SB

C45S8

S~B4-Ol

Giltare in tf)e
United States.

BY E. A. STERLING.

CONTINENTAL EUROPE, by reason of its long-established civilization,
density of population, and development of its natural resources, is able to
teach a much needed lesson in conservation to the wasteful young nations,
among which the United States is a fair sample. Especially in the development of
the various branches of forestry, most of the old world countries have taken marked
precedence over us; and everywhere abroad a more complete utilization of all
major and minor forest products is found, together with a more careful provision
for the future needs of the people, than in this country.

G)estrmt Caltare Abroad.

As it is the chestnut with which we are now concerned we must look to Italy,
Spain, and parts of France for our lesson, as there will be found the highest devel-
opment of this branch of forestry, or horticulture, whichever it deserves to be
called.

In Italy the chestnut has long been of great commercial value, ranking in many
parts with the grape and olive as a source of revenue, but more often serving as a
cheap and nutritious food supply to the poor peasant than as an article of com-
merce. Wherever found in the countries bordering the Mediterranean, whether
growing naturally or in cultivated orchards, the chestnut is highly prized, both on
account of its finely flavored nuts and its valuable wood.

In the uses of the chestnut the Italians are connoisseurs, and from them we
have much to learn as to the methods used in preparing it for food. Their ability
to dry and preserve the nuts so that they retain all of their original flavor and
swee-.ness, without becoming dry and unpalatable, is an unpracticed art with us, but
one which necessity will soon compel us to acquire if the nuts continue to grow in
popular favor. On the streets of many foreign cities the nuts are sold by street
ven/- ers the year around, as peanuts are in American cities, while among the com-

87

88 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

mon people the bread made from chestnut flour is a staple article of diet. The
nuts, too, are often cooked as a vegetable, made into a soup or prepared as a
pudding, and when candied have a ready sale as an article of confectionery.

The wood finds ready sale for a variety of purposes, as in this country. The
bark yields tannin, the coppice makes first-class vine stakes, while the large tree
trunks furnish wood material of various kinds, suitable wherever durability is
desired. It is asserted that there are chestnut trees on the slopes of Mt. yEtna
which bore fruit when Homer was a boy.

Tt)e Cfyestfmt in America.

Turning to our own country and our own State we find the chestnut occupying
relatively a much less important position than abroad, the reason, perhaps, being in
the fact that because of the greater diversity of valuable tree species there is less
need of giving especial attention to any one. Another reason may be found in the
certainty that the chestnut is not yet fully appreciated, nor its many virtues and
capabilities fully known. Among the broad-leaved trees it is hard to find its equal.
It is a rapid grower on soils of good or medium quality, forms a vigorous coppice
(root sprouts), yields a wood which, because of the tannic acid it contains, is very
durable in contact with the ground, and is very valuable for fuel, fence-posts, cross-
ties, telegraph poles and interior house furnishing, while last, and perhaps most
important, it yields a fruit in the form of a very valuable nut.

Until quite recently the nut has not been accorded anything like its true value ;
it has been considered as a luxury rather than as a valuable food product or article
of commerce. In clearing away the virgin forest the chestnut, along with the wal-
nut and hickory, has sometimes been left in the pasture lots and fence corners for
the sake of the wholesome crop of nuts which were sure to result. Trees, too, have
been planted near gateways and along roadsides for the sake of both shade and
fruit ; but anything like the systematic planting of chestnut orchards on a com-
mercial scale has not been extensively attempted until w'thin the last decade.

The nuts which were produced on the native trees scattered through the pasture
lands and along the edge of the wood lots were not generally looked upon by the
farmer as possessing any value worthy of his attention. The squirrels and> the
children were usually the ones most interested, and it was often a question as to
whom fell the greater share. The squirrels, with an eye to the future, and a knowl-
edge that the chestnut is a valuable article of diet, assiduously stored away Urge
quantities of nuts where they would serve as a granary during the midwinter star-

CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 89

vation period. The children, on the other hand, being assured of a winter food
supply from other sources, gathered the chestnuts partly for pleasure, and, in part,
to obtain pin money. Pleasure and profit were thus well combined, because for a
merry band of young people to wander through the autumn woods in search of nuts
was a pleasure which cannot be readily appreciated by the dwellers in urban commu-
nities. The nuts thus collected, which were not dried and kept as winter compan-
ions for the apples and cider, were usually sold to the local storekeepers who
forwarded them to city commission merchants, whence they found their way
to the city markets. Occasionally when nuts were plentiful, agents traveled through
the country districts and bought them in large quantities for shipment to the
centers of consumption.

Of late there has been an increasing interest in the growing and marketing of
both exotic and native nuts, and active steps have been taken to improve existing
varieties and introduce new ones. By thus insuring a steady supply of first-class
nuts new uses for them have been found, and growers are now reasonably assured
of a steady and growing demand for the fruit product of the chestnut tree.

Tl>e American

Castanea dentata, Marsh.

The generic name Castanea was probably derived from Kastanea, a city in
Pontius, Asia Minor, where the chestnut is a native, or from the town of Castanea
in Thessaly where it is believed it was first brought into Europe. Some botanists
affirm that the European chestnut is indigenous to the British Isles and the conti-
nent of Europe ; but most authorities agree that it was introduced into Greece from
Asia Minor, thence carried to Italy by the Romans, whence it was dissemi-
nated throughout Southern and Western Europe. Its introduction took place so
long ago that chestnut trees have been growing apparently wild in Spain, Italy,
France, and Great Britain for centuries.

The history of the European chestnut has been noted somewhat carefully because
it is a question whether the American nut is worthy of a place as a distinct species,
or is only a variety of the European. From a purely botanical standpoint there is
little difference between the two, yet the pomological variations are so marked that
certain authorities give the American nut specific rank on this basis alone. De Can-
dolle, Asa Gray, Apgar and Loudon hold to the opinion that the American chestnut
is but a variety of the sweet chestnut of Europe. Prof. Sargent and Mr. Sudworth,
on the other hand, prefer to dignify our chestnut as a distinct species. The most

90 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

striking characteristics which distinguish the native from foreign chestnuts are
found in its taller, straighter trunk, less rounded crown, thinner, smoother and more
pendent leaves, and smaller, but, invariably, sweeter nuts. The differences in all
cases are slight ; hence, in this discussion we shall be as patriotic as possible, and
follow the nomenclature of the school which regards our chestnut as a distinct
species.

The specific name dentata was determined by Mr. Sudvvorth to be the earliest
name identifiable with it, and by this it is generally designated. The Indians of
New York State called the chestnut " O-heh-yah-tah," which meant prickly bur.

Castanea is distinguished by its broad spreading habit when grown in the open ;
its long, sharp-pointed, coarsely serrate bright green leaves ; and its wealth of
creamy-tinted, fragrant catkins, which burst into bloom in midsummer and give
color to the landscape long after the apple and cherry trees have scattered their
petals to the winds, or the red maples have matured their keys and the elms their
samaras.

The staminate flowers are borne in the axils of the alternate leaves, on cylin-
drical catkins six to eight inches in length, which appear only after the leaves are
nearly grown in June. The male flowers proper appear in 3 to 7 flowered cymes in
the axils of minute bracts on the rachis of the pendent ament. The pollen is
abundant and fragrant, and is liberated readily, so that wind fertilization is easily
effected.

The pistillate flowers appear singly or in groups of two or three within a short-
stemmed involucre of closely imbricated green bracts, in the axil of a bract borne
on the base of the erect pistillate ament. This involucre grows rapidly and eventu-
ally develops into the bur which incloses the nuts. At the time of blooming the
female (pistillate) flowers, including their burs, are about half an inch long, and are
borne on stiff spikes that grow from the axils of the leaves of the newly-formed
shoots. Usually only 3-4 flowers at the base of the spike produce fruit. The
lower part only of the shoot supporting the immature burs becomes woody, as
the portion beyond shrivels and drops off, leaving the burs at maturity as a terminal
cluster. Botanically the fruit is a hard prickly cupule (bur) which splits at maturity
into four valves.

Just what the bur of the chestnut is has puzzled botanists not inconsiderably,
and remains yet an undecided question. It is thought to be a whorl of metamor-
phosed bracts.

The chestnut is strictly monoecious, yet in most individuals the staminate cat-
kins mature before the pistillate, thus making cross fertilization a necessity. Why

STAMINATE AND PISTILLATE FLOWERS OF THE PARAGON CHESTNUT.

CHESTNUT BURS SPREAD ON THE GROUND TO DRY.

CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 91

this provision is necessary in trees which produce perfect flowers of both sexes on
one individual is a problem for the evolutionist ; while to the arboriculturist the fact
is significant only in that it shows him that his chestnut trees should be grown in
groups and not singly in order to secure a full crop of nuts. In growing the various
native and exotic varieties many advocate a mixing of varieties as well as of
individuals.

Few long-lived trees equal, and none surpass, the chestnut in rapidity of growth
and ease of propagation under ordinary conditions. In New Jersey* a chestnut
tree is recorded which had a diameter of 60 inches at the age of 70 years, and which
in one year increased its diameter by i inch. In the same State several trees 35
years old ranged from 24 up to 34 inches in diameter, with a height of 40-50 feet.
The rate of growth is governed to a great extent by the nature of the soil, the
thinner soils being less favorable to rapid tree growth than the deeper red sandstone
lands. The above figures are remarkable, for the average growth of the chestnut is
probably not over one-half as rapid. A diameter of 8 inches at 20 years and 12 at
30 is what may be reasonably expected as fair. Coppice should give trees of a size
suitable for cross-ties and telegraph poles in 25 to 35 years, and large enough for
posts in 15 to 20 years.

Our native chestnut is broadly distributed throughout the Eastern United States,
and is found at varying elevations from sea level in Massachusetts, to 4,500 feet in
the mountains of North Carolina. It occurs also on soils of very diversified nature,
from almost pure siliceous sand to coarse, gravelly soil or shale, or even on lime-
stone ; on the latter, however, it is found only when the strata of the underlying
rock is tilted. In general the dry rock)' land of the glacial drift is preferable to the
richer, more compact alluvial soil of low lands. The soil best suited for its growth
is a retentive clay containing some sand. The tree does not require a rich soil.

In its more definite geographical distribution the chestnut is found from South-
ern Maine southward through New England ; most abundant in the valley of the
Merrimac River south of Concord, and in the Connecticut valley as far north as
Windsor, Vt. ; common in Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut, and along
the coast as far south as Delaware, except where exposed to the direct winds from
the sea. In Canada it is common in the Province of Ontario. In the Middle States
it is common in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Southern New York and parts of Mary-
land, and southward it is found all along the Alleghany Mountains to Alabama, and
westward to Michigan, Indiana and Tennessee.

The chestnut tree attains its greatest development in Western North Carolina

New Jersey Geological Survey. Report on Forests, igoo.

92 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

and Eastern Tennessee, where specimens 13 feet in diameter and 120 feet high have
been found. This size, however, is exceptional. The average size at maturity in
regions of favorable growth is a height of 60 to 80 feet, with an average diameter of
5 feet, although much larger specimens not infrequently occur. Near the northern
limit of its range, which is about 44° latitude in the United States, the tree is
decidedly smaller and sprouts less readily from the stump than farther south.

During the tertiary period Castanea flourished from Greenland and Alaska, and
traces of it are found in the miocene rocks of Oregon and Colorado.

In New York the chestnut is plentiful throughout the valley of the upper
Hudson, in Saratoga, Warren and Washington Counties, and along the slopes of the
foothills belonging to the Catskill uplift. It has not been observed anywhere on
the northern Adirondack plateau, and is scattered only sparsely throughout the
western portion of the State. In the Adirondack region it is too cold for the chest-
nut to mature its annual shoots, but in the western part of the State its sparseness
is due rather to unfavorable soil conditions than to climatic variances, the rich
alluvial soil of Western New York being little suited to its best development. The
tree attains its best development in that part of the State between the Delaware
River and the Catskills, along the glacial hills which are a continuation of the Kitta-
tinny Mountains and the northern " Jersey Highlands," a country famous for its oak
and chestnut. This region, although well settled and cleared, is dotted by many
large wood lots, and here lie most of the New York " chestnut hillsides," in which,
because of their small value for other purposes, lie the opportunities for the profit-
able chestnut culture to be described later. In Saratoga and adjoining counties
there also exist splendid possibilities for chestnut orcharding.

Within the limits of its range the chestnut occurs either singly or in scattered
groups or groves, usually most abundant on the high, gravelly, well-drained land of
hillsides and ridges, seldom growing in pure stands, but usually mixed with oaks or
other hardwood trees. It has been stated on good authority that the " chestnut is
almost unknown on red shale land ; " but in Central Pennsylvania it is certainly
found growing well on almost typical red shale soil.

Groups of young seedlings are found only in the pasture lands or open forest,
where there is plenty of light, since, as the chestnut when young is essentially a
light-needing species, it cannot grow in the lower story of a high, dense canopied
forest. The mature tree is moderately shade enduring. The chestnut is further
handicapped in its struggle with more tolerant species, by its characteristic trait of
not unfolding its leaves until most other trees are in full foliage, thus giving the
earlier trees something of a monopoly of the available light and space.

CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 93

Forest, park, or pasture-grown trees differ widely in general form and habit.
The tree of the woods, because of its crowding neighbors, soon loses its lower
branches and is stimulated to thrust its crown upwards towards the light, where it
remains supported by a long slender trunk, which is the form most desired for tele-
graph poles, cross-ties, and the general uses of the lumberman. In fact it is a
natural characteristic of the chestnut when grown in mixtures to shed its lower
branches quickly, and develop a smooth, straight bole. When grown from stump
sprouts several of these tall, tapering trunks are often found with their bases touch-
ing or even united, and all the product of one stump.

Started in the open and given plenty of room in which to spread itself in all
directions, the chestnut devolves from its tall slender habit and forms a tree noted
for its short stable trunk and broad spreading crown. Upon a short trunk, 4 to 8
feet in diameter, is often supported a crown from 40 to 60 feet high, with a spread
of branches equaling, or often surpassing, the tree in height. Many of these spread-
ing pasture trees rank among the most magnificent specimens of arboreal growth
which are found in the Eastern States, and to a man who has spent his childhood in
the freedom of the country the sight or recollection of these " spreading chestnut
trees" will awaken in his mind many happy memories and associations of those
blithesome, unappreciated boyhood days of long ago.

The exact extent to which the native chestnut has been improved by cultivation
and extended beyond its natural range by artificial propagation is rather hard to
determine. Certain it is, however, that experiments along this line have not been
very comprehensive, nor the results sufficiently encouraging to warrant their con-
tinuance. American horticulturists and nurserymen are not slow to follow up a line
of work which promises even mediocre returns; hence, the mere fact that our chest-
nut has received little attention from them is in itself proof that its cultivation as a
-hade or nut-bearing tree is not exceedingly profitable. This refers only to the wild
native chestnut, and not to the improved or acclimated foreign varieties.

In the South nothing has been done further than utilizing for timber the magnifi-
cent chestnut trees of the Appalachian Mountains. In the North and West half-
hearted attempts, with fair success, have been made to extend its range in the
suitable soil of mountains and hillsides just beyond the range of natural growth.
When carried too far north the new shoots fail to ripen before they are nipped by
the early autumn frosts. On stiff alluvial soils the trees make a fair growth, but are
short-lived and fail to produce fruit abundantly. It is thought that the presence of
lime or alkali in much of the prairie soil is responsible for the poor growth. On
very rich soil the growth is too vigorous and the tree is liable to be unproductive

94 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

and winterkill. More potent than extremes of heat and cold as sources of injury to
the chestnut are hot dry winds, and in its susceptibility to them is found, perhaps,
the principal reason why it will not thrive on the western plains and prairies.

In New York the region of growth can be extended northward towards the
St. Lawrence Valley between the western edge of the Adirondack Mountains and
Lake Ontario, and westward to the boundary of the State. The region of most
favorable growth is from the southern boundaries of Herkimer, Hamilton and
Warren counties in the Southern Adirondacks, southward to Pennsylvania and
New Jersey. In the southeastern corner of the State the chestnut is decidedly at
home and can be grown successfully in almost any part. The western half of the
State, because of its lower elevation and less favorable soil, does not offer such a
promising field for planting or grafting operations ; yet even here the rough hillsides
offer opportunities which should not be slighted.

The chestnut is reported as growing well under cultivation as far north as Saco,
Maine ; in Central Vermont ; westward to Michigan, where plantations have been
made by the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad along its right of way ;
and at several points in Wisconsin. In most of the Central and Southern States
attempts to grow the chestnut have proved unsuccessful.

Despite the fact that our native chestnut does not possess the qualities which
make it pre-eminently desirable from a pomological standpoint, it should not be
overlooked that as a forest timber tree, to be grown as such, it takes high rank.
The wood for railroad ties is considered almost the equal of white oak, and about
five per cent of the ties used are of chestnut, while for fence posts and telegraph
poles it has no eastern rival except the white cedar. Its rapid growth and tendency
to reproduce by coppice makes it an exceptionally valuable tree for these uses. It
reproduces readily from seed as well as coppices. The seeds, immediately after
they ripen in the fall, may be planted in the places where the trees are to grow
permanently, or they may be layered in damp sand during the winter for nursery
planting in the spring. If planted in a nursery the trees should be transplanted at
the end of the first year to the permanent plantation. Planted in mixtures with the
white pine and red pine the chestnut is a most excellent species to use in reforest-
ing the waste lands of Southern New England and New York.

To summarize, under the head of the " American Chestnut " it may be said that
on the whole the attempt to improve its quality by cultivation, and its range by
planting or transplanting, have proved unprofitable. The nuts produced are too
small, and the time required for a tree to come into bearing too long to induce a
hustling American to grow it for the nuts alone. Its greatest value for nut culture

CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 95

lies in its root sprouts, which furnish most excellent "stocks" upon which to graft
the most desirable European varieties. As a shade and timber tree, or source of
nuts for home or local consumption, it will always hold an esteemed place with the
American farmer ; but the horticulturist or orchardist who wishes to produce nuts
on a large scale must turn to the larger, more rapid growing European and Japanese
varieties, or greatly improve the native nuts if success is to be assured.

With commendable and characteristic American energy horticulturists long ago
began experiments with imported chestnut seedlings and nuts, so that now, at the
time when conditions seem ripe for extensive commercial planting of nut-bearing
trees, there will be no need in choosing varieties or in growing scions or seedlings,
as the nurserymen have the problem well worked out, and can supply the increasing
demand for the best Japanese and European chestnut trees which have been pro-
duced up to date. The complete history of the introduction of exotic chestnuts
in America is a long one, and can only be briefly summarized here.

Tl)e

It would be neither safe nor advisable to attempt to give the exact date at which
seedlings or nuts of the European chestnut, or " Spanish Chestnut," as it was popu-
larly called, were first planted in American soil. Certain it is, however, that the
introduction took place nearly a century ago, and that imported trees have been
bearing fruit in this country for over fifty years. It was in the region around Phila-
delphia, Pa., Wilmington, Del., and Trenton, N. J., that the first general introduc-
tion took place, and from here has occurred the eventual dissemination of the
different varieties to other parts of the country.

The initial introduction of foreign nuts was not, as would be expected, the work
of horticulturists who wished to propagate them for economic purposes, but the
result of efforts made by wealthy individuals to secure rare and interesting trees
adapted for planting on their new world estates. To the French " Marrons " is
accorded the credit of being among the first to introduce the European chestnut.
Irenee Dupont, the founder of the now famous powder mills bearing his name, was
a recipient as early as 1802 of chestnut seed and young trees from France. Most of
the seed failed to grow, but records show that a few trees became established in his
garden, and flourished for years, no doubt serving as a center of distribution for the
surrounding country.

Although the non-professional tree growers took precedence as to point of time,
it was the nurserymen who inaugurated the first systematic work of introducing and

96 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

improving foreign varieties of chestnuts. Most of these men lived and carried on
their experiments within a radius of fifty miles of Philadelphia. For some years
there was a mania for importing trees and nuts, and each importer expected to find
the one tree which would be par excellent for this country ; but the failure on the
part of most of the imports to withstand the change of climate eventually curbed
the interest and checked the importation.

The chestnut will not grow true to seed, but often it varies only slightly ; hence,
selected nuts of both foreign and native varieties were frequently planted in the
hope of securing from the seedlings a nut in which large size and good quality
would be combined, and which at the same time would be able to endure the vicissi-
tudes of our climate. In most cases the attempts resulted in failure, although in a
few instances desirable trees were secured. The same was true with the many
imported seedlings. The greater number of the imported trees proved frost-tender,
and otherwise unsuited for their new environment. Of the large number planted
probably not over one in a hundred has been retained as possessing desirable
characteristics. Good quality rather than quantity in the acclimated varieties seems
the most difficult to obtain. Trees which bear large sized nuts in abundance are
many, but few of them produce a finely flavored nut. The European nuts are
usually less bitter and astringent than the Japanese ; but neither of them can
approach the small native nut in sweetness and delicacy of flavor. The nurserymen
have still before them the task of producing by judicious selection and crossing a
large nut of fine quality.

A large number of European varieties are listed by nurserymen, but the experi-
ence of practical growers indicates that only a small proportion of these are worthy
of propagation. The best are :

PARAGON.

Undoubtedly the best variety for general planting produced up to date. The
original tree, according to Thomas Meehan, was grown by W. L. Shaffer, of Ger-
mantown, Pa., from a nut produced on one of the old Spanish trees growing in a
Philadelphia garden. H. M. Engle, of Marietta, Pa., was the first to discover its
exceptional value, and by him it was first grown extensively and introduced to the
public. It is the variety now exclusively grown by Mr. C. K. Sober, of Lewisburg,
Pa., who owns a promising grove of 300 acres near Shamokin, Pa. The nuts are
large, three-fourths of an inch in circumference, and somewhat pubescent. One
average specimen will cover a silver dollar, while thirty-two selected nuts will weigh
one pound. The tree is hardy within the, range of the native chestnut, ripening
moderately early in Central Pennsylvania about October I, comes into bearing very

CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 97

young, and is exceedingly prolific. In fact, the young trees are such heavy bearers
that it is almost a drawback to their value, as they will exhaust their vitality and
die, or lose their vigor of growth if unrestrained.

Paragon grafts take exceedingly well in American stocks, and have been known
to gro.vv well when grafted upon red oak sprouts. While not free from insect
attacks the Paragon is much less affected by the weevil than are other varieties.

A not serious reduction of its many good qualities is the tendency of the burs to
remain closed and fall to the ground with the nuts still retained. They open
readily, however, if spread in the sun ; hence the only detriment is a slightly
additional cost in harvesting. It saves, on the other hand, however, the loss and
difficulty occasioned by picking the nuts from the grass and debris beneath the
trees. For planting in this State the Paragon can be safely recommended above all
others.

NUMBO.

Bur medium ; nut large, bright, slightly pubescent and of excellent quality. It
is extensively grown, and is deserving of second place in the list of valuable varieties.
Its greatest fault is that it is not sufficiently prolific.

The original Numbo seedling is a vigorous tree still growing on the nursery
grounds of Mr. S. C. Moon, at Morrisville, Pa. At present it is a tree with a
diameter of about three feet, and a rounded symmetrical crown with a spread of
branches of about 60 feet. The history of the Numbo, as given by Mr. S. C.
Moon, is that it is one of the seedlings imported from France or England by his
father, Mahlon Moon, about 1850. Of a large number imported, both at this time
and later, this tree turned out to be the best one of the few good ones which were
retained. Many scions have been taken from it, and the Numbo is now known and
grown in various parts of the Middle States. It is not a Japanese seedling, as many
suppose, nor is Numbo a Japanese word ; but is rather an abbreviation of the name
Magnum Bonum, which the elder Moon first applied to the variety.

RlDGELY.

Bur medium, nut smaller than Paragon and less pubescent at tip. The skin is
astringent, but the flavor of the nut is good. The tree is hardy and a very prolific
bearer. The original seedling was sprouted by Ire*nee Dupont, Wilmington, Del.,
and sent to Henry M. Ridgely about 1822. Because of its hardiness it is worthy of
experimental propagation in New York State. It bears a very large nut, bright in
color, and of attractive appearance. It is a very heavy producer and is among the
7

98 SEVENTH REPORT OF' THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

earliest to ripen. Because of its beauty and earliness it brings a high price in the
market, and should be grown in quantities sufficient to supply the early demand.

Tl>e Japanese Cfyestnats.

The Japanese chestnuts are of more recent introduction than the European ; but
from the limited experience with them it seems certain that they are a valuable
acquisition. The limits of the range to which they are adapted is uncertain ; it
seems probable that their distribution may comprise the area covered by the
American chestnut. Judge Andrew J. Coe carried on experiments some years ago,
near Meriden, Conn., which seem to show that Japanese varieties are hardy in this
part of New England. In low land where frosts were very severe he grafted
several newly imported varieties upon native stocks, and found that they not only
made a close union and rapid growth, but were uninjured and bore well after frosts
of unusual severity.

Compared with the American and European varieties the Japanese chestnut is a
smaller tree, — a semi-dwarf, with a compact crown, slender branches and small buds,
apparently, though not actually opposite. The leaves are long, narrow, usually
pointed, with sharp teeth and a white tomentum underneath. At a short distance
the tree is quite peach-like in appearance. The burs are small, thin, with large nuts,
free from pubescence ; but the meat is covered with a bitter skin, which should be
removed before eating. Are very early to ripen. The nuts are of poor flavor when
raw, but excellent when cooked. The foliage is comparatively free from the com-
mon leaf fungi, making the tree very desirable for ornamental planting. -Will proba-
bly succeed better south than north.

The wood is rather slow growing, but Japanese scions have a close affinity for
American stocks, and hence take well when grafted. It has been asserted that
because of this affinity they are more desirable for grafting on American stocks than
the trees of European derivation. This has been found to be an unjust criticism
when comparing the two, because the best European varieties, of which the Paragon
and Numbo are fair samples, take readily on American wood.

In New York the grafting of Japanese chestnuts on native stocks has been
reported as successful in Washington and Yates Counties. In Rockland County
both whip grafting and budding have given fair results.

The first introductions were the outcome of efforts made by several nurserymen
to find and naturalize valuable Japanese seedlings. The climatic conditions of parts
of Japan are not widely different from those of the Eastern United States, and as

CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 99

other trees and shrubs had been introduced successfully, it was inferred that the
chestnut could be added to the list. The first recorded importations were by Mr.
L. B. Parsons, of Flushing, N. Y., in 1876. These trees received very little care, but,
nevertheless, grew and soon came into bearing. In 1882 the late William Parry, of
Parry, .N. J., began their importation on a large scale, and has done much toward
improving and disseminating the best varieties. Probably no one has done more to
arouse interest in chestnut culture and put it on a commercial basis than Mr. Parry.
For years he was engaged in importing chestnuts, propagating new varieties and
improving the old, and several valuable varieties have originated in his nurseries.
Mr. J. T. Lovett, of Little Silver, N. J., also imported trees and nuts extensively in
the earlier '8os, and has produced several new varieties. He now prefers European
varieties, however, and has at Emilie, Pa., a fine Paragon orchard of about 1,200
trees from four to thirteen years old.

The number of Japanese varieties offered by nurserymen is very large, but are
much confused as to nomenclature, because of the distribution of seedlings under
various good selling names, such as Mammoth, Giant, etc. Those recommended as
of tested value are the following :

ALPHA.

First in importance as well as name. Originated by William Parry, of Parry,
N. J. Claimed to be the earliest known variety of chestnut, and especially valuable
on this account. Ripens at Parry, N. J., about September 10. Tree an upright,
vigorous grower, and very productive. The original tree began to bear when
three years old, and has never failed since to produce a full crop. Burs rather small,
somewhat flattened ; spines thick, short and stiff ; nuts large, averaging two or three
to the bur. Quality only fair, but it commands a high price in the market because
of its early appearance.

RELIANCE

Another one of Parry's seedlings. Tree a semi-dwarf, low spreading and droop-
ing. Comes Into bearing remarkably early. Scions not infrequently mature fruit
the first year they are set. This should not be allowed, however, as the early
bearing injures the future vitality of the tree and reduces the size of the nuts.
Burs medium, with three to five large nuts to the bur. Ripens from September,
20 to October i, in New Jersey.

HALE.

Originated from seed imported in 1886 by Luther Burbank. Now grown by
J. H. Hale. Tree low, of spreading habit, with narrow pointed leaves of a very

IOO SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

glossy dark green color. Burs with thin peppery shell, each normally containing
three nuts of medium size and rich brown color. Is very prolific, and, from experi-
ments of Hon. Andrew J. Coe, in Connecticut, very hardy.

PARRY.

One of the best productions of the Parry nurseries. It is the original " Parry's
giant," also called " Japan giant." Tree large for a Japanese chestnut, open,
spreading, very prolific and an early bearer. Burs very large, containing usually
one, sometimes three nuts. Nuts largest known, sometimes two inches across ;
ridged ; bright mahogany color, and of fair quality. If exceptionally large nuts are
desired this is the variety to plant.

To attempt a close discrimination based on the general qualities of the Japanese
and European varieties of chestnuts is rather difficult because both groups have
many good qualities, and each, unfortunately, several bad ones. For each, too, can
be found men who earnestly advocate the propagation of their favorite group to the
exclusion of the other; hence, to favor one is to produce enmity. The difficulty is
that few growers have experimented with more than a few varieties of each group,
and they are inclined to make sweeping assertions on a limited experience.

If the general characteristics of each group, as far as known, be listed and com-
pared the balance of favor would give the Japan nuts first place. If, however, the
two or three best and most widely grown varieties of each be compared, the imports
from the far East are immediately reduced to second place. The experience of
practical growers corroborates this view, and men who were once heavy importers
of Japanese seedlings are now planting only European trees in their commercial
orchards. When the Oriental varieties were first introduced it was thought they
would be the money makers in either groves or orchards ; but to-day it is hard to
find them grown on a large scale.

As an ornamental tree the Japanese chestnut is of undoubted value because of
its freedom from disfiguring fungi and insects, and its large beautiful nuts. From
the purely financial standpoint, however, as well as for horticultural reasons, the
more enduring, better flavored European varieties are to be recommended for
extensive propagation in New York and the Northern States. It is advisable, never-
theless, for all growers to experiment to some extent with varieties of uncertain
value, so that they may find the ones best suited to their local conditions.

CHESTNUT CULTURE- IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. IQI

of Management.

Two distinctive methods of chestnut culture are in vogue in the Eastern United
States. The one is the method of grafting young native chestnut coppice (sprouts)
with the scions of Japanese, European, or native varieties, and depending on the
roots of the old stump, and the new roots which are developed, to afford nourish-
ment and give the necessary mechanical support. Where the natural stump sprouts
are thus grafted the resulting growth is called a " chestnut grove."

The other method is to grow young plants from seed, graft them in the nursery
when two or three years old and the following year set them in orchard rows in
cleared or cultivated ground. When nursery seedlings are cultivated in this way
they are described as a " chestnut orchard."

The propagation of chestnuts in groves by the grafting of numerous young
sprouts is decidedly the most advisable, both from an economic and purely horticul-
tural standpoint, in a country where native trees are at all common. If only a par-
tial stand of sprouts can be obtained, they should be encouraged and grafted, and
seedlings planted in the blank spaces between, other species of course being
cut out.

The grafted sprouts by virtue of the old established root system are furnished
an abundant supply of nourishment and make a surprisingly rapid growth, often
bearing fruit profusely when only three or four years old. One little Paragon graft
in Mr. Sober's grove matured 56 large burs when only two years old. Trees three
to five years old bear several pints of nuts annually, while their crop when more
than five years old may be counted in quarts. Paragon grafts when ten to twelve
years old produce on an average a half a bushel or more of nuts. With a chestnut
grove there is, too, less liability of failure in obtaining a full stand of trees, as the
loss attendant upon transplanting is eliminated, while the great number of sprouts
which spring up in a newly cut-over chestnut forest gives an abundance of stocks
upon which to graft the scions. With experienced men there is little loss in the
grafting process, and under favorable circumstances ninety per cent of the grafts
may be expected to take. By grafting a large number of sprouts per acre there is
sure to be left, after deducting for all probable loss, a thick stand, which may be
thinned as conditions require, thus keeping the ground continually covered, and
production, even at the outset, at its maximum. The newly grafted sprouts which
are removed to make room for others furnish a fine supply of new scions, if cut in
the late fall or winter.

The trees which are ultimately to c< r the ground and produce the fruit should

IO2 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

not be allowed to mature burs while less than five or six years old ; but since the
original stand is to be thinned eventually, it is possible to mark, at an early date,
those intended for removal, and allow them to fruit while young, thus securing
early returns without working permanent injury to the grove.

Financially the chestnut grove is to be preferred to the orchard for several
reasons. First, the cost of cutting off the old stand and grafting the sprouts does
not greatly exceed the expense of producing seedlings and grafting them in the
nursery, and, in addition, the chestnut timber removed is usually of considerable
value for fuel, poles or railroad ties. Secondly, the ground which produces the
sprouts is usually of little value for agricultural purposes, being mostly rough waste
land ; while in setting a chestnut orchard land is required which would be of con-
siderable value for general agricultural purposes. Thus the cost of the first invest-
ment is in favor of the chestnut grove rather than the orchard ; hence, from the
latter it would be necessary to realize a greater income in order to pay interest on
the large capital tied up in the more expensive land. As a third condition there is
an appreciable loss in time — and, hence, in revenue — in the chestnut orchard;
because seedlings, especially when retarded by an early graft, do not come into
bearing nearly as early as do the grafted sprouts. A vigorous stump sprout will be
a tree eight to twelve feet in height when five to seven years old, and will produce
several quarts of nuts annually. A grafted seedling does not attain this size, nor
bear to the same extent until eight to twelve years old. The seedling, however, has
the advantage of longer life and less liability of deterioration.

With the rough, idle chestnut hillsides and flats of New York, as well as other
States, it is a question of raising chestnuts or waiting through a long period of years
for the timber to mature. Even then the most desirable timber trees will not grow
unless planted, so great is the power of worthless species to crowd out the more
valuable ones. On the fertile soil of the plains or uplands where most of the chest-
nut orchards are located, it is a question of raising chestnuts, pears, apples or other
common fruit ; hence the loss in case the chestnuts fail is much greater. In the
latter case chestnut culture becomes merely a branch of horticulture, to be governed
by much the same rules as apply to apple and pear orchards. When the sprouts on
a worthless old hillside are grafted and made to produce a valuable crop of nuts, as
well as timber, the work is surely entitled to a place as a branch of forestry, since the
essential elements of a tree forest are all present, and are preserved rather than
disturbed. In addition it is an important step towards the solution of the great
problem of reclaiming the worthless waste land? which at present are a menace to
the surrounding forests, and which show ? lack of the Yankee ingenuity that has

A YOUNG CHESTNUT " GROVE."

TREES SIX YEARS OLD. PARAGONS GRAFTED ON NATIVE SPROUTS.

DISTANT VIEW OF ONE OF MR. SOBER'S CHESTNUT GROVES.

GENERAL VIEW IN THE " GROVE " OF THE ALBION CHESTNUT COMPANY.

THE TREES ARE NINE YEARS OLD, MOSTLY NUMBOS.

A CHESTNUT "ORCHARD."

CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 103

solved the problem of " complete utilization " in nearly every branch of commercial
activity, except forestry.

The chestnut orchard, it is true, often has the advantage of location, accessibility
to market, freedom from underbrush, and lessened danger from fire, while as an
additional advantage the purely artificial orchard may be started in a region where
the chestnut is not indigenous. To the man, however, who is after the largest
returns in the shortest time, the chestnut grove, produced by grafting the coppice
sprouts in the natural chestnut forest, provides the most. A combination of the
two may perhaps be profitably effected under certain conditions.

Tt>e Cl)e$tnat Orchard.

Although chestnut orcharding in its extreme form is not considered as profitable
as the grove system, yet the method of procedure is here briefly outlined for the
benefit of those who wish to grow chestnuts and yet do not have the native sprouts
upon which to start their scions.

The first step is the starting of the seedlings in the nursery. These may be
grown from native or imported nuts, it being immaterial which so long as vigorous
seedlings are produced. The seeds (nuts) may be planted in the fall or spring in
nursery rows four or five inches apart in the row and covered one to two inches
deep. Fall planting is advisable if the nuts can be protected from mice and
squirrels. If planting is delayed until spring the nuts should be kept over winter,
layered in damp sand. In one year they should have attained a height of six to
twelve inches, and in two years stand two to three feet high. The third spring they
should be grafted while yet in the nursery rows, and the following spring trans-
ferred to the orchard rows. Tongue or whip grafting is the most successful
method. Budding, grafting one year olds at the collar, and root grafting as done
with apple trees, have all been tried, but with little success. As a variation on the
above, the two or three-year-old seedlings are sometimes first transplanted to the
orchard rows and then grafted. This, however, results in a loss of time because the
trees must be allowed to get their root system firmly established before setting
the scions, otherwise they will not have sufficient vitality, to withstand the shock of
both grafting and transplanting.

The trees are usually set thirty feet apart each way J but with the smaller
Japanese varieties they may be set as close as twenty feet. In the New Jersey
orchards the ground is kept cultivated for some years, during which crops of corn or

potatoes are raised between the rows. MrpR. Williams, of Riverton, N. J., tried the

' V

IO4 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

experiment of setting native seedlings, four to six feet high, in rows twenty feet
apart, cutting back the limbs to the two-year-old growth, and inserting scions of
Japanese varieties. The plan is not advisable because it makes the crown too high
and heavy to be safely supported by the long slender trunk.

No case is known where grafted seedlings have been set in brush land. The first
cost would be somewhat greater; but there seems no evident reason why such treat-
ment would not be successful. If seedlings will thrive equally well in cultivated
or brush land, one of the objections to chestnut orcharding would be removed.
The long time element remains, however, an unchanging disadvantage in such
management.

Tl)e G)estnQt Grove.

Given a mixed stand of coppice chestnut and oak and other hardwoods, to trans-
form into a nut-bearing grove of improved exotic varieties. The system applied in
the best groves of Pennsylvania and New Jersey is practically as follows:

In the late fall or winter all trees and brush are removed from the area under
management, care being taken to cut the chestnut near the ground and leave
smooth stumps. From these stumps there will spring up during the following sum-
mer a vigorous growth of sprouts, usually several around each stump, which in one
year reach a height of four to six feet, and a diameter from one-fourth to three-
fourths of an inch at two feet from the ground. Experience has shown that sprouts
of this size are the best for grafting; hence it follows that the second spring after
the timbe" is cut off grafting operations may begin.

Grafting may be commenced when the buds first start ; but it is better to wait a
little later, until the sap flows freely. May is the best month in which to graft,
although it may be commenced as early as the middle of April. The tongue or
whip graft is the method which should be exclusively used. Budding, cleft (wedge)
grafting, prong grafting, crown grafting and many other methods have been tried,
but experience has shownK that they are in general impracticable. The cleft or
wedge graft can be set in stocks of a size up to several inches, and usually succeeds
to the extent of making a un; at it seldom heals smoothly, and usually leaves

an opening between the ? *vhich becomes a source of infection and point of

structural weakness to th£ ,vho)^ *vee. With the small sprouts and the whip graft
the union is seldom discernible a'fter a few years.

The scions should be cut early and kept dormant in a cellar or ice house until
the buds on the stocks are well swollen in the spring. It should be remembered

SPROUTS BEFORE GRAFTING.

THE PLACE WHERE THE SPROUT IS GRASPED BY THE FINGERS SHOWS THE HEIGHT AT WHICH IT SHOULD

BE CUT OFF AND THE SCION INSERTED.

THE "WHIP" OR "TONGUE" GRAFT.

.,.,*

GRAFTS FOURTEEN DAYS OLD.

SHOWS METHOD OF WRAPPING WITH USLIX.

CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 105

that the sap of the chestnut does not start as early as .that of apples, pears and
other succulent fruit, and hence grafting should be done later.

The stump sprouts should be cut off and the scions inserted some three to four
feet from the ground, so as to keep the heads low. Where there is a circle of
sprouts around a stump the ones which start nearest the ground should always be
chosen, because they root in more firmly and are less liable to damage by the wind
In a group of sprouts, such as spring from one stump, only one or two are grafted.;
but the rest are left during the first year as a protection to the young grafts.
Where sprouts are plentiful grafts should be put in every 12 to 15 feet or from 200
to 400 per acre, care being taken to leave no open spots or any unnecessary group-
ing. As the trees grow and expand the poor and crowded specimens should be
removed to make room' for the better trees. If small seedlings appear they should
also be grafted.

Many mistakes have been made in grafting, and as it is a most important phase
of chestnut growing, in fact, the basis of success, too much care cannot be given to
this part of the work. If well done ninety per cent of the grafts should live. An
experienced man should set 250 scions per day, and do it well. In whip or tongue
grafting the stock and scion should be of as nearly the same diameter as possible,
and the cut on each long and smooth and made with a thin, very sharp knife. Each
should then be cut vertically so as to leave a wedge-shaped piece on the face of each
cut, so that the tongue of the scion may be forced firmly into the cleft of the stock.
The union should be exact, so that the inner side of the bark on each will coincide
at least on one side. The joint should be thoroughly waxed, and as a further
precaution wrapped tightly with waxed muslin. The muslin holds everything firm,
thus hastening the union of the cambium layers. It excludes air from the cracks in
the wax caused by the expanding sprout, and gives a mechanical support which
prevents breakage of the joint by the wind. The yearly growth of grafts wh n
thus treated is quite remarkable. When two months old they are often two to
three feet in length, while it is recorded that one specimen grew in one year a linear
distance of 54 feet, counting the main axis and all the lateral branches. The writer
measured one graft which had been inserted 14 days and found it to be ten inches
long. The first year's growth is inclined to assume a fan-shaped form, and not
make a well-rounded crown ; hence it has been found adv itageous to cut back the
first year's growth in the fall so that only a stub three to four inches long, contain-
ing two to three buds, remains. The following year these buds will grow into a
well-rounded head.

An interesting fact is that many of the European chestnuts will grow equally

IO6 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

well if grafted upon oak sprouts or seedlings. In France and England the chestnut
has been grafted upon the English oak (Quercus robus] for years. In this country
the U. S. Division of Pomology found by experiments that several varieties of
European chestnuts, including the Paragon, Numbo and Ridgely, grow well on our
chestnut oak (Quercus prinus). In Central Pennsylvania the Paragon has been seen
grafted upon red oak (Quercus rubra) with evident success. This adaptability of
the chestnut to thrive on oak stocks materially increases its range and possibilities.

It is essential that, a good grafting wax be used if success is to be attained. An
excellent wax is the following from an original formula by Mr. C. K. Sober, Lewis-
burg, Pa.: Resin, 2 pounds; beeswax, 2 pounds; beef tallow, ^ pound. The
whole to be melted together and worked into a wax upon cooling.

Another wax recommended by the U. S. Division of Pomology for nut trees is:
Linseed oil or tallow, I pound; resin, 6 pounds; beeswax, I pound. Melt all the
ingredients together, pour into water to cool, and knead into balls of convenient
size.

As to species it is hard to say anything definite, because local conditions so
greatly affect species and the final results. The Numbo, Paragon and various
Japanese varieties take well on American stocks. From the experience of the prac-
tical men in the business, and from personal observation, it seems, however, safe to
recommend the Paragon as the best for general propagation in chestnut groves.
With whichever variety is chosen for the main crop, trees of another variety should
be mixed in so that cross-pollinization may be effected, although there is some
uncertainty as to whether this is absolutely essential.

Harvesting.

i~

Vith ihe exception of the Paragon the imported chestnuts have burs which open
\v a the r *.„> are ripe, allowing them to fall to the ground, where they may be col-
lected. It may be mentioned here that the frost performs no direct function in

• y '
ripening the huts, although there exists a widespread notion to the contrary. The

process of rinening is gradual, and is usually finished before frosts occur. The part
the frost really plays is in checking the growth of the tree, and thus causing the
withdrawal of the sap from the twigs and burs. This reduction in moisture results
in a shrinkage in parts of the bur; the outer, thinner, and more exposed portion
drys more rap dly than the thicker inner part around and at the base of the nuts.
It is this unequa1 shnnkage which causes the involucre to open. A long rain, fol-
lowed by drying weather, is en equally effective in opening the burs.

CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 107

In the case of the Paragon the burs must be picked from the trees by hand, or,
by waiting, they may be gathered from underneath the trees, as the closed burs soon
fall. Ripeness is indicated by the yellow color of the bur, and a slight cracking
open at the end, disclosing the nut within. The collected burs if spread in the sun
a few days will open fully, and liberate the nuts.

Care of tl)e Crop.

Having secured a crop of nuts the next step is their proper care and disposition.
Those sold immediately need no special care, and from present indications prompt
sale of a large crop will not be difficult. There is a growing demand for large,
sweet chestnuts, especially in the Middle West, and dealers are usually on hand to
buy up the crop even before it is harvested. Prices for the best nuts range from
five to twelve dollars per bushel. On the streets of Philadelphia, Paragon nuts sell
readily at forty cents per quart.

If not immediately disposed of the nuts should be subjected to some treatment
to prevent their getting hard and being destroyed by weevils. Probably the best
treatment is the scalding method. By this plan a quantity of nuts are put in a tub,
or other water-tight receptacle, and covered with boiling water. If stirred for a few
minutes the wormy, and otherwise defective ones, will come to the surface and may
be removed and destroyed. The good nuts in the bottom should be allowed to
remain for ten minutes, so that all eggs and larvae may be killed, then removed and
dried. Nuts thus treated will not get flinty hard when subsequently dried for
winter use. Another plan is to put the nuts in cold storage as soon as harvested,
removing them only as required for market. Those which are to be planted the
following year should be treated with carbon bi-sulphide to destroy all insect life,
and then layered in sand during the winter.

Uses.

.

Mention has already been made of the extensive use of chestnuts in many
foreign countries, notably France, Spain, Italy, Korea and Japan. In all of these
countries the chestnut is considered, not as a luxury, but as a staple article of diet,
to be prepared and used as such. It is said that Paris alone consumes twenty
million pounds of Marrons (table or desert chestnuts annually, while the consump-
tion of nuts and meal in France as a whole is so great that, despite the enormous
production within her own territory, several million dollars worth of nuts are

IO8 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

imported from Italy and Turkey yearly. Nor is the consumption confined to the
peasant classes, who use the flour almost exclusively for bread ; but chestnuts
roasted, steamed, purged, as a dressing for meats, and as vegetables, are served
extensively on the tables of the rich.

In this country the variety of food stuffs is so great, and their production so
easy, that necessity has never taught us the value of nuts as food. The great grain
fields of the West are looked upon as the one legitimate source of the " staff of life,"
yet the fact remains that chestnut flour makes an equally palatable and a more
nutritious bread. The chestnut when raw is not easy to digest ; but in cooking the
starch grains are broken up, making them readily digestible. Prejudice, coupled
with ignorance and lack of appreciation of its good qualities, are the factors which
to-day retard the adoption of the chestnut as one of our staple articles of diet.

In chemical composition and relative food value, the chestnut differs widely
from other nuts, since it contains a large percentage of the carbohydrates, especially
starch, and less proteine matter and oils. In this respect it quite closely resembles
wheat flour. Since the carbohydrates are the chief source of the energy used in
maintaining the vital processes of the body, it follows that the chestnut, by reason
of its high percentage of these carbohydrates and the comparatively small amount
of nitrogenous matter, is a better balanced and more nutritious food than other
nuts, or even many of the cereals.

It may be that when the wheat lands become less productive and the margin of
profit lower that men will turn to the idle, untilled woodlands of the East and util-
ize them for the production of nuts as a substitute for cereals. A change in our
bread-making material, if ever made, will come slowly, since public taste and long-
established customs are slow to alter, and new introductions are looked upon with
distrust. The growing realization that the fine white bread in use at present is lack-
ing in nutriment, and is injurious to the digestive organs, and the general crusade
against it by physicians and health food advocates, will, however, rapidly turn public
attention to new cereals or substitutes for them.

An acre of land will grow 35 bushels of wheat in a year if properly cultivated.
A like area of chestnut trees will produce many times as many bushels of equally
nutritious food yearly for an indefinite period, and require no outlay for cultivation,
replanting or fertilization. More than this, the spring frosts, beating rains and sum-
mer droughts, which are a constant menace to a wheat crop, work no injury upon
the chestnut tree or its fruit. Why then is wheat grown on millions of acres, while
we fail to produce even enough chestnuts to supply the now limited demand, and
allow Southern Europe to exact large tribute from us annually for the nuts we

FROM THIS TREE 800 YOUNG BURS WERE PICKED ; 200 WERE LEFT ON THE TREE

TO MATURE.

A NORMAL YIELD.

CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 109

import for consumption in their raw, unwholesome form. With the exception of
the occasional Thanksgiving turkey stuffed with chestnut dressing, chestnuts in
their many appetizing cooked forms seldom appear on the bill of fare of the Ameri-
can people ; and yet housewives are constantly complaining of the lack of variety in
the foods obtainable. Why not try chestnuts? Mrs. Rorer gives several excellent

recipes which any cook can follow or enlarge upon at will. If given a fair trial the

/ »

chestnut cannot fail to commend itself for general table use, and when once gener-
ally introduced new uses for it will be found, and its permanent place among our
valuable food products assured.

Insects.

Enemies in the form of fire, thieves, or wind may be fought and controlled, either
wholly or in part ; but when we consider the insect pests in their relation to chestnut
culture, a more serious problem presents itself. Insects are so subtle in their work-
ings, so mysterious in their many forms, and present such vast numbers, that man
with his limited powers must stand more or less powerless in the event of their
extended ravages.

The chestnut as a tree is not seriously injured in either leaves or trunk by any
form of boring or defoliating insect ; but unfortunately the nuts furnish a breeding
place and food supply to a very destructive larva known as the "chestnut weevil."
So great has been the destruction wrought by this weevil in parts of the country,
especially in the South, and on the more susceptible varieties, that many growers
have ceased the commercial propagation of the nuts because of the annual reduction
of profits by the ravages of the weevil. It must be admitted that the tribute of one-
half to three-fourths of the crop, which weevils sometimes levy, is decidedly dis-
couraging; but these extreme cases are usually the result of unwise choice of
species, or an unfavorable location of the grove or orchard. Improved varieties
suffer most in or near native chestnut forests. Japanese varieties suffer less than
European, and of the latter the Paragon is least affected. Insect pests on apple,
peach and other fruit trees have been controlled, and it seems reasonable to suppose
that if chestnut culture assumes sufficient proportions, remedial measures will be
found for the chestnut weevil.

At present the danger of an annual diminution of profits from wormy nuts is the
one drawback to extensive culture of improved chestnuts, especially on cut-over
chestnut land. The control of this pest is a question of vital interest to growers
and entomologists, and upon its proper solution depends, to a great extent, the
ultimate success of chestnut culture on waste land. With the Paragon and other

IIO SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

varieties which are least susceptible, the margin of profit left after the worms
destroy a considerable portion of the crop is sufficiently high to induce many to
invest in the business, even when possessed of the certain knowledge of this annual
loss. If this damage by weevils can be decreased or made nil, the profits, which
even now are high, will of course increase in like proportion.

The whole question of damage by weevils is at present something of a lottery at
best, since not only orchards and groves but individual trees of the same variety are
infested in widely varying degrees, and to a different extent each season. One
plantation may be seriously injured during a season, while another a few miles away
remains exempt ; or one portion may be affected and the remainder left uninjured.
The same is true of individual trees, although there are varieties, as the Cooper,
which seems a special prey for the weevil at all times and places.

The chestnut weevil is of the beetle family of insects, and is one of the several
species of curculio which infest nuts. The genus Balaninus, to which it belongs,
includes seven species, all of which are nut weevils ; but only two, viz., B, carya-
trypes and B. rectus, wonk serious injury to the chestnut. It is the larval form of the
insect which works within the chestnut and renders it unfit for use. The larva or
grub is footless, white or cream colored, with a red or yellowish head, and a cylin-
drical body about half an inch long. The larvae of B. rectus are of smaller size than
those of B. caryatrypes. The adults are yellowish in color with rusty lines and
spots on the wing covers, and are characterized by their extremely long and slender
snout or beak. Their powers of flight are rather limited. In the male beetle the
beak is about the length of the body ; in the female it is twice as long as the body.
The function of the beak is to pierce the immature burs and nuts and prepare a
place for the reception of the eggs.

The life history of the insect, briefly stated, is as follows : The winged beetles
appear about the time, or soon after, the trees begin to bloom ; but egg laying is
delayed until the staminate catkins drop, and the young burs are of considerable
size. Then with their long beaks the beetles pierce a hole through the thick bur
and into the tender nut itself and excavate a tiny cavity, in which the female
deposits from one to four eggs. The tiny wound in the nut soon heals over com-
pletely, thus effectively protecting the eggs and grubs within. Eggs are often laid
in different parts of the same nut; hence we frequently find the mature nuts har-
boring several grubs, sometimes as high as fifteen or twenty. As soon as the eggs
are laid the winged beetles die, there being only one brood each season. The eggs
hatch in a few days and the larvae live and work within the growing nuts, reaching
maturity about the time, or a little after, of the autumn ripening and falling of the

\

CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. Ill

nuts. The time required by the larvae to reach maturity is not fixed, but is gov-
erned by the time of ripening of the nut, which acts as host. In different varieties
the grubs are always full grown when the nuts mature, even though the varieties
ripen many weeks apart. The full grown larvae bore out through the shell and
enter the ground soon after the nuts fall, where they change into a pupa state, in
which condition they remain dormant all winter. In the spring, after another
transformation, they emerge in the adult beetle form, thus completing their cycle
of existence, and are ready to perform the one function for which they were created,
the reproduction of the species.

The full control of this weevil pest is as yet an unattained result. As with
many other pests of this kind preventive measures, rather than remedial ones, are
most effective. The one plan which aims to reduce the injury after it is done, is the
scalding method already described under instructions for the care of the crop. This
method, if immediately carried into effect upon the maturing of the nuts, makes
most of the crop available for market, and kills all insect life in the gathered nuts,
thus reducing the number which would prey on next year's crop, and saving a
second resorting of the nuts before marketing. If left a few days without scalding,
a basket of nuts often shows twice as many wormy ones as when set away, since
many larvae mature and leave within that time. The holes in the shells are always
made from the inside by emerging larvae. Sound nuts never become infested when
mixed with wormy ones, because the larvae pass the pupa state and winter in the
ground, not in the nuts.

The preventive measures which may be practiced are many and are all good,
since anything which reduces the number of insects will lessen the injury done
during the subsequent year. To keep large flocks of guinea hens, turkeys and game
chickens foraging among the trees is an excellent plan, as the number of adult
insects and larvae they will destroy is enormous. In order to prevent the larvae
from escaping into the ground the nuts and burs should be gathered the moment
they are ripe, and immediately sorted and the defective ones destroyed ; or, if left
unsorted, they should be thrown into tight bins or boxes to prevent the escape of
the larvae. Even the immature burs which fall early should be gathered and burned,
and every precaution taken to destroy all existing larvae. The Paragon burs which
are picked and dried in the sun should be burned as soon as the nuts are extracted.
It has been suggested that the curculio be shook from the trees into sheets, as is
done with the plum curculio ; but this would prove practicable only where the
orchard or grove is small. A better method is to plant throughout the plantation
varieties, like the Cooper, which are especially sought by the weevil, and destroy all

112 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

burs which form on them. Whenever possible the orchard should be located some
distance from native chestnut woods, or, if a grove, all the trees should be cut off
and grafted. Some means should also be taken to trap the winged beetles during
the egg-laying period. As far as known no attempts have been made to spray the
young burs with a solution which would kill or drive away the adult beetles. It is
worthy of experiment. The various treatments just enumerated can be applied
most advantageously in the chestnut orchard. The chestnut grove, however, if kept
clean and free from underbrush also responds readily to treatments which help to
reduce the beetles.

Tl)e Coppice Forest.

To those not sufficiently interested, or not so situated as to make the growing of
chestnut trees for their nuts advisable, there still remains a profitable and interesting
field of operations in the growing of the native tree for timber or fuel. This work
may be loosely conducted or made intensive as desired.

Two systems present themselves. The one easiest of control and offering the
quickest returns is the " coppice system." Under this system the forest is cut over
clean with a rotation of about thirty years, the time depending on the use to which
the timber is to be put. From the stumps thus left a new growth of sprouts spring
up which are the basis of the new crop. The cutting should be done in the fall or
winter, when the vital functions of the tree are at a low ebb and most of the sap is
withdrawn from trunk and limbs. The stumps should be cut low and smooth. The
sprouts which result from this system of forest management are very rapid in
growth, and will furnish poles, posts an ^ cross-ties in twenty to thirty years. The
forest when once started may be left to itself ; but it can be greatly improved by
making thinnings and improvement cuttings, while the material thus removed can
be utilized for fuel. This involves the removal of defective and crowded trees, and
likewise those of other species which are of little value, or are around the more
valuable trees.

The other system which may be recommended is that of " coppice with
standards." This system is essentially the same as the one just described, except
that in addition to the sprouts a number of seedling trees are left, or, if needs be,
planted. These seedlings are not to be cut when the sprouts mature, but are left
through two or three rotations of twenty or thirty years, so that they may attain a
size suitable for lumber. The number left per acre may vary from 30 to 50.

CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 113

Our native chestnut, although of unsurpassed flavor, is not desirable for general
culture because of the small sized nut, irregular and non-prolific bearing, damage by
weevils, and long time required to come into fruit. As a timber tree it is of recog-
nized value and responds readily to several systems of forest management. Many
varieties of chestnuts have been introduced from Europe and Japan, but of the large
number imported but few have been found which are suited to our climate or
possess commendable characters. Those retained are a valuable acquisition, and in
size, productivity and rapidity of growth, are far superior to our native chestnuts
for cultivated plantations. The Paragon, Numbo, and Ridgely of the European,
and the Alpha, Reliance, and Parry of the Japanese varieties, are the most valuable.

Two general systems of chestnut culture are practiced, designated respectively
as the "chestnut orchard " and the " chestnut grove." The first is composed of
grafted seedlings set in orchard rows on cleared, usually improved, land. It offers
advantages of location, ease of cultural control, and greater freedom from insect
pests; but in general it is too expensive. The other system is an attempt to utilize
waste forest land for the production of nuts. By this system a natural forest, in
which the native chestnut is the predominant tree, is cut over, and the following
year the one-year-old sprouts which spring up from the stumps are grafted to
improved varieties. The Paragon stands first in general favor. In this system of
culture the whip or tongue method of grafting has proved most successful. Returns
from a grafted grove are early and the income large if no detrimental element enters.
Insects and fire are the worst enemies, the former being the most injurious and hard-
est to control.

The American people have not yet learned the full value of chestnuts ; but it
seems probable that with a larger supply and an improved quality there will come a
better appreciation of their food value, and a greater demand. In many European
countries the chestnut has long been recognized as a cheap and nutritious food, and
as such is extensively used. Chestnut culture in the United States is truly in its
infancy as yet ; but interest is rapidly being awakened, and in the near future a
rapid advancement of the industry may be expected. If followed for pleasure, few
branches of arboriculture possess greater fascination or offer a broader field for
experimental work. If conducted as a business enterprise for profit only, there is
offered a reasonably safe investment with quicker and higher returns than are assured
by any system of forest management, while but few branches of horticulture are
equally profitable.

114 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION.

In conclusion full credit must be accorded to the several men who aided the
writer so materially in his investigations of the latest methods of chestnut culture,
and without whose assistance the data and photographs herewith presented could
not have been obtained. To Mr. Coleman K. Sober, Lewisburg, Pa., and Mr. Sam-
uel C. Moon, Mooresville, Pa., especial thanks are due for their hospitality and valu-
able information regarding methods of grafting and general care of chestnut groves
and orchards. From Prof. Nelson F. Davis, Bucknell University, many timely notes
have been received, and by him many of the accompanying illustrations have been
obtained and contributed. To nurserymen and horticulturists generally, who ver-
bally and by correspondence have contributed to this article, the thanks of both thie
Commission and the writer are extended.

JBSSOT COL., NO. 290,

CHESTNUT (CASTANEA VULGARIS).

Makers

Syracuse, N. Y.
PAT. JAN. 21, 1908

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