrow and acrid suspiciousness of his own nature,
and reveals the inherent meanness of his aims and
his failure to grasp that grand idea of real parlia-
meiner re by a responsible ministry,
which been the dearest dream of Mirabeau.
Next followed a appointment as public
accuser, the king’s flight to Vacseane (June 21st),
Lafayette’s last effort to control the sacred right of
Insurrection on the Champ-de-Mars (17th July),
the abject terror of Robespierre, his sheltering him-
self in the house of Duplay, a carpenter, his hyster-
ical appeal to the Club, the theatrical oath taken
by every member to defend his life, and his bein,
wousel with chaplets, along with Pétion, an
carried home in triumph by the mob at the close
of the Constituent Assembly (30th September).
After seven weeks of quiet he sold his small
trimony and returned to Paris, to the house of
play, where he remained to the last day of his
life. He was much beloved in the family, and
a passion quickly sprung up betwixt himself and
his host’s eldest daughter Eléonore, a romantic girl
of twenty-five. His room was a humble chamber
in which he worked and slept; its decorations, a
few busts and portraits of himself. Alone amongst
the patriots he was noted for the carefulness of his
dress, which never varied in the slightest—powdered
hair, a bright blue coat, white waistcoat, short
yellow breeches, with white stockings and shoes with
silver buckles. Small and feeble in frame, solitary
and reserved in habits, he ever wore an anxious
look upon his straitened and spectacled face; his
complexion was atrabilious, even verddtre ; and he
retained to the last the sobriety of the cynic, drink-
ing only water.
eantime the Girondist party had been formed
in the new Legislative Assembly, its leaders—the
loudest, Brissot—eager for war. Robespierre, who
ever feared and disliked war, offered a strenuous
opposition in the debates of the Jacobin Club, and
sometimes, if seldom, in his endless and windy
harangues rose into the region of real eloquence.
Fundamentally an empty pedant, inflated with
words which he teioae for ideas, in his orations
he is ever riding in the air on theories, his foot
never on the solid BR oer of the practical. In
April 1792 he resigned his post of public prosecutor,
He was invisible during the crisis of the 10th
August, but he joined the Hétel-de-Ville faction,
and on the 16th August we find him presenting
to the Legislative Assembly its petition for a Revo-
lutionary Tribunal and a new Convention. It does
not appear, however, that he was in any sense
directly responsible for the atrocious September
massacres in the prisons, or more than a mere
accessory after the fact. For his reward he was
elected first deputy for Paris to the National Con-
vention, which opened on the 2lst September.
The bitter attacks upon him by the Girondists
were renewed only to throw Robespierre into a
closer union with Danton and his party, but the
final struggle was interrupted for a little by the
momentous question of the king’s trial. Robes-
pierre opposed vigorously the Girondist idea of a
special appeal to the people on the king’s death,
and his execution (2lst January 1793) opened up
the final stage of the struggle, which ended in a
complete triumph of the Jacobins on the 2d June
of the same year. The first Committee of Public
Safety—a permanent Cabinet of Revolution—
was decreed in April 1793, but Robespierre was
not elected till the 27th July. He was now for
the first time one of the actual rulers of France,
but it is open to question whether for the whole
twelve months from this time to the end he was
not merely the stalking-horse for the more resolute
party within the Twelve. His vaunted an pee
ability,.his great popularity with the mob, and his
748 ROBESPIERRE
ROBIN HOOD
gift of fluent, if vague and windy, oratory made an
admirable cover for the truculent designs of ~rhes 4
and completely unscrupulous men like Billaud-
Varennes and Collot d’Herbois, and at least it is
certainly the case that Couthon and Saint-Just
were the only members whose political and social
ideals coincided with his own, Destitute of
litical intuition, without foresight or re aaawey
1imself the mere dupe of a few borrowed phrases,
he was strong becanse within his narrow limits he
was honest, and because he actually had a horizon
of social ideals, not nakedly identical with his own
advantage. He was astute enough, moreover, to
play off one force against another—the Conven-
tion, the Commune, and the Committee, while he
derived his strength from the constant worship of
the Club.
The next scenes in the great drama of Revolu-
tion were the dark intrigues and desperate
struggles that sent Hébert and his friends to the
old on the 24th March 1794, and Danton and
Robespierre’s school-fellow, Camille Desmoulins, on
the 5th of April after. Hébert Robespierre had
long disliked, and Chaumette’s crazy deification of
the Goddess of Reason had filled him with disgust ;
Danton he at once hated and feared with that
fierce and spiteful hatred he ever felt instinctivel
for men like the great Tribune and Vergniaud with
natural gifts beyond his own. ‘ Robespierre will
follow me: I drag down Robespierre,’ said Danton
with prophetic truth. The next three months he
reigned supreme, but his supremacy prepared the
way for his inevitable fall. He nominated all the
members of the Government Committees, placed
his creatures in all places of influence in the com-
mune of Paris, sent his henchman Saint-Just on
a mission to the armies on the frontier, assumed
supreme control of the Revolutionary Tribunal,
and completely revolutionised its method of opera-
tion by the atrocious measure introduced by his
creature Couthon on the 22d Priarial (10th June),
to the effect that neither counsel nor witnesses
need be heard if the jury had come otherwise to
a conclusion. The fatal significance of this change
—a complete abrogation of all law—is seen in the
fact that from this time till the day of Robespierre’s
death the daily tale of victims of the guillotine
averaged almost thirty. But, in accordance with
the law that governs all human things, as Robes-
pierre’s power increased his popularity decreased,
and still further he had committed the fatal folly
of making himself publicly ridiculous. Already
his voluntary bodyguard of Tappe-durs had excited
derision and resentment, but his declaration on
7th May of a new religion for the state—the founda-
tion of a new regime of public morality—awakened
in the mind of Paris the slumbering sense of humour.
The Convention at Robespierre’s instance agreed
to compliment the Supreme Being with an acknow-
ledgment of His existence and themselves with the
Consolatory Principle of the Immortality of the
Soul, to be celebrated in thirty-six annual festivals.
The first of these was held on the 8th of June,
when art 2a glorious in a new viclet-blue
coat, walked in front of the procession and delivered
his soul of a vapid harangue, and set fire to paste-
figures representing Atheism, Selfishness,
Annihilation, Crime, and Vice. An old mad woman
named Catherine Theot, who thought herself the
mother of God, now declared Robespierre to be the
new divine Saviour of the world, and drew down
upon him still further ridicule in the Convention.
eantime the pace of the guillotine grew faster,
although apparently Robespierre hoped to bring
it to a close as soon as all his more dangerous
enemies, like Tallien, Fouché, and Vadier, were
eut off. Meantime the public finance and the
work of government generally drifted to ruin, and
Saint-Just openly demanded the creation of @
Dictatorship in the person of Robespierre as alone
possessing intellect, energy, patriotism, and_re-
volutionary experience enough. On the 26th July
(8th Thermidor), after about a month's absence,
the Dictator delivered a long harangue complain-
ing that he was being asennad of crimes bee bran
He was listened to in deep and unsympathe
silence, and the Convention, after at first obediently
ponies his decrees, next rescinded them and re-
erred his proposals to the committees, and the
sitting ended without anything being concluded.
That night at the Jacobin Club his perty Agee
triumphed, and the Tallien party in despair hurried
to the members of the Right, the Girondist remnant,
and implored their help against the common enemy
at this desperate juncture. Next day at the Con-
vention Saint-Just could not obtain a
Tallien, Billaud-Varennes, and Vadier vehemently
attacked Robespierre, and the voice of the Dictator
himself was drowned with cries of ‘Down with
tyrant!’ Turning to the Right, ‘I a; to you
whose hands are clean,’ he Ret but ihe Righe sat
in stony silence. ‘ President of Assassins, I demand
to be heard,’ he cried, but his voice died down in his
throat.—‘ The blood of Danton chokes him,’ cried
Garnier. An unknown deputy named Louchet
pro that Robespierre should be arrested, and
at the fatal words his power crumbled into ruins.
His younger brother and Lebas demanded to be
included in the honourable sentence. Vain attempts
were made by the Jacobin Club and the Commune
to save their hero, but Paris refused to move, and
even Henriot’s artillerymen to obey. Ro
broke his arrest and flew to the Common Hall,
whereupon the Convention at once declared him
out of the law. The National Guard under Barras
turned out to protect the Convention, and Robe-
spierre had his lower jaw broken by a shot fired
by a gendarme named Merda, or, as many believed,
by his own hand. Next day (28th July ; 10th Ther-
midor 1794), still in his sky-blue — the miserable,
trembling wretch died with Saint-Just, Couthon,
and nineteen others by the guillotine ; the day after
seventy-one members of the municipality followed,
twelve more on the third day, and the Reign of
Terror was extinguished in a sea of blood.
See the histories of the Revolution by Lamartine,
Michelet, Louis Blane, Carlyle, Von Sybel, H. Morse
Stephens, and M. Taine; the Life by G. H. Lewes
(1849); and ially Ernest Hamel’s exhaustive and
authoritative, tho h vastly over-eulogistic, Vie de
Robespierre (3 vols. 1 ), also his 7hermidor (1891).
Robin. See Reppreast. The American Robin
is a Thrush (q.v.)—the 7urdus migratorius ; and
the name of Golden Robin is sometimes given te
the Baltimore Bird (q.v.).
Robin Goodfellow. See Puck.
Robin Hood, the hero of a group of old Eng-
lish ballads, represented as an outlaw and a robber,
but of a gallant and generous nature, whose familiar
haunts are the forests of Sherwood and Barnsdale,
where he fleets the time carelessly in the me
greenwood. He is ever genial and good-natured,
religious, respectful to the Virgin and to all women
for her sake, with a kind o ous and noble
dignity in his bearing. He lives the king’s
deer, ee personally most loyal, and wages
ceaseless warfare on all proud bishops, abbots, and
knights, taking of their superfluity, and giving
liberally to the poor and to all honest men in dis-
tress, of whatever degree. He is unrivalled with
the bow and quarter-staff; but in as many as eight
of the extant ballads comes off the worse in the
combat with some stout fellow, whom he there-
upon induces to join his company. His chief com-
rades are Little John, Scathlok (Scarlet), and
ROBIN HOOD
ROBINIA 749
Much ; to these the Gest adds Gilbert of the White
Hand and Reynold. A stalwart curtal friar, called
Friar Tuck in the title though not in the ballad,
fights with Robin Hood, and apparently accepts
the invitation to join his company, as he ap
later in two heamotleat which also mention Maid
Marian. Such is the romantic figure of the greatest
of English popular heroes—a kind of yeoman-coun-
terpart to the knightly Arthur.
he earliest notice of Robin Hood yet found is
that pointed out by Perey in Piers Plowman,
which, according to Skeat, cannot be older than
about 1377. Here Sloth says in his shrift that,
though but little ciated’ with his paternoster,
he knows ‘ rymes of Robyn Hood and Randolf, erle
of Chestre.’ In the next century we find him
mentioned in Wyntoun’s Chronicle of Scotland (c.
1420); a petition to parliament in the year 1439
represents a broken man in Derbyshire taking to
the woods ‘like as it hadde be Robyn-hode and his
meyné ;’ Bower, in his Scotichronicon (1441-47),
describes the lower orders of his time as entertain-
ing themselves with ballads both merry and serious
about Robin Hood, Little John, and their mates,
and preferring them to all others; and Major or
Mair (c. 1470-1550) says in his Historia Maioris
Britannia that Robin Hood ballads were sung
all over Britain. The last passage gives apparently
the earliest mention of those more romantic and
redeeming features of Robin Hood which earned
him a place in Fuller’s Worthies of England, under
his proper county, sweet Nottinghamshire, ‘ not for
his thievery but for his gentleness.’ Yet another
15th-century mention occurs in the Paston Letters,
where Sir oe Paston writes in 1473 of a servant
whom he had kept to play Robin Hood and the
Sheriff of Nottingham.
Fragments of two Robin Hood plays exist, one
dating from 1475, the other printed by Copland
with the Gest about 1550. The latter is described
in the title as ‘very proper to be played in May-
mes.’ Robin Hood was a popular figure in these
uring the 16th century, as we find from Stow, Hall,
and other writers, and there is evidence that in
this connection he was known as far north as
Aberdeen. In place-names again we find traces of
him in cairns, mounds, hills, rocks, crosses, foun-
tains, caves, and oaks from Somerset to Whitby.
In the Gest the localities around Barnsdale are
topo; hically correct, down to the place of his
death at the priory of Kirkless between Wakefield
and Halifax. Here the valiant outlaw is treacher-
ously bled to death by his kinswoman the prioress,
to whom he had gone for relief in his sickness.
His last charge to Little John is completely true to
his character, and is expressed in lines of touching
simplicity :
Lay me a green sod under my head,
And another at my feet;
And lay my bent bow by my side,
Which was my music sweet ;
And make my grave of gravel and green,
Which is most right and meet.
There is no evidence worth anything that Robin
Hood was ever more than a mere creation of the
pular imagination, but in due time the yeoman
Saenme a political personage, and was transformed
into an Earl of Buntingies
pedigree was constructed. Both Sir Walter Scott,
in Ivanhoe, and Thierry, in his Conquéte de l’Angle-
terre, make him a Saxon chief holding out like
Hereward against the Normans; Bower, the con-
tinuator of Fordun, distinctly calls him one of the
roscribed followers of Simon de Montfort ; Joseph
Hanie (1852) makes him an adherent of the Earl
of Lancaster in the insurrection of 1322. The last
scholar discovered a still further and exceptionally
amusing mare’s nest in the name of one Robyn
on for whom a suitable
Hode, who entered the service of King Edward II.
about Christmas’ 1323 as one of the ‘ vadlets, por-
teurs de la chambre,’ and was eleven months later
found unfit for his duties, and paid off with a gift
of five shillings. ‘To detect ‘‘a remarkable co-
incidence between the ballad and the record”
uires,’ says Professor Child, ‘not only a theoret-
ical prepossession, but an uncommon insensibility
to the ludicrous.’ Kuhn again identifies our outlaw
with Woden; others with a sun-god, a woodland
deity, and the like—all which subtleties of specu-
lation are unnecessary if we readily admit that the
hero of popular creative imagination may well have
formed a peg round which to hang much old-world
wood-lore even then fast fading into forgetfulness.
Of Robin Hood ballads there have come down to
us in more or less ancient form as many as forty,
of which eight may be said to be of the first import-
ance, and of almost the finest quality of ballad
peer: Of the remaining thirty-two, as Professor
hil points out, about half a dozen have in them
something of the old pepaias quality ; as many
more not the least snatch of it. Fully a dozen
are variations, sometimes wearisome, sometimes
sickening, upon the theme ‘ Robin Hood met with
his Match.’ The best of all the cycle are perhaps
‘Robin Hood and the Monk,’ and ‘ Robin Hood
and Guy of Gisborne,’ and both open with a
delightful glimpse of the mn Ww a century
and more before its time in English poetry—
In somer, when the shawes be sheyne,
And leves be large and long
Hit is full rag in feyre fo:
To here the foulys song:
To se the dere draw to the
And leve the hilles hee,
And shadow hem in the levées grene,
Under the grene-wode tre,
The second begins no less beautifully—
When shawes beene sheene, and shradds full fayre
And leeves both large and longe,
Itt is merry, walking in the fayre fforrest,
To hear the small birds songe.
The Lytell Geste of Robyn Hode was printed
ha Rage Warde weet probably ales 1500,
long poem of over 1800 lines, arranged in eight
yttes, being a not unskilful redaction of at least
our earlier distinct ballads.
See Ritson’s collection of Robin Hood ballads (2 vols.
1795); J. M. Gutch’s Lytell Geste of Robin Hode (2 vols,
1847); the Percy Folio Manuscript, vol. i. (1867), and
the Introduction to the Robin Hood ballads there by
Professor Hales; and especially part v. (Boston, 1888) of
Professor Child’s magistral English and Scottish Popular
Ballads. The first known ‘Garland’ was printed in 1670,
and in 1678 there appeared a prose version of it, reprinte:
by W. J. Thoms in his Early English Prose Romances
(vol. ii. 2d ed. 1858).
Robin Hood’s Bay, a fishing-village in the
North Riding of Yorkshire, 6? miles SE. of Whitby
by the coast railway to Scarborough, opened in
1385. The bay on which it stands is gee ag
fringed by lofty cliffs, rising in the Old Peak, its
pac oe orn, to a height of 585 feet. It owes its
name to traditions of Robin Hood, whose arrows
shot from the tower of Whitby Priory reached
Hawkser, 3 miles distant.
Robinia, a genus of trees and shrubs of the
natural order Leguminose, sub-order Papilionacez.
The most important species is the Locust Tree
(q.v.), also known as the False Acacia, or Thorn
Acacia, often simply designated Acacia. It is a
native of North America, extending from Canada
to the southern states, and is there much valued
for the hardness and durability of its timber.
With it, it is alleged, the houses of the Pilgrim
Fathers were built, and the city of Boston founded.
When green it is of soft texture, but when mature
and seasoned it rivals the oak for strength and
750 ROBINS
ROBINSON
durability. It is close grained and finel veined,
and in America is the most valued of all timbers
for cabinet-work. On account of its quick growth,
its spines, and its property of submitting to be
clipped into any form, it is very suitable for ned
In the south of Europe it succeeds well as a timber-
tree, but in more northern regions it suffers from
frost in severe winters; and in Britain it often
suffers from frost, owing to the imperfect ripening
of the wood in summer. It does not readily rot in
water, and is used tor ear poo. The tree is
very ornamental, and of rapid growth. The flowers
are fragrant and white, in large pendulous racemes.
In San Domingo its flowers are used for'making a
distilled liquor and a syrup. The roots throw up
many suckers, and are very sweet, affording an
extract resembling liquorice.—2. viscosa is a smaller
tree, but even more ornamental, a native of the
south-western parts of the Alleghany Mountains.
It has rose-coloured scentless flowers. The young
branches are viscid. —The Rose Acacia (2. hispida)
is a native of the south-western ranges of the Alle-
hanies, and is a highly ornamental shrub, with
hispid branches, and large rose-coloured scentless
lowers.
Rob BENJAMIN, mathematician, the father
of the military art of gunnery, was born at
Bath in 1707 of a poor Quaker family. Having
obtained a little instruction in mathematics, he
prosecuted this branch of science with great zest,
and, having removed to London, set up for a
teacher of mathematics, and published several
mathematical treatises which gained for him con-
siderable reputation. Robins next commenced his
t series of experiments on the resisting force
of the air to projectiles, varying his labours by the
study of fortification, and invented the istic
Pendulum (q.v.). In 1734 he demolished, in
a treatise entitled A Discourse concerning the
Certainty of Sir I. Newton’s Method of Fluxions,
the objections brought by the celebrated Berkeley,
Bishop of Cloyne, against Newton's principle of
ultimate ratios. His t and valuable work,
the New Principles of Gunnery, upon the prepara-
tion of which he had spent an enormous amount
of labour, appeared in 1742, and produced a com-
plete revolution in the art of Ganaeery (9.7: In
consideration of his able defence of the policy of
the then government, by means of pamphlets which
he wrote and published from time to time, he
received (1749) the post of ‘ Engineer-in-general
to the East India Company ;’ but his first under-
taking, the planning of the defences of Madras,
was no sooner accomplished than he was seized
with a fever, and he died July 29, 1751. His works
were collected and published in 1761.
Robinson, Epwarp, philologist and biblical
scholar, was born at Southington, Connecticut,
April 10, 1794, graduated at Hamilton Ae New
York, in 1816, and there remained till 1821, when
he went to Andover, Massachusetts, to see through
the press an edition of part of the Iliad. Here
he studied Hebrew under Professor Stuart, but in
1826 went to Germany, where he studied under
Gesenius and Neander, and married as his second
wife Therese A. L. von Jakob, daughter of a pro-
fessor at Halle. In 1830 he became extra-ordinary
professor of Sacred Literature at Andover, in 1837
eevee? of Biblical Literature in the Union Theo-
ogical Seminary, New York. He now made an
extensive survey of Palestine, collecting materials
for Biblical Researches in Palestine and Adjacent
Countries (8 vols. 1841). A second visit in 1852
yielded fruit for its second edition (1856). Robin-
son died in New York, 27th January 1863.
His other works are a translation of Buttmann’s Greek
Grammar (1832); Greek and English Lexicon of the
New Testament (1836; 1850); He the Gospels,
in Greek (1845), and’ in English (1846), “ie was also
editor of the Biblical Repository, Bibliotheca Sa
Calmet’s Bible Dictionary, and a translation of Geseni'
Hebrew Lexicon.
His wife, THERESE ALBERTINE LOUISE VON
JAKOB, well known to the world’ of letters as
‘Talvi,’ a name com of her initials, was born
at Halle, Jan 1797. At ten she went to
Kharkoff in Russia, where her father had become
professor, but in 1810 they removed to St Peters-
urg. In 1816 they returned to Halle, and here
she studied Latin, and wrote her volume of tales,
P. (1825). As ‘Emest Berthold’ she pub-
lished translations of Scott's Black Dwarf and Old
Mortality, and also two volumes of Servian popular
songs, Volkslieder der Serben (1825-26). In 1828
she married Robinson, and in 1830 accompanied
him to America, After his death she lived mostly
at Hamburg, where she died 13th April 1869.
Robinson, Henry Crass, born of middle-
class parentage at Bury St Edmunds on 13th May
1775, was educated there and at Devizes, and then
was articled to a Colchester ee coy a 1790-95).
He studied five years at Jena, Weimar, (1800-5),
making friends or acquaintances of nearly all the
great German spirits of the day, and during 1807-9
was eng on = ee gest es Lit eights
correspondent. In 1813, at the age o! t,
he wan calee to the bar, from which, having risen to
be leader of the Norfolk circuit, he retired in 1828
with £500 a year. ‘In looking back on his life, Mr
Robinson used to say that two of the wisest acts
he had done were going to the bar and quitting
the bar.’ Thenceforth he lived chiefly in don
with frequent tours both at home and abroad till
1863, giving and receiving much hospitality, until
at the ripe age of ninety-one he died unmarried on
5th February 1867. A dissenter and a Liberal, he
was one of the founders of the London Universit;
(1828), an early member of the Atheneum Clu
(1824). Withal he was a a talker, who
‘talked about everything but his own deeds,”
a buoyant companion, an earnest thinker, a pro-
digious reader, content not to publish but to keep
a diary. ‘I early found,’ he says, ‘that I had not
the literary ability to give me such a place amon
English authors as I should have desired; but
thought that I had an opportunity of gaining a
knowledge of a of the most distinguished men of
the age, and that T might do some good by keepin;
a record of my interviews with them. True [ whie
was not quite true], I want in an eminent d
the Boswell faculty; still, the names recorded in
his = work are not so important as Goethe,
Schiller, Herder, Wieland, the Duchesses Amelia
and Louisa of Weimar, Tieck, as M e de
Statl, La Fayette, Abbé Grégoire, Benjamin Con-
stant, as Wordsworth, Southey, Col Lamb,
Rogers, Hazlitt, Mrs Barbauld, Clarkson, &e., &e.,
&e., for I could add a great number of minor stars.
And yet what has come of all this? Nothing. What.
will come of it? Perhaps nothing.’ Yes, some-
thing has come of it—the three delightful volumes,
edited in 1869 by Dr Sadler, of his Diary, Remin-
iscences, and Correspondence, which will last as
long as literature itself.
Robinson, Jony, tor of the
Fathers, was born, probably i Toten Bin on
1575, was a Fellow of Corpus Christi, Cambridge,
and ministered to a church near Norwich, until he
was suspended for his Puritan tendencies. In 1604
he resigned his fellowship and all connection with
the Church of England, and gathered a congrega-
tion of dissenters at Gainsborough. He was after-
wards a minister at Scrooby, but in 1608 he and
his flock escaped to Amsterdam ; in 1609 he
to Leyden, and there in 1611 he estab! a
ROBINSON
ROC 751
ehurch, and in 1613 met Episcopius, Arminius’
successor, in debate. In 1620, after a memorable
sermon, he saw the younger members of his con-
gregation set sail in the Speedwell (which vessel
they afterwards changed for the Mayflower). He
himself intended to, and his son in 1631 did,
follow them to Massachusetts. He died at Ley-
den in March 1625. His works, with a memoir
by R. Ashton, were collected in 3 vols. (Lond. and
Boston) in 1851. In 1891 a large bronze tablet to
his memory was placed by the American Congrega-
tional churches on the outer wall of St Peter’s,
Leyden, in one of whose vaults he is buried.
Robinson, Mary, poetess, born at Leaming-
ton, 27th February 1857, resided long in Italy,
and in 1888 was married to M. Darmesteter, the
French Orientalist, and became a resident in Paris.
Amongst her poetical works are A Handful of
Honeysuckle (1878), a translation of Euripides’
ae us (1881), The New Arcadia (1881), 13,
Bal , and a Play (1886). She has also written
Lives of Emily Bronté (1883) and M t of
Angouléme (1880), and a historical work, The End
of the Middle Ages (1889).
Robison, Joun, was born at Boghall in Stir-
lingshire in 1739, and educated at Glasgow grammar-
school and university. He devoted Sinsself early
to physical science, became acquainted with James
Watt and Dr Black, and succeeded to the latter’s
chair on his transference to Edinburgh in 1766.
Four years later he went to Russia as secretary to
Admiral Knowles, who had been appointed presi-
dent of the Russian Board of Admiralty. In 1774
he accepted the chair of Natural Philosophy at
Edinburgh, but he made an indifferent lecturer,
and disliked experiments. He died January 28,
1805. His Elements of Mechanical Philosophy was
sent a ae mg Ke (4 vols. ome ee
oolis 's of a Conspi against t
Religions and Governments of Europe, carried on
in the Secret Meetings of Freemasons, Illuminati,
and Reading Societies (1797) is a lasting monument
of fatuous credulity.
Rob Roy (Gaelic, ‘Red Robert’), the Scottish
Robin Hood, was born in the year 1671, the second
son of Lieut.-colonel Donald Macgregor of Glen-
gylé. Till 1661 the ‘wicked clan Gregor’ had for
more than a century been constantly pursued with
fire and sword; the very name was proscribed.
But from that year until the Revolution the severe
laws against them were somewhat relaxed ; and Rob
Roy, who married a kinswoman, Mary Macgregor,
lived quietly enough as a grazier on the Braes of
Balquhidder. From youth, however, he was a
master of the claymore, the uncommon length of his
arms giving him much advantage, for without stoop-
ing he could tie the garters of his Highland hose,
2 inches below the knee. Then his herds were so
often plundered by ‘broken men’ from the north
that he had to maintain a band of armed followers
to protect both himself and such of his neighbours
as paid him blackmail. And so with those followers,
espousing in 1691 the Jacobite cause, he did a little
lundering for himself, and, two or three years later
Loving purchased from his nephew the lands of
Craigroyston and Inversnaid, laid claim thence-
forth to be chief of the clan. In consequence of
losses incurred about 1712 in unsuccessful specula-
tions in cattle, for which he had borrowed mone
from the Duke of Montrose, his lands were seized,
his honses plundered, and his wife shamefully used,
turned adrift with her children in midwinter. Mad-
dened by these misfortunes, Rob Roy gathered his
clansmen and made open war on the duke, sweeping
away the whole cattle of a district, and kidnapping
his factor with rents to the value of more than
£3000 Scots. This was in 1716, the year after the
Jacobite rebellion, in which at Sheriffmuir Rob
Roy had ‘stood watch’ for the booty, and had been
sent by the Earl of Mar to raise some of the clan
Gregor at Aberdeen, where he lodged with a kins-
man, Professor Gregory. Marvellous storied are
current round Loch Katrine and Loch Lomond
(where a cave near Inversnaid still bears his name)
of his hairbreadth escapes from capture, of his
evasions when captured, and of his generosity to
the r, whose wants he supplied at the expense
of the rich. They in return gave him timely
warning of the designs of his two arch-foes, the
Dukes of Montrose and Athole, and of the red-coats
they called to their aid from Dumbarton and Stir-
ling; besides, Rob Roy enjoyed the protection of
the Duke of Argyll, aving assumed the name
Campbell, his mother’s. Late in life he is said to
have turned Catholic, but in the list of subscribers
to the Episcopalian church history of Bishop Keith
occurs the name ‘Robert Macgregor alias Rob
Roy.’ The history came out in 1734, and on the
28th December of that same year Rob Roy died in
his own house at Balquhidder. He left five sons,
two of whom died in 1734—James, an outlaw, in
Paris ; and Robin, the youngest, on the gallows at
Edinburgh for abduction.
See the introduction and notes to Scott’s Rob rf
(1817); Dorothy Wordsworth’s Tour in Scotland in 1803,
with her brother’s poem; and the Lives of Rob Roy by
K. Macleay (1818 ; new ed. 1881) and A. H. Millar (1883).
Robsart, Amy. See LeicesTER, EARL oF.
Robson, FREDERICK, whose real name was F.
R. BROWNBILL, low comedian, was born at Margate
in 1821. He was apprenticed to a London copper-
row engraver; but became smitten with stage
ever and took to the actor’s life (1844). From
1853 he was ery pared associated with the Olym-
pie Theatre of London, where he attracted lar;
audiences for years by his representations in comedy,
farce, and burlesque. An actor of original genius,
Robson excelled in parts that were grotesque,
eccentric, quaintly humorous or droll; he was
particularly effective in sudden transitions from
comicality to pathos, and the reverse, and in the
delineation of violent and tumultuous passion. He
ve a vivid portrait of the street outcast as Jem
Siac in the Wandering Minstrel, in which he
he once celebrated ‘ Villikins and his Dinah.”
He burlesqued Macbeth and Shylock, uniting in
his playing the ludicrous and the terrible. One of
his principal characters was Desmarets, a spy of
Fouché’s, a shabby-looking, fawning, cunning,
malicious old man in the 6 Plot and Passion.
Others of his strongest impersonations were as the
dwarf in Planché’s Yellow Dwarf, the Doge of
Duralto, Daddy Hardacre, Sampson Burr, and
Unele Zachary in Peter and Paul. He died 12th
August 1864. See Dutton Cook in Gentleman’s
Magazine (1882), and G. A. Sala in Atlantic
Monthly (1863).
Roburite, a flameless explosive, composed of
chlorinated dinitro-benzene mixed with sufficient.
ammonium nitrate to completely oxidise it.
Roe, or RukH, a fabulous bird of immense size,
able to carry off an elephant in its talons. The
idea is familiar in the East, and every reader will
remember it in the Arabian Nights’ Entertain-
ments. Colonel Yule pointed out that the huge
fronds of the Raphia (q.v.) palms were brought
from Madagascar as roc’s feathers. Mythical birds
of similar size and strength were the Arabian ‘ankd
and the Persian simurgh. The amru or sinamré
was an older Persian supernatural bird ; the Indian
garuda, which bears Vishnu, is the king of birds.
t has been suggested, without poss grounds, that
the legends of the roe might have originated in
traditions of extinct birds of great size, like the
752 ROCAMBOLE
ROCHELLE
emcee or Apyornis, which, however, could not
y.
Rocambole (Allium scorodoprasum), a plant
of the same genus with garlic, onion, leek, &c., and
nearly allied to lic, which it resembles in its
habit, although larger in all its parts. The root
forms rounder cloves than those of garlic, and of
much milder flavour; the umbels are also bulbifer-
ous. Rocambole has long been cultivated in
evant prot p>" It is a native of sandy soils in
Denmark and other countries near the Baltic.
Roccella. See ARcHIL.
Rocha, a south-eastern department of Uruguay,
on the Atlantic; hilly in the south, in the north a
swamp. Area, 4280 sq. m. ; pop. (1887) 18,494.
Rochambeau, JEAN Baptiste DONATIEN
DE VIMEURE, COMTE DE, was born at Venddme,
Ist July 1725, entered the army in 1742, was at the
siege of Maestricht, and distinguished himself at
Minorca in 1756. In 1780 he was sent out in
command of an army of 6000 men to support the
Americans, and in 1781 he rendered effective help
at Yorktown. He became marshal in 1791, and in
1804 Napoleon made him a nd officer of the
Legion of Honour. He died 10th May 1807. See
his Mémoires (2 vols. 1809; Eng. trans. 1838).
Rochdale, a thriving manufacturing town of
Lancashire, a municipal, parliamentary, and county
borough, on the Roche, 11 miles N. by E. of Man-
chester and 202 NNW. of London. St Chad’s
ater church, on an eminence approached by a
ight of 122 steps, dates from the 12th century,
but is mainly Perpendicular in style. It is a hand-
some edifice, on which £10,000 was expended in
1884-85. The town-hall, erected in 1 71, is a
very fine Domestic Gothic building. The town be-
sides has an infirmary (1883), a free grammar-school,
founded in 1565 by Archbishop Parker, and rebuilt
in 1846, a free library (1884), a post-office (1875),
public baths (1868), a bronze statue of John Bright
(1891), and a public park of 12 acres, Still, many
as are the improvements in the architectural and
sanitary condition of Rochdale within recent years,
it is beautiful only in site, and derives its import-
ance wholly from its extensive and varied manu-
factures. To the growing of wool was added a
trade in woollen goods in the days of Elizabeth,
when cotton s also were sold here, and coal-
its worked. Under the Stuarts the woollen manu-
facture was in full activity; but it was not till
1795 that the first cotton-mill was built, in which
in 1802 the father of John Bright began his career
as a weaver. Flannels and calicoes are now the
staple manufactures, but there are also cotton-
mills, foundries, ironworks, machine-shops, &c,
Rochdale is the birthplace of Co-operation (q.v.),
and the membership of its Equitable Pioneers’
Society (1844)-has increased from 28 to over 11,000,
with an annual business representing more than a
quarter million. Since 1832 Rochdale has returned
one member to parliament, and in 1856 it was in-
corporated as a municipal borough. The latter in
1872 was made co-terminous with the parliament-
ary borough, whose boundary had been extended
in 1867. The manor of Rochdale (Recedam in
Domesday) was originally held by the Lacys of
Pontefract, and through their descendants, the
Dukes of Lancaster, to the crown. In 1628
it was sold to Sir John Byron, whose descendant,
the poet Lord Byron (of Rochdale), sold it in 1823.
Pop. of parliamentary borough (1851) 29,195;
(1891) 71,458. See the history of the parish by
Fishwick (1889).
Roche, Sim Boy. (1743-1807), an Irish bull-
making M.P., created a baronet in 1782.
Rochefort, Henri, whose full style is Victor
Henri, Comte de Rochefort-Lucay, a stormy-petrel
of French politics, was born in Paris, 29th July
1832. He studied medicine, and became a clerk in
the hétel-de-ville, but was dismissed for neglect-
ing his duties, and now cast himself entirely upon
journalism, contributing to the Charivari, the
Figaro, and other papers, until in 1868 he started
his own notorious weekly, La Lanterne, which was
que suppressed by the government. To avoid
ne and imprisonment Rochefort fled to Brussels,
but returned in 1869 on his election to the Chamber
of Deputies for Paris. He now started the Marseil-
laise, in which he renewed his bitter attacks on the
imperial regime. One ge: ray of the cowardly
murder of its contributor, Victor Noir, Prince
Pierre Bonaparte, was the suppression of the paper
and the imprisonment of its editor. The fall of
the empire gave him his release, and opened up
a role for the frothy rhetorician in the government
of National Defence. In February 1871 he was
patron Paris to the National Assembly, and
soon made public his Communism in the pages of
Le Mot d’Ordre. As soon as he foresaw the end of
the Commune, about the middle of May, he left
his dupes and comrades to their doom, and made
his escape from Paris. But the Prussians caught
him at Meaux and sent him to Versailles, where
he was sentenced to imprisonment for life. Later
he was deported to New Caledonia, whence he
escaped in 1874. In London and Geneva he tried
to revive the Lanterne and influence the Parisian
press, but at length he was enabled to return
the general amnesty of 11th July 1880. In his
newspaper, L’Intransigeant, he showed himself
as ingens as ever, sat in the National
Assembly (1885-86), took up nee. OPP and re-
ee France in 1895, published The Adventures
of My Life (1896; Eng. trans. abridged, 1896).
Rochefort-sur-mer, a French naval
arsenal, and fortress of the first class, in the depart-
ment of Charente-Inférieure, stands on the right
bank of the Charente, 9 miles from its mouth, and
18 miles SSE. of Rochelle, 89 SW. of Poitiers. It
was founded in 1665 as a naval station by Colbert,
Louis XIV.’s minister, and fortified by Vauban,
being covered now on the sea side by strong forts ;
and it is a modern, clean, well-built place, with
which few French towns can compare for the
number and importance of its public works. The
most celebrated of these is the naval hospital
(1783-88), with nearly 1300 beds, and an artesian
well 2758 feet deep. There are both a naval
harbour and, higher up the river, a commerci
harbour with three basins; and Rochefort besides
possesses rope-walks, cannon-foundries, and other
establishments for the manufacture and preserva-
tion of naval stores and marine apparatus of every
kind. From 1777 till 1852 it was the seat of a
great convict prison. Napoleon meant to take
ship for America at Rochefort, but instead had to
surrender to Captain Maitland of the Bellerophon,
15th July 1815. Pop. (1872) 26,619 ; (1891) 28,866.
See Viaud and Fleury’s Histoire de Rochefort.
Rochefoucauld. See LA RocHEroucauLp.
Rochejaquelein. See LAROCHEJAQUELEIN.
Rochelle, La, a seaport and _ second-class
fortress of France, capital of the department of
Charente-Inférieure, on an inlet of the Bay of
Biseay, formed by the islands Ré and Oléron, 91
miles WSW. of Poitiers and 297 SW. of Paris.
Its harbour, which consists of an outer tidal basin
and an inner wet-dock, is still sheltered by the
remains of Richelieu’s famous dyke, and is sur-
rounded by fine quays, close to which lie the
principal streets and squares. Many of the latter
are regular and well built, and —— a handsome
cs Poa pe from the number of houses which are
orned with porticoes and balconies, The most
ROCHELLE SALT
ROCHESTER 753
' moteworthy public buildings are the hdtel-de-ville
(1486-1607), the palais-de-justice (1614), and the
heavy Grecian cathedral (1742-1862). Besides the
fine enade of the Place du Chateau, there are,
outside thecity, two extensive public gardens, known
cas La Promenade du Mail and the Champs de Mars.
Shipbuilding is actively carried on, especially in
connection with the Newfoundland fishing trade ;
and besides this branch of industry, and the manu-
facture of briquettes and cotton yarns, Rochelle
has numerous glass-works, sugar-refineries, and
brandy distilleries. Pop. (1872) 19,070; (1891)
23,924. Rochelle, which was known till the 12th
century under its Latin name of Rupedla, ‘Little
Rock,’ of which its present name is a mere trans-
lation, originated in a colony of serfs of Lower
Poitou, who, fleeing from the persecution of their
lord, settled on the rocky promontory between the
ocean and the neighbouring marshes, On the
marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine with Henry IL.
of England, Rochelle, as part of her dowry, came
into the possession of the English kings, by whom
it was retained till 1224, when it was taken by
Louis VIII. ; and, although it was ceded to Eng-
land at the treaty of Bretigny in 1360, in the
subsequent wars it was retaken by France, under
whose sway it has remained since 1372. A hic 2
hold of the Huguenots (q.v.), it was unsuccessfully
desi in 1573, and in 1627-28 it for fourteen
months again offered a heroic though unavailin
resistance, under its mayor Guiton, to Cardinal!
Richelieu. Buckingham’s expedition to relieve it
failed, and at last the defenders, reduced from
27,000 to 5000, had to surrender to the troops of
Louis XIII. With the exception of three towers
(1384-1476) its old fortifications were destroyed,
and new lines of defences subsequently erec b
the great Vauban. Réaumur, Bonpland, Billaud-
Varenne, Fromentin, Bouguereau, and Admiral
Duperré (1775-1846) were natives. Of the last a
statue was erected in 1869. See Barbot’s Histoire
de la Rochelle (ed. by Denys d’Aussy, 1886-91).
Rochelle Salt is the poralee name of the
tartrate of soda and potash (KNaC,H,O,+4H,0),
this salt having been discovered in 1672 by a
Rochelle apothecary named Seignette. It occurs,
when pure, in colourless transparent prisms, gener-
ally be Sp ; and in taste it resembles common
salt. Itis pc apes by neutralising cream of tartar
(bitartrate of potash) with carbonate of soda.
After a neutral solution has been obtained, it is
boiled and filtered, and the resulting fluid is con-
centrated till a pellicle forms on the surface, when
it is set aside to crystallise. This salt is a mild
and efficient laxative, and is less disagreeable to
the taste than most of the saline purgatives. From
half an ounce to an ounce, dissolved in eight or ten
parts of water, forms an average dose. drachm
of Rochelle Salt added to one of the ingredients of
an effervescing draught (bicarbonate of soda or tar-
taric acid, for example) forms one of the varieties
of what are called Seidlitz powders.
Roches moutonnées, smooth, rounded, hum-
mocky bosses and undulating surfaces of rock, of
‘common occurrence in regions which have been
overflowed by glacier-ice. Those which have not
been much acted upon by the weather generally
show the scratches and groovings which are the
characteristic markings of glacial action. Some-
times roches moutonnées are smoothed and polished
all over, and have the appearance of whales’ or
dolphins’ backs. At other times they are smoothed
only on one side—that side, namely, which faces
the direction from which he pee agent
flowed ; the other side, protec from a rasion,
being left in its original rough, unpolished condi-
tion. The name moutonnées is that used by
412
the Swiss peasants—the bare rounded rocks of a
valley-bottom when seen from above having a
fanciful resemblance to a flock of sheep lying down.
Rochester, a city of Kent, 29 miles ESE. of
London, lies chiefly on the right bank of the tidal
Medway, continuous with Chatham, and joined to
Strood by an iron swing bridge, constructed in
1850-56 at a cost of £170,000. The castle or keep,
which crowns a steep eminence near the bridge,
was the work of Archbishop William de Corbeuil
(1126); but the wall overlooking the river con-
tains Norman masonry of earlier date, built upon
Roman foundations. It is 104 feet high and 70
feet square, with walls 12 feet thick, and is a very
fine specimen of Norman architecture ; it was taken
by John (1215, the south-east corner being rebuilt
shortly afterwards), vainly attacked by De Mont-
fort (1264), and taken again by Tyler (1381).
Both castle and grounds were purchased in 1883 by
the corporation from the Earl of Jersey. The
episcopal see was founded in 604 by St Augustine,
and the foundations of the cathedral then built
have lately been discovered. Bishop Gundulf
(1077-1107) built a new cathedral, of which part
of the crypt remains. This cathedral was rebuilt
by Ernalf and John of Canterbury (1115-37), whose
nave remains ; and the choir was again rebuilt and
enl in the 13th century in part out of offerings
of pilgrims at the shrine of St William of Perth, a
Scotch baker, who, on a pilgrimage to the Holy
Land, was murdered near Chatham by his com-
poke and adopted son; the tower rebuilt by
ttingham (1825-26), the choir and transepts re-
stored by Scott (1871-77), and the west front being
restored by Pearson in 1891. It measures 306 feet
in length, and has double transepts; and special
features of interest are the Norman west doorway
and nave, the Early English choir, of singular plan
and early character, the spacious crypt, and a fine
Decorated doorway leading to the modern library.
The ruins of an early Norman keep or residence (?)
built by Gundulf, the architect of the Tower of
London, stand on the north side of the choir. Of
Rochester’s bishops since 604, some eighty in
number, may be mentioned Paulinus (previously
first bishop of York), Gundulf, Walter de Merton,
Fisher, Ridley, Atterbury, and Horsley. St
Bartholomew’s Hospital, founded by Gundulf in
1078 for lepers, was refounded in 1863; the Nor-
man chapel remains. Watts’ Charity House,
founded in 1579 to lodge ‘six poor travellers, not
being rogues or proctors,’ has been immortalised by
Dickens, whose home, Gadshill (q.v.), is 3 miles
distant, and who introduces Rochester into Pick-
wick, Edwin Drood, and others of his novels.
Three schools are the cathedral grammar-school
(Henry VIII.), Williamson’s mathematical school
(1701; reopened under a new scheme, 1880), and a
grammar-school for girls (1888); and other build-
ings are Satis House, Restoration House (Charles
II. slept here in 1660), the guild-hall (1687), and
the corn exchange (1871). Rochester—the Roman
station Durobrive and Anglo-Saxon Sra oe
—was made a municipal borough by Henry II.
It lost one of its two members in 1885. James IT.
embarked here in his flight (1688). Pop. (1851)
16,508; (1871) 18,352; (1891) 26,170.
See Wharton’s Anglia Sacra (1691) ; Thorpe’s Regis-
trum Roffense (1769) and Custumale Roffense (1788);
and other works by Rawlinson (1717), Fisher (1772), Rye
(two, 1861-65), Walcott (1866), Langton (Dickens and
Rochester, 1880), and Pearman (1898).
Rochester, (1) capital of Monroe county, New
York, is on both sides of the Genesee River, 7
miles above its entrance into Lake Ontario, and on
the Erie and Genesee Valley canals, by rail 67
miles ENE. of Buffalo and 360 NW. of New York,
754 ROCHESTER
se
ROCK
The river has here three B tx 20 ceopsd falls of 96,
26, and 83 feet, and affords immense water-power.
The city is well built, and laid out with almost
unbroken regularity. Among the principal build-
ings are the city hall, of blne limestone, and the
court-house ; a state industrial school (formerly a
‘house of refuge’ ), with accommodation for 900 boys
and 400 girls; numerous churches, including a
Roman Catholic cathedral ; the Free Academy, and
the university (founded 1850, and under Baptist
control), and a Baptist theological seminary (whose
library of 21,000 vols. includes that of Neander).
There are also over thirty graded public and many
seers schools, libraries, asylums, hospitals, &c.
ut the most noteworthy structure in the city is
the handsome stone aqueduct of seven arches (850
feet long) by which the Erie Canal crosses the
river, The principal industries are flour-milling,
which has always been extensively carried on here,
and the manufacture of ready-made clothing and
boots and shoes, rubber goods, furniture, carriages,
agricultural implements and machinery, steam-
angine, glass, cigars, tobacco, perfumery, Xe. ;
and there are besides numerous foundries, iron-
bri works, cotton-mills, breweries, and fruit-
canning establishments. In the neighbourhood
there are { nurseries, and in the city large
seed-packing establishments. Rochester is a port
of entry, and has a considerable trade both by lake
and rail. It was settled in 1810, incorporated in
1834, and in 1890 was, in order of population, the
twenty-second rod of the United States. Pop.
(1840} 20,191 ; (1 ) 48,204 ; (1890) 133,896 ; (1900)
162,435.—(2) Capital of Olmsted county, Min-
nesota, on the Zumbro River (crossed by three
iron bridges), 347 miles by rail NW. of Chicago.
It has flour-mills, foundries, and manufactories of
furniture, farming implements, &c. Pop. (1900)
6843.—(3) A city of New Hampshire, 21 miles by
rail NW. of Portsmouth, with good water-power,
and manufactures of flannel, blankets, shoes, &c.
Pop. 8466,—(4) A borough of Pennsylvania, at the
junction of the Ohio and Beaver Rivers, 25 miles b
rail NW. of Pittsburg, with deposits of coal, oil,
&e., and various manufactures. Pop. (1900) 4688.
Rochester, Joun Witmot, EArt or, the
wittiest reprobate at the court of Charles IL, was
born at Ditchley in Oxfordshire, 10th April 1647,
and was educated at Burford school and Wadham
College, Oxford. He next travelled in France and
Italy, and on his return repaired to court, where
his handsome person and lively wit quickly made
him a prominent figure. In 1 he showed con-
spicuous courage serving under Sandwich against
the Datch, as well as the summer after under Sir
Edward Spragge—facts which agree but ill with
the stories that he would slink away in street
quarrels and evade duels which he had himself
provoked. With a friend, Mr Windham, he had
entered into a formal engagement that, ‘if either
of them died, he should appear and give the other
notice of the future state, if there was any.’ Wind-
ham was killed in an attack upon Bergen, but
did not afterwards disturb the rest of his friend,
who now plun into a life of the t de-
bauchery, was for five years together ¢ontinually
drunk, and diverted himself constantly with ex-
hips frolics and buffoonery, such as the pur-
suit of low amours in mean disguises, and the actin
of assumed ¢haracters, as a mountebank, a quac
doctor, and the like. the scarce intervals of in-
temperance he wrote excellent letters to his wife
and son, and devoted himself to letters, writing
personal satires, bacchanalian and amatory songs,
and too often obscene and licentions verses, many
of which, however, were doubtless fathered on him
after his day. In these wild excesses he blazed
out his youth and his health, till at the age of one
and thirty he had exhausted the fund of life. On
his death-bed he was convinced of the necessity of
ntance by the arguments of Bishop Burnet,
who writes : ‘I do verily believe he was so entirely
changed, that if he had recovered he would have
made good all his resolutions.’ He died 26th July
1680, His last conversations are touchin, de-
scribed by Burnet in Some passages of the Life and
Death of John, Earl of Rochester (1 ; in vol. iv,
of Wordsworth’s Ecclesiastical Biography), a boo
says Dr Johnson, ‘which the critic cnet to
for its elegance, the philosopher for its arguments,
and the saint for its piety. It were an injury to
the reader to offer him an abridgment.’
: rep tig ese verses = more bie oe
ut he possessed in rich measure the gift of satire.
An excellent example of this is 2 noonenehtl
epitaph on Charles IL. :
Here lies our so lord the 4
Whose word aan relies on ae
He never said a foolish thing,
Nor ever did a wise one,
ous and poor,’ line yming
with which it is characteristically im le to
uote. Horace Walpole’s ju — of his work is
thus expressed in R and Noble Authors: ‘ Lord
Rochester's poems have much more obscenity
than wit, more wit than poetry, more poetry than
politeness,’ Before his death he expressed a wish
that his indecent verses should be suppressed, but
that very year these, and much more, were pub-
lished ostensibly at Antwerp, really at ion.
Among the best of his poems known to be genuine
are an Imitation of Horace on Lucilius, Verses to
Lord Mulgrave, a Satire against Man, and Verses
upon Nothing.
Rochester, Viscount. See Ker, and OvEr-.
BURY.
Roche-sur-Yon, capital of the French d
eh ma en iy on get het af es - cone
antes by rail, has a ture, lycenm, li
of 12,000 volumes, a the a theatre.
Napoleon selected it in 1805—then a mere village
—to be the departmental capital. From 1815 to
1848 it was ed Bourbon-Vendée, from 1848 to
1870 Napoléon-Vendée. Pop. 8789.
Rochet (Low Lat. rochettus; Old High Ger.
rocch, ‘coat ;’ Ger. rock), a fine linen or lawn vest-
ment proper to bishops and abbots, and worn also
by canons of certain privileges chapters, and some
other dignitaries. It is of the form of a surplice,
but with sleeves fastened at the wrist; these for-
merly fitted more tightly to the arm than do the
‘balloon sleeves’ still commonly worn by Anglican
bishops. In the Latin Church its use is very
ancient. Formerly it appears to have been worm
by clerics serving mass and by priests baptising
because it left their arms free (Lyndwood, quo’
by Du Cange); but those priests who are pri
to wear the rochet are now commanded to a
it as a choir vestment, and are strictly forbidden
to use it in the administration of the sacraments,
In the First Prayer-book of Edward VI. the rochet
was ordered to be worn by bishops at all public
ministrations, and beside—i.e. over it—a surplice
or alb. It is preseribed in the present
Common Prayer as part of the episcopal habit.
The old 18th-century Anglican fashion of fastening
the sleeves of the rochet to the chimere—leaving
the rochet itself sleeveless—is almost gone out.
Rock. Though popularly restricted to masses
of indurated matter, this term is extended by
geologists to all substances which make ys
crust of the earth, whether they be loose and friable
like soil and sand, or compact and indurated like
limestone and granite. The rocks of the earth’s
ROCKALL
ROCKINGHAM 755
crust (aqueous, igneous, metamorphic, &c.) will
be found descri under numerous distinct head-
ings in this work. See the classification given at
PETROGRAPHY, and thie article GEOLOGY, with the
list appended, including such articles as DENUDA-
TION. See also BUILDING STONE, BLASTING,
Borinc.
Rockall (in old maps Rocol, Rochol, &c.), on
a deeply covered sandbank in the Atlantic 50 miles
long and 25 broad, in 57° 36’ N. lat., 13° 42’ W.
long., 160 miles W. of St Kilda, 290 from the
nearest point of the Scottish mainland, and 260
from the north of Ireland. It is an isolated conical
granitic rock on stratified masses, rising 70 feet
above the sea, and about 100 yards in circumfer-
ence. Ata distance it looks like a ship in full sail,
the upper being white with the dung of sea-
fowl, and the lower part dark stone. This curious
k is further from a mainland than any other
rock or islet of like size in any part of the world.
Martin, in his St Kilda (1698), mentions that a
erew of Frenchmen and Spaniards, shipwrecked at
Rockall in 1686, escaped in their pinnace to St
Kilda. The first landing known was in 1810. Ves-
sels come hither for cod-fishing from Scotland and
from Grimsby.
See the account of a scientific expedition thither in 1896
in an article by Mr Miller Christy in the Royal Scottish
Geographical Magazine for 1898.
Rock-basins, a name given by Sir Andrew
Ramsay to lacustrine hollows in rock which have
been excavated by glacier-ice. See LAKE.
Rock-butter, an impure alum efflorescence
of a butter-like consistency found oozing from some
alum slates.
Rock-crystal. See QuARTz.
Rocket is a cylindrical case of paper or metal
partially filled with an inflammable composition
(saltpetre 68 parts, sulphur 12 parts, ¢ or
mealed powder, 32 parts), so that a large conical
hollow is left inside. The base is open or has
vents in it, and the head closed. On being ignited
this composition burning over the whole surface of
the hollow portion at once causes a great rush of
gas out of the base, thus driving the rocket for-
ward with great and increasing velocity. Rockets
are used for signalling and to carry a light line for
life-saving patpoees (see LIFE-SAVING APPARATUS).
Early in the 19th century they began also to be
used in war. Sir William Congreve in 1808 intro-
duced iron war-rockets up to 24 Ib. in weight, with
thick iron heads ada to act like a shell. They
were fired from a tube and steadied in their flight
by means of long sticks. In the more modern
Hale rocket a rotatory motion is given by causin
the gas to pass out of vents in the base bor
between three projecting shields, shaped somewhat
like the blades of a screw-propeller, against which
it presses. The cumbrous stick is therefore no
longer used, and the rocket is fired from a low
trough with tripod stand, or even from the ground,
by raising the head to the height necessary to give
the required range, which may be as much as 4000
yards, Though extremely portable as compared
with other missile weapons of similar power,
rockets are so uncertain in their flight that they
are not much used, except for incendiary purposes
and against savages, who greatly dred them.
Against cavalry they would be very useful if they
could be depended on. The rocket troop of the
Royal Horse Artillery did very good service in the
Peninsular war, however, and ships’ boats, which
could not carry a gun firing a 24-pounder shell,
ean throw rockets of that weight into a place
under bombardment. See PYROTECHNY.
Rocket, « name given to a number of plants of
the natural order Crucifers, and belonging to the
nera Brassica, ia Gibslpter, Erysimum, Barbarea,
esperis, &e. Garden Rocket (Brassica Eruca, or
Eruca sativa) is an annual plant, a native of
Austria, with stem 2 feet high, upright and branch-
ing 3 the leaves smooth, succulent, cut and toothed.
Vhen in flower it has a strong, peculiar, and
d ble smell; but when it is very young
this smell is almost imperceptible, and the leaves
are used as a salad, for which it is frequently
sown on the continent of Europe, and was formerly
cultivated also in Britain. The name Garden
Rocket is given also to Hesperis matronalis, also
called Dame’s Violet (q.v.), a favourite ornament of
our flower-borders. e Yellow Rocket of our
flower-borders is a double-flowered variety of Bar-
barea vulgaris (see CRESS). The Wild Rocket
(Sisymbrium officinale, or Erysimum officinale) is
common in Britain, and is sometimes sown and
used as a spring potherb.
Rock-fish. See WRAssE.
Rockford, capital of Winne county,
Illinois, is on both sides of the Rock River, 86
iniles by rail WNW. of Chicago. It is a well-
built town, with shady streets, and contains foun-
dries, flour, paper, cotton, and woollen mills, and
manufactures ieultural implements, carriages,
jumps, churns, furniture, cutlery, and plated ware,
ts and shoes, watches, soap, &c. Pop. (1880)
13,129 ; (1890 ) 23,584 ; (1900) 31,051.
Rockhampton, a town of Queensland, Aus-
tralia, situated on the south bank of the Fitzroy,
35 miles from its mouth, and 420 NW. of Brisbane.
The town has wide streets, lined with trees, and
many substantial buildings, including the govern-
ment offices, hospital, and town-hall. It owes its
beginning (1858) to the extensive gold-fields in the
neighbourhood, the annual yield of which is valued
at £1,000,000 to £1,250,000; copper and silver are
also worked to some extent. The land around
is well adapted for grazing. The industries in-
clude Src. soap and boot making, and meat-
preserving. The chief port for central Queensland,
its trade in exports (one-third) and imports reaches
an annual value of £1,500,000. A bridge across
the Fitzroy, with five spans of 232 feet each, con-
nects Rockhampton (pop. 7431) with its suburb
North Rockhampton (pop. 1700).
Rockingham, CHARLES WATSON WENT-
WORTH, MARQUIS OF, a statesman of importance
beyond his abilities, was born in 1730, the only
son of that Thomas Watson Wentworth who
succeeded as sixth Lord Rockingham in 1746, and
was created marquis the same year. He had his
education at Eton, was created Earl of Malton in
the Irish peerage in 1750, and succeeded his father
as senna Marquis of Rockingham in December
of the same year. In 1751 he was nominated
lord-lieutenant of the North and West Ridings of
Yorkshire, and in 1760 made Knight of the Garter,
but soon found himself in ree to the policy
of the young king George III. and his favourite
minister, Bute, and was dismissed from his lord-
lientenancy in 1762. He found himself leader of
the combination of Whig opposition, after the
Duke of Devonshire’s death in 1764, and in ier
1765 was called on to form his first ministry. He
Act, and would have done
more for pro; ut for the secret intrigues of
the court, ed to the defection of the Duke of
Grafton and his own want of influence in parlia-
ment. Rockingham resigned in August 1766, and
remained out of office sixteen years in opposition
to Lord North and the ruinous policy that lost
America. He again became premier in March
1782, with Fox and Shelburne as his secretaries,
but died Ist J iy i thesame year. See the Memoirs
by the Earl of Albemarle (2 vols. 1852).
repealed the Stam
756 ROCKING-STONES
ROCK-PLANTS
Rocking-stones, or LOGANS, are large masses
of rock so finely poised as to move backwards and
forwards with the slightest impulse. They occur
in nearly every country. Some of them appear to
be natural, others artificial; the latter seem to
have been formed by cutting away a mass of rock
round the centre-point of its base. The former are
chiefly granitic rocks, in which felspar is abun-
dantly present; for, this mineral being readily.
decomposed, the rock becomes disintegrated to
grit, sand, and dust, which are carried away by
rains and wind, so that what was formerly a solid
rock soon assumes the appearance of a group of
irregularly-shaped pillars, separated into portions
by horizontal and vertical fissures. As decay pro-
ceeds, the edges of the blocks forming the pillar
are first attacked and disappear, and the pillar
now becomes a pile of two or more spheroidal rocks,
resting one upon the other. Should a mass of rock
be so situated as to preserve its equilibrium in
spite of the gradual diminution of its base or point
of support, a rocking-stone or logan is the result.
Although rocking-stones are most frequently of
a granitic nature, they occur also among basalts
and other crystalline igneous masses. For the
principle regulating the stability of equilibrium of
rocking-stones, see STABILITY. Various explana-
tions have been given of the uses of these singular
objects. They are supposed to have been used in
very early times for purposes of divination, the
number of vibrations determining the oracle ; hence
it came to be believed that sanctity was acquired
by walking round them.
Some rocking-stones occur near to remains of
ancient fortifications, which seems to bear out a
statement in one of the poems of Ossian, that the
bards walked round the stone singing, and made it
move as an oracle of the fate of battle. In Greece
rocking-stones occur as funeral monuments, and are
generally found on conspicuons places near the sea.
Rocking-stones are numerous in Yorkshire, Derby-
shire, Cornwall, and Wales. The famous Logan
Rock, near Land’s End, in Cornwall, is computed
to weigh over 70 tons. It was anne | displaced
in 1824 by Lieutenant Goldsmith, R.N., and his
boat’s crew of nine men. He had to replace it at
a cost to himself of £2000; but whether it has
since rocked as well as ever is a moot point, Near
Warton Crag, Lancashire, are no less than seven
of these stones; and in Scotland they occur in the
Rocking-stone of iandil.
parishes of Kirkmichael, Dron, and Abernethy,
erthshire, and Kells, Kirkeudbrightshire. n
Ireland they are found in many places ; one situated
at a place called Islandmagee, on Brown’s Bay,
Connty Antrim, is popularly believed to acquire a
rocking tremulous motion at the approach of sinners
and malefactors. At Andafiord FWarse Islands) a
large block of basalt, measuring some 16 feet in
a by 10 feet in breadth, and rising for about
10 feet out of the water, swings to and fro with
the motion of the sea, which is about seven fathoms
deep. All these, however, are as marbles com-
pared with the rocking-stone of Tandil in the
Argentine Republic, 250 miles 8. of Buenos Ayres,
for this weighs over 700 tons, yet is so nicely
poised that it rocks in the wind, and may be made
to crack a walnut. See Frank, Vincent's Around
and About South America (1890), from which our
illustration is copied.
Rock Island, capital of a county of that
name in Illinois, on the Mississippi, opposite
Davenport, Iowa (the two are pre teec ¢ by a
wrought-iron bridge which cost $1,300,000), 181
miles by rail WSW. of Chicago. The island from
which the town is named belongs to the United
States, and is used as a public park; on it the
government has erected a great arsenaland armoury.
The channel to the east of the island has been
dammed so as to furnish immense water-power,
and the city has flour and saw mills, ides
foundries, machine-shops, glass-works, &e. Pop.
(1880) 11,659 ; (1900) 19,493.
Rockland, (1) capital of Knox county, Maine,
on the west side of Penobscot Bay, 88 miles by
rail ENE. of Portland. The Boston and Bangor
steamboats touch here. The city has granite
quarries, and many lime-kilns; it ships a million
casks of lime yearly, and the New York post-office
and St Louis custom-house are among the struc-
tures built of its granite. Shipbuilding is carried
on, and there are iron and brass foundries, &c.
Pop. (1900) 8150. —(2) A town of Massachusetts, 19
miles by rail SSE. of Boston, has large manufactures
of boots, shoes, and tacks, Pop. (1900) 5327.
Rockland Lake, near the Hudson, 30 miles
N. of New York City, is 3 miles in circumference,
and furnishes 200,000 tons of ice annually.
Rockling (Onus), a genus of fishes of the Cod
family Gadide, represented on the British coasts
by several species distinguished among other things
by the number (3-5) of barbels, The larger species
Three-bearded Rockling or Sea Loach.
reach a length of 17 inches; but none are of any
value as food, their flesh acquiring an unpleasant
smell a few hours after being taken out of the
water.
Rock-oil. See PETROLEUM. f
Rock-plants, in Ganiesing, a term applied to
a very miscellaneous group of plants, which by
their habit of growth are adapted to adorn rockeries.
The plants are generally of lowly habit, either
tufted, creeping, or trailing. They may be shrubby
or herbaceous perennials, and certain annuals of
trailing habit are occasionally used for temporary
effects. But the more restricted use of the term
comprehends merely the numerous species
ALPINE PLANTS (q.v.) and such as resemble these
in their habit and adaptability to the purpose in
view—the clothing of rock-work with verdure and
ROCK RIVER
ROCKY MOUNTAINS 757
with flowers in imitation of the natural conditions
in which the Alpine flora appears in Alpine regions
and in high latitudes.
Rock River rises in the south-eastern portion
of Wisconsin, and flows south into Illinois, thence
south-west, and empties itself into the Mississippi
3 miles below Rock Island. Its course of 375 miles,
much broken by falls, is through a region noted for
its beauty and fertility.
Rock-rose. See Cistus.
Rock-salt. See Saur.
Rock-soap, a mineral consisting of silica,
umina, peroxide of iron, and water, the silica
nearly one-half, the alumina and the water some-
times nearly each one-fourth of the whole. It is
earthy, easily broken, black or nearly so, very soft,
and easily cut with a knife, is greasy to the touch,
and adheres strongly to the tongue. It is valued
painters for crayons. It is found in Poland,
uringia, and Bohemia, and occurs in basaltic-
rocks in the Isle of Skye and Antrim, in the form
of nodules of a greenish-gray or brown colour. It
is only found massive.
acm temmplen. In many parts of Western
India, as at Ellora, Elephanta, Karli, and Salsette
Island, natural rocks have been cut into temples;
as also into caves and forts (see the articles men-
tioned). Out of India well-known instances of the
same kind occur at Petra (q. v.)in the Arabian
Desert, at Abu-Simbel (q.v.) in Egypt, and in
China and Siam. There are remarkable cave-
temples in the United States, one in Missouri,
between the Salt River and Otter Creek, and
another near Manchester in Ohio. The rock-dwell-
ings of Colorado, &c., are described at CAVE. See
James Fergusson, Rock-cut look sig ible (1864),
with seventy-four photographs by Major Gill.
Rocky Mountain Goat (Aplocerus), a
beautiful animal of the antelope family, which
inhabits the heights of the Rocky Mountains be-
tween the forests and the snow-line, from the 44th
to the 65th degree of latitude. It is about the size
of a goat, but is handsomer and more thickset, and
has stronger legs. It is completely covered with
long, thick, white hair, which forms an erect mane
along the middle of the back from between the
horns to the root of the tail. Though it is hunted
Lf the trappers, its flesh is not valued as food.
e above species and the Prong hones antelope
( Antilocapra) are the only antelopes which occur
in the New World.—For the Rocky Mountain
Sheep, see ARGALI, SHEEP.
Rocky Mountai formerly a name some-
what loosely applied to all the mountains of North
America between the Great
Plains and the Pacific Ocean, but
now a term used todesignateonly
the eastern ranges of the great Cordilleran system.
This vast mountain-system ge ge its greatest
breadth within the limits of the United States,
where between the parallels 38° and 42° N. lat. it
attains a width of more than 1000 miles. Toward
the north and the south the plateaus of this high-
land gradually diminish in breadth, but they are
enclosed on the east and on the west by high moun-
tain-chains. Those forming the western boundary
are the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Ran,
(q.v.), and the eastern chains stretching with unin-
terrupted continuity from the southern borders of
the United States through the Dominion of Canada
to the Arctic Ocean constitute the Rocky Moun-
tains. Between these eastern and western bound-
right 1891, 1897, and
ul in the U.S. by J.B.
Lippincott Company.
aries the plateau region is tly diversified by
ehains which, as a rule, trend in the same general
direction as the border ranges
The name ‘Rocky Mountains’ is peculiarly
appropriate, as there probably exists nowhere else
such an extensive region of naked rock almost
entirely devoid of vegetation. The geological
structure is complex, but the greater part of the
rocks exposed are Mesozoic intermingled with
Tertiary and sae aes & deposits. As this system
is consequently of much more recent origin than
the Appalachians, it is naturally higher, and it
resents also a sharper and more rugged outline.
ts remarkably barren aspect is due also to other
geological peculiarities and to climatic causes. In
comparatively recent ages this whole region has
been the scene of vast voleanic eruptions, and the
lava overflows which have covered the stratified
rocks in many places to a depth of thousands of
feet have augmented the expanse of sterile surface.
By resisting the erosion of the streams and of the
atmosphere, these lava beds have also greatly
aided in producing the precipitous and deep]
furrowed watercourses by which this wonde
lateau region is traversed. The high mountain
hazrier at the western boundary of the highland
robs the winds which sweep across the Pacific of
much of their moisture, and the great aridity of
this region thus prevents the growth of vegetation.
The surface is consequently exposed to continued
erosive action, which is specially rapid at such great
elevations. The denudation is the more complete
as the sand and smaller disintegrated fragments
are swept away by the winds, and no opportunity
is afforded for the accumulation of a soil. On
account of these various causes the erosion of the
surface is uneven, and the region displays a
labyrinth of naked crags and by arising from
plateaus crossed by towering cliffs or deep cafions,
with here and there an isolated butte. The scenery
of the wonderful mesa or —— region which lies
between the eastern and western ranges of the
Rocky Mountains, and extends from southern
Wyoming through western Colorado, eastern
Utah, and south into New Mexico and Arizona,
is unequalled by that of any other portion of the
globe. The country is divided by faults, flexures,
and deep cafions into numerous blocks or separate
plateaus, and the wonderful carving of the rocks
and the brilliant colouring of the exposed strata
almost surpass belief.
A high plateau region in Wyoming, over which
passes the Union Pacific Railroad, marks a separa-
tion of the Rocky Mountains into a northern and
asouthern group, each of which has its characteristic
features. The continental divide which extends
north and south with the ranges of the Rocky
Mountains culminates in this plateau, where are
found the extreme head-waters of the three great
river-systems of the United States—the Mississippi,
the Columbia, and the Colorado. The ranges of
the southern group have a general north and south
trend, and are higher than those of the northern
group. As there are several elevated valleys known
as ‘Parks’ enclosed between the parallel ranges,
this group is sometimes known as the Park System.
It extends southward from the Laramie Plains
across central Colorado into New Mexico. Its
greatest development is in Colorado, where there
are nearly forty peaks each over 14,000 feet in
height. The Medicine Bow Range and the Colorado
or Front Range form the eastern edge of the Rocky
Mountain System, and rise abruptly from the
gentler slope of the Plains. In this range are the
well-known landmarks, Long’s Peak (14,271 feet)
and Pike’s Peak (14,134 feet), as well as Gray’s
Peak (14,341 feet), its highest point, which is too
far west to be visible from the Plains. This range
forms the eastern wall of North, Middle, and
South Parks, and the Park Range constitutes their
western boundary. To the west of the southern
end of the Park Range lies the Sawatch Range,
758 ROCOCO
RODBERTUS
with the famous Mount of the a Mages 14,176
feet) and Mount Harvard (14,375 ds ‘arther
south are the San Juan Mountains, which consti-
tute the western boundary of San Luis Park. To
the north and west of this range lies a high broken
coun’ merging into the mesa region of western
Colorado. neompahgre Peak (14,408 feet) is the
culminating point of this section. The eastern
border of Luis Park is formed by the Sangre
de Cristo Range, which is almost a continuation of
the Sawatch. Its loftiest summit, Blanca Peak
a feet), is the highest point of the ‘ Rockies.’
e Elk Mountains, a series of short lel
ranges with sharp volcanic peaks, lie to the west
of the Sawatch Range. In the Parks rise the
head-waters of the North and the South Platte,
the Arkansas, the Grand, and the Rio Grande.
Beside these large parks there are among these
many smaller but beautiful valle West
of the Park Range are the Uintah Mountains,
com of a broad fold of thick strata, of which
the seg Tertiary and Cretaceous layers have been
eroded to the depth of more than 3 miles, exposing
the underlying Carboniferous rocks, This ran
has an east and west trend, and connects the
eastern and western ranges of the Rocky Mountain
System. The most important of the western ranges
are the Wahsatch Mountains, which form a part
of the eastern rim of the Great Basin (q.v.), and
which serve as the connecting link between the
northern and southern groups of this system. The
test development of the northern group is in
yoming. The Wind River Mountains are the
highest of the ranges, with Fremont’s Peak
(13,790 feet) as the culminating point. To the
west are the Tetons, Mount Hayden (13,691 feet),
and the Snake River Mountains. The mountains
of the northern group are wilder and less accessible
than those of the southern chains, but not so high.
They also present scenery which is less varied ; they
are not so definitely marked by lar ranges, and
there are but few prominent peaks except in the
groups already mentioned and in the geyser region
of the Yellowstone. In Idaho and Montana there
are numerous enclosed mountain valleys, which are
called ‘Parks’ or ‘Prairies,’ but they are not so
high as the ‘ Parks’ of Colorado. The Bitter Root
Mountains form the divide between the head-waters
of the Missouri and those of the Columbia, and
also between the tributaries of Clarke's Fork and of
the Snake River. The Lapwai and Cour d’Alene
ranges, which lie to the west and northwest, con-
nect the Rocky Mountains with the Blue Moun-
tains, and between these groups and the Cascade
Range are the Great Plains of the Columbia
River. Yellowstone Park (q.v.), in the north-
western part of Wyoming, is famous for its hot
springs, geysers, mud volcanoes, and its wonderful
scenery. The disposition of the mountains toward
the east is peculiar, as they occur in more or less
detached and isolated groups, among which are the
Crazy Mountains, Judith Mountains, and the Bi
Horn Mountains. Still farther east are the Blac
Hills, completely detached from the main system,
and noted for their mineral wealth. Beyond the
Canadian line too little is known of the Rock
Mountains to warrant a detailed description.
Mount Hooker and Mount Brown seem to be but
little over 9000 feet high instead of 15,000 feet. The
highland gradually descends towards the north,
reaching an elevation of about 800 feet in the
vicinity of the Arctic Ocean, and the northern
ranges form the divide between the head-waters of
the Mackenzie and Yukon Rivers.
Rococo, or RocaILte, a name riven to the
very debased style of architecture and decoration
which succeeded the first revival of Italian archi-
tecture. It is ornamental design run mad, without
principle or taste. The ornament consists of panels
with their mouldings broken or curved at the
angles, and filled with 1} , shell-work, musical
Ep
instruments, marks, &c.
Germany and Belgium during century,
and in France from the time of Henry IV. to the
Revolution. The illustration shows an example
from an altar in the church of St James, Antwerp.
Rocroi, a third-class fortress of France, depart-
ment Ardennes, 24 miles NW. of Sedan, and 2
from the Belgian frontier. It is situated in the
forest of Ardennes. Pop. 1781, Here the Great
Condé (q.v.) broke the reputation of a Ik
long enjoyed by the Spanish infantry, May 1
Rod, called also a pole, or , & measure of
length, equivalent to ob parts, or 164 feet. The
square rod, called generally a rood, is employed in
estimating masonry-work, and contains 164 x 16},
or 272} square feet. °
Rodbertus, JoHANN Karu, designated the
founder of scientific socialism, was born the son of
a professor at Greifswald on 12th August 1805, and
studied law at Géttingen and Berlin. For a few
years he held law appointments under the Prussian
government, but in 1836 settled down on his
country estate at Jagetzow in Pomerania, and
turned his attention chiefly to economic studies.
In 1848 he was elected a member of the Prussian
National Assembly, and for a fortnight filled the
t of minister of Worship and Edueation ; in the
ollowing year he carried the adoption of the
Frankfort constitution for the empire, but
from public life when the Prussian electors were
rrouped in three separate classes, He died on 6th
Desenber 1875. Although a socialist, Rodbertus
was not a demagogie agitator ; he believed that the
socialistic ideal will work itself out gradually
according to the natural laws of change and pro-
gress. Indeed he fixed upon five centuries as the
time it will take to educate the people, the demo-
cracy, up to the socialistic ideal. hen that ideal
is realised the state will be the owner of all the
land and capital of a country, and will su tend
the distribution of the total products of human
labour amongst those who do the labour, apportion-
ing to each a share corresponding to his work.
(His fundamental economic principle was of course
that labour is the true and only source of wealth.)
In the meantime he would not interfere with the
working of the established laws of capital and
land, nor with the principles of monarchical govern-
ment, On behalf of the workers he advocated that
the government should fix a normal working-day.
OE
RODENTIA
mm
RODNEY 759
anormal day’s work, and a maximum and mini-
mum of wages. His views are laid down in Zur
Kenntniss unserer staatswirthschaftlichen Zustdnde
(1842), Soziale Briefe (1850-51 and 1884), Zur
Erklarung der Kreditnot des Grundbesitzes (1868-
69), ‘Der Normalarbeitstag’ and other papers in
Tiibinger Zeitschrift (1878 et seq.), and others in
Jahrbicher fiir Nationalékonomie.
Rodentia (Lat. ‘gnawers’), an order of
mals more rich in species than any of the
others, including among its familiar representa-
tives squirrels, marmots, beavers, rats and mice,
lemmings, reupines, guinea-pigs, hares and
rabbits. ost are terrestrial, and many are
Skull of Common Porcupine ( Hystrix cristata) :
The lower jaw partly in section to show the lower incisor tooth.
burrowers, but a few are arboreal or even semi-
uatic. All are vegetarian, and gnaw their food.
They are represented in all parts of the world.
Among the anatomical characteristics of Rodents
may be noted the chisel-like edge of the incisor
teeth, which wear away in front less rapidly than
they do behind, where the enamel coating is thinner
or absent; the reduction of the incisors to two
above and two below, except in the hares and
rabbits, in which there are four above; the fact
that the incisors and sometimes the back teeth also
are rootless, and continue growing from persistent
pulps; the absence of canine teeth, and the presence
of a large space between incisors and premolars ;
the condyle in which the lower jaw works is
elongated from before backwards—an adaptation
to the A depart motion of the lower jaw character-
istic of rodent gnawing; the cerebral hemispheres
are smooth, sad leave the cerebellum uncovered ;
the intestine, as in many herbivorous animals, has
a large cecum; the uterus is two-horned, the
lacentation discoidal and deciduate; the repro-
Saotion is in many cases very prolific.
Classification.—Sub-order Simplicidentata—with
only one pair of upper incisors, having enamel only
in front.
his sub-order includes pa ig (Sciurus),
flying squirrels (Pteromys and Sciuropterus),
marmots (Arctomys), beavers (Castor), dormice
(Myoxide ), rats and mice, voles, lemmings, musk-
rats (Muride), pouched-rats (Geomyide ), the capy-
bara (Hydrocherus), poreupines (Hystricide),
agoutis (Dasyprocta), guinea-pigs (Cavia), Sub-
order Duplicidentata—with two pairs of incisors in
the upper jaw, the second pair behind the first, the
enamel extending round the teeth, but thinner
teriorly. This sub-order includes only the
icas or tailless hares (Lagomys) and the hares
and rabbits (Lepus).
See Waterhouse, Natural History of the Mammalia,
vol. ii. ‘Rodentia’ (1848); Flower and Lydekker,
Mammals, Living and Extinct (Lond. 1891).
Roderic, ‘the last of the Goths,’ whose
tragic death, coincident with the downfall of the
Visigothic monarehy in Spain, has inspired poets
and romancers (Scott, Southey, Geibel, Dahn)
to throw round him a halo of glory. Next to
nothing authentic is known about him; but
according to the commonly accepted legend, he
was the son of a noble who was blinded by King
Witiza. A conspiracy having been formed against
the hated Witiza by the clergy and the nobles of
Roman blood, Roderie was elevated to the throne
(710). The sons of Witiza, however, bided their
time, meanwhile submitting to the usurper. At
length certain malcontent nobles were engaged in
a plot to dethrone Roderie by Count Julian, the
attr of Ceuta (in North Africa), whose daughter
ad been outraged by the Visigothic king. Julian
brought over with him a Moorish chief named
Tarik at the head of 12,000 men. Roderic met the
invading army on the banks of the Guadalete, near
Xeres de la Frontera, on 26th July 711. The battle
raged six days; but the sons of Witiza, who com-
manded the wings of the Christian army, deserted
during the contest, and the rout of the Visigoths
was complete. Roderic either died on the field or
was drowned in the Guadalete, whilst attempting
to swim his horse across. A third version, how-
ever, relates that he escaped and passed the rest of
his life as a pious hermit. By this victory the
Arabs became masters of southern Spain.
Rodez, a town of southern France (dept. Avey-
ron), stands on a bold bluff encircled by the Avey-
ron, 148 miles by rail NW. of Montpellier. The
Gothie cathedral (1277-1535) has a tower, 260 feet
high, crowned by a colossal image of the Virgin.
There are several medizval houses, remains of a
Roman amphitheatre, and a restored Roman
aqueduct. Coal-mining, cloth-making, tanning,
and cattle-dealing are the principal occupations.
Pop. (1872) 12,111; (1886) 14,560; (1891) 12,065.
Rodgers, Joun, American naval officer, was
born in Maryland, 11th July 1771, the son of a
Scotch colonel of militia. He was a captain in the
merchant service by 1789, and in 1798 entered the
navy. In 1805 he extorted from Tripoli and from
Tunis treaties abolishing blackmail and forbidding
the slavery of Christian captives. On 23d June
1812 he fired with his own hand the first shot in
the war with Britain, and during the war he took
twenty-three prizes. He died lst August 1838,—
His son, JOHN RODGERS (1812-82), a captain in the
navy, captured a Confederate ironclad, and rose to
be rear-admiral (1869), and superintendent of the
United States naval observatory (1877).
Rodin, AUGUSTE, the foremost of contempor:
French sculptors, was born at Paris in 1840, studi
under Barye, and began to exhibit in the Salon in
1875. He has produced great scriptural and sym-
bolical groups, but is best known by his portrait
busts and statues, notably the bust and the monu-
ment of Victor Hugo. See Monkhouse in the Port-
folio (1887); and Brownell, French Art (1894).
Rodman, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1815-71), am
American soldier, inventor of a method cf casting
cannon. See article CANNON, Vol. II. p. 714.
Rodney, Grorce Brypcres RopNeEy, Lorp,
English admiral, born 19th February 1719, was the
second son of Henry Rodney, a cadet of an
ancient Somersetshire family, the elder branch of
which had merged in that of Brydges, and was at
this time represented by the first Duke of Chandos.
Henry Rodney served for a few years as cornet of
horse in the wars of William III. and Anne, and
afterwards, settling at Walton-on-Thames, obtained
an appointment under George I. as commander of
one of the royal yachts. In this capacity he was
noticed by the king, who offered to stand as god-
father to his second son. The Duke of Chandos
was the other godfather, and after the two the boy
760 RODNEY
ROE
was christened George Bryd He received his
early education at Harrow, which he quitted at the
age of twelve to enter the navy as a ‘king's letter
boy.’ After serving chiefly on the Newfoundland
station he was made a lientenant in 1739 in the
Mediterranean; in 1742 he was promoted by
Admiral Mathews to be post-captain, and was sent
home in command of the Plymouth, a 64-gun ship.
He afterwards successively commanded the Sheer-
ness, Ludlow Castle, and Centurion, and in 1747
the Eagle, in which he had a brilliant share in
Hawke's victory over L’Etenduére on 14th October.
In 1748 Rodney went out in the Rainbow as
governor of Newfoundland and commander-in-chief
on that station, where he remained till 1752; in
1753 he commanded the Fougueux, and from 1754
to 1757 the Prince George. He was then vag emener
to the Dublin, one of the fleet under Sir Edward
Hawke in the futile expedition against Rochefort,
and in 1758 under Boscawen at the capture of
Louisburg. In May 1759 Rodney was promoted
to be rear-admiral, and in July commanded the
small squadron which bombarded Havre and
destroyed the flotilla of flat-bottomed boats col-
lected for the proposed invasion of England. In
October 1761 he was appointed commander-in-chief
on the Leeward Islands station, where in the early
= of 1762, in co-operation with the land forces,
e captured Martinique, St Lucia, and Grenada.
In October he was promoted to be vice-admiral,
and returning to England in August 1763 was
created a baronet, 2lst January 1764. In Novem-
ber 1765 he was a pews governor of Greenwich
Hospital, but in V7 was recalled to active service,
was promoted to be admiral, nominated rear-
admiral of Great Britain, and sent out as com-
mander-in-chief at Jamaica. He hoped that he
might succeed to the office of governor, which
became vacant in 1773; but in his command he
had shown an independence which was distasteful
to Lord Sandwich, and his application was un-
suecessful. In 1774 he returned to England, and
for the next five years was left on half-pay, in very
emba circumstances, which compelled him
to retire to France. It was not till October 1779
that he was again appointed commander-in-chief
at the Leeward Islands, and on 29th December he
put to sea with, in addition to the West Indian
ships, a powerful squadron and a large convoy of
store-ships for the relief of Gibraltar, then besi
by the jards. On 9th January 1780, when
broad off Cape Finisterre, he fell in with a convoy
of Spanish store-ships under the escort of a 64-gun
ship, all of which he captured. Passing Cape St
Vincent on the 16th he met the Spanish squadron
under Don Juan de Langara, which he attacked
with a dash and vigour that carried everything
before him. Seven ships out of eleven were taken
or destroyed; the others man: to escape into
Cadiz. Gibraltar was thus relieved without further
difficulty than was caused by the weather; and on
13th February Rodney sailed for the West Indies.
He had scarcely reached St Lucia, which he made
his headquarters, when he had intelligence that the
French fleet under the Count de Guichen had put
to sea from Martinique. He immediately followed,
and overtaking it on the 17th April fought an
action in which, in despite of the fighting
instructions, he attempted to concentrate his force
on the rear of the enemy’s line. Unfortunately
his signals were not sufficiently clear, the flag-
officers and captains did not understand what was
proposed, and the clever attempt resulted in com-
parative failure. During the following May he
again twice met De Guichen, but without being
able to bring him to a decisive en ment. In
November he was nominated a K.B.; and in
January 1781, in obedience to special orders from
home, he seized on St Eustatia and the other
Dutch settlements; but his health having broken
down he was compelled to return to England a few
months later. In December 1781 he again sailed
for the West Indies; and, as before, shortly after
arriving at St Lucia he had intelligence of the
French fleet, under Count de Grasse, having sailed,
with some 5000 troops on board, for Cape Francois,
where it was to join a strong Spanish fleet for an
attack on Jamaica. Abreast of Dominica Rodney
came in sight of it, and, after an indecisive skir-
mish on the 9th April, had the good fortune, on
the 12th April 1782, to bring it to close action ;
and being enabled, by the piaihg | nature of the
wind, to pass through the enemy’s line, he gained a
brilliant victory, rendered still more crushin the
success of a small squadron detached to look out
for i in the Mona Passage. The French
loss in killed and wounded was extremely severe,
and seven of their ships were captured, one of them
being the Ville de Paris, with the Count de Grasse
himself on board. The vietory placed the English
on a very different footing in the negotiations.
which had been already commenced; and the
terms finally en on were much more favourable
than might otherwise have been e . But
before the news reached England Admiral Pigot
had been sent out by the new administration to
supersede Rodney, who was looked on as a partisan
of Lord Sandwich; and though an express was
sent to stop Pigot on the way it failed to overtake
Seen ¢ eri Sper: to England, Blips
thou i to the as n >
with @ nsion of £5000“ he was but coldly
received by the government. He had no further
employment, and was allowed to live in com
tive obscurity, which his shattered health perhaps
rendered necessary. He died in London on 24th
May 1792.
See his Life by General G. B. Mundy (2 vols. 1830),
and Hannay’s Rodney ( ‘Men of Action’ series, 1891).
Rodosto (anc. Rhedestos), a town of Turkey,
stands on the north shore of the Sea of Marmora,
miles W. of Constantinople. It is the seat of a
Greek archbishop, contains many eta oe and
sends large quantities of fruits and vegetables to
the capital. Pen: 18,600, about one-half Greeks.
Rodriguez, or Ropricuss, a hilly voleanie
island (1760 feet), 18 miles long by seven broad,
lies 380 miles E. by N. of Mauritius, of which it is
a dependency, being one of the Mascarene X jinte >>
The soil is fertile, and agriculture is the chief occu-
pation. The exports (agricultural produce and
ruits) are valued at £6500 annually, the imports at
£5100. Hurricanes often cause great damage to the
island, which is encireled by a coral-reef. It was
discovered by the Portuguese in 1645, and has been
a British colony since 1814, The chief port is Port
Mathurin. Owing to its isolation this island is
particularly interesting to the botanist and the
zoologist. Until near the close of the 17th century
it was the home of the Solitaire (q.v.), now an
extinct bird. Pop. (1890) 1978. See Leguat’s voy-
age thither (Hakluyt Society, 1893).
Roe (Capreolus caprea), a small species of deer
inhabiting Rares and some parts of western Asia,
chiefly in hilly or mountainous regions which are
covered with forests or with scattered bushes and
heath. It is seldom found in the higher and more
naked mountain tracts, the haunt of the s or
red deer. It was once plentiful in Wales and in
the hrf parts of England, as well as in the south
of Scotland, but is now very rare south of Perth-
shire. The roe is about 2 feet 3 inches in height
at the shoulder, Its weight is about 50 or 60 Ib.
Its colour is a shining tawny-brown in summer,
more dull and grizzled in winter; on the under
ROE
ROGER I. 761
surface and around the tail the colour is whitish,
bat there is considerable variety. The hair is
.cnger than in many deer. The tail is very short,
soncealed among the hair. The antlers, which are
uliar to the male or Roebuck, are 8 or 9 inches
ong, erect, round, very rough, longitudinally
furrowed ; having, in mature animals, two or three
tines or branches, which, as well as the tip of the
horn, are sharp-pointed, so that the antlers form
very dangerous weapons. The habits of the roe
Roebuck ( Capreolus caprea).
are somewhat like those of the goat, or even of the
chamois. It keeps its footing on rocks with great
security, bounds very actively, and takes great
lea) Its usual pace, when not very hard pressed,
is, however, a kind of canter. It is not gregarious,
not more than a buck and doe with one or two
fawns being usually seen together. Contrary to
what is usual among deer, the male and female
remain attached during life. The voice of the roe-
deer, resembling that of a sheep, but shorter and
more barking, is often heard through the night.
The males are very combative at the breeding
season. The roe browses on the tender shoots
of trees and bushes as well as on herbage, and
is thus very injurious to young woods. It is
never very thoroughly tamed, and when artially
so is apt to become mischievous, and the male
dangerous. The venison is superior to that of the
stag, but not equal to that of the fallow-deer.
The horns are used for handles of carving-knives
and similar articles.
Roe, Epwarp Payson, American novelist, was
born in New Windsor, New York, 7th March 1838.
On the completion of his theological studies he
became a chaplain in the volunteer service (1862-
65), and afterwards pastor of a Presbyterian church
at Highland Falls. The | eve Chicago fire of 1871
furnished him with a subject for his first novel,
Barriers Burned Away (1872), which proved very
successful. He resigned his pastorate and settled
at Gieairall-on-the Hudson in 1874, where he
devoted himself to the successful cultivation of
literature and of small fruits. Fifteen novels
eame from his pen, all of which have been re-
rinted in Britain, and have been widely read on
th sides of the Atlantic. The best known are
From Jest to Earnest (1875), Near to Nature’s
Heart (1876), Nature’s Serial Story (1884), and He
Fell in Love with his Wife (1886). He is also the
author of Play and Profit in My Garden (1873),
and Success with Small Fruits (1880). He died
suddenly, 19th July 1888; by which date the sale
of his works had amounted to 750,000 copies.
Roe, Ricnarp. See Dor (JoHy).
Roe, Sir Tuomas, diplomatist, was born near
Wanstead in Essex about 1568, studied at Oxford,
and, after holding court appointments under Eliza-
beth and James I., was sent as a political agent to
the West Indies, Guiana, and Brazil. In 1614 he
sat in parliament, but from 1615 to 1618 was
ambassador to the Great Mogul Jahangir at aoe
His journal of this mission was partly printed in
Purchas and other collections. He was ambassador
to the Ottoman Porte in 1621-28, afterwards repre-
sented England in Poland, Denmark, and else-
where, and died in 1644,
Roebuck, Joun Arruvr, English politician,
was born at Madras in December 1802, but passed
his youth in Canada. Coming to England in 1824,
he was in 1831 called to the bar at the Inner
Temple, and in 1832 elected as a Radical reformer
for Bath to the House of Commons. He repre-
sented Sheflield from 1849 to 1868, and again from
1874 till his death on 30th November 1879. The
vigorous nature of his political warfare earned him
the popular nickname of ‘Tear ’em.’ His greatest
litical triumph was the moving of a motion for
uiring into the condition of the army before
topol in January 1855, which he carried by a
large ep mh causing the fall of the administra-
tion of the Earl of Aberdeen. He was appointed
chairman of the committee which conducted the
inquiry moved for. During the civil war in Amer-
ica he favoured the Confederates. He supported
Beaconsfield’s policy during the Eastern crisis in
1877-78, and in 1879 was called to the Privy-council.
He wrote The Colonies of England (1849), and His-
tory of the Whig Ministry of 1830 (1852). See his
Life and Letters by Leader (1897).
Roentgen Rays. See RONTGEN.
Roermond, an old town in the Dutch province
of Limburg, at the junction of the Roer and the
Maas (Meuse), 29 miles by rail N. by E. of Maes-
tricht. The cathedral (1218) is one of the finest
Romanesque churches in the Netherlands. The
ehurch of St Christopher contains good paintings
by Dutch masters. Principal industries are weav-
ing woollen cloths and cottons and making paper.
During the middle ages Roermond was on several
occasions besieged and taken; its walls were de-
molished in 1819. Pop. (1890) 12,039.
Roeskilde, a city on the Danish island of
Zealand, is situated at the southern end of the
Roeskilde Fjord, about 20 miles by rail W. by 8.
of Copenhagen. In the middle ages this city,
founded in 980, was the capital of the Danish kin
and the seat of powerful bishops. The cathedral,
built in the middle of the 13th century, contains
the tombs of most of the kings of Denmark. Here
peace was signed between Sweden and Denmark
on 8th March 1658. Pop. (1890) 6974.
Roe-stone, a name locally given to those lime-
stones which are formed of small globules like the
roe of fishes. It has been translated into the
scientific term Oolite (q.v.).
Rogation Days, the Monday, Tuesday, and
Wednesday before Ascension-day, so called because
on these days the Litany (q.v.) is appointed to be
sung or recited by the c ergy and people in public
procession. The practice of public supplications on
occasion of public danger or calamity is traceable
very early in Christian use ; but the fixing of the
days before Ascension for the purpose is ascribed
to Mamertus, Bishop of Vienne, in the middle of
the 5th century. In England the usage dates from
perhaps the 7th century; after the Reformation
the recitation of the Litany upon these days was
discontinued ; but a memorial of the old processions
long survived in the so-called Perambulation of
Parishes. See BouNnDs (BEATING OF THE).
Roger I., count of Sicily, the youngest of the
twelve sons of Tancred de Hauteville of Normandy,
was born in that duchy in 1031. When twenty-
po
in
Se
* whom he conclu
-
762 ROGER II.
ROGERS
seven years of age he joined his famous brother
Robert Guiseard (q.v.) in South ep be but at first
he seems to have fought against Robert more than
he helped him. At length they became reconciled,
and Roger helped Robert to complete the conquest
of Calabria. In 1060 Roger was invited to Sicily
to fight against the Saracens: he took Messina,
and settled a garrison there. Everywhere the
Normans were welcomed by the Christians of
Sicily as their deliverers from the Moslem yoke,
and they won town after town, until in 1071 the
Saracen capital, Palermo, was captured. Robert
then invested Roger with the countship of Sicily.
Count Roger spent the rest of his life, apart from
his numerous expeditions undertaken for the sup-
rt of his brother, in completing the ‘tes 1H of
icily, which was vem effected in 1090, Already
as early as 1060 Duke Robert had given his brother
the half of Calabria, with the title of count. After
Robert’s death (1085) Roger succeeded to his Italian
possessions, and became the head of the Norman
wer in southern Europe. Pope Urban II. granted
im special ecclesiastical privileges, such as the
xe to sponte the bishops, and made him papal
egate of Sicily (1098). Roger died at Mileto, in
Calabria, in June 1101, See Sicriy.
Roger II., king of Sicily, the second son of
Count r L, was born yi 1097, and by the
death of his elder brother Simon in 1105 became
count of Sicily. On the death (1127) of Duke
William of Apulia, grandson of Robert Guiscard,
his duchy passed to Roger, who thereupon pro-
ceeded to weld ge a strong Norman king-
dom in Sicily and South Italy; the ee
Anacictus crowned him king of Sicily and Italy
in 1130. He next added to his dominions the
Norman principality of Capua (1136), the duchy of
Naples, and the territories of the Abruzzi (1140).
In the year prior to this last acquisition he
managed to take Ls gay Pope Innocent IT., with
ed an advantageous bargain :
Innocent a him as king of Sicily, whilst
Roger acknowledged Innocent as pope, gave him
his liberty, and held his kingdom as a fief of the
holy see. The Byzantine emperor Manuel hav-
ing insulted Roger’s ambassador, Roger’s admiral,
George of Antioch, ravaged the coasts of Dalmatia
and Epirus, took Corfu, and plundered Corinth and
Athens (1146). He carried off silk-workers from
the Peloponnesus to Sicily, and so introduced that
industry into the kingdom. Roger then crossed
the Mediterranean (1147) and won a large province
from the Saracens in North Africa—Tripolis, Tunis,
and Algeria, His court was one of the most
magnificent in Europe ; he was tolerant to all the
creeds of the various peoples under his rule ; his
government was firm and enlightened ; his name a
terror to both Greeks and Moslems. Roger died
in February 1154, leaving his throne to his incap-
able son William. See Siciiy.
Roger of Wendover (4. 1236), Benedictine
rior of St Albans, completed the work of Matthew
aris (q.V.).
Rogers, Henry, born October 18, 1806, and
educated at Highbury College, became a Congrega-
tionalist preacher, and was s ively pre
of English at University College, London, and of
Philosophy at Spring. ill Independent College,
Birmingham, and principal of the Lancashire In-
Essay on Thomas Fuller (1856); Selections from the
Correspondence of R. E. H. {anagram of his
name] (2 vols, 1857); and The Superhuman Origin of
the Bible, Congregationalist Lectures (1873).
Rogers, JAMEs Epwin THOROLD, economist,
was born at the vil of West Meon, Hampshire,
in 1823, and edu at- King’s Coll London,
and Magdalen Hall, Oxford, graduating with a
first-class in 1846, At first an ardent ite,
he took orders, but soon returned to Oxford and
became a successful ‘coach,’ and renovnced his
orders formally, together with Dr Congreve and
Leslie Stephen, after the Clerical Disabilities Act
of 1870. _In 1862 he was elected professor of
Political Economy, but made so many enemies by
his outspoken for reforms that he was not re-
elected in 1868, nor until the death of Bonamy
Price in 1888. An advanced Liberal in polities, he
represented Southwark, 1880-85, and Bermondsey,
1885-86. ” He died October 12, 1890, His sree
work is his painful and laborious /% 0 i.
culture and Praia wn England (6 vols. 1866-88),
and its abridgment, Siz Centuries of Work and
Wages (1885). Besides these he wrote a study on
Cobden (1873), edited the (1868) and
Public Addresses of Bright (1879), the Wealth of
Nations (2 vols. 1880), and the C ion of Pro-
tests of the Lords [1624-1874] (3 vols. 1875).
Other books are Education in Oxford (1861); His-
torical Gleanings (2 series, 1869-70); The First Nine
— of the aon of ‘ ponies if Bids Bape
nt tation of History 3 an son,
Industrial and Commercial History of England (1892).
Rogers, Joun, the first of the Marian m
was born near Birmingham in 1505, uated in
1525 from Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, was a
London rector (1532-34), and then lived for some
years abroad, at Antwerp and Wittenberg, where
he embraced the Reformed doctrines. He pre
a revised translation of the Bible (avs =. 127),
which was published as ‘ Matthew’s Bible’ in 1537,
and, returning to England in 1548, preached at St
Paul’s Cross in 1553, just after Gees Mary’s
accession, anne Romanism. After a long im-
»risonment he was tried as a heretic, and burned at
Smithfield on 4th February 1555. See his Life by
Colonel J. L. Chester (1861).
Roge SAMUEL, the t, was born at the
suburban village of Stoke-Newington on 30th July
1763, the third son in a family of nine. His father,
a City banker, was a Whig and dissenter, a member
of the congregation of Dr Price (q.v.); his mother,
Mary Radford, was the great - granddaughter of
Philip Henry. After a private education, at sixteen
or seventeen he entered the bank, in 1784 was
taken into partnership, and on his father’s death in
1793 became head of the firm. His taste for litera-
ture and for the company of lite: men awoke
at an early period, and one day with a friend he
had gone to call upon Dr Johnson at his house in
Bolt Court, but his courage failed him when his
hand was on the knocker. In 1781 he contributed
eight short essays to the Gentleman's Magazine ;
next year wrote a comic 0 containing a score
of songs; and in 1786 (the year of Burns's first
volume) published An Ode to Superstition, with
some other Poems. In 1792 ap The Pleasures
of Memory, on which his poetical fame was chiefl
based, and which in 1816 reached a nineteent
ont College, Manchester. He contributed
a long series of admirable critical and biographical
articles to the Edinburgh Review. He died in
North Wales, August 20, 1877. A selection of
these articles was republished (3 vols. 1850-55).
Other books were a Life of John Howe (1836); The
Eclipse of Faith (1852), an admirable piece of argument,
and its Defence (1854), in reply to F. W. Newman;
edition (more than 23,000 copies). There followed,
‘written with laborious slowness,’ An Epistle to a
Friend (Richard Sheees 1798), the en
Voyage of Columbus (1812), Jacqueline (1814, boun
up with Byron's Lara), and the ‘inimitable’ Jtaly
(1822-28). The last, in blank verse, proved a
monetary failure; but the loss was recouped by
the splendid edition of it and his earlier poems,
ROGET
ROHAN 793
brought out at a cost of £15,000 (2 vols. 1830-34),
with 114 illustrations by Turner and Stothard.
Meanwhile he had left the old home on Newing-
ton Green, and in 1803 (in which year, with £5000
a year, he withdrew from the as a sleeping
partner ) had given - the chambers in the Temple,
and settled down finally to bachelor life in his
exquisite house, 22 St James’s Place, looking into
the Green Park. He had had his affairs of the
heart, had proposed, indeed, to a daughter of Banks
the sculptor. She refused him, and left him free
to cultivate his muse and caustic wit, to raise
breakfast-giving to a fine art, to make little tours
at home and on the Continent, and to gather an
art-collection which sold at his death for £50,000.
With Rogers one cannot help harping upon money,
for he was rich as no t perhaps ye or after
him. At least he made a good use of'his riches,
for he was quietly jeer to Moore and Camp-
bell, and others, unknown ones, whom it was no
such credit to have aided. But with the kindest
heart he had the unkindest tongue. ‘I have a
very weak voice,’ he explained once to Sir Henry
Taylor; ‘if I did not say ill-natured things no one
would hear me.’ With which, however, Camp-
bell’s saying should be coupled: ‘Borrow five
hundred pounds of rs, and he will never say a
word against you till you want to repay him.’
Anyhow it has come to pass that ‘melodious
rs,’ whom Byron ranked above Wordsworth
and Coleridge, as we too might rank him if only his
works had perished, is better remembered to-day
by a few of those ill-natured things (e.g. by his
witty couplet x Ward ; see EPIGRAM) than by
his poetry, which, chaste though it be, and vim
and enltured, with ‘no such thing as a vulgar line
in it,’ is dead and mummified. It is no more a
pleasure of memory, but unread, not even for-
gotten. One is reconciled somewhat to such
oblivion by remembering how, when in his old a:
Fanny Kemble used to go and sit with Rogers, she
never asked what she should read to him without
his putting into her hands his own poems, which
always lay by him on his table. For this was the
Rogers whe had announced his intention of being
‘read to, when old and bedridden, by young
people—Scott’s novels perhaps.’ There is not muc
more to tell of him—the bank-robbery (£47,000,
1844); the proffer by Prince Albert of the laureate-
ship (1850); the street aga beg | down
by a carriage (1850)—which creeped him for the
rest of his life; and the peacetul ending of that
life (@t. ninety-two) on 18th December 1855. He
is buried at Hornsey.
of Samuel Rogers (1856); Recollections by Rogers, edited
by his nephew William Sh
article in the Edinburgh Review for July 1
Roget, Perer Mark, was born in London in
1779. the only son of a Genevan who had settled as
minister of a French church in London and married
the sister of Sir Samuel Romilly. He was educated
at Edinburgh, became physician to the Manchester
Infirmary in 1804, and in 1808 settled in London,
where he became physician to the Northern Dis-
pensary ; F.R.S. (1815), and afterwards for nearly
twenty years its secretary; Fullerian professor of
Physiology at the Royal Institution; and_an ori-
ginal inember of senate of the University of London,
surviving till September 17, 1869. He wrote one
of the ‘Bridgewater Treatises,’ On Animal and
Vegetable Physiology considered with Reference to
Natural Theology (1834), and the more famous
Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (1852),
passed through 28 editions in his lifetime.
Rogue-money, an assessment formerly levied
on every county in Scotland ‘for defraying the
charges of apprehending criminals, or subsisting
them when apprehended, and of carrying on prose-
cutions against them.’ This tax was first imposed
by statute, 11 Geo. I. chap. 26, on the narrative
that criminals were in the habit of escaping punish-
ment for lack of the funds necessary to bring them
to justice. The freeholders in each shire were
directed to fix the assessment at any of the head
courts yearly, and to appoint collectors. By 31
and 32 Vict. chap. 82 rogue-money in the abies
was abolished, and in lieu thereof power was con-
ferred on the Commissioners of Supply to levy by
rate a ‘County General Assessment.’ By the
Local Government (Scotland) Act, 52 and 53 Vict.
chap. 50, sect. 11, this power of the Commissioners of
Supply is now vested in the locally elected county
councils. It is to be observed, however, that the
repealed portions of 31 and 32 Vict. chap. 82 do not
include sect. 10, which reserves the existing right
of any burgh to levy rogue-money.
Rohan, an ancient Breton family of princely
rank, descended in the male line from the Soke of
Brittany, the name taken from the village of Rohan
in the department of Morbihan. Its motto was
characteristic of its pride: ‘Roy ne puys, Duc ne
daygne, Rohan suys.’ The family still flourishes
in the line of Rohan-Guémenée-Rochefort, natural-
ised with princely rank in Austria, The line of
Rohan-Sonbise became extinct in 1787, that of
Rohan-Gié in 1638. The founder of the family was
Alain I., fourth son of the Vicomte Eudon de
Porhoét, who became Vicomte de Rohan in 1128.
Under Charles IX. in 1570 the domain of Guémenée
was formed into a principality for Louis Rohan VL.,
whose son Louis de Rohan-Guémenée was made in
1588 by Henry III. Due de Montbazon. Both the
latter and his son Hercule (died 1654) bore arms
against the League. The famous beauty, wit, and
litical intriguer, the Duchesse de Chevreuse (died
679), was a daughter of Hereule. Louis, Prince
de Rohan-Guémenée (born 1635), lost the favour
of Louis XIV. by his dissolute life, and died on the
scaffold in 1674 for treasonable dealings with the
Dutch.
Louis RENE EDOUARD, PRINCE DE ROHAN-
GUEMENEE, born 25th September 1735, embraced
the clerical life in spite of dissolute morals and an
extravagant love of luxury, and at an early age
became coadjutor to his uncle the Bishop of Stras-
burg. In 1772 he was sent as a special minister to
Vienna. His habits were displeasing to Maria
Theresa, and he ruined himself at the French court
by slanderous gossip about Marie Antoinette. He
was recalled in 1774, and, although with grudging,
made grand-almoner in 1777. Next year came a
eardinal’s hat, through the influence of Stanislaus
Poniatowski, king of Poland; and a year later the
succession to the bishopric of Strasburg, held by
three members of his family before him. His eager-
ness to recover his footing at court made him an
easy victim to the schemes of Cagliostro and the
adventuress Lamotte, and their siniaay forgeries
and personations were enough to make him pur-
chase the famous Diamond Necklace for the queen.
As soon as the plot was discovered the cardinal
was sent to the tille, but was acquitted by the
Parlement of Paris, 3lst May 1786. He found
himself for the moment a hero of the mob, was
elected to the States-general in 1789, but refused to
take the new oath to the constitution in January
1791, and retired to Ettenheim in the German part
of his diocese, where he died, 17th February 1803.
See Diamond N«EcCKLACE, and books enumerated
thereat; also the far from trustworthy Mémoires inédites
du Comte de Lamotte-Valois (edi by Louis Lacour,
1858), and G. ©. D’est Ange, Marie Antoinette et Le
764 ROHILKHAND
ROLAND
Proos du Collier (1889); the Mémoires of Rohan’s
secretary, the Abbé Georgel, as well as the books by
Beugnot and Madame Campan,
With Victor Louis Mériadec, Prince de Rohan-
Guémenée, Due de Montbazon and Bouillon, who
died in 1846, ended the direct main line. He was
succeeded by his two nephews, scions of a younger
branch of the line Guémenée, that of Rohan-Roche-
fort, who had been adopted in 1833 by his brother
Jules Armand Louis (died 1836),
The line Rohan-Gié, which sprang from that of
Guémenée, was founded by Pierre de Rohan de Gié
(1453-1513), marshal and tutor of Francis I. His
son fell at Pavia in 1525; his grandson, René I.,
at Metz in 1552. The latter was married to
Isabella d’Albret, t-aunt of King Henri IV.,
whence the Calvinism of the family. René II.
(1550-86) married in 1575 the celebrated poetess,
Catherine de Parthenay, heiress of the house of
Soubise.—Their son Henri, Due de Rohan-Gié,
Prince of Leon, was born 2lst August 1579 at
the castle of Blain in Brittany, and at sixteen
eame to the court of Henry IV., with whom he
was ever an especial favourite. He was e in
1603 Due de Rohan and a peer of France, and in
1605 he married the daughter of Sully. After the
king’s murder—a fatal blow to his hopes—he became
one of the chief leaders of the Huguenot party in
France, and, when all endeavours to bring about a
peaceable settlement had come to nothing, took u
the sword, fortified the places in Guienne, hel
Montauban against the king, and at last forced
him in the peace of 1622 into a confirmation of the
Edict of Nantes. Thereafter he took his share in
all the tortuous intrigues of the time, fighting now
for his king, now against him, ever holding up the
— cause, alike in times of open warfare and
hollow peace. After the surrender of La Rochelle
(1628) a price was set on his head, and he made
his way to Venice, but soon after was called on by
Richelien to serve his king in the Valtelline, out
of which he speedily cleared both the Imperialists
and the Spaniards. He next carried his sword to
Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, but received a wound
at Rheinfelden on the 28th February 1638, of which
he died at Kéningsfeld on the 13th April. But his
name survives best in his admirable Mémoires,
three books of which (1644) embrace the civil
wars, the fourth (not published till 1758) the Val-
telline kee 28 They may be found in Michaud
a
and Ponjoulat’s collection.
See the works by Fauvelet du Toc (Paris, 1667), Schy-
bergson (i. 1880), H. De La Garde (ib, 1884); Bithrin,
Venedig, Gustav Adolf, und Rohan ( Halle, 1885); Laugel,
Henri de Rohan, son réle politique et militaire sous Louis
A! ees T. (Paris, 1889) ; and the Edinburgh Review for April
His daughter, Marguerite de Rohan, brought the
t possessions of the house in 1645 to her husband,
enri de Chabot, Marquis de Saint-Aulaye, who
thereupon assumed the name of Rohan, From this
line have sprung Charles Lonis Josselin de Rohan-
Chabot, Due de Rohan, Prince de Léon (born 1819),
and his son, Alain, Prince de Léon (born 1844).
See Soustse; also De la Chenaye-Desbois, Genealogie
des Hauses Rohan (Prague, 1872).
Rohilkhand, a division of the North-western
Provinces of India, lying west of Oudh, has an area
of 10,908 sq. m. and a pop, (1891) of 5,343,674.
Rohillas were Afghan Pathans who rose to
wer in Rohilkhand, India, about the middle of
the 18th century. The Mahrattas on one side and
Sha js nd-Danla of Oudh on the other pressed them
hard ; at last Shuja, with the help of British soldiers
lent to him by Warren ag sneceeded (1773-
74) in pepaeie 7 them. See Sir John Strachey’s
Hastings and the Rohilla War (Oxford, 1892).
Rohlfs, Geruarp, German traveller in A
was born at Vegesack near Bremen on 14th A
1832, studied medicine at Heidelberg, Wirzburg,
and Giéttingen, and joined (1855) the Fo
Legion serving in Algeria, Having learned Arabic
and made himself thoroughly familiar with Moham-
medan customs, he set off (1861) for Morocco,
travelled through that country under the pro-
tection of the Grand Sherif, and was exploring the
pita | Draa in the Sahara (1862) when he was
attacked by his own guides, plundered, and left
for dead in the desert. ‘Two marabouts found him
and carried him back to Algeria, In 1864 he again
visited the Sahara, getting to Tuat and Ghadames ;
in 1865 he was in Fezzan and Tibesti; in 1866 in
Bornu, whence he made for the Benue, and so
reached the i i He accompanied the British
expedition to Abyssinia in 1868; and_was then
sent to carry presents from the king of Prussia to
the sultan of Bornu. In 1873-74 he was com-
missioned by the khedive of pt to lead an
expedition to the oasis of Sivah (Jupiter Ammon)
in the Libyan Desert. The German government
in 1878 sent him to carry presents from the
emperor to the sultan of Wadai; but the expedl-
tion was attacked and driven back by Arabs in
the oasis of Kufra. The last public mission of
Rohlfs was to take a letter from the German
emperor to the negus of Abyssinia in 1885. Nearly
every one of his journeys is described in a se
book—e.g. Reise d Marokko (4th ed. 1884);
Reise durch Nord-Africa in 1865-67 (1868 and 1873,
in Petermanns Mitteilungen); Land und Volk in
Afrika (1870); Quer durch A (1874); and
some others. He died at Godesberg 2d June 1896.
Rohtak, « town of British India, in the
Punjab, 42 miles NW. of Delhi. Turbans are
manufactured. Pop. 15,699.—The district has am
area of 1797 sq. m. and a pop. (1891) of 590,475.
Rokitansky, Kart, BAron von, founder of
the school of pathological anatomy at Vienna, was
born at Kéniggriitz in Bohemia on 19th February
1804, studied medicine at Prague and Vienna, in
1828 was appointed assistant to the professor of
Pathological Anatomy in the university of the
latter city, and in 1834 succeeded him, He like-
wise held the offices of prosector at the city infirmary,
legal anatomist to the city, and medical adviser to
the ministry of education and public worship. In
1869 he was made president of the Austrian
Academy of Sciences. He retired from work in
1875, and died on 23d July 1878. Although
Rokitansky a 1 with the old humoral patho.
logists in so far that he regarded the changes of
the blood as the chief immediate causes of disease,
he laid the principal stress of medical study upon
morbid anatomy, post-mortem dissection, and
observation. He stands pre-eminent amongst Ger-
man medical teachers as the one who established
pathological anatomy as the basis of all original
scientific inquiry in the domain of medicine. His
teachings were published in the great work Hand-
buch der pathologi. Anatomie (5 vols, 1842-46;
3d ed. 1855-61 ; ng. trans. of Sydenham Society,
4 vols. 1849-52), and in Memorials of the Vienna
Academy of Sciences. See an anonymous Biography
(Vienna, 1874).
Rokitno, a vast swampy region, now_ being
perma drained, between the rivers Pripet,
org and —— RE as peri his
on is regar e as the origins
home of the Seu whence roceeded the lake-
dwellers of Switzerland and the Po valley.
ARYAN RACE.
Roland (Ital. Orlando, ro agro the
name of the most prominent hero in the Charle-
magne legend. Unlike most legendary heroes,
ROLAND
765
Roland is a figure in history as well as in t
and fable, though it pret be said pra ie
place he occupies as a historical personage is
an imposing one. All that we know of him is
contained in one line of Eginhard’s Vita Karoli,
chap. ix., and that simply records his name,
Hruodlandus, his rank of prefect or warden of the
march of Brittany, and his death at the hands of
the Gascons in a valley of the Pyrenees. Such is
the acorn from which a whole forest of romance has
sprung up. According to the Annals (commonly
attributed to Eginhard, but by some to Angilbert,
who died fifteen years before they end), Charlemagne
was invited in 777 to take ion of Saragossa
and other cities in Spain by [bn al Arabi, leader of
the revolt against the Khalif Abd-er-Rahman, and
in 778 crossed the Pyrenees into the territory of
the Gascons, attacked and took Pamplona, the
stronghold of the Navarrese, and advanced to Sara-
, and having received the submission of
bn al Arabi and his friends, and taken hostages
of them, returned the way he came. According to
other accounts the Saracens played him false, and
a rising of the Saxons compelled him to hasten
home. Al Makkari merely says that after warring
for some time with Abd-er-Rahman he sent him
an embassy proposing an alliance and friendship,
and that peace was concluded between them. At
any rate it is certain that Charles made but a short
stay in Spain, that on his way back he levelled the
a of Pamplona to the ground, and that about
25 miles north-east of it the rearguard of his army
was annihilated by the Gascons. ‘ Roscida Vallis,’
the common etymology of Roncesvalles, the scene
of the disaster, is, of course, like all such ety-
mologies, nonsense. In its oldest known form the
name is Renecesvals, and there can be no doubt
that it is Basque. Whatever may be the true
reading of the first syllable, the last two are clearly
a corruption of zabal or zaval, a word which enters
into the composition of perhaps a hundred place-
names in Navarre and the Basque provinces,
always indicating a flat, level space, which exactly
describes the battlefield. It is a small oval plain,
evidently an old lake-bed, shut in all round, except
on the south where the waters escaped, by stee
mountain-ridges clothed from base to summit wii
thick beech woods, To the north there is a slight
depression where, by the Col of Ibafieta, a path
crosses the crest of the Pyr and d ds the
Val Carlos to St Jean-Pied-de-Port. The features
of the spot, and the facts of the catastrophe, no
doubt, also, are faithfully given in a few words by
Eginhard, who in his youth must have often heard
them spoken of by Charlemagne’s old soldiers. As
the army, by reason of the narrowness of the place,
was marching in extended order, the Gascons, who,
profiting by the denseness of the woods that abound
there, had posted themselves in ambush on the
heights, rushing upon those guarding the rear,
hurled them into the valley beneath, and there
slew them to a man; and having seized the baggage,
dispersed under cover of the night in all directions,
so that there was no finding them to take vengeance
upon them. Roncesvalles is in fact a natural trap,
and it says little for Charles as a general that he
should have ventured into it without first securing
the heights and scouring the woods; for when
Roland, in the Chanson, thinks of it, it is too late.
He was in a hostile country, made so by his own acts.
It may be—to put him in the most favourable light
—that he was compelled by military necessity to
invade Navarre, that resistance forced him to take
Pamplona, that levelling its walls, though it looks
awkwardly like spite, was a precaution in view of
a future campaign, and that, in short, he ‘simply
used military license upon the country.’ But this,
as Major Dalgetty observes, ‘ excites no benevoience
in those wlio sustain injury,’ and the Basques of
Navarre had good reason to resent their treatment
at his hands. They were not semi-savage moun-
taineers, as most French writers try to make them
out, but a gallant little Christian state holding their
own stoutly, after the fashion of Pelayo, against
the common foe; and yet this pillar of the church,
this pious champion of Christianity, hot from the
conversion of the Saxons, comes down upon them,
for his own ends treats them as if they were
Saracens, or worse, takes away from them their
armour wherein they trusted, their walls, next to
their mountains their best reliance, and leaves them
naked to their enemies. Eginhard may talk of the
perfidy of the Gascons, and poets sentimentalise
over the dolorosa rotta, but history and justice will
call it a merited retribution for overbearing mili-
tarism, and the proper punishment of insolent con-
tempt for a weak adversary.
aturally, the tragic character of the disaster, and
the reverse to the mighty king of the Franks at the
close of what was looked upon as a holy war, made
a deep and wide-spread impression. Upon himself
the effect, the Annals say, was that it clouded the
success of his expedition, and there can be no doubt
that already in his lifetime it was a theme with the
popular minstrels far and wide. In the middle of the
9th century the biographer of Louis held it needless
to mention the names of those who fell, guéa vulgata
sunt. In course of time the story underwent modi-
fications in the hands of the poets. Everything in
it was magnified. The expaaition became a cam-
paign lasting twice as many years as it had
occupied months ; the disaster was made a defeat
of vast proportions, which, as a matter of course,
was accounted for by treachery, the traitor Ganelon
being invented for that pu ; the Basques were
turned into Saracens; and for further dramatic
effect Charlemagne, who was but thirty-six, was
represented as a venerable old man with a snow-
white beard, and Roland as his nephew. And here
it may be asked, how came Roland to be set up as
hero? Eginhard mentions two others as having
fallen, Anselm and Eggihard, both of them persons
of at least equal rank, and more immediately con-
nected with the sovereign; but nothing more is
heard of either. The only explanation is that, if they
were left unwept, wikenvoved: and unsung, it was be-
cause the jongleurs could not conveniently sing their
names, while Rodland, Rotland, Rollanz, Roland
lent itself to song as if made on purpose. ‘An old
song’ is held to mark the zero of importance, but
it is one of the most potent of agencies. It lurks
among the roots of history, dispensing immortality
at will, and conferring renown irrespective of deeds
or merits. Roland, for aught we know, was only
an ordinary Breton country-gentleman, but old
songs have made him the equal of Achilles, Hector,
Alexander the Great, and Arthur of Britain. Of
these old songs we know little or nothing beyond
the fact of their existence, If the barbara carmina
taken down by Charlemagne’s orders were of the
same sort, they were probably the only ones of the
kind ever committed to writing. Nor do we know
much more of their relation to the earliest written
lays. M. Léon Gautier, who has made the subject
the study of his life, at first held that the chansons
de geste were little more than the primitive songs
strung together, but he now thinks that they were
merely inspired by them, and borrowed only their
legendary and traditional elements. The truth
robably lies between the two views. It is more
Tikely that there is no hard and fast line to be
drawn between the songs and the chansons de
geste, and that the latter were of very gradual
growth. The jongleurs in singing the songs, can-
tilense, or ballads, as we should call them, re-
lating to an event like the Roncesvalles disaster,
766
ROLAND
would naturally from time to time introdace new
ones for the sake of novelty or as connecting links,
and thus a recognised sequence would be estab-
lished, which, as minstrelsy became more and more
of an art, the jongleurs more like trouvéres, and
their hearers more cultured and critical, would in
course of time grow into a continuous lay. By
some such process as this, in all probability, the
Chanson de Roland, unquestionably the oldest and
best of the chansons de geste, was produced,
The oldest form in which we have it is that of the
MS. in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, written pre-
sumably towards the end of the 12th century; but
this is evidently by no means its oldest form as a
consecutive poem. M. Gautier, who loves precision,
places its composition between the Norman Con-
quest and the first Crusade, but it is impossible to fix
precisely the date at which it ceased to be a mere
congeries of songs and became a chanson de geste ;
at any rate the two references to England as one
of Charlemagne’s many conquests cannot be relied
upon. Nor do the allusions to Mont Saint-Michel
justify the assertion that it is certainly the Work
ofa Norman. It is of course in the language of
the northern half of France, the language of the
trouvéres, but there is no good reason for assigning
it to any one province. An interesting reference to
the country of the poem is spoiled by M. Gautier.
The death of Roland, we are told, was tng in
France by storms and earthquakes ‘from Saint-
Michel to Seinz, from Besangon to Wissant.’ It is
not certain here what place is meant by Seinz. M.
Francisque-Michel suggests Sens; a 13th-century
MS. reads Rains (Reims); M. Gautier boldly pro-
the ‘saints of Cologne ’—i.e. the relics pre-
served there. Far more probably, as a glance at the
map will show, the place intended is Saintes on the
Charente, the old capital of the Santones and of
Saintonge, a town that makes a considerable figure
in the middle ages and in the Charlemagne legend.
With the other three places mentioned it forms
a quadrangle which exactly represents the region
within which the langue d’oil was dominant.
South of the line from Saintes to Besangon was the
country of the dangue d’oc, the Provencal ; west of
the line from Mont Saint-Michel to Saintes was
the Breton; east of the line from Besancon to
Wissant, near Calais, the ae was Teutonic.
The old minstrel was not thinking of a Rhine
frontier, as M. Gautier imagines, but of the habitat
of his hearers, the country where his words would
be understood. The best, and most likely the
oldest, part of the poem is that which deals with
the combat at Roncesvalles, Roland’s refusal, until
too late, to sound his horn, the deeds and deaths
of the peers one by one, and of Roland last of all.
The opening portion, the despatch of Ganelon at
Roland’s suggestion as envoy to the Saracens, his
anger and betrayal of Roland in revenge, and the
concluding ory the vengeance of Charlemagne, and
the trial and death of Ganelon, probably came later.
There can be little doubt that the episode of the
Emir Baligant was a comparatively late addition.
Besides the Oxford MS. there are half-a-dozen
others ranging from the 13th to the 16th cen-
tury. The differences between the earlier and later
are significant. In the Oxford MS., which is
one of the little pocket copies carried by the jong-
leurs, the assonant rhyme (that which disregards
the consonants and depends on the aecented vowel)
is maintained throughout, the same assonance being
kept up to the end of each break or paragraph. In
the later MSS. the assonant is turned into the full
consonant rhyme, and the poem expanded to twice
or thrice its former length. The first shape is the
poem as sung; the second as adapted for readers
when the minstrel was no longer the sole vehicle
for poetry and reading was becoming a common
accomplishment. A very close German version,
the Ruolandes Liet, shows that early in the 12th
century the chanson had out of its native
country and language t and it is almost as closely
followed in the Icelandic Karlamagnus Saga of the
13th. The Chanson de Roland is the foundation
of the Charlemagne legend. Charles’s wars
quarrels with his v would no doubt of them-
selves have furnished themes for the jongleurs, but
the legend, culminating in the Morgante of Pulci
and the Orlandos of Boiardo and Ariosto, is the
outcome of the story of Roland and Roncesvalles.
The following are the printed editions of the Chanson.
de Roland ; From the Oxford MS., by Francisque Michel
( Paris, 1837); Text, with translation, by F. Genin (Paris,
1850); the Oxford text, ed. by Professor Miller (Giétt.
1851; reprinted with additions, 1863, 1878); 2d ed. of
F, Michel’s, with text of 13th-century MS. in the Bib.
Nat. added (Paris, 1867) : Oxford text, E.
Boehmer ( Halle, 1872); of Lib. of St Mark, V:
fac-simile by E. Kolbing ( Heilbronn, 1877); Oxford MS.,
(Paris, 1865, 1866, 1877). The Lie was
rinted in 1727, and again by W. Grimm in 1838, and
arl Bartsch (1874); and there is a translation .
Hertz (1861). Mrs Marsh in 1854 translated Vitet’s
epitome ot gpd aH and Mr John O'H has given.
an accurate, olarl » and spiri from the
original (2d ed. 1883). There is also an English transla-
tion by L. Rabillon (New York, 1885).
Roland de la Platiére, JEAN Marie, and
his greater wife, MADAME ROLAND (née Marie-
Jeanne, or Manon, Phlipon), are among the most
memorable martyrs of the French Revolution,
Roland was born of a decayed legal family at
Villefranche near Lyons in 1734. He made his way
unaided, and had risen to be ins r of manufac-
tures at Amiens, when about the close of 1775 he
made the acquaintance of his gifted wife. She was
twenty years his junior, having been born at
Paris, 18th March 1754, daughter of an engraver,
who had ruined himself by unlucky speculations.
From the first an eager and imaginative child,
she read everything, even heraldry, and Plutarch
made the young idealist a republican for life. At
eleven she went for a year into a convent to prepare
for her first communion, next a year with
her grandmother, and then returned to her father’s
house, where she read Buffon, Bossuet, and Hel-
vétius, and at length found her gospel in the writ-
ings of Rousseau. Her admirable mother died in
1775, and the girl, solitary and poor, untouched in
heart by her many admirers, and soured to her father
by his misconduct, at length in February 1780
married the estimable Roland. He was over forty,
thin, yellowish, careless in dress, abrupt and austere
in manners, solid and well-informed indeed, but
dry, cord ange: and addicted to talking about
himself. But she buried the latent ons of
her heart, and for ten years made herself an
admirable wife and mother, with perfect domestic
simplicity. They lived at Amiens, where her only
child, a daughter, was born (October 1781);
next at Lyons, and travelled in England and
Switzerland. The Agricultural Society of Lyons
charged Roland to draw ay its cahier for the States-
general, and in February 1791 he went to Paris to
watch the interests of its municipality, returned to
Lyons in ne pepe but came back to Paris before
the close of the year, It was now that Madame
Roland’s masculine intellect and woman’s heart
made her the queen of a coterie of young and
poate enthusiasts that included all the famous
and ill-fated leaders of the Gironde, Brissot, Buzot,
ROLAND
ROLLER 767
Pétion, and at first even Robespierre and Danton.
Her noble beauty, dark expressive eyes, sweet
voice, and eloquent words added a charm to
eRe that was irresistible. In March 1792
land became minister of the Interior, and his
stiff manners, round hat, and unbuckled shoes
struck dismay into the court. ‘Three months later
he was dismissed for his disloyal remonstrance to
the king, who had refused to sanction the decree
for the banishment of the priests. It was Madame
Roland’s vigorous pen that wrote this letter, as
indeed she wrote most of the papers that her
husband signed. He was sealed after the king’s
removal to the Temple, made himself hateful to
the Jacobins by his protests against the September
massacres, and took his part in the last ineffectual
struggle of the Girondists to form a moderate party.
It was in the last days of the Gironde that the
reciprocal affection between Madame Roland and
Buzot crossed the indefinite bounds that separate
friendship from love. It was the one touch of soft-
ness that her nature needed, says Sainte-Beuve, to
make it wholly feminine and French. But her
Spartan soul sacrificed its passion to duty, and
strong in the purity of her heart she made a
confidant of her husband, partly perhaps because
she songht in this a strange safeguard against her-
self, but doubtless still more because the ideal love
to that exalted virginal heart was a love nourished
upon sacrifices, that encircles its object with an
aureole of respect, and dreads to find in ion
the end of its enchantment. The struggle brought
on six days of physical exhaustion, and on the
seventh the sound of the tocsin announced the
roscription of the Twenty-two (31st re fe
Roland had been arrested, but escaped and fled to
Ronen ; Buzot and some of the others fled to Caen to
organise insurrection, but in vain; next day she
herself was seized and carried to the Abbaye. Set
at liberty two days later, she was arrested anew
and taken to Sainte-Pélagie. She had five more
months of prison before death closed her tragedy
of life, me § during this time she wrote her un-
finished Mémoires, furtively, with a swiftly flowing
pen, on sheets of coarse gray Renee given her by
a kindly turnkey, often blot by the fallin
tears. The stern joy with which she had hail
the dawn of revolution, her hatred of the throne,
the high hope and heroic disinterestedness of her
dreams—all her sincere illusions were now dissi-
pated, and at length she saw into the heart of
that declamatory tragedy called the Revolution.
Her character, made perfect through suffering, took
on a new refinement; she carried with her into
death something of the sanctity of the martyr, and
still, in Carlyle’s phrase, like a white Grecian
statue, serenely complete, she shines in that black
wreck of things. She bore herself in prison with
a gracious and queenly dignity, buried in her
Thomson, Shaftesbury, Plutarch, and Tacitus. The
approach of death unsealed her lips, and (22d June
to 7th July) in four letters to Buzot, strangely
discovered in 1863, she spoke out a love that could
never now come into conflict with duty. On the
lst November, the morning of the execution of the
Twenty-two, she was transferred to the Con-
ciergerie, and there lay for eight days. She went
to the Tribunal dressed all in white, her long
black hair hanging down to the girdle, and in the
dusk of the 8th November 1793 she was carried
to the guillotine along with a trembling printer of
assignats, whom she asked Sanson to take first to
save him the horror of seeing her head fall.—‘ You
cannot,’ said she, ‘refuse the last request of a
woman.’ It is usually told how, on the point of
entering the awful shadows of eternity, she asked
for pen and paper to write down the strange
thoughts that were rising within her, but Sainte-
Beuve thinks it impossible, puerile, untrue to the
nature of the heroine, as well as unauthenticated
by good contemporary evidence. As she looked
up at the statue of Liberty, she exclaimed, ‘O
Liberté, comme on t’a jouée !’ or as it is still more
commonly given, ‘O Liberté, que de crimes on
commet en ton nom!’ She had often said her
husband would not long survive her; a week later
he ran himself through with his sword-stick near
Rouen, November 15, 1793.
Madame Roland’s Mémoires reflects little of the
horrors amid which it was written, but is a serene and
delightful revelation of her youth in a series of charming
ig But in writing she is best and most natural in
er letters, as in the series to Bosc, those to Bancal des
Issarts, the four to Buzot, and the exquisitely simple
letters to her two school friends, Henriette and Sophie
Cannet. The best editions of the Mémoires, for the first
time printed in their entirety, are those of Dauban (1864)
and Faugére (1864). Her Letters were collected by
Dauban (2 vols, 1867). See the studies by Dauban
(1864), Mathilde Blind (1886), and Ida M. Tarbell
(1896); Lamy, Deux Femmes Célébres (1884); and
Austin Dobson, Four Frenchwomen (1890); Sainte-
Beuve, in Nouveaua Lundis, and in Portraits de Femmes ;
Scherer, in his Etudes.
Rolf. See NorrHMEN, NORMANDY.
Rolle, RicHarp. See HAMPOLE,
Roller (Coraciide), a family of Picarian birds
characteristic of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions,
although the common Roller is extensively distrib-
uted in the Palearctic region and a few species
enter the Australian region. None are found
in the New World. Mada; r esses three
species peculiar to itself, and so different from one
another that they are regarded as oe of different
genera, and so different from other rollers that
they are grouped into a separate sub-family,
Brachypteraciane: they are named ground-rollers,
and are nocturnal in habit. An Indian species,
Eurystomus orientalis, is also nocturnal. The
Common Roller (Coracias garrula) is an avtumn
or more rarely a spring visitor to the British
Isles ; and about one hundred have been recorded
since the first one was noticed by Sir Thomas
Browne in 1644. Some have visited the Orkneys
The Common Roller ( Coracias garrula).
and Shetlands, one has been found as far west as
St Kilda, and about half a dozen have been
recorded from Ireland. It is a straggler to northern
Europe; in central Europe it 1s common; in
countries bordering on the Mediterranean it is
very abundant. It ranges through Asia to Omsk
in Siberia and to North-west India. In winter it
extends its migrations to Natal and Cape Colony.
In size it is about a foot long. The general colour
is light bluish green; the mantle is chestnut-
brown; the wings and rump are adorned with
beautiful azure blue. The female resembles the
male in plumage. Nesting takes place in the
768 ROLLESTON
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
woody haunts in May. The nest, which is made
in a hollow tree or wall, is built of a few chips, or
of roots, grass, feathers, and hair, according to
circumstances. The eggs are five or six in number
and are of a Glossy white colour. The food consists
of beetles and other insects captured on the ground.
The name ‘ Roller’ is given to the bird on account
of its varied and unsteady flight and the habit the
male has, during the breeding season, of indulging
in extraordinary tumbling antics, and turning
somersaults in the air.
Rolleston, GrorGE, was born at Maltby in
Yorkshire, July 30, 1829. He had his schooling at
Gainsborough and Sheffield, next entered Pem-
broke College, Oxford, took a classical first-class
in 1850, and was elected Fellow of his college the
next year. He studied at St Bartholomew’s Hos-
ser and was appointed in 1855 a i Sravewen to the
ritish Civil Hospital at Smyrna. turning to
— in 1857, he was made pease to the
cliffe Infirmary at Oxford, and somewhat later
Lee’s reader in Anatomy. In 1860 he was appointed
Linacre professor of Anatomy and Physiology,
became F.R.S. in 1862, Fellow of Merton College
in 1872, and died June 9, 1881. His Forms of
Animal Life (1870) gave him a high reputation,
confirmed by his valuable dissertation on craniolo,
in Greenwell’s British Barrows (1877). See Lite
— to his Scientific ee om and Addresses (ed.
urner and Tylor, 2 vols. 1884).
Rolliad, the name, derived from Lord Rolle
(1750-1842), a staunch supporter of Pitt, for a
series of woe satires by George Ellis and others,
directed mainly against Pitt and Dundas.
Rollin, Cuak es, bornat Paris, January 30, 1661,
studied at the Collége du Plessis, and became pro-
fessor there, next at Paris, and was chosen rector
of the university of Paris in 1694. In 1699 he was
appointed coadjutor to the principal of the College
ot Beauvais, but was ejected from this situation
twelve years later owing to his Jansenistic sym-
thies. He was re-elected rector of the university
in 1720, and died September 14, 1741. His Traité
des Etudes (4 vols. 1726-31) has been pronounced
by Villemain ‘a monument of sense and
taste ;’ his Histoire Ancienne (13 vols. 1730-38),
long popular and much translated, is feeble in its
philosophy, jejune in its criticism, and often inac-
curate in its facts. Yet it has opened the study
of ancient history to many men since the young
prince Frederick the Great. His Histoire Romaine
(16 vols. 1738-48) was a much inferior work, long
since deservedly forgotten.
Rollin, Leprv. See Lepru-RoLirn.
Rollo. See NortHmMen, NORMANDY.
Rolls, MAsTer oF THE, was formerly the chief
ma the _— Masters in a ee me
the care of grants passed under the t > an
of all the records of the Chancery ; ihe also sat on
the equity side of the court as an independent
though subordinate judge; doubts having been
rai as to his jurisdiction, his powers were con-
firmed by act of parliament in 1730. The official
residence of the Master of the Rolls in Chancery
Lane, with the chapel, &c. thereto attached, form
the Liberty of the Rolls. The Master of the Rolls
was formerly permitted to sit in the House of
Commons, and this usage was defended in a well-
known speech by Macaulay. By the Judicature
Act of 1873 the Master of the Rolls was excluded
from the House of Commons; he has since been
transferred, by an act passed in 1881, to the Court
of Appeal, but he continues to perform adminis-
trative duties as head of the Record Office. For
the Rolls Series, see Recorps.
Romagna, formerly the name of a region of | cel
italy, forming the northern portion of the states of
the Church (q.v.), and comprising the delegations
of Bol venna, Ferrara, and Forli, These
delegations became in 1861 distinct provinces of
the kingdom of Italy.
Romaic, a term for the popular Greek dialect
develo’ before the fall of the Byzantine empire,
essentially similar to the modern Greek tongue as
now spoken. The first who wrote in this popular
hong ay is believed to have been a monk Prodromus
in the 12th century. Those who clung to the old
Attie which still maintained an artificial exist-
ence called themselves Hellenes ; the party of the
pular speech were called Romaioi, from Nea
Band (‘new Rome’), the new name for the capital
of the eastern empire. See Greece, Vol. V. p.
392.
Romaine, WILLIAM, evangelical divine, was
born at Hartlepool, Durham, pace 25, 1714,
and was educated at Hertford College and Christ
Church, Oxford. He held curacies at Lew Trench-
ard, Devon; Banstead and Horton, Middlesex; |
was lecturer of St George’s, Botolph Lane, and St
Botolph’s, Billin, te, and of St Dunstan’s-in-
the- West from 1749 till his death. He was also
assistant morning preacher at St George’s, Hanover
Square, 1750-55; curate and morning rat
St Olave’s, Southwark, 1756-59; and mo
reacher at St Bartholomew the Great, Smithfie
759. In 1764 he was chosen rector of St Andrew
Wardrobe and St Ann’s, Blackfriars, and th
the election was disputed it was confirmed by
Court of Chanens, in 1766, and he held the
till his death, July 26, 1795. Romaine was a -
wark of Evangelicalism in his day, though himself
infected with the taint of Hutchinsonianism. He
assailed, not without credit, Warburton’s Divine
Legation of Moses ; published commentaries, ee
sermons, and three books of edification that enjoy’
for three generations a remarkable popularity :
The Life of Faith (1763), The Walk of Faith
(1771), an The Trium;
of Faith Shir @ There
is a complete edition of his works, with a Life by
the Hon. and Rev. W. B. Cadogan (8 vols. 1796).
Roman Architecture. Of the early archi-
tecture of Rome and the other Latin cities com-
or little is known; the remains of pe
talian architecture consist of a few arches an
sepulchral monuments. With the conquest of
Carthage, Greece, and Egypt the Romans became
acquainted with the arts of those countries, and by
degrees endeavoured to use them for the embellish-
ment of the imperial city. Besides, Rome under
the empire was the capital of the world, and
attracted artists from every country. The result
_ nee the ig by ite jb gm bese cs : pp
style. It was largely im , and partook of the
character of the Tiberias: The great interest of
Roman architecture is that it is a mixture and
amalgamation of ancient styles, and the starting-
ang for modern styles. It is thus the coaneee
ink between ancient and modern art; the who
history of Roman architecture being that of a tran-
sition, slow but steady, from the external architec-
ture of the Greek temple to the internal architecture
of the basilica. Rome borrowed from Greece the
oblong peristylar temple, with its horizontal con-
struction and decoration, and the various ‘ orders.’
See CoLuMN, GREEK ARCHITECTURE. From the
Etruscans probably were derived the circular form
of temple and the cireular arch, which
leading features in the development of the future
Roman style. The peripteral form of the Greek
temple, however, was seldom followed by the
Romans, who preferred to adhere to the early
Italian form of columns attached to the walls of the
1
The Orders imported from Greece were the Dorie,
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
769
Tonic, and Corinthian. These were all used in
Rome, but with some modifications; the Doric,
for i geek aa being never employed as in Greece,
being without fluting, and having the capital and
entablature altered, and a base added, so as to
make the style more similar to the others, with
Fig. 1.—Doric Arcade.
which it was often associated. The Ionic had the
volutes turned out angularwise, so as to present
a similar face in each direction. The
favourite ‘order’ of the Romans, however,
was the Corinthian. It was invented in
Greece, but more fully developed in Rome
where it suited the desire which exis
for richness and luxuriance in architecture.
Many fine examples of this style exist in
Rome (as the Pantheon and the temple of
Jupiter Stator) and in the provinces (as
the Maison Carrée at Nimes and the Great
Temple at Baalbek), the capitals, wherever
found, being designed in endless variety.
The Composite order was an invention
of the Romans, and is sometimes called the
Roman order. Vt is a combination of the
Ionic and Corinthian. All these orders
were employed by the Romans, but in a
manner peculiar to themselves ; they com-
bined with the Greek orders the arch. This
feature, at first confined to substructures,
was gradually introduced into the visible parts of
the structure, and became finally an important
Fig. 2.—Courtyard at Spalato.
element in the elevations. The columns were placed
(fig. 1) at wide intervals, and set on pedestals to
give them and the entablature a proper proportion ;
whilst behind the columns square piers were intro-
413
Fig. 3.—Transverse Section of Basilica of Maxentius.
duced, and from them arches were thrown which.
supported the wall. This was the favourite style of
the Romans, and may be seen in all their important
works (amphitheatres, arches, baths, &e.). They
piled one order above another, marking each poe
with the entablature. As the style proceed
vaulting and arching became more common, especi-
ally in internal construction, but the horizontal
ornamentation was never entirely abandoned.
Arches of the above construction were thrown from
pillar to pillar behind the entablature, but gradu-
ally the pier was omitted, and the arch openly
constructed from column to column, the architrave
bent round it, and the cornice continued horizon-
St above, as at Diocletian’s ee at Spalato.
e buildings executed by the Romans are very
varied in their character, but the same style was
used for temples, baths, amphitheatres, triumphal
arches, tombs, &e. The earliest temples of which
remains now exist are those of Jupiter Stator in the
Forum, Jupiter Tonans, and Mars Ultor, all of the
Augustan epoch, and each with only three columns
left. These are supposed to have been nearl
peripteral, and it is worthy of notice that the cells
are all large, and one of them has an a
One of the most interesting temples of Rome is
the Pantheon. The portico is of the age of Augus-
tus, but the rotunda is probably considerably later.
The dome of the interior is a splendid example of
the progress of Roman architecture in developing
the use of the arch, and transferring the decoration
from the exterior to the interior. The former is in
this case totally sacrificed to the latter; but the
interior has not yet been surpassed for boldness of
construction or simplicity and sublimity of effect
(see PANTHEON). Other examples of circular
temples, on a small scale, are found at Tivoli and
in Rome, both dedicated to Vesta.
The test works of the Romans, however,
were not their temples. The Basilicas (q.v.), Am-
phitheatres (g.v.), and Baths (q.v.) are far more
numerous and more stupendous as works of art,
and all show how well the Romans had succeeded
in producing an internal architecture, which at a
later period became so useful as a model for Chris-
tian buildings. The Basilica of Trajan is a type of
the Christian wooden-roofed churches ; while that
of Maxentius (fig. 3), with its es intersecting
vaults, and its vaulted aisles and buttresses, con-
tains the germs of the greatest Christian cathedrals.
The Roman amphitheatres have never been sur-
passed for size and grandeur, or for’suitability to
their purpose. And of the baths sufficient remains
still exist, although much decayed, from the perish-
able nature of the brick and stucco employed in
their construction, to prove that the scarcely ered-
ible descriptions of contemporaries were su
by the grandeur of the buildings themselves. Other
770 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
varied Foca works are their many aqueducts
and bri , triumphal arches, pillars of victory,
and tom See Aquepuct, and ArcH (TRI-
UMPHAL). Of the tombs of the Romans the earliest
and best specimen is that of Cecilia Metella ( wife
of Crassus) on the Appian Way (fig. 4). It con-
sists (like most Roman tombs) of a round drum
have many wonderfully preserved specimens in
Herculaneum and Pompeii, showing both the
arrangements and decorations of the dwellings of
all classes. Of the great palaces and villas, how-
ever, none remain except the palace of Diocletian, at
Spalato, in Dalmatia—an important building, which
shows many steps in the progress of the style.
See, besides the Handbooks of architecture, R.
———d
Fig. 4.—Tomb of Cecilia Metella.
placed on a square basement, and was probably
surmounted by a conical roof. The tomb of
Augustus was similar, on a very large scale, and
the sloping roof was broken into terraces planted
with trees, That of Adrian (now the eaatlo of St
Angelo in Rome) is another enormous example.
The tombs were generally ranged along the ways
leading to the gates of cities.
The later tombs of Rome are well worthy of
study, as they contain many specimens of the
transition towards the Christian style. They are
generally vaulted, frequently with domes, as, for
instance, the tombs of Bt Helena and Sta Costanza.
Fergusson also places the so-called ‘Temple of
Minerva Medica’ (fig. 5) amongst the tombs. It
Fig. 5.—Plan of the Temple of Minerva Medica at Rome.
is a beautifully arranged building with ten sides,
all containing deep niches (except the side with
the door), surmounted by a clerestory, with ten
well-proportioned windows. The vault is polyg-
onal inside and outside; and the pendentives,
ribs, buttresses, &c., which played so important a
part in the Christian architecture both of the East
and West, are distinctly used in its construction.
Of the domestic architecture of the Romans we
Adam, Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian (1764) ;
Taylor and Cressy, Architectural Antiquities of
Rome (1821; new ed. 1874); Freeman, Historica?
and Architectural Sketches (1876); T. G. Jack-
—_ ae the Quarnero, and Istria (3 vols.
Roman Catholic Church, Cardinal
Bellarmine, in his De Eccl. milit., chap. 2,
defines the ‘church mili- | copyright 1891, 1897, and
tant’ thus: ‘ An assem- | 1900 in the U.S. by J. #.
bly of men united by | MPrtvcet Company.
the premeerees of the same Christian faith,
and by the communion of the same sacra-
ments, under the rule of legitimate tors,
and especially of the one vicar of Christ on
earth, the man pontiff.’ It is evident
that this is really a definition of the Roman
Catholic Church. The truth is that the
Roman Catholic Church claims exclusive
right to the title of Church of Christ on
earth, and declares that ‘outside of her fold.
there is no salvation.’ This claim of the
Chureh of Rome to be the exclusive means
of salvation has been much misunderstood,
and calls for some words of explanation.
As we intend to remove a misconception,
we explain first what the claim does not mean. It
does not mean that none but Roman Catholics.
are in the way of salvation. This is sufficiently
clear from the Encyclical letters (‘Quanto con-
ficiamur’) of s+ Pius IX., dated Angus 10,
1863. ‘It is well known,’ writes His Holiness,
‘that those who labour under an invincible ignor-
ance concerning our most holy religion, and
who at the same time sedulously observing the
natural law and the precepts thereof, which are
inscribed by God on the hearts of all, are ready
to obey God, can, the virtue of divine light
and grace working within them, attain to eternal
life.’ It is not then the teaching of the Roman
Church that none but Roman Catholics are saved.
The sense of the axiom ‘outside the Church of
Rome thete is no salvation,’ as understood by
Roman Catholic theologians, is that, whereas Christ.
came on earth to establish a church which was to
be the divinely appointed means for the salvation
of all men, the Roman Catholic Church is that
church. Further light may be cast on the sense of
this axiom by considering the distinction made by
Roman Catholic theologians between the body of
the church and the soul of the church, By the
body of the church they understand the church
considered as a visible and external society. By
the soul of the church they understand the super-
natural life of the members of the church—that is
to say, sanctifying grace. Whoever, then, is in
the state of grace belongs to the soul of the chureh.
Whoever is not in the state of grace, even though
he belong to the visible and external o isation or
body of the church, does not belong to the soul of the
church. Now the axiom ‘outside the church there
is no salvation’ has reference primarily to the soul
of the church. Thus, then, according to Roman
Catholic doctrine, the non-Catholic who dies in the
state of grace is saved. The Catholic who dies out
of the state of grace is lost. ‘
In the symbol commonly known as the Nicene
Creed, faith is expressed in ‘one, holy, Catholic,
and Apostolic Church.’ Christian antiquity then
regarded unity, sanctity, catholicity, and aposto-
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
1
licity as properties of the true church. The
Church of Rome claims to these properties,
and to them manifestly, and in conse-
quence claims to be clearly recognisable as the
true church of Christ.—The Church of Rome
claims to be one, with the completest and most
yerfect unity, with unity of doctrine, unity of
iturgy, and unity of government. (1) With unity
of doctrine. Roman Catholics all the world over
have cao 8 the same faith: the learned, indeed,
ma ve a larger acquaintance with the doctrines
of faith than the illiterate; but there is nothing
believed by the most learned theologian which is
not believed, at least implicitly, by the most simple
member of the faithful. Every Roman Catholic
says, ‘I believe whatever the holy Catholic
Church proposes for my belief.’ (2) With unity
of liturgy. In every part of the world the Roman
Catholic Church offers the same unbloody sacrifice
of the mass, everywhere administers the same sacra-
ments, everywhere observes the same great festival
days, &c. (3) With unity of government. Roman
Catholics, whether living under monarchical or
= oreggaig governments, whether united to each
other or divided from each other by their various
national interests, are everywhere in subjection to
their pastors and bishops, and above all to the
Holy See. Indeed, it has perhaps never been
denied that with respect to unity the Roman
Catholic Church excels all other churches.—The
Roman Catholic Church claims to possess visibly
the second property of the true church—viz.
sanctity. She claims to be holy (1) by reason of
the holy doctrines which she teaches. Thus, she
insists upon the great truth of moral responsi-
bility. dhe declares that, tho man’s freedom
of will was impai by the Fall, it was not de-
stroyed; that om of will remains, and that
no adult can be saved without the due exercise
of it. She proclaims that ‘faith without works is
dead.’ She calls upon her children to confront
their evil ions with the weapons of fasting and
mortification in their hands ; holds in high honour
the ‘ life of counsels,’ the life of voluntary poverty,
chastity, and obedience; and declares that such
was the life of the Lord and of the precursor of
the Lord. (2) By reason of the means of holiness
which she provides. Prominent amongst these a
Roman Catholic would place the sacrament of
penance, Bye reason of the fruit of holiness
which she produces. Professing that she has
existed from the first, the Roman Catholic Church
claims as her own all the saints of past times.
She declares that her power of producing saints
is strong to this day, and points to a St Francis
Xavier, a St Charles Borromeo, a St Phili
Neri, a St Francis de Sales, a St Vincent de Paul,
and many other saints of more recent times.
And whoever is uainted with the rigorous
inquiry which p es the process of canoni-
sation, whatever he may think of the faith of
those canonised by Romé, will admit that the
saints of the Roman Church were men of even
heroic virtue.—The warre et Catholic a ae
to visibly possess the thi roperty of the true
Gearabevin catholicity. She ems to be Catholic
de jure, inasmuch as she was commissioned to
‘teach all nations ;’ and also de facto, and this in
three ways. (1) With respect to persons. This
means that Roman Catholics constitute by far the
most numerous body of Christians. (2) With
t to place. is means that the Roman
Catholic religion is more or less diffused wherever
Christianity prevails. (3) With respect to time.
This means that she has existed visibly since the
days of the apostles, and that she will exist visibly
till the end. The. claim of continued existence
from the first really merges into the claim of
apostolicity, which we shall next explain. Her
belief in her continuance of existence till the end
she bases on Christ’s promise of constant assist-
ance, which she declares was made to herself.—
Finally, the Church of Rome claims to possess
visibly the fourth property of the true church—
apostolicity. She claims to be apostolic (1) as
founded by Christ through the apostles, and be-
cause her pastors descend from the apostles by a
succession which has never been broken. Under
this head we may remark that, while many Pro-
testant writers have denied that St Peter the
apostle ever resided in Rome, on the other hand
many well-known Protestant authorities, such as
Barrow, Cave, Chamier, Vossius, Baratier, Bishop
Pearson, and Whiston, have freely conceded this to
the Catholics. Whiston states that the fact of St
Peter’s residence at Rome ‘is so clear in Christian
pg oa it is a shame for any Protestant to
confess that any Protestant ever denied it.’ Bishop
Pearson declares that ‘it is wonderful that those
ean be found who deny that Peter ever was at
Rome.’ Baratier is still more emphatic: ‘All the
ancients,’ he writes, ‘and the great majority of the
moderns have undertaken to derive the succession
of the bishops of Rome from the apostle Peter.
So great in this matter has been the agreement of
all that in truth it ought to be deemed a miracle
that certain persons born in our day have presumed
to deny a fact so manifest.’ Besides claiming con-
nection with the apostles, by a line of pastors
descending from them in uninterrupted succession,
the Church of Rome claims to be apostolical (2) by
reason of her doctrines. She denies that she has
ever surrendered any doctrine taught by the
apostles, and she denies that she has ever professed
any doctrine which is not contained in divine
ay lical tradition. Here it must be remembered
that, while the Church of Rome accepts the Word
of God alone and exclusively as the Rule of Faith,
besides the Sacred Scriptures or written Word of
God it admits an unwritten Word of God, which
an authority equal to that of the written
ord. By the unwritten Word of God Roman
Catholies understand a eal of truths delivered by
Christ to the apostles, and by the apostles to their
successors, and which were not in the first instance
committed to writing. It is certainly worthy of
note that Christ did not write, but preach ; that he
did not command his apostles to write, but to
preach ; that only five out of the twelve apostles—
reckoning St Mathias in the place of Judas—are
recorded to have written anything at all; that
three out of these five—St Peter, St James, and St_
Jude—have left us nothing more than brief epistles,
written under particular circumstances, and for
special reasons; that more than half of the New
estament was written by inspired men who were
not among the apostles to whom the commission
was by our Saviour. The church is the
depositary, guardian, and living and infallible in-
terpreter of both the written and the unwritten
Word of God. It may be remarked, in ing,
that there would seem to be some analo; tween
the Roman Catholic rule of faith and the civil
constitution of England. According to Judge
Blackstone’s Commentary, the municipal laws of
England are divided into lex non scripta, the un-
written or common law, and the lex seripta, or
statute law; and the common law is the ‘first
CoA E and chief corner-stone of the laws of Eng-
and.’ If the question arises as to how these
customs or maxims are to be known, and by whom
their validity is to be determined, Blackstone
decides that the question must be settled by the
judges in the several courts of justice, for these
judges are ‘the depositaries of the law, the living
oracles, who must decide in all cases of doubt.’
772
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH .
The Church of Rome teaches that no addition
has ever been made to the deposit of faith left
by the apostles to the church, and that no ob-
—s increase of revelation is to be expected.
she does not deny that divine revelations have
been made to individuals since the days of the
apostles, but she holds that such revelations do
not increase the deposit of Christian revelation,
and do not constitute an article of Catholic faith
to be professed by all the faithful. The faithful
are not bound to or revelations made to private
persons, even though the church should express
aes of these revelations ; for it is understood
that the church does not intend by hem approval
to —- their genuineness. The approval
of the church amounts to no more than a declara-
tion that there is nothing in the supposed revela-
tions at variance with sound faith and morality.
But though the entire deposit of faith was received
by the church from the apostles, it does not follow
that all the truths contained in this deposit were
revealed explicitly, and have been at all times
explicitly taught by the church. There has, in-
deed, never been any difference with respect to
the formal object, as it is called, or motive of
faith. Whatever truth has been believed has
always been pert on the authority of God
who revealed it. But with respect to the material
object of faith—i.e. the truths of revelation—there
has been this difference, that, while some have
been from the first explicitly believed, others were
at one time believed implicitly only. The distinct
proposition and promulgation of these latter doc-
trines belongs to the magisterium, or teachin
office, which the church exercises under the guid-
ance of the Bey Png
The church fulfils this teaching office in many
ways : (1) By indicating in detail the various truths
contained in some complex article of explicit faith.
Thus, it was always expressly believed by the
church that our Saviour was a true and perfect
man. But if our Saviour was truly man it follows
that he possessed a human body, a rational soul,
a human will, and a human ene: And these
various consequences the church distinctly pro-
ner for explicit belief, on the emergence of the
nostic, Apollinarian, Monothelite, and other
heresies at variance with these consequences. Or,
to take an instance from Roman Catholic theology,
the plenitude of the primacy of the Bishop of Rome
has always been a principle of faith explicitly be-
lieved. ut, as occasion and circumstances re-
quired, the church has proposed for explicit faith
one or other of the prerogatives involved in this
primacy. (2) By enunciating in particular truths
already comprehended in some universal proposition
of ex eit faith. Thus, whilethe Say Sapp aeeny
ta ado fh 5 apie ases! Ppa? utary
peer ed and states, on occasion of the Semipelagian
he it distinctly decreed that was neces-
sary for entrance into the way of salvation and for
perseverance in the same. (3) By proposing dis-
tinetly and articulately what was already believed,
though with less distinctness. Thus, according to
Roman Catholics, it has always been the belief
of the church that it was due to the honour of
the Son of God that His mother should be free
from the least stain of sin. The proclamation,
then, in recent years of the doctrine of the Immac-
ulate Conception was no more than the distinct
and articulate declaration of a truth which had
been an object of implicit belief from the first.
(4) By expressly declaring some truths which had
been already indicated y the practice of the
church. Thus, the church, y Sheed sas 7.
those converted to her fold m heresy, h
practically manifested her belief in the validity
of baptism conferred by heretics; but when the
validity of heretical was impugned she
expres eee that where syed seek matter,
orm, and intention were em such baptism
was valid. Thus, then, weccedion to the Roman
Catholic teaching, there may be truths objectively
contained in the deposit of revelation, or the re-
clearly proposed and promulgated
mate 7s of fai . the i tion
church. Until th posed and
mulgated the
out loss of
the isterium of the church. In the of
many doctrines we may distinguish three distinct
phases: (1) In the first instance, are im-
plicitly contained in revelation indeed, but not
yet proposed by the chureh; and by the faithfui
they are not explicitly believed, neither are they
called in question. (2) Then arises a controversy
concerning these doctrines; some are for acce s
others for rejecting them. (3) Finally, the es
either by solemn judgment or by her common teach-
ing, declares that these doctrines belong to the
deposit of revelation ; and thenceforward they are
an object of explicit faith.
For the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church
concerning the Holy See we must refer our readers
to the articles Popr, INFALLIBILITY, &. We
may, however, mention here that the very name
Roman Catholic is intended as an expression
of the belief that there can be no true Cath-
olicity without union with Rome. Roman Cath-
olies assert that there can be no catholicity
without unity; and they contend that the See of
Rome has always been ed as the source of
unity, and that communion with Rome was re-
gar wk the early church as the ultimate proof
of orthodoxy. In support of this contention they
quote many striking declarations of the Fathers
and of the early councils. The name ‘
Catholic’ is not new. Cardinal Newman, writing
of the 5th and 6th centuries, says: ‘It is more
than remarkable that Catholics of this period were
denoted by the additional title of “Romans.” Nor
was this association of Catholicism with the See
of Rome an introduction of that age’ (Hssay on
Development, chap. v. ). '
The hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church
consists of the soverei — who is assisted
by the Sacred College o' ‘ardinals, and by several
sacred congregations, or eee ecclesiastical
committees; of the patriarchs, archbishops, and
bishops; of the apostolic delegates, vicars, and
prefects ; and of certain abbots and prelates. The
cardinals, who are the advisers and assistants of
the sovereign pontiff, constitute the supreme coun-
cil or senate of the church; and on the death
of the pontiff they elect his successor. The College
of Cardinals when complete consists of 70 mem-
bers: 6 cardinal bishops, whose dioceses are the 6
‘Suburban Sees’ of Ostia and Velletri, Porto and
Santa Rufina, Albano, Frascati, Palestrina, and
Sabina, 50 cardinal priests, and 14 cardinal
deacons. In 1898 there were 13 vacancies, lea
57 cardinals ; of whom 30 were Italians; 9 Aus-
trian, German, or Polish ; 7 French ; 3 British sub-
jects ; 4 Spanish ; 2 Portuguese; 1 of the. United
States; and 1 Belgian. The sacred congregations,
about 20 in number, consist of cardinals, consultors,
and officials, and carry on the central administra-
tion of the Roman Catholic Church. The follow-
ing are the principal con, tions. (1) The Con-
tion of the Council, for the interpretation
and execution of the decrees of the Council of
Trent, and for receiving. from bere — on
the state of their dioceses. Attached to this there
is a special Congregation for the Revision of Pro-
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
773
vincial Synods. (2) The Congregation of Bishops
and ars, for judging ap against episco-
al sentences, for the hearing of causes between
= ani lars, and for the revision and
approbation of rules of religious bodies. (3) The
ngregation of Propaganda, for the pro tion
of the faith and the government of the church in
non-Catholic countries. Attached to this there is
a Congregation for Affairs of the Oriental Rite, with
a commission for the revision and correction of
Oriental books. (4) The Congregation of Sacred
Rites, for the decision of all questions relative to
the liturgy, rites, and ceremonies, and for the
conduct of the processes of the beatification and
canonisation of saints. (5) The Congregation of
the Index, for the condemnation of writings pre-
judicial to faith or morality. (6) The Congre
tion of the Holy Office, sometimes known as the
Congregation of the Inquisition, for the examina-
tion and repression of heretical doctrines. (7) The
Co: ation of Indulgences and Sacred Relies,
for the proclamation of indulgences and the decision
of questions relating to them, and for the authenti-
eation and distribution of relics. (8) The Congre-
ion of Ecclesiastical Immunity, for maintain-
ing ecclesiastical privileges and exemptions, as to
persons, places, and things. The jurisdiction of
the congregations does not cease on the death of
the sovereign pontiff; nevertheless all important
business is suspended during the vacancy of the
Holy See.
ere are 10 patriarchates, with 14 patriarchal
sees—8 of the Latin rite, and 6 of Oriental rite.
The ter or more ancient patriarchates are those
of Alexandria, Latin ; Antioch, with 4 patriarchal
sees, Latin, Maronite, Melchite, and Syriac ; Con-
stantinople, Latin ; and Jerusalem, Latin. The less
are those of Babylon, Chaldaic ; Cilicia, Armenian ;
East Indies, Latin ; Lisbon, Latin ; Venice, Latin ;
and West Indies, Latin. There are in the com-
munion of Rome, besides the 14 patriarchal sees,
830 archiepiscopal and episcopal residential sees
of the Latin rite, and 51 archiepiscopal and episco-
pal residential sees of Oriental rite. Besides the
archbishops and bishops of these residential sees,
there were in January 1900 368 archbishops and
bishops of titular sees. In the British empire there
are 123 Roman Catholic residential archiepiscopal
and episcopal sees, 23 vicariates-apostolic, and
8 prefectures-apostolic, with a Roman Catholic
pulation of about 10 millions. Nineteen of the
by vicariates- lic in the British empire are
held or administered by bishops of titular sees.
Titular sees, or, as they were styled till 1882, sees
in partibus infidelium—i.e. sees which in ancient
times existed in those eastern regions which have
now lost the faith and fallen into barbarism—are,
for the most part, assigned to archbishops and
bishops who are appointed to apostolic delegations,
of which there are 9, or to vicariates-apostolic, of
which there are 125, or to prefectures-apostolic,
of which there are 50, or to the office of coadjutor,
auxiliary, or administrator of a diocese. Delegates-
a lic and vicars-apostolic enjoy episcopal juris-
diction, and exercise episcopal powers, in countries
where a hierarchy proper has never been estab-
lished, or having once existed has been suppressed.
When the ancient hierarchy of England came to an
-end in 1585 with the death of Thomas Goldwell,
Bishop of St Asaph, the English Catholics were at
first < tell under the jurisdiction of archpriests or
seuaoa ts | pace ut in the year 1 Pope
jregory XV. appointed a vicar-apostolie with juris-
diction over all the Catholics of England. About
sixty years later, in 1688, Pope Innocent XI.
orn | four districts or vicariates, the London,
Midland, Northern, and Western, appointing to
each district its own vicar-apostolic. In 1840 Pope
Gregory XVI. created eight districts or vicariates,
the London, Western, Eastern, Central, Welsh,
Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Northern, each dis-
trict having, of course, its own vicar-apostolic. In
1850 Pope Pius IX. re-established the Roman
Catholic hierarchy in England. The vicars-apos-
tolic were all bishops of titular sees. Thus, Cardinal
Wiseman, who before the restoration of the hier-
archy was vicar-apostolic for the London district,
was entitled while vicar-apostolic Bishop of Meli-
tamus. Prefects-apostolic are as a rule not
ae but simple priests, who receive from the
Holy See authority to exercise guasi-episcopal juris-
diction in missionary countries.
As is well known, the Latin rite prevails with
few exceptions in the West, and also in some
| regions of the East ; nevertheless various other rites -
are also followed within the communion of Rome.
These are (1) the Greek rite, of which there are the
followingforms. (a) The Greco-Roumanian. There
are 3 bishops and 1 archbishop of this rite, whose
sees are situated in Austria-Hungary. The lan-
guage of the liturgy is Roumanian, excepting in the
ig of Scaiusiu, in the diocese of Lugos, where
he langu employed is the ancient Slav. (6)
The Greco-Ruthenian. There are 8 bishops and 1
archbishop of this rite, with sees in Austria-
Hungary and Russian Poland. The liturgical
1 is the ancient Slav. (c) The Greco-
Bulgarian. Of this rite there is an nese >
vicar-apostolic, for Constantinople and its neigh-
bourhood, with 2 a vicars-apostolic,
Macedonia and Thrace. The liturgical langu:
is ancient Slav. (d) The Greco-Melchite. Of this
rite is the Melchite patriarch of Antioch, with 4
archbishops and 9 bishops, whose sees are situated
in Syria. The liturgical language is the Arabic.
There are missions at Czsarea in Cappadocia,
Constantinople, and Malgara in Thrace of the pure
Greek rite, which are also in communion with
Rome. (2) The Syriac rite, of which there are
the following forms. (a) The pure Syriac. Of this
rite is the Syriac patriarch of Antioch, with 4 arch-
bishops and 8 bis ops whose sees are situated in
Egypt Syria, and Turkish Armenia. The litur-
gical language is the ancient Syriac. (6) The
yro-Chaldaic. Of this rite is the patriarchate of
Babylon, with 4 archiepiscopal and 7 episcopal sees
situated in Kurdistan, Turkish Armenia, Meso-
potamia, and Persia. The liturgical language is
the ancient Chaldaic. (c) The Syro-Maronite. Of
this rite is the Maronite patriarch of Antioch, and
7 archbishops and 2 bishops, whose sees are situated
in Syria, in various other provinces of Asiatic
Turkey, and in the island of Cyprfis. The litur-
ical language is the ancient iac. (d) The
yro-Malabaric. This rite is followed in the
vicariates-apostolic of Kottayam and Trichur in
the East Indies. The liturgical language is the
Syro:Malabaric. (3) The Armenian rite. To this
rite belong the Armenian patriarchate of Cilicia,
the archiepiscopal see of Lemberg in Austria-
Hungary, the episcopal see of Artuin in the
Russian empire, and 17 episcopal sees situated in
Turkish Asia, Egypt, and Persia. The langua
of the liturgy is the ancient Armenian. (4) The
Coptic rite. Of this rite there are two forms : (a) the
form followed in the vicariate-apostolic situated in
Egypt, where the Coptie or ancient Egyptian is
the language of the liturgy ; (b) the form observed
in the vicariate-apostolic in Abyssinia, where the
liturgical language is the ancient Ethiopic or Geez.
The Roman Catholic populations of the various
countries of Europe are, according to The States-
man’s Year-book (1900), as follows: Great Britain and
Treland, 5,415,000; Austria-Hungary, 27,756,000 ;
Belgium, 6,650,000; Denmark, 3647; France
(1881 ) 29,201,703 ; Germany, 17,675,000 (including
or
774 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
ROMANCES
Greek Church); Greece, about 12,000; Italy,
31,757,000; the Netherlands, 1,596,000; Port 5
5,049,000; Euro; Russia, 8,300,000; Spain,
17,536,000 ; Sweden and Norway, 2400; Switzer-
land, 1,184,000; European Turkey, estimated at
1,000,000 ; total Roman Catholic population in Eu-
rope, approximately 153,130,000, while Mulhall’s
Dutionary of Statistics (1898) states it at 162,310,000.
The latter quotes the American Statistical Society's
figures of Roman Catholic a (1893) of the
nd divisions, as follows: more 160,200,000 ;
merica, 58,400,000; Asia, 3,010,000; Africa,
2,660,000; Oceania, 657,000; grand total, about
225,000,000, as against the 240,000,000 estimated
in Hazell’s Annual for 1897.
See Cardinal Manning's 7" . Mission of the Holy
Ghost; Newman's Essay on 7) rine ;
Wiseman’s Lectures on the Catholic Church; Ward’s
Essays on the Church’s Doctrinal Authority ; Murphy’s
System of Theology,
i (Propaganda Press,
statistics of the Catholic
nes organisation and
Chi will be found in the relevant paregral on the
several Catholic countries. The more important Catholic
doctrines and institutions are all dealt with in separate
articles in this work; as are also the saints and thinkers.
See especially the articles :
Absolution. Mary.
Altar. {sion. | Excommunication. | Mass.
Apostolie a xtreme Uncti, M hi:
juinas. ewman.
x Festivals. Orders.
Atonement. Franciscans. Penance.
m. Gallican Church. Peter.
Benedictines. Greek Church. Pope.
Bible. Hell. Prayer.
— “+ doco ; Priest.
onisation. Image —
Canon Law. Immaculate oda Relics,
pcpoem en — Reservation.
juistry. ce. Rosary.
Catechism. Intalio. Sacraments.
Celibacy. Inquisition. Sacrifice.
arch. Jansenism. Saints.
Confession. Jesuits. Supere: ion.
Councils. Liturgy. tiation.
Creeds. Lord’s Supper. Trent.
Dominicans. yrs. Vv
Romance Languages, a general name for
those modern cnetager that os the immediate
descendants of the language of ancient Rome. In
those of the empire in which the Roman
dominion and civil institutions had been most
completely established the native languages were
speedily and ey pera supplanted by that of the
bree yay tin. This was the case in Italy
itself, in the Spanish peninsula, in Gaul or France,
including parts of Switzerland, and in Dacia,
When the Roman empire was broken up by the
irruptions of the northern nations (in the 5th and
6th centuries) the intruding tribes stood to the
Romanised inhabitants in the relation of a ruling
caste to a subject population. The dominant
Germans continued, where established, for several
centuries to use their native tongue among them-
selves; but from the first they seem to have
acknowledged the supremacy of the Latin for civil
and ecclesiastical purposes, and at last the lan-
guage of the rulers was merged in that of their
subjects; not, however, without leaving decided
traces of the struggle—traces chiefly visible in the
intrusion of numerous German words, and in the
mutilation of the matical forms or inflections
of the ancient Latin, and the substitution therefor
of tear pe and auxiliary verbs. It is also to
be borne in mind that the language which under-
went this change was not the classical Latin of
literature, but a = Roman language (lingua
Romana rustica) which had been used by the side
of the clessical, and differed from it—not to the
extent of being radically and grammatically another
ee chiefly by slovenly pronunciation, the
neglect or misuse of grammatical forms, and the
use of ‘low’ and unusual words and idioms. As
distinguished from the old lingua Latina, the lan-
guage of the church, the school, and the law, this
newly-formed language of o: intercourse, in
its various dialects, was known from about the
8th century as the Ji Romana ; and from this
name, through the adverb Romanicé, came the
term Romance, applied both to the language and
to the popular poetry written in it, more especially
ai the — and poems of the dag —
mance langu recognised by Diez are six—
Italian, Spanish, Portuguese Provengal, French,
and Roumanian. Ascoli and newer investigators
treat the Romansch of the Grisons as a seventh
sister-tongue ; and each of these have more or less
numerous dialects.
According to the theory of Raynouard, the new
lan that sprang out of the corruption of the
Latin was at first essentially the same over all
countries in which Latin had been ken, and is
preserved to us in a pure state in the Provengal,
or language of the troubadours; and it was from
this as a common ground, and not from the original
Latin, that the several Neo-Latin tongues diverged
into the different forms which they now present.
This theory is not aecepted by recent inquirers
its groundlessness was demonstrated by Comewall
Lewis. It is beyond doubt that the several
daughters of the mother Latin had their charac-
teristic differences from the very first, as, indeed,
was inevitable. The original in spoken in
the several provinces of the Roman empire must
have had very different degrees of purity, and the
corruptions in one region must have differed
from those in another according to the nature of
the superseded tongues. To these differences in
the fundamental Latin must be added those of the
superadded German element, consisting chi: wie
the variety of dialects spoken by the invading
nations and the different proportions of the con:
quering po to the conquered. ch, aa
was to be expected, is richer in German words
than any other member of the family, having 451)
not found in the others. Italian is next to Freneki
in this respect, but on the whole is nearest to thr
mother Latin. Spanish and Po ese have con:
siderable Arabic elements; and Roumanian was
1auch modified by Slavic. The Romance hear, ¥4
further differ from the common t in simplify-
ing or dropping the inflections of nouns, substitut
ing for these the use of prepositions, and simplify-
ing the verbal forms by a free use of on
verbs. The six great Romance tongues and th
literatures are treated in the articles on Italy,
Spain, Portugal, Provencal, France, and Roummate
to which may be added the Romansch.
See Cornewall Lewis, On the Ori Formation
the Romance Laruuente (2d 04. 1868); Dies Cromenatth
der Romanischen S; en (1836-38; 4th ed. 1877), and
his dictionary, the great Wérterbuch (1853; Eng.
1864) ; yer, Rapport sur le Progrés de la
Philologie Romane (1874); works on Romance Let
by Kérting (1884), Gréber (1886), and cane ae
the magazine ‘Romanische Stu ? (1871 et seq.),
that of Gaston Paris, ‘ Romania’ (1873 et seq.).
Romances. Romance has long since lost its
original signification in every country except Spain,
where it is still occasionally used in speakin
the vernacular, as it was in the middle ages wien
Latin was the language of the lettered classes and
of documents and writings of all kinds, But even
there its commoner application is, as elsew!
not to a language, but to a form of composition.
In English it has been almost invariably applied to
a certain sort of prose fiction, and, in a secondary
ROMANCES 775
i
sense, to the style and tone prevailing therein.
By ‘the romances,’ using the term specifically, we
ing
gyoerally mean the prose fictions which, as
a more common accomplishment, took the
place of the lays and Chansons de gestes (q.v.) of
the minstrels and trouvéres, and were in their
turn replaced by the novel. Of these the most im-
portant in every way are the so-called romances
of chivalry, which may be considered the legiti-
mate descendants of the chansons de gestes. The
chivalry romances divide naturally into three
families or groups: the British (which, perhaps,
would be more scientifically described as the Ar-
morican or the Anglo-Norman ), the French, and
the Spanish; the first having for its centre the
legend of Arthur and the Round Table; the second
formed round the legend of Charlemagne and the
Twelve Peers; and the third consisting mainly of
Amadis of Gaul followed by a long series of sequels
and imitations of one kind or another. In strict
chronological order the Charlemagne cycle should
stand first, for the Charlemagne legend was appar-
ently of an earlier formation than the Arthurian ;
but on the other hand the materials out of which
the Arthur legend — itself must of course
have been the older, and the prose romances which
either grew out of it or were p reg upon it are
for the most part of an earlier date than those be-
longing to the Charlemagne story.
he first ap ce of Arthur is in the history
of Nennius, where he is presented in a quasi-his-
torical shape, simply as the chosen leader of the
Britons in twelve successful battles fought with the
Saxons ; but it is in the Historia Regum Britannia
of Geoffrey of Monmouth (1140) that he first
appears as the hero of a connected story. Geoffrey,
in fact, may be fairly claimed as the founder of
the Arthurian legend. Whatever his materials may
have been or whatever the source from which he
obtained them, he contrived to give them ‘un
caractére chevaleresque et. courtois,’ to use the
words of M. Gaston Paris, which was al ther
foreign to them when they came to his hands, and
thus succeeded in apr qgukong a picture of Arthur
and his court which at once proved acceptable to
the age in which he lived. It is this character,
impressed upon the Arthur legend by Geoffrey,
that led Cervantes to regard it as the fountain-
head of chivalry and chivalry romance, as he does
in Don Quixote (part 1, chap. xiii.). The story,
however, as Geoffrey left it, is little more than the
foundation of the structure raised by his successors
a century later. Whether we accept in its entirety
or in part only his account of the ‘very ancient
book’ from Brittany which he professed to have
translated, or hold that his authorities were simply
Nennius, Welsh traditions, and Breton lays and
tales, it is clear that his sources of information
conveyed no hint of the Round Table or of the
Grail, to say nothing of Lancelot and other per-
sonages who have come down to us as part and
parcel of the Arthurian story. The first reference
to the Round Table is in the Brut of Wace (1155),
which is in fact an amplified metrical version of
Geoffrey’s history, and from the words used—‘ Fist
Artus la roonde table, dont Breton dient mainte
fable ’"—we are left to suppose that it was through
Breton tradition that it found its way into the
stery. By some it has been conjectured that in
the Round Table we have only an imitation of
the Peers of the Charlemagne legend, but in truth
the two institutions represented two totally dis-
tinct ideas. The peers were simply a fraternity,
‘xii. cumpaignuns,’ as the Chanson de Roland
calls them, bound together by mutual affection
alone, with no ulterior aim or object, and entirely
uninfluenced by the meaty he Round Table,
on the other hand, was a knightly fellowship in which
the bond of union was the pursuit of chivalrous
adventures and ‘deeds of worship,’ of which the
king was the head, and by which he was ‘ upborne’
and the quiet and rest of his realm insur The
distinction deserves notice, for it is characteristic
of the difference between the two legends and the
romances that represent them. The Arthurian
stories were knightly and courtly, their authors
were courtiers, sometimes knights—if we may trust
the statements of early editors, they were written
to order at the instance of magnates, among whom
Henry II. and Henry III. or RES are named,
and at any rate were obviously addressed to what
would now be called the aristocratic section of
society. With the Carlovingian it was very
different ; the chansons de gestes from which they
were derived were made for and sung to no one class
in particular, and it is manifest that the selection
for translation into prose was always governed by
considerations of xopelse interest. Hence the phe-
nomenon noticed y more than one observer, that
the Arthurian stories have never become in the
strict sense of the word popular in any age or
country, while the Carlovingian have enjoyed a
wide-spread popularity, and in some instances con-
tinued to hold their own as popular stories down to
the present day. Mr J. A. Symonds observes that
in comet A the Arthurian stories, though relished by
the cultured classes, never took the fancy of the
people at large in the same way as the Carlo-
vingian ; and in Spain the romances and ballads
that treat of Arthur are few and meagre; while
the Charlemagne literature is extensive and rich,
and the History of Charlemagne and the Twelve
Peers is still a current chap-book in high request.
A more obscure question is how the Holy Grail
came to be linked to the Arthurian story. There
ean be no doubt that Celtic tradition and myth-
ology present sufficient analogies to justify a
theory that the idea of the Grail is a purely
Celtic one which may be traced back to
times. But none of these analogues, not Fionn’
healing cup or the mystie basin which figures
in Peredur, can be in any true sense called s
Grail. The essence of the Arthurian Grail lies
in its character of a Christian relic, and the very
name su ts that the conception as it is there
presen to us was an Anglo-Norman one. It is
very penal no doubt, that Celtic tradition may
have had a share in shaping the conception, but
that is all that can be safely said. Some little
light, perhaps, is thrown on the question by the
curious coincidence between the book presented in
a vision in the year 717, which Robert de Borron
(circa 1190) sets up as the prime authority for his
Sainct Greal, and the vision in the same year in
which the Grail itself was seen by a British hermit,
as recorded by Helinand in 1204, The return of
the first Crusaders stimulated that enthusiasm for
relics of the Passion of which we have a proof in
the Sacro Catino at Genoa and its rivals. A very
natural consequence would be an eagerness to dis-
cover the hiding-place of the true catino, and this,
when the Round Table idea had been once imported
into the Arthurian story, would furnish the ‘deed
of worship’ par excellence necessary to its constitu-
tion, while an equally natural consequence would
be that the poets in working out the idea would
avail themselves of any floating traditions of mystic
vessels endowed with miraculous properties which
could be pressed into their service. Arthur him-
self has, no doubt, been treated in the same fashion.
Hero-worship is almost always accompanied by
annexation. The Charlemagne legend is largely
made up of fragments that one belong to
Charles Martel, Pepin, and Charles the Bald. ven
in the comparatively modern case of the Cid, one
of the most famous exploits, the unseating of the
776
KUMANCES
French ambassador, is in reality the property of
the lth-century Conde de Cifuentes. It would
be strange if so remote a figure as Arthur's did
not show — of some such process; but even
if we find there, as Professor Rhys holds, traces
of the culture hero, or of the solar myth, the
uestion of his personality cannot be said to be
thereby affected. It would be almost as unreason-
able to treat him as a purely mythical being on
such grounds, as to deny Sheridan’s existence
because jokes attributed to him are to be found in
early editions of Joe Miller. There is very little
certainty connected with the construction of the
Arthurian story. It seems plain that the History
of the Grail, which properly should precede the
Quest, was in reality a later composition ; and the
respective shares of Chretien de Troyes and Robert
de Borron in the Grail, Perceval, and Lancelot are
pretty clearly defined. But in most other respects
the Arthurian cycle deserves the title M. Gaston
Paris applies to it of ‘dédale inextricable.’ In no
ease, as Mr Alfred Nutt says, do we possess a
rimary form; all the versions that have come
Some to us presuppose something earlier; all is
uncertainty, the order in which the component
parts were produced, the sourees from which they
were derived, the authors to whom they are
attributable, the relationships of the various ver-
sions and forms one to another; and research
seems ever to reveal new nebuli and discover fresh
clusters of difficulties. Even on the question as to
whether the pri form was in verse, as analogy
would lead us to expect, we are for the most part
left to conjecture. That Breton popular poetry
may have contained the germs of Tristram, Per-
ceval, and Lancelot is no doubt a probability ; but
of one thing at least we may be certain, that verit-
able creations like the Lancelot of the Arthur story
could have had no place in the simple naive dais of
which we have examples in the translated speci-
mens of Marie de France. The stones may have
come from a Celtic quarry, but the building was
Anglo-Norman.
It was inevitable that the Arthur stories proper
should be followed by romances claiming a mt
mentary or an introductory character, such as Meli-
adus, Guiron le Courtois, Artus de Bretagne, and
Perceforest, but it would be an injustice to treat
these, as Dunlop has done, as though they were legi-
timate members of the Arthurian cycle, nor have
they been admitted into it by the compilers or
arrangers who have now and then attempted to
present it in a consecutive shape. Facile princeps
of these is our own Sir Thomas Malory, whose
work is, as Dr Sommer says in his masterly edition,
‘by far the best — to the Arthur romances in
their entirety.’ Malory’s judgment may not be,
perhaps, invariably impeccable. He has not always
chosen the best or most poetical form, and he has
left unculled many beauties of the old MSS. But
this may not have been so much his fault as that
of the materials with which he had to content
himself. Of his general good taste and literar
skill there can be as little question as of his English
which has made his book one of the classics of his
language. Malory, furthermore, as the exhaustive
yeseareans of Dr Sommer show, is the sole authority
for portions of the series, in particular the story of
Gareth in the seventh book. See ArTHUR, GRAIL.
In the romances of the Charlemagne cycle we
stand on much firmer ground. It is true that we
know even less of the authors than in the case of
the Arthur stories, but on the other hand the
whole process of production lies plain to view.
The starting-point of the legend is undoubtedly
the disaster of Roncesvalles, and the Song of
Roland—not, of course, the Chanson de Roland
that has come down to us, but some older form, the
existence and nature of which are matters of infer-
ence—may be taken as the foundation of the whole
Charlemagne cycle of romance (see ROLAND). Of
this, apparently, we have a prose version at the
end of the Latin history of Charlemagne, which
pretends to be the work of his contemporary the
Archbishop Turpin, Nothing was farther from
the intention of the writers than to produce a
the head
romance ; but oe the romances, or
of them, their work must be placed. About its
intention there can be no mistake. By Charle-
magne’s example it points out the advan here |
and hereafter of serving the church liberally and
zealously, endowing holy shrines, encouraging pil-
grimages, converting the heathen or exterminating
them when unconvertible. It records a military
pilgrimage to Compostella made by Charles at
the call of St James, and is plainly the work of
different hands. M. Gaston Paris believes the
first five chapters to have been written by a monk
of Compostella about 1050; but it is not
obvious why a Spaniard who had his own nati
legend of Compostella should have gone out of his
way to make a patron of a foreigner and an invader.
The remainder, he thinks, was written by a monk
of Vienne between 1109 and 1119. The book was
soon translated into French, and became the chief
source of the story of Roland and Roncesvalles, for
which it was believed to be the prime authority until
the discovery of the chanson proved the ex
of a common ancestor. The influence of the latter
was mainly through the chansons de gestes of which
it was in most cases the model. Of these the number
is large. M. Leon Gautier’s list enumerates above
a hundred pas to the Charlemagne cycle,
and this of course on Fae osteo survivors. “Only
a few, however, gave birth to prose romances. The
Roland had been forestalled by the Turpin history,
and of the others the majority were in interest too
local, not sufficiently ee or for other reasons.
unsuitable for prose. 1e story of Ogier le Danois
(who possibly had nothing to do with Denmark,
but was mere’ Begrree of the Ardenne-mark) was.
too famous to be left in the verse of Adenes le Roy;
the traditions of the struggles between the sove-
reign and his vassals in Aquitaine, not so much in
Charlemagne’s time as in Pepin’s, lent an interest
to Renaud de Montauban, the Rinaldo of Italiamw
try, but best known as the hero of the Four
Sons of Aymon (q.v.), &@ romance that has prob-
ably never been out of print since the introduction
of printing; and similar reasons, more or less.
strong, influenced the selection of Doon de May-
ence, lave,
et to it the early account of biyrritees
»y Vincent de Beauvais, and added the coneluding
ROMANCES
ROMAN EMPIRE 17
sometimes linked with the Charlemagne cycle;
Cleomades, or Clamades, where Cervantes found
the magie wooden horse, which by a lapse of
memory he assigns to Pierre of Provence and
Magalona, another romance of the same kind;
Partenopeus of Blois; Melusina; The Knight of
the Swan, in some respects the most interesting of
all, and curious as an illustration of the growth of a
romance. Originally a folklore legend of Brabant,
the source of Lohengrin, the story was turned into
a poem and incorporated in the series on Godfrey
de Bouillon, who was made a descendant of the
Knight of the Swan; then it was annexed by Vin-
cent de Beauvais for his Speculum Historiale, from
which it rey into the shape of a romance, and
was translated into English at the instigation of
Edward, Duke of Buckingham, who claimed to be
one of the knight’s descendants.
Cervantes correctly claims Amadis de Gaula as
the founder of Spanish chivalry romance, though
he may have been in error as to its being the first
work of the kind printed in Spain ; tiie, Valencian:
Tirant lo Blanch must have preceded it. It was long
held to be of Portuguese origin on the bare state-
ment of Goriez de Azurara that it was entirely the
work of Vasco de Lobeira ; but there is ample proof
that an Amadis was extant in Spain at least as
early as the middle of the 14th century, very prob-
ably as early as 1300, but at any rate before Sets
was born. Southey, in whose time the evidence
was not fortheoming, may be excused for asserting
the Portuguese origin of the romance; but it is
strange to find M. Gaston Paris still describing it
as ‘portugais puis espagnol aux XV° et Xvi
siécles.’ hether this Amadis was in verse or in
prose is uncertain ; we only know from one witness
that it was in three books, and Garci de Montalvo,
who is responsible for the existing Amadis, merely
claims to have corrected three books, which pre-
vious editors and scribes had left in a corrupt state,
and to have added a fourth. Nor is it a certainty
that it was of purely Spanish origin. The influence
of the Arthurian romances is manifest, but what is
far more suspicious is the absence of Spanish colour
and indications of Spanish paren ; the names
are almost all akin to those of the Arthur stories
the fay Urganda is a distinctly Celtic creation, and
the scene throughont is laid on Arthurian ground,
Wales, England, Brittany, or Normandy, a choice
not easily explained in a romancer whose business
was to interest Spanish hearers or readers. But
whether or not the original may have been some
northern French story, it certainly was not, as has
been sometimes suggested, Amadas et Ydoine in
which there is no more resemblance to Amadis
than there is in Aucassin and Nicolette.
The earliest known edition of the Amadis (q.v.)
is of 1508, but this cannot be the first; it is too
near the date of other romances obviously inspired
by it and born of its success, and it is evident
that it was finished shortly after the fall of
Granada in 1492. The date is significant in its
bearing on the curious phenomenon of the sudden
outburst of a chivalry romance literature in Spain,
just as the middle ages were drawing to an end
and other nations were beginning to put away
chivalry among the bric-a- of bygone days.
But in Spain it marked the close of a tp ge of
seven centuries and the end of a nation life of
sustained excitement. Under the new order of
things, the triple despotism of crown, church, and
In ition, the nobles and minor nobility were left
with a superabundance of leisure on their hands, a
condition, as every seaside librarian knows, always
favourable to the circulation of fiction, so that
Montalvo could not have chosen a better time for
his venture. But it would be unjust in the
extreme to deny to the merits of the Amadis their
share in the creation of Spanish chivalry romance.
In almost every respect, story, incidents, characters,
and human interest, it will bear comparison with
the best of its predecessors, and as a romance of
chivalry, pure and simple, it has no equal. In
this lay the secret of its success. For Spain chivalry
romance had a reality unknown elsewhere. Amadis
came to a generation which had seen round Fer-
dinand and Isabella knights who could match any
of Arthur’s or Charlemagne’s in exploits. Coming
at such a time it is no wonder that Amadis was
followed by a cry for more, and that more was
peompay supplied. But Esplandian, Florisando,
isuarte, Amadis of Greece were of a very differ-
ent vintage. It was by Feliciano de Silva, the
object of Cervantes’ special detestation, that the
work of continuation was chiefly carried on. He
was a clever man, with a facile pen, and if not
imagination, at least invention in abundance, but
his greatest gift was his intuitive perception of the
tastes of his readers. He perceived that it was not
so much recreation as excitement they wanted, and
that so far from objecting to rant, Scmhes and
extravagance, the more they got the better they
were ple; He seems to have heen the first
author who reduced writing nonsense to a system,
and also the first who made a handsome fortune
by his writings. The professed continuations
formed, however, only a small portion of the
romances, more or less in imitation of the Amadis,
and infected by the style of Feliciano de Silva,
the Felixmartes, Belianises, Olivartes, which con-
tinued to flow from the press until the long line
ended with Policisne de Boecia, two years before
Don Quixote was sent to the press.
With Don Quixote, fittingly, the history of
romances as a branch of fiction comes to a close.
There are, indeed, two other groups that claim the
title, the Pastorals, and those sometimes called
the Heroic, an epithet better deserved by the
readers who were bold enough to face entertain-
ment in such a formidable shape. But to these
quite as much space as their merits entitle them
to has been already given (see NOVELS).
See Paulin Paris, Les Romans du Table Ronde (1868-
77); Gaston Paris, La Littérature Francaise au Moyen
Age (2d ed. 1890), Histoire poetique de aly
(1865), De Psuedo Turpino : Hist. Caroli Magni (1865) ;
Oskar Sommer, Morte Darthur (3 vols. 1889); A. Nutt,
Studies on the Legend of the Holy Grail (1888); Pro-
fessor Rhys, Zhe Arthurian Leyend (1891); G. Paris and
J. Ulrich, Merlin, Roman en Prose d’apres le MS. appt.
a@ M. Huth (Société des Anciens Textes Frangaises,
1886); W. F. Skene, Zhe Four Ancient Books of
Wales (1868) ; J. 8. Stuart Glennie, Arthurian Localities
(1868); Birch-Hirschield, Die Sage vom Gral (1877);
Herz, Sage vom Parzival und dem Gral (1882); E.
Martin, Zur Gral (1880); H. Zimmer (on the
Breton sources of the Arthur Legend —Gdttingische
Gelehrte Anzeigen, Oct. 1890); L. Gautier, Les Epopées
Frungaises (1878-82); Melzi, Bibliografia det Romanzi
Italiani (1865); Gayangos, Libros de Caballerias (Bib
de Autores Espafioles, vol. xi.); Mily a Fontanals, Poesia
heroico-popular Castellana (1874); Turpini Historia
Caroli Magni, Texte Revue par F. Castets (1880); Ward,
Catal. of Romances in the Dept. of MSS., British Museum
(1883); Quaritch, Catal. of Komances of Chivalry (1882) ;
Early English Text Society’s publications; Romania ;
many papers by Gaston Paris ; the section on Literature
in the article Spain ; George Saintsbury, Zhe Flowrish-
ing of Romance (1897); W. P. Ker, Epic and Romance
(1897 ).
Roman de Rou. See WACcE.
Roman Empire, Hoty (more fully in German,
Heiliges Rémisches Reich Deutscher Nation), the
official denomination of the German empire from
962 down to 1806, when Francis II. of epebarg
resigned the imperial title. The Western Roman
empire came to an end in 476 A.D. ; Charlemagne
sought to reconstitute it when he was crowned
778 ROMANES
ROMANS
emperor at Rome by Pope Leo IIL, in 800. But
the reconstituted empire fell again into fragments
and chaos, till Otho sy Great —— in ane
ing a great monarc in, and was crown
emperor by Pope John XI at Rome in 962.
Thenceforward for more than eight centuries there
was an unbroken succession of German princes
claiming and in a measure exercising the powers
and privileges of Roman emperors, The name of
‘Roman emperor’ was carefully retained ; ‘ Holy’
was added to signify that the empire was now
Christian ; and ‘of the German nation’ was some-
times appended to indicate the new nationality
that dominated over the old imperial realms. The
emperor was the official h of the Christian
world, the temporal colleague and rival of the
po The new German empire (since 1871) calls
itself simply German, and has ee all claim to
be either ‘Roman’ or ‘Holy.’ GERMANY,
Vol. V. p. 180; CourcH History; and Bryce’s
apy monograph, The Holy Roman Empire (new
1889).
Romanes, GeEoRGE JOHN, naturalist, was born
at Kingston, on 20th May 1848, and after a
private education in London and on the Continent
entered Cains College, Cambridge, and uated
in 1870 with natural science honours. hile still
at the university he formed a friendship with
Darwin, and he has powerfully reinforced his
master’s arguments in his Croonian, Fullerian, and
other lectures, and in his various works—Animal
Intelligence (1881); Scientific Evidences of Organic
Evolution (1881); Me Evolution in Animals
(1883); Jelly-fish, Star-fish, and Sea-urchins (1885) ;
Mental Evolution in Man (1888); Darwin and
after Darwin (1892); Examination of Weismannism
(1893; see WEISMANN). This most fertile English
writer on the theories and philosophy of modern
biol died 23d May 1 is posthumous
on Religion, edited by Canon Gore,
showed that, once a defiant agnostic, he had become
almost, if not altogether, a Christian; and in this
irit he had before his death revised his Candid
‘zamination of Theism (1878). He was F.R.S.
and LL.D. See his Life and Letters by his wife
(1896), and his Poems (1896).
Romanesque Architecture, the debased
style which succeeded Koman architecture from
about the time of Constantine (350 A.p.) till the
revival in the llth century. Roman Architecture
(q.v.), itself a transitional style, fades gradually
into the Romanesque, When Constantine gave the
Christians freedom of worship, he gave architecture
a new start; and noble buildings resembling the
Roman Basilica (q.v.) were built as churches all
over the empire. These consisted of three- or
five-aisled halls—the aisles separated by rows
of columns. In Rome the columns, entablatures,
and other ornaments were frequently taken from
the ruins of ancient buildings which abounded
there. The new style is therefore’closely allied to
the ancient one in the imperial city ; but in Ravenna,
Jerusalem, Provence, and the remoter districts,
where few ancient remains existed, a simpler and
ruder copy of the ancient work is found. There is
always, however, a certain resemblance to the old
forms which distinguishes the Romanesque from
the round-arched Gothie which succeeded it. The
piers along the aisles are always single columns,
generally with caps intended to be Corinthian,
and wide arches; the aisles are wide, with open
wooden roof; and there are remnants of entab-
latures, mouldings, &e., which recall the ancient
Roman work, The early Christians also derived
their round churches from the Romans. They were
robably originally tombs, copied from such build-
wigs as the Minerva Medica (see RomMAN ARCHI-
TECTURE), and were the most sacred places, where
the burial-service was said, and the sacraments
administered. Hence they afterwards became
Baptisteries (q.v.), and were finally absorbed into
the church (see RHENISH ARCHITECTURE), which
then contained within itself everything connected
with the Christian service.
In Rome there are still some thirty basilicas, and
the Romanesque style may be said never to have
died ont there. As we
recede from the centre
rea _ its erage
ually weaken, an
aoe the North-
ern Gothic style. Thus,
in Lombardy and Pro-
vence it was super-
seded by the Lombard
(q-v-) and Romance
styles in the llth and
12th centuries; while
in Byzantium and the
East it gave way to
the Byzantine style
about the time of Jus-
tinian. Amongst the
finest examples remain-
ing are St Paul’s (see
BASILICA) and Sta
Maria Maggiore at
Rome, and at Ravenna
St Apollinare ; the interiw
decoration of which last (see fig.) is very beautiful.
The mosaics of the apse, the painted walls, and the
inlaid pavements of the Romanesque churches are
amongst their finest features.
always excel.
In Tuscany there is a late form of Romanesque;
of which the cathedrals at Pisa and Lucca, San
Miniato at Florence, and many churches in thosw
cities are examples. They are intermediate speci
mens, built during the 11th century, when the citie
became prosperous, and have a certain amount of
Gothic feeling but, although beautiful in coloureil
decoration, they have not the simple grandeur af
the ane basilicas ; and, although more decorate
externally than these, they have not the bold and
purpose-like appearance of Gothic elevations.
See, besides the standard works on architecture, Okley,
Christian Architecture in Italy oa} aie His-
torical and Architectural Sketches (1876); The
Architecture of Provence and the Riviera (1888), by the
present writer, D. MacGibbon.
Romania, (1) the name given by the Vene-
tians to the eastern t of the Morea, whence the .
capital was called Napoli di Romania (see NAuP-
LIA).—(2) Roumelia (q.v.) was sometimes called
Romania. __
Roman Law. See Law, Cong, JusTINIAN.
Romano, Giulio. See Grutto.
Romanoff, House or. See Russta.
Romans, a town of France (dept. Drdme),
stands on the right bank of the Isére, 12 miles
by rail NE. of Valence. A bridge of the 9th
century connects it with Péage on the left bank.
Romans owes its — to an abbey, founded in
837 by St Bernard, Bishop of Vienne. Silk fabrics,
shoes, and hats are manufactured. Pop. (1872)
9893 ; (1886) 12,822; (1891) 14,720.
Romans, THE EpistLe TO THE, described by
. Luther as an absolutely perfect summary of the
oa he (absolutissima epitome evangelii), was written
vy the apostle Paul (q.v.) in late winter or early
spring of 58-59 A.D., at Corinth, while he was
living in the house of Gaius, and just before his
setting out for Judea with the money that had
heen collected at his instance in Macedonia and
colour they
Achaia for the poor of Jerusalem. Apart from
ROMANS
ROMANTICISM 779
chap. xvi., which stands by itself, the epistle con-
sists of two portions, marked off respectively by
the doxol in xi. 36, and by the benodinttes in
xv. 33. The first portion, which is mainly doc-
trinal, in falls into two sections—i.-viiil. and
ix.—xi.—in the former of which the Pauline doctrine
of justification by faith is explained. The need
for a justification through grace and received by
faith alone, if there is to be effectual justification
at all, is elaborately shown, and the doctrine is
vindicated, historically and experimentally, against
various conceivable objections, first from the re-
ligious, and then from the moral point of view.
In the second division of the first portion the dis-
re. a pal and neutralisation of the divinely
towed privileges of Judaism apparently involved
in the preaching of this doctrine without restriction
among the Gentiles are considered. The second, or
ractical, part of the epistle deals with points of
hristian morality and problems of Christian toler-
ance.
The epistle is addressed to the Christians in
Rome. ho these were—whether they were Jews
or whether they were Gentiles—and how they had
come to be Christians, can only be conjectured.
It is impossible to infer much about them or their
circumstances from the epistle itself, for the church
in Rome was not one with which the apostle, at
the time of hey was personally acquainted.
Most probably he did not exactly know in what
numbers or proportions the Jewish-Christian and
Gentile-Christian elements existed within it; but
he was warranted in assuming (as he seems to
have done) that it contained both, and that the
controversies with which he had become only too
familiar elsewhere might break out at any moment
in Rome also. The epistle gives no support to the
tradition that the church in Rome had been founded
personally by Peter; but doubtless it had relations
with Jerusalem, and so may well be believed to
have owed something to his indirect influence at
least. The immediate object of the apostle Paul
in writing to the Romans when he did is easily
explained by the outward and inward cireum-
stances through which, as we know, he was at
the time passing. Having completed his preach-
ing in the eastern part of the empire ‘from Jeru-
pm to Illyricum’ (xv. 19), he was purposing to
extend his apostolic activity among the Gentiles
westward as far as to Spain; and with a view to
his success in the new field it was only natural
that he should desire, so far as he could, to obviate
possible misconceptions of his teaching, and to
prepare for it a friendly and sympathetic reception
in the metropolis of the world.
The Pauline authorship of the epistle as a whole
has never been called in question ; indeed it is one
of the four canonical epistles which, along with
the Apocalypse, were regarded by Baur as the
enly quite indubitable relics we of the
apostolic age. Baur, it is true (following Marcion),
rejected chaps. xv. and’ xvi., regarding them as
ailditions of the 2d century. His arguments, which
were based chiefly on what he conceived to be the
too conciliatory character of certain expressions
(such as xv. 8, 14, 15,19), have not found general
acceptance, and their force is disallowed even b;
some of his own followers (Hilgenfeld, Schenkel,
Pfleiderer). At the same time there is some
evidence, both internal and external, which in-
dicates that these chapters are somewhat loosely
attached to the main body of the epistle ; in some
ancient copies it closed with xiv. 23, immediately
followed by xvi. 25-27 (see Revised Version, margin).
A view widely accepted by scholars of various
schools is that they consist of a postscript, or post-
scripts, or (the view of Lightfoot) that at some
Sated after the original composition and trans-
mission of the inte the apostle, in order to
adapt it for a wider circulation, re-issued it with
omission of the last two chapters, as also of the
word Rome at the beginning. Schultz in 1829,
following up a hint of Semler (1769), suggested
that xvi. 1-20 was really a fragment of a Pauline
epistle to the Ephesians, and this suggestion, with
various modifications, has been accepted by ve
many critics, among whom may be mention
Reuss, Renan, and B. Weiss.
See the introductions of Reuss (6th ed. 1887), B.
Weiss (2d ed. 1889; Eng. trans.), and Holtzmann (2d ed.
1886; this account is the fullest); and the commentaries
by Philippi, Jowett, Godet, Gifford (in Speaker’s Com-
mentary), Moule (in Cambridge Bible), Liddon (1893),
Lipsius, and Sanday and Headlam (1895).
Romansch (Ger. Churwalsch, from the town
of Chur), a name applied to the Romance dialect,
or rather agglomeration of cognate dialects, spoken
from the Grisons to Friuli on the Adriatic. Ascoli
includes all varieties under the common name of
Ladino, although strictly that term applies to the
dialect of the Engadine, as Rumonsch 5 pate to that
of the upper Rhine valley. There are dictionaries
by Conradi (Zur. 1820) and Carisch (Chur, 1821).
See also J. Ulrich’s Rhdtoromanische Chrestomathie
(1882-83) and Rhdtoromanische Texte (1883-84).
~ Romanticism (through the adjective roman-
tic, from romant or romaunt, ‘romance ;’ see
ROMANCES), a movement in feeling and thought
that has transformed the literature and art of most
nations, has been defined by Mr Theodore Watts
as ‘the renascence of the spirit of wonder in poetry
and art.’ It was a revolt against pseudo-classicism ;
a return from the monotonous commonplace of
everyday life to the quaint and unfamiliar world of
old romance ; a craving for the novel, original, and
adventurous; an emphasising of the interesting,
the ay ae pe the ‘romantic,’ at the expense, jf
need be, of correctness and elegance, and tha
current canons of ‘good taste.’ Deep humour,
strong pathos, profound pity are amongst its notes.
Romanticism is not necessarily limited to any one
period; there are romantic elements in Homer,
ZEschylus, Sophocles; the poetry of Dante is
eminently romantic when contrasted with ancient
classical gear as a whole; but though what is
romantic for one generation tends to become classic
—and so tame, though not really insipid—for a later
one, and though the romantic is almost inevitably
one side of a truly artistic temperament, there are
certain epochs that are specially romantic, and cer-
tain writers in those epochs more romantic than their
fellows. The 18th century was notoriously classic
in ideal, or pseudo-classic—conventional, pedantic,
academic; and the revolt against spiritual ennui
which followed is the romantic movement par excel-
lence. The movement arose under various conditions
in the several countries, had a somewhat varying
character and course, and sometimes tended towards’
the merely crude and grotesque. In England, the
fountainhead 6f the movement which culminated
in the beginning of the 19th century, it may be
traced from the Percy Ballads and Chatterton,
from Cowper and Blake and Burns, to Scott and
Byron, Wordsworth and Coleridge, Keats and Ros-
setti. In Germany there were tendencies in that
direction in Lessing, in Schiller, in Goethe, as well
as in the philosophy of Schelling, and the ‘Sturm
und Drang’ period was largely romantic in its
temper; but it was Novalis who was the prophet
of ‘romanticism,’ and among the other representa-
tives of the school were the Schlegels, Tieck,
Kleist, Fouqué, and Hoffmann. In France begin-
nings are found in Rousseau, in Chateaubriand,
and others; but the great chief of French roman-
ticism is Victor Hugo. Other French romantics are
Lamartine, Dumas, Gautier, George Sand, Flaubert,
780 ROMANY
ROME
Miirger. The romantic movement in the three
countries is discussed in the articles on the literature
of each (ENGLISH LireraTuRE, Vol. IV. p. 375;
Germany, Vol. V. p. 188; France, Vol. IV. p.
789). The other countries were more or less moved
by the same spirit; see also the articles on the
literatures of the principal countries. The influence
of Perey’s Reliques is traced in the article BALLAD.
In Germany romanticism included with the love
of the medieval an affection for the oriental ; in
religion it led some of its notable representatives
to Catholic ideals and into the Catholie Church ;
and in politics it was associated with reactionary
conservatism, The aims of the romanties in paint-
ing are defined at PArnTING, Vol. VII. p. 700; see
also PrRE-RAPHAELITISM. In music Weber has
been called the ‘creator of romantic opera ;’ but
see OpeRA, Vol. VII. p. 608. Berlioz is regarded
as the type of French romanticism in music.
See (under Idea) IpgaLisM, REALISM; Pater in Mac-
millan’s Magazine, vol. xxxv. ; for , the works
by Julian Schmidt (1848) Haym (1871), Brandes (1873);
for France, Stendhal, ine et mee gy (1823);
Gautier, Histoire du Romantisme (4th ed. 1884); an
many essays by Sainte-Beuve and Schérer,
Romany. See Gypsies.
Rome, the = of the modern kin
ees A stands on the Tiber, about 15 miles
mouth.
om of
m its
Roman legend ascribed the foundation of
753 B.C. But reeent explorations have pro
the site was inhabited in the neolithic and
bronze period. The existence of a town with
considerable population at a time long before the
date ascribed by tradition to the f m of the
city has been established by the discovery in 1874
of a cemetery on the Esquiline, near the railway
station, which contained gy lhe the type usually
assigned to the 9th or 10th century B.c. In the
time of the kings (753-510 B.c.) the city oceupied
seven hills, whose summits rise from 80 to 120 feet
above the river and the intervening valleys. These
hills are believed to have been formed by subaerial
erosion of beds of soft tufa previously erupted by
submarine volcanoes. Of these seven hills five—
the Palatine, the Capitoline, the Aventine, the
Celian, and the Esquiline—being more or less
poletets rte —— Montes; and two, the
uirinal an iminal, pe. mere “spurs ju
out from the tableland to the east, Pere! called
Colles. The Esquiline, however, is properly rather
a Collis than a Mons, being connected with the
tableland by a narrow neck. The Palatine and the
Capitoline, being the most defensible sites, were
doubtless the first to be occupied, and this
with the Roman legend, which makes the Palatine
the site of the primitive city founded by Romulus,
the Capitoline being occupied by a rival Sabine
the city to Romulus, at a date to
Prd Sono peral has
Map of Ancient Rome :
The positions of a few of the more important modern places of interest are also indi
italic and the modern in Roman letters.
settlement which, under Tatins the Sabine king,
soon extended to the Quirinal, a contiguous spur
of the tableland, separated only by a narrow valley
from the Capitoline. We are also told that the
Aventine, which after the Palatine and the Capi-
toline was plainly the most desirable site, was
occupied by a colony of Latins in the time of
ted ; the ancient names being given in
Ancus Martius, the fourth k Under Servins
Tullius, the sixth king, the Esquiline, together with
the Viminal, which is a mere spur of the Esquiline,
is said to have been added to the city. These
legends conform to the probabilities of the case.
The settlement on the Palatine attributed to
Romulus was fortified at a very early period,
ROME
781
possibly about the date assigned to the foundation
of the city. Remains of this earliest wall have
been discovered in the course of recent excavations.
The steep slopes were scarped, and a retaining
wall, consisting of large stones fitted together with-
out mortar, was built up from the base of the slope,
rendering the hill almost impregnable. The Pala-
tine was thus made into a sort of artificial plat-
form, rising some 100 feet above the surrounding
valleys, and was called the ‘square city’ (Roma
). In the time of the later or Etruscan
ings at least five of the settlements on the seven
hills had been surrounded by separate defences.
These fortified hills, with the marshy hollows be-
tween them, were then enclosed by a huge rampart
or agger of earth, faced with an exterior wall of
unmortared “rpg § which is still in one place 50
feet in height, with an inner retaining wall of
similar construction. Outside the rampart was an
enormous fosse, which from recent excavations
appears to have been in some places 30 feet in
depth and 100 feet in breadth, from which the
materials for the agger were obtained. In the
construction of this rampart the older walls, which
ran along the crests of the Palatine and Capitoline
hills, were utilised, as is indicated by the fact_that
the agger can only be traced where it crossed the
intervening valleys, or where it protected the spurs
where ove ot Cg the tableland. The agger,
n probably by Tarquinius Priseus, has re-
ceived the name of Servius Tullius, by whom prob-
ably the portion which included the Qnirtaad, aad
the Esquiline was ae erp A considerable
fragment of this part of the agger may be con-
veniently examined in the goods yard of the rail-
way station. An excellent cross section is ex
on the northern crest of the Quirinal in the Via di
S. Nicola di Tolentino, and a further extension
may be traced in the gardens of the Barberini and
Colonna palaces. A very peste fragment may
also be seen in the valley below the southern slope
of the Aventine.
For 800 years, till the reign of the Emperor
Aurelian, the Servian agger formed the only
defence of the city. The wall which bears the
name of Aurelian is to a great extent identical
with the present walls. It enclosed the suburbs
which had grown up beyond the Celian, the
Esquiline, and the Quirinal, and ineluded two
additional hills, the Pincian, and part of the Jan-
iculum, as well as the low-lying ground near the
Tiber called the Campus Martius, which now forms
the busiest and most densely pray part of the
modern city. The Aurelian Wall, as it is called,
was begun by Anrelian in 271 A.D., and completed
by the Emperor Probus in 280. It was restored
and partially rebuilt by Honorius, and repaired by
Belisarius. It is 12 miles in circuit, The Leonine
Wall, enclosing the Vatican Hill and the remainder
of the Janiculum, was built by Leo IV. in 848. In
1527 some additional space on the Vatican was en-
closed, and bastions to strengthen the weak parts
of the old wall were added. At the present time
ous suburbs have arisen to the east and north
ond the walls, while to the south extensive
within the wall are uninhabited. In 1888
no less than 1465 acres, chiefly on the Celian and
the Aventine, were occupied by vineyards, fields,
and gardens, while public gardens and squares
occupied 106 acres.
To the period of the kings belongs the Cloaca
Maxima, a huge arched sewer of Etruscan masonry,
which rained the marshy hollow between the
Capitoline, Palatine, and Esquiline hills. A por-
tion of this valley became the Forum Romanum
at once the market and the place of political
meeting for the Roman, Sabine, and Latin tribes,
who occupied the surrounding hills. The Cloaca
Maxima (q.v.), though the oldest and best known
of the sewers, is rivalled in magnitude by two
other ancient sewers which enter the Tiber nearly
at the same point. The so-called Mamertine
prison at the foot of the Capitol, now conse
crated as the subterranean church of §. Pietro in
Carcere, was a deep vaulted well from which, and
from the Tiber, the water-supply must have been
obtained during the regal period. hen Rome
was oo with water by aqueducts from the
Alban hills and the Apennines this well, perhaps
the most ancient structure in Rome, was converted
into a dungeon, in which state-prisoners, among
them Jugurtha and the Catiline conspirators, were
confined. That St Peter, by whose name the well
is known, was ever confined here is a mere legend,
of no authority or probability.
In the great aqueducts we have the most notable
remains of the Republican period. The oldest was
the Aqua Appia, constructed by Appius Claudius
Ceeus in 312 B.c., which brow ie water from
springs upwards of seven miles distant from the
city. The Anio Vetus, 43 miles long, was com-
menced in 273 B.c., and brought water from the
river Anio. The Agua Marcia, 62 miles in length,
was constructed in 144 B.c., and brought water
from the Alban hills at a level sufficiently high to
supply the Capitol. The Aqua Julia, the Aqua
Claudia, and the Anio Novus, constructions even
more gigantic, date from the imperial age. Alto-
gether there were fourteen of these aqueducts,
with an aggregate length of 351 miles. These
vast structures, striding on their huge arches
across the Campagna, and still bringing copious
supplies of water from the Apennines and the
Alban hills, are corgi the most striking features
of modern Rome. portion of one of these
ueducts was utilised in the construction of the
Aurelian Wall, the arches being simply built up
with masonry. The remains of the enormous
arches by which the water of the Aqua Claudia
was brought across the deep valley between the
Celian and the Palatine also exhibit the vast scale
of these erections (see AQUEDUCT).
In the time of the Republie the centre of the
public life of the city was the Forum Romanum, an
oblong space, containing about 2} acres, surrounded
by shops (tabernw). It was traversed by the Via
‘acra, « winding road, along which triumphal pro-
cessions passed to the Capitol. The great blocks
of lava with which this road was paved still, for
the most part, remain in situ. The Temple of
Vesta and the House of the Vestal Virgins stood
on one side of the Forum beneath the Palatine,
and on the other side was the Regia, or House
of the Pontifex Maximus. Close by were the
rostra, the beaks of captured Carthaginian ships,
between which was the platform from which orators
harangued the people. Farther to the north-east
was the Senate House, whose walls are preserved in
those of the church of 8. Adriano; the neighbour-
ing church of SS. Luca e Martina being constructed
out of the offices of the Senate House. Beyond the
Senate House stood the Treasury and the Tabu-
larium. In course of time the open space of the
Forum became surrounded and occupied with
stately public edifices, of which the most conspicu-
ous remains are the eight columns of the Temple
of Saturn, built in 491 B.c., the Colonnade of
the Twelve Great Gods (deorwm consentium), the
Temples of Concord, of Castor and Pollux, built
in 496 B.c., of Vesta, of Julius Czesar, of Vespasian,
and of Faustina. We see also the foundations of
the Triumphal Arch of Augustus, the vast ruins
of the Basilica Julia, the base of the column of
Phoeas, and the milestone from which all Roman
roads were measured. To the north of the Forum
stands the Triumphal Arch of Septimius Severus,
782
ROME
to the south the Arch of Titus (see Arcu). So
much of the open space of the Forum became
oceupied by great public monuments and edifices
that in the time of the emperors additional fora
were required. These were erected on the eastern
side of the Forum Romanum. Of the Forum
Julinm only three arches of the outer wall remain.
Of the Forum of Augustus a portion of the enclos-
ing wall, a massive archway, and three columns of
the Temple of Mars Ultor, which stood within the
Forum, now cleared of rubbish, are among the most
imposing and accessible remains of the architecture
of the early empire. Of the Forum of Nerva
two columns may be seen in the Via della Croce
The Forum Romanum at the present time.
Bianca. Of the Forum Pacis, built by Vespasian,
nothing remains except one massive fragment of a
wall. The most magnificent of the imperial fora
was the Forum of Trajan, which was reckoned one
of the wonders of the world. Within its walls
stood the Basilica Ulpia, which has been partly
excavated, so as to expose the bases of many of
the columns.
Beyond it stands the great Column of Trajan,
124 feet in height, with spiral bas-reliefs represent-
ing scenes from Trajan’s campaigns against the
Dacians, forming the most instructive historical
monument in Rome. We are shown the march
of a Roman army, the construction of bridges,
assaults on forts, and all the varied incidents of a
campaign, constituting a pictorial record contain-
ing some 2500 figures of men and horses, which
may compare with the Bayeux tapestry, or the
pictorial narratives of Egyptian campaigns which
are represented on the walls of Theban temples.
In the same style, but of inferior art, is the Column
of Marcus Aurelius in the Piazza Colonna on the
Corso, usually called the Antonine Column. It
bears reliefs representing scenes in the wars with
the Marcomanni.
On the western side of the Forum Romanum
rises the Palatine Hill, its summit covered with the
substructures of the Palaces of the Emperors, the
Houses of Augustus, of Tiberius, of Livia, of
Caligula, of Domitian, and of Hadrian. Most
magnificent of all is the Septizoninum or Palace
of Septimins Severus, rising in seven stages of
massive masonry, which form a southern exten-
sion of the Palatine Hill. Besides these imperial
palaces, the Palatine included a magnificent
Stadium the most perfect in existence, imperial
reception-halls, several temples, with garde’
baths, barracks for soldiers, and a basilica or hal
of justice, in which St Pan] must have pleaded
before the emperor. The Golden House of Nero,
built on the opposite side of the Forum, and oceu-
pying the greater portion of the Oppian Hill, was
demolished to make room for the Colosseum and
the Baths of Titus, so that practically nothing is
left save some substructures, the cisterns known as
the Sette Sale, and the base of the colossal statue
of Nero, which stood in front of the Golden House.
Of the numerous temples in Rome, of which there
are said to have been three hundred, the names,
and in many cases the sites, of
153 are known. The foundations
of the great Temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus may be traced in the
gardens of the Caffarelli Palace;
now the German embassy. Of
the temples which remain the
preservation is due in several
cases to their having been con-
verted into churches. The
columns in front of the chureh
of S. Lorenzo in Miranda, which
faces the Forum, formed part of
the Temple of Antoninus and
Faustina. Ten columns of the
Temple of Ceres are built into
the walls of S. Maria in Cos-
medin. §S. Maria del Sole is a
round temple formerly called the
Temple of Vesta, but now
believed to be the Temple of
Hercules Victor. Another
temple, mipponed Se tp he eae
os mys Peta is aed the
church of §S. Maria Egiziaca.
The church of 8S. Cosmo e
Damiano is the Temple of Sacra
Urbs, erected by the Emperor
Maxentius. The cella of the
Temple of Venus and Rome, built by Hadrian, is
preserved in the church of 8. Francesca Romana.
t is believed that the church of SS. Sergio e
Bacco was the Temple of Concord, that the church
of S. Stefano Rotondo was the Temple of Mater
Matuta, and that of S. Nicola was the Temple of
Piety; while Santa Maria sopra Minerva stands on
the ruins of a Temple of Minerva, 8. Maria Libera-
trice probably oceupies the site of a Temple of Vesta,
and the round church of 8. Teodoro was a temple
of unknown attribution. In 27 B.c. Agrippa built
a vast dome in front of the Therme which he
erected in the Campus Martius. It is called by
Pliny and other writers the Pantheon, and ma:
have served as a sort of entrance-hall to the
Therm. In 608 it was consecrated as the church
of S. Maria ad Martyres, and now = the
name of 8. Maria Rotonda, Of all the buildin
of ancient Rome none is more perfectly presery
The diameter of the dome, which is lighted only
by a central aperture in the roof, is larger than the
dome of St Peter’s; the walls, 19 feet in thickness,
have deep niches which were filled with statues of
deities ; and the floor is of Phrygian and Numidian
marbles, with porphyry and granite slabs.
The Therme of Agrippa, of which the Pantheon
is the only portion that remains, were the earliest
of the eleven great public baths which formed so
characteristic a feature of imperial Rome. The
Therme of Trajan, and the adjacent Therma of
Titus, built on the site of the Golden House of
Nero, occupied almost the whole of the Oppian
Hill; but of these baths little is left save the
foundations. On the slope of the Quirinal stood
the Thermw of Constantine. In the Piazza dei
ROME
783
Quirinale stand two colossal horses from the
therm which occupied the site. In the formation
of the steps which lead down from the piazza,
and of the Via Nazionale, substructures belonging
to these thermz were discovered, and portions of
their massive walls may be seen in the gardens of
the Colonna and Eoeiaes palaces. At the other
end of Rome, on the low und south of the
Cvelian, are the ruins of the Therm Antoniniane,
usually called the Baths of Caracalla, by whom
they were begun in 212 A.p., and completed by
Alexander Severus. They were built to accommo-
date 1600 bathers, and, after serving for centuries
as a quarry, are still the vastest, and in their
desolation perhaps the most impressive, of all the
ruins in Rome. The lofty walls are still standing,
and, as the halls have been cleared of rubbish, the
arrangements of Roman therme (see BATH) can
here t be studied. We see the Calidarium, the
as gentsren and a Frigidarium, with an Exedra
and a Stadium or racecourse. The outer wall
encloses a space of nearly 27 acres, of which
the baths themselves occupy more than 6 acres.
Even more magnificent were the Therme of Diocle-
tian, on the summit of the Quirinal, designed
to accommodate 3600 bathers. The semicircular
eurve which forms such a conspicuous feature in the
Piazza delle Terme was the exedra of these baths.
One of the smaller circular halls forms the church
of 8. Bernardo, while a portion of one of the great
vaulted central halls, with its columns of Egyptian
yranite, serving probably as the Tepidarium, was
“onverted by {dchelan lo into the magnificent
vthurch of 8. Maria degli Angeli. Another hall is
\wsed as a prison, another as a fencing-school, others
ow serve as barracks, stables, coach-houses, and
warehouses for timber, while the cloisters of a
(arthusian convent built out of the ruins are now
wonverted into a museum.
A large marshy plain, which now forms the most
densely ulated part of Rome, lay outside the
Servian Walls, extending from the foot of the
Capitoline and Quirinal hills to the Tiber. This,
being used for military’ exercises, was called the
Campus Martius. Towards the close of the re-
publican era this suburban plain began to be
utilised for the erection of places of public recrea-
tion, such as baths, theatres, and racecourses,
These were connected by the Porticoes, a net-
work of colonnades forming covered walks, serving
as a protection alike from the sunshine and the
rain, along which the citizens could stroll to the
various places of recreation and amusement. The
Campus Martius was traversed by the Flaminian
Way, ap —- represented by the modern
street called the Corso, which was bordered on
either side by the stately tombs of Roman nobles,
and spanned by the triumphal arch of Claudius
and by that of Mareus Aurelius, demolished in
1662. On these fields were built the Baths of
Agrippa and the Baths of Nero. Here was erected
the Theatre of Balbus and the vast Theatre of
Pompey, said to have contained seats for 40,000
spectators. Some of its substructures may be
seen behind the church of 8. Andrea della Valle.
Somewhat nearer to the Capitol was the Theatre of
Marcellus, of which a considerable portion still
stands, forming one of the most characteristic
examples of Roman architecture of the best period.
This theatre was begun by Julins Cesar, and
finished in the year 11 B.c. by Augustus, who
named it after his nephew Marcellus, the son of
Octavia. In the 11th century, like the Colosseum
and the Mausoleum of Hadrian, it was turned into
a fortress by the turbulent Roman nobles of the
Orsini family. The interior is now oceupied by
the Palazzo Orsini-Savelli, while the outer arches
are used as rag-shops and smithies.
In the same characteristic Roman style as the
Theatre of Marcellus, but of a more debased type,
is the great Flavian Amphitheatre, built for i -
torial exhibitions and for the combats of wild
beasts, which goes by the name of the Colosseum.
Commenced by Vespasian, it was dedicated by
Titus 80 A.D., and finished by Domitian. It is
built in the form of an ellipse, the longer diameter
measuring 613 feet and the shorter 510 feet. It
rises to a height of 160 feet, covering five acres of
und. In the middle ages it was used as a
ortress and afterwards as a quarry; but, though so
large a portion has been demolished, it constitutes
perhaps the most imposing monument of Roman
magnificence which is left (see AMPHITHEATRE).
The earlier amphitheatres were mostly of wood,
and have perished. The Piazza di Monte Citorio
on the Corso is believed to occupy the site of the
Amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus, erected in 31
B.C., the foundations having been found 88 feet
below the present surface of the street. At the
side of the’ church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme
are considerable remains of the Amphitheatrum
Castrense, which was utilised in the construction
of the Aurelian Wall, from which it projects,
forming a sort of semicircular bastion. Below was
the Cireus of Elagabalus, from which came the
Egy tian obelisk now in the Pincian Gardens,
1e oldest circus was the Cireus Maximus, in
the valley between the Palatine and the Aventine.
It is supposed to date from the regal period, but
was enlarged by Julius Cesar. It was about three
furlongs in length and one in breadth, nearly the
size and shape of Eaton Square, and is said to
have been capable of seating 250,000 spectators.
The site is now occupied by the Jewish cemetery
and the gas-works. The arrargements of a Roman
circus can best be studied in the well-preserved
circus on the Appian Way, near the tomb of Cecilia
Metella, built in 311 A.D., which usually bears the
name of the Emperor Maxentius, but is more cor-
rectly assigned to his son Romulus. It is 350 yards
long and 86 broad. The mete, the spina, the car-
ceres, and the seats for the emperor and: the spec-
tators may still be traced. An Egyptian obelisk
from this cireus now adorns the Piazza Navona
(see Crrcus).
Of the Cireus of Flaminius, built in 220 B.c.
on the Campus Martius immediately below the
northern slope of the Capitoline Hill, no vestiges
remain. The same is the case with the Circus of
Nero on the Vatican, which occupied the hollow
between 8S. Peter’s Church and the Sacristy
through which the visitor now drives to the
Vatican Museum. While the cireus was designed
for chariot-races, the stadium was used for foot-
races. Of these there were several, but the
Imperial Stadium on the Palatine, between the
house of Augustus and the buildings of Septimius
Severus is the only one which remains in a
tolerable state of preservation. The Stadium of
Domitian on the Campus Martius is believed to be
represented by the present Piazza Navona, recently
renamed the Cireo Agonale. Both of these stadia
are about the size and shape of St George’s Square,
Pimlico, or the site of the Houses of Parliament.
The roads leading out of Rome beyond the
Servian Walls were bordered by tombs, many of
which, on the erection of the Aurelian Wall, were
included within the city. On the Appian Way
(q.v.) are the tombs of the Scipios, the inscriptions
on which, forming the earliest contemporary records
of Roman history, are among the treasures of the
Vatican. Farther on four ancient columbaria
have been excavated. Ontside the Aurelian Wall
is the Tomb of Cecilia Metella (see ROMAN ARCHI-
TECTURE), wife of the triumvir Crassus, which in
the 13th century was converted into a fortress
784
ROME
the Gaetani family. It is a cylindrical block
masonry, 65 feet in diameter, resembling the
-— of a feudal castle. Another remarkable
tomb is the Pyramid of Caius Cestius in the Via
Ostiensis. The most ificent of Roman tombs
was the Mausoleum of Hadrian, now the castle of
8. Angelo. It was a cylindrical tower of masonry,
240 feet in diameter and 165 feet in height, sur-
mounted by a colossal statue of the emperor.
When the Goths besieged Rome the tomb was
converted into a fortress by Belisarius. It after-
wards became the castle of the po and citadel
of Rome, and in 1527 was defended against the
French by Benvenuto Cellini. Of similar con-
struction and hardly inferior in magnitude was
the Mausoleum of which stood behind
the eburch of S. Carlo al Corso. In the
middle ages it formed the castle of the Colonna
family, and is now occupied as the Teatro
Corea. Two obelisks of tian granite faced
the entrance, one of which now stands in the
Piazza of S. Maria Maggiore, and the other fronts
the Palace of the Quirinal. In all there are eleven
Egyptian obelisks which ornament the gardens
and piazzas of Rome. Two stand near the Pan-
theon close to the sites of the Temples of Isis and
Serapis, before which they were ne aoe erected.
Another, now in the Piazza del Popolo, was brought
from Heliopolis by Augustus, and placed in the
Circus Maximus. That in the Piazza di Monte
Citorio was also bare to Rome by Augustus.
That in the Piazza of 5. John Lateran, 104 feet in
height, is the | t in existence. It was erected
at Thebes by Thothmes III, and removed a
Constantine to the Cireus Maximus. The obelis
in the Piazza di 8. Pietro was brought from Helio-
polis by Caligula, and placed in the Cireus of Nero,
near its present site. On the Pincian is an obelisk
of Hadrian ; and there is another in the gardens of
the Villa Mattei.
Of the triumphal arches those of Augustus,
Tiberius, Claudius, Mareus Aurelius, and jan
have disappeared. The Arch of Septimius Severus,
which spanned the Sacred Way just as it began
to climb the Capitol, remains in a fair state of
preservation. At the other end of the Forum,
also spanning the Sacred Way, is the Arch of
Titus, with the well-known reliefs representing
the spoils from the Temple at Jerusalem (see ARCH).
A little farther south, where the Sacred Way joins
the Appian Road, stands the Arch of Constantine,
fronting the Colosseum and the three huge arches
of the Constantine Basilica. The-so-called Arch
of Drusus crosses the Ay Way where it
through the Aurelian Wall. The Arch of Dola-
bella, built in 10 A.p., is almost hidden in the
brickwork of the Aqueduct of Nero, called the
Aqua Claudia; and the Arch of Gallienus on the
pe ey erected in 262 A.p., is in the degraded
style of the time. See Arcu (TRIUMPHAL).
Of the twelve bridges over the Tiber three are
survivals of the eight or nine ancient bridges,
The oldest is the Pons Fabricius, built in 62
B.c. by L. Fabricius, leading from the city to
the island in the Tiber. The Pons Cestius, believed
to have been built by the Emperor Gratian, leads
from the island to the right bank of the river. The
Pons AZlius, now called the Ponte 8S. Angelo, was
built by Hadrian in 135 A.D. in front of his Man-
soleum, and now serves as the approach to St
Peter’s and the Vatican. The Ponte Rotto, or
‘broken bridge,’ was part of the Pons Aimiliu
built in 181 B.c. Two picturesque arches remain
till the recent ‘improvements.’ It is now replaced
by a suspension bridge. The Ponte Sisto was built
by eg nln im IV. to replace the Pons Aurelius.
M Rome.—It is impossible within moderate
limits to give an adequate account of Rome, which
contains more objects of interest than any other
city in the world. A bare en of facts
must therefore suffice. The Meta in the
Collegio Romano is situated in 41° 53’ 52” N, lat..
and 12° 28’ 40" E. ne The population was 226,022
in 1870 ; 272,560 in 1876 ; 300,467 in 1881 ; 401,044
in 1888; and 407,936 in 1891. The walls, which
enclose 3880 acres, are 14 miles in circuit, with
fifteen gates, two of which are closed. Since 1870
more than 3000 new houses have been built, 82
miles of new streets have been formed, and 54
millions sterling have been ree by the munici-
pality on the improvement of the city. During the
rogress of these improvements 1824 inscriptio
5360 lamps, 191 marble statu busts, nal
36,679 coins have been found. re are twelve
bridges, five of which are old, and the rest com-
paves new. The chief gates are the Porta del
opolo and the Porta Pia on the north, the Porta
S. Lorenzo and the Porta Maggiore on the east, the
Porta 8. Sebastiano and the Porta 8. Paolo on the
south, Old Rome stands on the left bank of the
Tiber ; on the right bank, occupying the Vatican
and Janiculum hills and the low ground between
these hills and the river, are St Peter's, the Vatican
Palace, the Borgo, and the Trastevere. The business
pect of the city occupies the plain on the left bank
tween the hills and the river, traversed by the
Corso, the Lara a thoroughfare of Rome, about a
mile in length, leading from the Porta del Popolo
to the foot of the Capitoline Hill. From the Piazza
del Popolo two great streets diverge on either side
of the Corea: the Via di Ripetta to the right, skirt-
ing the Tiber, and to the left the Via del Babuino,
leading to the Piazza di Spagna, whence the Scala
di §$ a, the resort of artists’ models, ascends
to the Pincian Gardens, on the site of the ens
of Lucullus, which command a splendid view of
the city, and form the fashionable drive and prome-
nade of the Romans.
Before Rome became in 1870 the capital of Italy.
the greater of the Pincian, Quirinal, an
uiline hills was oceupied by villas of the Roman
nobles, with extensive gardens planted with ilexes
and vines. With two exceptions these have been
destroyed, and their sites have been covered with
modern houses, and too often by blocks of ugly
barrack-like buildings, many stories in height, let
out in tenements. The dirty but picturesque
medieval city is assuming the aspect of a modern
capital, broad, straight thoroughfares having been
driven through y pac at formerly occupied by
narrow streets and mean, crowded houses. Of the
new streets the most important are the Via Venti
Settembre, from the Porta Pia to the Quirinal, and
the Via Cavour and the Via Nazionale, which lead
from the railway station, the first to the Forum,
and the second to the lower end of the Corso. This
is continued to the west by the Corso Vittorio
Emmanuele as far as the Borgo, crossing the Tiber
by a new bridge. The older foreign quarter la
at the foot of the Pincian, around the Piazza di
Spagna, but the healthier sites on the slopes and
summits of the Quirinal and Esquiline are now
more frequented.
Of the palaces the largest are the Vatican, the
residence of the pope, and the arp now the
residence of the king, but formerly a papal palace,
in which the conclaves were held for the election
of the popes. Many of the palaces of the Roman
nobles contain collections of pictures and statuary.
Chief among them are the Palazzo Borghese, con-
taining, next to the Vatican, the best collection of
Sead in Rome, the Palazzi Colonna, Doria,
rberini, eae cir Chigi, Torlonia, Farnese,
Corsini, and di Venezia, now the Austrian
embassy. Among the notable villas are the Villa
Borghese, standing in a great park -below the
a
ROME 785
¥Vincian ; the Villa Ludovisi, on the Pincian; the
Villa Albani, outside the Porta Salara; and the
Villa Medici, on the Pincian, now the Académie
Francaise, with a splendid collection of casts. The
gardens of the Villa Mattei, on the Ceelian, com-
mand one of the best views in Rome. The pictur-
ue arches of the Aqua Claudia traverse the
gardens of the Villa Wolkonsky.
Besides the private collections Rome abounds in
libraries and museums. The Collegio Romano,
formerly a great Jesuit college, is now occupied
by a public library of modern books called the
Biblioteca Vittorio Emmanuele, by the Kircherian
Museum of Antiquities, and by a well-arranged
prehistoric and ethnological museum, The Palazzo
dei Conservatori, on the Capitol, contains many
of the best ancient statues. In the cloisters of
the Carthusian convent in the Therm of Dio-
cletian are stored the antiquities brought to light
during the recent excavations. Others from the
excavations at Falerii are collected in the Villa
di Papa Giulio, outside the Porta del Popolo.
The Villa Medici contains a good collection of
easts from ancient statues. The Lateran Palace
contains an unrivalled collection of inscriptions
and sculptures from the Catacombs, and a few
statues and mosaics. The Lateran is ex-
rritorial, and the Museum is the property of the
Pthe chief papal collections are contained in the
leries attached to the Vatican, probably the
argest palace in the world. In addition to the
rivate gardens and apartments of the pope, the
atican Palace comprises immense reception-halls
with a series of chapels, libraries, picture-galleries,
and vast museums of sculptures, antiquities, and
inscriptions, which can here be only enumerated in
the briefest manner. The Sistine Chapel, built in
1473 by Sixtus IV., is covered with magnificent
frescoes by Michelangelo and the great Floren-
tine masters. The Capella Nicolina, built by
Nicolas V., and the Pauline Chapel, built by Paul
III. in 1590, are also painted in fresco; the first by
Fra Angelico, and the second by Michelangelo.
Raphael’s Stanze and Loggie are halls and solars
covered with inimitable frescoes executed by
Raphael, Perugino, Giulio Romano, and other
masters of their school. Beyond the Loggie is the
picture-gallery, containing the best collection of
oil-paintings in Rome. The world-famous Vatican
Library, with its priceless MSS., its collections of
early printed books, of Christian antiquities,
ancient maps and jewellery, is contained in
two immense halls. The vast sculpture-galleries,
with their unrivalled collections, comprise the
Museo Chiaramonte, the Braccio Nuovo, and the
Museo Pio-Clemente, which includes the Cortile
di Belvedere, containing the Laocoon, the Apollo
Belvedere, and the so-called Antinons, snag the
most beautiful statue in the world. The inscrip-
tions are contained in the Galleria Lapidaria, the
Etrusean antiquities in the Museo Gregoriano,
below which is the Egyptian Museum.
The churches, said to be upwards of 300 in num-
ber, are among the most conspicuous features of
modern Rome. Many of them are rather what we
should call mortuary or memorial churches, opened
only once a year on the festival of the saint to
whom they are dedicated. There are also the
churches of the great religious orders, twenty-eight
parish churches, and the titular churches of the
cardinals. The most noteworthy are the five
patriarchal churches, the seven pilgrimage
churches, and the eight basilican churches. Others
are interesting either from their early date, their
historical associations, from the archeological or
artistic treasures they contain, or from the frag-
ments of earlier structures which they enclose.
414
First in rank are the five patriarchal churches. S.
Giovanni in Laterano (see LATERAN), between
the Czxlian and the Esquiline hills, ranks as the
first church in Christendom. It dates from the
time of Constantine. It was, till the rebuilding of
8. Peter’s, the metropolitan cathedral of Rome and of
the western patriarchate. It retains its 5th-cen-
tury baptistery and the 13th-century cloisters, the
most beautiful in Rome. The Santa Scala, brought
by the Empress Helena from Jetusalem, has for
centuries been the chief object of veneration amon
pilgrims. The church itself was burned down an
rebuilt in the 14th century, and has been repeatedly
altered and modernised. The adjoining palace of
the pes is now converted into a museum, chiefly
of Christian ch Se bt The Basilica of St Peter
(S. Pietro in Vaticano), the largest church in
the world, was rebuilt in the 16th century from
the designs of Bramante, Michelangelo, and Ber-
nini. It was begun in 1506, and consecrated in
1626. It is in the form of a Latin cross, with a
vast central dome. The interior length is 615 feet,
the height of the nave 150 feet, and of the cross
which surmounts the dome 435 feet. S. Paolo
fuori le Mura, a vast 4th-century church, was
before the fire of 1823 the most interesting
church in Rome. It has been rebuilt in a style
of great magnificence. §. Lorenzo fuori le Mura,
occupying the site of a church founded by Con-
stantine, was rebuilt in 578, and remodelled in
the 13th century, but still retains the ancient marble
and granite columns. The Basilica Liberiana, on
the uiline, is commonly called S. Maria Mag-
iore, being the largest of the eighty churches in
me dedicated to the Virgin Mary. It is one of
the oldest churches in Rome, the nave dating from
the 5th century. ;
These five patriarchal churches, together with
8. Croce and §S. Sebastiano, constitute the seven
ancient pilgrimage churches. The five patriarchal
churches, together with S. Agnese, 8. Croce, and
§. Clemente, are the eight basilican churches. §.
Agnese fuori le Mura was founded by Constantine,
and rebuilt in the 7th century. It contains many
early Christian inscriptions. §. Croce is a 5th-
century basilica, and is said to have been erected
by the Empress Helena. §. Clemente is the most
archaic church in Rome. The upper church dates
from the 12th century ; the lower, which is entirely
underground, from the 4th; and below it there are
far older substructions dating from the imperial
and republican periods. In addition to the eight
basilican churches, others already mentioned con-
serve the remains of earlier buildings. S. Maria in
Cosmedin, one of the most interesting churches in
Rome, preserves ten columns of the Temple of
Ceres, out of which it was constructed, and
twenty ancient columns taken from other build-
ings. It has also a beautiful tesselated pavement
of ancient marbles. §. Maria degli Angeli and S.
Bernardo were constructed out of the Therm of
Diocletian, and §. Pietro in Carcere out of the
Mamertine prison. §. Giorgio in Velabro, a 4th-
century church, was rebuilt in the 7th conta,
but preserves sixteen of the ancient columns.
Costanza, outside the Porta Pia, was erected by
Constantine, and contains interesting 4th-century
mosaics. The granite columns in 8. Maria in
Araceli, on the Capitol, have been taken from
some earlier building. On the Celian we have SS.
Giovanni e Paolo, founded in the 5th century and
rebuilt in the 12th; 8. Stefano Rotondo, a 5th-
century church, containing the episcopal throne
of Gregory the Great; and the interesting church
of S. Gregorio, built in 575 on the site of his
father’s house. On the Aventine are 8. Balbina
‘and §. Sabina, both of the 5th century. On
the Esquiline are 8. Pudenziana, a very ancient
786
ROME
church, with 4th-century mosaics, probably con-
structed out of a private house; S. Prassede,
a 9th-century church, with ancient granite
columns and 9th-century mosaics; and S. Pietro
in Vincoli, a 5th-century basilica, with twenty
ancient Dorie columns, and containing Michel-
angelo’s statue of Moses, and the aappaned
chains of St Peter, which were undoubtedly
resented by Pope Leo I. to the Enipress
ndoxia in 442. On the right bank of the Tiber
are S. Cri mo, a 12th-century church, with
ancient porp yry columns and a fine mosaic
pavement; S. Maria in Trastevere, a 5th-century
church, rebuilt in the 12th century, with twenty-
two ancient columns, some fine mosaics, a splendid
marble pavement, with numerous interesting early
inscriptions in the portico; S. Cecilia has 9th-
century mosaics; while the Piazza of 8. Pietro in
Montorio commands the finest view of Rome. S.
Maria sopra Minerva, near the Pantheon, the
chief Dominican church, is the only Gothic church
in Rome. Among the vast modern churches
are the Gest, the gorgeous church of the Jesuits,
containing the tomb of S. Ignatius Loyola; S.
Carlo al Corso, now the fashionable church of
Rome; 8. Andrea della Valle; SS. Apostoli; 8.
Maria Vallicella, commonly called Chiesa Nuova ;
and the Cappuccini, with its catacombs and Guido’s
picture of St Michael.
One of the greatest improvements which has
been effected is the embankment of the Tiber, and
the straightening and deepening of its channel.
This has put a stop to the disastrous floods by
which the lower of the city were formerly
inundated. But the municipality being now prac-
tically bankrupt, the grandiose schemes for the
further reconstruction of the city, and for making
Rome a port by the canalisation of the Tiber, are
for the present suspended.
In addition to the objects of interest which have
been briefly enumerated are the vast Catacombs
(q-v.) extending underground for many miles, the
Ghetto, the Sapienza, the Pro a, and the
Protestant cemetery with thé tombs of Keats and
Shelley. The best oramic views of Rome are
from the Pincio, the Villa Mattei, S. Pietro in
Montorio, the Janiculum, the garden of the Prior-
ato di Malta, and from ontside the Porta S. Gio-
vanni. Rome is now a fairly healthy city, except
in the late summer months; the water-supply is
unrivalled both for quality and quantity, and the
streets are well cleansed. No city excels Rome
in its publie fountains.
There are practically no manufactures in Rome.
Hats, gloves, neckties, false pearls, and trinkets
are made, and there are cabinet-makers, and a few
foundries on a small scale, but compared with
other great cities the absence of factory chimneys
is very notable. There are printing-offices, but
the Italian book-trade is centred at Milan. The
chief industry is the manufacture of small mosaics,
small bronzes, of statuary, casts, and pictures, either
original or copies of the works of the great masters.
ll the necessaries of life have to be imported
from a distance, the Campagna which extends for
many miles around Rome being uninhabitable on
account of the malaria. It is an unencl and
untilled waste, roamed over by herds of half-wild
cattle. Corn and wine are brought from Tuscany,
and from the fertile Terra di Lavoro near Naples.
The prosperity of the city depends on the expendi-
ture of the courts of the Quirinal and the Vatican,
of the army of functionaries in the public offices,
of the ison, and of the foreign visitors who
crowd the hotels during the winter months. The
railways from all parts of Italy converge outside
the city, which they enter near the Porta Maggiore
on the Esquiline, and have a common terminus on
the summit of the Quirinal close to the Baths of
Diocletian. The omnibus service is good, and
well-managed tramways traverse several of the
broad new streets.
See R. Burn, Rome and the Cam (1870); 7. He
Parker, Arch of Rome (1872-40) ; » Hl Dyer,
Ce of Rome, its Vicissitudes and Monuments (2d ed.
coveries (1888); with other works by G ibby, Hare,
professed Middleton, &e., pd prod Rory dt p. 7
RomAN History.—Rome, the ‘Mistress of the
World,’ the ‘ Eternal City,’ gives name to a politi-
cal empire which lasted eleven centuries, till its
transfer to Byzantium, where it las eleven
centuries more; also to a religious empire which
since 42 A.D. has acquired spiritual sway over a yet
larger dominion than its redecessor,
which, in accord with imperial Germany, formed
the twin-factor of the Holy Roman Empire, dis-
solved in 1806.
Colonised in the bronze age by Alban shepherds
who migrated from their hills in fear of voleanic
disturbance, Rome, according to her officially
adopted legend, dates from 2lst nee 753 B.C.
when Romulus, first of her seven ki settled
on the Palatine mount. From his quadrilateral
senha ie quadrata—he made conquest of
the Capitoline and Quirinal. After his successor
Numa, the Celian was annexed by Tullus Hostilius
and the Aventine by Ancus Marcius. To the hills,
now five under Tarquinius Priseus the fifth king,
were added the uiline and Viminal by Servius
Tullius, who walled in the seven with a stone forti-
fication. So that under her seventh and last king,
Tarquinius Superbus, the City of the Seven Hills
was aicooty ‘built for pa pee on marshy soil made
habitable by drainage, and connecting with the sea-
board by the Tiber—a waterway so clearly the
‘outlet of her supremacy ’ as to warrant the deriva-
tion of ‘Rome’ and ‘Romulus’ from the Rumon or
river.
Latin in ulation, with a Sabine infusion,
Rome was divided into three tribes—the Ramnes,
the Tities, and the Luceres, and again into thirty
curiae, The tribal division disappeared early ;
that into curiew lasted well into republican times.
Out of the curie, originating in common religious
observances, grew the populus Romanus, includ-
ing all freeborn Romans. Its king (rex) was not
always hereditary either in his regal or his religi-
ous capacity, nor merely elective. When a kin
died, et ee was er by the. hel
(patres) of families (gentes), ese e
guardians of religious observance, of popular right,
of state interests—had power to choose a pro-
visional king (inter-rex), who, with the patres
for assessors, decided on the new king, who was
then proposed to the curie in assembly (comitia
curiata) and, if approved, confirmed by the patres.
The king had now absolute authority, civil,
religions, and military. The patres were his
councillors—the senate—having the above indi-
cated powers, always subject to the king, who
consulted them at pleasure, and filled up vacan-
cies. In solemn assembly the Romans met in
the Forum under the king or inter-rex, who put
questions to the vote, when each curia voted in
turn, its vote being determined by the majority
within itself, and the preponderance of these votes
deciding the result.
Romulus, Numa, Tullus Hostilius, and Ancus
Marcius—the first and third Latin, the second and
fourth Sabine—are little more than ae gi
names ; the warrior chief Romulus typified by h
rata and Comitium or place of assembly
in the Forum ; the priestly Nao hy le
Vesta and his Regia close to it; the statesman
ROME
787
Tullus Hostilius by his Senate House (Curia
Hostilia); and the administrator Ancus Marcius
by his state-prison, his bridge across the Tiber,
his fortification of the Janiculum, and his founding
of the seaport Ostia. In Tarquinius Priscus (616-
578 B.C.) we have an Etruscan and less shadowy
Romulus, admitting into the senate a hundred new
patres from conquered Latin states, and laying out
the Cireus Maximus for the entertainment of the
ple. Servius Tullius, on Tarquin’s initiative,
istributed all freeholders (for military purposes
peenly) into tribes, classes, and centuries.
wn up in order of battle, the centuries (bodies
of one hundred) in front were composed of the
wealthier citizens as better able to equip them-
selves for attack; behind them came the centuries
of the second and third classes, poorer and less
fully appointed—the three forming the heavy-
armed infantry; while centuries of the fourth
and fifth classes, poorer still and co ndingly
equipped, held the rear. The full strength of the
freeholders was divided into two equal parts—the
seniores and the juniores, the latter engaged in
active duty, the former as reserves. Each corps
consisted of 85 centuries or 8500 men—i.e. of two
legions, each about 4200 strong, auxiliary to which
were the ve tee and trumpeters. Finally, the six
centuries of cavalry were supplemented, from the
wealthiest citizens, by twelve more. For the
army thus organised Servius drew levies from his
four regions, corresponding to his four tribes, the
Suburan, the Palatine, the Esquiline, and the
Colline. These tribes included freeholders outside
the gates, also entitled to meet and vote with the
centuries at their comitia (comitia centuriata).
Under her seventh and last king Rome became
formidable throughout Central Italy, and owed to
him the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and the
Cloaca Maxima—the drainage system tapping the
hills around the Forum and carrying the waste
into the Tiber. But Tarquin’s rule was so master-
ful as to drive the people to revolt, the last provo-
cation being his son’s outrage on the noble Lucretia.
Whien en at a siege near the coast he was
dethroned; he and his race were exiled in per-
tuity, and regal government replaced by the
ublic. Three great efforts to reinstate him were
defeated, and he died at Cume.
The Republic.—The regal check on them with-
drawn, the patricians made their power so felt by
the plebeians as to start a conflict between them
lasting two hundred years. The king was now
represented by two consuls, elected annually, and
from the patrician order. The plebeians, freeborn
citizens as they were, retained their votes by classes
at the comitia curiata and by centuries at the
centuriata, but many of them were attached as
clients to patricians who commanded their votes,
and all of them were excluded from the higher
offices of state. Unable to elect one of themselves
consul, the plebeians had not even the power to
carry the patrician candidate they favoured, being
in a minority in the comitia centuriata, and, again,
in a ter minority in the ultimate and decisive
assembly, the comitia curiata. The absolute
authority wielded by the consuls they felt to be
still more oppressive when, in state crises, it was
merged in a dictator; so their first attempt to
safeguard their liberties and lives was directed at
the consular power. The first advantage they
gained was the ‘right of appeal,’ by which no
magistrate (the dictator excepted) could subject a
Roman citizen to capital punishment unless with
approval of the comitia centuriata. Power to
extort such rights the plebeians e in their
military capacity, refusing, as soldiers, to serve
unless their demands were conceded. The seces-
sion of their legionaries to the Mons Sacer, on the
Anio three miles off, secured them annually elected
magistrates of their own, tribuni plebis, with
power to protect them against the consuls. From
two the tribunes were increased to five, and by
449 B.c. to ten. In no sense a magistrate, the
tribune was a check on authority, and his power
developed gradually till the tribunate, formidable
at the close of the Republic, became still more so
under the empire. By the Publilian law (471 B.c.)
the assemblies convened by the tribune Metre
plebis) were made legal; not yet their decisions
(plebiscita). At these the voting was by tribes,
not by curize or centuries, whence the object of
the tribunes was to add as many to the tribes as
possible. To become member of a tribe it was
necessary to be a freeholder, and so the tribunes,
to multiply freeholders, agitated to secure for the-
lebeians their share of the agri publici or state-
ands. Having partially succeeded in this, they
won another advantage from the ever-resisting
patricians—the appointment for one year of a com-
mission of ten patricians (decemviri) to make public
a code of law binding on patrician equally with
plebeian. This code—the famous Twelve Tables
—substituted written and published law for that
unwritten code which, confined to the patrician
few, was always interpreted in their interests. An
attempt to reappoint, possibly to perpetuate, the
decemvirate caused another secession ; the consuls
were sorg created ; and from the growing vantage-
ground of their concilia, increased by accessions to
the plebeian order from without, the tribunes ex-
torted the recognition of the plebiscita as legally
binding on patricians. The concilia, now become
comitia tributa, could henceforth carry reforms
which, if sanctioned by the patres, had the validity
of state-law. Another concession gained was inter-
mari between plebeian and patrician, and
thereatter the consulate—still the patrician strong-
hold—was attacked. The two consuls were re-
placed wy six military tribunes drawn from either
order. Of these consular tribunes the plebeians
goerely had the majority until, obstacles and
elays notwithstanding, the Licinian and Sextian
laws were passed (367) replacing the consular
tribunes by consuls, two in number, of whom one
at least should be a plebeian ; enlarging the priestly
college from two to ten functionaries, of whom
plebeians were to constitute half; relieving the
rer plebeians from debt; and promoting their
interests by advantageous reforms in the owner-
ship and cultivation of land. Patrician mono-
polies shrunk rapidly. In 356 the dictatorship,
in 350 the censorship, in 337 the preetorship, and
in 300 the cogs of pontifis and augurs were
thrown Ae to plebeians. The patrum auctoritas,
or control b patricians of the decrees (plebiscita)
of the people in assembly, became a dead letter ;
and the two hundred years’ conflict issued in the
recognised validity of all measures carried in the
comitia tributa—a conflict memorable not only for
the ability displayed by either order, but for the
respect for law observed equally by both.
‘or her first fifty years of republican life Rome
expanded little. earest her were the Latins, the
Volscians to the south-east, the Aiquians to the
east, and the Hernicans between the two last.
Allying herself with the Latins and Hernicans,
she kept the Volscians and A¢quians in check till
her policy became triumphantly aggressive in the
sixty years between 449 and 390. Having razed
the south Etruscan stronghold, Veii, she pushed
northward to the Ciminian forest, whence she drew
down on her the Celtic conquerors of north Etruria,
who, defeating her on the Allia, took and sacked
the city, all but the Capitol. Recovering rapidl
from this disaster, she riveted her hold on sout:
Etruria, gradually subjugated her old enemies and
788
ROME
allies, the Volscians, Aquians, Latins, and Herni-
cans, and dominated Central Italy from the
Ciminian forest to the Latin shore. The Sabellian
tribes of the A ines now gave her trouble.
The most powerful of these, the Samnites, had
overran Campania; but from this she dislodged
them, and, in spite of a formidable revolt extend-
ing from the Sabine Hills to the Latin shore and
Campania itself, she made good her command of
plain and seaboard, lying compact and firm between
north Etruria with its detached cities, the
Apennines with their miscellaneous tribes, and
Southern Italy with its enervated Greek population.
The Samnites, in a second war lasting twenty-two
years, failed to get the better of her; in a third,
with the northern Etruscans and the Celts as allies,
they made a last attempt to crush the growing
giantess. This too she defeated after desperate
conflicts, in which she purchased victory dearly : the
Celts were shattered ; the Etruscans bought
by heavy indemnities; and the Samnites on honour-
olin terms became her allies. In characteristic
fashion she proceeded to consolidate what she had
won, planting ‘colonies’—i.e. agricultural garrisons
—of Roman citizens wherever their presence was
required, and in this way controlling Central Italy
from Adriatic to Mediterranean. At the invitation
of Greek Tarentum, beset with marauding hordes,
she successfully intervened in the south, till in
turn Tarentum, incurring her hostility (281-280),
brought King Pyrrhus of Epirus to repel her. At first
the Epirotes prevailed, but their two victories were
as costly as defeats, and in a third great battle at
Beneventum (275) they were so punished that
Pyrrhus returned to Greece. The fall of Tarentum
shortly after left Rome dominant in the peninsula
from the extreme south to the Ligurian and Celtic
frontier. Divide et impera was her policy—detach-
ing the subject states or tribes from each other to
draw them more closely to herself, leaving them
‘home rule,’ but reserving the safeguard of coast
and frontier and power to make Soap or war with
the outside world. Among her outlying com-
munities the colonies of cives Romani above men-
tioned ranked first; next came those Latin
towns which enjoyed the full franchise, this
being sparingly conceded to other communities, of
which the lowest received civil but not political
rights, their members excluded from the tribes,
and, as soldiers, serving not in Roman legions, but
in contingents apart. To the urban communities
within her pale Rome gave self-government liber-
ally, with assemblies, senates, and magistrates,
always, however, subject to the central authorities
—the Roman consuls, prators, and censors. For
the administration of justice these colonies and
enfranchised towns were annually visited by the
pretor’s representatives, called prefects, who also
assumed control of such communities as were
without local government. The military system
was modified till the old citizen army, with its
order in battle determined by civic rank, became
the professional institution in which superior fight-
ing power and ares were primary considera-
tions to be paid for accordingly. On distant
campaigns the consul in command received extension
of his imperium, out of which grew the ‘proconsul,’
euponise to hold the field till the war was at an
en
Eleven years after her victory over Pyrrhus
Rome engaged with Carth in her miphiy
struggle for the empire of the Mediterranean. To
secure her expansion westwards she had first to
expel the Carthaginians from Sicily. Having
gained to her side the Syracusan king Hiero, she
took Agrigentum, and in 260, with her first naval
armament under the consul Duilius, she signally
defeated Carthage on ‘s own element.
grb Le. this eh y ae she transferred the
war to ica, and was at first so successful as to
recall a considerable part of her forces. But her
consul Regulus, whom she left behind, was w
and made prisoner, a series of naval disasters en-
sued, and Carthage seemed about to more
than she had lost of Sicily, when the consul Catulus
(241), in command of a splendid fleet, gained a
decisive victory over the inians, who there-
upon undertook to evacuate Sicily and the adjacent
islands. This ended the first Ese war, twenty-
two years in duration, the result to Rome bei
her acquisition, not only of Sicily, which she
henceforth governed as a ‘province,’ but (a few
ears later) of Sardinia and Corsica, also governed
ike Sicily by magistrates sent every year the
capital. Finding Rome her match at sea,
resumed hostilities by acquiring a foothold in §)
which was to become her military basis for further
spenions against her rival, Under Hamilcar,
the great general who conceived this plan, she
occupied the peninsula as far as the Tagus; Has-
drubal continued the work of subjugation till his
death (221); and finally Hamilear’s son Hannibal
who, with more than his father’s genius,
all his father’s antipathy to Rome, pushed the
conquests of Carthage up to the Ebro,
:
eanwhile Rome herself was en in sub-
duing the Celts in the valley of the Po, and havi
lanted three colonies—Placentia, Cremona, foe |
utina—to safeguard her new she
turned her attention on Spain, and got Carthage to
make the Ebro her northern boundary in the Lavo 27
}
sula, But such engagements could not |
pe agate Saguntum, a Greek colony in allfams
with Rome, on the east coast of Spain, was besieged
and taken by Hannibal, though a Roman embassy
to Carthage had protested inst the opens
The second Punic war was declared in 218, and
Rome sent one army under P. Cornelius Scipio to
Spain, and another under T, Sempronius Gracchus
through Sicily to Africa. But Hannibal’s plans,
long matu in secret, were carried out with
unexampled celerity. ee had got no farther
than Massilia when Hannibal, having crossed the
ecbrsege was already ah she oaees and after
iting his way over the Alps against every
obstacle—the hostility of the tribes included—
descended on Cisalpine Gaul with but 26,000 sur-
viving of his army of 59,000 men. Defea the
pea on the pb ipa! and pore “Sahin ae co
is expectation of getting the Celts to join him,
and in the spring F017 be pushed on to the cit;
through east Etruria. He annihilated the pti
Flaminius at Lake Trasimene ; and from Spoletium
within a few days of Rome he turned eastward,
plundering as he went, and paused for supplies in
north Apulia. The Romans, now gravely alarmed,
elected a dictator, Quintus Fabius Maximus; but
his masterly inactivity did not satisfy them, and
they sent two consuls with a numerous army to
hurl back the invader. In the great battle of
Canne Hannibal’s victory was complete—the
Romans losing 70,000 men to Hannibal’s 6000, and
Southern Italy—all but the Latin colonies and the
Greek coast-towns—came to his side. Macedonia
and part of Sicily declared for the conqueror, and
the Greek communities one by one were surrender-
ing tohim. The Romans tried to recover Campania —
and laid siege to Capua, and this brought Hannibal
up from Tarentum. He even marched directly on
Rome herself and rode up to the Colline gate; but
he retired unable to make any impression on the ~
city and its defenders; he conciliated no allies;
and fell back on South Italy, leaving Capua an easy
prey to its besiegers. Five years had done little to
encourage the Romans, till Hasdrubal, defeated in —
Spain, crossed the Alps and skirted the east coast
ROME
789
of Italy, to reinforce Hannibal in the south. But
he was beaten and killed on the Metaurus by Nero,
who, turning southwards, marched up to Hannibal’s
eamp and threw Hasdrubal’s h into it. The
war in Italy was virtually at an end. Hannibal’s
attempt on Rome had failed. Meanwhile young
Publius Scipio, having driven the Carthaginians
from Spain, returned to the city with the proposal
to descend on Carthage herself. The senate, not
without misgiving, consented. Scipio’s successes
in Africa compelled Hannibal to leave his van
poe in Southern Italy and come to the aid of his
1ard-pressed compatriots. The great battle at
Zama. left Scipio the victor, Hannibal a fugitive,
and Carthage suing for peace. Her request was
sranted, and she retained her territory, but bound
rerself to undertake no wars outside Africa and
(without the consent of Rome) no wars inside.
She surrendered nearly all her _ and had to pay
an indemnity of 10,000 talents in fifty years. Rome
was now (202) mistress of the Mediterranean, but
she had to consolidate her acquisitions. Sicily,
easily ruled under a praetor, became her granary
and the provision store for her legions. Spain,
however, required prztors invested with consular
wer and a permanent garrison of four legions to
eep her in order. The insurrection of Viriathus
lasted till the fall of Numantia after a memorable
resistance; and not before Scipio Africanus the
younger took it in hand could the country really be
called pacified and its rich resources made available.
Meanwhile Rome had a secret dread of the resusci-
tation of Carthage, and she courted every — for
renewing war with her and razing her to the ground.
That came in 151 when Carthage, goaded by Masi-
nissa’s forays, broke her treaty obligations to punish
him. In 149 Rome laid siege to her, and by 146 she
was stamped out from the roll of great cities. Her
territory was now the Roman province of Africa,
ly by Masinissa’s three sons, who ruled
umidia. In Italy herself the cities that had
declared for Hannibal were severely punished. In
the north the Celts forfeited their separate political
existence. In the south Roman settlers oceupied
confiscated lands—nearly everywhere but in Apulia
and Lucania; and even the Latins soon felt the
preponderance of the Roman element, which tended
more and more to assert itself. ;
Fifty years after she became mistress of the
west, Baus had also become the mightiest state in
the east, first by conquering Philip of Macedon,
who had been the ally of Hannibal, and whose
ambition to dominate the Augean drew Rome into
the second Macedonian war (200), which ended in
Philip’s defeat at Cynoscephale and the reduction
of Segoe to a minor power. Next came the
‘liberation of Greece,’ which, with the alliance
that followed, enabled Rome to proceed against
Antiochus, king of Syria, who in 197-196 over-
run Asia Minor and penetrated into Thrace.
Beaten by land and sea, Antiochus sustained a
decisive defeat at Magnesia in Asia Minor, and
fell back behind the Halys and Taurus range, to
the west of which all the kingdoms and com-
munities were now under Rome’s protection.
Western Greece, however, began to give trouble,
and Philip of Macedon’s successor, Perseus, in-
eurred a final encounter with the Romans in a
third Macedoniec war, terminating in his utter rout
and capture at Pydna (168). So that, twenty-two
years thereafter, Macedonia had sunk into a Roman
province, whose governor came gradually to con-
trol the Greek states till the whole peninsula was
subservient to Rome. Steadily strengthening her
hold on Asia ryceyt — ee the
guardianship of the king of Syria; while in Egypt,
which in 168 had sehaowioiaed her suzerainty, she
restored a protégé of hers to the throne, at the
same time, true to her policy, dividing and weaken-
ing his power. From Syria to Spain the Mediter-
ranean was now a Roman lake, but her authority
was better established in the west than in the
east. In the former her provincial government
was fairly established ; not so in the latter, which,
besides its more elastic frontier, possessed a civilisa-
tion in some respects superior to her own.
With the establishment of her supremacy without
began Rome’s troubles within. The ennobled
= ians (nobiles) combined with the old patrician
amilies (optimates) to exclude all but themselves
from high office or the senate. The constitution
had become an oligarchy in which the comitia,
mpc | supreme in electing magistrates and
passing laws, were practically superseded. The
prestige of having saved Rome from Hannibal and
raised her to undisputed empire belonged to the
aristocratic senate, while the alge disasters (at
Trasimene and Cannze) were due to the people’s
favourites. But that prestige was getting gradu-
ally impaired by economic failure at Rotts and con-
fusion abroad, and the people were awaking to a
sense of tle power the senate had taken from them,
The small holders, particularly in Etruria and
South Italy, burdened with military service and
competing vainly with foreign importations of corn
and labour, deserted the farms on which they could
neither thrive nor live, and the multiplication of
colonies throughout the patenls gave but tempo-
rary relief. To arrest the imminent annihilation
of these freeholders—Rome’s main-stay—Tiberius
Gracchus, the tribune (133), proposed his reform,
which was practically the first of a series of attacks
on senate-rule. Occupiers not recognised by the
Licinian law were to be evicted ; occupation was
not to extend beyond 1000 acres; public grazing-
lands were to be reclaimed for tillage. The senate
opposed him strenuously, and he was killed in an
incidental collision ; but his struggle was renewed
ona larger scale by his brother Gaius, who curtailed
the senatorial power by getting the comitia to
deprive it of privilege after privilege. He, too, fell
in a brawl, and by 111 his reforms had already
been frustrated and a quite new aspect given to
the agrarian question. But the popular party had
been taught its lesson by means of the tribunate to
reassert its power in the comitia to work out its
salvation. aius Gracchus had been dead ten
years when the client-state Numidia was seized by
Jugurtha, who had supplanted its legitimate gover-
nors and insulted the + ema name. The popular
leaders insisted on his chastisement ; but the war,
en under patrician officers, was carried to
a triumphant close by the people’s favourite, the
low-born, illiterate, but efficient Marius, who in
Jan 104 brought Jugurtha in chains to Rome.
Still ter successes awaited their hero, Havin
annihilated the Cimbri and Teutones, who h
inflicted four defeats on the patrician generals, and
been made consul for the sixth time, he aided the
pular vindicators, Saturninus and Glaucia, to
Eaeae the senate. But the ee they
secured were small, their violence had to be curbed
by Marius himself, and at last the populace turned
upon and killed them. The rise of Marius, how-
ever, was fraught with far-reaching results. His six
consulships, his intervention as a soldier in polities,
his military reforms, by which all classes, irrespec-
tive of rank or means, were admitted to the legion,
and the compulsory levy replaced by volurteer
service under a popular leader were epoch-imaiking
in the revolution.
The commercial class—soon to develop into the
equestrian order—had by their power in the courts
and their increasing exactions as farmers-general
(publicani) been at feud with their controllers, the
magisterial class in the provinces, and fiscal reform
790
ROME
became urgent. The Italian communities—the
allies of Rome—had long felt their burdens increase
as their privileges waned, and they demanded their
share of the conquests they had helped to achieve.
Promises of relief and expectation of securing the
Roman citizenship had brought them in crowds to
the capital, to be driven back again by an exclusive
senate and people. The tribune Drusus strove to
bring about fiscal reform and the redress of the
Italians, but though he carried his laws he could
not make them valid, and finally he was assassinated.
The equestrians remained supreme in the courts.
while the murder of Drusus roused the irrita’
Italians to rebellion (90-89) in the central highlands
and the south especially. The Social War began,
the insurgents aiming at the erection of a new
Italian state governed on the lines of the Roman
constitution. To suppress them the two consuls of
the year, each with live legates, including Marius
and his future rival Sulla, headed the legions, but
were disastrously beaten. In the north, however,
Marius and Sulla, and in Campania the consul
Cesar, were partially victorious, but so partiall
that reform after reform had to be conceded, till
the Italians could obtain the franchise merely for
the asking. The war at length died out by the
absorption of the insurgents into the Roman citizen-
ship; but the internal troubles continued. The
new citizens enlarged their political claims, the
senate was distracted by personal feuds, economic
distress prevailed among all, and a war with Mith-
ridates threw Marius and Sulla into rivalry as to
which should command the expeditionary force.
The action of the tribune Sulpicius in dealing
with this complicated erisis intensified it the more.
He introdu laws to entrust Marius with the
Mithridatie campaign, to allow the new citizens
to vote in all, not in a restricted, number of tribes,
to confine the freedmen to the four urban tribes no
longer, to unseat any senator more than 2000 denari
in debt, to recall from exile those suspected of com-
plicity with the Italian insurgents. Every one of
these proposals, bitterly contested, would yet have
become law but for the consul Sulla, who, headin
in Campania the legions assigned him in the Soci
War, marched on Rome—the first consul who ever
invaded her with her own froo The flight of
Marius and Sulpicius left him free to impose arbi-
trary measures, among them that by which the
sanction of the senate was required before any bill
could be entertained by the comitia; and, having
seen the consular elections safely through, he set
out inst Mithridates (87).
In his absence Cinna attempted as consul to carry
the reforms of Sulpicius, but was driven from Rome
amid the massacre of the new citizens in voting
assembly, He in turn rallied round him the
oe in Campania, and joined by the veteran
arius, who reappeared from Africa, he entered
Rome and was recognised as consul, as was Marius
himself (for the seventh time). After a brutally
vindictive massacre Marius died (86), and Cinna
remained supreme, securing the consulship to him-
self and a confederate, and getting the newly-
enfranchised Italians enrolled in all the tribes,
84 he died, and next year Sulla, having concluded
a peace with Mithridates and left Asia tranquil,
landed at Brundusium with a powerful army, in-
eluding many of the nobiles who had fled from
Cinna. Resistance, nowhere formidable, he quickly
overcame and (82) entered Rome, to find his lien-
tenants triumphant in North Italy and to annihilate
the remnants of the Marian party just outside the
city. But he failed to use his power, absolute as it
was, for the abatement of long-standing evils and
the prevention of coming disasters. Triumphant
everywhere, he instituted a reign of terror—slaying,
proscribing, and confiscating through revenge or
suspicion. For nine years his rule as dictator, in
spite of much salu administration, was marred
by a remorseless tip which left the future
to take care of itself—creating in the sons and heirs
the se _ — the handy tools
of agitation, justified as increasingly became
by tuleed agrioultate; kip the sunltighgiar ot taal
fundia with their necessary evictions, and od
sophy of the Supernatural, Kocleslantnnl Poses and
us. ‘Ihe last section includes two volumes of
age sm saared but as many as 15,000 Letters are said to
be still unprinted. peg seep rt mig
besides a brief Life and a lucid Introduction, a list
books relating to Rosmini’s Life and Phi . H
we may name the studies by Tommaseo (Turin, 1855),
Franc. Paoli (Turin and Rovereto, 1880-84), and Father
Lockhart (2d ed. com , 2 vols. 1886). Rosmini’s
own Sketch of Modern Philosophies and of his Own System
has been translated, with an admirable Introduction, by
Father Lockhart (1882; 2d ed. 1890).
Rosoglio, a re of liqueur, made in Italy,
and flavoured with flowers or fruits, i
orange blossoms,
Ross, a Celtic word, meaning a occur-
ring as the name or of the name of many
laces in a = ds, = in other ais 2 of
urope, as in, Culross; Dunrossness, Mon-
one Roxteat, Ardrossan.
Ross, a market-town in Herefordshire, is finel
situated on the left bank of the Wye, 14 miles SS
of Hereford. In the parish church (1316), whose
‘heaven-directed spire’ is 208 feet high, is buried
John Kyrle (q.v.), celebrated by Pope as the ‘Man
of Ross.’ The town carries on a trade in cider
malt, and wool, has corn-mills and tanneries, and
is much visited by tourists. Pop. (1881) 3724;
(1891) 3575.
Ross, Sir Joun, Arctic voyager, born June 24,
1777, was a son of the minister of Inch, Wigtown-
shire, and was little more than nine years old when
he entered the navy, serving with distinction in
the French wars. His most important services
were rendered in the Arctic regions, whither in
1818 he proceeded with Parry as his second
command ; the objects of the expedition were to
explore Baffin Bay and attempt a North-west
Passage. Ross published the results of his investi-
ations in A Voyage of Discovery (1819). In May
829 he commanded a fresh Spm to the
Arctic regions (fitted out by Sir Felix Booth), and
discovered the peninsula of ‘ Boothia Felix.’ Ross
received, on his return in 1833, the honour of
knighthood. The results of this expedition were
written down in Narrative of a Second Vi i
Search of a North-west Passage (1835).
yet another voyage to the Polar regions—an un-
successful attempt to find Sir John Franklin, in
1850. Ross wrote Memoirs and C ndence of
Admiral Lord de Saumarez (2 vols. 1838), a
Treatise on Navigation by Steam (1828), and other
works. He died in London, August 30, 1856.
Sr James CLARK Ross, his nephew, also dis-
tinguished himself as an Arctic navigator. He was
born in London, April 15, 1800, entered the navy in
his twelfth year, accompanied Sir John in his first
and second Polar voyages, and in the interval
tween visited the same regions with Parry in his ex-
peditions. He discovered in 1831 the North mag-
netic pole, and on his return was rewarded with a
t-captaincy. After being employed the
Kamiralty in a magnetic survey of Great Britais
and Ireland, he was pl in command of the
Erebus and Terror for an expedition to the Ant-
arctic seas (1839), and approached within 160 miles
of the South magnetic pole. He was knighted
after his return home in 1843; and in 1847 pub-
lished Voyage of Discovery in Southern Regions,
1839-43 (2 vols. 1847). In 1848 he made a voy
in the Enterprise to Baffin Bay in search of Sir
John Franklin. He died at Aylesbury, April 3, 1862,
See Mackinder, Ross and the Antarctic (1892).
ROSSALL COLLEGE
ROSSETTI 813
Rossall College, a large public school on the
coast of Lancashire, 2} miles SSW. of Fleetwood,
was founded in 1844 for the education of the sons
of oaks ig and others. It has twelve entrance
scholarships, thirty masters, and over 350 boys.
See the Jubilee Sketch by Canon Beechey (1894).
Ross and Cromarty, a Highland county,
the third largest in Scotland, extends from the
German Ocean to the Atlantic, and is bounded
N. by Sutherland, 8. by Inverness-shire. In
1890-91 it was finally formed into a single county
by the boundary commissioners, who also added to
it the small Ferintosh (detached) district of Nairn-
shire, and a much smaller fragment from Inverness-
shire. Its mainland portion measures 75 by 67
miles, and the total area is 2,084,900 acres or 3260
sq. m., of which 103 are water and 736 belong to a
dozen islands—the Lewis, Tanera, Ewe, &c. The
east coast is indented by the Dornoch, Cromarty,
and Moray Firths; the west coast by eight sea-
lochs (Broom, Gruinard, Torridon, Carron, &c.).
The chief of the innumerable streams are the
Oykell, Alness, and Conon ; the Falls of Glomach,
on a head-water of the Elchaig, in the SW. are
370 feet high; and beautiful h Maree is the
largest of nearly a hundred good-sized fresh-water
lakes. Mam Sodhail (3862 feet), on the Inverness-
shire border, is the highest of more than thirty
summits exceeding 3200 feet above sea-level, others
being Ben Dearg (3547), Benmore (3505), Ben
Wyvis (3429), and Ben Attow (3383). The high
unds afford good pasture, and systematic sheep-
arming dates from about 1764. It reached its
zenith during 1860-70, when 400,000 sheep were
in the county. The glens and low grounds
in the more favoured portions have a fertile soil,
which, with the fine climate, especially in Easter
Ross, bears crops of superior quality. Still, less
than 7 per cent. of the entire area is arable, and
less than 70 square miles is oceupied by woods and
plantations. hisky is distilled, and the salmon
and sea fisheries are very valuable. Montrose was
defeated at Invercharron (1650), and a small
Jacobite foree in Glenshiel (1718). Sir Thomas
Urquhart, Lord Lovat, and Hugh Miller were
natives. The chief places are Dingwall, Tain,
Stornoway, Fortrose, Cromarty, Strathpeffer, and
Invergordon ; and the county returns one member
to parliament. Pop. (1801) 56,318 ; (1851) 82,707 ;
(1881) 78,547 ; (1891) 77,810. See separate articles
on Cromarty, Dingwall, Lewis, Maree, &c.; and
an article by J. Macdonald in Trans. Highland
and Agric, Soc. for 1877.
Rossbach, 2 vill in Prussian Saxony, 22
miles W. by S. of Leipzig and 9 SW. of Merseburg,
is celebrated for the victory gained here by the
Prussians under Frederick the Great (q.v.) over
the combined French and Austrian armies on 5th
November 1757. The ‘rout of Rossbach’ remained
for a long time a term of reproach in the French
army. The Prussians lost 540 killed and wounded,
while the loss of the allies was more than 2700
killed and wounded and 5000 prisoners, among
whom were 5 generals and 300 officers, and nearly
70 cannon.
Rosse, WILLIAM Parsons, third EARL oF, an
astronomer, was born in York on 17th June 1800,
and educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and Mag-
dalen College, Oxford, where he graduated first-
class in Mathematics in 1822. During the life of
his father he sat in the House of Commons as Lord
Oxmantown, representing King’s County from 1821
to 1834; he succeeded to the peerage in 1841, and
was elected a representative peer for Ireland in
1845. As early as 1826 he had commenced to make
experiments in the construction of fluid lenses ;
but he subsequently devoted his powers to the
construction of a speculum for the reflecting tele-
scope. Certain defects had hitherto baffled
opticians—namely, spherical aberration and absorp-
tion of light by specula, and in easting pee 7
of large size cracking and warping of the surface
on cooling; but Lord Rosse succeeded in obvi-
ating the last defect, and in counteracting in
great part the other two. He began the con-
struction of his great reflecting telescope in
1845 ; it weighed in all 12 tons, and was mounted
in his park at Parsonstown at a cost of £30,000.
The first addition to astronomical knowledge made
by this telescope was the resolution of certain
nebulze into groups of stars; next came the discovery
of numerous binary and trinary stars, and a descrip-
tion of the moon’s surface. The telescope is
described in the Philosophical Transactions, in
which journal, and in the 7ransactions of the Royal
Society, Dublin, most of his papers were published.
Lord Rosse was president of the Royal Society
from 1848 to 1854. He died on 31st October 1867,
and a statue to his memory was erected in Parsons-
town in 1876.
Rossendale, an electoral division of north-east
Lancashire, in which is Haslingden (q.v.).
Rossetti, GABRIELE, an Italian poet and man
of letters, particularly concerned in Dantesque
criticism, was born on 28th February 1783 at Vasto,
in Abruzzo Citeriore, then forming part of the
kingdom of Naples. His father, Nicola Rossetti,
was engaged in the iron-trade of the district; his
mother was Maria Francesca Pietrocola. The
parents were not in easy circumstances, and had
a large family: besides Gabriele, two of the sons
attained some eminence, Andrea becoming a canon
in the church, and Domenico being well reputed in
letters and antiquities. Gabriele gave early signs
of more than common ability, and was placed by
the local grandee, the Marchese del Vasto, to study
in the university of Naples. He had a fine tenor
voice, and was sometimes urged to try his success
on the operatic stage ; he drew with such precision
that some of his extant pen-drawings with sepia-ink
might readily be taken for steel-engravings ; he com-
poetry, both written and improvised, and be-
came one of the most noted improvisatori in Naples.
The boyhood and youth of etti passed in a
period of great political commotion, consequent upon
the revolutionary and imperial wars of France. The
Bourbon king of Naples, Ferdinand I., was ousted
by the Parthenopean Republic, and again by King
Joseph, the brother of ager and his successor
King Joachim (Murat), the emperor’s brother-in-
law, and Ferdinand had to retire to Sicily. Ros-
setti obtained an appointment as Curator of Ancient
Bronzes in the Museum of Naples, and also as
librettist to the operatic theatre of San Carlo: he
wrote the libretto of an opera, Giulio Sabino, was
well received at the court of the Napoleonic
sovereigns, and in 1813 acted as a member of the
provisional government sent to Rome by Murat,
After the restoration of Ferdinand to Naples in
1815 he continued his connection with liberal
politicians, and joined the widely-diffused ‘secret
society of the Carbonari. In 1820 a military
uprising compelled King Ferdinand to grant a con-
stitution on the model of that which had recently
been established in Spain. Rossetti saluted its
advent in one of his most celebrated odes, be-
ginning ‘Sei pur bella cogli astri sul crine’
‘ Beautiful indeed art thou, with the stars in thine
air’). The good faith of the king was highly
dubious from the first, and in 1821 he abrogated
the constitution, and put it down with the aid of
Austrian troops. The constitutionalists were Soe
scribed and persecuted, Rossetti among them. ‘Two
verses in one of his lyrics a:e said to have given
814
ROSSETTI
especial offence to the king—‘Ché i Sandi ed i
Luvelli Non sono morti ancor’ (‘For Sands and
Louyels are not yet dead ’—alluding to the assassina-
tion of Kotzebue and of the Due de Berri). Ros-
setti had to escape from Naples with the kindly
connivance of the British admiral, Sir Graham
Moore, who shipped him off to Malta in the
disguise of a British naval officer. In Malta he
was treated with great liberality and distinction b:
the governor, Mr Hookham Frere; and towards
1824 he came over to London, with good recom-
mendations, to follow the career of a teacher of
Italian. In 1826 he married Frances Mary Lavinia
Polidori, daughter of a Tnscan father and English
mother; soon afterwards he was elected professor
of Italian in King’s College, London. ey had
four children: (1) Maria Francesea, born 1827,
died 1876 (author of A Shadow of Dante, &c.); (2)
Gabriel Charles Dante (see below); (3) William
Michael, born 1829 (critical writer, and editor of
Shelley); (4) Christina Georgina (see below). In
London Rossetti lived a studious, laborious, and
honourable life, greatly respected by his pupils,
and by Italian residents and visitors; he was a
man of strong and a affections and vivacious
temperament, earnest and single-minded in all his
pursuits, In politics he was a vigorous liberal, but
more inclined to a constitutional monarchy than a
republic ; in gy agg he was mainly a freethinker,
but tending in his later years towards an undog-
matic form of Christianity. Though totally opposed
to the papal system and pretensions, he would
not openly abjure, in a Protestant country, the
Roman Catholic creed of his fathers. His health
began to fail owards 1842, and his sight became
dim, one eye being wholly lost, ter some
attacks of a paralytic character he died in Albany
Street, London, on 26th April 1854. Besides some
ms published in Italy, Rossetti produced the
ollowing works: Dante, Commedia (the Inferno
only was published ), with a commen aiming to
show that the poem is bare A political and anti-
papal in its inner meaning (1826); Lo Spirito Anti-
papale che produsse la Kiforma (‘The Anti-papal
spirit which produced the Reformation ’—an English
translation also was published), reinforeing and
atly extending the same general views (1832) ;
ddio e [’'Uomo, Salterio (‘God and Man, a
Psaltery’ ), ms (1833); J/ Mistero dell’ Amor
Platonico del Medio Evo (‘The Mysterious Platonic
Love of the Middle Ages ), 5 vols., a book of daring
and subtle speculation tending to develop the
analogy between many illustrious writers as form-
ing a secret society of anti-Catholic thought, and
the doctrines of Gnosticism and freemasonry (1840) ;
this book was printed ana prepared for publication,
but withheld as likely to be deemed rash and sub-
versive; La Beatrice di Dante, contending that
Dante’s Beatrice was a symbolic personage, not a
real woman (1842); Jl Veggente in Solitudine
(‘The Seer in Solitude’), a speculative and partly
antobiographieal poem (1846) ; it cirenlated largely,
though clandestinely, in Italy, and a medal of
Rossetti was struck there in commemoration ;
Versi (miscellaneous poems), 1847; L’Arpa Evan-
gelica (‘The Evangelic Harp’), religion’ e1ns
(1852). The views of Rossetti regarding Dante,
along with Petrarea and many other Italian
authors, excited a great deal of controversy, which
still continues in various forms and with varying
fortunes. His memory is much revered in his
native place, where the honse of his birth has been
bought as public property, and a theatre and the
chief square have been named after him.
DANTE GABRIEL Rosserti (or properly Gabriel
Charles Dante), elder son of the foregoing, was
born in Charlotte Street, Portland Place, London,
on 12th May 1828. He was educated in King’s
College School, London; but, haying from his
earliest years evinced a wish to become a painter,
he was taken from school in 1843 and commen:
the study of art, entering soon afterwards the
antique school of the Royal Academy. Here he
associated with the young ters John Everett
Millais and William Holman Hunt, and the seulptor
Thomas Woolner; along with these three he founded
the so-called Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which
was pe by the addition of three other mem-
bers. The chief incentive to the foundation of this
society, and of the school of art which it initiated
was the distaste and disrespect felt by the youthful
artists for the poverty-stricken conceptions and
slurred execution whic
then current in England, mingled with a sincere
and reverent delight in those qualities of genuine
and spontaneous invention, lofty feeling, and
patient handiwork, which had been developed by
the European schools of art preceding the ecul-
mination of Raphael and his followers. A natural
result of this frame of mind was a disposition to
realise objective details to the utmost, with a view
to the thorough authenticity of the visible means
through which ideas are conveyed; but it was a mis-
take of some observers, who noticed a serupulons
exactness and sometimes a plethora of details, to
suppose that the main concern of the associated
artists was really with the details, and not with
the ideas. The English Pre-Raphaelites wished to
exhibit true and high ideas through the medium of
true and rightly elaborated details. Two other
mistakes have been frequently repeated concerni
these artists; first, that they were an offshoot
the ‘Tractarian’ movement, guided by religious
ietism ; and second, that they were set goi
Virgin ;'
his next (1850), now in the National Gallery, ‘T
Annunciation.’ After this he withdrew from ex-
hibiting almost entirely, and his art developed
through other phases, in which the sense of human
beauty, intensity of abstract expression, and richness
of colour were leading elements. He produced num-
erous water-colours of a legendary or romantic cast,
several of them being from the ms of Dante,
others from the Arthurian tradition. Among his
rinci all ape are the Triptych for Llan-
Natt ‘athedral, of the ‘Infant Christ adored by a
Shepherd and a King,’ ‘The Beloved’ (the Bride
of the Canticles), ‘Dante’s Dream’ (now in the
Walker Gallery, Liverpool), ‘Beata Beatrix’
(National Gallery), ‘ Pandora,’ ‘ Proserpine,’ ‘The
Blessed Damozel’ (from one of his own poems),
‘The Roman Widow, ’ ‘La Ghirlandata,’ ‘ Venus
Astarte,’‘The Day-dream.’ He designed several
large compositions, such as the * Magdalene at the
door of Simon the Pharisee,’ ‘Giotto Paintin
Dante’s Portrait,’ ‘Cassandra,’ and the ‘ Boat
Love’ (from a sonnet by Dante); but these he
failed to carry out as pictures on an adequate scale,
artly owing to his receiving constant commissions
to execute smaller works, consisting mostly of
female half-figures ideal in invention or fee
and execnted in life-size. The early studies
Rossetti in art had not been so steady or systematic
as might have been wished. Afterwards, begin-
ning in 1848, he had the advantage of some
friendly training from his constant intimate, Mr
Ford Madox Brown, the historical ae but,
notwithstanding his passionate impulse as an in-
ventive artist, and his ingore realisation of
beauty in conntenance and colour, some short-
comings in severe dranghtsmanship and in technical
method, and some deg of mannerism in form
a pay rage have often, and not unjustly, bee
aid to his charge. aerate ting poe
about the sasan tine that he too definitely to the
marked most of the art -
ROSSETTI
ROSSI 815
study of painting. Besides some juvenile work;
and some translations from the German (that of
Henry the Leper, by the medieval poet, Hartmann
von der Aue, is preserved), he executed a number
of translations from Dante and other Italians,
published in 1861 as The Early Italian Poets, and
in in 1874 as Dante and his Circle. Two of
his best-known original poems, The Portrait and
The Blessed Damozel, were written in his nineteenth
year, and many others followed. These were
about to be published in 1862 in a volume (some of
them having been previously printed in magazines
—chiefly in The Germ, 1850, and The Oxford and
Cambridge Magazine, 1856), but a domestic
calamity intervened, and all idea of publication
was set aside for some years. Rossetti had fallen
in love towards 1851 with a very beautiful girl, a
dressmaker’s assistant, named Elizabeth Eleanor
Siddal; he married her in 1860, but she died sud-
denly in February 1862. In the first impulse of
desperation he buried’ his MSS. in her coffin. In
1869 he thought fit to recover them, and in 1870 he
issued his volume named Poems, containing the
bulk of those compositions and several others
written not long before the date of publication.
This volume was a success with poetical readers,
and was reviewed with great admiration and even
enthusiasm by some leading critics. Late in 1871,
however, Mr Robert Buchanan, writing in the
Contemporary Review under the udonym of
Thomas Maitland, attacked the book on literary,
-and more especially on moral grounds, and soon
afterwards he republished his article, The Fleshly
School of Poetry, as a pamphlet. Rossetti was
now in a depressed state of health, suffering
much from insomnia, from an abuse of chloral as a
palliative, and from weakened eyesight (he often
thonght he would become blind, as his father had
very nearly been). The literary detraction, con-
spiring with — malady, produced a strong
and exaggerated effect upon him; and from about
the middle of 1872 he me morbidly sensitive
and gloomy, and very recluse in his habits of life,
thongh his naturally strong sense, and his turn of
mind, in which a good deal of humour and practic-
ality was blended with idealism, continued to form
a substantial counterbalance. In 1881 he pub-
lished a second volume of poems named lads
and Sonnets (containing some of his finest work,
‘Rose Mary,’ ‘The White Ship,’ ‘The King’s
Tragedy,’ and the completed sonnet-sequence, ‘ The
House of Life’ ), and at the same time he re-issued,
with some omissions and interpolations, the Poems
of 1870. His health was by this time extremely
shattered. A touch of paralysis ailected him
towards the end of 1881, and, retiring in the hope
of some improvement to Birchington-on-Sea, near
Margate, he died there of uremia on 9th April
1882. The poetry of Rossetti is intense in foals,
exalted in tone, highly individual in poncus! gift,
picturesque and sometimes pictorial in treatment,
and elaborately wrought in literary form. These
characteristics are sometimes made consistent with
simplicity, but more generally with subtlety, of
emotion or of thought. Asin his paintings, there
is a strong medieval tendency, It is now generally
allowed that Mr Buchanan’s ert of immorality
against the writings were wide of the mark ;
indeed, he himself has admitted and proclaimed as
much. Rossetti was intimate at one or other
period of his life with many of the best men of
the day. In polities he took no part. His religious
views were vague—at times negative enough;
but he had a strong sense of reverence, and
a tendency to superstition rather than distinct
faith. In person he was of middling height, with
a handsome, expressive physiognomy, more Italian
than English. His portrait, a pencil-drawing
executed by himself towards the age of eighteen,
is in the National Portrait Gallery. He was
enerous, unthrifty, warm-tempered, clear-headed
ut not discursive in habit of mind, very natural
and unaffected in manner, concentrated in aims
and modes of work. In almost all companies in
which he mixed he assumed and preserved a marked
ascendency, due to his exceptional faculty and un-
compromising tone of mind and character.
CHRISTINA GEORGINA _ ROSSETTI, younger
daughter of Gabriele and Frances Rossetti, was
born in Charlotte Street, Portland Place, London,
on 5th December 1830. She was brought up
entirely at home under her mother’s tuition, as
a member of the Anglican Church. She began
writing verse in early girlhood. Before she
was seventeen a little volume of her poetry was
nipsnad printed by her maternal grandfather,
aetano Polidori, who kept a printing-press for his
own convenience at his residence in London. Her
publications are Goblin-Market and other Poems
(1862), Zhe Prince’s Progress and other Poems
(1866), Singsong (1872), A Pageant and other
Poems (1881); and, in prose, Commonplace and
other Stories (1870), Speaking Likenesses (1874),
Verses (1893), and a few devotional volumes, among
them Yime. Flies, a Reading Diary (with verses,
1885), and The Face of the Deep (on the Apocalypse,
1892). Most of her So 1s were re-issued in 1890 ;
and after her death, her brother William undertook
a complete edition of her works. Miss Rossetti,
whose health was weak, died 29th December
1894. She had lived a very secluded life,
divided between devoted attention to her mother
(who died at a very advanced age in 1886),
and earnest religious thought and practice. In
direct poetic gift and intrinsie quality of poetry
she may be regarded as fully equal to her brother
Dante Gabriel, although the outcome is of a less
conspicuous kind. er poems have a singular
de: of grace, delicacy, and spontaneity, deep in
feeling, sensitive and certain in touch, and marked
by great purity of emotional thought, and by an
unfailing instinet of style. Several of her lyrics
have been set to music, and cantatas for two of the
longer poems—Goblin-Market and Songs in a Corn-
Jjield—were com by Aguilar and Macfarren.
See her Life by kenzie Bell (1898).
As to Gabriele Rossetti, various critical articles regard-
ing him, more especially discussing or confuting his views
concerning Dante, &c., will be found in ‘contemporary
periodicals, and in some volumes; the work of Aroux,
entitled Dante Hérétique, Révoluti ire, et Socialiste
(1854), is founded chiefly on Rossetti’s researches, which
it presents in an exaggerated form, As to Dante
Gabriel Rossetti, see William Sharp, Dante Gabriel
Rossetti, a Record and Study (1882); Hall Caine,
Recollections (1882); Joseph Knight, Life of Dante
Gabriel Rossetti (1887 ; ‘Great Writers’ series); William
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel Rossetti as Designer and Writer
(1889); the article by Theodore Watts in the Hncyclo-
pedia Britannica ; the monograph in the Portfolio by F.
G. Stephens (1894); and the Memoir and Family Letters
(2 vols. 1895) by his brother William Michael (born
1829), author of the above article, who has also published
the following books: Dante's Comedy, the Hell, blank
verse translation (1865); Fine Art, chiehy Contem-
porary (1867); Lives of Famous Poets (1878); Life of
John Keats (1887); Shelley's Adonais, with Notes, &e.
(Clarendon Press, 1891); annotated editions of Shelley
and of Dante Gabriel Rossetti (2 vols. 1886), and other
writings.
Rossi, PELLEGRINO, was born of a noble family
at Carrara, 13th July 1787. Hestudied at Bologna,
and was made professor of Law there at twenty-
five. Exiled after the fall of Murat, he obtained a
chair at Geneva, and there wrote his Traité de
Droit Pénal. In 1833 Louis-Philippe called him
to Paris, and appointed him professor of Political
816 ROSSINI ROSTOCK
Economy at the Collége de France. For his Cours de teen months; and, thong not the
Droit Constitutionn (1836) he was naturalised and ve for such a post, he had gees of
made a member of the Chamber of Peers. He was ing several famous singers, and produced
sent to Rome as ambassador in 1845, and there | some of his already written as well as
witnessed all the events of 1848, having again Retained in service of
become an Italian subject after the fall of Louis-
Philippe. When called to the ministry by Pius
IX. i strove to oppose the party favourable to
the House of Savoy, and devised an alliance with
Naples, his object g a confederation of Italian
princes with the pope as president. This roused
the hatred of the Romans, and Rossi was stabbed
to death by an unknown hand on the 15th Novem-
ber 1848.
Rossini, GioaccHino ANTONIO, Italian presetie
composer, was born at Pesaro, on the Adriatic,
February 29, 1792, and was the ros g child of
Giuseppe Rossini, town trumpeter and inspector
of slaughter-houses, from whom he inherited his
a and humour. From the age of seven he
studied music and singing at Bologna under various
masters, till in 1807, after having appeared as con-
ductor of the local Accademia dei Concordi, he
entered the Bologna Liceo, or conservatorium. He
soon became known in neighbouring towns as
a at the theatres, travelling along with
- his father, now a horn-player. Numerous operatic
works, mostly successful, were written for the
theatres at Venice, Bologna, Rome, &ec. ; at Milan,
in 1812, La Pietra di Paragone made a t im-
pression, and gained the composer exemption from
the French conscription. Next year Tancredi, at
Venice, created the wildest excitement, which soon
spread over Italy. After producing several other
works, now mostly forgotten, he was en: as
musical director of the San Carlo and Del Fondo
theatres at Naples. On February 5, 1816, was
brought out at the Argentino theatre in Rome
Il Barbiere di Seviglia, founded on Beaumarchais’
play, and written in thirteen days. From the
predilection of the Romans for the aged Paesiello,
who had written an opera on the same play, and
from a series of ludicrous accidents, it resulted
on the first night in a complete fiasco; but next
night, after the first act had been fairly heard, the
ublic in their enthusiasm proceeded to Rossini’s
ouse, and conducted him to the theatre in triumph ;
and its ee increased with each su ing
representation. Of all his works it has the prospect
of most lasting vitality, and in its complete accord
with the libretto is the most perfect as a whole.
Otello next came out in Naples, and marked an
advance in the style of serious opera, but was not
at first successful; the tragedy was too sombre.
The comic Cenerentola, in 1817, was favourably
received in Rome, and immediately thereafter La
Gazza Ladra obtained a triumph at Milan.
These were nay followed at apie by Armida
and Mosé in Egitto (1818), La Donna del gx
(1819), and Maometto Secondo (1820). In 1821 he
married Isabella Colbran, who had sung frequently
in his operas, and the two proceeded to Vienna,
where his music and his attractive personality
earried all before him, in spite of some bitter
opposition. After his return to Bologna, Semira-
mide was written in 1823 for the Fenice Theatre,
Venice; but though the test, or at least the
most advanced, of his Ital works, it had only a
lukewarm reception—it was too heavy for the
Venetians. Invited to London, he and his wife on
their way thither paid their first visit to Paris
where he had so cordial a reception that he resolved
to return. In England he was welcomed with the
test favour by the king and the bc igcwis: :
ut produced no new wotk, though much was d
of an opera intended for the King’s Theatre,
On his return to Paris he entered on the
duties of director of the ThéAtre Italien for
Meyerbeer’s Crociato.
the king, he went on to adapt several of his works
to French taste : Maometto, appeerng ia its new
shape as Le Siége de Corinth; Moise; and Le
Comte d’Ory, new, but worked up from old material.
fren s hae veer, sm “> Saginagy and
study, there ap) at the mie, on August
3, 1839, his test work, Guillaume Tell, con-
ceived and written in a style entirely different from
and superior to that of his Italian operas, and more
nearly conforming to modern dramatic ideas. Its
success was immediate and immense, but, chiefly;
owing to the wretched libretto, not lasting. From,
this period till his death his pen was scarcely more
than once again resumed ; except a few trilles, its
only product was the Stabat Mater, first given in
1841, highly attractive and always popular, but
little in keeping with the majestic sadness of the
subject. After the decision, in his favour, of a
tedious lawsuit, he retired in 1836 to Bo! to
comfort the last years of his father, and to Ww
the utmost care on the Liceo, which he raised to a
high position as a school of music. His wife died
in 1845, and in 1847, after he had married in,
revolutionary disturbances drove him from Bo!
to Florence. In 1855 he returned to Paris, in
his villa at Passy became one of the most noted
and attractive personalities of the capital. He died
there, November 13, 1868. He stands at the head
of Italian composers for the stage, though Verdi
has now far wider popularity and r dramatic
only a few of his
force and poser, and thou
operas still hold the field—above all, the Barber,
iramide, and William Tell. His early works
would now sound strangely old-fashioned, but he
led the way in reform and progress up to modern
ideas. While all his improvements had been else-
where anticipated by Mozart, and some of his
devices were very transparent and soon
hackneyed, the taste of the audiences for whom
he wrote must not be forgotten in estimating his
music. The test of his varied gifts was an
inexhaustible facility in creating melodies which at
once delight the ear—an unacquirable possession,
and the first requisite of a great composer ; and
though he did not use all the means available in
his art, the splendid results he obtained are perhaps
on that account even the more remarkable.
See the biography by H. S. Edwards (1869), the same
author’s shorter Life in the ‘Great Musi ’ series
(1881), and the more extensive French work of M.
Azevedo (1865). There are also works on Rossini
Montrond, Zanolini (1875), and Sittard (1882),
Rosso Antico, See Porpnyry.
Ross-shire. See Ross AnD CROMARTY.
Roster (corrupted from Register) is a list of
individuals, or corps, kept by the various
officers of the army to ensure the allotment of
duties in proper rotation. Thus officers are de-
tailed in turn for guard, court-martial, or other
duties, according to the district, garrison, or regi-
mental roster. Regiments, battalions, and batteries
take their turn of foreign service according to the
adjutant-general’s roster.
Rostock, the most important town of Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin, and one of the busiest ports on the
Baltic, stands on the Warnow, 7 miles from its
mouth ry nd miles by rail NE. ete a It
consists of the city proper, surroun promen-
ades on the site dt the old fortifications, and
suburbs which have grown up beyond them. It
has go A fairs for wool, horses, and cattle ; imports
coal, wine, herrings, petroleum, groceries, timber,
ROSTOFF
ROTATION 817
&c. ; exports grain, wool, flax, and cattle ; owns a
mercantile fleet of 750 vessels of some 150,000 tons;
and is entered annually by more than 900 vessels
of about 120,000 tons. essels above 200 tons un-
load in part at Warnemiinde, at the mouth of the
river. The industries are very varied, the most
important being shipbuilding, the making of
machinery, tanning, brewing, distilling, the manu-
facture of hats, tobacco, &c. The university,
founded in 1418, but rebuilt in’ 1867, is the chief
of the public institutions; it has 40 teachers, 360
students, a library of 140,000 volumes, an observa-
tory, and an experimental agricultural colony.
Amongst the churches are St Mary’s (1398-1472),
one of the finest Gothic churches of north Germany,
in which is a monument of Grotius, and St Peter’s,
with a tower 414 feet high. The ducal palace
(1702) and the 14th-century Gothic town-house
also deserve mention. There is a handsome public
park. The statue of Bliicher, a native of the town,
adorns one of the ne Pop. (1875) 34,172;
(1890) 44,388. Rostock, an ancient Slav town, was
burned to the ground by Waldemar of Denmark in
1161. In 1314 it came to Mecklenburg. About
this time it enjoyed great repute as a powerful
member of the Hanseatic League, and secured
- important rights of self-government. It still pos-
sesses a thoroughly republican municipal constitu-
tion, and forms a separate estate in the Meck-
lenburg Assembly. history by Koppmann
(Rostock, 1887).
Rostoff, (1) a town of south Russia, stands at
the head of the delta of the Don and on the rail-
way (1875) from Moscow to the Caucasus. It
owes its origin to the foundation of a fortress
here in 1761, since which time the progress of the
town, owing to its advantageous situation, has
been remarkable. Pop. (1881) 44,500; (1885)
61,256. It exports corn, linen, and wool to the
value of £3,000,000 a year; its imports only
reach £30,000. The manufactures are growing
rapidly, the principal articles b port: being ropes,
to , macaroni, soap, and leather; but there
are also shipbuilding-yards, wool-cleansing estab-
lishments, and caviare-factories. Two important
fairs are held here every year.—(2) One of the
oldest towns of Russia, stands on a small lake, 129
miles by rail NNE. of Moscow, and has celebrated
market-gardens, a large fair, an extensive trade,
tallow-works, and coarse linen manufactures. Pop.
11,898.
Rostopchine, Fropor VAssILIEvICcH, COUNT,
a Russian general, was born in the government of
Orel, March 23, 1763, and entered the Russian
military service as a lieutenant in the Imperial
Guard. He won great influence over the weak
mind of the Emperor Paul, who promoted him to
various offices in rapid succession. In May 1812
the Emperor Alexander appointed him governor of
Moscow. He it was, according to the French
writers, who planned and began with his own
hand the burning of Moscow. But in 1823 he
mblished La Varité sur UIncendie de Moscou
Paris, 1823), in which he rebuts the charge,
affirming that this action was due in part to a few
of the inhabitants, and in part to the violence and
negligence of the French. Nevertheless, he subse-
nently recalled this denial and admitted his share
in the burning, in that he at least set fire to his
own mansion-honse. He died at Moscow, January
30, 1826. His works, which include a number of
historical memoirs, two comedies, &c., in Russian
and French, were published at St Feaxsvas in
1853. See life by Schnitzler (Paris, 1863) and by
Ségur (Paris, 1872).
Roswitha, or HrotswiTHA.
Vol. IV. p. 83.
416
See DRAMA,
Rot. See Fiuxez, Dry Ror.
Rotation. When all points of a body are
moving with the same Velocity (q.v.) the motion
is one of oth translation, and is easy to compre-
hend. When, however, this condition is not ful-
filled there must exist the kind of motion known
as rotation. As simple examples, take the whirl-
ing of a flywheel or the motion of the hands of a
watch. In such cases we readily see that there is,
in the rotating body, a row of points which does
not itself move. This row of points is called the
axis of rotation, and every other point in the body
describes a circle about it. To specify the motion
completely we must know not only the position of
this axis, but also the rate of rotation and the sense,
clockwise or counterclockwise, with which the body
is rotating about the axis. The rate of rotation
may be measured by the number of revolutions
made in a chosen time. It is more scientific, how-
ever, to measure it in terms of the angular speed.
If the body is rotating uniformly the angular speed
is the angle described in unit time by any plane
drawn in the body parallel to or containing the
axis of rotation: e.g. with the unit of time one
sidereal day, the earth’s angular speed about its
axis is 2x or 360°; but with the second as the unit
of time the angular speed is a quarter of a minute
of are, or ‘000073 in radians.
In a simple geometric way a given rotation ma
be represented = a directed line taken of length
numerically equal to the angular speed, and drawn
along the axis of rotation in that direction which
is related to the sense of rotation exactly as the
to-and-fro motion of a right-handed screw is to the
rotational motion of the screw. Such a directed
quantity of definite length and of definite line
position is called by Clifford a rotor. It isa Vector
(q.v.) under the restriction that its lie in space is
limited to a particular straight line.
So long as the axis of rotation-is fixed with
reference to lines which appear steady to us, there
is no difficulty in apprehending the character of
the motion. Take, however, the case of a carriage
wheel or boy’s hoop rolling along the road. Here
we may regard the wheel as rotating about an axis
drawn through the centre, while the axis is at the
same time travelling forward with a definite linear
speed—i.e. we may regard the motion as a combin-
ation of translation and rotation. In this par-
ticular case we may, however, represent the motion
at each instant as one of pure rotation about: an
axis coinciding with the instantaneous line of
contact of the wheel with the road. For, with
rolling and no slipping, this line of contact with
the road is for the moment at rest. And it is
almost self-evident that, if at any instant there
exists in rigid connection with a moving body an
axis momentarily at rest, the instantaneous motion
must be of the character of a rotation about this
axis. The above is a simple example of what
holds generally in uniplanar motion—i.e. motion
in which every point of the body moves in a plane
perpendicular to a fixed direction. The general
theorem is that any uniplanar displacement what-
ever (which is not a pure translation) can be
effected by a pure rotation about a determinate
axis. Since any given motion may be regarded
as consisting of a succession of displacements, it
follows that any such uniplanar motion can
effected by a succession of rotations alout Instan-
taneous axes whose successive positions in space
and in the body are determinate. =
In uniplanar motions pee it is clear that
the instantaneous axis of rotation, however much
it may move both in space and in the body, must
always remain parallel to the same direction. If
discontinuous motion be excluded—and all natural
motions are continuous—this instantaneous axis
818 ROTATION
ROTATION OF CROPS
will continuously from position to position.
It will trace out cylindrical surfaces, one in space
and one in the body; and at any given instant
these surfaces will touch along the line which is
for the moment the instantaneous axis. It is not
difficult to show that the complete motion of the
body may be represented by the rolling of one of
these surfaces upon the other. In the simple case
of the carriage wheel the rolling surfaces are
evidently the circumference of the wheel and the
plane of the road. These theorems in uniplanar
motion have cece hr in the
kinematics of machinery (see Minchin’s Uniplanar
‘inematics, Clarendon Press, 1882).
If the motion is not uniplanar it is no longer
possible in general to represent it by a succession
of pure rotations. There is, however, a very
remarkable theorem, which can be proved with-
out diffieulty, but which is hard of apprehension
and even of acceptation. It is that after any dis-
lacement whatever of a body in s there is,
in the body or ps oa connected with it, a line of
points which is oe y shifted along its own line
in space. The whole displacement may then be
effected by means of a sliding along this line to-
gether with a pure rotation about it—in other
words, by a definite screw motion with reference
to this line as axis (see ScREW). Even in the
simpler case, when by fixing one point of a body
we quite exclude translation, it is not easy to
P the significance of the fact that after any
isplacement there is always one row of points
which oceupy exactly the same positions as before
the displacement. From this theorem it follows
that, however such a body may be moving, there is
momentarily a line which is at rest. This line is
the instantaneous axis of rotation. It always
asses through the fixed point, and will as it shi
in time describe two conical surfaces, one in space
and the other in the body. Any given continuous
motion can then be effected by the rolling of one
determinate conical surface fixed in the body upon
another fixed in space. As a familiar example
take an ordinary spinning-top. Here to the eye
there is in general a rotation of the top about its
axis of figure, while at the same time the top
executes a conical motion about a vertical line
through the point of support. In reality, however,
at any instant of time the top is subject to one
rotation about an instantaneous axis, which coin-
cides neither with the axis of figure nor with the
vertical line. This instantaneous axis executes a
definite conical motion, both in the body and in
aoe. Clerk-Maxwell (see his collected en)
evised a very ingenious and simple optical meth
for observing the position of the instantaneous axis,
and so studying experimentally its motions with
reference to the top. It should be mentioned in
conclusion that infinitely small rotations are
resolved and compounded according to the same
laws as velocities and forces, so that we may
regard the instantaneous angular velocity of a
rotating body as made up of component angular
velocities about any three chosen axes. It is thus
that the subject is usually treated analytically.
Such a treatment, however, is essentially artificial ;
and for a natural treatment we must go to geo-
metry or to the Calculus of Quaternions (q.v.).
Rotation of Crops. In successful pang
farming it is a fundamental principle that the
various crops shall be wn in a well-considered
rotation. There are solid reasons for this. The
plants, like the animals, of the farm differ much in
their habits and in the different sorts of food upon
which they subsist. Although all plants tend to
exhaust the soil, they do so in widely different
degrees; they withdraw from the soil different
kiads and quantities of ingredients. Some of the
farm crops have long, etrating roots, which
draw nourishment from The dee = lagers of the
soil; others have short or sp roots, which
ramify near the surface, Certain crops occupy the
ground for a much longer period than others ; some
encourage the growth of weeds or interfere with
the proper cleaning of the land; others facilitate
the work of eradicating weeds; and finally,
the ‘erop residues’ of the various plants of
farm differ greatly. A glance at the followi
figures, giving the average weight of the princi
ingredients removed (per acre in Ibs.) from the soil
by the leading farm crops, will show the importance
of growing these crops upon a carefully-considered
system of rotation,
Clover AS tons)...... 102
Meadow hay (14 tons).. 49 509
It is thus obvious that by alternating the root,
the cereal, and the grass and clover crops the pro-
ducing power of the soil is more easily maintained,
and its exhaustion longer deferred. With the
fuller knowledge which is now available both as to
the wants of the plants and the means of supplying
these wants, it is possible, and in certain cases also
practicable, for the farmer to grow with success the
same kind of crop on the same land year after year
for almost any length of time. A more economical
method, however, is to alternate the crops, so that
the natural resources of the soil and the repairing
influences incident to a judicious rotation may be
utilised to full advantage. It was long ago demon-
strated in practice that when land les for a few
yous apa 7 and merge it begga ¢ enriched
with ash constituents and nitrogen. e
and clovers not only increase the quantity of nitro-
gen in the surface soil by drawing supplies of it
m the subsoil and from the atmosphere, but
they have also the power of cone that
accumulated nitrogen in a form in which it is
easily made available to a crop of grain. Points
often insufficiently considered in tillage-farming
are the period of growth and the season of the year
during which the crop occupies the ground. Judg-
ing from the table given above, one would imagine
that turnips would require in the form of manure
far more nitrogen than is required for wheat. In
practice, however, it is well known that exactly
the reverse is the case. The difference in the points
just mentioned, that is in the period and sea-
son of the growth of the two crops, is responsible
for this important peculiarity. Nitrification (q.v.), or
the formation of nitrates in the soil, is most active
during summer and autumn, and the ce crops
thus occupy the ground at the time when the soil is
pe: cogra img deficient in nitrates. The root-crop
on the other hand is in full growth in the autumn,
when the supply of nitrates in the soil is at the
maximum. t-crops consumed on the farm are
therefore a preparation for succeeding come
of cereals, The precise form of rotation most suit-
able for particular farms varies greatly, de
upon various circumstances, and i uly the
nature of the soil, climate, markets, available
supplies of extra manures, amount of live-stock
kept, &e. That course of cropping is evidently
the most desirable which will economically secure,
with thorough cleanness of the soil, a high and in
creasing state of fertility.
Many rotations are based upon the Norfolk or
four-course system, which consists of (1) clover or
o ew
ROTATION OF CROPS
ROTATORIA 819
mixed grass seeds; (2) wheat or, in many parts
of Scotland, oats; (3) turnips, swedes, mangolds,
potatoes, or bare fallow; (4) barley. The details
of this system are generally as follows. The clovers
or grasses are mown or pees ; when cut they are
either used green or are dried for hay; the second
crop is carted home for the cattle or horses; near
towns it is sold off; or it is consumed on the ground
in racks by sheep, which on most highly cultivated
farms receive besides a daily allowance of cake or
corn. In districts where the town-manure can be
obtained a top dressing is applied as soon as the
first crop of grass is cut. On the r and worse
cultivated soils the grass-crop occasionally remains
down for two, or even three years, thus extending
a four into a five or six years’ rotation. The clovers
or mixed seeds are ploughed up in autumn, and
followed generally in England by wheat, and in
Scotland by oats. These crops are now often
drilled, to admit of horse and hand hoeing. After
harvest the stubble is, if possible, cleaned by the
searifier, grubber, or plough and harrows ; or, where
the management for several years has been ;
any patches of couch- or other weeds are best
forked out by hand. The land, especially if heavy,
or intended for mangolds drilled on the flat, as prac-
tised in the drier parts of England, may then be
manured and deagts ploughed: the grubber and
harrows, in April or May, suftice to prepare for the
drilling of mangolds or swedes. eavy land, in-
tended either for roots or barley, should, in spring,
be disturbed as little as ible. In Scotland,
‘and the cooler moist climates of the north
and west of England, turnips and potatoes are
grown on raised drills or balks, in which the
manure lies immediately underneath the plant.
Frequent horse and hand hoeings should ensure
the thorough cleaning of the crop. Unless in the
back rat lage of towns, where it is greatly more
profitable to sell off the whole of the root-crop, part
of the swede or mangold crop is taken home for the
cattle, and the remainder consumed by sheep in
the field. After the fallow or cleaning crop another
cereal crop is grown; under the Norfolk system
this is generally barley, with which the clovers or
$ are sown out. Where sewage or tank water
is available Italian rye-grass is often used, and on
land in high condition early large and repeated cut-
tings are obtained ; but rye-grass has the disadvan-
of being a worse preparation than clover for
the wheat-ecrop which usually follows. The chief
failing of the four-course system consists in the
frequent recurrence of clover, which cannot be
successfully grown oftener than once in six or
eight years. To obviate this difficulty one-half of
the clover quarter is now often put under beans,
peas, or vetches, thus keeping the grass or clover
seeds eight years apart.
The Norfolk four-course system is unsuitable for
heavy land, where a large breadth of roots cannot
be profitably grown, and where their place, as a
cleaning crop, is taken by bare fallow, vetches, or
pulse. Bare fallows are, however, much less fre-
quent than formerly, being now confined to the
most refractory of clays, or to subjects that are
so hopelessly full of weeds as to require for their
extirpation several weeks of summer weather, and
the repeated use of the steam or horse ploughs, the
searifier, grubber, and harrows. In such cireum-
stances winter vetches are often put in during Sep-
tember or October, are eaten off by sheep and
horses in June or July, and the land afterwards
cleaned: this practice is extensively pursued on
the heavier lands in the midland and southern
counties of England. In such localities the follow-
ing system is approved of : (1) The clover leas are
seeded with (2) wheat ; then come (3) beans, pulse,
or vetches, manured, horse or hand hoed ; (4) on
one land wheat succeeds ; (5) oats or barley often
ollow, but, to prevent undue exhaustion of plant-
food, this system requires considerable outlay in
artificial manures, cake, and corn; (6) a fallow, or
fallow crop, deeply and thoroughly cultivated, and
well manured, comes to restore cleanness and
fertility; (7) barley or wheat is drilled, and
amongst this the clover-seeds are sown. On the
heavier carse-lands in Scotland the following plan
of cropping is practised : (1) Clover; (2) oats; (3)
beans ; (4) wheat ; (5) root-crop, usually including
a considerable breadth of potatoes ; (6) wheat; (7)
barley, with which the clovers or mixed grasses are
sown. Under this system it is difficult, with so few
cleaning crops, to keep the land clean; roots, be-
sides, are not pote in quantities sufficient pro-‘
perly to supply either cattle or sheep during the
winter. To remedy these defects roots may be
introduced after the oats, and would be followed
either by wheat or barley. This extends the rota-
tion from seven to nine years.
In most well-cultivated districts, whether of
heavy or light land, stock-farming is extending,
and a more vigorous effort is being made to raise
the aerality of the land. Root-crops are accordingly
more largely grown ; indeed, it is sometimes found
profitable to grow two root-crops consecutively ;
thus, after turnips, swedes, cabbages, or pienacsie
well manured from the town or farmyard, an
eaten off by sheep, potatoes of superior quality are
produced with one ploughing and a dose of port-
able manure, Specialities of management occur in
almost every locality. Near London, and in other
southern districts, early potatoes or peas are grown
for market, and are immediately followed by tur-
nips. In many parts of England, where the soil
and climate are good, rye or vetches sown in
autumn are consumed in early summer, and a
root-crop then put in. .
Good rotations do not necessarily ensure good
farming ; they are merely means to an end. And
as agricultural education and enterprise extend
fixed rotations will be less regarded. ‘The market-
ardener, who extracts a great deal more from his
and than the farmer has hitherto been able to do,
does not adhere to any definite system of cropping.
If the farm is kept clean and in improving condi-
tion there can be no harm in growing whatever
crops it is adapted to produce. Cropping clauses
are requisite during only the three or four last
years of a tenancy. The restrictions found in some
agreements, preventing the growth of clover for
seed, flax, and even potatoes, are inadmissible.
Equally objectionable are clauses against the sale
of particular sorts of produce, such as hay or roots.
The farmer, if he is fit to be entrusted with the
use of the land, ought to be permitted to grow or
sell off any crop he pleases, prsee an equivalent
in manure be brought back. On well-cultivated
land, in good condition, it is now the practice of
the best farmers to take oats or barley after wheat ;
indeed, some of the best malting barley in Essex,
on the Scottish carse-lands, and elsewhere is now
grown after wheat. The frequent growth of
cereals, and the heaviest of hay and root crops,
even when removed from the farm, may be fairly
compensated for by judicious and liberal treatment
with town-dung, sewage, or artificial manures.
The plant-food disposed of in the more ordinary
sales of the farm is economically restored by the
use of bones or superphosphate, guano, or nitrate
of soda, or by reg plenty of stock on the farm,
and supplying them liberally with cake and corn.
See also the articles AGRICULTURE, FALLOow,
MANURE, SOILS, and those on the various crops.
Rotatoria, or Rorirer, a class of minute
aquatic animals, popularly called wheel-animal-
cules. Most of them are microscopic, very trans-
820 ROTCHE
ROTHE
parent, and exceedingly active. The body is
unsegmented, and almost always bears a posterior
ventral ‘ foot,’ and an anterior ae of cilia,
whose movements suggest a rapidly rotating wheel.
Another characteristic structure is the masticating
mill in the pharynx, a complex apparatus consisting
in of two hammers, which work against an
anvil. The food seems to consist of yet smaller
organisms and of organic debris, The nervous
system consists of a single dorsal ganglion. There
is a body-cavity containing fluid, and there are
muscles retract-
ing and extend-
ing the ciliated
disc and the foot.
There are no cir-
culatory organs,
but two excretory
tubes are present.
Rotifers live both
in fresh waters
and in the sea,
and sometimes in
damp moss. A
few are parasitic.
Some are able to
survive desicca-
tion, and may be
wafted about by
the wind, but it
is likely that in
some cases the
regeneration
after prolon
drongik: is 2
not to a revivifi-
cation of the
adults, but to
the development
of the eggs, which can remain for a long time
quiescent. There are three kinds of eggs: small
ova, which develop into males ; thin-shelled summer
ova ; and thick-shelled resting or winterova. And it
is said that a given female produces only one kind.
Sometimes they are laid in the water, or attached
to water-plants; sometimes they are hatched
within the mother. In most, if not all cases, the
are parthenogenetic, developing without fertilisa-
tion. For in one series of rotifers ( Philodinade)
the males have never been found; while in other
cases the males, which are usually smaller and
simpler than the females, do not succeed in fertilis-
ing the eggs. As representative rotifers the
following may be mentioned: Rotifer vulgaris,
very common in stagnant fresh-water pools;
Hydatina seuta, with exceedingly rapid develop-
ment; Melicerta, which forms an ensheathing case
of disgorged pellets ; the parasitic Seison, Albertia,
Balatro, which have lost, or almost lost, the char-
acteristic ciliated wheel; Floscularia, living in a
gelatinous case ; the exceedingly beautiful Stephano-
ceros; Pedalion mira, a unique jumping rotifer,
with six hollow leg-like appendages. The zoological
position of rotifers is uncertain, but some regard
them as remotely allied to Chaetopod worms.
See Hudson and Gosse, The Rotifera (1889); Plate,
in Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Naturwisa, (xix. 1886).
Rotche, or Lirrte Auk. See AuK.
Rothamsted, or RoTHAMSTEAD PARK, 4 miles
NW. of St Albans, is noted as the scene of the
agricultural experiments of Sir J. Bennet Lawes.
See AGRICULTURE, Vol. I. p. 103.
Rothe, RicHarp, one of the greatest specula-
tive theologians of Germany, was born at Posen,
28th January 1799. At the universities of Heidel-
berg and Berlin he had among his teachers Daub,
Hegel, Schleiermacher, and Neander. After a two
a, female dorsal view ; b, male ditto.
(The Rotifera, Hudson and Gosse.)
ears’ course in the clerical seminary at Witten
aad a short period of lecturing as
Breslau he set out for Rome in ber 1823 as
chaplain to Bunsen’s embassy. In 1828 he accepted
a professorship in the Wittenberg seminary, whence
in 1839 he migrated to fill a similar position at
Heidelberg. In 1849 he obeyed a call to Bonn as
professor and university preacher, but in 1854 he
returned to Heidelberg as professor of Theology and
member of the Oberkirchenrath, and here he died,
August 20, 1867. Rothe was one of the noblest
types of the theologian that Germany has pro-
uced, in his rare combination of simple inward
piety with fearless boldness of thought. The
patient care he lavished on a wife afflicted with a
mental malady, the great personal influence he
exerted over his students, his humility, charity,
and that magnificent prophetic optimism that
already saw the whole universe aglow with
the glory of the Redeemer, all testify alike to the
beauty and elevation of his character. His con-
ception of the kingdom of God founded by Jesus
reminds an English reader of the grand scheme
of Hooker in its identification of the ous
and moral functions of church and state, in a kind
of refined and glorified Erastianism. Indeed the
special function of the church will come to an end
= oats as - state has heenees pene
e religious idea, its purpose being merely that o'
a tem instrument in the rentiaation of this
ultimate ideal. The real end of Christianity is to
create no hierarchical theocracy, but a spiritualised
community with all its social and political fune-
tions harmonised with the divine morality. Pro-
fane and sacred sciences will at length , all
education will become religious, and the instinet
of worship will find nourishment in a erated
theatre and an elevated art. The work of the
church meantime is essentially educative and
tory—itself a means and not an end—and all
its efforts to realise itself as a distinct society are
an unfaithfulness to its real principle. The
Catholicism of the middle ages was a grand
attempt to realise a visible church, but frustrated
its highest end because it denaturalised the true
social relations when it gave itself a purpose and a
policy antagonistic to the state. The Reformation
conception of the invisible church was an attempt
to avoid the difficulty of the Catholic theory, but
it created a purely spiritual community, se!
from the ordinary interests of social and national
life, and with a fatal tendency to the error ofa
divorce between religion and morality, the former
emphasising the interests of the individual for
eternity, the latter relating merely to his social
duties here—in themselves considered as of no
religious value.
Rothe’s theory deals a deathblow to clerical-
ism and all exaggeration of the importance of
the external organisation. It may be that it will
be for ages yet to come nothing beyond a devout
imagination, but at least it is a splendid attempt
to realise the Christian dream of the kingdom
of God, to carry into effect Christ’s distinction
between mere outward form and inward sche
and the eternal fact that it is in life as
Himself has made it that the power and spirit of
the gospel ought to manifest itself. [his speenla-
tive theory is worked out in the first of the three
books of Rothe’s unfinished work, Die Anfange der
Christlichen Kirche (1837)—the second and third
books are historical. His roe work is his
ree Ethik (3 vols. 1845-48 ; 2d ed. com-
leted by Holtzmann from his papers, 5 vols. 1869-
1), which supplements the preceding book, being
based on the same fundamental pater Meet
religion and morality, the starting-point being the
idea of God involved in consciousness, and con-
ROTHENBURG
ROTHSCHILDS 821°
sidered in relation to the world and to man. Here
in his pursuit of analogies into the world of science
Rothe too often leaves behind him the solid earth
of reality, and ventures on hypotheses that are
little better than visionary, and, moreover, his
style is not seldom abrupt, obscure, and perplex-
ma His Dogmatik, posthumously edited by
Schenkel (3 vols. 1870-71), completes his ethics.
Here he distinguishes sharply between Revelation
itself and the Bible—its documentary record. The
former is not so much a supernatural communica-
tion of a religious doctrine as a particular form of
God’s “aye a activity, strengthening and recti-
fying the religious consciousness of man disturbed
by sin. The true object of Revelation is the know-
ledge of God ; its mode of operation is not magical,
but is accompanied by an internal action on the
consciousness producing a special receptivity by
means of which the external manifestations in
history and nature may be understood. It is
supernatural in its cause, but natural in its
method, although admitting alike of inspiration,
of miracle, and of prophecy—not contradictions of
nature, but rather inherently constituent elements
of a Revelation, subserving higher laws of nature
unknown to man’s limited faculties, but perfectly
homogeneous with a divine order.
During his last ten years, after the formation of
the Protestantenverein, Rothe took an active part
in ecclesiastical affairs, as a leader in the School of
Conciliation. He was an admirable preacher, but
with characteristic modesty could hardly be in-
duced to publish his sermons. Schenkel edited
three volumes in 1869, but took unwarrantable
liberties with the text, in the way of modifying
the supernaturalism. A fourth and reliable volume
was edited by W. Hiibbe in 1872.
The Prolegomena which Rothe had contributed to
Studien und Kritiken he collected under the title Zur
Dogmatik (1863). After his death, besides the books
already named, there were edited from his papers Vorles-
/ tiber Kirchengeschichte, by Weingarten (2 vols.
1875-76); Abendandachten tiber die Pastoralbriefe, by
Palmié (2 vols, 1876-77); Der erste Brief Johannis, by
Miihlhiusser (1878); Theologische Encyklopidie, by Kup-
pelius (1880) ; Geschichte der Predigt, ‘Triimpelmann
(1881); Gesammelte Vortrdge u. Abhandlungen, by Ni
Id (1886). Nippold also edited the Stille Stunden (1872;
Eng. trans. 1886) and wrote his Life (2 vols, 1873-74).
Rothenburg, a town of Bavaria, on the
Tauber, 36 miles W. by S. of Nuremberg, preserves
its medieval character in great part unaltered.
Pop. 6221. The town produces a periodic pro-
cession and historic play in memory of its escape
from being sacked in the Thirty Years’ War, during
which the town (then a place of 18,000 inhabitants )
was repeatedly taken and retaken,
Rotherham, « busy manufacturing town in
the West Riding of Yorkshire, on the right bank
of the Don, here joined by the Rother, 5 miles
ENE. of Sheffield by a railway opened in 1838.
Its chief glory is the magnificent cruciform church,
Perpendicular in style, with crocketted spire and
fine west front. It is probably somewhat earlier
than its reputed founder, Thomas de Rotherham,
Archbishop of York (1423-1500); in 1875 it was
restored by Sir G. G. Scott at a cost of £9000. A
handsome edifice in the Collegiate Gothic style,
built for an Independent College in 1875 at a cost
of £26,000, has been bought for £8000, and applied
to the purpose of a grammar-school (1483), at which
Bishop Sanderson was edueated, There are also a
mechanics’ institute (1853); a free library (1881) ;
an infirmary (1870); a covered market (1879);
ublic baths (1887); a park (1876) of 20 acres, 300
eet above the town; and the Clifton Park of
57 acres, which, costing £25,000, contains a fine
mansion-house, and was opened by the Prince of
Wales on 25th June 1891. The manufactures in-
clude stoves, grates, chemicals, pottery, glass, rail-
way-carriages, &c. Ebenezer Elliott was a native
of the suburb of Masborough, which is included
within the municipal boundary, incorporated in
1871. Roche Abbey, a ruin, 8 miles ESE., was a
Cistercian foundation (1147); and 8 miles NE. is
Conisborough Castle, noticed at DoNcASTER. Pop.
(1851) 6325 ; (1871) 25,892; (1881) 34,782; (1891)
42,050. See John Guest’s huge Historical Notices
of Rotherham (1879).
Rothesay, a favourite Scotch watering-place,
the capital of Buteshire, is beautifully situated on
the north-east shore of the island of Bute (q.v.), 40
miles by water W. of Glasgow and 19 SSW. of
Greenock. ‘Sweet Rothesay Bay,’ rimmed by hills
400 to 530 feet high, offers safe anchorage in any
wind, and is spacious enough to contain the largest
fleet. Its charming scenery, its bathing facilities,
its sheltered position, and the extreme mildness of
its climate have rendered Rothesay a resort alike of
holiday-makers and of invalids, especially those
affected with pulmonary disease. Its linen and
cotton manufactures, tanning, and _boat-building
are almost or quite extinct ; and the herring-fishery
is now the principal industry. A score of the
Clyde steamers touch regularly at Rothesay, whose
commodious harbour was constructed (1822-84) at
a cost of over £30,000. An esplanade was formed
in 1870; and among the chief edifices are the county
buildings (1832-67), public hall (1879), aquarium
(1876), academy (1869), and Glenburn hydropathie
(1843; burn down in 1891, and _ rebuilt).
In the middle of the town are the ruins of
Rothesay Castle, founded about 1098, taken by
Haco of Norway (1263), the death-place of Robert
III. (1406), reduced to ruin (1685), and repaired in
1871-77 by the Marquis of Bute, at a cost of £8000.
Rothesay since 1398 has given the title of duke to
the eldest son of the Scottish sovereign. Created a
royal burgh in 1400, it returned a member from the
Union till 1832. Pop. (1821) 4107); (1881) 8329 ;
(1891) 9108. See books by J. Wilson (1848) and
Thoms (1870).
Rothschilds, the well-known family of bankers,
take their name from the sign of the house (‘Zum
Rothen Schilde,’ or ‘red shield’), in the Jews’
uarter of Frankfort, in which their ancestors lived.
he real founder of the family as financial magnates
was MEYER AMSCHEL ROTHSCHILD, who was born
at Frankfort in 1743. Although educated for a
rabbi, he embarked in the banking business at
Hanover, and, having saved a little money, started
for himself as a money-lender and dealer in old
coins in the family home at Frankfort. He won the
confidence of the landgrave of Hesse, who entrusted
his finances to the Jew’s management. The current
story, that he successfully hid the fortune of the
landgrave from the French invaders in 1806, and
was through his patron’s gratitude allowed to have
the almost free use of it for some years, and so by
this means laid the foundation of a large fortune,
is extremely doubtful. The beginnings of his
fortune were in all probability less romantic: the
Rothschild house got a heavy commission for
transmitting money from the English government
to Wellington in Spain during the eig t years of
the Peninsular war; they managed the large
private fortune of the landgrave; through them
the British government made its payments of
subsidies to continental princes; they negotiated
large loans for Denmark between 1804 and 1812.
At his death, on 13th September 1812, Meyer
Amschel Rothschild left five sons, all of whom
were made barons of the Austrian empire in 1822.
ANSELM MEYER, the eldest son, born in 1773, died
1855, succeeded as head of the firm at Frankfort.
822 ROTIFERA ROTTERDAM
SOLOMON (1774-1855) established a branch at | posed to be formed by decomposition of shale or
Vienna; NATHAN MEYER (1777-1836), a branch | siliceous limestone. It is found in
in 1798 at London ; CHARLEs (1788-1855), a branch
at Naples (discontinued about 1861); and JAMES
(1792-1868), a branch at Paris. Apart from their
very extensive private banking business these
houses have been deeply concerned in negotiatin
many of the large government loans of the 19t
century. The cleverest man of the five was Nathan,
who really lifted the house into its position as first
re the banking-honses of the world. He
pinned his faith and staked his fortunes on the
success of Britain in her great duel with Napoleon,
and is said to have been present himself at the
battle of Waterloo, from which he hastened home
to London, where, before the result of the battle
became known, he had sold and bought stock that
brought him one million sterling clear ae He
was succeeded by his son LIONEL (1 79), who
distinguished himself by his efforts to effect the
civil and political emancipation of the Jews in
Great Britain. The present head of the London
branch is Lionel’s son, Srk NATHAN (born 1840),
who succeeded to the baronetcy conferred in 1847
on his uncle Anthony. He was rai to the
peerage as Baron Rothschild in 1885. His niece
annah (1851-90) was in 1878 married to the Earl
of yrs See Reeves, The Rothschilds (1887),
and Das Haus Rothschild (Prague, 1857).
Rotifera. See Roraroria.
Rotomahana,. See New ZEALAND, p. 487.
Rotrou, JEAN DE, a French tragic poet, second
only to his friend and contemporary
England, in Wales, and near Albany, in the state
New York. It is brown—either grayish, red or
blackish. It is soft and easily seraped to powder
and is well known to housewives, being much
for cleaning and polishing brass and other metals.
Rotterd the busiest port of Holland,
stands on both sides of the Maas, 19 miles from its
mouth, and 16 miles by rail SE. of the Hague and
45 SW. of Amsterdam, Since Holland was —
ated from gprs ~ aye = reaper :
wn at an extraordinarily rapid rate, es)
Since the middle of the century. New Theorie
and quays and new docks have built almost
every year since 1847. In 1888 the quays measured
15 miles in length and the docks covered an area
of 190 acres; and since then two new docks have
been made and the (se! te) petroleum wharves
have been extended. Since 1872 sea-going vessels
have ceased to approach Rotterdam by the old
channel of Brill (Brielle); they have used instead
the New Waterway—i.e. the and the Scheur,
the latter of which has been connected with the
sea by a canal cut through the Point (Hoek) of
Holland. Every effort has been made to render
this new waterway available for large ocean-going
steamers, and the work of improvement has
constantly going on ever since it was ed, until
in 1890 it had a depth never less than 22 feet at low
tide, and big ships were able to reach the sea in two
hours from Rotterdam. Taking all the vessels that
enter all the ports of Holland from abroad, more
Corneille, was born at Dreux, August
21, 1609, went early to Paris, and
became a busy playwright, as well as
one of the five ts—the others
were Corneille, Colletet, Bois-Robert,
and L’Etoile—who worked up into
grees form the hayes of re elieu.
is first piece, L’Hypocondriaque,
was followed by La —— de LOubli
imitated from Lope de Vega, and
that by Cleagénor et Doristée, Diane,
Les Occasions Perdues, L’ Heureuse
Constance, all in the Spanish roman-
tie style. Next followed a busy
period of classical influence, culmin-
ating in his last years with three
ene apiene Ati Saint
enest, a tragedy of Christian martyr-
dom under Divcletian ; Bort.
rand, a capital comedy; and Vences-
las, which kept the aes almost down to our
own day. radition tells that Rotrou led a
dissipated life in Paris, and further was inordin-
ately addicted to gambling; more honourable is
the authentic history of his death. He held an
official rt at Drenx, and when he heard that the
p e had broken out there, and that the mayor
ad fled like Montaigne in the same circumstances
from Bordeaux, he hastened to the town to preserve
order, caught the lence, and died a few hours
after, June 28, 1
As many as thirty-five of his are still extant, but
man atl x A com se edition was edited by
Viollet-le-Duc (5 vols, 1820-22); six of the plays, .
de Ronchand (2 vols. 1882). See Jarry’s é (1868),
the works by Person on Saint-Genest (1882) and Venceslas
, 1882), and G, Steffens, Rotrou-Studien (i, 1891).
Rottenbure, an episcopal town in Wiirtem-
berg, 6 miles SW. of Tiihingen, on the Neckar, has
an old castle, now a prison, and a cathedral, and
trade in hops and timber. Pop. 7310.
Rottenstone, a soft and earthy stone, consist-
ing chiefly of alumina, with about 10 per cent. of
carbonaceous matter and a little silica. It is sup-
than 53 per cent. (estimating Prreanssl enter at
Rotterdam. The net tonnage of the vessels (which
numbered 4535 in 1890) so entering doubled
between 1875 and 1890, and was in the latter
coe ear eight times what it was in 1850—viz,
,918,425 tons in 1890 as against 1,411,828 in 1875,
and 346,186 in 1850. To this foreign trade must
be added 84 per cent. of the total trade between
Germany and Holland by way of the river Rhi
or (in 1890) some 2,582,800 tons, and a traffic
6,850,000 tons carried on on the inland canals and
streams. If all these items be put together the total
tonnage of vessels entering Rotterdam amounts to
pres be hye, tons, a figure that is only Ao
y London amongst European ports.
on the other hand, it must be remembered that the
bulk of the inland traffic would in other countries be
counted amongst the statistics of goods brougee by
railway. The ae quoted do not include the
returns of the fishing fleet, which sells in Rotterdam
fish (chiefly herring, cod, &c.) to the value of £20,000
perannum. The merchant fleet of Rotterdam itself
numbered, in 1899, 150 vessels of about 360,000 tons.
The imports consist principally of mineral ores and
ROTTI
ROUEN 823
metals, grain (wheat, rye, oats, maize), coal, oil
(petroleum chiefly ), seeds, tallow and similar greasy
substances, sugar, rice, tobacco, hides, indigo, &c.;
whilst the more important exports are linen, flax,
butter, cheese, pre and spirits (gin, &e.). From
this port there sail every year between 5200 (1885)
and 15,200 (1889) emigrants from various parts of
Europe, most of whom go to the United States.
There are flourishing industries, as iron and other
metal works, shipbuilding, distilling, sugar-refining,
and the manufacture of tobacco, chemicals, &e.
The town is intersected by canals, which com-
municate with the Maas, whilst their banks serve
as wharves. On the south side of the river, oppo-
site the city proper, are the busy ironworks and
shipbuilding-yards of the island of Fijenoord, be-
sides some of the largest docks. This island is
connected with the other bank by two lofty bridges
(one a railway regi ).. In the city the more import-
ant buildings are the Gothic church of St Lawrence
(15th yen a with a very large organ, the monn-
mental tombs of the Dutch admirals Witt, Cor-
tenaer, Van Brakel, Van Liefde, and others, and a
lofty tower (295 feet high); the Boymans Museum
(1847), with a fine collection of paintings by Dutch
masters ; the yacht club-house, containing an eth-
nological collection; the town-house, exchange,
and similar public buildings. The public institu-
tions include an academy of art and science (nearly
1100 pupils), schools of music, navigation, and the
technical arts, and an excellent zoological garden.
Pop. (1890) 203,472, with which compare the figures
for earlier years—72,300 in 1830, and 104,724 in
1858. Rotterdam counts as her most illustrious
sons Erasmus and the poet Tollens; James, Duke
of Monmouth, and Grinling Gibbons, the English
wood-carver, were also born here. The history of
the place is marked by very few notable events,
except its capture by Francis of Brederode in 1488,
who lost it to the Austrians in the following year,
and the oceupation by the Spaniards in 1572.
Rotti, an island in the Indian Archipelago,
belonging to the Dutch, lies to the south-west of
Timor. It is 36 miles in length (655 sq. m.), and
has a pop. of 60,000. The surface, though hilly, is
nowhere more than 800 feet above the sea, and
the fertile soil produces a rich vegetation.
Rottlera, a genus of trees of the natural order
Euphorbiacee, found in India and other parts of
tropical Asia. The most important species is
Rottlera tinctoria (Roxburgh), subsequently called
by Miiller Mallotus philippinensis. It is'a small
tree, the wood of which is only fit for fuel, but its
bark is employed for tanning, and the crimson
wder which covers the ripe fruit is used for dye-
ing silk, and also as a P sggb or ide and anthelmintic.
The R. tetracocca and R. peltata of Roxburgh have
also been included in the genus Mallotus by Miiller
under the names M. albus and M. roxburghianus.
Rottweil, a town of Wiirtemberg, on the
Neckar, 68 miles by rail 8S. by W. of Stuttgart,
has manufactures of gunpowder and silk and cotton
fabrics, and railway workshops, Near by, on the
site of an ancient Roman colony, a number of
antiquities, including a valuable piece of mosaic
work, have been discovered. Pop 6052.
Rotumah, an island in the south Pacific,
annexed to the Fiji Islands by Great Britain in
1881, is distant about 300 miles NNW. from the
nearest island of that group, of which it is a
dependency. Area, 14 sq. m.; pop. 2300, all
Christians.
Roturier (according to Littré from ruptura,
Low Latin for ground broken by the plough), under
feudalism, when the peng of 2 ma pee
service was recognised as the only principle o'
gentle tenure, wnvg who continued to fold by the
older or allodial tenure, and was accordingly re-
garded as ignoble. See FEUDALISM, ALLODIUM.
Roubaix, a town in the north of France (dept.
Nord), 6 miles by rail NE. of Lille. It rose into
Importance during the 19th century. Here cloth
for men’s clothing, shawls, stuffs for furniture and
ladies’ dresses, velvet and similar textiles, chiefly
of wool, cotton, and silk, are manufactured to the
annual value of £16,000,000. Besides these things,
thread, sugar, beer, spirits, machinery, &c. are
produced, and there is a very active wate in these
manufactured goods. Pop. (1810) 9000; (1876)
74,946 ; (1891) 105,191.
Roubillae, Lovis-Francors, sculptor, was
born at Lyons in 1695, studied mainly at Paris,
where in 1730 he obtained the second Grand Prix,
and shortly thereafter settled in London. In Eng-
land he spelt his name Roubiliac. He visited
Rome in 1745. His statue of Handel for Vauxhall
Gardens in 1738 first made him popular. His other
most famous statues are those of Shakespeare
(executed for Garrick, and now in the British
Museum), of Sir Isaac Newton at Cambridge, and
another of Handel in Westminster Abbey. The
monuments of the Duke of Argyll and of General
Wade in the Abbey are also well known. _ He con-
tributed greatly to the improvement of British
taste in sculpture, though his own work is by no
means so perfect as his contemporaries imagined ;
he has been called ‘an exquisite executant but poor
designer.’ He died in London, 11th January 1762.
See the Life by Le Roy de Sainte Croix (Paris, 1882);
A. Dobson in Highteenth Century Vignettes (1894).
Rouble, the unit of the Russian money system,
first cut from silver bars in 1321, and coined in 1655.
There are now gold imperials and half-imperials
of 10 and 5 roubles. ut most of the currency
is paper, and the ratio of the gold rouble to the
paper rouble was in 1896 fixed at 14 to 1. In ‘1897
imperials and half-imperials were coined of 15 and
74 roubles (i.e. paper roubles). The silver rouble
is nominally worth 3s. 2d. But when silver is at
26d. per oz., it is really worth Is. 44d. ; at 30d. per
oz. Is. 63d. In 1888 silver was 42%d.; in 1890,
473d. ; in 1894, 29d. ; in 1898, 262d. The rouble is
divided into 100 kopeks.
Rouen (Lat. Rotomagus), formerly the capital
of Normandy, and now the chief town of the
department of Seine-Inférieure, and after Lyons
rhaps the principal manufacturing city of
Mecnée, is situated on the right bank of the
Seine, 87 miles NW. of Paris by railway. The
ramparts have been converted into spacious
boulevards, little inferior to those of Paris. The
modern streets are well and ue built, with
goad stone houses; but a considerable part of old
uen still remains, consisting of ill-built pictur-
esque streets and squares, with tall, narrow,
uaintly carved, wood-framed and gabled houses.
he Seine, upwards of 300 yards broad, makes
Rouen, although 80 miles from the sea, the fourth
shipping port of France ; and extensive operations,
in ihe way of deepening the river and paldoss
quays, are yearly adding to its capacity an
importance, no less than £710,000 having been
expended on the port between 1831 and 1887.
A stone bridge and a suspension bridge lead
to the Faubourg St Sever on the left bank.
Rouen possesses several remarkably beautiful
Gothie churches—in particular the cathedral (13th
century onwards), St Ouen (14th-15th century;
perhaps the best specimen of Gothic in existence),
and St Maclou (florid style of the end of the 15th
century). The cathedral, the seat of an arch-
bishop, begun by Philippe Auguste, has a very
rich west facade, and two fine though unfinished
west towers—the south one (Tour de Beurre)
824 ROUERGUE
ROUGE ET NOIR
was built (1485-1507) with act money
received for permission to eat butter during Lent—
but is disfigured by a lofty cast-iron spire (487
feet) Promo upon the central tower in 1876 in
consequence of an ald wooden belfry, which bore
the date 1544, having been destroyed by fire in
1822, It contains in its twenty-five highly orna-
mented chapels numerous monuments of great
interest, especially those of Rollo and of his son
William Longsword. The heart of Richard Cour
de Lion, once buried there, is now preserved in
the extensive Museum of Antiquities. Among
other noteworthy buildings in men are the
palais de justice (15th yer , in which the
assizes are still held; the hdtel-de-ville, with its
public library of 110,000 volumes, and its lery
of pictures ; and the Hotel Dieu, one of the largest
of its kind. The principal branches of industry
are cotton manufactures, including the checked
and striped cottons specially designated Rouen-
neries, nankeens, dimity, lace, cotton-velvets,
shawls, &c. Rouen has also extensive manufac-
tories of hosiery, mixed silk and wool fabrics,
blankets, flannels, hats, cordage, cotton and linen
yarns, shot, steel, lead, chemicals, paper, confec-
tionery de pomme), &c, There are also
shipbuilding-yards and engineering works. Pop.
(1872) 102,470 ; (1891) 112,109.
History.—Ronuen is specially interesting to Eng-
lishmen as the capital of the Northmen in France,
and the first home of the Norman dukes, It was
the scene of Rollo’s baptism and marriage with
Gisela, daughter of Charles the Simple, after that
monarch had been constrained to cede Normandy
under the treaty of Claire-sur-Epte (912), and there
he and his successors lived until Duke William
transferred his court to Winchester after the con-
quest of England (1066). At Rouen William died
(1087), and till the time of John it continued the
seat of government of the Norman possessions of
the English kings. In 1204 it was taken by siege
by the French king = Auguste, and annexed
along with the main part of the duchy to the French
crown. During the wars of Henry V. and Henry
VI. of England it was under the power of the
English from 1419 to 1449, when it was retaken by
the French under Charles VII, It was during this
occupation by the English that Joan d’Are was
burned alive (1431) as a witch in the square of the
city, in which stands her statue, and which is
called in memory of her Place de la Pucelle. Rouen
was the birthplace of Corneille (1606), of Fontenelle
(1657), of Hoieldiew (1775), of Armand’ Carrel
(1800), and of Flaubert. Clarendon died here. It
was occupied by German troops in 1870-71. See
Fonquet’s Histoire de Rouen (1875), and other
works cited at NORMANDY.
Rouergue, an old province of southern France
between Languedoc, Auvergne, and Guienne, ruled
by counts until 1589, when it passed to the crown.
See France, Vol. IV. p. 770.
Rouge, a powder used to give artificial colour
to the cheeks. For commoner pu vermilion
rubbed up with almond-oil is employed, but the
safer and better quality is peers from carmine
(the colouring matter of cochineal), either alone or
mixed with the safflower colour. These are gener-
ally robbed up with French chalk, and err
either as powder or, along with a little oil, in the
form of saucers,
Jeweller’s rouge is an impalpable preparation of
oxide of iron, obtained by gently heating the yellow
oxalate of iron till it decom ; carbonic acid
cocaping, and only a red powder being left. It is
used for polishing silver, and for this purpose
shonld be of the finest quality. Many cheaper
varieties are sold under this name.
Rouge Croix, Dragon. See HERALD.
Rouge et Noir (Fr, ‘red and black’),
TRENTE-UN (‘thirty-one ’) or TRENTE ET QUAR-
ANTE (‘thirty and forty’), is a modern game of
chance, which is played by the aid of of
cards on a table covered with A eee clo! The
table is of a form similar to shown in the
figure. It is divided into four portions, each
marked in the centre with a diamond, the diamonds
of a yellow colour (not represented in the Pro.
The game is played as follows : one of the
(or dealers, who manage the table, take charge of,
the bank, and keep an eye on the —— takes
up his position at one side of the tab ary
e croupier (another tailleur), and w in the
presence of the players, six packs of cards, which
TAILLEUR
CROUPIER
Rouge et Noir.
are first counted, then shuffled by several tailleurs,
and returned to the first tailleur, who presents
them to one of the players to be cut. This is per-
formed by the insertion of a blank card in any part
of the pack, which is then adjusted, and the game
sioneei Each player must stake his money on
some one of the four chances, denominated noir,
rouge, couleur, and l’inverse, which will be after-
wards explained. After the stakes have been laid
on the table (those for the noir being laid on either
of the quarters marked with a black, and those
for the rouge on either of the quarters marked
with a red diamond, those for the ‘couleur’ on
one of the transverse bands, and those for the
‘inverse’ on one of the yellow circles at the end of
the table), the tailleur takes a handful of cards
from the top of the pack, and deals first for the
noir, king one card after another from the top of
the handful and placing them on the table side by
side, till the number of pips on them amounts to
more than thirty, when he stops. He then deals
out another row in a similar manner for the rouge,
till, as before, the number of pips amounts to more
than thirty. In reckoning the number of pips, the
ace is counted as one, the other plain cards accord-
ing to the number of pips, and the court-cards ten
each. It will thus be seen that the number to
which each of the two rows of cards amounts, must
be more than thirty and not more than forty. If
the value of the first row is nearer thirty-one than
that of the second, then the first row, or noir, wins;
if the contrary is the case, then the second row, or
rouge, wins, Couleur wins if the first card tabled
by the tailleur is of the winning colour—for
instance, if the first card laid down is a ‘spade’ or
‘club,’ and if noir wins; but if the first card dealt
be not of the winning colour, then inverse wins,
and couleur loses. Two (and no more) of the four
chances can be winning chances at one time; and
the winning players have their stakes increased
by an equal sum from the bank, and then withdraw
their stake and winnings, while the stakes of the
ROUGET DE LISLE
ROULETTE 825
losers are raked by the tailleurs to the bank in the
centre of the table. When the value of the first,
or noir-row, is equal to that of the second, or rouge-
row, itis a refait, and the dealer must commence
to deal anew from the cards remaining in his hand ;
when the refait occurs the player may either with-
draw his stake, or stake on a different chance, with
the same or more or less money as he thinks proper.
The game of Rouge et Noir would be an even one
between the players and the bank were it not for
the following regulation: When the points dealt
for the noir and the rouge each amount to thirty-
one (‘un refait de trente-et-un’) the half of all
the stakes on each of the chances belongs to the
bank, and this the players may either pay or have
their stakes ‘put in prison,’ the next deal deter-
mining whether they shall belong to the bank or
be restored to the player If a second doublet of
thirty-one occurs in the deal immediately succeed-
ing, the stakes which were in prison are diminished
by one-half, which goes to the bank, and the other
half is ‘put into the second prison,’ from which it
requires two successive winnings of the player to
regain them. The chance of ‘un refait de trente-
et-un ’ is about once in sixty-four deals, This game
superseded Faro (q.v.) and Biribi in France about
1789, but along with Roulette was forbidden by
law in 1838. See work cited at ROULETTE.
Rouget de Lisle, CLAUDE JosEpH, author of
the Marseillaise (q.v.), was born at Lons-le-Saulnier
on 10th May 1760. When in 1792 he wrote and
composed his celebrated song or hymn he was a
captain of engineers stationed at Strasburg. Four
months later, as too moderate a republican, he was
imprisoned in Paris, but was released after Robes-
pierre’s fall. Wounded at Quiberon (1795), he
quitted the army, and lived in Paris in narrow
circumstances, until Louis-Philippe in 1830 awarded
him a small pension. He died at Choisy on 26th
June 1836. He published in 1796 a volume of Essais
en Vers et en Prose; but none of the pieces it con-
tains, nor indeed any of his other books, possess
much real merit. The Marseillaise was his one
inspiration. See a Memoir by Poisle-Desgranges
(Paris, 1864), and one by Tiersot (1892).
Rouher, Evcine, a French statesman, was
born at Riom, on November 30, 1814, practised
there as an advocate up to 1848, and then was
returned to the Constituent Assembly: Towards
the end of 1849 he was appointed minister of
Justice ; and with slight interruptions he was for
twenty years a member of the French government.
He was chiefly instrumental in negotiating the
treaty of commerce between France and England
in 1860, and that between France and Italy in 1863,
and was thus instrumental in preparing the way for
the introduction of the free-trade policy of Napoleon
Ill. In 1863 he was appointed minister of State,
and maintained that ition until 1870, when he
became president of the Senate. A staunch sup-
rter of Napoleon III, and a clever debater,
mher was, next after the emperor, the chief
supporter of the system, domestic and foreign,
which came to a disastrous end at Sedan—he was
sometimes called the Vice-emperor. After the fall
of the empire he fled abroad. But he was returned
to the National Assembly for Corsica in 1872, and
sat till 1875 as a staunch defender of the ex-
emperor. He died at Paris, 3d February 1884,
Roulers (Flem. Rousselaere), a town of West
Flanders, Belgium, 19 miles by rail SSW. of
Bruges, has manufactures of cottons, lace, and
chicory, and a trade in linen. Here the French
defeated the Austrians on 13th July 1794. Pop.
(1887) 19,735 ; (1896) 21,603.
Roulette (Fr., ‘a little wheel’), a game of
chance whieh from the end of the 18th century till
the beginning of 1838 reigned supreme over all
others in Paris. It continued to be played at
German watering-places till 1872, when it ceased
in terms of an act rarer four years before. Rou-
lette then found a home at Monaco. It is played
on a table of an oblong form, covered with green
cloth, which has in its centre a cavity of a little
more than 2 feet in diameter, in the shape of
a punch-bowl. This cavity, which has several
copper bands round its sides at equal distances
from each other, has its sides fixed, but the bottom
is movable round an axis placed in the centre of
the cavity, the handle by which motion is com-
municated being a species of cross or capstan of
copper fixed on the upper extremity of the axis.
Round the circumference of this movable bottom
are 38 holes, painted in black and red alternately,
with the first 36 numbers, and a single and
double zero; and these 38 symbols are also
figured at each end of the table in order that
the players may place their stakes on the chance
they select. Along the margin of the table
and at each end of it are painted six words—pair,
Sipe noir, impair, manque, rouge, which will
afterwards explained. Those who manage the
table and keep the bank are called tad/leurs. The
game is played as follows: One of the tailleurs
puts the movable bottom in motion by turning the
cross with his forefinger, and at the same instant
throws into the cavity an ivory ball in a direction
opposite to the motion of the bottom; the ball
makes several revolutions, and at last falls into
one of the 38 holes above mentioned, the hole into
which it falls determining the gain or loss of the
players. A player may stake his money on I, 2,
or any of the 38 numbers (including the zeros),
and shows what number or numbers he selects by
placing his stake npon them; if he has selected a
number or zero corresponding to the one into which
the ball falls, he receives ftom one of the tailleurs
36 times his stake—viz. his stake and 35 times
more—if he selected only 1 number, 18 times if 2
numbers, 12 times if 3 numbers, &c. The blank
rectangles at the bottom of each of the 3 columns
of numbers figured on the table are for the recep-
tion of the stake of that player who selects a
column (12 numbers) as his chance, and if the ball
enters a hole the number of which is found in his
column, he is paid 3 times his stake. Those who
prefer staking their money on any of the chances
marked on the edge of the table, if they win
receive double their stake (their stake and as
much more), and under the following cireum-
stances: The ‘pair’ wins when the ball falls into
a hole marked by an even number; the ‘impair,’
if the hole is marked odd; the ‘manque,’ if the
hole is numbered from 1 to 18 énelusive; the
‘passe,’ if it is numbered from 19 to 36 inclusive ;
the ‘rouge,’ if it is coloured red ; and the ‘noir,’
if it is coloured black, If the ball should fall into
either of the holes marked with the single or the
double zero, the stakes of those players who
venture upon the 6 chances last described are
either equally divided between the bank and the
players, or as is more commonly the case, the,
are ‘ put in prison,’ as it is called, and the sueceed-
ing trial determines whether they are to be restored
to the players or gained by the bank. Should it
so happen that at this trial the ball again falls into
one of the two holes marked with zeros, then half
of the stakes in prison are taken by the bank, and
the remainder are ‘ put into the second prison,’ and
soon. The tailleurs thus have an advantage over
the players in the i Sede of 19 to 18 The
player who bets upon the numbers labours under
a similar disadvantage, for although the two zero-
points do not affect him in the same way as the
player who stakes upon one of the other 6 chances,
826 ROULETTE
ROUMANIA
still (supposing him to bet upon a single number)
as the chances are 37 to T against him, he ought to
receive 37 times his stake (besides the stake) when
he does win, whereas he only receives 35 times that
amount, a manifest advantage in favour of the bank
in the proportion of 37 to 35. See Professor J. S.
Bond, The Problems of Roulette and Trente et
Quarante (New York, 1889).
Roumania, « kingdom in the south-east of
Europe, situated between 22° 29' and 29° 42’ E. long.
and between 43° 37’ and 48° 13’ N. lat. Its general
boundaries are on the east and south the rivers
Prath and Danube (with the exception of the
Dobrudja, a province south of the latter river at
its embouchures), and on the west and forth the
Carpathian Mountains, along whose heights the
boundary line runs. The kingdom presents the
form of an irregular blunted crescent, some writers
comparing it to a sau . Its average length is
about 358 and its breadth about 188 miles; its
approximate area is 49,250 sq. m., and its popula-
tion (1895) was 5,417,260, including 200,000 Gypsies.
Of these 44 millions belong to the Greek Church
(the national religion), and the remainder are
Protestants, Jews, &e. There are believed to be
about 4,000,000 of Roumanians outside the Ron-
manian kingdom—in Hungary and Transylvania,
Bukowina, Bessarabia and adjoining ian
provinces, Servia and Bulgaria.
The general configuration of the surface of Rou-
mania is an irregular inclined plane, sloping down
from the Carpathian Mountains to the northern
bank of the Danube, and it is traversed by numer-
ous watercourses (many of which are dry in
summer), taking their rise in the mountains and
falling into the t river, which render the
country well ada for every kind of agricul-
tural industry. umania is divided, roughly
speaking, into the two provinces of Wallachia and
oldavia, the first bordering on the Danube, the
second on the Pruth. These were formerly distinct
eae yes were then united as Moldo-Wal-
achia, and mally incorporated as an independent
kingdom under Charles I. The capital of Rou-
mania is Bucharest in Wallachia, about 30 miles
from the Danube; and the chief town of Moldavia
is Jassy, not far from the river Prath. The other
towns of any note in Roumania are the seaports
of Galatz and Ibrail (or Braila) at the mouth of
the Danube, Craiova (Krajova), Botoshani, Ploiesti
( Plojeschti), Pitesti, and the ancient capital Curtea
d’Ardges. The last named is famous for its beauti-
ful cathedral, built of a yish-white limestone
resembling alabaster, in the Byzantine order of
architecture, with a profusion of Moorish or Arab-
— ornamentation,
he most noteworthy peaks of the Carpathians
rise from 3000 to 9000 feet above the sea-level,
the highest two being Caraiman and Verful, from
which a distant view of the Balkans, in Bulgaria,
is obtainable in clear weather. Near the foot of
Caraiman, at the junction of three valleys, and
surrounded by lovely wooded slopes, nestles the
charming sammer-resort of the court and upper
classes, Sinaia. Here the king and queen oceupied
an old monastery until a beautiful palace was built
in the Italian style, where the court spends a con-
siderable portion of the summer. Besides the palace
there are many handsome private residences, us well
as a public accra casino (not a gaming-table),
and two or three good hotels,
The principal industries of Roumania are agri-
culture, salt-mining, and petroleum raising and
distillation. The principal salt-mines are at
Prahova, near Campina, in the Wallachian Car-
pathians, and at Oena in Moldavia. They are
worked by convicts, and produce a fine bluish-
gray rock-salt. Petroleum wells are also worked
near Campina, as well as elsewhere, and there are
refineries at Tirgovistea, Ploiesti &e. The chief
products of aqnenitnss are and cereals,
which are largely exported, and amongst the fruits
f Carpathians is very
lovely, and either there or in the plains are to be
pet the oak, elm, beech, and, less sreqreesty, the
maple, sycamore, mountain-ash, lime,
nut, and acacia. The usual flora of the sub-
tropical and temperate zones flourish luxuriantly,
and at Ferestreu, near Bucharest, there is an ex-
cellent agricultural and sylvicultural college. The
manufacturing industries of the country are still in
their infancy, and are greatly handicapped by the
cheap productions of Germany and Austria.
include flour and saw milling, match-making,
petroleum-distillation, to which have been added
(through an act passed in 1887 for encou
Roumanian industries) tanning, boot and
making, and cement manufacture. Notwithstand-
ing the large importation of manufactured articles
of various kinds from Austria, Germany, France,
and Great Britain, the pene, are mainly
clothed in garments made by themselves of home
spun, woven, and dyed fabrics, and they
such taste and skill in the manufacture and orna-
mentation of cloth, gauze, and muslin, and in the
trimming of costumes, that their work finds a ready
market in the best establishments in the capital.
The nar Fon glass feature in the pest
system o} mania is its peasant proprietary,
which was created about the year 1864." Before
that year the whole of the land of the country was
practically held by the boyards or inferior nobles,
who were frequently absentees, or by the i for
the peasants merely owned small patches of land
contiguous to their huts or hovels, which were
and are still frequently semi-su ean. The
peasantry had been robbed of their land during
long of feudal oppression and foreign conquest,
but when the government became democratic it
was determined to restore a portion of it (about
one-third) to its original owners at very moderate
prices to be fixed by the state. In the first instance
the government advanced the purchase-money,
creating a loan for the purpose. The greater portion
of the debt was paid off by the peasant proprietors
by the year 1881, and an act was to prevent
the alienation of embarrassed estates which would
otherwise have fallen into the hands: of usurers.
The result was that in 1880 there existed in Wal-
lachia and Moldavia 406,893 holdings, baie. oe |
10°6 acres each, and the great change has add
materially to the prosperity of the country and its
thrifty peasantry.
The government of Roumania is a hereditary
limited monarchy, and the constitution provides
for an ig an, king, who must belong to the
Orthodox Greek Church ; a council of ministers; a
senate and a chamber of deputies. The members
of both houses are indirectly chosen mainly by
‘colleges’ of voters; but the 1 towns elect
directly. Senators are elected for eight years, one-
half retiring every four years. Members of the
lower house sit for four years, but either chamber
may be dissolved separately. The income of a
senator must be at least £376 per annum. Or~
the most important political institutions in ¥.- Dealt R
Roumania is largely concerned is the ‘Danubta.
Commission’ (see DANUBE), whose headquarters
are at Galatz. There is a British representative
on the Commission. This is rendered ni hy
the great preponderance of British trade ; for whilst
the total number of vessels which cleared from the
Danube at Sulina in 1897 was 1324, with a tonnage
ROUMANIA
827
of 1,397,917, the proportion of British vessels (all
steamers but four) was 544, of 855,477 tons, and those
figures form sig ere the proportion during
recent years. The following statistics, concisely
stated, show the financial and commercial position
of Roumania at the present time, and of her com-
mercial relations with Great Britain.
In 1895 the National Debt w:
£3,000,000 annual interest’; reventn, @UaTeoo0 a a
£7,816,897. The permanent army comprises 60,000 officers
and men. The total exports of all kinds were valued at
£16,962,000 ; total value of imports, £13,516,000; total value
of exports to the United Kingdom, chiefl cereals and seeds,
£2,118,505 ; total value of exports from the United ‘Kingdom to
Roumania, chiefly cotton, yarn, and manufactures, wrought and
unwrought metals, coal, &c., £891,917,000 ; (in 1896, £1,286,582).
Hist and Political Relations.—The early
Greek historians mention a Thracian tribe, the
Getz, from whom were descended the Dacians,
a brave race who occupied the northern side of
the Ister or Danube, and flourished as a free
people down to abont the end of the first
century of our era. Before that time the Dacians
had come into conflict with both Greeks and
Romans, but in the year 101 A.D. the Emperor
Trajan undertook the first of two expeditions
against their king, Decebalus, which terminated
in the complete subjugation of the country. Traces
of the Roman invasion and conquest are still to be
found in the mili road constructed by Trajan
along the banks of the Danube, including a com-
memorative tablet, and in the piers of a brid
across the river near Orsova. Pressed by the
barbarian races who eventually com the
downfall of the Roman empire, Dacia, which had
been constituted a Roman colony, was evacuated
by the Romans in the reign of Aurelian (about
‘4 A.D.), and for about a thousand years the banks
of the Danube served as halting-places for the first-
named wandering tribes, amongst whom the most
conspicnous were the Goths; the Huns under Attila;
the Lombards under Alboin; the Bulgari, who
afterwards settled on the plains south of the Danube
and founded Bulgaria; the ee @ savage race
who settled in Hungary; and the Wallachs, from
whom Wallachia has derived its name. For a con-
siderable period both banks of the Danube were
ee by the sovereigns of what is known as the
allacho- em dynasty, which was brought to
a close by a Tartar invasion about the year 1250
A.D. After that there gradually arose out of a
number of smaller states an independent realm in
Wallachia, with its traditions of heroes and chiefs,
Mircea the Old, Michael the Brave (whose memory
is perpetuated by a beautiful equestrian statue at
Bucharest), and others; whilst the neighbouring
state of Moldavia had also its heroes in Stephen
the Great, &c. These rulers for a long time
resisted the Mussulman advance, but were eventu-
ally reduced to vassalage by the victorious Turks,
and were compelled to sign what are known as the
‘Capitulations,’ and to pay an annual tribute to
the sultan. The first treaty with Wallachia
known by that name was signed as far back as
1393; but that with Moldavia, which country was
pam by the king of Poland, followed as late
as 1513.
Although Wallachia and Moldavia thus became
states tributary to the Porte, they retained sufficient
independence to be in a sense autonomous ; but in
the course of time their princes, or voivodes as they
re called, were Turkish nominees, whose tenure
yj .t-pffice may be judged by the fact that in the
course of ninety years (from 1723 to 1812) the
government of Wallachia passed through the hands
of no less than forty of those rulers. They were
mostly Greeks, known as Phanariotes or Fanariots
(q.v.), who during their brief tenure of power
practised the most scandalous extortions upon the
people, in order to enrich themselves and remit the
annual tribute to Constantinople. The great
majority of those Fanariot voivodes either were
assassinated or were disgraced through the intrigues
of their rivals at the Sublime Porte; and some of
them did not scruple to appeal during their brief
tenure of power for the support of Russia, which
coat ee constantly at war with their suzerain.
The Muscovites began to make inroads into the
Danubian principalities as early as the year 1709,
under Peter the Great, and continued to invade
them at intervals, especially in the reign of the
Empress Anne in 1755 and in that of Catharine
IV. in 1768. In the first instance the Czar Peter
was invited to enter the states by the voivodes
Brancovano of Wallachia and Cantemir of Mol-
davia, who desired to secure their independence
under his protection ; but no such inducement was
afterwards requisite; and although the Russian
invasions and occupations were always undertaken
on the pretext of liberating the Christians from
the Mussulman yoke, the real object has been to
advance step by step to Constantinople and to
secure ion of the whole Balkan peninsula.
At different times the Russians exercised absolute
sway in the principalities, notably from 1789 to
1792 and from 1806 to 1812, when the princes under
their protection were called Hospodars (q.v.), a
Slavonic word. In 1848 they helped to suppress the
national rising there, as they did in Hungary, but
in 1853, before the Crimean war, their power began
to wane. At the termination of that war they
were compelled by the allied powers to cede Bess-
arabia to the principalities.
In the year 1859 both principalities elected Prince
Couza (born at Galatz, 1820) as their ruler, and he
reigned in Roumania, as the united provinces were
then called, until 1866, when he was ee on
account of his extortions and gross immorality, and
was succeeded by Prince Charles of Hohenzollern.
This revolution was mainly led by two able
statesmen, Bratiano and Rosetti, who may be
said to have been jointly the counterpart of the
Italian Cavour, and who for many years enjoyed
great popularity as the chief ministers of state. On
the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish war in 1877 the
Roumanians espoused the Russian cause. Prince
Charles was actually appointed commander-in-chief
of the allied armies, the Russian Cesarewitch serv-
ing under him; and the Roumanians captured the
first redoubt, the Grivitza, at Plevna, thereby
enabling the Russians to reduce that stronghold
and bring the war to a triumphant close. The
conquerors, however, deprived their allies of part
of their territory, rabia, giving them in ex-
change the Dobrudja, which they exacted from the
Porte—an exchange laid down in the treaty of San
Stefano, and subsequently confirmed by the Berlin
Conference (June 1878), when Roumania was re-
cognised as a completely independent power. The
effect of that exchange has, however, been un.
fortunate for Russia in two respects. It has
caused a permanent estrangement between the
Roumanians and their guardian allies, and the
Dobrudja has served as a barrier against Russian
aggression in Bulgaria. In 1881 Prince Charles
was invested with the kingly dignity with the
acquiescence of the European Powers, and since
that time, although there have been ministerial
crises, and although the Russians have continued
to earry on secret intrigues, not only in Rou-
mania, but from thence in Bulgaria, the Rou-
manians have practically freed themselves from
Russian as well as Turkish influence, and have
taken their place amongst the independent nation-
alities of Europe.
The various conquerors who have at one time or
another occupied Roumania have left their traces
ROUMANIA
try are a hardy and thrifty race, and in the
circles of weeny 2 the influence of Queen
Carinen Sylva has been throughout beneficent. As
her marriage left no heir, the succession to the
throne passed to Prince Ferdinand of Holenzollern
(born in 1865), the nephew of the king.
Language and Literature. —Roumanian (or Wal-
lachian ) is one of the Romance (q.¥.), @
ter of the Latin; but, though the language is
unmistakably Romance in type, the vocabulary is
mixed, the number of Latin roots various]
estimated at more or less than half of the total,
the next greatest element being Slavonic words
(amounting, according to some authorities, to even
more than the Latin roots), with some hundreds
of Turkish, Greek, and Albanian words. Most
Roumanians speak what is practically the same
language—the Daco-Roumanian—thronghout the
kingdom, in Transylvania, in the Banat, and other
ink Hungary, Bakowine, and Bessarabia. The
o-Roumanian, south of the Danube and
amongst the Balkans and Pindus, is largely modi-
seats Bae and the Istro-Roumanian, spoken
by or 3000 in Istria and Croatia, has been
much Slavonised.
Roumanian literature may be said to date from
the 17th century, —. the first Roumanian book,
a psalter, was printed in 1577. The chronicles of
the 17th century are the earliest specimens of
national literature ; but Greek was long the lan-
of the educated, and it is only since the
Seeing el ee eed nas there eS fnyeler
. = li the —_ eer wy pert of
t being songs. these xandri (q.v.), him
self the most notable of native Roumanian poets,
made a full collection ory eee aed names are
Alexandreseu, Emineseu, and Scherbanesen. There
are translations by Carmen Sylva (q.v.),
Kotzebue, and others. Dora D'Istria (see GHIka)
wrote mainly in French. Among authorities on
ROUMELIA
the seaguage are Hasdeu, Miklosich, Gaster, and
Titkin, there are histories of the literature
Cipariu, Densusianu, Gaster, Popfiu, and Philij
(1894). The great dictionaries are those of resco
(1875), Lauriann and Massimu, Dictionarinlu
Limbei Romane (2 vols, 1876-79), and Hasden,
Rt icum Magnum Romania ( i. and ii.
1 92); and there are standard
by Gaster ( oe ed. a? Led Ponte are
German translations of Roumanian fo les, poems,
and songs by Albert Schott (1845), Wite Kremnitz
qd ), and Rudow (1888).
See works on Roumania in Roumanian by A
Terra Nostra (1880) ; in French by Beaure and Ma’
1878), Blaramberg (1886), and (1896) ;
Henke (1877), Bergner (1887), and (1896);
and in English the present writer (1882) and Mrs
Walker (1888); the ries by Laurianu (1873),
Hasdeu (1874), Cogulniceanu, Schinkai, Vaca-
rescu, Hurmuzaki, Stourdza (1886), &e. ; La’ The
Bo eit ie Notions’ extee (1806), nnd other books
in the ‘ Sto: Nations’ series
named at WaLxan PenrnsvuLa; the Roumanian official
statistics; and a long series of English consular reports
and Board of Trade returns.
Roumanille, Josern (1818-91), born at St
Remy ( Bouches-du-Rhone), was su teacher,
rinter’s reader, and bookseller, and obtained the
‘ame of being the greatest of modern Provencal
poets, next after Mistral. Hewas one of the founders
of the association of the Félibres (see PROVENCAL
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE).
Roumelia (Turk. Rum Ili, ‘land of the
Romans —the inhabitants of the Western Roman
empire, or Byzantine Greeks, being known to the
Turks as ‘ mone a name which once ied
generally to the whole of ancient Thrace a pe ih:
of Macedonia. The province aptly enongh called
Eastern Roumelia is now incorporated with Bul- —
garia (q.v.). In central Asia Rum or Rumi means
the peoples of western Asia; but the Sultan of
Turkey is Rum-Padishah, In Turkey itself Rum
oe «a dal usually the Greek nation and the Greek
END OF VOL. VOL
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